Place, Spirituality, and Well-Being: A Global and Multidisciplinary Approach (Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach, 7) 3031395816, 9783031395819

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Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach

Victor Counted Haywantee Ramkissoon Laura E. Captari Richard G. Cowden   Editors

Place, Spirituality, and Well-Being A Global and Multidisciplinary Approach

Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach Volume 7

Series Editors Alphia Possamai-Inesedy, School of Social Sciences and Psych University of Western Sydney, Penrith, NSW, Australia Kevin J. Flannelly, Center for Psychosocial Research, Massapequa, NY, USA Editorial Board Amy Ai, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Maureen Benjamins, Sinai Urban Health Institute, Chicago, IL, USA Alex Bierman, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Matt Bradshaw, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA Alexander Broom, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia George Fitchett, Rush University, Chicago, IL, USA Paul Heelas, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, UK Terrence Hill, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA Ellen Idler, Emory University, Druid Hills, USA Harold Koenig, Duke University, Durham, USA Neal Krause, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Jeff Levin, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA Pranee Liamputtong, Latrobe University, Melbourne, Australia Keith Meador, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA Doug Oman, University of California-Berkeley, Oakland, USA Kenneth Pargament, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA Crystal Park, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA Jenny Trinitapoli, Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA

The relationship between religious/spiritual belief or behaviour and health behaviour has been explored over several decades and across various disciplines. Religious variables have consistently been found to have a direct relationship to physical and mental health. At the same time  - research has also indicated potential societal tensions that can exist between religion and health – we have seen this in relation to family planning, HIV/AIDS, and reproduction. This book series uncovers the impact of religion on individual health behaviors and outcomes, as well as the influence of religion on health practices at the community level. It consists of volumes that are based on multi-methodological approaches, provide quantitative and qualitative forms of analysis, and advance the understanding of the intersection between religion and health beyond the correlation of religious belief and health outcomes. Building on earlier research, the series explores the direct relationship between religious variables and physical and mental health, as well as the potential societal tensions that have been shown to exist between religion and health  – for example in relation to family planning, HIV/ AIDS, and reproduction. Spoken values are often shared within religious communities; however, religious influence can at times be extended outside of the community in instances of service provisions such as hospital ownership, various research active think tanks, political action, and the development of community mores.

Victor Counted  •  Haywantee Ramkissoon Laura E. Captari  •  Richard G. Cowden Editors

Place, Spirituality, and Well-Being A Global and Multidisciplinary Approach

Editors Victor Counted College of Health and Behavioral Sciences Regent University Virginia Beach, VA, USA Laura E. Captari The Albert and Jessie Danielsen Institute Boston University Boston, MA, USA

Haywantee Ramkissoon College of Business, Law & Social Sciences, Derby Business School University of Derby Derbyshire, UK Richard G. Cowden Human Flourishing Program Institute of Quantitative Social Science Harvard University Cambridge, MA, USA

ISSN 2627-6011     ISSN 2627-602X (electronic) Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach ISBN 978-3-031-39581-9    ISBN 978-3-031-39582-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39582-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

This book is a testament to our common humanity. Every chapter tells a story of how each of our lives is inextricably bound to the places that we encounter, revealing many important lessons about the centrality of “place” to the past, present, and future of human life. As we reflect on our shared journey of bringing together this book, we celebrate—with heartfelt gratitude to our loved ones for their support along the way—all that we have learned and overcome.

Foreword of Adam B. Cohen

As a psychologist of religion, I have not spent much time reflecting on the importance of place in my research. Perhaps this is because, coming from a Western Jewish background, it is a common religious belief that God is everywhere, all the time. It doesn’t matter where one prays; God can hear you. And in fact, being a descendent of and participant in a religious community that was exiled from our homeland 2000 years ago, it is now part of the Jewish ethos that we have to make do wherever we are, and several Jewish religious traditions were adapted or abrogated because they could not be done in the diaspora. But this marvelous work on religion and place reminds me that, even so, Jews have longed to return to their homeland, for more than 2000 years. And on such deeper reflection, reading this book enlightened me that there are several ways in which place can be critical in religion, spirituality, and well-being. Here are a few thoughts. First, place can be important to understanding people’s religion and spirituality because it is culturally important. How moving it must be for a Jew to be able to pray at the Temple Mount after 2000 years of exile. Millions of Muslims make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Christians surely derive unique meaning from praying at the site of Jesus’ birth or crucifixion, or at the Vatican for Catholics. Places can be incredibly culturally and religiously meaningful. Places can also be “moving” because of more personal connections. A synagogue, mosque, or church does not need to be historically important to be moving, for one’s religion, spirituality, or well-being, if it is the place where one’s grandparents were married, or the cemetery in which one’s honored ancestors are buried. Thus, places can be more personally important, even without explicit cultural significance. Place can be critical even without any particular cultural or personal connection. Two of the most awe-inspiring religious places I have visited are the blue mosque (Sultan Ahmet) in Istanbul, and the Mormon temple in Salt Lake City, Utah. I have no personal, cultural, religious, or spiritual connection to Islam, Mormonism, Istanbul, or Utah. Nonetheless, these are two of the most awe-inspiring buildings I have ever visited. The blue mosque is covered in ancient gorgeous iznik tiles, and the Mormon temple is an architectural marvel, in which you can hear a pin drop vii

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without a microphone because of the exquisitely designed acoustics, in a building that was fashioned without the use of metal nails! Places can be significant because of their awe-inspiring beauty and architecture, and possibly even evoke spiritual feelings for people outside the relevant faith or culture. Last, mundane places can be incredibly, religiously, and spiritually meaningful. The kitchen in one’s home can be a religiously hallowed place, as in Hinduism. It can be a gathering place of the family, and the provision and sharing of food can be culturally, religiously, spiritually, and personally laden with meaning. In a religion that closely monitors what foods are acceptable or not, these place-based meanings can take on additional layers. Probably other places within the home can also be spiritually sanctified, like the marital bedroom. So much of the field of psychology of religion and spirituality has focused on people’s inner thoughts and feelings, without much consideration for where those thoughts and feelings are physically located and coming from. I therefore strongly recommend this volume to everyone interested in the psychology of religion, spirituality, and well-being. It is both timeless and contemporary to include a focus on critical social issues like race tensions and the COVID-19 pandemic. Professor of Psychology Department of Psychology Arizona State University Tempe, AZ, USA

Adam B. Cohen

Foreword of Jennifer Ripley

There is a flashback scene in the Disney movie Ratatouille where the food critic, Anton Ego, is given the dish created by Remy, the rat chef. Suddenly, he is a boy standing at the front door of his childhood home with a skinned knee and a sniffle. He remembers his mother sitting him at the kitchen table, where he took a bite of the famous dish. Anton’s deepest longings are to be in a place where love is freely offered to every skinned knee. The childhood kitchen in his mother’s home was imbued with goodness and beauty. Sacred spaces can carry a similar complex meaning. I can sometimes glimpse a memory of a little church in Orlando that smelled like my grandmother’s Taboo perfume and mildew cleaner. I remember when my feet couldn’t touch the floor, and most things that happened in that place were a mystery to a young child. There are times I can feel the wave of awe in the places where the baptisms, weddings, and funerals of people I love have taken place. There is a sense that the ground is holy, and the spiritual narrative slows down and looks around in these spaces. The spiritual events have taken the place and made them part of a spiritual narrative. Some people call these “thin places,” where the mystical or heavenly spaces meet up with places on earth for a spiritual purpose. How could we not have studied this in depth before? Many variables in spirituality are areas of exploration, with few studies to support scholarly understanding of a spiritual or religious construct. This volume takes the study of place and religion or spirituality to a new level of scholarship. Victor Counted, with the editorial team of Haywantee Ramkissoon, Laura Captari, and Richard Cowden, has developed a book that lights up a dark and unexplored corner of the psychology of religion. Each member of the editorial team is a heavy hitter in research and scholarship, with extensive publications in psychology, religion, and business. The fact that they took time from their other scholarship activities during the COVID-19 pandemic to create and edit this volume is a testament to the importance of the project. The authors of chapters are repeatedly the top people in their area of study, with extensive scholarship experience and creative perspectives on place, spirituality, and well-being.

