Playing Multipart Music: Solo and Ensemble Traditions in Europe. European Voices IV [1 ed.] 9783205214106, 9783205214090

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Ulrich Morgenstern | Ardian Ahmedaja (Eds.)

Playing Multipart Music Solo and Ensemble Traditions in Europe European Voices IV

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Music Traditions Vol. 2 (formerly Schriften zur Volksmusik 1–25) Series of the Department of Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna Series’ editor: Ursula Hemetek Musik Traditionen Bd. 2 (ehemals Schriften zur Volksmusik 1–25) Reihe des Instituts für Volksmusikforschung und Ethnomusikologie an der Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst Wien Reihenherausgeberin: Ursula Hemetek

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Ulrich Morgenstern | Ardian Ahmedaja (Eds.)

Playing Multipart Music Solo and Ensemble Traditions in Europe European Voices IV

böhlau verlag wien köln

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Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek: The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data available online: https://dnb.de. 1. Edition 2022 © 2022 by Böhlau Verlag, Zeltgasse 1, A-1080 Vienna, Austria, an imprint of the Brill-Group (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands; Brill USA Inc., Boston MA, USA; Brill Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore; Brill Deutschland GmbH, Paderborn, Germany¸ Brill Österreich GmbH, Vienna, Austria) Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau, Verlag Antike and V&R unipress.

https://doi.org/10.7767/9783205214106 Any use in other than the license mentioned below cases requires prior written consent of the publisher. Cover photo: Alois Blamberger (1912–1989), musician from Bad Ischl, Upper Austria Photographer: Rudolf Pietsch, 19 June 1988 Cover design: Michael Haderer, Wien Typesetting: büro mn, Bielefeld Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage | www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISBN 978-3-205-21410-6

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To Rudolf Pietsch: musician, researcher, teacher, mediator, friend

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Table of Contents

Ulrich Morgenstern and Ardian Ahmedaja Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Bernard Garaj For Rudolf Pietsch  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

I. Solo Traditions Danka Lajić Mihajlović Every village had bagpipes … and then the accordions arrived The Influence of Multipart Instruments on Textural Transformations of Serbian Traditional Instrumental Music   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Andor Végh and Zsombor Horváth The Survival and Transformation of Solo Multipart Instruments and ­Instrumental Ensemble Music in Pannonia  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Nicola Scaldaferri The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy) Morphology and Musical Repertoires  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Gaila Kirdienė Eastern Lithuanian Drone Fiddling Solo, with Voice or Other Instruments  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

II . Ensemble Traditions

Speranța Rădulescu A Peculiar Form of Multipart Music in Romania and the Notation Issues it Entails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

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Piotr Dahlig Creative Teamwork among Musicians as an Introduction to Multipart Playing Examples from Central-Eastern Europe  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Victoria Macijewska Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental ­Ensemble Music of Hutsuls   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Thomas Nussbaumer Instrumental Folk Music in Tyrol since the 19th Century  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Zdeněk Vejvoda Jiří Hartl (1781 – 1849), a Teacher from Northern Bohemia: The Dance Repertoire of his Band in the Light of his Manuscript Heritage   . . 249 Rūta Žarskienė The Structure of Brass Ensembles in Lithuania: Tradition or Pragmatism?  . . . 269 List of audiovisual examples  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Notes on contributors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Index  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

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Introduction

1. The starting point In 2012, when Ulrich Morgenstern moved to the Department for Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology (IVE ) of the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna (MDW ), one of our first conversations was about the Research Centre for European Multipart Music (EMM ) and its future plans. The new emphases of the EMM ’s research activities are developed based on the results of each project as well as on current questions in the field of ethnomusicology. Due to the rich diversity of multipart music practices in Europe, concentrating on one topic or one particular area in each stage has been advantageous for profound research since the establishment of the EMM in 2003 (Ahmedaja/Haid 2008a, 9). This approach has enabled new insights on multipart music in Europe, based first of all on new perspectives and concepts of diverse phenomena. Among them are issues such as the politics and aesthetics of two-part singing in southern Portugal (Castelo-Branco 2008), social roles, group dynamics and sound structure in a female multipart singing tradition in southern Italy (Adamo 2008), new considerations of diaphony in Southeastern Europe (Brandl 2008), cultural listening and local discourse, including questions of local terminology (cf. articles in Ahmedaja 2011) as well as the elaboration of new concepts such as singing in company (Lortat-Jacob 2011), the pilgrim’s progress and the musical instrumentation of the Heavenly Host (Bohlman 2017) or that of amalgam in the constructions of sound image in multipart music practices (Macchiarella 2017). Some explorations have dealt with particularities of local practices which were previously hardly known in research, as in the case of multipart music practices in Spain (Ayats/Martínez 2008; Camára de Landa 2017), in mainland France (Castéret 2008) or in Latvia (Beitāne 2017). The results concern both the so-called musical outcome as well as the ways multipart music is made, perceived and dealt with by different protagonists, as can be understood from the topics of the first three symposia. They were dedicated to multipart singing in the Balkans and in the Mediterranean, cultural listening and local discourse in multipart music practices in Europe respectively, and the instrumentation and instrumentalization of sound (more at www.mdw.ac.at/ive/emm and in the articles published in the corresponding volumes: Ahmedaja/Haid 2008b, Ahmedaja 2011 and 2017). From the beginning, singing traditions have been an important subject of research in the work of the EMM . Issues connected with music performed on instruments grad9 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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ually became part of the discussions, also in individual presentations (e. g. Garaj 2017; Pietsch 2017; Tari 2017). This was only one of the reasons why, in the above-mentioned talk, one of the suggestions for research which Ulrich Morgenstern proposed and began to elaborate concerned music performed on instruments by both individuals and groups of individuals. Other reasons for this proposal as well as the explanations of its content and research questions, which became the basis for the discussions during the symposium and for this book, are introduced in the following section of this foreword.

2. The general focus of European Voices IV The focus of the discussions at the European Voices IV symposium and the approaches to it published in this book were determined by the lack of comparative studies on the issue of folk music performed on instruments in Europe with regard to two types of multipart music practices: first, solo performance on instruments which enable performances of multipart texture, and second, music-making in instrumental ensembles in Central and Eastern Europe from historical, socio-anthropological and intercultural perspectives. Both topics are explored from historical, systematic and performance perspectives, taking into consideration cross-cultural as well as distinct regional features of multipart music-making. The first topic deals with ways of making and playing musical instruments that have a very long history in the musics of the world. It is based on the possibility of producing more than one tone at one time on a single instrument by a single performer. The phenomenon at issue is sometimes referred to as solo polyphonic music. At this point it should be emphasized that terminological considerations, also related to understandings and representations of the terms polyphonic or multipart, are discussed in the European Voices symposia and also in those of the Study Group on Multipart Music within the International Council for Traditional Music (Ahmedaja upcoming). While the term polyphony with its very long history in many languages is still used mostly in the sense of a compositional technique (Frobenius 1995 [1980]; Aubert 1993; Meyer 1993; Arom 1991; Arom et al. 2007), the term multipart music with its relatively short history in the English-language literature on music research (Ahmedaja 2016, 33 – 35) is increasingly used to depict a specific mode of music making and expressive behaviour based on intentionally distinct and coordinated participation in the performing act by sharing knowledge and shaping values (see Multipart Music). This approach also implies discussions about the impact that the terminology from Western art music exerts on the representation of local traditions in the literature in spite of the differences in the processes of music making and their understandings on which these practices emerge. The distinctions are the reason why, for example, the 10 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Introduction

term “vocal music” from Western art music says very little about local practices in comparison to the term “singing”, which implies features of particular processes of music-making named explicitly by music makers, as for example in the case of yodelling (in Austria and neighbouring countries), a tenore singing (in Sardinia, Italy), sutartinės (in Lithuania), etc. Understood from this viewpoint, the use of the term “instrumental music” in relation to local practices means music performed on instruments which at the same time is often entangled on the one hand with music for dancing, as is depicted in several articles in this book, and on the other with singing traditions, either by being part of performances (in the role of the accompaniment, for example) or by being based on song melodies. An understanding of this kind is important for both topics of the European Voices IV  — ​solo and ensemble traditions of multipart music performed on instruments. Solo multipart music performed on instruments does not occur spontaneously. It is based on purposeful work by instrument makers who create (or adapt) musical instruments in accordance with a certain sound ideal — ​and by musicians who choose and introduce multipart textures into practice according to the possibilities their instruments offer and to their own understandings, aesthetics and experience as well as the aesthetic expectations of their environment (social groups or patronage). Historical evidence for solo multipart instrumental practices dates back to the Early civilizations of Mesopotamia. A silver double pipe from Ur (ca. 2450 BC , s. Lawergren 2000) has an unequal number (4+3) of finger holes and therefore could not be played in constant unison. Long-necked lutes with more than one string from the Uruk Period (before 3000 BC , s. Dumbrill 2005, 321) and similar Akkadian two-string instruments (between 2334 – 2000 BC , ibid., 321 – 326) were hardly used for monophonic music either. According to Mark Slobin, “Laurence Picken has suggested that multipart music is an inescapable mechanical consequence of making a handle-lute, whether to be plucked or bowed” (1969, 45). Studies in instrumental music (but not only) have disproved the common belief in the monophonic character of Ancient Greek music (Barker 1995; Hagel 2004). Aulos players made frequent use of simultaneous consonances, while lyres could be played in a chordal texture based on what researchers and performers of historical Central and Northwest European lyres call the blockand-strum technique. In European folk and early secular instrumental music, we very often find instruments with two or more sources of sound to be used simultaneously. Among the most prominent examples are double flutes (Moeck 1987) and double reed pipes, bagpipes with separate drone pipes and/or multiple chanters of different types (van Hees 2014, 41 – 46), bowed lutes with drone strings or, since the 17th century and later, the folk violin (in this context also called the fiddle), typically played with the frequent use of multipart texture. 11 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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It is likely that the textural principles in question represent strata of European folk music which are older than the actual instruments used until the present or the recent past. Walter Salmen, discussing solo multipart instrumental practices of the medieval minstrels, has detected two basic musical functions: “The effect of individual multiple sounds, achieved on string instruments, glockenspiel or double flutes was supporting [stützend] and filling [füllend] at the same time” (Stützend und füllend zugleich war die Wirkung einzelner Mehrklänge auf Saiteninstrumenten, Glockenspielen oder Doppelflöten. Salmen 1957, 23). Supporting can be understood as marking tonal-harmonic reference points of the main melody, but it is also the musician himself who receives support from multipart components such as the drone due to its function “as an inspiring element” (Brandl 1981, 25). Filling means colouring but also amplifying the sound of an instrument played solo. In a manner which is in some ways similar to that of medieval minstrels, folk fiddlers performing solo use multipart textures (open strings) as a strategy for amplifying and enriching the sound of their instrument. In the past this was of particular importance, as due to economic reasons or legal restrictions, socially meaningful events could often only be marked and accompanied by one musician. While 20th-century folk music revivals were largely dominated by small ensembles, in contemporary folk music scenes skilled bagpipers, fiddlers and hurdy-gurdy players (many of them involved in one or more ensembles) exposed themselves as soloists. This tendency from pub sessions to solo performances can be seen as a revival of centuries-old practices of individual creativity and personal responsibility for coordinating multipart music performed on instruments. Since the 18th century onwards this practice of folk music has faced increasing competition from ensemble playing, which was acoustically stronger and socially more prestigious. In many European countries, instrumental ensembles with a leading function of the classical violin, sometimes a second violin and an accompaniment provided by a double bass and/or a rhythmic-harmonic violin or viola (kontra) part, a hammered dulcimer or a frame drum, became an indispensable part of traditional rural weddings and dance events (Gifford 2014; see Rădulescu, Dahlig, Macijewska, Nußbaumer in this book). Jewish klezmorim, Roma ensembles from Transylvania, string ensembles from the Tyrolean Zillertal or from Styria, troista muzýka from the Ukraine and many other regional and local forms display certain similarities in their musical and social organization, and to some degree in terms of style and repertoire. In ethnomusicology (and in popular discourses, notably in Austria and beyond), this type of music making has frequently been referred to as “peasant music ensembles” (Noll 1986). However, it is obvious that ensemble practice is no less developed in the pastoral culture of the Carpathian Highlands (Macijewska and Dahlig in this book). Moreover, the main agents of the fiddle-based ensemble style belong to groups which were socially separated (and too often marginalized) such as Jews and Roma. Among 12 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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others it was William Noll who referred to vertical transfer processes as crucial aspects of the study of these ensembles which “can be said to mirror a seventeenth and eighteenth century development in the music of the social elite in Central Europe” (Noll 1986, 250; cit. by Bielawski 1992, 54)1. This concerns the comparatively early adaption of a string bass in vernacular ensembles (Salmen 1984; Noll 1986; Dahlig 1999) and the introduction of an (additional) harmonic accompaniment by a viola (kontra) or a second violin. Although it was well established in 18th-century Austria (Nußbaumer in this book), in many regions this innovation of ensemble playing is a recent phenomenon of the late 19th/early 20th century (Noll 1986, 250; cit. by Bielawski 1992, 54; Rădulescu 1993; Dahlig in this book). Since the mid-19th century, in many regions of Central and Eastern Europe string-­ dominated ensembles were replaced by (or sometimes gradually transformed into) woodwind and brass bands (see Žarskienė, Vejvoda and Nußbaumer in this book). At the same time, the enormous popularity of the accordion represented serious competition for ensembles of any type. Performing in small, string-dominated ensembles became popular in 20th-century folk music revival and revitalization movements. Numerous representatives of these movements were or are violinists, engaged as performing ethnomusicologists, playing solo or in an ensemble or both. Among them are Tellef Kvifte, Owe Ronström, Jos Koning, Colin Quigley, Anda Beitāne and, of course, Rudolf Pietsch, to whom this publication is dedicated.

3. The content of the book In the first part of the book, the focus is on recent solo multipart practices of bagpipers and fiddlers. Nicola Scaldaferri presents the double-chanter bagpipes called surdulina and zampogna a chiave from the Mount Pollino area (southern Italy), while Danka Lajić Mihajlović points to the historical significance of contra-chanter bagpipes for more recent styles of traditional music performed on instruments in Serbia. With a general focus on the Pannonian region, Andor Végh and Zsombor Horváth discuss bagpipe traditions with their historical dynamics, including issues of ensemble playing.

1 When co-editor Ulrich Morgenstern, was fortunate to be able to talk to Ludwik Bielawski in 1994 in Skiernewice, he was at first surprised when the Polish ethnomusicologist spoke of the traditional string bands as “Baroque ensembles”. After numerous field trips with Alexander Romodin (St. Petersburg) in the Russian-Belarusian border region (where, contrary to the more typical continuo part, a heterophonic texture of the nowadays vanished violin-cimbalom was dominant) such historical explanations of seemingly genuine “peasant ensembles” were new to him.

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Similarly, Gaila Kirdienė analyses multipart textures such as drone elements used by Lithuanian fiddlers in solo as well as in ensemble contexts. In the present book the second topic focuses on local and regional case studies and overviews of types of instrumentation and social and musical interaction within the ensemble. Fieldwork-based studies give detailed insights into the formative principles and emic concepts of ensemble playing. Speranța Rădulescu discusses specific ways of free rhythmic disordered polyphonic rendition of song melodies by professional instrumental ensembles in Romania. Piotr Dahlig analyses musical cooperation and interaction in instrumental ensembles from Central-Eastern Europe and how musicians deal with, and sometimes contest, traditional hierarchies. Victoria Macijew­ ska’s article is one of the first overviews of instrumental ensembles of the Hutsuls in English. Zdeněk Vejvoda’s case study describes the role of a classically trained teacher as a village band master and author of a musical manuscript in the context of early 19th-century Bohemia. This was the time when wind instruments were adopted in small string-based rural dance music ensembles, not only in Bohemia but also in the Tyrol, as follows from Thomas Nußbaumer’s overview of different types of ensembles in this region of Austria. Rūta Žarskienė discusses the development of brass ensembles and its socioeconomic conditions in 19th and 20th century Lithuania.

4. The Main Results of European Voices IV The present book strengthens the focus on solo instrumental performance in contemporary research on traditional European multipart music. It introduces the concepts of solo multipart music and solo multipart instruments. In the past, the multipart possibilities of instruments played by soloists were of particular importance for dance music. This is evident in solo fiddling with accompanying open strings (see Kirdienė’s article in this book) as well as the bagpipes’ predominant function as a solo instrument for dance music. Studies in ensemble traditions offered by this book particularly confirm the role of ethnic minorities as a driving force for innovation (Hemetek 2001). While the role of Roma in string ensembles in Hungary and Romania is common knowledge, Dahlig points to their significance for the formation of the string ensembles of Polish-Carpathian highlanders (Gorals) and in Galicia. This corresponds well with the role of Jews and Roma as the main agents and mediators of ensemble playing in late 19th-century Carpathian Ukraine (Morgenstern 2017, 81 – 84) as well as of Jewish fiddle-dulcimer ensembles as the model for Belarusian dance music of the same period. The widespread notion that klezmorim and Roma musicians played the preferred local repertoire of non-Jewish and/or non-Roma communities when performing for them is plausible but incomplete considering their role as cultural mediators. 14 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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The intercultural (horizontal) transfer of ensemble practices is particularly fruitful in urban settings (see also Nußbaumer in this book on Bohemian brass ensembles in Tyrolean towns and cities). In 19th-century rural settings, local teachers with an urban background played a fundamental role as agents of the vertical transfer and innovation of folk instrumental music. Many of them were violinists (Nußbaumer) or ensemble leaders (Vejvoda, Dahlig, Žarskienė) with a firm background in contemporary art music. This, again, speaks for a more thorough consideration of musical literacy and score manuscripts. The older concept of folk music as a basically unwritten tradition was challenged long ago, not only with regard to handwritten and published collections of song texts, but no less to fiddling (see the paragraph “Fiddlers, violins, and books of fiddlers’ tunes” in Ling 1995, 154 – 159, with special reference to Helga Thiel, Franz Eibner and Hermann Derschmidt in Deutsch 1975). Transfer processes described by Ling as “from fiddle to violin and back again” (1997, 155) deserve a more in-depth comparative study. For the future, alongside instrumentation and multipart texture, a thorough analysis of Waltz and Polka melodies as a key repertoire of 19th and 20th century dance music ensembles could reveal transfer processes at the interface of composed and orally transmitted music in Europe.

5. The dedication of the book This book is dedicated to Rudolf Pietsch, who was a multipart personality par excellence (Bernard Garaj in this book) for several reasons. During his work for the Department of Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology from 1981 – 2019 he devoted much of his efforts to collecting, researching and performing on musical instruments as well as to the transmission of his knowledge to many generations of university students and others outside of academia. A great part of his studies was devoted to music performed on instruments and music for dancing. One of the latest is published in the third volume of the European Voices series (Pietsch 2017). Beyond his outstanding role as a fieldwork-based folk musician with a profound background in classical violin playing, he was highly interested in styles of fiddling all over Europe as well as in many kinds of music-making on a wide range of instruments, music for dancing, and singing traditions. As a charismatic performer he was able to inspire and fascinate different audiences, including those who had previously showed less affinity for folk music. Rudolf (Rudi) Pietsch founded and led ensembles such as Heanzenquartett and the famous Die Tanzgeiger. Ensemble playing was a key issue in his classes, and during excursions to many European countries which he initiated within the university curricula, he prepared and encouraged his students to play along with local musicians. Rudi also inspired all the members of ALMA , a new and highly diverse ensemble, and 15 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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was deeply involved in the foundation of the internationally successful brass band Federspiel. Last but not least, he was a key figure in the establishment of Musikantenstammtische — ​the Austrian pendant to pub sessions — ​which are a crucial element of the contemporary folk music scene. During the entire preparation work for the symposium European Voices IV , Rudi was the hub of the entire organizing team, and was particularly committed to the planning and presentation of two evening concerts — ​on the very eve of the 66th Wiener Kathreintanz, the gala event of the Austrian folk dance movement, with the traditional performance of Die Tanzgeiger — ​and with the participation of speakers and other symposium guests. With this dedication we wish to express our respect and gratitude for his work and legacy as well as his friendship which we and many contributors to this book are very thankful to have experienced. The photograph on the book cover shows Alois Blamberger (1912 – 1989), called Blån-Lois, the former Chief Mining Inspector from Bad Ischl, Upper Austria. He was a multi-instrumentalist, playing the violin and the Schwegl, and an active participant in the revitalization of these instruments and a highlycommitted member of different instrumental ensembles. He was also a teacher and close friend of Rudolf Pietsch, which was an additional reason to choose this photograph made by Rudolf Pietsch for the book cover.

Acknowledgment The book European Voices IV is the result of a long cooperation process between researchers, musicians, mediators and institutions. At this point we would like to thank all of them for their efforts and support throughout the realisation of this project. Firstly, all of the authors for the inspiring presentations and discussions and their cooperation and patience during the preparation of the publication. Furthermore, the director of the IVE , Ursula Hemetek, and the rectorate of the MDW for supporting the idea and the realisation of the symposium as well as the publication of this book. The support of other sponsors of the symposium has been most helpful too: the department Stadt Wien Kultur (MA 7) of the City Government of Vienna, which has continuously supported the European Voices activities; the Istituto Italiano di Cultura in Vienna, which has also supported several activities of European Voices; the Rumänisches Kulturinstitut Wien and the Polnisches Institut Wien — ​cooperation with them has served as a good beginning for further joint activities; the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Volkstanz Wien (Arge), a working group on folk dances in Vienna and its chairperson Else Schmidt, who is also a colleague at the IVE , for their steady support and cooperation on this 16 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Introduction

and other projects; the bakery Ströck in Vienna and the winery Gisperg in Teesdorf for their generous offers at get-togethers by symposium participants, during which the discussions were continued without being affected by the busy timetable of the symposium’s activities. All of the above-mentioned institutions have supported the participation of speakers and especially of musicians in both concerts, which were related to the two topics of European Voices IV . The preparation and the organisation of the concerts was led by Rudolf Pietsch, who also played a key role as their moderator. Musicians from Austria, Italy, Hungary, Poland and Romania presented local multipart practices and also historically-informed performances. Stefan Hagel from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Institute for the Study of Ancient Culture (Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Institut für Kulturgeschichte der Antike) demonstrated historical multipart techniques of the ancient aulos and the kithara, while Albin Paulus (Vienna) improvised on a reconstructed early-medieval Avarian double reed pipe as well as on a jaw harp. Multi-chanter bagpipes were presented by co-authors of this book: southern Italian by Nicola Scaldaferri (Milan) and from Croatia/Hungary by Andor Végh (Pécs), together with Zsombor Horváth (the plucked lute samica) and Franjo Dervar (singing). Răzvan Roşu (Vienna/Satu Mare) played shepherd’s aerophones and a bagpipe from Romania and Laurens Weindhold played the Hardanger fiddle. Instrumental traditions from Austria, including rural and 19th-century urban music, were presented by Simon Wascher (hurdy-gurdy), Daniela Mayrlechner (zither, Raffele), Rudolf Koschelu (Schrammel guitar), Marie-Theres Stickler (button accordion) and Theresa Aigner (violin). Ensemble traditions were presented by Theresa Aigner and Irma-Maria Troy (violin), Abigail Wagner (viola), Daniela Mayrlechner (Schwegel), Marie-Theres Stickler (button accordion), Andrea Wild (contra guitar), Sandra Zöchbauer (clarinet), Hermann Härtel (hammered dulcimer) and Johannes Eder (double bass). Răzvan Roşu and the ensemble Nepoții Iancului (Satu Mare) presented instrumental music from Transylvania, and the Janusz Prusinowski Kompania traditional dance music from Poland. We wish to thank all of them for their artistry with which they fascinated all participants and audiences and for bringing to Vienna a hint of the diversity of the European traditions in question, helping in this way to promote the transmission of the symposium’s message to a broader public in a very effective way. We also wish to thank the student assistants of the symposium: Sara Gregorič, Gwendolin Haufler, Hannah Liebhart, and others; Georg Pietsch for the technical support during the symposium; Mike Delaney, who has helped us with his meticulous proofreading since the beginning of the European Voices activities and publications; Bernhard Graf and the Phonogrammarchiv of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for the signal processing and mastering of the audio examples and for the authoring of the video examples included in this book. In the text body of each article audio and 17 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Ulrich Morgenstern and Ardian Ahmedaja

video examples are marked with an AV (e. g. AV  01) and are counted consecutively. Information about each of them is given in the corresponding list at the end of the book. During the publication process we experienced once again the professional and supportive cooperation of the Böhlau Verlag, for which we are very grateful. The publication of the book marks the endpoint of an eventful journey, whose results the editors and the authors are happy to share with the reader.

References Adamo, Giorgio. 2008. “Social Roles, Group Dynamics and Sound Structure in Multipart Vocal Performance: The Female Repertoire for Good Friday at Cassano allo Ionio (South Italy).” In European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Ardian Ahmedaja and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 87 – 101. Ahmedaja, Ardian (Ed.). 2011. European Voices II . Cultural Listening and Local Discourse in Multipart Singing Traditions in Europe. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 23. Wien: Böhlau. ——— (Ed.). 2017. European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. CD ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Wien: Böhlau. ———. 2019. “Multipart music.” In The SAGE international encyclopaedia of music and culture. Vol. 3. Janet Sturman (Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE Publications, Inc. 1500 – 1503. ———. (upcoming). “ICTM Study Group on Multipart Music.” In Celebrating the International Council for Traditional Music: Reflections on the First Seven Decades. Svanibor Pettan, Naila Ceribašić, Don Niles (Eds.). Ahmedaja, Ardian and Gerlinde Haid. 2008a. “Introduction.” In European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Ardian Ahmedaja and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 7 – 14. ——— (Eds.). 2008b. European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Wien: Böhlau. Arom, Simha. 1991. African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Musical Structure and Methodology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Arom, Simha, and Nathalie Fernando, Susanne Fürniss, Sylvie Le Bomin, Fabrice Marandola, Emmanuelle Olivier, Hervé Rivière, Olivier Tourny. 2007. “Typologie des techniques

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polyphoniques.” In Musiques. Une encyclopédie pour le XXI e siècle. Vol. V. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (Ed.). Paris: Actes Sud / Cité de la Musique. 1088 – 1109. Aubert, Laurent (Ed.). 1993. Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles. 6. Dossier: Polyphonies. Genève: GEORG Éditeur. Ayats, Jaume and Sílvia Martínez. 2008. “Singing in Processions and Festivities: A Look at Different Models of Multipart Singing in Spain.” In European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Ardian Ahmedaja and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 39 – 54. Barker, Andrew. 1995. “Heterophonia and poikilia: Accompaniments to Greek melody.” In Mousike. Metrica ritmica e musica greca. Bruno Gentili and Franca Perusino (Eds.). Pisa: Istuti editoriali e poligrafici internazionali. 41 – 60. Beitāne, Anda. 2017. “The Sound of Medņeva: Local Multipart Singing Practice as an Instrument of Identity in North-Eastern Latvia.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemo­ ration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 183 – 200. Bielawski, Ludwik: “Polish Instrumental Folk Ensembles.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. X. Erich Stockmann (Ed.) Stockholm: Musikmuseet Stockholm 50 – 55. Bohlman, Philip V. 2017. “‘But Glorious It Was’ — ​The Pilgrim’s Progress and the Musical Instrumentation of the Heavenly Host.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 23 – 42. Brandl, Rudolf. 1981. “Der Bordun und seine Entwicklung in der Volksmusik des Dodekanes anhand eigener Feldaufnahmen 1965 – 1971 [The drone and its development in the folk music of the Dodecanese based on the author’s field recordings].” In Der Bordun in der europäischen Volksmusik. Walter Deutsch (Ed.). Wien: Schendl. 24 – 40. Brandl, Rudolf. 2008. “New Considerations of Diaphony in Southeast Europe.” In European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Ardian Ahmedaja and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 281 – 297. Castelo-Branco, Salwa El-Shawan. 2008. “The Politics and Aesthetics of Two-Part Singing in Southern Portugal.” In European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Ardian Ahmedaja and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 15 – 37. Camára de Landa, Enrique. 2017. “Polyphonic Arrangements for a Monodic Tradition: Rituals and Musical Creativity in Present-Day Soria.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commem-

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oration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 87 – 99. Castéret, Jean-Jacques. 2008. “Mainland French Multipart Singing: Of Men and Patterns.” In European Voices I. Multipart Singing in the Balkans and the Mediterranean. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 22. Ardian Ahmedaja and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 55 – 70. Dahlig, Piotr. 1999. “The Basy in Peasant and Highlanders’ Music in Poland.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. XII . Eszter Fontana, Erich Stockmann, Andreas Michel (Eds.). Dößel: Janos Stekovics. 95 – 100. Deutsch, Walter (Ed.). 1975. Die Geige in der europäischen Volksmusik: Bericht über das 1. Seminar für Europäische Musikethnologie, St. Pölten 1971 [The violin in European folk music. Report on the 1st Seminar on European Ethnomusicology St. Pölten 1971]. Wien: Schendl. Dumbrill, Richard J. 2005. The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. Second edition, revised and corrected with additional notes and appendices. Victoria: Trafford Publishing. Frobenius, Wolf. 1995. [1980]. “Polyphony.” In New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 15. Stanley Sadie (Ed.). London: Macmillan. 70 – 72. Garaj, Bernard. 2017. “Towards the Instrumentation of Sound in a Band Consisting of String Instruments and Bagpipes.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 249 – 261. Hagel, Stefan. 2004. “Calculating auloi — ​the Louvre aulos scale.” In Studien zur Musikarchäo­ logie 4, Orient-Archäologie 15. Ellen Hickmann and Ricardo Eichmann (Eds.). Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf. 373 – 390. Hemetek, Ursula. 2001. Mosaik der Klänge. Musik der ethnischen und religiösen Minderheiten in Österreich [Mosaic of Sounds, Music of Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Austria]. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 20. Wien/Köln/Weimar: Böhlau. Lawergren, Bo. 2000. “Extant Silver Pipes from Ur, 2450 B. C. E.” In Studien zur Musikarchäologie 4, Orient-Archäologie 7. Ellen Hickmann, Ingo Laufs, Ricardo Eichmann (Eds.). Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf. 121 – 132. Ling, Jan. 1997. A History of European Folk Music. Rochester/NY : University of Rochester Press. Lortat-Jacob, Bernard. 2011. “Singing in company.” In European Voices II . Cultural Listening and Local Discourse in Multipart Singing Traditions in Europe. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 23. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 23 – 35. Macchiarella, Ignazio. 2017. “It is a Matter of Amalgam. Constructions of Sound Image in Multipart Singing Practices.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde

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Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 121 – 137. Meyer, Christian (Ed.). 1993. Polyphonie de tradition orale. Histoire et traditions vivantes. Actes du colloque de Royaumont, 1990. Collection “Rencontres à Royaumont”. Paris: Éditions Créaphis. Moeck, Hermann Alexander. 1987. Typen europäischer Kernspaltflöten [Types of European duct flutes]. Celle: Edition Moeck. Multipart Music. https://www.ictmusic.org/group/multipart-music; http://www.multipartmusic. eu (Accessed January 31, 2021.) Noll, William Henry. 1986. Peasant Music Ensembles in Poland: A Culture History. Diss. University of Washington. Pietsch, Rudolf. 2017. “Sound Aspects Caused by the Formation of Intentional and Accidental Multipart Instrumental Music, Illustrated by Selected Examples.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 203 – 221. Rădulescu, Speranța. 1993. “L’accompagnement harmonique dans la musique paysanne roumaine [Harmonic accompaniment in Romanian village music].” In Cahiers d’ethnomusicologie. Vol 6. Laurent Aubert (Ed.). Genève: GEORG Éditeur. 55 – 69. ———. 2017. “‘I hear the drum, but I cannot see it!’ The Main Accompanying Instrument and its Emblematic Sound.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 237 – 246. Salmen, Walter. 1957. “Bemerkungen zum mehrstimmigen Musizieren der Spielleute im Mittelalter [Notes on minstrels’ multipart music making in the Middle Ages].” Revue Belge De Musicologie / Belgisch Tijdschrift Voor Muziekwetenschap. Vol 11 (1/2). 17 – 26. Salmen, Walter. 1984. “Die Adaption von Baßgeigen in der usuellen Musik des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts [The adaptation of bass violins in 17th- and 18th-century vernacular music].” In Jakob Stainer und seine Zeit. Walter Salmen (Ed.). Innsbruck: Helbling. 101 – 108. Slobin, Mark. 1969. Kirgiz Instrumental Music. New York: Society for Asian Music. Tari, Lujza. 2017. “Multipart Phenomena in Hungarian Folk Music Regarding the Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Cultures and Politics in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. CD -ROM with 65 audio and 32 video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 223 – 235. Van Hees, Jean-Pierre. 2014. Cornemuses: Un infini sonore [Bagpipes: An infinite sound]. Spézet: Coop Breizh.

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Bernard Garaj

For Rudolf Pietsch

The current European Voices IV publication is dedicated to our colleague Dr. Rudolf Pietsch, who left us in February 2020 at the age of 68. On this occasion, I have the privilege — ​but also the extraordinary responsibility — ​to write a few words in his commemoration. This task seems all the more challenging because for three decades we had been united not only by a professional bond, but above all by personal friendship, and I realize that I am not even really able to distinguish rigorously between these two worlds. His research activities, articles, papers, and presentations have been and will forever be a significant contribution to European ethnomusicology and to the Research Centre for European Multipart Music in particular. However, his connection with our network is particularly symbolic. After all, multipart music is not only in the name of the Centre, that is precisely how we saw him: Rudi was above all a multipart personality par excellence.

1. Rudi Pietsch — ​an ethnomusicologist The first time we met was in 1988 at the Seminar für Europäische Musikethnologie in Eisenstadt, the theme of which was “Village dance music in the area of Western Pannonia.” Not only was Rudi a co-organizer of the event, he also presented a remarkable paper about the music of emigrants from Burgenland to the USA . Having recently returned from a research stay in Texas, his extraordinarily engaging and convincing presentation, which included interesting photographs, film and sound recordings as well as precise musical transcriptions, enthralled the audience. Finally, at the end he picked up a diatonic accordion and played several melodies analysed in his paper. I recall this mainly because this kind of complementarity, based on an outstanding knowledge of the researched phenomenon, became a characteristic feature of his lifetime research concept, and he remained faithful to it even when other, more descriptive approaches to traditional music became more fashionable. I believe that such an internal need for a comprehensive view of the studied phenomena was an important selection criterion for him, according to which he also chose the topics of his research. At the same time, he was able to characterize processes connected with the living form of the Alpine traditional music as competently as he analysed its historical sources. When I mention his interest in traditional music, I mean his theoretical reflections on instrumental music and vocal tradition, all in a symbiosis with his knowledge of dance culture. 23 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Bernard Garaj

2. Rudi Pietsch — ​a teacher and music mediator In his research activities, Rudi Pietsch admirably linked theory with practice. It is here that the essence of his pedagogical mastery probably lies, which he proved during his entire work at the Department of Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology in Vienna. His lifelong career began in 1981, when he joined the institute as a lecturer. He left it in 2016 as a deputy head. Regarding educational work, Rudi Pietsch was never satisfied with the standard form of a university lecture or seminar. I was lucky enough to take part in dozens of courses for students of the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna which he organized and led for many years in Schottwien and later in Göttweig Abbey, and I am convinced that it was precisely he who inculcated in hundreds of students — ​future music teachers or concert masters — ​an interest in traditional music, and who taught them to perceive it as a lively and valuable phenomenon. And above all, he taught them what it means to indulge in music with passion and enthusiasm regardless of the musical genre. From the methodological and didactic point of view, the above-mentioned courses can be perceived as a model for all those who convey traditional music to others. However, he also tried to pass on to his students content that significantly expanded the scope of standard ethnomusicological research. This is evidenced by countless and unforgettable excursions he organized for years throughout Austria and many other European countries, always involving not only meetings with musicians, singers and dancers, but also visits to museums, cemeteries and local cultural institutions. In my memories I cherish evening discussions with students about how they had experienced the day which was coming to an end. Rudi perceived this as an important part of excursions, and I remember such evenings with him not only in Slovakia, but also in the Ukrainian Carpathians and Maramures in Romania. Rudi Pietsch became a well-known and respected teacher not only at his alma mater, but as the music mediator, co-founder or artistic director of many music courses throughout Austria, for instance in Lower Austria, Burgenland, or courses organized as part of the Glatt&Verkehrt festival in Krems. I am sure that Rudi’s work in this field will remain a permanent part of the history of the organized Austrian traditional music scene.

3. Rudi Pietsch — ​a musician and artist For most people, the above-mentioned activities would richly fill their entire professional life. However, Rudi was also an active musician, performing with the groups Heanznquartett and later Die Tanzgeiger, leading the latter until he passed away. As the 24 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

For Rudolf Pietsch

first violinist he was the soul of these ensembles at countless concerts. In addition to playing, he would comment on their music, telling stories, singing or dancing in an engaging way. In other words, the stage was all his, as well as the audience. (When the former Czechoslovakia opened its borders in the early 90s, I accepted his invitation to play in Vienna with my band Ponitran, and during a concert break he ticked me off for not having addressed the audience. Looking puzzled, I asked him what I should have said. “Whatever, tell them what your name is, where you are from, what you do, what you play. People are interested in this,” he replied.) I am sure Rudi appreciated the support of his audiences as much as all the significant awards that he received for his work. Fortunately, his artistic mastery has been preserved on dozens of gramophone records, CD s, and in radio and television recordings.

4. Rudi Pietsch — ​a European Rudi was a man with a very well-developed European dimension of thinking and respect for other cultures. For example, he never hid his special relationship with the countries of Eastern Europe or the Balkans and their traditional music. His office, the place with the best coffee in the institute, became an iconic meeting venue for many musicians from different countries who came to Vienna at his invitation or simply came to visit him as friends. During one day in Advent, I witnessed an awkward situation when a blind street singer from Slovakia was arrested by the Vienna police for failing to comply with the ban on singing within the set hours. In a telephone conversation with a police officer Rudi complained that something like this must not happen in the city that is considered the world’s capital of music, and the singer was released the next day. Rudi simply treated people from the places he visited with the same respect and within a few minutes won them over.

5. Rudi Pietsch — ​the man I am convinced that Rudi Pietsch lived a successful professional and personal life due to his unique human qualities. A natural charisma, respect for friendship and empathy were the attributes that characterized him the most. I always wondered where these features came from. Perhaps they were instilled in him — ​as he mentioned several times — ​by his mother with roots in Burgenland, and perhaps he was influenced by other experiences. It is not important. The important thing is that everyone who was in contact with him was, in my opinion, forever positively affected by his humanity.

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I. Solo Traditions

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Danka Lajić Mihajlović

Every village had bagpipes … and then the accordions arrived The Influence of Multipart Instruments on Textural Transformations of Serbian Traditional Instrumental Music 1

Abstract Based on previous research on the Serbian bagpipe tradition, especially personal research on the manner and level of correlation among the harmonic structures of traditional music performed on different types of bagpipes and (local) vocal practices, it is my intention to broaden the comprehension of the musical texture of bagpipes with a double pipe and drone in Serbia. As this deals with a type of instrument which is found internationally, the findings could be significant for comparative studies of Eastern European bagpipes. In the present article attention is paid to the bagpipe as a solo multipart instrument in its dominant function as an instrument for dance music as well as in its less frequent function as an accompanying instrument for songs. The possibility of realizing vocal-instrumental arrangements, accomplished by using bellows on the bagpipe variant from Vojvodina, the northern province of Serbia, introduces a specific fourpart texture. The musical texture of three-voice bagpipes will also be considered as a way of musical thinking in a broader sense — ​with regard to the vocal practice of this geocultural area and other multipart instruments which are simultaneously present in the region. The diachronic contextualization includes the consideration of bagpipe three-part texture as an influence on the Serbian accordion tradition, especially during its initial period. Multipart sound as an essential feature of the bagpipes has been 1 Acknowledgments: This paper is the result of research realized at the Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. I owe special gratitude to Saša Spasojević, a non-professional researcher from Belgrade, for providing me with the opportunity to view his private photo collection, his catalogue and to use his collection of 78 rpm records. Furthermore, I would like to gratefully acknowledge an anonymous referee and my colleagues/editors from the Department for Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology of the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna, especially Prof. Dr. Ulrich Morgenstern for insightful comments and suggestions and help in shaping the final version of this paper.

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emulated most directly and most consistently by accordions, the instruments which replaced the bagpipes in folklore practice. Although it may seem unnecessary or redundant to emphasize the relationship between musical instruments and instrumental music, the historiography of researching both has confirmed the need to do so. While advocating the significance of researching instrumental folk music, Oskár Elschek singled out stylistic-genetic and stylistic-historical problems of instrumental music (1996, 52). Multipart instruments (understood as musical instruments which are suitable for multipart playing) constitute a particularly important group of instruments for this area of research which directly materialize multipart musical thinking, as well as the needs and preferences of the peoples in whose musical traditions such instruments can be found. Their typological constructive characteristics make instruments of this kind multinational, i. e. applicable in different musical traditions, while particularities of these traditions are reflected in the variants found in both the construction of instruments and the performers’ practices. The interest in multipart (musical) instruments related to the traditional music of Serbia has primarily focused on bagpipes and accordions, although they are not the only instruments whose construction includes the idea of multipart playing. On the contrary, a tendency towards the enrichment of the harmonic dimension is recognisable even in music played on monophonic instruments, in instrumental and vocal-instrumental practice, and the multipart way of musical thinking is present in the construction of many traditional instruments. Nevertheless, bagpipes and accordions are exceptions as substantive paradigms of the instrumental multipart tradition owing to their considerable presence in practice as well as the players’ experiences. As was suggested by one of the last traditional bagpipers in Vojvodina, the northern province of Serbia, Rada Maksimović (1924 – 2007), whose words are paraphrased in the title of this article, these paradigms were quite successful over a long time span. His statement opens up a series of questions, especially those of a comparative nature. On this occasion, from the perspective of research into solo multipart instruments, the following questions arise: how did the replacement of one instrument by another as the dominant instrument in folklore practice influence the aesthetics of instrumental musicianship; what changes of texture were caused by the transposition of traditional instrumental expression based on the potential of the bagpipes into the practice of accordion players, and how are these changes related to the repositioning of the playing of solo multipart instruments in a (transitional) society? I will primarily focus on the musical text and, even more specifically, on its texture as a contribution towards the research into the musical stylistic aspects of folk music instruments and a specifically (ethno-)musicological contribution to the study of folk music instruments. It should be mentioned that this direction of research does not imply the general favouring of text — ​a “nothing but 30 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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the music” perspective — ​as formulated by Philip Tagg (2015), nor the text-context dichotomy. On the contrary, this choice positions the research of diachronic changes of traditional music texture as an indispensable part of the multifaceted research into the specifics of (instrumental) music communication and suggests the existence of a close relationship between the sounds of music and the sociocultural context. Since the term “texture” was borrowed from other arts and folkloristics,2 there is no consensus on its meaning in (ethno)musicology. Sometimes it is applied (just) to the vertical aspects of (multipart) music — ​i. e. to the way in which individual parts or voices are put together, hence we find reductions to only two basic types of musical texture: monophonic and polyphonic. More recent considerations include both sound and music qualities such as tone colour or rhythm and characteristics of performance such as articulation and dynamic level. Therefore, the texture could be described in more specific terms according to the number of parts and the relationship between them, as well as in relative terms, for example with respect to its density or thickness (cf. Benward and Saker 2003; GMO 2016; Newbould 2016). This broader meaning overlaps with some interpretations of the notion of “style”, and we also find related expressions such as “textural styles” (Pascal 2016). Bearing in mind the importance of the overall quality of music as sound expression for its affective potential in communication, I will use the latter, broader meaning of “texture” in this article. The search for answers to the aforementioned questions was based on the fundamental research on bagpipes and accordions in Serbia and the initial results of comparative research. Conceived in such a way, this research encompassed the need to strike a balance between the generalizations and an overemphasis on particularity (cf. the discourse on tradition based on the structuralist approach to the study of culture with an inclination to reduce elaborate symbolic constructions to elementary patterns of the mind, and the approach to the individual constituted by tradition; Shils 1981, 10, 47 – 48). Generalizations concerning the textures of bagpipe music are based upon quite a large number of recordings. However, there are some reasons for caution: the collected recordings are from different periods — ​the time span encompasses almost a century 3. 2 In fine arts, texture is an element, a quality of the work which can be actual or virtual/ simulated (cf. Delahunt 1996 – 2010; Watercolour Painting 1999 – 2016). Texture in literature is understood as the concrete physical elements that are separate from the structure or argument of the work (such as metaphors, imagery, metre and rhyme; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 2016). In folkloristics, texture is one of the three aspects of folklore notions which must be taken into consideration during an analysis, but in spite of “tuning” of the texture in folklore dance and visual expression, analyses of texture are predominantly concerned with linguistic features of verbal folklore forms (Dundes 1980). 3 The first recordings of Serbian bagpipe music were those made by Bela Bartók in 1912, in Saravale (the Banat region, Romania; Bartók and Lord 1978, 451 – 452; Bartók 2004). The last bagpiper of a traditional kind from Vojvodina played and was recorded almost until the end of his life in 2007.

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Furthermore, they were made mostly outside of their regular contexts, for research or commercial purposes; finally, their quality is often poor, sometimes barely audible. Besides, the remarkable similarity of the textures found in the examples which differ in the aforementioned aspects serves as an argument for a conditional generalization. On the other hand, generalizations concerning early music for the accordion in Serbia do not have a quantitative base comparable to these concerning the bagpipes; here we are dealing with quite a few recordings released on 78 rpm gramophone records, but they have a compensatory quality due to the fact that they contain recordings of highly esteemed accordion players whose music practices were certainly broadly influential. Finally, it is necessary to bear in mind the role of an individual in a sound tapestry which we refer to as a “traditional style”, especially in the case of traditions generated through soloist practices such as the bagpipe and accordion practices in Serbia. Moreover, it is precisely the soloist nature of bagpipers’ practice that makes this kind of instrumental music an important reference for a study of the changes that have affected traditional music, with an expansion of both instrumental ensembles and more complex artisanal and industrially-manufactured instruments. Therefore, any conclusion should be derived not only from the sum of particular examples, but through the analysis of the complex interactions of the individual practices which produced them.

1. Music for bagpipes as a reference for the study of the ­textures of Serbian traditional instrumental music Instruments with a bag are the most widespread type of multipart instruments and one of the most important types of traditional musical instruments among the Serbs. They are also a part of the instrumentarium of other peoples who live in Serbia as well as the neighbouring peoples, hence they serve as a connection to other musical traditions and cultures. For these reasons, the bagpipes have been an object of ethnomusicological studies written from different perspectives. They were given appropriate attention by the pioneers of the research on musical instruments from the South Slavic region such as Franjo Kuhač, Vladimir Djordjević, Peter Brömse and Božidar Širola. A seminal article focusing on Serbian bagpipes alone, their types, their ergological features and musical possibilities was published by a distinguished senior ethnomusicologist, Dragoslav Dević (in parallel in Serbian and in German, cf. Dević 1978; Dević 1981). Meanwhile, researchers of subsequent generations have tried to follow in his footsteps and to open up new possibilities for research into bagpipe practice and music in Serbia. Some ethnomusicologists have researched particular bagpipe types and bagpipers’ individual experiences (Vukosavljević 1981; Golemović 1985; Lajić Mihajlović 2000), the relationship between bagpipes and ritual as well 32 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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as dance practices (Matović 1995; Marjanović-Krstić 1998, Ranković 2000). Some attention was also paid to the possibility of the inclusion of bagpipes in folk orchestras consisting of standardized, industrially-manufactured instruments (Vukosavljević 1979). Finally, attention was drawn to the complex socio-political situation and cultural processes which caused the marginalization of bagpipe music, but also the projects for the revitalization of bagpipe practices in Serbia (Jakovljević 2012; Fracile 2011; Lajić Mihajlović 2011). As the output of several of the aforementioned research projects is available in English, it is not necessary to elaborate here on the bagpipe types in Serbia, their ergological features, historical data and distribution, traditional function and repertoire.4 Instead, on this occasion I will focus on some features of their music for the purpose of acquiring insights into its complex textures and influence on the musical aesthetics of the period when bagpipes had the most important role in folklore practice. A special personal interest in vojvodjanske gajde, the three-part bagpipes typical of Vojvodina, the northern province of Serbia, and on top of that the selection of old recordings of accordion players which I had at my disposal — ​the repertoire mostly matching that of bagpipe players from Vojvodina — ​are the reasons why my attention will be directed towards the traditional music performed on this type of bagpipes. Moreover, the three-part sound texture, which originates from the actual construction of the instrument, constitutes the most complex expression in traditional Serbian musical practice. Gajde — ​bagpipes from Vojvodina — ​mostly look like those in Figure 1. The chanter is of the kind with two bores, with a large wooden resonator called a lula — ​a tobacco pipe. Emic terminology could be useful for research into the players’ experiences of the multipart nature of the bagpipes’ construction. Thus, the contra-chanter pipe is named dvojnica (among other names), sharing its name with a traditional double flute, which reflects a sense of unity and the close relationship of their bores. Furthermore, accord-

4 Folklore in (south)eastern Europe is known to be very rich stratigraphically, with archaic and new elements existing side by side and in a specific symbiosis (see more in Elschek 1998). Intensive migrations of people throughout history, and particularly an inf lux of Serbian refugees from former Yugoslav republics at the end of the 20th century, resulted in a significantly revised geocultural picture of Serbia, including the traditional practice of playing folk instruments. In this regard, the group of bagpipe-like instruments consists of instruments which are genetically related (with idioglottal reeds) but also different in construction, depending on traditional music styles that they produce and refer to simultaneously. According to the elements considered to be of primary importance for the harmonic structure — ​the number and functions of the pipes — ​it could be summed up that the scope of traditional bagpipes in Serbia today consists of instruments with a double pipe and without a separate drone pipe (diple, also present in a variant as a double pipe with reeds but without the bag), while the core types are bagpipes with a separate drone and chanter or contra-chanter pipe (two-part and three-part gajde). The number and distribution of the holes make a typological presentation of Serbian bagpipes much more complex.

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ing to emic terminology, only the chanter was recognized as a source of music: the drone was named prdak, prdaljka or tulajka “something that farts” or “something that makes a noise”, with a derisive, mocking connotation. It could be the reflection of a cognitive processing of the multipart idea that had found its way into these musical instruments.5 Contrary to the terminology, bagpipers’ practice confirms the importance of a drone pipe intonation and its harmonic correlation with a chanter pipe: although the sound of the drone pipe is quite deep, they used to tune up the drone with dedication. Another type of ambivalence which can be identified on the level of the chanter is also tangentially indicative with respect to the textures of bagpipe music: in the case of bagpipes from Vojvodina, the melody pipe has five finger holes, but many of the available Fig. 1. Gajde — ​bagpipes from Vojvodina, northern Serbia. Photographed by Acko Pejakov from records testify to the practice of playing Mokrin in 1997. From the private archive of the a melody based on seven tones. This was bagpipe player Branislav Zarić (1949 – 2018) from realized by the arrangement of the finger Kikinda. Used with permission. holes and the playing technique, which included a particular grip: the final hole is usually at a distance of three semitones and during performances it was spanned by a grip. However, on some bagpipes the finger holes are placed in such a way that they immediately produce a 6-note diatonic row, and the use of the same grip makes it chromatic; with an instrument such as this one, the grip as an automated/routinised element of the players’ technique results in a non-traditional chromatic melody. In this context the case of two types of tonal colouring of the melodies (based on the minor and major third on the root tone) should be also mentioned. It was particularly interesting to find this in the recordings of performances of the same bagpipe player, but it turned out that it was recorded on 5 It is very important to consider the question of what is a part, discussed at the First Seminar of the ICTM Study Group on Multipart Music held in Tallinn in 2014, explicitly posed by Susanne Fürniss (in Ahmedaja/Pärtlas 2014).

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two different instruments (and on different occasions).6 In other words, there were no strict patterns prescribing how to position the playing holes nor a pronounced sensitivity with respect to the intonational structure of the melodies. The aforementioned characteristics confirm both the amateur level of bagpipe-making (and specifically the melody pipe) and the amateur, quite routinised playing technique. A general non-temperedness and a freer treatment of the melody are certainly related to the predominantly soloist character of bagpipe practice. This is particularly obvious in rubato melodies, such as traditional wedding songs, so-called svatovci (sing. svatovac). Their instrumental versions or instrumental lines as support for the singer usually unfold as a free paraphrase of the vocal performance of the melody due to their melismatic character (cf. Figure 2; AV  01 and AV  02; Jel’ vas žao što se rastajemo? [Are you sorry we’re breaking up?]; Tri devojke ružu brale [Three girls picked a rose]). Svi časi dobri, ovi najbolji, ovi najbolji, ovi najsretnji!

6 An “indifferent” attitude towards the pitch of the third (and sixth) degree of the scale has been identified in the bagpipe practices in the neighbouring areas too (more in Podnos 1974; Lommel 2008, 314).

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Fig. 2. Svi časi dobri, ovi najbolji, svatovac (All the hours are good, these are the best, wedding song). Played and sung by the bagpipe player Sava Fehirov (1896 – 1988) from Bečej. A recording from the Sound Archive of the Radio Novi Sad. Transcribed by the author.

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Such an understanding of music, which recognizes the volume and the timbre of the sound as the main communicative qualities, can be related to the archetypal, ritual semantics of the sound as “(ritual) noise”, as was suggested by Jacques Attali and Svetlana Zakharieva (Atali 2007, 7, 19 – 20; Zakharieva 1987, 45). Music as “anti-silence” is regarded by these authors as a mode of social expression above all else, i. e. a specific type of a pre-rational, subconscious psychological technique whose functional resignification is carried out independently of its meaningful interpretations on the cognitive level. A particular element of the texture of music for the bagpipes is a low drone, which constitutes the ultimate essentialisation of sound expression as “anti-silence” and the materialization of the notion of the irrelevance of moving in the sound space. A continuous presence of the drone, i. e. the “non-countable” temporal dimension of ritual music, constitutes a part of the total aesthetics in which the archetypal transcendence of the transience of life is codified. These examples confirm the insight that a broad (“freely variant”) melody has a causal relationship with a continuous “underlying” drone (more in Brandl 1976). Moreover, during the performances of rubato songs the importance of the melody is emphasized by a drone-like use of the higher note of the contra pipe. The most remarkable departure from the idea of a continuous drone is the appearance of a lower note performed by the counter-pipe, which plays the role of a short ornament of the long(er)-lasting drone: this is an element which has an expressive-colourful function, and therefore it constitutes an important element of the overall texture. However, a particularly interesting “meeting” is that between the continuous drone and the function of the organization of the dance. A secondary importance of the component of intonation could be related to the most important task of providing musical accompaniment to dance performances, thus becoming the pillar of the communitas (in Victor Turner’s meaning, 1982, 45 – 51) by means of its rhythmic component. Serbian dance melodies are of a relatively narrow ambitus; some of them do not go beyond the fifth degree of the scale, which explains the ambivalent attitude towards the final tones of the row performed by a melody pipe.7 This suggests the interpretation of the more complex set of ergological features and the above-mentioned elements of playing technique as a newer addition to the tradition of bagpipe playing. Moreover, the ornamentation, which is where the players showcase their abilities and creativity, but also the amateur playing technique which results in the articulation of the tones often being imprecise, further obscures the melodic line, and melodic movement turns into an undulating sound mass. The organization of this sound mass is achieved in relation to the function of the music by means of the domination of 7 The situation is similar to the one encountered with Slovak bagpipes (gajdy, dudy): the reduced “melodic skeleton” of only five tones which Bernard Garaj found in a majority of Slovak pipe songs (according to Lommel 2008, 307).

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the rhythmic and harmonic role of the contra pipe. A remarkable rhythmic function of the contra pipe is achieved by means of a frequent change of tones, often in the form of a sequence of impulses of an equal duration (cf. Figures 3 and 4). The acoustic-psychological effect of such an isochronous row is of a trance-like nature, i. e. it is similar to the continuous drone, especially when it is performed consistently, automatically, and even more so if the tone durations are shorter (e. g. if the tempo is faster, thus creating the so-called bagpipe rhythm). Although it is difficult to speak objectively about the temporal dimension of traditional music due to a number of relativising factors — ​from the fact that the recordings were usually made outside of its primary context and function to the unreliability of old recordings with respect to speed, which makes it difficult to estimate the actual tempo — ​one could generally say that the tempo of northern Serbian dance melodies played on the bagpipes is moderate, which psychologically influences the experience of the dance as a recreational-relaxational activity rather than a showcase for the dancers’ physical abilities. Although the register of this accompanying line is very close to the melodic realm, its harmonic character is perceived as an external structure. The disruption of regularity sometimes happens incidentally, as an element of the performance; however, it is more likely that it is used to articulate the form by means of its harmonic component (cf. Figures 3 and 4). A combination of various types of shaping the accompanying line (the isochronous ostinato with a rhythmised drone — ​usually played a fourth up — ​as well as the ostinato figures) is one of the ways of making dance melodies more dynamic. The texture of traditional dance music shaped in this way in bagpipers’ performances is perceived as a well-grounded, quite solid and moderately dynamic construction which resembles the “Romanic” rather than the “Gothic” paradigm. The switch from a mouth-blown to a bellows-blown type of bagpipes improved the competitiveness of bagpipers as singers-players and increased the number of songs in their repertoires. In terms of the texture, one finds a more explicit use of the contra pipe for the purpose of harmonisation. A characteristic feature of Serbian vocal music is a cadence on the second tone of the scale. In two-part singing it is harmonized as an interval of fifth. Bagpipers do this as well, using the lower tone of the contra pipe (cf. Samo tijo, pa tijo [Just be quiet, then be quiet]).8 Therefore, precisely this lower tone acquires the semantic of a stronger, more stable element of the binary opposition produced by the counter-chanter pipe. This kind of semantisation was supported by a dynamic difference in the tones of the contra pipe and a relationship between the frequencies: the higher tone merges with the sound of the drone pipe, while the lower one stands out.

8 Although the causal relationship between two-part singing “na bas” and the sound structure of threepart bagpipes has not been determined with certainty, there are many indications that it existed. I have written about this in an earlier article (Lajić Mihajlović 2003).

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A particular importance of the sub-fourth with respect to the row playable by the melody pipe can be related to the importance that it had in the tonal structures of the older layers of folklore of several modern peoples, for example in the “tetrachord of the sixth” — ​the row consisting of one fourth and two seconds which is mentioned by Izaly Zemtsovsky as one of the most common formulaic rows in the songs of the calendar cycle, but also in non-calendar songs, e. g. wedding songs (1975). A particular feature is the cadence on the third tone of such a row, which equals the second tone of the row of the melody pipe on the bagpipes.

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Fig. 3. Veliko kolo (Big Kolo [circle dance]) by Mirko Francuski (1923 – 1990), bagpipe player from Kikinda. Recorded by Dimitrije Golemović in 1988. Private archive. Transcribed by the author.

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Fig. 4. Malo banatsko kolo (Small Kolo from Banat) by Mirko Francuski (1923 – 1990), bagpipe player from Kikinda. Recorded by Dimitrije Golemović in 1988. Private archive. Transcription by the author.

In comparison to the sound of the drone pipe, which provides (tonal) anchoring, the tonal potential of the small pipe is plagal. This is emphasized in the players’ practice by insisting on the fifth tone of the melody pipe as a boundary between traditional melodies, and a cadence on the second tone of the melody pipe, which establishes the plagal cadences between the closing sounds.9 It is precisely in these cadential moments that the constructive-harmonic role of the contra pipe is most obvious, because its sonic presence contributes to the formation of the concluding interval of fifth. The dissonant relationship between the cadential tone in the melody and the drone is entirely mellowed by a large distance due to the very low register of the drone.10 Such harmonic colouring of the formal boundaries makes the texture of Serbian bagpipe music specific in comparison to authentic cadences found in other traditions — ​especially the unison achieved by means of a “reduction” to the multiplied tonic.

9 The plagal cadences in Romanian traditional instrumental music were also linked to this type of bagpipes (Tiberiu 1956, 87). 10 Due to the lack of specimens of so-called sitne gajde (small bagpipes), their place in Serbian tradition, the intonational relationship with the typical krupne gajde (large bagpipes), and the possible specific characteristics of the texture have not been investigated.

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2. Accordions in Serbian folk music practice: via new ­multipart media towards a new texture and aesthetics The great expressive potential of accordions has facilitated their use in different musical traditions; hence they were also favourably assessed and accepted by Serbian traditional musicians. The fundamental characteristics of an aerophone instrument and their multipart nature, paired with their mobility, durability, simple maintenance and stable intonation have rendered the accordion a suitable alternative to the role traditionally occupied by the bagpipes in Serbian traditional folk music practice. Although the aforementioned memory of the bagpipe player Maksimović refers to the period after World War II , it seems that the changes caused by the marginalization of bagpipers by accordionists were already intensive in the period between the two world wars: although the accordion has been the subject of an ethnomusicological monograph (Ivkov 2006), the beginnings of its presence in folklore practices in Vojvodina have not been clarified more reliably than in simple statements such as: “the accordion, i. e. its so-called diatonic variant, had arrived from the ‘West’ even before World War I” (Golemović 1997, 78); or: “it was probably brought to our territories in the late nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century” (Ivkov 2008: 30). Certain non-professional researchers in that field have stressed the role of Austro-Hungarian soldiers during World War I (Lukić 2002, 85), and the possibility of the accordion arriving in Serbia from Russia has also been mentioned (Ivkov 2011, 14). Since the history of the accordion’s presence in Serbia is important for the topic of this research, it is necessary to assert here that, according to the data I have discovered, accordion players in Fig. 5: “The accordion accompanied by the clarinet, Živka and Svetozar Jovanović, Belgrade.” From the catalogue of records 1909.

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Serbia were already quite numerous at the beginning of the twentieth century. Judging by a photograph dated 1906, Serbian accordion players already had their own society in that year, and their playing was recorded and released on records from 1909 (Figures 5 and 6). Certainly, evidence for the profound penetration of accordions into interwar musical practice, such as the 78 rpm records of already popular players, the catalogues of instruments published by sellers, various articles found in the periodicals of that time, and even attempts at artisFig. 6: Image of the 78 rpm Jumbola Record anal manufacturing of this instrument in No. 300546. [1911?]: “Ja posadi zelen bor [I planted Belgrade (Lukić 2002, 86) indicate that a green pine], sings Svetozar Savić Srbijanac with accordions had swiftly gained popularity accordion accompaniment.” with local audiences. There are interesting testimonies that bagpipe players were switching to the accordion, and that the younger generations in musical families preferred accordions although their ancestors had played the bagpipes (Ivkov 2006, 146). Besides, precisely when it comes to the texture of the traditional music played on the accordion, it is important to note that the first accordions that arrived in Serbia were diatonic, but that chromatic ones were also present in our territories in large numbers even before World War I (cf. Lukić 2002, 85; Meinel and Herold [1938/39?]; Figure 7). Although the tempered system opened up possibilities for group musicianship, in actual practice accordions were mostly used as solo instruments, probably due to their significant material value with respect to the local (economic) situation and the musician’s desire for their investment to pay off as quickly as possible.11 The technology of tone production enabled performers to showcase their skills as singer-instrumentalists, and they also appeared as accompanists to singers or to other newer instruments such as the tamburica, the violin or the clarinet. Interestingly, accordions were also combined with simple traditional instruments,12 but not with the bagpipes. 11 It is likely that a duo of accordion players was more attractive, hence in 1930 the record company Odeon released a record with the accordionist duo Djordje Djoka Mirosavljević and Arkadije Terzin (A 192844). 12 One of the most popular duos of the interwar period was formed by a frula player, Adam Milutinović Šamovac, and his nephew Radomir Manasijević; their music was released on records, and they performed in several European capitals.

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Fig. 7: The comprehensive catalogue issued by the company Meinel and Herold with numerous positive reactions of their accordion users. There is no year on the edition. The letters published in it, dated 1937 and 1938, suggest that the edition is from 1938 or 1939.

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Although both the bagpipes and accordions belong to aerophone multipart instruments, their characteristics with respect to tone production and the players’ technique caused key differences in their musical textures. The shift at the top position of the dominant multipart instrument resulted in a suppression of the texture of “large strokes” typical of the bagpipes and its substitution with the much more detailed and dynamic texture of music for the accordion. The most obvious differences between the players’ practice on these instruments (when it comes to traditional music) were caused by the number and character of parts played at once. A constant number and codified relations between the parts in bagpipe music were opposed by a wide range of possibilities to organize multipart textures on the accordion, including the performance of parallel supporting melodies. In the practice of amateur accordionists, the potentials of the instrument were used in accordance with the level of the players’ technique (and their affinities, too). The additional realm of differences was based on the features of the accordion which were innovative as compared to bagpipes, e. g. the articulation. Real non-legato and staccato articulation, which were possible on accordions in comparison to the mere (auditory) illusion of such articulation on the bagpipes, extended the possibilities of manipulating the sound mass density in order to dynamize the macro-form. Conversely, the fluidity of the bagpipes’ sound cannot be heard in the recordings of the performances of the first accordionists — ​the “low” legato had not been technically mastered yet (perhaps it was not pursued at all). Moreover, with their great dynamic range and the possibility to make dynamic accents of individual tones, accordions promoted a specific dynamic and agogic expressiveness, thus opening up a whole new area for showcasing musicality and the overall mastery of the instrumentalists.13 With regard to the texture transition, comparisons of the performances of typical traditional musical genres are particularly illustrative, such as the aforementioned wedding melodies (svatovci), popular humorous songs called bećarci and, of course, dance melodies (kola). When playing the songs, the bagpipers, with the aim of reducing the competitiveness of the instrumental parts in comparison to the vocal parts, practically only had the option to reduce the instrumental melodies to the simplest design possible, which is obvious when we compare vocal-instrumental with purely instrumental performances, especially with the rubato melodies of svatovac (cf. AV  01, AV  02, AV  03; Jel’ vas žao što se rastajemo? and Tri devojke ružu brale). This is probably related to the fact that the drone has a more powerful stimulating effect on the improvisation of melodies when the performer is — ​psychologically — ​solely oriented 13 In this regard, for instance, the mastery of bagpipers who were able to control the air pressure in the bag in addition to the movement during the performances was no longer needed with the accordion — ​the intonation was not affected, and the dynamic accents, on the contrary, became a standard expressive device.

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towards the sound produced by the instrument. Accordion players used different ways to make the instrumental component of the song more succinct, either by a textural and/or dynamic reduction of the melody played to a discreet accompaniment to the voice, or by conceding the melody to the vocals and reducing the instrument to a mere accompaniment, or even by stopping the music altogether by introducing long pauses in the instrumental part (and rejoining only to mark the end of a phrase). The bass-side of the accordion was used quite sparingly when accompanying singers, and even the longer chords (for which it was sometimes hard to tell whether they were played by a discant or a bass, or both in unison) were more discreet than the drone on the bagpipes. Often the basses were used only on the boundaries of formal units to reinforce the harmonic component by increasing the density of the sound, while the rhythmic-harmonic potential was more exposed in instrumental introductions or interludes in the form of “broken” chords (a combination of the basic and chordal bass; cf. AV  04; Bećar budi, moja fina lolo (Be a bećar [a lothario], my good boy] and AV  05), or in the accompaniment consisting of short, staccato chords in a counter-rhythm while the melody is in a distributive rhythm. A particularly significant difference is observable in the textures of dance melodies: in bagpipers’ performances, even when they were recorded outside of their context and function, they reflect the experience of organizing and stimulating a collective dance, mostly by means of an optimal and more-or-less constant tempo and clear rhythmisation, but also by means of specific verbal communication with (imaginary) dancers — ​by shouting incentives, usually rhythmised to increase the effect of the contra pipe (cf. Bačvansko kolo [Kolo from Bačka region]). On the other hand, the amateur finger technique of accordionists resulted in a reduced use of articulation for the purpose of giving character to melodies, which, paired with the limited technique of the valves and pretentious ornamentation, jeopardised the experience of the dance function (cf. AV  06 and AV  07). Although ornamentation was well developed within bagpipers’ practice, this feature became the real showcase for accordion players. The transposition of traditional melodies onto a tempered instrument, deemed important from the perspective of researchers, was, however, not noticed or evaluated from an emic perspective. The aforementioned “ambivalent” relationship of bagpipers to the tonal colouring of melodies (possibly related to “neutral thirds”, although there is no evidence of a wider presence of this sound feature in earlier Serbian bagpipe practice; for a discussion on “neutral thirds” in bagpipe tradition see Lommel 2008, 314) could be an explanation for this kind of “tolerance” or adaptability. The limited nature of the harmonic component of expression of bagpipers was overcome in accordionists’ practice, although it commonly only reaches the harmonic level which is dominated by tonic and dominant chords, with the occasional “establishment of a functional circle” by introducing the subdominant or the auxiliary dominant (see Figure 8). 47 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 8: Momačko kolo (Young men’s Kolo [round dance]). Played on accordion by Joca Mijatović from Sombor. Recorded by Columbia D 8043_H 583. Transcribed by the author.

