Piercing the Structure of Tradition: Flute Performance, Continuity, and Freedom in the Music of Noh Drama 9781942242970

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PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Flute Performance, Continuity, and Freedom in the Music of Noh Drama MARIKO ANNO

CORNELL EAST ASIA SERIES An imprint of Cornell University Press Ithaca and London

Copyright 2020 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, NY 14850. Visit our website at cornellpress. cornell.edu.

First published 2020 by Cornell University Press

Librarians: A CIP record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-939161-07-9 (hard cover) ISBN 978-1-939161-97-0 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-942242-97-0 (PDF ebook) ISBN 978-1-5017-5580-4 (epub/mobi ebook) Number 197 in the Cornell East Asia Series Cover illustrations: Mariko Anno playing the nohkan, 2007. Photo courtesy David Surtasky. Background by Akilev/Shutterstock.com.

To my father and mother

Contents

List of Illustrations ix List of Examples xi List of Tables xiii Notes on Romanization and Notations xv Acknowledgmentsxvii Introduction1 Chapter One History and Construction of the Nohkan

23

Chapter Two The Nohkan and Oral Transmission: Transcription in Western Staff Notation

47

Chapter Three The Role and Melodic Patterns of the Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles

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Chapter Four The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori as Planned, Prepared, and Performed117 Chapter Five The Continuity of Tradition Today: The Nohkan’s Part in Adaptations of W. B. Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well147 Reflections and Directions

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Appendix A Teaching and Playing the Nohkan in the United States

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viiiContents

Appendix B Recordings of Issō Yukihiro on the Nohkan

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Appendix C Shōga and Transcription of the〔Chū no Mai〕Hagakari: Kanze School Length, San-­dan (Three Divisions)

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Appendix D Transcriptions of Shōdan from Atsumori223 Appendix E Yubitsuke (Fingerings) for the〔Shidai〕and the〔Issei〕

253

Appendix F Text for Yokomichi’s Taka no Izumi (1949)

255

Appendix G Text for Yokomichi’s Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari (2004)

259

Appendix H Text for Yokomichi’s Takahime (1998)

263

Appendix I Contemporary Noh Play Performances and Their Casts, by Location and Date 271   Table I-1 Taka no Izumi performances 271   Table I-2 Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari performance272   Table I-3 Takahime performances  273   Table I-4  At the Hawk’s Well performances276 Appendix J Kanze School Utaibon for Atsumori279 Appendix K Nohkan Pitches Used for Theoretical Transcriptions 

283

Glossary285 Bibliography  307 Index323

List of Illustrations

Figure 1   Richard Emmert 12 Figure 2   Issō Yukihiro 15 Figure 3   Ranjō 20 Figure 4   A nohkan and a ryūteki33 Figure 5   Nodo placement in a nohkan replica 36 Figure 6  Nohkan scales from Nohgaku hayashi taikei, Berger, and Ranjō’s nohkan 37 Figure 7   Nohkan diagram with Ranjō’s measurements 39 Figure 8   Kashira-­gane42 Figure 9   A kaeshi nohkan model and actual instrument 43 Figure 10  Photograph and X-­ray of a nohkan replica 45 Figure 11 Shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the 〔Chū no Mai〕52 Figure 12 Shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of figure 11 using Roman letters 53 Figure 13  Fingering chart for the〔Chū no Mai〕55 Figure 14 “O-­hya-­ra” sequence from the fingering chart for the〔Chū no Mai〕56 Figure 15  Shōdan as the building blocks of a Noh play 80 Figure 16  Yowa-­gin pitches 83 Figure 17  Yowa-­gin pitch movements 84 Figure 18  Tsuyo-­gin pitches 85 Figure 19  Itō Michio performing in Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well150 Figure 20  A Takahime performance 164 Figure 21 Scene from a performance of At the Hawk’s Well by Theatre Nohgaku  178

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List of Examples

Example 1 Transcription of shōga from the ji of the 〔Chū no Mai〕, as sung by Issō Yukihiro Example 2 Transcription from the ji of the〔Chū no Mai〕, as performed by Issō Yukihiro Example 3 Transcription of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕 Example 4 Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the [Michiyuki] Example 5 Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the [Sageuta] Example 6 Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the [Ageuta] Example 7 Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the 〔Chū no Mai〕

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66 66 115 122 131 134

141

List of Tables

Table 1 Dan (subdivisions) of mugen Noh ba (acts)77 Table 2 Jo-­ha-­kyū structure within a Noh play 79 Table 3 Categories and examples of shōdan81 Table 4 Types of nohkan playing in utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto81 Table 5 Ashirai-­buki melodic patterns and awase-­buki melodic patterns82 Table 6 Comparison of five traditional Noh plays and nohkan melodic patterns 88 Table 7 Shōga and mode of the〔Chū no Mai〕and the 114 〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕 Table 8 〔Chū no Mai〕Hagakari structure 143 Table 9 Analysis of three contemporary Noh plays and nohkan melodic patterns 153

xiii

Notes on Romanization and Notations

1. Japanese names are stated in the Japanese order (i.e., surname followed by given name). 2.  Unless otherwise noted, translations are mine. 3.  Shōdan 小段 brackets, delineated by Yokomichi ([1987a] 1993, 4:329) and Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (1990, 4:26–27), are as follows: [　] for utai-­goto 謡事;〔　〕for hayashi-­goto 囃子事;1 and {　} for shijima-­ goto 無言事. Furthermore, 〈　〉 are used for titles of Noh plays in Japanese. 4. The Kō-­r yū kotsuzumi and Takayasu-­r yū ōtsuzumi drum strokes/ sounds are as follows: Kō-­r yū kotsuzumi (Kō Yoshimitsu [1956] 2004, 1) high; weak • chi チ (kan) ta タ (kashira) high; strong ∆ pu プ (hodo) lower; quite weak ѳ low; strong po ポ (otsu) ° tsu ツ Takayasu-­r yū ōtsuzumi (Yasufuku Haruo [1960] 1968) • tsu ツ soft chon チョン loud ∆ don ドン soft •

1. The extra space seen before and after the〔　〕brackets is due to the font. A Japanese font has been used for these brackets because they do not exist in English fonts. xv

xvi

Notes on Romanization and Notations

5. The Kō-­r yū kotsuzumi and Takayasu-­r yū ōtsuzumi drummers’ kakegoe (calls) カケ声 (Bethe and Brazell [1978] 1990, 66) are as follows: a. There are two standard drum kakegoe; these are traditionally notated as below, where the vowel pronunciations are closer to “o” than to “a”: 1. “ya” often appears before beats one and five, dividing the eight-­ beat groupings into halves. 2. “ha” comes before beats two, three, six, and seven and, for the shoulder drum, also before beat eight. b.  There are two special kakegoe, which usually precede odd-­ numbered beats and are played in striking patterns: 1. “iya” 2. “yo-­i ”

Acknowledgments

I initially approached this study of the nohkan (Noh flute) without fully understanding the difficulties and challenges it would entail. I thought that careful study and research, in addition to analysis of past video performances of Issō School nohkan players, would help me identify the nohkan’s senritsu-­kei (melodic patterns) and their entrance into traditional Noh plays in books. To my dismay, I quickly found that some nohkan melodic patterns in traditional Noh plays were not even included in books, prompting me to instead learn the nohkan melodic patterns from my nohkan master, Issō Yukihiro, via oral transmission using shōga (oral mnemonics). Moreover, when I first began this research, I did not realize that by simply identifying the nohkan’s melodic patterns without fully understanding the other instruments’ patterns or the melodic movements of the utai (chant), I was taking the nohkan out of its natural context of the nohgaku-­bayashi (Noh ensemble). Because of this realization, my research, which began in 2005 and was slated to end within eighteen months, is still ongoing today. In that time, I have studied all aspects of Noh with professional Noh performers to understand its intricacies. Even though it is impossible to acknowledge all of the guidance and assistance I have benefited from during this process, I take this opportunity to thank those who have made this book, and the research for it, possible. I am grateful for the generous financial support received from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (Monbukagakushō Scholarship), Rotary Yoneyama Memorial Foundation, Japanese Association of University Women, Murata Science Foundation, Kōnosuke Matsushita Memorial Foundation, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Toyota Motor Corporation, Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech), and the Center for Japanese Studies (CJS) at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Without the support of Tokyo Tech and CJS, this book would have not materialized. xvii

xviiiAcknowledgments

My research in Japan would not have been possible without many people. One is Professor Richard Emmert, who has paved the way for foreigners (like me) to study Noh with his Noh Training Projects in English, his stellar reputation in the Noh world, and his vast knowledge in the literary and practical aspects of Noh. I am grateful for his generosity in offering so much of his time to answer my questions about all aspects of Noh and especially for teaching me shimai (dance), utai, and the nohkan. I also express heartfelt gratitude to my adviser at Tokyo University of the Arts (Tokyo Geijutsu Daigaku, or Tokyo Geidai), Dr. Tsukahara Yasuko. I probably would not have had the opportunity to study at Tokyo Geidai if she had not generously and eagerly agreed to be my research adviser when I first came to Japan in 2004. My sincere thanks to my nohkan teacher, Mr. Issō Yukihiro, who willingly answered this outsider’s questions about the nohkan and the Noh world. I also thank him for allowing me access to his father’s privately and posthumously published work and for showing me the infinite possibilities of the Japanese transverse flutes. In writing this book, I am indebted to many individuals in Japan for providing me with data and Noh skills and knowledge. My special appreciation goes to Mr. Ranjō for wholeheartedly responding to my questions about the construction of the nohkan. I also thank Mr. Hayashi Hōju for his patience in replying to endless questions about his nohkan construction techniques. My gratitude extends to Mr. Issō Takayuki for answering many questions about Takahime, as well as to his father, Mr. Issō Yōji, for arranging the interview. My heartfelt thanks go to the late Mr. Yokomichi Mario, who kindly communicated with me about his newly created Noh, Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, and to his wife Mrs. Yokomichi Yōko, who graciously allowed me to include both his correspondence with me and materials on his Noh plays. I am also grateful for my nohgaku-­bayashi teachers, who helped me understand the relationship between the various instruments in the Noh ensemble: Mr. Sowa Masahiro, Kō School kotsuzumi; Mr. Kakihara Takashi (Living National Treasure), Takayasu School ōtsuzumi; and Mr. Mishima Gentarō (Living National Treasure), Komparu School taiko. In addition to my instrumental teachers, I appreciate the knowledge imparted by my Kita School shite-­kata teachers: Mr. Omura Sadamu, Mr. Matsui Akira, Ms. Oshima Kinue, and Mr. Oshima Teruhisa. Special thanks

Acknowledgmentsxix

go to Dr. Jonah Salz for providing me with helpful materials on At the Hawk’s Well and to Ms. Tamai Aya for allowing me access to her undergraduate thesis and reference materials. I am grateful to the University of Hawai‘i Press for giving me the rights to use my articles published in Asian Theatre Journal for this book. I thank Ms. Maeda Mikiko for permitting me to borrow the DVD of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari and thank the other helpful individuals from Kanze Bunko for their assistance. I am also grateful toward Professor Nishino Haruo, Dr. Fujita Takanori, Dr. Komoda Haruko, and Dr. Uemura Yukio for their support in my research. For granting me permission to use their materials for this book. I wish to express my gratitude toward all of the following: Mr. Ejima Hiroshi at Wanya Shoten; Mr. Hinoki Tsunemasa at Hinoki Shoten; the Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties; the Nohgaku Performers’ Association; Yamamoto Kyōgen Company; Mr. Yoshikoshi Ken at Yoshikoshi Studio; Professor Gamō Satoaki; Dr. Takakuwa Izumi; Professor Miura Hiroko; Dr. Thomas Hare; Dr. Eric C. Rath; Dr. William P. Malm; Dr. David W. Hughes; Dr. Jonah Salz at NOHO; Mr. Matthew R. Dubroff; Ms. Jubilith Moore; Ms. Elizabeth Dowd; the Society for Ethnomusicology; Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai; Stanford University Press; and Princeton University Press. During my years at the University of Illinois at Urbana-­Champaign (UIUC), I benefited greatly from the influence and support of many professors and friends. First, without the encouragement of Alexander Murray, my friend, my flute teacher, my mentor, and my adviser, who always told me to seek my roots and to enjoy music, I probably would not have come to Japan. Furthermore, through the love and support of my two dear teachers and friends Joan and Alexander Murray, who have trained me in the Alexander Technique, I have learned to breathe before taking any immediate action and to remember that life is full of good things and is not all work. Words are not enough to express my gratitude toward them. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the late David G. Goodman, my dissertation adviser, for providing extremely helpful and insightful comments and suggestions. Many thanks to Heidi Von Gunden, who consistently encouraged me in my studies since my first day at UIUC, Bruno Nettl for his guidance, and Jonathan Keeble for his kindness. Furthermore, I am grateful to my mentor Reginald Jackson, whom I met after I graduated from Tokyo

xxAcknowledgments

Geidai. He unselfishly dedicated time to help me find direction in my specialized field of traditional Japanese music, guiding my book project, and graciously recommended me for the position I held as a Toyota Visiting Professor at the University of Michigan. At Tokyo Institute of Technology, I am grateful for my colleagues in the Institute for Liberal Arts (ILA) who generously gave me time to finish this book. Special thanks to Professors Ueda Noriyuki, Yamazaki Taro, Tanioka Takehiko, Hayashi Naoyuki, Hugh de Ferranti, Saeki Yasuki, Kiuchi Kumiko, Ishihara Yuki, Harada Daisuke, Lorinda Kiyama, Tamura Masatoshi, Kitagawa Yoriko, Satsuma Tatsuro, Koizumi Yuto, Yamane Ryoichi, Ichikawa Shinji, Haraga Makiko, and my supportive colleagues at Tokyo Tech who are not mentioned here. I thank the staff members in the Foreign Language section and in ILA, especially Ms. Mizukami Toyoko and Mr. Asami Kiyoshi, for always helping me find a way to pursue my research. At the University of Michigan Center for Japanese Studies, I was honored to be selected as the Toyota Visiting Professor for the academic year 2018–2019. I offer heartfelt gratitude to Kiyoteru Tsutsui, Yuri Fukazawa, Bradly Hammond, Barbara Kinzer, and Peggy Rudberg for helping me transition into this position; Allison Alexy, Leslie Pincus, Kevin Carr, and CJS colleagues for welcoming me to Ann Arbor; and Toyota Motor Corporation for providing me with opportunities to share my love for traditional Japanese music with students and the community by creating this position. Moreover, I am grateful for the chance to perform the English-­language Noh Blue Moon Over Memphis with Theatre Nohgaku at the Power Center for the Performing Arts in October 2018, commemorating the thirtieth anniversary of the Toyota Visiting Professorship. Thank you again to CJS faculty and staff and to Mr. Yasui Shinichi from the Toyota Motor Corporation for making the performance possible. I could not have traveled this path without the encouragement and support of my family, friends, and colleagues. I cannot thank enough my patient friend Morita Toki, who also prepared the way for my nohkan research with her research and publications and helped immeasurably with my musical materials. Many heartfelt thanks to my Noh friends Judy Halebsky, for her cheerful outlook on life, and Carrie Preston, for her kindness in helping me with this book project. I am grateful

Acknowledgmentsxxi

for Kiuchi Kumiko’s encouraging words and support. Sincere thanks go to Anne Prescott for taking the time to read my manuscript and to Darian Thomas for assisting me with my musical materials. I thank the two anonymous reviewers for providing important commentary. I am indebted to Hugh de Ferranti, who opened the door for me to publish this book, and to Mai Shaikhanuar-­Cota at Cornell East Asia Series, who has patiently answered my numerous questions and made this book a reality. A special thanks to Sheryl Rowe who skillfully managed to navigate the content to produce a beautiful layout of this book. I am grateful to Rosemary Wetherold for her meticulous copyediting and insightful comments and for making sure my work was consistent throughout the book. In addition, I am filled with gratitude for the friendships created through performances with the members of the English-­language Noh troupe, Theatre Nohgaku (TN), of which I am a member. Performing English-­language Noh with TN has allowed me to understand, experience, and appreciate Noh on a different level. Every time I perform English-­language Noh, I feel as though all the pieces I have learned thus far come together and make sense. I thank John Oglevee, Jubilith Moore, Elizabeth Dowd, Kevin Salfen, Matthew R. Dubroff, David Crandall, and other TN members for giving me opportunities to experience new insight into Noh. Also, I thank another TN member, David Surtasky, for his beautiful photographs and permission to use them for this book, including the book’s cover photo, and for all his technical support. I cannot list all the professors, friends, Bible study members, and relatives who have always sent me words of encouragement and prayers to help me to finish this race. Thank you for always being there and listening to me. Lastly, words are not enough to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents for always supporting me in whatever I wanted to do, including joining the Peace Corps, attending graduate school in music with a chemistry undergraduate background, and relocating to Japan to do fieldwork. There were many times when I wondered whether I was making the right decision, but I am grateful for all the opportunities given to me. Because of my parents’ prayers and constant love, God has guided me through this long and arduous journey filled with joy. Thank you.

Introduction

Hi-­ya-­a-­hi. The sound of the hishigi (a high-­pitched sound with complex harmonic overtones) ヒシギ from the Noh flute (nohkan) 能管 pierces the silence of Noh theater. The penetrating sound of the nohkan casts a spell as the audience eagerly awaits the actors’ entrance. The hishigi is most often the first sound the audience hears after the musicians and choral singers are seated in their assigned areas.1 Following the nohkan’s signal and the drummers’ hit and calls, the waki (supporting or secondary role actor) ワキ slowly enters the stage from the hashi-­gakari (bridgeway) 橋掛リ as the curtain opens to the cue of his low, mumbling voice, saying, “Omaku,” meaning “The curtain.”2 His feet slide across the polished cypress stage, as observant eyes watch his every move in an air of suspense and anticipation. Before reaching the shite-­bashira (pillar where the shite, or main role actor, stands), he turns at an angle to enter the hon-­butai (main stage) 本舞台, passing the ōtsuzumi (hip drum) 大鼓 as it and the kotsuzumi (shoulder drum) 小鼓 play the yose pattern in concert. The “chon-­chon” pattern of the drums marks the placement of the waki for both the actors and the audience. The ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi create the onstage ambience, as they play off of each other’s patterns and kakegoe (drum calls) カケ声, while elongating and shortening the rhythm. In the meantime, the nohkan plays undulating melodic patterns that seem to follow the drum patterns rather than individual beats while reflecting the status of the waki. The nohkan’s sinister sounds and melodies mark poignant parts of a Noh, the actions onstage, and the downbeat of a dance, but those unfamiliar with the nohkan patterns instead hear melodies that seem to float above the low, drawn-­out voices of the drum calls and the dry drum hits of the ōtsuzumi in dialogue with the soft hits of the kotsuzumi. 1. Occasionally, Noh plays may begin without a hishigi. 2. The waki elongates the vowel “a” to set the tone and rhythm of the play. 1

2PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

This book investigates flute performance as a space for exploring the relationship between tradition and innovation. Tracing the characteristics of the nohkan and its music, I examine the musical structure and nohkan melodic patterns of five traditional Noh plays and assess the degree to which Issō School nohkan players maintain, to this day, the continuity of their musical tradition in three contemporary Noh plays inspired by the twentieth-­century Irish poet William Butler Yeats. These three contemporary works draw upon Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well, which was itself influenced by Noh drama that Yeats never saw with his own eyes. This “re-­import” of Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well into Noh-­influenced plays began with the late Yokomichi Mario 横道萬里 雄 (1916–2012) in 1949. I argue that traditions of musical style and usage remain vastly influential in shaping contemporary Noh composition and performance practice, and that the freedom within fixed patterns can be understood through a firm foundation in Noh tradition. This freedom becomes most audible in flute performance, as opposed to the drumming or choral accompaniment that anchors Noh plays. Nohkan music in contemporary Noh dramas does not depart in any significant way from traditional forms, content, and usage; in fact, the few noted variations would seem to reflect the personalities and preferences of individual musicians and composers rather than to represent an iconoclastic move to break with past traditions. And yet, through careful analysis of flute performances in a range of Noh plays, I demonstrate the extent to which reliance on traditions enables innovative, improvisational departures from Noh music’s inherent rigidity. By relying on tradition, the performer has a foundation upon which to improvise while remaining within the confines of a “Noh performance.” In addition to analyzing the flute’s unique role in Noh drama, this book explores the origin and development of the unusual construction of this fierce-­sounding pipe whose timbre penetrates the hush of Noh theater, marking the beginning of a new experience. Flutes are one of the oldest types of musical instruments, possessed by almost every music culture, and are possibly one of the easiest kinds of instruments to make, simply by boring holes into a tube. However, the nohkan is

Introduction3

unlike any other flute in the world. Its distinguishing characteristic is a thin bamboo tube called a nodo (throat) 喉 inserted in the flute tube between the mouth hole and the first finger hole. This simple yet crucial tube-­within-­a-­tube design deliberately distorts the instrument’s natural acoustics, producing inexplicable sounds that attract some and repel others. An opportunity in March 2017 allowed me to exhibit the vast improvisatory capacities of nohkan performance. It was with Theatre Nohgaku, an international troupe dedicated to performing English-­ language Noh. The Noh play Blue Moon Over Memphis retells the legend of Elvis Presley as an allegory of the rise and fall of idols. Toward the end of the play, Elvis conveys his isolation through the〔Dance of Loneliness〕, an original composition for nohkan and two drums that transitions into Elvis’s well-­k nown “Blue Moon.” As I played the dance with the drums, I could feel the audience’s gaze glued to Elvis, mesmerized by his beautiful, angel-­like costume and meticulously carved mask, complete with his trademark hairstyle. I sensed that the audience was listening intently to the nohkan, trying to recall the familiar tune that most of them had heard before.3 My role as the nohkan player was to disguise the tune by adding embellishments and rhythmic manipulations to accent and highlight certain parts in the music while remaining in constant synchronicity with the drum entrances. Freedom of expression, inspiration, and innovation within the confines of the seemingly rigid Noh form can be a deeply gratifying process for both performers and audiences, as was the case with Blue Moon Over Memphis. Having studied the nohkan in depth as a scholar, performer, and educator, I will shed light on an instrument that has long been neglected in the Noh drama, demonstrating its great potential as an instrument and proving that traditions of musical style remain strong in contemporary Noh composition and performance practice. 3. See Quinn (2018) for a review of the Blue Moon Over Memphis performance by Theatre Nohgaku at Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana, on March 15, 2017.

4PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Role of the Nohkan in Noh Drama Noh 能, a traditional music theater of Japan, was created more than 650 years ago and, to this day, still reflects the personalities of individual performers. It is traditionally defined by three fundamental elements: “talent 才能, ability 能力, [and] skill 技能” (Omote 1978b, 61). The “skill of specialty that one demonstrates” (Omote 1978b, 61) can be applied to all of the varied aspects of Noh theater—its music, drama, literature, and use of costumes and masks.4 The subtly expressive wooden masks worn by Noh actors are prominent features of the art form and are compelling far beyond the boundaries of the Noh performance, with a strong attraction for people especially from outside Japan.5 Due in part to this attention, Noh is becoming an international art form, with numerous performances abroad and an increasing number of foreigners studying its various aspects. Moreover, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has designated nohgaku 能楽, which includes both Noh and Kyōgen, an Intangible Cultural Heritage as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.6 According to William P. Malm, the nohkan serves three primary functions in traditional Noh plays: “(1) the signaling or highlighting of structural moments such as beginnings and endings; (2) adding a timbre that creates a special atmosphere in either instrumental music or lyrical passages in the vocal line; and (3) providing melody for hayashi-­ 4. As mentioned in “Notes on Romanization and Notations,” unless otherwise noted, translations are by the author. 5. Masks and costumes are salient features of Noh and warrant their own book-­length studies. The following book on masks in English should be consulted: Rebecca Teele, Nō/Kyōgen Masks and Performance: Essays and Interviews (Mime Journal, 1984). In regard to Noh costumes, Monica Bethe is the authority. Her essays “Colour, Texture and Tailoring: The Role of Costumes in Nō and Kyōgen,” in Khanh Trinh’s edited book Theatre of Dreams, Theatre of Play: Nō and Kyōgen in Japan (2014), and “Nō Costume as Interpretation,” in Teele’s Nō/Kyōgen Masks and Performance, include vital details explaining how certain Noh costumes and patterns define the character onstage. 6. “Nōgaku Theatre,” UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, accessed July 7, 2018, https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/nogaku-­t heatre-­00012.

Introduction5

accompanied [instrumentally accompanied] entrances or dances” (2000, 134). To demonstrate how the nohkan fulfills the three noted functions, I have selected five traditional Noh plays from Zeami’s mugen (dream world) Noh 夢幻能 repertoire—Takasago〈高砂〉, Atsumori〈敦盛〉, Izutsu〈井筒〉, Kinuta〈砧〉, and Tōru〈融〉—choosing one play from each of the gobandate (five categories of Noh) 五番立. I identify the nohkan senritsu-­kei (melodic patterns) 旋律型 used in each of the five plays, making clear how these standard melodic patterns are realized in the shōdan (building blocks) 小段 for each. In chapter 3, I provide a table that clearly outlines some critical comparative notes among the five selected plays. In addition, and for further clarity, I provide Western staff notation for the nohkan melodic patterns of one play, Atsumori. Through analysis of traditional Noh plays, the nohkan melodic patterns played in the shōdan are shown to be “formulaic,” carefully calculated, and definitely not arbitrary. These nohkan melodic patterns are set and prescribed, although the entry point of the nohkan in the shōdan may differ slightly among performers. Because the melodic patterns for each Noh play are so similar, it is the nohkan player’s charge to vary them in performance, playing the melodic patterns differently according to the character of the Noh: he or she adds embellishments (sashi-­yubi 差し指), produces shakuhachi-­like white noise with a burst of fast, strong air (fukikomi 吹キ込ミ), or adjusts the volume of the sound and air stream hitting the mouth hole, as well as using other personal techniques to support the utai (chant) 謡 and enhance the mood of the play. The analyses of these five traditional Noh plays and the taxonomies of structure defined by Japanese Noh researchers serve as the standard by which three contemporary Noh plays, as performed by Issō School nohkan players, are then compared. In these analyses, the focus remains on the nohkan melodic patterns and roles, which I have elucidated by breaking down the plays into shōdan, identifying the melodic patterns and entry points of the nohkan, and—as instructed by my nohkan master, Issō Yukihiro—creating a table for each play. The three contemporary Noh plays, all influenced by W. B. Yeats’s Noh-­inspired play, At the Hawk’s Well, are Yokomichi Mario’s Takahime (The hawk

6PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

princess)〈鷹姫〉(1998); Yokomichi Mario’s Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari (At the hawk’s well, the mantra)〈鷹の泉〉呪掛 (2004);7 and an English-­ language Noh production of At the Hawk’s Well by Theatre Nohgaku (2002). These three modernist plays adopt many melodic patterns directly from traditional Noh, while other melodies were newly composed to be played during specific scenes or actions. Some noted musical innovations include improvisation by the nohkan performers and use new instrumental combinations. When the traditional melodic patterns are present, however, they usually appear in their unaltered forms and are used in a traditional manner. Thus, for the Issō School players, there appears to be a strong need to remain grounded in the traditional repertoire and roles of the nohkan, despite the ensemble’s fresh experiments in contemporary Noh plays.

Scope and Limitations This book examines the musical aspects of the nohkan, not the literary and religious characteristics of Noh. The literary aspects of Noh have been studied extensively and impressively in Japan and other countries, forming a bibliography far too substantial to be enumerated in these pages. Likewise, Japanese and non-­Japanese scholarship on the historical and religious aspects of Noh is abundant. These studies have debated the origins of Noh in various religious practices, including chinkon (pacification of spirits of the dead) 鎮魂, shamanism, Shinto, Buddhism, and other minzoku geinō (folk entertainments) 民俗芸能. Many scholars have argued that, with its high-­piercing hishigi, the nohkan itself may play a role in summoning the spirits. This book, however, does not aim to assess the religio-­aesthetic content of Noh; the often-­ conflicting, largely subjective interpretations of various scholars go beyond the scope of my musical analyses, and whether performers actually take into consideration the religio-­aesthetics of Noh during their performances is debatable.8 7. A subscript notation following the title of a Noh play indicates a kogaki (special performance) of the Noh. 8. Interested readers are referred to the following works for in-­depth discussions of the religious aspects of Noh: H. E. Plutschow, Chaos and Cosmos:

Introduction7

Survey of Existing Scholarship on the Nohkan As the first English-­language monograph on the nohkan, this book addresses two principal issues overlooked in the extant literature: the lack of a comprehensive study on the nohkan and its construction, techniques, pedagogical methods, and melodic patterns; and the challenges a nonspecialist might face when encountering the shōga (oral mnemonics) 唱歌 system, used as a primary means of transmission in Japanese instrumental music. By embarking on an in-­depth study of the nohkan and its place within the fields of organology and ethnomusicology, my book seeks to establish the groundwork upon which readers can better understand and engage with the nohkan instrument and its music, ultimately allowing a more intrinsic appreciation of the art form of Noh. At present, existing research remains mostly limited to the literary aspects of traditional and contemporary Noh. Nohkan literature in Japanese includes a number of seminal records and liner notes written in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. These important works include many records and liner notes such as Nohgaku hayashi taikei (Organization of nohgaku instruments; edited by Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda—see Komparu Sōuemon et al. 1973a); Kanze-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi (Kanze School: Instrumental dance music; edited by Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda 1976a); Hōshō-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi (Hōshō School: Instrumental dance music; edited by Hōshō, Komparu, and Masuda 1978); Kuchi-­shōga taikei: Nihon no gakki no solumi-­zation (Survey of oral Ritual in Early and Medieval Japanese Literature (1990); Jacob Raz, “Chinkon— From Folk Beliefs to Stage Conventions,” in Maske und Kothurn (1981); Jay Rubin, “The Art of the Flower of Mumbo Jumbo,” in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (1993); and William R. LaFleur, The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts in Medieval Japan (1986). Other sources focusing on the religions and beliefs of Japan include Carmen Blacker, The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan (1975); Frank Hoff, Song, Dance, Storytelling: Aspects of the Performing Arts in Japan (1978); Ichirō Hori, Folk Religion in Japan: Continuity and Change (1968); Joseph M. Kitagawa, Religion in Japanese History (1966); Narimitsu Matsudaira, “The Concept of Tamashii in Japan,” in Studies in Japanese Folklore (1963); Benito Ortolani, “Shamanism in the Origins of the Nō Theatre,” in Asian Theatre Journal (1984); and Benito Ortolani, The Japanese Theatre: From Shamanistic Ritual to Contemporary Pluralism (1995).

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mnemonics: Solmization of Japanese instruments; edited by Yokomichi and Gamō 1978); and Zeami seitan roppyaku-­nen kinen, Noh: Go-­ryū/ Goban, Jō/Ge (Six hundredth anniversary of Zeami’s birth, Noh: Five schools/five categories, volumes 1 and 2; Yokomichi 1963a, 1963b). These works focus, however, on the analysis of traditional Noh plays and the nohgaku-­bayashi (Noh musical ensemble) 能楽囃子, only briefly examining the nohkan’s construction, teaching methods, and melodic patterns. More recent discussions on Noh musical aspects also tend to consider the Noh musical ensemble as a whole. Examples of these are evident in two publications: Noh no hayashi to enshutsu (Noh music ensembles and performances) by Takakuwa Izumi (2003), which describes the role of the hayashi (musical ensemble) in traditional Noh plays, and Noh no hayashi-­goto (Instrumental music in Noh),9 edited by Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (Society for Research in Asiatic Music; 1990), which delineates the structure of Noh and hayashi shōdan (musical ensemble building blocks). Aside from Akira Tamba’s La structure musicale du Nō: Théâtre traditionnel japonais (The musical structure of Noh: Traditional Japanese theater; 1974), available scholarship offers little information about the technical and musical aspects of the nohkan, even in individual discussions of Noh instruments, making it difficult for those who are not familiar with the notation to fully grasp the description of the music. Morita Toki’s 2006 PhD dissertation on the nohkan, titled “Nohkan no ongaku-­gihō kenkyū: Shōga kara mita tayōsē” (A study of Nohkan musical techniques: Analysis of shōga and their changes through history), examines the adaptations of traditional nohkan melodic patterns through an investigation of traditional nohkan shōga-­shū (oral mnemonics books) 唱歌集 from the Meiji period (1868–1912) to the present day. A book based on this dissertation has recently been published as Nohkan no Ensō-­gihō to Denshō (Nohkan performance techniques and transmission; 2018). As the only extensive written material in any language on the musical aspects of the nohkan in traditional Noh, Morita’s two works form the primary foundation for my own research. Perhaps, for purposes of my work, the most relevant and productive research in English is in two articles about the nohkan: Donald Paul 9. The English translation of the title is given by the editing society.

Introduction9

Berger’s “The Nohkan: Its Construction and Music” (1965) and Takanori Fujita’s “Kuchishōga: The Vocal Rendition of Instrumental Expression in the Oral and Literate Tradition of Japanese Music: With Emphasis on the Nōkan” (1986a). Berger’s work examines the nohkan’s construction and its pitches, teaching instructions using shōga, and a musical transcription of the nohkan part in the dance〔Chū no Mai 中ノ舞〕(Middle tempo dance) of the Morita School, using Western staff notation. His nohkan transcriptions are most helpful as a guide for hearing the nohkan pitches and understanding the rhythm and offer his insights based upon what he was able to hear. But his nohkan images are very similar to the seminal record Zeami seitan roppyaku-­nen kinen, Noh: Go-­ryū/ Goban, Jō/Ge (Yokomichi 1963a, 1963b) and do not provide any fresh information. My book, however, provides digital images of the nohkan’s external and internal structure, figures of my nohkan measurements, and pictures of nohkan makers and performers. Fujita’s article goes beyond Berger’s work and discusses his Morita School nohkan lessons with his master. His article includes nohkan shōga written by his nohkan master using Japanese kana (syllables) 仮名 and articulates the correlation between the teacher’s nohkan singing and playing style, which I demonstrate and explain below. This book takes Fujita’s work further and provides a transcription of my Issō School nohkan master’s shōga singing and his eventual realization of the shōga, to demonstrate their similarities and relationship. Further, I go beyond Berger’s transcriptions to transcribe the entire〔Chū no Mai〕in Western staff notation, with nohkan shōga pitches and drum patterns and calls written out separately underneath the transcription. This production serves as a template that enables me to compare a transcription of the〔Chū no Mai〕written using my nohkan pitches to a live performance of the〔Chū no Mai〕by my nohkan master’s performance in a Noh theater, validating the resemblance between the theoretical and realized performances. The shōga system of oral transmission comprises a basic musical vocabulary that uses combinations of Japanese kana syllables to indicate musical expression, phrases, tempo, accents, motives, and nuances. To ensure that readers unfamiliar with shōga are able to fully grasp descriptions of the music, my book presents shōga as Roman letters and is

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the first to provide Western music transcriptions combining nohkan melodic patterns, chant melodic lines, and drum patterns. This transcription draws upon and expands the three-­line notation devised by Japanese scholars and Richard Emmert (discussed later), who composes for English-­language Noh. I also include drum patterns and drum calls written in a one-­line notation below the chant lines. These transcriptions subsequently allow for a wider dissemination of Noh music and increased accessibility to the nohkan’s repertoire and performance practices. Traditional musical ensembles have been examined to a certain extent in Japan, but research regarding the contemporary Noh hayashi is nearly nonexistent. The influence of shinsaku (new or newly created) Noh 新作能 is notable in Japan, as demonstrated by the ninth annual “Nohgaku Seminar,” hosted by Hosei University in 2004, which was titled “Shinsaku noh wo kangaeru” (Considering newly composed Noh plays). This seminar, however, focused on the literary aspects of the Noh plays, not on the musical aspects.10 The most substantial work on shinsaku Noh is Noh/Kyōgen: Nihon koten geinō to gendai (Noh/Kyōgen: Japanese traditional performing arts and the modern era), by Yokomichi Mario and Kobayashi Seki (1996). This study contains an inventory of new Noh plays composed and performed between 1916 and 1995, although it lacks musical analyses. An undergraduate thesis on new Noh plays was written by Tamai Aya in 2003, titled “Umi o wattata noh no kiseki: Shingeki Taka no Ido kara Shinsaku Noh Takahime he” (Following the tracks of Noh plays overseas: From the new play Taka no Ido to the new Noh play Takahime). Tamai focuses on the contemporary Noh play Takahime, discussing the structure, characters, musicians, and influences of the 10. At Hosei University’s “Nohgaku Seminar” (2004), Nishino Haruo gave a presentation entitled “Shinsaku Noh hyakunen no nagare” (Directions of newly composed Noh over the last one hundred years), in which he compiled a list of shinsaku Noh from 1904 to 2004 (Nishino 2004). He expanded this list and published it in Nōgaku Kenkyū 29 (Nishino 2005), and from this list, he analyzed shinsaku Noh that he found exceptional in Nōgaku Kenkyū 30 (Nishino 2006). Later, he tackled the question “What Is Noh?” in Nōgaku Kenkyū 42 (Nishino 2018).

Introduction11

original Western drama At the Hawk’s Well that inspired the Noh work. Once again, however, musical analysis is not included. As for scholarship in English, traditional Noh music research has been conducted by Richard Emmert (1980) and William P. Malm (1958, 1960), examining the rhythmic patterns of Noh music such as ō-­nori (large rhythm) 大ノリ, chū-­nori (medium rhythm) 中ノリ, and hira-­nori (standard rhythm) 平ノリ. Hoff and Flindt (1973) have also annotated and translated parts of the two-­volume set from Nihon koten bungaku taikei (Compendium of classical Japanese literature), published as part of the Iwanami series that examines the structure of a Noh play (Yokomichi and Omote [1960] 1976, [1963] 1975). Their work is seminal to Noh research. Research on new Noh plays in English has been increasing, but most of the work has not been published. Emmert, an American who has been living in Japan and studying Noh since 1973, is a certified Kita School Noh dance instructor (shimai-­kyōshi 仕舞教士) and has studied all aspects of Noh (figure 1). He stands at the forefront of creating, composing, and directing English-­language Noh plays. He is currently a professor at Musashino University in Tokyo and the director of the English-­language Noh troupe Theatre Nohgaku. Emmert remains one of the few shinsaku Noh researchers fluent in Japanese and English. In James R. Brandon’s Nō and Kyōgen in the Contemporary Worlds, Emmert (1997, 25) discusses the definition of Noh, the “external” and “internal” elements of Noh, and how the definition of newly created Noh may be expanded by changing its external—not internal—elements. Emmert (2008) also elucidates the reasons for creating Theatre Nohgaku and English-­language Noh and includes a list of English-­language Noh plays (with synopses) in Stanca Scholz-­Ciona and Christopher Balme’s Nō Theatre Transversal. In addition to these publications, Rebecca Teele (1984) interviewed Emmert for Mime Journal about his work with Noh. Of note, however, is that even Emmert’s remarkably comprehensive work grants very little attention to the role of the nohkan in contemporary Noh plays. Pioneering research on the nohkan’s musical role in traditional and contemporary Noh plays remains scant. Because the instrument must be learned through oral transmission, finding a teacher with the appro-

12PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Figure 1: Richard Emmert. (Image © David Surtasky)

Introduction13

priate skills and knowledge is almost impossible for those living outside Japan. For those living in Japan, studying with a fue-­kata (nohkan performer in Noh) 笛方 allows one to attain a certain level of proficiency, but many other issues still must be faced. Noh is a comprehensive art form, and to fully understand how its various components interact with one another, basic familiarity with all the elements is crucial. The nohkan is an instrument that thrives in its musical context and is an integral part of the hayashi. The flute’s functions and musical patterns are intricately interrelated with those of the other instruments, musicians, and performers. Thus, analyzing and understanding the instrument in this context is essential. The minor differences in musical patterns found among the different schools of Noh instrument playing further complicate attempts at analysis and understanding. Researchers rarely find a performance that includes all the desired schools of performers. Furthermore, locating anything resembling a descriptive Western “score” that includes the preferred schools of the various ensemble instruments proves nearly unrealizable. Thus, it remains for the researcher to compile a “score,” paying special attention to the differences among schools.