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The psychology of place captured the editors’ and authors’ attention. I believe it will also capture the attention of the readers. Multidisciplinary scholars who engage in research in religion, spirituality, the architecture of sacred places, the business of tourism, interdisciplinary research in religion, socio-political research in religion and spirituality, and research in social justice are impressive. I expect they will inspire future research on this subject. The collective work of the book demonstrates that religious or spiritual places are integral to healing systems. The book provides descriptive data on the healing potentials of temples in Japan or China, and even virtual spaces demonstrate value. Researchers explored the loss of place through the global pandemic, which prohibited attendance at mosques, churches, temples, and holy pilgrimages. These are some of the first published studies to explore the pandemic with methods ranging from phenomenology to empiricism. The spiritual and religious benefits of spiritual places are demonstrated, along with related psychological and sociocultural benefits. The variety of voices in this text was refreshing. You will feel like you have been at one of the most interesting international conferences of a lifetime, with scholars from Africa, Europe, Asia, America, and Australia. There is a direct conversation about social justice, inclusion, and diversity in religion/spirituality. Starting an area of research with global voices is an important approach to advancing a field of study and is particularly appropriate for the study of place. This text embodies the principles of religious diversity that it espouses in the voices included in the text. I wish all scholarships were as mindful of global voices as this text. As a psychologist, this book inspires me to ponder the importance of place in my patients’ lives. I have witnessed clients who have experienced the desecration of a place after trauma and abuse. Those experiences of trauma have forever marred the place where they occurred. For some patients, that place is sacred, whether it is an official holy place such as a church or a colloquial sacred place such as their childhood home. In my work in couple and family therapy, I’m inspired to consider the importance of home spaces as part of the couple’s narrative, reflecting the family’s relational and spiritual journey. How might we, as therapists, employ intentional quiet places of contemplation? How might clients engage in the renewal and redemption of places that have been desecrated? How might pilgrimage, worship, or community practices be healing agents within a specific place in a patient’s world? How might a justice gap be tightened through spiritually infused places like museums, memorials, and digital memories of places where injustice has happened? In the movie Forrest Gump, Jenny returns to her childhood home and hurls rocks and insults at the place where she was crushed and beaten. Forrest tells her there are “not enough rocks” as he joins her in the dirt outside her abusive childhood home. There is deep spiritual and psychological power in the narrative of Jenny’s character. That scene and ones like it are common in the human experience. The positive

Foreword of Jennifer Ripley

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and negative meanings of religious and spiritual places such as temples, churches, mountains, seas, sites where there was birth or loss, and homes are worth exploring. This text gives us an excellent understanding of the thin places where heaven touches earth. Professor and Clinical Psychologist College of Health and Behavioral Sciences Regent University Virginia Beach, VA, USA

Jennifer Ripley

Contents

1

 Toward a Global and Multidisciplinary Understanding of Place, Religion/Spirituality, and Well-Being����������������������������������������������������    1 Victor Counted, Haywantee Ramkissoon, Laura E. Captari, and Richard G. Cowden

Part I Personal Engagements: Spiritual Ties to Place and Well-Being 2

Worship Space Attachment as a Potential Contributor to Spiritual Growth����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21 Benjamin R. Meagher

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Place, Spirituality, and Wellness in the East and the West: Exploring Psychological Mechanisms of the Legendary Gyanganj��������������������������������������������������������������������   37 Jayanti Basu

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Where Heaven Meets Earth: Theological Reflections on Landscape, Social Ecology, Biocentric Spirituality, and Well-Being ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   55 František Štěch

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Racial Justice Protests Create Spaces of Hope and Healing: The Racialization of Space and Trauma in Contexts of Racial Tensions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69 Megan A. Neff, Cassandra D. Page, Richard G. Cowden, Daryl J. Waters, and Victor Counted

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House Churches and Place Attachment: A Case Study with Iranian Christians in Scotland ������������������������������������������������������   87 Maxinne C. Panagopoulos and Emily-Marie Pacheco

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 Architecture, Time, and Well-Being: Toward Transcendence ������������  105 Zhuo Job Chen and Kevin Nute

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Part II Social Resilience: Spirituality and Well-­Being Amid Adversity 8

Embodied Spirituality and Health Amidst Place Confinement and Disruptions During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Critical Analysis of the Literature and Development of a Conceptual Framework ������������������������������������������������������������������  121 Laura E. Captari

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 Can Prayer During COVID-19 Home Confinement Support Psychological Health After Lockdowns End? A Longitudinal Study of UK Adults ������������������������������������������������������  143 Richard G. Cowden, Zhuo Job Chen, Daisy Fancourt, and Koichiro Shiba

10 Displacement,  Fragmentation, and Well-­Being of Ghanaian Church Leaders and Older Adult Christians During a Global Pandemic ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  163 Boadi Agyekum and Philip Prince Kwasi Mantey 11 Religious  Communities and Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Practical Theological Consideration of Place ����������������  185 Shaun Joynt 12 The  Early Church and Community Resilience in the Late Antique Levant: An Archaeological Perspective����������������  201 Tamara Lewit Part III Cultural Connections: Sacred Spaces, Tourism, and Well-Being 13 Managing  the Sacred: Online Narratives of Well-Being in a Japanese Heritage Context��������������������������������������������������������������  223 Januschka Schmidt, Leonieke Bolderman, Arie Stoffelen, and Peter Groote 14 Clans  and Spiritual Space: A Case Study of Guandi Temple in an Ancient Hakka Town in South China ������������������������������������������  243 Liao Ying and Xu Huang 15 Religious  Tourism: Exploring Experiences of Spirituality, Place Attachment, and Well-Being in Zimbabwe����������������������������������  255 Ngoni C. Shereni, Sarudzai Mutana-Simango, and Munyaradzi Tiny Gango 16 Healing  Systems of Well-Being and People-­Place Interactions: Complexity, Context, and Connections��������������������������������������������������  273 Victor Counted, Haywantee Ramkissoon, Laura E. Captari, and Richard G. Cowden Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  287

Contributors

Boadi Agyekum (PhD) is a senior lecturer at the School of Continuing and Distance Education, University of Ghana. He holds a PhD in Geography from McMaster University, Canada. He is interested in environmental research, migration, religion and well-being, and development education in general. Jayanti  Basu (PhD) is a professor of Applied Psychology at the University of Calcutta, India, with 36 years of teaching experience. She is also a psychoanalyst affiliated with the Indian Psychoanalytical Society. Her current research interests are religious and spiritual psychology, projective psychology, and psychotherapy processes. Leonieke  Bolderman (PhD) is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Spatial Sciences at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. Her research centers on the role of art and culture in urban development, with specific interests in cultural tourism, heritage, and music. Laura E. Captari (PhD) is a postdoctoral fellow in Danielsen Institute at Boston University. Her research explores the developmental and relational impacts of trauma, disaster, and loss, with attention to the intersections of culture, spirituality, and the mind-body connection as potential pathways to resilience and flourishing. Zhuo Job Chen (PhD) is an associate professor in School of Nursing and Faculty Affiliate of Health Psychology and Gerontology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. His research interest is broadly in psychology of religion, spirituality, and well-being.

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Contributors

Victor Counted (PhD) is an associate professor in the School of Psychology and Counseling at Regent University and faculty affiliate of the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard University. He earned his PhD in Health Psychology (Western Sydney University) and has a second PhD in Psychology of Religion (University of Groningen). He is interested in the science and practice of human flourishing and well-being, grounded in everyday psychosocial and psychospiritual processes, including how the interactions between people and their environments affect health and behavior. Richard  G.  Cowden (PhD) is a social-personality psychologist and research scientist for the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard University. He is broadly interested in psychological, social, and religious/spiritual dynamics that shape adaptive functioning, personal growth, and well-being. Much of his research agenda focuses on topics related to adversity (e.g., suffering), character strengths (e.g., forgiveness), and religion/spirituality (e.g., religious/spiritual struggles), and their implications for health and well-being in diverse cultures and contexts. He has written numerous scholarly articles and book chapters that address various aspects of human flourishing in a wide range of populations, and recently coauthored Place and Post-Pandemic Flourishing: Disruption, Adjustment, and Healthy Behaviors (Springer, 2021). Daisy Fancourt (PhD) is an associate professor of Psychobiology and Epidemiology and a Wellcome Research Fellow at University College London. Her research focuses on the effects of social factors on health, including loneliness, social isolation, social and community assets, arts and cultural engagement, and social prescribing. Her work has been recognized with awards from the British Science Association, Leverhulme Trust, Wellcome Trust, British Academy, British Federation of Women Graduates, American Psychosomatic Society, Arts and Humanities Research Council, Royal Society for Public Health, and NHS England, among others. Munyaradzi Tiny Gango (MSc) is a managing director for En-Hakkore Travel and Tours and a lecturer at Lupane State University in the Department of Accounting and Finance (Tourism and Hospitality cluster). Her research interests are in accessible tourism, green tourism, climate change, and mountain tourism. She holds a Master of Science degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management from Chinhoyi University of Technology and a bachelor’s degree in the same field from Midlands State University. Peter Groote (PhD) is an associate professor at the Faculty of Spatial Sciences at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. His research interests include cultural heritage and economic history.

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Shaun Joynt (PhD) is a research associate at the University of the Free State, South Africa, and a senior academic at the South African Theological Seminary. He holds a BA in Bible and Theology, an MA in Ministerial Studies, and a PhD in Practical Theology. His research focuses on clergy well-being, congregational studies, and forgiveness from a positive psychology and theology perspective. He is currently involved in a Templeton World Charities Fund grant project that is studying the awareness and contribution of forgiveness in communities. Xu  Huang (PhD) is a humanistic geographer and an associate professor in the Department of Human Geography at Nanjing Normal University, China. He specializes in psychological geography and literary geography. Tamara  Lewit (PhD) is an honorary fellow in the School of Historical and Philosophical Studies at the University of Melbourne and a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, London. Her research explores the archaeology of late antique farming, especially wine and oil production. She has a particular interest in monastic and ecclesiastical production, and in the eastern Mediterranean. Philip Prince Kwasi Mantey (PhD) is a lecturer at the School of Continuing and Distance Education, University of Ghana. He holds a PhD in Development Studies from the University of Ghana, MSc in Geographical Information Science from the University of Nottingham, and MPhil in Social Change (Geography) from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). His research interests cover diverse areas including environmental management, spatial modeling, digital remote sensing and GIS, climate change and disaster risk management, adult education, and distance learning. Benjamin  R.  Meagher (PhD) is an assistant professor of Psychology at Hope College (Holland, MI), where he teaches courses in social, cognitive, and environmental psychology. He has previously held positions at Kenyon College (Gambier, OH), Franklin and Marshall College (Lancaster, PA), and Baylor University (Waco, TX). His primary research focus is in the areas of ecological social psychology, investigating the relationship between physical environments, social environments, and individual differences in personality. His recent projects have focused on the ways people use territories to facilitate self-regulation and coping. Sarudzai Mutana-Simango (PhD) is a senior lecturer in geography and coordinator of the Tourism and Hospitality management cluster at Lupane State University. Her research interests are mountain tourism and sustainability, climate change, and tourism and rural development. Megan A. Neff (PsyD) is a clinical psychologist and psychological resident in private practice where she specializes in neurodiversity. She has worked in private practice, university settings, and healthcare settings. Her research interests include the integration of spirituality and psychology, place attachment, neurodivergence, and relational psychoanalysis.