A more developed harmonic component makes the texture of some of the introductory segments “denser” in receptive terms in comparison to the experience of the texture of segments in which the sung melody is accompanied by a similar texture, but a more reduced harmony. Accordion players demonstrated an opaque expressiveness already promoted by tamburica ensembles, which affected the aesthetics of traditional music in general throughout the entire 19th century. The disappearance of the textural (including the 48 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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timbral) specifics of the bagpipes, in particular their drone — ​the character and style determined by its length and depth — ​and a simultaneous breakthrough of the aesthetics of diversity, as represented by accordion practice — ​all this played a part in the great changes that occurred in the domain of musical communication and the general social treatment of music in Serbia. The materialization of these changes was embodied by more frequent changes of tones and their dynamic qualities, and a more precise articulation of tones — ​in a word, virtuosity; and also by the realization of complex multipart textures — ​a mixture of different relationships between parts (melody and accompaniment) — ​both in the discant or/and in the bass, and finally by the intention or simulation of identity changes, i. e. multiple identities of sound achieved by using the whole accordion range (changing octaves) and/or registers. Although specific research into the relationships of diachronic changes in the musical text and those related to the dance styles in Serbian folklore tradition has not been conducted yet, there are indications of a direct influence of the musical textures on the dance: immediately after the end of World War II , the sisters Ljubica and Danica Janković, the pioneers of Serbian ethnochoreology, wrote that the style of folk dances was preserved only while they were accompanied by “folk instruments”, and explicitly that the increasing presence of the accordion as the instrument used to accompany dance led to “too much jumping and tasteless dancing” (Janković and Janković 1949, 57). Although these are verbal expressions which are difficult to connect reliably to the elements of the dance texture, when we take into consideration the acknowledged importance of “dancing (almost) in the same spot” in this ethnochoreological area (Janković and Janković 1949, 123; Rakočević 2011, 116 – 117), it is plausible to relate the changes of kinetic elements (i. e. the dancers’ gestures) to the changes observed with respect to the musical texture and the overall expressiveness. As I have already mentioned, it is possible that music was an impetus for this process, but it is also very possible that the changes in the ways they danced caused by the dancers’ individualized expressive behaviour conversely affected the establishment of a new musical expression through a close communication of the arts of dance and sound. In accordance with this, we should remark on the clearly visible need for broader research into the relationship between vocal expressiveness and instrumental sound. Research of this kind was only conducted in certain areas of Serbia and in relation to certain singing styles, mostly tied to archaic village culture; however, it seems that it should be extended to encompass the processes that took place during the formation of urban culture in Serbia. A comparison between the practice of traditional bagpipe players and first accordionists also leads to an observation that the institution of a singer-player embodied by the figure of a bagpiper would gradually split into two separate experts: an instrumental virtuoso and a solo singer; hence, there are very few old recordings of accordionists who 49 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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sing while playing. This is quite paradoxical from an acoustic perspective: in the case of the bagpipes, the voice is subordinated because it appears alongside a voluminous instrumental continuum which ensures the primacy of the instrument. By adjusting the texture with respect to its density and volume, accordion players (could) turn their instrument into a discreet accompaniment of the singer in order to give him full exposure. Without doubt, the influence of the music industry was crucial in this matter. However, the traces of the economics of traditional musical practice have been preserved until today precisely in the case of accordion players, i. e. in their pragmatic preservation of the “one-man band”, achieved thanks to the multipart nature of the instrument and the adaptability of its textures.

3. Concluding remarks The experience of the study of traditional instrumental music summed up in the classic triad “man–instrument–music” was supplemented by Igor Matsievskii, whose own research practices led him to insist on the existence of ‘poly-vectoral’ and ‘multi-aspect’ relationships among instruments, the art of performance and music itself (2007, 300). As material representations of certain types of musical thinking that emerged as a result of a certain way of life in certain historical and economic circumstances, instruments are remarkable signifiers of changes in folk music. The immense importance of the bagpipes in Serbian traditional culture in the early 19th century was best expressed by the celebrated folklorist Vuk Karadžić: “Serbian folk music — ​that is the bagpipes (gadlje) which accompany the dances and the gusle which accompany epic songs. Every village has its own bagpiper, and almost every household owns a gusle, … (Народна је музика Српска гадље, уз које се игра, и гусле, уз које се пејвају јуначке пјесме: гадљар има у сваком селу по један, а гусле, […], имају готово у свакој кући по једне)” (1985 [1826 – 1829, 1834], 126). By the end of the 20th century, the bagpipes had almost disappeared from folk practice. The side-lining of the bagpipes owing to the expansion of ensemble music was already noticeable in Vojvodina during the nineteenth century, but the most decisive period for the extinction of the bagpipes was the second half of the 20th century — ​the socialist period of Serbian (and Yugoslav) history. Simultaneously, the presence and importance of accordions in Serbian traditional music have grown constantly ever since they were first introduced into the selection of local folk instrumentarium, and especially during the second half of the 20th century. This shift was a part of wider diachronic changes of paradigms in the domain of instrumental dance music, in which it was precisely the bagpipes that initially suppressed the simpler and smaller geoculturally characteristic instruments, and then they too were pushed aside by the introduction of new instruments, with the accordion being the 50 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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most invasive in an international context (cf. Matsievskii 2007, 153, 155, 156). The prototype of this instrument underwent intensive technological development and, as part of this process, several local and regional subtypes were developed. Unfortunately, more detailed registration of the first models of accordions present in Serbia, and a separate analysis of the relationship between the evolution in the construction of the instrument and the degree and type of influence that its variants had on traditional music, are limited by a lack of recordings of music played on the different variants of instruments which were introduced into Serbian instrumental practice. Thinking about musical instruments as “extensions of the brain” or “extensions of the hand” has led to the conclusion that music for bagpipes and accordions in the practice of Serbian folk musicians is based on different types of musical experiences, necessities and ambitions. While bagpipes were much more personalized tools of a local kind, accordions were (intentionally) produced as more or less universal and commercial tools. The need for diversity which had been related to the bagpipes was aptly observed in 1805 by Gligorije Trlajić, a professor of law and translator based in Russia, when he ordered the instrument from his homeland: “I should not forget to say: the pipes should be from Bačka (a region in Vojvodina, comm. D. L. M.), they should have a big and massive sound, and not a thin sound like the Hungarian bagpipes” (Lajić Mihajlović 2000, 38 – 39; Tomić 2014, 41 – 43). On the other hand, as early as the late 1930s accordion players from different parts of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia were equally pleased by the accordions produced in the same factory (Meinel and Herold [1938/39?], 2). Those different kinds of musicians’ identifications were caused by the complex net of historical and political changes, and consequently by a sociocultural transition. The bagpipes were signifiers of mostly open-space local community events, while accordions were more suited to the new possibilities and new requirements created by the music industry — ​especially the record industry and radio broadcasting. On stage, the process of replacing the more “naturally” rooted individuality of musicians of pre-industrial society by an intentional and even imperative and inevitable individualization was achieved by means of the professionalization of traditional music practice. All bagpipers were musically illiterate, and some of them had no education, while it is certain that at least some of the first accordionists in Serbia could read sheet music and knew some music theory; moreover, they followed the technological development of the instrument and, in accordance with it, improved their performing technique (Lukić 2002: 90, 91). It is precisely the texture of the music that served as an indicator of a social repositioning of musicians and the delicate space of negotiations between the old and new aesthetics. As was mentioned above, at the end of the 20th century the bagpipes had almost disappeared as a traditional musical instrument. An attempted revival began quite late. At the moment the bagpipes are on the national list of endangered intangible cultural 51 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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heritage, so the research of traditional bagpipe music has acquired applied value too. Moreover, it is relevant for a more general understanding of musical tradition as a process. From the perspective of Blacking’s attitude towards the relationship between musical communication and physical and mental states (1995, 38), and Turino’s considerations of the integrative functions of music (e. g. psychological and sociological aspects of music and musicking (2008, 1 – 2)), one of the key issues seems to be the correlation between the textural features (including those of timbre and timing) of the music played on multipart instruments, and historically different types of individual and social integration. Hence the results of such investigations can contribute towards the study of musical communication, and they can additionally improve ethnographic research, in particular studies of the policies of protagonists acting in the spheres that surround the realm of traditional (instrumental) music, as well as historiographically focused investigations on the influence of new industries and new media on the reshaping of traditional music and the formation of genres which are nowadays considered traditional.

References Ahmedaja, Ardian and Žanna Pärtlas (Eds.). 2014. First Seminar of the ICTM Study Group on Multipart Music 19 – 20 September 2014 Tallinn, Estonia. Program & Abstracts. Tallinn: Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre. https://www.ictmusic.org/sites/default/files/documents/ study%20groups/symposia/First%20Seminar%20of%20the%20ICTM %20SG %20on%20 Multipart%20Music%20-%20Abstracts.pdf (Accessed August 30, 2016.) Atali, Žak. 2007. Buka. Ogled o političkoj ekonomiji muzike. Translated by Eleonora Prohić. Beograd: Biblioteka XX vek. [Based on the publication: Attali, Jacques. 2001. Bruits. Essai sur l’économie politique da la musique. Nouvelle edition. Paris: Fayard / PUF ]. Bačvansko kolo [Kolo from Bačka region]. Kosta Šarćanski, gajdaš/bagpiper from Sombor. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=igb4VfahaWE (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Bartók, Bela. 2004. Szerb népzeneí gyűjtése: Fonogramok a Bánátból 1912 [Early wax cylinder recordings from the Banat region 1912]. CD (multimedia). Budapest: Vujicsics Association. Bartók, Bela and Albert B. Lord. 1978. Yugoslav Folk Music. Vol. I: Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs and Instrumental Pieces from the Milman Parry Collection. New York: State University of New York Press. Bećar budi, moja fina lolo [Be a bećar [a lothario], my good boy], bećarac. Kosta Šarćanski, gajdaš/bagpiper from Sombor. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r30Id9wYboI (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Benward, Bruce and Marilyn Nadine Saker. 20037. Music: In Theory and Practice, vol. 1. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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Blacking, John. 1995. “Expressing human experience through music.” In Music, Culture, Experience. Selected papers of John Blacking. Reginal Byron (Ed.). Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press. 31 – 53. Brandl, Rudolf. 1976. “Über das Phänomen Bordun (drone): Versuch einer Beschreibung von Funktion und Systematik.” In Studien zur Musik Südosteuropas (Beiträge zur Ethnomusikologie 4). Kurt Reinhard (Ed.). Hamburg: Wagner. 90 – 121. [Cited from a translation for internal use at the Music Academy in Sarajevo]. Delahunt, Michael. 2011. “Texture.” Artlex. Art Dictionary. http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/T. html (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Dević, Dragoslav. 1978. “Opšti pregled narodnih muzičkih instrumenata u Vojvodini sa posebnim osvrtom na gajde u Srbiji [A general overview of folk musical instruments in Vojvodina with special emphasis on the bagpipes in Serbia].” In Rad XX kongresa Saveza udruženja folklorist Jugoslavije u Novom Sadu 1973. Dušan Nedeljković (Ed.). Beograd: Savez udruženja folklorista Jugoslavije. 173 – 190. ———. 1981. “Typen serbischer Sackpfeifen [The types of Serbian bagpipes].” In Der Bordun in der europäischen Volksmusik, Bericht über das 2. Seminar für europäische Musikethnologie St. Pölten 1973. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 5. Walter Deutsch (Ed.). Wien: Schendl. 59 – 82. Dundes, Alan. 1980. “Texture, Text, and Context” In Interpreting Folklore. Bloomington-London: Indiana University Press. 20 – 32. Elschek, Oskár. 1996. “Research on Stylistic Areas of Slovak Instrumental Folk Music.” The World of Music 38/3. 51 – 69. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 2016. “Texture in Literature.” In Encyclopaedia Britannica. https:// www.britannica.com/art/texture-literature (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Fracile, Nice. 2011. “The ‘Banat Bagpipes’ in Vojvodina in the Past and Today.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. New Series, II . Gisa Jähnichen (Ed.). Münster: Verlagshaus Monsenstein und Vannerdat OHG . 79 – 92. Golemović, Dimitrije (Големовић, Димитрије О.). 1985. “Гајдаш Димитрије Перић: Прилог проучавању музичке традиције Североисточне Србије [The bagpipe player Dimitrije Perić: his contribution to the study of northeastern Serbian musical tradition].” Развитак 1. 83 – 90. ———. 1997. Народна музика Југославије [Traditional music of Yugoslavia]. Београд: Музичка омладина Србије. GMO  / Grove Music Online. 2016. “Texture.” Grove Music Online. http://www.oxfordmusiconline. com.grovemusic.han.onb.ac.at/subscriber/article/grove/music/27758 (Accessed January 29, 2016.) Ivkov, Vesna (Ивков, Весна). 2006. “Поједине одлике гајдашке и хармоникашке свирке Срба у Војводини [Certain characteristics of the bagpipe and accordion playing of Serbs in Vojvodina].” In Историја и мистерија музике. У част Роксанде Пејовић. Ивана Перковић-Радак,

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Драгана Стојановић-Новичић и Данка Лајић-Михајловић (Eds.). Београд: Факултет музичке уметности („Музиколошке студије — ​Монографије“, св. 2). 145 – 154. ———. 2008. Harmonika — ​život moj. 45 godina umetničkog rada Srboslava — ​Srbe Ivkova [The accordion — ​my life. 45 years of Srboslav-Srba Ivkov’s artistic work]. Beograd: Beogradska knjiga. ———. 2011. Прва хармоника Војводине: Фестивал народне музике Стапар, 2009 [The first accordion in Vojvodina. The Stapar festival of folk music, 2009]. Сомбор: Градски музеј. Jakovljević, Rastko. 2012. Marginality and Cultural Identities: Locating the Bagpipe Music of Serbia. PhD diss. Durham University. Janković, Ljubica and Danica Janković (Јанковић, Љубица; Даница Јанковић). 1949. Народне игре [Folk dances], V. Београд: Просвета. Jel’ vas žao što se rastajemo? Svatovac i logovac [Are you sorry we’re breaking up? Wedding song and dance Logovac]. Rada Maksimović, gajdaš/bagpiper from Srbobran. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=xWyyAXF cr9g (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (Караџић, Вук Стефановић). 1985 [1826 – 1829, 1834]. Даница [Danica, journal]. Београд: Просвета–Нолит. Lajić Mihajlović, Danka (Лајић Михајловић, Данка). 2000. Гајде у Војводини [Bagpipes in Vojvodina]. Master’s thesis, Akademija umetnosti, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu. ———. 2003. “The tone-system of Serbian three-voice bagpipes. Musical instrument of the relationship between national and multinational.” In Man and Music. International Symposium. Belgrade June 20 – 23 2001. To professor dr. Dragoslav Dević. Dimitrije Golemović (Ed.). Belgrade: Vedes. 185 – 192. ———. 2011. “Ревитализација гајдашке праксе у Србији: традиционална музика између примењене етномузикологије и политике [Revitalisation of bagpipe practice in Serbia: traditional music between applied ethnomusicology and politics].” In Етно-културолошки зборник, XV . Сврљиг: Етно-културолошка радионица. Сретен Петровић (Ed.). 127 – 144. Lommel, Arle. 2008. “The Hungarian Duda and Contra-Chanter Bagpipes of the Carpathian Basin,” The Galpin Society Journal 61. 305 – 321. Lukić, Ljubomir (Лукић, Љубомир). 2002. Хармоника: фасцинантна прича [The Accordion: A fascinating story]. Београд: PBS . Marjanović Krstić, Zlata (Марјановић Крстић, Злата). 1998. “Вокална музичка традиција села Брза [Vocal music tradition of the village Brza].” Лесковачки зборник 38. 267 – 355. Matović, Ana (Матовић, Ана). 1995. “Место гајди у музичкој култури Војводине [The place of bagpipes in the traditional culture of Vojvodina]. ” Свеске Матице Српске: Грађа и прилози за културну и друштвену историју, 1995. 5 – 11. Matsievskii, Igor’ (Мациевский, Игорь). 2007. Инструментальная музыка как феномен культуры [Traditional instrumental music as a cultural phenomenon]. Санкт-Петербург: Российский институт истории искусств.

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Meinel and Herold (Мајнл и Херолд), д. с. о. ј., зал. творнице глазбала и хармоника. [1938/39?] [The comprehensive catalogue issued by the company.] In Serbian Cyrillic script. Newbould, Brian. 2016. “Texture.” In The Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.grovemusic.han.onb.ac.at/ subscriber/article/opr/t114/e6743 (Accessed January 29, 2016.) Pascall, Robert. 2016. “Style.” Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27041?q=style&search=quick&source=omo_gmo&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit (Accessed August 24, 2016.) Podnos, Theodor H. 1974. Bagpipes and Tunings (Detroit monographs in musicology. Nr. 3). Detroit: Information Coordinators. Ranković, Sanja (Ранковић, Сања). 2000. Инструментална и орска традиција сокобањског краја у светлу узајамних утицаја и прожимања [The instrumental and dance tradition of the Sokobanja region in the light of mutual influences and permeation]. Master’s thesis. Fakultet muzičke umetnosti, Univerzitet umetnosti u Beogradu. Rakočević, Selena. 2011. Igre plesnih struktura. Tradicionalna igra i muzika za igru Srba u Banatu u svetlu uzajamnih uticaja [Interweaving dance structures. Traditional dance and dance music of the Banat Serbs in the light of their mutual relationships]. Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti. Samo tijo, pa tijo [Just be quiet, then be quiet]. Jovan Radivojev, gajdaš/bagpiper from Mol. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IW tJDM bq6Y4 (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Tagg, Philip. 2015. “Network for the Inclusion of Music in Music Studies.” http://nimims.net/ Last modified November 24, 2015. Tiberiu, Alexandru. 1956. Instrumentele muzicale ale poporului Romin [Folk music instruments of the Romanian people]. Bucuresti: Institutului de folclor. Tomić, Dejan (Томић, Дејан). 2014. Гајде и весела Србадија [The bagpipes and cheerful Serbs]. Нови Сад: Тиски цвет. Tri devojke ružu brale [Three girls picked a rose]. Kosta Šarćanski, gajdaš/bagpiper from Sombor. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TU 4SVXX ocFs (Accessed August 25, 2016.) Turino, Tomas. 2008. Music as social life. The politics of participation. Chicago–London: The University of Chicago press. Turner, Victor. 1982. From ritual to theatre. The human seriousness of play. New York: PAJ Publications. Vukosavljević, Petar D. [Вукосављевић, Петар Д.]. 1979. Гајде у Србији. Њихова сазвучја и могућност уклапања у савремени народни оркестар / Bag-and-drone pipes in Serbia. Their chording and compatibility with a modern folk music orchestra. Beograd: Radio Beograd. ———. 1981. Ерске гајде / Erske bag- and drone pipes. Beograd: Radio Beograd. Watercolorpainting. 1999 – 2016. “Texture.” Art Glossary: Terminology for Artists. https://watercolorpainting.com/glossarz/#T (Accessed August 25, 2016.)

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Zakharieva, Svetlana (Захариева, Светлана). 1987. Свирачът във фолклорната култура. [The player in folk culture. Semantic and functional analysis]. София: Издателство на Българската Академия на науките. Zemtsovsky, Izaly (Земцовский, Изалии И.) 1975. Мелодика календарных песен [The melodics of calendar songs]. Ленинград: Музыка. Ленинградское отделение.

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Andor Végh and Zsombor Horváth

The Survival and Transformation of Solo Multipart Instruments and Instrumental Ensemble Music in Pannonia

Abstract Until the end of the 19th century, we can witness the dominant role of solo multipart instruments such as the gajde and dude (multichanter bagpipes) in the musical tradition of the Pannonian regions of Vojvodina, Slavonija and the valley of the River Drava, which are populated by Croats and Serbs. A dynamic process brought about changes from the 1920s onwards which had a great impact on the particular instruments and the local repertoires. Furthermore, instrumental ensemble formations changed as well. However, the tradition related to solo multipart instruments was not obliterated by the newly-appearing instruments and musical transformation processes; instead, it was incorporated, altered and reinterpreted — ​always according to the preferences and tastes of the time. Included in this process, a significant change took place in the attitude towards and evaluation of bagpipes and pipe music from the 1920s. The article aims to present the following processes by using musical examples: – the transformation of instruments and repertoires from the 1920s onwards (new groups of instruments, changing repertoire, forced alignment, continuous marginalization of solo multipart instruments); – the strengthening of the nationalist element from the 1940s onwards and later during the 1990s; – further developments added by the revival movements.

1. Introduction Until the 1930s, bagpipes — ​in a number of regional variations — ​were the most impor­ tant musical instruments used within the Croat and Serb communities of the Carpathian Basin. In the course of the settlement and establishment of the South Slavic groups (which happened gradually from the Middle Ages onwards), the most significant ethnic and cultural turning point arrived with the end of Ottoman rule (Regan 57 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 1. The dissemination of bagpipes in Southeastern Europe (Végh 2016b, 216). Legende: A — ​gaida type with a curved chanter end; B — ​gaida type with a straight chanter; C — ​mjesnica type with a semi-parallel double chanter; D — ​mjesnica type with a parallel double chanter; E — ​gajde type with a drilled-hollowed angular horn made of one piece of wood; F — ​gajde type with a hollowed and rounded horn made of two pieces of wood; G — ​gajde type with a drilled-hollowed and rounded horn made of one piece of wood; H — ​dude type with a three-reed chanter (2 open, 1 closed); I — ​dude type with a three or four-reed entirely closed chanter.

2003, 386; Végh 2011 and 2012). The gradual shrinkage of the Ottoman Empire led to waves of migration and a great exchange of populations (Gavazzi 1928 and 1938). The gajde type of bagpipe, which is used by both Croats and Serbs living north of the River Sava, is presumably the cultural outcome of the mingling of the newly arrived and previously present ethnic groups. The westernmost areas where the gajde was/is used are bordered by the former frontier line of the late Ottoman empire: the imaginary line drawn between the settle­ 58 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

The Survival and Transformation of Solo Multipart Instruments and Instrumental Ensemble Music in Pannonia

ments of Virovitica, Čazma and Sisak. Beyond this line to the west, the prevailing type of bagpipe is the dude, which can be found all the way to the Alpine areas, and to the North to certain central Slovakian and South Moravian territories where the northernmost Croat diaspora is to be found. Historical and ethnographical research in the 19th century witnessed and documented the social role of these bagpipes — ​and later followed and monitored the process of their marginalization and/or disappearance. The instruments discussed here are typologically described and systematized in the works of Zoltán Szabó (2004), Arle Lommel (2008) and Andor Végh (2016a). The gajde as well as the dude belong to what Lommel calls the contra-chanter bagpipe: “chanters with multiple bores, one of which (the contra) has a single finger hole and sounds either the tonic or drops to the dominant (when the hole is covered)” (Lommel 2008). Instances of instrument transformation, modernization, the particular phenomena of bagpipe revivals, changing functionality, and even the survival of bagpipe repertoires in other instrumental and vocal practices following the extinction of the bagpipes are all parts of the process of marginalization (Jakovljević 2009 and 2012).

2. Marginalization and its stages The instruments discussed here are the results of processes of development of varying historical depth. Since there is no particular initial stage to which later stages of their development can be compared, marginalization has to be used as a relative concept, even if the process of transformation is presumably continuous. With the help of the relevant literature published on the topic, this study proceeds from logical deductions. The comparisons made in the paper mostly derive from physical evidence. For instance, mouth-blown bagpipes, which were more widespread than bellows-blown examples, are used as the basis for analysis. Besides using the available literature and all relevant 19th-century sources to study the 20th-century processes of modernization, we are in the fortunate situation of being able to use the results of our own extensive field research, which we have been pursuing since the 1990s. This field research was conducted in the following regions that straddle the borders of Croatia, Hungary and Serbia: the Banat and Bácska (Hungary) / Bačka (Serbia), Baranya (Hungary) / Baranja (Croatia), Slavonia, the territories along the River Drava, and the western Slavonian territories along the River Sava. Research into the bagpipe music of these regions is not advanced: only a few works of significance deal with bagpipe music, its modernization and its effects on other musical practices. One of the most important sources is Božidar Širola’s 1937 Sviralj­ke s udarnim jezičkom (wind instruments with beating reeds). Even today, this work is a valuable resource based on reliable scientific methodology. However, it has its 59 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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deficiencies: the chapter of intercultural comparison is rather poor, and entire instrument families were left out of the analysis. Between the publication of Širola’s book and the 1980s, only minor studies and descriptions appeared, and no comprehensive work was published on the subject. Because of political borders and language barriers, researchers in Yugoslavia had very little knowledge of studies and books written and published in Hungary (Bezić 1975; Ivančan 1987; Marković 1987; Füzes 1958; Manga 1969), and Western authors were only tangentially involved in the topic (Baines 1973). Thus, researchers remained separated and their work was not integrated, a problem further aggravated by the break-up of Yugoslavia. At the same time, the bagpipes became interesting from a nationalist and patriotic aspect in all the countries concerned. The results of this new enthusiasm have helped fill the gaps in important but hitherto missing chapters in the historical (Hankóczi 2005) and anthropological research on bagpipes in Southeastern and Central Europe (Brauer-Benke 2014).

3. The shift from lungs to bellows The shift from mouth-blown piping to the use of bellows is a significant alteration that allows the piper to sing and play simultaneously. This change occurred in different ways and at different times from region to region. An examination of the various different ways of attaching and using the bellows makes it evident that this process was not started in any one specific region and that the development had no central point. Dude-type bagpipes were the first to be equipped with bellows (Širola 1943). Lovrenčević claims (1971) that bellows had appeared by 1890 in the Bilo mountains (Bilo gora). However, another source (Kuhač 1877) points to the emergence of bellows along the River Drava — ​near the town of Koprivnica — ​a few decades earlier (Ivančan 1987 and 1989). Further to the east along the River Drava, in northern Slavonia (virovitičko Podravlje), bellows appeared around the turn of the century. In the regions of the Banat (Hung. Bánság), Bačka (Hung. Bácska) and Syrmia (Szerémség or Srijem), the use of bellows with gajde-type bagpipes began after World War I. Béla Bartók, János Jankó and other ethnographers and ethnomusicologists active in the late Austro-Hungarian Monarchy period had encountered only the mouth-blown version. Unlike those used with the dude, the bellows here are similar to those from the southern territories of the Great Hungarian Plain (Délalföld). It is noteworthy that while southern Hungarian pipers were already using bellows in the 1840s (Szakál 2001), Serb pipers were still depicted exclusively with mouth-blown pipes through the 19th century. During the 1920s, the use of bellows started spreading in Slavonia via bagpipers who crossed the Danube from Syrmia. However, it was common only in the eastern 60 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

The Survival and Transformation of Solo Multipart Instruments and Instrumental Ensemble Music in Pannonia

area along the River Sava (Širola 1937 and 1942). It also appeared in central Slavonia in the 1930s, but as pipers were no longer to be found there after the 1950s, bellows never became typical. In Baranya (Baranja), the use of bellows with the gajde type of pipes was never common (Njikoš 1987, Várady 1897, Szabó 2001a). After 1918, the county of Baranya was divided between Hungary and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the Hungarian part, bellows arrived as a component of dude-type bagpipes, but that construction was not compatible with the design of the gajde (Szabó 2001b and 2004; Végh 2004). Although gajde players in the Yugoslav parts of the region started to use bellows like those from East Slavonia and Bácska, their spread was prevented by the break-up of the bagpipe tradition.

4. Bagpipers accompanied by other soloist musicians and singers — ​the formation of ensemble music Where pipers played mouth-blown instruments, a second musician or a dedicated singer sang. These simple duo formations represented the transition from solo playing towards ensemble music. The spread of such primitive ensembles contributed to the simplification of bagpipe music: the double chanter or contra chanter (Szabó 2004) declined in importance, since the tendency of thinking in chords resulted a decreasing need for the rhythmic contra-accompaniment. Although various duos existed, the bagpiper was most frequently accompanied by a singer, who sometimes — ​mostly in the case of Roma pipers — ​happened to be his wife, as in the case of the pipers Miloš Kocin from Alsószentmárton and “Miloš” from Bolman. In the other common type of duo, the bagpiper was accompanied by a contra-tambura player. Good examples for these “proto bands” are the duos of Uroš from Čepin, Stipa Ilijašev from Grša, Marci Kovács from Kökény, and Mile from Bolman. There are also examples of bagpipe-fiddle duos, which were typical in Bačka, Syrmia and Baranya.

5. Imitating the bagpipes and adopting the repertoire By the second part of the 19th century, urban modernization and economic development made music ensembles more and more affordable for rural communities. This process (which resulted in a changing musicality) was definitely present in the agricultural regions of Bačka, Syrmia and certain parts of Slavonia, which experienced a massive growth in wealth from the big grain boom of the 19th century. It is not a mere coincidence that pipers and bagpipe music disappeared first in these regions. The situation 61 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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was similar in the westernmost parts of the Drava region, except that here the bagpipe tunes were incorporated into the repertoire of later non-bagpipe ensembles. Independently of their region, certain soloist musicians and music ensembles — ​in addition to picking up and playing the bagpipe repertoire — ​tended to imitate the characteristic musical features of bagpipe music, such as phrasing and embellishing. The fiddle is one of the best examples for bagpipe-imitating instruments. With different bowing techniques, different styles of imitation can be achieved. With the smooth, continuous and unaccented repetition of the keynote for every second (or fourth) quaver, the fiddler is able to imitate the contra, the most characteristic rhythmical feature of the region’s bagpipe music. The use of a double-stopped drone string provides another mechanism for imitating the sound of the bagpipes. In this style, the pitch of the drone may be the keynote, or a fifth above or a fourth below it. With a particular fingering technique, the musician can imitate the sound of the contra pipe, something clearly audible in the pipe imitations of Lazo Jovanović (Srbobran) and Milan Kozić (Medina). (Obviously, similar kinds of imitation can be observed in other musical traditions as well.) It is more difficult to imitate the sound of the bagpipe with tamburas. Nevertheless, a sort of rhythmical pipe imitation is possible on the samica (an old multipart and solo tambura instrument) if the player uses quaver-based plucking instead of the typical contra-phrasing plucking technique. In some samica players’ music we find only this first plucking style, which proves that the imitation of the bagpipes was more than a separate stylistic element. In the case of modern tamburas, the matter of imitation is not particularly relevant, since by the time these became widespread, the marginalization of the bagpipe culture was already advanced. Still, it is important to note that tambura bands kept playing the old pipe repertoire. Thus, from the viewpoint of the tambura player, the whole process should rather be called transmission instead of marginalization. The accordion — ​a free-reed aerophone like the bagpipe — ​joined the group of instruments used to imitate pipes relatively late on. Nevertheless, when the accordion was used in the function of the bagpipe, its player took on all the traditional and social roles which were once attributed only to the bagpiper. Self-backing accordionists frequently played as soloists at smaller family gatherings and celebrations. Accordionists who imitated bagpipers played a constant contra accompaniment (e. g.: Milan Rus and Cvetko Jevremov from Deszk, Stipan Barac from Mohács, Đuka Galić from Hercegszántó). In certain villages, the last generation of bagpipers played together with the accordionists (e. g., the Mida — ​Ješić duo from the northern Baranja region), which resulted in a direct transmission of the old pipe repertoire. Beyond the repertoire, the character of bagpipe music was present in the sound of instrumental ensembles, particularly in their choice of harmonies. The tambura 62 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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bands along the River Drava did not play minor harmonies during the first part of the 20th century, and sometimes even the newer melodies of minor tonality were played in a “majorized” pipe version, as in the repertoire of Milán Kozić in Medina.

6. Reverse imitations: bagpipers play the new repertoire Even as pipe music affected the repertoire and style of the musicians representing the newer musical layer, its own repertoire was also being reshaped. Many of the remaining pipers started to play tambura pieces adapted to the major hexachord scale of the pipe. As borders and ethnic composition changed following World War I, the quick spread of the gramophone and new radio broadcasts were important factors in the rapid alteration of the bagpipe repertoire. During the Interwar decades, a vast number of newly composed “folkish” melodies emerged in Vojvodina/Vajdaság — ​and were folklorized at an astonishing speed around the “Great War”. The best examples for these musical pieces are the compositions of Marko Nešić, which have become well known and filtered into rural music within a few years (Vujičić 1978). In parallel with this process, the original bagpipe repertoire was gradually forgotten, and its typical improvised forms were replaced by standardized elements. For instance, in the ballad tradition, the improvised deseterac (ten-syllable verse) forms were replaced by the universal bećarac, which has a standard melody. However, there are also examples for the survival of old musical forms in a couple of regions (e.g, svatovac in Bácska and Tolna) which has led to a longer presence of bagpipers.

7. The disappearing bagpipe tradition: the post-WWII period Economic changes in the post-WWII period (collectivization, limited perspectives in the agricultural branch, forced urbanization) had drastic impacts on village communities, and the social group that needed the musical and social services of bagpipers vanished. Bagpipe music entered the “curiosity” category. It became a phenomenon to be shown on stage (Manga 1969). The last weddings accompanied solely by bagpipers took place in the 1960s. From the 1970s on, there was no internal social need for pipers. Those few bagpipers who remained active in that era were only called to play at minor family events, such as pig-slaughtering parties.

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8. Representative role Socialist cultural policy created new sorts of social events — ​local festivals (Sremac 1988) and parades (such as the Busójárás / Pohod bušara / Carnival in Mohács), cultural gatherings in Zagreb, Vinkovci, Djakovo, Slavonski Brod, Belgrade and other places — ​where the last few musicians of the bagpipe tradition were invited. At these festivals, bagpipers were placed on stage as agents of cultural policy — ​which, although it notionally supported village culture and its traditional forms, opposed it economically and socially. The old representative element — ​the piper — ​was meant to show the “the flourishing village image”. Although their mission was merely representational, the participation of bagpipers tended to be important for the program organizers, and they were highlighted guests. At the same time, other pipers remained unknown to music collectors and festival organizers for a longer time. Often, such pipers were only discovered by collectors shortly before they died. It is interesting to see the differences in the repertoires of pipers playing at folklore festivals and those who were only known to collectors like ourselves, whose repertoires were not influenced by the activity of folkloric performance groups. A repertoire analysis of four or five old pipers has shown that these lesser-known pipers tended to remember the complete versions of tunes and songs, while those often standing on stages only played simplified melody variants, fragments of ballads, and a much newer repertoire. During this period, in which the bagpipe became a phenomenon of representation, researchers/collectors had to build close relationships — ​often friendships — ​with the old bagpipers in order to be “let into” their world and be able to collect the musical material that was still in their hands. Village folklore groups often included older pipers in their performances, though only in a superficial way. For example, the bagpiper might play a melody as an introduction for the stage performance. The case was slightly different in the cities and towns (Topolovec 1963). Here the folk ensembles tended to put the pipe on stage in alternative ways, such as in the form of a bagpipe imitation by modern instruments. In one unique example, two oboes imitated the bagpipes within an urban folk ensemble. On a national level, the bagpipe repertoire was represented by the big state ensembles, but pipe imitations appeared on stage in a standardized form in new compositions by composers such as Tumbas Pero Hajo, Janika Balaž and Sava Vukosavljev. In Hungary, bagpipers were given the Master of Folk Art award by the minister of culture. While this prize was given to only two Hungarian pipers (István Pál and Antal Soós), it was awarded to four Croatian bagpipers (Jozo Ardai in 1974, Đuro Baracz in 1979, Imre Jankovics in 1957, and Pavo Gadányi in 2011), which was consistent with the government’s minority policy. Another player, Imre Jankovics, can be considered 64 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Hungarian, although he played the Croatian type of dude: he was bilingual in both his spoken and his musical language.

9. Simplification and alignment In rural communities, pipe music no longer appears through the complicated bagpipes, but on easily available and playable instruments like simple reed pipes, which are still used along the River Sava and in Draž — ​Baranya. The other simple pipe-imitating instrument is the mouth harmonica, which was recorded in Baranya and in northern Slavonia as well. In regions along the Drava where bagpipers were still active in the 1970s, they and their repertoires were influenced by the contemporary elements of accordion music. The most illustrative example for this is the music of Brođanac Pero (from Budakovac), who was presumably the last professional traveling bagpiper in Croatia. During his life he played all around the northern areas of Yugoslavia. In some cases, bagpipers — ​such as Pavo Mesarović and Luka Kešić from western Slavonia — ​even learned to play the accordion, although more frequently it became the instrument of their children. Accordionists descended from bagpipers were often highly advanced in pipe imitation (Vujičić 1978).

10. Revival movements and new functionality It is not a coincidence that in the era associated with hippie and alternative movements, the bagpipe appeared in the hands of the urban intelligentsia as a part of their search for new ways and identities. Fortunately, some of the old pipers were still alive in the initial phases of the revival. Thus, the ground was set for a direct transition (Szabó 2004). The first wave of the revival took place among Serbs and Croats living in Hungary within the Dancehouse Movement (táncház-mozgalom) in the late 1970s. In the 1980s it started in Yugoslavia, particularly in the federal unit of Croatia. The engine of the Croatian revival was among emigrants. For example, the summer camps of Matica Iseljenika were influential, and Slobodan Hadzikan settled in Canada. It was also shaped by representatives of the Mediterranean tradition, like Đuro Adamović. Serbia was the last area in which the bagpipe revival was launched (Jakovljević 2009 and 2012): it started only in the late 1980s and early 1990s with Zarić Branislav, János Vrábel and Mudrinić Maksim. The main similarity between these bagpipe revival movements is that in each case the people responsible for the musical revival also initiated the process of reviving 65 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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and modernizing the instrument and its construction. The main goal was to adjust the bagpipes to the needs of the new generation of musicians. As a result, bagpipes were “universalized”: they became easy to tune, reliable, well-tempered scales were introduced, and new stages appeared in the tanning process for their bags. The new generation of pipe makers were influenced by methods used outside of the Carpathian Basin, such as reed- and bag-making methods from Istria. Furthermore, the new practices of Hungarian and Slovakian (Szabó 2004; Garaj 1995) bagpipe modernization impacted the work of dude and gajde makers in Hungary. The choice of wood was augmented with new alternatives from southern Serbia and Macedonia. In reed making, elder (Sambucus) wood was replaced by cane (arundo donax) of the sort used in Western traditions. During the 1980s and 1990s, the sound of the bagpipes appeared in popular musical projects and productions, and international bagpipe revival movements had an effect. In spite of the broad interrelations and the achievements of researchers, the bagpipe revivals are saturated with regionalisms and local patriotism (Vukosavljević 1981; Lajić Mihajlović 2005). Bagpipers are connected with national conservatism and their music takes on a national colour. It often appears in the communication of political movements. We have noticed the appearance of a particular national exclusivity in connection with the pipe music of each nation: short texts and web pages appeared with sentences like: “We have the original, and all the rest are just copies …”, or “This is the real bagpipe music, not that …”. Unlike academic research and analysis, these voices try to expropriate music, instruments, and even whole instrument families. Thus, bagpipe culture — ​which naturally transcends the idea of particular nations — ​is now being forced into cages (Kozák 2001, Večković 2015, 92) and a retrogressive framework. That cannot be anything other than the newest form of bagpipe marginalization.

11. Conclusion For Croat and Serb communities in the “Pannonian” regions (as they call the Carpathian Basin), bagpipe music is a particularly important element of their traditional culture. This importance does not derive from its current usage (or the absence thereof), but rather its impact on the new musical practices which emerged in the course of the 20th century. In our opinion, all the changes described above from the last 150 years occurred similarly in the different regions, independently of administrative and state borders. The reasons for these similarities in their modernization processes are, on the one hand, the identical roles fulfilled by the bagpipes in the life of the different rural communities, and, on the other, similar structures in the modernization of the 66 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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different regions. Regional differences are primarily predetermined by the local and regional particularities, “speed of development”, and social and economic geography. The geographical structure of the transformation of bagpipe music shows an interesting path of development, in which we see similar turning points and changes along regional characteristics occurring at different times in the different regions. This chain of changes depends just as much on the social changes within a locality as it does on the musical basis which serves as the foundation for our comparison. We believe that the striking similarities described in the process of bagpipe marginalization show that the bagpipe tradition is not a specific national phenomenon (Brauer-Benke 2014, 429), but is instead a much deeper cultural element which has its roots in local cultural identity (Lajić Mihajlović 2005; Garaj 1995, 277). As such, it should not be so much part of the national cultural identities that emerged only later. Therefore, the cultural heritage of bagpipe music and the instrument itself are elements with an integrating power (Gavazzi 1928 and 1938). Listeners should move beyond their national pride and should not forget about the multi-ethnic and regional characteristics of the music and the instrument.

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(Ed.). Budapest: MMA . 201 – 258. https://www.mma.hu/documents/10180/6864573/pasztor-02-jav.pdf/aaa1f6ad-fb48 – 41e1 – 8a73-ef13e240e859 (Accessed on 14 December 2020.) ———. 2016b. “Pitanje rasprostranjenosti pojedinih tipova glazbala sa mješinom kod Hrvata u Mađarskoj u svjetlu odnosa sa hrvatskim prostorima [Some types of bagpipes in the Croatian communities in Hungary in the sense of connection with Croatian areas].” Etnografija Hrvata u Mađarskoj 2016. 95 – 116. Vujičić, Tihomir. 1978. Muzičke tradicije Južnih Slavena u Mađarskoj [Musical tradition of the South Slavs in Hungary]. Budapest: Preduzeće za izdavanje udžbenika. Vukosavljević, Petar D. 1981. Ерске гајде / Erske bag- and drone pipes. Belgrade: Radio Beograd.

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Nicola Scaldaferri

The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy) Morphology and Musical Repertoires

Abstract The surdulina and the zampogna a chiave are two different types of Italian bagpipes. They are largely used in the region of Basilicata, in southern Italy. They have two chanters and two drones; basically, in this area these instruments are traditionally played as solo instruments without any kind of accompaniment. The presence of the two chanters allows the instruments to perform multipart music, which is among the most interesting cases in Italy. The surdulina in particular, which is typical of these areas, constitutes a special case among Italian bagpipes. First, the paper focuses on the morphological structure of the two instruments, which have different characteristics, both in terms of size and in the type of reeds used. Second, the musical system itself is then explored, which is taught and transmitted by memory and by imitation without any form of writing. It is based on an intensive counterpoint between the two chanters; the typical musical style is characterized by small-chained and varying motifs. The musical repertoire includes slow music used for religious processions, and fast music for dance. Finally, the text is supplemented by photographs relating to the instruments made by Quirino Valvano, one of the main artisans who is very active today in the Basilicata region.

1. Introduction This article deals with the music of the bagpipes in the Mount Pollino area, southern Italy. This musical tradition fits neatly into the general topic of this book: in this case, I will consider multipart instrumental music performed on solo instruments. The two types of bagpipes in this area — ​the surdulina (AV  08) and the zampogna a chiave (AV  09) — ​represent a special case in the Italian context of this kind of instruments. They have two chanters and two drones, and, contrary to what happens in other areas of the country, they are traditionally played as solo instruments, with71 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Nicola Scaldaferri

out accompaniment. For these reasons, their various musical repertoires share some peculiar features in the use of the two chanters. In the following pages, I will analyse this latter aspect, drawing from both the existing bibliography and from my personal experience as a musician. In fact, both the instruments have been part of my musical background since my childhood. I learned to play these bagpipes in the late 1970s and 1980s from Pasquale Ciancia (1922 – 1992), an accomplished musician from S. Costantino Albanese. According to the traditional way of learning, I was asked to attend live listening sessions and to memorize rhythms and melodies. Later on, I also used these instruments as a tool during my field research in order to establish a musical dialogue and a collaborative approach with local musicians. I have already written about this aspect (Scaldaferri/ Feld 2019) and its methodological implications in a different musical context (Ferrarini/ Scaldaferri 2014; Scaldaferri 2020). The peculiarity of the zampogna and the surdulina can be better understood in the context of the rich presence of bagpipes in Italy. The zampogna (pl. zampogne) has been a classical topic for Italian ethnomusicologists since the first significant field recordings made during the post-World War II years — ​a fundamental impulse was given by Diego Carpitella, one of the founders of Italian ethnomusicology. Carpitella was part of the research team of the anthropologist Ernesto De Martino, a leading figure in the study of Italian folk culture. In their research in southern Italy, the zampogna was a key instrument in a rural Italian context (Adamo 2012; De Martino 2015). The zampogna was also present in the field recordings which Alan Lomax made during his journey through Italy between 1954 and 1955 (Lomax 2008) — ​aided in part by Carpitella. Some of those recordings were published in his 1957 anthology, which offered a first important picture of Italian folk music practices (Lomax/Carpitella 1957). Subsequent research carried out by Roberto Leydi and Febo Guizzi offers a systematic description of the morphology of these instruments, discussing them in the wider context of the Mediterranean area. At the same time, Leydi and Guizzi provided an insight into historical and iconographic issues (Leydi/Guizzi 1985). Leydi also promoted concerts, thus bringing on stage several zampogna players together with other Mediterranean musicians. Moreover, he considered the old 78 rpm recordings to be an important source for zampogna music, and did archive research on this topic (Leydi 1990). If we look at how the zampogna is distributed across the Italian Peninsula, we can recognize two groups of instruments located in two geographical areas: a first group includes the zampogne from northern Italy (the Alpine area and part of the Apennine area); a second group consists of the zampogne from central Italy, southern Italy and Sicily. The only Italian region without the zampogna is Sardinia. This island has its own instrumental tradition where the launeddas represent the most distinctive instru72 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy)

ment. Bagless triple reedpipes with single reeds, played with circular breathing, the launeddas (Bentzon 1969) should be considered as ancient reed instruments which, as Guizzi argued, later evolved into the zampogna by adding the bag (Guizzi 2002, 224). A morphological investigation (Gioielli 2005) of all types of zampogna took into account the number and the shapes of the chanters, the drones, and the types of reed. Furthermore, the repertoires have been documented in Leydi (CD 1995). For our purposes here, we must remember that the two groups of Northern and Southern zampogne show a fundamental difference in the number of chanters. All Northern zampogne have only one chanter, and a variable number of drones. Therefore, they appear similar to other types of bagpipes which are widespread in Europe (in neighbouring France, in the Iberian Peninsula, and in Eastern Europe). On the contrary, all zampogne from southern Italy and Sicily belong to the double-chanter type: they have a variable number of drones and separate pipes, each of which are played with one hand. Additionally, reed types are never mixed: instruments always have either only simple or only double reeds. Another important difference between Northern and Southern zampogne concerns the persistence of the instruments over time. Those of northern Italy have returned to use in recent times after a long phase of abandonment which lasted well beyond the invention of recording devices. For that reason, the traditional repertoire has not been documented, and thus the revival of those instruments coincided with a “reinvention” of their music. On the contrary, the tradition of the zampogne in southern Italy has experienced no interruptions. As in the past, these instruments are still in use in rural contexts for festivals and religious processions. Their music follows the old traditional way of transmission, where listening, memory and imitation still play a crucial role.

2. The Pollino area The Pollino area, in southern Italy, is located between two regions: Basilicata and Calabria. It is part of the Pollino National Park, one of Europe’s largest natural parks. The area has a wide variety of landscapes: it is enclosed by two seas, the Ionian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea, and features mountains extending to 2,000 meters at one of the narrowest points of Italy. It is also characterized by the presence of small towns and villages, but maintains a low population density. Many musical practices related to local folk tradition have been attested in this area and are the topic of studies in Italian ethnomusicology. The area includes the Arbëresh communities and their musical traditions, especially vocal polyphony (Scaldaferri 2013), and the presence of numerous musical instruments ranging from the frame drum (tamburello) and the diatonic accordion (organetto) to the bagpipes (zampogna) (Scaldaferri/ 73 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Vaja 2006). Folk music was linked with the pastoral and rural world. However, there has been a revitalization maintained by the younger generations thanks to numerous annual festivals and events. Religious celebrations and local pilgrimages are moments of intense musical presence, with devotional forms mixed together with musical practice. These happen especially during the festivals for the saints, the patrons of the various villages, and are characterized by the spontaneous participation of many musicians. A special moment is the feast of the Madonna del Pollino, which gathers the people and the musicians of the area at the sanctuary of the Virgin, located in the mountains, during the summer (Scaldaferri 2005a). As has been noted, these moments of encounter, especially the pilgrimages to the Pollino, are an important opportunity for musicians to exchange musical knowledge. Through the years, these exchanges led to the creation of a typical style which can especially be seen in the music played by the bagpipes (La Vena 2002b). In 1915 the writer and traveller Norman Douglas, who was passionate about Italy, published Old Calabria, a book that tells of his journeys made between 1907 and 1911. A Mountain Festival, the 20th chapter of the book, is entirely dedicated to the feast of the Madonna of Pollino. Douglas describes the main pilgrimage of the cult of Pollino, which takes place on the Friday and Saturday before the first Sunday of July. Many of the elements reported by Douglas relate to the soundscape of the festival and offer us crucial information about the presence of bagpipes: It is a vast picnic in honour of the Virgin. Two thousand persons are encamped about the chapel, amid a formidable army of donkeys and mules whose braying mingles with the pastoral music of reeds and bagpipes — ​bagpipes of two kinds, the common Calabrian variety and that of Basilicata, much larger and with a resounding base key, which will soon cease to exist. […] On all sides groups of dancers indulge in the old peasants’ measure, the pecorara, to the droning of bagpipes — ​a demure kind of tarantella, the male capering about with faun-like attitudes of invitation and snappings of fingers, his partner evading the advances with downcast eyes. […] Night brings no respite; on the contrary, the din grows livelier than ever; fires gleam brightly on the meadow and under the trees; the dancers are unwearied, the bagpipers with their brazen lungs show no signs of exhaustion. (Douglas 1926, 151 – 153)

The description of Douglas is one of the main sources of evidence of the past presence of bagpipes in this area. He attested the presence of two types of bagpipes at the Madonna del Pollino festival at the beginning of the last century. The bagpipe referred to as “that of Basilicata”, is recognizable as the zampogna a chiave, which, contrary to Douglas’ predictions, did not cease to exist. Indeed, it has with time become the most common type of bagpipes in southern Italy (Guizzi 2002, 247 – 252). The second 74 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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instrument, the “common Calabrian variety”, could indicate the smaller surdulina. Douglas’ description presents a situation that is still in practice today. This would suggest that the presence of these two instruments in the Pollino area has remained fairly stable over the last century. On the same pages Douglas describes the dance which is still today one of the main opportunities for the use of the bagpipes. The dance is called the tarantella or pastorale (today, the term used by Douglas, pecorara, is no longer present in the language). Now, although the bagpipes are often replaced by the organetto during the Madonna del Pollino festival, the dance as described by Douglas has remained unchanged. In the area of Pollino, the zampogna a chiave and surdulina are also used as support for the singing. Occasionally they can be joined by the tamburello and other rhythm instruments, especially when they play dance music. Over time, the bagpipes in the Pollino area have attracted the attention of many scholars and researchers; among them we may mention the late Roberto Leydi, Febo Guizzi, and Pietro Sassu, who played an important role in defining the methods and topics of Italian ethnomusicology and organology. The typical musical style is characterized by small motives which are enchained and varied. It represents a case of great interest in Italian folk music which is evident especially in the music for the surdulina. This was clearly indicated by Roberto Leydi in his preface to the study dedicated to the repertoire of the surdulina player Carmine Salamone: I think that the surdulina tradition is the most interesting one in the context of bagpipes [zampogne] musical practice of central and southern Italy (…). The surdulina offers us indeed in its apparently limited repertory, a model of the “pure” modular structure which, differently from other bagpipes [zampogne], does not know modular thematic subsidence. (…) To grasp all particular qualities of the music for surdulina (…) one should listen to this music as it comes out from the instruments of its masters.

Credo che quella della surdulina sia la tradizione più interessante nell’ambito della pratica musicale delle zampogne dell ’Italia centrale e meridionale (…) La surdulina infatti ci offre, nel suo apparentemente ristretto repertorio, un modello di strutturazione modulare “pura” che non conosce, a differenza delle altre zampogne (…) cedimenti tematici. (…) Per cogliere tutte le qualità così particolari della musica per surdulina (…) bisogna ascoltare questa musica come esce dagli strumenti dei suoi maestri. (Leydi in Scaldaferri 2003, 10)

Musicians from the villages of Alessandria del Carretto and Farneta di Castroregio (in Calabria), S. Paolo Albanese, Terranova di Pollino and S. Costantino Albanese (in Basilicata), who traditionally play at festivals and pilgrimages, represent figures of fundamental importance to focus the characteristics of the musical repertoires. 75 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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3. Morphology of the zampogna a chiave and surdulina The zampogna a chiave presents two chanters of unequal length and two drones, with a bag made of goat skin; it takes its name from the metal key of the left chanter used to close the last hole. The size of the zampogna a chiave is measured with the palm. The exact palm size is 26 cm; however, each constructor can personalize the measurements of his instruments, so very often there are differences between instruments of the same size made by different people. Usually, the size of a zampogna ranges from a minimum of 2.5 palms to a maximum of 6 (see Figures 1a-1c; Quirino). The most common types range from 3 to 5 palms, and the best sound balance between chanters and drones is achieved with a medium instrument of 3.5 palms.

Fig. 1a: Quirino Valvano, musician and instruments maker from S. Costantino Albanese, Potenza, southern Italy, performing on a 3-palm zampogna a chiave: total length 76 cm, right chanter 37.5 cm, left chanter 61 cm, little drone 13 cm, big drone 30 cm. Photograph by Nicola Scaldaferri. 23 December 2007. S. Costantino Albanese, in front of the house of Quirino Valvano. Private archive of Nicola Scaldaferri.

Fig. 1b: Quirino Valvano, musician and instruments maker from S. Costantino Albanese, Potenza, southern Italy, performing on a 4-palm zampogna a chiave: total length 96 cm, right chanter 47 cm, left chanter 79 cm, little drone 16 cm, big drone 40 cm. Photograph by Nicola Scaldaferri. 23 December 2007. S. Costantino Albanese, in front of the house of Quirino Valvano. Private archive of Nicola Scaldaferri.

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The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy) Fig. 1c: Quirino Valvano, musician and instruments maker from S. Costantino Albanese, Potenza, southern Italy, performing on a 6-palm zampogna a chiave: total length 147 cm, right chanter 75 cm, left chanter 79 cm, little drone 28,5 cm, big drone 60 cm. Photograph by Nicola Scaldaferri. 23 December 2007. S. Costantino Albanese, in front of the house of Quirino Valvano. Private archive of Nicola Scaldaferri.

In the area of Pollino, as well as in other areas of southern Italy, the zampogna is often called i suoni, meaning “the sounds”, to indicate it as the musical instrument par excellence in the local folk tradition. In the Arbëresh villages, it is called karramunxa (Scaldaferri 1994, 258). Its construction requires specific equipment consisting of a lathe and drill (operated either manually or electrically), and metal tips and reamers that the artisans often build by themselves. Different types of wood are used for the zampogna a chiave: maple, cherry, boxwood, olive, wild pear or mountain ash, with a preference for the olive tree and boxwood for the long parts of the pipes. The zampogna a chiave has four double reeds, two for the chanters and two for the drones made of cane (arundo donax). The most common zampogne in the area are those of 3 and 3.5 palms. The latter is tuned roughly in F. Below, in Figure 2 (see Scaldaferri 2016, 28), the full scale of the instrument is shown, approximated to the tones and semitones of the tempered scale. The right chanter has five digital holes and produces a scale of seven pitches (if we include the fourth altered degree, used mostly in ornamentations) while the left has four holes and produces five pitches, because the thumb is not used. The lowest F of the example is closed by the key.

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Fig. 2: The full scale of the zampogna a chiave (Scaldaferri 2016, 28).

However, the instrument is not usually tuned on a tempered scale, thanks also to the option of altering the size of the holes with wax. In the tuning of the players of the Pollino area, we often found a non-tempered alteration of the leading tone and the fourth degree. This is shown in Figure 3 (Scaldaferri 2016, 29).

Fig. 3. The full scale of the zampogna a chiave with a non-tempered alteration of the leading tone and the fourth degree (Scaldaferri 2016, 29).

The tuning constitutes a difficult aspect in managing the zampogna; it was the reason why the instrument was substituted by other instruments in the past, such as the organetto, which does not need to be tuned before each performance. In recent times however, with the use of reeds made of synthetic materials, tuning is much easier. Introduced during the 1990s in the Pollino area thanks to the work of Leonardo Antonio Lanza (1920 – 2008), synthetic reeds are the basis of the popularity that these instruments are experiencing among the younger generation, thanks to the stability of the tuning that even allows the zampogna to play together with other instruments (Stella 2007). The surdulina has two chanters and two drones, all with simple reeds made of cane (arundo donax). The bag is made of goat skin. Besides the difference between simple and double reeds, a striking difference to the zampogna is certainly the size of the instrument and the structure of the chanters. Both the surdulina chanters have the same length, following the typology of the so-called zampogna a paro which is present in other parts of southern Italy (Guizzi 2002, 245 – 252). Usually, the chanters of the surdulina are between 12 and 24 cm; the bigger of the two drones, which is the longest pipe of the instrument, is between 24 and 35 cm. 78 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy) Fig. 4: Quirino Valvano, musician and instruments maker from S. Costantino Albanese, Potenza, southern Italy, performing on surdulina: Total length 30 cm, Chanters 14.5 cm, Little drone 9 cm, Big drone 18 cm. Photograph by Nicola Scaldaferri. 23 December 2007. S. Costantino Albanese, in front of the house of Quirino Valvano. Private archive of Nicola Scaldaferri.

The chanters of the surdulina have four finger holes; the player does not use the thumb of either hand. The surdulina has a unique morphological trait among Italian bagpipes that determines the main characteristic of its musical repertoires: the complete closure of the left chanter at the bottom with wax (or wood). Indeed, when all the finger holes are closed, the chanter doesn’t play, and this makes it possible to obtain staccato notes and rests with this chanter. The instrument is present in the Arbëresh villages of the Pollino area, where it is called the surdullina or karramunxja (in some Arbëresh villages of Calabria, this is close to the term karramuxa, which in Arbëresh villages of Basilicata indicates the zampogna). In the Italian-speaking villages of the area it is also called the suniciell, which means “small sounds”. The name surdulina, and some similarities, have also suggested a possible connection with the sordellina, an ancient Italian bagpipe present in the Neapolitan Kingdom between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It performed written music, and a tablature was published in 1600 by Giovan Lorenzo Baldano (Baldano 1995). However, the state of knowledge about this instrument doesn’t allow us to make a clear link. The construction of the surdulina follows the same procedures as that of the zampogna, with the use of the same types of wood and tools; however, because of its small size, the surdulina can also be made by hand and worked with a knife. For the surdulina it is not possible to establish stringent models or measures; the most common models have chanters with lengths from 14 to 20 cm. The chanters are usually made from 79 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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a single piece of wood. The bag is similar to that of the zampogna, except that it can be smaller. Synthetic reeds are not used for the surdulina (Scaldaferri 2005, 67 – 71). The instrument is transcribed in G here, although it is possible to use tuning which is more acute or more severe depending on the length of the pipes. The right chanter of the surdulina, which has four digital holes, produces a scale of five notes (or six, if we include the fourth altered degree, used mostly in ornamentations), which always remains unchanged. It is shown in Figgure 5 (Scaldaferri 2016, 32).

Fig. 5: The six pitches which can be produced on the right chanter of the surdulina (Scaldaferri 2016, 32).

The left chanter has four finger holes but produces only four pitches because of the closure of the bottom. The left chanter can also be tuned in a different manner by putting some wax in the finger holes. The more usual tuning is that shown in Figure 6, presenting both the leading tone and the subtonic (Scaldaferri 2016, 32).

Fig. 6: The most usual tuning of the left chanter of the surdulina (Scaldaferri 2016, 32).

Another way to tune the left chanter is shown in Figure 7; this tuning was used by musicians from the Sarmento Valley like Pasquale Ciancia (Scaldaferri 1994, 255 – 258).

Fig. 7: The tuning of the left chanter of the surdulina used by musicians from the Sarmento Valley like Pasquale Ciancia (Scaldaferri 1994, 255 – 258).

The complete possible range of pitches of the surdulina is shown in Figure 8 (Scaldaferri 2016, 32).

Fig. 8: The complete possible range of pitches of the surdulina (Scaldaferri 2016, 32).

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The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy)

4. The music of the zampogna The music performed with both of these instruments can be of two types: slow music and fast music. Slow music is performed during religious processions and Christmas novena, while fast music is used for dancing; both of them can serve as accompaniment for singing, or can be performed as virtuoso solo pieces. There is no form of writing of this music, nor is there an explicit system of teaching the instruments. Learning occurs through imitation, and much of the effort is devoted to memorizing the motives and developing the technique of variations, which are often typical of the individual style of the musicians. During a performance, each chanter develops variations starting from some basic motives, chained to each other, and composes a complete musical track, which is usually called sunata. The left chanter mostly has the role of a foundation. It creates a kind of ostinato that constitutes the rhwythmic and harmonic frame of the sunata. The instrument can produce two harmonic areas, each with a certain combination of pitches. The two areas are roughly similar to the I and V degrees of Western harmony. The I assumes a stable value, while the V assumes an unstable one. In the zampogna the stable harmonic area is built on a final degree which coincides with the lowest pitch of the left chanter. The musical examples presented here refer to the 3.5 palm zampogna, and so are written in F. Figure 9 shows the sounds of the stable area. The base of the unstable region is instead the second degree, or the third degree as an appoggiatura of the second. Figure 10 presents the range of pitches of the unstable area (Scaldaferri 2016, 34).

Fig. 9: The pitches of the stable area in the zampogna (Scaldaferri 2016, 34). Fig. 10: The pitches of the unstable area in the zampogna (Scaldaferri 2016, 34).

All melodic phrases, in the slow as well as in the fast music, are composed mainly by alternating the stable area with the unstable one. The regular alternation between the two harmonic areas is the fundamental dynamic principle of this music. Figures 11 and 12 show some examples of ostinato at the base of the fast music for dance, performed on the left chanter (Scaldaferri 2016, 35). Examples of ostinato with short 81 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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phrases (two beats for each area) are given in Figure 11 and examples of ostinato with longer phrases (four beats for each area) are given in Figure 12:

Fig. 11: Examples of ostinato with short phrases (two beats for each area) at the base of the fast music for dance performed on the left chanter of zampogna (Scaldaferri 2016, 35). Fig. 12: Examples of ostinato with long phrases (four beats for each area) at the base of the fast music for dance performed on the left chanter of zampogna (Scaldaferri 2016, 35).

With the zampogna it is impossible to introduce pauses during a performance. However, the sound of the left chanter, when all holes are open, produces the fifth degree. The fifth is the same pitch produced by the bigger drone; therefore, when the left chanter plays the fifth, its sound is obfuscated by the fifth played by the drone. Thanks to this, it is possible to create the illusion of breaks and staccato notes. The perception of the staccato has a major role in the dance tunes, as it helps to set the rhythm in a very incisive manner. Figures 13 and 14 (Scaldaferri 2016, 36) show the bass line performed by the left chanter and the effect perceived by the listener.

Fig. 13: The bass line performed on the left chanter of zampogna (Scaldaferri 2016, 36). Fig. 14: The effect perceived by the listener from the playing showed in Fig. 11 (Scaldaferri 2016, 36).

In the zampogna, the right chanter has the same scale as the left, but an octave higher and with the addition of a leading tone, so we have two almost identical scalar structures with the distance of an octave. This requires a differentiation in the motives of the chanters. So, while the left chanter performs an ostinato rather strictly, the right one produces rich variations and ornamentations with rhythmic or harmonic contrasts. Figure 15 is the transcription of a performance of dance music by Andrea Pisilli, an important player as well as constructor of instruments from Farneta di Castroregio, with a 4.5 palm zampogna tuned in C (published in Guizzi/Leydi 1980, LP , side B). 82 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Relevant research about Pisilli has been done by Vincenzo La Vena (1986; 2002b), and a video documentary was made by Pietro Silvestri (Silvestri 2003). This transcription shows the different role of the two chanters. The rigorous ostinato of the left chanter contrasts with the continuous variations of the right; the leading tone and the fourth degree, absent in the ostinato of the left chanter, are strongly present in the motives of the right.

Fig. 15: The transcription of a performance of dance music by Andrea Pisilli from Farneta di Castroregio, with a 4.5 palm zampogna tuned in C (published in Guizzi/Leydi 1980, LP , side B). Transcription by Nicola Scaldaferri.

In the course of a performance, a good musician tries to elaborate only a few motives, moving gradually from one to another without creating fracture points, or even tends to use a single motive exploring all its possible variants. In the Figures 14 and 15 below are given some of the most frequent motives, performed with a 3.5 palm zampogna tuned in F (Scaldaferri 2016, 38 – 39). In the pitches we can notice a principle of complementarity, whereby the right chanter tends to make a broad use of the pitches that are excluded by the ostinato. In Figure 16 there are motives with two beats per harmonic area, in Figure 17 there are motives with four beats per harmonic area. 83 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 16: Motives with two beats per harmonic area performed with a 3.5 palm zampogna tuned in F (Scaldaferri 2016, 38).

Fig. 17: Motives with four beats per harmonic area performed with a 3.5 palm zampogna tuned in F (Scaldaferri 2016, 39).

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The transcription in Figure 18 is based on a performance of Pasquale Ciancia, from S. Costantino Albanese (Mele 1979) and shows the moment of the changeover from the first melody type to the second in the course of a performance. The change occurs in a smooth way thanks to the figuration of the triplet that characterizes both; the performer is thus able to maintain the flow of the performance, which is a key feature of this music, especially when it is performed for dance

Fig. 18: The transcription of a performance on zampogna by Pasquale Ciancia from S. Costantino Albanese, recorded by Salvatore Mele (1979). Transcription by Nicola Scaldaferri.

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We can identify two distinct genres of slow music. The first is represented by the music performed during religious processions and Christmas novenas, with a slow pace and ternary rhythm. The two chanters create a double ostinato varied by the performer. The slower and more adorned the melody, the greater the skill of the performer. Even in this case, as for the dance music, the phrases have a balance between stable and unstable areas. In Figure 19 (Scaldaferri 2016, 43) there is a fragment performed by Pasquale Ciancia where the double ostinato of the two chanters is varied by a rich ornamental component:

Fig. 19: The transcription of a performance on zampogna by Pasquale Ciancia from S. Costantino Albanese where the double ostinato of the two chanters is varied by a rich ornamental component (Scaldaferri 2016, 43).

Another kind of slow music is called the Passeggera, or music for sheep, which known in the Arbëresh villages as walking music (Tue ecur). The left chanter performs a very rigorous ostinato characterized by the alternation of stable and unstable harmonic areas, while the right chanter performs a sort of perpetuum mobile with continuous variations. Two fragments are given below (Scaldaferri 2016, 45). The first, Figure 20, is performed by Pasquale Ciancia (Tue ecur); the second, Figure 19, by Leonardo Antonio Lanza from Terranova di Pollino (Passeggera).

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Fig. 20: An example of slow music known in the Arbëresh villages as walking music (Tue ecur) performed by Pasquale Ciancia from S. Costantino Albanese (Scaldaferri 2016, 45).

Fig. 21: An example of slow music called the Passeggera performed by Leonardo Antonio Lanza from Terranova di Pollino (Scaldaferri 2016, 45).

The Passeggera is considered to be highly virtuoso. It is preferred by older players, but is not easy to master for younger ones. Its difficulty consists precisely in the process of continuous variation.