Fieldwork and Pushing the Boundaries of Noh The research described in this book was conducted in Japan from October 2005 to March 2007, with funding provided by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (Monbukagakushō Scholarship). During my eighteen months in Japan, I studied at the Tokyo University of the Arts 東京藝術大学 as a research student. I took classes in Japanese music history to augment the foundation upon which to ground a solid historical reading of Noh, its music, and its greater cultural implications. After completing my term as a research student, I continued with my graduate studies at Tokyo University of the Arts, while conducting ethnographic research in Japan and abroad, investigating creative processes and musical collaborations among the writers, composers, directors, actors, and musicians of contemporary Noh. To this day, I continue to take Noh lessons with nohgaku-­shi (pro-

14PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

fessional Noh performers) 能楽師 and have learned all aspects of Noh, including nohkan, utai, shimai (dance) 仕舞, kotsuzumi, ōtsuzumi, and taiko (stick or barrel drum) 太鼓, in order to understand this comprehensive art form. In addition, I have become a member and performer of Theatre Nohgaku. While conducting fieldwork for this book, I took private nohkan lessons at the university with Issō Yukihiro 一噌幸弘 (hereafter Yukihiro), a nohkan master from the Issō School, both at school and at his teaching studio (figure 2). He is the eldest son of Issō Yukimasa 一噌幸 政 (1929–2004) and made his debut on the Noh stage when he was nine years old (Issō Yukihiro and Narabe 2006, 2). Yukihiro is the fifteenth generation of Issō-­r yū fue-­kata, beginning with Nakamura Shichizaemon 中村七郎左衛門 (?–1539), who was a disciple of Higaimoto Hikojirō Hidetsugu 檜垣本彦四郎栄次 (d. 1527) (Hirano, Kamisangō, and Gamō 1989, 38; Morita 2018, 24). While firmly grounded in traditional Noh music, Yukihiro also performs music of different genres and has formed his own diverse musical ensembles. In these ensembles he plays all types of flutes, ranging from Japanese flutes like the ryūteki 龍笛 to shinobue 篠笛 of all sizes, dengaku-­bue 田楽笛, and nodo-­nashi nohkan (nohkan without a throat) ノドナシ能管, as well as gemshorn, Renaissance, baroque, and modern transverse flutes and even recorders, with which he won first place in the 1981 Asahi Shinbun Japan Recorder Contest. Yukihiro’s musical groups incorporate a variety of instruments in order to create music with various colors and timbres. The groups include (1) Shirase, composed of violin, tabla, and Eastern drums; (2) Kaeshi-­dome, with electric bass and drums; (3) Issō Yukihiro Group, involving guitar and tabla; and (4) Leeyari, with violin and double string bass (Issō Yukihiro and Narabe 2006, 3). Moreover, he has performed with other musicians, such as Yamashita Yōsuke, Watanabe Kazumi, and Cecil Taylor, and continues to collaborate with various musicians from around the world.11 In 2006 he performed Bach’s Or11. Yukihiro Isso Official Website, accessed July 7, 2018, http://issoyukihiro.com.

Introduction15

Figure 2: Issō Yukihiro. (Photograph by author)

chestral Suite No. 2 in B Minor on a Japanese transverse flute with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra.12 Yukihiro’s musical pursuits outside the traditional Noh stage have stirred controversy within the Noh world, where one is encouraged to focus on one’s art form and dedicate oneself to it. For example, Matsui 12. Issō Yukihiro, Issō Yukihiro: Fue/Gensō no Tabi, Tokyo Opera City Concert Hall, Takemitsu Tōru Memorial, February 24, 2006.

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Akira 松井彬, who is a shite-­kata from the Kita School and has been collaborating with performers abroad since 1972, could not become a shokubun (full professional) 職分 when his uchideshi (live-­in apprentice peers) 内弟子 were becoming full professionals, but instead earned status as a jun-­shokubun (junior professional) 準職分, a position created for him by the iemoto (head of household) 家元, which “signaled a fear of handing the power of nō lineage to an actor who had shown himself to be less than strictly traditional” (Anno and Halebsky 2014, 132). However, after the death of the fifteenth iemoto, Kita Minoru 喜多 実 (1900–1986), Matsui quickly became a shokubun at the age of forty and a holder of Important Intangible Cultural Property at a young age of fifty-­two (Anno and Halebsky 2014, 132). Other nohgaku-­shi who collaborate with Japanese and Western music and art forms are the second-­generation kyōgen-­kata Nomura Mansai of the Izumi School and the fourth-­generation shite-­kata Umewaka Minoru of the Kanze School. Yukihiro’s ambition, however, to realize the full potential and capabilities of the nohkan, as well as the pleasure he takes in playing different flutes, motivates him to continue with his projects, performances, and research and to globally disseminate knowledge of the nohkan. Further, he continues to perform with Western and Japanese musicians. One of his popular performances is “Issō Yukihiro no Nohgakudō he ikō” (Let’s go to Issō Yukihiro’s Noh theater) 「一噌幸弘の能 楽堂へ行こう」,13 which he began in 2012 after receiving the second annual Sozō-­suru-­shō (Creation Award) 創造する賞 in 2010.14 The second and third performance of “Let’s Go to Issō Yukihiro’s Noh Theater” took place in 2017 at the National Noh Theater with the hope that more people would visit on these occasions. More recently, Yukihiro has been investigating the performance practice of the dengaku-­bue and trying to re-­create the instrument, which was played before the Muromachi 13. Yukihiro Isso Official Website, accessed July 7, 2018, http://issoyuki hiro.com. 14. Japan Arts Foundation, accessed July 7, 2018, http://jp-­artsfdn.org /award/list/.

Introduction17

period (1336–1573) and was thought to be one of the predecessors to the current nohkan.15 Private lessons allowed me to observe the nohkan teaching methods of different teachers and schools using shōga and to gain insights through oral transmission. I also established relationships with other nohgaku-­shi through my teachers. Although I did receive traditional instruction from Yukihiro, my acceptance as a disciple during this fieldwork period under the restrictions of the Issō School regulations is questionable, given that I took my lessons with him as a university student. As Eric C. Rath rightly observes, “The fundamental unit of institutional organization in the noh world today is the noh school” (2004, 253). The Noh world has twenty-­four different schools, which are divided into two categories: tachi-­kata (role actors) 立チ方 and hayashi-­ kata (instrumentalists) 囃子方. The former are responsible for the acting and singing and are further divided into three roles: shite-­kata (main role actors) シテ方, with five schools; waki-­kata (supporting or secondary role actors) ワキ方, with three schools; and kyōgen-­kata (Kyōgen role actors) 狂言方, with two schools. For the hayashi-­kata, four players are responsible for the music: fue-­kata, with three schools; kotsuzumi-­kata (shoulder drum players) 小鼓方, with four schools; ōtsuzumi-­kata (hip drum players) 大鼓方, with five schools; and taiko-­ kata (stick or barrel drum players) 太鼓方, with two schools. Each school differs in performance styles, notational systems, shōga singing, and other aspects, allowing for variation in performance based on the different combinations of schools as well as the individual performance styles and techniques. As Morita calculates, there are approximately 3,600 variations for one Noh performance, 120 variations for just the instruments, and even more variations if the kogaki (special performances) 小書 are included (2018, 3). 15. Yukihiro has also been examining performance practices of the dengaku-­bue before the Muromachi period and has created an ensemble called Dengaku-­sangaku/Sechie 田楽散楽/節会 to perform his compositions (Yukihiro Issō Official Blog, accessed December 12, 2018, https://ameblo.jp/isso yukihiro/entry-­12407740079.html).

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Rath notes that “amateurs also participate in schools as tuition-­ paying students learning the performance style of their teacher” and that “the noh school is structured as an extended family.” He concludes, “Whatever their origins, all members of a noh school participate in the fictional family of the school” (2004, 253). I, however, question my position/placement within the school system, since I was a university student on a scholarship and not a “tuition-­paying student” who usually pays the master on a monthly basis. Rath further asserts, “Today, the family head serves as the final arbiter of his school’s artistic style, and the school’s traditions are considered his family’s art” (254). This hierarchy holds true to a certain extent, but the degree of power the iemoto holds differs from one school to another. His authority includes “the right to license professionals, determine the contents of the repertoire, and receive the royalties for the publication of the school’s writings” (254). Rath proceeds to explain that the powers enjoyed by modern Noh family heads are particularly notable among the “five iemoto of the shite schools” (247). This account may be true for the Kanze School of the shite-­kata in which Rath studied but may not necessarily apply to the other shite-­kata schools. In addition, some schools operate without an actual iemoto but rather with an individual who acts as the head, or the Sōke-­azukari 宗家預, who supervises the household, as in the case with the Morita School flute.16 Rath correctly observes that family heads in these other schools “have comparable but less far-­reaching powers” (2004, 247–248). In some schools, the head of the household seems to have become a mere figurehead—or there may not be one at all. For my research, therefore, I have deliberately placed myself outside the iemoto-­seido (family regulations) 家元制度, partly out of necessity, since my position as a univer-

16. See Seki, Nishi, and Hata (2012, 885–887) and Morita (2018, 31–33) for details about the Morita School Sōke history. Jurō 寿郎, the son of the ninth-­ generation Sōke, Morita Hatsutaro Mitsutoshi 森田初太郎光俊 (1833–1906), decided not to inherit the family art form. According to these two sources, Terai Sanshirō 寺井三四郎 (1858–1927) in Tokyo became the “representative” of the school, and since Terai’s death, the shite-­kata Kanze School has been acting as the Sōke-­azukari to this day.

Introduction19

sity student mitigated my “official” status, and partly from a desire to remain impartial toward the disputes within the schools. As a practitioner, I joined an amateur nohkan group called Shizuku no Kai しづくの會, under the direction of the head of the Issō School, Issō Yōji 一噌庸二. This experience afforded me many performance opportunities as part of the nohgaku-­bayashi. In addition, I participated in Emmert’s Noh Training Project workshops, taking utai and shimai lessons outside of school. In this context, I was given numerous opportunities to sing, dance, and perform the nohkan in an onstage ensemble setting. A significant portion of my research consists of interviews with nohkan makers, nohkan players, Noh composers, and Noh researchers, in addition to consultation with nohkan literature and audiovisual and audio recordings of performances. Since the construction and acoustics of the nohkan have seldom been investigated, I interviewed Ranjō 蘭情 or 蘭照,17 a nohkan, shinobue, and ryūteki maker in Chiba Prefecture, Japan (figure 3),18 and visited the studio of Hayashi Hōju 林豊寿, a nohkan maker living in Ishikawa Prefecture who had also been a fue-­kata for the Morita School.19 Ranjō, a shinobue player himself, did not inherit the art of nohkan making from his father. After making a shinobue to play at the local shrine festival when he was twenty-­six years old, he found himself in the flute-­making business. He has been working closely with Yukihiro for over twenty-­five years, inventing new models of nohkan, shinobue, dengaku-­bue, and other flutes. He strives both to create traditional instruments for the appropriate arts and to be innovative in creating flutes customized to the performer’s needs and wishes (e.g., special measurements and sound). Despite these departures, he does not seek to alter the main structure and essential character of the instruments; nor does Yukihiro. 17. Real name: Hasegawa Teruaki 長谷川照明. 18. Ranjō, interviews by author, May 7 and July 27, 2006, and August 19, 2018, Chiba-­ken, Japan. 19. With a group of fellow nohkan players and Issō Yōji, I visited Hayashi Hōju in his studio in Ishikawa-ken, Japan on August 22, 2006 to study his nohkan and construction techniques. This visit included a group presentation and a Q&A session but did not include a one-on-one interview.

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Figure 3: Ranjō. (Photograph by author)

In analyzing the melodic patterns and entrances of the nohkan in traditional Noh plays, I have referenced the following: (1) Issō-­r yū fue kashira-­tsuke (Issō School flute entrance book; [1940] 1944), a book written and compiled by Morikawa Sōkichi indicating the entrances of the nohkan ashirai (unmatched playing) アシライ within the Noh plays, published here with the permission of the head of the school; (2) Issō Yukimasa’s privately and posthumously published work (n.d.[a], n.d.[b]), with the permission of Yukihiro; (3) live Noh performances;

Introduction21

and (4) videotaped performances of past Issō School players. My most important source, however, remains Yukihiro himself, who passed along performance information to me via oral transmission, as per tradition. For my examination of contemporary Noh plays, I interviewed the nohkan players or composers featured in videotaped performances I observed. For Takahime, I interviewed Issō Takayuki 一噌隆之 (hereafter Takayuki), the son of Issō Yōji, about the melodic patterns he played and his approach to contemporary Noh plays; and Yukihiro, for Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari. Finally, I consulted Emmert for the music of At the Hawk’s Well, since he had set the text to music.

Organization of This Book This book’s first three chapters cover the general elements of traditional Noh structure and the role of nohkan melodies as well as the instrument’s history. Chapter 1 examines the development and construction techniques of the nohkan and includes interviews with the aforementioned nohkan makers. Chapter 2 discusses the three primary functions of the nohkan in a Noh play, according to Malm (2000); focuses on comprehending the role of shōga and the importance and history of oral transmission; and offers an analysis of Yukihiro’s singing the shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan keishiki (ryo-­chū-­kan structure) 呂中干形 式 of the〔Chū no Mai〕using Western staff notation, followed by his performance of the ryo-­chū-­kan keishiki. Audio files of these performances are provided at https://annomariko.wordpress.com. (See appendix B for recording information.) In chapter 3, a preliminary explanation of the shōdan gives an accessible description of the mugen Noh structure and the three categories of shōdan. Using the shōdan structure, I survey past research on nohkan entrances and melodic patterns and demonstrate how the nohkan fulfills the three functions presented in chapter 2. Through five selected traditional Noh plays from Zeami’s mugen Noh repertoire (Takasago, Atsumori, Izutsu, Kinuta, and Tōru), I analyze the nohkan senritsu-­kei and their use in these Noh plays, as well as discussing the role of the performer in adding embellishments

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and other performing techniques to support the chant while enhancing the mood of the play. In the succeeding chapters, I present extensive musical analysis of Atsumori, which forms a standard point of reference for the comparison of the five plays discussed in chapters 3 and 4. With all of the necessary building blocks for understanding traditional Noh music in place, chapter 4 presents and explains my transcriptions of Yukihiro’s “theoretical” nohkan entrance, as transmitted in person by Yukihiro, which are then compared with specific shōdan from a live performance of Atsumori, with Yukihiro on the nohkan. This case study demonstrates that room exists for individual interpretation in a Noh play, as one may take into account the different schools of instruments and of singing styles and written texts of chant books used by the main actors and chorus. In the last chapter, I assess the degree of continuity of this musical tradition as illustrated in three contemporary Noh play adaptations of W. B. Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well by nohkan performers of the Issō School. To gain the necessary insight, I conducted interviews with nohkan performers and a composer. I conclude that the nohkan’s role in contemporary and English-­language Noh is much like its traditional role, while allowing for variations and embellishments by performers, ultimately demonstrating musical continuity in the context of experimentation. Lastly, in “Reflections and Directions,” I discuss the strict separation that exists in Japan between professional and amateur Noh performers and how this boundary translates overseas through the collaborative works of Theatre Nohgaku and professional Noh performers. I offer my insight into this matter as a nohkan player for Theatre Nohgaku and how my background in studying the performative aspects of traditional Noh have helped me navigate the tension between these two worlds.

Chapter One History and Construction of the Nohkan

The nohkan (literally, Noh pipe) 能管, also known as fue (flute) 笛, is a transverse flute made from a type of bamboo known as Pleioblastus simonii. Though traditionally played in the Noh theater, Kabuki, and some shrine festivals, the nohkan can now be seen on concert stages as part of both traditional and nontraditional ensembles. These nontraditional ensembles consist of Eastern and Western groups, including jazz groups and orchestras. Through these experiments and collaborations, this flute has been gaining international attention. The nohkan is a unique instrument in both construction and sound. The nodo (throat) 喉, a thin bamboo tube placed between the mouth hole and first finger hole, disrupts the instrument’s natural acoustics. Therefore, it is unable to play a diatonic scale as heard in Western music and cannot play an octave.1 Its performance techniques include creating shakuhachi-­like white noise by blowing into the mouth hole with excessive and forceful air,2 using percussive breath marks to indicate the beats, and playing melodic lines to color the text of the chanters. Aside from its distinct, shrill sound and scales that include microtones and quarter tones, in its outward appearance the instrument has retained its original design: a large mouth hole and seven finger holes. 1. Andō Yoshinori ([1989] 1994) has conducted research examining how the nodo affects the instrument’s musical scale, by measuring the resonance frequencies of the nohkan in comparison with those of the Western flute and other flutes and showing that the nohkan cannot play an octave. Furthermore, he has demonstrated that the tone color is also affected. 2. The shakuhachi 尺八 is an end-­blown flute made of bamboo. 23

24PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

In comparison, the modern flute started off in the fourteenth century as a simple, one-­piece wooden tube closed at one end, with a blow hole and six finger holes, but its outward appearance changed with the addition of keys and new structural materials. In the eleventh century, the transverse flute made it to Europe by way of the Byzantine culture and was later used as a military instrument in the fourteenth century, along with drums and trumpets (Randel 2003, 320). Today’s flute differs significantly from its original iteration. German watchmaker-­flutist Theobald Boehm (1794–1881) worked in the nineteenth century to improve the flute’s design, which at that time featured no standard size and came in various tube lengths; the only restriction in terms of hole dimensions and placement was that the fingers must be able to reach and cover the holes. Similarly, the theater in which the flute was played differed (i.e., Noh drama versus Western opera), as did the subject matter of the play. This is in marked contrast to the nohkan in the types of music performed and its setting in Noh drama. Many theories surround the history and construction of the nohkan in Japan. Nohkan players, makers, and researchers speculate endlessly about every aspect imaginable regarding this unusual instrument. Most research on the nohkan in Japan has focused on the origins of the instrument, using written records and iconography (i.e., paintings) from different eras that feature the nohkan to determine the context in which the instrument was played or how it was constructed during that period. Other research centers around the kaeshi (bamboo reversal) カエ シ method of construction (discussed later in this chapter), although this is not a typical method of nohkan construction. One of the few articles about the nohkan in English, written by Donald Berger in 1965, considers only the kaeshi method and neglects more frequently employed techniques. To remedy this paucity of information in English, I interviewed two nohkan makers and other nohkan specialists about the internal and external structure of the instrument.

The Nohkan in the Noh Ensemble As stated in the introduction and outlined by Malm (2000, 134), the nohkan performs three roles in Noh: (1) it marks segments within a

History and Construction of the Nohkan 25

Noh; (2) it creates the onstage ambience by coloring the chant’s musical line with its melody or adds tone color or percussive qualities to music played by the ensemble; and (3) it plays the melody for dance music and instrumental music. These roles seem to have been in place since Zeami’s time, according to Takakuwa (2003). As is detailed in chapter 3, the nohkan plays specific patterns in certain shōdan (backbone[s] of Noh plays). For example, in an [Ageuta] shōdan, the nohkan plays the three patterns of Takane (literally, high sound/pitch) 高音, right after the first line of the utai (chant) is sung by the chorus, and before it is repeated; Naka no Takane (literally, medium-­high sound/pitch) 中ノ高 音, for the second half of the utai; and Roku no Ge 六ノ下 or Kote 小手, near the end (Takakuwa 2003, 10; Yokomichi and Gamō 1978, 54). Yokomichi (1986, 109) further maintains that these melodic patterns should also follow the utai, which supports Malm’s second role for the nohkan. The nohkan should play the yuri (wavering) ユリ pattern when the utai sings hon-­yuri (real wavering pattern) 本ユリ; when the utai sings at a high pitch, the nohkan should play Takane; when the utai moves from chū-­on (middle pitch) to jō-­on (high pitch) in the middle of the utai, the nohkan should play Naka no Takane. According to Yokomichi, the nohkan had these “standards” mentioned above, and it is thought that there were certain sections where the nohkan played in parallel with the utai (1986, 109). Takakuwa further supports this notion by explaining that not many nohkan players play in parallel with the utai; instead, they think about playing the prescribed melodic patterns that, in a way, are appropriate for the text (shishō) 詞章 of the chant (2003, 10). Takakuwa cites Zeami’s Shūdōsho (Learning the way) 習道書,3 written in 1430, to demonstrate that the nohkan player played in between passages of text and during the utai (2003, 10). The Japanese version of Shūdōsho on how the nohkan (or flute) player should understand and assume his responsibilities4 and the story of how the nohkan master Meishō 名生 performed in a Noh can be found in Nose’s Zeami jūrokubushū hyōshaku, Ge (Annotated collection of Zeami’s sixteen 3. Title translation by Rimer and Yamazaki (1984). 4. The masculine pronoun is used because the nokhan players were most likely men during this period.

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treatises, volume 2; 1960, 262–272) 世阿弥十六部集評釋. However, the present book consults the English translation of the Shūdōsho by Rimer and Yamazaki (1984, 167–170), which states in the section “Various Matters Pertaining to the Flute Players”: [The flute players] assume the extremely important task of establishing and maintaining the musical atmosphere of a particular performance, through all the stages of jo, ha, and kyū. Even before the performance by the actors begins, the players must perform quietly for a certain time in order to create for the audience an atmosphere appropriate for the beginning of the play. Then, when the dancing and the chanting commence, the players must align their music to the pitch of the voice of the shite and attempt to add emotional color to his vocal performance. (167)

The above excerpt supports the second function outlined by Malm: the flute player creates and maintains the ambience of the stage and is responsible for adjusting to the shite’s voice by coloring the singer’s melody. Continuing the passage quoted above, Zeami elaborates on vital principles the flute player must abide by: With regard to this manner, there is one crucial principle to be kept in mind by the flute players. As the flute is the instrument that essentially leads the pitch during a performance, it is reasonable to assume that all the musical effects of the nō should be governed by this instrument. Although this fact is certainly true as far as it goes, in order to make an actual performance successful, still another consideration becomes paramount. The function of the flute as used in performances of nō must indeed be different from that when the instrument is played in a purely musical performance. This is because, in a performance of nō, the pitch of the chanter’s voice rises and falls slightly of its own accord from the level of pitch assigned. (Rimer and Yamazaki 1984, 167)

Here, the flute player must play differently in the dances or sections played by the instruments, which supports Malm’s third role of the nohkan. Furthermore, I argue that “all the musical effects of the nō” could include the section markers indicated in Malm’s first role of the nohkan. Because it is the sole melodic instrument in the ensemble, the nohkan is able to control certain musical functions within the ensem-

History and Construction of the Nohkan 27

ble; but in a musical ensemble it is the taiko (or the ōtsuzumi when the taiko is not present) that leads the ensemble (discussed further in chapter 3). The latter part of the excerpt describes how the flute player adjusts according to the chanter’s pitches. An example of someone who was able to perform in this manner was the great nohkan player Meishō, whose skills the lay monk Sasaki Dōyo 佐々木道誉 praised: “It is not in itself a good thing to extend the length of a nō performance, but when I hear Meishō play, I lose all sense of time” (Rimer and Yamazaki 1984, 168). The story of Meishō takes place when he performs with the Yamato troupe, in which the father Kan’ami was performing the piece “Shōshō no Noh” (Noh of Major General) 少将の能 with his young son Zeami. The particular section noted in Shūdōsho occurs during the shōdan [Rongi], when the two are in dialogue with overlapping phrases (Takakuwa 2003, 10–11). On one occasion, at a performance for a religious festival, during the time when a rongi section was being sung by the chief actor in the troupe and a child performer, the pitch of the music had been set in the rankei mode.5 However, as the child actor’s voice was not fully settled, his chant rose slightly toward the pitch of the banshiki mode. The pitch of the chant of the head of the troupe remained, of course, in the rankei mode. Thus, as their chanted dialogue continued, the pair were no longer in harmony with each other, and the performance began to lose its vigor. Meishō, while playing alone in the proper rankei mode, slowly adjusted himself to the pitch of the child actor and colored his playing in a manner appropriate to the banshiki mode, while still remaining at the pitch of the rankei mode so as to accompany the part of the older player. As a result, no discrepancy was heard in their performances, and the presentation was a success. (Rimer and Yamazaki 1984, 168–169)

This example, which can be found in Zeami’s Shūdōsho, in the section “The Great Flute Player Meishō,” clearly demonstrates how Meishō was 5. According to Rimer and Yamazaki (1984, 169), rankei is the musical note A# (#A or A-sharp) and banshiki is the note B. Rongi is a shōdan (Noh building block) through which oftentimes the shite (main role actor) converses with another actor onstage or with the ji-­utai (chorus) in an overlapping manner. It is sung in rhythm (hyōshi-­ai).

28PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

able to align the pitch of the flute to the voice of the adult and the child, adding color to the vocal line, as indicated in Shūdōsho.6 Zeami’s Shūdōsho supports Malm’s claim of the three functions of the nohkan. Furthermore, it is evident that the role of the nohkan was most likely the same during Zeami’s time—that is, supporting and coloring the chant—and that the nohkan has most likely been part of the Noh music. Takakuwa states that, from the excerpt above, we can see Zeami referring to today’s nohkan ashirai (2003, 51), also known as unmatched playing, which I discuss in detail in chapter 2.

Musical Modes of the Nohkan Takakuwa, who has examined historical documents on the flutes in Japan, argues that the nohkan with a nodo was mostly likely used during Zeami’s time (2003, 50). One could infer that the same musical mode we hear today was used during Zeami’s time, but this remains uncertain. However, it is evident from Takakuwa’s research that the Japanese people during the Middle Ages did not prefer singing according to the pitches or modes of the ryūteki, and the nohkan’s predecessor was probably the dengaku-­bue 田楽笛 or the satokagura-­bue 里神楽笛, both of which were flutes used in festivities. First, based on her reading of the book Ryūmeishō (Compendium on the dragon’s call)7 『竜鳴抄』, written in 1133 during the Heian period and passed down in the family, Takakuwa asserts that people from the Middle Ages were not fond of, or good at, singing according to pitches or modes (2003, 47). For example, she notes that, in Ryūmeishō, certain modes do not match the voice, and “koto and biwa music pieces, which 6. According to Takakuwa (2003, 52), it is questionable whether this Meishō really existed, as no record of him can be found in Kōhon, Yoza-yakusha mokuroku, kaitei zōho (Annotated catalog of actors from the four schools, revised and expanded; Tanaka 1975) 『校本 四座役者目録 改訂増補』, which lists the performances of the Noh actors. 7. English translated title taken from the Japan Arts Council’s website, accessed July 7, 2018, http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/dglib/contents/learn/edc22/en /category/kangen/on2.html.

History and Construction of the Nohkan 29

are sung with the voice, sometimes do not match the flute pitches” (47). She strengthens her argument by using sources from that period and examples from Buddhist chanting, concluding that people during that period were not in tune with foreign modes, such as Gagaku (court music) 雅楽, which was introduced by China. In the same way, Takakuwa deduces that in Sarugaku, the predecessor to Noh, performers probably did not have the awareness of singing in pitch with the flute (48). According to Takakuwa, until the early modern period, the Japanese regarded the flute as an instrument that created the atmosphere of excitement and energy that was appropriate for some occasions, and not as a melodic instrument. She gives an example of the matsuri-­bayashi (festival ensemble) 祭囃子, which generates a mood of excitement, bringing the gods down to earth with the “power of sound.”8 Therefore, she argues, “it was probably difficult for the people in the Middle Ages with that set mentality to accept foreign flutes that played scales.” Takakuwa adds that it likely was not much later when the “Japanese transverse flute,” which looked very much like a foreign flute but differed in tone color and techniques, was created (2003, 49). In sum, Takakuwa claims that the outward appearance of the nohkan is similar to that of the ryūteki (discussed later in this chapter) when the two instruments are compared side by side. However, she infers that the origins of the nohkan are probably found in other flutes such as the dengaku-­bue or the satokagura-­bue (discussed below), whose performances styles, techniques, and aesthetics incorporated the Japanese tastes of the period. Takakuwa turns to another Gagaku family book, titled Kaichikushō 『懐竹抄』, which focuses on transverse flutes. This book, which has been passed down through the ages, features two flutes: dengaku-­bue and satokagura-­bue. Kaichikushō discusses how the ryūteki should be played. Takakuwa evinces that, in this example, the flute used during this occasion “played notes in a wavering manner to conceal the breath of the player, which differed in performance techniques from the Gagaku-­type flute.” As this historical document registers, we cannot 8. The tripartite structure of the mugen (dream world) Noh, which calls the gods down on earth, is discussed in chapter 3.

30PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

assume that the two flutes played in a musical temperament that is similar to what we hear today. Indeed, Takakuwa states that the two flutes were probably predecessors to the nohkan (2003, 49). Taking this theory one step further, Takakuwa refers to an amateur Noh performance that included details of the Sarugaku no Noh, the predecessor to the current Noh, documented in 1349 as occurring during Kasuga Wakamiya-­rinjisai (Kasuga Wakamiya Provisional Festival) 春日若宮臨時祭. At this temporary festival at Wakamiya Shrine, the miko (shrine maidens) 巫女 and the negi (a shrine’s senior priests) 禰宜 took part in the performance. The flute player—referred to as “Masayuki” in katakana (Japanese syllables)—appears in documentation of the event.9 His proficiency in the flute is uncertain, but Takakuwa speculates that he probably did not have to play much (2003, 49). By tracing the aforementioned historical documents, Takakuwa ascertains that a nohkan with a nodo was played during Zeami’s period and locates its origins in the dengaku-­bue and the satokagura-­bue (49–50).10 The impeccable research by Takakuwa, who has analyzed historical documents on how the nohkan developed in each time period and has taken into account the musical aesthetics of the people from each period, suggests that the predecessor to the nohkan was probably more similar in mode and musical aesthetics to the current nohkan than to foreign flutes such as the ryūteki. So much is uncertain about the nohkan and its development throughout history. Morita (2018, 8–9) points out that many Issō School shōga books have been collected, catalogued, and made available for public viewing, owing to the work of the Nogami Memorial Noh Theatre Re9. Some scholars posit that Masayuki’s name found in katakana would indicate that he probably was not a regular performer in these amateur Noh. If he had been a regular member, his full name or at least his Chinese characters would have been documented. 10. Takakuwa continues to test this hypothesis by tracing the hitoyogiri 一 節切, an instrument that is the predecessor to the current shakuhachi, and how it was played during the Muromachi period to understand the musical aesthetics of the people during that period (2003, 50). In addition, she finds musical compositions that were played by the hitoyogiri and common pieces played by the hitoyogiri and the nohkan to assess how the two instruments coincided, especially during the early Edo period.

History and Construction of the Nohkan 31

search Institute of Hosei University, Waseda University’s Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, and the Noh literary researchers Takemoto Mikio, Miyake Akiko, and Yamanaka Reiko. Miyake and Yamanaka have reprinted and annotated Issō School family-­secret shōga books, which Morita (2018, 9) has consulted to investigate how the use of shōga changed in each book. Morita is able to decipher the music from the shōga books because she is a Noh music scholar and has taken nohkan lessons from professional Noh performers. She states that shōga books from the end of the Muromachi period are available, and that the nohkan shōga evidently continued to develop and change even after Noh had reached its formative state and its current refined state (10). Morita’s work is valuable in its explication of changes in the shōga over time; she makes it clear that, in the past, performers used the shōga books to jot down notes, but as time progressed entire pieces were written down (11). In fact, she argues, the dynamics of oral transmission yielded to literary transmission, as people increasingly used written notes for their performance (52). Furthermore, she states that, by the mid-­Edo period, shōga books showed the different schools becoming established as the Edo military government became their patron. According to Morita, who has traced the nohkan shōga books, the nohkan has become more dependent on literary transmission than on oral transmission; but for purposes of this book, the transmission style is considered “oral transmission,” where both books and the instruction of the nohkan master are required to transmit nohkan music and nuances. With a foundation based on the historical development of the nohkan, as well as shōga books indicating how nohkan performance styles varied in different periods and how nohkan transmission has changed, I will now discuss nohkan origins and construction and the techniques used in making nohkan.

Theories of the Nohkan’s Origin The motivation behind creating such an instrument as the nohkan remains unclear. Unlike the modern flute and a large majority of related instruments around the world (including other Japanese transverse

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flutes), the nohkan cannot produce an octave harmonic when overblown while the same fingering is used, nor can it play a diatonic scale when one finger hole is uncovered at a time. The deliberate construction of an instrument with such characteristics is the subject of considerable speculation. The most popular theory on the nohkan’s origin involves the ryūteki (a flute played in Gagaku), which traces its ancestry to China. Legend has it that a ryūteki player had broken his instrument and sent it to an instrument maker for repair. To fix the problem, the repairer inserted a tube, which restored the flute’s original configuration but changed its original scale and the intervals between notes. This alteration formed an instrument that lacked a tonal center, but since many Noh performers found it to be more ethereal and fitting for the Noh drama, they eventually incorporated the newly designed flute. The above hypothesis seems entirely plausible, given that the ryūteki and the nohkan share so many essential elements beyond the similarity of their dimensions and outward appearances: both instruments are made from pieces of Pleioblastus simonii bamboo; both are lacquered on the inside and bound with thin strips of birch; and both feature one mouth hole and seven finger holes. The major difference between the two is the lack of a nodo inside the ryūteki. As a result, the ryūteki can produce octaves when overblown while the same fingering is used, and it can produce scales with a tonal center. Also, because it features standardized measurements, the ryūteki can be played in unison and in ensemble with other ryūteki; the nohkan’s lack of standardized dimensions makes using it in an ensemble with other melodic instruments impractical because of intonation issues, unless nohkan with the very same measurements and dimensions are requested by the nohkan player. In figure 4, the ryūteki shown (at the bottom) is slightly longer than the nohkan above it, but this is not always the case. Despite the numerous similarities between the nohkan and the ryūteki, many nohkan players, makers, and researchers doubt the theory that the nohkan emerged from a Chinese prototype, mainly because it makes the discovery of the nohkan seem almost accidental, when in fact its creation was more likely deliberate.

History and Construction of the Nohkan 33

Figure 4: A nohkan (top) and a ryūteki (bottom). (Photograph by author)

Another hypothesis relates the nohkan to the iwa-­bue (stone flute/ whistle) 石笛 from the Jōmon period 縄文時代 (10,000–300 BC). The two are drastically different in shape, structure, and material, as the iwa-­bue is made out of stone and has one mouth hole and fewer finger holes, but both instruments can produce a piercing high pitch. The iwa-­ bue, with its characteristic shrill sound, was used to call upon the gods, asking them to descend from heaven to earth. Hirose Ryōhei hypothesizes that perhaps the nohkan, with its similarly penetrating hishigi (a high-­pitched sound with complex harmonic overtones) that marks the entrances of characters in a Noh, symbolically calls upon the gods, ancestors, or wandering spirits from the “other world” (1978, 181). Still, the ryūteki can produce a hishigi with ease; thus, this hypothesis is also questionable. While it is true that the hishigi is often heard before the entrances of god or demon characters in Noh plays, it also marks the entrances of the more earthly waki (supporting role actor). In addition, the hishigi is used at the end of a Noh play to indicate that another play will be performed immediately following. When a hishigi is not heard at the end of the Noh play, it signals the end of the day’s performances. The hishigi can thus be considered a section marker at times, in addition to having a summoning quality. These varied uses of the distinctive shrill sound in Noh plays cast some doubt on the theory of the nohkan’s origins in the iwa-­bue, with its more specialized ritual function. Another theory, put forth by Sowa Masahiro 曽和正博, my Kō-­r yū

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(Kō School) 幸流 kotsuzumi teacher, is interesting, different, and new.11 Hina-­matsuri 雛祭り, which is translated as “Doll Festival” or “Girl’s Day,” is held annually on March 3 to pray for girls’ growth and happiness. In a typical hinadan (tiered doll platform) ひな壇, a platform is covered with red cloth called hina-­mōsen 雛毛氈, and the first tier is occupied by the emperor and empress dolls. Two or three tiers down from them (depending on the number of overall tiers) are the five musician dolls known as the gonin-­bayashi (five musicians) 五人囃子. Beginning from the right, the musicians represent the utai (chant), fue (flute), kotsuzumi (shoulder drum), ōtsuzumi (hip drum), and taiko (stick or barrel drum). The ensemble is similar in terms of both instrumentation and arrangement to the nohgaku-­bayashi (Noh musical ensemble). According to Sowa, this order is critical, for the utai (chanter) sings using his or her body, or specifically the voice, which comes out of the mouth. Next, the fue uses his or her mouth and fingers to play the instrument, but the main source for the sound production is still from the mouth. To the left of the fue is the kotsuzumi, which is placed on the right shoulder, held by the left hand, and struck with the right hand. The sound is thus produced at a distance from the mouth and body. The ōtsuzumi is placed near the left hip, held by the left hand, and struck with the right hand. Finally, the taiko is placed on a stand and played with two sticks called bachi 撥, with no direct contact by the player. As the instrumentalists are seated farther away from the singer, the techniques used to produce sound likewise move farther away from the voice and the body. Thus, Sowa hypothesizes that the fue, situated next to the utai, is probably most like the human voice because the main source of its sound production is from the mouth, and that a throat was inserted to give it a more human quality. Many other theories revolve around this mysterious instrument. Since Noh finds its origins and influences in Sarugaku 猿楽12 and Den11. Sowa Masahiro, Kō-­r yū kotsuzumi nohgaku-­shi, interview by author, July 1, 2007, Tokyo. 12. It is thought that the Sangaku 散楽 of China, which consisted of various entertainments, intermixed with Japanese ancient arts and became the Japanese version of Sangaku. The earlier version of Japanese Sangaku seems to

History and Construction of the Nohkan 35

gaku 田楽,13 a case can also be made for the transverse flute used in Dengaku or the satokagura-­bue serving as the ancestor of the nohkan, rather than the ryūteki, as mentioned in Takakuwa’s (2003) hypothesis. Perhaps the aesthetically minded flute maker of legend, trying to create an “otherworldly” sound to fit the character of Noh drama, inserted the tube that diminishes the presence of a tonal center in the nohkan. Whatever its origins, the nohkan has found its way into the Noh theater, and its unique timbre has become thoroughly integrated into the art form.

Construction: Variations in Pitches among Nohkan As mentioned earlier, the construction of the nohkan is unique because of the insertion of the nodo (figure 5). Furthermore, there are no “standard” pitches for the nohkan because the individual flutes differ slightly in length and construction. This curiosity does not pose a problem in the musical ensemble, however, because the nohkan plays with three drums (kotsuzumi, ōtsuzumi, taiko) and is the sole melodic instrument (although it often serves a more essentially rhythmic function). To demonstrate the difference in pitches among nohkan, I have included three “scales” notated in Western staff notation (figure 6): (a) Nohgaku hayashi taikei (Komparu Sōuemon et al. 1973a, 18); (b) Donald Paul Berger’s article on the construction of the nohkan (1965, 228); and (c) Ranjō’s nohkan scale. have included acrobatics, stunts, and magic similar to its Chinese ancestor. It later incorporated humorous and comical mimicry into its repertoire and became known as Sarugaku (Omote 1978b). 13. Dengaku is a folk entertainment that grew out of the farming villages, where it was ritually used when praying to the gods for a good harvest. Takakuwa (2003, 49) states that in Dengaku, people danced while contorting their bodies into different shapes with instruments such as the flute, the taiko, or the sasara (a percussive instrument with wooden plates strung together); one can imagine scrolls such as Chōchūgiga (Scrolls of frolicking animals), where animals gaily dance around while the flute enhances the excitement of the festivities.

36PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Figure 5: Nodo placement in a nohkan replica. (Photographs by author)

Each “scale” clearly consists of numerous half steps and whole steps without a consistent pattern. Many of the notes fall between pitches (e.g., quarter tones, microtones) when compared with the Western standard of A = 440 Hz. Arrows pointing up or down to the right side of the note are used to indicate these pitches, following the pattern in figure 6a. Taking this notational system a step further in figure 6c, one arrow is used to indicate a difference of a quarter tone from the given note, and the additional arrow is used to display a difference of a microtone. Furthermore, these scales show that each nohkan differs in pitch gamut, although each is more or less within a whole step of the other. It is difficult to notate the actual pitches of the nohkan because pitch is intentionally affected through the slight rolling in or out of the mouth hole. In the same way, the speed of the air hitting the mouth hole can affect the pitch. For this notation, the pitches for Ranjō’s nohkan scale in figure 6c were produced more or less using the same air speed, hitting the mouth hole at the same angle for consistency. As mentioned earlier, the nodo is thought to facilitate the production of the hishigi; however, the ryūteki, which does not contain a nodo, can also produce hishigi with ease. The nodo may actually be more of a hindrance than an aid to producing hishigi, although further acoustical testing is needed to verify this.

One: and Figures History andChapter Construction of theIllustrations Nohkan 37 (a)

(a) Nohgaku hayashi taikei’s Scale (Music retranscribed. Reference: Liner Notes 1973, 18). FUKURA

& #œ (b)

œ

œ œ œ #œ #œ #œ 3 2

& ˙

&

#œ #œ

œ2 #œ

œ #œ2 # œ

(b) Donald Paul Berger’s Scale (Music retranscribed. Reference: Berger 1965, 228). 1st octave

(c)

SEME

˙

˙ #˙ #˙

˙

˙ b˙ n˙ n˙ #˙ #˙

2nd octave

˙ #˙

n˙

œ

˙

(c) Ranjō’s Nohkan’s Scale (2006).

œ2

œ 33

#œ3

#œ3

#œ 3

#œ 3

#œ 2

œ3

œ3 3

#œ 33

œ3

#œ 2

#œ 3

œ

FUKURA

œ2

& œ

SEME

Figure 6: Nohkan scales from Nohgaku hayashi taikei, Donald Paul Berger, and Ranjō’s A =from 440Nohgaku Hz; actual pitches are ōan octave(A=440Hz; higher than Figure 5: nohkan. Nohkan Scales hayashinohkan taikei, Berger, and Ranj ’s Nohkan the written Nohgaku taikei’s scaleTranscription (Komparuof Sōuemon et Actual nohkanpitches. pitches are(a), an octave higherhayashi than the written pitches. 5(c) by author). al. 1973a, 18); music retranscribed by author. (b), Donald Paul Berger’s scale (Berger 1965, 228; Courtesy of the Society for Ethnomusicology); music retranscribed by author. (c), Ranjō’s nohkan’s scale (Ranjō, interview by author, 2006); music transcribed by author.