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Kevin  Nute (PhD) is a professor of Architecture at University of Hawai’i and Emeritus Professor of Architecture at University of Oregon. He specializes in architectural theory, buildings as reflections of human beings, and time in built spaces. Emily-Marie  Pacheco (PhD) is a research scientist in social psychology and a chartered psychologist with the British Psychological Society. Her PhD research explored the lived experiences of international students from conflict zones, and she currently conducts research and teaches Psychology at University College London, University of Glasgow, and University of Edinburgh, with a focus on well-being, resilience, and identity. Cassandra  D.  Page (PsyD) is an associate professor and program director for Regent University’s PsyD Program. She has written and presented for professional and community audiences on intersectionality, minority identity development, racebased stress, privilege, discrimination, and clinical training. Dr. Page leads the Academy of Minority Identity Development and Advocacy (AMIDA) research group at Regent University, which provides clinical training in intersectionality and actionable steps from a Christian perspective. Maxinne C. Panagopoulos (PhD) is a lecturer in psychology at the University of Highlands and Islands – Inverness, Scotland. Her research is in the psychology of religion, where she focuses on religious experiences, Christianity, and mental health. She is also the co-founder of the Centre for Psychosocial Research on Christianity and Mental Health, conducting research into the role of faith in mental ill health, belief in demonic aetiology, and perceptions of mental ill health among Christian communities. Haywantee  Ramkissoon (PhD) is a professor at UniSA Business, University of South Australia, and at the College of Business, Law, and Social Sciences, University of Derby, UK, Johannesburg Business School, University of Johannesburg, South Africa, and Centre for Innovation in Tourism, Taylor’s University, Malaysia. She has also been in teaching and research roles at Monash Business School, Department of Marketing, Monash University, Australia and the Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, UiT, the Arctic University of Norway. Her expertise is in sustainability research, including social and environmental psychology, tourism, marketing, and healthcare. She is recognized as one of the Clarivate Highly Cited Elite Group of Researchers for 2021 and 2022. She is also in Stanford list of world’s top 2% most cited scientists for 2021 and 2022. Januschka Schmidt (MA) is a PhD candidate with the Cultural Geography department at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. His research interest is broadly in well-being experiences at sacred heritage sites in relation to sense of place, place meaning, and place attachment of domestic tourists. Her research specializes in tourism at sacred heritage sites in Japan.

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Ngoni C. Shereni (PhD) is a senior lecturer in the Department of Accounting and Finance at Lupane State University, Zimbabwe. His research interests are in sustainable tourism, Sustainable Development Goals, climate change, tourism education, disruptive technology, tourism exhibitions, community-based tourism, communitybased natural resource management practices, and religious tourism. Koichiro Shiba (PhD) is an assistant professor in the Department of Epidemiology at Boston University School of Public Health and a faculty affiliate at the Human Flourishing Program at Harvard University. He received his PhD in Population Health Sciences from Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health in 2020. His current research focuses on the application of epidemiologic and social science thinking and methods for rigorous causal inference in studying social determinants of population distributions of health and well-being ranging from traumatic experiences to positive psychological assets. František Štěch (ThD) is a research fellow at Protestant Theological Faculty of the Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic. His research interests include fundamental theology, youth ministry, theological interpretation of artificial intelligence, (cyber)spatiality, digital technologies, and landscape. Arie  Stoffelen (PhD) is an assistant professor at the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at KU Leuven, Belgium. His research interests center on the interrelations. Daryl  J.  Waters (ThM) is an independent researcher and thought leader. She is interested in examining what it means to unapologetically navigate religious spaces at the intersectionality of race and gender through the stories of women of color. Liao  Ying (BA) is a master of Human Geography student in the School of Geography at Nanjing Normal University, with research interests in cultural geography and educational geography.

Chapter 1

Toward a Global and Multidisciplinary Understanding of Place, Religion/ Spirituality, and Well-Being Victor Counted, Haywantee Ramkissoon, Laura E. Captari, and Richard G. Cowden Abstract  A global and multidisciplinary approach to place, religion/spirituality, and well-being could contribute to improving our understanding of how place is related to religion/spirituality, well-being, and the intersection between these two fundamental aspects of human life. Re-establishing the centrality of place to human life, this chapter highlights place as a common thread that connects religion/spirituality and wellbeing. We draw on multiple spheres of human life—personal, social, and cultural—to discuss some of the dynamic and complex ways in which place, religion/spirituality, Author Note Correspondence concerning this chapter may be addressed to Victor Counted, School of Psychology and Counseling, Regent University, 1000 Regent University Dr., Virginia Beach, VA 23464, United States. Email: [email protected] V. Counted (*) School of Psychology and Counseling, College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA Human Flourishing Program, Institute of Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA e-mail: [email protected] H. Ramkissoon College of Business, Law & Social Sciences, Derby Business School, University of Derby, Derbyshire, UK College of Business & Economics, Johannesburg Business School, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Centre for Research and Innovation in Tourism, Faculty of Social Sciences & Leisure Management, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia L. E. Captari The Albert and Jessie Danielsen Institute, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA R. G. Cowden Human Flourishing Program, Institute of Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. Counted et al. (eds.), Place, Spirituality, and Well-Being, Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach 7, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39582-6_1

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and well-being are interconnected. Following this illustration, we outline the structure of this global and multidisciplinary volume in three parts, and briefly summarize the collection of chapters within it. As a first step toward building a comprehensive body of knowledge on place, religion/spirituality, and well-being across various disciplines, the contributions in this volume collectively underscore how place inherently intertwines with personal spiritual encounters, societal adaptability, and cultural expressions of spirituality. We hope that this book provides a useful foundation for subsequent theory, research, and practice that recognizes the centrality of place to religion/spirituality, well-being, and the relationship between them. Keywords  Health · Place · Religion · Spirituality · Well-being The scientific study of place provides various insights into how individuals and communities live out their daily lives within particular geographic contexts. The concept of place opens the door to investigating multiple spatial domains that are part of our daily routines, including the physical environment itself, memories or social experiences in certain places, and the cultural identity of places that shape individual attitudes. These multiple understandings of place have been well-­ documented (see Counted et al., 2021, 2023; Lewicka, 2011; Scannell & Gifford, 2010), and provide some grounding for conceptualizing the role of place in the scientific study of religion/spirituality1 and well-being.2

 Although we use the term ‘spirituality’ in the title of this volume for brevity, we do not mean to imply that the concept of religion is subsumed under spirituality. The relationship between religion and spirituality is nuanced and varies across cultures and academic disciplines, with distinct boundaries in some contexts and blurred distinctions in others (see Chen et al., 2022). In our usage, ‘religion/spirituality’ (and similar combined terms such as ‘religious/spiritual’) is meant to be inclusive, embracing a spectrum of religious or spiritual beliefs, behaviors, and experiences. It does not suggest that religion and spirituality are conceptually equivalent or interchangeable. In the spirit of an inclusive understanding, Saroglou et al.’s (2020) 4Bs framework—Believing, Bonding, Behaving, and Belonging—offers a suitable lens for exploring religion/spirituality in this volume. This framework encapsulates the broad spectrum of human experiences within religion/spirituality, transcending the boundaries between personal convictions, shared emotions, communal practices, and collective identity. Believing refers to the cognitive aspect of religion/spirituality, emphasizing the importance of personal convictions and the acceptance of a transcendental reality. This dimension is explored in various chapters of this volume through analysis of individual belief systems and their role in shaping the perception and experience of places deemed spiritual or sacred. Bonding underscores the affective and communal facets of religion/spirituality. It pertains to the emotional connections that individuals form with the sacred, as well as the ties that bind members of a religious/spiritual community together. Bonding is especially visible in chapters that explore how emotional connections to spiritual places contribute to communal well-being. Behaving represents the moral and ethical actions inspired by religious/spiritual beliefs. Chapters in this volume that intersect with the behaving dimension explore the ethical implications of religious/spiritual connections to place, such as those that occur within the context of social justice movements. Belonging encapsulates the social identity and commitment that come with being part of a religious/spiritual community. The sense of belonging to a spiritual place, as well as the social identity derived from it, are discussed in various chapters, especially those examining the relationship between sacred spaces and community resilience. The chapters in this volume explore religion/spirituality in conjunction with these 4Bs. By adopting such a comprehensive approach, we aim to paint a richer, more nuanced picture of the interaction between place, religion/spirituality, and well-being—one that respects the multifaceted nature of religious/spiritual experiences. 2  ‘Well-being’ is a multidimensional concept that includes but is not limited to the domain of health (Cowden et al., 2022c; Shiba et al., 2022; VanderWeele et al., 2022). Similar to the whole person 1