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5. The music of the surdulina The music of the surdulina presents many similarities to the music of the zampogna, starting from the balance between stable and unstable harmonic areas. However, is more difficult to place it in a tonal plan. This is due both to the fact that the lower note is the drone (a fifth degree lower than the tonic) and the presence of the subtonic in the left chanter. This again concerns the distinction between fast and slow music. Of course, with regard to the different structure of the two instruments, there are different solutions which are used. The right chanter performs a scale of five notes (or six including the fourth altered degree) without the leading tone. The left chanter performs only four notes including the leading tone and the subtonic, and may realize breaks and staccato, and this element is widely used, especially in music for dancing. The left chanter usually performs some ostinato, and the right some variations, even though they are in the same octave. In Figure 22 is shown shows the basic ostinato with two beats per harmonic area, in Figure 23 (Scaldaferri 2016, 47) motives for dancing, with two beats per harmonic area and in Figure 24 (Scaldaferri 2016, 47) motives for dancing, with four beats per harmonic area.

Fig. 22: The basic ostinato with two beats per harmonic area in the performance on the surdulina.

Fig. 23: Musical motives for dancing, with two beats per harmonic area in the performance on the surdulina. (Scaldaferri 2016, 47).

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Fig. 24: Musical motives for dancing, with four beats per harmonic area in the performance on the surdulina (Scaldaferri 2016, 47).

In slow music, we have the same two types seen in the repertoire of the zampogna: the processional tune and the Passeggera, with variations due to the different structure of the instruments and scales. The transcription in Figure 25 shows the slow tune for the processions in a performance of Agostino Troiano from S. Paolo Albanese (transcription of track 6, CD Gala 1991). The transcription in Figure 26 shows the Passeggera in a performance of Carmine Salamone from Terranova di Pollino (transcription of track 7, CD Scaldaferri 2003).

Fig. 25: Transcription of the slow tune for the processions in a performance of Agostino Troiano from S. Paolo Albanese (see Gala 1991, Track 6). Transcription by Nicola Scaldaferri.

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Fig. 26: Transcription of the Passeggera in a performance of Carmine Salamone from Terranova di Pollino (see Scaldaferri 2003, Track 7). Transcription by Nicola Scaldaferri.

6. Conclusions If we analyse the musical repertoires of both the zampogna a chiave and the surdulina, we can point out the existence of a common, coherent system despite the differences related to specific features of the two instruments. This system is based on the complementary role of the two chanters, playing two melodic lines with tight interactions. This feature is more evident in the music of the surdulina, because both chanters share almost the same pitch range. Furthermore, no form of writing or extrasomatic support are employed in this context — ​unlike what occurs in the case of other instruments like the launeddas in Sardinia. Most of the musicians I mentioned above lived during the 1900s and were accustomed to a purely mnemonic and imitative transmission. In recent years, their performances have been largely diffused among young musicians thanks to audio or video recordings and web resources. Nevertheless, those technologies have not radically changed the process of transmission, which is still based on memorization of rhythmic and melodic elements.

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The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy)

References Adamo, Giorgio (Ed.). 2012. Musiche tradizionali in Basilicata. Le registrazioni di Diego Carpitella e Ernesto De Martino (1952) [Traditional music in Basilicata. The recordings of Diego Carpitella and Ernesto De Martino (1952)]. With CD . Roma: Squilibri. Apolito, Fabia. 2001. Il repertorio della surdulina nell’area del Pollino [The repertoire of the surdulina in the Pollino area]. Lagonegro: Brigante Editore. Baldano, Giovanni Lorenzo. 1995. Libro per scriver l’intavolatura per sonare sopra le sordelline (Savona 1600). Facsimile del manoscritto e studi introduttivi di Maurizio Tarrini, Giovanni Farris, John Henry van der Meer [Book to write down the tablature for playing the sordelline. Facsimile of the manuscript with an introductory essay by Maurizio Tarrini, Giovanni Farris, John Henry van der Meer]. Savona: Associazione Ligure per la Ricerca delle Fonti Musicali — ​Editrice Liguria. Bentzon, Andreas Fridolin Weis. 1969. The Launeddas. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. Cinque, Luigi (Ed.). 1980. Lucania e Calabria. LP . Albatros VPA  8466. De Martino, Ernesto. 2015. Magic. A Theory from the South. Chicago: HAU . Douglas, Norman. 1926. Old Calabria. Fourth edition with thirty-two photographs taken by the author. London: Martin Secker. Ferrarini, Lorenzo and Nicola Scaldaferri. 2014. “Filming as exploring.” Archivio di Etnografia. Vol. 9. 47 – 68. Gala, Giuseppe Michele (Ed.). 1991. La zampogna in Lucania. CD . Ethnica 1. Roma: Crocevia Records. Gioielli, Mauro (Ed.). 2005. La zampogna. Gli aerofoni a sacco in Italia [The zampogna. Bag aerophones in Italy]. Vol l. Isernia: Cosmo Iannone Editore. 1 – 2. Guizzi, Febo. 2002. Gli strumenti della musica popolare in Italia [Folk music instruments in Italy]. Lucca: LIM . Guizzi, Febo and Leydi, Roberto. 1985. Le zampogne in Italia [The Zampogne in Italy]. Vol. 1. Ricordi. Milano. La Vena, Vincenzo. 1986. La zampogna nella Calabria settentrionale [The zampogna in northern Calabria]. Preprint Musica, VI . Bologna: Università degli Studi di Bologna, Dipartimento di Musica e Spettacolo. La Vena, Vincenzo (Ed.). 2002a. La surdulina nell’area d’influenza della festa della Madonna del Pettoruto [The surdulina in the sphere of influence of the Madonna del Pettoruto festival]. CD . Rossano: Il Cerchio. ———. 2002b. La surdulina nell’area d’influenza della festa della Madonna del Pollino. CD . Rossano: Il Cerchio. Leydi Roberto. 1990. Discografia della musica popolare italiana per zampogna 1904 – 1990 [Discography of Italian folk music for the zampogna 1904 – 1990]. Culture Musicali. I-II (nuova serie). 171 – 227.

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Leydi, Roberto (Ed.). 1995. Zampogne en Italie [The Zampogne in Italy]. CD . Silex Memoire, Y225111. Leydi, Roberto and Febo Guizzi (Eds.). 1980. Zampogne in Italia. Vol. 1. LP . Albatros VPA  8472. ——— (Eds.). 1981. Zampogne in Italia. Vol. 2. LP . Albatros VPA  8482. ——— (Eds.). 1985. Strumenti musicali e tradizioni popolari in Italia [Musical instruments and popular traditions in Italy]. Roma: Bulzoni Editore. Lomax, Alan. 2008. L’anno più felice della mia vita: un viaggio in Italia 1954 – 1955 [The happiest year of my life: a trip to Italy 1954 – 1955]. Milano: Il Saggiatore. Lomax, Alan and Diego Carpitella. 1957. Southern Italy and the Islands. LP . Columbia Masterworks – 91A 02025. Mele, Salvatore. 1979. Field recording in S. Costantino Albanese. Player Pasquale Ciancia (Surdulina and Zampogna a chiave 3,5, palmi). Ethnomusicology and Visual Anthropology Lab (LEAV ), University of Milano. Unpublished. Quirino. http://www.zampognepollinoquirino.it/site/quirino/ (Accessed 11 December 2020.) Scaldaferri, Nicola. 1994. Musica arbëreshe in Basilicata [The Arbëreshe Music in Basilicata]. Lecce: Adriatica Editrice Salentina. ——— (Ed.). 2003. Carmine Salamone e la surdulina in Val Sarmento [Carmine Salamone and the surdulina in the Sarmento Valley]. With CD . Udine: Nota. ———. 2005a. “Devotion, Music, and Rite in Southern Italy: the ‘Madonna del Pollino’ Festival.” Performing Ecstasies. Music, Dance, and Ritual in the Mediterranean. Luisa Del Giudice and Nancy Van Deusen (Eds.). Ottawa: Institute for Medieval Music. 169 – 183. ———. 2005b. “La zampogna in Basilicata.” In La zampogna. Gli aerofoni a sacco in Italia [The zampogna. Bag aerophones in Italy]. Vol 2. Gioielli, Mauro (Ed.). Isernia: Cosmo Iannone Editore. 53 – 91. ———. 2013. “Multipart Singing, Multilingualism and Mediatization: Identity Issues of the Arbëresh Minority of Southern Italy at the Beginning of a New Century.” In Local and Global Understandings of Creativities: Multipart Music Making and the Construction of Ideas, Contexts and Contents. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 89 – 100. ——— (Ed.). 2016. Le zampogne a Terranova di Pollino [The zampogne of the Terranova di Pollino]. With CD . Roma: Squilibri. ———. 2020. Doing research in sound: music-making as creative intervention. Sonic ethnography: Identity, heritage and creative research practice in Basilicata, southern Italy. Lorenzo Ferrarini and Nicola Scaldaferri. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 153 – 167. Scaldaferri, Nicola and Steven Feld (Eds). 2019. When the Trees Resound. With CD . Udine: Nota. Scaldaferri, Nicola and Stefano Vaja. 2006. Nel paese dei cupa cupa. Suoni e immagini della tradizione lucana [In the land of the “cupa cupa”. Sounds and images of the Lucanian tradition]. With CD . Roma: Squilibri. Schillaci, Rossella. 2007. Pratica e maestria [Practice and mastery]. DVD . Udine: Nota.

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Silvestri, Pietro. 2003. Il costruttore di zampogne Andrea Pisilli [The pipe maker Andrea Pisilli]. DVD . Trebisacce: Comunità Montana Alto Ionio. Stella, Maria Carmela (Ed.). 2007. Una storia lucano-calabra. Scritti di Leonardo Antonio Lanza libero zampognaro [A Lucanian-Calabrian story. The writings of Leonardo Antonio Lanza, free piper]. Bari: Edizioni di Pagina.

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Gaila Kirdienė

Eastern Lithuanian Drone Fiddling Solo, with Voice or Other Instruments

Abstract Pursuing my previous investigations into Lithuanian drone folk fiddling, in this article I concentrate on the continuous eastern Lithuanian drone fiddling solo, with voice or in ensembles with other instruments. The research combines methods of structural analysis and qualitative research in order to reveal how the drone fiddling is perceived and evaluated by the musicians themselves and their community members, and why it is played in this particular way. Fiddling incorporating all types of drones, as defined and discussed in this article (open-string drones below and sometimes above the melody, or stopped strings) is often linked with other archaic features of music. As late as the end of the 20th century and sometimes until recently, the characteristics of continuous drone fiddling styles were preserved when performing with vocals or in an instrumental ensemble. In eastern Aukštaitija, fiddling was especially appreciated for the sound colour of the fiddle’s high pitches, traditionally related to crying or ritual lamenting. Little attention was paid to the drones and various chords. In Dzūkija, even some of the most venerated fiddlers of the younger generation played with continuous drones when performing not only solo, but also as leaders of an ensemble. Fiddles were usually tuned to the range of the voice or to other instruments (mostly up to a fifth lower) in order to use openstring drones. The multipart texture featured by such ensembles, vocal-instrumental or instrumental, is usually combined, encompassing drones, heterophony, parallel thirds, fifths or sixths and/or homophony.

1. Introduction The present article deals with various types of eastern Lithuanian fiddling incorporating drones recorded from 1908 to 1996. Eastern Lithuania consists of two main regions: Dzūkija (southeastern Lithuania) and a part of Aukštaitija (northeastern Lithuania). 95 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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The state of research on drone fiddling in Lithuania and methods of investigation. In Lithuania, the methods and perspectives of documenting and investigating folk music making, including drone fiddling as a part of it, have changed substantially during the period of examination. In particular, there has been a change in recent decades from the documentation of single musical pieces or repertoires towards documenting the whole phenomenon of music making/performance, musical concepts and behaviour in real contexts and situations. How the music making is perceived and evaluated by the musicians themselves and their community members is of significance, revealing not only how, but also why it is played in this particular way. Most of the performers dealt with in the present research passed away many years ago, which means that we cannot ask them how they perceived drone-infused fiddling, what terminology they used and how to interpret the insiders’ specific uses of terminology, if such has been documented. However, the present research pivots not only on “the sound outcome of a performance” (Macchiarella 2016, 11). It is carried out by using methods not only of structural analysis but also of qualitative research. All available materials with a bearing on the contexts and expertise of the music-making/performance have been consulted. In my research in recent decades, I have usually documented and studied opinions and evaluations of the performers and informed listeners, musicians’ families and community members who have frequently played together and/or listened and watched their performances at home, at dance parties, weddings and other occasions. Attention was also paid to the musical narratives kept in the musicians’ family and transmitted from generation to generation. In my previous investigations of Lithuanian drone fiddling, I concluded that multipart fiddling featuring up to three open strings or other drones and/or parallel fifths or other double stops is most characteristic of the whole of eastern Lithuania, but especially of the Dzūkija region, where drone fiddling styles predominated. On the other hand, recordings made in the 1930s and 1940s demonstrate that even the old generation of fiddlers in Dzūkija could only sometimes execute drones. Even though folk fiddling traditions gradually began to disappear in Lithuania from the 1960s onwards, they have remained quite strong in Dzūkija until today. The fiddle was played solo even at weddings in this region as late as the 1940s; however, when the bride’s and bridegroom’s parties came together, musicians would form an ensemble of two or three fiddles and sometimes a hammered dulcimer with a small drum or a bass. Only in the second half of the 20th century did drone fiddling become less popular in Dzūkija (Kirdienė 2012, 73, 84 – 85, 93). Aukštaitija is considered to be Lithuania’s main region for various kinds of multipart music making: (a) vocal sutartinės, (b) instrumental sutartinės or — ​exceptionally — ​instrumental compositions for a set of one-tone whistles called skudučiai or wooden horns called ragai and (c) mixed or collective sutartinės (Paliulis 1959, 13 – 19, 96 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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43 – 181, 185 – 206, 250 – 264, 267 – 293; Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė 2006, 134, 148; 2011, 185, 200 – 203), in which singers used to perform with musicians, sometimes fiddlers and dancers, and (d) heterophony, (e) vocal or instrumental drones, (f) homophony (executed by playing a solo instrument or in various ensembles) and mixtures or combinations of these. Ensembles consisting of one fiddle, a clarinet and/or cornet and an old type of accordion were very popular in Aukštaitija from the end of the 19th century. A notable mythical belief in eastern Lithuanian folk terminology and semantics is that the low drone in various kinds of music could be perceived as miraculous, related to a mythical underworld (Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė 2004, 21; 2011, 204; Kirdienė 2012, 78 – 79). Nevertheless, employing drones in the fiddle music of Aukštaitija was not as popular as it was in Dzūkija. All of the fiddlers using drones came from the eastern and northern districts of Aukštaitija; none were from the western and southern districts (Kirdienė 2012, 77 – 79, 82 – 84, 93). Terminology and classification. Ethnomusicologists distinguish between verbal and kinaesthetic kinds of experiences and knowledge of traditional musicians (Kvifte 2000, 25 – 35, Killick 2006, 298, Matsievskii 2007, 92 – 94, 168 – 169; Morgenstern 2016, 101). As a researcher of folk fiddling, I fully agree that it is difficult and sometimes unnecessary to verbalize the learning, transmission and perception of instrumental music by traditional musicians themselves. Rather, these processes can be achieved more effectively in audio, senso-motoric, tactile and visual ways. Performance gestures (Matsievskii 2007, 93, cf. musical vs. sound gesture, see Macchiarella 2016, 11) in fiddling give a direct insight into the way of holding and placing of fiddle and bow, articulation (the bow strokes) and fingering along with the fiddler’s posture and position (place) and his or her other gestures, expressions or behaviour when playing solo or in an ensemble. Rudolf Maria Brandl, author of the most detailed and universal classification of various drone (Bordun) forms, noted that the drone can be interpreted either as being within a system of melodic relations or as a different phenomenon, a harmonic drone. His classification is based on configurations of features of the drone’s time structure (rhythm), texture, succession of the tones, tonal space (German: Tonraum, i. e. vertical) relationship to a tune, the timbre (tone colour), tonality function (German: Tonalitäts-Funktion), and cognitive function. He also emphasized that drone musical instruments persisted longer in those European folk traditions where modal scales were used. At the same time that drone instruments were displaced by other musical instruments, the associated modal tone system changed into the major-minor system coupled with functional harmony (Brandl 1975, 90 – 93; 1995, 69 – 75). In his article dealing with European solo multipart instrumental music and related terminology, and with regard to unified and mixed types of texture, Ulrich Morgenstern has distinguished drone as one of the four main multipart playing types. Besides the ‘ideal’ of one continuous 97 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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tone he considers modifications in drone types of pitch (movable vs. alternating drone, vs. ostinato, and harmonically regulated drone) and time (discontinuous drone and drone accents) (Morgenstern 2016, 101 – 109, 112 – 113). Regarding the use of other definitions of multipart music see Brandl 2005; Ahmedaja 2016; Macciarella 2016; Morgenstern 2016, 100 – 101). In my previous article which considered the main characteristics of Lithuanian folk drone fiddling styles, I divided them into two types: continuous drone and discontinuous drone (Kirdienė 2012, 76, cf. Morgenstern 2016, 108). In the first case, fiddlers play almost all of the time on two or more strings and as double stops they use mainly fifths; single voice melodic pitches rarely appear separate from the droning of the open strings. A chord outlining the seventh a¹ to g² in the key of G might be interpreted as a hallmark of such a style and of non-homophonic musical thinking. In continuous drone styles, the drone’s vertical relationship to a tune is not crucial. Since the open strings have a particular sound colour, differing from that of the stopped strings, such drones can be characterised additionally as sound-colour drones, and as such have a specific psychological function. In the second case, the drone is used in sections of music not shorter than a phrase (or two bars) which are usually interrupted by monophonically or homophonically structured sections of music, sometimes with occasional open string enrichments and double stops. Double-stopped thirds and especially sixths in parallels may be interpreted as hallmarks of a homophonic texture (Kirdienė 2012, 76).

2. Solo drone fiddling In the present article I will only discuss types of continuous drone (as opposed to discontinuous drone or drone accents, see Morgenstern 2016, 108 – 109) fiddling, starting with the fiddlers who played exclusively drone styles: drones on the open strings below or above the melody and stopped strings (first-, third- or second-finger) drone. Although fiddlers were mainly recorded unaccompanied (solo) during the field research, most of them usually then played in various ensembles with other instrumentalists or singers on real performance occasions. One of the first Lithuanian fiddle music researchers was Rimantas Gučas, who collected instrumental music intensively in eastern Lithuania in the 1960s. He wrote that Lithuanian folk fiddlers are used to playing in several voices: basically, the tune presented on one stopped string plus another voice on an open string. He found that it is only in an ensemble that a fiddler plays in just one voice, and that “Musicians with less imagination often execute merely a melody, too” (Gučas 1969, 265). It must be noted that none of the definitions used by folk fiddlers in eastern Lithuania to define 98 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 1: Petras Strazdas and a peterburgska armonika (an old type of accordion) player. Photo taken around the 1970s. From his family photo album. Used with permission.

drone fiddling itself have been documented. However, it is usual for folk fiddlers to differentiate between concepts of playing one or more strings simultaneously. The exhaustively documented folk terminology of the separate strings allows us to state that attention was paid to their different pitches and timbres in relation to the distinct materials they were made from. Sometimes the strings were designated as separate voices or parts. Many fiddlers from eastern Lithuania called the G string bosas, basas, boselis (a bass, little bass). This definition could be associated with the tradition of giving the same name to the drone voice of collective sutartinės, though it is certainly related to old academic terminology of Latin derivation. Accordingly, some fiddlers named other strings like the voices of a choir or an orchestra: Lt. prima, sekunda, tercija (first, second, third) or rarely sopranas, altas, tenoras (soprano, alto, tenor). The fiddling style of Petras Strazdas (1911 – 1993) from the village of Bajorai in the district of Ignalina in northeastern Aukštaitija is one of the best examples of a fiddler incorporating continuous drones on the open strings below the melody with rare double stops; in his case, only single-finger fifths. Ethnomusicologists visited him and recorded his solo playing in 1985 and twice in 1989. He almost always played 99 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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in the keys of G and D when performing unaccompanied, and only rarely in C. His self-made low and almost completely flat fiddle bridge helped him to play two or more strings simultaneously (see Kirdienė 2012, 83). His bowing technique is very characteristic for drone fiddling: he places the bow far down the fingerboard with the bow stick turned towards himself. Sometimes the stick even reaches the strings. For both reasons the sound he produces is scratchy or humming. He also uses a very intense and wide, sometimes trill-like, vibrato, which is characteristic of many eastern Lithuanian fiddlers (see Figure 1 and AV  10). Among the recordings of Strazdas are three Polkas taught to him by a considerably older, very skilled and revered fiddler, Juozas Gudėnas (circa 1884 – 1946), who had come from another district of northeastern Aukštaitija and just occasionally used open-string enrichment. His large repertoire was recorded in 1939. Gudėnas showed Strazdas a special playing technique with frequent leaps from the higher to the lower strings and vice versa, which the latter liked very much. According to Strazdas, the essence of this method is multiple leaps across the strings: “the more often you walk across the strings, the nicer it is”.1 This type of melodic structure along with drone and leaps across the strings is typical for North Lithuanian fiddle music and can also be found in other Baltic countries (Kirdienė 2012, 80 – 81). For the present research, I have compared versions of a Polka played by him and by Gudėnas in order to make the features of his melodic style more obvious. The tunes of both versions are based on modal scales, but those played by Strazdas are usually descending, with some micro-tonic chromaticisms and are much more related to merely one string. This is especially obvious in the second part of the Polka (see Figure 2 and AV  10).2

1 Documented by Daiva Šeškauskaitė in 1985. 2 See music recordings of Gudėnas (and of many other fiddlers discussed in the article) at Old Audio Recordings Database of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore Institute, http://archyvas.llti.lt/irasai/index. php?veiksmas=rezultatai (the search has to be made according to the archival number). Some published dances by Gudėnas see in Nakienė/Žarskienė 2004, nos. 70 – 71.

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Fig. 2: Comparison of Polkas played by Petras Strazdas (AV  10) in 1985 (transcribed by Rima Švėgždaitė 3 in 1994, cf. Kirdienė 2012, 82) and by Juozas Gudėnas in 1939 (Polka No. 4, LTR F  1173/4, transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 2015).

3 LTR F [Lithuanian Folklore Archive at the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, Vilnius], pl. [phonograph disc].

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Strazdas kept the same melodic and playing style when performing all recorded dance and March tunes. It should be noted that constant tapping of the foot provides much additional energy to his fiddling. He played the dance Malūnėlis (A Mill) in three parts, with Polka and Waltz. The “Mill” melody and Polka melody (marked A and B in the transcription) are quite similar in the variations and can be best differentiated by their rhythmical patterns. The typical rhythmical pattern of the Mill resembles rhythms of the small drum, virtuoso playing traditions of which have been preserved in eastern Aukštaitija until today (see Figure 3 and AV  11). A lower fourth is also characteristic of this part.

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4

Fig. 3: Dance Malūnėlis. Played by Petras Strazdas in 1985 (cf. MFA KLF   1500/37). Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 1998.

Continuous drones on the open strings below the melody are typical for styles of quite a number of fiddlers in Dzūkija (they are also found in other Lithuanian regions, see Kirdienė 2012, 87 – 88, 89 – 90), as it is one of the most common types of drone fiddling. Juozas Dzikevičius (born in 1910, lived in the village of Kaniava, Varėna district) didn’t execute any double stops, with the exception of rare single-finger fifths; his melodies are modal, sometimes a minor-like mode, which are very characteristic of the areas of Lithuania bordering Belarus. The technique of leaps and chords is also characteristic for him (see Figure 4, cf. his published dance and March in Kirdienė 2000, 275 – 276; 2010, 60). Eighth note values are predominant in his rhythm and articulation, a feature common to fiddling styles from the whole of eastern Lithuania. Other features of his rhythm and articulation, especially syncopations and the slurring of two bars with the same note or different notes and sections of cross-bowing, are highly typical of fiddling in his native Dzūkian area. 4 MFA K(L)F, MFA A [Sound Recordings Archive of the Department of Ethnomusicology, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Vilnius].

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Fig. 4: Polka. Played by Juozas Dzikevičius, recorded by Evaldas Vyčinas and Mindaugas Urbaitis in 1971 (cf. MFA KLF 6008/4). Transcribed by Mindaugas Urbaitis.

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Lithuanian ethnomusicologists consider eastern Lithuania, and areas bordering with Belarus (including Lithuanian enclaves in West Belarus) in particular, as especially archaic, where old features of traditional music culture have been preserved the longest. Archaic or individual, unusual ways of holding the fiddle and the bow are common there. Not all fiddlers in these areas preferred drone fiddling, even among the generations of players born in the 19th century. However, the fiddling styles of Bronislavas Zinkevičius (born in 1926 in the village of Žižmai, Dieveniškės rural district, Šalčininkai district), and even more so of Belarusian Pole Edward Paplavski (born in 1926 in the neighbouring village of Dobropole, Ivja rural district, Belarus), are distinguished by the predominant rhythmical pulsation of quick eighth notes (even in Marches and songs), executed with a rather large bow, placed above the sound holes, and a drone below the melody (cf. Figures 5 and 6, Kirdienė 2015, nos. 4 – 6). Paplavski executed sections related to the A mode with a drone on the upper E string. Both musicians preserved the same drone fiddling style while performing their entire repertoires with over twenty compositions recorded by each of them. Thus, features common to a local or a regional (drone) fiddling style can go beyond national borders and are certainly not dependent upon the national identity of the area’s fiddlers.

Fig. 5: March. Played by Bronislavas Zinkevičius in 1990. The transcription is published in Kirdienė 2007, no. 4 and the video recording Kirdienė 2015, no. 4.

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Fig. 6: Christmas chant for visiting neighbours Dzisiaj u Betleja (Today in Bethlehem). Played by Edward Paplavski. Recorded by Gaila Siaurukaitė (Kirdienė) and Rasa Ankėnaitė (Šukienė) in 1990 (cf. MFA KLF 1416/35), Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 1991.

Drones on the open strings below and above the melody. In Lithuanian folk fiddle playing, a drone is usually performed below, but occasionally above the melody. The drone on the upper E string is usually executed in sections related to the A mode; in rare cases the drone occurs on the upper A string in sections related to the D mode when the melody is performed on the D string. The combination of a drone on the open one or two lower strings and sometimes on the upper string is very typical for eastern Lithuania, especially Dzūkija, and is also known in western Lithuania (cf. Kirdienė 2012, 75, 88). Fiddling by the Sinkevičius brothers Dominykas (1903–circa 1963) and Petras (1906 – c. 1964), and Petras’ son Romas (1945 – 2012), was recorded by Gučas in 1961 – 1962 in Dzūkija, in the village of Viečiūnai, Druskininkai parish (bordering on Gardinas/Grodno district in southwestern Belarus). The youngest brother Julijonas (born in 1908) was, according to members of the family, not as skilled a player as the 106 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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other brothers and their father, Petras Sinkevičius. According to Dominykas’ son, Edmundas (born in 1940), who isn’t a musician, they were all farmers, “growing bread” (meaning growing rye to bake bread). When I asked him what he regarded as skilled fiddle playing, he answered: when the fiddler plays cheerfully and vividly.5 A former teacher (born in 1946 in this village) recalls from her childhood that the oldest brother Dominykas Sinkevičius was the main musician: “When dance evenings were held, the people would say: Dámulis is going to play! He always played alone, so that the young people could dance; without any drum. He also used to play at weddings. Later on, there were no fiddlers any more, only accordionists.” 6 According to her, all the dancers appreciated his solo fiddling very much and didn’t wish for anything else. Interestingly, members of Sinkevičius’ family asserted that though they had many fiddlers, they never played together, and in later periods ensembles with an accordion included only one fiddler. For the recordings Dominykas played as he did on dance evenings, with each dance being almost three minutes long, and with a remarkable energy and drive. His fiddle sound has a special colour of playing on the fingerboard. It is well known that placing a bow on the fingerboard is one of the ways to easily execute chords of three strings simultaneously (because the strings are less tense and closer to each other than at the bridge). He keeps a very strict rhythm, though he doesn’t tap his foot and slightly slows down some endings of the parts. The tempi are fast and the structure rather free: he starts with some introductive chords, and repeats each part of the strophe either once or twice. After two and half strophes of the Polkaitė (Little Polka) he executed chords with open strings (see Figure 7, the end of the eighth line) and, his wife probably tried to stop him, but he continued and performed four more strophes. To stop himself he needed a prolonged ending (see Figure 7 and AV  12). The structure of this Polka tune is based on frequent changes of sections in an interval of a fifth, a feature that is also typical of old Dzūkian fiddle dance music, recorded since 1935 (Nakienė/Žarskienė 2005, no. 6, 36, 40). As many fiddlers do, a melody on the A string he accompanies with the upper E string drone, but very often together with a lower single-finger fifth or a drone on the D string. This string also sounds when the melody is played on E string. He also likes the double-stopped third d¹-fis² and a chord performed from this third downwards (see Figure 7). The latter is characteristic of the dance Suktinis which he played (MFA KLF 3768/4). Thus, he very often plays three and sometimes all four strings simultaneously, also with double stops. The harmonies are related to playing techniques which are very specific to the fiddle and exist outside of homophonic thinking. They provide a special charm to his playing style compared with drones on 5 Interviewed by Kirdienė in 2017. 6 Julija Bliūdžiuvienė, born in the village of Viečiūnai, interviewed by Kirdienė in 2016.

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merely one or two open strings. Dominykas was also able to play longer sections of music employing only double stops; he performed a Waltz with parallel sixths rather than with drones (MFA KF 3769/1).

Fig. 7: Polkaitė (first three times and ending). Played by Dominykas Sinkevičius (see AV  12) in 1961. Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 2016.

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The playing style of both brothers typically includes powerfully accented full on-string bow strokes contrasted with lifted bow strokes and some legato slurred notes. Petras was also a skilled fiddler, but only two recordings of his performances were made: a Quadrille (see Figures 8 and AV  13) and a Polka (MFA KF 3769/2 – 3). He played long sections with an upper drone on the E string.

Fig. 8: Kadrilis (first three times). Played by Petras Sinkevičius (see AV  13). Recorded by Rimantas Gučas in 1961 (cf. MFA KLF 3769/2). Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 2016.

Petras’ son Romas, aged about seventeen, performed three dances solo or together with his uncle Dominykas in 1962 (MFA KF 3865/7 – 10). He continued playing on his father’s fiddle either solo or with an accordionist almost until the final years of his life. He was also able to play a button accordion from a young age. In 1962 he was still a less skilled fiddler than his uncle, but his playing style represents all the characteristic features of his family tradition regarding texture, harmonies and articulation (see Figure 9). Performing his beloved Polkaitė together with Dominykas, he played almost entirely in one voice with him (MFA KF 3865/7).

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Fig. 9: Dance Pjoviau rugelius (“I saw the rye”. The seven-step dance type; first three times). The fiddle is tuned a minor third lower. Recorded by Rimantas Gučas in 1962 (cf. MFA KF 3865/9). Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 2017.

A photo taken during the visit of Romas Sinkevičius’ family to his wife’s relatives shows that in the 1970s he sometimes still played solo fiddle (see Figure 10). As in all the other photos received from his family, in this photo one can see that his little finger is under the bow’s screw, which is a very widespread way of holding a fiddle in eastern Lithuania, and his thumb is under the bow’s nut, which is much less usual. He places the bow far down the fingerboard. This way of holding and the position of the bow must have been taken from his family’s fiddling traditions. According to Romas’ wife Marija (born in 1939 in the village of Grybauliai, Marcinkonys rural district), “he was a very high-spirited person, he knew and was able to play everything. The whole family used to make music at weddings”. He had a strong voice and liked singing with his wife very much. Later on, they made music with their son Kęstutis (born in 1981), who played the piano accordion and became one of the most appreciated wedding musicians in the Druskininkai area. He told me that his father considered playing on merely one string to be a feature of a less skilled fiddler.7

7 Both interviewed by Kirdienė in 2016 – 2017.

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Eastern Lithuanian Drone Fiddling Fig. 10: Romas Sinkevičius with his wife in her native village in the 1970s. From his family photo album. Used with permission.

Drones on open and stopped strings. Skilled Lithuanian fiddlers, starting from the oldest generations recorded in the 1930s, were able to execute octaves (at least the octave b1-b2) and occasionally used a drone on b1 or e1 (see Figure 9, marked places). We could call it the first-finger drone (Kirdienė 2012, 85, cf. Kirdienė 2000, nos. 9, 32). A very talented fiddler, Antanas Labenskas (1927 – 1997, born in the village of Verstaminai, Lazdijai (formerly Seinai) district, lived in Lazdijai town) played the fiddle since the age of four. He was taught by his grandfather, who made him a children’s fiddle from a single board which was his only fiddle for about six years. The bridge of a fiddle of this kind is flat, so it can be played exceptionally in a drone way (Kirdienė 2000, 52 – 61, 103). Labenskas’ playing style is distinguished not only by its excellence, but also by typical local and regional features, including the drones below the melody of an open string and the first finger on b1. Dzieduko polkutė (Grandfather’s Little Polka) with the left hand pizzicato, which he preferred to perform solo during the concert at the Lithuanian Academy of Music in 1994, is a great example of this drone fiddling style (see Figure 11, video recording published in Kirdienė 2016, no. 16). He could also perform sections of upper E string drone or double-stopped thirds (see Wedding March in Kirdienė 2000, 274). His bow strokes are light, executed in the upper bow half approaching the fingerboard. His little finger is under the bow’s screw. 111 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 11: Dzieduko polkutė. Played by Antanas Labenskas. Filmed in 1994 by Vytautas Musteikis. Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 2016.

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The very energetic multipart fiddling style of Pranas Ulozas (1912 – 2000) from the village of Bernotai, Tverečius rural district, Ignalina district in eastern Aukštaitija, near Belarus, could also be regarded as a continuous drone style with open strings drone below or above the melody and unisons and an occasional third- or second-finger drone. In this way he executes double stops, especially a fourth, that are very characteristic for his style. He frequently plays three or four strings simultaneously. He holds the fiddle in a personal manner, rested against his right cheek, though a younger fiddler from this area holds his fiddle in a quite similar way (see Figure 13). His bow is placed near the fingerboard and played in its lower half. He prefers non legato articulation, though he can also play legato and cross bowings even in Polkas (see Figure 12, video recording published in Kirdienė 2015, no. 23, cf. dance Klumpakojis in Kirdienė 2010, 59). The fiddling style of Ulozas is unique, maybe because he taught himself to play the fiddle when he was still a child, and the only musician in the neighbourhood played a hammered dulcimer. The sounds of their music making in an ensemble seemed miraculous to him, as he wrote to me in 1998: “… in summer time, in fine weather, about nightfall. When we sit down, he with the dulcimer, I with the fiddle — ​the whole village sounds; and how many people used to come to listen to our miraculous voices (Lt. stebuklingų mūsų balsų)”. It must be noted that every instrumental sound can be called a voice (Lt. balsas) in Lithuanian musical traditions. Ulozas also could have been influenced during his exile to the Irkutsk region of Siberia from 1949 to 1956, though he was usually asked to play solo fiddle for the dance gatherings of young people. After returning to his native village in Lithuania, he actively participated in various ensembles, consisting of one or two accordions, and sometimes a clarinet, dulcimer and a drum performing at weddings, dance parties, or concerts. His son related that his father also liked playing alone at home for himself and his family until the end of his life.8 Thus, the eastern Lithuanian solo or unaccompanied drone fiddling of all types discussed above is often linked with other archaic features of music: modal (often minor-like) scales, frequent leaps from higher to lower strings, occasional transitional chromaticisms/microtones and rather free musical forms with three- or four-bar structures. On the other hand, the fiddle drone is very common for performing songs which are usually sung in a homophonic or mixed monophonic and homophonic way (see chapter 2). The following are also typical: lower (or sometimes higher) tunings and a specific more or less intensive scratchy or zooming sound caused by the bow placed on the fingerboard, as well as the bow stick sometimes reaching the strings, and active non legato articulation or lifted bow strokes. 8 Pranas Ulozas, born in 1954 in the village of Bernotai, living in Vilnius; documented by Kirdienė in 2016.

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Fig. 12: Polka. Played by Pranas Ulozas at his 80th anniversary in 1992. The fiddle is tuned a whole tone lower. Filmed by his son Pranas Ulozas, but not from the beginning (cf. Kirdienė 2015, no. 23; dance Klumpakojis in Kirdienė 2010, 59). Transcribed by Kirdienė in 2016.

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Fig. 13: Pranas Ulozas with Kazys Misiūnas (peterburgska armonika) and other musicians in a band for stage performances, around 1978. From his family photo album. Used with permission.

3. Drone incorporating fiddling with voice Eastern Lithuanian folk fiddlers whose playing styles incorporated drones often performed songs, chants (hymns) or roundelays as well as dances and Marches with sung verses, either singing themselves or accompanying other singers. Fiddlers’ repertoires consisted mostly of various dances and Marches, but songs and hymns were also very important in this region. From the 1940s until now, the role of singing has been increasing in performances by all kinds of folk musicians in Lithuania due to the influence of pop music and other agencies (cf. Kirdienė 2011, 162, 164, 170, 179). Wedding marches, especially those of the rituals that accompany the seeing off of the bride, were often based on the melodies of ritual wedding songs, and sometimes even laments, e. g. the first part of a wedding song March, Prapuoliau, motula (I’ve Got Lost, Dear Mother) (Kirdienė 2000, 285, cf. 276, cf. Morgenstern 2016, 107 – 108). A bride had to cry when reciting a lament to her family members and to the musicians (Lt. nuotaka priverkia muzikantams; see MFA KF 3785/1, KTR 59/96, cf. MFA KF 4097/1, KTR 168/105). Plaintive songs were performed not only by female singers, but also by musicians, especially a fiddler, to create the emotional atmosphere needed 115 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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to move the bride to tears. A song of the ritual of redeeming the bride was usually played only on a solo fiddle in Švenčionys district (Kirdienė 2009, 30, 32 – 35, 45). In 1962, Petras Mulerskas, one of the oldest documented Lithuanian folk fiddlers (born in 1865 in Trakai district, the village of Ausieniškės, Dzūkija, near the capital Vilnius), performed ritual wedding and children’s songs as well as Polkas, Waltzes and other dances in a continuous drone style for folklore collectors, with singing by himself or by his wife. There is only one barely-remembered song which he performed on one string. His fiddle was tuned a fifth lower, like the viola. Accompanying a monophonic wedding song with a structure of only one harmonic function on the first degree Ar žiba žiburužis (Is There a Light Shining), beside drones, Mulerskas executed an octave e¹ e² on the upper strings (see AV  14, and the transcription in Kirdienė 2012, 86). A close leap of a third h¹ g¹ downwards (from the third to first degree) in the endings of verses is also very characteristic for his style and makes the most remarkable difference between the sung and played versions of this song. He sang another wedding song “Močiute, širdele” ([My] Sweetheart Mother) together with his wife in a homophonic way, but accompanied by the fiddle in the same drone style. Moreover, at many points in the verse his abundantly ornamented melody sounds above the sung melody’s version or he slightly digresses from it, and sometimes dissonant intervals typical of heterophony emerge between the two versions (see Figues 14 and AV  15). From an analysis of other recorded vocal-instrumental performances by eastern Lithuanian fiddlers whose playing has been discussed in this article, it is obvious that they keep the main textural and melodic-ornamental characteristics of their styles when accompanying singing, incorporating drones on open strings or double stops, not rarely parallel: thirds, fifths or sixths. From photos and other sources, we can assume that those who were not recorded accompanying singing could also accompany singers alone or with other musical instruments (see Figure 17). Pranas Ulozas loved to perform songs, but his son never saw him singing without his fiddle. When performing the wedding song “Devyni metai, ne viena diena” (Nine Years, Not One Day) (Figure 15) he doesn’t change his continuous drone fiddling style, incorporating three strings chords, unisons and double stops very frequently, especially a perfect fourth. The fiddler Juozas Krušna (born in the village of Seirijočiai, Alytus district, South Dzūkija), gave an exceptional performance for the folklore collectors in 1940 when he was twenty years old, including fourteen songs of various genres (children’s, youth and love, wedding, humorous, orphan’s, emigrant’s) and no genuine instrumental repertoire (LTR pl. 1280/1 – 7, 1281/1 – 7, 1982/1 – 2, some published in Nakienė/Žarskienė 2005, nos. 11, 21). He had learned all these songs from his grandmother and “he himself adjusted the fiddle to them”. In the archival annotation, it is noted that he “sang with 116 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 14: The wedding song “Močiute, širdele”. The fiddle is tuned a fifth lower. Performed by Petras Mulerskas (fiddle, voice) in 1962 (cf. AV  15). Transcribed by Kirdienė in 2016.

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Fig. 15: The wedding song “Devyni metai, ne viena diena” (first three stanzas). Performed by Pranas Ulozas during the celebration of his 80th anniversary in 1992. Filmed by his son Pranas Ulozas (cf. Kirdienė 2015, no. 24). Transcribed by Gaila Kirdienė in 2016.

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the fiddle”, though “there had not been a fashion to accompany songs on the fiddle this way in this area” (LTR 2320). Why did his vocal-instrumental performance seem unusual to the members of his community? It is possible that in those times it was unusual to perform not only wedding songs with fiddle accompaniment, but also children’s songs, love, emigration and humorous or individually created, so-called literary songs. He played the fiddle only on the A and D strings with a continuous lower drone. Given his deep and sonorous voice, he tuned his fiddle a third lower (in E instead of G), thus the fiddle drones also sound deep and rich. Performances by a travelling fiddler, the one-man band Juozas Ulba from Anykščiai district, eastern Aukštaitija (born about 1905) would have seemed even more unusual to his contemporaries because he played a six-string viola-like instrument called the smuikolas which he constructed himself. As we see from his songs, Polkas and Marches, recorded in 1941 (Nakienė/Žarskienė 2005, nos. 46, 53, 54; See further the recordings LTR F pl. 1327/1 – 4, 1329/1 – 3 in the database indicated in footnote 2), he adjusted the tuning of his fiddle to the range of his voice in the keys of A flat, B flat or E flat. He used various tunings: the highest strings were tuned C and E, the third string could be tuned in an interval of a perfect fourth, and the others not only in the interval of a perfect fifth, but also of those of a major second or unison. He always plays two or three strings simultaneously with a drone on open strings below or above the melody, though there are also sections in parallel sixths. Thus, the players discussed above usually tuned their fiddles to the range of their voice. They preserved all the characteristics of their drone or multipart fiddling style in a performance with singing. Fiddlers or other singers used to sing the main, first (the same as that played) or second voice (while the second or first voice is played). It also depended on the tradition and structure of the melody. In comparison to the sung voice, the fiddle’s part is usually more varied and ornamented. The multipart texture featured in such a performance combines a drone, heterophony, parallel thirds, fifths and sixths and/or two-voice homophony. A similar combined texture is also typical of collective sutartinės.

4. In Ensembles with Other Musical Instruments There are two songs and a Polka among the first Lithuanian instrumental folk music recordings (made by St. Petersburg professor Eduard Wolter in 1908) performed by a fiddle-bagpipe ensemble from the village of Dysna, Švenčionys district, Vilnius province (nowadays Ignalina district) of northeastern Aukštaitija, bordering northwestern Belarus. The fiddle was played by a veterinarian, Feliksas Krasauskas, and the bagpipes by a blacksmith, Jonas Voldemaras (Nakienė/Žarskienė 2011, 66). With roots in the 119 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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late Middle Ages, the fiddle-bagpipe ensemble continued in eastern European instrumental practice up to the 20th century (Morgenstern 2009a, 214), and in northeastern Aukštaitija it was regarded as “the best music” (Kirdienė 2012, 22). The bagpipes, which are mentioned in historical sources from the middle of 16th century in Lithuania, were still played in the remote villages scattered in the woodlands of northeastern Aukštaitija into the first half of the 20th century. However, they had already lost their status of one of the main music instruments for weddings and dance by the early 20th century (Kirdienė 2009, 21 – 22; 2011, 162; Žarskienė 2011, 194 – 222). In many European countries, the disappearance of the bagpipes with their sustained drone and specific timbre of sound is explained by the rapid spread of the violin and later the accordion as folk music instruments, as well as the changed aesthetic needs towards, at first, accentuated rhythmic drone, and, later, functional harmonic bass (Ling) 1981 (1975), 46; Tõnurist 1976, 52; Sárosi 1972, 128 – 131; 1976, 124; Muktupāvels 2002, 45; Žarskienė 2011, 213; Morgenstern 2009b, 180 – 182). However, the drone remained important in folk music traditions. According to Piotr Dahlig, “the musical mentality was changing much slower than the instrumentarium” (Dahlig 2004, 146, cf. 149). In her 2011 article, Rūta Žarskienė also noticed that bagpipe music from Dysna is distinguished by its free metric-rhythmic and varied melody with a lot of appoggiaturas. According to her, the structure, rhythm and mode of the music played by a fiddle-bagpipe ensemble are much clearer thanks to the fiddle. Both musicians play the melody in one voice. They vary the melody slightly and, typically for heterophony, intervals of a second, ninth or seventh sometimes occur between them (Žarskienė 2011, 213 – 214). However, separate melodic voices merge and are not clearly heard when they play together, as they are of the same range. The author came to a firm conclusion: “Having for several centuries prevailed in Lithuania’s market squares and inns, during feasts and rituals of the rural community, the bagpipes have considerably influenced the development of folk music — ​both instrumental and vocal (…). The folk violin, which gradually penetrated popular culture and was at first used along with the bagpipes, inherited the stylistic features of the bagpipe melodies and subsequently replaced the latter in the musical tradition” (Žarskienė 2011, 222, cf. 218). In her opinion, playing the fiddle and “frequently touching a pitch of an open string” could also have been induced in order to re-create the image of the intense bagpipe sound (Žarskienė 2011, 217, cf. 219, 222). A discourse on which peculiarities of bagpipe music could have been inherited by the folk fiddle in eastern Lithuania, starting from northeastern Aukštaitija, and how idiomatic they are for them could be the topic of a larger investigation. However, we shouldn’t completely avoid a brief discussion of it in this article. Lithuanian ethnomusicologists have related a sustained vocal drone with the bagpipes in collective sutartinės — ​this voice is usually called (v)ūkas, the same definition as the bagpipes’ drone 120 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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pipe, cf. Latvian dūkas (Kirdienė 2012, 78) and Belarussian гук (Morgenstern 2009b, 170) — ​and tunes of a single (main) harmonic function with a range from a third to a fifth or sixth with a fourth or second below the key tone (cf. Kirdienė 2012, 88). Such melodies are found throughout eastern Lithuania, particularly in eastern Aukštaitija, but less so in other regions of Lithuania. In his 2009b article, Ulrich Morgenstern identified and analysed typical bagpipe playing features which could have been taken up by folk accordionists in villages on both sides of the Russian-Belarussian dialect border: drones in the left and right hand parts of the accordion, the melodic range and mode of the Ionian sixth with a lower fourth or second, as well as melodic ornamentations (so called “glimmering” or blinking lower fourth”) infusing sections with a latent two-voice texture (Morgenstern 2009b, 184 – 192). These typical features of bagpipe music are not at all distinct in the fiddle’s part of the recordings from Dysna. However, it is obvious that both players — ​the fiddler and bagpipe player — ​keep all the characteristics of their own instruments, which fit very well together. The only adjustment required is for the fiddle to be tuned almost one tone higher. It should be also noted that when one musician leads, the other plays rather cautiously; the musicians could not have played together often. The fiddler starts the songs Kukavo gegułė (The Cuckoo Called) and Sakale, paukšteli (Falcon, little bird, see Figure 16) by playing the entire first stanza solo. The bagpiper starts the Polka (Nakienė/Žarskienė 2011, no. 9) with a descending introduction typical of bagpipe music (cf. Morgenstern 2009b, 184). There is no doubt, especially when the fiddler plays the melody alone, that he constantly uses drone on the open lower strings. The pitch of the lowest string coincides with the sustained drone on the key tone of the bagpipes, being an octave above it. Thus, their ensemble performance features a double or triple drone, characteristic of bagpipes-fiddle ensemble performance practice, and a monophonically or heterophonically played melody. In my opinion, a rhythmical drone on the open strings of a fiddle can hardly be regarded as the influence of the bagpipes. There are only a few recordings of a sustained drone in fiddle music from the Baltic countries: in an Estonian fiddler’s duet from Pärnumaa, recorded in 1936, the second fiddler played a sustained drone on D or G and D strings, imitating the drone(s) of the bagpipe (Sildoja 1997, nos. 3, 5, 11, 19, 21). In addition, the fiddle part is articulated by the pulsation of the eighth notes (see Figure 16). Articulation of this kind is very characteristic of eastern Lithuanian fiddling and — ​as mentioned above — ​was documented there up to the end of the 20th century. The use of the lower fourth and its appoggiaturas is intrinsic not only to the bagpipes, but also to fiddle and folk violin playing that uses an open string. The bagpiper also executes appoggiaturas of the upper fourth (see Nakienė/Žarskienė 2011, no. 6), but the fiddler doesn’t use them and they are very rare in Lithuanian fiddle music on the whole. 121 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 16: The song Sakale paukšteli, published in Nakienė/Žarskienė 2011, no. 13.

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Eastern Lithuanian Drone Fiddling

In the second half of the 20th century, the drone playing style of the fiddler Petras Strazdas was still very much appreciated among the members of his community, though there were folk fiddlers with some knowledge of musical notation who regarded him as being less skilled. Strazdas used to accompany “in deep voice” (Lt. storuoju balsu), as opposed to “the higher voice” (Lt. ant aukštųjų, meaning “on the higher strings or pitches”) in larger ensembles, consisting of one to three fiddles, an accordion and sometimes a guitar and a small drum with jingles, but we don’t have recordings of their ensemble music. According to the data of my field research, folk musicians playing melodic instruments (fiddle and clarinet or cornet) in ensembles in eastern Aukštaitija often played the same main melody. When asked how many voices there were and how they used to be divided up into the voices or parts, musicians would answer that these instruments were played in one voice or, without making a big difference, that a second voice played the same melody in unison or an octave lower (cf. Beitāne 2016, 93 – 95). Thus, the differentiation into first and second voices is not very clearly expressed in the traditional practice of eastern Aukštaitian instrumental dances, Marches and songs ensembles that include one fiddle. In 2011, I had the opportunity to listen to a tape containing music by Strazdas and his godson, a piano accordionist. The fiddle is hardly heard in this recording, but there was no doubt that he played only the main melody supported with open-string drones in all keys, also in B flat or F, which was remarkable (Kirdienė 2012, 81). So, it was obvious that even when playing in an ensemble Strazdas did not change his drone fiddling style. I was curious to know whether he fitted well into the ensemble with his godson, and the latter answered that Strazdas’ fiddle voice was very much appreciated, because “it is very beautiful when the fiddle cries” (Lt. priverkia). According to a choreographer and choir leader who started working in Bernotai village in 1966, Pranas Ulozas “was very highly valued and esteemed among the community members as he was one of the oldest musicians at that time, able to play old tunes and songs very well, very beautifully; he didn’t like more modern tunes so much … [In those times] he had to adjust himself to [any type of] accordion; the accordionist used to lead a melody [and the ensemble] …” According to her “the fiddle cries, indeed: [when a fiddler] starts bowing on the thin [meaning high] strings [and pitches], it tugs at one’s heart-strings”.9 Thus, fiddlers whose playing styles incorporated continuous drones were still very much appreciated in various instrumental ensembles in eastern Aukštaitija until the last decades of the 20th century, especially for the sound colour of the fiddle’s high pitches, played with an intensive vibrato, traditionally related to crying or ritual lamenting. The drones and various frequently dissonant chords coming out of 9 Angelė Taluntienė (Matiukaitė), born in 1947 in the village of Biržiniškiai, Ignalina district; documented by Kirdienė in 2016.

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Fig. 17: Strazdas with an accordionist playing at a Catholic community feast, after church, around the 1970s. From his family photo album. Used with permission.

such multipart music making were deeply rooted in tradition. Little attention was paid to them, because the drone was not very loud, being overshadowed by the accordion. In Dzūkija, musicians are very clearly aware of and greatly admire string ensembles including two or three fiddles and their divisions into three voices or parts. Their memories extend back to the 1920s and 1930s. According to them, the first fiddle or voice leads, the second (called antrinimas, turavojimas, sekunda in Lithuanian) plays an accompanying melodic line at intervals of a third, a fourth and a fifth below the main melody, and the third (called alto or bass, Lt. altavimas, bosijimas) plays a harmonic accompaniment incorporating open strings and double stops, mainly thirds, in pulsating eighth notes. Fiddlers have noticed that the bass part changed over time; at the beginning of the 20th century, it included more open strings than in the later decades (Kirdienė 2000, 109 – 110). In 1937, another way of playing the second fiddle part was recorded that combined sections of the main melody performed an octave below and harmonic accompaniment (Dance Engelčikas, LTR F pl. 305/8). Some fiddlers who were born in the 1920s have maintained precisely this way of playing the second voice. This is the case with Jonas Ragažinskas (1926 – 1996) and Naujoji Radziškė from Kalvarija rural district, Marijampolė district. 124 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Eastern Lithuanian Drone Fiddling

The masterful performances of a highly venerated Dzūkian fiddle duet (Antanas Labenskas and Albinas Bartnykas, who was born in 1926 in Lazdijai rural district and lived in Lazdijai) have been comprehensively recorded, also on Lithuanian Radio, since 1982. Labenskas didn’t change his drone style when playing in the duet, therefore an open string A is continuously heard alternately with the pitch h1 (see Valentukonis’ Polka Išėj diedas šieno pjaut [An Old Man Went to Make Hay], AV  16). Bartnykas, who attended short courses for choir leaders, only occasionally used open string accompaniment. When I asked him in 2016 why some folk fiddlers play with open-string drones, he answered: “For a greater boom” (Lt. dėl didesnio triukšmo). However, Labenskas tuned his fiddle a tone lower to be able to use drone g1 of the open string even when playing in an ensemble with a Hohner accordion (see the Valentos Polka named after the musician Antanas Valenta, AV  17).10 Thus, in Dzūkija, even some of the most skilled fiddlers of the younger generations have preserved all the characteristics in their drone playing styles when performing as leaders in ensembles with a second fiddle or with an accordion.

5. Conclusion Fiddling in eastern Lithuania incorporating all types of drones, as defined and discussed in this article (open-string drones below and sometimes above the melody, or stopped strings), is often linked with other archaic features of music, such as: modal (often minor-like) scales, frequent leaps from higher to lower strings, occasional transitional chromaticisms/microtones and rather free musical forms with three or four-bar structures. On the other hand, drones are also incorporated when performing melodies which usually are sung in a homophonic or mixed monophonic and homophonic way. A specific more or less intensive scratchy or zooming sound caused by the bow placed on the fingerboard, as well as the bow-stick sometimes reaching the strings, and active non-legato articulation or lifted bow strokes are typical, too. Features common to a local or a regional (drone) fiddling style can go beyond borders and are not dependent upon the national identity of the area’s fiddlers. Therefore, comparative investigations would be very meaningful. As late as the end of the 20th century and sometimes until recently, the characteristics of continuous drone fiddling styles were preserved when performing with voice or in an instrumental ensemble in eastern Lithuania. Fiddles were usually tuned to the range of the voice or to other instruments (mostly up to a fifth lower) in order to use

10 Both Polkas recorded by Kirdienė, Arvydas Kirda and Romualdas Apanavičius in 1994.

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open-string drones. Fiddlers (or other singers) sang the main, first (the same as that played) or second voice (while the second or first voice was played). In comparison to a sung voice, the fiddle’s part is usually more varied and ornamented. Fiddlers with continuous drone playing styles were still very much appreciated in various instrumental ensembles in eastern Aukštaitija, especially for the sound colour of the fiddle’s high pitches, played with an intensive vibrato, traditionally related to crying or ritual lamenting. The drones and various, frequently dissonant chords coming out of such multipart music making were deep-rooted in tradition. Little attention was paid to them, because the drone was not very loud, being overshadowed by the accordion. In Dzūkija, even some of the most venerated fiddlers of the younger generation, who came from families of musicians, played with continuous drones when performing not only solo, but also as leaders in an ensemble with a second fiddle or with an accordion. The multipart texture featured by such ensembles, vocal-instrumental or instrumental, is usually combined, encompassing drones (in some cases double or triple), heterophony, parallel thirds, fifths or sixths and/or homophony.

References Ahmedaja, Ardian. 2016. “The Designation of Concepts in Studies of Multipart Music.” Res Musica, 8. 28 – 43. Beitāne, Anda. 2016. “The Question of ‘Harmony’ in a Local Multipart Music Practice: Eastern Latvia as a Field for Terminological Experimentation.” Res Musica, 8. 87 – 99. Brandl, Rudolf. 1975. “Über das Phänomen Bordun (drone): Versuch einer Beschreibung von Funktion und Systematik [On the phenomenon of the drone. An attempt of a description of function and systematics].” In Beiträge zur Ethnomusikologie, 4: Studien zur Musik Südost-Europas. 90 – 103. ———. 1995. “Bordun [The drone]. ” In Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. 2nd ed., neubearb, Aufl., Sachteil 1, Band 1. Ludwig Finscher (Ed.). Kassel/Basel/London: Barenreiter. 69 – 75. ———. 2005. “Universale Basis-Definitionen von Mehrstimmigkeit, Polyphonie und Heterophonie (= multiple Abläufe) aus Sicht der Vergleichenden Musikwissenschaft. [Universal definitions of multipart texture, polyphony, and heterophony (= multiple processes) from the perspective of comparative musicology].” In Mehrstimmigkeit und Heterophonie. Bericht zur Tagung in Wien, 11. bis 12. Dezember 1999. Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft, 4. Gernot Gruber, August Schmidhofer, Michael Weber (Eds.). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 9 – 35. Dahlig, Piotr. 2004. “The Basy in Peasant and Highlanders’ Music in Poland.” Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. XII . Andreas Michel and Erich Stockmann (Eds.). Halle an der Saale: Verlag Janos Stekovics. 143 – 149.

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Killick, Andrew. 2006. “Holicipation: Prolegomenon to an Ethnography of Solitary Music-Making.” Ethnomusicology Forum. Vol. 15, no. 2. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the British Forum for Ethnomusicology. 273 – 299. Kirdienė, Gaila. 2000. Smuikas ir smuikavimas lietuvių etninėje kultūroje [Fiddle and fiddling in Lithuanian ethnoculture]. Vilnius: Kronta. ———. 2009. Tradicinė rytų aukštaičių vestuvių muzika [Traditional wedding music of Eastern Aukštaičiai]. Vilnius: Kronta. ———. 2010. “Die instrumentalen Volkstanzmelodien in Litauen und ihre Beziehungen zum verwandten Musikgut in Europa [The instrumental melodies of folk dances in Lithuania and their relations to the related musical heritage in Europe.” In Litauische Musik. Idee und Geschichte einer musikalischen Nationalbewegung in ihrem Europäischem Kontext [Lithuanian music. Idea and history of a musical national movement in its European context]. Audronė Žiuraitytė and Helmut Loos (Eds.). Leipzig: Gudrun Schröder Verlag. 48 – 72. ———. 2011. “Dzūkų smuikininkų repertuaras / The Repertoire of Dzūkai folk fiddlers (southeastern Lithuania).” In Lietuvos muzikologija / Lithuanian Musicology, 12. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija. 41 – 60. ———. 2012. “The Drone styles of Lithuanian Folk Fiddle Music.” In Routs and Roots. Fiddle and Dance Studies from around the North Atlantic 4. Ian Russel and Chris Goertzen (Eds.). 73 – 97. Kvifte, Tellef. 2000. “The researcher, the informant and the personal study of person.” In The Musician in Focus: Individual Perspectives in Nordic Ethnomusicology. Stockholm: The Royal Swedish Academy of Music. 25 – 35. Ling, Jan (Линг, Ян). 1981 (1975). Шведская народная музыка [Swedish folk music]. Москва: Музыка. (Svensk folkmusik. Stockholm: Prisma). Macchiarella, Ignazio. 2016. “Multipart Music as a Conceptual Toll. A Proposal.” Res Musica, 8. 9 – 27. Matsievskii, Igor’ (Мациевский, Игорь). 2007. Народная инструментальная музыка как феномен культуры [Folk instrumental music as a phenomenon of culture]. Алматы: Дайк Пресс. Morgenstern, Ulrich. 2009a. “‘Nothing but a bagpipe’. A Study of the Russian Volynka”. In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis I. New Series. Gisa Jähnichen (Ed.). Münster: Verlagshaus Monsenstein und Vannerdat OHG . 193 – 222. ——— (Моргенштерн, Ульрих). 2009b. “Волыночные наигрыши у русских гармонистов [Bagpipe tunes among Russian accordion players].” In Севернорусский сборник: oбряды, песни, наигрыши, плачи, ворожба. Сборник cтатьей и материалов, выпуск 1 [North-Belarussian collection: Costumes, songs, tunes, laments, fortune telling, vol. 1]. Aleksandr Romodin (Ed.). Санкт Петербург: Российский институт истории искусств. 168 – 208. ———. 2016. “European Traditions of Solo Multipart Instrumental Music. Terminological Problems and Perspectives.” Res Musica, 8. 100 – 115.

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Muktupāvels, Valdis. 2002. “Musical Instruments in the Baltic Region: Historiography and Traditions.” In The World of Music, 44 (3). Traditional Music in the Baltic Countries. A Journal of the Department of Musicology of Georg August University Göttingen. 21 – 54. Nakienė, Austė and Rūta Žarskienė (Eds.), Susanne Ziegler (Co-Ed.). 2011. Eduard Wolter’s Cylinders Recorded in Lithuania (1908 – 1909), Held in the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv. Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas / The Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Nakienė, Austė and Rūta Žarskienė (Eds.). 2004. Aukštaitijos dainos, sutartinės ir instrumentinė muzika. 1935 – 1941 metų fonografo įrašai / Songs, Sutartinės and Instrumental Music from Aukštaitija. Phonograph Records of 1935 – 1941. Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas. ——— (Eds.). 2005. Dzūkijos dainos ir muzika. 1935 – 1941 metų fotografo įrašai / Songs and music from Dzūkija. Phonograph Records of 1935 – 1941. Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas. Paliulis, Stasys. 1959. Lietuvių liaudies instrumentinė muzika. Pučiamieji instrumentai. Sudarė ir paruošė S. Paliulis [Lithuanian folk instrumental music. Wind instruments. Compiled and prepared by S. Paliulis]. Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla. Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė, Daiva. 2004. “Beieškant lietuvių ir latvių daugiabalsių dainų bendrybės [In search of a kinship of Lithuanian and Latvian multipart songs].” Liaudies kultūra, no. 4. Vilnius: Lietuvos liaudies kultūros centras. 16 – 25. ———. 2006. “Aukštaitija: daugiabalsio dainavimo tradicija [Aukštaitija: Multipart Singing Tradition].” In Aukštaičių tapatumo paieškos [In search for the identity of the Aukštaičiai]. Kaunas: Žiemgalos leidykla. 134 – 149. ———. 2011. “Interaction of Voice and Instrument in Lithuanian Multipart Music: Insider and Outsider Viewpoints.” In European Voices II . Cultural Listening and Local Discourse in Multipart Singing Traditions in Europe. CD and DVD with audio and video examples included. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 23. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 185 – 206. Sárosi, Bálint. 1972. “Instrumentalensembles in Ungarn. [Instrumental ensembles in Hungary].” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis, 2. Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikhistoriska museet. 116 – 136. ———. 1976. “Instrumentale Volksmusik in Ungarn [Instrumental folk music in Hungary].” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis, 4. Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikhistoriska museet. 115 – 41. Sildoja, Krista and Raivo Sildoja (Eds.). 1997. Pärnumaa viiuldajad: Esimene. Noodivihik ja CD [Fiddlers of the Pärnu district: First part. Transcriptions and CD ]. Signal processing and mastering by Kalle Kivistik. Viljandi: Trükiekspert Viljandi AS . Tõnurist, Igor. 1976. “The Estonian Bagpipe”. In The Bagpipes in Europe, part 1. The Brussels Museum of Musical Instruments Bulletin. Vol. 6. René Maeyer (Ed.). 47 – 54.

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Žarskienė, Rūta. 2011. “Užmirštieji muzikos instrumentai: dūdmaišis ir Lietuva [Forgotten Musical Instruments: The Bagpipe and Lithuania].” In Tautosakos darbai, XLII . Vilnius: The Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. 194 – 222.

Abbreviations LTRF [Lietuvių literatūros ir tautofsakos instituto Lietuvių tautosakos rankraštyno

fonoteka / Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Sound collection.] pl. [phonograph disc]. MFA K(L)F, MFA A [Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos Etnomuzikologijos skyriaus Garso įrašų archyvas / Sound Recordings Archive of the Department of Ethnomusicology, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Vilnius].

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II. Ensemble Traditions

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Speranța Rădulescu (English version: Adrian Solomon)

A Peculiar Form of Multipart Music in Romania and the Notation Issues it Entails

Abstract In some regions of Romania (Maramureș, Moldavia, Banat), under specific circumstances (see below), professional folk music ensembles produce a particular form of multipart rendition of lyrical melodies (songs). The melodies are always in a free rhythm and richly ornamented. Their first iteration, performed by the solo section leader, is followed, at short, irregular intervals, by one or several variants of the same melody performed in turns by the other soloists, also in a free rhythm, but with partially different ornaments. My students, with whom I discuss such situations, are tempted to compare the resulting multipart structure to the “canon” found in academic music. However, in their case, the time gap between successive versions of the same melody is variable, disordered and unpredictable; moreover, at issue is not one melody, but a group of distinct variants of it. What effect are the musicians seeking by using this multipart structure? I must admit that I was unable to squeeze a clear explanation from them. But, judging by the context in which it is produced (in the open air, in front of a numerous audience, at a time when no other event can distract their attention), this form of multipart music seems to aim at the strengthening and spatialization of the melody, the expansion of the performance time, and the revelation of the multitude of variants this melody can produce without losing its identity.

1. Melodies with echos 1.1 Episode 1 The phenomenon I am about to describe is not very frequent, which is why at the beginning of my professional career I did not pay special attention to it. I really became aware of it in 1997, while working with a folk brass band in central Moldavia, a region 133 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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in the east of Romania, contiguous with the Republic of Moldova 1. The band came from Zece Prăjini, a little village inhabited almost exclusively by Roma, where most men are musicians 2 who play winds 3. In its complete line-up, the Panțiru family band, with which I was working then, was made up of a melodic section, including two clarinets (one of which in E-flat) and three trumpets, and an accompanying section made up of three baritone flugelhorns, a helicon, a tuba and a snare drum with cymbal. The band played at weddings in restricted line-ups of five or six instruments, sometimes associated with an accordion or, in recent decades, with a synthesizer. But when a musician from Zece Prăjini died, the Panțiru men joined all the other musicians from the village to form a giant wind ensemble that played for the deceased man all the way to the graveyard. Most of the repertoire of this band, as with all folk bands in Moldavia, consisted of dance tunes performed with outstanding virtuosity and rhythmic precision in a quick or very quick tempo. As a matter of fact, I had noticed the absence of lyrical songs from the repertoire of the band, as well as the accompanying instrumentalists’ apparent incapacity to sustain long notes. (I believe that the two “shortcomings” condition each other, both deriving from particular regional aesthetics.) However, I asked the musicians to perform a song in free rhythm, a rhythm that Brăiloiu, following Béla Bartók’s suggestion, named parlando rubato 4. On the initiative of the band leader, the musicians chose a song and decided that it should be performed by two soloists — ​an E-flat clarinet and a trumpet — ​accompanied by a small instrumentalist group — ​two baritone flugelhorns and a tuba (see AV  18). What I got was a fascinating recording 5: the two soloists performed the song by adding their own individual melodic-rhythmic details at will and/or eliminating those of the fellow player, alternately dilating and contracting the melodic line, apparently at random. The trumpet player started his tune almost one second after the clarinet player, and performed it without caring about synchronization with his fellow player’s tune. The temporal “distance” between the versions of the two soloists was about the same at the beginning and at the end of 1 Both in Moldavia, the Romanian province, and Moldova, the neighbouring country, village brass bands are numerous and appreciated by locals. One of them, from the same village, Zece Prăjini, had great success in Western showbusiness under the name of Ciocârlia. 2 In accordance with tradition, instrument players in a band are always men. 3 In this village, most men play wind instruments or snare drums with cymbal, and group together (based on family ties, neighbourhood, affinities or necessity) in small bands at the service of potential customers. 4 The association of the two terms — ​rubato and parlando — ​yielded the expression parlando rubato, first put into circulation by Constantin Brăiloiu. Today the expression is frequently used by ethnomusicologists from France, Switzerland, Italy and Romania, and occasionally by a few ethnomusicologists from the US and Canada. 5 This ritual song for the bride is included at Track 13 on the CD Peasant Brass Bands from Moldavia / Fanfares paysannes de Moldavie: Zece Prăjini (2000).