Three Techniques for Making the Nohkan Three different techniques are known to have been used in making the nohkan: yosegi ヨセギ, marukan 丸管, and kaeshi. Since relics of kaeshi nohkan do not exist, players, makers, and researchers hold different opinions as to when this procedure actually began and whether it changed the sound of the nohkan. The yosegi is the oldest technique. Due to its impracticality, no makers use this method today. Several strips of bamboo are glued together to make a tube with a diameter of about 15 millimeters. Obviously, if one piece of bamboo with the desired dimensions could be found, this more labor-­intensive composite construction process would not be preferred.

38PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Next, the marukan (literally, round pipe) is one of the modern techniques practiced by most nohkan makers. In making the nohkan, Ranjō uses a single piece of bamboo for the main body, with a length of approximately 300 millimeters, calculating the distance from just above the utaguchi (mouth hole) 歌口 to the end of the instrument. Only Pleioblastus simonii bamboo is used in making nohkan; as Donald Berger rightly observes, this bamboo has small joints and a long interval between joints, and “the inside of the wood is cylindrical.” He notes that these characteristics contrast with those of “male bamboo (o dake),14 which has a shorter distance between the joints; large joints; and which is much less cylindrical” (1965, 221). Since the size and intervals between the joints, as well as the internal shape of the wood, is very important, many nohkan makers use these natural features to their advantage. It is most preferable to use susu-­dake (smoked bamboo) 煤竹, which is difficult to obtain. Generally, it is found on the ceilings of “century-­ old farm houses,” where the smoke from the open hearth evaporates the oil from the bamboo, resulting in a nohkan life span of three to four hundred years (Berger 1965, 221). Unfortunately, such houses are rare, so harvested bamboo is more commonly used. According to Ranjō, November is the most favorable time for harvest because the bamboo is less prone to insect damage or infestation.15 In addition, it is important to consider the climate in which the bamboo grows. Cold weather tends to produce more supple bamboo, whereas warm weather with only a few days below the freezing point produces bamboo with a bit more strength and rigidity; the latter condition is ideal (Narabe 2004, 27). Still, even when considering the above characteristics during the selection of materials, more than half of the bamboo gathered does not last through the drying period, as it cracks or becomes too light in weight. 14. O dake (or o-­dake) 雄竹, 男竹 or ma-­dake 真竹 (male bamboo). Pleioblastus simonii bamboo may also be referred to as me-­dake 女竹 (female bamboo) in Japan. 15. Interviews with author, May 7 and July 27, 2006, and August 19, 2018, Chiba-­ken, Japan.

History and Construction of the Nohkan 39

Segments of bamboo without joints are used, and their natural body and taper act to the maker’s advantage. Most pieces of bamboo are relatively straight, although slight adjustments and corrections can be made by inserting a heated metal rod into the body and making further modifications to the internal profile of the tube by hand. As can be seen in figure 7, Ranjō’s measurements for the internal measurements are as follows: d1 (diameter 1) = 15 to 16 millimeters near the top of the nohkan; d2 = 12 to 13 millimeters near the mouth hole; d3 = 15 millimeters near the second finger hole; and d4 = 13 millimeters near the tapered end of the instrument. To this carefully altered bamboo cylinder, many makers apply their own alignment patterns for placing the mouth and finger holes. Ranjō measures his holes with a ruler and a pencil, uses an automatic drill to open the preliminary holes, and adjusts the hole sizes with a hand knife, all while he plays the instrument to check the results. Apart from the mouth hole, the finger holes are relatively similar in size but are placed closer together near the bottom of the tube. As seen in figure 7, the distance between the first finger hole, near the mouth hole of the flute, and

Figure 7: Nohkan diagram with Ranjō’s measurements (in millimeters). (Diagram by author)

40PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

the seventh finger hole is approximately 130 millimeters. In relation to this, the distance between the first and second finger holes is 20 millimeters, and the distance between the sixth and seventh holes is 15 millimeters; the distances between the other finger holes are adjusted according to the desired quality and pitch. After this process, the nodo is inserted into the main body. This is one of the most important processes of nohkan construction, since the overall acoustics of the instrument are deeply affected by this small tube. The length and diameter of the nodo affect the high and low pitches. Precise calculations and placement are therefore necessary. For the insertion, the main body is cut approximately midway between the mouth hole and the first finger hole, at number ③ in figure 7. The distance from the middle of the mouth hole to the middle of the first hole is 100 millimeters; this distance gives ample space for the nodo, which is 80 to 82 millimeters long and 12 to 13 millimeters in diameter (d2) and is shaved at both ends for easier placement within the main body. Next, the inside of the instrument is coated in red urushi (lacquer) 漆; the number of coats and the types of lacquers employed vary among makers. Lacquer is applied with care, for it slightly changes the pitches and alters the production of notes; it is actually thought to give the nohkan a “harder” sound. Some argue that because of modern-­day lacquer quality and techniques, it is not necessary for the nohkan to be made by kaeshi (a process explained in detail later), which is undertaken mainly to produce a “harder” sound. Following the lacquer process, the nohkan is bound with thin strips of kaba (birch) 樺 or tō (rattan) 籐 for support and for aesthetic purposes. Then, to add to its physical attributes, the entire body is painted with black lacquer and the outsides of the mouth and finger holes are painted with red lacquer. This process is typical of Ranjō’s method for making the main body of the nohkan with a single piece of bamboo. Definitively describing the construction process is difficult, because every maker has his or her unique way. Some makers include additional segments at the end of the main body, after the seventh hole, possibly to taper the end of the flute or simply to make the instrument longer. Finally, although they do not

History and Construction of the Nohkan 41

affect the nohkan’s sound, various techniques of adornment also distinguish one nohkan maker’s instruments from another’s. The top of the nohkan, which is approximately 80 to 100 millimeters long, uses two pieces of bamboo: one slightly larger in diameter than the main body, and the other slightly smaller. The larger section is attached to the main body, and the smaller section is placed above it. (In the overall making of the flute, the connecting of these parts would occur before the binding of the birch strips is applied.) To create the swelling shape found near the top of the upper part, most nohkan makers use a jointed segment of bamboo and carve it to the desired shape, appropriately called the fushi (joint) 節. Just below the fushi, a semi (literally, cicada, because the shape is thought to resemble one) 蝉 is added or carved into it; this detail is another means of identifying the particular maker of the instrument. A small lead weight, called an omori おもり, is added to the hollow headpiece of the upper segment. The weight is first wrapped in washi 和紙, a Japanese paper made from mulberry bark, and placed into the barrel from the top. More washi is then added for cushioning. This lead weight affects the balance of the instrument by counteracting the weight of the heavier lower segments. Some makers and players believe that the lead also affects the sound of the instrument by making it more “compact” or “compressed,” while others question the necessity of this counterweight. Regardless of these diverging opinions, nohkan makers continue to follow this traditional practice in making their instruments. After the placement of the omori and washi, rō (beeswax) 蝋 is added from the mouth hole to serve as a plug between the main body and the attachment. The amount of rō added into the nohkan can slightly affect the tuning of the instrument. In practice, players may add more rō to shorten the main body toward attaining the desired pitch. After the beeswax plug is in place, the top of the attachment is closed with a kashira-­gane (gold cap relief) 頭金, bearing the mark of the nohkan maker (figure 8). The instrument is then encircled with strips of birch or rattan around the entire body and painted with black lacquer. Due to variations in methods and techniques among makers, both

42PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Figure 8: Kashira-­gane of the following nohkan makers: left to right, Ranjō, Binchō, unknown (thought to be four hundred years old), and Binchō. (Photograph by author)

past and present, defining a single, standard way of making a nohkan proves difficult. For example, in the past, the nohkan was often composed of six segments on average, whereas most modern makers use four. Even Ranjō may use different parts of the bamboo, depending on the materials available or the preferences of the customer. The last and best-­k nown nohkan construction technique—often cited in Japanese studies, as well as in Berger’s (1965) article on the nohkan—is called kaeshi. This method is not found in any other country. Few kaeshi models exist, however, relative to the number of marukan models, perhaps because of the labor-­intensive process and problems that occur over time in instruments made in this way (figure 9). In the kaeshi method, a section of bamboo approximately 300 millimeters long is used for the main body, similar to that in the marukan method. The bamboo is cut into eight (or sixteen) lengthwise strips, which are then reversed so the outside surface of the bamboo forms the inside of the flute. The strips are then glued together with nori-­urushi (glue lacquer) のり漆. After this laborious process come the remaining steps—including the opening of the holes, the attachment of the top portion, and the binding with thin birch strips—which are identical to the marukan method’s steps described above. Reversing the bamboo so that the tough outer side becomes the inside of the nohkan produces a “harder,” more piercing sound than that of instruments made with the more common marukan method. This

History and Construction of the Nohkan 43

Figure 9: A kaeshi nohkan model and actual instrument. (Photographs by author)

demanding process is relatively rare, however, in part because it is time-­ consuming and because, over time, the glue lacquer loses its adhesive power and air begins to leak through the gaps in the shaft of the instrument, diminishing its sound production. Ranjō and Tanaka Binchō 田中敏長, who lives in Gifu Prefecture, still make kaeshi models on occasion. Some nohkan makers, however, do not believe that this technique was practiced by makers in the past,

44PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

since old relics of the kaeshi method do not exist. For this reason, these makers construct only marukan nohkan. Obviously, there are differences of opinion regarding the history of nohkan construction techniques, and only further research can reconcile them. In examining surviving nohkan from past eras, determining whether the kaeshi method was employed is problematic. The typical method of discerning the technique used to form the body of the nohkan is by looking at or feeling the bottom of the instrument. Since most nohkan face repairs at various points in their history, the original bottom may have been replaced, making this a somewhat unreliable means of analyzing an instrument’s construction techniques. In my opinion, a computerized tomography (CT) scan would offer a clearer picture of the nohkan’s internal structure and would be particularly useful for establishing whether the instrument was made using the kaeshi method. A CT scan could solve many mysteries of the nohkan, such as its history and construction, just as CT scans have proven useful with other art relics. Some efforts have been made to analyze the internal construction of the nohkan. In 1959, Hayashi took X-­rays of the instrument to study the dimensions of the nodo and its division points and then used those images to model his own instruments. While visiting Hayashi in his studio,16 I examined the original X-­rays in which a nodo could be somewhat identified. Figure 10 provides two images produced by Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (Takakuwa 2009, 13):17 a photograph of a nohkan replica with part of the nodo shown 16. As mentioned in the Introduction, I visited Hayashi Hōju in his studio in Ishikawa-ken, Japan on August 22, 2006 with a group of fellow nohkan planers and Issō Yōji to study his nohkan and construction techniques. This visit included a group presentation and a Q&A session but did not include a one-on-one interview. 17. Takakuwa investigated the constructions of nohkan from the Murakami Suigun Museum, Kikkawa Shiryokan, and the Tokugawa Art Museum by taking X-­rays of the instruments. One of the X-­rays from Murakami Suigun Museum revealed the presence of a nodo, whereas the other did not, but “two cuts between the mouth hole and the finger hole show that bamboo with wall of different thickness was used for this part” (Takakuwa 2009, English abstract). Therefore, the difference in thickness of the bamboo acted as a nodo. Even

History and Construction of the Nohkan 45

Figure 10: Photograph and X-ray of a nohkan replica (Takakuwa 2009, 13). (Images produced by Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties)

(similar to figure 5), and an X-­ray of the same nohkan replica with the nodo inserted, where narrowing of the tube between the mouth hole and the first finger hole can been seen. As described above, three typical techniques are used to construct the main body of the nohkan. While some aspects of the construction process seem practical and sensible, others seem less so. Despite the varied opinions concerning these details of nohkan construction, the intricacies of their production actually play a somewhat insignificant role in the instrument’s sound. The real secret of the nohkan’s sound lies in the mouth hole. Specifically, it is the tone created when the air is blown over the very sharp edge of the mouth hole. This is similar to blowing on the edge of a credit card to produce sound, as my flute teacher Alexander Murray once told me. As with the flute, the air stream from the player’s lips is critical to the sound of the nohkan. The principle is similar to the way air pressure causes “lift” on an airplane with the X-­ray, however, it was difficult for Takakuwa to tell whether the nodo was present without assistance from an X-­ray specialist and a nohkan maker. For X-­ray scans of the nohkan’s nodo, see Andō ([1989] 1994, 52); Takakuwa (2009); Tamba (1974, 149).

46PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

wing, but because the flute is stationary, the air stream moves in and out of the hole, causing the air inside the instrument to vibrate, the human eardrums to vibrate, and then the brain to interpret the vibrations as sound. The body of the instrument is a resonator that shapes and amplifies the vibrations set in motion by air passing over the sharp edge of the mouth hole. On the nohkan, a 4-­to-­5-­millimeter edge for the mouth hole, or kazakiri かざきり, is most preferable, although this can be difficult to find. Hence, it is sometimes easier to use the natural shape of an elliptical bamboo segment (also known as a tatedaen 縦楕円 shape), which has thicker walls on certain sides, for a favorable mouthpiece. The internal construction is also important to creating a good nohkan, and each maker has his secret dimensions, but the cut and measurements of the mouth hole are at the heart of the flute’s sound. The unique construction of the nohkan is an enduring puzzle, but regardless of its history and fabrication, it has become an appropriate instrument for portraying a particular ambience onstage. Furthermore, despite its various construction techniques, it has maintained the same outward appearance and retained its large mouth hole and seven finger holes, unlike the Western flute, which has morphed into a completely different instrument. Yet nohkan makers (and performers) persist in pursuing the perfect dimensions of the instrument, seeking an instrument most suitable to play in Noh dramas as well as for new compositions.18

18. Sections in chapters 1 and 2 have been previously published in Anno 2010, but have been expanded significantly for this book.

Chapter Two The Nohkan and Oral Transmission Transcription in Western Staff Notation

One challenge of learning and playing the nohkan is that the instrument can only be taught by oral transmission. To teach intricate nuances such as phrasing, rhythm, and breathing, the master and the disciple must sit across from one another, face-­to-­face. Although Issō Yukihiro, a professional nohgaku-­shi and a nohkan performer whom I described in the introduction, has been actively promoting the nohkan by collaborating with musicians who play Western music and Japanese music, I argue that the instrument has failed to reach a level of popularity within or outside Japan for two reasons: the lack of comprehensive study on the nohkan, and the challenges of oral transmission using shōga (oral mnemonics). With the shōga, those who understand the system can hear music and the variation of pitches. Without the instruction of a master, these shōga, made of Japanese kana (syllables), cannot be easily deciphered or chanted. To the untrained eye and ear, shōga may come across as a collection of nonsensical syllables; but those who are qualified can decode the specific order of its distinct sounds and melodies. Ethnomusicologist David W. Hughes has conducted extensive research on mnemonics to “demonstrate that certain acoustic-­phonetic features of vowels and consonants lead to similar systems of mnemonics existing independently in widely separated cultures” (2000, 93). His research measures the fundamental frequency of vowels and demonstrates that the 47

48PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

high-­frequency vowel has a higher pitch than the low-­frequency vowel. Therefore, the vowel [i] would have a higher pitch than the vowel [u]. This chapter traces the role of the shōga and transcribes the shōga using Western staff notation, in support of how Hughes’s analysis applies to nohkan pitches, while highlighting the importance and history of oral transmission more broadly. Moreover, various transcriptions using Roman letters, fingering charts, and Western staff notation transcriptions as well as analysis of Yukihiro’s singing and performing the nohkan shōga of the ji (ground pattern) 地 of the dance〔Chū no Mai〕 (Middle tempo dance), provide the principle musical material of this chapter. Furthermore, Morita Toki, a Japanese musicologist who researches the shōga of the three nohkan schools, maintains that when one chants shōga, the mnemonics become a medium that transmits musical substances. She adds that those who have experienced oral transmission can look at the shōga and hear oneself chanting the shōga and thereby reimagine one’s own performances (2018, 74). A significant portion of this research includes transcriptions of nohkan melodies in Western staff notation, which has become a universal method of notating music. Making transcriptions of nohkan melodies has seldom been done in the past, because many Noh researchers have considered such efforts to be useless for a variety of reasons. First, a Western staff transcription transcribes the melody for only one particular nohkan and neglects any other, since every nohkan varies in pitch (each instrument is built to a different scale), although most nohkan pitches are more or less a whole step apart. Second, the nohkan has a crucial role in the utai-­goto (chant shōdan), because it plays in the ashirai-­buki (unmatched-­playing) style to create ambience, expressing and relating to the emotions of the chant of the chorus. Each nohkan player interprets the utai-­goto pattern differently according to the play, so each performance may change, depending on the subject of the play, the performers, the audience, and many other variables. Admittedly, Western staff notation simply cannot adequately express these variations. Furthermore, the nohkan’s entrances may differ among performers of the same school in the same shōdan, adding variety to the Noh plays. While the above arguments are valid reasons for not using Western

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 49

staff notation for performers themselves, the transcriptions included here proffer readers unfamiliar with the nohkan or shōga some sense of the pitches and melodic patterns played by the instrument. Research on the nohkan ashirai (unmatched-­playing) melodic patterns and awase-­ buki (matched-­playing) melodic patterns in utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto (instrumental shōdan) has surged in Japan but has not yet appeared in research circles in the United States.

Oral Transmission: Pedagogy and Preservation In addition to the three nohkan schools present today, a fourth, the Hiraiwa-­r yū (Hiraiwa School) 平岩流, existed until the mid-­Meiji period; a fifth, the Shun-­nichi-­ryū (Shun-­nichi School) 春日流, lasted until just before the Second World War. All schools find their roots in the same nohkan master, Higaimoto Hikojirō Hidetsugu, who was commonly known as Fue-­hikobē 笛彦兵衛 but also as Higaimoto Hikobē 檜垣本彦兵衛 (Morita 2018, 24). According to Morita, he was active during the Eishō (1504–1521) to Tenmon (1532–1555) periods and played nohkan for the Kanze-­za (Kanze troupe) 観世座.1 Hence, the surviving three schools have similarities within their overall musical techniques. All three schools use shōga as part of the teaching method specific to each school. Different households within the Morita School also have their own shōga books. Shōga, also known as kuchi-­shōga 口唱歌, are literally “songs to be chanted,” mnemonic devices that aid in the memorization of the nohkan repertoire and are also used by instructors for correcting or leading the student while he or she plays the instrument. These essential learning tools, which are made of combinations of kana and embody the musical expressions that give rise to individuality and variations, are also used with other Japanese traditional instruments such as hichiriki 篳篥, ryūteki, and komabue 高麗笛. Furthermore, as Hughes mentions, “both the consonants and the vowels of shōga and other acoustic-­iconic 1. See Morita (2018, 24–25) for details on the family lineage of the different nohkan schools, including ones that no longer exist today.

50PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

systems help the learner internalize the sound of the desired musical output and often its technique of production” (2000, 96). This internalization is seen in his nohkan lessons with the late Fujita Daigorō (1915– 2008), a Living National Treasure from the Issō School of nohkan,2 and explains his extensive research and the order of these “nonsense” syllables that reveal sounds and melodies to the trained eye and ear (Hughes 2000, 93). To elucidate the role of shōga in oral transmission and the musical information gained in the transmission process, I turn now to the shōga of a particular dance, the〔Chū no Mai〕.3 The limitations of shōga in depicting musical elements are readily apparent. Through traditional oral transmission, however, the phrases, tempos, accents, motifs, and musical nuances are taught, as supported by Morita (2006, 2018). To demonstrate the role of shōga as the backbone of the repertoire and the basis for improvisation, individuality, and variations, I analyze recordings and musical transcriptions of Yukihiro singing the shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the〔Chū no Mai〕, followed by his actual performance of it with embellishments as examples.

Shōga and Oral Transmission In Japan, scholars such as Komparu Sōuemon, Masuda, Gamō, Hata, Nishino, and Matsumoto in the liner notes for Nohgaku hayashi taikei (1973a), Yokomichi and Gamō in the liner notes for Kuchi-­shōga taikei: Nihon no gakki no solumi-­zation (1978), and Yokomichi in Noh no Kōzō to gihō, volume 4 ([1987a] 1993), have conducted research on shōga. Writers of the liner notes target the difference between shōga and actual performances, with the aid of actual recordings, as well as introduce some fingerings for the shōga. Morita’s meticulous research reveals that while the basic musical information and conventions associated with a particular school may be gathered from the shōga-­shū (shōga books), 2. I also describe my nohkan lesson with Yukihiro in Anno (2010), which stands in contrast to Hughes’s traditional lesson. 3. See appendix C for shōga and a transcription of the entire〔Chū no Mai〕.

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 51

these limited syllables cannot depict the nuances of an individual performance or variations of this basic musical information. Thus, the individualized musical elements such as phrasing, tempo, accents, detailed rhythms, intonation, and—especially—embellishments can be gained only through oral transmission (Morita 2006, 76). Shōga are the glue that holds the ensemble together. Particularly in the dance section, the dancer(s), chorus, and instrumentalists listen to the nohkan and chant the shōga subvocally (i.e., inside their own minds), a method similar to that used in lessons with their masters. Hence, in this comprehensive art form, the Noh performers are aware of each other’s movements as well as of the text and musical patterns as they receive lessons, to a certain extent, on all aspects of Noh. The oroshi (ritard) オロシ section of Noh dances is particularly challenging: it comes after each dan (section) 段, and the tempo slows down. The instrumentalists play phrases that are unique to each dance and section. Timing is vital, and each dancer or musician must absorb the mnemonics and know the musical patterns of the instruments—not just those matching their area of specialty. This cohesion between actors and musicians is possible even without a director or conductor because of the background and knowledge of the nohgaku-­shi. They need only one mōshi-­awase (rehearsal) 申合セ before the actual performance, usually done without costumes. They do not go over the entire Noh play; instead they rehearse only certain sections that the shite or others might find necessary. Also, for the dances, rehearsing the entire piece is not necessary, for instructions can be given verbally with the use of shōga, which indicate specific sections and details. In the present day, the student learning the Issō-­r yū nohkan repertoire employs two shōga volumes: Issō-­ryū shōga-­shū (Jō)『一噌流唱歌集 （上）』and Issō-­ryū shōga-­shū (Ge)『一噌流唱歌集（下）』(Issō School shōga book, volumes 1 and 2; Issō [1936a] 1987, [1936b] 2003). They consist of the essential dance repertoire of the Noh plays, using only shōga, which are made of twenty kana in different combinations. The〔Chū no Mai〕is an instrumentally accompanied dance used in twenty-­three plays of the traditional repertoire, each with a character unique to that play. The dance also can be considered the most basic of

52PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

the repertoire. Figures 11 and 12 show the shōga of the cyclic pattern, also known as ji, which consists of a four-­phrase cycle: ryo (low) 呂, chū (middle) 中, kan (high) 干, and kan no chū (high middle) 干ノ中, referred to as the ryo-­chū-­kan structure. From the Japanese kana and Roman letters used in figures 11 and 12, two characteristics manifest: (1) each phrase, or hito-­kusari (literally, one chain) 一鎖, is divided into eight beats, or yatsu-­byōshi 八拍子; and (2) the dash (－) indicates the prolongation of the syllable preceding it. The shōga, however, as Morita rightly states, do not indicate or confirm the actual end of phrases, tempos, accents, motifs, and other musical nuances. Furthermore, it would be almost impossible for one to sing the shōga and to perform the music properly without the traditional

Figure 11: Shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the〔Chū no Mai〕(Issō Matarokurō [1936b] 2003, 1).

 ヲ

ヒャ

ラ

－イ

ホ

ウ ホウ ヒ

(呂）

o Oral hyaTransmission ra －53 i ho u ho u hi ryo The Nohkan and Beats: 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

－

 ヲ

ヒャ

ラ ヒュ

－イ イ ヒ

ホ ヒョ

ウ ホウ ヒ －イウ リ

(呂） (中)

－

 o

hya

ra hyu

－ ho i ihi hyo

u ho hi － i u ri

ryo chū

－

 ヲ

ヒャ

ヒュ ラ

イヒ －イ

－イウ ヤ リ ウ

(中) (干)

－

 o

hya

hyu ra

i ihi hyo － hi

ri u－ i u ya

chū kan

－

ヒ ウ  ヲ

ル ヒャ

ヒュ ラ

イ ヒ －イ

－イウ リ ウ ヤ

(干ノ中) (干)

－

hi ou

hya ru

ra hyu

－ hi i ihi hyo

u i u ya － ri

kan no chū

－

ヒウ

ル

ヒュ

イヒ

－イウ リ

(干ノ中)

－

hi u

ru

hyu

i

－ i u ri

kan no chū

ヒョ ヒ

ヒョ ヒ

ヒョ

hi hyo

8

Figure 12: Shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of figure 11 using Roman letters. (Chart by author)

oral transmission (Morita 2006, 48–49). Thus, Morita examines the “internal information” gained from oral transmission by analyzing the markings from a disciple’s shōga book, made by the master.4 These markings indicate breaths, tempos, rhythms and accents, and kana, showing the important roles of both oral transmission and shōga in learning the nohkan. Another important role of traditional oral transmission concerns nohkan melodic patterns, which have different designations in shōga but are identical in nohkan fingerings and produce the same notes in 4. The disciple is Morita herself, instructed by her Issō-­r yū nohkan master, Fujita Jirō 藤田次郎.

54PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Western staff notation. For example, the shōga sequences of “ho-­u-­ho-­ u-­hi” and “ra-­u-­ra-­u-­ri” are the same melodic pattern using identical fingerings. According to Yokomichi, the players are instructed to play these melodic patterns differently, but this variation seems to be only a difference in the players’ emotional states ([1992] 1993, 320). Morita, however, relates an experience with Issō Yōji that suggests something different. In her lesson with him, while playing Shōjō-­midare〈猩々 乱〉, she was instructed to play one of the two identical shōga with more force to make them distinct (Morita 2006, 11). This pedagogical moment evinces the importance of “internal information” derived from shōga, which can be made clear to a player only through oral transmission.

The Issō School’s Flute Fingering Book In addition to the two volumes of Issō School shōga, the Issō-­ryū fue yubitsuke-­shū, or Yubitsuke-­shū (Issō School flute fingering book; edited by Morikawa [1940b] 2004) 『一噌流笛指附集』, is also provided to students to accompany the Shōga-­shū. The Yubitsuke-­shū has the shōga of the repertoire on the right-­hand side, with the fingerings of each note alongside (figures 13 and 14). The Yubitsuke-­shū is read by viewing the seven holes for each note directly from the player’s angle. The three holes on the left side of the line represent the first three finger holes, played by the left hand, below the mouth hole on the nohkan; the four holes on the right side of the line represent the remaining four holes, played by the right hand. The filled circles indicate holes closed by the fleshy part of the fingers (as opposed to the fingertips), while the empty circles indicate open holes. A circle bisected by a horizontal line represents utsu (“hitting” 打ツ the hole). The bisected circle is often used to represent a repeating note on the nohkan, but it is specified by another kana. This fingering book is most helpful if one is already familiar with the shōga of the repertoire, because it is difficult to simultaneously follow the shōga and the fingering chart. Hence, memorization of the basic shōga, with the correct rhythm and syllables, is vital to attaining accu-

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 55

Figure 13: Fingering chart for the〔Chū no Mai〕. (Morikawa [1940b] 2004, 7).

56PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Figure 14: The “o-­hya-­ra” sequence from the fingering chart for the〔Chū no Mai〕 (Morikawa [1940b] 2004, 7).

rate “shōga-­finger” coordination, which allows further musical expressions such as sashi-­yubi (embellishments) to enhance the mood, ambience, and other musical elements during performances. These aspects are discussed in detail later. Perhaps neither the Yubitsuke-­shū nor the Shōga-­shū reveals the sound of the melodic pattern of “o-­hya-­ra” (see figures 11, 12, and 14). The Western staff transcriptions in the following section clarify how these syllables are sung. Before discussing the transcription, I offer some detail culled from the aforementioned research on mnemonics by Hughes (2000); this material may assist readers in better understanding the included transcriptions. His study investigated vowels from three languages (Spanish, Japanese, and Korean) by analyzing sonograms of the throat and mouth cavity. Hughes explains: “In a sonogram, each (normal, voiced) vowel appears as a fundamental (the pitch at which the vocal cords vibrate) plus various relatively dense regions of overtones reflecting that vowel’s characteristic resonance pattern (just as for a musical instrument). These latter regions are called formants, and they are crucial to ‘forming’ the vowel’s acoustic profile” (2000, 98). Analyzing the vowel’s fundamental frequency and its overtones reveals that the vibrational frequencies of the overtones in the throat cavity differ markedly from those in the mouth cavity. Hughes refers to these fre-

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 57

quency values (in Hz) as F1 (first formant) and F2 (second formant), respectively. These values can be identified for [i], [e], [a], [o], and [u]. In conclusion, these “nonsense” syllables do in fact make sense; [i] had the highest frequency, followed by [e], [a], and [o], while [u] had the lowest frequency. Furthermore, Hughes applied this concept to the nohkan and its four vowels, [i a o u], to demonstrate the interconnection between their order and relative pitches. He measured the difference in frequency between the first and second vowel, such as in “o-­ hya” of “o-­hya-­ra.” Here, the [o] is lower in frequency than [a], a difference is heard in the singing of the shōga, and specifically in Yukihiro’s singing of the shōga. The rendering of these syllables reflects the personal interpretation of the individual, and the syllables are full of musical details.

Transmission: Learning the Nohkan The nohkan is taught one-­on-­one using shōga, with the master sitting in front of the disciple. First, I will explain the traditionally known method of oral transmission to offer a more substantial description of the learning process. Hughes (2000) describes his nohkan lessons with Fujita Daigorō, who taught in the traditional way. Hughes explains that, in his first lesson, even though he had brought a Noh flute with him, Fujita just looked at it, commented on it, and returned it to him. Then, they chanted the “ground pattern” of the〔Chū no Mai〕for the remainder of the lesson. In the second lesson, after Fujita was certain that Hughes had memorized the four lines, he handed Hughes a folded Japanese fan. Fujita had a similar fan, and Fujita asked his student to imitate his finger movements and sing the mnemonics. During the third lesson, Hughes practiced the fingerings on the actual instrument and sang the mnemonics. Finally, in the fourth lesson, Hughes was permitted to play his nohkan. Hughes also reports that, during these weeks, his teacher never once picked up his instrument or presented any type of written notation. Hughes offers this about his lessons: “Playing the flute for that first time, ‘thinking’ the mnemonics as I did so, the melody seemed to come out naturally. . . . The fingers knew where to go,

58PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

and the syllables continued to course through my mind. The pitches and intervals were doubtless different, since we had never sung at any specific pitch. . . . But I felt a very close identity between what we had sung and what I was now playing” (2000, 95–96). I never studied with Fujita Daigorō or observed one of his lessons; however, his shōga for Kanze school dances are recorded in a four-­CD set with liner notes (edited by Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda [1976b] 2010), originally recorded onto five LPs entitled Kanze-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi (Kanze School: Instrumental dance music; edited by Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda 1976a). The recordings comprise the major dances—including the〔Chū no Mai〕, which Hughes describes in his lesson with Fujita—played by the Issō School nohkan, Kō School kotsuzumi (shoulder drum), Takayasu School ōtsuzumi (hip drum), and Komparu School taiko (stick or barrel drum). I indicate the schools represented on the CD set because, in Noh, there are different schools for each instrument, each of which has its own iemoto, teaching style, books, and performances techniques. This combination of distinctive schools allows for a rich variety of performance styles and slightly different performances, techniques, and music, but it also requires the instrumentalists to know these variations and commit them to memory. These subtle differences bring excitement to the performers and the audience. For example, there are three nohkan schools: Issō 一噌, Morita 森田, and Fujita 藤田. The kotsuzumi has four schools: Kō 幸, Kōsei 幸清, Ōkura 大倉, and Kanze 観世. The ōtsuzumi is taught in five schools: Kadono 葛野, Takayasu 高安, Ishii 石 井, Ōkura 大倉, and Kanze 観世. Finally, there are two schools for taiko: Kanze 観世 and Komparu 金春 (Ongaku no Tomosha 2007, 63). Moreover, the length of the dance is determined by the Kanze School, and it always ends with the ryo pattern of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure. In addition, each of the three types of tachi-­kata (role actors) has its own schools. There are five schools for the shite-­kata (main role actors): Kanze 観世 and Hōshō 宝生 are the kami-­gakari (upper lineage) 上掛 リ schools, and Komparu 金春, Kongō 金剛, and Kita 喜多 are the shimo-­gakari (lower lineage) 下掛リ schools. The waki-­kata (supporting or secondary role actors) have three schools: Takayasu 高安, Fukuō

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 59

福王, and Hōshō 宝生. Ōkura 大蔵 and Izumi 和泉 are the two schools for kyōgen-­kata (Kyōgen role actors).5 In total, there are twenty-­four different schools for the actors and instrumentalists in the Noh world. The CD set includes recordings of the dances, but before the performance recording of each dance is Fujita singing the Issō School nohkan shōga. He does so in a monotone voice for all the recordings. Therefore, it can be said (and other Noh researchers have said) that Fujita sang shōga in a monotone voice. For example, Hughes describes his experience in this way: “The pitches and intervals were doubtless different, since we had never sung at any specific pitch” (2000, 95). Hughes’s experience is common among those who have played the nohkan after going through the sequence of learning and singing the shōga and practicing the fingerings on a fan or on a nohkan. This teaching method is, indeed, very effective in allowing the student to concentrate on memorizing the shōga and focusing on the nohkan fingerings before the student becomes involved in actually playing the instrument. As I explain in chapter 1, playing the nohkan requires focus on where the air hits the edge of the mouthpiece, similar to that required when playing a Western flute. Many people become discouraged when trying to play the nohkan because it takes a large amount of air, and they resort to learning only the shōga and not the instrument itself. Fujita’s teaching is effective for learning the shōga; but for me, as a musician who associates nohkan pitches with certain fingerings (or notes on the nohkan), and not having the sound-­finger relationship when performing the shōga, it could be one less crutch while playing the nohkan. The lessons that Hughes describes are common for students who have studied under nohkan masters. Morita supports this experience, stating that, by chanting the shōga to the disciple, the master transmits his or her performance technique (2018, 12). Morita notes that the disciple must repeat the shōga in the exact same way the master chanted it, like a parrot (ōmugaeshi), and must memorize the shōga. When it is 5. Kyōgen is a comedic stage art, whereas Noh can be considered more serious. Kyōgen-­kata perform in Kyōgen plays and in ai-­kyōgen (Kyōgen interludes within Noh plays).

60PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

time to play the instrument, the disciple must chant the shōga within his or her heart.6 In this way, Morita argues that the shōga is directly connected to performance techniques of the nohkan and controls the performance onstage; for example, if the instrument were to have problems (such as the sound not coming out or certain parts of the instrument falling apart), the shōga can be chanted in place of playing the instrument (2018, 12). Morita’s explanation and Hughes’s experience coincide where he chanted the shōga with Fujita, memorized the fingerings of the mnemonics while singing them, and thought about the shōga while playing the instrument, demonstrating how a typical lesson takes place. My personal experience of learning from Yukihiro has been different. I have been a student of Yukihiro since 2005, but my training experiences have differed significantly from the way nohkan is traditionally taught. I did not feel “a very close identity” between shōga and the melody played—as Hughes did—mainly because of how shōga are used in Yukihiro’s teaching. I have never learned or chanted shōga in my lessons with him; moreover, he does not normally chant shōga to teach me the music, unless I request that he do so. The advantages of Yukihiro’s teaching, as described below, allowed me to quickly go through the nohkan pieces by memorizing the melodies and fingerings. The downside of this teaching method was that although I memorized the pieces quickly, I also forgot them quickly. In addition, when I was taking lessons with him, Yukihiro did not host osaraikai (disciple’s recitals) おさ らい会, because he was quite busy with his nohkan performances. Recitals and performances force disciples and students to commit a piece to memory while learning to listen to other instruments and understand their intertwined melodies and rhythms. Before delving into my typical lesson with Yukihiro, I feel the need to reiterate that the construction and sound of the nohkan are measurably different because of the inserted nodo. During my preliminary fieldwork in Japan in 2004, I was advised by one teacher that I could buy a plastic nohkan at the shop Mejiro-­gakki (Mejiro Instrument) in 6. In English, “chant the shōga within his or her heart” may be interpreted as chanting it in one’s mind, or subvocally.

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 61

Tokyo. I purchased one, hoping to understand the basic scale and construction of the instrument. I was confused by its scale, however, and had no idea of the repertoire, because I did not have any nohkan sheet music or, more specifically, the Issō School Shōga-­shū or Yubitsuke-­shū. Yet, even if I had had these books, I probably would not have been able to make sense out of them. Not until I returned to Japan in 2005 and had my first lesson did I realize that I needed a teacher to learn this instrument. At my first lesson, Yukihiro presented me with two books: the first volume of Issō-­ryū shōga-­shū and the Yubitsuke-­shū. He told me to look at both books and showed me where the first line (ryo) of the ryo-­chū-­ kan structure, “o-­hya-­ra-­i-­ho-­u-­ho-­u-­hi,” was written in both books. Then he had one of the nohkan students play it. I remember frantically looking at both books and trying to keep up with the student’s playing. Yukihiro then pointed out the other melody lines and had the student play them. I remember being utterly confused and not understanding how to memorize the two books together. I was curious to know how the other students had managed to do so. As I observed Noh lessons of other students (and not just the one with the nohkan), I realized that most of the students were familiar with the shōga, because some who were majoring in shite-­kata had already danced the〔Chū no Mai〕. Some had already played the〔Chū no Mai〕on one of the three drums. What is important here is that they had already played the〔Chū no Mai〕and had memorized the shōga and were already familiar with the rhythm and interaction with the other instruments in terms of timing, where they slow down together, pause together, or listen to one another to create the ambience onstage. Most of the students were from Noh families and had been listening to Noh performances since they were in their mother’s womb. Even if they were not from Noh families, they had to pass an entrance exam to enter the university. Since I was a research student in ethnomusicology, I did not have prerequisites for taking Noh lessons at the university, other than the teacher’s permission, and I had no Noh background coming in. The first Noh I had seen live was in December 2004, when I had visited Tokyo for my preliminary fieldwork. To return to the details of my first lesson with Yukihiro, I took the

62PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

two books home, still not comprehending the material. Fortunately, Richard Emmert, an American Noh scholar who had been living and studying Noh in Japan since 1973 and had studied all the aspects of Noh, asked Yukihiro for permission to teach me nohkan. In the Noh world, one is allowed to have only one master for each instrument, but for foreigners, especially those who plan to stay in Japan for a short period, some flexibility is granted. Emmert had studied with Yukihiro’s father, Yukimasa, for many years, and Emmert and Yukihiro had known each other and worked together on several projects, all of which facilitated this agreement. When I met Emmert in 2004, he had been giving nohkan lessons in Japan and abroad since 1985. He was a patient teacher who explained material in detail. After my lesson with Yukihiro, I usually met with Emmert for an additional lesson to understand the nohkan melody and the relationship between the nohkan and the other instruments. Noh lessons are usually about twenty minutes long. Because I was so unfamiliar with Noh, I had to spend more time learning the intricacies of the Noh instruments. On average, Emmert met with me for an hour for each lesson. During these sessions, he would usually play the drum patterns of the kotsuzumi and the ōtsuzumi (and sometimes the taiko) on the hyōshiban (wooden block) with a pair of hariōgi (fans used to hit the hyōshiban), as is usually done in nohkan lessons. He would also explain the fingerings of the nohkan when I would get stuck. What I found challenging in my lessons with Yukihiro was that there was no explanation about what I was playing in relation to the other instruments; there was just the beating of the hyōshiban. Later, in 2009, I started taking lessons on the ko­ tsuzumi; in 2010, I started the ōtsuzumi and the taiko, which helped me understand how the melody of the nohkan and the drum calls and beats are intertwined. In Noh there is no conductor leading the tachi-­ kata, the chorus, and the instrumentalists. In dances, the instrumentalists play according to the desired speed, as indicated by the shite. But there are times, such as during the oroshi section, when the shite does not move but the instrumentalists play as an ensemble. At such times, the instrumentalists must understand what the others are playing, especially by listening to the kakegoe, which indicate the rhythm and

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 63

tempo of the piece. During the first section of the〔Chū no Mai〕, the nohkan enters the dance with the ōtsuzumi’s drum call “ho” (written as “ha” in scores) in the tsuzuke pattern of “yo-­hon-­ho” (written as “ya-­ han-­ha” in scores).7 Emmert described this entrance as “jumping on the train,” as his teacher, Yukimasa, characterized it to him. Emmert added, “If you miss it, you get on it the next time.” The nohkan player can try to get on the train the next time it comes around, but during a performance, that is not always possible. With additional lessons from Emmert, my ears and fingers became familiar with the sound and movement on the nohkan. I was attending Noh performance almost every day, listening to different performers and trying to “steal” their techniques while familiarizing myself with the Noh repertoire and music. It took an average of three lessons for Yukihiro to teach me a new piece. In the first lesson, he played the entire piece on the nohkan, including embellishments. I recorded the lesson. In the days between the first and second lessons, I listened repeatedly to the recording until I could distinguish the shōga syllables from his embellishments. I identified his marked breaths, ends of phrases, accents, inflections, and musical nuances, which are usually taught by the master through the chanting of shōga, as Morita (2006, 2018) demonstrates in her research. I then listened to recordings that included the other instruments of the hayashi ensemble to gain an understanding of what they were playing, especially when intricate ensembleship was necessary. For my second lesson, I played the entire piece from memory, including sashi-­yubi and other ornaments that I had figured out on my own. While I played the piece, Yukihiro at times would sing the shōga to slow down or pick up the tempo, correct my playing, and prompt me where I had forgotten the musical line. After I finished playing the entire piece, he corrected my playing, directing me to sections by playing the phrase on the nohkan. During the second lesson, I also asked Yukihiro to show me his fingering for the embellishments that I was not able to figure out on my own. Yukihiro’s embellishments are, at times, difficult to deci7. The tsuzuke ツヅケ (the term literally means “to follow”) is a drum pattern that can go on for both the ōtsuzumi and the kotsuzumi.

64PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

pher by ear because he creates new nohkan techniques that include elaborate and modern flute techniques. He would slowly play the passage and show me the fingerings until I understood. At the following lesson, I played the entire piece with the ornaments, mimicking what he had played, even though Yukihiro discouraged me from playing ornaments during the first couple of months, until he thought I had a firm grounding in the nohkan. Yukihiro’s method of teaching, which did not include memorizing shōga, allowed me to learn the major nohkan pieces within a short period of time and, in general, sped up the learning process on the instrument. During one of my lessons, I asked him why he was not teaching me shōga, as I knew he had done with some of his other disciples. He replied that since I was able to learn and figure out the fingerings, notes, passages, and embellishments by listening to the music, due to my musical background and knowledge of transverse flutes, he did not find it necessary to take the time to teach me shōga. The disadvantage of this teaching method, however, was that enormous effort was and continues to be necessary on my part, because I am forced to memorize shōga on my own without any idea of how to sing them properly; I must imagine them from my lesson recordings. For example, when I watch students learn the dance〔Chū no Mai〕in their shimai or kotsuzumi lessons, I hear myself following the music with my fingers and singing the nohkan melody in my head, but not the shōga. This shows that I have memorized the nohkan repertoire mostly by ear and that my fingers remember the movements on the nohkan. This transmission process is the aural transmission of the nohkan repertoire, as opposed to the oral transmission of shōga. The latter is a vital part of transmission in Japanese traditional music. Hughes asserts, “Such systems [as oral transmission] depend for their effectiveness upon their orality: to fully experience the impact of the syllables, one must sing or recite them, preferably aloud but at least in one’s head” (2000, 94). As I progressed to more difficult and longer dances and started to perform with other Noh instruments, it became imperative for me to learn the shōga for dances, especially when we would perform a mai (dance) 舞 together. Dances have an oroshi section in which the ensemble slows and the drum patterns and calls are

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 65

altered. During this section, the nohkan plays musical notes below the ryo section of the ground pattern (which is the lowest phrase) of the ryo-­chū-­kan pattern.8 For this part to come together, all players must be singing the shōga and keep track of the drum patterns, given that there is no conductor to keep the ensemble together. The shōga and the drum calls keep the ensemble cohesive and maintain momentum. Therefore, in my lessons, I asked Yukihiro to sing the shōga while beating the patterns of the drums so I would be able to keep up with the other instruments.9

Comparison between Shōga Singing and Actual Performance of the Ryo-­chū-­kan Structure by Issō Yukihiro To demonstrate what types of “internal information” can be gained through oral transmission, Morita (2006, 2018) analyzes the markings made by a teacher in a disciple’s shōga book. Since Yukihiro does not mark his disciples’ shōga books, recordings of his performances as well as performance demonstrations and explanations of passages during lessons are used to understand his breathing points, tempos, rhythms and accents, and emphases. In this case study, Yukihiro’s singing of the shōga and his performance of the ji of the〔Chū no Mai〕were recorded and transcribed by the author, showing how shōga singing reveals one’s musicality and reflects the actual performance style of the player (examples 1 and 2). This recording was made with permission from the performer during a private lesson10 and can be downloaded from my 8. Oroshi is written as 下 in Japanese, meaning “below” or “under”; the nohkan melodic lines are lower than the ryo 呂 section of the ryo-­chū-­kan pattern. This is important because the low sounds of the nohkan slow down the section, while the shite stands still onstage, as though he or she is listening to the instruments. Therefore, the instruments must carefully listen to one another. 9. With the experience I gained from years of lessons, I was given the opportunity to teach and perform the nohkan at the Noh Training Project in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania. See appendix A for my experience. 10. Issō Yukihiro, nohkan performer, sound recording by author, Tokyo University of the Arts, October 12, 2006, minidisc.

66PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 1: Transcription of shōga from the ji of the〔Chū no Mai〕, as sung by Issō Yukihiro. A = 440 Hz; written one octave higher than the actual pitches for easier analysis. (Music transcribed by author) Ryo

4 &4 Œ

‰

œ #œ 3 J O

Chū

4 &4 Œ

Kan

4 &4 Œ

‰ ‰

hya

ra

œ #œ 3 J

#œ

O

hyu

4 &4 Œ

hya

œ #œ 3 J O

Kan no Chū

u

ru

œ #œ 3 œ 2

-

i

ho

œ

œ œ #œ

u

ho

nœ #œ ™ R ‰ R #œ i

-

ra

‰

i

i

nœ J

#œ ™ ≈ R #œ

hyu

i

hi hyo

u

# œ #œ J hi

#œ

u

hi

nœ œ 2 #œ 3

hi hyo

œ #œ

#œ 3

hya

# œ #œ nœ hi

#œ 3

ri

#œ

u

ya

nœ œ2 #œ3 i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

Example 2: Transcription from the ji of the〔Chū no Mai〕, as performed by Issō Yukihiro. A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) Ryo

4 &4 Œ

‰

œ 3 #œ 3 J O

Chū

4 &4 Œ

‰

Kan

4 &4 Œ

‰

4 &4 Œ

#œj

#œ

-

i

œ 3 #œ J

#œ

œ

hya

u

ru

i

œ3

œ

œ œ #œ

ho

u

ho

nœ #œ #œ ™ R ‰ R

hyu

# œ #œ nœ hi

ra

œ #œj # œ

hya

O

Kan no Chū

hya

œ 3 #œ J O

#œ 3

-

ra

i

 œ 3 ‰ #œJ # œ nœ #œ i

hi

#œ

nœ J

#œ #œ ™ ≈ R

hyu

i

hi hyo

hi

nœ œ 2 #œ 3

hi hyo

#œj

u

u

# œnœ

u

ri

#œ ya

nœ œ 3 #œ i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission

67

website (see appendix B for details). As a result of this private lesson context, varying factors that arise during an actual Noh play performance such as the plot, ambience, interaction among musicians, and improvisations onstage are not present, allowing for an analysis of the musical elements not based upon interpretation of the play or ensemble playing. Before I compare the two transcriptions, readers are reminded that the actual pitches of the nohkan sound an octave higher than the written pitches, and the notes that fall between pitches (e.g., quarter tones, microtones) are indicated with upward or downward arrows to the right side of the pitch, following the pattern shown in figure 6(a) from Nohgaku hayashi taikei (Komparu Sōuemon et al. 1973a).11 I have used a double arrow to indicate where I found the note higher or lower than a quarter tone. Moreover, I transcribed Yukihiro’s embellishments with upward stems that feature slashes through them. In addition, the transcription of Yukihiro’s singing of shōga is an octave higher than his actual singing. For easier comparison, I have transcribed his voice in treble clef, making it the same octave as the written nohkan. Singing according to one’s own pitch is not unusual, because the nohkan does not have a standard or absolute pitch, allowing the nohkan player to sing the shōga at any comfortable pitch level. An examination of Yukihiro’s two transcriptions reveals two points: he pays special attention to the pitches and intervals between the notes when singing shōga and sings according to his nohkan pitches; and he uses sashi-­yubi, which is a salient characteristic of nohkan playing. First, his singing of shōga with pitches identical to his nohkan pitches clearly reflects his emphasis on timbre, colors, and sounds produced by the nohkan. Again, shōga singing reflects the actual performance style of the player, and thus there are various ways of singing shōga; for example, some nohkan masters sing in a monotone voice or with little inflection. Others sing with inflections and pitches, taking into account different intervals between the notes, but not necessarily in relation to 11. In Western music, the notational practice is to place the quarter tones and microtones to the left of the note, before the accidental (if present), as seen in Ben Johnston’s works. For these transcriptions, the notational practice from Nohgaku hayashi taikei (Komparu Sōuemon et al. 1973a) is followed.

68PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

their nohkan pitches. Still others, like Yukihiro, match their sung shōga pitches with those played by their nohkan. Yet Yukihiro’s shōga singing, as heard in the audio files found on my website, does not include accents using breaths or extra vowels, as Morita describes in her research. To demonstrate that the similarities of these transcriptions are not by chance and that Yukihiro uses the nohkan’s timbre, color, and sound, such as the brightness or darkness of the instrument, to produce images most appropriate for the scene in the Noh plays and to enhance the ambience onstage, an analysis of his performance from April 27, 2006, is in order.12 At this performance, Yukihiro played a su-­bayashi (instruments-­only musical ensemble) 素囃子 of the〔Shishi 獅子〕(Lion dance) from the Noh play Shakkyō (Stone bridge)〈石橋〉. This su-­ bayashi, played by the four instruments, is dance music for the〔Shishi〕, which is an auspicious, imaginary Chinese “animal” that reigns over all creatures (Gondō 2003, 130). In this animated and energetic dance, Yukihiro made frequent use of sashi-­yubi and various other traditional and nontraditional techniques such as circular breathing, cross-­ fingerings, half-­holing, wrist movements, meri-­kari メリカリ, fukikomi, “sliding-­benders,” and “pitch-­benders,” and his high notes were most piercing, since he played a high-­pitched, piercing nohkan to reflect the excitement of the dance. In the same performance, the Noh play Teika〈定家〉was staged. Teika is a third-­category play,13 full of seriousness. It is a love story between Fujiwara no Teika (Sadaie) 藤原定家 and Shikishi Naishinnō 式 子内親王. After their deaths, Teika becomes the vines encircling Shikishi’s tomb, and her ghost continues to burn with passion for him. To express and support the story of this Noh play, Yukihiro played a somber and darker-­colored nohkan to portray the gravity of the plot. These descriptions of nohkan sounds are representative, not of the tonal scales 12. Issō Yukihiro, Yukihiro/Mansai/Hirotada: Nohgaku Genzai-­kei, Hōshō Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, April 27, 2006. 13. Third-­category plays, or sanbanme-­mono 三番目物, are also known as kazura-­mono (wig Noh) 鬘物, or onna Noh (women plays) 女能, in which the shite typically portrays a young woman or, in some cases, an angel or the spirit of a plant. This category is thought to represent the pinnacle of “Noh-­like” beauty and to be the most difficult category to perform.

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 69

produced by the instrument, but of the color of the sounds produced, such as brightness or darkness. These differ according to each nohkan because of the construction of the mouthpiece and the body, as well as other factors. In this way, Yukihiro’s sensitivity to the sound and colors of the nohkan, enhanced by his background in traditional and nontraditional Japanese music, comes through in his singing of the shōga. Yukihiro’s background in Western music and experience playing in ensemble contexts with other melodic instruments (where more precise intonation is a necessity) is reflected by the close match of each pitch in his singing of the shōga and his playing of the same passages on the nohkan. It is rare to find a fue-­kata whose singing and performance match so closely. There are small differences in pitches between the shōga and performance transcriptions, within a range of a quarter tone. For example, the third line of the ji with, “o-­hya-­ra-­i, hi-­u-­ya-­” (boldface added to highlight kana) shows a difference of a whole step in the “i” and “hi” pitches between the shōga and the performance (discussed later). The fingerings on the nohkan for these two syllables are the same, with only the first hole of the instrument covered. Hence, the shōga transcription of “o-­hya-­ra-­i, hi-­u-­ya-­” indicates these two notes as an #A (A-­sharp) in both cases.14 The performance transcription, however, shows different notes from those of the shōga; this is due to the addition of sashi-­yubi. As one would expect, the addition of sashi-­yubi is prominent in the performance transcription. Such embellishment is a common performance technique of the nohkan, with detailed finger movements and semi-­improvisatory embellishments (Gamō 1989, 116). Moreover, it is an element that gives variations to the rhythm, ornamental coloring (to the scene), and emphasis on certain words or beats (Morita 2006, 56). This ornamental technique, more intricate than techniques of the ryūteki, grants variations to the sound by (1) covering half the finger hole (or half-­holing); (2) altering the angle of the lips (or air) on one note, which changes the pitch; (3) instantly closing and opening an un14. The accidentals have been noted to the left of the pitch, and the quarter tones and microtones have been placed to the right of the pitch, to be consistent with the transcribed pitches from examples 1 and 2.

70PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

covered hole; and (4) instantly opening and closing a covered hole, also known as utsu (to hit) (Yokomichi 1989, 324). Since all the subtleties of these performance techniques cannot be accurately transcribed on paper, the downloadable audio files should be referenced. Nohkan players have individual styles of sashi-­yubi that distinguish one from another. Sashi-­yubi are usually not taught by the master to the disciple; instead, the disciple must “steal” through careful observation and listening to the master. It becomes evident, when comparing the recordings of the two players, that Yukihiro has “stolen” many of his sashi-­yubi techniques from his father. For this research, no comparisons of these two individuals’ playing styles are made. Referring back to the shōga transcription of the third kusari (phrase; literally, chain) 鎖 of “o-­hya-­ra-­i, hi-­u-­ya-­,” both the “i” and “hi” pitches are an #A (A-­sharp). In the performance transcription, however, the “i” is the note D with a #G (G-sharp) embellishment above it, acting similarly to an appoggiatura in Western music. If the notes were played without sashi-­yubi and the appoggiatura, the “theoretical” note would be an #A, since the kana and the fingering of the nohkan are identical to those of the “i” in the first kusari of “o-­hya-­ra-­i-­ho-­u-­ho-­u-­hi-­.” In the same way, if the “hi” of “o-­hya-­ra-­i, hi-­u-­ya-­” was played with the designated and “correct” fingering, the note would be an #A, since the fingerings of “i” and “hi” remain exactly the same. The performance transcription, however, shows “hi” as a #G, followed by two other #G notes and their embellishments. The #G, produced by “u” and “ya” in “o-­hya-­ra-­i, hi-­u-­ya-­,” is fingered by covering the first two holes, leading to the conclusion that the “hi” is played using the same fingering.15 Beginning the “hi” with two holes covered renders the repetition of notes more interesting and affords more opportunities for embellishments with the addition of ornaments and personal style. In chapter 3, a transcription of Yukihiro’s playing of the ji of the kakari (beginning section) 掛リ in a live Noh performance of Atsumori’s〔Chū no Mai〕is analyzed and compared with this transcription 15. The author was present at the recording, and “hi” was covered with two fingers.

The Nohkan and Oral Transmission 71

of the ground pattern (see example 2), taken out of context, revealing more about Yukihiro’s focus on pitch, intervals, and sashi-­yubi. As mentioned, Yukihiro has “stolen” this sashi-­yubi technique of “o-­ hya-­ra-­i, hi-­u-­ya-­” from his father, but he has also added his own interpretation by exaggerating the bending of the sound. Although this effect cannot be adequately represented on paper, it is audible in the available audio files. Thus, from the foundation taught by his father through oral transmission, Yukihiro continues to develop his own personal style. This case study of Yukihiro reveals aspects of nohkan performance practice that are passed on through oral transmission, especially through shōga. Since shōga singing is closely related to one’s performance style, it can convey the ends of phrases, breathing points, accents, rhythms, tempos, and other intricate nuances to the disciple. It can also reveal the many inner secrets of the master, such as musicality and musical background. Yukihiro’s singing of shōga is legato, unlike his actual performance style, but the transcriptions of the shōga singing and the performance of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure show marked similarities (especially regarding pitches) that reflect his experience in varied ensembles and musical styles as well as his focus on timbre, sound, and color of the nohkan and embellishments. Thus, many important details are gained through oral transmission, making it almost impossible to perform correctly on the nohkan without the benefit of such instruction. Shōga are a necessary aid in learning the instrument but only when they are sung and taught by a master, revealing many unwritten and unspoken musical aspects, opening a new world of music.

Chapter Three The Role and Melodic Patterns of the Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles

Traditional Noh Categories and Structure During the Edo period, the shoguns installed Sarugaku as their shikigaku (ceremonial performance) 式楽. The active traditional repertoire of each of the five schools consists of 180 to 250 plays, depending on the school, and almost the entire repertoire was written during the Muromachi period (Emmert 1997, 21). Within this repertoire are five categories of Noh plays known collectively as gobandate and distinguished by the shite’s role.1 Japanese researchers also divide the Noh repertoire into three categories: mugen Noh (dream-­world plays), genzai Noh (real-­world plays) 現在能, and ryōgakari Noh (plays that fall between the two previous categories) 両掛能 (Yokomichi, Nishino, and Hata [1987] 1992, 31). Most Noh plays fall into the first two categories, with the largest percentage in the mugen Noh category. Mugen Noh are “plays in which the shite is a being from another dimension of existence, either a god, demon, faerie, or plant spirit or the ghost of a human being” (Hare 1986, 297). Genzai Noh are “plays in which the shite portrays a living human being” (293). Thus, the natural or supernatural origins of the 1. The history and background of Noh are not discussed in detail in this book. Interested readers may consult the Cornell East Asia Series, which has published a wide range of books on Noh. 73

74PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

main character are the determining factor in this traditional classification system. Noh plays with aspects of both categories are in the third category.

Five Categories of Noh Plays The five-­category classification system of Noh plays was devised and codified during the Edo period (1603–1867), also known as the Tokugawa period, when Sarugaku became the shikigaku of the military ruling class; this designation of Sarugaku affected both the length and style of performances. The five categories are these: 1.  Shobanme-­mono (first category) 初番目物: kami Noh (god plays) 神能, or waki Noh (literally, side Noh) 脇能, in which the shite is a god who blesses the land with peace and prosperity. 2.  Nibanme-­mono (second category) 二番目物: shura-­mono (warrior plays) 修羅物, in which the shite is a warrior, with most stories taken from the battles portrayed in the Heike monogatari (The tale of the Heike). 3.  Sanbanme-­mono (third category) 三番目物: kazura-­mono (wig Noh) 鬘物, or onna Noh (women plays) 女能, in which the shite typically portrays a young woman or, in some cases, an angel or the spirit of a plant. This category is thought to represent the pinnacle of “Noh-­ like” beauty and to be the most difficult category to perform. 4.  Yobanme-­mono (fourth category) 四番目物: zatsu Noh (miscellaneous plays) 雑能 are labeled “miscellaneous” because they include Noh plays on various subjects such as mothers who have been separated from their children, Chinese stories about jealous women, and other subjects that tend to be more dramatic in nature. 5.  Gobanme-­mono (fifth category) 五番目物: kiri Noh (ending Noh) 切能, or kichiku Noh (demon and creature Noh) 鬼蓄能, in which the shite is a demon or other supernatural creature. This category is usually placed at the end of the program, as suggested by its name, and the structure of the Noh play is straightforward to emphasize the mai (dance) at the end.

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 75

For a typical day’s program in the Edo period, one play from each category would have been selected, organized according to the structure of jo-­ha-­kyū (introduction-­development-­conclusion) 序破急, as explained later. The sequence always begins with the ritual piece Okina 〈翁〉. This would be followed by a stately, congratulatory first-­category play, and the program would end with a fast, thrilling, demonic fifth-­ category play. This traditional performance practice of gobandate, however, with representatives from each of the five schools, is rarely seen today because of the length of time it would take to perform.

Mugen Noh Structure Most mugen Noh follow a similar story line, as explained by Yokomichi and Omote in Yōkyoku-­shū and translated and annotated by Hoff and Flindt (1973, 214): The way a typical Noh play of the former type [mugen Noh] develops is that a traveler visits some famous place. An inhabitant of the area comes along. The traveler asks to be told the story associated with the place. The inhabitant complies. At the end of the story he says that in actuality it is he who is the hero of the famous legend associated with the place. Then he disappears. In terms of the stage production his disappearance is called the naka-­iri, which refers to the fact that the performer leaves the stage. The traveler waits. The performer, who had played the inhabitant of the area before, now appears in his true guise as the hero of his own story, a warrior who died there long ago, for example. He retells the story with gestures or dances. At dawn he disappears. What has taken place has been the traveler’s dream. This is the reason that plays that follow this formula are called mugen. The word implies a dream world. The expression genzai nō is used by contrast to indicate plays that present persons living and acting in the real world.2

2. Hoff, Frank, and Willi Flindt. “The Life Structure of Noh: An English Version of Yokomichi Mario’s Analysis of the Structure of Noh,” Concerned Theatre Japan, accessed January 4, 2020, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cjs/ aag0609.0002.003/--concerned-theatre-japan/218?node=aag0609.0002.003:3. 3&view=image&size=100. This source is available publicly online.

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Entering the dream of the waki (supporting role actor) makes it possible to revisit historical events: battles, confessions of sins, forgiveness, revenge, enlightenment, and stories of unrequited love. Moreover, it is possible to access a world that embodies pure aesthetic principles, as described in the treatises of Zeami, a playwright whose most famous work is Fūshikaden (On style and the transmission of the flower) 『風 姿花伝』. The mugen Noh structure probably existed during Zeami’s time but reached a point of “completion” as he fashioned his Noh, centered on song and dance, into the structure (Omote 1978b, 68). This structure was perhaps derived from the tripartite Shinto festivals, which progressed from kami-­oroshi (descent of a deity) 神降ろし to kami-­asobi (deity entertainment) 神遊び and closed with kami-­okuri (sending off the deity) 神送り (Plutschow 1990, 52). In his book Chaos and Cosmos (1990), Plutschow points out that these three sequences are clearly recognizable in the first category of Noh plays, appropriately categorized as kami (god) Noh. He continues, “As drama developed out of Shinto ritual and even in later periods when it was influenced by Buddhism, it remained strongly attached to Shinto traditions. Noh’s religious character and exorcism’s role in it come into focus through an understanding of its Shinto background” (230). In this book, Plutschow also conducts a close study of the religious connections of Noh to Shinto and to Buddhism. Various scholars have noted other influences of Shinto upon the Noh repertoire. In a mugen Noh, the shite appears in a disguised form, usually as a local person, and interacts with the waki. The shite then disappears for the nakairi (shite’s costume change) 中入リ, usually exiting the stage or else remaining onstage within a contained area, while the ai-­ kyōgen (Kyōgen interlude) アイ狂言 actor explains the play’s background. After this narrative, the shite reappears in his true, supernatural identity. These plays may thus be divided into two acts separated by a brief interlude—mae-­ba (first act) 前場; nakairi-­ba (disappearance of the shite for a costume change and appearance of the ai-­kyōgen) 中入場, serving as the interlude; and nochi-­ba (second act) 後場—and labeled as futabagata (two-­act) mugen Noh 二場型夢幻能. The role of the shite is similarly divided into the mae-­shite (beginning shite) 前シテ and nochi-­

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 77 Table 1: Dan (subdivisions) of mugen Noh ba (acts) Mae-­ba (first act)   First dan  Second dan  Third dan  Fourth dan  Fifth dan

Waki enters Shite enters Waki and shite’s exchange (dialogue) Shite no shigoto (literally, “the shite’s work” or “what the shite does”) シテの仕事 Shite no nakairi (shite exits) シテの中入

Nakairi-ba* Nochi-­ba (second act)  Seventh dan  Eighth dan  Ninth dan  Tenth dan  Eleventh dan

Waki waits Shite reenters Waki and shite’s exchange (dialogue) Shite no shigoto 1 (shite may perform a dance) シテの仕事1 Shite no shigoto 2 and kiri (end section, conclusion) シテの仕事2

*The sixth dan, which is not included in the mae-­ba or the nochi-­ba, is called the ai-­ba 間場 or nakairi-­ba 中入場 and is occupied by the ai-­kyōgen (Kyōgen interlude). The ai-ba is called the sixth dan for research purposes but is technically not counted as a ba (Yokomichi, Nishino, and Hata [1987] 1992, 53–54).

shite (latter shite) 後シテ, for his performances in the mae-­ba and nochi-­ba, respectively (Yokomichi, Nishino, and Hata [1987] 1992, 31). There are also mugen Noh in the form of hitobagata mugen Noh (one-­ act mugen Noh) 一場型夢幻能, in which the shite appears in supernatural form at the outset of the play. Each of the five Noh plays analyzed here, however, is of the two-­act mugen Noh variety. As outlined by Hoff and Flindt (1973, 222), many of these two-­act mugen Noh plays are further subdivided, with each of the two ba (acts) 場 consisting of five dan (divisions, scenes) 段 (table 1). The mae-­ba and the nochi-­ba follow the same basic structure, with some differences in the second act (Hoff and Flindt 1973, 222; Yokomichi, Nishino, and Hata [1987] 1992, 53–54). Though the two ba are similar in structure, they differ markedly when it comes to the eleventh dan. The nochi-­ba places greater emphasis and importance on shite no shigoto (literally, what the shite

78PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

does3) シテの仕事 in the tenth dan, when the shite performs a dance. It is the “high point of the nochi-­ba” (Hoff and Flindt 1973, 222) and is followed by an ending dance in the kiri (end) section in the eleventh dan. There may be multiple layers in “what the shite does” in singing, dancing, and/or expressing emotions as the Noh reaches the apex and rushes to the end, as explained below in the discussion of Zeami’s Sandō (Three ways [or Three paths]) 三道. A number of variations on the basic structure are possible; for instance, some plays may add or delete a dan. But the typical dan structure as described here will facilitate the following analyses of five traditional Noh plays and the role of the nohkan within them. According to Hare (1986, 51), Zeami organized his Noh plays in five dan, using the jo-­ha-­kyū structure, as described in Zeami’s Sandō. This structure, which Zeami borrowed from Gagaku, pervades Japanese music. Monica Bethe and Karen Brazell define it as “the basic aesthetic principle underlying the nō” and describe it in this way: Jo is an introduction, slow, simple, dignified. Ha, the development, breaks this mood and begins the exposition. It is the longest section and usually contains the most important materials. The kuse is always in the ha section of the play.4 Kyū is a short, fast finish—exciting, but leading back at the end to the introductory jo. The progression is always cyclical.5 ([1978] 1990, 6)

This movement of jo-­ha-­kyū starts slowly in the beginning (jo) while developing the theme of the play. In the middle section (ha), that mood is broken, and the play presses toward the climax, which is realized in the faster closing section (kyū). This progressive structure can be noted in multiple levels of Noh, including the overall programming of a tradi3. Translation of the term is from Hoff and Flindt (1973, 222). 4. The [Kuse クセ] is a shōdan within a Noh structure. It is the central narration section by the ji-­utai and the shite. 5. Bethe, Monica, and Karen Brazell. Nō as Performance: An Analysis of the Kuse Scene of “Yamamba,” Cornell University East Asia Papers, accessed January 4, 2020, http://www.glopad.org/jparc/?q=en/noh_performance/top; http ://www.glopad.org/jparc/files/nohasperf_arch_all.pdf. These sources are available publicly online.

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 79 Table 2: Jo-­ha-kyū structure within a Noh Play Dan

Function

1 (jo)

Appearance of the waki

2 (ha 1) 3 (ha 2)

Appearance of the shite Exchange between the shite and the waki Musical performance by the shite Dance by the shite

4 (ha 3) 5 (kyū)

Modern shōdan term(s) [Nanori] [Shidai] [Ageuta] [Issei]-­[Ageuta] [Mondō] [Ageuta] Passage in kusemai­utai (kuri-­sashikuse) or tadautai Mai or Hataraki [Chū-­nori-­ji] or [Nori-­ji]

Source: Hare (1986, 53).

tional, day-­long Noh performance, in the shōdan (building blocks of a Noh play), and in the music, dancing, and singing. Hare applies this taxonomy to Noh plays by following Zeami’s prescriptions in Sandō, revealing its complexity (1986, 53). Clearly, that Noh structure can be analyzed from several different perspectives (table 2). According to Hare, the structure, especially in Zeami’s works, distinguishes one playwright from another: Zeami’s concern for form and structure had thematic consequences of great importance; it could hardly be otherwise since form and content are ultimately inseparable. . . . A kind of pleasure comes from the apprehension of form, a pleasure probably most immediately apparent in music and architecture, and indeed the musical side of noh drama had enormous influence on the development of Zeami’s style. . . . His [Zeami’s] constant awareness of form, however, has an even more important role in the creation of abstract beauty. The gradual progress of a play through jo, ha, and kyū orchestrates a coherent and affectively efficient aesthetic response; dan symmetry provides balance, a sense of repetition with variation, and an internal resonance or self-­referentiality that encourages a well-­proportioned and graded increase in audience involvement. As each dan plays out its theme, the audience perceives a kind of formal integrity and stability and nonlinear wholeness. (1986, 236)

This concern for form and structure is evident in Zeami’s plays. Thus, it is logical to analyze traditional Noh plays—especially those by Zeami— using the taxonomy described above. Yet, before the entrances of the

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shō-ku → han-ku → ku → setsu → shōdan → dan → ba → noh ichiban Smaller Larger Figure 15: Shōdan as the building blocks of a Noh play.

nohkan in Noh plays may be identified, one more level of division within the plays must be explained. The third order of division within a Noh play is composed of short sections called shōdan 小段, which are the basic building blocks of the play. Furthermore, these shōdan are divided into still smaller units: setsu (stanza) 節, ku (line of poetry) 句, han-­ku (half of a line of poetry) 半句, and shō-­ku (smaller units within a line of poetry) 小句. Figure 15 shows the structural divisions of a Noh play, from the smallest section to the largest (Yokomichi [1987a] 1993, 4:329): Shōdan (or shō-­dan) fall into several different categories based on a number of characteristics. Hoff and Flindt state, “The distinction between shō-­dan derives from several criteria, including some that have no reference to plot: dramatic function, rhythm, language, and order in a sequence of shō-­dan. In other words, each shō-­dan (the various types of which often carry traditional names) is a section or passage with its own rhythmic and linguistic characteristics. These criteria differentiate it from other shō-­dan” (1973, 218). In analysis, shōdan labels are typically set off by various types of brackets (see “Notes on Romanization and Notations” for details). Yokomichi and the Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (Society for Research in Asiatic Music) group shōdan into three categories (table 3). Utai-­goto (chant shōdan) 謡事 are a type of shōdan that feature the utai and are sometimes accompanied by the instruments and/or shosa (dance or movements) 所作 of the actor(s). Hayashi-­goto (instrumental shōdan) 囃子事 are purely instrumental music pieces, usually accompanying the entrances or exits of characters and mai. Shijima-­goto (quiet shōdan) 無言事 involves neither singing nor instrumental music, and so it will not be discussed here ([1987a] 1993, 4:329; Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai 1990, 4:26–27). It is important to note the specific styles of brackets used by Japanese nohgaku researchers, since shōdan with the same names exist

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 81 Table 3: Categories and examples of shōdan Shōdan category

Shōdan examples

Utai-­goto 謡事

[Shidai 次第], [Issei 一声], [Sashi サシ], [Kudoki クドキ], [Mondō 問答], [Ageuta 上歌], [Kuse クセ], [Nori-­jiノリ地], etc. 〔Shidai 次第〕,〔Issei 一声〕,〔Jo no Mai 序ノ舞〕, 〔Kagura 神楽〕,〔Kakeri カケリ〕,〔Inori イノリ〕, 〔Ashirai monogi アシライ物着〕, etc. {Su no De 素ノ出}, {Su no Ayumi 素ノ歩ミ}, {Su no Monogi 素ノ物着}, {Su no Nakairi 素ノ中入}, etc.

Hayashi-­goto 囃子事 Shijima-­goto 無言事

Sources: Yokomichi ([1987a] 1993, 4:329); Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (1990, 4:26–­27).

in the different categories, such as the [Shidai] of utai-­goto and the〔Shidai〕of hayashi-­goto. The consistent use of brackets makes these differentiations clear; [　] are used for the utai-­goto type,〔　〕are used for the hayashi-­goto type, 6 and {　} are used for the shijima-­goto type. The nohkan is heard in both utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto. Within these two categories, the nohkan has two styles of playing: awase-­buki (matched playing) 合ワセ吹キ and ashirai-­buki (unmatched playing) アシライ吹キ. In awase-­buki, found mainly in hayashi-­goto, the nohkan plays according to the rhythm and tempo established by the drums. On the other hand, in ashirai-­buki the nohkan is not constrained by strict drumbeats; this type of playing is used in both hayashi-­goto and utai-­ goto (108–109). Examples of the two types of nohkan playing as given by Morita (2006, 20) are shown in table 4. Morita further differentiates 6. The extra space seen before and after the〔　〕brackets is due to the font. A Japanese font has been used for these brackets because they do not exist in English fonts. Table 4: Types of nohkan playing in utai-goto and hayashi-goto Shōdan category Utai-goto Hayashi-goto

Nohkan playing style Ashirai-buki Ashirai-buki Awase-buki

Source: Morita (2006, 20).

Shōdan examples [Kuse], [Ageuta], etc. 〔Issei〕,〔Kakeri〕,〔Okuri-bue 送リ笛〕, etc. 〔Chū no Mai〕,〔Haya-fue 早笛〕, etc.

82PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

the types of the ashirai-­buki melodic patterns and awase-­buki melodic patterns, because they differ in structures and characteristics even though they may have similar kana (20–21). Her analysis combines the ashirai-­buki of the utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto into one category, because they have similar melodic patterns used in different shōdan, while the awase-­buki has its own melodic patterns, mainly used in mai, as seen in table 5. Noh Utai: Singing Styles and Rhythms Noh is a kabugeki (song-­dance drama) 歌舞劇, a performance art that entails singing, dancing, acting, music, and within-­set structures of dan and shōdan. The nohkan’s melodic movements respond to the utai pitches, especially in utai-­goto shōdan, so in order to better situate the nohkan within this set structure, I will offer a brief explanation of the Noh utai singing styles and rhythms. Noh utai is said to be produced from the stomach by pulling down the jaw (and chin) while retracting the root of the tongue, which apparently lowers a man’s Adam’s apple (Yokomichi 1963b, 13). The singing, rhythms, and notational styles are complex, with many differences among the schools. Yokomichi Mario’s Utai-­rizumu no kōzō to jitsugi: Noh . . . Jibyōshi to gihō (1992) and liner notes for Zeami seitan roppyaku-­ nen kinen, Noh (Jō/Ge) (1963a, 1963b) detail these differences. Without going too deeply into the intricate details of the utai, I will start by noting that there are essentially two styles of singing: (1) yowa-­ gin ヨワ吟・弱吟, or wa-­gin 和吟 (literally, soft singing), which is more Table 5: Ashirai-buki melodic patterns and awase-buki melodic patterns Shōdan category

Nohkan playing style

Utai-goto

Ashirai-buki

Hayashi-goto

Ashirai-buki Awase-buki

Source: Morita (2006, 20–21).

Melodic patterns

Shōdan examples

Ashirai-buki me- [Kuse], [Ageuta], etc. lodic patterns Ashirai-buki me- 〔Issei〕,〔Kakeri〕, lodic patterns 〔Okuri-bue〕, etc. Awase-buki melodic 〔Chū no Mai〕,〔Haya-fue〕, patterns etc.

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 83

œ

bœ

œ

kuri (kuri-on)

kan-guri

˙

jō-uki

chū-on

ge-on

*ryo

œ

jō-on

˙

œ

œ

˙

chū-uki

&

Figure 16: Yowa-­gin pitches (Miura [1998] 2003, 39). Certain schools may alter the use of these pitches. (Music retranscribed by author)

song in Western terms; and (2) tsuyo-­gin ツヨ吟・強吟, or bœ œ œis an intense, ˙ ˙strongœsinging), ˙ gō­ g in 剛吟 (literally, which powerful œ ˙ & singing style. There are three central pitch areas for yowa-­gin, known as jō-­on 上音, chū-­on 中音, and ge-­on 下音 (high, middle, and low pitches, respectively). These central notes are approximately a perfect fourth apart, as seen in figure 16. Even though these pitches are presented in Western staff notation in figure 16, they are not absolute; they may differ from singer to singer, and in performance the pitches sung by the (b) From chū-on shite and the ji-­gashira (head chorus singer) 地頭 may even vary. œ ˙ there is & In˙additionœto the˙three central notes, ˙ a note called kuri-­on ク リ音 (or kuri クリ), which is approximately a minor third above jō-­on, and a note called ryo 呂, which is roughly a perfect fifth below ge-­on. (See figure 17c for two ryo; their use differs according to schools and (c) From ge-on situations.) For embellishments, Hōshō School performers regularly fifth above jō-­on, thus allowuse & the ˙ kan-­guri˙ 甲グリ, which ˙ is a perfect œ œ highest notes (Miura ing a span of two octaves between the lowest and [1998] 2003, 38–39). Other auxiliary notes link the three central notes when moving between pitches (figure 17). These include chū-­uki 中ウキ, a major second above chū-­on, and jō-­uki 上ウキ, also a major second above jō-­on. Thus, as seen in figure 17a and explained by Miura ([1998] 2003), the jō-­on passes through jō-­uki to get to kuri, chū-­uki, or chū-­on. Furthermore, the chū-­on goes through chū-­uki to move to jō-­on, as seen in figure 17b. Since there is no note between chū-­on and ge-­on (low pitch), direct movement of a fourth is seen in figures 17b and 17c;7 this direct inter-

like melodic (a) From jō-on

chū-on

jō-uki

jō-on

chū-uki

jō-uki

jō-on

kuri (kuri-on)

jō-uki

jō-on

ge-on

chū-on

jō-uki

jō-on

chū-uki

chū-on

*ryo

ge-on

chū-on

ge-on

7. In practice, however, there is a note between chū-­on and ge-­on, known as chū-­osae 中オサエ, which is positioned a major second below chū-­on.

-on)

84PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

˙ chū-on

˙

jō-uki

jō-on

˙ ge-on

chū-uki

œ

œ

˙

œ

chū-on

chū-on

˙

jō-uki

œ

jō-on

& ˙

œ

chū-uki

(b) From chū-on

˙

jō-uki

jō-uki

bœ

jō-on

œ

kuri (kuri-on)

& ˙ jō-on

(a) From jō-on

(c) From ge-on

ge-on

chū-on

˙

œ

œ *ryo

˙

ge-on

& ˙

Figure 17: Yowa-­gin pitch movements (Miura [1998] 2003, 39). Certain schools may alter the use of these pitches. The pitches in this figure are indicated in the treble clef. (a), From jō-on; (b), From chū-on; (c), From ge-on. (Music retranscribed by author)

val movement of a fourth without going through intermediary notes is also true for the movement between ge-­on (low pitch) and ryo, as seen in figure 17c. Tsuyo-­gin is usually employed “by forceful characters or in dramatically dynamic or intense situations” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:43). Unlike yowa-­gin, tsuyo-­gin uses a narrow range of pitches, and the singer forces air out of the body while singing with a strong vibrato that, in turn, destabilizes the pitches. In tsuyo-­gin, the pitches for jō-­on, chū-­on, and ge-­on are present, as are auxiliary notes, but the intervals are not far apart—or not present at all (figure 18). Miura ([1998] 2003, 42) explains these pitches in this way: Jō-­on and chū-­on can be heard as the same note, as can ge no chū-­on 下ノ 中音 and ge-­on, which are only about a second (or a minor third, as written in figure 18) below jō-­on and chū-­on. Just below ge no chū-­on and

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 85

#œ

œ kan-guri

˙

kuri (kuri-on)

˙

jō-on

*ryo

˙

chū-on

bœ

˙

ge no chū-on

œ

ge-on

&

Figure 18: Tsuyo-­gin pitches (Miura [1998] 2003, 42). Certain schools may alter the use of these pitches. (Music retranscribed by author)

ge-­on is the ryo pitch. The upper note kuri is located a half step above jō-­ on and chū-­on, and kan-­guri, which is used by the Kanze School, is approximately a fifth above jō-­on.

Besides the two types of singing style described, there is a vocal style called kotoba コトバ, which is more of a stylized speech used in dialogues between characters. There are also two types of rhythmic styles: hyōshi-­awazu (unmatched) 拍子不合 and hyōshi-­ai (matched) 拍子合. In the hyōshi-­awazu, the rhythms of the chant do not correspond to the beat of the drums, although the drummers’ beats are integrated and intertwined and clearly function in relation to the chant’s rhythms. When the nohkan plays during hyōshi-­awazu, it plays using the ashirai-­buki style, which is not constrained by strict beats of the drums. The hyōshi-­ai has three types of matched rhythms between the chant and the drums: hira-­nori (standard rhythm), chū-­nori (medium rhythm), and ō-­nori (large rhythm). The most commonly used and the most complicated is hira-­nori, which accompanies the Japanese 7+5 syllable poetic meter called shichi-­go chō 七五調. Shōdan such as the [Ageuta] and the [Sageuta] (discussed later) are sung using this poetic meter, with the twelve syllables spread across eight beats, also known as yatsu-­byōshi. At times, however, there are more or fewer than twelve syllables present, leading to rhythmic variations and/or measures of two, four, or six beats in length. Chū-­nori, also known as shura-­nori (literally, warrior rhythm) 修羅 ノリ, is commonly used in battle scenes. In an eight-­beat phrase, sixteen syllables are evenly distributed, with other rhythmic variations. Thus, it

86PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

does not use the poetic meter of 7+5 syllables; rather, it uses 8+8 syllables. Ō-­nori fits 4+4 syllables into an eight-­beat phrase, which may be thought of as placing eight syllables into eight beats; the taiko is often present for ō-­nori. In sum, the singing styles and rhythms of utai are very complex, and each school has its own—slightly different—singing styles and notations.