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We begin this chapter by considering place as a central part of each person’s psycho-social-spiritual healing system. This system, which can be unpacked using Saroglou et  al.’s (2020) 4Bs framework of Believing, Bonding, Behaving, and Belonging, serves as a foundation for how people navigate the labyrinth of challenges and uncertainties that they encounter in life. For instance, when facing a serious illness, an individual’s spiritual beliefs (Believing) can offer a sense of purpose, their faith community can provide emotional and spiritual support (Bonding), their shared religious practices can foster well-being (Behaving), and their sense of identity within their faith group can reinforce resilience (Belonging). In each of these aspects, ‘place’ assumes a central role, serving not just as a geographical location but as a nexus of personal beliefs, community bonds, shared behaviors, and a sense of belonging. Healing systems influence how we think about the nature of stressors, what constitutes our well-being, and ways to overcome a difficult situation ‘using what works’ (Quah, 2003). A psycho-social-spiritual approach to healing systems recognizes the dynamic interplay between psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors that support well-being when beliefs are formed, bonds are created, behaviors are adopted, and a sense of belonging is cultivated. This interplay not only supports individual resilience but also nourishes collective flourishing within a given place or community. Crucially, this broad-based approach underlines the centrality of ‘place’ to both religion/spirituality and well-being. We see place not merely as a passive backdrop, but as a bridging force that brings religion/spirituality and well-being together. This bridge is made even more salient when examined within the context of personal engagements, social resilience, and cultural connections. Places influence our personal spiritual engagements, strengthen our resilience within social structures, and forge rich cultural connections. Consequently, we understand that religious/spiritual beliefs and health-related outcomes do not exist in isolation. Rather, they are integrally woven into the fabric of place, both historically and contemporarily. The ensuing chapters in this book illuminate these connections, offering a nuanced perspective on the interwoven tapestry of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being.

The Centrality of Place to Well-Being Place is an environmental setting in which physical elements and human experiences are unified (Castello, 2006). The physical elements of a place can include natural (e.g., landforms, water, plants) or man-made features (e.g., landmarks, monuments, bridges). Human experiences in a place can include, but are not limited to, perspective, well-being is an integrative concept that emphasizes the importance of understanding how a person is doing across different aspects of life (Höltge et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2022). Beyond the theoretical, empirical, and practical advantages of applying this holistic perspective of wellbeing to the concept of place, well-being is sufficiently broad that it can accommodate the wide range of human states and outcomes represented in this book.

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recreational activities, cultural events, and social gatherings. It is the fusion of physical elements and human experiences that make places meaningful to people, playing an important role in everyday life as the settings where life events unfold. Whether we are conscious of it or not, places are central to our well-being. This link is well established in historical texts. For example, Greek physician Hippocrates first wrote about the link between places and health in his book On Airs, Waters, and Places, arguing that medicine should be investigated from the subjective lens of experiences and activities that occur within places (Cozier, 2017). The same underlying sentiment was conveyed by the nineteenth century medical historian, August Hirsch, who proposed that scientists should consider the different aspects of health-­ related outcomes “at all times and in all places” (Barrett, 2000, p. 104). There are several ways that places influence well-being. First, places are the backdrop of social inequalities that are often used to categorize people into social classes. For example, terms that distinguish areas within a city (e.g., urban vs. suburban) are sometimes used to describe the general class composition of people in those places and how they are related to the health (e.g., high mortality) of people who live there (Jackson et al., 2000). Living in a low-income area may itself be a source of distress for many people, which can impact other facets of well-being. Data on global differences in life expectancies across cultures has shown that people’s opportunities in life and health-related outcomes can vary based on their geographic locations (Oláh et al., 2010; Phillimore & Morris, 1991; Shaw et al., 1999). For example, members of health-conscious social clubs in affluent suburbs may show better health outcomes than those who live in low-income, under-resourced residential areas. Social stratification can also influence the type of social ties people have in a particular geographic location, which is known to play an important role in supporting well-being (Kawachi & Berkman, 2001). Second, places produce spaces that reveal the intricate connections between physical locations in the environment and the complex nature of human experiences. For example, people imbue places with meanings that can form an integral part of their healing processes, as has been the case with racial justice protest sites (see Chap. 5) or sacred religious/spiritual sites such as Mecca in Saudi Arabia (Tunstall et  al., 2004). In such places of significance, people often experience a sense of security and transcendent connection that contribute positively to their well-being (Howell et al., 2013; Scannell & Gifford, 2017). Many places are also settings in which people learn about societal norms and expectations, including those related to the human body, identity, mental illness, disability, and healthcare (Tunstall et al., 2004). Thus, socialization processes within places can serve important functions in supporting well-being. Third, life course historians and social scientists emphasize the importance of history to health (Ben-Shlomo & Kuh, 2002), but there is relatively little discussion about how history is the byproduct of place-based events. For example, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a global event that has spread around the world, reshaping many aspects of human life. The history of the COVID-19 pandemic cannot be discussed without emphasizing how a place-based event (e.g., contamination of an animal market or a leak from a virology lab) led to global

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transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome. There are also noticeable life course factors (e.g., war, human rights abuse, natural disasters) that influence the well-­being of people in particular places. From a developmental perspective, people tend to prefer living in specific geographic areas at different stages of their lives (Howley, 2009; Litwak & Longino, 1987). For example, the buzzing energy of city life might be a source of vitality for younger people, whereas older adults might derive value from the tranquility that often comes with living in a non-metropolitan suburban or rural area (Hertzman & Wiens, 1996; Li et al., 2022; Lundberg, 1997). To adequately understand human flourishing, we must recognize that influences on well-being operate through many different place-related processes. Most importantly, well-being must be investigated within its appropriate ecological formations and should go beyond individual-level attributes to include place-related factors (Massey et al., 1991). In this book, we recognize places as settings in which all of human life unfolds, including well-being. However, to understand how well-being is a function of place, one must examine the cultural practices and belief systems that are central to place.

Religion/Spirituality and Well-Being: Threads to Multiple Place Recent efforts have shown that religion/spirituality and well-being are intertwined in place contexts (Counted et al., 2020, 2023; Counted & Watts, 2019; Meagher & Cheadle, 2020). For example, the combination of regular religious/spiritual communal experiences, teachings, or practices which, when taken together and experienced within the backdrop of a place of worship (e.g., church, mosque, temple), may create meaningful experiences and gradually alter behavior toward full human flourishing (VanderWeele, 2017). There are three aspects of place that have been covered in place psychology, namely the affective, cognitive, and behavioral domains of place (Counted, 2016; Counted et al., 2021; Scannell & Gifford, 2010). The first domain of place has to do with a person’s emotional connection to a place, or their attachment to the physical features of a place, such as the beauty of its scenery or the opportunities it presents for recreational activities (Lewicka, 2011). For example, people who have strong connections to pilgrimage sites may have a stronger devotion to the sacred through their ties to such places. The ties to such places can be initiated by the process of socialization marked by place visits, use of religious objects, and storytelling. The connection that many people have with religious/spiritual places affords a secure base—emotional security, meaning, stability, and confidence—that can have important benefits for well-being (Counted et  al., 2021; Counted & Watts, 2019). Several chapters in this book (e.g., Chaps. 7, 12, 14, 15, 16) explore the emotional connections that people have with the physical elements of place and how these ties shape religion/spirituality and support different aspects of well-being.

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The second domain of place is the cognitive process related to the cultural identity of a place. A common approach to studying religious/spiritual beliefs in place contexts starts with basic assumptions about human cognition (Counted et  al., 2023). Humans are generally thought to have two broad systems of cognition (i.e., intuitive vs. rational), though there is no consensus about terminology (Akinci & Sadler-­Smith, 2013; Kahneman, 2003). We assume that the actual experience of religion/spirituality largely makes use of intuitive cognition, though there are ways that rational cognition could also be involved in religious/spiritual beliefs. Both systems of cognition have mechanisms (e.g., attachment, perceived security, presence) through which interactions with places support the acquisition of religious/ spiritual beliefs. Over time, as individuals begin to critically evaluate their belief systems and religious communities, they find themselves in, the encompassing effect of this process can contribute to enhancing or deteriorating well-being. For example, negative images of a higher power in religious texts, such as possessive, unhappy, or judgmental, can be a source of distress for people (Counted & Watts, 2017; Steenwyk et al., 2010). On the other hand, positive images that position the sacred as fatherly, loving, or as a relational figure can be beneficial for well-being (Kruizinga et  al., 2017; Pargament, 2011; Steenwyk et  al., 2010). This cognitive aspect of religion/spirituality can shape character and identity formation within the context of place, affecting how people relate to themselves, others, and the world around them (Boğaç, 2009; Proshansky et al., 1983). Chapter 4 sheds light on this cognitive-theological process, advocating the need to acquaint ourselves with the places we live—its history, people, and culture—in order to be ‘in sync’ with the sacred. Several other chapters (e.g., Chaps. 10, 11, 13) also touch on this cognitive aspect of place. Lastly, aspects of place that involve personal and social engagement with the lifeworld and activities in a particular setting are also essential for understanding the intersecting dynamics of religion/spirituality and well-being in place contexts (Counted et al., 2023; Counted & Zock, 2019). People are drawn to specific pilgrimage sites and religious settings because those contexts enable them to participate in communal healing practices (Counted & Watts, 2019; see also Chaps. 2, 3, 6, 15, and 17). Place behavior often involves experiences with different visual, auditory, and somatic sensory activities. There are recorded historical and contemporary accounts of religious/spiritual experiences in actual physical places (see Counted & Watts, 2017), which end up being converted to sacred places used for pilgrimage rituals. The experience of the sacred in those places often tends to be more visual and/or somatic than auditory. The visual sensory experience of the sacred may be applicable at sites (e.g., ancient churches, shrines, mosques) and cities (e.g., Jerusalem, Mecca) of religious/spiritual significance. The sensory presence of the sacred in different geographical settings is central to many religious/spiritual traditions, demonstrating the role that sacred physical places have in evoking religious or spiritual experiences that support well-being (Chen et al., 2020; Thomas, 1999). Chapters 2, 6, and 9 of this book address the behavioral domain of place and its intersection with religion/spirituality and well-being.