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musical phrases, meaning that despite the variable inner out-of-syncs and different details, by and large both were playing at the same tempo. The accompaniment, performed by three instruments, built up from rhythmically rigorous rhythmic-harmonic figurations at a quick tempo: a succession of quaver attacks in staccato performed on the beats and syncopations of the tuba and baritone flugelhorns respectively. The very loose temporal coordination between the melody and the accompaniment was entirely the task of the small rhythmic-harmonic section. To be more exact: the harmonic displacements of the latter generally followed the melodic contour of the two versions in disorderly superposition. Soon I realized that transcribing the music of the two soloists in the Western notation system was very difficult, if not impossible, let alone the transcription of the discourse in its melodic-harmonic entirety 6. But I will get back to this topic later. Three years later, in 2000, I arranged a reiteration of the soloists’ heterophony or “disordered polyphony” — ​these are two of the preliminary terms I use for the multipart structure they produce. I asked a group of three middle-aged instrumentalists from the same band, who played an E-flat clarinet and two trumpets 7, to perform the same song together, this time without accompaniment. Thus, I spared them the “complication” that might have been induced by the superposition between their free-rhythm, double-echo melody and an accompaniment that perfectly fits the 2/4 or 4/4 beat, thinking that in this way I was giving them more freedom of movement. The three musicians produced three melodic versions without effort, as if this had been a very easy task, either in the given situation or, at any rate, previously (see AV  19). Unfortunately, back then I did not attempt to extract from our discussions the reasons for producing this type of multipart structure. I only noticed that the start of a melodic phrase and the end of another would overlap, though without any excess, as if the musicians were cautious to avoid a confusing sound. In November 2015 I invited another band from the same village to provide entertainment in the courtyard of the Romanian Peasant Museum on the occasion of the launch of a book on ethnomusicology. I asked the soloist musicians to perform the 6 My first experience of this kind, which now I consider a failure, consisted in transcribing a piece performed by a violin and a cimbalom, where the violin produced a free-rhythm melody and the cimbalom a rigorously measurable accompaniment that perfectly fit a 10/16 beat (3+2+3+2). Patiently, I worked out a final version of this notation, which I analysed and included in the article Analysis of a “lăutăresc” musical text (Rădulescu 1977). I did then what Béla Bartók himself had done in several cases: I noted down exactly what I heard. Later I detached myself from this way of transcribing pieces in parlando rubato. 7 Two of them were the clarinet and trumpet players from the previous version of the piece: Costică Panțiru and Cristinel Cantea. The third was the trumpet player Mihai Trifan. This version is included at Track 28 on Authentic Romania 2001.

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same song, among others. The members of the band, most of them from a younger generation, performed it, but were not capable of producing the “polyphony-heterophony” with their parents’ naturalness and proficiency.

1.2 Episode 2 In the same year of 1997, I was in the village of Lăpușnicu Mare in Banat, a region in the southwest of the country, by the Serbian border, about 500 km away from the Moldavian village. I was working with Romanian musicians of a much more complex band with quite a different instrumental makeup. The melodic instruments were less strident: two soprano flugelhorns, a B-flat clarinet, two trumpets. The accompanying ones — ​two althorns, a piston trombone, a bass flugelhorn, two euphoniums, a trumpet, a helicon, a bass helicon, a mid-sized drum with cymbal — ​could play long sounds easily, a sign that the local musical aesthetics were different. Going back a hundred years in the village 8, the band used to perform at various public meetings: the village Sunday dance in front of the church, religious processions and festivals, weddings, funerals, the annual festival of the sons of the village, national holidays, etc. In the summer it would play in the music pavilion of a nearby spa town, Herculane. The village of Lăpușnicu Mare, densely populated and with some financial potential, could afford a large band on important occasions. This meant that the entire band consisting of 16 instrument players could join forces quite frequently. There were quite a few elderly musicians in it, whose performing style was “old-time”. The repertoire consisted of lyrical songs and dance tunes as well as Marches and personal works in folk spirit. The first pieces this band performed for me on their own initiative were free-rhythm lyrical songs, parlando rubato, known by all the inhabitants of Banat as doine and very much appreciated 9. The solo instruments were many: several soprano flugelhorns, two trumpets, a flute, a clarinet, a cornet and occasionally a tuba. They were all engaged in the slightly out-of-sync production of the melody. The outcome was a dense “disordered polyphony” (or “polyphony-heterophony”) which left the impression of music with a multiple echo (see AV  20). The time gap between the entrance of an instrument and that of another was approximately the same. As the number of melodic versions

8 In the first decades of the 20th century, folk bands played an important role in the struggle for the construction of a cultural identity of Romanians in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and later, when Banat became part of Romania, in the construction of a regional and national musical culture. The band’s often reconditioned banner is still kept at the Culture House with religious care. 9 The lyrical songs I am referring to are included on the CD Fanfara din Lăpușnicu Mare / Songs and Dances with the Brass Band from Lăpușnicu Mare (2008).

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involved was high, the beginning of a phrase often overlapped the last sounds of the phrase previously played by another instrument, something that did not bother the musicians in the least. The accompanying section played long notes that freely formed tonal chords: each instrument player breathed whenever and as much as he needed to without being influenced by the breath of the others. I followed the band from Lăpușnicu Mare for more than five years and I was very sad every time one of its veterans passed away. They were gradually replaced by younger men who had lost interest in the particular polyphonic-heterophonic way of performing lyrical songs in free rhythm. On several occasions I unsuccessfully tried to get performances similar to those of the veterans from them, but to no avail. The rejuvenated band withdrew into local dance music and gradually slid into the predictable conventionalism of a folkloric ensemble 10. However, from my discussions with two British ethnochoreologists who settled in Banat a few years ago, Liz Melish and Nick Green, I understood that not far from Lăpușnic, in the town of Caransebeș, there are still many musicians who perform “in waves”, especially before a performance, when they tune in together preparing for an instrumental lyrical song.

1.3 Episode 3 In the year 2000 I was in the village of Hoteni in the province of Maramureș, in the extreme northwest of Romania, about 500 km away from both Zece Prăjini and Lăpușnicu Mare. I had been observing the village and the region for more than a decade. I was recording some local music that I was planning to put on disc, performed by Ioan Pop’s small traditional ensemble, which included — ​as in most cases in the region — ​a violin player (ceteraș), a guitar player (zongoraș), and a percussionist (dobaș), who played a mid-sized drum with cymbal), all of them Romanians. For the occasion, the ensemble was larger than usual, because Ioan Pop had invited another two very good violinists from other Maramureș villages to play, in succession, their own pieces for the recording. At some point we got to the Bride’s Song, a ritual piece in free rhythm performed instrumentally at least three times during nuptial ceremonies 11. Ioan Pop’s musicians wanted to play it together with the guest violinists, as usually happens at a certain moment during the wedding, which I am describing now (see also AV  21): 10 In Romania, as in the other ex-communist countries of Europe, “folkloric ensembles” are musical or musical-choreographic groups set up, subsidized and controlled in every aspect by the bureaucratic apparatus of the state. Their music is always standardized. 11 The song is included at Track 11 on the CD Romanian, Ukrainian and Jewish Music from Maramureș / Musique roumaine, ukrainienne et Juive de Maramureș (2002).

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On Sunday morning, the most important and eventful day of the wedding, the bridegroom and the bride, escorted by relatives, family friends and a group of musicians, both leave in procession from their respective houses for the church, where the religious service is to be held. Heading each retinue are three to four musicians who perform without interruption. In front of the church, the bride and the groom meet, and they enter together. Their wedding godparents, close relatives, and some of the elderly of the two processions accompany them to the marriage ceremony. Meanwhile, the young people and the two groups of musicians remain outside. There, the groom’s and the bride’s musicians join into a single band and play together the Bride’s Song (horea miresei), immediately followed by a series of dance tunes. During this song, the violin players produce multipart sequences that are very similar to those of the bands from Zece Prăjini and Lăpușnicu Mare. From discussions between the musicians, I understood that they call this type of performance “under the church bridge” 12, probably evoking either a specific village where the performance and the dance take place in such a space, or simply the small walkway in front of every church. The accompaniment is provided by the guitar (zongoră)13 and the drum, and consists of major chords scattered in time in a disordered fashion, and as unpredictably punctuated by the drum and the cymbal.

1.4 Episode 4 In 2005 I was in Switzerland, participating in a festival of traditional musics organized by the Italian ethnomusicologist Filippo Bonini Baraldi. One of the small traditional instrumental ensembles invited by the organizer was a rural Greek band from Epirus, consisting of a violin, a clarinet, an accordion and a double bass. I am sorry to say I do not have a recording of their music. However, I can say that in its lyrical songs in free rhythm, the violin and the clarinet wove together the same melody in slightly different versions, spaced in time at variable intervals, against the background of long notes with irregular duration played by the accompanying instruments — ​the accordion and the double bass. I am not an expert in Balkan musics, but I have listened to quite a lot of traditional music from various countries of the peninsula, hoping to discover similar performing styles. I was convinced that they existed. I did not find them, but I did not give up either: I am still looking for them. After all, it took me years of practice in my profession to discover the phenomenon in the music of my own country. 12 In Romania, rural Christian churches are often built on hills, near the village they overlook. 13 It is an ordinary, classical guitar with only four strings (la — ​mi — ​la — ​do#) tuned to allow the playing of major chords. The guitar is used only as an accompaniment instrument, its strings being simultaneously plucked with a small piece of wood.

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2. The time, space, sound density and variational potential of melodies with echoes The disordered polyphonies described above, like other similar ones, occur only in specific conditions, which I sum up below: – the ensemble must include not one, but several solo musicians. This was quite uncommon half a century ago, in particular in rural areas 14; and it is still very rare nowadays, albeit for a different reason: since the advent of the synthesizer, which incorporates the timbres and melodic-rhythmic patterns of several instruments, and of powerful amplifiers to which all the bands are connected, event organizers have been hiring ever-smaller ensembles; – the ensemble must perform in the open air before a relatively large crowd of listeners; – the ensemble must perform either ritual or occasional slow pieces in free rhythm (lyrical songs, doine 15); – finally, its audience must be accustomed to this style of performance and appreciate it. The resulting polyphony is deliberately disordered. The musicians produce it with the following intentions: – the horizontal dilation of the pieces, or the expansion of their timing; – an echo effect, even if it is “distorted” 16, that gives the impression that the sound events occur in an ample space, open in all directions. This impression of space is sometimes deliberately emphasized by soloists, who during the performance turn themselves and their wind instruments or violins in various directions; – the vertical dilation of the pieces: the solo instruments that sometimes play in different registers lend a kind of density and substance to the sound, enriching it with distinct melodic and ornamental details performed by different instruments; – the quasi-simultaneous (more exactly: with minor, unpredictable time lags and variable, unpredictable durations) display of the various forms that one and the same tune can assume without losing its identity, which highlights its virtual variability. The musicians involved aim to distinguish themselves from their fellow musicians through versions that reveal their personality.

14 In the mid-20th century, a traditional ensemble included only three, four, or a maximum of five instruments. It extended to seven or eight instruments only in the 1970 – 1980s. 15 Doine (sing. doina) are lyrical rubato songs with a free structure. 16 I reiterate that the “echo” or “echoes” of the melody are versions that differ from the initial one in their rhythmic and ornamental details—that is the reason why I consider the echo to be “distorted”.

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Disordered polyphony seems to pertain to a particular aesthetics of music that simultaneously values the time, space, sound density and variational potential of the melodies. As I was saying, the phenomenon described in the four episodes above seems to be rare. It may have always been so, because it is related to relatively large ensembles with specific instrumental line-ups and rather limiting circumstances of the musical performance; or it may have become rare because present-day musicians are about to abandon it, like the young people in the bands from Zece Prăjini and Lăpușnicu Mare. One fact — ​to which my colleague Florin Iordan drew my attention — ​gave me food for thought, though. For two to three decades now, bands which almost always perform with aggressive amplification 17 have been using the echo effect abundantly. Their entire sound discourse is resumed by the electronic devices several times at progressively decreasing intensities, the fadeout of an echo mingling confusingly with the beginning of the next musical phrase. Certainly, the electronic echoes are mechanical. They are “exact” because they occur at regular intervals, always the same, and the melodies they project in superposition are strictly identical. Could the present-day echo possibly be an imitation of the disordered polyphony I have mentioned?

3. The “soft” version of disordered polyphonies The situations described above underscore complex multipart structures obtained through echo in melodies. These are clear-cut situations in which the disordered polyphony (or heterophony) is explicit. However, in more ambiguous situations in which it is not necessarily related to performance in the open air, the echo effect is more veiled, the resulting sound is less complex, and the functions and significations of the music are different. Here are a few: In Oaș, a small region in the far northwest of Transylvania, the quasi-unique, multifunctional musical genre of the traditional local music is the danț. Danț tunes, which are very remodelable and to a great extent made ad hoc, may be performed either in a giusto rhythm (de jucat, i. e. for dancing), or in a free rhythm (de țîpurit, to be performed vocally, instrumentally, or both). The versions of a de jucat tune, although they differ among themselves from the perspective of an outsider, are identified by the inhabitants of the region as one and the same danț. The danțuri are often performed by a violin and a voice. In the former case, de jucat, it is the violin that leads the melody in its more complex, ornamented form, while the voice performs a simplified version, 17 The only situation in which small traditional instrumental ensembles perform without amplification is when they lead processions. There are many such situations during the nuptial ritual.

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simultaneously or at a small, variable interval. In the latter case, de țîpurit, it is the voice that leads the melody, while the violin follows at a short but necessary interval as it allows the instrument player to follow the mostly unpredictable course established by the vocalist. The ensuing disordered polyphony is not always striking, but it does exist, and its role is to allow the two protagonists to affirm their personalities — ​within the technical limits of their instrument and voice respectively. In the villages and cities of Muntenia (a province in the south of Romania), the instruments of a solo section of a musical ensemble (taraf) simultaneously perform the same melody in versions as similar as possible to the one suggested by their leader, the violinist (primaș). However, in some limited segments of the discourse, they may become engaged in a succinct polyphony-heterophony resembling those described above. In the same province, at wedding banquets, epical songs (Rom. cântece bătrânești, sing. cântec bătrânesc) used to be performed until the late 19th century 18. The voice that carried the lyrics was that of the first violinist, who played several roles simultaneously: leader of the entire ensemble, instrument player, head of the solo section, and vocalist. In certain circumstances, his accompanists assumed the role of singers and sang the last halves of his vocal phrases with a slight time gap 19. The out-of-sync doubling fortified the overall sound and underscored the lyrics, which was especially useful when the band performed without amplification for a large audience. In Bukovina, a province in the northeastern extremity of Romania, funeral dirges (bocetele, sing. bocet) were once performed by female voices, murmured as a sort of distorted pipe echo, as can be observed in a disc recording made by Constantin Brăiloiu in the 1930s. The dirge I am referring to 20 became well-known in musicology: in the 1950s it was transcribed by the reputable composer Pascal Bentoiu and commented on by the folklorist Tiberiu Alexandru (Alexandru 1956) and the composer Ștefan Niculescu (Niculescu 1972). Bentoiu’s transcription has since been the “classical” example of heterophony evoked by various composers and musicologists in public speeches or articles as an argument for the folk origin of the elaborate heterophonies from the works of the national composer George Enescu 21. Later, in 2003, I recorded 18 Today, most epical songs have died out. The few remaining ones have shrunk considerably. 19 The phenomenon can be observed in Cântarea lui Ioniță, included at Track 5 on the CD Cântările bătrânești ale lui Gică Diricel / Gică Diricel’s Old Songs (2015). 20 The dirge is included at Track 11 in the box set Roumanie: musique de villages / Village Music from Romania, released only in 1988. 21 Those who cited the example had never heard the recording. But this did not seem to carry much weight: for most academic musicians, notation was tantamount to the sound image it represented. For some of them, the notation in question was a powerful argument in support of the (then politically recommendable) idea that the national identity of Romanian musical creation was based on the integration of rural folklore into academic works.

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an instrumental song for the bride in the same province of Bukovina myself: in it, the pipe imitated the violin, assuming the same types of melodic and rhythmic liberties 22. Another dirge that I heard (but did not record) in 1985 was sung by the side of a dead woman in the village of Nimigea in Bistrița Năsăud, a county in northeastern Transylvania. Four women, close relatives of the deceased woman (her daughter, sister, daughter-in-law and sister-in-law respectively) were wailing simultaneously, but at variable and relatively ample time intervals, on distinct versions of the same melody. The sung lyrics were different and described their individual relationships with the departed. Three of the wailers set their melody at the same height; the fourth performed at a higher level 23. Through this way of performing, the women expressed solidarity in the face of a common loss in the musical terms practiced in their village 24, but at the same time they protected their own individual past connected to the deceased woman and displayed their own personalities. A wailing song collected in 1991 in the village of Bixad in Oaș (the extreme northwest of the country) reveals the same characteristics 25. The Italian ethnomusicologist Filippo Bonini Baraldi signals a similar phenomenon in the music of the Gypsies from the Transylvanian village of Ceuaș 26: When several musicians play together, the differences in style [among the performers] produce a heterophonic effect: the superposition of personalized melodic-rhythmic patterns and the diversity of ornaments create lags that amplify the desynchronization and rhythmic irregularity effect already existing in the performance of a single violin player.

Quand plusieurs musiciens jouent ensemble, ces différences de style produisent un effet d’hétérophonie: la superposition de formules melodico-rythmiques personnalisées et la diversité des ornements créent des décalages qui amplifient l’effet de désynchronisation et d’irrégularité rythmique déjà existant dans le jeu d’un seul violoniste. (Bonini Baraldi 2015, 24)

22 The piece is included at Track 15 on the CD Muzică veche din Moldova de Sus / Old music from North Moldavia (2004). 23 The resulting sound was, I believe, very close to that described by Steven Feld with the Kaluli people (Feld 1990, 100). See below. 24 In Transylvania, and also in many other places all over Romania, each village has a single wailing song used by all the women. In the village of Bixad in Oaș, the authors of the book À tue tête… (Bouet et al. 2002) recognized in 1991 the wailing song collected by Constantin Brăiloiu in the same village in the 1930s, included in his book Bocete din Oaș / Wailing Songs from Oaș (Brăiloiu 1938). 25 The wailing song is included in the box set Les voix du monde, CD 1, Track 6, and described in Chapter XXII A & B of the book À tue tête… (Bouët et al. 2002, 221 – 223). 26 The village is inhabited by Hungarian-speaking Roma. Some of them are professional musicians hired for parties by Hungarians, Romanians and Roma. For each ethnic group the musicians perform the appropriate music: their triple competence gives them the chance to distinguish the specific features of each ethnic music and bear them in mind during the performance.

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Later on, the author mentions that the phenomenon occurs in Romanians’ slow pieces for listening.

4. Notation of disordered polyphonies The presentation of the multipart structures described in the Episodes 1 – 4 and the following ones could have been more precise and nuanced had I been able to transcribe and analyse (or rather analyse and transcribe?) the pieces that put them at the forefront. I admit I have not done so. I faced a few major problems: First, the notation of melodies in free rhythm is very difficult. It forces one to weigh up the possible graphic solutions and select those that involve a minimum of deviations from the sound reality of reference, and most of all from the way in which the performers conceive of their own music. I will provide more explanation on this issue below. Second — ​which chronologically comes first — ​the melodic versions involved in these structures were difficult to distinguish from one another by simply listening, especially when they were produced by instruments with similar timbres — ​two or more violins, or two trumpets, or two soprano flugelhorns. Simha Arom, who studied the dense polyphonies from central Africa for a long time, devised a multi-track recording technique that enabled him to note the melodies of a dense polyphonic discourse 27. But this technique implies the presence of equipment and abilities that are not always at the disposal of a researcher. The third problem that one who has overcome the first two (which was not the case with me!) would face is to lay out the desynchronized melodic variants of the same parlando rubato melody in a graphical superposition which is able to highlight both the irregular rhythmic desynchronizations between them and the temporal dimensions of these desynchronizations. But variable rhythm lags are impossible to quantify in the absence of a stable pulsation of the sound discourse. Sometimes I thought that the problem could be solved by turning to a special electroacoustic technology. The outcome of such a device-assisted manoeuvre could be a mathematical formula, a graph or a geometric figure, which would be significant to a musician, but would not entirely supplant notation 28.

27 “Arom recorded each voice or instrument of a piece in sequence, using two stereo recorders synchronized together. After recording one part on one tape recorder, the second singer or instrumentalist listened to the recording on headphones and performed his part on a second, synchronized tape recorder” (Rice 2014, 38). 28 Concerned with the frequent desynchronizations in the music of the ceterași from Csavas, which he considers subsumed to the local aesthetics of time lags (esthétique du décalage), Filippo Bonini Baraldi

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Finally, the fourth problem consists in the addition — ​underneath the disordered polyphony — ​of accompaniment with a precise measured rhythm, with regular pulsations 29 — ​as described in Episode 1 — ​or accompaniment with a free rhythm, perhaps with pulsations differing from those of the melodies — ​as described in Episodes 2 – 4. I suppose the problem could be set on track for a resolution, whether partial and/or temporary, by using some of the graphical solutions adopted by composers during the age of radical modernism, especially by those of the Darmstadt circle. I will now return to the first problem of noting free rhythm melodies.

5. A few opinions of ethnomusicologists about free rhythm and its notation According to Martin Clayton, free rhythm is the rhythm of a music without meter; to others, it is the rhythm of a music without pulse (Clayton 1996, 326 – 327). “However we distinguish ‘art’ and ‘folk’ musics, free rhythm occurs in both categories” (Clayton 1996, 324). “Free rhythm forms show a preference for solo performance — ​yet there are the significant exceptions of one or two genres performed in unison, several polyphonic song styles (especially in eastern Europe), and the Javanese pathetan […], which features a rather different type of heterophony” (Clayton 1996, 324). The issue of free rhythm, in his opinion, is neglected by musicology, although this rhythm is present in many traditional cultures: “‘long songs’ of Romania, Mongolia and elsewhere”, […] “recitation of religious texts […] in Christian, Jewish, Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist and Shinto traditions, […] some shaman ceremonies (for instance in Korea). In art music, we must consider both vocal and instrumental forms right across the Arab and Arab-influenced world from North Africa and the Balkans, through the Middle East and Turkey into Central Asia (the most common names for free rhythm forms being taksim in Turkey and the Arab world, and avaz in Persia.” (Clayton 1996, 323 – 324). The reasons of this neglect are “the relatively unimportant role free rhythm plays in Western music, and the apparent lack of indigenous theories on free rhythm in the cultures where it is prominent” (Clayton 1996, 323). Judit Frigyesi propounds a definition that partially coincides with Clayton’s: rhythm with a free or regular pulse. The author makes an important mention, i. e. that the

(Bonini Baraldi 2013) undertook several lab experiments on this aspect. As a result, he came up with graphs and schemata presenting in parallel (actually in superposition) the movements of the violin and viola players. Later he interpreted these desynchronizations through a verbal discourse. 29 In two of the cases presented above, described in Episodes 2 (the band from Lăpușnicu Mare) and 3 (the small ensemble from Maramureș) respectively, the harmonic accompaniment is not segmented by regular pulsations.

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term “free rhythm” is problematic in several regards: it is not entirely acceptable in (this) restricted sense either, i. e. with the meaning “free or regular pulse”, because in many cases there is a kind of pulse in any performance (see Frigyesi 1999, 57)30. In her opinion, the first ethnomusicologist who brought the existence of free rhythm to attention was Béla Bartók, in connection with a Transylvanian bugle sound: “In an essay on the folklore of instruments in 1911 he presented a transcription of irregular rhythms in bugle calls, adding the remark: It should be understood that the tempo of the bugle calls, like that of the folk songs, is not constant […]. In fact, the rhythm is neither rubato nor a strict dance-step, and it often comes nearer to a parlando performance” (Frigyesi 1982, 328) — ​hence the expression parlando-rubato (or parlando rubato)31. Later, however, Frigyesi adds that the rubato may become rigid (peut se durcir), changing into a giusto with equal or unequal values, e. g. 2 plus 3. Noticing the free rhythm and drawing attention to some of its features is one thing, but making actual musical notations that enable a conventional analytical examination is another 32. The first to achieve this was, according to Frigyesi, Bartók again. The problem is that some of the composer’s transcriptions “attempt to indicate rhythm with great precision (see e. g., Bartok, 1967: ii, 613a, as cited by Frigyesi and Laki, 1979 – 80), although most ethnomusicologists would now be more cautious about the use of such a ‘phonetic’ approach” (Clayton 1996, 326). When he immersed himself in the notation of the tiniest melodic-rhythmic details, Bartók risked moving away from the manner in which the musicians thought of their own music. To Simha Arom and Frank Alvarez-Péreyre, this manner seems more important to an ethnomusicologist than the audible side of the music, i. e. the sound. They call a transcription that captures the image of the piece as it appears in the minds of its performers “modélisée”:

30 “La définition du rythme libre est tout aussi inadéquate: dans toutes les musiques à rythme soi-disant libre, nous entendons d’une façon ou d’une autre une périodicité et une pulsation” (Frigyesi 1999, 57). 31 See footnote 4. 32 Negar Booban is absolutely convinced that notation is the only way of analysing free rhythm “as you’ll have to have some basic understanding of the matter in order to write it down and at the same time it won’t be possible to start analysing and come to such understanding if you can’t make any written records. So, the analytical approach toward free rhythm has not come to much achievement yet” (Booban 2010, 2).

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In some cases, an in-depth investigation may reach the point where musicians come to materialize the mental reference on which the performance of each piece is based, in other words, its model. Modelized notation reveals this structural reference shared by all the performances of a piece, besides the variations it admits.

Dans certains cas, une enquête approfondie peut atteindre le point où les musiciens parviennent à matérialiser la référence mentale sur laquelle est fondée l’exécution de chaque pièce, en d’autres termes, son modèle. La partition modélisée fait apparaître cette référence structurelle, commune à toutes les réalisations d’un même morceau, par-delà l’ensemble des variations qu’il admet. (Arom/Alvarez-Péreyre 2007, 65)

In my professional career I have often been in a situation where I had to transcribe parlando rubato songs. My endeavour capitalized on the fact that Brăiloiu provided solid structural references pertaining not to the model of a specific piece or another, but to the structure of sung folk verse and, intrinsically, the structure of the melodic phrase of Romanian folk music (Brăiloiu 1973, 195 – 270). What he referred to was the phrasal pattern that he named “trochaic octosyllable”, into which people pour their musical pieces without exception, both vocal (Brăiloiu 1973, 195 – 270) and instrumental ones. This is a metrical pattern consisting of eight units, with accents on units 1, 3, 5, and 7, the one actualized by folk musicians in the simplest rhythmical form (i. e. in equal duration values) only when they perform ex tempore during a dance, or when an ethnomusicologist asks them to dictate their lyrics. In musical pieces, however, actualization may be achieved through any rhythmic values, irrespective of the relations between them, and irrespective of whether these relations are rational or not (Rădulescu 2009)33. Brăiloiu theorized the structure of the sung verse and minutely described the scenarios by means of which it is embodied in musical pieces. In fact, Bartók had discovered the metrical pattern before him (Frigyesi 1982, 333), but, as I mentioned above, his transcriptions were not always produced with a view to clearly highlighting it, as the composer preferred to focus on a graphical representation of real durations which was as accurate as possible. However, for Romanian music the key is the “trochaic octosyllable” phrasal metrical pattern, because it helps the ethnomusicologist identify the inner articulations of the vocal and instrumental phrases, no matter how densely ornamented they are, and no matter how free their rhythmic structure may be. It is also the pattern with which folk musicians identify themselves with most certainty, whatever the meanders of the song they are performing or listening to.

33 To prevent the discussion from getting too intricate, I deliberately omitted the fact that durations are also dependent on the immediate melodic context, chief ly on their position in the musical phrase and the musical section they belong to.

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I append here two of my own notations. The former (Figure 1; see also AV  22) is a lyrical song wherein the free rhythm can be followed that is laid out depending on the trochaic octosyllabic metrical pattern it encompasses. (The syllables that close every phrase are void of meaning, as they are added by the performer only to complete the octosyllabic pattern in his mind.) The piece was collected in the 1950s from the peasant Poantă Husari from the village of Cerișor in Hunedoara county (southern Transylvania), and included, at Track 26, on the CD The Historic Series World Library of Folk and Primitive Music. Volume XVII : Romania, compiled and edited by Alan Lomax (re-edition). Cambridge: Rounder Records Corp., 11661‑1759‑2, 2001.

Fig. 1: Transcription of a lyrical song (see AV  22).

The latter (Figure 2; see also AV  23) is the transcription of the instrumental version of a Romani song, Mahala și țigănie (Slum and Gypsy Skid Row). The piece was recorded in 2009 by the Bucharest violinist Vasile Năsturică, accompanied by a small ensemble comprised of an accordion, midsized cimbalom and double bass. In this one, the accented positions from the melodic phrases are a bit harder, but not impossible to detect. The piece, which in our recording is followed without interruption by a dance tune, was included at Track 1 on the CD Muzică lăutărească cu taraful Vasile Năsturică / Lăutărească Music with Vasile Năsturică’s Ensemble, Ethnophonie 019.

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Fig. 2: The transcription of the instrumental version of the Romani song Mahala și țigănie (Slum and Gypsy Skid Row), (see AV  23).

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The ideal is for a modelized notation to be rendered in sound after being written down, then presented to the musicians in this form in order to get their approval or disapproval. I attempted such validation in Țara Oașului, in a team made up of Jacques Bouët, Bernard Lortat-Jacob and Speranța Rădulescu (Bouët et al. 2002). The objective of the team was in fact to determine whether the inhabitants of the Oaș recognize the pieces collected from their region more than 80 years before by Béla Bartók 34. We were surprised to discover that the sound rendition of the exceptionally minute transcriptions made by the composer was met with some reservation, and sometimes even criticized by the musicians of Oaș 35. I understood then that excessively detailed and accurate musical notation as far as rhythm is concerned has fewer chances of being accepted by insiders of rural musical culture, because it may conceal or even be at odds with the octosyllabic phrasal pattern deeply implanted in the Romanian psyche.

6. Heterophonies described and/or defined in (ethno)musicological literature I have attempted to identify a few works in ethnomusicological and musicological literature that involve multipart structures similar to those presented here, as I was interested in the way in which their authors described, analysed, interpreted and named them. One of them is a description of heterophony suggested by Guido Adler, cited by Bruno Nettl and Philip Bohlman (Nettl/Bohlman 1991). It is not clear whether in his work “Über Heterophonie” published in 1908 Adler is referring to ordinary heterophony (which he classifies as “a category of style”) or heterophony where the voices involved have time gaps. The author presents it as “a polyphony without rules […] with cohesion left largely to chance,” a description to which Erich von Hornbostel seems to subscribe (Nettl/Bohlman 1991, 18). Adler adds that “[T]he original impulse and tendency to play heterophonic music constitutes the basic and leading case of the origin and development of polyphony.” Thus, Adler draws heterophony and polyphony closer together; the latter, in his opinion, being the end point of the former. However, this closeness is not confirmed in the case of Romanian musics, in which heterophonies gradually fade away (as in the cases of the music from Zece 34 In 1912 Bartók undertook a 10-day field research trip in the Oaș. 35 They were two vocal “danț” songs that a peasant rejected because “the rhythm doesn’t work, it’s not good” (see Bouët et al. 2002, 256 – 261), and an instrumental dance “danț” that was corrected by the best ceteraș of Oaș, who performed a version of it that radically modified its metrical pattern (Bouët et al. 2002, 262 – 273).

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Prăjini and Lăpușnicu Mare) without the slightest indication that they ever tended towards polyphony. (In fact, polyphony in the restricted, “classical” sense is entirely absent from Romanian rural musics.) Half a century after Adler’s work, two significant things occurred. First, the traditional world musics, now comparatively more accessible, drew the attention of “scholarly” musicians. Second, avant-garde composers began to cultivate texture in their works — ​a multipart structure consisting of clusters of sound events in which the over-abundant details can no longer be perceived, nor do they matter except via the overall effect of their juxtaposition and/or superposition. In this context, Pierre Boulez, the French composer who dominated new European music for decades, becomes interested in the still vague concept of heterophony which he defines as the “superposition on a primary structure of a modified aspect of the same structure (Boulez 1971, 117” [1963, 135 – 136]). Not a word about a possible time gap between the “primary” structure and the one “with a modified aspect.” Boulez propounds yet another definition, which fine-tunes the first one: “a structural repartition of identical pitches differentiated through divergent temporal coordinates, manifested in distinct intensities and timbres” (o repartiție structurală de înălțimi identice, diferențiate prin coordonate temporale divergente, manifestate în intensități și timbruri distincte, Niculescu 1972, 137). Not a word about the fact that the pitches may be less than identical: at that moment, Boulez had in mind serial music and its perfectly predictable successions of pitches, in whose future he strongly believed. Ștefan Niculescu, a more pedantic and logical disciple of Boulez, amends and refines both definitions. On the one hand, he draws attention to the fact that in traditional world musics “details” are often improvised and therefore cannot be identical. On the other hand, this time from the perspective of the avant-garde music he practiced himself, Niculescu decided that textures are heterophonic structures, irrespective of the principles of organization of the sound material they incorporate. Initially an almost neglected sound phenomenon, in any case subsumed to polyphony in the European academic tradition, heterophony gradually infiltrated the works of composers-researchers of other musical cultures then, in serial thinking, it became a standalone structure, equal in rights to the other fundamental structures — ​a structure controlled in-depth, since serialism is the most comprehensive technique of details — ​ and eventually became generalized all over

Din fenomen sonor apropape neglijat și în orice caz subsumat polifoniei în tradiția cultă europeană, eterofonia s-a impus treptat în opera compozitorilor cercetători ai altor culturi muzicale, a devenit apoi, în gândirea serială, o structură de sine stătătoare și egală în drepturi față de celelalte structuri fundamentale — ​structură controlată în amănunt, pentru că serialismul este cea mai cuprinzătoare tehnică a detaliului — ​și s-a generalizat, în sfârșit, pe toată zona aglomerării, incorporând profilul celorlalte

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the crowded area, incorporating the profiles of the other fundamental phenomena and becoming one with the notion of texture.

fenomene fundamentale și confundându-se cu noțiunea de textură. (Niculescu 1972, 139)36

Thanks to Niculescu, the serial texture drawn under the umbrella of heterophony finally acquired a definition and an honourable musicological status. The problem is that serial technique went out of fashion, but the texture outlived it: only a decade later, it was being produced through different compositional modalities. This new reality undermines both Boulez’s definitions and their refinement by Ștefan Niculescu. Now I will go back to the disordered polyphony that is the object of this article. In his book Sound and Sentiment. Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression, Steven Feld describes a multipart structure that is essentially very similar to those described in Episodes 1 – 4, albeit quite different in details: the sa-yƹlab of women of the Kaluli people from Papua New Guinea (Feld 1990, 100 – 101): [Sa-yƹlab] are basically monophonic and solo; however, two, three, or four separate sa-yƹlab may occur simultaneously, producing a dense polyphony that sounds like same or similar melodies begun at staggered times (canonic counterpoint) (my emphasis) or one larger piece performed by segmented and conjoined parts (hocket). Since each sa-yƹlab is improvised, the sense in which the form is iterative, with a repeated formula throughout, is limited. Some sa-yƹlab are short and simple, however, producing the effect of iterative form or litany. The resulting polyphonies of several simultaneous sa-yƹlab always sound more dense and complex than the parts, because the weepers usually do not start on the same pitch […] [It] was clear that there was a timing notion that subdivided the time values for a phrase so that the overall length would always be the same, no matter how much textual information was fit inside.” (Feld 1990, 100) I am not aware of any ethnomusicologist who discovered and minutely described the polyphony-heterophony that comes with a rigorously measured rhythmic-harmonic accompaniment in the music of other peoples. This, however, does not mean that the phenomenon is only present in the music of Romanians. In his famous book Penser la musique aujourd’hui, Pierre Boulez (Boulez 1963) speaks of a structure similar to the ones presented in the first three episodes at the beginning of this article (from Zece Prăjini, Lăpușnicu Mare and Hoteni, respectively). More exactly, he refers to a “particular case” which he gives the impression of being imaginary (supposons); however,

36 […] “Agglomeration seems to me tightly connected to heterophony [Aglomerarea ni se pare strâns legată de eterofonie]”; “The most natural field of manifestation for heterophony is the agglomeration area [Domeniul cel mai natural de manifestare a eterofoniei este zona aglomerării]” (Niculescu 1972, 138).

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we cannot rule out the possibility that this may be one of the cases that he dealt with during his career as an avant-garde author and conductor: True smooth time [SR : virgin time, not segmented by pulsations, cf. Boulez 1963, 54 – 107] is that over which the performer has no control. A particular case will make this clearer; suppose that a group of instruments is playing in striated time, under a conductor, and that two instruments have to play, within a global smooth time, structures whose time is partly smooth and partly striated, though differently from that of the group 37. By the very fact of this alternation, the two instrumentalists will lose all sense of the regular striated time which accompanies them and they are thus necessarily [SR : emphasized in the French original 1963] placed in a smooth global time (Boulez 1971, 94).

Le véritable temps lisse est celui dont le contrôle échappera à l’interprète. Je citerai un cas particulier qui fera mieux saisir ma pensée; supposons qu’un groupe d’instruments joue dans un temps strié — ​sous la direction d’un chef; deux instruments doivent jouer dans un temps lisse global tantôt des structures à temps lisse, tantôt des structures à temps strié, différent de celui du groupe. Par le fait de cette alternance, les deux instrumentistes perdront totalement la notion du temps strié régulier qui va de pair avec eux et, obligatoirement, ils se placeront ainsi dans un temps lisse global. (Boulez 1963, 107)

The structure described by the composer could be an imaginary one — ​a supposition prompted by the fact that Boulez does not specify how it fits into the score, as he does on other occasions. But let us presume it is real and that comparing it with the structures discussed here is justified. In this case, it immediately strikes us that the solo musicians from Romania, unlike the “scholarly” soloists from Boulez’s example, do not lose (my emphasis) the striated time with which the song is associated, but deliberately ignore it from the beginning to the end, treating the entire rhythmic-harmonic accompaniment as a compact texture without reliefs over which they can lay their bundle of free-rhythm versions at will. (The approximate adjustment of harmonization to the melody does not concern them, because it is the responsibility of accompanists.) In other words, disordered polyphony and the harmony that goes with it are, in the cases analysed here, two distinct superposed structures: the former is autonomous and can at any moment become totally independent (as in Episode 1), whereas the latter is in a position of flexible subordination to the former. In this article I am dealing with a probably less well-known multipart structure to which I have not assigned a firm name, but rather alternative ones such as disor37 “Smooth time” is that without perceptible inner references, and “striated time” is, by and large, time made discrete through pulsation.

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dered polyphony, heterophony, polyphony-heterophony, melody with echoes, or desynchronized melodic versions. I described first the forms in which this structure becomes actualized in Romanians’ musics, and I enumerated the functions they fulfil in one concrete situation or another. Although they share a very important characteristic — ​the free rhythm through which they express themselves — ​the forms are very different: that is why I hesitated to decide on a name that may seem the most suitable of all, at least in the cases detailed in Episodes 1 – 4, that of heterophony. I have also shown that, in the music of the small traditional rural ensembles of Romania made up of professionals, the multipart structure is often subordinated to a much more complex structure born from its support by a harmonic (or homophonic) structure with either a clear rhythm or a free rhythm. For the outcome of this superposition I will provisionally use the term heterophony with homophonic accompaniment. Subsequently, I tackled two issues as a personal (eventually unfulfilled) wish: that of analysing more seriously the multipart structure in question: notation of freerhythm musics and commented definitions of heterophony that I discovered in the musicological and ethnomusicological literature. Needless to say, my readings are inevitably limited, and so is the information extracted from them. I also indirectly explained the main reason why in this article both the heterophonic structure and the heterophonic-harmonic superstructure into which it may be incorporated are described only in words: the difficulty in graphically rendering them in forms that are easily readable and intelligible for musicologists and ethnomusicologists, the author of this article included.

References Adler, Guido. 1908. “Über Heterophonie [About heterophony].” Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters für das Jahr 1908, 15 (1908 – 09). 17 – 27. Alexandru, Tiberiu. 1956. Instrumentele muzicale ale poporului romîn [Musical instruments of the Romanian people]. Bucharest: Editura de Stat pentru Literatură şi Artă. Arom, Simha and Frank Alvarez-Pereyre. 2007. Précis d’ethnomusicologie [A precise of ethnomusicology]. Paris: CNRS Éditions. ———. 1991. African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Musical Structure and Methodology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Authentic Romania. 2001. Sonoton, Authentic Series. SAS 068. Bartók, Béla. 1967. Rumanian Folk Music, Volume One, Instrumental Melodies, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ———. 1967. Rumanian Folk Music. Volume II . Vocal Melodies. Benjamin Suchoff (Ed.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

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Bonini Baraldi, Filippo. 2013. Tsiganes, musique et empathie [Gypsies, music and empathy]. Paris: Édition de la Maison des sciences de l’homme. ———. 2015. “La douceur, critère d’appréciation esthétique chez les Tsiganes de Transylvanie [Sweetness: Criterion of musical appreciation among the Gypsies of Transylvania].” Cahiers d’ethnomusicologie 28. Le goût musical. Genève: Ateliers d’ethnomusicologie. 23 – 42. Booban, Negar. 2010. Rhythm as Pattern and the Study of the Free Rhythm: the Case of Iranian Classical Music. Delivered at the International Conference of Analytical Approaches to World Music (AAWM ), February 2010. Manuscript. Bouët, Jacques and Bernard Lortat-Jacob, Speranța Rădulescu. 2002. À tue tête. Chant et violon au Pays de l’Oach, Roumanie [At the top of one’s voice. Singing and the violin in the Oaș Country, Romania]. Nanterre: Société d’ethnologie, Collection Hommes et Musiques de la Société française d’ethnomusicologie, IV . Boulez, Pierre. 1963. Penser la musique aujourd’hui [Thinking about music today]. Paris: Editions Gonthier, Bibliothèque Médiation. ———. 1971. Boulez on Music Today. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Brăiloiu, Constantin. 1938. Bocete din Oaș [Wailing songs from Oaș]. Bucharest: Atelierele Socec & Co. ———. 1973. “Le vers populaire roumain chanté [The Romanian folk verse sung].” Problèmes d’ethnomusicologie. Gilbert Rouget (Ed.). Genève: Minkoff Reprint. 195 – 270. Cântările bătrânești ale lui Gică Diricel / Gică Diricel’s Old Songs. 2015. Ethnophonie series, CD 026. Bucharest: Fundația Alexandru Tzigara Samurcaș & Muzeul Țăranului. Clayton, Martin R. L. 1996. “Free Rhythm: Ethnomusicology and the Study of Music Without Metre.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 59. nr.2 (1996). 323 – 332. ———. 1997. „Le mètre et le tâl dans la musique de l’Inde du Nord”. Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles. 10 (Rythmes). Genève: Ateliers d’ethnomusicologie/AIMP , Georg. 169 – 190. Frigyesi, Judit. 1981 (1982). “Between Rubato and Rigid Rhythm: A Particular Type of Rhythmical Asymmetry as Reflected in Bartók’s Writings on Folk Music Author(s).” In Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, T. 24, Fasc. 3/4, Report of the International Bartók Symposium, Budapest 1981/Bericht über das Internationale Bartók Symposium, Budapest 1981 (1982). 327 – 337. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ———. 1999. “Transcription de la pulsation, de la métrique et du ‘rythme libre’ [Transcription of pulsation, metric and ‘free rhythm’].” Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles 12. Noter la musique. Genève: Ateliers d’ethnomusicologie/AIMP , Georg. 55 – 74. Fanfara din Lăpuşnicu Mare / The Brass Band from Lăpuşnicu Mare. 2008. Ethnophonie series, CD 017. Bucharest: Fundația Alexandru Tzigara Samurcaș & Muzeul Țăranului. Feld, Steven. 1990 [1982]. Sound and Sentiment. Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression. Philadelphia: Penn. University of Pennsylvania Press.

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Les voix du monde. Une anthologie des expressions vocales / Voices of the World. An Anthology of Vocal Expression. Paris: Le Chant du Monde (Collection CNRS du Musée de l’Homme). CMX 3741010 – 11 – 12. Muzică veche din Moldova de Sus / Old music from North Moldavia. 2004. Ethnophonie series, CD 009. Bucharest: Fundația Alexandru Tzigara Samurcaș & Muzeul Țăranului. Nettl, Bruno and Philip Bohlman (Eds.). 1991. Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Niculescu, Ștefan. 1972. “Analiza fenomenologică a tipurilor fundamentale de fenomene sonore și raporturile lor cu eterofonia [Phenomenological analysis of fundamental types of sound phenomena and their relations to heterophony].” Studii de muzicologie. Vol. VIII . Bucharest: Editura Muzicală a Uniunii Compozitorilor. 131 – 140. Peasant Brass Bands from Moldavia: Zece Prăjini / Fanfares paysannes de Moldavie: Zece Prăjini. 2000. Ethnophonie series, CD 002. Bucharest: Fundația Alexandru Tzigara Samurcaș & Muzeul Țăranului. Rădulescu, Speranța. 1977. “Analiza unui text muzical lăutăresc [Analysis of a musical ‘Lăutăresc’ Text].” Revista de etnografie și folclor (REF ), tom 22, 1. București: Editura Academiei. 32 – 61. ———. 2009. “Un repère durable: Constantin Brăiloiu (1893 – 1958) [A durable landmark: Constantin Brăiloiu. (1893 – 1958)].” Mémoire vive Laurent Aubert (Ed.). Genève, MEG : Tabou. 13 – 34. Rice, Timothy. 2014. Ethnomusicology. A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Romanian, Ukrainian and Jewish Music from Maramureș / Musiques roumaine, ukrainienne et juive de Maramureș. 2002. Ethnophonie series, CD 006. Bucharest: Fundația Alexandru Tzigara Samurcaș & Muzeul Țăranului. Roumanie: musique de villages / Village Music from Romania. Olténie-Moldavie-Transylvanie. 1988. Coffret de trois disques compacts (3-CD set box). AIMP IX -XI . Archives Internationales de Musique Populaire du Musée d’ethnographie de la ville de Genève. VDE CD . 537 – 539.

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Creative Teamwork among Musicians as an Introduction to Multipart Playing Examples from Central-Eastern Europe

Abstract Traditional (folk, peasant) instrumental groups have three limitations to theoretically complete freedom in music making. These are social functions (the prevalence of playing for the pleasure of other people), musical integrity (the folk group as a micro-symphonic orchestra) and the technical possibilities offered by particular instruments. In Eastern Europe, vocal traditions have had a decisive influence on the shape of instrumental practice. Musicians playing together by ear and doing their best in their cultural domain avoid any kind of monotony and tend to be distinguishable in the course of competitive cooperation; this leads to heterophony from the perspective of both pitch and time. According to comments by musicians, they simply want to be audible in the group performance, thus changing registers, adding ornaments, accelerating the tempo somewhat, or being intentionally slightly late with a melody. Such sporadic “duels” between fiddler and bagpiper, fiddler and clarinettist/ trumpeter, fiddler and folk accordionist, and fiddler and dulcimer (cimbalom) player do not exceed, however, the rule of monophonic cooperation which is determined by the social function and crucial role of the bowed melodic chordophone. The range and space of musical action are set or counterpointed by such instruments as drums (different types), basses (different sizes), a second fiddle, second clarinet or dulcimer. Sometimes the drummer or bass player sings or calls rhythmically to encourage dancers or even to imitate dance, thus compensating for their subordinate role in the band, and thus makes music a kind of attractive performance and allows us to speak of human “polyphony” in the use of music. This paper, illustrated by sound and video examples, attempts to make a typology of the musical behaviour of instrumentalists with regard to physical/kinetic multipart activity. The topic of European Voices IV has encouraged me to summarize my experiences with traditional instrumental music studied during my fieldwork since 1975 in Poland. 157 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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A study of instrumental music implies cultural aspects of music making. Playing instruments is more intentional and perhaps more conscious or rational than spontaneous singing. I would argue that on three levels — ​concept, behaviour and sound, the triad introduced by Alan Merriam — ​the multipart nature of instrumental music is well established. As for the concept of music I put forward the following scheme: Beliefs | \ human  — social  — the natural being  ceremony  order | | | usical  — musical  — musical abilities  inspirations  norms \ | / speech-singing-play-dance /

Social ceremonies include family rites such as weddings and annual customs such as the harvest and the singing/playing of carols. Among musical abilities, ethnic/folk musicians and singers mention four predispositions: an ear for music, a voice, good memory and simply a love for music (zamiłowanie). In fact, some instrumentalists in central Poland, while playing drum or bass in the band, like to sing ditties with a melody which has just been played. This results in vocal-instrumental heterophony, which is called śpiewanie od bębna (singing from the drum). The drummers and bass players sometimes sing so as to incite the dancers to also sing and thus to request more melodies. In a traditional context, it is the dancer who begins the dance by singing the dance melody in front of the band, which immediately has to repeat it and rhythmically adapt it for dancing. The natural order in music is verbalized by musicians and singers as ład, something like the cohesive and balanced whole, which should have three qualities: the ład is definite in time, i. e. has its beginning and end; it is continual, fluent and not interrupted or with “holes” (ciągły, bez dziur), and finally, it should be sufficiently different in the melodic contour. That is why the melodic formulae used for short ditties (przyśpiewka) are not always accepted by traditional performers as music, as singing, but rather a sort of speaking with the voice modulated. The voices/sounds of animals, e. g. pigs, are synonymous with non-music. These three “multipart” qualities of the musical ład lay the foundations for the multipart cooperation of the performers according to their competencies. The musical inspirations in the scheme presented above are called by musicians a “melody” (mieć melodię, to have a melody), “spirit” (duch, dryg), “energy” and “tempo”. These concepts and terms related to inspiration focus and unite both spatial and tem158 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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poral aspects of music. From a behavioural perspective, they are a conceptual-verbal pattern for the continuum: speech-singing-playing-dance. The borders between these activities are not strict and not inflexible in traditional rural culture. While talking, singers can easily move to singing. Speaking and singing in accent (akcent) and grace (wdzięk); singing tastes (smakuje) better than merely talking. Taste is an inter-social and profound aesthetic concept. Music must be tasty; thus, the multipart structure in music is conditioned even by the multitude of the mouths/tastes of musicians. Instrumental playing, in turn, is associated closely with dance movements. Old instrumentalists feel happy to see the dancers while playing nowadays. Playing and dance are bound together through the repetition of a basic unit (powtór, something repeated) and by whirling (wirus, something which whirls, makes circles). Powtór and wirus result in the specific, not linear projection of musical form in the course of time. The portions of such processual form are called a kolano, a knee, by performers in central and eastern Poland (also in the Ukraine and Bulgaria). Kolano means a change of direction, bending the melody as the human knee bends the leg. Kolano simultaneously connotes short musical segments like knots in a stalk of corn; small knees, kolanka, also mean vocal ornaments. Highlanders, when they think of a formal unit in melodies, use another metaphor — ​a summit of a mountain (wierch), the space between the summits of the mountains and shifting between the lower and higher part of the mountain. Melodies with e. g. four wierchy, four summits, signify a melody with four phrases. The connoted spatial aspect of a melody explains why the highlanders change registers of singing and cross melodies with such ease, resulting in evidently advanced heterophony, nearly polyphony. The semi-polyphonic structure of vocal texture is also present in the instrumental group music-making which among Highlanders is simply called music, muzyka. In the western part of Poland, where the culture of bagpipes evolved, the bagpipers understand the formal process in music as an arrangement of the surface of an object, as if the musician puts sheaves of corn and pieces of wood, or hay in a barn, like a farmer; particularly the layer (waszta) of the corn is an operating concept of music shaping. Thus, the bagpiper plays music as if he would overlap layers (waszty) of corn in his barn. This also results in the heterophony of those musicians (the clarinettist, the fiddler) who cooperate with the bagpiper. The concepts of musical form and behavioural “polyphony” of music situations and activities presented above are a fluent progression: speech-singing-playing-dance, all are rooted in the unity of the arts as the transcendental oneness of diversities and can once more be summarized in a more complete shape:

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Faith, beliefs / \ Human  | natural being  order \ / Family ceremony, annual customs | | | musical  Ear for  ← abilities  music, voice, | good memory, pleasure, love for music  \ | /

musical order  →

definite extent, continuity, sufficient differentiation of vocal pitches, in instrumental segments

melody spirit energy tempo / \ speech-singing-playing-dance \ / \ / \ / Accent  basic  repetition (powtór) unit (kolano, wierch, waszta)

Another perspective of multipart instrumental play without any dance connotation can be found in the custom of Advent blowing on the wooden horn ligawka, an instrument of 1 – 2m length which is popular in the northeastern part of Poland (Podlasie region). The practice of playing the ligawka frequently became a sort of dominoes polyphony or echo polyphony. When the ligawka player starts blowing, he expects that somebody in neighbouring villages will answer and continue the playing. In each village there were several players, so the obligation to answer led to an overlapping, spherical sound-scape. At the beginning of the 19th century, when this shepherds’ instrument was adapted to announcing Advent (Rorate) mass at day-break, all the players were encouraged to play together before the midnight mass in front of the church. Today (2016) they play together even inside the church, in front of the altar to manifest the beginning of the 160 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Creative Teamwork among Musicians as an Introduction to Multipart Playing

liturgical year. The same collective blowing has been introduced by the organizers of the blowing contests since 1975. Such contests, invented by the local museums and cultural centres in some towns of the Podlasie region, addressed to both older and younger players, have continued until now. However, “echo polyphony” was primary for traditional playing of the ligawka. I have studied this custom since 1981 and can state that each player uses aliquot tones in his individual way. The older style and context of ligawka playing, dating from the 19th century and lasting to the interwar period, and the contemporary, revitalized reality of this picturesque musical custom is summarized in the table below. Conceptual and behavioural “polyphony” is also taken into account. Function TRADITIONAL and meaning PERSPECTIVE of playing the ligawka Symbolic Advent, Christmas; legacze — ​mystical shepherds; playing inside or outside the church, in the churchyard. Social Substitute for a lack of dance music, not allowed during Advent; a “fasting” music; a kind of anticipation of the carnival; the instrument integrating the noblemen and peasants in the villages of Podlasie; acoustic communication within a radius of 3 – 6 km; the alternating interplay between several legacze in the yards of private houses, near the well or at a river, on village roads etc. Personal and Proof of skill in woodcraft musical (carpentry), a test of good health (blowing); a kind of prestige in the family; a minimal level of musical competence, yet appreciated and popular. Several individual signals or melodies in each village. Specific melodic formulas of each performer which are a means of communication between villagers.

REVITALIZATION

Condensation of time and space: the first or the second Advent Sunday. New intermediate area — ​the museum as a space between private houses and the church. Shift of the instrument’s social status: gathering of players at the place of the competition (in Liw, Chlewiska, Siedlce) from a distance of up to 50 km (= maximum range of the wedding musician who was higher in rank than legacze); the ligawka as a sign of the integration of local society (competition in Ciechanowiec).

Growth of visibility: new instruments, elaborate mouthpieces, new technologies (synthetic glues), ornaments, particular ways of playing (raising of the instrument); young people including girls are present at competitions, formalized procedure and enlarged repertoire including carols; instruments from different regions. Collective simultaneous playing of all contest participants at the beginning and the end of the event.

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The combined or “echo-style” of playing on the ligawka is not to be compared with a bagpipers’ orchestra or brass bands. The former is open and more individual than collective, the latter is closed and more collective than individual. It is worth mentioning the Wielkopolska Orkiestra Dudziarska founded in Poznań (western Poland) in 1955 and active for only one year. The initiative to organize an orchestra consisting only of bagpipers took place for the first time in 1946. It was motivated by the desire to preserve local regional instruments and enrich the harvest feast at which only brass bands performed. This initiative also had an implied meaning to counter the Western European influence represented by the brass band, the sign of German hegemony before WWI and during WWII . Two cultural and musical facts, however, stood in the way of this initiative. For centuries, bagpipers used to play and earn money individually with one colleague (gracz): they were accustomed to playing with one fiddler, and only occasionally or even exceptionally would they (bagpiper and fiddler) cooperate with a second or third analogous pair of instrumentalists. The contests between bagpipe-fiddle duos, introduced in Poland (Wielkopolska) in 1937, acknowledged the autonomy of each pair of instrumentalists. Since the 1930s, the cooperation of bagpiper and fiddler has been treated by Polish ethnomusicologists as the “classic” example of heterophony, with each rendition unique to some extent. Łucjan Kamieński, professor of musicology at Poznań University, who introduced the term etno-muzykologia in Poland (1934) after Klyment Kvitka (1928), experimented with “proto-stereophony” to record the bagpiper and the fiddler separately. The instrumentalists played simultaneously to two separate tubes of one phonograph. Brass bands changed the competencies of traditional musicians. They had to learn notes, they adapted themselves to playing in different registers according to the roles and possibilities of their instruments, and finally, they learned to be subordinate to the leader/conductor. In general, in the brass band, they were accustomed to consider multipart playing as a fixed practice without any improvisation. However, small brass bands were founded at local voluntary fire brigades since the end of 19th century and were active in the 20th century. These musicians also used to play at the weddings of wealthier peasants. In such cases playing by ear in polyphony could be revealed. As a lasting result, an awareness of harmonic functions and accompaniment was developed within the brass bands during the act of music making. Moving to musical structure in cultural contexts, we can argue that instrumental groups were and remain open to multipart music for certain reasons. Instruments such as the bagpipes, dulcimer, bass, drum, and formerly even the fiddle, used to be made by musicians themselves or received from their fathers, grandfathers and so on. Thus, the sound device had in a way become the expression of the unique personality of the performer. Private ownership of the instrument is also not without significance

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in this respect. The intimate relationship to the instrument releases a creative individual action. Playing together in the traditional context of a wedding or dance events meant both face-to-face communication between the musicians and a readiness to react to the wishes of active participants (Bielawski 1992). Such sensitivity for inner and outer impulses always gave something unexpected to the music, as more as the participants of weddings requested a dance or other melody by singing this melody with improvised lyrics (ditties). In cases where several singers requested music at the same time, trying to outbid each other, conflicts about whose melody should be played first were frequently reported. Orally educated musicians insist that they just play and do not “pluck insects” (play from notes). One of the fiddlers said to me that the musicians (fiddlers) “tell something and do not read” when they play. Even if a musician could read notes, he gave it up because of the impact of oral-memory practice. However, in the first decades of the 20th century, if a given kapela, that is the group of instrumentalists ready to play at local events, especially weddings, wanted to modernize and adapted to the changing conditions and preferences of those who engaged musicians, one member of the kapela learned to read notes and used to go, for example, to music shops, usually run by Jews in towns, and bought a leaflet with a szlagier (Schlager) which cost the same as about five bread rolls. Other musicians of that kapela who usually played from the head or from a hat, imitated the musically-literate instrumentalist. Otherwise, if they wanted to learn something new, they would have to look for an occasion to listen to radio broadcasts or to the patefon (early records). An interesting episode from the interwar period was described in the press: when in summer the windows of cinema buildings were open because of the heat, large groups of people who could not afford to buy tickets stood at the windows to listen to the film music and dialogues. Beside the ownership of an instrument (1), the internal and external communication of the musicians (2), and the oral-memory means of transmission (3), the fourth element promoting heterophony within a band was a new instrument in the set. Introducing his new instrument, e. g. a folk accordion, saxophone, trumpet and other brass instruments, the musician eagerly demonstrated his particular musical part. Moreover, the high cost of instruments influenced their rank within the ensemble. Musical performance in an ethnic context also has theatrical components. The payment for playing was determined to some extent by the cost of the instrument, so with time the musician could expect to redeem the great expense of buying a brandnew accordion or saxophone. Because of this, some musicians were afraid to play on expensive instruments during weddings in villages, where small fights frequently took place. The instrumentalists were as a rule safe in such cases, but something could happen to the instruments (Dahlig, P. 1993, 69 – 74). 163 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Another factor shaping the musical texture of the folk band was simply the number of instruments taking part in the playing at weddings or dance events. The core of any instrumental group in Poland was either a chordophone, fiddle or its earlier forms, without a middle waist (mazanki, złóbcoki, oktawka) which resembled a Tanzmeistergeige with a slightly thicker belly-shape, and so-called knee-chordophones (suka, fidel płocki) of the gudok and other types and equivalents in eastern and southern Europe (DahligTurek 2001; Morgenstern 1995, 196 – 197). The other centrepiece of the instrumental group were the bagpipes (Trojanowicz 1979; Dahlig, P. 1992; Przerembski 2006, 2007), which were dominant until the 17th century. Three duets shaped the instrumental landscape: bagpipe and fiddle (western Poland and the western Carpathian Mountains), fiddle and drum (eastern and central Poland), fiddle and bowed bass (southern Poland). These pairs were supplemented in the 19th and 20th centuries by other instruments such as the clarinet, trumpet, flutes, dulcimer, second fiddle, second clarinet, folk accordion (especially in the interwar period) and, rarely, a trombone. Three impulses of this development were evident: growing competence among peasant musicians since the end of the 19th century (1), influences from outside local communities by music teachers or professional musicians (2), and the growing expectations and wealth of the villagers (3). The smallest ensemble (muzyka), even just one instrumentalist, was for a poor wedding, while comparatively wealthy peasants preferred large ensembles consisting of four to six instrumentalists. In spite of many differences, the larger instrumentation resembles the rise of European professional polyphony in playing the organ at particularly solemn liturgies in the school of Leoninus and Perotinus. However, the “polyphony” of folk instrumental ensembles usually did not go beyond playing in parallel thirds, unless it was an arrangement which had been previously learned. A rich, spontaneous heterophony remains the characteristic practice. The most modest band in central and eastern Poland was a fiddle and small drum or the fiddle and small bass; the drummer or bass player could be recruited from the wedding guests. The manager of such a band was the fiddler himself (Dahlig, E. 1992; Dahlig, P. 1995, 2004). If we pay attention to the soundscape itself, we can maintain that three perspectives of “polyphony” arise. The ritual phono-sphere creates an acoustic polyphony or a multipart soundscape when, for example, the actions of instrumentalists are intertwined with the singing of dancers. In the case of the individual instrumentalist, there is, especially in traditional performance, a synergy of different modes of expressive behaviour — ​kinetic, verbal, social and symbolic. The result is the second, behavioural “polyphony”. The third perspective covers multipart texture in a narrower, purely musical sense. In the latter case, the individual instrumentalist stimulates his own imagination, slightly competing with other members of the group. 164 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Traditional (folk, peasant) group instrumental practice has three guidelines: Firstly, a social service consisting of playing upon request for the pleasure of participants and the betterment of community events, especially weddings. Providing such services obliges the folk musician not only to be competent but also to be sober while playing, which is, however, less restrictive than in the case of drivers or pilots. Secondly, the imperative of internal cooperation, which is associated, in my opinion, with the idea of a micro-symphonic orchestra verbalized by musicians as muzyka troista (“triple music”, a term known up to now in the former Galicia of the Austrian Empire, in both its Polish and Ukrainian parts); another term is simply “music”, that is a set of instruments justified aesthetically, musically and financially. The musical factor means that the melodic and rhythmic roles must be fulfilled, whereas the financial component suggests that the common income should not be shared excessively. That is why family bands of three to five musicians frequently shaped the local musical landscape. The third guideline is the technical and musical capabilities of particular instruments. The choice of an instrument is a result of musical competence. Drone or drum instruments, such as small bass bowed with two or three strings or a one-sided drum of a tambourine type could be played not only by musicians but also, as mentioned above, by wedding guests, because the rhythmic patterns were widely known and established. Instruments with changeable pitches, including the second fiddle, were played frequently by the younger members of bands who entered this field in order to prepare themselves for leading roles. Those who played melodic instruments could be multi-instrumentalists in order to be flexible and to adapt to modern expectations. Thus, the fiddler was ready to use a saxophone, or a dulcimer player also learned the clarinet. The dulcimer player or a pair of fiddlers could take on both melodic and rhythmic functions, but a higher level of integration, musical and financial, was guaranteed by an accordion. This is why some musicians preferred to buy a new accordion rather than a cow, which was similarly expensive. The individual skill to play different instruments led to a multipart consciousness. In some central and eastern regions of Poland, the same musicians could play Marches on brass instruments in the open air during village weddings. Later on, indoors, they changed instruments and continued on bowed chordophones. This practice survived until the early 1980s. The above-mentioned term muzyka troista (triple music) is possibly connected with the klezmer or Gypsy heritage in Galicia, as it also expresses musical marketing, advertising and professionalism. Like tempus perfectum, triple music promises something complex, elegant and vivid. However, this also connotes three purely musical functional properties — ​the leading role of the melodic instrument, a drone or ostinato frame and something which fills a gap between high and low registers. It is, as it were, an organic structure with various instrumental options. Muzyka troista has encoded an 165 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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archaic pattern of anthropomorphic musical performance which can also be found in primary (formerly referred to as primitive) music cultures as well as in early philosophical debates claiming that the human body is an instrument, such as Plato’s lyre or the instrumental symphony of Clement of Alexandria in the 2nd century. In the 9th century, Aurelian of Réôme still maintained that the fistula is in the throat, a zither with chords is in the ribs and lungs and, to complete this symphony, the beats of the heart create a percussion instrument. The anthropomorphic bias in the terminology of musical instruments confirms these traces of heritage. The comments of traditional musicians, who declare that the instrument, the fiddle, the clarinet, should sing, cry, laugh, tell something, also represent a human perspective and specify the concept of the musical instrument as an extension and continuation of the possibilities of the individual human being. Thus, the prerequisites for heterophony and polyphony are also contained in the simple fact that some people have just gathered to play together. Alongside technical names for instrumental groups such as muzyka or kapela, adopted by peasants and highlanders from the 17th century onwards, personal, much older labels such as gracze (players), wesołuchy (those who play at weddings) and nowadays simply koledzy (colleagues) were used. The multipart pattern in the traditional instrumental ensemble is determined not only by the interaction of individual players, but also by the history and families of instruments invented as an alternative or substitute for the multipart vocal apparatus in the 16th century. This evolution led to a cultivation of different registers in the set of instruments. Another tendency, similarly to that in choirs, led to a multiplication of instruments in orchestras, particularly in brass bands, frequently witnessed by peasants during military service or visits to towns. In the late decades of the 19th century, it became a custom introduced in the Polish territories by foreign rulers that each regimental brass orchestra had to play in town parks on Sunday afternoons. Because of these political contexts, the independent Polish state promoted only bowed string instruments in teacher training colleges in the 1920s. But in the next decade, brass bands were accepted again by the authorities. In the country, however, a brass band of about ten to fifteen people was the dream of every volunteer fire brigade. The above-mentioned brass band was crucial for the rise of polyphonic consciousness, because musicians had to read notes, know the order of registers, manage a clear structure of musical form, accept rules of defined accompaniment and be obedient not to a spontaneous group of dancers, but to a conductor. Klezmer and Gypsy musicians as professional groups without a stable place of practice were once a medium for the growth of musical competence among peasant and particularly highland musicians. At the end of the 19th century, there is evidence that in the Carpathian Mountains highlanders were taught by Gypsy musicians how to introduce the second fiddle and how to shorten strings in bass chordophones. 166 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Accompaniment with harmonic functions in Carpathian instrumental groups came very slowly into general use, from the end of the 19th century. Earlier, the timbre rhythm and drone dominated, as the drone was identified with the first professional folk musicians in Central Eastern Europe, bagpipers. In the 20th century, the bass player could still stop all strings together with the full hand (Dahlig, P. 2004). Over time, contemporary sub-Carpathian folk groups adopted a harmonic accompaniment and thirds in instrumental parts under the influence of professional, mainly klezmer practice which was dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries in small towns of central Galicia (the Rzeszowskie region). In the lowlands, folk practice did not introduce harmonic differentiation, a rhythmized (ostinato) drone was always dominant. The crucial point for our topic is the uniqueness of each instrumental part, even in the collective performance of musicians who decide to play one pattern. Not only a pair of instrumentalists, but also a vocal-instrumental dialogue is a source of initiative in heterophony. The main impulse for melodic imagination is the synergy between musicians and a singer who presents the pattern to be repeated by the instrumentalists. This is why the instrumental repertoire has two strata, the older one inspired and determined by vocal practice, and the newer one purely instrumental. In the eastern part of Europe, vocal traditions had a decisive influence on the shape of instrumental practice. Musicians playing together by ear and doing their best in their cultural domain are used to escaping from any kind of monotony. We should remember that traditional playing at weddings demanded long performances lasting for two or three days or more. Musicians were obliged to repeat and adapt any melody sung by a participant of the event for further vocal or dance performance. Only during the 20th century did instrumental groups obtain more influence on music making at weddings. “Sung weddings” (a folk music term) were increasingly replaced by “played weddings”. Thus, the cycles of instrumental pieces without any vocal initiative were created, and the sets of instruments expanded. If we treat the instrumental ensemble as a field for microsociology, two models of cooperation can be noticed, a vertical one based on strong leadership, and a horizontal, more egalitarian one (Bielawski 1992). Both models can result in heterophony, but ambitious musicians in the cooperative egalitarian model can achieve more diversified, nearly polyphonized roles, such as in brass bands while playing by ear. The musicians tend to be recognisable in the course of competitive cooperation; this leads to heterophonic variants both in pitch and in terms of time. According to the comments of musicians, they simply want to be audible in the action of the group, changing registers, adding ornaments, going on ahead or being intentionally slightly late with a melody. In the latter case, a controlled asynchrony of the fiddler and bagpiper can sometimes be perceived. 167 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Specific “duels” between the fiddler and bagpiper (often standing face to face), fiddler and clarinettist/trumpeter, fiddler and accordionist, fiddler and dulcimer player, inject life into the performance. Particularly when the fiddler plays with an accordionist, he tends to confirm his equal rank by playing from time to time in a higher register and performing a melody dense with sounds. Some assertive fiddlers did not want to play with the accordionist at all, so they adopted such a fast tempo or a specific tempo rubato that no local accordionist could keep up with them. The episodic duels or rather banter of musicians do not exceed, however, the rule of monophonic cooperation which is determined by social function and the crucial role of the bowed melodic chordophone (Dahlig, P. 1993, 98 – 99). Within instrumental ensembles, we can speak of the above-mentioned phenomenon of crossing voices which is analogical to vocal practice in Podhale, the region of the highlanders. The singers not only hear but also feel the whole musical structure and can, when they are tired, or to avoid monotony, sing higher or lower parts, smoothly changing their registers. Such sporadic phenomena can be noticed in instrumental groups who also feel the musical whole and can contribute towards maintaining this whole if a given instrumentalist makes short pauses, for example. Such “organic” or “integral” hearing is associated with some freedom in performance and a concept of open musical form. Moreover, musicians do not start playing simultaneously. Usually one player, e. g. a fiddler, or accordionist or bagpiper begins. Similarly, the sign for finishing a song is also nonverbal. The range and space of musical action are given by such instruments as drums (different types), basses (different sizes), a second fiddle, second clarinet, a dulcimer. Sometimes, the drummer or bass player may sing or call rhythmically to encourage dancers or even imitate dance, which compensates for their subordinate participation in the band and makes music a kind of attractive performance, thus making it possible to speak of human “polyphony” in the use of music. The enclosed transcriptions of instrumental music illustrate some of the points discussed above. I would like to comment on them. First of all, it should be noted that these notations are short excerpts from the process of playing and the notes present a “frozen”, unique moment of music performance which would be rendered later or in another case in a slightly different but always valid way. Moreover, the transcriptions are, of course, burdened with probable subjective mistakes. Nonetheless, the musical notation seems to correspond with the verbal description and rules of practice within the heterophony.