Nohkan Melodic Patterns and Entrances Past research on the nohkan melodic patterns and entrances in Noh plays is scarce. In English, the Atsumori booklet by Bethe and Emmert (1995), published by the National Noh Theatre in Japan, explains the nohkan melodies for a few shōdan using only shōga, but not in relation to the text. Thus, the actual pitches of the nohkan cannot be heard by those who are not familiar with the instrument. In Noh, the general movement of the nohkan within an [Ageuta] is more or less set as dictated by the utai, which directs the general melodic patterns played by the nohkan (see chapter 1): Takane is played at the repeat of the first line, Naka no Takane for the second half of the utai, and Roku no Ge 六 ノ下 or Kote 小手 near the end (Takakuwa 2003, 10; Yokomichi and Gamō 1978, 54). In addition, the Nohgaku hayashi taikei, by Komparu Sōuemon, Masuda, Gamō, Hata, Nishino, and Matsumoto (1973a), includes records and liner notes, with detailed analyses for many of the utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto. In Kuchi-­ shōga taikei (Yokomichi and Gamō 1978, 54), the nohkan ashirai of the [Ageuta] is explained in more detail: First, the nohkan plays Takane at the beginning uchikiri. In the first setsu, this is the only place it plays. The nohkan does not play throughout the utai-­goto ashirai, as is seen in the [Ageuta], but plays at designated sections. Following the uchikiri after the first setsu (also called Naka no Uchikiri [and, in this case, the second uchikiri]), it plays Naka no Takane and Roku no Ge until the end of the second setsu. There is no set rule in relation to nohkan pitches and utai verses, but the nohkan prolongs or shortens its basic melody as seems suitable to the utai. Hence, it is by

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 87 approximation and estimation that the nohkan must end together with the utai, which is the difficulty with ashirai-­buki.

The two uchikiri (short musical breaks) 打切 indicate the entrances of the Takane and the Naka no Takane, respectively. The analysis does not show where to end Naka no Takane or where to enter with Roku no Ge or Kote. The utaibon (Noh chant book) 謡本 does not indicate the prescribed melodic patterns and where they begin or end, for oral transmission conveys this knowledge; only the fue-­kata (nohkan player in Noh), disciples of the fue-­kata, and Noh researchers know these patterns. Thus, to those unfamiliar with Noh or the nohkan, they may sound random, or they may even sound alike. The main focus of this chapter is on identifying the nohkan melodic patterns of the utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto, as well as points at which the nohkan’s playing begins (and ends). The current Issō School nohkan repertoire has twenty-­three utai-­goto ashirai melodic patterns and thirty-­nine hayashi-­goto melodic patterns (Morita 2006, reference material [1-­1-­2] and [1-­2-­1]). These various patterns are played in the appropriate shōdan, as shown in table 6, which identifies the nohkan melodic patterns in five selected Noh plays and uses the proper brackets identified by Yokomichi ([1987a] 1993) and Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (1990). To locate the entrances for the Issō School nohkan within the shōdan of the five plays I selected for analysis, I consulted with Yukihiro, referenced Issō Yukimasa’s privately and posthumously published works, and analyzed videotaped performances of Issō School performers. Moreover, I drew extensively upon Bethe and Emmert’s Noh Performance Guide, volume 5, Atsumori (1995), to better understand the overall structure and musical notations of the drums and utai and for translation of the Japanese terms into English. I also examined Morikawa Sōkichi’s Issō-­ryū fue kashira-­tsuke (Issō School book of patterns and entrances; Morikawa [1940] 1944), but it differs slightly from present-­ day performance practice. In the transcription of language in table 6, the Japanese terms are indicated in italics, and the shōdan are contained within the appropriate brackets. The English definitions are indicated in regular type enclosed within [　] brackets after the Japanese word.

88

  1

Dan

[Michiyuki]* Takane Naka no Takane Roku no Ge [(Tsuki-­zerifu)]

〔Shin no Shidai〕 [Shidai] [Nanori]

First category Takasago

[Michiyuki]* Takane Naka no Takane Roku no Ge [Tsuki-­zerifu]

〔Shidai〕 [Shidai] [Nanori]

Second category Atsumori

[Sashi] [Uta] Naka no Takane Kote Roku no Ge

[Nanori] [Mondō]

[Nanori]

[Michiyuki]* Takane Naka no Takane Roku no Ge/Kote [Tsuki-­zerifu] [□]

〔Nanori-­bue〕

Fourth category Kinuta

〔Nanori-­bue〕

Third category Izutsu

Category and title of Noh play

Table 6: Comparison of five traditional Noh plays and nohkan melodic patterns

[Sageuta] Kote [Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote [Tsuki-­zerifu]

[Nanori]

〔Nanori-­bue〕

Fifth category Tōru

89

  2

〔Shin no Issei〕 [Issei] Ryo no Fukiage Takane Naka no Takane Kote Ryo [Sashi] Shin no Ryo [Sageuta] Shin no Ryo (continued) [Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote [Sageuta] Kote [Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote

[Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote

[Sashi]

[Sashi]

[Sageuta] Kote

〔Shidai〕 [Shidai]

〔Shidai〕 [Shidai]

[Sashi]

〔Ashirai-­dashi〕

[Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote (continued)

[Sageuta] Kote

[Sashi]

〔Issei〕 [Issei]

90

  4

  3

Dan

[Kuri] Shin no Kuri

Takane Takane-­haneru [□]

[Uta] Kote 〔Okuri-­bue〕  (nakairi) Naka no Takane Roku no Ge

[Kakeai]

[Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote

[Ageuta]

Naka no Takane

[Mondō] [Kakeai]

Second category Atsumori

[Mondō] [Kakeai]

First category Takasago

Table 6: (continued)

[Kuri] Sō no Kuri

[□]

[Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote

[Mondō]

Third category Izutsu

[Mondō]

[□]

[Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote

[Sageuta] Kote [Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote

Fifth category Tōru [Mondō]

Fourth category Kinuta [Mondō]

Category and title of Noh play

91

  5

[Rongi] Takane Kote

[Sashi] Shin no Roku no Ge [Kuse] Naka no Takane Age no Takane Kote

[Mondō] (Ai-­kyōgen) [Katari] (Ai-­kyōgen) Kote

[Rongi]

[Sashi] Ryo no Kote [Kuse] Naka no Takane Age no Takane Kote

[Shidai] [Issei]

[Kakeai]

〔Monogi-­ashirai〕 Monogi

[Katari] [Uta] [Ageuta] Kote [Mondō]

(continued)

92

  6

Dan

[Mondō] (Ai-­kyōgen) [Katari] (Ai-­kyōgen)

〔Okuri-­ōyuri〕   (nakairi)

First category Takasago

Table 6: (continued)

[Machi-­utai]* Naka no Takane Kote

Second category Atsumori

〔Okuri-­bue〕   (nakairi) Naka no Takane Roku no Ge [Mondō] (Ai-­kyōgen) [Katari] (Ai-­kyōgen)

Third category Izutsu

Fourth category Kinuta

[Age no Ei] [Uta] [Ageuta] Takane (if Uchikiri is  played) [(Kuse)]

[Sashi]

Category and title of Noh play

[Uta] [Rongi] Kote 〔Okuri-­bue〕   (nakairi) Naka no Takane Roku no Ge [Mondō] (Ai-­kyōgen) [Katari] (Ai-­kyōgen)

Fifth category Tōru

93

  8

  7

[Sashi]

〔Deha〕

[Machi-­utai]* Takane Naka no Takane Kote

[Kakeai] [Uta] Naka no Takane Kote

[Ge no Ei]

〔Issei〕

[Sashi]

〔Issei〕

Naka no Takane Kote

[Machi-­utai]*

[Kudoki] [Sageuta] Kote [Ageuta] Kote (nakairi;〔Okuri-­  bue〕†) [Shaberi] (Ai-­kyōgen) [Fure] (Ai-­kyōgen)

Naka no Takane Age no Takane Kote [Mondō]

[Sashi]

〔Deha〕

(continued)

Naka no Takane Kote

[Machi-­utai]*

94

  9

Dan

[(Issei)] 〔Kami-­mai〕

Notare [Age no Ei]

First category Takasago

Table 6: (continued)

[Kuri] Sō no Kuri [Sashi] Ryo no Kote [Kuse] Naka no Takane Age no Takane Kote

Second category Atsumori

[Waka]

〔Jo no Mai〕

Ryo no Fukiage [Issei]

Third category Izutsu

Fourth category Kinuta

[Machi-­utai]* Naka no Takane Kote

[□]

Category and title of Noh play

 

〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕

[(Issei)]

Fifth category Tōru

95

[Rongi] Shin no Tome

[Nori-­ji] [□] [Chū-­nori-­ji] Sō no Tome

[□]

[(Issei)] 〔Chū no Mai〕

[Kakeai]

[Nori-­ji] Iroe [Uta] Sō no Tome

[□]

[Kiri] Sō no Tome (Gyō no  Tome)

[Ge no Ei] [(Kuri)] [Kudoki] [Nori-­ji] [Dan-­uta] Takane

〔Deha〕

[Rongi] Sō no Tome

Note: [□] indicates shōdan without names. *Notation differs from that of Yokomichi and Omote ([1960] 1976), because the [Michiyuki] and the [Machi-­utai] are a type of [Ageuta]. † Whether the〔Okuri-­bue〕is played depends on the position of the shite.

 12

 11

 10

96PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Analysis of Five Plays by Zeami Having set out a foundation of Yokomichi’s divisions of shōdan, Morita’s taxonomy of ashirai-­buki and awase-­buki melodic patterns of the nohkan, and Malm’s three functions of the nohkan, I will now examine five mugen Noh plays by Zeami: Takasago, Atsumori, Izutsu, Kinuta, and Tōru. This selection includes one play from each of the categories in the gobandate, and I will identify the dan and shōdan divisions of each by following Yokomichi and Omote’s Yōkyoku-­shū, Jō (Chant book, volume 1)『謡曲集・上』([1960] 1976) and the Kanze-­ryū yōkyoku hyakuban-­shū, Taiseiban (Compilation of one hundred Kanze School chants)『大成版観世流謡曲百番集』(Kanze Sakon [1950] 1975). I will conduct an extensive musical analysis of Atsumori to arrive at a standard point of reference for comparison of the five plays. I selected Atsumori to serve as the standard for several reasons: (1) because there is a valuable study of the work in English, Noh Performance Guide Series, volume 5, Atsumori, by Monica Bethe and Richard Emmert (1995); (2) because a dance from the play, the〔Chū no Mai〕, is the first piece of music one learns on the nohkan, and it contains the basic and essential materials for developing one’s nohkan skills; (3) because the〔Chū no Mai〕is a commonly used dance, for several different characters; and (4) because the plot is drawn from a well-­k nown story in the epic Heike monogatari (The tale of the Heike). The following section presents a detailed analysis of the nohkan melodic patterns in the context of the Atsumori storyline, which serves as a point of comparison for the structure of other Noh. In that analysis, I explain specific drum patterns and the nohkan’s relationship to these patterns, and the shite’s movements and positions onstage, where appropriate. Table 6 elucidates the flow of Atsumori, identifying the dan, shōdan, and nohkan senritsu-­kei. After analyzing Atsumori, I describe the stories of the other four Noh, which are in turn analyzed to demonstrate the divergence and flexibility in Noh structure. In those further analyses, Atsumori operates as a point of reference for comparing and contrasting each of the other plays, evincing any major divergences between its structure and theirs.

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 97

Analysis of the Noh Play Atsumori As a warrior play (the second category of Noh plays), Atsumori is taken from chapters that deal with Atsumori’s death in the thirteenth-­ century Heike monogatari and from the Gempei seisui-­ki (An account of the Gempei Wars) from the fourteenth century. Both recount the story of the Battle of Ichinotani, which took place at Suma Beach in Settsu Province in 1184 (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:4). Bethe and Emmert’s (1995) “Synopsis: Scene by Scene” functions as a guide for further analyses of the nohkan melodic patterns in the plays, enabling the individual dan and shōdan to be placed in the context of the overall play structure described earlier in this chapter, because the authors use divisions similar to those of Yokomichi and Omote’s Yōkyoku-­shū ([1960] 1976). Thus, table 6, which surveys dan and shōdan, and table 1, which lists and describes mugen Noh mae-­ba and nochi-­ba, are referenced regularly in the following discussion. The complete transcriptions of the nohkan melodic patterns can be found in appendix D. Act 1 of the play is composed of four dan—one dan fewer than the standard model described in table 1. Dan may be added, subtracted, or expanded in a play; in Atsumori, the fourth dan, shite no shigoto (what the shite does), is omitted. The first dan is marked by the waki entrance. Bethe and Emmert summarize this scene: The priest Renshō, formerly the Genji warrior Kumagae no Jirō Naozane from Musashi, is on his way from the Capital (Kyōto) to Suma, the site of the Battle of Ichinotani where he killed the youthful Atsumori. He intends to atone for his deed by praying for the repose of Atsumori’s soul. At Suma, he hears the sound of a flute, and decides to question some approaching reapers about it. (1995, 5:4)

The entrance of the waki is accompanied by the hayashi (musical ensemble), in which the hayashi plays the〔Shidai 次第〕. Specifically, the hayashi plays a Sō-­shidai (priest shidai) 僧次第 because Renshō 蓮生 is a priest, since the musical accompaniment changes according to the character of the waki, suggesting his social status and profession.

98PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

The〔Shidai〕is categorized as a hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki (instrumental shōdan, unmatched playing) melodic pattern, since it is instrumental, and the nohkan plays without adhering to the pattern of beats established by the drummers. The transcription found in appendix D uses Ranjō’s nohkan scale, although it should be recalled that this is not a “definitive” musical rendering of the〔Shidai〕. Many details of performance practice differ from performance to performance, owing to several variables, including differences in performance styles for the waki actor schools; rank of the characters; differences in schools for the various drums; size of the Noh stage, particularly regarding the length of the hashi-­gakari (bridgeway); and the time restriction for the Noh performance. In the particular performance of Atsumori under discussion here, the〔Shidai〕begins with the nohkan’s hishigi, followed by the entrance of the drums. A distinguishing feature of the〔Shidai〕is its “uneven pulse,” maintained by interplay between the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi with their elongated drum calls and varying drum strokes. Obviously, the transcription of the〔Shidai〕fails to capture this fluidity, limited as it is by the use of numbered beats for the drums. It does, however, make the relationship between the drums and the nohkan—and the eight-­ beat phrases with their subdivisions—evident. The nohkan entrances for the Issō School〔Shidai〕are found in the Issō-­ryū fue yubitsuke-­shū (Morikawa [1940b] 2004, 36), with instructions that require some understanding of the drum patterns. For example, the fingering chart for the〔Shidai〕begins with fingerings of the nohkan’s hishigi, followed by another melodic pattern that is similar to the nohkan pattern of Age no Takane. This entrance is explained as follows: “Enter at the tsuzumi’s first tsuzuke at the ‘ya’ drum call before the fifth beat” (Morikawa [1940b] 2004, 36).8 For those familiar with the drumming patterns and drum calls, this entrance point would be easy to identify. In the transcription found in appendix D, the nohkan entrances are clearly indicated in a score arrangement, aligned properly with the correct drum calls (with vertical alignment indicating simul8. The entire yubitsuke (fingerings) of the〔Shidai〕can be found in the appendix E.

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taneity). The endings of the nohkan melodic patterns are not always the same, but for the Issō School nohkan, the ending of the melodic pattern of the〔Shidai〕is usually at “yo-­i” calls of the ōtsuzumi’s uchikiri, as seen in the second and third melodic pattern of the nohkan. The fourth nohkan melodic pattern ends at the uchikiri of both the kotsuzumi and the ōtsuzumi. This timing is not indicated in the fingering chart but is passed on directly from master to disciple. Another important characteristic of the〔Shidai〕is the entrance of the kotsuzumi’s tsuzuke, which may vary from performance to performance. Even though the transcription shows the first tsuzuke coming after the kotsuzumi’s second mitsuji (literally, “three grounds”—a pattern of three hits in an eight-­beat phrase) 三地, this may not always be the case in practice. There might be only one mitsuji, or as many as three or four, before the first tsuzuke. The number is determined by the ōtsuzumi, who leads the ensemble when the taiko is not used.9 The leadership of the ōtsuzumi is evident in the〔Shidai〕, when he plays the drum pattern yoseru-­tsuzuke just as the waki actor passes the shite-­ bashira (shite’s pillar). This musical event, tied directly to stage actions, requires and ensures a certain degree of flexibility in performance, and this flexibility is largely controlled by the leader of the ensemble. After the entrance of the above nohkan materials in the〔Shidai〕, the form continues with ichi-­dan (first dan) and ni-­dan (second dan). Since the number of dan varies according to the particular play being staged, the players are made aware of the play’s structure during the mōshi-­ awase (rehearsal). The〔Shidai〕hayashi-­goto is followed by the waki’s shōdan of [Shidai 次第], [Nanori 名ノリ], [Michiyuki 道行]—his opening song, name announcement, and travel song, respectively. After the [Michiyuki] is sung, the chorus repeats the last two lines of the waki’s [Michiyuki], in a low, quiet voice called the jitori 地取. This is not indicated in table 6, because it is not a shōdan but is always sung by the ji-­utai (chorus). The nohkan does not play during these two shōdan; but in the 9. The term “leader” or “leadership” is used as a translation for the ōtsuzumi-­ kata, who keeps the ensemble together. However, there is also more of a “give-­ and-­take” among instrumentalists. Thus, the drumcalls and entrances of the instrumentalists play a significant role in the balance and cohesion of the ensemble.

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[Michiyuki] it plays three melodic patterns—Takane, Naka no Takane, and Kote (or Roku no Ge). As noted, a [Michiyuki] is a travel song; in this instance, the waki describes his trip from the capital (Kyoto) to Suma Beach in the melodic singing style, with strict use of a 7+5-­syllable meter typical of much Japanese poetry (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:17).10 It is a type of [Ageuta], and the [Machi-­utai 待謡] also falls into this category (Yokomichi and Gamō 1978, 54). Hence, the melodic patterns of these [Ageuta] shōdan—categorized as utai-­goto, ashirai-­buki (chant shōdan, unmatched playing)—consist of ashirai melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Roku no Ge (or Kote). These melodic patterns will be analyzed in some detail later. This [Michiyuki] is followed by the [Tsuki-­zerifu 着キゼリフ], which sets the waki’s arrival at his destination and allows for the transition between the scenes. The waki ends the dan by preparing the scene for the entrance of the shite as he moves toward his prescribed waki stage position. The second dan, marked by the shite’s entrance, is prepared by the waki. In Atsumori, the shite enters with his three tsure (shite’s companion roles). Bethe and Emmert describe the scene in this way: “Grasscutters on their way home at evening sing of their sad, lonely lives and suggest once they knew better circumstances, but now have been forgotten by even their friends” (1995, 5:4). For these entrances, the〔Shidai〕is also played by the instrumentalists, although there are differences from the accompaniment for the waki’s entrance, such as the order of the drum entrances. The nohkan, however, plays the same melodic patterns found in the waki〔Shidai〕, so by listening carefully to the drum patterns and drum calls, the nohkan player can correctly discern the nohkan entrances despite minor changes within the drum order. As in the first dan of the waki entrance, the〔Shidai〕musical accompaniment is followed by the shite’s [Shidai], which he sings with his tsure. There is no [Nanori] or [Michiyuki] by the shite, and his identity is to remain undisclosed until the second half of the mugen Noh, in 10. As Bethe and Emmert explain, “Japanese poetry is based on lines of 7 or 5 syllables. In Noh, a 12-­syllable line composed of 7 and 5-­syllable upper and lower hemistiches (respectively, kami-­no-­ku and shimo-­no-­ku) is standard, but may be varied” (1995, 5:37).

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which he reveals his true form. Instead, the〔Shidai〕is followed by a [Sashi サシ], a recitation by the shite and tsure, during which the nohkan does not play. This is followed by a [Sageuta 下歌], a low-­pitched song by the shite and tsure, and then by an [Ageuta], a high-­pitched song that was heard in the first dan. In the [Sageuta], categorized as an utai-­goto, ashirai-­buki (chant shōdan, unmatched playing), the nohkan plays Kote. Analysis of this shōdan appears later in relation to the drums and voices, but it is important to note that the [Sageuta] usually precedes an [Ageuta], acting as an introduction to the high-­pitched song. The [Ageuta] nohkan melodic patterns are Takane, Naka no Takane, and Roku no Ge (or Kote), and each entrance comes at different points of the chant. Also, because the [Michiyuki] is a type of [Ageuta], the nohkan melodic patterns and entrances are the same as those for the [Ageuta] itself, as seen in the score transcriptions. In the third dan, the shite and waki exchange dialogue: “Renshō questions the grasscutters as to which is the flute player and expresses his surprise and admiration at the elegance of the music. They justify the presence of art even among the lowly and destitute, and then list the names of many famous flutes” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:5). This dan is marked by the shōdan of the [Mondō 問答], which is a dialogue in a stylized speech form, followed by the [Kakeai 掛ケ合], an exchange between the two characters; the dan concludes with an [Ageuta] by the ji, similar to the last two dan, with the typical three melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Kote (or Roku no Ge) played by the nohkan. This time, however, the second drum interlude is not present as in the first [Ageuta]. The fourth dan ends with another [Kakeai] and an [Uta 歌], before the shite’s exit, as he “requests that Renshō say prayers for him, hints at his identity, then vanishes” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:5). During the [Uta], the nohkan plays Kote and ushers the shite offstage (nakairi)11 by playing an〔Okuri-­bue 送リ笛〕, translated literally as “sending flute.” This〔Okuri-­bue〕is a hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki, for 11. A literal translation of the word nakairi would be “entering inside,” a word designating the “ushering.” Nakairi means the shite disappears inside for a costume change, which happens in the middle section (or interlude) of a two-­act mugen Noh play.

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which the nohkan alone plays consecutively Naka no Takane and Roku no Ge as the shite leaves the stage via the bridgeway. An interlude by the ai-­kyōgen takes place in the fifth dan; the nohkan does not play here. The shōdan include a [Mondō] (dialogue) between the ai-­kyōgen, who acts as a local resident, and the waki, followed by a [Katari 語リ] (narration) by the ai-­kyōgen. The synopsis of the scene is as follows: “Renshō asks a local man what he knows of the death of Atsumori. The man narrates how before the Battle of Ichinotani, Atsumori went back to fetch his flute. When Atsumori was trying to catch the fleeing boats, Kumagae challenged him to battle, but regretting the need to kill such a fine young warrior, tried in vain to save his life. The man finally suggests Renshō should pray for Atsumori’s soul” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:5). After this narrative by the ai-­kyōgen, the second act begins as the waki waits for the shite’s reentrance with his [Machi-­ utai] (waiting song). The sixth dan begins with such a [Machi-­utai], which is Renshō’s “night’s prayers for Atsumori’s soul” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:5). The nohkan plays Naka no Takane and Kote (or Roku no Ge) since the [Machi-­utai] is a type of [Ageuta]. In this [Machi-­utai], there is usually no Takane, because most of the time the drums do not play the uchikiri pattern after the first line, which would require the entrance of the nohkan. The absence of an uchikiri at this point seems to have become common practice. The seventh dan is prepared by Renshō’s prayers for the entrance of the nochi-­shite, who is Atsumori’s ghost and is accompanied by the hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki of the〔Issei 一声〕(Entrance music for the shite). This〔Issei〕is found in the Yubitsuke-­shū ([1940b] 2004, 38)12 and is similar to entrance music with an unmatched flute〔Shidai〕. The difference between the two, however, is that the hand drums have a more rhythmic interplay than in the〔Issei〕, in which the drum exchanges are more elongated and uneven. The〔Issei〕in Atsumori is played at the beginning of the second act, but the same〔Issei〕can be played for entrances in the first act, depending on the Noh play. In the〔Issei〕transcription found in appendix D, the nohkan begins, followed by a melodic pattern similar to Sō no Kuri 草ノクリ. Out of the various versions 12. The entire yubitsuke of the〔Issei〕can be found in appendix E.

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of the〔Issei〕, the transcription includes the divisions of Koshi no Dan, Ni-­dan, and San-­dan. The inclusion of Koshi no Dan, which is played occasionally in formal performances, is usually determined at the dress rehearsal. Performance variations are decided upon by factors that include the wishes of the shite actor, the Noh play, stage dimensions, allocated performance time, and what other plays might be on the same day’s program. The seventh dan ends with a [Ge no Ei 下ノ詠], a low-­pitched poem by the shite. The eighth dan includes the waki and nochi-­shite’s exchange with a [Kakeai] and an [Uta] as the story unfolds. Bethe and Emmert provide a description of this scene: “Drawn by Renshō’s prayers, Atsumori’s ghost appears and requests release from the bonds of his karma. The two enemies join in prayers for salvation [as the scene ends]” (1995, 5:5). The nohkan does not play during the [Kakeai] but does play during the [Uta] of the chorus, which is categorized as an utai-­goto, ashirai-­ buki. The nohkan plays Naka no Takane and Kote without matching the rhythm of the drums. The pace of the utai quickens as it approaches the ninth dan, which includes the [Kuri クリ], [Sashi サシ], and [Kuse ク セ]; these are all utai-­goto, ashirai-­buki and lead up to the climax of the〔Chū no Mai〕. The ninth dan shōdan include nohkan melodic patterns that differ from those of the previous dan. In this scene, “Atsumori describes how the once strong Heike lost their power and position, scattered, and some took refuge at Ichinotani where they led a desperate, lonely life with the Suma folk” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:5). In the [Kuri], which is sung by the ji-­utai (chorus) with frequent high-­register notes and numerous embellishments, the nohkan plays three patterns of Sō no Kuri, as its pitches move according to the pitches of the chant. This is followed by a [Sashi], a recitative by the shite and ji-­utai, in which the nohkan plays Ryo no Kote 呂ノ小手. The [Sashi] is followed by the [Kuse], which is the central narrative by the ji-­utai and shite, accompanied by the instruments. The nohkan plays Naka no Takane in the first part of the [Kuse], which is sung by the ji-­utai with their low and middle pitches. In the second part, which begins with the shite line and passes on to the ji-­utai, the nohkan plays Age no Takane and Kote. The [Kuri], [Sashi], and [Kuse] are often found in this order, as can be seen

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in other Noh plays. In this arrangement, according to Bethe and Emmert, “[the] kuri introduces the topic at hand . . . , the sashi brings the focus in to more concrete statements, and the following kuse zeroes in on a specific time and place,” as the waki continues to dream in the structure of the mugen Noh (1995, 5:49). In the tenth dan, the awaited〔Chū no Mai〕dance is performed by the shite, preceded by another [Kakeai] between the waki and the shite and [(Issei)] by the ji-­utai. The〔Chū no Mai〕, translated literally as “Middle Dance,” is a medium-­tempo dance used in a number of Noh plays. Bethe and Emmert observe: “Knowing their time was up, the Heike warriors had one last party. Atsumori played his flute. A long instrumental dance illustrates the revelry on stage” (1995, 5:5). The dance is the〔Chū no Mai〕, which is categorized as a hayashi-­goto, awase-­buki. This hayashi-­goto is the first awase-­buki present in this Noh play. Until now, most of the nohkan melodic patterns in utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto were ashirai melodic patterns, allowing the nohkan to play without matching the drumbeats; here, the nohkan plays in relation to the rhythm established by the drums. Because the nohkan is the only melodic instrument in the shibyōshi (rhythmic musical ensemble), its role in the ensemble is to play melodically yet rhythmically. Rhythmic dynamism may be achieved by such techniques as adding accents, using the breath, hitting the holes, and adding sashi-­yubi. This transcription of the〔Chū no Mai〕is analyzed later. After the awaited mai, the final dan concludes with the shite’s last dance. As the synopsis reveals, “The ghost enacts the Battle of Ichinotani. When the Taira take to their ships, Atsumori tries to board, but is waylaid and killed by Kumagae. Again, Atsumori’s ghost advances on the praying figure, sensing his enemy’s presence, but in time, he recognizes him as a friend praying for his soul: the two will be reborn on the same lotus” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:5). The shite and ji-­utai narrate this scene with complex singing and rhythms, with the shōdan of [□], [Nori-­ji ノリ地], [□], and [Chū-­nori-­ji 中ノリ地]. Yokomichi and Omote have used the symbol [□] for shōdan without specific names, but Bethe and Emmert have identified these two [□] as [Waka 和歌], an abbreviated poetic song, during which the nohkan does not play. The nohkan

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also remains silent in the [Nori-­ji], which is accompanied instead by the two drums playing in the ō-­nori (large rhythm) pattern. The nohkan does play in the last shōdan, the [Chū-­nori-­ji], with the melodic pattern of Sō no Tome 草ノ留, while the drums accompany the rhythmic pattern chū-­nori (middle rhythm), although the rhythm is elongated and shortened during the phrases. A closing high-­pitched hishigi marks the end of the play, assuming another play is to follow, and signals to the backstage area that the play has finished and the performers need to get ready for the next play.13 Hence, if Atsumori were to be the last play of the day, a hishigi would not be played.14 Divergence in Noh Structure from Atsumori As a point of reference, Atsumori can be a productive touchstone for the other four plays under consideration, demonstrating that despite the prescribed structure of a mugen Noh—with the mae-­ba, nochi-­ba, and the specific entrance and exit points identified for the characters— flexibility within the dan is evident. Zeami characterized the form as “extraordinarily malleable and responsive” (Hare 1986, 236), and the following analyses confirm that observation. Rather than enumerating each structural difference from Atsumori, I have noted only the major divergences. Takasago Takasago is a first-­category Noh play, also known as waki Noh (literally, side Noh) 脇能. Hare (1986, 67) defines this category as “plays that stand at the head of a day’s performance, directly after the ritualistic opening with Shikisanban [(Three Congratulatory Pieces) 式三 番].” He adds, “Since waki noh are elsewhere consigned to the musical 13. In current performance practice, however, a hishigi is not always heard at the end of a Noh play, especially with a third-­category Noh play, even if it is not the last play of the day. The reason seems to be that the performers do not want to break the ambience of a grave, somber Noh play with a piercing hishigi. 14. In most performances, Atsumori is not the last play of the day, since it is a second-­category play, and so it calls for a closing hishigi.

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and emotional category of shūgen [(congratulatory) 祝言], the auspicious, or congratulatory, it follows that most plays about old men—actually gods—appear early in the day’s performance and give voice to congratulatory and auspicious sentiments” (67). In keeping with this description, the structure of Takasago more or less aligns with table 1, but the musical elements do indeed define the status of the Noh and its characters. In Takasago, the waki is a priest named Tomonari 友成 from the Aso Shrine in Kyūshū who is attended by his two shrine priest companions. They are accompanied by a nohkan melodic pattern of〔Shin no Shidai 真ノ次第〕—more specifically, the Daijin Shidai 大臣次第 of〔Shin no Shidai〕. As in Atsumori, this melodic pattern is a hayashi-­ goto, ashirai-­buki; but here it is reserved for higher-­ranking characters, for in waki Noh, the waki’s character is a Shinto priest (as in Takasago) or an imperial minister or retainer (Hare 1986, 72). The shite and tsure are also of higher status and are accompanied by the〔Shin no Issei 真ノ一声〕rather than the standard〔Issei〕heard in Atsumori. The shite appears as an old man but is in fact the spirit of the Sumiyoshi pine, while the tsure portrays an old woman, who is actually the spirit of the Takasago pine. In this way, the Shin 真 is attached to many of the nohkan melodic patterns of waki Noh, depicting the higher status of the characters in musical terms. Unlike in Atsumori, in Takasago the nohkan plays in all of the utai-­ goto shōdan. For example, in the [Issei] of the second dan, the nohkan begins with the melodic pattern Ryo no Fukiage 呂ノ吹上 as the shite and tsure sing their lines together; these lines are followed by the shite’s solo line, over which the nohkan plays Takane. The Takane is finished by the time the shite and tsure come in together again for the next line, in which the nohkan does not play. The [Issei] leads to the [Sashi], but before entering into this new shōdan, the nohkan plays three ashirai melodic patterns: Naka no Takane, Kote, and Ryo, during which the shite and tsure do not sing but move to their onstage positions. Thus, the nohkan constantly listens to the utai for entrance cues, especially in the utai-­goto, because the nohkan usually moves in relation to the chant. Familiar shōdan are found in the second dan, including the [Sashi],

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but here another Shin nohkan melodic pattern is played, in this case Shin no Ryo 真ノ呂, which continues into the next shōdan, a [Sageuta]. The third dan is marked by a [Mondō] and a [Kakeai] between the shite and the waki, as it was in Atsumori. This [Ageuta] shows, however, a significant difference from that heard in Atsumori. Usually in the [Ageuta], the nohkan melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Kote are played—although Takane may sometimes be omitted for a [Machi-­utai], depending on whether the drums play an uchikiri. In contrast, this [Ageuta] sung by the chorus includes Naka no Takane, Takane, and Takane-­haneru 高音ハネル. As in the third dan, the fourth dan includes special nohkan melodic patterns for the waki Noh. It plays Shin no Kuri 真ノクリ in the [Kuri] and Shin no Roku no Ge 真ノ六ノ下 in the [Sashi]. During the [Kuse], the nohkan plays Naka no Takane in the first chant of the chorus and Age no Takane 上ノ高音 and Kote in the second chant of the chorus, though the latter pattern is interrupted briefly by one line from the shite. The fifth dan prepares for the nakairi by the mae-­shite and tsure, in which the nohkan plays the〔Okuri-­ōyuri 送リ大ユリ〕, a pattern whose title translates literally as “sending, large-­wavering.” Other than this hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki shōdan, which the nohkan plays alone, the [Rongi ロンギ] is the only other shōdan in this dan. A [Rongi] is a dialogue between the characters and the chorus, usually with the chorus ending the shōdan. The nohkan melodic pattern of Kote is played during the [Rongi] that precedes the nakairi. While the mae-­shite exits the stage to transform into the nochi-­shite, the ai-­kyōgen appears during the sixth dan, in which the nohkan does not play. The seventh dan resembles the sixth dan of Atsumori with a [Machi-­utai], and the expected three nohkan melodic patterns are played as in an [Ageuta]. The entrance of the nochi-­shite in the eighth dan is accompanied by a〔Deha 出端〕, categorized as a hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki of the nohkan. In Atsumori, the nochi-­shite, who was the ghost of Atsumori, is accompanied by an〔Issei〕. As described in the Noh/Kyōgen jiten, an〔Issei〕is played for entrances of incarnate spirits, ghosts or apparitions, and fairies (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 295). Since the nochi-­shite in Takasago is the god of Sumiyoshi, it is accompanied by a〔Deha〕, a type of entrance music that accompanies nonhu-

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mans such as demons, celestial maidens, and ghosts. The tempo of the music changes according to the character (322). The other shōdan in this dan is the [Sashi], during which the nohkan plays Notare 匍匐, a pattern that is not heard in Atsumori. The ninth dan includes an [Age no Ei 上ノ詠] and an [(Issei)], and the nohkan does not play in either. The dance〔Kami-­mai 神舞〕(God dance) is similar in structure to the〔Chū no Mai〕of Atsumori with its ryo-­chū-­kan structure in its repeating ground pattern, but here it is much faster in tempo. Other structural differences between the two dances include the beginning phrases of the nohkan, also known as kakari (beginning section), and—especially—the oroshi (ritard section). The oroshi differs in each mai and comes at each dan, where the overall tempo slows (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 299). This structure of the mai is explained later in detail, and examination of the transcriptions of Atsumori in chapter 4 lends further clarification. The last dan (the tenth) is marked by a [Rongi] and ends as the nohkan plays its utai-­goto, ashirai melodic pattern of Shin no Tome 真ノ留メ. Takasago’s status as a waki Noh—which are “congratulatory and formally very orthodox noh plays that appear after (‘at the side’) of the ritual piece Shikisanban (which opens traditional full performances of noh)”—is reflected by the music’s gravity and the formality of the nohkan melodic pattern (Hare 1986, 300). As the〔Shidai〕becomes〔Shin no Shidai〕, the〔Issei〕becomes〔Shin no Issei〕, and other nohkan melodic patterns have the qualifying Shin in their titles. Many nohkan melodic patterns similar to those heard in Atsumori are present, such as those in the [Michiyuki], [Ageuta], and [Machi-­utai], reflecting commonality between the two plays. Izutsu The third category of Noh drama, sanbanme-­mono, is also known as kazura-­mono or onna (women) Noh, although the shite does not always portray a woman. Yokomichi in Noh no Kōzō to gihō defines the performance of this category as “elegant and graceful” ([1987a] 1993, 4:23). The third-­category play Izutsu does involve a woman; it is a love story

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 109

between Ariwara no Narihira 在原業平 and the daughter of Ki no Aritsune 紀有恒, taken from Ise monogatari (Tales of Ise). The play begins with a〔Nanori-­bue 名ノリ笛〕, in which the nohkan plays without drum accompaniment. This shōdan is categorized as a hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki that accompanies the waki. Following the〔Nanori-­bue〕, the waki, who is a monk, states his name, status, and current place, as well as his designation and intention at the place where he is headed. Since there is no [Michiyuki], which is commonly heard in the first dan (as in Atsumori), the waki clearly states his present location, as he describes the history of the place and his plans in the [Nanori], [Sashi], and [Uta]. In the [Uta], the nohkan melodic patterns of Naka no Takane, Kote, and Roku no Ge are heard. The second dan does not show any major divergence from Atsumori in terms of shōdan, with its〔Shidai〕, [Shidai], [Sashi], [Sageuta], and [Ageuta] arrangement. In the third dan, the main difference between the shōdan in Izutsu and Atsumori is the absence of a [Kakeai] in Izutsu after the shite and waki’s [Mondō]. The exchange between the shite and the waki, however, prepares the current scene for the next dan, with the [Kuri], [Sashi], and [Kuse] accompanied by nohkan melodic patterns identical to those heard in Atsumori. This development in the dan is seen earlier in Izutsu than in Atsumori, since the [Kuri], [Sashi], and [Kuse] come before the nakairi in Izutsu, whereas they come after the nakairi in Atsumori. The organization of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh dan of Izutsu diverges from that of Atsumori and proves to be more similar to Takasago in structure. The mugen Noh structure, however, is flexible and allows for disparity in dan and shōdan. After the exchange between the shite and the waki, the former leaves the stage for his nakairi. The ai-­kyōgen narrates the story, and the waki awaits the reentrance of the nochi-­shite. The melodic patterns played by the nohkan in Izutsu are akin to those in Atsumori, as opposed to the loftier melodic patterns played in Takasago, with their Shin qualifiers. In the eighth dan, the nochi-­shite enters to the〔Issei〕accompaniment of the instruments and then dances in the ninth dan. This dance, the〔Jo no Mai 序ノ舞〕(Slow elegant dance), is similar in structure to

110PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

the〔Chū no Mai〕and the〔Kami-­mai〕and follows the ryo-­chū-­kan structure with the cyclic ground pattern. In comparison with the〔Chū no Mai〕, however, it is much slower in tempo, with a prominent, measured beginning, and gradually picks up in tempo in accordance with the jo-­ha-­kyū progression (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 315). Its kakari and oroshi differ from each other, as is the case for all dances. Kinuta Kinuta falls into the fourth category of Noh drama, zatsu (miscellaneous) Noh, and portrays a wife who awaits the return of her husband from the capital for three long years. Royall Tyler summarizes the plot: “[The] wife, mistakenly believing herself abandoned, dies insane and suffers in Hell. Yet, she is saved in the end by her husband’s love, and, for both, the play ends in dignity” (Tyler 1992, 156). Musically, many of the nohkan’s melodic patterns in Kinuta are similar to those in Atsumori, but structurally, there are some variances. For example, the waki, who plays the character of the lamenting wife’s husband, Kyūshū Ashiya no Nanigashi 九州蘆屋の何某, enters with the tsure in the first dan to the accompaniment of a〔Nanori-­bue〕, also heard in Izutsu, followed by the [Nanori] of the waki. After the waki and tsure’s [Mondō], the waki exits the stage and does not reappear until the second act. This arrangement diverges from the norm of a mugen Noh structure, and after the waki’s exit in the first dan, the tsure—a maid in this play—sings the [Michiyuki] and the [Tsuki-­zerifu]. In the [Michiyuki], the expected three nohkan utai-­goto, ashirai melodic patterns are heard. The shite enters to an〔Ashirai-­dashi アシライ出シ〕, an ashirai played by the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi only. This entrance differs from those in previously considered Noh plays because the tsure calls out from the first pine tree (called ichi-­no-­matsu 一ノ松) to the shite,15 who remains behind the curtain that separates the stage and backstage 15. See Bethe and Emmert’s (1995, 5:92) image of a Noh stage for exact positions on the stage.