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Although the multiple domains of place generally contribute positively to religion/spirituality and well-being, disruption to the bond a person has with a place (i.e., place attachment disruption)—whether due to a natural disaster (e.g., flooding, earthquake) or a human-made event (e.g., religious conflict, cultural genocide)— can impact negatively on the religiosity or well-being of people attached to those places (Counted et al., 2021). For example, people who try to experience the sacred in a place that has substantially been altered or no longer exists (e.g., a sacred site that has been destroyed) may feel the absence of divine presence. Similarly, public health measures that restricted people from accessing places of significance during the COVID-19 pandemic may precipitate religious/spiritual struggles (e.g., anger at God), leading to psychological distress that could have downstream consequences for other facets of well-being (Counted et al., 2022b; Cowden et al., 2022a, b; Jung et al., 2022). Alternatively, place attachment disruption might prompt people to turn to the sacred for comfort, safety, or security, which could promote positive adjustment over time (Cowden et al., 2021; Counted et al., 2020).

Unifying Multidisciplinary Themes of People-Place Relationships Although the existing conceptual framework comprising the affective, cognitive, and behavioral domains3 of place has much utility (see Counted et al., 2021), it is rooted primarily in psychological theories and methodologies, potentially narrowing the scope of exploration and interpretation. To cultivate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the concept of place, it is prudent to transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries. Such an approach calls for a refined multidisciplinary framework that coalesces themes of place throughout the diverse chapters of this volume. Although not exhaustive, three dimensions of human life—personal, social, and cultural—provide a suitable foundation for developing a more holistic  In extending the affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains of place into personal, social, and cultural spheres, we foster an expansive, multidisciplinary dialogue on place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. The discussion that follows elucidates how these three spheres illuminate and expand the affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains of people-place relationships. The personal sphere, as an extension of the affective domain, emphasizes the subjective experiences, emotions, and personal meanings individuals attribute to a place. It highlights the role of personal experiences and individual interpretations in shaping religion/spirituality and well-being. This perspective opens up a dialogue with disciplines such as phenomenology and existentialism, which emphasize the significance of individual experience and subjective interpretation. The social sphere extends the behavioral domain to include social interactions, communal activities, and shared experiences within a place. It underscores the influence of social dynamics and communal engagements on religion/spirituality and well-being. The cultural sphere broadens the cognitive domain to incorporate collective beliefs, traditions, and shared meanings associated with a place. It recognizes that our cognitive processes are embedded in, as well as shaped by, cultural contexts. This perspective invites contributions from disciplines such as anthropology, cultural studies, and history, deepening our understanding of how cultural narratives and shared interpretations influence religion/spirituality and well-being. 3

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understanding of place as a complex and interconnected phenomenon. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) Ecological Systems Theory offers an overarching framework for examining human development and flourishing within the context of the systems of relationships that shape an individual’s environment. On this view, human well-being is influenced by several interconnected spheres: the personal sphere (equivalent to Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem, including immediate environments such as family or school), the social sphere (akin to the mesosystem and exosystem, involving the interaction between two or more personal spheres, and settings that indirectly influence personal development), and the cultural sphere (akin to the macrosystem, incorporating broader societal influences such as cultural norms and values). With consideration to this volume, the personal, social, and cultural spheres can be likened to the different facets of an ecosystem, offering distinct but interconnected lenses through which to understand the multifaceted concept of place. For example, personal connections unfold within the microsystem, reflecting the intimate, immediate relationships that individuals form with specific places. These relationships often involve a deep sense of attachment and identity, influencing individual well-being (see Chaps. 2, 3, and 6). Social connections, which can be situated within the mesosystem and exosystem, emphasize the interaction of an individual’s personal experience of place within broader social structures and institutions (see Chaps. 5, 10, and 12). Lastly, cultural connections can be positioned within the macrosystem, reflecting broader cultural norms, values, and historical experiences that shape perceptions and experiences of place (see Chaps. 13, 14, and 15). The abovementioned spheres of place are emphasized in different disciplines (not just in psychological science), with some variation across disciplines. For example, geography and architecture often emphasize the lifeworld (e.g., human activities) of a physical setting (see Chaps. 7, 10, and 14), whereas psychology tends to focus more on the emotional bond that people develop with a place through their interactions with the environment (see Chap. 2). Our position is that experiences deemed religious, spiritual, supernatural, or paranormal are rooted in a place context, and the multiple spheres of place make it possible to look at people-place dynamics (e.g., relationships, perceptions, experiences) in the broader multidisciplinary context of religion/spirituality and well-being.

Our Approach The approach of this book invites a global and multidisciplinary exploration of the intricately interconnected concepts of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. It strategically integrates perspectives from distinct, yet related, disciplines, such as epidemiology, sociology, psychology, theology, health science, geography, archaeology, and architecture. Such a multidisciplinary exploration offers a more comprehensive perspective of the subject matter, one that transcends the confines of a single

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discipline. Additionally, it encourages the synthesis of diverse disciplinary perspectives, fostering a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the phenomena under scrutiny. For instance, consider the approach taken in Chap. 5 (Racial Justice Protests and Spaces of Hope and Healing). This chapter utilizes interdisciplinary insights from sociology, psychology, and urban geography to explore how spatial context, racial tension, and healing mechanisms interact. This exemplifies the merits of a multidisciplinary approach by integrating theories and insights from multiple fields to present a compelling narrative on the transformative role of spaces in times of racial tensions. At the same time, the multidisciplinary focus does not preclude the opportunity for chapters to exhibit a singular disciplinary style. The aim of the multidisciplinary approach in this volume is not to homogenize, but to celebrate the unique perspectives that each discipline brings to our understanding of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. This can be seen in some of the chapters. For example, Chap. 11 (Religious Communities and Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic) employs a distinct theological perspective to examine the subject matter, contributing a unique layer of analysis to the overall discussion in this volume. The need for disciplinary flexibility is integral in any examination of complex, multifaceted phenomena such as place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. Because these constructs are intrinsically interwoven, their comprehension demands a multidisciplinary approach that appreciates the nuances and insights that diverse academic traditions have to offer. This volume embodies a commitment to disciplinary flexibility, allowing contributors from a broad spectrum of disciplines to address the overarching theme in this volume in a manner that aligns with their unique epistemological and methodological approaches. Our multidisciplinary approach is not merely an organizing principle for the book, but a substantive methodological stance acknowledging the diverse lenses through which we make sense of the world. The chapters in this volume are a testament to the value of disciplinary authenticity. Each chapter showcases the strength of their respective disciplines while contributing to an integrated understanding of the central theme. This interplay between disciplinary depth and multidisciplinary breadth allows us to explore the intersections of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being from multiple perspectives. This approach does not dilute disciplinary expertise; rather, it extends and enriches it. Thus, this volume not only celebrates the diversity of disciplinary perspectives but also underscores the transformative potential of their interplay. It is through this ongoing dialogue—this interweaving of perspectives, theories, and insights—that we can fully appreciate the intricate tapestry of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. In addition to the unique multidisciplinary nature of this volume, it is also distinguished by its global scope. Place, religion/spirituality, and well-being are universal aspects of human existence that defy geographic, cultural, and temporal boundaries, and we have attempted to capture this by including contributions from a diverse range of geographical contexts (i.e., America, Africa, Oceania, Asia, and Europe). This infusion of global perspectives enables this volume to resonate with a broader audience and ensures that it captures a variety of ways in which different cultures