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1. Carnival melody na bon

Fig. 1: Carnival melody na bon (Ludowa praktyka muzyczna … 1993, 279). Heterophony of the fiddler’s and bagpiper’s parts.

This carnival melody na bon was recorded in 1980, in the district of Żywiec, Silesia and was performed by Jan Greń on the bagpipe (dudy żywieckie) and Józef Kupczak on the fiddle. The transcription shows the cooperation between the bagpiper (the middle part) and the fiddler (the upper part). They generally play in octaves, but the realization is vivid and changeable. The fiddle is tuned “highly”, a third higher. We can notice a greater mobility of the fiddle in ornamenting and in passages filling the intervals. The ornamenting is a binding factor between four-bar phrases. As early as the second bar, we can notice a heterophony caused by temporal divergence, a ramification of parts. The fiddler already reaches the fifth in the first bar, quicker than the bagpiper who reaches the same fifth in 169 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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the next bar, the second one, thus making together with the fiddler intervals of seventh/ seconds, which is quite acceptable in the dialogue between the two instruments. The instrumentalists interact in a complementary way with each other, alternating the melody (bars 3, 7). The dance function of the melody na bon played in the carnival (na bon means a dance full of jumps which are intended to imitate the expected height of the corn and an abundance of crops) results in a steady rhythmical accompaniment of the bagpiper. In the last system, the bagpiper is able, by rhythmically pressing the bag with his arm, to produce a drone in the repeated quavers in staccato, which is called do skoku (for a jump). The cooperation of both instrumentalists consists of regular oscillating between the uniting of parts and controlled ramifications. If we observe both parts separately, we can notice a kind of a slight counterpoint of the bagpiper in relation to the fiddler-like instrumental podgołoski (= secondary voices, bar 11, 12). The performance lasted in fact much longer, including something new and adding life each time.

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2. A shepherds’ melody called śpiewana (sung), polna (of a field) or owczarska (sheep farmer’s)

Fig. 2: A shepherds’ melody called śpiewana (sung), polna (of a field) or owczarska (sheep farmer’s) (Ludowa praktyka muzyczna… 1993, 290).

This is a shepherds’ melody called śpiewana (sung), polna (of a field) or owczarska (sheep farmer’s) and is based on a song melody. The recording stems from 1980, district of Żywiec, Silesia. The musicians are Władysław Pluta, bagpipes (dudy żywieckie), born in 1920 in Pewel Wielka, district of Żywiec, western part of the Carpathian region (Beskid Żywiecki) and Karol Byrtek (fiddle), born in 1907 in the same place, where they both lived. The fiddler’s and bagpiper’s heterophony is not only in the melody but also in time; a kind of a dialogue between the instrumentalists. We can presume the role of the bagpipes is the leading one. The bagpiper usually starts the performance, as in this example, and the fiddler joins in, exposing the melody played in the higher register. The cooperation is freer after the introduction of the bagpiper: five opening bars (or rather phrases) constitute a dialogue of only generally correlated parts. The last three bars present an introduction (or coming back) to a rich heterophony. The fiddler and the bagpiper observe each other and, moving slightly, sometimes also stand face to face. If we imagine that each repetition in the playing of these creative musicians is not identical, the more detailed musical typology of such multipart music seems to be unachievable. 171 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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3. Melody for the dance Miotlarz (broom-maker)

Fig. 3: Melody for the dance Miotlarz (broom-maker) (Ludowa praktyka muzyczna … 1993, 291).

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The melody for the dance Miotlarz (broom-maker) was recorded in 1981 in Zbąszyń, western part of the region of Great Poland (Ziemia Lubuska), where the three musicians were born and lived. Franciszek Domagała, the clarinettist (clarinet in E), was born in 1911, Franciszek Muńko, the bagpiper (kozioł), in 1920, and Piotr Białecki, the fiddler, in 1908. Their performance is commented on by the musicians themselves; they compete with each other but also tend to be individually conspicuous. This is a multipart performance with a harmonic coordination. The kozioł (Polnischer Bock) and the clarinet play in octaves and lead a heterophonic dialogue. The fiddler alternately plays melodic motives and simultaneous intervals so as to fill up the distance between the bagpiper and the clarinettist harmonically. In the past, the fiddler sometimes played on the mazanki in his youth, a chordophone made of one piece of wood with small bouts and three strings tuned an octave higher than the fiddle (Stęszewski 1975; Dahlig, E. 1985, 2001). The term mazanki (to smear) could also have a musical aspect in the cooperation of instrumentalists. The fiddler stands between the bagpiper (on his left) and the clarinettist (on his right), so his intermediary musical role is also visible. Their playing gives an impression of organic integrity: they hear, act and help each other. This impression and its evidence in the transcription would have been connected with their long, half-professional, wandering musical practice in the interwar period. Their performance is commented on by the musicians themselves — ​they compete with each other, but also tend to be individually conspicuous.

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4. Wedding melody

Fig. 4: Wedding melody (Ludowa praktyka muzyczna … 1993, 286).

This melody was recorded in 1981, in Babimost, Great Poland. Edward Łakomy, who was born in 1905 in Zakrzewko and lived in Babimost, western part of the region of Great Poland (Ziemia Lubuska), plays the bagpipe (kozioł). He sings, then plays the same wedding melody. The example presents a kind of “consecutive” multipart music. The koźlarz, the bagpiper playing the kozioł, first sings, then plays the same (theoretical) melody. Here we encounter a “recomposition”, a reinterpretation of the vocal pattern within its instrumental version. A wide spectrum of modifications provides potential for change in the vocal-instrumental dialogue and the alternating playing and singing. But at the same time, we witness here a sign of cultural change: previously, it was a non-instrumentalist, the leader of the singers at the wedding, who would sing this melody. In the recording, the bagpiper only cites it from the tradition. 174 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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5. Wedding melody for blessing the bride and bridegroom

Fig. 5: Wedding melody for blessing the bride and bridegroom (Ludowa praktyka muzyczna … 1993, 289).

This wedding melody for blessing the bride and bridegroom was recorded in 1977, in the district of Lubaczów, sub-Carpathian region. Teodor Stecyk, the fiddler, was born in 1920 in Borowa Góra, district Lubaczów, where he also lived. In this recording he simultaneously plays and sings a ritual, as is usually the case in the Greek Ortho175 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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dox (Ukrainian) community. Here the unity of the instrumentalist and his singing is clear, because it is rooted in tradition; the Ukrainian fiddlers commonly play and sing simultaneously. The instrument, however, has a subordinate role as in old cultures; it imitates and ornaments what is sung. We can summarize the comments on these five examples thus: the closer the insight into the musical structure of a process, the more complex is the image of the multipart concept and practice which we obtain. Perhaps that is why the anthologies of folk songs and instrumental melodies from central, eastern and southern Europe frequently omit transcribing elements and the practice of heterophony, polyphony and transitional phenomena.

References Bielawski, Ludwik. 1992. “Polish Instrumental Folk Ensembles.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikmuseet. Vol. X. 50 – 55. Dahlig, Ewa. 1985. “Intercultural Aspects of Violin Playing in Poland.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. VIII . Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikmuseet. 112 – 117. ———. 1992. “Folk Musical Ensembles in Central Poland and their Music.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. X. Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikmuseet. 56 – 60. Dahlig, Piotr. 1992. “Instrumentale Ensembles in Westpolen [Instrumental ensembles in western Poland].” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. X. Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikmuseet. 61 – 68. ———. 1993. Ludowa praktyka muzyczna w komentarzach i opiniach wykonawców Polsce [Folk music practice in the comments and opinions of performers in Poland]. Warszawa: Instytut Sztuki, Polska Akademia Nauk, Pracownia Historii i Teorii Myzyki. ———. 1995. “Drumming in Present Music Ensembles in Poland.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. XI . Erich Stockmann, Andreas Michel, Birgit Kjellström (Eds.). Stockholm: Musikmuseet. 72 – 77. ———. 2004. “The Basy in Peasant and Highlanders’ Music in Poland.” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. XII . Andreas Michel and Erich Stockmann (Eds.). Halle an der Saale: Verlag Janos Stekovics. 143 – 149. Dahlig-Turek, Ewa. 2001. Ludowe instrumenty skrzypcowe w Polsce [Folk Fiddle in Poland]. Warszawa: Instytut Sztuki PAN . Morgenstern, Ulrich. 1995. Volksmusikinstrumente und instrumentale Volksmusik in Russland [Folk musical instruments and folk instrumental music in Russia]. Studia Slavica Musicologica, 2. Berlin: Verlag Ernst Kuhn. Przerembski, Zbigniew. 2006. Dudy. Dzieje instrumentu w kulturze staropolskiej [Bagpipes. The history of the instrument in old Polish culture]. Warszawa: Instytut Sztuki PAN .

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———. 2007. Dudy. Instrument mało znany polskim ludoznawcom [Bagpipes. The Instrument Little Known to Polish Folklorists]. Warszawa: Instytut Sztuki PAN . Stęszewski, Jan. 1975. “Die Geige und Geigenspiel in der polnischen Volksüberlieferung [The fiddle and fiddling in the Polish folk tradition].” In Die Geige in der europäischen Volksmusik. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Bericht über das 1. Seminar für europäische Musikethnologie, St. Pölten 1971. Band: 3. Walter Deutsch and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.) Wien: Schendl. 16 – 37. Trojanowicz, Alicja. 1979. “Zur Spieltechnik der polnischen Sackpfeifen [On the playing technique of Polish bagpipes].” In Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. VI . Erich Stockmann (Ed.). Stockholm: Musikhistoriska museet. 169 – 174.

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Victoria Macijewska

Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental Ensemble Music of Hutsuls  1

Abstract The present publication examines the specific nature of compositional forms of Hutsul ensemble instrumental music. In my article, I discuss the phenomenon of traditional composition, its structure and method of realization in the oral form (without written text), and briefly describe various types of Hutsul instrumental ensembles and the genres and compositional forms of the music they perform. The focus of the study is the composition and specifics of ensemble playing, and the way a traditional multipart piece of music is created and formed by an instrumental ensemble during a live performance. As an illustration, I analyse a significant fragment 2 of the transcription of a long-form composition for an instrumental ensemble (which I prepared specially for this publication). As the majority of publications on the Hutsul culture, both past and present, are published in Slavonic languages (mainly in Ukrainian, Russian and Polish), the Hutsul culture and Hutsul instrumental music remain insufficiently studied in Western European, non-Slavonic ethnomusicology. In this article, I provide brief information about the Hutsuls as an ethnic group, the geography of the Hutsul region, and the nature of their everyday lives. This is especially important, as instrumental music in the Hutsul region, in particular the ensembles known as troista muzyka, have developed in the context of a livestock breeding type of culture, unlike other regions of Ukraine with a predominance of an agricultural type of culture. Vocal music in the musical culture of the Hutsuls takes second place. The genres of solo (a cappella) vocal music are practically absent. “Ми ще тi спiваки” (we are lousy singers), say the Hutsuls of themselves. And even in vocal-instrumental genres, the leading role belongs to the instrumental line. “Не скрипка за голосом, а голос за скрипкой най йде” (the voice follows the violin, not the violin following the voice) said the Bukovina Hutsul violinist 1 Acknowledgments: I would like to thank my family, friends and colleagues for their help in writing this article: my father Ihor Macijewski, my husband Michael Peter Schmidt, my colleagues and friends Thomas Nussbaumer, Simon Patterson, Vadim Strots, Peter Oberosler and Ulrich Morgenstern. 2 274 bars with a total duration of 3 minutes.

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Kirylo Prylypchian 3. For the same reason — ​the lack of a study on Hutsul instrumental culture in the non-Slavonic sphere — ​I will give a brief historiographical survey of the most important literary and scholarly works on the Hutsul region, its culture, art and instrumental music.

1. Introduction Although the culture and art of the Hutsul region has attracted and continues to attract the attention of several generations of ethnographers and musicians, the number of publications on instrumental music is not large. There are only a handful of studies on musical forms (compositional structure, see Matsievskii 1970, 1972a), and ensemble music. Transcriptions of long-form compositions for the entire period of “written interest” in the Hutsul region have been made by just a few researchers: Roman-Włodzimierz Harasymczuk, Stanisław Mierczyński (fragments), Ihor Macijewski (Matsievskii 4 1985), Mykhailo Khai, Bohdan Iaremko, and Victoria Macijewska 5. With regard to transcriptions of ensemble music, a limited scope of material is used as illustrations of instrumental music, recorded and notated by the same authors. This publication is an attempt to look at the nature of the traditional musical text, based on the material of Hutsul ensemble instrumental music, from the standpoint of both a specialist theorist and a practicing violinist. In doing so, I will follow previous studies on Hutsul music by my father Ihor Macijewski. The tradition of live performance in oral form among the Hutsuls has not only been preserved up to the present time, but also continues to develop and is very popular among the people. It features in every family celebration and significant social event. The number of active traditional instrumental ensembles in the Hutsul region exceeds all other regions of Ukraine (with the exception of East Podolye) taken together. There are 30 instrumental ensembles in the small Hutsul village of Zamagora 6 alone. The diversity of genres of instrumental music and musical instruments is enormous. It is no coincidence that the Hutsul region, which is far from being the largest ethnic region of Ukraine in size and in population, holds a dominant position in the amount of material on instrumental music gathered in field work.

3 Personal communication by Spiridon Prylypchian — ​the younger brother of Kirylo Prylypchian. 4 According to editorial standards I will use the transliteration Igor’ (Ukr.: Ihor’) Matsievskii in references to Russian and Ukrainian publications. 5 In references: Viktoria Matsievskaia. 6 Village in the Galician Hutsul region (Verkhovin’ski region of the Ivano-Frankivs’ka Oblast).

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Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental Ensemble Music of Hutsuls 

2. Geography: the main activities of the population and traditional way of life The Hutsuls are an ethnic group of southwestern Ukrainians. The dialect of the Hutsuls is one of the southwestern Carpathian dialects (along with the Boyky and Lemky) of the Ukrainian language. The majority of the Hutsuls live in the Ukrainian part of the Carpathian Mountains, the rest living in the Romanian part (the Hutsuls of Maramarosh and South Bukovina). The territory of the Hutsul region (6500 km2) is situated in the southern part of West Ukraine 7. The ethnic, linguistic, anthropological, musical and stylistic boundaries of the Hutsul dialect mainly coincide. The Hutsul region is located in the highest part of the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains, the Carpathian Forest, which consist of several mountain massifs. The rivers of the Tyssa Basin flow in the direction of Transcarpathia. Nature itself has divided the Hutsul lands into three local zones. The main occupation of the Hutsuls is the breeding of livestock, principally sheep, and hunting, especially in the past. This is the main source of food (milk, meat, salted cheese) For livestock breeding, Polonyna farming is characteristic: all of the animals belonging to village residents are gathered in collective herds which move for six spring and summer months to the high alpine meadows or Polonynas under the supervision of shepherds. At the signal of the trembita 8, the shepherds gather for a meal, milk the sheep, warn each other of danger, and report news. The master of the Polonyna, the chief shepherd, is the bearer of archaic traditions. Each Hutsul lehin (male) must serve as a shepherd in the Polonyna, if only for a summer. There he must learn to build and maintain a living fire (vatra), make food, cheese, play the polonynka 9 on a sopilka 10 or the violin, and learn to protect his herd from wolves or bears. Owing to the development of livestock breeding and forestry, wood carving, pottery and carpet-weaving are widespread in the Hutsul region. Specialization by craft is very typical among Hutsuls, especially in the mountainous parts of villages (remote prysilkys 11). The professions of wood carver, blacksmith, weaver, carpenter, joiner and 7 This section is based on the monograph of Ihor Macijewski The musical instruments of Hutsuls (Matsievskii 2012, 24 – 26). 8 Trembita is a long (up to 3m and more), end-blown straight trumpet with a mouth piece (423.121.12). Numbers in brackets correspond to the number in the Hornbostel-Sachs system of musical instrument classification (Sachs and Hornbostel von, 1914). 9 The Polonynka is a traditional ritual melody, both instrumental and vocal, which is usually played (sung) in a Polonyna (mountain valley). 10 Fluierka or sopilka-fluierka or frilka is widely used in various regions for the shortest variety of an open flute with six finger holes or sometimes with an additional seventh hole on the back. (421.111.22). 11 Settlements remote from the centre of the village.

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musical instrument maker are family trades. There are entire villages specialized in a certain trade. The art of the Hutsul masters, in both the past and present, has been highly valued not only in the Hutsul region and environs, but far beyond its borders. A Hutsul village consists of a central settlement, the so-called oseredok (centre) and numerous kuty (corners) and prysilky (settlements) remote from the centre of the village. The need for new pastures, the taxation on valley lands, and social and political pressure from both local and foreign landowners have forced the Hutsuls to move to new mountainous areas, further and further away from convenient valley lands. The resulting disconnectedness has made communication more difficulty, especially in winter and in the rainy season, making stable interregional communication limited. New things were slow to arrive in everyday life. A typical feature of the Hutsul mentality and lifestyle is a conservative attachment to preserving archaism at all levels. For this reason, a large number of rituals have been preserved in living practice, including playing for the dead, the cult of fire, and initiation rituals (Harasymczuk, Tabоr 1935, 44 – 45). The desire of Hutsuls to live by the rules of their ancestors, and their conservatism, are still manifested in clothing, customs, crafts and music. Recent publications, partly based on field research of the last 20 years, such as that by Paweł Zając (2004) or Urszula Janicka-Krzywda (2008), as well as my own conversations with traditional musicians, confirm the presence of a mythical consciousness among the Hutsuls. Accordingly, while the music performed by Hutsuls has in general changed, the ritual musical genres such as instrumental funeral lamentations, carolling, music for the ritual part of weddings, instrumental signals as well as several genres related to Polonyna activities, have not changed much.

3. Historiography The first information on the rich musical culture of the Hutsuls and the significance of their instrumental music was reflected in the literary works of Polish and Ukrainian writers of the late 18th to the early 19th century, such as Belsazar (or Balthasar) Hacquet, Lukasz Gołębiowski, Ivan Vahylevič, Jakob Jaroslaw Holowacký. In the first third of the 19th century, the first collection of the folklore of the peoples of Galicia was published by Waclaw Zaleski and Karol Lipinski (Zaleski 1833), with material including the Hutsul borderland. In the mid-19th century, the music ethnographer Oskar Kolberg made a series of notes about the instrumental music of the Galician Hutsuls in his book Pokucie (Kolberg 1882, 1883, 1888, 1889). In the late 19th century, Raimund Kaindl published what so far remains the only monographic study of the life and folklore of the Bukovina Hutsuls (Kaindl 1894). His study included information about musical instruments and instrumental music. The first studies of 182 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental Ensemble Music of Hutsuls 

Hutsul traditional music by the Ukrainian authors Filaret Kolessa, Porfirij Bazhansky and Stanislaw Ludkiewicz (Ludkiewicz 1907) were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Attempts were made to record melodies and give analytical explanations of them. The first significant transcriptions of Hutsul music by F. Kolessa stand out for their quality. Unfortunately, they are limited only to the notation of themes and periods; they are devoid of ornaments, indications of tempo and information about the performers. However, the melody and rhythm in these transcriptions are marked by great thoroughness, including quarter tones and types of articulation. The 1930s were a very productive time for the study of Hutsul instrumental music: numerous field trips were organized and the first sound recordings were made, as well as a significant amount of transcriptions of instrumental music. A major contribution to the study of Hutsul instrumental music was made by Stanisław Mierczyński (Mierczyński 1965). His transcriptions were created with special care: by many parameters they are still the best from the entire period of studying the instrumental music of Hutsuls. The Mierczyński transcriptions contain articulation and fingering, metronomic indication of tempo, names of the performers, musical instruments and locations. Mierczyński was the first scholar to transcribe Hutsul instrumental ensembles and a significant number of full pieces. Mierczyński also approached transcription as a practicing player. Travelling with his violin around Hutsul villages, he first learned a certain piece by ear directly from its performer and only then “transcribed himself”. After the western regions became part of Soviet Ukraine, and after the end of the Second World War, the work on studying Hutsul musical culture intensified. Research institutes were established as well as departments of ethnography and folklore at conservatories and universities in Kyiv, Lviv, Uzhhorod and Rivne. Among the works on Hutsul instrumental music, the studies of Larisa Saban on Hutsul dances (Saban 1987, 353 – 363), Bohdan Iaremko on the sopilka music of the Hutsuls (Iaremko 2014) are of note, and in particular Ihor Macijewski. Hutsul music was the topic of his PhD thesis (Macijewski 1970) and of the monograph Musical instruments of the Hutsuls (Macijewski 2012). He made a large number of transcriptions of instrumental music. Along with I. Macijewski, the most active current researchers of Hutsul instrumental music are Iarema Pavliv (Lviv), Iryna Fedun (Lviv) and Justyna Cząstka-Kłapyta (Krakov) (Cząstka-Kłapyta 2014).

4. Form in traditional Hutsul instrumental music Any piece of traditional music exists only as a live performance. There is no written musical text (notes). In traditional music, I understand a composition to be a multitude of possible musical texts which can be transmitted from one musician to another only 183 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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through “contact communication” 12. It is stored in the memory of a traditional musician as a virtual generalized morphological structure which can be realized in a live performance as a variety of versions. In this sense every composition (piece of music) of traditional music is absolutely unique both on the micro level (where, for example, the ornaments, rhythmical figures and melody vary), and on the macro level (where the borders of the composition can expand and contract, the themes can combine, the quantity of the repeats can vary, and definite themes can appear or disappear). A traditional piece of music is always polytextual 13. The problem with compositional forms of traditional instrumental music, including those based on Hutsul musical material, was studied by Ihor Macijewski in a number of articles and sections of his monographs. I will outline his main arguments here in accordance with Chapter 6 of the monograph Folk instrumental music as a phenomenon of culture (Matsievskii 2007, 286 – 303). The improvisational nature of traditional instrumental music influences the establishment of the musical text under the impact of three factors stability, mobility and reversibility (or dynamic regulation). Stable factors in the construction of longform music composition, as in the instrumental Hutsulka (for more details see below, pages 193 – 194) are: the succession of parts, the type of contrast between sections, the basic compositional plan and the presence of main themes. Mobile factors are: the number of themes and their repetitions, their order and tonality plan. In each separate traditional culture and genre, the set of structurally stable elements has its unique face which is nevertheless recognized by its representatives. Mobile factors are determined by each specific performer or group of performers (ensemble) (adherence to a local performance school, individuality) and by a performance situation. According to Macijewski, “reversibility” is “a special type of mobility which serves to preserve the dynamic structure, and through it the integrity and structural uniqueness of the

12 The art of “contact communication” is a term widely used in Eastern European ethnomusicology. It partly corresponds to the English term “face-to-face communication”. Both terms apply to direct (without any mediation of written text or other media sources) communication between the transmitter and the recipient of information. However, contact communication is much more than just communication. It is an interaction (or co-authorship) between the creator (author-interpreter: singer, instrumentalist or narrator) and the audience (also colleagues, pupils) in traditional culture during a performance. This communication forms and defines the traditional piece of music, fairytale or narration and could even provoke significant changes of content and morphology. The actual term “contact communication” applied to folklore was first introduced by Kirill Chistov in the article “The Specifics of Folklore in the Light of Communication Theory” (Chistov 1975, 32 – 43). It is more widely used in relation to traditional instrumental music and art in general by I. Macijewski (Matsievskii 2007, 167 – 179). 13 The term polytextual is related to a piece of traditional music, a narration or fairytale which can be realized in a performance in a variety of versions (texts). According to Chistov, polytextuality is one of the characteristic features of folklore. The term was first introduced by Chistov (1975).

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Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental Ensemble Music of Hutsuls 

piece. It (this type of mobility) is directed towards balancing improvisational mobility.” (Matsievskii 2007, 296, 279, see also 477). Reversibility is a kind of compensation: the more improvisational freeness the initial material is subjected to (for example the melody), the more conservatively accurate the subsequent appearance of the theme will be which the traditional musician introduces to “restore balance” in the composition. To a certain extent, a comparison may be made to rhythmical agogics.

5. Ensemble concept There are two types of instrumental ensembles in Hutsul traditional music: 1) the nontroista, the instrumental ensembles of ancient (not always) homogeneous instruments related to hunting and shepherds’ signals or special rituals (as a carolling and funerals); and 2) the troista muzyka (with a leading violin) ensembles.

Fig. 1: An ensemble of horns and trembitas during carolling. Unknown photographer. Photo taken possibly in December 2017 in the village of Kryvorivnia (Verchovina), Ivano-Frankivs’k Region. Private collection of Ihor Macijewski

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The first type of Hutsul non-troista instrumental ensembles consist of homogeneous musical instruments (2 – 4, sometimes 5 instruments), such as trembitas, floieras, horns, violins or a combination of them — ​for example trembitas and horns (see above Figure 1) or the violin and fluierka (sopilka). Such ensembles accompany ritual acts, processions and ritual singing, for example the processions, processional dances and songs of Christmas and New Year carolling — ​Koliada, Plies and Kruhliak 14; funeral processions and burials — ​instrumental signals of three trembitas and “playing for the deceased” of the ensemble of floiera’s. However, the ritual part of a wedding — ​certain ritual actions such as “going around the wedding table” or “braiding a wedding wreath” and ritual songs (koliadky) — ​are traditionally accompanied by a violin solo. The ritual music of non-troista ensembles has a simple and clear compositional structure. These are motive forms of instrumental signals of trembitas und ligavas, one-theme or short forms of one-theme variations (koliady), strophic 15 vocal and instrumental forms (koliadky and funeral floiera lamentations). Below is an example of the instrumental and vocal version of a Koliada (Figures 5 and 6).

Fig. 2: Diplomatic copy of the instrumental overture to a Koliada on the violin, with a characteristic form of strophe: aa16 (two strophes in the notation) of the musical notation by Filaret Kolessa (see Szuchewicz 1898 – 1908, Vol. 7, 90, № 21). The musical notation is made probably between 1898 and 1908 without any recording device. Performed by Piotr Haborak from Brustur, now the Kosiv region of the Ivano-Frankivska Oblast, Ukraine.

14 Koliada, Plies, Kruhliak are the genre of ritual action with a song basis, with a ritual-magic function, realized in the simple strophic structure with or without a refrain. They accompany Christmas processions (Koliada and Plies) and roundelays (Kruhliak) (Matsievskii 2000, 157). 15 The term “strophic form” came from vocal music. The musical strophe corresponds to a poetic strophe.

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(A rose has blossomed in the garden A wife got angry with her husband, Climbed onto the stove and fell ill).

Fig. 3: vocal version of Koliada, performed by Ivan Kureliuk (Gavetz). Diplomatic copy of the musical transcription by Roman-Włodzimierz Harasymczuk (Harasymczuk 1939, № 191). The musical notation is made without any recording device.

Obviously, the music of rituals belongs to the most ancient of living traditional music. The importance of the ritual act, where the music and the musician play a significant role, is still very relevant for traditional attitudes. People believe that the right ritual acts impact and define the future life of a new family (wedding), or the afterlife (funeral) (magic action). The ritual purpose makes the musicians realise a compositional form which is strictly according to the old traditional canons. For this reason, on the one hand the compositional structure of ritual genres has remained almost unchanged, while on the other hand it has been compensated for by the incredible richness of ornamentation and articulation of instrumental parts (violin and floiera instrumental improvisations). The second type of Hutsul traditional ensemble, troista muzyka, has numerous but generally synonymous names: kapela, vesil’na banda (wedding band), muzyky, vesil’ni muzyky (wedding musicians), velyka muzyka (great music). They are very different both in the number of their members as well as their instrumentation. The most prevalent instruments of the ensembles of the Hutsuls are the cimbalom (hammered dulcimer), the harmonica, bass, kardony 16 and drum, sopilka. However, only the violin is an indispensable instrument in every ensemble. There are also troista ensembles without violins. But even in this case, the violin doesn’t completely disappear. The missing instrument emerges again in the playing style of new instruments (mostly the accordion, trumpet, clarinet, saxophone or e-piano), which seem to imitate the typical traditional violin sound with sliding (glissando), ornaments and vibrato. Indeed, in the second half of the 20th century 16 The kardony is a kind of 3-string 3/4 guitar common in Transcarpathia. The kardony is played with a comb striking the strings as on the dulcimer (Matsievskii 2012, 59 – 60).

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Fig. 4: East Podolie Wedding Brass Ensemble, Mogyliv-Podil’ski region of Vinnits’ka Oblast’, Ukraine. Photograph shot between 2007 and 2010. Unknown photographer. Private collection of Victoria Macijewska. Fig. 5: Troista Muzyka ensemble (violin, cimbalom, sopilka and drum) from the village of Kosmach in the Kosiv region of Ivano-Frankyvs’ka Oblast, Ukraine. June 2017. Photograph by Ihor Macijewski. Lviv, Ukraine. Private collection of Ihor Macijewski.

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Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental Ensemble Music of Hutsuls 

in the Vinnitsa region (Ukraine), troista ensembles with a leading violin have almost disappeared and been replaced by brass troista ensembles (see Figure 7 below). However, the ensembles’ playing style and a repertoire — ​which is typical for violin klezmer — ​has survived thanks to the activity of troista brass ensembles which adopted and developed the old instrumental ensembles’ tradition. Presently, it is difficult to find kapelas in the region that include traditional instrumentation, namely the violin, clarinet, accordion and double bass. “At the beginning of the 20th century the old instrumentation was replaced by the instruments of brass orchestras” (Gusak 2011, 121). The specifics of ensemble interpretation shape the structuring of traditional compositions in both ensemble and solo music. The presence or absence of different musical instruments in ensemble instrumentation, their timbres, ranges, dynamic and technical characteristics and the performing style affect the compositional form as a whole as well as its parts. The specifics of ensembles are reflected in the: 1. character of melodic transformation and the development of themes 2. choice of tonalities and correlations between them 3. register dramaturgy 4. ornamentation 5. rhythm 6. texture and role of instrumental parts in the ensemble 7. tuning 8. tempo, agogics However, the most important aspect for my focus is the functional differentiation of performance of two ensembles types: 1. with one leader, 2. with more than one leader In wedding ensembles, regardless of the instrumentation and distribution of the ensemble members’ roles, (which can vary during performance, especially if the group has more than one soloist), the three functional levels are very clear (hence one of the names troista, triple, cf. Matsievskii 1985, 96 – 97, 102 – 103): 1. leading, playing solo — ​melodic instruments: violin (as a rule), sopilka, clarinet, trumpet, bayan (in Transcarpathia: harmonika-helikоnkа); the folk term (Bukovina) for leading line is frunt (front), i. e. leader; 2. rhythmic-harmonic and ornamental second and third violins (Bukovina), 2nd violin (prior to World War II ), cimbalom, bayan, accordion (Galician Hutsul region), harmonika-helikоnkа, kardony (also known as gordony, basy, zungury) — ​(Transcar189 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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pathia, including its Hutsul region in Romania), guitar. The folk term for this group is shtabova muzyka 17; 3. bass-beat (rhythmic base of the ensemble) — ​the drums mark the beats, the basses play the basic harmonic notes on the strong beat. The instruments are: the bubon (a big Hutsul drum) with a cymbal, bass or basolia (three-string cello) which was widespread in Transcarpathia, but lately has only been used in Bukovina. The solo or ensemble concept of the interpretation of a piece of music impacts the whole structure of the composition. First, the challenges which the leader-violinist has to resolve in a solo performance and as an ensemble member are completely different. Secondly, solo and ensemble performing arts in Hutsul traditional culture are closely interrelated. There are no pure soloists. None of the solo players are able to separate themselves from the ensemble’s experience. Nevertheless, the first violinist, who also takes part in the ensemble and plays a dominant and managing role in the process of the performance and creation of the composition, is usually a bright personality and a leader.

6. Solo concept In fact, the distinction between the concept of solo and ensemble performance is very individual, regardless of the participation of other musicians and music instruments. The first violin part remains dominant for the development of the form. If there are no other instruments, the solo part offers much more flexibility for the following: tonality changes (such as modulations, a sharp contrast between tonalities, alteration of the melodic line); rhythm (including rhythmical displacement of the accents), registers, ornamentation and articulation. For example, the first violin part might contain melodies played on the low strings (D and G) and in the high positions. This is absolutely unacceptable in an ensemble, where the accompanying group play one octave below the violin and the second soloists, such as the sopilka or clarinet, duplicate the violin line one octave above. Usually, in the absence of the instruments of harmonic and bass function in solo performances, the solo violinist assumes their functions, which makes the violin part richer. Even the compositions for violin solo (such as “music for listening” 18), retain, beside the melodic line, rhythm-harmonic 17 The term Shtabova muzyka (literally military music) refers to the accompanying and ornamental function in instrumental ensembles, not to the melody and the bass. 18 Genres of Hutsul instrumental music: poem-suite or program piece; also, according to traditional folk terminology “music for listening”. For more details see: (Matsievskii 1972b, 287 – 298) and (Matsievskii 2011, 158 – 159).

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elements including double notes, chords, open-string drone, and foot-tapping on every strong beat of the bar. Traditional musicians think in an “imaginary score” way 19. Every member of the instrumental ensemble is usually well-versed in all parts of the ensemble and, if needed, is able to play a different instrumental part as well as (also during the performance) to add a missing “imaginary score” element (instrumental part) to their own part or even to change instruments. The tonal and register-related flexibility described above is recognized by traditional musicians as a deviation from canon, as a demonstration of originality. Even the musical instrument itself could be interpreted as an ensemble and as a possibility for score realization. For example, the top violin strings (E and A) are mentioned as being melodic and the bottom strings as harmonic, which is reflected in the traditional terminology: the A string is called holosnytsia (voice) and the G string basova (bass). According to traditional standards, an ensemble of three violins should play the accompanying line in the first position on the G and D strings as a 3 – 4 harmonic interval combination (for example fifths (P5) — ​A and E, thirds (M3 or m3) — ​C and E or C♯ and E) on every harmonic change. In this case harmonic function is realized by intervals, not chords. The melodic and harmonic spheres are completely separated, also in registers. Therefore, solo interpretation tends to have the same way of thinking as ensemble interpretation. Concerning compositional structuring, form development in a purely solo interpretation is mostly achieved by adding new music material or tonality and register changes. Rarely, the same thematic material is repeated more than twice, as is confirmed by numerous notations, as well as traditional musicians’ own explanations (based on personal communication with Vassyl Grymaliuk-Mogur 20 and Spiridon Prylypcian 21). Ensemble interpretation allows the same theme to be repeated more than twice, because the development of the form can be realized both through the density of the texture and by the motive being divided up between the instrumental parts.

19 Any piece of traditional music exists only as a live performance. There is no written musical text (notes). The term “score” is commonly used to refer to a written notation of multipart music. So I decided to introduce the new term “imaginary score” into academic use, because there is no special term in relation to traditional multipart music. 20 Vassyl Grymaliuk-Mogur (Mohur) (1920 – 1998) — ​traditional violinist — ​the legend of Galician Hutsuls. The author of numerous compositions for violin. 21 Spiridon Prylypcian (1928 – 2003) — ​the most famous violinist of Hutsul Bukovina, the leader of the ensemble Prylypicians brothers.

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7. Ensemble concept The ensemble concept of compositional structuring, involving more than one soloist, causes a number of significant joint actions of musicians beyond the unity of tuning and tempo. First, the chosen tonalities should be comfortable for all the instruments of the ensemble. Second, the chosen musical material should be adaptable for all solo instruments of the ensemble. In my field studies, I encountered a curious fact that several themes of the long-form composition Wedding Hutsulka played by the violinist Vassyl Grymaliuk-Mogur had been deliberately simplified. That was very unusual for such a master musician who was especially famous for his vivid imagination and brilliant gift of composing. It turned out that in addition to the violin, the composition was intended for the trumpet, which possesses more limited ornamental and tonal options. Third, when musical instruments of a similar range, such as the violin and sopilka, violin and clarinet, play their solos simultaneously, each instrument should try to remain within its register sphere. In this case the violinist plays within the first position (1 – 2 octaves), while the sopilka and clarinet play one octave above. Fourth, instruments with different dynamic capabilities, such as the violin and trumpet, rarely play solo at the same time. In this respect, the conscious attitude of the players with regard to register, timbres and the dynamic abilities of musical instruments is even more important than the ensemble instrumentation. On the one hand, an ensemble composition with many instrumental elements sounds multicoloured, but on the other hand, each separate instrumental part becomes simplistic. In any case, the more musical instruments and ensemble members are in the ensemble instrumentation, the simpler the instrumental parts of the “imaginary score” are. Evgenii Gippius came to the same conclusion when observing vocal ensemble music (Dorokhova/Pashina 2003, 20). From a psychological point of view, if there is more than one soloist in the ensemble, the performance tends to be competitive. The listeners compare the interpretations of the soloists, even if they play different instruments. This motivates the musicians to play their solos more distinctly than their opponent, demonstrating brilliant technique and ornamentation. This collective improvisation is very similar to a jam session in jazz. Notwithstanding the competition, the musicians play and create the piece together. The compositional structure in this case is realized both individually and collectively. In the Hutsul wedding tradition, there is a moment where two wedding ensembles (one from the bride and one from the groom) meet and then play simultaneously, but not together. The opponent must be ‘defeated’ by the volume of the sound: “Хто дущей заграу, тoй и правий” (Those who played louder are right)22.

22 Personal communication by Ihor Macijewski.

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In order to understand how traditional musicians structure the composition, we can distinguish canonical or unchanging compositional elements from variable or changing elements 23. The multi-thematic long-form composition Hutsulka, which belongs to the genre of “music for listening” is the most complex and thematically richest compositional form of Hutsul instrumental music, and is mainly performed by troista ensembles. The canonical or unchanging elements of this compositional form are: 1. a compositional structure involving two large parts: 2. the first part is hutsulky 24, whose kolinos 25 are based on kolomyika’s rhythm 26 (Figure 10) the second part is kozachky 27, whose kolinos are based on kozachkovy rhythm 28 (Figure 11); 3. introduction and coda; 4. two-quarter time signature; 5. a gradual increase in tempo; 6. simplification (or rather absence) of the ornamentation in the soloist’s line in the kozachky part. The variable elements are: 1. the number of kolinos and of their repetitions; 2. the order of kolinos; 3. the type of modification in repetitions; 4. the entire duration of the composition; 5. the integrity and extensibility of hutsulky and kozachky parts; 6. inclusion of other significant parts (for example, an introduction based on kolomyika music); The variable elements are implemented in accordance with the microregional local tradition, individual conception of musicians, performance school and external circumstances (playing situation, the reaction of the audience), and can sometimes extend beyond the defined boundaries. 23 See also Matsievskii 1972a, 299 – 339. 24 Traditional terminology. 25 Kolino corresponds to the period or theme in classical music, typically a 16-bar tune. 26 The kolomyika rhythm (4+4+6) or (1111.1111.111122) comes from kolomyika songs. The numbers in brackets indicate the quantity and the order of syllables (4+4+6) and rhythmic duration (1111.1111.111122), where 2 is twice as long as 1. See the kolomyika text from the folk songs collection of Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko (1906, 502, quoted after Dej 1970). 27 Traditional terminology. 28 Kozachkovy rhythm (4+3) or (1111.112) ×2 =8+8 = 16 bars. It corresponds also to the beats and phrasing.

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Fig. 6: The first 8 bars of a typical 16-bar theme of the compositional section hutsulky (1). A fragment from Wedding Hutsulka for violin performed by Vassyl Mogur in the village of Kovalivka, Kolomyiski region of Ivano-Frankivs’ka Oblast’, Ukraine. August 1994. Recorded by Ihor Macijewski. Private archive of Ihor Macijewski. Transcribed by Victoria Macijewska. Music notation by Peter Oberosler.

Fig. 7: The first 8 bars of the 16-bar theme of the compositional section kozachky (2). A fragment from Wedding Hutsulka for violin performed by Vassyl Grymaliuk-Mogur in the village of Kovalivka, Kolomyiski region of Ivano-Frankivs’ka Oblast’, Ukraine. August 1994. Recorded by Ihor Macijewski. Private archive of Ihor Macijewski. Transcribed by Victoria Macijewska. Music notation by Peter Oberosler.

The score analysis of the fragments from the long form music composition Wedding Hutsulka, performed by the Hutsul family ensemble called Nedokhodiuky, gives an idea of some of the canonical features of this compositional form and to realize how the ensemble structures the form and how some variable elements manifest. The instruments of the ensemble are the violin, sopilka (flute), drum and cimbalom. The first two bars are usually a small introduction (canonical feature) which also serves to adjust the tuning (the open A and D strings played together) and to define the tempo. The first theme, indicated here as A-part, begins from the third bar and then is invariantly repeated three times: (A1, A2, A3 parts). The diagram below shows the instrumentation of the first theme and its duration in bars: 1. A — ​violin solo and drum (bars 3 – 18), 2. A1 — ​violin, sopilka, drum (bars 19 – 33), 3. A2 — ​violin, sopilka, cimbalom, drum (bars 35 – 50), 4. A3 — ​violin, sopilka, cimbalom, drum (bars 51 – 66). One can see that the first time the theme (A) is played by a solo violin, with the drum. The second time, the theme (A1) is played by a violin and sopilka. The next repetition 194 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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of the theme (A2) is played by a violin, sopilka und cimbalom. Each new repetition of the theme is accompanied by an addition of a new instrument in the ensemble. The compositional development in the A-parts is implemented through: 1) density of texture (initially, only one solo instrument sounds, then two solo instruments, then three); 2) adding new motives (for example bars 23, 27); sometimes they sound parallel to the main theme (bars 29, 30) and 3) their combinations/transitions, such as the appearance of the motives from A (bars 11, 12, 13) in the second part of A2 (bars 43, 44, 45). In bars 29, 30 and 51, 52, 53, the theme is divided between solo instruments, so that the old and new motives sound in parallel. Obviously, the compositional development through density of texture and the theme being divided between instrumental parts is possible only in ensemble music. The A-part could also be interpreted as a solo violin introduction (a solo concept within the ensemble composition). The violin part contains very rich ornaments (trills, mordents, glissando, vibrato) and a lot of legato and double notes. The attention of the audience is fully focused on the violinist, who is playing alone. The second theme (or B-part: bars 67 – 82) and its invariant repetition (B1: bars 83 – 98) are followed by a third theme (or C-part: bars 99 – 114) and its 6 invariant repetitions: (C1: bars 115 – 130; C2: bars 131 – 146; C3: bars 147 – 162; C4: bars 163 – 178; C5: bars 179 – 194; C6: bars 195 – 210). Then the parts D in a-minor (bars 211 – 226), E (bars 227 – 242) and F=C (bars 243 – 258) and their invariant repetition F1 (bars 259 – 274) follow. The part E is a transition that facilitates the return of the form to the previous tonality (from a-minor to G-major in the bar 228) and to the thematic material of part C. Part F is the return of theme C, therefore this part is indicated as F=C. Here we can also see how the variable elements of the long-form composition Hutsulka manifest themselves. For example, the number of repetitions of kolinos (themes) varies from one (in part B) to 7 times (in part C). In bar 227 the violin remains solo. In the following bar 228 (on the second quarter), the violinist makes a decision to change the form to the previous theme and tonality, and the ensemble members follow him. Evidently, the composition of Nedokhodiuky is an example of the collective ensemble concept of three soloists, where the instrumental parts prevalently sound as unison or octave unison. However, with the increase in tempo from bar 130 (twice as fast) as well as in bars 74 – 81 and 203 – 210, only one or two ensemble members play a melo­dy, while other instrumentalists take on the accompaniment. For example, in bars 74 – 81, the solo line belongs to the sopilka and cimbalom, while the rhythm-harmonic 195 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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function moves to the violin; in bars 203 – 210 the cimbalom combines a melody and rhythmic-harmonic function, while the violin and sopilka play harmonic notes which also serve as the signal for an upcoming tonality change from D major to a minor. The ease with which instrumentalists in the ensemble assume the solo or the accompanying roles from each other throughout the entire duration of the piece is convincing proof that the musicians possess an excellent knowledge of all the parts of the ensemble, not just their own, i. e. they think in terms of the whole “imaginary score”. This is not a coincidence. Traditional professionals are very often multi-instrumentalists. Usually, the ensemble members can play all the instruments of the ensemble. It is very common for traditional musicians to exchange both their instruments and ensemble roles with other instrumentalists, also during the performance. The transition from the second violin to the first or from a less demanding instrument to a more difficult one is typical for traditional musical education. Introduction to the transcription (Figure 8) I transcribed the hutsulky section or first part of Nedokhodiuky’s Wedding Hutsulka, recorded in 1969 by Ihor Macijewski, during summer field research (see AV  24). The fragment has a total duration of 3 minutes or 274 bars. The audio recording was made with only one microphone for all the instruments. Due to this reason, a lot of details remain unclear, such as the ensemble instrumentation, instrumental articulation (legato, non-legato), some of rhythmic figures and ornaments. There could also be a second violin part, which episodically (for example in the following bars: 23, 24, 53, 112 and 146) appears as double notes or octave unison, and as a melodic line rather independent of the first violin part. Playing in octaves on the violin is not customary in Hutsul traditional culture, which leads me to assume that a second violin sometimes appears in this ensemble. I only indicated bowing in the violin part when I was sure of it. I was guided firstly by general performance logic, and secondly I took into account knowledge of the Hutsul violin tradition which I gained from direct personal instruction by traditional musicians and from playing together with them. I did not indicate articulation in the sopilka part. In most cases, one slur (one breath) corresponds to the 8-bars phrase. I did not indicate key signatures. All accidentals are indicated directly in each bar. A plus or minus in brackets in the violin part means raising or lowering the main tone by a quarter tone. In the brackets, both in the violin and in the sopilka part, secondary tones of trills are indicated. In the Hutsul instrumental tradition, tempered intonation is generally not customary. Intonation is based on the features of the specific instrument and the method of playing it. In particular, Hutsul violinists tend to broaden semitones and to narrow tones if they are played in the same position by different 196 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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fingers. Semitones taken by one finger are narrow, as for example in the 51st bar in the violin part with c-b-a in the second octave in the treble clef 29. In some cases, where it is obvious, I have indicated the fingering in the violin part. For convenience, the bars are numbered in the score (every 10 bars) and time is given in seconds corresponding to the audio recording from which the transcription was made (every 16 bars — ​corresponding to the phrasing by sections).

29 See Matsievskaia 2011, 11 – 21.

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Fig. 8: Nedokhodiuky’s Wedding Hutsulka (AV  24). Recorded in 1969 by Ihor Macijewski. Transcription by Victoria Macijewska. Music notation by Peter Oberosler.

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8. Conclusion This study is dedicated to the instrumental multipart music of the Hutsuls. In this article, I have described the genres of Hutsul music (ritual and music for listening) and the types of instrumental ensembles (non-troista and troista). I have specified the most common ritual music forms for non-troista instrumental ensembles, such as motive forms of instrumental signals or one-theme variations (koliady) and illustrated them with musical examples. Of particular interest are the three functional levels in troista ensembles: 1) leading solo playing, 2) rhythmic-harmonic and ornamental, 3) beat-metric. The focus of the study are the long-form compositions for Hutsul instrumental ensembles and the way a traditional piece of music is created and formed by an instrumental ensemble during a live performance. For this reason, I have attempted to provide a definition of traditional music composition and indicated factors that influenced its establishment. As a result, I have made a few clarifications and explanations of I. Macijewski’s terms “stability, mobility and reversibility”. I determined the two types of instrumental ensembles of troista muzyka (with one or with more than one leader). In this regard I defined solo and ensemble concepts of compositional structuring, canonical and variable elements of musical form. Furthermore, I have characterized a term widely used in Eastern European ethno­ musicology: the art of contact communication, and its difference to “face to face communication”. In addition, numerous terms originating from traditional termino­ logy have been defined, such as genres of traditional music (Koliada, Plies), names of music instruments (sopilka, trembita, kordony), various functions in an ensemble (frunt, shtabova muzyka), and sections of music composition (hutsulky, kozachky, kolino). The score analysis of the large fragment from the long form music composition Wedding Hutsulka, performed by the family ensemble Nedokhodiuky enables us to get an idea of some of canonical features of this compositional form and to realize how the ensemble structures the form and how certain variable elements are manifested. This composition is also beautiful and unique music and is worth being performed. In addition, I have introduced the term ‘imaginary score’ to characterize the understanding of a multipart piece by a traditional musician.

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Matsievskii, Igor’ (Мациевский, Игорь). 2011. “Жанровая систематика традиционной украинской инструментальной музыки [Genre systematics of traditional Ukrainian instrumental music].” In В пространстве музыки. Санкт-Петербург: Российский институт истории искусств. 151 – 160. Matsievskii, Ihor (Мацієвський, Ігор). 2012. Музичні інструменти гуцулів [The musical instruments of the Hutsuls]. Вінниця: Нова книга. Mierczyński, Stanisław. 1965. Muzyka Huculszczyzny. Music of the Hutsul region prepared for publication and commented by Jan Stęszewski. Kraków: Polskie wydawnictwo muzyczne. Saban, Larisa (Сабан, Лариса). 1987. “Народні танці [Folk dances].” In Гуцульщина. Історикоетнографічне дослідження [The Hutsulshchyna. Historical-ethnographic studies]. Kиїв: Наукова Думка. 353 – 363. Sachs, Curt and Erich von Hornbostel. 1914. “Systematik der Musikinstrumente [Classification of Musical Instruments].” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 46. 553 – 590. Szuchewicz, Wolodymir (Шухевич, Володимир). 1898 – 1908. Гуцульщина [Land of the Hutsuls]. Т. І–V. Матеріали до українсько-руської етнології. Львів: Наукове товариство ім. Т. Шевченка. Zając, Paweł. 2004. O zaświetach niedalekich i cudach nienadzwychajnych. “Nadprzyrodzone” w kulturze ludowej na przykladzie Huculczyzny [About afterlife-related and unreliable miracles (the supernatural) in popular culture using the example of Hutsuls]. Kraków: Nomos. Zaleski, Wacław (Wacław z Oleska). 1833. Pieśni polskie i ruskie ludu galicyjskiego. Melodje instrumentowane przez K. Lipińskiego. Lwów:Franziszek Piller.

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Thomas Nußbaumer

Instrumental Folk Music in Tyrol since the 19th Century

Abstract The study presented here will outline the history and forms of instrumental folk music in the Tyrolean region of Austria and Italy. At the beginning of the 19th century, dance music accompaniment was made up of a fiddle, a fife called a Schwegel, a hammered dulcimer (Hackbrett) and a string bass (Bass or Bassettl), but by the middle of the 19th century brass band music was on the rise, including in Tyrol. In the villages of South Tyrol in Italy, a so-called Böhmische instrumentation was established, named after the itinerant Bohemian dance musicians of the 19th century. The folk music scholar Alfred Quellmalz was able to record numerous Böhmische on tape from 1940 – 1942. In North Tyrol, however, exemplary groups such as Die fidelen Inntaler led by Gottlieb Weissbacher or Die Tiroler Kirchtagmusig led by Peter Moser established standards that young musicians could orient themselves to by creating similar instrumentation and by primarily playing pieces composed by Weissbacher and Moser. In addition to the wind instruments that dominated, there were again the informal dance-fiddle groups in the Ziller and the Passeier valleys with their local music repertoires. The multipart music of the instrumentalists mentioned here is all based on the principle of an expanded Alpine two-part harmony. The present situation in instrumental folk music in Tyrol is influenced by the activities of folk music preservation societies and the professionalization of music education in the various music schools throughout the region.

1. Preliminary comments The history of instrumental folk music in the Tyrolean region 1 is embedded in the musical history of the Alps as well as in neighbouring areas of Austria and Bavaria. In addition to the trans-Alpine instrumentation described by Gerlinde Haid, Dorothea Draxler and Maria Walcher (1990/91, 118 – 123) in their “INFOLK -Broschüre” — ​where they list the various styles of Alpine folk music — ​we also find a great deal of instrumentation in Tyrol that was created in Tyrol and obtained importance well beyond the region. 1 In this paper, Tyrol refers to the common cultural and historical past, and since 2011 the autonomous European region of Tyrol-South Tyrol-Trentino as a union for territorial cooperation.

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This present contribution is devoted exclusively to those instrumental and polyphonic musical instrumentation types that are characterized as the genre of Volksmusik (folk music) and described by Walter Wiora (1951) and Gerlinde Haid (2002) as musica alpina. According to them, and also to me (Nußbaumer 2008a, 13 – 27) folk music is primarily functionally-oriented music practiced for the most part by lay — ​not professional — ​musicians and can be distinguished from the genres of Kunstmusik (art music) and (medially designed) Popularmusik (popular music) both stylistically and through its performance. Clearly, however, the boundaries between folk music and the latter two genres are fluid (Hoerburger 1986, 144 – 145). The genre of Volksmusik, since its “discovery” in the last third of the 18th century by Johann Gottfried Herder, and by his contemporaries and successors (Morgenstern 2014, 21 – 25), and especially since the beginning of research and preservation, has a unique status within the musical scene in the Alpine region (and even beyond).2 In Austria, Bavaria and South Tyrol there is a folk music scene spanning the entire region with local clubs and organizations, their own types of performances (e. g., folk music concerts, musicians’ gatherings, Advent singing), and numerous competitions and educational opportunities. Within these groups there is a consensus, gained through practice, of what constitutes Alpine folk music and how it should be presented musically.3 Of key importance in this paper are the types of instrumental ensembles and instrumentation which arose in the early 19th century in Tyrol and which are recognized in research history and folk music preservation as folk music groupings. Since the instrumental folk music of the Alps is based for the most part on the prevalent genres of earlier peasant Alpine dance music, we can quickly establish the musical genres that come into question. The largest part of older instrumental music in Tyrol, the Ländler or Landler, is primarily in three-four time. The melodics of the Ländler reveal both sequences of chord tones and gradual progression (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 83). The older Tyrolean Landler consists of eight measures and is divided in two parts, where the second part is either a repetition of the first part in the dominant key, or a variation of it. In the second part, a motif from the first part is often emphasized. The type of performance is AABBA , or AABB in the case of the older Landler. Frequently, several Landler pieces follow sequentially and close with a cadenza (Horak 1967, 28). The melodies created by sequences of chord tones in the eight-measure Landler are, according to Kofler/Deutsch (1999, 84), characterized by an extremely intense diminution and consist partially of eighth note sequences. Landler pieces of this type are called Kugelete or (in the Ziller Valley) Kugelate. The sixteen-measure Ländler, 2 Cf. the contributions by Raymond Ammann, Walter Deutsch, Walter Meixner, Dan Lundberg, Maša Marty, Dieter Ringli and Manfred Seifert in Näumann, Nußbaumer and Probst-Effah 2018. 3 The conceptions of folk music in Switzerland have recently been thoroughly dealt with by Karoline Oehme-Jüngling (2016, 155 – 246).

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acquired in the last decades of the 19th century from Bavaria (Horak 1976, 65 – 66), is characterized by melodies with gradual progressions (Deutsch 1987/88, 142 – 156). The formal norm for the Walzer, a dance genre related to the Landler which developed around 1750 in southern German and Austrian regions, is the 16-measure Waltz. In contrast to the Landler, Waltz melodies mostly consist of quarter notes and half notes (Deutsch 2014, 78 – 81). The Waltz is one of the most important genres of peasant dance music in Tyrol, as can be documented even in early notations, e. g. the Sonnleithner Collection from 1819 (Nußbaumer 2014, 92 – 93). Among the contemporary dance forms that appear rather infrequently is the Mazurka, also called the Masolka, Masulka, Massiner, Wickler, Masseschger etc. In the 19th century it was taken on by rural musicians from an urban dance form whose roots lie in the Polish Mazur. In the first third of the 19th century it became a bourgeois social dance throughout Europe and was increasingly performed by rural musicians (Schierer 1995, 7 – 15). Musically, this three-four time dance, which shows similarities to the Landler relating to its formal and melodic features, is characterized by accents on every second beat and the doubling of the final note (derived from the two-part dance step) (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 221 – 222). The Boarische (or Bairische or Bayrisch Polka) is still a favorite couple dance in two-four time in Tyrol today. A characteristic feature is the eight-measure form of its tunes and especially the rhythmic pattern eighth note + eighth note + quarter note, a basic pattern for the Boarische in general. As a slow form of the Polka the Boarische is performed in timing between M. M. 80 and M. M. 86. The Polka, also in two-four time, is played faster (between M. M. 120 and M. M. 128, based on measurements made by Kofler and Deutsch). It is composed and transmitted in eight and six measure periods (Kofler/ Deutsch 1999, 239 – 241; 277 – 278). A lesser role in the folk music of Tyrol is played by the Marsch (March), and according to Kofler and Deutsch (1999, 323) it represents a special case of acquiring military music. Playing the Schwegel (a six-holed fife made of wood) and drum was a very common practice among military riflemen companies until the middle of the 19th century (Haid 2004, 684 – 690). In the 20th century, music for Schwegel fifes and drums became part of folk music preservation. Brief mention should also be made of typical folk music instruments that are now also played outside the region, but are historically part of Tyrol: the so-called Tiroler Volks­ harfe (Tyrolean folk harp), the Osttiroler Hackbrett (East Tyrolean hammered dulcimer) and to some degree the Raffele, a kind of zither that is also played in the Bavarian Allgäu. The Tiroler Volksharfe, which until the middle of the 20th century was named the Tiroler Bauernharfe (Tyrolean peasant harp), is played solo or as an accompanying instrument in numerous instrumental ensembles. It is a simple pedal harp in the basic tuning E flat major, and as Peter Kostner shows in detail in his 1991 thesis, has 215 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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undergone numerous changes since the 19th century with regard to its external shape, number of strings and sound, representing many variations which primarily reflect the workshop where it was created. By using the pedals for raising the strings by a semitone, one can play eight keys from E flat major to E major within the circle of fifths. The 36 – 39 strings — ​originally made from gut, today mostly of nylon — ​offer a sound range of about five octaves (Bb1 to Bb6). The Tyrolean folk harp, which is much smaller than the modern concert harp and is far easier to carry by dance musicians, was previously played in the Ziller Valley and in the lowlands of North Tyrol. Along with two fiddles, a string bass and accordion, it is an accompanying instrument in Hochzeitsmusik [wedding music], a kind of dance music instrumentation which is typical for the Ziller Valley (Nußbaumer 2008a, 160 – 161). The preservation of its particular technique is of special concern in folk harp playing in Tyrol, as described in detail by the harpist Peter Reitmeir in 1971.4 The generic term Osttiroler Hackbrett refers to a regionally-specific diatonic variant of the hammered dulcimer, which in the 20th century was still exclusively produced by East Tyrolean instrument makers in the Isel Valley and the Lienz Basin. In contrast to the chromatically tuned Salzburger Hackbrett (developed in 1935 by Heinrich Bandzauner and Tobi Reiser), which is nowadays the most important dulcimer in all German-speaking Alpine regions, the East Tyrolean dulcimer is used almost exclusively for accompaniment. It probably owes its popularity to the folk music group Alt Matreier Tanzmusik — ​in existence since 1910 — ​for whom this instrument plays a major role, alongside various wind and string instruments (Totschnig 2004, 56 – 60). With all East Tyrolean dulcimers, semitone levers are used to enable the application of different keys. The semitone levers are fixed to the left and right of the treble bridge, their number varies and some instruments have from two to five levers, but others as many as 14. The most popular of the East Tyrolean dulcimer tunings are Matrei tuning (adapted to the sharp keys) and Gwabl tuning (adapted to the B-flat keys and thus best for playing with B-flat wind instruments) (Pedarnig 1978, 171 – 173). The terms of the tunings refer to the town of Matrei in Osttirol and the village of Gwabl. The Raffele, a special kind of a regional zither, is mostly played solo. It was first documented in the early 1940s in South Tyrol by the fieldwork of Alfred Quellmalz through an abundance of sound and photographic records (Nußbaumer 2008a, 170 – 173). There are 2 – 4 strings on a diatonic fingerboard and two or more co-vibrating drone strings played with a pick made of wood, fishbone, bovine or goat hoof. There 4 The basic terms for playing chords on the Tyrolean folk harp are, according to Reitmeir (1971, 62 – 64): “enger Griff,” [firm grip], “weiter Griff” [open grip], “goldener Griff” [golden grip] and “Sekund-Griff” [accompanying grip], where the fingers — ​unlike when playing a concert harp — ​remain firmly on the strings.

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are many different shapes for the simple reason that they were mostly made by the performers themselves (Niederfriniger 2015, 47 – 48). Finally, there are the diatonic accordion (Steirische) and guitar, since both are impor­ tant accompanying instruments for Tyrolean folk music ensembles and are played in a certain way in many places throughout the region. The Steirische is a diatonic instrument with button keys and is relatively new to folk music. It was developed in the 19th century in Vienna but rapidly spread throughout the Alps (Maurer 1968). Especially in central South Tyrol and in the so-called MARTHA villages (Mühlau, Arzl, Rum, Thaur and Absam) near Innsbruck, we find specific pieces and idiosyncracies in performance, tempo, phrasing, and sound shaping (Nußbaumer 2008a, 167 – 169). The notable style of solo guitar playing in the Tyrolean lowlands, in parts of Bavaria and in Vorarlberg is described as Zigeunerstimmung (Gypsy tuning) and refers to an abundance of scordaturas and technical variants for which there is one common principle: a method of playing which facilitates the simultaneous performance of a two-part melody and an offbeat-bass voice. Stefan Hackl, who has researched this method in great depth, points out that in the Zigeunerstimmung the basic model for Alpine multipart music — ​two melody voices and a bass — ​can be produced with one single instrument in a simple and appealing way (Hackl 1997, 87). This basic form of Alpine multipart music is, amongst other things, the topic of the next section.

2. Instrumentation in Tyrol in the 19th century In her essay on folk music in Tyrol in the 18th and 19th centuries from 2004, Gerlinde Haid pointed out that during the 17th century the string trio, consisting of two violins and a small string bass, became the basic instrumentation type for dance music in the Alpine regions (Haid 2004, 695). According to this model, the melody voice is accompanied by a second voice, either in parallel thirds higher than the primary melody and creating a so-called Überschlag voice [turnover voice], or in thirds and sixths below the main voice, while the bass basically carries the harmonizing tones (the key notes of the tonic, dominant and subdominant chords). This harmonic principle — ​also common throughout Alpine vocal folk music — ​became basic in Austria, Bavaria and in Switzerland (Deutsch 2017, 293), and can be found in the earliest records of Austrian folk music. We can see this in an example of notation for a Deutscher Tanz from Ritten in South Tyrol, for two Schwegel [fifes] and a string bass (Figure 1), recorded in the Sonnleithner Collection of 1819.5 5 For the importance of the Sonnleithner Collection, the earliest “official” folk music collection in Austria, see Deutsch and Hofer 1969.

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Fig. 1: Deutscher Tanz No. 3 (beginning) for two fiddles, string bass and Schwegel, recorded in Ritten (Deutsch/Hofer 1969, 70). Archive of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien, VI /27.473.

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Fig. 2: Jacobus Placidus Altmutter: Bauerntanz [Peasant Dance], around 1815. Copyright Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Ältere Kunstgeschichtliche Sammlungen, Inv.-Nr. Gem 1719.

Several iconographic documents from the early 19th century — ​especially works of Alpine genre painting — ​show that ensembles including a fiddle, Schwegel, dulcimer, and string bass had become dominant in rural dance music throughout the region (Haid 2004, 695). We find evidence in several pictures by Jacobus Placidus Altmutter (1780 – 1819) or Severin Benz from this period, and in spite of the intent of the two artists to show rural life and peasant folk in an idealized manner, realistic details of the dances appear. In the left margin of Altmutter’s Bauerntanz [Peasant Dance] (Figure 2) one can see four dance musicians: a fiddler next to a dulcimer player with an instrument slung over his shoulders, a bass string player (where only a small part of the fingerboard is visible), and a Schwegel player. We can see this quartet more clearly in Altmutter’s Tanz in der Wirtsstube [Dance in an Inn] (Figure 3), but here the bass instrument is concealed. This is seen even better in Benz’s Volksscenen aus dem Zillerthale [Folk Scenes from the Ziller Valley] (Figure 4): in the background we see a trio made up of a fiddler, dulcimer player and a bass fiddler sitting on a bench, on a so-called Spielleut-Truhe [musicians’ chest]. The performance is quite clearly in 219 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 3: Jacobus Placidus Altmutter, Tanz in der Wirtsstube [Dance in an Inn], 1806. Copyright: Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Graphische Sammlungen, Inv.-Nr. TB ar 1145.

a so-called Tanzlaube [dance arbour]. Dance arbours have been documented in many places in the Tyrolean region since the 13th century. Much like dance halls in the cities, they were located centrally and frequently used for other official gatherings, and for the most part were quite open (Dörrer 1947). We know about the “musicians’ chest” from a judge from Schwaz named Johann Strolz (1780 – 1835), the first collector of folk songs in Tyrol. Strolz reported in 1807 that dance music instrumentation for the Ziller Valley weddings consisted of “one zither, one dulcimer, one Schwegel, a couple of fiddles, a string bass, a jaw harp and so on, always depending on the musicians’ chest (for the rural orchestra it was a large corn bin where the music personnel can sit) and is more or less sturdy” (Strolz 1807, 72)6. Apparently, there were large chests in the dance arbours that served a double purpose: 6 “Das Accompagnement dieser kleinen Gesänge [Schnodahüpf l] besteht aus einer Zitter, einem Hackbrette, einer Schwegel, einem Paar Geigen, einem Basse, Maultrommeln u. d. g. je nachdem die Spielleut-Truhe (so heißt das ländliche Orchester, das aus einer großen Kornkiste besteht, auf der das Musik-Personale sitzt) mehr oder weniger stark besetzt ist” (Strolz 1807, 72).