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 111

areas; the shite then enters to the drums’〔Ashirai-­dashi〕after hearing the tsure’s call. After the shite’s entrance, the second dan is shared between the shite and the tsure and concludes with the shite. The third dan opens with a [Mondō] between the shite and the tsure, followed by a [Sageuta] and an [Ageuta], with nohkan melodic patterns that are identical to those in Atsumori. The fourth dan has a〔Monogi-­ashirai 物着アシライ〕, which is played when a character changes a part of his or her costume (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 333). In Kinuta, the shite retires to the position of the kōken (stage assistants), where the assistants help the actor slip off the outer robe from the right shoulder, an action that is “at once a preparation for work and a sign that she is not in her right mind” (Tyler 1992, 163). While this change is taking place, the nohkan plays Monogi, which is a hayashi-­goto, ashirai melodic pattern, allowing the nohkan to create an appropriate mood for the next scene, where the shite and the tsure together beat the kinuta (fulling block) 砧. This wooden block is used to soften robes and bring out their luster and is often associated with a widow’s or lonely wife’s intense longing for her husband, a longing proclaimed with the sound of each stroke. Nohkan melodic patterns similar to those used in Atsumori are heard in the fifth, sixth, and seventh dan. In the seventh dan, the〔Okuri-­ bue〕is sometimes played, depending on the position of the shite and the tsure on the bridgeway. If the two characters are near the curtain of the bridgeway, the〔Okuri-­bue〕is usually omitted. If the nohkan performer thinks, however, that there is enough time for part of the〔Okuri-­ bue〕, he or she may decide to play Kote, which is a shorter version of Roku no Ge. Whether to include this piece is left to the discretion of the nohkan performer. After the ai-­kyōgen dan and the reentrance of the waki (as a nochi-­waki) with his waki-­tsure (the waki’s companion role actor who does not wear a mask) ワキツレ in the ninth dan, the usual [Machi-­utai] is sung.16 The entrance of the nochi-­shite, the ghost of the wife, in the next act is accompanied by a〔Deha〕, which is similar to Takasago, and the 16. It is unusual for the waki to exit the stage, but the malleable structure of the mugen Noh allows this divergence.

112PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

nohkan does not play again until the [Dan-­uta 段歌] and the [Kiri キ リ]. In the [Dan-­uta], an utai-­goto, the nohkan ashirai melodic pattern of Takane is played. Then, in the [Kiri], which is in the same category as [Dan-­uta], the nohkan plays Sō no Tome or sometimes Gyō no Tome 行 ノ留. What is missing in Kinuta is the hayashi-­goto, awase-­buki melodic pattern dance section that is in Atsumori, Takasago, and Izutsu and, in fact, shows up in many Noh plays. Instead, there is a final dance in the [Dan-­uta]. Despite the many differences from Atsumori, Kinuta presents similar shōdan, such as [Michiyuki], [Ageuta], and [Sageuta], with identical nohkan melodic patterns. Tōru The fifth-­category plays feature demons and other supernatural beings, and Tōru is a fine example. The story derives from various Japanese sources such as Ise monogatari and Kokinshū (or Kokin-­wakashū; Collection of Japanese poetry from ancient and modern times). The structure is that of a typical mugen Noh. The waki, a traveling monk, stops to rest at Kawara no In (a villa at Rokujō-­kawara) 河原院, which belonged to Minamoto no Tōru 源の融 (822–895), the son of Emperor Saga. The mae-­shite, an old man of the capital, engages in a dialogue with the waki and reminisces about Tōru’s garden. This garden, which was modeled after Shiogama, a famous city on the northeastern coast of Honshū, was the “largest private estate of the time, occupying an area of almost 20 acres, some eight times the size of the standard estate allocated to a high-­level courtier” (Hare 1986, 107). After the mae-­shite exits the stage, the ai-­kyōgen narrates the story of Tōru, and the nochi-­shite enters as his ghost to perform an elegant dance, the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai 盤渉早舞〕, which differs from the previous mai. Thus, the structure fits that of a “typical” mugen Noh with the mae-­shite and nochi-­shite. The dan and shōdan are also similar to those of Atsumori, although the entrance of the waki accompanied by a〔Nanori-­bue〕is more like Izutsu and Kinuta. The other divergence is the presence of an [Ageuta] in the first dan, instead of a [Michiyuki]; but, as mentioned earlier, the [Michiyuki] is a type of [Ageuta] and has the same three nohkan melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane,

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 113

and Roku no Ge or Kote. The content of this shōdan, in which the waki sings of his travels, indicates that it may be labeled an [Ageuta]. In the second dan, the shite enters with the instrumental accompaniment of an〔Issei〕in the mae-­ba, whereas in Atsumori the shōdan〔Issei〕is present in the nochi-­ba. This shite accompaniment, however, may be played in either the first or second act (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 5:45). The same music appears in most of the plays, but the variations in tempo, mood, and atmosphere created by the actors and musicians bring about a different feel in each Noh play. Another variance in structure between Tōru and Atsumori, as might be expected by now, is the nakairi of the shite. The nakairi of Atsumori takes place in the fourth dan, whereas in Tōru it takes place in the fifth dan, as it does in Takasago and Izutsu. This variation does not, however, affect the overall structure, for the waki’s [Machi-­utai] follows the nakairi, the entrance of the ai-­kyōgen, and the entrance of the nochi-shite accompanied by a〔Deha〕. Tōru does not have a [Sashi], [Kuri], and [Kuse], which are seen in all the other sample plays except Kinuta (which had only a [Kuse]). Tōru does include a dance that differs from previous dances with the ryo-­ chū-­kan structure. The nochi-­shite dances to the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕, which is used to accompany the fun and elegant dances of the high-­ class male ghosts (Yokomichi and Gamō 1978, 50). The〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕follows the ryo-­chū-­kan structure similar to that of the〔Chū no Mai〕until the sho-­dan (first dan) 初段. After the oroshi of the shodan (which is not to be confused with the structural shōdan), the shōga of the ground pattern change, as seen in table 7. Considering the shōga only, the obvious difference in the ryo-­chū-­kan structures of the two dances can be identified in the kana (syllables), which in this case give rise to the difference in sounds and modes, as explained later. Another manifest difference is that, in the shōga of the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕, chū and kan no chū are identical, whereas in the〔Chū no Mai〕, each kusari (phrase) varies. The difference in kana and sound between the two mai is greater than is apparent at first listen, because the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕differs in scalar mode. Most of the dances, which follow the ryo-­chū-­kan structure, are typically in the ōshiki-­chō (ōshiki mode) 黄鐘調, but the〔Ban-

114PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Table 7: Shōga and mode of the〔Chū no Mai〕and the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕 〔Chū no Mai〕: ōshiki mode Beats: 1 2 3 4  o hya ra －  o hya hyu －   o hya ra － hi u ru hyu

5 － i － i

6 i ho hi hyo i hi hi hyo

〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕: banshiki mode Beats: 1 2 3 4 5 o hi ri — － o hi ya i － o hi ri —­ － o hi ya i

6 ho u ya to ya

7 u ho u － iu u － iu

8 hi ri ya ri

ryo chū kan kan no chū

7 ho u i u ru i u

8 hi ri ra ri

ryo chū kan kan no chū

Source: Issō Matarokurō ([1936b] 2003, 1, 49).

shiki Haya-­mai〕is in the banshiki-­chō (banshiki mode) 盤渉調.17 Without going into further detail about its origin and derivations, the difference in this scalar mode, which originated in China, may be understood by examining the transcription of the ji (ground pattern) in example 3, which uses Ranjō’s nohkan pitches. In the〔Chū no Mai〕, which is in ōshiki mode, the boldface kana in the phrases “o-­hya” of ryo, “ho-­u-­ho-­u-­hi” of ryo, and “hi-­hyo-­i-­u-­ri” of kan no chū (see example 1 in chapter 2) indicate the notes for the scalar mode (boldface added by author); all three boldface kana are played by covering the two top holes of the nohkan. According to Ranjō’s nohkan scale, these notes are defined as “#G↑.”18 In contrast, in 17. The〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕is also called the〔Banshiki-­mai〕or the〔Haya-­ mai〕(Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai 1990, 300). The term〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕is used in this book to emphasize the banshiki mode. The〔Haya-­mai〕in the ōshiki mode exists, but the〔Haya-­mai〕is usually played in the banshiki mode. 18. In Western music, the notational practice is to place the quarter tones and microtones to the left of the note, before the accidental (if present), as seen in Ben Johnston’s works. For the transcriptions here, the notational practice from Nohgaku hayashi taikei (Komparu Sōuemon et al. 1973a) is followed. Furthermore, when the pitches are written out in Roman letters, the accidentals are noted to the left of the pitch, and the quarter tones and microtones are placed to the right of the pitch to be consistent with the transcribed pitches from the examples.

Nohkan in Relation to Structural Principles 115 Example 3: Transcription of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the〔Banshiki Haya-­ mai〕. A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) Ryo

4 &4 Œ

‰

#œ33 # œ 3 J O

Chū

4 &4 Œ

‰

4 &4 Œ

‰

Kan no Chū

4 &4 Œ

‰

hi

#œ3 3 # œ 3 J O

œ

#œ33 nœ #œ33 nœ33 # œ 3

-

ri

#œ33 # œ 3 J O

Kan

hi

#œ 3

ho

u

#œ 2

#œ 3

#œ 2

ya

i

ya

#œ 3

œ

hi

u

ri

#œ 2

#œ 3

#œ 3

to

ru

ra

-

ri

#œ33 # œ 3 J

#œ 2

#œ 3

#œ 2

ya

i

ya

hi

u

# œ 3 #œ3 3 # œ 2 i

hi

O

ho

# œ 3 #œ3 3 # œ 2 i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

the〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕, the “o-­hi” of ryo, “ho-­u-­ho-­u-­hi” of ryo, and “to-­ru-­ra” of kan (see example 3), the boldface kana are produced by the covering the top hole of the nohkan, which is “#A↓” on Ranjō’s nohkan. Thus, in Western musical terms, the difference between the two scalar modes would be less than a whole step, but since traditional Japanese music does not use these terms, the distinction between the two is defined as covering the first two holes of the nohkan for ōshiki mode and only the top hole for banshiki mode; Yokomichi and Gamō define the difference in modes by focusing on the finger holes covered for the center mode (1978, 50). This examination of five traditional mugen Noh plays by Zeami (Takasago, Atsumori, Izutsu, Kinuta, Tōru), using Atsumori as a point of comparison, demonstrates that the nohkan melodic patterns as well as their entry points in the shōdan, such as the [Michiyuki], [Ageuta], and [Sageuta], are “formulaic,” carefully calculated, and deftly measured. Furthermore, because the nohkan is the sole melodic instrument in the nohgaku-­bayashi, its role in the ensemble is to play melodically and rhythmically. By adding sashi-­yubi or techniques such as breath

116PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

accents and hitting holes, the nohkan player brings variation to the melodic patterns, helping the audience better imagine the scene onstage. These analyses demonstrate how the nohkan fulfills the three functions presented in the introduction: signaling structural moments, creating the ambience onstage, and playing the melody in dances. The next chapter presents an in-­depth analysis of the theoretical and actual performances of Atsumori by Yukihiro to make clear that it is the nohkan player’s responsibility to play these melodic patterns with his or her interpretation; the analysis proves that there is freedom of interpretation within these prescribed melodic patterns. It is vital that the nohkan player takes into account the nohkan melodic patterns in relation to the singing styles of the different shite schools as well as the music patterns of the hayashi schools. At the same time, within the “seemingly rigid” Noh structure, the nohkan demonstrates the most flexibility with Noh and is the instrument that allows the most room for interpretation.

Chapter Four The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori as Planned, Prepared, and Performed

Understanding the structure of Noh plays makes the many differences among the traditional plays—in terms of overall organization of the dan (divisions, scenes) and the shōdan (building blocks)—more distinguishable. In addition, flexibility in the nohkan melodic patterns allows for variations and individual interpretation within the prescribed structure. Especially in the shōdan of the [Michiyuki] and [Ageuta] (in which the nohkan melodic patterns are similar) and the [Sageuta] (as analyzed in chapter 3), the nohkan plays its expected melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Roku no Ge (in the [Michiyuki]) or Kote (in the [Sageuta] and [Ageuta]). Even in Takasago, which is a waki Noh with many special melodic patterns, many of these patterns are still present. Although common shōdan and melodic patterns are found in the five Noh plays discussed in chapter 3, this chapter presents transcriptions of the shōdan used in Atsumori that identify the exact entrance points of the nohkan in relation to other instruments and to the chant. Noh scholars have pointed out the general melodic patterns played by the nohkan in these shōdan, but where exactly do they take place? Additional questions arise: In relation to what, or to whom, does the nohkan play the melodic patterns? If the same melodic patterns are present in most plays, how does a player display his or her creativity? And how does a nohkan player portray or enhance the onstage ambience while supporting the chant? These questions are answered by considering a 117

118PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

particular performance by Issō Yukihiro, while applying Malm’s three functions of the nohkan. To determine the exact nohkan entrance points for the Issō School, I have transcribed the melodic patterns into Western staff notation and included the drums and utai where appropriate. Ranjō’s nohkan pitches are used, which sound an octave higher than the written pitches. The pitches are notated according to the standard of A = 440 Hz, with quarter-­tonal and microtonal pitches indicated by arrows pointing up or down to the right of the notes, as transcribed in Nohgaku hayashi taikei (Komparu Sōuemon et al. 1973a). For the drums, Kō School kotsuzumi and Takayasu School ōtsuzumi are transcribed; the taiko is not present in Atsumori. For the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi patterns and notations, two sources are referenced: Kō-­ ryū kotsuzumi seifu, Jo-­maki no Jō (Kō School kotsuzumi precise music, volume 1, part 1; Kō Yoshimitsu [1956] 2004) and Takayasu-­ryū ōtsuzumi, Jō no Maki (Takayasu School ōtsuzumi, volume 1; Yasufuku Haruo [1960] 1968). A key to the drum stroke notation used here can be found in the section “Notes on Romanization and Notations” of this book. A recorded performance of this particular ensemble was not available. The written transcription Shibyōshi tetsuke taisei (Compilation of patterns for four instruments; Tazaki Enjirō 1927), which notates an ensemble composed of Morita School nohkan, Kō School kotsuzumi, Kadono School ōtsuzumi, and Komparu School taiko, is referenced for the drum notation. Despite its use of shōga and in spite of obvious errors, Shibyōshi tetsuke taisei serves as a useful source for understanding the relationship between the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi drums. Also, it is one of the few available published sources that transcribes all instruments in a single “score.” The prescribed melodic patterns in the shōdan are identified in table 6. To further develop this visual aid, I have transcribed and will examine the three common shōdan [Michiyuki], [Ageuta], and [Sageuta], as well as the〔Chū no Mai〕, showing the exact nohkan entrance points in relation to the other instruments and voices, where appropriate. The transcriptions reveal that the entrances and movements of the nohkan’s melodic patterns, the addition of sashi-­yubi, and the ending points hap-

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori119

pen in relation to the chant, affected by the story and ambience of the play, its characters, and other varying factors; each element is carefully calculated. Past published research in both Japanese and English shows that the nohkan plays prescribed melodic patterns at designated places during specific shōdan. These researchers, however, did not apply the melodic patterns to the appropriate shōdan or indicate the specific entrance points of the instrument. To redress this oversight, I analyze additional performances by Yukihiro in two distinct contexts. To flesh out the nature and extent of individual expression possible in nohkan performance, I compare transcriptions of two different performance “contexts.” One is a transcription of a “theoretical” nohkan part for three utai-­goto (chant shōdan) and one hayashi-­goto (instrumental shōdan), as taught by Yukihiro using Ranjō’s nohkan scale and with consultation of the resources mentioned earlier; and the second is a transcription of an actual nohkan performance of the same three utai-­goto and one hayashi-­goto, from a performance of Atsumori that included Yukihiro. This exercise allows comparison of the “theoretical” prescriptions with actual practice.1 In analyzing these transcriptions, I was able to assess the performance practice of Yukihiro by comparing the theoretical nohkan transcription entrances to his actual performance. Because Noh is a living art, the performance of the nohkan player is influenced by such variables as the audience, the ambience of the play, interaction with other musicians and performers, and even stage size; moreover, the individuality of the nohkan player is most obviously heard in the ornamental sashi-­yubi.

Grounds for Transcriptions of Theoretical and Actual Nohkan Performances The theoretical transcriptions of the utai-­goto are composed of three parts: (1) the top, five-­line staff notates the nohkan with the shōga tran1. Kanze Kyūkō-­kai, Atsumori, Yarai Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, September 10, 2006.

120PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

scribed underneath; (2) the two dotted lines below the nohkan staff notate the drum parts with the ōtsuzumi indicated on the top line and kotsuzumi on the bottom line; and (3) a three-­line staff underneath the drum part represents the utai, pointing out the main chant pitches, which are approximately a perfect fourth apart. The three lines for the utai, starting from the top are designated high (jō), middle (chū), and low (ge). The vocal line moves inside and outside the three basic pitches, but for the purpose of this analysis, I indicate on these three lines only the major movements of the chant. Utai itself is an intricate art that has been researched extensively in Japanese and English by scholars such as Yokomichi (1963a, 1963b, 1992), Bethe and Emmert (1992–1997), Bethe and Brazell ([1978] 1990), Fujita (2010), Hare (1986), and Takakuwa (2003); any of these works is valuable for further study. For the theoretical nohkan transcriptions, the exact entrance points specified by Yukihiro are notated, although these may differ slightly among performers and performances, as will the ending points of the melodic patterns. The musical notes are spread out, filling the five lines to an approximate area indicated by Yukihiro, who was instructed by his father through oral transmission. As Yokomichi and Gamō state, “It is by approximation and estimation that the nohkan must end together with the chant, which is the difficulty with ashirai-­buki” (1978, 54). To indicate the pitches of Ranjō’s nohkan, the theoretical transcriptions use only black notes, with the appropriate arrows for the pitches, and the coinciding shōga written underneath the notes. These filled-­in black notes do not indicate specific duration, since the ashirai is played at the performer’s discretion. Hence, these notes give an idea of the movement of the nohkan with the chant and, at necessary points, with the drums. In the actual performance transcriptions, the notes are transcribed with the approximate duration, but purposely without a time signature; this reflects the rhythmic “freedom” integral to the style. Even though these notes do not have the same values and duration as would notes marked with a time signature (e.g., quarter, half, whole notes), the durations of these notes are indicated in relation to one another. Thus, a quarter note would be shorter in length than a half note, and a half note

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori121

would be shorter than a whole note. In addition, the sashi-­yubi in the actual performance are written with the note stems pointed upward with a slash through them. Similar to the theoretical transcription, their pitches are notated with arrows pointing upward or downward, as needed, to denote quarter tones or microtones. To facilitate easier comparison, the theoretical and actual performance transcriptions are presented in succession in the examples. Thus, the theoretical transcription shōdan is examined first, followed by the actual performance transcription.

Nohkan Transcriptions of the [Michiyuki] Theoretical Transcription As mentioned earlier, the [Michiyuki] is a traveling song by the waki, functioning similarly to an [Ageuta]. In the theoretical transcription (example 4a), the utai begins in the high range and moves mainly within this area through its first five syllables, as well as in its first line of 7+5 syllables.2 After these lines, and at the first uchikiri (short musical break), the nohkan plays Takane, which is a melodic pattern in the high range, as seen in the transcription with the “F↓↓” followed by two “#G↑.”3 The exact entrance point of the nohkan in this uchikiri follows the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi’s playing of “iyaΔ” together. The transcription does not indicate the drum patterns prior to the uchikiri, because only drum patterns played in relation to the nohkan are notated. After the drum call “iya” and drum stroke “Δ,” the nohkan enters with Takane and ends approximately with the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” Following this interlude, the chant continues to move in the high range and then drops to the middle, as the waki repeats the first line of 2. Further details on the chant are not given at this point, but the literature mentioned earlier may be consulted. 3. The accidentals are noted to the left of the pitch, and the quarter tones and microtones are placed to the right of the pitch to be consistent with the transcribed pitches from the examples.

122PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 4: Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the [Michiyuki]. A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) (a) Theoretical transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

œ

(movement in high range)

Utai

¢

Waki:

Kokonoe

° &

no

Kumoi

o

idete

yuku

tsuki

Takane

œ3 3

#œ 2

#œ 2

O

hyā

ra

no

iya ! / iya !

¢ 7+5 syllables that was sung before the uchikiri, plus a few additional lines of text. This passage is also followed by an uchikiri, which is similar to the first with the drums’ “iyaΔ,” but this time the nohkan plays Naka no Takane, ending wherever the performer deems appropriate. A closer examination of the melodic pattern of Naka no Takane suggests a two-­part melody, with “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri” and “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo.”4 (This is explained later in the section titled “[Michiyuki]: Melodic Pattern Deviation for Naka no Takane.”) The first half of Naka no Takane with “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri” enters in a manner identical to the first Takane, after the “iyaΔ” of the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi, and ends approximately with the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” 4. In examples 4, 5, and 6, macrons are added to the shōga to show elongated vowels and prolonged notes in comparison with the surrounding notes and vowels. These macrons are not added to the original shōga in the discussion here, however, because the performer has the freedom to play the shōga differently.

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori123 Example 4 (continued)

° & / œ

(movement in high range)

¢

Kumoi

o

idete

yuku

tsuki

no

° & / œ

¢

Minami

ni

meguru

oguruma

no

° & / œ

¢

œ

Yodo

° &

yamazaki

o

uchisugite

Naka no Takane

#œ

#œ 33

nœ 3

#œ 2

Hi

hyō

ru

ri,

! / iya ! iya

¢ Next, the chant enters with the text “Koya no ikemizu,” singing in the high range, dropping to the middle and low ranges, again moving to the high range, and ending in the low range, with the last line repeated. The nohkan reenters with the second half of Naka no Takane, after the entrance of the chant, playing “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo” right up to its entrance of Roku no Ge. This appearance differs according to each individual and

124PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 4 (continued)

° &

#œ

#œ 33

nœ 3

nœ33

hi

hyō

i

yo

/ œ

(movement in high range; drop to middle; end low)

¢

Koya

no

œ

ikemizu

Ikuta

œ

Roku no Ge

° &

Hya

-

gawa

œ3

œ3

œ3

a

a

a

/ œ

¢

œ

Nami kokomoto ya

° œj œ & ri

/ ¢

œ 3 #œ 3

œ3

nœ3

u

ya,

ri

i

Suma no Ura

œ3

#œ33

œ3

#œ

u

hyū

i,

hi

#œ33 nœ3

nœ33

hyo

ya

i

œ Ichinotani

° œœ & ra

ni

œ3

œ3

ri

mo

tsuki

ni

keri

œ 33

œ 22

#œ

œ3

œ33 nœ22 #œ3

u

ro

i,

tsu

u

ro

ni

mo

tsuki

i

yo

/ ¢

œ

Ichinotani

ni

œ

keri

performance; the performer may come in (1) according to what has been taught by his or her master without giving it much thought, (2) where he or she finds it appropriate according to the words or contents of the utai, or (3) where the nohkan melodic pattern’s pitches match the utai’s pitches. Yukihiro emphasizes this last criterion in his playing of

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori125 Example 4 (continued) (b) Actual performance transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

¢

œ

(movement in high range)

Waki:

Kokonoe

no

#œ2

Takane

° & /

iya iya

Kumoi

o

idete

b˙ 3

yuku

tsuki

no

b˙ 3

 œb œ œ

b œ œ

! !

¢

° & / œ

(movement in high range)

¢

Kumoi

o

idete

yuku

tsuki

no

ashirai. He recommends that the nohkan enter with Roku no Ge over the text “Suma no Ura,” where the utai drops to the low range. Just as the utai pitches fall from the high to middle, then middle to low range, the pitches of Roku no Ge start in the middle range and drop to the low range, as seen in the transcription. The Roku no Ge melodic pattern is transcribed with the initial pitch of the nohkan notated as a middle “D” with notes moving around the

126PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 4 (continued)

° & / œ

¢

Minami

ni

meguru

oguruma

no

° & / œ

¢

œ

Yodo

o

uchisugite

bœ

˙

b˙

Hi

hyō

ru

Naka no Takane œj

° & /

yamazaki

! iya !

iya

¢ instrument’s middle range before reaching a peak in the high range with a “#G,” and finally ending in the lower range with “#A↓,” as the chant melody likewise descends to the lower part of its main pitches. In this manner, the nohkan moves in relation to the chant, imitating its general melodic contour. This suggested practice can be heard in the actual performance by Yukihiro.

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori127 Example 4 (continued)

° b œ b œ œb ˙ &

b˙



ri

œj

hi

,

˙

hyō

/ œ

(movement in high range; drop to middle; end low)

¢

Koya

no

ikemizu

Ikuta

,w

° &

-

œ gawa

, b˙

 bœb œ

i

˙ yo

/ œ

¢

œ

Nami

° &

kokomoto

ya

Suma

no

Kote j œ

w

˙

˙

Hya

a

a

Ura

, j œ

˙

ra

/ œ

¢

Ichinotani

° ˙ &

˙

ri

u

ni œ œ

mo

˙3

bœ

ro

i,

tsuki

˙

ni

tsu

u

˙

keri

j œ

ro

/ ¢

œ Ichinotani

œ ni

mo

tsuki

ni

˙

keri

e3

 œbœ œ i

bœ yo

128PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Actual Performance Transcription The performance of the [Michiyuki] used for the transcription given here (example 4b) was sung in 2006 by the Hōshō School waki-­kata, Hōshō Kinya, with Yukihiro on Issō School nohkan, Morisawa Yūji on Kōsei School kotsuzumi, and Kamei Hirotada on Kadono School ōtsuzumi.5 This particular musical ensemble differs from that conceived for the theoretical transcription, which included Kō School kotsuzumi and Takayasu School ōtsuzumi; as noted earlier, it is difficult to find a Noh performance that includes representatives of each of the desired ryūgi (schools) 流儀, because of the numerous schools of instruments and the many combinations that are possible in performance. Obviously, for purposes of this comparative analysis, focusing as it does on the nohkan part specifically, it was most crucial that the actual performance of Atsumori included Yukihiro playing that part. In the performance transcription, the entrances and endings of the nohkan occur mainly at expected locations. Takane enters after the “iyaΔ” of the uchikiri and ends approximately with the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” The performance of Naka no Takane differs slightly from the theoretical transcription. The first entrance of the nohkan comes after the uchikiri, but the last note of the first part of the phrase is extended beyond the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○” and the entrance of the utai’s singing of the words “Koya no ikemizu.” Yukihiro draws out the “hyo” of “hi-­hyo-­ i-­yo” for a longer duration, entering with the second half of the “hi-­hyo-­ i-­yo” phrase later than is shown in the theoretical transcription. This elongation also has the effect of delaying the entry point for the ensuing Roku no Ge. With this extension, in fact, Yukihiro seems to be waiting for something—perhaps delaying the part in order to arrive at an appropriate entry point for the next melodic pattern. He enters with Kote, rather than Roku no Ge, over the text “Ichinotani,” where the chant also descends to the lower range. This change in melodic patterns is simply one of personal preference. Yukihiro opts to play Kote at that particular

5. Kanze Kyūkō-­kai, Atsumori, Yarai Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, September 10, 2006.

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori129

place because the chant verses are shorter and the length of Kote makes it a better fit than Roku no Ge. In Yukihiro’s utaibon (Noh chant book), Roku no Ge was annotated in his father’s handwriting with the words “Suma no Ura.” It is not clear that Yukimasa actually played that melodic pattern at this particular point; a recording of him playing the Atsumori [Michiyuki] could not be obtained. It is, however, not unusual for the annotations in the utaibon and the actual performances of the ashirai to differ, showing once again the significance of oral transmission in the pedagogy of the instrument. Melodic Pattern Deviation for Naka no Takane in the [Michiyuki] An analysis of the shōga for Takane, Naka no Takane, and Roku no Ge, focusing on the pitches in the melodic patterns, reveals a close relationship between the pitches of the nohkan and the chant. Earlier, I noted the playing of Takane after the chorus chants in the high pitch range. Likewise, Roku no Ge was played near the end of the [Michiyuki] as the pitches of the utai melody dropped. The melodic pattern of Naka no Takane is most compelling when comparing the pitches of the nohkan to the movement of the chant. The first part of the nohkan’s melodic pattern is played as a musical interlude between lines sung in the high and middle ranges, while the second part imitates the movement of the chant by playing in the high, middle, and low ranges. Since the literal translation of this melody’s name is “medium-­high sounds/pitches,” it can be speculated that this melody is designed to function as an intermediary between the high and middle ranges. The melodic pattern of Naka no Takane is composed of two phrases, depicted in shōga with the syllables “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri” and “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo” (emphasis added by author). The two differ in two kana—“ru-­ri” and “i-­yo,” though they differ by only one pitch in terms of sound. The first part, “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri,” consists of the pitches #G-­#F↓↓-­G↓-­#G↑, while the second part, “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo,” consists of #G-­#F↓↓-­G↓-­F↓↓. They differ only in the final pitch, #G↑ and F↓↓. Both the “ru” of “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri” and “i” of “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo” are played with the three top finger holes cov-

130PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

ered. As a result, they produce the same pitch, notated in the transcription as G↓. It is thus the difference between the “ri” of “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri” with its #G↑ and the “yo” of “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo” with its F↓↓ that characterizes this as an intermediary melodic pattern, transitioning between the high and middle ranges. Since the “Hi-­hyo-­ru-­ri” with its #G↑ is played at the uchikiri, following lines sung in the high range, it affirms the upward movement that just occurred. The “hi-­hyo-­i-­yo” with its F↓↓ anticipates the descending movement of the utai from high to middle to low range and is then followed by either Roku no Ge or Kote melodies played on the nohkan. This hypothesis regarding the function and usage of Naka no Takane is still in the preliminary stages of research, but Yukihiro’s performance does demonstrate that the nohkan enters and moves in relation to the pitches of the chant. Thus, Naka no Takane may be a melodic pattern acting as an intermediary between the high and middle ranges. This speculation, however, considers only the latest shōga book, Issō-­ryū shōga-­shū (Issō Matarokurō [1936b] 2003), and nothing from earlier shōga books on how shōga have evolved to their present state.6

Nohkan Transcriptions of the [Sageuta] Theoretical Transcription The [Sageuta] in Atsumori is sung by the shite and the tsure. The melody of the chant moves between the middle and low ranges (example 5a), with the nohkan entering where the utai drops from the middle to the low pitch, ending with an uchikiri, and leading into the next section. The [Sageuta] is accompanied by Kote, which mirrors the utai’s lower range and is thus similar to Roku no Ge but shorter in length. Thus, Kote is used in shorter chants and is sometimes played interchangeably with Roku no Ge. In Atsumori, the entrance of the nohkan is marked at 6. See Morita (2006, 2018) for details on how shōga evolved to its present form.

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori131 Example 5: Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the [Sageuta]. A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) (a) Theoretical transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

œ

¢

(movement between middle and low range)

Shite and Tsure:

Towaba Koso

œ

œ3

œ3 3

œ3

Hya

a

a

a

Kote

° &

˙

œ3

œ3

ra

ri

u

j œ�

/ œ

¢

Hitori

° & œ33 ro

/

œ

œ

iya iya

wabu

tomo

œ

kotae

œ22

#œ

œ3

i,

tsu

u

mashi

œ33 ro

nœ22 i

#œ yo

! !

¢ the end of “Hitori” of the chant, where the pitch drops from the middle to low range. The nohkan is allowed to play without the drum patterns interfering with and or dictating in any way what the nohkan is doing in this ashirai to enhance the mood and ambience of the play; however, the Issō School nohkan player is instructed to play the “ro-­i ” of “Hya-­a-­ a-­a-­ra-­ri-­u-­ro-­i ” (emphasis added) at a specific point in relation to the drums’ uchikiri. As seen in the theoretical transcription, the “i” (pitch

132PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 5 (continued) (b) Actual performance transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

œ

¢

(movement between middle and low range)

Shite and Tsure:

Towaba Koso

° &

Kote j œ

˙

˙

˙

Hya a

a

a

,

j œ

˙

ra

/ œ

¢

Hitori

œ

œ wabu

° ˙ &

˙

ri

u

/

tomo

œ œ

œ

kotae

mashi

˙3

b˙

˙

˙

ro

i,

tsu

u

iya iya

j œ

˙

ro

bœ

 œ œbœ œ i

yo

! !

¢ D↑↑) of “ro-­i ” in the third line comes after the “iyaΔ” of the drums at the uchikiri. Thus, the nohkan player must adjust the duration of the preceding “ro” to attain the correct timing. Aside from this designated spot, the nohkan ends its melody around the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” Actual Performance Transcription The theoretical and performance nohkan transcriptions of the [Sageuta] are similar, as the “i” in the performance transcription (now

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori133

heard as a bD, or D-­flat) of “ro-­i ” is after the “iyaΔ” of the drums at the uchikiri (example 5b). The nohkan, however, continues a bit beyond the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” Beyond this difference, the theoretical and actual performance transcriptions coincide; in both cases the melodic contour of the nohkan, as played by Yukihiro, corresponds to that of the chant. Nohkan Transcriptions of the [Ageuta] Theoretical Transcription As with the [Michiyuki], an [Ageuta] most often includes a Takane in the nohkan part, as well as the Naka no Takane and Kote. In Atsumori, this [Ageuta] is sung by the shite and the tsure. The chant begins in the high range for the first five syllables plus the first line, followed by an uchikiri (example 6a). As in the [Michiyuki], the nohkan melodic pattern Takane is played after the “iyaΔ” of the drums at the uchikiri, ending with the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” The second section again begins with the repeat of the first line of text, then adds lines as the chant moves between the high range and the middle range. This is followed by an uchikiri, where the nohkan enters with the first part of Naka no Takane after the “iyaΔ” of the drums and ends at the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” After the entrance of the chant following the uchikiri, as in the [Michiyuki], the second half of Naka no Takane is played freely over the chant until the prescribed entrance point of Kote. In the third section of this [Ageuta], the final line is sung twice and accompanied entirely by Kote, which comes in after the text “Uki ni.” The chant finishes in the low range. Kote is played instead of Roku no Ge, as was seen in the [Michiyuki], because the chant is very short and Kote is shorter than Roku no Ge. Actual Performance Transcription In the transcription of Yukihiro’s performance (example 6b), the entrances of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Kote are identical to those in the theoretical transcription. The melodic contour of the nohkan part again relates to the chant melody, as was the case with the other shōdan.

134PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 6: Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the [Ageuta]. A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) (a) Theoretical transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro

° &

Nohkan

/

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

¢

œ

(chant pitches in high range)

Shite and Tsure:

Suma

no

Ura

° & / ¢

œ Moshio

° & /

iya iya

tare

tomo

shirare

naba

Takane

œ3 3

#œ 2

#œ2

O

hyā

ra

! !

¢ This again suggests performance practices learned only through oral transmission and reinforces the idea that the nohkan melody moves in relation to that of the chant. Summary of the Nohkan Transcriptions for Utai-­goto The foregoing analysis of these three utai-­goto, ashirai-­buki shōdan, which are ubiquitous in Noh plays, demonstrates how Yukihiro me-

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori135 Example 6 (continued)

° & / ¢

œ

(movement in high range, then drop to middle)

Moshio

tare

tomo

shirare

naba

beki

ni

° & / ¢

œ Mare

ni

mo

tomo

no

aru

° & / ¢

œ Amari

ni

nareba

wabi

bito

no

° & / ¢

œ Shita

œ shiki

œ dani

œ mo

utoku

shite

thodically plans the exact entrances and movements of the nohkan’s melodic patterns. The exact points of entry may differ slightly according to each performance and performer due to the interactions between performers, the different performance styles of the singers and instrumentalists, and unexpected circumstances that occur in live performances; it remains clear, though, that each performer makes deliberate

136PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 6 (continued)

° & /

iya iya

#œ

Naka no Takane

#œ3 3

nœ 3

#œ 2

Hi

hyō

ru

ri,

#œ

#œ3 3

nœ 3

nœ33

hi

hyō

i

yo

! !

¢ ° & / ¢

œ

œ

Sumeba

to Kote

° &

bakari

omo

œ

yo

ya

œ

œ3

œ3

œ3

Hya

a

a

a

ra

sugosu

nari

j œ

œ

/ (movement in middle and low range)

œ

¢

Uki

° œ3 & ri

ni

œ3 u

makasete

œ33

œ22 #œ

œ3

ro

i,

u

tsu

œ 33 ro

nœ 22 #œ 3 i

yo

/ ¢

œ Uki

ni

œ

makasete

sugosu

œ

nari

choices when selecting the melodic pattern to interject at a specific place. These choices may be influenced by such factors as the player’s desire to imitate his or her master or the contour and pitch level of the chant’s sung melody. Research about how the other nine fue-­kata (noh-

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori137 Example 6 (continued) (b) Actual performance transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro

° &

Nohkan

/

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

¢

œ

(chant pitches in high range)

Shite and Tsure:

Suma

no

Ura

° & / ¢

œ Moshio

tare

#œ

Takane

° &

O

/

iya iya

tomo

 œb œ œ

b˙3 hyā

shirare

b œ œ

naba

b˙ ra

! !

¢ kan players in Noh) of the Issō School approach ashirai is still in its preliminary stages.7 The utai-­goto analysis above does not include discussions of Yukihiro’s use of sashi-­yubi. Morita (2006, 2018), however, has examined the 7. These ten fue-­kata are members of the Nohgaku Performers’ Association (“Issō School Members,” accessed June 12, 2018; http://www.nohgaku.or.jp /members/index.html?area%5B%5D=%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC&area%5B %5D=%E5%90%8D%E5%8F%A4%E5%B1%8B&position=%E7%AC%9B %E6%96%B9&style=%E4%B8%80%E5%99%8C%E6%B5%81&keywords=).

138PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 6 (continued)

° & / ¢

œ

(movement in high range, then drop to middle)

Moshio

tare

tomo

shirare

naba

beki

ni

° & / ¢

œ Mare

ni

mo

tomo

no

aru

° & / ¢

œ Amari

ni

nareba

wabi

bito

no

° & / ¢

œ Shita

œ shiki

œ dani

œ mo

utoku

shite

use of sashi-­yubi by four Issō School and two Morita School performers when playing the melodic patterns of Takane and Naka no Takane. Her analysis of Takane has revealed that embellishments were not always included on the first and second notes of Takane. The third note of the pattern, however, was always ornamented in some way by the per-

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori139 Example 6 (continued)

bNaka œ no Takane œj ˙

° &

Hi

b˙

b˙

hyō

 b œ b œ nœ

ru

ri,

! / iya iya ! ¢ bœ

° &

œj

hi

/ ¢

,

˙

˙

hyō

° &

˙

i

œ Sumeba

 bœ nœb œ

yo

œ to Kote j œ

bakari

˙

˙

Hya

a

yo

omō

˙

œ

ya

,

œœ

a

˙ ra

/ (movement in middle and low range)

œ

¢

Uki

° ˙ & ri

ni

makasete

˙

œ œ

u

2˙

bœ

ro

i,

,

sugosu

˙

˙

tsu

u

nari

j œ

˙

e3

ro

 œbœ œ i

bœ yo

/ ¢

œ Uki

ni

œ

makasete

sugosu

œ

nari

former, according to his individual style and preferences. Morita concludes that “sashi-­yubi is used to emphasize the existence of each note” (2006, 64). Applying Morita’s point to Yukihiro’s playing of Takane in the [Michiyuki] with the pitches #F↑-­bA↓-­bA↓ (example 4b) reveals that,

140PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

in order to emphasize the second bA↓ and distinguish it from the first, embellishments are varied to make the pitches more interesting. Morita also notes that Fujita Daigorō 藤田大五郎 (1915–2008) and Issō Hisayuki 一噌仙幸 (1940–2018), when playing Takane, use sashi-­yubi to reflect the scene and enhance the mood of the play, an observation that supports Malm’s second function of the nohkan. The plot, setting, and mood differ from one Noh play to another; it is logical that differences also influence the choices made by the accompanying musicians. For many fue-­kata, the use of sashi-­yubi provides for creativity in subtly altering the stock melodic patterns to better support the drama. With the limited data on Yukihiro’s playing, it is difficult to determine whether he uses sashi-­yubi to evoke the mood of the play in the utai-­goto while also considering the melodic contour of the utai. He has, however, confirmed that he does use sashi-­yubi in this manner, taking into account the utai pitches, the ambience of the play, and the characters being portrayed. This was also evident in comparisons of the theoretical transcriptions and the shōga singing with the actual performance of Atsumori presented above. In performance, for example, Yukihiro affords special attention to the colors and sounds of the particular nohkan, selecting different instruments to support the mood and imagery of the play.