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understand and articulate their experiences of place, religion/spirituality, and well-­ being. Consider the contribution from Chap. 3 (Place, Spirituality, and Wellness in the East and the West). Here, the author embraces the global perspective of this volume to delve into an East-West comparative analysis of place and spirituality. This chapter, drawing upon psychological and cultural studies, underscores the diversity of spiritual practices and beliefs across cultures. The examination of the legendary Gyanganj, a mythic place in the Himalayas known in Eastern spirituality, underscores the integral role of specific geographical locales in shaping spiritual narratives and fostering well-being. The cultural variations that emerge in expressions of religion/spirituality accentuate the necessity of a global perspective to fully grasp the nuances of this multidimensional phenomenon. Similarly, chapters in this volume that explore intersections between place and spiritual practices during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as Chap. 8 (Embodied Spirituality and Health Amidst Place Confinement and Disruptions During the COVID-19 Pandemic) and Chap. 9 (Can Prayer During COVID-19 Home Confinement Support Psychological Health After Lockdowns End?), reflect the adaptability of spirituality under conditions of global adversity. The confluence of health science and psychology enriches our understanding of the embodiment of spirituality amidst the spatial constraints imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. As such, the shift in spiritual practices and places of worship from communal to home-­ based spaces during lockdowns offers unique insights into the resilience of place spirituality (Counted et  al., 2023). This pattern of multidisciplinary and global exploration is repeated throughout this volume. For instance, Chap. 15 (Religious Tourism: Exploring Experiences of Spirituality, Place Attachment, and Well-Being in Zimbabwe) explores the intersection of geography, sociology, and religious studies. The authors draw on multiple disciplines to highlight cultural specificities of Zimbabwe, which contributes to an expanded and more global understanding on the role of sacred spaces in promoting well-being. The multidisciplinary approach in this volume weaves a tapestry of perspectives, experiences, and insights that foster a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the interconnectedness of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. This approach is more than a scholarly endeavor; it is a concerted attempt to encapsulate the lived experiences of individuals across various cultural, social, and geographic contexts. Our multidisciplinary approach, on the other hand, breaks down the silos of individual disciplines and brings together diverse perspectives, fostering a more holistic understanding of the interactions between place, religion/spirituality, and well-being across spheres of personal, social, and cultural interests. We adopt these constructs as a unifying multidisciplinary thread that ties the chapters in this volume together, thus allowing for the integration of diverse disciplinary perspectives that deepens our understanding and opens up new avenues for research and dialogue.

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Pandemic Perturbation as Our Lived Experience The creation of this volume, which unfolded over the course of three tumultuous years dominated by the COVID-19 pandemic, inevitably embeds within its pages the profound influence of these unprecedented times. The COVID-19 pandemic has undeniably reframed our collective and individual experiences of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being—themes at the heart of this volume. It has brought into sharp focus the importance of places in our lives (see Counted et al., 2020, 2021), and deeply impacted our understanding and pursuit of well-being. Consequently, it is impossible to disregard the influence of the public health crisis on the content and tone of the chapters of this volume, as they not only reflect the research interests of the authors but also their lived experiences during this time of human existence. This volume is not diminished by its strong reflection on the COVID-19 pandemic; rather, it is enriched by it. The COVID-19 pandemic has foregrounded several aspects related to place, religion/spirituality, and well-being that might have otherwise remained in the periphery of academic discussion. It has emphasized the importance of safe and nurturing physical places in a time of isolation, the comforting role of religion/spirituality amid global uncertainty, and the pressing need for strategies to maintain and promote well-being in the face of unprecedented challenges (Counted et  al., 2022a; Cowden et  al., 2023; Jacobi et  al., 2022; Wilson Fadiji et al., 2023). As such, many of the chapters in this volume address one or more of these themes. Drawing on the dynamic systems theory (Thelen & Smith, 1994), we can view the COVID-19 pandemic as a perturbation—a significant event that disrupts the existing state of a system, leading to changes in its structure and functioning. The COVID-19 pandemic has perturbed the global system of human existence and engagement, leading to shifts in our behaviors, attitudes, and norms. Several chapters in this volume provide unique insights into how the interplay of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being has evolved in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, offering a rich understanding of these dynamics under extraordinary circumstances. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic imprint on this volume enhances its relevance and immediacy. It not only provides insights that are pertinent to the current context but also equips us to better respond to similar challenges in the future. By exploring place, religion/spirituality, and well-being against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, the chapters in this volume offer invaluable lessons for individuals, communities, and policymakers to foster resilience and promote well-being in the face of adversity. The COVID-19 pandemic serves as an important component to this volume. It situates the exploration of place, religion/spirituality, and well-being within a significant global crisis, providing a real-time, authentic backdrop to examine these concepts. It amplifies our comprehension of these themes and equips us with invaluable insights that will be useful in future crises. This volume provides a strong

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testament to the adaptability and resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity. It also demonstrates the value of multidisciplinary science and scholarship in reflecting upon and drawing lessons from a historic global experience, thus emphasizing the indispensability of such an approach in a rapidly changing world.

Structure of the Book The organization of this volume underscores a profound connection between place, religion/spirituality, and well-being, but it achieves much more as it intricately knits these themes within the personal, social, and cultural spheres of human life. As we delve into this multidimensional tapestry, it is noteworthy how each chapter contributes uniquely to this complex web. In the first section, Personal Engagements: Spiritual Ties to Place and Well-­ being, we explore the intricate relationship between the individual, their spiritual practices, and their sense of place. Meagher’s empirical study exemplifies this aptly as it investigates personal attachment to places of worship and its correlation to spiritual growth among Reformed Christians. Basu’s chapter takes a non-Western approach, offering insights into Eastern spirituality and well-being through the psychological exploration of the mythical place Gyanganj, translated as the land of immortals. While contrasting to Western views, Basu argues for the psychological value of polytheistic myth in Eastern religion where the connection to a mystical or mythical spiritual place is a precursor to subjective well-being. The chapter by Stech prompts readers to assume responsibility for their personal locales, reflecting an ecological understanding of place in spiritual practices. In Neff and colleagues’ contribution, we see a unique blend of personal and social spheres as they study racial justice protests, particularly the Black Lives Matter movement, as sites fostering hope and healing. Panagopoulos and Pacheco’s study further dovetails these spheres as they scrutinize house churches in Scotland and their psychosocial implications for minority congregations. In the closing chapter of this section, Chen and Nute weave architectural insights into the personal sphere, examining how the built environment facilitates positive connections (including but not limited to those within the religious/spiritual realm) to the past, present, and future. Section two, Social Resilience: Spirituality and Well-being Amid Adversity, explores the social dynamics that bolster resilience and spiritual fortitude in the aftermath of place-based resource loss. Except for the contribution from Tamara Lewit, the chapters in this section are written in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Captari’s integrative review serves as a suitable starting point, addressing the impact of place disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic on our experiences of the sacred. Following this, Cowden and colleagues’ longitudinal study examined whether engaging in prayer while strictly confined to one’s home during the first national lockdown in the UK was associated with improved psychological health after the ease of lockdown. Agyekum’s research in Ghana brings a nuanced way of conceptualizing home confinement behavior. Reflecting on the complex interplay of

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personal and social spheres, Agyekum argues that the lockdown restrictions leading to home confinement fragmented the dynamics of religious activities from a fixed physical place to cyberspace, melting away the strict use of places of worship confined to brick-and-mortar locations. This evolution of religious communities, according to Joynt, has a theological implication that involves four essential tasks: descriptive-empirical, interpretive, normative, and pragmatic. In his chapter, Joynt offers perspectives on how to address the fragmentation of religious activities problematized by Agyekum, suggesting that virtual sacred places may offer similar benefits to traditional physical places. The notion of resilience in a time of adversity and place-related loss is not only a contemporary phenomenon but an old-age practice, as shown in the archaeological contribution of Lewit. Here, the social and cultural spheres intersect as Lewit explores the resilience of religious communities in the Late Antique Levant amidst various crises (e.g., earthquakes, drought, floods, bubonic plague, wars), underscoring the recurring themes of social resilience and place-related loss. This chapter is a historical reminder that there is ‘nothing new under the sun,’ thus providing a blueprint for navigating global crises impacting human life. The third section, Cultural Connections: Sacred Spaces, Tourism, and Well-­ being, illuminates the cultural significance of sacred spaces in promoting well-­ being. This section has points of intersection with the previous section, in that several contributions explore ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic has reconfigured our interactions with sacred places that have been restricted due to the public health crisis. Other more generalized contributions illuminate how placemaking and meanings formed at religious tourist sites shape narratives of subjective well-being. The section starts with a contribution from Schmidt and colleagues, as they report an exploratory study of the management of two sacred Japanese heritage sites (Shinto shrine Fushimi Inari Taisha and Buddhist temple Kiyomizu-dera), capturing online narratives of well-being in these sacred places. The authors argue for the cultural context of well-being in sacred places, introducing the well-being concepts of ikigai and shiawase as meaning-making processes of hedonic, eudaimonic, and communal significance that tie people to sacred places in the Japanese context. Next, Huang and Ying reflect on the ‘spirit of place’ (genius loci) and its implications for spiritual well-being in the context of the Guandi Temple in the ancient Hakka town in South China. Concluding the volume, Shereni and colleagues explore the experiences of spirituality and well-being in religious tourist sites during the COVID-19 pandemic. Though the findings point to the benefits of such sites for spiritual growth and healing, the authors suggest that the focus often shifts from the individual subjective benefit to the economic benefits of religious tourism. Throughout this volume, the narrative arc unites place, religion/spirituality, and well-being through the personal, social, and cultural spheres of human life. Each chapter offers distinct yet interconnected perspectives that enhance our understanding of these multifaceted relationships. This volume is an orchestration of distinct voices, each resonating within their unique disciplinary melody, yet collectively contributing to an enriching symphony of multidisciplinary insights. This kaleidoscope of perspectives underscores the vast terrain of human experience where the