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Instrumental Folk Music in Tyrol since the 19th Century

Fig. 4: Severin Benz, Volksscenen aus dem Zillerthale [Folk Scenes from the Ziller Valley], lithography, around 1840. Copyright: Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Bibliothek, FB 4510/61.

on the one hand they were a place to keep the instruments and on the other hand they served as a podium for the musicians playing for the dance. Apart from the dominant dance music instrumentation — ​fiddle, Schwegel, dulcimer and string bass — ​there was a tendency towards diversity throughout Austria. Claims that there was a unified regional instrumentation type, called an “ensemble landscape” (analogous to the “folk song landscape”) are not warranted, according to musicologist Rainer Gstrein (1985, 51). The clarinet appeared in folk music around 1800 and along with the Schwegel became a standard part of dance music instrumentation. From around 1830 there are records of ensembles with a) a fiddle, clarinet and French horn, b) a fiddle, clarinet and Bassettl (small bass fiddle) as well as with c) a trumpet or fiddle, Schwegel, two horns and string bass (Haid 2004, 696). Variants of the so-called Harmoniemusik (harmony music), whose standard instrumentation, e. g. in Vienna around 1820, consisted of two oboes, two horns and two bassoons, was later expanded to include the technically advanced and softer tonal clarinet, as well as other wind instruments (Suppan 1991, 151). A kind of Harmoniemusik is also 221 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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documented in Tyrol, for example the band from Hötting near Innsbruck — ​with two fiddles, violon, flute (or Schwegel), clarinet, two natural trumpets, trombones, and a small drum — ​who marched together with the local riflemen’s company in 1813 on the occasion of the liberation of Tyrol from Bavarian rule. In addition, there was the Harmoniemusik instrumentation of dance music, e. g., 1836 and 1850 in the Lech River valley, where a musician’s handwritten notes include pieces for D-flat piccolo, E-flat clarinet, two B-flat clarinets and for a number of brass instruments (Haid 2004, 697). The Schwegel (also called Schwegelpfeife or Seitelpfeife) — ​a six-holed wooden fife or transverse flute normally tuned in D — ​was used early on for dance music. It was actually the only melodic instrument of the military riflemen’s bands during the period of Tyrol’s state defence (1796) and during the insurrection against Bavarian rule (1809). Around 1840 in Tyrol, riflemen’s bands featuring several Schwegel fifes and drums were greeted with smiles for the simple reason that in the meantime ubiquitous bands had started using brass and woodwind instruments — ​an expansion that included the whole of Austria (Gstrein 1992, 426). A German traveller in Tyrol, Ludwig Steub, observed in 1840 that in the Ziller Valley, in addition to modern youth riflemen’s bands — ​who marched with trumpets, trombones and clarinets — ​one could still hear Schwegel music even though it was viewed as archaic and a “monument to past times” (als ein Denkmal vergangener Zeiten, Steub 1846, 544) and thus no longer taken seriously. Steub describes the pitiful appearance of “two aged boys of the year 1809 who still knew the old Marches” (zweier betagter Knaben von Anno Neune, die noch die alten Märsche wußten) and says compassionately: One must fear that the Schwegel players are no longer increasing in number — ​they are only allowed to take part as honorary participants and even seem ashamed of their joyous skills played alongside the mind-numbing fanfare that the young boys present today. It is no longer worthwhile to spend one’s free time on fifes, learning the pulsing, simple tunes that were previously used to frighten the enemy and now are the laughing stock of children. Yes, there was a pang in my heart when two aged cronies, pious and dutiful and filled with the best will, put their flutes to their lips while all of the schoolboys began to giggle at the same time.

Es ist zu fürchten, die Schwegler wachsen auch nicht mehr nach — ​sie werden nur so Ehren halber noch mitgelassen und schämen sich fast selber ihrer frohen Wissenschaft neben den sinnbethörenden Fanfaren, welche die andern Burschen zu Tage fördern. Es lohnt sich kaum noch, seine Nebenstunden auf die Querpfeife zu verwenden, und die quickenden [sic], einförmigen Weisen zu erlernen, die ehemals der Schrecken der Feinde waren und jetzt das Gespötte der Kinder sind. Ja, mir ging ein Stich durchs Herz, als die zwei verjährten Gesellen, fromm und pflichtgetreu und voll des besten Willens, ihre Schwegeln an den Mund setzten und sämmtliche Schuljugend wie mit einem Schlag zu kichern begann. (Steub 1846, 544)

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Instrumental Folk Music in Tyrol since the 19th Century

For the period 1820 – 1850 — ​in spite of the continuing dominance of string trios and all their variations — ​there is documentation for the use of string and wind instrumentation in the folk music of Tyrol. These newly created mixed ensembles were introduced by the itinerant Bohemian musicians who appeared in many Tyrolean town and cities as well as in the east of Austria (Gstrein 1985, 55, 57). Traditionalists and proponents of “high art” did not like this very much. August Lewald writes as much during his travels in Tyrol in 1838: “So-called Bohemian musicians are found here [in Ultnerbad], and their bad [or: simple] music still encourages those who want to dance […]” (Lewald 1838, 271). Before I provide details of the instrumentation of the Böhmischen bands I will focus on the music of the village fiddle players of Tyrol who have long been found in the Ziller and Passeier valleys.

3. Village fiddlers in the Passeier and Ziller valleys The most important melody instrument of the 19th century in Tyrol was the fiddle. In rural areas it was often school teachers who played for dances in order to increase their modest income. By the end of the century, however, we find peasant fiddlers performing for dances, a practice that still continues to this day among local farmers. Documentation from 1820 onwards shows that an older dance tradition in the Ziller Valley is still practiced today and is the most respected folk music research theme in Tyrol, as we see in the work of Karl Horak (1908 – 1992). In his book Zillertaler Musikanten (Musicians of the Ziller Valley) Horak identifies the most important musicians of Ziller Valley dance music for the entire 20th century, especially Hans Wurm vulgo Mühlacher (1876 – 1955) from Hart (Horak 1988, 19 – 24). He was the most important bearer of the older Ziller Valley dance repertoire, and began writing down the pieces of his home valley early in the 20th century (Nußbaumer 2012, 168 – 169). Helmut Leisz (2001, 19 – 38) also lists the most active groups today; for example, the Schwendberger Geigenmusig. With regard to the older tradition bearers, Horak notes that each musician grew up within a local melody world, and through auditions and replaying was able to keep the pieces in his memory. The musicians knew how to adapt to well-known customs in the valley, e. g., to play somewhat faster in the upper part of the valley and not in the lower one. The bands were for the most part informal and it was customary for musicians from different villages to meet and perform together when possible (Horak 1988, 24). The Tyrolean film maker and radio announcer Bert Breit recorded the last

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remnants of this tradition in 1977 with impressive scenes in his documentary Die Zillertaler Geiger (The Fiddlers from the Ziller Valley).7 In the early 1980s, folk music scholar Rudolf Pietsch was able to capture the musical abilities of the oldest fiddlers in the Ziller Valley in full detail and with attention to the individual talents of these informants. Remarkable aspects here are traits like the preference for the F major key, the absence of position playing, placement of the instrument on the collarbone, bow movement by the lower arm (and less by the upper arm) and the hard and forced playing of articulated notes, all of which seem illogical for a “classically” trained violinist. By means of an accentuated stroke, and with no musical necessity, open strings resonate and dissonances arise, but are not felt as such by the musicians. Quite often open strings are used for double stops. Overall, the playing of a very unique Ziller Valley dance music repertoire is highly rhythmical and compelling. An obvious feature during performances there is tip-of-the-toe tapping, in two-four time on every quarter note, in three-four time on the first and third quarter note (Pietsch 1984, 123 – 124). The fiddles (violins) are tuned normally (according to the standard pitch A4) or adapted to the accordion, which today forms part of dance music instrumentation that includes two fiddles, a Tyrolean folk harp and a string bass. This kind of instrumentation, as previously mentioned, is called Hochzeitsmusik (wedding music). It was named after the legendary group Schwendberger Hochzeitsmusik, who were active well into the 1980s (Nußbaumer 2008a, 145 – 146). Playing opportunities before World War II , writes Pietsch, were all social gatherings, from a small house ball in the local inn or at a farm during a wedding or holy day, all the way to the big Gauderfest 8 (Pietsch 1984, 124). After the Second World War the tradition diminished, largely as a result of new forms of entertainment. However, even in the 1930s the Tyrolean folk music scholars Walter Senn and Karl Horak, as well as the Austrian Radio station Ravag (Radio-Verkehrsaktiengesellschaft), considered the Ziller Valley dance fiddlers and the associated folk customs to be interesting “objects” for research and radio broadcasts (Nußbaumer 2012, 165 – 167). On the occasion of the radio broadcast Die Zillertaler spielen zur Hochzeit [Musicians of the Ziller Valley Play for a Wedding] (September 16, 1935) a press photo appeared with the caption Über die Gass Giah (Crossing the Street) (Figure 5). In Hans Wurm’s personal papers there is an article from Radio Wien that states: “After the wedding ceremony the bridal group moves on to an inn, accompanied by the lively music of a wedding march” (Nußbaumer 2012, 167). Even more historical music performances by the Ziller Valley 7 Die Zillertaler Geiger, ORF broadcast, February 25, 1977, Prod.-Nr.: 76/108/158. 8 The Gauderfest is a popular festival in Zell am Ziller, celebrated on the first Sunday in May, starting with traditional customs. Specialities enjoyed at this festival include Gauderwuerste sausages and the very strong Gauderbock beer, which is brewed especially for this event.

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Fig. 5: Über die Gass Giah [Crossing the Street] — ​press photo for the radio broadcast Die Zillertaler spielen zur Hochzeit auf [Musicians of the Ziller Valley Play for a Wedding] (September 16, 1935). Photo in the possession of Erich Eberharter, Hart im Zillertal. Used with permission.

dance musicians are found in the previously mentioned film Die Zillertaler Geiger [The Fiddlers from the Ziller Valley] from 1977 by Bert Breit. I was able to gather details and see just how multifaceted this musical tradition is for contemporary musical practice when I visited Erich Eberharter in January 2010 at his farm in Hart in the Ziller Valley and was allowed to look through the photos, musical notations and letters that were part of his grandfather Hans Wurm’s personal papers. The most remarkable find was a handwritten music book, with no owner’s name but with 113 dance music pieces recorded between 1882 and 1902, specifically in the years 1882, 1885 and 1901/02.9 The oldest entries had been recorded primarily in the USA . The unknown author — ​it could not have been Hans Wurm since in 1882 he was just five years old — ​was apparently a Ziller Valley musician on a trip to the USA . His lively interest in bourgeois social dances in the Midwest of the United States is clear. The book contains Quadrilles, Waltzes and Schottisch dances. In many cases the unknown musician described the appropriate dance steps below the musical notes. Because he

9 Numerous pieces from this manuscript have been published in the Tiroler Volksliedarchiv 2016.

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obviously wanted to learn English, most of the dance descriptions — ​apparently copied from unknown templates — ​were written in English. Even the conditions of his daily trips shine through here and there. In Fargo, North Dakota, for example, on January 18, 1882, the musician wrote down in a mixture of flawed English and Ziller Valley dialect: “40. belo zero. Deiflisch kalt (40 degrees below zero, devilishly cold)”. From page 40 onward, and occasionally before that in places where there was room, a second writer contributed to the work; his handwriting is that of Hans Wurm. He filled the empty pages of the book, which he had likely received as a gift, with a multitude of Ziller Valley pieces (based on his own dating on December 10, 1901, and in January and February 1902). The notation on page 60, written down at the beginning of the year 1902, turned out to be a small sensation: the piece Tramplano. Der Hupfende — ​ha ha! is the rather famous Zillertaler Tramplan or the Zillertaler Hochzeitsmarsch, marketed continuously in the 1980s through thousands of radio and television broadcasts, which became in essence the ‘musical signature’ of today’s Ziller Valley tourism (Tschurtschenthaler 1995). At that time, it was still a regional dance music piece of unknown origin. Hans Wurm’s notation of 1902 (Figure 6) is at this time the oldest record of the piece.

Fig. 6: The Zillertaler Tramplan or the Hochzeitsmarsch in a notation by Hans Wurm, 1902. Original in the possession of Josef Eberharter, Hart im Zillertal.

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The piece that belongs to the genre of Polka tremblente (derived from this: Tramplan), was usually played, as Ziller Valley musicians have told me, while the bride and groom and their guests went from the church to the inn (cf. Figure 5). Traditional music groups from the Ziller Valley, like the aforementioned Schwendberger Geigenmusig, like to play this piece in inns for entertainment. Video sample AV  25, my own recording on August 4, 2012, is of the Schwendberger Geigenmusik (two fiddles, diatonic accordion, Tyrolean folk harp and string bass) performing the Zillertaler Tramplan in an inn in Hall in Tyrol. The melody is carried by the first fiddle and the accompanying lower voice by the second fiddle. The diatonic accordion strengthens the accompanying voice and presents for the most part a Nachschlag [offbeat] accompaniment. The obbligati by the accordion, harp and bass are never noted in practice. It is important here to point out Gerlinde Haid’s research on musical accompaniment patterns performed on instruments like the accordion, the harp and the dulcimer (Haid 1996, 51 – 56). These are learned without notes and follow non-recorded rules for regional and local musical transmission, or simply follow the musical techniques of the respective instrument. In addition to the Ziller Valley, it was the Passeier Valley in South Tyrol where a specific dance-fiddle tradition endured for the longest time. In his Master’s thesis Tanzgeiger im Passeiertal (2003) Michael Hillebrand traced its history back to the early 19th century. During the first half of the 20th century he found no less than 16 dance-fiddle groups and numerous solo fiddlers in the Passeier Valley (Hillebrand 2003, 23 – 55). The oldest sound recordings of dance fiddlers come from the year 1941 and were made by Alfred Quellmalz. Under orders from the “SS -Research and Teaching Community ‘The Ancestral Inheritance’” [SS -Forschungs- und Lehrgemeinschaft “Das Ahnenerbe”] Quellmalz conducted his folk music field investigations from 1940 – 1942 in South Tyrol among the so-called Optanten — ​those German and Ladin-speaking individuals who had decided by referendum to give up their Italian citizenship and emigrate to the German Reich.10 Quellmalz placed the members of the Michele-Musig (Figure 7) — ​in his notations described as “Bauernmusik [peasant music] St. Martin” — ​ and their director Alois Pichler (1870 – 1954) in front of a microphone.11 As with the other dance groups of the valley it was a matter of pure string instrumentation and consisted of a lead violin, a so-called “second” violin (playing the second voice), an accompanying violin, two violas, and a string bass (Hillebrand 2003, 33 – 37). As in the Ziller Valley, there were occasions to perform: all social events, especially farmers’ balls, weddings, as well as New Year’s singing. 10 In regard to the political and ideological background of Alfred Quellmalz’s South Tyrol field research, see Nußbaumer 2001. 11 Südtirolsammlung Alfred Quellmalz. Universitätsbibliothek Regensburg. Tonaufnahme Nr. 683 – 712. (South Tyrol Collection Alfred Quellmalz. University Library of Regensburg. Audio recordings No. 683 – 712.)

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Fig. 7: The Michele-Musig, St. Martin in Passeier, January 27, 1941. Photo: Alfred Quellmalz. Landesdirektion Deutsche und ladinische Musikschule, Referat Volksmusik, Bozen, Personal papers Alfred Quellmalz, Photo collection, Nr. 184.

The older playing techniques of the Passeier Valley dance fiddlers were much like those of the Ziller Valley fiddlers. The fiddle was held in the customary way, even the accompanying fiddlers held their instruments against their ribs, but all musicians played without shoulder straps and occasionally without a chin holder (cf. AV  26). A pitch pipe was used for tuning with the standard pitch A4. The open strings were preferably used. The fourth finger was seldom used, especially for those pieces with sharp keys. The performance was almost without vibrato. There was nothing unusual in how the bow was held, but playing while dancing was a speciality of many fiddlers, even though there was the risk of damaging their instrument and the bow (Hillebrand 2003, 83 – 84). The video V 02 from the personal papers of Alfred Quellmalz is the only known film record of the Michele-Musig. Quellmalz used a Movikon camera for his filming, but with this equipment he was only able to make silent films. Several comments in Quellmalz’s working reports lead us to believe that he planned to further synchronize his filmed recordings.12 The V 02 here is an attempt at synchronization by Stefan Kulisch 12 See Nußbaumer 2001, 158. The long-lost short films by Alfred Quellmalz — a total of nine — surfaced in 2009 in his personal papers at the University of Regensburg.

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(University Library of Regensburg). He dubbed the audio with the film recordings Tallner Donigen Walzer and the Tallner Jörgen Marsch 13, and with sections from pieces in three-four time. All of the titles here, including the Zienberger Landler (AV  27; transcription on Figure 8) — ​another important example for the Michele-Musig style — ​are samples of the very specific Passeier Valley tradition. Quellmalz’s audio recordings present impressive examples for what Rudolf Pietsch (2017, 216 – 220) describes as heterophonic “dirty playing.” This shows that the musicians, in producing their tunes, introduce improvised enhancements and allow themselves subtle rhythmic freedom. The entire Zienberger Landler, according to legend, came from the devil himself (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 89).

Fig. 8: Zienberger Landler (beginning) (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 88). Transcribed by Stefan Pedarnig.

13 Transcription of the melody voice, see Kof ler/Deutsch 1999, 329.

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The break with tradition began during the Option period in South Tyrol from 1939 – 1943, when numerous fiddle players, including some members of the MicheleMusig, left the valley and headed to the German Reich (Hillebrand 2003, 56 – 57). After 1950 traditional fiddle playing lost its importance. The fiddle ensembles, which commonly played on New Year’s celebrations, were increasingly replaced by local brass and woodwind bands and by performances of modern popular music at balls, weddings and public festivities. Their opportunities to perform were increasingly reduced to birthdays and other private celebrations (Hillebrand 2003, 106 – 107). The two most important post-war groups were the Geiger der Berge and the Pseirer Schrammel, both of which I was able to record during my fieldwork in the Passeier Valley in 1998. Most of the members have died in subsequent years.

4. “Bohemian” brass and woodwind bands in South Tyrol The prevailing instrumentation style for South Tyrol is the aforementioned Böhmische, consisting of around ten wind instruments. The origin of the name comes from the itinerant Bohemian musicians who from 1811 (when there was a fire in the city of Preßnitz) travelled around the Habsburg empire and also sought their good fortune in towns and spas in the south of Tyrol. Just why the brass bands appeared in such huge numbers is due to the fact that in Bohemia, earlier than in Austria, the instrument industry flourished with the production of reeds and brass instruments (Gstrein 1985, 56). It is interesting that the term Böhmische is used almost exclusively in South Tyrol today, even though there are similar small bands in other Alpine regions (Veit 1997, 187 – 188). The Böhmische or Wilde Banden [wild bands] are made up of members from big local brass and woodwind bands. This was also the case in the early 1940s when Alfred Quellmalz and his collaborator Fritz Bose became the first folk music researchers to investigate the small peasant brass and woodwind bands in South Tyrol. In 1940 – 1942 they recorded thirteen Böhmische in the Schlern region and in the Puster Valley and thereby produced a total of 186 audio recordings (Nußbaumer 2003, 436 – 437). The recorded groups were made up of five to nine musicians. As to the very diverse instrumentation, the coupling of similar or related instruments — ​which is still common today — ​is remarkable (Veit 1997, 187 – 188) because it corresponds to the principle of Alpine two-part harmony. Regarding the instruments, the following functional division can be seen: – melody: E-flat clarinet with B-flat clarinet or two B-flat flugelhorns with two B-flat trumpets – parallel, counter or complementary voices: tenor horn (or bass flugelhorn) or baritone (or euphonium or trombone) 230 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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– accompaniment: E-flat trumpets or French horns and/or trombones – bass: helicon or tuba and/or trombones (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 74). The repertoire for these Böhmische, performed mostly in their Sunday best (Figure 9), reveals a considerable variety of creative possibilities for the genre. We find diverse Landler styles, adaptations and reformulation of popular pieces, in addition to a considerable array of locally-oriented pieces — ​found only in certain places — ​in old note manuscripts from the middle of the 19th century, and even repertoires influenced by Italian military music (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 73 – 74). Basically, however, the traditional dance music models are the same: Landler, Polka, Boarische, Waltz und Mazurka. As Kofler and Deutsch show us with a few examples, one can identify numerous nuances for the various eras and ascertain practical traits of their performances. Most historical audio recordings by Quellmalz and Bose do not allow us to make transcriptions of the harmonies because of their technical quality — ​particularly the middle voices disappear in the recordings. Nevertheless, they quite impressively show what was special in dance music in South Tyrol before conservatoires and music schools later established new norms of intonation, phrasing and “precise” rhythm in Alpine folk music.

Fig. 9: Böhmische in Lengstein, Oberbozen (Ritten), May 21, 1941. Photo: Alfred Quellmalz. Landesdirektion Deutsche und ladinische Musikschule, Referat Volksmusik, Bozen. Personal papers of Alfred Quellmalz, Photo collection, Nr. 417.

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Fig. 10: Völser Polka, transcription: Wolfgang Neumüller (Kofler/Deutsch 1999, 304).

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One good example is the performance of a dance music piece with the title Völser Polka by the Völser Böhmische from the village of Völs am Schlern. Quellmalz recorded 26 pieces on September 16, 1940 (see AV  28). The instrumentation included E-flat clarinet, B-flat clarinet, E-flat trumpets, two B-flat trumpets, bass flugelhorns, trombone and B-flat bass (Nußbaumer 2003, 439 – 440), and was led by the 31 year-old peasant Josef Lanziner on his clarinet. The musicians were between 25 and 40 years of age (Nußbaumer 2008b, 52). The very original Völser Polka is named for the home village of the group. As one can see in the transcription in Figure 10, the melody is played by the trumpet while the clarinet accompanies the melody in thirds and sixths as the Überschlag voice [turnover voice]. The flugelhorn partially doubles the clarinet sound or proceeds in a counter direction. The bass voice was not transcribed here. According to Gottfried Veit (1997, 448), in the middle of the 1990s there were about 200 Böhmische bands in South Tyrol who performed on numerous occasions, such as New Year, social evenings, serenading, church dedications, regional festivities, weddings, summer festivals, business parties, honouring guests and much more. We can assume that the number of Böhmische bands has continued to increase to this day. Present day Böhmische bands prefer to play with two clarinets (mostly E-flat and B-flat clarinets), two flugelhorns, two baritones, two French horns and a bass tuba, and in terms of their repertoire and instrumentation they are geared to well-known models like the bands Die fidelen Inntaler and Die Egerländer Musikanten (Veit 1997, 187 – 195). Those Böhmische bands that came into being after 1945 mostly play the compositions of Gottlieb Weissbacher (1907 – 1988).

5. Exemplary instrumentations of the 20th century in Tyrol The name Weissbacher represents a style he created for his Inntaler instrumentation, today mostly consisting of a clarinet, two flugelhorns, accordion, harp, trombone, tuba and percussion (Haid, Draxler, and Walcher 1990/91, 122). Weissbacher, who was the subject of a dissertation by Franz Posch (Posch 1996), originally came from Wörgl in Tyrol and joined the Innsbruck military band in December 1926 as a flugelhornist. After a few months he left the military and worked from that point on as a dance musician. In 1930 Weissbacher founded the group Die fünf lustigen Inntaler [The Five Funny Guys from the Inn Valley] (flugelhorn, clarinet, valve trombone, bass tuba, diatonic accordion), who played a blend of entertaining music and his own compositions at outdoor cafés in Innsbruck (Posch 1996, vol. 1, 119 – 122). In 1932 Weissbacher expanded the instrumentation to include a harp and percussion instruments and the band renamed itself from this point on as Die lustigen Inntaler. From 1938 until their dissolution in 1941 it featured two flugelhorns, clarinet, valve trombone, bass tuba, diatonic accor233 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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dion, harp and drums (Posch 1996, vol. 1, 122 – 127). After 1946 the group bore the name Die fidelen Inntaler [The Jolly Guys from the Inn Valley] (Figure 11) and was now made up of two flugelhorns, clarinet or saxophones, valve trombone, bass tuba, accordion, harp, and a percussion instrument (Posch 1996, vol. 1, 127 – 154).

Fig. 11: Die fidelen Inntaler, end of the 1960s. Postcard from the personal estate of Gottlieb Weissbacher. Weissbacher is the fourth musician from left in the second row, with his flugelhorn. Kind permission by Franz Posch.

Weissbacher composed 135 Marches, 87 Polkas, 43 Boarische pieces, 71 Ländler pieces, 69 Waltzes as well as six so-called “character pieces” (Posch 1996, vol. 2, passim). In contrast to older anonymous folk music pieces they are simply called Weissbacher pieces, which means that he attached great importance to his copyright, wrote out his pieces, rehearsed them with his band and did not leave their performance to chance or improvisation. Weissbacher’s Die fidelen Inntaler became enormously popular in the 1970s and remained active even after his death in 1988; not until 2002 did the group disband. Even today, the Inntaler style of instrumentation style is used by untold “copycats,” especially in North Tyrol but also in the neighbouring areas of South Tyrol, Upper Bavaria, and Salzburg, where most of the members of the Inntaler come from rural 234 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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brass and woodwind bands. Many gather only for certain occasions. In addition to Weissbacher’s pieces, many new compositions are performed with Inntaler instrumentation, but his style continues to exert its influence. This group is also associated with the principle of an expanded Alpine two-part performance. The first flugelhorn plays the melody almost throughout, while the second flugelhorn plays below in parallel thirds. The clarinet normally follows one of the two flugelhorn parts in parallel octaves. Only sometimes, mostly for a short phrase or a single chord, it plays a third part. Occasionally the clarinet supports one of the brass instruments in sequences of chord tones. The trombone mostly performs its own part which primarily supports the harmonic set in broken chords. Sometimes it doubles one of the two flugelhorn parts or imitates the melody, although only in individual phrases. Occasionally the trombone assumes the lead part. The tuba performs the obligatory bass part. Percussion consists of a large and a small drum, attached cymbals and cymbal holder, a wooden block and a cowbell. Only seldom did Weissbacher write down the percussion part. The accordionist and the harpist play primarily from memory and by ear. The function of the accordionist is to rhythmically synchronize the beat with the drums. As a rule, he plays “offbeat”. The same is true for the harpist (Posch 1996, vol. 1, 198 – 199). As an example, I include here the audio AV  29, a rendering of Weissbacher’s composition of the Waltz Blumen aus Tirol [Flowers from Tyrol] (Figure 12). One further kind of instrumentation associated with a very charismatic musician is the Kirchtagmusig with a clarinet, flugelhorn (or trumpet), accordion, harp and tuba, accompanied by a dulcimer and trombone. The name of this type of instrumentation is derived from the band Tiroler Kirchtagmusig, which was characterized from the very beginning by Peter Moser (*1935), a musician and long-time folk music specialist at the Tyrolean radio and television studio of the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF ). The primary impetus for its founding in 1974 was an invitation by the Austrian-Soviet Society to the province of Tyrol to send a folk music group to Moscow on an exchange. Together with Florian Pedarnig, Bernhard Pedarnig, Franz Posch and Peter Reitmeir, Moser created a band with a trumpet, clarinet, accordion, harp and string bass, who could play both Stubenmusik (an instrumentation for zither, dulcimer, guitar, harp and bass string) and dance music (Kostner 2015, 125 – 127). Over many years the instrumentation often changed. Today (2019) it is made up of Peter Moser (flugelhorn, trumpet, clarinet, zither), Sepp Margreiter (trombone), Sepp Blaickner (clarinet, flugelhorn), Otto Ehrenstrasser (harp, trombone), Christian Margreiter (flugelhorn, accordion, dulcimer) and Josef Ehrenstrasser (bass tuba, guitar). The group (Figure 13) is capable — ​by means of various instrumentations — ​to play up to six-part movements (Kostner 2015, 134). Their exemplary effect led to the founding of many Kirchtagmusig groups, and not just in Tyrol but also in other Austrian provinces 235 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 12: Blumen aus Tirol (beginning) (by Gottlieb Weissbacher). Transcribed by Franz Posch (1996, 202 – 203). Musical notation by: Peter Oberosler.

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and in Bavaria. Much like Weissbacher, Peter Moser also composed an abundance of dance pieces for the Tiroler Kirchtagmusig. They perform at festivities, at musical gatherings of all kinds, as well as on radio and television.

Fig. 13: Die Tiroler Kirchtagmusig in the outdoor café of Hotel Post in Alpbach on August 18, 2004. Peter Moser (flugelhorn) is second from the right. Photo by Resi Blaickner.

Another instrumentation type which is well-known in Tyrol is the previously mentioned Stubenmusik (or Soatnmusig or Tobi Reiser Quintett). It can be traced back to the Salzburg folk musician and regional curator Tobi Reiser (1907 – 1974), who introduced this instrumentation with a zither, hammered dulcimer, harp, guitar and string bass, occasionally including ocarina, flutes or fiddles, in 1953 (Deutsch 1997, 124 – 126). Because of its “silent” string instruments the Stubenmusik instrumentation has the character of chamber music. Today it belongs to the most important instrumentations within Alpine folk music. Among the most traditional and paradigmatic music groups in Tyrol, two must be singled out: Alt Matreier Tanzmusik [Old Matrei Dance Music] from Matrei in East Tyrol and Mitterhögl Hausmusik [Mitterhögl Family Music] from Kitzbühel. Alt Matreier Tanzmusik was founded in 1910 by the brothers Alois Trost (1884 – 1918) 238 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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and Josef Trost (1883 – 1974) and appeared first with two clarinets, fiddle, viola, East Tyrolean dulcimer, trombone and string bass (Totschnig 2004, 27 – 29). In the year it was founded, Alois Trost volunteered for military service and was sent to Trento as a solo clarinettist with the military band of the 2nd Tiroler Kaiserjägerregiment. In Trento he composed not only his first pieces, but also became familiar with urban salon music. Many of his compositions are reminiscent of this kind of music, and individual pieces such as the Crisantemo Waltz had their origins in Trentin salon music. In the case of Crisantemo (in German Chrysanthemen-Walzer) it was a piece published in 1902 by the Italian composer Giacomo Sartori (1860 – 1946) for a mandolin orchestra. Because of its popularity in the Passeier Valley it is considered today to be a typical piece for the local dance-fiddle tradition (Totschnig 2004, 103 – 107). A very obvious element in concert performances of Alt Matreier Tanzmusik is the East Tyrolean dulcimer, Matrei style, the primary accompanying instrument which is always placed in the centre (Figure 14). The instrumentation, made up at that time of the East Tyrolean dulcimer, two clarinets, two trombones, C bass trombone, viola and string bass, is fascinating because of the mixture of wind, string and dulcimer sounds. The allure of the compositions by Alois and Josef Trost contributed to its popularity (29 Boarische pieces, eleven Polkas, only three Ländler pieces, one Mazurka and nine Marches; Totschnig 2004, 68 – 102). The musicians are still very protective of their work and would not publish their notes at any price, even though numerous transcriptions have been in circulation.

Fig. 14: Alt Matreier Tanzmusik at an ORF broadcast Fernsehfrühschoppen. Wals, October 2007. With the kind permission of Franz Herzog, Matrei in Osttirol, Austria.

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Altertumsmusik (Ancient Music) founded in 1931 in Kitzbühel, the precursor of Mitterhögl Hausmusik, is two decades older than Alt Matreier Tanzmusik. Its members, directed by Josef Feller senior (1894 – 1972), were also members of the local Trachtenverein Kitzbühel Landsturmgruppe 1809 (Kitzbühel traditional costume association). The initial instrumentation was representative of their dedication to folk music preservation and historical interests. In addition to the dulcimer and the Tyrolean folk harp there was a three-string contrabass and a hurdy-gurdy. This group played for the most part at gatherings of their traditional costume association, at balls and other dance events. Their performances did not immediately change after the Second World War. In 1950, Altertumsmusik took part in a folk music competition organised by the province of Tyrol. From 1956 – 1970 nothing was heard from the band because the young generation around Anderl Feller (*1938) and Josef Feller (1931 – 1996) — ​sons of Josef Feller senior — ​played in the band Die lustig’n Kitzbühler, which was based on the model of Die fidelen Inntaler and Die Original Oberkrainer (a very popular band from Slovenia, directed by its founder Slavko Avsenik). At that time, the Feller brothers preferred to play dance music directed towards the lucrative pop music charts rather than traditional folk music. Beginning in 1971, however, Anderl and Josef Feller with three of their friends returned to a repertoire and style of the earlier Altertumsmusik. So Mitterhögl Hausmusik came into being, consisting primarily of a trumpet, clarinet, harp, dulcimer and bass tuba. Today it is considered as a model for folk music preservation. Much like Weissbacher and Moser, the retired Kitzbühel music school director Anderl Feller is a charismatic band leader who has composed a multitude of Boarische pieces, Marches, Polkas, Waltzes, Ländler pieces and “thoughtful pieces” (besinnliche Stücke) (e. g., Advent and Christmas pastoral melodies). Mitterhögl Hausmusik also includes vocal music, and around 1985 Anderl Feller founded a so-called Weisenbläser ensemble, which performs folk song tunes [Weisen] on brass instruments. Feller’s promotion of the Weisenbläser instrumentation (mostly two flugelhorns, trombone, and tuba) led to the creation of Weisenbläser gatherings, where the ensembles prefer to play outdoors (Cerny 2005, 21 – 23).

6. Instrumental folk music in Tyrol today The professionalization of music schools in the Tyrol region since the middle of the 1990s, and the increasing availability of lessons in playing folk music instruments, the diatonic accordion, dulcimer, folk harp and zither, have led to a rapid surge in folk music instrumental ensembles. At no time there have been more folk musicians — ​of both sexes — ​than today. The large number of women’s folk music groups over about 240 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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Fig. 15: The women’s group Die Hoameligen, Innsbruck area, with fiddle, accordion and Celtic harp. Photo: Kary Wilhelm. With the kind permission of Die Hoameligen.

the last 20 years is also notable (Figure 15). Accelerated by the effect of education, there is a gratifying acceptance of the great value of folk music, especially with regard to large public performances like the biennial Alpenländischer Volksmusikwettbewerb [Alpine Music Competition] in Innsbruck since 1974, a trans-Alpine folk music competition for young musicians founded by the music teacher Josef Sulz (Nußbaumer 2008a, 234 – 243). This also applies to the richly diverse continuing education offerings of the regional folk music preservation societies Tiroler Volksmusikverein [Tyrolean Folk Music Society] and Südtiroler Volksmusikkreis [South Tyrolean Folk Music Circle]. For some time now there has been a wide variety of possible instrumentations which can be found through simple internet research and particularly on the websites of the two aforementioned Tyrolean folk music preservation societies.14 In addition to brass and woodwind ensembles such as the groups Goinger Weisenbläser, Der harte Kern or Tiroler Wirtshausmusi, whose wind instruments are supported by an accordion, folk harp and the East Tyrolean dulcimer, there are a series of string ensembles such as Die 14 Cf. www.tiroler-volksmusikverein.at/musikgruppen and http://www.volksmusikkreis.org/Sing_und_ Musiziergruppen.html (Accessed December 26, 2018.)

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Eisenkeller Musig (zither, guitar, folk harp), Die Oberländer Gitarrenmusi (two guitars), or Die Augeiger (two fiddles, folk harp, contrabass). In most of the ensembles there is also a diatonic accordion as both the melody and accompanying instrument, such as in the groups Kitzbühler Feischtagmusig (two accordions, folk harp, contrabass), Nauderer Schupfamusik (flugelhorn, clarinet, accordion, folk harp, contrabass) or in Familienmusik Arzberger (two zithers, dulcimer, accordion, guitar). Funding for the contemporary folk music scene in the Tyrolean region would bring out further aspects of this variety. This diverse scene is a sign that the genre of folk music is continuing to develop beyond simply functional music to concert-worthy “performance music”, even as folk music groups still play for many occasions in social life.

References Cerny, Barbara. 2005. Die Mitterhögl Hausmusik. Geschichte, Umfeld und Repertoire einer Tiroler Tanzmusikgruppe [The Mitterhögl Hausmusik. History, environment and repertoire of a Tyrolean dance music group]. Master’s thesis. University Mozarteum Salzburg. Deutsch, Walter. 1987/88. “Stilkundliche Anmerkungen zur Sammlung ‘Instrumentale Volksmusik aus Tirol’ [Stylistic notes on the collection “Instrumental folk music from Tyrol”].” Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes. Band 36/37. 142 – 156. ———. 1997. Tobi Reiser 1907 – 1974. Eine Dokumentation [Tobi Reiser 1907 – 1974. A documentation]. Wien: Holzhausen. ———. 2014. “Typologische Anmerkungen zur Melodik des Walzers in der Volksmusik in Österreich [Typological notes on Waltz melodies in Austrian folk music].” In Zur Frühgeschichte des Walzers. Schriften zur musikalischen Ethnologie. Band 3. Thomas Nußbaumer and Franz Gratl (Eds.). Innsbruck: Universitätsverlag Wagner. 75 – 86. ———. 2017. “Some Remarks on Multipart Singing in Austrian Folk Music.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Practices in Europe. In Commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 293 – 308. Deutsch, Walter, and Gerlinde Hofer [Haid]. 1969. Die Volksmusiksammlung der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien (Sonnleithner-Sammlung), 1. Teil [The folk music collection of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna (Sonnleithner Collection), Part 1]. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 2. Wien: Verlag A. Schendl. Dörrer, Anton. 1947. “Spieltennen und Tanzhäuser [Dance floors and dance houses].” Der Schlern 21. 294 – 300; 338 – 342. Gstrein, Rainer. 1985. “Innovationsprozesse in der instrumentalen Volksmusik — ​dargestellt am Beispiel der Tanzmusik-Ensembles in Österreich in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts [Innovation processes in instrumental folk music—examples from dance music ensembles

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Horak, Karl. 1988. Zillertaler Musikanten — ​eine volksmusikalische Dokumentation. [Musicians of the Ziller Valley — ​a folk music documentary]. Quellen und Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 8. Innsbruck/München: Tiroler Landesregierung/Bezirk Oberbayern. Kofler, Franz, and Walter Deutsch. 1999. Volksmusik in Südtirol. Tänze und Spielstücke aus der Tonbandsammlung Dr. Alfred Quellmalz 1940 – 42 [Folk music in South Tyrol. Dances and pieces from the tape collection of Alfred Quellmalz 1940 – 42]. Corpus Musicae Popularis Austriacae. Band 10. Wien: Böhlau. Kostner, Peter. 2015. Peter Moser. Ein Leben voller Musik [Peter Moser. A life full of music]. Innsbruck: Tyrolia-Verlag. Leisz, Helmut. 2001. Geigenmusik aus Tirol. Boarische — ​Landler — ​Polkas. Sammlung Helmut Leisz. Heft 1: Texte und Bilder [Violin music from Tyrol. Boarische—Landler—polkas. Collection Helmut Leisz. Issue 1: texts and pictures]. Innsbruck: Eigenverlag des Tiroler Volksliedwerkes. Lewald, August. 1838. Tirol vom Glockner zum Orteles und vom Garda- zum Bodensee. Zweite durchgesehene Ausgabe in einem Bande [Tyrol from the Glockner to the Ortler and from Lake Garda to Lake Constance. Second revised edition in one volume]. München: Verlag der literarisch-artistischen Anstalt. Maurer, Walter. 1968. “Die Ziehharmonika. Zur Geschichte und Spielweise eines volkstümlichen Musikinstrumentes [The accordion. On the history and style of a popular musical instrument].” Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes. Band 17. 49 – 57. Morgenstern, Ulrich. 2017. “Volksmusik im europäischen Diskurs zwischen Wissenschaft, Ideologie und Aufführungspraxis. Eine Rückschau [Folk music in the European discourse between scholarship, ideology, and performance practice. A retrospective].” In Positionen zur Rolle alpiner Musiktraditionen in einer globalisierten Welt. Tagungsband zum Grazer Herbstsymposium zu Volksmusikforschung und -praxis, 22. – 24. Oktober 2015. Gedenkschrift für Helmut Brenner (1957 – 2017). Florian Wimmer, Monika Primas, Christian Hartl, Zuzana Ronck (Eds.). Grazer Schriften zu Volksmusikforschung und -praxis. Graz: Verlag Steirisches Volksliedwerk. 17 – 39. Näumann, Klaus, and Thomas Nußbaumer, Gisela Probst-Effah (Eds.). 2018. Musikalische Wettstreite und Wettbewerbe. [Musical challenges and competitions]. Musik — ​Kontexte — ​Perspektiven. Schriftenreihe der Institute für Musikpädagogik und Europäische Musikethnologie an der Universität zu Köln. Band 9. München: Allitera Verlag. Neumüller, Wolfgang. 1987. “Untersuchungen zur Spielweise von Harmonika und Gitarre in Südtirol. Beispiele aus Forschung und Pflege [Studies on the playing style of the accordion and guitar in South Tyrol. Examples from research and folk music preservation].” In Beiträge zur musikalischen Volkskultur in Südtirol. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 17. Walter Deutsch and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 160 – 186. Niederfriniger, Gernot. 2015. “Vielseitig auf drei Saiten. Das Raffele, ein Instrument mit ganz eigener Ausstrahlungskraft, blickt auf eine lange Tradition zurück [Versatile on three strings. The raffele, an instrument with its own charisma; a look back on a long tradition].” Zither. Magazin des Deutschen Zithermusik-Bundes e. V. 1. 46 – 51.

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Nußbaumer, Thomas. 2001. Alfred Quellmalz und seine Südtiroler Feldforschungen (1940 – 42). Eine Studie zur musikalischen Volkskunde unter dem Nationalsozialismus [Alfred Quellmalz and his South Tyrolean fieldwork (1940 – 42). A study of musical folklore under National Socialism]. Bibliotheca Musicologica. Band 6. Innsbruck: StudienVerlag. Lucca: Libreria musicale italiana. ———. 2003. “Zu den Blasmusik-Magnetophonaufnahmen (1940 bis 1942) in der Südtiroler Volksmusiksammlung von Alfred Quellmalz [On brass music magnetophone recordings (1940 to 1942) in the South Tyrolean Folk Music Collection by Alfred Quellmalz].” In Kongressberichte Bad Waltersdorf/Steiermark 2000, Lana/Südtirol 2002. Alta Musica. Band 24. Bernhard Habla (Ed.). Tutzing: Schneider. 429 – 448. ———. 2008a. Volksmusik in Tirol und Südtirol seit 1900. Von “echten” Tirolerliedern, landschaftlichen Musizierstilen, “gepflegter” Volksmusik, Folklore und anderen Erscheinungen der Volkskultur [Folk music in Tyrol and South Tyrol since 1900. About “genuine” Tyrolean songs, landscape music styles, “preserved” folk music, folklore, and other phenomena of popular culture]. Innsbruck: StudienVerlag. ——— (Ed.). 2008b. Bäuerliche Volksmusik aus Südtirol 1940 – 1942. Originalaufnahmen zwischen NS -Ideologie und Heimatkultur / Peasant Folk Music of South Tyrol 1940 – 1942. Original recordings bridging homeland culture and Nazi ideology. CD 1 + CD 2 and book (German and English). Innsbruck: StudienVerlag. ———. 2009. “Tiroler Bauerntänze, Winkeltänze und Fasnachtstänze in ikonographischen und literarischen Quellen des 19. Jahrhunderts [Tyrolean peasant dances, forbidden dances and carnival dances in iconographic and literary sources of the 19th century].” In Der Tanz in den Künsten 1770 – 1914. Rombach Wissenschaften. Reihe Scenae. Band 10. Achim Aurnhammer and Günter Schnitzler (Eds.). Freiburg i.Br.: Rombach Verlag. 205 – 230. ———. 2012. “Auf Spurensuche … Der legendäre Zillertaler Volksmusikant Hans Wurm vlg. ‘Mühlacher’ (1877 – 1955) und der ‘Zillertaler Tramplan’ [Searching for clues … The legendary Ziller Valley folk musician Hans Wurm vulgo “Mühlacher” (1877 – 1955) and the “Zillertal Tramplan”].” Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes. Band 61. 160 – 171. ———. 2014. “Walzer und Ländler in Tiroler Quellen der Volksmusikforschung [Waltz and Ländler in Tyrolean sources of folk music research].” In Zur Frühgeschichte des Walzers. Schriften zur musikalischen Ethnologie. Band 3. Thomas Nußbaumer and Franz Gratl (Eds.). Innsbruck: Universitätsverlag Wagner. 87 – 98. Oehme-Jüngling, Karoline. 2016. Volksmusik in der Schweiz. Kulturelle Praxis und gesellschaftlicher Diskurs [Folk music in Switzerland. Cultural practice and social discourse]. Schweizer Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft. Band 7. Münster: Waxmann. Pedarnig, Forian. 1978. “Das Hackbrett in Osttirol [The dulcimer in East Tyrol].” In Beiträge zur Volksmusik in Tirol. Walter Deutsch and Manfred Schneider (Eds.). Innsbruck: Eigenverlag des Musikwissenschaftlichen Instituts der Universität Innsbruck. 171 – 174.

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Pietsch, Rudolf. 1984. “Zur Charakteristik des bäuerlichen Geigenspiels im Zillertal [On the characteristics of peasant fiddle playing in the Ziller Valley].” Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes. Band 32/33. 121 – 132. ———. 2017. “Sound Aspects Caused by the Formation of Intentional and Accidental Multipart Instrumental Music, Illustrated by Selected Examples.” In European Voices III . The Instrumentation and Instrumentalization of Sound. Local Multipart Music Practices in Europe. In commemoration of Gerlinde Haid. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 25. Ardian Ahmedaja (Ed.). Wien: Böhlau. 203 – 211. Posch, Franz. 1996. Gottlieb Weissbacher (1907 – 1988). Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Tiroler Tanzmusik. Band 1 + Band 2 [Gottlieb Weissbacher (1907 – 1988). A contribution to the history of Tyrolean dance music. Volumes 1 + 2]. PhD diss. Hochschule für Musik und darstellende Kunst Mozarteum Salzburg. Reitmeir, Peter. 1971. “Die Spielweise der Tiroler Volksharfe [The playing style of the Tyrolean folk harp]”. Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes. Band 20. 61 – 70. Schierer, Heidi. 1995. Die Geschichte der Mazurka als Gesellschafts- und Volkstanz im deutschsprachigen Raum [The history of the mazurka as a social and folk dance in German-speaking countries]. Master’s thesis, University of Bamberg. Steub, Ludwig. 1846. Drei Sommer in Tirol [Three summers in Tyrol]. München: Verlag der literarisch-artistischen Anstalt. Strolz, Johann. 1807. “Schnodahaggen, Unterinnthalische Volksliedchen. Mit Anmerkungen [Schnodahaggen, short folk songs from the lower Inn Valley. With notes].” Der Sammler für Geschichte und Statistik von Tirol 2. 69 – 96. Suppan, Wolfgang. 1991. “Die Harmoniemusik. Das private Repräsentations- und Vergnügungsensemble des mitteleuropäischen Adels — ​zwischen Kunst- und gesellschaftlichem Gebrauchswert [Harmony music. Private representative and amusement ensembles of Central European nobility — ​between artistic and social utility].” In Musica Privata. Die Rolle der Musik im privaten Leben. Festschrift zum 65. Geburtstag von Walter Salmen. Monika Fink, Rainer Gstrein, Günter Mössmer (Eds.). Innsbruck: Helbling. Tiroler Volksliedarchiv. 2016. Zillertaler Tänze aus der Handschrift Hans Wurm “Millacher”. [Ziller Valley dances from the manuscript by Hans Wurm “Millacher”]. [Series:]… aus dem Tiroler Volksliedarchiv 3/1 + 3/2. Innsbruck: Tiroler Volksliedarchiv. Totschnig, Margarita. 2004. Die Alt Matreier Tanzmusik [The Old Matrei Dance Music Ensemble]. Master’s thesis. University Mozarteum Salzburg. Tschurtschenthaler, Klaus. 1995. “Der ‘Zillertaler Hochzeitsmarsch’ oder die Vermarktung des Tramplan [The “Zillertal Wedding March” or the commercialization of the “Tramplan”].” Tiroler Volkskultur 5. 194 – 195. Veit, Gottfried. 1997. “Die Böhmische. Herkunft, Instrumentarium, Spielgut und Aufführungspraxis einer (blas-)musikalischen Kleinbesetzung [The Böhmische (“Bohemian”). Origin, instruments, performance and performance practice of small brass and woodwind bands].” In

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Beiträge zur musikalischen Volkskultur in Südtirol. Schriften zur Volksmusik. Band 17. Walter Deutsch and Gerlinde Haid (Eds.). Wien: Böhlau. 187 – 198. Wiora, Walter. 1951. “Alpenmusik [Alpine Music].” In: Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik. Band 1. Friedrich Blume (Ed.). Kassel: Bärenreiter. 359 – 370.

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Zdeněk Vejvoda

Jiří Hartl (1781 – 1849), a Teacher from Northern Bohemia: The Dance Repertoire of his Band in the Light of his Manuscript Heritage 1

Abstract The collection of dance music manuscripts from the late 18th and early 19th century by Jiří Hartl is unique among European sources in terms of its quality and size. Jiří Hartl (1781 – 1849), born in northern Bohemia into a family of village teachers, was a skilled musician, playing the violin, clarinet, organ and bassoon. From 1803 – 1846 Hartl had a teaching post in Stará Paka and, as was typical of village teachers, was responsible for the local organ, establishing a tradition of figural music. His commitments included leading a dance band which accompanied various urban and rural dance events. This is evidenced by the collection, which contains 840 dance instrumental tunes, most of them recorded in the period 1810 – 1820. The records are those of the first violin with instrumentation glosses, solo contributions of other instruments, and the names of most of the dances. The collection also contains verbal notes which help to reconstruct the composition of Hartl’s band (at least two violins, normally a viola, always a double bass, 1 – 2 clarinets and a trumpet, sometimes a flute and bassoon). The manuscripts contain numerous popular dances of European origin, including Ländler, Steyrisch, Schottisch, Marsch, Ungarisch, Zweitritt, Contra, Menuetto, Deutsche, Bauer, Bonapart, Englese, Furiant, Kögeltanz etc. Of equal importance is the motivation behind the collection, which clearly served the bandmaster’s practical needs. The collection provides a picture of the practice of music composed for specific purposes two centuries ago and of the dance repertoire. Hartl’s legacy and life story epitomize the difficult work of small-town teachers in Bohemia in the early 19th century. It was their work that laid the building blocks upon which a rich environment of dance societies grew in the

1 The present study draws upon the unpublished doctoral dissertation by Zdeněk Vejvoda Podoby lendleru v Čechách ve světle rukopisů Jiřího J. B. Hartla ze Staré Paky (Different forms of Ländler in the Czech Lands in the Light of Manuscripts of Jiří J. B. Hartl of Stará Paka), Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, 2010).

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following decades, providing essential support for cultural growth and a successful national emancipation movement in the 19th century. The Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Sciences (Etnologický ústav Akademie věd České republiky) administers a unique collection of tens of thousands of musical manuscripts, especially notations of folk songs and dance instrumental melodies from Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia originating from the mid-19th century through to the present day. In 2007 this archive was expanded to include a rare artefact of early 19th-century European musical culture when the Institute purchased manuscripts authored by Jiří Hartl, a teacher from Stará Paka, containing over 800 notations of exclusively dance instrumental melodies from 1811 – 1822.

1. Jiří Hartl the teacher Drawing on rich material found in the archives, correspondence, family chronicles and memoirs, the life story of Jiří Josef Benedikt Hartl amounts to much more than a mere list of facts and events concerning the life of a village teacher. The sources provide an insight into the difficult, even dramatic, fortunes of a talented village teacher in a small town in the north of Bohemia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Hartl’s many descendants carried on the family tradition of teaching. It was his grandson Karel Hartl (1858 – 1943) in particular who left behind a multifaceted portrait showing the everyday life of an old village teacher in Stará Paka, active in the school as well as in his capacity of community music manager. The sources provide equally open access to Hartl’s failures, worries over his family, and conflicts with the community and the local parish. Hartl’s image provided by the archive materials is a deeply human one. Jiří Josef Benedikt Hartl was born in Lužany near Jičín, northeastern Bohemia, on 23 March 1781, the thirteenth child of the local teacher Jiří Josef Hartl (1737 – 1803). From childhood, he developed his exceptional musical talent by playing the violin, organ, clarinet and late, the bassoon. Given the situation in the foothills of the Krkonoše Mountains in northeastern Bohemia in the early 19 th century, with the region of Stará Paka marking the imaginary language boundary between the Czech and German-speaking populations, it was only natural for the local people to be at least partially bilingual. Hartl (Figure 1) carried on the tradition of a huge Czech family of teachers who had been active in the region for a number of generations. Hartl himself was a teacher at a village school in Stará Paka (see Figure 2) for an astonishing 43 years (in 1803 – 1846). The surviving sources provide a vivid account of the mostly unhappy story of a small-town teacher, the father of ten, whose life was permeated with music. Hartl died of tuberculosis on 13 April 1849 and was buried in the cemetery of Stará Paka, near the church of St. Lawrence (Sv. Vavřinec). 250 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Jiří Hartl (1781 – 1849), a Teacher from Northern Bohemia:

In the 18th and the first half of the 19  century, duties related to music formed a substantial part of the work of the teaching profession in the primarily Catholic country of Bohemia. The teacher was responsible for musical productions held in the local church, playing the organ himself and sometimes leading a choir or chamber orchestra which would be comprised of other teachers with a musical education, teaching assistants and talented pupils. In this position, which normally earned him recognition rather than money, the teacher represented the community and parish, and so musical skills were one of the key requirements in the selection of a new teacher. Moreover, the teacher would provide free lessons to musically talented pupils who would then be invited to join Fig. 1: Jiří Hartl’s portrait from 1836. Oil some of his numerous musical activities. painting by František Janata of Jilemnice. Private The teacher’s home served as a popular family collection of Jiří Hendrych, Stará Paka. venue for concerts of secular chamber mu- Photograph by Zdeněk Vejvoda in 2006. sic. The extent of Hartl’s knowledge of classical music is evidenced by his own compositions. The family archives contained fragments of pieces entitled Concerto 2 and Aria in D-Sharp.3 Hartl maintained contact with the music of his day primarily by making copies of compositions by Czech, German and Italian masters, which freely circulated among teachers in those days.4 Hartl’s busy schedule prevented him from travelling on a regular basis; yet, being responsible for local musical productions, he travelled to various places to buy musical instruments: apart from several trips to Prague, he went to Hradec Králové in eastern Bohemia and Rožmitál in southern Bohemia, and so he is likely to have participated in various muth

2 Concerto: Clarinetto principal, Violino primo, Violino secundo, Clarinetto primo, Clarinetto secundo, Cornuo primo, Cornuo secundo et Fagotto durch mich Georg Hartl. [undated] 3 Aria in D-sharp: Canto solo, Violino Imo et II do, Clarinetto solo, Alto viola, Cornuo Imo et II do con Basso pro Georg Jos. Bened. Hartl. [undated] 4 The copies were mostly made by hand; however, advertisements started to appear in the press after 1800 for printed music. Czech publishers normally gave preference to sacred and secular compositions by Czech teachers, e. g. Jan Nepomuk Vocel, Ignác Vorel, Jakub Jan Ryba, Jan Nepomuk Filcík etc.

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Zdeněk Vejvoda Fig. 2: From 1799 this building housed the school of Stará Paka to the northeast of Prague, Czech Republic, where Jiří J. B. Hartl worked between 1803 and 1846. Photograph by Lubomir Tyllner in 2004. Used with permission.

sical events held in these places. Moreover, he had gained some musical experience as a student and teaching assistant during his stints in Moravia and Hungary. Jiří Hartl laid the foundations for a tradition of performing orchestral music in Stará Paka. Unfortunately, there are no traces of his sacred compositions (or even fragments of them), which are likely to have existed. Writing in his family chronicle, Karel Hartl regrets the loss of his grandfather’s masses, whose composition had been inspired by Mozart. They may have been part of the church archives, which have not survived.5 Sacred and secular compositions were traditionally performed when schools were visited by representatives of the church and authorities as well as during national holidays and community festivities. Jiří Hartl’s career at the school in Stará Paka coincided with the first stage of the national emancipation process in the Czech Lands. This was also a time of state-controlled activities designed to improve the relations between the Habsburg Monarchy and its nations following the lengthy Napoleonic Wars. The year 1819 saw a collecting initiative in the field of traditional folk music, aimed at “assembling evidence of folk creativity and the cohesion of the nations within the monarchy” (shromáždění dokladů o lidové tvořivosti a soudržnosti národů v zemích monarchie, Markl 1987, 29). The collec5 The object which provides evidence of Hartl’s activity in this field is a cabinet which he bought to store musical instruments, with his own inscription inside expressing gratitude to God and donors, and including the list of instruments (timpani, 4 trumpets, 2 French horns, 4 violins) and signatures of the founders of the church band, Josef Schiftner (priest), Václav Adam (mayor), Jiří Hartl (teacher) and Johan Sucharda (first violinist).

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Jiří Hartl (1781 – 1849), a Teacher from Northern Bohemia: Fig. 3: A note made by Jiří Hartl in 1827, in the sheet music cabinet in St Vavřinec Church in Stará Paka, to the northeast of Prague, Czech Republic. Photograph by Zdeněk Vejvoda in 2006.

tors included village teachers, civil servants and priests, who submitted the material to the provincial authorities. There is no evidence of Jiří Hartl’s participation in this initiative; nevertheless, the teacher could have been inspired by the state-controlled collection to pursue his own music-related activities. Manuscript songbooks had been compiled by Hartl’s father 6, and Hartl himself continued to record the (mostly sacred) repertoire performed by his family and neighbours (see Figure 3). The manuscripts 6 Of particular importance is the manuscript hymn book titled Písně rozličné na celoroční slavnosti psané od Jiřího Hartla v Lužanech 1796 (Diverse songs for various festivities compiled by Jiří Hartl in Lužany in 1796).

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with notations are titled Litanie a modlitby (Litanies and Prayers, 1836), Písně pohřební (Funeral Songs, undated) and Knížka písní ke mši svaté (A Mass Songbook, 1829).

2. The band Josef Sturm, one of the authors of the 1929 regional monograph Novopacko (The Nová Paka Region), wrote: “Teachers and teaching assistants would often seek extra employment not worthy of the teaching profession: they would work as craftsmen, traders, sacristans or bell ringers, or would be responsible for rehearsing and managing music and singing performances held in the village, or would themselves play in the pub” (Učitelé a pomocníci hledali často výdělku v zaměstnání nedůstojném učitelského stavu: provozovali řemesla, obchod, byli kostelníky, řediteli kůru, zvoníky a chodili hráti po hospodách, Sturm 1929, 555). However, Jiří Hartl’s career as a village bandmaster is only given a brief mention in the family chronicle by Karel Hartl (1931 – 1937, 23): “Did my grandfather play in the pub to make some extra money? I do not know, but I suppose he did because teachers would often do this in those days (Chodil-li děd hrávati k muzikám, aby si něco přivydělal, nevím, spíše ano, bylo to tenkrát u učitelů obvyklé).” However, sufficient evidence of Hartl’s musicianship is found in his unique manuscripts which contain the period’s dance music. It may be assumed that apart from the male members of Hartl’s family and — ​possibly — ​teachers from neighbouring villages, the core of his band was made up of his former pupils. The instrumentation glosses and notes in the manuscripts, which are the only clue for determining the composition of the band organized by Hartl in Stará Paka, suggest that the instrumentation of the band was variable, although the number of players is thought not to have been higher than ten. The band was composed of at least two violins and probably one viola; a double bass, 1 – 2 clarinets and a trumpet seem to have been permanent features, to which a flute and a bassoon were sometimes added 7. This is, in principle, a string band in which the wind instruments contributed to the overall richness of instrumentation, at times assuming the role of solo instruments.8 This necessitated a detailed musical arrangement, at least in the case of

7 The composition of Hartl’s band is almost identical to that mentioned in an article referring to musical practice in the neighbouring town of Nová Paka approximately half a century later: “The composition of the town band: two violins, viola, double bass, clarinets, bassoon, trumpets (f luegelhorns) and principals” (Složení městského orchestru: dvoje housle, viola, basa, klarinety, fagot, trompety (křídlovky) a principály, Jíra 1929, 404). 8 By contrast, the so-called Turkish bands, increasingly popular in 19th century Bohemia, were composed of wind and percussion instruments (e. g. a band of sixteen pupils led by Jakub Jan Ryba, a teacher from

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melodic instruments (the 1st and 2nd violin and wind instruments). Hartl’s manuscripts, which contain the 1st violin part, provide evidence of this practice. Undoubtedly, the region was home to numerous arbitrary or less renowned musical entities in addition to Hartl’s band. The teacher’s position, however, was a guarantee for (and a commitment to) a high standard of production. Although no sources make explicit mention of any musical and dance events, it can safely be assumed that the band normally played at local dance parties in pubs and at funfairs; moreover, given the huge number of Marches contained in the manuscripts, the band is thought to have played in various parades and town festivities. In this environment, the musicians were in direct contact with the vivid music and dance traditions of a region cohabited by Czech and German speakers, and these inspirations were translated, in the form of music stylization, into Hartl’s composition of “utility” dance music. The Stará Paka manuscripts contain ample evidence that Hartl drew inspiration from several sources: the diminishing popularity of minuet, and the continuing strong fashion for Landler and other German and Hungarian dances, with Waltz on the horizon.9 The Polka did not make its first appearance until the 1830s and therefore its boom remains unreflected in Hartl’s manuscripts. What Hartl did include in his manuscripts extensively is Schottisch (Egosse, i. e. Scottish), the dance believed to have been one of the inspirations for Czech Polka.

3. Manuscripts The first volume, entitled Partibus pr. Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl 10 dated 1811 (hereafter referred to as Partibus, cf. Figure 4), contains 58 sheets (116 pages) of music paper, sized 230 × 180 mm and with a total of 649 dance melodies. The second volume, bearing the somewhat unclear title Partyska pro Jiřího Hartle 11 (Collection of music parts for Jiří Hartl), is undated and contains 20 sheets (40 pages) sized 285 × 210 mm with a total of 191 dance melodies (cf. Figure 5). Rožmitál). These ensembles became extremely popular at outdoor festivities; however, they were less well-received at dance events as they were considered less suitable as an accompaniment to singing, being rather loud. 9 Reports of the day suggest that the Waltz appeared in the villages of northern Bohemia even before reaching Prague. When Archduke Rainer was visiting the Krkonoše Mountains in July 1806, he saw a Waltz performed by the people of Rokytnice (Berkovec 2001, 113). 10 The title, Partibus, could be translated as “from the parts (repertoire)” of Jiří Hartl, since almost all of the material contained in the volume is composed of the 1st violin parts written for his band. 11 As was the case with Partibus, the name Partyska refers to the part of the 1st violin; the name thus translates as a “volume of parts from the repertoire” of Jiří Hartl.

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Fig. 4: The 1st page of Partibus by Jiří J. B. Hartl from 1811 – 1822. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872. Photograph by Zdeněk Vejvoda in 2009. Used with permission.

Partibus, as is evident from the year on the title page, is dated 1811. This is also the year of origin of most of the notations, which are found, as a rule, at the end of each dance series. However, several of the instrumental melodies are dated 1801 and 1812 – 1818. With some items, the details include the month or even the day when the piece was completed or acquired. Clearly, the final Partibus manuscript is a compilation of several earlier draft documents; when ordering the items, the author obviously preferred clarity and the musical aspect. Each of the series is introduced with a distinctive title: Marsch von Verschieden Authoren–Violino Primo (Nos. 1 – 28); Menuetto (29 – 31); Ländler since 1801–Violino Primo (32 – 382); Ländler neue 1814 (383 – 444); Marsch (445 – 449); Deutsche in G–Violino Imo (453 – 470); St[eyrysche] (471 – 532); Egosa–Violin Imo (533 – 553); Zweytritt–Violino Primo von Verschieden Authoren (554 – 566); Marsch tanze (592 – 601?); Egosä (604 – 611) and Ungerisch–Violino Imo (612 – 642). Despite the 1811 dating, Partibus seems not to have been physically completed until 1818; the most probable date is 256 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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1819 – 1820. This opinion is based on the hypothesis that Partibus is a compilation of Hartl’s older music sheets; this is evidenced by the overall form of the manuscript, its division into dance series and, with several exceptions, uniform handwriting.12

Fig. 5: The 3rd page of Partyska by Jiří J. B. Hartl from 1820 – 1843. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/873 – 876. Photograph by Zdeněk Vejvoda in 2009. Used with permission.

Hartl’s notebook entitled Partyska is a different case. The year 1810 on the title page is debatable. The melodies are dated to 1820 – 1822 and, except for an 1843 addendum (Waltz No. 652), are in chronological order. This source, too, contains a long series of melodies to be played with dances, only occasionally interrupted with notations of a different kind (e. g. Ländler Nos. 658 – 678, Egose No. 679, again Ländler Nos. 680 – 755, Egose No. 756 etc.). 12 The following items are thought to have been added later (their small print suggesting that the melodies were written into what had originally been a blank space): Marsch Nos. 17, 20, 23, Ländler Nos. 443 – 444 (the added items are dated to 1818), Kögeltanz No. 452 (dated 1818) and Egoso No. 537 (dated 1816).

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As suggested above, both the manuscripts contain complete series of dance melodies, including solo performances (marked in Latin as cadentie). They comprise 1st violin parts and, much less frequently, instrumentation glosses, drafts of solo parts for other instruments, the names of most dances and other notes of varied importance. The bandmaster’s notes are written in Czech and German. It is difficult to determine the exact number of dance melodies (cf. Figure 6). This is because Hartl was rather inconsistent in numbering dance melodies of the same kind in series of different sizes. The repertoire of Hartl’s band is dominated by ballroom dances that enjoyed huge popularity in the whole of Europe in the first half of the 19th century: Ländler (551 items), Steyrysche (80), Marsch (45), Egosse (Egoso, Egosa, Egosä) or Schottisch (44), Ungerisch (31), Deutsche (20) and Zweitritt (13). Thirty dances are untitled. The less frequent ones include Contra (7) and Menuetto (4), followed by Czech folk dances, Hulán (2), Třínožka (three-legged dance) (2); with the following dances featured only once in the manuscripts: Bauer, Bažant (pheasant), Bonapart, Englese, Italian, Furiant, Husa (goose), Kalamajka, Kuželka (Kögeltanz–sic!), Švihák and Walzer (cf. Figure 7).