Nohkan Transcriptions of the〔Chū no Mai〕 Theoretical Transcription To demonstrate Yukihiro’s emphasis on sound and color of the nohkan, as well as the use of sashi-­yubi to create excitement and flavor in this hayashi-­goto, I turn to the ryo-­chū-­kan structure of the〔Chū no Mai〕(example 7a). This medium-­tempo dance is performed at the climax of the play and is an example of hayashi-­goto, awase-­buki shōdan, or purely instrumental music, in which the nohkan must play according to the rhythm of the drums. Since the taiko is not present in this〔Chū no Mai〕, the ōtsuzumi tends to be the leader of the ensemble; thus, he or she controls the tempo of the dance and leads the ensemble

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori141 Example 7: Transcriptions of theoretical and actual performances of the ryo-­ chū-­kan structure of the〔Chū no Mai〕. A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches (music transcribed by author). See appendix C for shōga and transcription of the entire〔Chū no Mai〕. (a) Theoretical transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro Ryo

4 &4 Œ

œ #œ #œ 2 ‰ J33 2 O

Chū

4 &4 Œ

4 &4 Œ

‰

4 &4 Œ

hya

hyu

hya

u

ru

hyu

i

œ3 œ œ3 #œ 2

ho

u

nœ3 #œ #œ ™33 R ‰ R i

hi hyo

œ #œ 2 -

ra

# œ #œ nœ #œ 3 33 hi

-

œ3 3 #œ2 #œ 2 J O

Kan no Chū

ra

#œ ‰ œJ33 2 #œ3 3 O

Kan

hya

œ # œ 2 œ3

‰

i

u

ri

# œ 2 #œ2 #œ 2 J hi

hi hyo

hi

nœ3 œ #œ 2 i

nœ3 #œ #œ ™33 J ≈ R i

ho u

u

ya

nœ3 œ #œ 2 i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

during the oroshi, as well as controlling the gradual increase in tempo from the ritard to the exciting climax at the end of the section. In dances, the nohkan plays the melody, because it is the only instrument in the ensemble able to play actual pitches. At the same time, it is expected to play “percussively.” This percussiveness is expressed by such techniques as adding breath accents in the phrases, half-­holing before or after certain notes, hitting specific nohkan holes for accents, changing the angle of the air to create a change in color of the nohkan, and adding sashi-­yubi. For a productive case study, I turn to the Kanze School〔Chū no Mai〕Hagakari〔中ノ舞〕破掛リ, 8 with the length of san-­dan (three dan) 三段. 8. The subscript word “Hagakari” indicates the〔Chū no Mai〕version played.

142PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Example 7 (continued) (b) Actual performance transcription from Atsumori by Issō Yukihiro Ryo

4 &4 Œ

œ #œ #œ 3 ‰ J3 3 O

Chū

4 &4 Œ

#œ ‰ œJ3 O

Kan

4 &4 Œ

hya

hya

4 &4 Œ

#œj

#œ hyu

#œ #œ ‰ œJ3 O hya

Kan no Chū

ra

# œ #œ nœ hi

u

ru

ra

#œ hyu

œ#œj # œ œ3 -

i

ho

nœ #œ #œ ™ R ‰ R i

hi hyo

œ œ œ #œ u

ho u

hi

nœ œ2 #œ 3 i

u

ri

œ# œnœ# œ œ #œ# œnœ #œ # œnœ #œ 3 ‰ J i hi u ya nœ #œ #œ ™ J ≈ R i

hi hyo

nœ œ #œ 3 i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

There is also a go-­dan (five dan) 五段〔Chū no Mai〕, which is obviously longer than the san-­dan, but for this purpose, the san-­dan will suffice. The dan of the Kanze School dances always end with ryo, also known as ryo-­age 呂上ゲ, of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure. Table 8 lays out the overall structure of the〔Chū no Mai〕. A transcription of the entire〔Chū no Mai〕is included in appendix C, using Ranjō’s nohkan scale, to give readers an idea of the structure and melodies of the dance. For comparison of the theoretical and actual performance, only the ryo-­chū-­kan-­structure portions of the kakari (beginning section) are examined, because Yukihiro’s transcriptions of shōga singing and performance of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure are available in chapter 2. Thus, a comparison of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure sung as shōga (example 1), a performance of it in a non-­Noh context (example 2), and a performance of it in a Noh performance context (example 7b) by him is possible.

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori143 Table 8:〔Chū no Mai〕Hagakari structure Dan Kakari

Sho-dan

Ni-dan

San-dan

Kakari Chū Ryo

Dan no fu Chū Ryo

Dan no fu Chū Ryo

Dan-gaeshi Chū Ryo

Sho-dan oroshi Ryo

Ni-dan oroshi Ryo

Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo

Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo

Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo

Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo

Tome: Koiai or Uchiage

Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo

Chū Kan Kan no chū Ryo Note: Dan no fu (literally, “the dan’s music”) 段ノ譜 is entry music into the dan. The same music is played in the first and second dan. Dan-gaeshi (literally, “the dan’s repeat”) 段返シ is music that indicates that the last dan has begun and that the dance is nearing its end.

Comparison of Theoretical and Actual Performance Transcriptions The beats of the〔Chū no Mai〕are clearly indicated by the 4/4 time signature, and the nohkan enters at the second half of beat 2 for each phrase. Here, a comparison of the nohkan entrances in theoretical and

144PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

performance transcriptions is not fruitful, since the entrance points are fixed by the ji (ground pattern) and the player does not exercise any discretion in their placement. When comparing the theoretical transcription of ryo-­chū-­kan structure to that of Yukihiro’s performance in the kakari of the〔Chū no Mai〕, the most apparent difference has to do with pitch level since there is no standard pitch for the nohkan. Most of the pitches are about a quarter tone apart, other than the notes he intentionally alters for sashi-­yubi or other personal preferences. One note, however, differs by nearly a whole step in pitch from one transcription to another. Near the end of chū and kan no chū with the shōga “hi-­hyo-­i-­u-­ri” (emphasis added), the “u” pitch for Ranjō’s nohkan is D, whereas in Yukihiro’s performance the pitch E↑ or E↓ is heard. This was intentional on the part of Yukihiro, who deliberately raised the pitch of the “u” by half-­ holing or shading the first finger hole on the nohkan. Usually, when one plays “u” with the correct fingerings as marked in the fingering book (Morikawa [1940b] 2004), all seven finger holes are covered. In the case of Yukihiro’s performance, to keep the intervals between the pitches a minor third, he makes slight adjustments with the fingerings. Furthermore, his shōga singing is identical to his nohkan pitches, with a minor third between pitches and the “u” syllable sung to the note “E↑,” which further demonstrates his deliberate adjustment of, and sensitivity to, pitch. Yukihiro explains that he adjusts this particular pitch because, when he does so, he hears the pitches as being more “in line” with each other. If Yukihiro did not shade or half-­hole the nohkan on “u,” the interval between “i” and “u” would be near a perfect fourth, nearer to Ranjō’s nohkan pitches. It can be speculated that as the high, middle, and low “levels”—or jō, chū, ge—of the chant pitches tend to be a perfect fourth apart, Yukihiro hears the perfect fourth interval as a part of another “level.” Thus, to keep the notes “in line” with each other, he raises the pitch of “u.” The addition of sashi-­yubi is evident in Yukihiro’s performance transcription, as indicated by the notes with upward stems with slashes running through them. Compare this execution (example 7b) with his

The Nohkan’s Part in Atsumori145

shōga performance transcription from earlier (example 2). The pitches of the nohkan from the two transcriptions are nearly identical, suggesting that the same nohkan (that is, the very same instrument) was used on both occasions. The sashi-­yubi are also quite similar, as seen in the number of embellishments added to the “i” of “o-­hya-­ra-­i ” (emphasis added) of the ryo and to the latter half of kan in the third stave. The tempo of the dance continues to increase as the piece progresses. With this acceleration, the drummers’ calls also increase in pitch and volume, while the nohkan becomes louder and the number of added sashi-­yubi intensifies, heightening the tension and excitement of the dance. The sashi-­yubi for this entire dance performance are not transcribed, as it is nearly impossible to notate all the notes; Yukihiro’s use of sashi-­yubi becomes nearly constant as the dance progresses, and transcribing notes that are affected by the slight covering or uncovering of the mouth hole is difficult. One can conclude, however, that in utai-­ goto passages, he uses sashi-­yubi that move in relation to the chant pitches, and he places particular emphasis on timbre as a means of portraying the character or enhancing the mood of the scene. In contrast, when playing in hayashi-­goto sections, especially in mai, he uses sashi-­ yubi, as well as the color of the nohkan, to support the heightening tension and excitement of the dance. Despite the similarities of the melodic patterns in the Noh plays, the nohkan performer is responsible for playing them differently by the addition of sashi-­yubi and fukikomi (instantaneous bursts of fast, strong air blown throughout the instrument, causing a shakuhachi-­like white noise), by adjusting the volume of the sound and air stream hitting the mouth hole, and by incorporating other personal techniques to support the chant while enhancing the mood of the play. This obligation is evident from the transcriptions and in the performance techniques of Yukihiro. Yukihiro’s performance of the utai-­goto and hayashi-­goto in Atsumori demonstrates two of the three functions attributed to the nohkan by Malm (2000, 134). Even though the marking of “structural moments” by the hishigi was not seen in these detailed analyses of the three utai-­goto and one hayashi-­goto, the theoretical nohkan transcriptions

146PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

and discussions of Atsumori show that numerous entrances of characters begin with a hishigi, in hayashi-­goto entrance music such as the〔Shidai〕and the〔Issei〕. Further, consideration of the takigi Noh (torchlight Noh) 薪能 performances of Atsumori by amateurs at the Noh Training Project–Bloomsburg (see appendix A) reveals the importance of understanding context and considering different variables that may affect the performance.

Chapter Five The Continuity of Tradition Today The Nohkan’s Part in Adaptations of W. B. Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well

Having gained knowledge of traditional Noh structure and insight into the roles of the nohkan’s various melodic patterns from previous chapters, we can now turn to newly composed modern Noh plays. From the Muromachi period up to today, an estimated 2,500 to 3,000 new Noh plays have been written (Yokomichi, Nishino, and Hata [1987] 1992, 301). Among these, according to Tanaka Makoto (1980, 3:231), approximately 1,000 were written during the Muromachi period and 2,000 by the mid-­Edo period. The active repertoire of the five schools, however, consists of only 180 to 250 plays, mostly taken from the Muromachi period, with three-­fifths of this repertoire credited to Kan’ami and Zeami (Emmert 1997, 21). The Meiji period presents a similar situation. Many shinsaku (newly created) Noh have been written, particularly since the 1980s, but performances of newly created Noh plays are still so sporadic that it is uncertain whether any of them will remain in the repertoire. Nevertheless, the importance attached to shinsaku Noh is evident from the ninth annual “Nohgaku Seminar” hosted by Hosei University in 2004. Titled “Shinsaku noh wo kangaeru” (Considering newly composed Noh plays), the seminar produced a list of Noh plays created by Japanese and non-­Japanese authors and composers from the Meiji period until the present day, in Japanese and in other languages. 147

148PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

A few shinsaku Noh have been successful and performed more frequently, such as the adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well, by the modernist Irish poet William Butler Yeats. Among the five adaptations of Yeats’s play, three have received high marks: Yokomichi Mario’s Taka no Izumi (1949), which was revised and performed in 2004 as Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari; Yokomichi Mario’s Takahime, first performed in 1967 (performance from 1998 analyzed); and the English-­language Noh production of At the Hawk’s Well by Theatre Nohgaku (performance from 2002 analyzed),1 first staged and performed in 1981 by the NOHO Theatre Group.2 Yeats’s Noh-­Inspired Drama, At the Hawk’s Well, and Its Japanese Adaptations William Butler Yeats (1865–1939), an Irish poet-­playwright and the winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923, first learned about Noh in 1913 from Ezra Pound. At the time, Pound was acting as the literary executor of unpublished manuscripts by Ernest Fenollosa (1853–1908) on Japanese Noh and Chinese poetry. Pound’s endeavors were published in 1916 in the book “Noh,” or Accomplishment. Although Yeats never actually saw a Noh play, in them he found a medium to express his antirealistic ideals through “a nonmimetic dramatic form, symbolic and ritualistic in mode and highly stylized in convention” (Bradley 1979, 131). At the Hawk’s Well (1916) was published in 1921 in Yeats’s 1. The phrases “English-­language Noh plays,” “English Noh plays,” and “English-­language Noh productions” are used interchangeably throughout this book. 2. The musical aspects of the plays are the focus of this study, with less attention given to literary analysis. Many scholars, both Japanese and Western, have discussed the literary aspects. In the West, consider Anthony Bradley, William Butler Yeats (1979); Richard Taylor, The Drama of W. B. Yeats: Irish Myth and the Japanese Nō (1976); and Ahktar Qamber, Yeats and the Noh (1974). In Japan, researchers include Furukawa Hisashi, Meiji Nohgaku-­shi Josetsu (1969); Hirata Tokuboku, Eibungaku essay (1981); Ernest Fenollosa, Ernest F. Fenollosa Bunshō-­shūsē—Honkoku/Honyaku to kenkyū, ed. Murakata Akiko (2001); Ōkubo Naoki, “Yeats to Noh—Taka no I wo chūshin ni” (1967a); and Takahashi Yasunari, Hashi-­gakari: Engeki-­teki naru mono wo motomete (2003).

The Continuity of Tradition Today 149

Four Plays for Dancers (Bradley 1979, 133); the other three plays in the collection were The Only Jealousy of Emer (1919), The Dreaming of the Bones (1919), and Calvary (1920). Richard Emmert summarizes the story as follows:3 The play is based on the Cuchulain legends of Irish mythology. Cuchulain as the Young Man is seeking a well whose waters confer immortality. An Old Man already has been at the well for fifty years waiting for it to bubble up, and although it has several times, he has never been able to drink of its miraculous water. The well is guarded by a Young Woman who sits silently by the well and who, when the well is about to bubble up, becomes possessed by the spirit of a hawk. The play leads up to the woman’s possessed “Hawk Dance” which leads Cuchulain away from the well and puts the Old Man to sleep just as it bubbles up. Neither is able to drink. In the end, Cuchulain leaves to seek other conquests; the Old Man remains sadly behind having spent his lifetime on this one fruitless endeavor. (Masuda et al. 1990, 44–45)

At the Hawk’s Well was first performed in 1916 in London. Itō Michio 伊藤道郎 (1892–1961), a Japanese actor and dancer who had left Tokyo at age eighteen, played the part of the Guardian of the Well (figure 19).4 Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well had a special resonance with post–World War II Noh practitioners who adapted and performed it repeatedly. The great Noh scholar Yokomichi Mario 横道萬里雄 (1916–2012) explained that, during the war, Kita Minoru 喜多実 (1900–1986), the fifteenth iemoto (head of the household) of the Kita School, performed new Noh plays created mainly by Toki Zenmaro 土岐善麿 (1885–1980). After Japan’s defeat, the manager of the Kita School, Osada Gokyō 長田 午狂 (1906–2002), who was in charge of the production of Kyōdai-­za (Brothers’ Guild) 兄弟座, approached Yokomichi about creating a new Noh play (Yokomichi 1987b; 2004c, 3).5 3. The full text of At the Hawk’s Well can be found at http://www.ebooks downloads.xyz/search/at-­t he-­hawk-­s-­well. 4. See Preston (2016) for a more detailed account of Yeats’s creative process for At the Hawk’s Well and Itō Michio’s performance of it. 5. Yokomichi Mario, “Takahime no Shoen made” (Until the first production of Takahime), Sanko no Kai, program notes from discussion with per-

150PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Figure 19: Itō Michio (center) performing in Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well (Furukawa 1969, 128).

Yokomichi had recently lost his good friend and mentor (and a great Noh scholar) Kobayashi Shizuo 小林静雄 (1906–1945) in the war. The two men had been stationed together in the Philippines. Kobayashi had always said that it would be interesting “to reimport” (or, in Japanese, “Gyaku-­y unyū suru” 逆輸入する) Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well; he even created the [Shidai] for it,6 saying that once the [Shidai] is created, the rest is easy (Yokomichi 2004c, 2).7 With this [Shidai] in mind, Yokomichi created Taka no Izumi, first performed in 1949 in Japan. The Noh play was performed three times in Japan: in 1949, 1950, and 1952 (see table I-­1 in appendix I). The shite was performed by Kita Minoru in all three performances, but the rest of the actors and musicians were different in each performance, as stated in Yokomichi’s 1987 program notes, “Takahime no shoen made” formers, December 14, 1987; Yokomichi Mario, “Taka no noroi (bekkō)” (Hawk’s revenge [another draft]), program notes, September 2004. 6. The [Shidai], an utai-­goto, is used as an entrance song, expressing the character’s intent, actions, and emotions (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 312). 7. The reading of the program notes is not certain, because the「呪い」of 「鷹の呪い《別稿》」can be read as majinai (a spell) or noroi (revenge).

The Continuity of Tradition Today 151

(Until the first production of Takahime) (Yokomichi 1987b). Taka no Izumi, which is examined later in detail, follows the construction of a traditional futabagata mugen (two-­act dream-­world) Noh play with its dan and shōdan. It also uses the instruments and chorus in a traditional manner. Takahime, a second adaptation of Yeats’s play, departs from the traditional Noh structure. The idea for this adaptation was proposed to Yokomichi in 1967 by Kanze Hisao 観世寿夫 (1925–1978), a renowned Noh actor who was active in Noh and various theater experiences after the war (Yokomichi 2004a, 4). This adaptation’s construction incorporates many innovative musical and theatrical techniques. Yokomichi wrote the Noh play, while Hisao created the music. In fact, Hisao contributed much original music and many innovative musical technique—such as the chorus singing in canon, and sections where the chorus sings with a jitori-­like voice8 rather than with a full voice—as well as new instrumental techniques and melodies, as explained later. Musically, Takahime calls for improvisation by the instrumentalists, which makes each performance unique. Table I-­3 of appendix I shows that twenty-­eight performances took place, from its first performance in December 1967 through July 2004.9 Because each performance is unique, Issō Takayuki was interviewed about his specific performance on June 30, 1998, at Hōshō Nohgaku-­dō.10 A third version, titled Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, was suggested by Kanze Hideo 観世栄夫 (1927–2007). There were discussions about performing the Japanese Noh version of At the Hawk’s Well in Yeats’s native Ireland. Hideo, Hisao’s younger brother, proposed creating another version of At the Hawk’s Well, using the construction of the first Taka no Izumi and incorporating the active portions of the hawk from Takahime. Thus, a new version was compiled, entitled Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, with its kogaki (special performance) of Shu-­gakari (The

8. This designates the low, quiet voice of the chorus used when it repeats the lines of the actor. 9. Only data through December 2004 could be obtained for this research. 10. Issō Takayuki (Issō-­r yū nohkan performer), interview by author, December 16, 2006, Tokyo.

152PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

mantra). This version was first performed in Dublin, Ireland, and later in Japan on December 25, 2004 (Yokomichi 2004b, 5).11 Table 9 charts the melodic patterns and roles of the nohkan for these three adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well. In the table, the nohkan’s melodic patterns are placed within the appropriate dan and shōdan. The nohkan melodic patterns are indicated in italics, without brackets or parentheses, whereas the dan and shōdan use the proper brackets identified by the Japanese Noh scholars. Analysis of Takahime The June 30, 1998, performance of Takahime analyzed here was sponsored by Kanze Tetsunojō [VIII] 観世銕之丞 (1931–2000), who performed the role of the old man.12 Issō Takayuki played nohkan. According to Takayuki, the hayashi-­kata were young performers, except for the kotsuzumi player, who was older than the others, mainly because Tetsunojō wanted the younger nohgaku-­shi to experience new Noh plays. Ōkura Genjirō 大倉源次郎—a Living National Treasure and the sixteenth sōke (the family head) 宗家 of the Ōkura School of kotsuzumi,13 who had played in Takahime numerous times—played kotsu11. Yokomichi Mario, Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, fourth performance by Nohgaku Kanze-­ka, sponsored by Kanze Bunko, performed at Kokuritsu Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, December 25, 2004 (DVD). See table I-­2 in appendix I for a list of the performers. 12. Yokomichi Mario, Takahime, directed by Nomura Manzō and Kanze Hideo, music composed and dance choreographed by Kanze Hideo, performed at Hōshō Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, June 30, 1998 (DVD). See table I-­3 in appendix I for a list of the performers. 13. The terms iemoto and sōke are used synonymously in the Noh world to mean “head of the household.” According to Kanze Kiyokazu 観世清和, who is the iemoto of the Kanze School, sōke was a title given by the Tokugawa shogunate to the Kanze School master (“Kanze-­r yū no goannai” [Guide to the Kanze School], Kanze.net Official Website, accessed February 21, 2019, https:// kanze.net/publics/index/9/). See Nishiyama Matsunosuke’s Iemoto no kenkyū (Research on Iemoto; 1982) for an in-­depth analysis of iemoto regulations in the traditional Japanese performing arts, and Yokomichi and Kobayashi’s

The Continuity of Tradition Today 153 Table 9: Analysis of three contemporary Noh plays and nohkan melodic patterns Noh Dan  1

Takahime (1998)

Taka no Izumi, Shu-gakari (2004)

Oshirabe

Oshirabe

Oshirabe

[De-oki]

〔Oki-tsuzumi〕(〔Shin no Netori〕): Waki’s entrance 〔Shin no Nanori〕

〔Shidai〕: Entrance of jiutai (costumed as rocks)

[Nanori] [Sashi] [Kotoba]

 2

〔Hayashi 1〕: Nemuri [□]: Mae-shite’s entrance no Fu (improvisation) 〔Hayashi 2〕

 3

At the Hawk’s Well (2002)

[□]: Old man’s entrance [Mondō] Nemuri no Fu–like melody (improvisation) 〔Hayashi 3〕

[Shidai] [Ageuta]‡

[Shidai] (Jidori) [Kotoba]*

[Ageuta] Takane Naka no Takane Kote [Issei] [Kotoba] ([Sashi])† 〔Ashirai-dashi〕: Old man’s entrance [Kotoba] 〔Ayumi〕 Naka no Takane Roku no Ge [Kotoba] ([Sashi]) [Kuri] Sō no Kuri [Kotoba] 〔Sagariha〕: Young man’s entrance (nohkan and taiko only)

(continued)

154PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Table 9: (continued) Noh Dan

Takahime (1998) Naka no Takane Kote

 4

 5

 6

Taka no Izumi, Shu-gakari (2004) Naka no Takane Kote

[□]: Old man’s story; [Mondō] young man’s entrance Shōmon no Ashirai [Ageuta] Kote (kae no fu)

[□]: Takahime’s entrance [Mondō] Ryo no Fukiage (improvisation) 〔Hayashi 4〕: 〔Banshiki Deha-bataraki〕 Nanatsu-yuri 〔Hayashi 5〕: Old man’s nakairi Nemuri no Fu [Katari] Ryo no Ashirai [Kuse] Naka no Takane Ryo no Kake no Ashirai [□]: Bubbling of the well [Ageuta] 〔Raijo〕 〔Hayashi 6〕 (ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi’s ashirai) ([Kuri])

At the Hawk’s Well (2002)

[Kotoba] [Uta] [Kotoba] [□]: Young man’s story Nohkan: o-hya, o-hya [Kotoba] [Uta] [Kotoba] [□]: Old man’s response

[Uta] [Kotoba] [□]: Premonition Nohkan: o-hya, o-hya

The Continuity of Tradition Today 155 Table 9: (continued) Noh Dan

Takahime (1998)

Taka no Izumi, Shu-gakari (2004) 〔Raijo〕 (continued) 〔Sagariha〕 Begin in ōshiki mode; after sho-dan, transpose to banshiki mode

 7

[□] 〔Hayashi 6〕 (ashirai continued)

〔Hayashi 7〕: Hawk Dance Ō-yuri-like melody

Renji-shi no Te 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕  8

[□]: Old man’s ghost emerges from tsukuri-mono 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕 (continued) 〔Hayashi 8〕: 〔Tachimawari〕

At the Hawk’s Well (2002)

[Kotoba] ([Sashi]) Nohkan: o-hya, o-hya [□]: Hawk Dance

[□] Dengaku-bue 1 (higher pitch):§ Improvisation 〔Hayashi 4〕: 〔Tachimawari〕 Dengaku-bue 2 (lower pitch): Improvisation 〔Hayashi 5〕 〔Hayashi 6〕 Nohkan: Improvisation 〔Hayashi 7〕: 〔Hawk 〔Hawk Dance〕 (Newly Dance〕 composed melody) 〔Haya-mai〕 (also known as 〔BanshikiHaya-mai〕 or 〔Banshiki-mai〕) Renji-shi no Te 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕 [Kataji-byōshi] [Kotoba] [□]: Nochi-shite’s entrance [□]: Young man’s exit

(continued)

156PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Table 9: (continued) Noh Dan

9

Takahime (1998)

[□] [Sashi] Takane [Issei] Hayashi no Te (improvi- 〔Tachi-mawari〕 sation) Deha-bataraki [□] 〔Tachi-mawari〕 (continued) 〔Hayashi 9〕: taiko solo

10

Taka no Izumi, Shu-gakari (2004)

[□] Nokori-dome

At the Hawk’s Well (2002) 〔Haya-tsuzumi〕 (ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi) [Kotoba] [Kiri] Shin no Tome

[Nokori-dome] (Shin no Tome, continued)

[Nori-ji] [Chū-nori-ji] Takane Dengaku-bue 2: Ashirai (improvisation) Nohkan: Tome

*The [Kotoba] can be replaced by the traditional shōdan [Mondō]. †Parentheses around ([Sashi]) are added as indicated in the utaibon (chant book). ‡Here the shōdan [Ageuta] is used as written in the utaibon, rather than the [Chū-Ageuta] as seen in Yukihiro’s utaibon. §Dengaku-bue is a new flute that Yukihiro and Ranjō created together. It is an instrument that combines a nohkan and a shinobue.

zumi and referred to past performances, suggesting to the hayashi-­kata just where improvisations by the instrumentalist were required. For the improvisational sections, Takayuki reports that he was instructed to “play something.” Thus, he played what he found most appropriate in supporting the action onstage, without consulting or listening to past Noh/Kyōgen (1996, 23–44) on how the iemoto system in the Noh world operates and how it has changed over the years.

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performance recordings. Three or four rehearsals were held, according to Takayuki. This Noh play begins with the tsukuri-­mono (prop) 作リ物 used for the old man’s nakairi (costume change), already placed onstage in front of the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi, as is traditionally done.14 The tsukuri-­ mono is made of four branches placed in four corners and creates a rectangular, boxy frame. It is enveloped by a brown cloth, with green leaves sticking out from the top of the branches. In addition, there is a tatami (mat) 畳 tsukuri-­mono in front of where the ji-­utai (chorus) would usually sit. After the lights dim and the oshirabe (tuning of the instruments) お調べ, the members of the chorus, costumed as rocks and wearing masks that cover the top half of their face, enter in silence from the bridgeway as the instrumentalists enter the stage through the kiri-­do (side door) 切戸, something not seen in traditional performances. The chorus is divided into two groups: one group, sitting downstage, forms a square, and the other, upstage, sits in front of the two tsukuri-­mono. Then Takahime enters in silence from the bridgeway and sits on a shōgi (small black sitting stool) 床几 placed on the tatami. The nohkan begins, alone, playing Nemuri no Fu (literally, sleeping music) 眠りの譜, before being joined by the ōtsuzumi. This Nemuri no Fu functions similarly to a〔Netori 音取リ〕, which is found in the beginning of some traditional Noh plays, played by the nohkan and the kotsuzumi (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 323). In this case, however, the nohkan plays with the ōtsuzumi—a new combination of instruments. Nevertheless, this prelude-­like music sets the mood for the entrance of the somber old man, who always happens to fall asleep when the well begins to bubble up. Takayuki plays mainly in the lower register, evoking a heavy, leaden atmosphere. In the third dan, there is another nohkan ashirai,〔Hayashi 3〕, where the nohkan plays with the kotsuzumi. Takayuki plays a melody similar to Nemuri no Fu, but in the lower register, as the chorus gathers in the middle of the stage. At the same time, the kotsuzumi enters, just after Takayuki plays that melody, while the old man enters from the bridgeway. Once the chorus moves to its designated place, the nohkan plays 14. See appendix H for the full text of Takahime.

158PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Naka no Takane and Kote from the traditional nohkan repertoire until the old man moves to sit at the front of the stage. In Takayuki’s utaibon from 1998,15 he wrote in his own handwriting, “At the end of the flute melody, the kotsuzumi comes in with his drum call of ‘Ha’ [written ‘Ha’ but pronounced ‘Ho’], chorus begins singing.” Just as written, Takayuki follows these directions, as is seen in the video of this performance, demonstrating that in Takahime, as in traditional Noh plays, the nohkan entrances are cued by the onstage movements, and the nohkan melodies are chosen carefully to fit the actors’ movements and entrances. During the old man’s story in the fourth dan, the young man enters without music. The absence of music here is quite unusual because entrances are most often announced with music. Later, the nohkan plays an ashirai along with the old man’s utai-­goto as he laments his inability, imposed by a curse, to attain the water of life. In expressing the lament of the old man, Takayuki plays a melody similar to the traditional nohkan melody of Shōmon no Ashirai 松門ノアシライ, which is played in a variant performance of the Noh play Kagekiyo〈景清〉at a point when the nohkan portrays a quiet and calm scene before the entrance of the utai (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 40, 294). In the fifth dan, the hawk displays movement onstage for the first time, as the young man (who is a prince) yells, “Hark, I hear the cry of the hawk! The hawk moves!” The hawk’s movements and the young man’s voice are accentuated by the hits of the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi—a novelty that can be added in newly created Noh. In creating the scene, and in the same dan, the nohkan plays an ashirai with the chorus when they sing about the hawk flapping her wings and stirring about. Takayuki plays a melody similar to the traditional nohkan melodic pattern of Ryo no Fukiage within the marked area in the score. His reason for choosing this specific ashirai is that the chant moves between the middle to low ranges, as does the melodic pattern of Ryo no Fukiage, which he thought was appropriate to accompany the chant. The shadowing of the chant’s melodic contour through the selection of nohkan 15. Takayuki’s Takahime utaibon with inscriptions is not yet available for public viewing.

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melodic patterns was noted in the traditional Noh plays discussed in chapter 3. While the nohkan continues to play an improvisatory ashirai and the ji-­utai narrates the scene, the hawk has stepped off of the tatami. She locks eyes with the defiant prince and moves toward him as he back away and falls to his knee at stage right. Following the utai of the chorus, all the instruments except the taiko play the〔Banshiki Deha-­bataraki 盤渉・出羽働〕(or〔Hayashi 4〕,16 as indicated in table 9), accompanying the slow movements of the hawk while she dances onstage, as directed in the score. This hayashi-­ goto〔Deha-­bataraki 出羽働〕in the traditional Noh play exists in the ōshiki mode (as explained in the analysis of the play Tōru in chapter 3) and is usually played with the taiko. In the case of Takahime, however, it is played in the banshiki mode with just the nohkan, kotsuzumi, and ōtsuzumi. At one point while Takahime circles the stage, she kneels toward the old man as if acknowledging him and casting a spell on him (he had been sitting quietly onstage while the young man was pursuing the hawk earlier). Takahime and the old man lock eyes, and the old man stands up and moves away from Takahime as she moves toward him. Then, as if possessed by the hawk, the old man follows her to the hashi-­ gakari (bridgeway). The instruments stop playing the〔Banshiki Deha-­bataraki〕as the old man approaches the first pine tree on the hashi-­gakari and sits at the kyōgen-­za (literally, “the kyōgen seat”; where the kyōgen-­kata usually sits) 狂言座. He has lost sight of Takahime, who sits at the san-­no-­matsu (third pine tree, which is farthest away from the main stage, or hon-­ butai) 三ノ松 with her body turned away from the hon-­butai, signifying her disappearance from the present scene. After the old man sings his first line, the nohkan begins to play another ashirai while the old man continues with his lines. During this section, Takayuki plays Nanatsu-­yuri 七揺, which is a wavering pattern, followed by the Nemuri no Fu (or〔Hayashi 5〕) until the old man makes his nakairi in the tsukuri-­mono onstage. He then falls asleep, again missing his opportunity to drink from the well. 16. 〔Deha-bataraki〕may be written as〔出羽働〕or〔出端働〕in Chinese characters. I have chosen to use〔出羽働〕, which is used in the Yubitsuke-shū.

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In the sixth dan, the ji-­utai, which is crowded around the tsukuri-­ mono, stands up and prepares the scene by narrating that the young man has seen the hawk. The chorus disperses to the side of the stage and sits, making space for the fight scene between Takahime and the young man. The young man challenges Takahime to fly as he turns his body and points his sword toward the hashi-­gakari. Takahime returns to the hon-­butai, where the young man runs around madly as he chases and fights Takahime, the characters’ actions heightened by the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi’s ashirai patterns (〔Hayashi 6〕). The fight scene continues to the bridgeway and makes use of the whole space available as the young man chases the hawk and they circle each other, while the audience’s eyes follow them in excitement. The hawk returns to her tatami, sits, and covers her face by throwing her left arm up over her head, an action that places the kimono over her head. This traditional kata (combination of positions and movements) is often seen—for example, in the Noh Hagoromo—and segues into the seventh dan. Simultaneously, the water begins to bubble up, and the chorus begins its chant of “A-­ta-­sa-­ra-­sa-­ma-­ra, ki-­k i-­k i-­ri-­sa-­ya, ka-­ka-­ra-­sa-­ya-­u-­n” in unison, which is also heard in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari. After one line of the incantation, one leader narrates the flow of water, which is repeated by the entire chorus. The kotsuzumi then begins with a slow, steady drumbeat of its iconic sound “po” that resumes the incantation “A-­ta-­sa-­ra-­sa-­ma-­ra, ki-­k i-­k i-­ri-­sa-­ya”—but now in two-­part canon made of eight-­beat phrases with occasional choral interjections as voices cry out, “Water!” and with the ōtsuzumi hitting a beat just before the voice (sound: chon△) in syncopation. As the whirling of the water well continues, the hawk unveils her face, stands up, and moves toward the center of the hon-­butai. She adds ashi-­byōshi (foot stamps) 足拍子 to heighten the music and rhythm onstage, circles the stage to prepare to scoop up the water with her fan, and then disappears from the stage. The Hawk Dance, or〔Hayashi 7〕, seen in all three Noh plays, is accompanied by the〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai 盤渉・急ノ舞〕, which is played by the entire hayashi (including the taiko), as directed in the script. This is the fastest of all the dances and follows the ryo-­chū-­kan structure but does not have an oroshi, instead moving quickly to heighten tension and excitement (Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai 1990, 323).

The Continuity of Tradition Today 161

In Takahime, this dance is preceded by an Ō-­yuri 大ユリ-­like melody, which is a “large wavering” pattern played by the nohkan, when there is no utai and everything is silent. At this moment onstage, the hawk, Takahime, is positioned at the shōsaki (front center of the stage) 正先. Her mask reflects the spotlight, aimed from the shirasu (white stones) 白洲—an area below the stage that separates the stage from the audience—as she prepares to scoop water from the well. The two drums and the nohkan play Renji-­shi no Te (Twin lion dance) 獅子ノ手, a pattern derived from the〔Shishi〕(Lion dance); this is usually played only in the Hōshō School of Noh. These nohkan melodies, accompanied by drums, build excitement during the scene as Takahime scoops the water and dances the〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕, with the prince quickly trying to stop her near the end of the dance. The tension between the characters is especially enhanced in the last section of the〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕by the strong and steady beats of the taiko as the drum is hit with only the right bachi (stick), the penetrating drum hits and calls from the ōtsuzumi and the kotsuzumi, and the nohkan’s trancelike melody. The prince swings his sword at Takahime but misses her as she runs offstage. After Takahime takes the water away, the young man looks down at the dark, empty well, its aridity made obvious because now no light beams from its recesses. He backs away from the well and sits on the tatami where Takahime used to sit (not necessarily signifying that he has returned to where Takahime originated, but making use of the space onstage). The ghost of the old man appears (transformed via his nakairi, or costume change, from the old man to this ghost),17 right from the tsukuri-­mono. This is the same old man who previously lost his chance to drink the water, and the ji-­utai and his ghost move around slowly onstage as a〔Tachi-­mawari 立廻リ〕(or〔Hayashi 8〕) is played, during which the nohkan may play the melody〔Tachi-­mawari〕 or〔Deha-­bataraki 出羽働〕, also known as〔Hataraki 働〕. In Takahime, Takayuki played the〔Tachi-­mawari〕melody as instructed by Yo17. It is possible that some may interpret this character, not as the ghost of the old man, but as an older man with a haggard-looking mask who has lost his chance to drink from the well.

162PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

komichi. Most of the movements during the〔Tachi-­mawari〕are made by the ji-­utai, costumed as rocks. The ji-­utai stands up with the ghost, cuts across the stage in a diagonal, and returns to its original position of surrounding the tsukuri-­mono. During this time, the ghost steps out of the tsukuri-­mono and moves forward downstage toward the audience. The intensity of the moment is felt when the ghost is the only one left standing after the ji-­utai sits down and the music comes to an end; the ghost realizes his fate. This appearance of the old man as a ghost is similar to that of the nochi-­shite of a mugen Noh, revealing structural similarities to traditional Noh plays. During the final dance of the ghost and the singing of the chorus in chū-­nori (medium rhythm) style in the ninth dan, a traditional te (pattern) 手 for the uchikiri (short musical break) is heard. The uchikiri is prevalent in an [Ageuta] or in a [Michiyuki] of traditional Noh plays; it comes after the first line is sung, and then that opening line is repeated just after the uchikiri is played. In other words, the first line repeats to frame the uchikiri. Similarly, in Takahime the first line is recited by the chorus and is followed by an uchikiri, in which the two drums play their patterns of “iyaΔ.” Then the nohkan enters with its melodic pattern Takane and ends approximately with the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” As the ghost continues to dance onstage, the remaining choral singing does not follow a traditional utai in its use of verses or instrumental patterns. Instead, near the middle of the choral singing is another ending pattern played by the three drums. The taiko plays an uchikiri pattern that marks the end of an utai phrase, as the utai segues into singing in ō-­nori (large rhythm) style. The utai stops briefly for Hayashi no Te, hito-­kusari (one cycle of the hayashi’s pattern), while the nohkan plays a quiet melody to support the onstage ambience suitable for the old man and for the young man, who is kneeling and staring at the empty well in despair, and the drums play a Narai no Te (a specially composed pattern) 習ノ手. This is followed by the ghost continuing to dance and becoming a ghost in the deep forest, as he moves to the tatami. The utai phrase ends with another taiko’s uchikiri, which is succeeded by a taiko solo (or〔Hayashi 9〕) with large and medium hits (shōga: ten 天) by the right hand and patterns called kizami (literally, to chop up the beat) 刻 ミ. This dan ends with the chorus forming an open square toward the

The Continuity of Tradition Today 163

audience, with some choral members on the bridgeway during the taiko solo. In the last dan, the nohkan plays along with the utai for the shōdan [□] with the melodic pattern Nokori-­dome 残リ留. Takayuki does not play the traditional Tome 留メ melody; instead he plays something more like a derivative of Nemuri no Fu. The Noh Takahime ends with the text, “The fountain is forever dry; all the branches are quiet in the Small Forest [Kobayashi].”18 In this way, Yokomichi pays homage to his friend Kobayashi, who gave him the idea for this Noh and whose name is written as “Small Forest” in Chinese characters. Experimental Aspects of Takahime Several innovative musical and theatrical techniques in Takahime had never been seen before in Noh plays. Emmert explains these departures as “a change in external elements of literary structure, costume, masks, and use of performance space, and not a change in the ‘internal elements’ that the performers have mastered for traditional performances” (1997, 25). In some respects, this assessment is true. Yokomichi departs from the shōdan structure that is commonly seen in traditional Noh plays. He also does not use the traditional role labels, such as shite, waki, and tsure, because Yeats’s three characters in the drama are equal in importance. Thus, in the program, the actors are referred to by their character names (see table I-­3 in appendix I). Another departure from tradition is placing a director in charge of the production, as Yokomichi had suggested to Hisao, given that the role and use of the chorus differ considerably from traditional practice. The choral members are costumed as rocks, as opposed to their traditional montsuki hakama (formal kimono and divided skirt) 紋付袴 (figure 20); they also wear half-­masks and move about onstage, at times singing in ensemble and at other times singing individually while narrating the story or the setting or while disclosing the characters’ emotions. Yokomichi’s hope was that the director could “bring out each choral member’s own characteristic” and that “by doing so, they [the choral members] will have a 18. 「泉は永久に涸れ果てて、静かなり棒の小林」.

164PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Figure 20: A Takahime performance at Sōgetsu Hall, Tokyo, in 2005. Performers: Kanze Hideo as the old man (right), Kanze Tetsunojō as Takahime (center, sitting on a low stool, or shōgi), and Yamamoto Norishige as Cuchulain (left), with chorus members costumed as rocks. (Photograph by Yoshikoshi Ken)

different presence from that of the usual standing-­role actors in Noh” (Yokomichi 2004a, 4). Therefore, each performance is different.19 The music composed by Hisao for Takahime includes the chorus singing in two-­part canon, with occasional passages for solo voices, depicting the well filling with the “water of life.” This section has been the focus of past musical analyses, but the nohkan’s musical innovations have thus far been overlooked by scholars. Hisao stated the following concerning his musical compositions for Takahime: 19. I saw a performance of Takahime on December 25, 2012, at the National Noh Theatre in Tokyo. Directed by Yokomichi Mario and Umewaka Rokurō (Genshō), the program was called “Shikō no hana, Noh Takahime” (Flower of supremacy, Noh Takahime). It was most likely presented as a memorial for Yokomichi Mario, who had passed away on June 20, 2012, and whose picture was placed near the entrance of the Noh theater. The performance was quite different from what I had analyzed in the 1998 DVD, especially the movement of the choral “rocks,” who at one point formed a V shape as a group when moving onstage.