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personal, social, and cultural spheres of our lives intersect. The essence of this undertaking lies not just in exploring these spheres in isolation, but in understanding their intricate interplay. The individual’s engagement with spirituality (personal), their communal interactions and resilience strategies (social), and the cultural context of these experiences (cultural) form the triumvirate that gives this volume its multilayered richness. Each chapter illustrates these dimensions differently, offering a myriad of insights. For instance, Agyekum’s study sheds light on how social changes (the transition from physical to virtual religious gatherings) can reshape personal spiritual experiences and potentially redefine cultural norms. Huang and Ying’s exploration of the ‘spirit of place’ in the context of the Guandi Temple, and Shereni and colleagues’ examination of Zimbabwean religious tourist sites, bring cultural aspects into sharp focus. These chapters offer profound cultural reflections on well-being, spirituality, and the concept of sacred spaces, illustrating how cultural contexts shape and are shaped by personal and social experiences. Even as we traverse from personal to social and cultural spheres, it becomes clear that these are not discrete categories but are deeply intertwined. As Basu’s exploration of Gyanganj or Lewit’s historical analysis show, the personal, social, and cultural spheres continually shape and inform each other, creating a dynamic, reciprocal dialogue. The journey throughout these chapters—across personal, social, and cultural spheres—reflects the multifaceted nature of human experience. The COVID-19 pandemic, while predominantly a social crisis, has deeply personal ramifications and has elicited cultural responses and transformations. This volume, penned during these unique times, serves not only as a testament to our collective experience during a turbulent time in human history, but also as a testament to our shared resilience in the places we inhabit and cherish. In essence, the chapters within this volume, while preserving their unique disciplinary authenticity, each contribute to a broader dialogue on place, religion/spirituality, and well-being. These contributions elucidate the complex interplay between personal, social, and cultural spheres, thereby enriching our understanding of the multifaceted relationship between place, religion/spirituality, and well-being.

Conclusion In this chapter, we have argued that place is an important but often overlooked thread that connects religion/spirituality and well-being. Taking a global and multidisciplinary approach, this book represents a first step towards building a comprehensive understanding of how place is related to religion/spirituality, well-being, and the intersection between religion/spirituality and well-being. Importantly, the analysis is enriched by integrating these connections from personal, social, and cultural spheres of human existence. This volume can serve as a reference point, spotlighting the pivotal role of place within the healing systems that support the lives of

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people across cultural and geographical lines. As readers peruse the diverse scholarly contributions nestled within this volume, our vision is that it would function not merely as a synthesis of existing theories, research, and practices, but as a springboard that ignites future scholarly exploration.

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Part I

Personal Engagements: Spiritual Ties to Place and Well-Being

Chapter 2

Worship Space Attachment as a Potential Contributor to Spiritual Growth Benjamin R. Meagher

Abstract  The act of worship is a central component of religious life that is, for most adherents, embedded within a particular place (e.g., one’s church, temple, or synagogue). These worship spaces serve a role in people’s spiritual lives above and beyond their simple, functional role of providing communities with a location to gather and engage in rituals. Rather, as concrete physical places strongly associated with an otherwise incorporeal deity, people’s relationship with this setting is closely intertwined with their spiritual well-being. In this chapter, I report the results of a cross-sectional study of Reformed Christians located in western Michigan, United States. Its findings reveal that people’s sense of spiritual growth during the COVID-19 pandemic was not predicted by their satisfaction with the components of worship (i.e., music, sermons, social ties), but a modest association was found for their feelings of attachment to their church’s worship space. Moreover, a multilevel mediation model indicated that the association between attachment and spiritual growth was explained by people’s positive emotions during worship. These results indicate that an emotional bond to sacred space is a more critical indicator of spiritual well-being than cognitive appraisals of religious worship. Keywords  Worship space attachment · Spiritual growth · Positive emotions · Well-being

Author Note This research was supported by a Vital Worship Grant from the Calvin Institute of Christian Worship, Grand Rapids, Michigan, with funds provided by Lilly Endowment Inc. I thank Kathryn Henry, Esther Hwang, Gabriel Kimball, and Daniel Mooney for their assistance in data collection. Correspondence concerning this paper may be addressed to Benjamin R. Meagher, Department of Psychology, Hope College, Holland, MI 49424. Email: [email protected]. B. R. Meagher (*) Department of Psychology, Hope College, Holland, MI, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 V. Counted et al. (eds.), Place, Spirituality, and Well-Being, Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach 7, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39582-6_2

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What characterizes religiousness? Traditionally, religiosity has been framed either in terms of an individual’s particular set of beliefs about God (e.g., fundamentalism or orthodoxy; Altemeyer & Hunsberger, 2004; Fullerton & Hunsberger, 1982) or their behavior with respect to God (e.g., frequency of prayer, attendance at religious services). However, dogma and praxis represent only a portion of religious life. For believers, religious experience is frequently characterized in primarily social terms, often incorporating a perceived personal relationship with one’s deity (Cohen-­ Zimerman et al., 2020; Hamilton et al., 2007; Schjoedt et al., 2009). When viewed in this way, individual differences in religiousness are primarily characterized by variability in how people conceptualize and feel about their bond with God. For many scholars, this sense of connection with God is a natural extension of basic interpersonal psychological processes (Kirkpatrick, 1998; Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1992). Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1988) argues that the motive to form close socioemotional bonds with others is rooted in a pair of behaviors directed toward particular figures in one’s life: (a) treating attachment figures as a safe haven, individuals seek proximity to them during times of distress, and (b) treating attachment figures as a secure base, they provide support that facilitates one’s motive to explore the world. Depending on how attachment figures do or do not satisfy these needs (e.g., by being reliable and available), individuals form a particular style of attachment characterized by either security or insecurity (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Although this dynamic has been most widely studied in the context of child-­ caregiver relationships, the attachment system has been observed across a number of different types of relationships throughout the lifespan (Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1992). As they do with human attachment figures, religious adherents similarly frame their relationship with God in terms of love, experience distress when God feels absent, and actively seek closeness to God during times of stress (Granqvist et al., 2010). Moreover, religious people have also been shown to differ in terms of their attachment style to God, with some demonstrating avoidant (i.e., viewing God as distant) or anxious (i.e., viewing God as unreliable) forms of insecure attachment (Rowatt & Kirkpatrick, 2002). Thus, there is strong evidence that the attachment system is active in how people relate to the divine. Notably, one’s sense of closeness to God appears to be particularly important for psychological well-being, with recent work demonstrating that people’s relationship with God is central in how they cope with a variety of life stressors (Newton & McIntosh, 2010; Pargament, 2001; Park, 2005; Wong-Mcdonald & Gorsuch, 2000). One’s attachment to God may closely correspond with their attachment style to either parents or other loved ones (Kirkpatrick, 1998). However, one key difference between one’s relationship with God and one’s relationship with a caregiver or partner is the latter’s physical presence. How does one successfully seek and maintain a sense of close proximity to an incorporeal being? In this chapter, I argue that forming a strong, positive emotional bond with the physical space associated with God can help to foster this greater sense of spiritual wellbeing.

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Attachment to the Worship Space Although the divine is typically viewed as supernatural and outside of the world, religious praxis is itself necessarily embedded within the physical environment (Meagher, 2020). This is evident in the fact that people regularly go to particular places to experience God’s presence during worship (e.g., churches, temples, and synagogues). Recently, the concept of place spirituality (Counted, 2018, 2019; Counted & Zock, 2019) has been developed as a framework for better understanding the critical role of place in religious life. Specifically, it highlights how attachment to God may be fostered by the individual’s relationship with certain physical places. For example, the design of a worship space affords and facilitates certain types of spiritual experiences (Mazumdar & Mazumdar, 1993, 2004). Many religious rituals are dependent on an environment that supports individual and collective worship behaviors, such as having an altar that parishioners approach during mass, a balcony for a choir to project from, or adequate floor space for prostrated prayer. However, in addition to having explicitly functional properties, worship spaces can also serve a more symbolic role in communicating and reinforcing God’s attributes. That is, although a deity may be non-physical, certain tangible places and artifacts may nevertheless become strongly associated with the supernatural and thus be imbued with their properties (Rozin & Nemeroff, 2002; Savani et al., 2011). At the interpersonal level, research in social psychology has demonstrated that physical environments associated with particular people are often used to infer characteristics about its occupants (Bonam et al., 2016; Gosling et al., 2008; Meagher, 2020). These impressions have been shown to occur both at the individual level (e.g., forming personality judgments based on one’s office; Gosling et al., 2002) and at the collective level (e.g., forming group stereotypes based on neighborhoods; Bonam et  al., 2020). In the same way, religious spaces reflect information about what God is like to those who worship there. For example, monumental religious architecture elicits particular emotional experiences (e.g., awe) by tapping into people’s natural responses to scale (Costa & Bonetti, 2016; Joye & Verpooten, 2013). A vast space communicates both the magnitude of the deity worshiped there, while simultaneously signaling the importance of the deity through the costs required to build the structure. Other research has shown that people’s preferences for particular types of worship spaces appear to be tied to their religious motives (Meagher, 2016, 2018), suggesting that individuals may gravitate towards particular places of worship that are designed in ways that best match their conceptualization of what God is like or what they seek in God. Beyond merely reinforcing characteristics about God, worship spaces can also be attachment objects themselves. In fact, environmental psychologists have long been interested in how people form attachment relationships with physical places (Altman & Low, 1992; Lewicka, 2011). As they do in their interpersonal