Fig. 6: The overall proportion of dances in Jiří Hartl’s manuscripts outlined by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

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Name of dance Ländler Steyrische Marsch Egose (Egoso, Schotysch) Ungarisch untitled Deutsche Zweytritt Contra Menuetto Hulán Třínožka Italian Kögeltanz (sic!) Bonapart Furiant Englese Bažant Švihák Bauer Kalamajka Husa Walzer

Number of melodies 551 80 45 44 31 30 20 13 7 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

% 66 9.5 5 5 3.5 3.5 2 1.5 1 3

Fig. 7: Overview of dances in Jiří Hartl’s manuscripts outlined by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

The predominantly ballroom repertoire is complemented by what may perhaps be called a “suite” of Czech folk dances: Furiant, Schotysch, Marsch, Bažant, Švihák, Bauer, Kalamajka, Kuželka, Husa, Hulán and Třínožka (Nos. 590 – 601, dated 5 June 1814; cf. Figure 8). This suggests that Hartl was interested in traditional folk dances and undoubtedly knew their accompanying melodies by heart. It seems certain that the members of his band improvised the musical accompaniment during the dance event itself, so there was normally no reason why it should be noted. There are, however, other possible reasons why these dances were included in the manuscripts: there was a romanticising fashion for performing dances at folk festivities in order to entertain the aristocracy; another possible reason was that such dances were performed in order to encourage public interest in the traditional Czech repertoire.

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Fig. 8: Furiant by Jiří Hartl, dated 5 June 1814. Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872, p. 105. Diplomatic copy by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

4. Authorship It was generally common for musicians of Hartl’s day to share and copy popular compositions and modifications of folk melodies. This is evident from the number of comments concerning the authorship (or provenance) of some of the notations found in Hartl’s manuscripts. Remarkably, some sections begin with a title that is direct evidence of this, e. g. Marsch von Verschieden Authoren or Zweytritt–Violino Primo von Verschieden Authoren.13 Apart from Hartl himself, those mentioned include two family members, namely his son, František Hartl (63 melodies), and his brother, Josef Hartl (8 melodies). Other names are those of F. Draschar (32 melodies), J. Mátl (2 melodies), Radimský 14 (1 melody) and Ruský 15 (6 melodies). One melody is only titled with the name of a locality

13 By various authors (or, more precisely, bandmasters), who — ​as in other regions of Bohemia — ​shared their musical “archives” with others to copy (cf. Markl 1986). 14 Radimský is a surname which is fairly common in the Nová Paka region. Personalities frequently mentioned by sources include Josef Radimský, an amateur actor and musician of the same age as Hartl’s son František, and his friend at the same time (Jíra 1929, 434). Alternatively, the name may refer to a musician resident in a nearby village called Radim. 15 It remains unclear whether this refers to Russian nationality (ruský being the Czech for Russian) or a person’s name.

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(marsch “von Jičín”). Jiří Hartl’s signature only appears under 29 melodies. However, there is every reason to assume that he authored (or provided an arrangement for) most of the 668 melodies that contain no reference to authorship. How music was performed The notations of dance instrumental melodies, which testify to Hartl’s experience and mature musical skills, contain a number of notes on interpretation. Most of them are to do with the musical form. The Italian expressions Da Capo or Da Segno are relatively frequent; the end of the melody is marked with a fermata rather than with Fine; the last dance in a series is marked as Coda. Hartl’s typical articulation instructions are staccatos 16 and legatos; the marks very occasionally used to refer to the violin are pizzicato and con arco.17 Tempo marks are rare, being used in clearly exceptional cases. Dynamic signs are equally rare. Some of the violin parts may have been technically very challenging. This is suggested by the use of high positions (for example, Ländler No. 308 peaks on a high F-sharp, cf. Figure 9) and impressive sequences of sixteenth notes in fast tempo; other frequent indications include double stops, sixths that do not appear to be difficult to play, and chords with empty strings. By contrast, three to four-voice arpeggios are rare. The finger placements are easy to play and mostly do not exceed the third position.18 Much useful information about the band is provided by the numerous instrumentation glosses and notations of solos. Apart from the violin (with the second violin noted only occasionally), the manuscript contains frequent references to the clarinet (17 melodies),19 while the solo opportunities for the trumpet, flute, piccolo and bassoon are much less frequent. A bass line is extremely rare.20

16 Staccatos are normally marked with a dot above a note or, in exceptional cases, with special instructions, e. g. Trumpet Solo — ​Play Staccato! 17 The rare use of pizzicato for the 1st violin points to the thoughtfulness of Hartl’s instrumentation (the delicate nature of pizzicato combined with the loudness of wind instruments would result in dynamic imbalance); however, it also shows how little interest there was in plucked string instruments in the best days of instrumental folk music in Bohemia (i. e. the gradual demise of the dulcimer; the exclusive nature of the harp etc.). In German-sounding Ländler dances, on the other hand, pizzicato was used purposefully, among other things to simulate the sound of the zither (Markl 1986). 18 Several notations provide reliable evidence that Hartl was able to play the fifth position. However, only a single violin part contains the note a3, which is played with the 4th finger in the seventh position. 19 One of the melodies contains the notations of two clarinets. 20 This composition corresponds to the conventions of the day. Josef Jíra (1929, 404), exploring music bands in the 1840s, explains: “Everyone played the brass instruments, except for the bandmaster, normally the teacher, who would play the violin (Hrálo se jen na plechové nástroje až na kapelníka, jímž býval učitel, který hrával na housle).”

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Fig. 9: Ländler No. 308 by Jiří Hartl. Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872, p. 60. Diplomatic copy by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

In a limited number of cases, Hartl’s notes refer to the manner and progress of orchestration. There is no doubt that Hartl’s band relied, first and foremost, on string instruments which served as melodic accompaniment (the first and second violins) and harmonic accompaniment (bass and harmony). The use of wind instruments in arrangements was intended to bring fresh elements to long series of dance melodies of the same kind. A number of notations suggest that the clarinet, too, enjoyed a unique position, and that it could serve in primary as well as secondary accompanying positions. Extra colour was added by the flute and trumpet (in the higher register) as well as the bassoon 21 and, most probably, the clarinet 22 (in the lower register).

21 The use of the bassoon in Czech folk music is rather rare; there are, however, 18 th century iconographies which depict this instrument as part of a band alongside the double bass, violin, f lute and clarinet. In northeastern Bohemia, the bassoon is known to have been part of the Nová Paka town band (Jíra 1929) and the Bydžov regional band, which was invited to perform at the coronation ceremony of King Ferdinand the Fifth (Laudová 1975). The bassoon may have come to folk music from church music and castle ensembles, where, in Baroque times, it had served primarily as a basso continuo instrument (Kurfirst 2002, 691). The sources suggest that the bassoon was Hartl’s favourite instrument (Hartl 1931 – 1937, 25). It is very likely that Hartl played the instrument himself, alternating it with the violin. Equally, we can assume that the instrument was played by one of Hartl’s relatives or pupils. 22 The position of the bandmaster and the band’s musical characteristics are explored by Jaroslav Markl (1986, 255 – 256): “It was much less typical for traditional folk music bands in Bohemia to have a solo

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A violin duet can be found, among other places, in the introduction to Ländler No. 366 (cf. Figure 10).

Fig. 10: Ländler No. 366 by Jiří Hartl. Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872, p. 66. Diplomatic copy by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

The notation of Ländler No. 172 (cf. Figure 11) depicts how the solo clarinet is accompanied with violin pizzicato.

player (the violinist, bagpiper or, since the 1830s, the clarinettist) with complete domination over the rest of the musicians, as is the case with dulcimer bands from Moravian Slovakia, Slovakia and the eccentric band leaders of Gypsy descent in Hungary and Romania. Instead, practically each of the 2,500 music lines of Hartl’s volumes shows the primarily unifying role that the first violinist had by bringing the collective of instruments into perfect harmony, with no room left for a sovereign soloist.” (Typické vlastnosti tradiční lidové hudby z Čech netrpí suverénní nadvládou sólisty (jmenovitě houslisty, dudáka anebo od 30. let 19. století také klarinetisty) nad jemu podřízenou instrumentální skupinou, jak je to charakteristické třeba pro cimbálové muziky ze Slovácka, Slovenska a zvláště pak pro kavárenský exhibicionismus maďarských a rumunských primášů cikánského původu. Prakticky každý z 2 500 hudebních řádků Hartlova sborníku dokládá především sjednocující úlohu prvního houslisty v dokonalé souhře nástrojového kolektivu, v němž není místo pro svrchovaného sólistu.)

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Fig. 11: Ländler No. 172 by Jiří Hartl. Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872, p. 36. Diplomatic copy by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

The bass line is found in the notation of Steyrysch No. 474 (cf. Figure 12). Many interesting details about instrumentation are to be found in the notation of ländler No. 348 (cf. Figure 13), showing the first and second violin parts and alternations between the solo flute and the violin. In the trio, the flute solo is accompanied with a confirmed accompaniment of the violin and double bass; its second section contains the following instruction: “everyone should continue playing in their octaves et [sic] then pause for the last two bars (všichni oktávou držet et [sic] poslední 2 takty pausírovat).”

Fig. 12: Steyrysche No. 474 by Jiří Hartl. Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872, p. 85. Diplomatic copy by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

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Fig. 13: Ländler No. 348 by Jiří Hartl. Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague, sign. 289/868 – 872, p. 64. Diplomatic copy by Zdeněk Vejvoda.

We do not know whether separate volumes existed that were written for other members of Hartl’s band. This is, however, possible with wind instruments. Given how differently the instruments are noted 23, it would have been impractical to use the bandmaster’s music to transpose solo parts spontaneously, some of which clearly 23 In Hartl’s day the clarinet was most frequently noted in E f lat, B f lat, C or A; trumpets, by contrast, were noted in A, G, F, E, E f lat, D, C or B f lat (Kurfirst 2002, 687 – 688).

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required a degree of virtuosity. Likewise, there may have been a separate part for the second violin. The rhythmic and harmonic accompaniment, usually using the bass line and violin (viola), was done by heart, guided by the musicians’ instinct and experience.

5. Conclusion Having thoroughly investigated Jiří Hartl’s manuscripts, we may safely say that his repertoire is in accordance with the European trends of the first half of the 19th century. Apart from Ländler and Steyrische dances, which enjoyed widespread popularity, the manuscripts contain numerous examples of Schotysch and Ungarisch dances. There is no doubt that both volumes served a primarily practical purpose, being used to instruct new musicians, played during rehearsals or when designing the repertoire for various events and, undoubtedly, during performances as such. The results of our historical and analytical research show, first and foremost, the representativeness of Hartl’s manuscript with regard to the repertoire. They give an undistorted account of the repertoire of his day and of the way dance music was practised. They also show how social life in small towns followed, in its own modest way, European trends. Last but not least, both manuscripts provide ample evidence of the significant, if not yet fully appreciated, role village teachers played in shaping the nation’s musical culture. Given this fact and their age, Hartl’s manuscripts should be considered artefacts of significant importance in a Czech as well as a European context. The Department of Ethnomusicology of the Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Sciences (Oddělení etnomuzikologie a etnochoreologie Etnologického ústavu Akademie věd České republiky) is working on an annotated edition, which will contain a facsimile of this unique source.

References Berkovec, Jiří. 2001. Slavný ouřad učitelský. Kapitoly o kantorech a jejich hudbě [The splendid teaching profession. On teachers and their music]. Příbram: Městský úřad [Municipal Publishing House]. Deutsch, Walter, and Annemarie Gschwantler. 1994. Corpus musicae popularis Austriacae II . Steiermark Steyerische Tänze. Wien–Köln–Weimar. Böhlau. Goldschmidt, Aenne. 1989. Handbuch des deutschen Volkstanzes 1 – 2. Berlin: Florian Noetzel. Gstrein, Rainer. 2006. “Böhmische Musikanten in Österreich und Süddeutschland im 19. Jahrhundert.” Jahrbuch des Österreichischen Volksliedwerkes. Band 55. 82 – 90.

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Hartl, Jiří Benedikt. 1810 – 1822. Partibus pro Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl. Manuscript stored at the Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, sign. 289/868 – 876. ———. 1810 – 1822. Partyska pro Jiřího Hartle ze Staré Paky. [Collection of music parts for Jiří Hartl]. Manuscript stored at the Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Sciences, sign. 289/868 – 876. Hartl, Karel. 1927 – 1937. Z historie Staré Paky [From the History of Stará Paka]. The manuscript is the village chronicle. Copy owned by the Hendrych family of Nová Paka. ———. 1931 – 1937. Paměti [Memoirs]. Manuscript owned by the Hendrych family of Nová Paka. Hartinger, Walter. 1980. Volkstanz, Volksmusikanten und Volksmusikinstrumente in der Oberpfalz zur Zeit Herders. Regensburg: Bosse. Jílek-Oberfalcer, František. 1946. Jak žili naši otcové [How our fathers lived]. Vrchlabí: Josef Krbal. Jíra, Josef. 1929. “Nová Paka. Dějiny Budče” [Nová Paka. The History of Budeč]. In Novopacko. Vlastivědná monografie okresu III . Nová Paka [The Nová Paka region. The history and geography monograph of the region III . Nová Paka]. Nová Paka: Okresní školní výbor [District School Committee]. 209 – 432, 579 – 587. Krejčí, Pavel. 1961. “Partibus pr. Violin Prim für mich Georgius Hartl.” Český lid 48/4:192. Kurfirst, Pavel. 2002. Hudební nástroje [Musical instruments]. Prague. Laudová, Hannah. 1975. “Dokumenty o lidové slavnosti roku 1836, konané při příležitosti poslední korunovace v Praze” [Documents on the folk festivity held in 1836 on the occasion of the last coronation in Prague]. In Etnografie národního obrození 1 [Ethnography of the National Revival 1]. Antonín Robek and Josef Vařeka (Eds.). Prague: Ústav pro etnografii a folkloristiku [Institute for Ethnography and Folklore]. 37 – 212. ———. 1978. “Lidové slavnosti–jejich formy a funkce v jednotlivých obdobích národního obrození III ” [Folk festivities–their forms and functions in the different stages of the National Revival III ]. In Etnografie národního obrození 4 [Ethnography of the National Revival 4]. Antonín Robek and Josef Vařeka (Eds.). Prague: Ústav pro etnografii a folkloristiku [Institute for Ethnography and Folklore]. 27 – 254. Markl, Jaroslav. 1979. “Podíl houslí na lidové hudbě v Čechách” [The role of the violin in Bohemian folk music]. Český lid 66/4. 216 – 218. ———. 1986. “Partibus kapelníka J. Hartla ze Staré Paky (1811 – 1816) [From the repertoire of the bandmaster Jiří Hartl of Stará Paka (1811 – 1816)]. ” In Muzikologické dialogy [Musicological dialogues]. Stanislav Bohadlo (Ed.). Hradec Králové: Česká hudební společnost [Czech Music Society]. 245 – 268. ———. 1987. Nejstarší sbírky českých lidových písní [The oldest collections of Czech folk songs]. Prague: Editio Supraphon. Novák, Petr. 1971. “Dobové doklady o změnách tanečního repertoáru ze severovýchodních Čech v 19. století” [Changes in the dance repertoire in 19th century northeastern Bohemia as reflected in the writings of the time]. Český lid 58. 21 – 25.

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Sturm, Josef. 1929. “Školství” [The Education System]. In Novopacko. Vlastivědná monografie okresu III . Nová Paka [The Nová Paka region. The history and geography monograph of the region III . Nová Paka]. Nová Paka: Okresní školní výbor [District School Comitee]. 550 – 636. Trojan, Jan. 2000. Kantoři na Moravě a ve Slezsku v 17. – 19. století [Teachers in Moravia and Silesia in the 17th to 19th centuries]. Brno: Muzejní a vlastivědná společnost [Museum and ethnographic society]. Vejvoda, Zdeněk. 2006. “Partibus kapelníka Jiřího Hartla z 1. poloviny 19. století — ​koncept a metody práce s pramenem evropského významu” [From the repertoire of the bandmaster Jiří Hartl from the first half of the 19th century — ​the design and methods of working with a source of European-wide relevance]. In Sborník Antropologického sympozia IV [Proceedings of the Anthropology Symposium IV ]. Plzeň: Aleš Čeněk. 183 – 190. ———. 2007. “Folk Music, Song and Dance in Bohemia and Moravia.” In Czech Music 10/3. 14 – 23. ———. 2008. “Podoby lendleru v Čechách” [Different forms of Ländler in Bohemia]. In Prostředí tance. Hranice identity a jejich překračování [The environment of dance. The boundaries of identity and how they are transcended]. Daniela Stavělová, Jiří Traxler, Zdeněk Vejvoda (Eds.). Prague: Etnologický ústav AV ČR [Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science]. 87 – 156. ———. 2009. “Zu Fragen der strukturellen Analyse des tschechischen Liedtyps [Questions of structural analysis of the Czech song type].” Jahrbuch für Europäische Ethnologie 4. 113 – 120. ———. 2010. Podoby lendleru v Čechách ve světle rukopisů Jiřího J. B. Hartla ze Staré Paky [Different forms of Ländler in Bohemia in the Light of Manuscripts of Jiří J. B. Hartl of Stará Paka]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague. ———. 2011. “Edice lidové instrumentální hudby v českých zemích” [Editions of folk instrumental music in the Czech Lands]. In Hudební a taneční folklor v ediční praxi [Music and dance folklore in editing practice]. Lucie Uhlíková, Marta Toncrová et al. Prague: Etnologický ústav AV ČR [Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science]. 91 – 116. ———. 2012. “European dance repertoire in Czech manuscripts of the first half of the 19th century and the personality of Jiří Hartl.” Czech Music 15/2. 22 – 25. Wolfram, Richard. 1951. Die Volkstänze in Österreich und verwandte Tänze in Europa. Salzburg: Otto Müller. Zoder, Richard. 1958. Österreichische Volkstänze I. Wien: Österreichischer Bundesverlag.

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The Structure of Brass Ensembles in Lithuania: Tradition or Pragmatism?

Abstract Historical sources mention that academic wind and percussion instruments were widely used in the army of the Great Duchy of Lithuania as well as in the palace of the Grand Dukes at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries. Brass instruments became extremely popular in the Baroque period. Jesuits organized elaborate feasts of Corpus Christi in Vilnius as well as in Kražiai and Pašiaušė with singers and orchestras. The majority of Catholic churches and brotherhoods had their own brass and percussion instruments: usually two trumpets, two French horns and two kettledrums. Brass bands as an echo of the nobleman’s large wind instrument orchestras started to play at the weddings of rich village people approximately in the middle of the 19thcentury. The popularity of brass overwhelmed Lithuania, and especially the Samogitia region, in the first half of the 20th century. During that time not only military regiments and various societies had such bands, but also villages. A brass band could be of highly varying compositions, from four to nine or more musicians, but different sources point out that a village brass band needed at least five members. The instruments most often played were: two cornets (clarinets, trumpets), the althorn (baritone), baritone (tenor), bass (tuba, helicon). In the second half of the 20th century, the number of musicians in brass ensembles started to decrease. Musicians explained that it is possible to fit no more than four men with instruments into one car to go to a funeral. Now only three (or sometimes two) musicians play at the night vigil. According to them, people are not able to pay for more musicians. In this article I will review the composition of brass ensembles from the earliest mentions of them to this day. I will try to answer the question of whether and to what extent practicality influences and changes traditional composition and music making. This article examines the change and continuity of the structure of brass ensembles in Lithuania from the 19th century to the present day. The article aims to answer the question of which factors have influenced the survival of brass music — ​whether they are tradition or pragmatic criteria — ​and in doing so I will draw on historical documents and archival sources and provide an overview of the size and instrumentation of these ensembles. From the second half of the 19th century to the 20th century, ensembles of 269 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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four to six people were especially popular in villages in northwestern Lithuania, in the region of Samogitia. The author’s ethnographic material collected across Samogitia confirms this claim. At the turn of the 21st century, brass ensembles decreased in size due to various practical, political and economic factors. However, the evidence from recent field work shows that pragmatic reasoning may not only have contributed to the downfall of tradition, but also to its regeneration. The term brass ensemble refers to a musical group generally, especially when the size is unknown or there are only two to three musicians. In the folk tradition four to five or more musicians composing an ensemble were labelled a brass band, and therefore this is the predominant term in the article for groups of four to seven or more people. The term orchestra is reserved for professional, military and amateur brass bands of 14 – 19 people or more.

1. Historical background Historical sources note that at the end of the 14th century, wind and percussion instruments were already widely used in the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and at the Grand Duke’s palace. In a 1397 report to the Grand Master, Conrad Kyburg, a messenger of the Teutonic Order, claimed that after vespers in Vilnius Cathedral he had witnessed the following musical instruments complementing the singing of psalms: trumpets (trąby), oboes (oboje) and drums (bębny). He also noted that giant kettledrums (kotły) exuded such a sound and thundering that it was reminiscent of the “imitation of military noise, only everything was performed most musically” (Narbutt 1856, 139 – 140). Other historical documents mention that Lithuania’s ruler, Vytautas the Great, had an orchestra of whistlers (flutists) which would play for visitors at the palace and accompany the duke on his journeys (Jurkštas 1970). In 1429 the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund was welcomed in Lutsk, the castle of Vytautas the Great, with the sound of trumpets and various musical instruments (Batūra 1966, 51). The orchestras rapidly expanded in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1515 at a meeting of national representatives in Vienna, Vilnius’ Voivode Mikalojus Radvila (Pl. Mikołaj Radziwiłł) brought with him a 100-person orchestra, which greatly impressed the guests from other countries (Gaudrimas 1958, 17). Although the instruments played were not specified, it is possible that wind instruments comprised a large part of this enormous orchestra. Wind instruments became particularly popular in the Baroque period. Military music in Lithuania had become not only a part of secular, but also of liturgical and paraliturgical musical culture. In churches, so-called military instruments came not only from royal military bands, but also from those of the estates of noble families, i. e. Radvilos (Pl. Radziwiłłowie), Sapiegos (Pl. Sapiehowie), Oginskiai (Pl. Ogińscy) who had their own 270 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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army regiments (Voveris 2007, 206). Processions marked important events, such as the crowning of miraculous paintings, viewing of the relics of the Holy Martyrs, or the opening of new Synods of the Diocese, which involved many different musical instruments as well as the firing of cannons. For example, at the crowning of the painting of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Bialynichy church, a large procession of cavalry and infantry gathered to escort the crowns out of the town. Amongst the crowd was the cavalry of the Marshall of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ignotas Oginskis (Pl. Ignacy Ogiński), and the field hetman infantry of the GDL , while a “group of trumpeters and drums with an orchestra” followed the flag with the holy image (Griciūtė-Šverebienė 2011, 68). From the 16th century to the second half of the 18th century, not only military orchestras took part in liturgical and secular occasions. According to musicologist Jūratė Trilupaitienė, different musical ensembles or even Baroque orchestras occupied an equally important position alongside church organs in parishes, colleges, cities and towns. In the 17th century many nobles had their own ensembles (as well as Janissaries). They gained popularity in the 18th century as not only noble lords had ensembles, but also bishops (Trilupaitienė 1995, 73, 102 – 103). In 1579 the Jesuit college of Vilnius was reformed to become the Vilnius Academy. Among other disciplines, students of the Academy could also learn to play an instrument or learn choral singing. The Vilnius Academy was well known for its superb musical ensemble in the 17th century, which performed in the church on holidays and played a wide variety of instruments and pieces there throughout the week. Vocalists were required to participate in Mass, while ensemble musicians could play at other church occasions, orations, or even school theatre productions. Over time, the ensemble singers and musicians ceased to pay heed to the rules forbidding them from performing at secular celebrations or at other parishes. The ensemble made a living by playing at weddings and funerals, as wherever they were summoned they were well paid. The practice of playing for money at other parishes even came to be called “Mass hunting”. In the mid-18th century the ensemble (orchestra) consisted of 29 musicians, amongst them seven violins, one alto, two contrabasses, four oboes, one cornet, two flutes, four French horns and four trumpets, etc. (ibid. 74, 75). In Vilnius, the Jesuits would organise the Feast of the Corpus Christi with solemn processions 1 in which Vilnius Academy students would sing and play various musical instruments. Special program-like pamphlets were even printed for this occasion. In 1614,

1 In the implementation of the reforms of the Council of Trent (1545 – 1563), the members of the Jesuit Order were particularly active. The Jesuits who came to Lithuania in 1569 used to organise processions in Vilnius for the Feast of Corpus Christi. These were unique in their splendour and pageantry, displaying triumphal chariots with living pictures (symbolic figures of Love, Mercy and Justice), performing singers and musicians, and the firing of guns. Many people came to watch from the whole town and its surroundings (Trilupaitienė 1995, 116).

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Walenty Bartoszewski, a Jesuit from Vilnius, mentions in his scenario the following wind instruments that were popular at the time: trombones (puzany), cornets (kornety), trumpets (trąby), bombards (pomorty), dulcians (sztorty; sztort), shawms (szałamaje; szałamaja), zurnas (surma), flutes (flety) and brass drums (bębny miedźiane), fiddles (skrzypice), zithers (cytary), lutes (lutnie), harps (harfa), harpsichords (klawicymbale), portable regals (regał) as well as city church bells (Bartoszewski 1614, A3–B1). Unfortunately, it is difficult to understand from this source which of these instruments were played together and which individually. The Jesuits also founded colleges which had their own ensembles in Samogitia, specifically in Kražiai and Pašiaušė. In the Jesuit college of Pašiaušė, established in 1654, alongside language and science lessons, music was taught for its contribution to Mass and the celebration of other holidays. In the first half of the 18th century, the orchestra was an integral part of all celebrations. For example, in 1728, a holiday was declared for the canonization of Saint Stanislov Kostka and Aloiz Gonzaga: “two large processions from Kelmė and Kuršėnai attended the celebration at Pašiaušė. A procession from Pašiaušė parish greeted them with the mighty sounds of trumpets, French horns, drums 2 and other musical instruments” (Rabikauskas 1961, 368 – 369). According to Paulius Rabikauskas’ study of Pašiaušė’s Jesuit archives, the grand procession that walked through the town involved four pairs of drums, while on the following day clarinets (lat. Litui) received more mention than other musical instruments (ibid, 369). Other sources from that time documenting festivals in Vilnius and other cities also mention the sounds of trumpets, French horns, trombones and drums. However, kettledrums and brass instruments were used not only in the capital, but also in festive processions of more remote churches. The inventory documents of 17th-18th-century churches and brotherhoods established nearby show that churches often had several of these instruments: two trumpets, two French horns and two or more drums (Griciūtė-Šverebienė 2011, 135 – 138). For example, the inventory of the Apytalaukis church mentions a seven-register organ, two kettledrums, two French horns and two trumpets (Misius, Šinkūnas 1993, 148). It is difficult to say whether all of these instruments were actually played, as the financial reports of the brotherhoods testify that pilgrims, in journeying to a nearby parish’s feasts, were accompanied by musicians playing trumpets or French horns and beating kettledrums 3. The Lithuanian journalist, poet, folklorist and book-smuggler Mečislovas Davainis–Silves-

2 Rabikauskas provides a quote from the chronicles. The Latin names of these instruments are as follows: solemniter tubis, valthornis and tympanis (Rabikauskas 1961, 390). 3 For example, financial accounts of the Scapular Archifraternity at the Church of All Saints in Vilnius show that in the second half of the 17th century four gold coins were paid to trumpeters and drummers for following the procession to the Corpus Christi octave, while for following the procession to Calvary, the trumpeters, drummers and those who carried the kettledrums were paid three gold coins (Griciūtė-Šverebienė 2011, 136, 81- 82).

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traitis mentions a French horn in his manuscript of 1889 in which he lists all the musical instruments used in the Raseiniai region. Specifically, he indicates that two French horns were played at church during vespers and funeral wakes (LMD I 229, 31 – 42).

2. From strings to brass: the structure of brass bands in the 19th and the second part of the 20th century In the 19th century the way of life of country people was influenced even more by the manor culture than in previous centuries. The manors of Dukes Michał and Bogdan Ogiński in Plungė and Rietavas, Count Tyzenhaus in Rokiškis, Count Zabiela in Labūnava (Apytalaukis) and others in the second half of the 19th century in Lithuania all had wind orchestras or ensembles (Kiauleikytė 2008, 173 – 178, 190). For example, the Plungė and Rietavas manors’ brass and symphonic orchestras greatly impacted the traditional musical culture in northwestern Samogitia. The brothers Duke Michał and Duke Bogdan also sponsored a music school in which talented children from the surrounding area studied and performed with the orchestra. When the musicians returned to their hometowns during vacations or holidays they played together with other musicians from their village, taught the more musically inclined village youths, and formed bands. Village musicians could possibly have acquired brass instruments that were no longer being used in the manors (Žarskienė 2012, 157). This is supported by written sources, which state that by 1870 brass instruments were played at the wedding festivities of the wealthier members of the villages in the areas of Plateliai, Alsėdžiai and Ylakiai. Previously, two fiddles, a string bass and a small drum usually entertained wealthier weddings, while a single diatonic accordion played at weddings of poorer village people (Mickevičius 1933, 70). Judging from written sources, the brass bands that played at the weddings and funerals of peasants, as opposed to those that played for the nobles, were very small. They were usually comprised of four or five musicians 4. In his description of Samogitian weddings of the late 19th century — ​early 20th century, the ethnographer Aleksandras Pakalniškis notes that “a noisy brass band comprised of four instruments and a drum became popular later on” (Pakalniškis 1977, 30). The same author, when describing funerals in the area around Plungė in the first half of the 20th century, commented that at the funeral of a rich person, or of someone especially noteworthy, a brass band comprised of four or five musicians would be hired (Pakalniškis 1966, 417). 4 For instance, for Lithuania’s Independence Day celebrations on February 16, 1919, four brass players from Naumiestis parish were invited to Tauragė to perform in a military parade. To everyone’s surprise, one of the musicians was a woman. However, so as not to draw attention to the fact that a female trumpet player was walking amongst the soldiers, she was dressed in men’s clothing (Vasiliauskas 1937, 31).

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Fig. 1: Brass quartet from Kretinga. Photographed around 1922. From Kretinga museum, KM -IF 662.

In Lithuania, as in all of Western culture, brass bands became particularly popular in the early 20th century. However, when Lithuania regained its independence in 1918, there was a real drive to form brass bands. In interwar Lithuania, every military regiment had its brass band, as did various organisations, schools, companies and churches. They were formed by the more active residents of towns and villages. Brass bands were invited to play at weddings, funerals, open air dances, town and church festivities, etc. Kazys Jasinskas, a musicologist researching the concert life of interwar Lithuania, categorizes the brass bands that existed in 1919 – 1940 in Lithuania in three groups: 1) military bands, 2) bands of various institutions and villages, and 3) professional bands (orchestras). According to Jasinskas, the artistic competence of the first two groups was rather low due to the lack of professional kapellmeisters and well-trained musicians. These bands were usually composed of amateur musicians who played by ear. Enthusiastic musicians without any classical training who were most often clarinet or trumpet players led the bands. They introduced future orchestra members to notes and taught them to play one or another wind or brass instrument. The size and artistic skill of these bands differed significantly. Usually, the Lithuanian army regiment band was composed of just nine musicians or less, while a standard brass band required at least 24 musicians (Jasinskas 1983, 114 – 126).

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The Structure of Brass Ensembles in Lithuania: Tradition or Pragmatism?

Fig. 2: Orchestra of the 6th infantry regiment of Pilėnai Duke Margis of Lithuanian army. Photographed in 1923. From Vytautas the Great War Museum, Fa-14641.

It should be noted that at the same time or even earlier, the main instrument in Lithuania was the fiddle, and that string ensembles were very popular. In Lithuania Minor and Samogitia, string orchestras, which could be comprised of three or four fiddles, one or several mandolins, a guitar, banjo, balalaika, and sometimes cimbaloms or a zither constituted a particular tradition. There was always a contrabass and drum too (Kirdienė 2016, 140, 220). In southern and western Lithuania, mixed ensembles were also popular. In Samogitia the most common configuration was two or three violins and a string bass accompanied by a diatonic accordion or a concertina which Samogitians call a konstantinka (once it was introduced from USA and Argentina at the start of the 20th century), a German bandoneon, and a drum (Žarskienė 2009, 157). According to ethnomusicologist Irena Šileikienė, with the arrival of bellows-driven free-reed instruments, the once large string orchestras gradually dwindled to three or four members (Šileikienė 1991, 247). These orchestras were often brought together by enthusiasts from some sort of fellowship, or by teachers. Ensembles were formed by peasants, often the members of a single family. For example, Juozas Petrošius from the village of Gorainiai (Tauragė district) led a family brass band in which he played with his four children: one son and three daughters. Often these family members also played in another band which consisted of one to three fiddles, a concertina or bandoneon and a string bass, or solely string instruments (Batavičius 1995, 73 – 75, 90 – 109). However, it should be 275 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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noted that particularly for string ensembles it was rather difficult to compete with brass instruments. More than one informant remembers that brass bands could play “better and with much more power so that even the fields would ring […] We could easily ‘outplay’ the strings, their playing would hardly be heard”, remembered a musician from Vaitimėnai village (Šilalė district) orchestra (ibid, 175). An example written down in southwestern Lithuania particularly reflects the popularity of brass instruments and the great desire to play them. Men from the village of Altoniškiai (Lekėčiai rural district, Šakiai district) banded together in 1928 to form a string ensemble, and at parties and dance evenings earned the money to buy brass instruments. From that time, they played only trumpets (Poškaitis 1967). The popularity of trumpets was a result of not only the strength of their sound, but also due to the shiny brass instruments themselves. “A fiddle — ​that’s nothing. Now, a trumpet — that’s something! Just blow it once and the sound goes all the way across Lake Mastis to Telšiai” (Bunka 1984).

Fig. 3: A wedding musicians’ string ensemble. The village of Spaudžiai, Šaukėnai rural district, Šiauliai district. Photo by Balys Buračas, 1933. From the Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, LTRF t 17.

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Fig. 4: Petrošius family orchestra (village of Gorainiai, Vainutas rural district) at a wedding. Photograph from the late 1920s — ​early 1930s. From the personal album of Ipolitas Petrošius. Used with permission.

In Samogitian villages before World War II , the existing brass orchestras were usually comprised of five to nine or more musicians. An orchestra consisting of twelve instruments was considered to be large and good. Town-based organizations such as the Catholic youth organisation Pavasaris (Spring), riflemen and firefighter unions formed the largest orchestras which gathered residents from the surrounding region. According to sources and informants, in the 1960s and 1970s a brass band had to be made up of at least five musicians. Sometimes there were fewer, but then the band was considered to be limited. According to Jonas Dapšauskas from the town of Salantai, if a funeral was attended by less than five musicians, this was considered an insult — ​a horse would be harnessed and orders given to bring the other members of the band (Žarskienė 2012, 159). The instruments were the same everywhere — ​usually there had to be two instruments playing the melody: a clarinet, cornet (trumpet) (or two cornets (trumpets)/two clarinets) and three or four accompanying instruments: althorn (and/or tenor), baritone and bass 5. A drum usually accompanied Marches, Foxtrots and Waltzes in weddings or other festivities. Other informants mention that at funerals at least six 5 The size of the band could vary depending on which instruments the musicians living in the district played. For example, one musician (born in 1925) from the village of Vižančiai in the district of Ylakiai

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to seven or even more musicians would play. In Catholic funerals, however, in contrast to secular Soviet funerals of members of the Communist party, a drum was never used to accompany the singing and playing of hymns. During the Soviet occupation, brass bands were formed in practically every collective farm, larger company or vocational and secondary schools. According to informants, in southeastern Samogitia the more important funerals — ​of a leader of the Communist party, bosses and teachers — ​would include entire orchestras, sometimes even from 14 to 19 people. Some orchestras were mocked because of this constant playing at Soviet funerals. For example, the brass band from Radviliškis was nicknamed “Echoes from the Graves” 6. Such orchestras would only play funeral Marches when the deceased was solemnly accompanied to their final resting place. This phenomenon can be identified as a product of the Soviet era, but without doubt it was related to the tradition of army regiment orchestras as well as the bands of institutions, which thrived during the interwar period. In summary, we can state that in the entire 20th century, the larger the orchestra that played at a wedding, funeral or church feast, the greater the prestige.

Fig. 5: Brass band from Radviliškis nicknamed “Echoes from the Graves”. Photographed in 1966 – 1980. From the personal collection of Vaclovas Stulginskas.

who played at funerals from 1947 to 1987 named the following instrumentation: one clarinet, two cornets, althorn, baritone, and bass (LTRF cd 21/2/). 6 Data gathered by the author from a 73-year-old musician in the village of Pakiršinyse, Radviliškis district, during fieldwork conducted in the districts of Raseiniai and Radviliškis in 2015 (LTRV 998).

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The Structure of Brass Ensembles in Lithuania: Tradition or Pragmatism?

3. Pragmatism and Shifts in Tradition A peculiar and particularly strong tradition among brass bands in the 20th century existed among those formed in northwestern Samogitia. Here, bands with five to seven musicians were invited to participate in all funeral ceremonies; i. e. not only to play in the accompanying procession, but also on one or two evenings during the wake. At Catholic funerals, alternating in turn with the singers, musicians would play hymn melodies at the deceased person’s home, during the funeral mass at church, and when the mourners were walking to the cemetery. Since teachers and people employed in responsible positions could not play at such funerals, small brass bands were formed by collective farmers and other workers. The situation shifted in the mid-1980s, as the winds of change began to blow after the first cooperatives were established. Taking note of the good opportunity to earn money, even trained musicians or those with university degrees began to play at funerals. Clever professionals who had a knack for business made use of the great enthusiasm for this tradition and found ways to earn even more. According to one professional musician (born in 1955) who began to play at funerals while still a student, at first five musicians played in the band, but later they dropped the second cornet and only four played, while still asking for the same money as if there were five of them (Žarskienė 2013, 394). According to another informant, because all five musicians and their instruments could not fit into one car, and people would have to pay for the gas for two cars, they began to play as a group of four 7. During field research in 2007 in the village of Židikai (Mažeikiai district), one musician (born in 1941) told me about how he had constantly been playing at funerals for more than two decades. It used to be that his brass band consisted of five members, then there were only three — ​trumpet, tenor and tuba. This was the instrumentation of the brass ensemble that would accompany the funerary procession to the church and cemetery, while at the night vigil, when hymns would be sung, one of the brass instruments would be replaced by an electronic keyboard or a synthesiser (Žarskienė 2013, 397; LTRF cd 23/26/). During the same expedition in a neighbouring Pašilė village (Skuodas district) an ensemble with three young men (born in 1958, 1968 and 1970) was recorded. Even though they did not have any formal musical training, they became true village “professionals” who played not only wind instruments, but also keyboards and bellow-driven instruments at weddings, funerals, memorials and birthdays. Alongside the traditional tuba, they also played contemporary popular instruments such as the saxophone and trombone. In response to a question about their income, the oldest musician enigmatically replied that it had not changed — ​that 7 Information from Professor Romualdas Apanavičius, who led fieldwork on folk music instruments in 1987 – 1988 in the region of Samogitia.

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musicians who played at funerals had always got one hog (LTRF cd 23/1 – 7/). Like many other musicians nowadays, they play electric keyboards at night vigils because they find it more practical as they can quietly accompany the hymns which are sung. Nowadays the most frequently encountered instruments in a three-member wind ensemble playing at a funeral would be two melodic instruments (most often trumpets and/or clarinets) and a tuba, but duets exist as well. For example, the tenor would lead the melody, which the bass (tuba) would accompany.

Fig. 6: Brass musicians from Rietavas sing the Samogitian Calvary Hills. Photo by Rūta Žarskienė 2011. From the Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, LTRF t 16259.

It is important to note that the northwestern Samogitian brass tradition is closely tied to playing at the Great Samogitian Calvary Feast (Lt. Didieji Žemaičių Kalvarijos atlaidai). The Samogitian Calvary (Lt. Žemaičių Kalvarija) comprises twenty Stations of the Cross established in the first half of the 17th century in northern Samogitia. Processions are followed from station to station while singing special hymns — ​the Samogitian Calvary Hills (Lt. Žemaičių Kalvarijos kalnai or simply Kalnai). This place, 280 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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famed for its Great Feast and miraculous painting of the Virgin Mary, drew in processions of pilgrims from the very beginning, accompanied by the fanfare of brass instruments and the rumble of kettledrums (Valančius 1972, 358 – 359). Over time, brass instruments were included in the processions between the Stations of the Cross and they would play the melodies of the Kalnai hymns, intermingled with singing. Research carried out several years ago found that a peculiarity of the Great Samogitian Calvary Feast was, according to a musician (born in 1966) from Klaipėda, the “gathering of brass players”. Usually on weekends, three or four groups of musicians would linger in the churchyard and they would invite the pilgrims to pray together while walking along the Stations of the Cross. When asked about the structure of the brass bands, the snappy informant explained that they used to play as a quintet, but that later their number began to decrease to two or even one musician “two were left. This year only one person took part — ​a musician from Mažeikiai with a French horn. It seems that money is shared easier this way” 8. Upon analysing and systematizing the data gathered, I distinguished three groups pertaining to the function of musicians at the Feast of Samogitian Calvary: 1) musicians only play, 2) musicians lead prayers as well as singing and playing and 3) musicians sing and play 9. Interestingly, those who fulfil only the first and third functions are usually groups of four to six professional musicians who have musical training 10. Usually, they are invited to play in the official procession, during which the relic of the Holy Cross is carried, and during Mass in the church. However, this study focuses on the second group of musicians (already mentioned above by the informant from Klaipėda). These musicians are usually raised in a traditional environment and are self-taught or have some musical training. At least one of them knows the route of the Stations of the Cross very well, and with a strong voice leads the groups of pilgrims who “privately” walk over the hills without a priest. The musicians are invited to join them or they form a group of pilgrims just for the procession (not playing at Mass) and perform all of the leading functions: leading the pilgrims along the Way of the Cross, saying prayers and beginning on their own to sing and play hymns. Most often, at the fifteenth station the musicians would walk around among the praying people with a cap, and they could donate as much money as they wish. In Soviet times the sum was usually 5 or 10 roubles (LTRF cd 1151/01/). The

8 E-mail from 2 September 2013. 9 For more about the Samogitian Calvary and music-making during the Great Feast in this place read this article: Rūta Žarskienė “Music-making and Folk Piety in Lithuania: Continuity and Change in Performing the Walking of the Stations of the Cross” published in Puls: Journal for Ethnomusicology and Ethnochoreology, Vol. 2, 2017, p. 68 – 87. 10 In 2013, in the procession and during Mass in the church four professional musicians from Telšiai played with two trumpets, euphonium and tuba at the Great Samogitian Calvary Feast.

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brass ensemble would include two to five musicians but might also be reduced to one. An 83-year-old musician from Mažeikiai (interviewed in 2014) who was very energetic, led a healthy life style and had a beautiful voice, boasted that he could lead the entire procession by himself; he could sing hymns, lead the prayers, play the melodies (part of the tenor) on an althorn, and was perfectly familiar with the sequence of the Way of the Cross (LTRV 685). The sounds of brass bands playing during church feasts in cemeteries are also a speciality of northern Samogitia. In towns of this region, the tradition of inviting musicians to play at the graves of loved ones during the Feasts of All Saints, St Anna, St Roch and others still thrives even today. Most likely also due to economic reasons and generational change, the size of the brass ensembles is also decreasing. In 2013 – 2014, while visiting Grūstė and Ylakiai, about four or five groups of musicians who had gathered from the surrounding region were walking around the cemetery. Their payment is purely on the basis of donations. The majority of the brass ensembles consisted of three musicians, but sometimes there were four or two. The instrumentation of each of the groups was different. For example, three musicians from Ylakiai played the cornet, tenor and tuba, while those from Klaipėda played two trumpets and a tuba. Older musicians from Mažeikiai (born in 1932 and 1941) played the cornet and tenor, while a couple of younger professional musicians from Mažeikiai (born in 1967 and 1976) played the French horn and tuba, etc. (LTRV 598, LTRV 685). Having asked the musicians of both older and younger generations what it used to be like in the past, they indicated that there had to be at least five musicians, while sometimes even six or seven would play and pray at a graveside (LTRF cd 834/01, 03/).

4. Summary Folk traditions are a constantly changing process influenced by modern trends spreading through the towns and manors as well as by changing political and economic conditions. We can see all this by reviewing the existence of wind and brass instruments and ensembles in Lithuanian culture from the first records in historical sources until modern times. It can be assumed that from the second half of the 17th century to the early 19th century small brass bands would already perform at the most important village and town events. In the first half of the 20th century, people in villages tried to create as large a band as they could, emulating large military orchestras or the brass bands of some institutions. They would be invited to play at family or town celebrations. However, instruments were very expensive, and when playing in a large group one was unlikely to earn much. Therefore, after a while, five-musician ensembles formed (the number could range from four to seven), which were made up of the members 282 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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of one or two families and their neighbours. Such ensembles thrived in northwestern Samogitia throughout the 20th century. Payment has always been an important issue for musicians — ​the shrewder town musicians often earned more, while village musicians earned less. When Lithuania once more regained its independence and turned to the path of a free market, as well as with the older generation of musicians passing away, the size of such ensembles decreased to four, three or two musicians, and sometimes brass instruments were abandoned altogether. It is difficult to foretell the road that traditions will take; on the one hand, it seems that irreversible processes have taken place, yet on the other, earlier forms are suddenly being revived. Therefore, I would like to end this article with a surprising discovery from my one of the last fieldwork done in 2015 in southeastern Samogitia. In the main town of this sub-region Raseiniai, where for almost 20 years no trumpets had been heard, a brass band with traditional instrumentation (two trumpets, a trombone and tuba) formed, calling itself “Funeral Orchestra” and it is frequently invited to play at funerals and memorials. By playing brass instruments at funerals and singing traditional prayers of the region, these men not only perform their skills, but can also earn an extra income (LTRV 997). Thus, pragmatism does not always undermine tradition. As economic circumstances improve, practical and financial encouragement can regenerate phenomena that seem to have completely disappeared. Therefore, in reply to the question “tradition or pragmatism?” the answer should be tradition and pragmatism. They always go hand in hand!

References Bartoszewski, Walenty. 1614. Pobudka na obchodzenie nabożne Swiątośći rocżney Tryumphu, y Pompy Ciała Bożego dana, a Iaśńie Oświeconemu, y Naywielebnieyszemu w Panu Chrystuśie Oycowi y Panu: Panu Benedictowi Woynie, z Łaski Bożey Biskupowi Wilenskiemu, ofiarowana, przez Walentego Bartoszewskiego, w Wilnie u Iozefa Karcana [Exhortation to Celebrate with Piety the Annual Triumph of Corpus Christi and the Solemn Procession, Declared by Walent Bartoszewski and Dedicated to the Most Illustrious and Honored Father in Christ, Lord Benedict Woyna, Bishop of Vilnius by God’s Grace, [and published] in Vilnius, Printing House of Iozef Karcan]. Batavičius, Albinas. 1995. Tauragės apskrities dūdų orkestrai [Brass Bands of the Tauragė District]. Tauragė: A. Batavičius. Batūra, Romas. 1966. “Muzika ir dainos feodaliniame Vilniuje [Music and Songs in Feudal Vilnius].” Kultūros barai, No. 3 (15), 51. Bunka, Eugenijus. 1984. “Smuikas visam gyvenimui“ [The Fiddle for the Whole of One’s Life].” Gimtasis kraštas, No. 44, November 1st, 8. Gaudrimas, Juozas. 1958. Iš lietuvių muzikinės kultūros istorijos [From the History of Lithuanian Musical Culture]. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla.

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Griciūtė-Šverebienė, Liepa. 2011. XVII –XVIII a. bažnytinės procesijos Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje [Ecclesiastical Processions in the Great Duchy of Lithuania in the 17 th and 18th Centuries]. Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla. Jasinskas, Kazys. 1983. Koncertinis gyvenimas Lietuvoje 1919 – 1940 [Concert Life from 1919 – 1940 in Lithuania]. Vilnius: Vaga. Jurkštas, Vytautas. 1970. “Vytauto muzikantai [Musicians of Vytautas].” Literatūra ir menas, No. 32 (1238), 10. Kiauleikytė, Laima. 2008. XVIII a. II pusės–XIX a. muzikinė Lietuvos dvarų kultūra: stiliaus epochų sankirtose. [Musical Culture of Lithuanian Manors in the Second Part of the 18th–19th Centuries: At the Crossing of Style Epochs]. Vilnius: Kultūros, filosofijos ir meno institutas. Kirdienė, Gaila. 2015. “Mažoji Lietuva. Žemaitija [Minor Lithuania. Samogitia].” Lietuvos etnografiniai regionai/iliustruotasis žinynas. Virginijus Jocys (Ed.). Kaunas: Terra Publica. 140 – 141, 220 – 221. Mickevičius, Juozas. 1933. “Žemaičių vestuvės: nuo 1850 iki šių dienų Platelių, Alsėdžių, Ylakių apylinkėse [Samogitian Weddings: from 1850 until Present Times in the Surroundings of Plateliai, Alsėdžiai and Ylakiai].” Mūsų tautosaka, Vol. VII . Kaunas: Tautosakos Komisijos leidinys. 47 – 125. Misius, Kazys & Šinkūnas, Romualdas. 1993. Lietuvos katalikų bažnyčios [Catholic Churches of Lithuania]. Vilnius: Pradai. Narbutt, Teodor. 1856. Pomniejsze pisma historyczne. Szczegolnie do historyi Litwy odnoszące się [The Lesser Historical Writings Particularly Connected with the History of Lithuania]. Wilno: Nakład i druk Teofila Glücksberga. Pakalniškis, Aleksandras. 1966. “Laidotuvēs [Funerals].” Aidai, No. 9 (194). 414 – 418. ———. 1977. Žemaičiai: Etnografija [Samogitians: Ethnography]. Chicago, Illinois: S. Jankus. Poškaitis, Kazys. 1967. “Skamba dūdos altoniškių [Sounds Trumpets of People from Altoniškiai].” Kultūros barai, No. 11 (35). 60 – 62. Rabikauskas, Paulius. 1961. “18-ojo amžiaus Lietuvos bruožai. Iš Pašiaušės jėzuitų kolegijos metraščių [Lithuanian Features in the 18th Century. From the Chronicles of Jesuit College in Pašiaušė].” Tautos praeitis, Vol. 1, Book 3. Chicago: Lietuvių Istorijos Draugija. 345 – 391. Šileikienė, Irena. 1991. “Atneštiniai muzikos instrumentai lietuvių liaudies papročiuose“ [Common European Musical Instruments in Lithuanian Folk Customs].” Lietuvių liaudies papročiai. Juozas Kudirka (Ed.). Vilnius: Lietuvos liaudies kultūros centras. 234 – 261. Trilupaitienė, Jūratė. 1995. Jėzuitų muzikinė veikla Lietuvoje [Jesuit Musical Activities in Lithuania]. Vilnius: Muzika. Valančius, Motiejus. 1972. Raštai [Writings]. Vol. II . Vilnius: Vaga. Vasiliauskas, A. [Vasys, Antanas] 1937. Žemaičių batalionas [Samogitian Battalion]. Kaunas: akc. „Spindulio“ b-vės sp.

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Voveris, Vytautas. 2007. “Ginkluotosios pajėgos. Istorinė apžvalga [Armed Forces. A Historical Overview].” Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija, Vol. XII . Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. 206. Žarskienė, Rūta. 2009. “Pučiamųjų instrumentų orkestrai tradicinėje Lietuvos kultūroje: nuo didikų rūmų iki sodžiaus [Brass Bands in Traditional Lithuanian Culture: from Manors to Rural Villages].” Tautosakos darbai / Folklore Studies, Vol. XXXVIII . Vilnius: Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas. 149 – 168. ———. 2012. “The Origin, Development and Disappearance of Tradition: Brass Bands in Lithuania.” Musical Traditions. Discovery, Inquiry, Interpretation and Application. XXVI European Seminar in Ethnomusicology. Pál Richter (Ed.). Budapest: HAS , Research Center for the Humanities. 152 – 166. ———. 2013. “The Role of Brass Bands in Funeral Rituals of Samogitia.” Studija instrumentorum musicae popularis. Vol. III (New series). Gisa Jänichen (Ed.). Münster: Verlagshaus Monsenstwein und Vannerdat OHG . 387 – 402.

Abbreviations LTRF [Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių tautosakos rankraštyno fonoteka /

Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Sound collection.] LTRV [Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių tautosakos rankraštyno videoteka / Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Video Collection] LMD I [Lietuvių mokslo draugijos tautosakos rinkiniai, I-asis fondas / Lithuanian Science Society. First fund of the manuscript collection]

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List of audiovisual examples

Danka Lajić Mihajlović Every village had bagpipes… and then the accordions arrived. The influence of multipart instruments on textural transformations of Serbian traditional instrumental music AV  01

Blago nama, evo našeg kuma [Svatovac] (Lucky us, here comes our godfather (p. 35 – 36, 46) [­Traditional wedding song]) Performer: Rada Maksimović, gajdaš (bagpiper). Place of the recording: Srbobran, Vojvodina, Srbija. Date of the recording: 1997. Recorded by: Danka Lajić Mihajlović. Source: Danka Lajić Mihajlović private collection. Duration: 1:12.

AV  02

Svatovac (Traditional wedding song) (p. 35 – 36, 46) Performer: Čeda Ognjanov, gajdaš (bagpiper). Place of the recording: Village of Dolovo near Pančevo, Vojvodina, Srbija. Date of the recording: 1967. Recorded by: Radmila Petrović. Source: The Sound Archive of the Institute of Musicology SASA , tr. 311. Used with permission. Duration: 1:05.

AV  03

(p. 46)

AV  04

(p. 47)

Odbi se grana od jorgovana (A pearly-white branch has fallen from the lilac tree). Traditional wedding song. Performer: Stojan Jovanović, accordion player and singer. Recorded by: © Edison Bell Penkala, 78 rpm record SZ 1244. Source: Saša Spasojević private collection. Used with permission. Duration: 00:46 Lažu žene da nisu ljubljene [Bećarac] (Women lie they are not loved [Humorous folk song]) Performer: Đoka Sivčev, gajdaš (bagpiper). Place of the recording: Kikinda, Vojvodina, Srbija. Date of the recording: 1988.

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Recorded by: Dimitrije Golemović. Source: Dimitrije Golemović, private collection. Used with permission. Duration: 00:27. AV  05

(p. 47)

AV  06

(p. 47)

AV  07

(p. 47 – 48)

Ustaj, ženo, kuvaj paprikaša (Stand up, wife, make some food). Pančevcev bečarac (Pančevac’s bećarac). Performer: Milan Gočev Pančevac, “tenor with accordion”. Recorded by: Victor Talking Machine Co., 78 rpm record V-3001-B. Source: Saša Spasojević private collection. Used with permission. Duration: 3:05. Momačko kolo (Young men’s Kolo [round dance]) Performer: Rada Maksimović, gajdaš (bagpiper). Place of the recording: Srbobran, Vojvodina, Srbija. Date of the recording: 1997. Recorded by: Danka Lajić Mihajlović. Source: Danka Lajić Mihajlović private collection. Duration: 00:33. Momačko kolo (Young men’s Kolo [round dance]) Performer: Joca Mijatović, accordion player (from Sombor). Recorded by: Columbia Records, 78 rpm record D 8043_H 583. Source: Saša Spasojević private collection. Used with permission. Duration: 2:26

Nicola Scaldaferri The Bagpipes in the Mount Pollino Area (Southern Italy). Morphology and Musical Repertoires AV  08

(p. 71)

Pastorale Performer: Carmine Salamone (1927 – 2001) from Terranova di Pollino, southern Italy. Place of the recording: Terranova di Pollino, Frazione Calvario, Italy. Date of the recording: 1 August 1997. Recorded by: Pietro Sassu and Nicola Scaldaferri. Source: Nicola Scaldaferri private archive. Duration: 1:47.

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AV  09

(p. 71)

Tarantella Performer: Leonardo Antonio Lanza (1920 – 2008) from Terranova di Pollino, southern Italy. Place of the recording: Terranova di Pollino, Frazione Casa del Conte, Italy. Date of the recording: 2 August 1997. Recorded by: Pietro Sassu and Nicola Scaldaferri. Source: Nicola Scaldaferri private archive. Duration: 2:47.

Gaila Kirdienė Eastern Lithuanian Drone Fiddling: Solo, with Voice or Other Instruments AV  10

Gudėna Polka (p. 100 – 101) Performer: Petras Strazdas. Place of the recording: Bajorai village, Daugėliškis rural-district in the district of Ignalina, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1985. Recorded by: Daiva Šeškauskaitė. Source: MFA KLF 1500/1. Used with permission. Duration: 1:29.

AV  11

Dance Malūnėlis (p. 102 – 103) Performer: Petras Strazdas. Place of the recording: Bajorai village, Daugėliškis rural-district in the district of Ignalina, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1985. Recorded by: Daiva Šeškauskaitė. Source: MFA KLF 1500/37. Used with permission. Duration: 1:53.

AV  12

Polkaitė (p. 107 – 108) Performer: Dominykas Sinkevičius. Place of the recording: Viečiūnai village, Druskininkai parish, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1961. Recorded by: Rimantas Gučas. Source: MFA LF 3768/3. Used with permission. Duration: 2:50.

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AV  13

(p. 109)

AV  14

(p. 116)

Kadrilis Performer: Petras Sinkevičius. Place of the recording: Viečiūnai village, Druskininkai parish, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1961. Recorded by: Rimantas Gučas. Source: MFA LF 3769/2. Used with permission. Duration: 2:24. Ar žiba žiburužis (Is There a Light Shining) Performers: Petras Mulerskas (fiddle and singing). Place of the recording: Ausieniškės village, Trakai district, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1962. Recorded by: Bronius Ambraziejus and Juozas Gečas. Source: MFA KF 3905/1. Used with permission. Duration: 1:10.

AV  15

Močiute, širdele (My mother, my dear heart) (p. 116 – 117) Performers: Petras Mulerskas (fiddle) and Marijona Mulerskienė-Radzvilavičiūtė (singing, born 1887). Place of the recording: Ausieniškės village, Trakai district, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1962. Recorded by: Bronius Ambraziejus and Juozas Gečas. Source: MFA KF 3905/1. Used with permission. Duration: 1:00.

AV  16

(p. 125)

AV  17

(p. 125)

Valentukonis’ Polka: Išėj diedas šieno pjaut [Valentukonis’ Polka: An old man went to make hay] Performers: Antanas Labenskas (first fiddle), Albinas Bartnykas (second fiddle). Place of the recording: The town of Lazdijai, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1994. Recorded by: Gaila Kirdienė, Arvydas Kirda and Romualdas Apanavičius. Source: MFA KLF 1420/73. Used with permission. Duration: 1:35. Antanas Valenta’ Polka Performers: Antanas Labenskas (fiddle), Albinas Bartnykas (fiddle). Place of the recording: The town of Lazdijai, Lithuania. Date of the recording: 1994.

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Recorded by: Gaila Kirdienė, Arvydas Kirda and Romualdas Apanavičius. Source: MFA A 113/2. Used with permission. Duration: 1:34.

Speranța Rădulescu A peculiar form of multipart music in Romania and the notation issues it entails AV  18

Lyrical song (instrumental version) and the dance tune Rusasca (p. 134 – 135) Performers: Costică Panțiru (soprano clarinet) and Cristinel Cantea (trumpet) accompanied by two baritone flugelhorns, a tuba and a drum with cimbalom. Place of the recording: Zece Prăjini, Iași county, Romania. Date of the recording: 1997. Recorded by: Speranța Rădulescu. Source: Peasant Brass Bands from Moldavia / Fanfares paysannes de Moldavie: Zece Prăjini. CD . Ethnophonie 003. Track 4. Used with permission. Duration: 3:03.

AV  19

(p. 135)

Lyrical song (instrumental version) as on AV  18, performed without rhythmic-­ harmonic accompaniment. Performers: Costică Panțiru (E-flat clarinet), Cristinel Cantea and Mihai Trifan (trumpets). Place of the recording: Bucharest, Romania. Date of the recording: 2000. Recorded by: Speranța Rădulescu. Source: Authentic Romania. CD . SAS 068, Track 28. Used with permission. Duration: 1:43.

AV  20

Lyrical song: Bună dimineața nană (Good Morning, Ma’am). Instrumental version. (p. 136 – 137) Performers: The band of Lăpușnicu Mare, led by Ilie Chera Iucu. First soloist: Iosif Ciocloda, trombone with pistons. Place of the recording: Lăpușnicu Mare, Caraș Severin, Romania. Date of the recording: 1997. Recorded by: Speranța Rădulescu. Source: Doine, cântece și jocuri cu fanfara din Lăpușnicu Mare / Songs and Dances with the brass band from Lăpușnicu Mare. CD . Ethnophonie 017, Track 1. Used with permission. Duration: 2:01.

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AV  21

(p. 137)

AV  22

(p. 147)

The Bride’s Ritual Song (instrumental version) Performers: An ad-hoc traditional ensemble led by Ioan Pop. The ensemble consists of three violins, guitar-zongora and drum. Place of the recording: Hoteni, Maramureș county, Romania. Date of the recording: 2000. Recorded by: Speranța Rădulescu. Source: CD Romanian, Ukrainian and Jewish Music from Maramureș / Musique roumaine, ukrainienne et juive de Maramureș, Ethnophonie 006, Track 11. Used with permission. Duration: 4:35. Lyrical song: Pă dialul Cerbălului (On the hill of Cerbăl) Performers: Place of the recording: Poantă Husari, inhabitant of the village of Cerișor in Hunedoara county (southern Transylvania), Romania. Date of the recording: 1950 (?). Recorded by: Alan Lomax. Source: The Historic Series World Library of Folk and Primitive Music. Volume XVII : Romania. CD . Compiled and edited by Alan Lomax (re-edition). Cambridge: Rounder Records Corp., 11661 – 1759 – 2, 2001, Track 26. Used with permission. Duration: 1:30.

AV  23

Romani song: Mahala și țigănie (Slum and Gypsy Skid Row). Instrumental version. (p. 147 – 148) Performers: Vasile Năsturică (Bucharest) on the violin, accompanied by a small ensemble comprised of an accordion, mid-sized cimbalom and double bass. Place of the recording: Bucharest, Romania. Date of the recording: 2009. Recorded by: Speranța Rădulescu. Source: Muzică lăutărească cu taraful Vasile Năsturică/ Lăutărească music with Vasile Nasturică’s ensemble. CD . Ethnophonie series, 019, Track 1.Used with permission. Duration: 7:06.

Victoria Macijewska Specifics of Compositional Structuring in the Traditional Instrumental ­Ensemble Music of Hutsuls AV  24

Nedokhodiuky’s Wedding Hutsulka (p. 196 – 208) Performers: Nedokhodiuk’s family ensemble.

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Place of the recording: The village of Usteriky, Kosiv region of ­Ivano-Frankivs’ka oblast‘, Ukraine. Date of the recording: Summer 1969. Recorded by: Ihor’ Macijewski. Source: Private archive of Ihor’ Macijewski. Duration: 3:04.

Thomas Nußbaumer Instrumental Folk Music in Tyrol since the 19th Century AV  25

(p. 227)

AV  26

(p. 228)

Zillertaler Tramplan (Traditional tune from the Ziller Valley, Tyrol) Performers: Schwendberger Geigenmusig, Ziller Valley: Michael Kirchler (*1961; first violin), Roland Brandner (*1956, second violin), Thomas Rauch (*1965, diatonic accordion), Johann Schöser (*1960, Tyrolean folk harp) and Fritz Gasser (*1953, contrabass). Place of recording: Hall in Tirol, Austria. Date of recording: August 4, 2012. Recorded by: Thomas Nußbaumer. Source: Institut für Volkskultur und Kulturentwicklung (ivk), Innsbruck, Austria. Duration: Duration: 2:03. Die Michele-Musig aus St. Martin in Passeier, Südtirol (The Michele-Musig from St. Martin in Passeier, South Tyrol). Film synchronized by Stefan Kulisch, University Library of Regensburg, in 2015. Instrumental pieces: Tallner Donigen Walzer, Tallner Jörgen Marsch (both traditional tunes from the Passeier Valley) and short parts of unknown tunes in three-four time. Performers: Performers: Michele-Musig, St. Martin in Passeier: Alois Pichler (1870 – 1954, lead violin), Martin Schiefer (1908 – 1967, second violin), Leonhard Haller (1886 – 1948, accompanying violin), Alois Schiefer (1904 – 1979, viola), Josef Pichler (1885 – 1953, accompanying viola), Ignaz Pfitscher (1882 – 1953, string bass) Place of recording: St. Martin in Passeier, Italy. Date of recording: January 27, 1941. Recorded by: Alfred Quellmalz. Elaboration by Stefan Kulisch. Source: Südtirolsammlung Alfred Quellmalz. Universitätsbibliothek Regensburg (South Tyrol Collection Alfred Quellmalz. University Library of Regensburg). Video Quellmalz-III -IV -AdoPrEl-1b20 Duration: 3:55.

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List of audiovisual examples

AV  27

(p. 229)

AV  28

(p. 233)

Zienberger Landler (Traditional tune from the Passeier Valley, South Tyrol) Performers: Michele-Musig, St. Martin in Passeier: Alois Pichler (1870 – 1954, lead violin), Martin Schiefer (1908 – 1967, second violin), Leonhard Haller (1886 – 1948, accompanying violin), Alois Schiefer (1904 – 1979, viola), Josef Pichler (1885 – 1953, accompanying viola), Ignaz Pfitscher (1882 – 1953, string bass). Place of recording: St. Martin in Passeier, South Tyrol, Italy. Date of recording: January 27, 1941. Recorded by: Alfred Quellmalz. Source: Südtirolsammlung Alfred Quellmalz. Universitätsbibliothek Regensburg (South Tyrol Collection Alfred Quellmalz. University Library of Regensburg). Recording no. 694 (Nußbaumer 2008b, CD 2, Track 29). Duration: 1:46. Völser Polka (Traditional tune from Völs am Schlern, South Tyrol) Performers: Völser Böhmische, conducted by Josef Lanziner: E-flat clarinet, B-flat clarinet, E-flat trumpet, two B-flat trumpets, bass flugelhorn, trombone and B-flat bass. Place of recording: St. Konstantin/Völs am Schlern, Italy. Date of recording: September 16, 1940. Recorded by: Alfred Quellmalz. Source: Südtirolsammlung Alfred Quellmalz. Universitätsbibliothek Regensburg (South Tyrol Collection Alfred Quellmalz. University Library of Regensburg). Recording no. 308 (Nußbaumer 2008b, CD 1, Track 14). Duration: 1:28.

AV  29

Blumen aus Tirol (Song composed by Gottlieb Weissbacher) (p. 235 – 237) Performers: Die Fidelen Inntaler, conducted by Gottlieb Weissbacher (flugelhorn): two flugelhorns, clarinet, trombone, tuba, accordion, harp and drums. Place of recording: Innsbruck, Austria. Date of recording: April 21, 1955. Recorded by: Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF ) (Sepp Tanzer and Hannes Kar). Source: Die Fidelen Inntaler in Aufnahmen aus den Jahren 1952 – 62. Franz Posch (Ed.). CD 1, Track 15. Golden Dachl Records 1994 08 08 – 1. With the friendly permission of Franz Posch, Hall in Tirol. Duration: 3:26.

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Notes on contributors

Ardian Ahmedaja is Senior Researcher at the Department of Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology (IVE ) of the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna (MDW ), Austria. In 2003 he initiated the establishment of the Research Centre for European Multipart Music at the IVE (https://www.mdw.ac.at/ive/emm/). He is the liaison officer for Albania and Chairperson of the Study Group on Multipart Music of the International Council for Traditional Music. Further research areas include local musical practices in Southeastern Europe, maqam, religious and secular musical practice, music and minorities, transcription and analysis, theory and paradigms in ethnomusicology. Among his recent publications is the entry “Multipart music” in The SAGE international encyclopaedia of music and culture (J. Sturman, Ed., 2019). Piotr Dahlig is a Professor of Ethnomusicology at the University of Warsaw. He has published the books Folk Music in Contemporary Society (Warszawa 1987), Folk Music Practice in Comments and Opinions of Performers in Poland (Warszawa 1993), Musical Traditions and their Transformations. Between the Folk, Popular and Elite Culture of Interwar Poland (Warszawa 1998), Music of Advent. The Tradition of Playing the Wooden Horn (ligawka) (Warszawa 2003), Dulcimer Players in Polish Culture (Warszawa 2013) and over 170 articles mainly about traditional ethnic music and folk instruments, mainly based on his own field research in Poland since 1975. Bernard Garaj (b. 1960) studied Music Education at the Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra and completed his doctoral thesis at the Institute of Musicology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, Bagpipes and Bagpipers’ Tradition in Slovakia (1990). His postdoctoral thesis Slovak Folk Dance Music at the End of the 20th Century was defended at the Academy of Performing Arts in Bratislava (1999) and his inauguration thesis on History of the Slovak Folk Music Ensembles was defended at his alma mater (2005). In 1992 – 2005 he worked at the Institute of Musicology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava, since 1992 he has been affiliated with the Department of Ethnology and Folklore Studies of the Faculty of Arts, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra. Zsombor Horváth (b. 1988) studied applied linguistics at the University of Pécs, Hungary. In the last fifteen years he has devoted himself to freelance musical activities. Since 2003 he has been the fiddler of the VIZIN Orchestra (Young Master of Folk Arts Award) representing Croatian minority groups living in Hungary. He has recently 295 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Notes on contributors

focused on European drone music, with a special interest in the fiddle and bagpipes. He frequently holds instrumental workshops playing in a number of musical projects and in major European folk festivals. Between 2015 and 2017 he attended the traditional Irish Music and Dance course at the Irish World Academy, University of Limerick. Gaila Kirdienė is an Associate Professor and senior researcher at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Vilnius. She holds a Master’s degree in the Violin (1990) and Ethnomusicology (1992) from the Lithuanian Academy of Music, and a PhD in Ethnology from Vytautas Magnus University (1998). Her research emphasizes Lithuanian folk fiddling and music making by Soviet deportees and political prisoners in Siberia. She is the author of Fiddle and Fiddling in Lithuanian Ethnic Culture (2000), Traditional Wedding Music of Eastern Aukštaičiai (2009), co-author of Lithuanians and Music in Siberia (2013) and author of Lithuanian and Latvian Musical-Cultural Communication during Soviet-Era Imprisonment and Exile: Brotherhood and Unity (2020). These books are in Lithuanian with English (and for the last one also Latvian) summaries. Danka Lajić Mihajlović is a Principal Research Fellow at the Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. Her research interests include folk musical instruments, epic traditions, the psychology of music, musics of multiethnic regions and the relationships between traditional music and the music industry and cultural policy. She has published four monographs and co-edited four books. She has been engaged in safeguarding the musical heritage in Serbia under the UNESCO ICH Convention. She is a member of the Board of the Serbian Ethnomusicological Society, Vice-President of the Association of Folklorists of Serbia, and Chair of the National Committee of Serbia at the ICTM (International Council for Traditional Music). Victoria Macijewska-Schmidt is a violinist, musicologist, author of articles in ethnomusicology as well as of broadcast and educational academic programmes. She graduated from Saint-Petersburg Academy of Music with a “Master of Music” degree and completed her post-graduate study at the Russian Institute of Art History in St. Petersburg. The topic of her PhD thesis is The performing art of Hutsul violinists. Macijewska’s scientific interests focus on traditional instrumental music of Western and Eastern Slavs, particularly Hutsuls. She has been senior lecturer at the University of Culture and Art in St. Petersburg, has taught courses of ethnomusicology, history of interpretation, methodology, music psychology and has supervised graduate students. Ulrich Morgenstern (b. 1964) studied Systematic Musicology (Mag. 1993, PhD 2003, Habilitation 2011) and East Slavic Studies at the University of Hamburg. Visiting professorships at the Universities of Frankfurt a. M. and Cologne. Since 2012 Professor 296 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Notes on contributors

of History and Theory of Folk Music at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna. Chair of the ICTM Study Group on Music and Dance of the Slavic World. Fields of research: European instrumental folk music, special focus on Russia; multipart instrumental music; European history of folk music research and music anthropo­ logy, special focus on performer-centered research; revival and post-revival in Russia, Germany, and Austria; folk music research, ethnomusicology, and political ideologies; ethnomusicology of violence. Fieldwork in Russia, Belarus, Hungary, Croatia, Austria, Romania, Turkey, Georgia. Thomas Nußbaumer (b. 1966) studied musicology and German philology at the University of Innsbruck. PhD in 1998 on Alfred Quellmalz und seine Südtiroler Feldforschungen (1940 – 42). Eine Studie zur musikalischen Volkskunde unter dem Nationalsozialismus, published in 2001. Since 1995 ethnomusicologist and since 2010 associate professor for folk music research at the Innsbruck branch of the Music University Mozarteum Salzburg after obtaining his postdoctoral qualification at the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna. His field research and numerous publications focus on Alpine folk music, music and customs, historical sources of traditional music and on the vocal music of the Old Order Amish in Kalona, Iowa, USA . Speranța Rădulescu graduated in musical composition with a doctorate in musicology (1983). Ethnomusicological activity with the Ethnography and Folklore Institute and later with the Peasant Museum and the National University of Music in Bucharest. Research in the classification of Romanian music, folk harmonization, new pan-Balkan musics, the musical reflection of the Romanian social-political structure and ideology, and the music of minorities (Hungarian, Ukrainian, Roma and Jewish). She has edited traditional music records (the Ethnophonie series won a price from the French Charles Cros Academy), has published six books (one together with Bernard Lortat-Jacob and Jacques Bouët, and another one together with Margaret Beissinger) and many articles. She also organizes traditional music concerts in Romania and abroad. Nicola Scaldaferri is Associate Professor of Ethnomusicology at the University of Milan, where he is the founder and the director of the LEAV  — ​Ethnomusicology and Visual Anthropology Lab (www.leav.unimi.it). His main interests include Folk music from southern Italy and bagpipes, Albanian epic songs, contemporary music and audiovisual. Among his recent publications are: When the Trees Resound (edited with S. Feld, Nota 2019) and Sonic Ethnography. Identity, heritage and creative research practice in Basilicata, southern Italy (with L. Ferrarini, Manchester University Press, 2020). Forthcoming is the edited book Wild Songs, Sweet Songs. Albanian Epic in the 297 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Notes on contributors

Collections of Milman Parry and Albert B. Lord (The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature, Harvard University). Andor Végh (b. 1974) graduated in Geography and Croatian Studies at the University of Pécs, Hungary. PhD in 2008 at the Doctoral School of Earth Sciences. His primary fields of research are historical and ethnic geography, minority studies and also cultural identity in the contemporary Central-Europe. He has been a lecturer at the University of Pécs since 2005, and associate professor from 2020. As a child Andor Végh had encounters with folk music in his family and school and started to play wind instruments in the late 1980s. From 1995 onwards he started collecting music from old performers of traditional music in the Carpathian Basin — ​Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania and Slovakia. He is an acknowledged instrument maker and a performer of traditional music on bagpipes and other wind instruments. Zdeněk Vejvoda (b. 1975) graduated from the Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia in Plzeň and the Institute of Ethnology in the Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague. He has been a researcher at the Department of Ethnomusicology, Institute of Ethnology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Prague since 2001. His research interests include the structural analysis of Czech folk songs and the application of computer databases in ethnomusicology. Editor of historical sources of folk music. He is a teacher at the Prague Conservatory, leader of several music and dance ensembles, and a member of programme committees at folklore festivals and a permanent collaborator at Czech Radio. Rūta Žarskienė (PhD) is an ethnomusicologist, senior research fellow in the Folklore Archives Department at the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore in Vilnius. She has published more than 100 articles and the monograph Music making with multi-pipe whistles in northeastern Europe (2003). From 2003 – 2019 (together with Austė Nakienė and others) she edited a series of books with CD s of Lithuanian traditional folk music from phonograph records dating from 1908 – 1951. Research interests: folk music instruments and instrumental folk music, ethnic and classical musical instruments in traditional culture, historical sound recordings, digitization of folklore archives. She is currently researching the role of brass bands and brass ensembles in traditional culture. She is gathering material about this phenomenon during expeditions, delivering papers at conferences as well as writing articles on this topic.

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Index

Numbers 2nd Tiroler Kaiserjägerregiment ​239 66th Wiener Kathreintanz ​16 78 rpm records / ​78 rpm recordings ​29, 32, 44, 72, 287, 288 A a tenore singing ​11 Absam ​217 accmpanying instrument(s) ​29, 138, 215 – 217, 239, 242, 272 accordion(s)  / ​accordionists ​13, 29  –  33, 43 – 51, 62, 65, 97, 99, 107, 109, 113, 120 – 121, 123 – 126, 134, 138, 147, 157, 163, 165, 168, 187, 189, 216, 224, 227, 233 – 235, 241 – 242, 287 – 288, 292, 294 Adamović, Đuro ​65 Adler, Guido ​149 – 150 Advent ​25, 139, 160 – 161, 240 Advent singing ​214 Africa ​143, 144 Ahmedaja, Ardian ​9, 295 Aigner, Theresa ​17 akcent ​ 159 Akkadian ​11 Alessandria del Carretto ​75 Alexandru, Tiberiu ​141 Allgäu ​215 ALMA  ​15 Alpbach ​238 Alpenländischer Volksmusikwettbewerb ​241 Alpine area(s) ​59, 72 Alpine folk music ​213 – 214, 231, 238, 297 Alpine multipart music ​217 Alpine two-part harmony ​213, 230 Alps ​213, 214, 217 Alsėdžiai ​273 Alsószentmárton ​61

Alt Matreier Tanzmusik ​216, 238 – 240 altas ​ 99 altavimas ​ 124 Altertumsmusik ​240 althorn(s) ​136, 269, 277 – 278, 282 Altmutter, Jacobus Placidus ​219 – 220 Altoniškiai ​276 Alvarez-Péreyre, Frank ​145 Alytus district ​116 Ambraziejus, Bronius ​290 Ancient Greek music ​11 Ankėnaitė, Rasa (Šukienė) ​106 ant aukštųjų ​123 Antanas Valenta’ Polka ​290 anti-silence ​37 antrinimas ​124 Anykščiai district ​119 Apanavičius, Romualdas ​125, 279, 290, 291 Apennine area ​72 appoggiatura(s) ​ 81, 120 – 121 Apytalaukis ​272 – 273 Ar žiba žiburužis ​116 Arab ​144 Arbeitsgemeinschaft Volkstanz Wien (Arge) ​16 Arbëresh ​73, 77, 79, 86 – 87 Archive of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien ​218 Archive of Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Science Prague ​256, 257, 260, 262 – 265 Ardai, Jozo ​64 Argentina ​275 army regiment orchestras ​278 Arom, Simha ​143, 145 articulation(s) ​31, 37, 46 – 47, 49, 97, 103, 109, 113, 121, 125, 146, 183, 187, 190, 196, 261 arundo donax ​66, 77, 78

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Index

Arzl ​217 Asia ​144 Attali, Jacques ​37 Aukštaitija ​95 – 97, 99 – 100, 102, 113, 119 – 121, 123, 126 aulos ​11, 17 Aurelian of Réôme ​166 Ausieniškės ​116, 290 Austria / ​Austrian ​11 – 14, 16 – 17, 24, 213 – 215, 217, 221 – 223, 230, 235, 239, 293 – 295, 297 Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF ) ​ 235 Austrian Empire ​165 Austrian-Soviet Society ​235 Austro-Hungarian Empire ​136 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy ​60 Austro-Hungarian soldiers ​43 Avarian ​17 avaz ​144 Avsenik, Slavko ​240 B Babimost ​174 Bačka ​47, 51, 59 – 61 Bácska ​59 – 61, 63 Bačvansko kolo ​47 bagpipe(s) ​11 – 14, 17, 29 – 40, 42 – 44, 46 – 47, 49 – 52, 57 – 67, 71 – 75, 79, 119, 159, 162, 164, 167 – 169, 171, 174, 263, 287 – 288, 295 – 298 bagpiper(s) ​12 – 13, 30 – 32, 34, 38, 43, 46 – 47, 49 – 51, 60 – 66, 74, 121, 157, 159, 162, 167 – 171, 173 – 174, 263, 287 – 288, 295 bagpipe-fiddle duos ​61, 162 Bairische ​215 Bajorai ​99, 289 balalaika ​275 Balaž, Janika ​64 Baldano, Giovan Lorenzo ​79 Balkans ​9, 25, 144

Baltic countries ​100, 121 Banat ​31, 42, 59 – 60, 133, 136 – 137 Bandzauner, Heinrich ​216 banjo ​275 Bánság ​60 Barac, Stipan ​62 Baracz, Đuro ​64 Baraldi, Filippo Bonini ​138, 142 – 144 Baranja ​59, 61 – 62 Baranya ​59, 61 baritone ​230, 269 baritone flugelhorn(s) ​134 – 135, 230, 233, 269, 277 – 278, 291 Baroque orchestras ​271 Bartnykas, Albinas ​125, 290 Bartók, Béla ​31, 60, 134 – 135, 145 – 146, 149 Bartoszewski, Walenty ​272 Basilicata ​71, 73 – 75, 79, 297 basolia ​ 190 basova ​191 bass(es) ​13, 47, 49, 82, 96, 99, 120, 124, 157 – 158, 162, 164 – 166, 168, 187, 190 – 191, 213, 217, 219, 227, 231, 233, 235, 261 – 262, 277 – 278, 294 bass-beat ​190 bass fiddle ​221 bass fiddler ​219 bass flugelhorn(s) ​136, 230, 233, 294 bass helicon ​136 bass line ​264, 266 bass player(s) ​157, 158, 164, 167 – 168 bass string ​219, 235 bass string player ​219 bass tuba ​233 – 235, 240, 280 Bassettl ​ 213, 221 basso continuo ​262 bassoon(s) ​221, 249 – 250, 254, 261 – 262 bass-player  / ​bass player ​157  –  158 basy ​ 189 Bauer (dance) ​249, 258 – 259 Bauerntanz ​ 219 Bauernmusik ​227

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Index

Bavaria / ​Bavarian ​213 – 215, 217, 222, 234, 238 Bayan ​189 Bayrisch Polka ​215 Bažant ​ 258 – 259 Bazhansky, Porfirij ​183 Bębny ​270 bębny miedźiane ​272 bećarac ​ 63, 287 bećarci ​46 Bečej ​36 Beitāne, Anda ​13 Belarus / ​Belarusian ​13 – 14, 103, 105 – 106, 113, 119, 121, 297 Belgrade ​29, 43 – 44, 64 Bentoiu, Pascal ​141 Benz, Severin ​219, 221 Bernotai ​113, 123 Beskid Żywiecki ​171 bez dziur ​158 Białecki, Piotr ​173 Bialynichy ​271 Bilo gora ​60 Bistrița Năsăud ​142 Bixad ​142 Blaickner, Resi ​238 Blaickner, Sepp ​235 block-and-strum technique ​11 Boarische ​215, 231, 234, 239 – 240 bocetele / ​bocet ​141 Bohemia / ​Bohemian ​14 – 15, 213, 223, 230, 249 – 251, 254 – 255, 260 – 262 Bohlman, Philip ​142 Böhmisch(e) ​213, 194, 223, 230 – 231, 233 Bolman ​61 bombards ​272 Bonapart ​ 249, 258 – 259 Bordun ​ 97 Borowa Góra ​175 bosas / ​basas  / ​boselis ​99 Bose, Fritz ​230, 231 Bosijimas ​ 124

Bouët, Jacques ​149, 297 Boulez, Pierre ​150 – 152 bowed bass ​164 bowed chordophones ​165 bowed lutes ​11 Boyky ​181 Bozen ​228, 231 Brăiloiu, Constantin ​134, 141 – 142, 146 Brandl, Rudolf Maria ​97 Brandner, Roland ​293 brass band(s) ​13, 16, 133 – 134, 162, 166 – 167, 213, 230, 269 – 270, 273 – 279, 281 – 283, 291, 298 brass drums ​272 brass ensemble(s) ​14 – 15, 188 – 189, 269, 270, 279, 282, 298 brass instruments ​163, 165, 222, 230, 235, 240, 261, 269, 272 – 273, 276, 279, 281 – 283 brass orchestra(s) ​166, 189, 277 brass troista ensembles ​189 Breit, Bert ​223, 225 Bride’s Song ​137 – 138 Brođanac, Pero ​65 Brömse, Peter ​32 Brustur ​186 bubon ​190 Bucharest ​147, 291 – 292, 297 Bukovina ​141 – 142, 179, 181 – 182, 189 – 191 Budakovac ​65 Buddhist ​144 Bulgaria ​159 Burgenland ​23 – 25 Busójárás ​64 button accordion ​17, 109 Byrtek, Karol C C bass trombone ​239 Cadentie ​ 258 Calabria  / ​Calabrian ​73  –  75, 79 Canada ​65, 134

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Index

Cantea, Cristinel ​135, 291 cântec bătrânesc / ​cântece bătrânești ​141 Caransebeș ​137 Caraș Severin ​291 Carnival ​64, 161, 169 – 170 carolling, Christmas ​182, 185 – 186 carolling, New Year ​186 Carpathian(s) ​12, 14, 24, 57, 66, 164, 166, 167, 171, 175, 181 Carpathian Basin ​57, 66, 298 Carpathian Mountains ​164, 166, 181 Carpathian Forest ​181 Carpathian Highlands ​12 Carpitella, Diego ​72 Čazma ​59 Celtic harp ​241 Central Asia ​144 Central Europe ​10 – 11, 13, 60 Central-Eastern Europe ​14, 60, 157, 167, 298 Čepin ​61 Cerișor ​147, 292 ceteraș(i) ​ 137, 143, 149 Ceuaș ​142 chamber orchestra ​251 chanter(s) (bagpipes) ​33 – 34, 58 – 59, 71 – 73, 76 – 83, 86, 88, 90 choral singing ​271 chordophone(s) ​157, 164 – 166, 168, 173 Christian ​138, 144 Christmas novena(s) ​ 81, 86 ciągły ​ 158 Ciancia, Pasquale ​72, 80, 85 – 87 Ciocloda, Iosif ​291 city church bells ​272 City Government of Vienna ​16 clarinet(s) / ​clarinetto ​17, 43 – 44, 97, 113, 123, 134 – 136, 138, 157, 164 – 166, 168, 173, 187, 189 – 190, 192, 221 – 222, 230, 233 – 235, 239 – 240, 242, 249 – 251, 254, 261 – 263, 265, 269, 272, 274, 277 – 278, 280, 291, 294

clarinet player(s)  / ​clarinettist(s) ​134, 157, 159, 168, 173, 239 classical guitar ​138 Clayton, Martin ​144 Clement of Alexandria ​166 Columbia Records48, 288 communitas ​37 concert master(s) ​24 concert harp ​216 concertina ​275 Contra (dance) ​249, 258 – 259 contrabass(es) ​240, 242, 271, 275, 293 contra guitar ​17 contra-chanter bagpipe(s) ​13, 59 contra chanter  / ​contra-chanter pipe ​33, 37 – 38, 42, 47, 61 – 62 cornet(s) ​97, 123, 136, 269, 271 – 272, 277 – 279, 282 Count Tyzenhaus ​273 Count Zabiela ​273 couple dance ​215 Crisantemo Waltz / ​Chrysanthemen-Walzer ​ 239 Croatia(n) / ​Croats ​17, 57 – 59, 61, 64 – 66, 295, 297, 298 cymbal(s) ​134, 136 – 138, 190, 235 cytary ​ 272 Cząstka-Kłapyta, Justyna ​183 Czech ​250 – 251, 255, 258 – 260, 262, 264, 298 Czech Lands ​249, 252 Czech Polka ​255 Czech Radio ​298 Czech Republic ​ 252 – 253 Czechoslovakia (former) ​25 D Dahlig, Piotr ​14, 15, 120, 157, 295 Dancehouse Movement ​65 danț / ​danțuri ​140, 149 Danube ​60 Dapšauskas, Jonas ​277

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Index

Darmstadt circle ​144 Daugėliškis ​289 Davainis–Silvestraitis, Mečislovas ​272 – 273 de jucat ​140 De Martino, Ernesto ​72 de țîpurit ​140 – 141 Delaney, Mike ​17 Department for Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology (IVE ) ​9, 29 Der harte Kern ​241 Derschmidt, Hermann ​15 Dervar, Franjo ​17 deseterac ​63 desynchronized melodic versions ​153 Deszk ​62 Deutsche(n) ​249, 256, 258 Deutscher Tanz ​217 – 218 Dević, Dragoslav ​32 diatonic accordion ​23, 73, 217, 227, 240, 273, 275, 293 Didieji Žemaičių Kalvarijos atlaidai ​280 Die Augeiger ​242 Die Egerländer Musikanten ​233 Die Eisenkeller Musig ​241 – 242 Die fidelen Inntaler ​213, 233 – 234, 240, 294 Die lustigen Inntaler / ​Die fünf lustigen Inntaler ​ 233 Die Hoameligen ​241 Die lustig’n Kitzbühler ​240 Die Oberländer Gitarrenmusi ​242 Die Original Oberkrainer ​240 Die Tanzgeiger ​15 – 16, 24 Die Tiroler Kirchtagmusig ​213, 235, 238 Die Zillertaler Geiger ​224 – 225 Dieveniškės rural district ​105 dirge(s) ​141 disordered polyphony, polyphonies ​135, 136, 139 – 141, 143 – 144, 151 – 152 disordered polyphonic rendition ​14 Djakovo ​64 Djordjević, Vladimir ​32 do skoku ​170

dobaș ​ 137 Dobropole ​105 doine ​136, 139, 291 Dolovo ​287 Domagała, Franciszek ​173 double bass ​12, 17, 138, 147, 189, 249, 254, 262, 264, 292 double-chanter ​73 double flute(s) ​11 – 12, 33 double reed pipe(s) ​11, 17 Douglas, Norman ​74 – 75 Draschar, F. 260 Drava (river) ​57, 59 – 60, 63, 65 Drava (region) ​62 Draxler, Dorothea ​213 Draž ​65 drone(s) ​12, 14, 29, 34, 37 – 38, 42, 46 – 47, 49, 62, 71, 73, 88, 95 – 100, 103, 105 – 109, 111, 113, 115 – 116, 119 – 121, 123 – 126, 165, 167, 170, 191, 216, 289, 296 drone fiddling ​95 – 96, 97 – 100, 103, 105, 111, 113, 116, 125 drone instruments ​97 drone pipe(s) ​11, 33 – 34, 38, 42, 73, 76 – 79, 82 drone string(s) ​11, 62 drum instruments ​165 drum(s) ​12, 73, 96, 102, 107, 113, 123, 134, 136 – 138, 157 – 158, 162, 164 – 165, 187 – 190, 194, 215, 222, 234 – 235, 270 – 273, 275, 277 – 278, 291, 292, 294 drummer(s) ​157 – 158, 164 – 165, 272 Druskininkai ​106, 110, 289, 290 dryg ​158 duch ​ 158 dude ​57 – 61, 65 – 66 dudy żywieckie ​169, 171 Duke Bogdan Ogiński ​273 Duke Michał Ogiński ​273 dulcians ​272 dulcimer (hammered) ​12, 14, 17, 96, 113, 157, 162, 164 – 165, 168, 187, 213,

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215 – 216, 219 – 221, 227, 235, 238 – 242, 261, 263 dvojnica ​ 33 Dysna ​119 – 121 Dzikevičius, Juozas ​103 – 104 Dzūkija / ​Dzūkian ​95 – 97, 103, 106, 107, 116, 124 – 126 E Early civilizations of Mesopotamia ​11 East Tyrolean (hammered) dulcimer ​ 215 – 216, 239, 241 eastern Europe(an) ​10, 13, 25, 73, 144, 157, 184, 209 eastern European bagpipes ​29, 120 Eberharter, Erich ​225 Eberharter, Josef ​226 “Echoes from the Graves” ​278 Eder, Johannes ​17 Egosse (Egoso, Egosa, Egosä) ​255, 258 Ehrenstrasser, Josef ​235 Ehrenstrasser, Otto ​235 Eibner, Franz ​15 Eisenstadt ​23 Elschek, Oskár ​30 Enescu, George ​141 Englese ​ 249, 258, 259 English ​10, 14, 33, 184, 226, 296 ensemble music ​50, 57, 61, 123, 179 – 180, 192, 195, 271, 292 ensemble traditions ​11, 14, 17 e-piano ​187 Epirus ​138 Estonian ​121 ethnic minorities ​14 Ethnography and Folklore Institute (Bucharest) ​297 etno-muzykologia ​162 euphonium(s) ​136, 230, 281 Europe / ​European ​9 – 12, 15, 17, 23, 25, 33, 44, 73, 97, 120, 150, 157, 164, 213, 215, 249 – 250, 258, 266, 296, 297

European folk music ​12 European Voices IV  ​10, 11, 16, 17, 23, 157 European Voices series ​15 European Voices symposia  / ​activities ​10, 16, 17 F Faculty of Arts, Charles University ​249 Familienmusik Arzberger ​242 Fargo ​226 Farneta di Castroregio ​75, 82 – 83 Feast of Corpus Christi ​271 Federspiel ​16 Fedun, Iryna ​183 Fehirov, Sava ​36 Feld, Steven ​42, 151 Feller, Anderl ​240 Feller, Josef (senior) ​240 Feller, Josef (son) ​240 fiddle(s) ​11, 15, 62, 95 – 98, 100, 105 – 107, 109 – 111, 113 – 114, 116 – 117, 119 – 121, 123 – 126, 157, 162, 164 – 166, 168 – 169, 171, 173, 213, 216, 218 – 224, 227 – 228, 230, 238 – 239, 241, 272 – 273, 275 – 276, 290, 296 fiddle-bagpipe ensemble ​119 – 120 fiddle-based ensemble style ​12 fiddle bridge ​100 fiddle ensembles ​230 fiddler(s) / ​fiddle players ​12 – 15, 62, 97 – 100, 103, 105, 107, 109 – 111, 113 – 114, 116, 119, 121, 123 – 126, 157, 159, 162 – 165, 167 – 171, 173, 175 – 176, 219, 223 – 224, 227 – 228, 230, 295 fiddling ​14 – 15, 95 – 100, 102 – 103, 105 – 107, 110 – 111, 113, 116, 119, 121, 123, 125, 296 fidel płocki ​164 fifes ​222 filling [füllend] 12 flety ​ 272 floiera(s) ​186 – 187

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Index

flugelhorn(s) ​230, 233 – 235, 238, 240, 242, 294 flugelhornist ​233 fluierka ​181, 186 flute(s) ​136, 164, 181, 194, 222, 238, 249, 254, 261 – 262, 264, 271 – 272 folk accordion / ​folk accordionist ​121, 157, 163 – 164 folk fiddlers ​12, 98 – 99, 115 – 116, 123, 125 folk music (making / ​practice(s) / ​scene / ​traditions) ​15 – 16, 30, 43, 50, 72, 74 – 75, 96, 119 – 120, 144, 213 – 217, 221, 223 – 224, 227, 230, 234 – 235, 240 – 242, 252, 261, 262, 297 – 298 folk musician(s) ​15, 51, 115, 123, 144, 146, 158, 165, 167, 238, 240 folk music ensembles ​133, 217 folk (music) instrument(s) ​30, 33, 49, 120, 215, 295, 240, 279, 296 – 298 folk violin ​120, 121 Foxtrots ​277 frame drum ​12, 73 France ​9, 73, 134 Francuski, Mirko ​40, 42 Frazione Calvario ​288 Frazione Casa del Conte ​289 free rhythm / ​free rhythmic ​14, 133 – 134, 137, 139, 140, 143 – 145, 147, 153 French horn(s) ​221, 231, 233, 252, 269, 271 – 273, 281 – 282 Frigyesi, Judit ​144 – 145 frunt ​ 189, 209 functional harmony ​97 “Funeral Orchestra” ​283 Furiant ​249, 258 – 260 G Gadányi, Pavo ​64 gaida / ​gajde  / ​gadlje ​33 – 34, 37 – 41, 57 – 61, 66, 287 gajdaš ​ 287 – 288 gajde makers ​66

gajde players ​61 Galić, Đuka ​62 Galicia / ​Galician ​14, 165, 167, 180, 182 Galician Hutsul region ​189 Galician Hutsuls ​191 Garaj, Bernard ​15, 23, 37, 295 Gardinas  / ​Grodno district ​106 Gasser, Fritz ​293 Gauderfest ​ 224 Gečas, Juozas ​290 Geiger der Berge ​230 German / ​Germany ​32, 97, 162, 215, 222, 227, 258, 297 German bandoneon ​275 German Reich ​227, 230, 239, 251, 255 German-speaking Alpine regions ​216 German-speaking populations ​250 Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien ​218 Gippius, Evgenii ​192 Gisperg (winery) ​17 giusto (rhythm) ​140, 145 Glatt&Verkehrt festival ​24 Goinger Weisenbläser ​241 Gołębiowski, Lukasz ​182 Golemović, Dimitrije ​32, 40, 42, 288 Gonzaga, Aloiz ​272 Gorainiai ​275, 277 Gorals ​14 gordony ​189 Göttweig Abbey ​24 gracz ​162 gracze ​166 Great Duchy of Lithuania ​269 Great Hungarian Plain (Délalföld) ​60 Great Poland ​173 – 174 Great Samogitian Calvary Feast ​280 – 281 Greek ​11, 138 Greek Orthodox (Ukrainian) community ​ 175 – 176 Green, Nick ​137 Gregorič, Sara ​17 Greń, Jan ​169

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Index

Grša ​61 Grūstė ​282 Grybauliai ​110 Grymaliuk-Mogur, Vassyl ​191, 192, 194 Gstrein, Rainer ​221 Gučas, Rimantas ​289, 290 Gudėna Polka ​289 Gudėnas, Juozas ​100 – 101 gudok ​164 guitar(s) ​17, 123, 138, 187, 190, 217, 235, 238, 242, 275 guitar-zangora ​292 guitar player ​137 Guizzi, Febo ​72 – 73, 75 gusle ​50 Gwabl ​216 Gwabl tuning ​216 Gypsies ​142 Gypsy heritage ​165 H Haborak, Piotr ​186 Habsburg Monarchy ​252 Hackbrett(e) ​ 213, 220 Hackl, Stefan ​217 Hacquet, Belsazar/Balthasar ​182 Hadzikan, Slobodan ​65 Hagel, Stefan ​17 Haid, Gerlinde ​213 – 214, 217, 227 Hajo, Tumbas Pero ​64 Hall in Tyrol ​227, 293, 294 Haller, Leonhard ​293, 294 handle-lute ​11 Hannah, Liebhart ​17 Harasymczuk, Roman-Włodzimierz ​180, 187 Hardanger fiddle ​17 Harfa ​ 272 harmonica, 187 Harmoniemusik ​221 – 222 harmonika-helikоnkа ​ 189 harmony ​48, 152, 262, 263

harp(s) ​227, 233 – 235, 238, 240, 261, 272, 294 harpist ​216, 235 harpsichords ​272 Hart ​223, 225, 226 Härtel, Hermann ​17 Hartl, František ​260 Hartl, Jiří (Josef / ​Georgius Benedikt) ​ 249 – 266 Hartl, Josef ​260 Hartl, Karel ​252, 254 Haufler, Gwendolin ​17 Heanzenquartett ​15 helicon ​134, 231, 269 Hemetek, Ursula ​16 Hercegszántó ​62 Herculane ​136 Herder, Johann Gottfried ​214 heterophony ​95, 97, 116, 119, 120, 126, 135, 140 – 141, 144, 149 – 151, 153, 157 – 159, 162 – 164, 166 – 169, 171, 176 Hillebrand, Michael ​227 Hindu ​144 Hochzeitsmusik ​ 216, 224 Hohner accordion ​125 holosnytsia ​ 191 Holowacký, Jakob Jaroslaw ​182 homophonic accompaniment ​153 Horak, Karl ​223 – 224 horea miresei ​138 Hornbostel, Erich von ​149, 181 horn(s) ​58, 96, 185 – 186, 221 Horváth, Zsombor ​13, 17, 57, 295 Hoteni ​137, 151, 292 Hötting ​222 Hradec Králové ​251 Hulán ​258, 259 Hunedoara ​147, 292 Hungary / ​Hungarian ​14, 17, 59 – 61, 64 – 66, 142, 252, 255, 263, 295, 297 – 298 Hungarian bagpipes ​51 hurdy-gurdy ​12, 17, 240

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Husa ​258, 259 Husari, Poantă ​147, 292 Hutsul(s) ​14, 179 – 187, 189 – 196, 209, 292, 296 hutsulky ​ 193 – 194, 196, 209 I i suoni ​77 Iaremko, Bohdan ​180, 183 Iași ​291 Iberian Peninsula ​73 Ignalina ​99, 113, 119, 123, 289 Ignotas Oginskis / ​Ignacy Ogiński ​281 Ilijašev, Stipa ​61 Innsbruck ​217, 222, 233, 241, 293, 294, 297 Inntaler instrumentation (style) ​233 – 235 Institute of Ethnology, Czech Academy of Sciences (Etnologický ústav Akademie věd České republiky) ​250, 266 Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts ​29, 287, 296 Institut für Volkskultur und Kulturentwicklung (ivk), Innsbruck, Austria ​293 Institute of Musicology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences ​295 instrumental music ​11, 15, 17, 23, 29 – 32, 42, 50, 52, 71, 97 – 98, 157 – 158, 168, 179 – 180, 182 – 184, 190, 193, 214, 287, 296, 297 instruments (musical) ​9 – 16, 30, 32 – 35, 44, 46, 50 – 51, 62, 64 – 66, 71 – 73, 75 – 79, 81 – 82, 88 – 90, 95, 97, 116, 119 – 121, 123, 125, 134 – 136, 138 – 139, 141, 143, 145, 152, 157 – 158, 161 – 168, 170, 180, 182 – 183, 185 – 187, 189 – 192, 194 – 196, 209, 215 – 216, 221, 227 – 228, 230, 249, 251 – 252, 255, 258, 263, 269 – 273, 277, 279 – 280, 282, 296, 298 Ionian Sea ​73 Iordan, Florin ​140 Irkutsk region ​113

Islamic ​144 Istituto Italiano di Cultura in Vienna ​16 Istria ​66 Italian (dance) ​258, 259 Italy / ​Italian ​9, 11, 13, 17, 71 – 79, 134, 138, 142, 213, 227, 231, 239, 251, 261, 288 – 289, 293 – 294, 297 Italian bagpipe(s) ​71, 79 Iucu, Ilie Chera ​291 Ivano-Frankivs’ka Oblast’ / ​Ivano-Frankivska Oblast ​194, 293 Ivja rural district ​105 jam session ​192 Janata of Jilemnice, František ​251, 260 Janicka-Krzywda, Urszula ​182 Jankó, János ​60 Janković, Danica ​49 Janković, Ljubica ​49 Jankovics, Imre ​64 Janusz Prusinowski Kompania ​17 Jasinskas, Kazys ​274 Javanese pathetan ​ 144 jaw harp ​17, 220 jazz ​192 Jevremov, Cvetko ​62 Jewish ​14, 144, 297 Jewish klezmorim ​12, 14 Jewish fiddle-dulcimer ensembles ​14 Jews ​12, 14, 163 Jičín ​250, 261 Jovanović, Lazo ​62 Jovanović, Stojan ​287 Jovanović, Svetozar ​43 Jovanović, Živka ​43 Jumbola Record ​44 K kadrilis ​ 109, 290 Kaindl, Raimund ​182 Kalamajka ​ 258 – 259 Kalnai (hymns) ​ 280 – 281 Kaluli people ​142, 151

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Index

Kamieński, Łucjan ​162 Kaniava ​103 kapela(s) ​ 163, 166, 187, 189 Kar, Hannes ​294 Karadžić, Vuk ​50 Kardony ​187, 189 karramunxa / ​karramunxja ​77, 79 Kelmė ​272 Kešić, Luka ​65 kettledrums ​269 – 270, 272, 281 Khai, Mykhailo ​180 Kikinda ​34, 40, 42, 287 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ​61 Kingdom of Yugoslavia ​51, 61 Kirchler, Michael ​293 Kirchtagmusig ​235 Kirda, Arvydas ​125, 290, 291 Kirdienė (Siaurukaitė), Gaila ​14, 95, 103, 105 – 106, 108 – 110, 112, 117 – 118, 123, 125, 289 – 291, 296 Kithara ​17 Kitzbühel ​238, 240 Kitzbühler Feischtagmusig ​242 Klaipėda ​281 – 282 Klawicymbale ​ 272 klezmer (heritage  / ​practice) ​165, 167 klezmer musicians ​166 knee-chordophones ​164 Kocin, Miloš ​61 Kögeltanz ​249, 257 – 259 Kökény ​61 kola ​ 46 kolanka ​ 159 kolano ​ 159 – 160 Kolberg, Oskar ​182 Koledzy ​ 166 Kolessa, Filaret ​183, 186 Koliada ​ 186 – 187, 209 koliadky ​ 186 koliady ​ 186, 209 kolino(s) ​193, 195, 209 kolomyika ​193

Koning, Jos ​13 konstantinka ​275 kontra ​ 12, 13 Koprivnica ​60 Kordony ​209 Korea ​144 Kornety ​ 272 Koschelu, Rudolf ​17 Kosiv region ​186, 188, 193 Kosmach ​188 Kostner, Peter ​215 kotły ​ 270 Kovács, Marci ​61 kozachkovy rhythm ​193 kozachky ​ 193 – 194, 209 Kozić, Milan ​62 – 63 kozioł ​ 173 – 174 koźlarz ​ 174 Krasauskas, Feliksas ​119, 269, 272 Kražiai ​269, 272 Krems ​24 Kretinga ​274 Krkonoše Mountains ​250, 255 Kruhliak ​ 186 krupne gajde ​42 Krušna, Juozas ​116 Kugelete / ​Kugelate ​ 214 Kuhač, Franjo ​32 Kulisch, Stefan ​228 , 293 Kunstmusik ​214 Kupczak, Józef ​169 Kureliuk (Gavetz), Ivan ​187 Kuršėnai ​272 kuty ​ 182 Kuželka ​ 258, 259 Kvifte, Tellef ​13 Kvitka, Klyment ​162 Kyburg, Conrad ​270 Kyiv ​183

308 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

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L La Vena, Vincenzo ​83 Labenskas, Antanas ​111 – 112, 125, 290 Labūnava ​273 ład ​158 Ladin-speaking individuals ​227 Lajić Mihajlović, Danka ​13, 29, 287 – 288, 296 Lake Mastis ​276 Łakomy, Edward ​174 Landesdirektion Deutsche und ladinische Musikschule, Referat Volksmusik, Bozen ​ 228, 231 Landler ​214 – 215, 231, 255 Ländler ​214, 234, 239 – 240, 249, 256 – 259, 261 – 266 Lanza, Leonardo Antonio ​78, 86 – 87, 289 Lanziner, Josef ​233, 294 Lăpușnicu Mare ​136 – 138, 140, 144, 150 – 151, 291 launeddas ​72, 73, 90 Lazdijai ​11, 125, 290 leaflet with a szlagier ​ 163 Lech River ​222 lehin ​ 181 Lekėčiai rural district ​276 Lemky ​181 Lengstein ​231 Leoninus ​164 Lewald, August ​223 Leydi, Roberto ​72 – 73, 75 Lienz Basin ​216 ligavas ​186 ligawka ​ 160 – 162, 295 Lipinski, Karol ​182 Litanie a modlitby ​254 Lithuania Minor ​275 Lithuania  / ​Lithuanian ​11, 14, 95  –  101, 103, 105 – 106, 110 – 111, 113, 115 – 116, 119 – 121, 124 – 125, 269 – 276, 280 – 283, 289 – 290, 296, 298

Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre ​ 111, 296 Litui ​272 LMD I [Lietuvių mokslo draugijos tautosakos rinkiniai, I-asis fondas / ​Lithuanian Science Society. First fund of the manuscript collection] 273, 285 Lomax, Alan ​72, 147, 292 Lommel, Arle ​59 long-necked lutes ​11 Lortat-Jacob, Bernard ​149, 297 Lower Austria ​24 LTRF [Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių tautosakos rankraštyno fonoteka / ​Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Sound collection.] 129, 276, 278 – 282, 285 LTRV [Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos instituto Lietuvių tautosakos rankraštyno videoteka / ​Lithuanian Folklore Archives of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Video Collection] 278, 282 – 283, 285 Lubaczów ​175 Ludkiewicz, Stanislaw ​183 lula ​ 33 lutes ​272 lutnie ​ 272 Lutsk ​270 Lužany ​250, 253 Lviv ​183, 188 lyres ​11 M Macedonia ​66 Macijewska-Schmidt, Victoria / ​Matsievskaia, Viktoria ​12, 14, 179 – 180, 188, 194, 208, 292, 296 Macijewski, Ihor’ / ​Matsievskii, Igor’ 50, 179 – 181, 183 – 185, 188, 192, 194, 196, 208 – 209, 294

309 Open-Access-Publikation im Sinne der CC-Lizenz BY-NC 4.0

Index

Madonna del Pollino festival ​74 – 75 Maksimović, Rada ​30, 43, 287, 288 Malo banatsko kolo ​42 Malūnėlis ​ 102 – 103, 289 mandolins ​275 mandonlin orchestra ​239 Maramureș / ​Maramures / ​Maramarosh ​24, 133, 137, 144, 181, 292 March(es) tune(s) ​102, 103, 105, 115, 119, 123, 136, 165, 215, 222, 224, 234, 239 – 240, 255, 277 – 278 Marcinkonys rural district ​110 Margreiter, Christian ​235 Margreiter, Sepp ​235 Marsch ​215, 249, 256 – 261 MARTHA villages ​217 Masolka ​ 215 Masseschger ​215 Massiner ​ 215 Master of Folk Art award ​64 Masulka ​ 215 Matica Iseljenika ​65 Mátl, J. 260 Matrei ​216, 238, 239 Matrei style ​ 239 Matrei tuning ​216 Mayrlechner, Daniela ​17 mazanki ​164, 173 Mažeikiai ​279, 281 – 282 Mazur ​215 Mazurka ​215, 231, 239 medieval minstrels ​12 Medina ​62, 63 Mediterranean ​9, 65, 72 Melish, Liz ​137 Menuetto ​249, 256, 258, 259 Merriam, Alan ​158 Mesarović, Pavo ​65 metrical pattern ​146 – 147, 149 MFA K(L)F , MFA A [Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos Etnomuzikologijos skyriaus Garso įrašų archyvas / ​Sound Recordings

Archive of the Department of Ethnomusicology, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Vilnius] 103, 129, 291 Michele-Musig ​ 227 – 230, 293 – 294 Mida — Ješić duo ​62 Middle East ​144 mieć melodię ​158 Mierczyński, Stanisław ​180, 183 Mijatović, Joca ​48, 288 Mikalojus Radvila / ​Mikołaj Radziwiłł ​270 Milan ​17, 297 Mile/Miloš from Bolman ​61 military instruments ​270 military orchestras ​282 miotlarz ​ 172 – 173 Misiūnas, Kazys ​115 Mitterhögl Hausmusik ​238, 240 mjesnica ​ 58 Mogur, Vassyl ​194 Mogyliv-Podil’ski ​188 Mohács ​62, 64 Mokrin ​34 Moldavia / ​Moldova, province of Romania ​ 133 – 134, 136, 291 Moldova, Republic of ​134 Momačko kolo ​48, 288 Mongolia ​144 monophonic  / ​monophonically ​11, 30  –  31, 98, 113, 116, 121, 125, 151, 157, 168 Moravia(n) ​59, 250, 252, 263 Morgenstern, Ulrich ​9 – 10, 13, 29, 97, 121, 179, 296 Moscow ​235 Moser, Peter ​213, 235, 238, 240 Mount Pollino ​13, 71, 288 mouth-blown instruments ​61 mouth harmonica ​65 Movikon ​228 Mozart ​252 Mudrinić, Maksim ​65 Mühlau ​217 Mulerskas, Petras ​116 – 117, 290

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Index

Mulerskienė-Radzvilavičiūtė, Marijona ​290 multipart instrument(s) ​29, 30, 32, 46, 52, 57, 59 multipart music ​9 – 12, 14, 17, 23, 31, 71, 96, 98, 124, 126, 133, 162, 171, 174, 191, 209, 213, 291 multipart singing ​9 multipart structure(s) ​133, 135, 140, 143, 149 – 153, 159 multipart texture(s) ​10 – 12, 14 – 15, 46, 49, 95, 119, 126, 164 multipart techniques ​17 Muńko, Franciszek ​173 Muntenia ​141 music for dancing ​11, 15, 88 music for listening ​190, 193, 209 musica alpine ​214 musical integrity ​157 musical texture(s) ​29, 31, 46, 49, 164 Musikantenstammtische ​16 Musteikis, Vytautas ​112 muzyka ​ 159, 164, 166 muzyky ​ 187 na bon (Carnival melody) ​169, 170 N Nachschlag ​227 Napoleonic Wars ​252 Năsturică, Vasile ​147, 292 National University of Music (Bucharest) ​ 297 natural trumpets ​222 Nauderer Schupfamusik ​242 Neapolitan ​79 Nedokhodiuky ​ 194 – 196, 209 Nepoții Iancului (ensemble) ​17 Nešić, Marko ​63 Nettl, Bruno ​149 Neumüller, Wolfgang ​232 New Year’s singing ​227 Niculescu, Ștefan ​141, 150 – 151 Nimigea ​142

noise, (ritual) ​37 Noll, William ​13 non-troista ​ 182, 186, 209 North Dakota ​226 North Tyrol ​213, 216, 234 Northwest European lyres ​11 Nußbaumer, Thomas ​14, 213, 293, 297 O Oaș ​140, 142, 149 Oberbozen ​231 Oberosler, Peter ​179, 194, 208, 237 oboes ​64, 221, 270, 271 oboje ​ 270 ocarina ​238 Oginskiai / ​Ogińscy ​ 270 Ognjanov, Čeda ​287 oktawka ​ 164 one-sided drum ​165 open-string drone(s) ​95, 107, 123, 125 – 126, 191 Optanten ​ 277 orchestra(s) ​33, 99, 157, 162, 165 – 166, 220, 269, 270 – 272, 274 – 278 organ ​249 – 251, 271 – 272 organetto ​ 73, 75, 78 oseredok ​ 182 Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Institut für Kulturgeschichte der Antike (Austrian Academy of Sciences, Institute for the Study of Ancient Culture) ​ 17 Osttiroler Hackbrett ​215, 216 Ottoman Empire ​58 Ottoman rule ​57 owczarska ​ 171 P Pakalniškis, Aleksandras ​273 Pál, István ​64 Pančevac, Milan Gočev ​288 Pančevcev bečarac ​288 Pančevo ​287

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Index

Pannonia / ​Pannonian region(s) ​13, 23, 57, 66 Panțiru family band ​134 Panțiru, Costică ​135, 291 Paplavski, Pole Edward ​105, 106 Papua New Guinea ​151 parlando rubato (rhythm) ​134 – 136, 143, 145 – 146 Pärnumaa ​121 Pašiaušė ​269, 272 Pašilė ​279 Passeggera ​ 86 – 87, 89 – 90 Passeier ​228, 293 – 294 Passeier Valley ​213, 223, 227 – 230, 239, 293 – 294 pastorale ​ 75, 288 patefon (early records) ​163 Paulus, Albin ​17 Pavasaris ​277 Pavliv, Iarema ​183 peasant music ensembles ​12 Peasant Museum (Bucharest) ​297 pecorara ​ 74 – 75 Pécs ​17 pedal harp ​215 Pedarnig, Bernhard ​235 Pedarnig, Florian ​235 Pedarnig, Stefan ​229 Pejakov, Acko ​34 percussion (instrument(s)) ​166, 233 – 235, 254, 269 – 270 percussionist ​137 percussion instruments ​233, 254, 269 – 270 Perotinus ​164 peterburgska armonika ​99, 115 Petrošius family orchestra ​277 Petrošius, Ipolitas ​277 Petrošius, Juozas ​275 Petrović, Radmila ​287 Pewel Wielka ​171 Pfitscher, Ignaz ​293, 294

Phonogrammarchiv of the Austrian Academy of Sciences ​17 physical/kinetic multipart activity ​157 piano accordion ​110 piano accordionist ​123 piccolo ​226, 261 Pichler, Alois ​227, 293, 294 Pichler, Josef ​293, 294 Pietsch, Georg ​17 Pietsch, Rudolf (Rudi) ​13, 15 – 17, 23 – 25, 224, 229 Pilėnai Duke Margis (regiment) ​275 Pisilli, Andrea ​82 – 83 piston trombone ​136 Plateliai ​273 Plato’s lyre ​166 playing from the head or from a hat ​163 Plies ​ 186, 209 “pluck insects” (play from notes) ​163 Plungė ​273 Pluta, Władysław ​171 podgołoski ​170 Podlasie region ​160 – 161 Podolie ​188 Pohod bušara ​64 Poland ​17, 157 – 162, 164 – 165, 295 Polish ​13, 162, 165, 166, 179, 182, 215 Polish-Carpathian highlanders ​14 Polka tremblente ​227 Polka(s) ​15, 100 – 102, 104, 107, 109, 113 – 114, 116, 119, 121, 125, 215, 231, 234, 239, 240, 255 Polkaitė ​107 – 109, 289 Pollino ​73 – 75, 77 – 79 Pollino National Park ​73 polna ​171 Polnischer Bock ​173 Polnisches Institut Wien ​16 Polonyna / ​Polonynas ​181 – 182 Polonynka ​ 181 polyphonic / ​polyphonized ​10, 31, 143, 144, 167, 214

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Index

polyphony / ​polyphonies ​10, 73, 139, 143, 149 – 151, 157, 159 – 162, 164, 166, 168, 176 “polyphony-heterophony” ​136, 141, 151, 153 pomorty ​ 272 Ponitran ​ 25 Pop, Ioan ​137, 292 Popularmusik ​ 214 portable regals ​272 Posch, Franz ​233 – 235, 237, 294 Potenza ​76 – 77, 79 powtór ​ 159 – 160 Poznań ​162 Poznań University ​162 Prague ​249, 251 – 253, 255 – 257, 260, 262 – 265, 298 Prague Conservatory ​298 prdak / ​prdaljka  / ​tulajka ​34 Preßnitz ​230 prima ​ 99 primaș ​ 141 proto-stereophony ​162 Prylypchian, Kirylo ​180 Prylypcian, Spiridon ​180 prysilky / ​prysilkys ​ 181, 182 przyśpiewka ​158 Pseirer Schrammel ​230 pub sessions ​12, 16 Puster Valley ​230 puzany ​ 172 Q Quadrille(s) ​109, 225 Quellmalz, Alfred ​213, 216, 227 – 231, 233, 293 – 294 Quigley, Colin ​13 R Rabikauskas, Paulius ​272 Radimský, Josef (?) ​260 Radio Novi Sad ​36

Radio Wien ​224 Rădulescu, Speranța ​14, 133, 149, 291 – 292, 297 Radviliškis ​278 Radvilos / ​Radziwiłłowie ​ 270 Radziškė, Naujoji ​124 Raffele ​ 17, 215 – 216 ragai ​96 Ragažinskas, Jonas ​124 Raseiniai ​273, 278, 283 Rauch, Thomas ​293 Ravag ​224 reed instruments ​73 regał ​ 272 Reiser, Tobi ​216, 238 Reitmeir, Peter ​216, 235 Research Centre for European Multipart Music (EMM ) ​9 rhythm instruments ​75 Rietavas ​273, 280 Ritten ​217 – 218, 231 ritual singing ​186 Rivne ​183 Rokiškis ​273 Roma ​12, 14, 61, 134 – 142, 297 Roma ensembles ​12 Romani song ​147 – 148, 292 Romania / ​Romanian ​14, 17, 24, 31, 42, 133 – 134, 136 – 138, 141 – 144, 146, 149 – 153, 181, 190, 263, 291 – 292, 297 – 298 Romanian Peasant Museum ​135 Ronström, Owe ​13 Rorate ​160 Roşu, Răzvan ​17 Rožmitál ​251, 255 rubato (melodies) ​35, 46, 145 rubato songs ​37, 139 Rum ​217 Rumänisches Kulturinstitut Wien ​16 Rus, Milan ​62 Rusasca ​ 291

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Index

Ruský ​260 Russia / ​Russian ​13, 43, 51, 121, 179 – 180, 260, 297 Russian Institute of Art History ​296 Rzeszowskie ​168 S S. Costantino Albanese ​72, 75 – 77, 79, 85, 87 S. Paolo Albanese ​75, 89 Saban, Larissa ​183 Saint Stanislov Kostka ​272 Šakiai district ​276 Salamone, Carmine ​75, 89 – 90, 288 Salantai ​277 Šalčininkai district ​105 Salmen, Walter ​12 Salzburg ​234, 238, 297 Salzburger Hackbrett ​216 Sambucus ​66 samica ​ 17, 62 Samogitia(n) ​269 – 270, 272 – 273, 275, 277 – 283 Samogitian Calvary ​280 – 281 Samogitian Calvary Hills ​280 Sapiegos / ​Sapiehowie ​ 270 Sardinia ​11, 72, 90 Sarmento Valley ​80 Sartori, Giacomo ​239 Sassu, Pietro ​75, 288, 289 Satu Mare ​17 Šaukėnai rural district ​276 Sava (river) ​58 – 59, 61, 65 saxophone(s) ​163, 165, 187, 234, 279 sa-yƹlab ​ 151 Scaldaferri, Nicola ​13, 17, 71, 76 – 77, 79, 83, 85, 89 – 90, 288 – 289, 297 Schiefer, Alois ​293, 294 Schiefer, Martin ​293, 294 Schlern ​230 Schmidt, Else ​16 Schmidt, Michael Peter ​179

Schöser, Johann ​293 Schottisch ​ 225, 249, 255, 258 Schottwien ​24 Schotysch ​ 259, 266 Schrammel guitar ​17 Schwaz ​220 Schwegel fife(s) ​215, 217, 222 Schwegelpfeife ​222 Schwendberger Geigenmusig ​223, 227, 293 Schwendberger Hochzeitsmusik ​224 Scottish (dance) ​255 Seirijočiai ​116 Seitelpfeife ​ 222 sekunda ​99, 124 Senn, Walter ​224 Serb(s) ​32, 57, 60, 65 Serbia / ​Serbian ​13, 29 – 34, 37 – 38, 43 – 44, 47, 49 – 51, 57 – 59, 65, 67, 136, 287, 296, 298 Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts ​29 Serbian bagpipe tradition ​29 Serbian bagpipes ​32 – 33, 42 Šeškauskaitė, Daiva ​100, 289 shawms ​272 shepherd’s aerophones (instrument / ​melody / ​ signals) ​17, 160, 171, 185 Shinto traditions ​144 shtabova muzyka ​190, 209 Šiauliai district ​276 Siberia ​113, 296 Sicily ​72, 73 Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor ​270 Šilalė district ​276 Šileikienė, Irena ​275 Silesia ​169, 171, 250 silver double pipe ​11 Silvestri, Pietro ​83 sine gajde ​42 singing / ​singing tradition(s) ​9, 11, 15, 17, 25, 38, 49, 75, 81, 110, 115 – 116, 119, 158 – 159, 163 – 164, 174, 176, 254 – 255, 270, 278, 280 – 281, 283, 290

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Index

singing in company ​9 Sinkevičius, Dominykas ​106 – 108 Sinkevičius, Edmundas ​107 Sinkevičius, Julijonas ​108 Sinkevičius, Kęstutis ​110 Sinkevičius, Marija ​110 Sinkevičius, Petras ​106, 107, 109, 290 Sinkevičius, Romas ​106, 110 – 111, 289 Širola, Božidar ​32, 59 Sisak ​59 Sivčev, Đoka ​287 skrzypice ​ 272 skudučiai ​96 Skuodas district ​279 Slavonia(n)  / ​Slavonija ​57, 59  –  61, 65 Slavonic languages ​179 – 180 Slavonski Brod ​64 Slobin, Mark ​11 Slovakia(n) ​24 – 25, 59, 66, 263, 295, 298 Slovenia ​240 slur / ​slurred / ​slurring ​103, 109, 196 smakuje ​ 159 small bass ​164, 165 snare drum(s) with cymbal ​134 Soatnmusig ​238 solo(s) ​12 – 14, 61, 81, 95 – 98, 109 – 110, 113, 121, 126, 133, 136, 139, 141, 144, 152, 179, 186, 189 – 192, 194 – 196, 209, 215 – 217, 239, 249, 254, 258, 261 – 265, 289 solo fiddling / ​fiddlers ​14, 107, 227 solo multipart instrumental practices ​12 solo performance(s) ​10, 14 solo playing ​99, 209 solo singer ​49 solo traditions ​11 soloist(s) (practice(s)) ​12, 14, 32, 35, 62, 133 – 135, 139, 152, 189 – 190, 192 – 193, 195, 263 Solomon, Adrian ​133 Sombor ​48, 315 Sonnleithner Collection

Soós, Antal ​64 sopilka ​ 181, 183, 186 – 190, 192, 194 – 196, 209 sopranas ​ 99 soprano flugelhorn(s) ​136, 143 sordellina ​ 79 South Slavic groups ​57 South Tyrol ​213 – 214, 216 – 217, 227, 230 – 231, 233 – 234, 293 – 294 southern Europe ​164, 176 Southeastern Europe ​9, 58, 60 Southern Slavic region ​32 Spasojević, Saša ​29, 287 – 288 Spaudžiai ​276 Spielleut-Truhe ​219 – 220 śpiewana ​171 śpiewanie od bębna ​171 Srbijanac, Svetozar Savić ​44 Srbobran ​62, 287, 288 Srijem ​60 St Anna ​282 St Roch ​282 St Vavřinec Church ​253 St.  Martin ​227 – 228, 293 – 294 St. Petersburg ​13, 119, 296 Stadt Wien Kultur (MA 7) ​ 16 Stará Paka ​249 – 253, 255 Stecyk, Teodor ​175 Steirische (accordion) ​217 Steub, Ludwig ​222 Steyrisch(e) dances ​249, 259, 266 Stickler, Marie-Theres ​17 storuoju balsu ​123 Strazdas, Petras ​99 – 103, 123 – 124, 289 string bass ​213, 216 – 221, 224, 227, 235, 238 – 239, 273, 275, 293 – 294 string ensembles ​241, 275 – 276 string ensembles ​124 string instruments ​12, 166, 216, 238, 261 – 262, 275 string bass ​13 Ströck (bakery) ​17

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Index

Strolz, Johann ​220 Stubenmusik ​235, 238 Study Group on Multipart Music within the International Council for Traditional Music ​10, 34, 295 Study Group on Music and Dance of the Slavic World within the International Council for Traditional Music ​297 Stulginskas, Vaclovas ​278 Sturm, Josef ​254 Styria ​12 Südtiroler Volksmusikkreis ​241 Südtirolsammlung Alfred Quellmalz. Universitätsbibliothek Regensburg ​227, 293 – 294 suka ​164 Suktinis ​107 Sulz, Josef ​241 sunata ​ 81 suniciell ​ 79 supporting [stützend] 12 surdulina ​13, 71 – 72, 75, 78 – 80, 88 – 90 surma ​272 sutartinės ​ 11, 96, 99, 119 – 120 svatovac / ​svatovci ​35 – 36, 46, 63, 287 Švenčionys district ​116, 119 Švihák ​ 258 – 259 Switzerland ​134, 138, 214, 217 symphonic orchestras ​273 synthesizer ​134, 139 Syrmia ​60 – 61 Szabó, Zoltán ​59 szałamaje / ​szałamaja ​272 Szerémség ​60 sztorty / ​sztort ​272 T Tagg, Philip ​31 taksim ​ 144 Tallner Donigen Walzer ​229, 293 Tallner Jörgen Marsch ​229, 293 tambourine ​165 tamburas ​62

tamburello ​73, 75 tamburica ​44 tamburica ensembles ​48 táncház-mozgalom ​ 65 Tanz in der Wirtsstube ​219 – 220 Tanzer, Sepp ​294 Tanzlaube ​220 Tanzmeistergeige ​164 Țara Oașului ​149 taraf ​ 141 tarantella ​ 74 – 75, 289 Tauragė district ​275 Teesdorf ​17 Telšiai ​276, 281 tempus perfectum ​165 tenor ​99, 269, 277, 279 – 280, 282, 288 tenor horn ​230 tenoras ​ 99 tercija ​99 Terranova di Pollino ​75, 86 – 87, 89 – 90, 288 – 289 Teutonic Order ​270 Texas ​23 textural principles ​12 Thaur ​217 Thiel, Helga ​15 Tiroler Bauernharfe (Tyrolean peasant harp) ​ 215 Tiroler Volksharfe ​215 Tiroler Volksliedarchiv ​225 Tiroler Volksmusikverein ​241 Tiroler Wirtshausmusi ​241 Tobi Reiser Quintett ​238 Tolna ​63 tonal-harmonic reference points ​12 Tonalitäts-Funktion ​ 97 tone colour ​31, 97 Tonraum ​97 trąby ​270, 272 Trachtenverein Kitzbühel Landsturmgruppe 1809 ​ 240 Trakai ​116, 290

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Index

Tramplan ​227 Tramplano ​226 Transcarpathia ​181, 187, 189, 191 Transylvania  / ​Transylvanian ​12, 17, 140, 142, 145, 147, 292 trembita(s) ​181, 185 – 186, 209 Trentin salon music ​239 Trento ​239 Trifan, Mihai ​135, 291 Trilupaitienė, Jūratė ​271 Třínožka ​258 – 259 Trlajić, Gligorije ​51 trochaic octosyllable ​146 Troiano, Agostino ​89 troista ensembles ​187, 189, 193, 209 troista muzyka / ​muzyka troista ​12, 165, 179, 185, 187 – 188, 209 trombone(s) ​164, 222, 230 – 231, 233, 235, 239 – 240, 272, 279, 283, 291, 294 Trost, Alois ​238 – 239 Trost, Josef ​239 Troy, Irma-Maria ​17 trumpet(s) ​134 – 136, 143, 164, 181, 187, 189, 192, 221 – 222, 230 – 232, 235, 240, 249, 252, 254, 261 – 262, 265, 269 – 274, 276 – 277, 279 – 283, 291, 294 trumpeter(s) / ​trumpet player ​135, 157, 163, 168, 271 – 272 tuba ​134 – 136, 231, 233, 235 – 236, 269, 279 – 283, 291, 294 Tue ecur ​86 – 87 turavojimas ​ 124 Turkey ​144, 297 Tverečius rural district ​113 two-part singing ​38 two-string instruments ​11 Tyllner, Lubomir ​252 Tyrol / ​Tyrolean ​12, 14 – 15, 213 – 217, 220, 222 – 224, 227, 230, 233, 235, 238, 240 – 242, 293 – 294 Tyrolean Landler ​214

Tyrolean folk harp ​215 – 216, 224, 227, 240, 242, 293 Tyrrhenian Sea ​73 Tyssa Basin ​181 U Über die Gass Giah ​224, 225 Überschlag ​ 217, 233 Ukraine  / ​Ukrainian(s) ​12, 14, 159, 179 – 181, 183, 186, 188 – 189, 194, 293 Ulba, Juozas ​119 Ulozas, Pranas (father) ​113 – 116, 118, 123 Ulozas, Pranas (son) ​113 – 114 Ungarisch / ​Ungerisch (dances) ​149, 259, 266 University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna (MDW ) University of Pécs ​295, 298 University of West Bohemia ​298 Upper Austria ​16 Ur ​11 Urbaitis, Mindaugas ​104 urban settings ​15 Uroš from Čepin ​61 Uruk Period ​11 USA  ​23, 225, 275, 297 Uzhhorod ​183 V Vahylevič, Ivan ​182 Vainutas rural district ​277 Vaitimėnai ​276 Valenta, Antanas ​125 valthornis ​272 Valvano, Quirino ​71, 76 – 77, 79 valve trombone ​233 – 234 Varėna district ​103 vatra ​ 181 Végh, Andor ​13, 17, 57, 59, 298 Veit, Gottfried ​233 Vejvoda, Zdeněk ​14, 249, 251, 253, 256 – 260, 262 – 265, 298 veliko kolo ​40

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Index

velyka muzyka ​187 Verstaminai ​111 vesil’na banda ​187 vesil’ni muzyky ​187 Viečiūnai ​106, 107, 289, 290 Vienna ​16 – 17, 24 – 25, 217, 221, 270 Vilnius ​113, 116, 119, 269 – 272, 296, 298 Vinkovci ​64 Vinnits’ka Oblast’  / ​Vinnitsa region ​188  –  189 viola(s) ​12 – 13, 17, 116, 119, 227, 239, 249, 254, 266, 293 – 294 viola players ​144 violin(s) ​11 – 13, 15 – 17, 44, 120, 135, 138 – 144, 179, 181, 183, 185 – 192, 194 – 197, 217, 227, 249 – 250, 252, 254 – 255, 258, 261 – 264, 266, 271, 275, 292 – 294, 296 violin klezmer ​189 violinists / ​violin player ​13, 15, 25, 137, 141 – 142, 147, 179, 190 – 192, 195 – 196, 224, 252, 263, 296 Virovitica ​59 virovitičko Podravlje ​60 VIZIN Orchestra ​295 vocal music ​11, 38, 179, 186, 240, 297 Vojvodina / ​Vajdaság ​29 – 31, 33 – 34, 43, 50 – 51, 57, 63, 287 – 288 vojvodjanske gajde ​33 Voldemaras, Jonas ​119 Volksmusik ​214 Volksscenen aus dem Zillerthale ​219, 221 Völs am Schlern ​233, 294 Völser Böhmische ​233, 294 Völser Polka ​232 – 233, 294 Vorarlberg ​217 Vrábel, János ​65 (v)ūkas / ​dūkas / ​гук [huk] ​120 – 121 Vukosavljev, Sava ​64 Vyčinas, Evaldas ​104 Vytautas the Great ​112, 270 Vytautas the Great Museum ​275 Vytautas Magnus University ​296

W Wagner, Abigail ​17 Walcher, Maria ​213 Waltz(es) ​15, 102, 108, 116, 215, 225, 231, 234 – 235, 240, 255, 277 Walzer ​215, 258 – 259 Wascher, Simon ​17 waszta / ​waszty ​159 – 160 wdzięk ​ 159 Weindhold, Laurens ​17 Weisen ​222, 240 Weisenbläser ensemble ​240 Weissbacher, Gottlieb ​213, 233 – 235, 237 – 238, 240, 294 wesołuchy ​166 Western art music ​10, 11, 144 Western European ​162, 179 Western harmony ​81 Western notation ​135 Wickler ​ 215 Wielkopolska ​162 Wielkopolska Orkiestra Dudziarska ​162 wierch / ​wierchy ​159 – 160 Wild, Andrea ​17 Wilde Banden ​230 Wilhelm, Kary ​241 wind ensemble ​134, 280 wind instruments ​14, 59, 134, 139, 213, 216, 221, 230, 241, 254 – 255, 261 – 262, 265, 270, 272, 279, 298 wind orchestras ​273 Wiora, Walter ​214 wirus ​ 159 Wolter, Eduard ​119 wooden horn ​160 woodwind bands ​230, 235 woodwind instruments ​222 Wörgl ​233 World War I / ​“Great War” ​43 – 44, 60, 63 World War II  / ​Second World War ​49, 72, 189, 224, 240, 277 Wurm, Hans (Mühlacher) ​223 – 226

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Index

Y Ylakiai ​273, 277, 282 yodelling ​11 Yugoslav / ​Yugoslavia ​33, 50, 60 – 61, 65 Z Zagreb ​64 Zając, Paweł ​182 Zakharieva, Svetlana ​37 Zakrzewko ​174 Zaleski, Waclaw ​182 Zamagora ​180 Zamiłowanie ​158 zampogna / ​zampogne ​72 – 73, 75 – 86, 88 – 90 zampogna a chiave ​13, 71, 74 – 78 zampogna a paro ​78 Zarić, Branislav ​34, 65 Žarskienė, Rūta ​14, 15, 120, 269, 280 – 281, 298 Zbąszyń ​173 Zece Prăjini ​134, 137 – 138, 140, 151, 291 Žemaičių Kalvarija ​280

Žemaičių Kalvarijos kalnai ​280 Zemtsovsky, Izaly ​39 Židikai ​279 Ziemia Lubuska ​173 – 174 Zienberger Landler ​229, 294 Zigeunerstimmung ​217 Zillertal / ​Ziller Valley ​12, 214, 216, 219 – 228, 293 Zillertaler Hochzeitsmarsch ​226 Zillertaler Tramplan ​226 – 227, 293 Zinkevičius, Bronislavas ​105 zither(s) ​17, 166, 215 – 216, 220, 235, 238, 240, 242, 261, 272, 275 Žižmai ​105 złóbcoki ​ 164 Zöchbauer, Sandra ​17 zongoră ​138, 292 zongoraș ​137 zungury ​189 zurnas ​272 Zweitritt ​ 249, 258 Żywiec ​169, 171

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