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relationships, people show similar attachment responses to important places in their lives: they feel distress when separated from the location for too long, seek to be in the location when under threat, and experience a sense of security and restoration when there. Critically, previous research has shown that having positive place attachment bonds in one’s life is generally associated with greater quality of life and overall well-being (Harris et al., 1995; Rollero & De Piccoli, 2010). These spaces can serve particularly important psychological functions when they are closely intertwined with an individual’s sense of identity. Symbolic self-­ completion theory (Ledgerwood et  al., 2007; Ledgerwood & Liviatan, 2010; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1981) argues that people use physical artifacts and locations as symbols to communicate their sense of self. As a consequence, evaluative appraisals of these physical places are strongly associated with the individuals’ identification. For example, Ledgerwood et al. (2007) found that the perceived value of an in-group space (e.g., a college building) was positively associated with how strongly that individual identifies with that group. Thus, people’s evaluation of the setting is closely tied to how connected they feel to the identity represented by that setting. This research highlights the ways in which people’s sense of connection to a physical place is closely tied to the group or symbol represented by that space. As a consequence, although God is inherently less accessible to religious adherents than interpersonal, human attachment figures, having a reliable emotional bond with a particular physical environment strongly associated with that deity may serve an important role in maintaining their sense of closeness with God. Critically, the experience of being in a place to which one is attached should be fundamentally different from being in an environment that one merely likes or enjoys. Consequently, experiencing a sense of attachment to one’s place of worship should entail more than mere satisfaction with the elements of worship itself (e.g., preaching, music). Rather, it is one’s sense of emotional connection that characterize the relationship. In this way, place attachment is a primarily emotional experience. Previous research has shown that people associate their favorite places with the particular types of emotional experiences elicited there, such as comfort, security, belonging, control, self-esteem, and relaxation (Scannell & Gifford, 2017a, b). Notably, one primary role of religion in the lives of believers is to similarly provide positive emotional experiences and attenuate negative affective states (Kay et al., 2010; Park, 2005). By and large, religious individuals tend to report greater emotional wellbeing than non-religious individuals, including fewer depressive symptoms and less anxiety (Koenig, 2001; Koenig et al., 2004). Moreover, several scholars have argued that religious experience itself is linked to a number of unique, positively valenced emotions, such as awe, reverence, and hope (Pargament et al., 2005; Watts et al., 2006). Such emotional experiences are explicitly sought in worship environments, which are often consciously designed to elicit these feelings of the sacred (Costa & Bonetti, 2016; Joye & Verpooten, 2013). Thus, the potential spiritual benefits that come from being strongly attached to the worship space are likely rooted in the positive emotional experiences that are fostered there.

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The Current Study Understanding how people’s psychological ties to their place of worship are related to their feelings of connection with God is particularly important in light of recent history, when many religious adherents spent extended periods of time being unable to physically enter their places of worship due to restrictions from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic (Counted et  al., 2021; Jacobi et  al., 2022; Shiba et al., 2022). Using a cross-sectional sample of Reformed Christians in the United States, the current study provides an initial investigation of whether an individual’s emotional bond with the place they worship in is associated with their feelings of spiritual well-being. It tests the hypothesis that attachment to the community’s worship space will be uniquely associated with spiritual well-being, above and beyond measures of religious behavior and overall satisfaction with elements of the worship experience. Moreover, I evaluate a model of this effect that explains this connection by the positive emotional experiences individuals have in those places.

Method Participants The sample consisted of 478 participants (66% women; 95% White; Mage = 54.7, SDage = 17.9) who identified as attending one of 19 Reformed Christian churches in the same town in western Michigan. Participants generally reported being long-term attendees (M = 20.4 years, SD = 17.6), with 87% saying that they attend their church at least every week in a typical year. These participants were recruited through advertisements in their church bulletin or newsletter, and then provided with an online link to the questionnaire. The data collection period took place in April 2021, and each person who completed the survey was compensated with a $10 gift card.

Measures The measures for this analysis were part of a larger survey that was distributed to participants through an online link. The critical dependent variable was a single item designed to assess spiritual growth: “Over the past 12 months, has your own religious faith become...” with the scale ranging from 1 (much weaker) to 5 (much stronger). To assess place attachment, participants were shown an image of their church’s worship space and asked to think about the physical location of their church’s services. They then completed a 12-item place attachment scale (Meagher & Cheadle, 2020; Scannell & Gifford, 2017a) that assesses the cognitive (e.g., “My church

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reflects the type of person I am”), affective (e.g., “My church is my favorite place to be”), and behavioral (e.g., “I really miss my church when I’m away from it for too long”) components of the construct (α = .903). To assess their emotional experience during worship, participants were provided with a list of 14 emotions (six positive and 8 negative) and asked to indicate on a 5-point response scale how often they experience that feeling during worship services at this location, ranging from never to always. For the current analysis, the six positively valenced items were aggregated to create a positive emotion index: peace, joy, a sense of God’s presence, awe, happiness, and excitement (α = .850). To measure their religious behaviors, participants reported how many years they had been attending this church, as well as how frequently they attend during a typical year, ranging from 1 (hardly ever/special occasions only) to 6 (more than once a week). They were also provided with a list of potential roles in the community (e.g., Sunday School teacher, choir) and asked to check any that apply to them, or to write in any additional roles they may perform. The number of roles they selected or wrote in was summed to create a measure of church involvement. To capture participants’ explicit attitudes about aspects of their worship experience, they also provided their overall satisfaction with three aspects of their church, each measured with a pair of items on a 7-point response scale: music (“I am very satisfied with the quality of the music at my church during a typical worship service” and “I do not really enjoy the music at this church”), preaching (“The preaching at my church is of high quality” and “I really enjoy listening to the sermons given at my church”), and social ties (“I have many close friends in this congregation” and “I have little social contact with other people from this congregation”). Finally, because this data was collected during the spring of 2021, participants were asked to indicate the extent to which the COVID-19 pandemic had altered their usual church attendance over the past several months on a 5-point response scale, ranging from “not at all” to “extremely.”

Results Data Analysis Two types of statistical analyses were planned for this data. First, to evaluate the extent to which attachment to one’s worship space was a unique predictor of spiritual growth, a pair of hierarchical mixed-effects regressions (nesting participants within their church) were performed. In Model 1, spiritual growth was regressed on basic demographic variables (e.g., gender, race), religious behavior (e.g., length and frequency of attendance), and satisfaction with elements of worship (e.g., music, sermons, and social ties). In Model 2, attachment to the church was then added to the model, in order to test whether this variable would explain additional variance in spiritual growth, above and beyond the covariates included in Model 1.

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Secondly, a multilevel mediation analysis was planned to test what variables would mediate the anticipated relationship between place attachment and the criterion variable. Specifically, it evaluates whether the association between place attachment and spiritual growth might be explained by the participants’ more frequent positive emotional experiences (e.g., awe, a sense of God’s presence) when within that physical environment.

Mixed-Effects Regression The parameter estimates for Model 1 and Model 2 are shown in Table  2.1. As described above, fixed effects for demographic variables, worship behaviors, the perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and satisfaction with three elements of worship (music, sermons, and social ties) were included in Model 1. Collectively, these variables explained a modest 6.2% of the variance in people’s self-reported spiritual growth. Greater spiritual growth was found for those with a larger number of roles in the church and greater satisfaction with the preaching. However, the Table 2.1  Parameter estimates predicting spiritual growth in past year Model 1 b SE 95% CI 3.41 0.12 [3.18, 3.64] −0.06 −0.05 0.04 [−0.13, 0.02] 0.07 0.16 0.10 [−0.04, 0.37] 0.07 0.00 0.00 [−0.00, 0.01] 0.06 0.06 0.05 [−0.03, 0.15] 0.10* 0.09* 0.04 [0.01, 0.17] −0.14** −0.09** 0.03 [−0.14, −0.03] −0.03 −0.02 0.03 [−0.07, 0.04] −0.01 −0.00 0.03 [−0.06, 0.05] 0.12* 0.08* 0.03 [0.02, 0.15] – – – –

β Intercept Gender Racial minority Length of attendance Frequency of attendance Number of roles in community Impact of COVID-19 Satisfaction with social ties Satisfaction with music Satisfaction with sermons Place attachment

Model 2 b SE 95% CI 3.41 0.12 [3.18, 3.63] −0.06 −0.05 0.04 [−0.12, 0.03] 0.07 0.16 0.10 [−0.05, 0.36] 0.06 0.00 0.00 [−0.00, 0.01] 0.06 0.05 0.05 [−0.04, 0.14] 0.10* 0.09* 0.04 [0.01, 0.17] −0.14** −0.08** 0.03 [−0.14, −0.03] −0.07 −0.04 0.03 [−0.09, 0.02] −0.04 −0.03 0.03 [−0.08, 0.03] 0.08 0.06 0.04 [−0.02, 0.12] 0.12* 0.10* 0.05 [0.01, 0.18]

β

Note. β = standardized estimate, b = unstandardized estimate, CI = confidence interval, COVID19 = coronavirus disease 2019, SE = standard error. *p