The Continuity of Tradition Today 165 I was in charge of composing the music and attempted to experiment musically. For example, in the Rocks’ choral singing, I included a canon-­ like rhythm. Usually in Noh, an eight-­beat rhythm is at the center [of its music], but by [having one group of the chorus sing four beats and then the other group sing the same phrase four beats later and] shifting the singing every four beats, I wanted to create a type of incantation-­like expression. Also, with the four instruments of fue [nohkan], taiko, ōtsuzumi, and kotsuzumi, I didn’t want them to always play together but to have them play individually or pair them up in twos. (Kanze Hisao [1980b] 1998, 269)

This “incantation-­like” singing of the text “A-­ta-­sa-­ra-­sa-­ma-­ra, ki-­ ki-­ri-­sa-­ya, ka-­ka-­ra-­sa-­ya-­u-­n” occurs as the chorus sings a mantra in canon while the well fills up with water—causing the audience to fall into a trance while listening. Hisao’s musical attempts were unconventional but exciting to the performers, Yokomichi, and the audience, and the newly created Noh Takahime enjoyed a long period of performance, including a production on December 25, 2012, commemorating Yokomichi’s life. However, despite the freedom Takayuki was given in this contemporary Noh play of Takahime, he chose to play one nohkan and to stick closely to the traditional nohkan melodic patterns. Thus, his “improvisations” were not significantly different from traditional melodic patterns; even to the untrained ear, the nohkan melodic patterns would have sounded more “traditional,” as was Takayuki’s aim. In my interview with him, Takayuki discussed his performances in traditional and contemporary Noh plays and his views on the nohkan. Whereas many perceive his involvement in contemporary Noh plays as a significant step toward their acceptance into traditional repertoire, Takayuki explained that even though he participates in contemporary Noh plays, doing so is not one of his main interests, and his activities do not cross over to the non-­Noh world. Indeed, his views on the nohkan’s role in Noh are reflected in his playing style. He considers the nohkan an instrument “without much presence” in traditional Noh, since the fue-­kata (nohkan player in Noh) sits near the back of the stage. Takayuki’s emphasis lies in creating the mood and supporting the chant. For example, when he plays Naka no Takane in an utai-­goto, he deems it important to be able to sing the utai with the chorus and hear the intri-

166PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

cate nuances within it. Takayuki believes that this helps the fue-­kata to play in a supportive manner and avoids hindering the chant’s movements. Thus, he does not use sashi-­yubi to heighten or create the mood; he finds them to be the “lowest way” to create ambience. He chooses instead to use sound quality, breath, energy, air velocity, and precise calculations of nohkan pitches in relation to the chant melody. Takayuki’s principles of Noh and nohkan playing are reflected in his performance of Takahime, in which his nohkan melodic patterns were slight modifications of traditional ones, and his performance techniques and sounds were identical to those of his traditional Noh playing style. Thus, he treats traditional and contemporary Noh plays similarly, playing the nohkan to support and reflect the scenes, especially in an ashirai of a hayashi-­goto or utai-­goto. Takayuki’s playing demonstrates the continuity of traditional musical materials in this new Noh play. He chose to adhere closely to the traditional melodic patterns for his improvisations, thus reflecting his preferences and personality. Analysis of Taka no Izumi and Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari The original version of Taka no Izumi (At the hawk’s well) was performed three times between 1949 and 1952 (see table I-­1 in appendix I). It premiered at Somei Nohgakudō 染井能楽堂 (“Taka no Izumi, Shu-­ gakari” flyer, 2004). No audio or visual recordings of any of these original performances could be obtained for this study, making musical analysis impossible. The text was created by Yokomichi for the Kita School and is published in the book Noh: Honsetsu to tenkai (Noh: Foundation and development; edited by Masuda, Kobayashi, and Hata [1977] 1985). Other written documentation related to Taka no Izumi is found in Maruoka Akira’s Nohgaku kanshō jiten (Dictionary of terms for appreciating nohgaku; 1961) and Gendai no Noh (Modern-­era Noh; 1954).20 The structure of Taka no Izumi seems similar to that of a traditional Noh play, with its use of dan and shōdan to construct a futabagata mugen Noh with a mae-­shite and nochi-­shite. Moreover, the characters 20. Gendai no Noh includes an image from the first performance in 1949 with Kita Sadayo 喜多節世 (1926–2003) as the hawk (Maruoka Akira 1954, 15).

The Continuity of Tradition Today 167

are identified specifically as the shite, the waki, and the tsure, who is also known as Takahime, or the Guardian of the Well (Masuda, Kobayashi, and Hata [1977] 1985, 222–224). It can thus be hypothesized that the nohkan was probably used in a traditional manner and that its melodic patterns were selected from the traditional repertoire and performed without much improvisation. From this musical analysis, it can be said that the nohkan played traditional melodic patterns and fulfilled traditional roles. The playwright Yokomichi describes the differences between Taka no Izumi and its later version, Taka no Izumi, Shu-­ gakari (At the hawk’s well, the mantra), thusly:21 The 2004 performance of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari is completely different from the basic structure of the original performance and the “Taka no Mai” [Hawk dance]. That is why I added the kogaki [special performance] of Shu-­gakari. In the premier performance, “Taka no Mai” followed a structure like this: First, the fue played [the dance] Kakko but with the taiko,22 at a tempo that would apply to [the dance] Sagi-­midare.23 Mr. Fujita Daigorō24 played the fue, Mr. Komparu Sōuemon25 played the taiko, and they both composed the music together. In the 2004 performance, the beginning and the end remain mostly the same [as in the original 1949 performance], but only the dance part from [the newly created Noh] Takahime was included, which is why I included the kogaki.26,27 21. Letter to author from Yokomichi Mario, December 10, 2008. 22. Kakko 羯鼓. 23. Sagi-­midare 鷺乱レ. 24. Living National Treasure Fujita Daigorō 藤田大五郎 (1915–2009), Issō-­ ryū nohkan player. 25. Living National Treasure Komparu Sōuemon Kuniosa XXII 金春惣右 衛門国長 (1924–2014), Komparu-­r yū taiko player. 26.「二〇〇四年上演の《鷹の泉―呪掛リ》は、初演の基本的な形と、 「鷹 の舞」が全く別物になっています。そのために〈呪掛リ〉という小書を付けた のです。 　初演の時は、 「鷹ノ舞」は次のような形でした。まず笛は《鞨鼓》で、た だし太鼓入リとし、 《鷺乱レ》に準じた緩急を付けたのです。笛は藤田大五 郎氏、太鼓は金春惣右衛門氏で、両氏の作曲でした。 　二〇〇四年の上演では、前後はほぼ元のままですが、舞の部分だけ、 《 鷹姫》の形を取り入れたので、小書付キとしたのです。」 27. Note that despite his initial assertion that the structures of the original performance and of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari are “completely different,” Yo-

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The premiere’s dance performance is intriguing, but only written accounts of performances and utaibon remain. Analyses of these accounts and utaibon make it clear that the second version of Taka no Izumi, known as Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, is somewhat similar in construction to its predecessor in its use of shōdan and mugen Noh; moreover, the ji-­utai and hayashi-­kata appear in their montsuki hakama and sing in their designated places. But this special performance incorporates the active dance and movements of the hawk from Takahime. According to Yukihiro, there were two or three rehearsals.28 In the utaibon of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, which was handed out at the performance on December 25, 2004, at the National Noh Theatre in Tokyo, the characters’ roles are indicated as shite (Old Man), tsure (Takahime), and waki (Cuchulain) (see table I-­2 in appendix I).29 The performance premiered in Dublin, Yeats’s hometown (Yokomichi 2004b, 5). This Noh play begins in a traditional manner with the oshirabe of the hayashi in the kagami no ma (green room behind the curtain that separates the bridgeway and stage from the rehearsal space) 鏡 の間, followed by the entrance of the instrumentalists onstage from the bridgeway and of the chorus from the kiri-­do, both wearing the typical montsuki hakama. After their entrances, the tsukuri-­mono is placed in the upstage center in front of the drums, as traditionally done. The hawk princess is hidden behind the blue cloth that drapes off the parabolic arch at the top of the tsukuri-­mono. The top is decorated with brown branches and leaves, to signify a hawk’s nest. There is no dimming of the lights as in Takahime. The first dan begins with a hayashi-­goto of〔Oki-­tsuzumi 置鼓〕, also known as〔Shin no Netori 真ノ音取リ〕, by the Issō School (see table 9). This is played by the kotsuzumi and the nohkan, one instrukomichi concludes by saying that the beginning and the end of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari “remain mostly the same [as in the original 1949 performance].” He may, however, be referring to different parts within the Noh to explain the similarities and differences between the performances. 28. Interview by author, December 4, 2010, Tokyo. As a disciple of Yukihiro, I have had numerous informal interviews with him during lessons. 29. See appendix G for Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari’s text and character roles.

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ment following the other. In the video of the 2004 performance, this sequence goes on for two phrases, and then the instruments play together in the third phrase. The waki’s entrance follows. This order aligns with the〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕patterns described by Nishino and Hata ([1999] 2006, 298) and Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (1990, 211). The nohkan plays〔Shin no Netori〕followed by〔Shin no Nanori 真ノ名乗リ〕, which are the nohkan melodies for characters of elevated stature, making them appropriate for this situation. As expected in a traditional Noh play, the shite, or the old man, enters after the waki (in the second dan), and there is a dialogue between the two characters (in the third dan). The [Ageuta] in the third dan, sung by the chorus, further reflects the traditional characteristics of this contemporary Noh play. While the chorus is singing and explaining the story about the well, the nohkan enters with Naka no Takane, where the chant returns from the middle range to the high range, and ends with Kote and a descent to the low range. In the fourth dan, the nohkan plays along with another [Ageuta] by the chorus. The [Ageuta] is quite short, and the nohkan plays a kae no fu (alternate melody) 替エノ譜 of Kote near the end of the song. The kae no fu was not stipulated by Yokomichi but chosen by the player, Issō Yukihiro. The fifth dan contains the shōdan [Katari], which is mainly a narration by the shite about the well. Near the end of the [Katari], the nohkan plays a variation of Ryo no Ashirai, which leads into the [Kuse] sung by the chorus. In the [Kuse] of traditional Noh plays, the nohkan often plays the melodic patterns of Naka no Takane, Age no Takane, and Kote. In Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, however, the nohkan plays Naka no Takane and Ryo no Kake no Ashirai 呂ノカケノアシライ, a type of ashirai alternate melody. This Ryo no Kake no Ashirai is a traditional nohkan melodic pattern with the pitches beginning in the middle range and ending in the low range; its function is similar to that of Kote. Thus, the nohkan in this shōdan plays in relationship to the chant with the same melody or similar melodies, as it would in traditional Noh plays. In this dan, the structure of the shōdan is particularly interesting. In traditional Noh, it is common to see the shōdan order of [Kuri], [Sashi], and [Kuse]. The nohkan usually plays the melodic pattern Sō no Kuri in

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the [Kuri] (as will be seen in the analysis of the English-­language Noh of At the Hawk’s Well later in this chapter), Ryo no Kote in the [Sashi], and Naka no Takane, Age no Takane, and Kote in the [Kuse]. There are variations to these melodic patterns, given that there are 240 Noh plays in the standard repertoire and many kogaki performances too. I do not go into details about these variations here, but the playwright’s creativity can be seen in variations of order to both the [Katari] and the [Kuse]. Furthermore, in the fifth dan, Yukihiro plays many kae no fu. These alternate melodies are played at appropriate places in relation to the utai, most likely to keep the music interesting and to maintain the audience’s attention. Moreover, Yokomichi did not instruct Yukihiro where to play certain nohkan melodic patterns in the shōdan [Kuse]; instead he instructed Yukihiro to play nohkan patterns. This demonstrates the freedom the nohkan player has in this new Noh and, at the same time, how the player must understand the traditional structures in order to enter at the appropriate place in relation to the utai and the types of patterns that suit the scene. Another [Ageuta] is sung by the chorus in the sixth dan. The nohkan, however, does not play the traditional melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Kote; only the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi embellish and keep the spirit and energy of the utai. After the [Ageuta] (and also written in Yukihiro’s utaibon), the hayashi plays the〔Raijo 来序〕,30 a hayashi-­goto that is played by the nohkan, ōtsuzumi, and kotsuzumi to usher the shite offstage for his nakairi (so that he may return onstage as a god or demon in disguise). In traditional Noh plays, this nakairi is usually followed by an ai-­kyōgen (Kyōgen interlude), with the kyōgen-­ kata (Kyōgen role actor) entering in a spritely manner; the first half of this transition may be called the nakairi-­raijo (exit of the shite), and the latter half the kyōgen-­raijo (entrance of the kyōgen-­kata) (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 334–335). In this new Noh, there is no ai-­kyōgen, but the waki stands and watches the shite as he walks off the bridgeway. The waki turns toward the audience as the shite reaches the ni-­no-­matsu (second pine tree) 二ノ松, and the ji-­utai begins singing the [Kuri]. In 30. The nohkan fingerings for the〔Raijo〕can be found under〔Shin no Raijo 真ノ来序〕in the Yubitsuke-­shū (Morikawa [1940b] 2004, 45).

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Yukihiro’s utaibon, near the end of the [Kuri], he writes “nakairi-­raijo” with the taiko’s pattern of “te-­re-­ten-­ten” (テレ天天), a pattern indicating the entrance of the nohkan to the〔Sagariha 下リ端〕. In this segment, the tsure, Takahime, appears from the tsukuri-­mono (prop). All four instruments play the〔Sagariha〕, a hayashi-­goto that is categorized as an awase-­buki melodic pattern for the nohkan. During this accompaniment, Takahime is revealed from the tsukuri-­mono, accompanied by Yukihiro, first playing the〔Sagariha〕in the ōshiki mode and then playing the〔Sagariha〕in the banshiki mode. Again, Yokomichi did not stipulate this arrangement; it represents Yukihiro’s choice. From the seventh dan forward, the utaibon includes musical materials from Takahime, such as the bubbling water. The hawk cries out for the first time, “A-­ta-­sa-­ra-­sa-­ma-­ra, ki-­k i-­ri-­sa-­ya,” the mantra that was heard in the newly created Noh Takahime. The chorus narrates the hawk’s movements and actions (such as her cry), similar to what is done in Takahime. Actually, the utaibon from the correlating section in Takahime was copied into Yukihiro’s utaibon. Where the chorus narrates the hawk’s movements, Yukihiro notes it in his own handwriting as “Unison Ashirai.” Yokomichi did not give specific instructions to Yukihiro as to how to play the Unison Ashirai. Thus, Yukihiro played a dengaku-­bue with pitches similar to those of the chant, as a nohkan ornamental enhancement; the chorus then sings in unison, its text depicting the action of the hawk as she slowly moves her body, spreads her wings, and later steps off the tatami to prepare for her flight onstage.31 When the chant and the nohkan began together, the nohkan was a whole step lower than the chant pitches, which made it difficult to interpret what Yukihiro was attempting. By the second phrase, however, the nohkan and utai pitches were “in unison,” sounding the same pitches with similar pitch movements. Yukihiro explained that during the rehearsals, the chant pitches of the chorus matched perfectly with the high-­pitched dengaku-­bue. In the performance, however, the pitches of the chorus rose by a whole step, making it difficult to adjust the notes until the second phrase. When the chorus sang about Takahime “shak31. Unison Ashirai is not a term used in the traditional repertoire. It was created by Yokomichi.

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ing her hips,” Yukihiro depicted this action by shaking the notes using finger vibrato, or flattement. This is often heard in baroque-­era music. The Harvard Dictionary of Music defines “flattement” in this way: “On Baroque woodwind instruments, a slow vibrato made by waving the finger over a hole that the written note requires to be open” ([1986] 2003, 318–319). Nancy Toff states that vibrato is a type of ornament (1985, 109). Just as the Harvard Dictionary describes the technique, Yukihiro waved his fingers over the finger holes of the higher-­pitched dengaku-­bue to accentuate the movement of the hawk through the end of the chorus’s utai. After the Unison Ashirai, Yukihiro plays slow improvisatory melodies with a lower-­pitched dengaku-­bue in〔Hayashi 4〕while the hawk is in flight and when she returns to her tatami nest. By that time, the young man (the waki) has fallen deeply asleep at the waki-­za ワキ座 (literally translated as “waki seat,” located in front of the waki-­bashira ワキ柱, or waki’s pillar).32 His legs are crossed and his left elbow is bent, while the tip of his fan rests near the temple of his tilted head; this is a traditional kata demonstrating sleep. During this period, Yukihiro plays an ashirai, having the freedom to improvise and play without the restrictions of drum patterns, and he includes many high notes, foreshadowing an event to come, especially after the hawk returns to her nest. In〔Hayashi 5〕, the ji-­gashira (head of the chorus) begins by singing “Suha-­toki-­yo,” and the rest of chorus joins by repeating the same line, while tension is created by forceful drum calls and piercing hits of the ōtsuzumi and the drum calls and soft, tender sounds of the kotsuzumi. Next, the chorus sings in canon, as the ji-­gashira narrates the bubbling of the well and the chorus responds by repeating the last line, “Mizu no waku” (Water is bubbling).〔Hayashi 6〕starts with the slow, steady sounds of the kotsuzumi marking the beat while, in a two-­part canon, the chorus sings the familiar mantra from earlier: “A-­ta-­sa-­ra-­sa-­ma-­ra, ki-­k i-­ri-­sa-­ya, ka-­ka-­ra-­sa-­ya-­u-­n.” The excitement of the hawk and the filling of the well are expressed by the ji-­utai singing in canon and by an 32. See Bethe and Emmert (1995, 92) for an illustration of a Noh stage and the performers’ designated positions.

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increase in dynamics (similar to what is done in Takahime); the drums quicken their pace, increase their volume, and heighten the tension. The hawk leaves her nest, moves toward the well, and creates more suspense onstage by adding ashi-­byōshi (foot stamps). By〔Hayashi 7〕, Yukihiro has changed his instrument from the low-­pitched dengaku-­ bue to a nohkan, but he is still improvising. He enhances the anticipation onstage by increasing his tempo in preparation for the Hawk Dance〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕, which is preceded by Renji-­shi no Te, similar to the arrangement in Takahime. The hawk dances and scoops up water from the well. When she scoops up the water, there is no special effect with the lighting, nor does she ride forward on the edge of the stage, as in Takahime. In the meantime, the young man is still asleep at the waki-­za. As the hayashi plays Renji-­shi no Te, the hawk runs toward the bridgeway and stops at the ichi-­no-­matsu (first pine tree, closest to the main stage), looks back at the well, and returns to the hon-­butai to dance the〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕. After the dance, the hawk runs off the bridgeway with the water in hand, and the nochi-­shite of the old man appears in the eighth dan, where the two briefly cross paths. In the ninth dan, the haggard man laments his misfortune and quietly moves around the stage as a〔Tachi-­ mawari〕is played, while the nohkan plays the melody Deha-­bataraki, unlike in Takahime. In Takahime, the〔Deha-­bataraki〕was played in the fifth dan by the nohkan, kotsuzumi, and ōtsuzumi in the banshiki mode, which does not exist in the traditional repertoire. This hayashi-­ goto in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, however, is played in the traditional mode of ōshiki with the traditional hayashi instrumentation and the nohkan playing an ashirai-­buki melodic pattern. In the last dan, during the shōdan [Chū-­nori-­ji 中ノリ地], the nohkan plays Takane after the uchikiri of the drums and does not play again until the end of the section. This section consists mainly of the nochi-­ shite’s narrative supported by the ji-­utai. Near the end of the nochi-­ shite’s exit from the bridgeway, Yukihiro plays a melancholy melody on the lower-­pitched dengaku-­bue, as the waki wakes up from his dream. The waki sings of how he has woken up and walks, placing himself in front of the tsukuri-­mono. The chorus repeats the waki’s line and sings the text honoring his friend Kobayashi, similar to what occurs in Taka-

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hime. At the end, the nohkan plays an improvisatory ashirai for the Tome with the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi, but the hayashi continues to play even after the ji-­utai stops singing, which is unusual in Noh. The section ends with the waki turning toward the shite-­bashira (shite’s pillar) シテ柱, the hayashi ending its playing, and the waki quietly leaving the stage. Even though the structure of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari follows the traditional shōdan and dan, many of the melodies played by Yukihiro are completely improvisatory and dissimilar to traditional nohkan melodic patterns. He does play the traditional melodic patterns where indicated by Yokomichi, but where improvisation is called for, he plays the nohkan or the dengaku-­bue to heighten the actions onstage and to support the chant, improvising and creating melodies appropriate for each scene. Yet the nohkan still functions in a traditional manner in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari: (1) it highlights structural moments such as marking the filling of the well; (2) it enhances the onstage atmosphere in the hayashi-­goto and the utai-­goto, playing both traditional and nontraditional melodies on the nohkan and the dengaku-­bue; and (3) it provides melody for the dance〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕. The overwhelmingly influential power of traditional melodic patterns and roles is still apparent. Variations in the nohkan part played by Yukihiro are primarily a result of his preferences.

Approaches to Contemporary Noh Plays by Issō Takayuki and Issō Yukihiro As reflected in the performances by Issō Takayuki and Issō Yukihiro, two fue-­kata of the Issō School, contemporary Noh plays navigate the tension between tradition and signature representation. As mentioned, Takayuki takes the more traditional approach, presenting the nohkan as a background instrument that supports and heightens the emotions onstage. In traditional Noh plays, his sound is quiet and smooth without the use of many sashi-­yubi, ensuring that his playing does not overpower the chant and that his sashi-­yubi does not get in the way of the utai movements, as discussed earlier.

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His playing style in Takahime shows no marked departures from his usual playing style, and his improvisation stays within the familiar traditional nohkan melodic patterns. In addition, though he did not remember the exact melodies he played in Takahime, his utaibon was marked with the shōga he played, including the details pertaining to the other instruments and cues for ending specific melodies. Hence, there was less spontaneity in his playing. On the other hand, Yukihiro’s activities include collaborating in genres outside the traditional Noh world and composing music for his own bands. Thus, when given the freedom to experiment and improvise—and when he deems it appropriate—the melodies Yukihiro plays are completely improvisatory and not particularly reflective of traditional nohkan melodic patterns. In his utaibon for Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, therefore, most of the traditional nohkan melodic patterns were marked with their appropriate names, but the kae no fu and improvisations were not written down at all, instead being left to his interpretation. According to Takayuki, kae no fu are often used in rōjo-­mono (old-­ women plays) 老女物, such as the Noh Sekiderakomachi, Higaki, and Obasute, and are highly regarded for expressing their beauty and requiring the utmost skills, spiritual approach, and age to portray the characters (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 337): “Old-­women plays are completely different [from other Noh] in their quietness. At the same time, there has to be some elaborateness within that silence. That’s why these refined and exquisite melodies were created.”33 Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari is not in the old-­women category of Noh, but Yukihiro uses the melodies to create the mood onstage, as well as to portray the emotions of the characters, exercising his imagination in this newly created Noh. At the same time, Yukihiro’s innovative endeavors can go overboard and may be turned down by the playwright. For example, in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, Yokomichi asked Yukihiro about his musical selections across most of the sections; Yukihiro responded and gave Yokomichi a yatsuwari 八ツ割 (literally, “eight divisions,” referring to 33. 「［老女物は］ぜんぜん静かさが違うから。静かな中に、華やかさを出 さないといけないから、ちょっとこった譜が作られている」. Issō Takayuki (Issō-­r yū nohkan performer), interview by author, December 16, 2006, Tokyo.

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a score with marks indicating eight beats to identify what the instruments are playing for each beat). On the occasion of the 2004 performance, Yukihiro wrote out what the nohkan was playing in relation to the utai or other instruments. Yokomichi accepted Yukihiro’s melodies—except for one. During the beginning〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕or〔Shin no Netori〕, Yukihiro wanted to play his own composition, titled “Taka no Shidai,” while the kotsuzumi played the traditional patterns. Yokomichi declined this composition and had Yukihiro play the traditional〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕. The piece “Taka no Shidai,” however, was played at the memorial concert for his late father, Issō Yukimasa, on September 18, 2007, to commemorate his passing three years prior. In the program notes for the concert, titled “Issō Yukihiro Fue-­zukushi” (Issō Yukihiro: All kinds of flute) 一 噌幸弘笛づくし, Yukihiro writes, “‘Taka no Izumi’ was originally composed for the newly created Noh Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, where the young prince Cuchulain enters. It includes Debussy’s ‘Syrinx,’ J. S. Bach’s unaccompanied ‘Partita,’ and the traditional [Noh melody] Netori.” When I attended the concert, I heard Debussy’s “Syrinx” in the beginning, with its well-­k nown descending chromatic notes and common baroque phrases, as well as finger patterns, structure, and melodic patterns from the〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕or〔Shin no Netori〕. It was a mixture of different types of music, as Yukihiro had mentioned. The degree of innovation in the performance of contemporary Noh plays thus seems to be primarily the result of the personality and preferences of individual musicians, supported by their musical activities, rather than the result of any kind of iconoclastic movement to break with the past. For example, Takayuki’s improvisations were based closely on traditional melodic patterns, and—to the untrained ear— probably sounded no different from the traditional nohkan melodic patterns. As for Yukihiro, his improvisations went well beyond the traditional musical vocabulary of the nohkan. This is also reflective of his personality and ambitions to realize the full potential of the nohkan by remodeling and reconstructing the instrument—sometimes to a point where the resulting transverse flute can no longer even be called a nohkan. The difference in the approaches of Takayuki and Yukihiro to con-

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temporary Noh plays and their musical materials is intriguing and is mainly due to the personality and preferences of the individual musicians. The influence and importance of tradition remains a significant force. Takayuki and Yukihiro are two young players who bring different flavors and colors to the Noh world, opening more research possibilities for the nohkan.

English-­Language Noh Productions of At the Hawk’s Well The Japanese Noh plays influenced by Yeats’s play are written in Japanese. The English-­language Noh play At the Hawk’s Well faithfully uses Yeats’s text, allowing the text to shape the structure. According to the Theatre Nohgaku website (and as laid out in table I-­4 in appendix I), At the Hawk’s Well was first performed in 1981 in Kyoto, by the NOHO Theatre Group 能法劇団, under the direction of Jonah Salz. This performance used Yeats’s text,34 set to music composed by Richard Emmert. The NOHO Theatre Group is a Kyoto-­based troupe, founded by Jonah Salz and Shigeyama Akira 茂山あきら, an Ōkura-­ryū (Ōkura School) 大蔵流 Kyōgen actor. According to the program notes attached to a 1982 performance, “[NOHO] utilizes the ‘ho’ of ‘Noh,’ the direction of Noh, in staging Western plays. In so doing, NOHO is attempting to create a new theatrical style founded on both Japanese and Western traditions. It is hoped that a powerful fusion will occur, the product of a faithful, happy marriage” (16–17). The other performances of At the Hawk’s Well took place in the following scenarios: in 1982, again performed by NOHO in Tokyo, under the direction of Richard Emmert, who added some newly composed music; in 1984 in Sydney, under Matsui Akira and Emmert’s direction; in 1985 in Kyoto, directed by Salz; in 1990 in Kyoto, under Emmert’s

34. For Yeats’s text of At the Hawk’s Well, see Yeats ([1952] 1977, 207–220), or visit http://www.ebooksdownloads.xyz/search/at-­t he-­hawk-­s-­well.

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Figure 21: Scene from a performance of At the Hawk’s Well by Theatre Nohgaku during its 2002 North American tour. (Courtesy of Matthew R. Dubroff)

direction; and in 2002, by Theatre Nohgaku in its first North American tour, again under Emmert’s direction (figure 21).35 Analysis of Theatre Nohgaku’s Noh Production of At the Hawk’s Well At the Hawk’s Well has been performed numerous times under the direction of either Jonah Salz or Richard Emmert. This section analyzes the Theatre Nohgaku performance staged in 2002, which took place at the University of San Francisco Presentation Theater on September 13, 2002, during a North American tour).36 In organizing the structure of 35. At the Hawk’s Well program organized by Theatre of Yugen was performed in six locations in the United States in 2002: (1) September 13–14, University of San Francisco Presentation Theater; (2) September 17, Duke University, Durham, NC; (3) September 19, Williams College, Williamstown, MA; (4) September 21, University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA; (5) September 23, Wellesley College, Amherst, MA; and (6) September 24, the Music Hall, Portsmouth, NH (Theatre of Yugen and Theatre Nohgaku 2002, program cover). 36. At the Hawk’s Well, music by Richard Emmert, text by W. B. Yeats, performed at the University of San Francisco Presentation Theater, September 13,

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the play, Emmert initially set the text to music, but there were no marked dan. For the purpose of this research, however, and to facilitate comparison with other contemporary Noh plays with dan, Emmert defined the segments (see table 9). Thus, where there is a change in scene, he marked it as a dan.37 At the Hawk’s Well begins with a tsukuri-­mono of a well already placed onstage. The stage is dim, with a large pine-­tree backdrop made of cloth and shadows of trees created by stage lights. Members of the hayashi play the oshirabe offstage and enter the stage from the hashi-­ gakari (bridgeway). After seating themselves in their designated places, they begin to play the〔Shidai〕for the entrance of the chorus from the bridgeway. This arrangement is never seen in a traditional Noh play, as the chorus members usually enter without music through the kiri-­do, and not from the hashi-­gakari. This performance took place in a theater hall and not at a Noh theater, which would mean there was not a kiri-­do in the first place. This staging is similar to Yokomichi’s Takahime, which the chorus, costumed as rocks, enters in silence from the hashi-­ gakari. As mentioned later, Emmert’s 2002 performance is influenced by Yokomichi’s Takahime. The hayashi-­goto〔Shidai〕, which begins with a hishigi by the nohkan, usually opens traditional Noh plays during the entrance of the waki. In this performance of At the Hawk’s Well, however, it is played when the chorus enters. The four singers are wearing half-­masks and costumes of brown kimono with orange stripes that come down to their mid-­thigh, with army-­green sashes, black hakama (divided skirts), and gray tabi (split-­toe socks), and are adorned with long, flowing silver hair. The〔Shidai〕is followed by their utai-­goto [Shidai] and “Jidori.”38 2002 (DVD). Old Man: Jubilith Moore; Takahime: Matsui Akira; Young Man: John Oglevee. Nohkan: Tanaka Yoshikazu (Issō-­r yū); kotsuzumi: Kama Mitsuo (Kō-­r yū); ōtsuzumi: Ōkura Eitarō (Ōkura-­ryū); taiko: Mishima Taku (Komparu-­r yū). 37. I conducted three main interviews with Richard Emmert in Tokyo on December 20, 2006, August 18, 2008, and December 5, 2008. However, since I learn Noh from Emmert and perform Noh with him, I am able to pose questions during lessons and performances. 38. Emmert uses “Jidori,” which is the same as jitori. It is a matter of pronunciation and preference.

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They narrate and prepare the scene with their individual lines and group recitations during the traditional utai-­goto of the [Kotoba] and [Ageuta]. In the [Ageuta], as in traditional Noh plays, the nohkan plays its expected Takane, Naka no Takane, and Kote. As for the entrances of these melodic patterns, Takane is played during the uchikiri, which is after the first line of the chorus “What were his life soon done” and before it is repeated. More specifically, the exact nohkan entrance is after the “iyaΔ” of the drums, and the pattern is heard until the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” After singing in the high range for the first line, followed by the uchikiri, the utai continues with “Doubled over a speckled shin” in the high range and then drops to the middle for “Would cry, ‘How little worth / Were all my hope and fear . . . ,’ ” where the nohkan enters with Naka no Takane. Then the chant pitches continue to move around the high range, dropping to the middle and then to the low range, when the nohkan enters with Kote before the last repeat of the last line, “And the hard pain of his birth,” and plays until the end. The old man enters in the second dan accompanied by the kotsuzumi and ōtsuzumi with the〔Ashirai-­dashi アシライ出シ〕and with the〔Ayumi アユミ〕following as the old man moves into position onstage. During the〔Ayumi〕, the nohkan plays two traditional hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki melodic patterns of Naka no Takane and Roku no Ge, which are usually played in the〔Ayumi〕of traditional Noh plays (unless the play is a first-­ category Noh that requires special music, as explained in the analysis of Takasago in chapter 3). Following these shōdan, the nohkan plays the traditional melodic pattern of Sō no Kuri in the [Kuri] of the second dan, as expected.39 In the〔Ayumi〕and the [Kuri], the nohkan plays the traditional melodic patterns appropriate for the shōdan, entering at points one would expect in relation to the other instruments and/or chant. In the [Kuri], there is a kuri-­on [kuri pitch], a high note accentuating the text and emotions onstage. According to Nishino and Hata, “The [Kuri] is made 39. Usually the shōdan [Sashi] is placed before the [Kuri]. Since Emmert does not include the shōdan [Sashi] in his utaibon, I have placed parentheses around the [Sashi] in table 9, because this type of singing comes between the [Kotoba] and the [Kuri].

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of four or five verses [ku] and the entire structure can be fixed. The utai rhythm does not make the ground rhythm [jibyōshi (Noh rhythms) 地 拍子] rule” ([1999] 2006, 305). Furthermore, Hare describes the [Kuri] as a “short melismatic sashinori [サシノリ; similar to a recitative in opera40] shōdan centering on the higher register and frequently rising to kuri pitch, the highest standard level used in noh chanting.” He adds, “In modern performances the kuri [i.e., the shōdan] is often a sort of introductory shōdan for the aural high point of the play. It is most often sung by the chorus” (1986, 295–296). Reflecting Hare’s explanation, the chorus sings the text “Oh o wind, O salt wind, O sea wind!”41 with the first “Oh o” already beginning a little higher than a jō-­on (high pitch). The “Oh o” moves up a whole step as the singers elongate the “o” vowel until the kuri pitch is reached on “wind”; the kuri pitch continues during “wind, O salt wind,” and the utai returns to the jō-­on range for “O sea wind.” Then the utai usually moves toward the chū-­on (middle range) and ends with a yuri (wavering pattern), where the utai is held out on a vowel as an ornament (Nishino and Hata [1999] 2006, 333– 334). In At the Hawk’s Well, the vowel sound “ee” of “sleep” in the text “Better grow old and sleep” is elongated and held out as the nohkan plays its ending pattern of Sō no Kuri with a wavering melody, just as the term yuri would indicate. The entrance of the young man in the third dan is accompanied by the hayashi-­goto〔Sagariha〕, a nohkan awase-­buki melodic pattern, which is usually played for entrances of characters. A〔Sagariha〕was also played in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, as the hawk was revealed from the tsukuri-­mono. In the fourth dan, the nohkan is used differently to represent the hawk’s cry, playing “o-­hya, o-­hya” and provoking the young man’s reaction, which effectively grabs the audience’s attention and represents the hawk, for flutes are often used to depict birds. The nohkan continues its “birdcalls” in the sixth dan, foreshadowing the events to come. 40. See Hare (1986, 299) for a definition of sashinori. 41. In Emmert’s utaibon, he writes the first “Oh o wind,” with a slur or tie from the letter “h” to “o” showing the elongation of the vowel “o”. Yeats writes, “O wind, O salt wind, O sea wind!”

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The hawk melody begins a little before the seventh dan, leading directly into the〔Hawk Dance〕.42 Emmert composed this material in the ōshiki mode, and it is followed by the traditional dance〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕. In the dance, the nohkan and the three drums perform in a traditional manner, the nohkan playing its role as the sole melodic instrument, while the percussion instruments maintain the rhythm of the dance. In the [Kiri] of the last dan, the nohkan plays the melodic pattern Shin no Tome 真ノ留メ, which is typically played at the end of Noh plays of elevated status, as the Shin qualifier indicates. The nohkan begins by playing Shin no Tome with chorus’s line “On naught has set store but children and dogs on the floor.” It plays “o-­hya-­ri-­ya-­ri, o-­hya-­ri-­ya” and breaks off while the last line (“Who but an idiot would praise a withered tree?”) is spoken by one singer. The nohkan then continues with the remaining Shin no Tome melody of “fu-­hi-­ya-­ro-­ru-­ri” along with the other instruments during the [Nokori-­dome] (literally, “leftover stop” or “remaining stop”; a pattern the nohkan plays for the Noh’s ending), and finishing with a hishigi.43 In this conclusion, as Emmert explains, “the instruments do not end with the singing, but ‘remain’ leaving a kind of echo or aftertaste.” As noted earlier, in traditional Noh performance, the ending hishigi is heard only when there is to be another Noh play succeeding it. In contemporary Noh plays, however, the hishigi may be added at the end regardless of the program, because the nohkan acts as a marker, creating tension or additional texture to the music. The structural similarities in At the Hawk’s Well and Takahime, such as the entrance order of the characters, align with Yeats’s script. Though 42. See Anno and Halebsky (2014, 140–141) for details about Matsui Akira dancing the part of the hawk with his traditional patterns and innovative movements. 43. Emmert labeled the [Nokori-­dome] in his utaibon in a similar manner as the other shōdan. Therefore, in table 9, I have labeled [Nokori-­dome] as a shōdan written in brackets in the analysis of At the Hawk’s Well and have indicated it elsewhere as a nohkan melodic pattern, Nokori-­dome, by writing in italics. Nokori-­dome is not an official nohkan melodic pattern or shōdan but means “stop for ending,” indicating that the nohkan plays a phrase to end the last section.

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Emmert first composed music for At the Hawk’s Well in 1981, after seeing Yokomichi’s Takahime for the first time in 1982, he says, “My own perception of what nō is expanded considerably” (Emmert 1997, 25). Some of these influences from Takahime came about later and include the use of the costumes and half-­masks for the chorus, which also acts as a moving chorus, narrating the actions and emotions of the characters onstage. The majority of the nohkan melodic patterns in this performance of At the Hawk’s Well were taken from the traditional repertoire, aside from the newly composed materials, and no improvisation was required by the nohkan performer, Tanaka Yoshikazu 田中義和. Both the new music for the〔Hawk Dance〕and the innovative use of the nohkan in portraying the cry of the hawk, which uses the nohkan in a manner similar to how the Western flute is used, deviate from the traditional use and role of the nohkan. These experimental aspects of the music reflect Emmert’s preferences—not a radical break with the past—as the nohkan still fulfills its customary roles of signaling and highlighting, creating the atmosphere appropriate for the stage, and accompanying the dances and entrances of characters. One of Emmert’s lasting contributions, aside from the newly composed materials and innovative use of the nohkan, is his technique of setting English text to Noh rhythm. Questions have been raised about the effectiveness of Noh plays in languages other than Japanese. As shown in this contemporary example, these unconventional Noh plays can be performed in a way that maintains a feel and tension similar to those of traditional Noh plays. For example, Emmert has shown that by emulating the patterns of a traditional [Ageuta] shōdan, texts in English can also be set to it. Thus, despite the differences in languages, a nohkan player with a foundation in traditional Noh should be able to effectively play an [Ageuta] in an English-­language Noh play.

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Musical Continuity in the Context of Experimentation: Nohkan Melodies in Adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well In the three contemporary Noh settings examined in this chapter— Takahime, Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, and At the Hawk’s Well, all performed by Issō School nohkan players—the melodic patterns and roles of the nohkan did not differ drastically from those in traditional Noh plays but instead maintained many of the traditional roles and melodic patterns associated with the instrument. The performance of newly composed music and some improvisation was required of the players, but both the Issō School players and Emmert maintained a continuity of musical tradition, even when experimenting with and performing contemporary Noh plays, thus demonstrating the overwhelming influence of traditional nohkan melodic patterns. Moreover, the melodic patterns for the entrances of characters and accompanying mai (dance) music used in the three contemporary Noh plays were taken directly from the traditional nohkan repertoire. While using the limited number of the traditional nohkan ashirai, mai, and other nohkan melodic patterns, the composers of the three plays have taken into consideration the status of the characters, the use of the nohkan melodic patterns in traditional Noh plays, and the image or theme of the play. As shown in chapter 3, different types of nohkan melodic patterns carry specific associations regarding the social status of the characters they accompany; this was the case in Takasago, which distinguished its higher-­status nohkan melodic patterns with the Shin prefix. In the same way, in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, the nohkan plays the melodic patterns of Shin no Netori and Shin no Nanori during the entrance of the young man, a prince, referencing his elevated status through musical means. Emmert’s At the Hawk’s Well relies on the well-­organized use of traditional materials, particularly in the music that is played for the entrance of the various characters onstage. As set forth by Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (1990), hayashi-­goto used for entrances in traditional Noh plays are〔Shidai〕〔 , Narai no Shidai 習ノ次第〕〔 , Shin no Shidai〕〔 , Ashirai-­ dashi〕〔 , Issei〕〔 , Shin no Issei〕〔 , Narai no Issei 習ノ一声〕〔 , Deha 出 , Haya-­fue 早笛〕〔 , Ō-­beshi 大ベシ〕, 端〕〔 , Iroe-­deha イロエ出端〕〔

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〔Sagariha〕〔 , Nanori-­bue〕〔 , Oki-­tsuzumi〕〔 , Shin no Raijo〕, and 〔Ranjo 乱序〕. Of these melodies—aside from〔Shidai〕〔 , Issei〕, and〔Nanori-­bue〕, as well as their derivatives that are commonly played in traditional Noh plays—〔Sagariha〕would be the most appropriate hayashi-­goto for the young prince’s entrance. It is used to accompany characters from the present world or gods with elegance and buoyancy at medium tempo. Other melodies would not have been as appropriate; for example,〔Deha〕is usually not played in the first part of a Noh play;〔Iroe-­deha〕is commonly used for gods and goddesses; 〔Haya-­fue〕is performed for entrances of dragon kings and gods;〔Ō-­ beshi〕is played during entrances of long-­ nosed goblins or gods; 〔Nanori-­bue〕and〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕are performed at the beginning of a play;〔Shin no Raijo〕is played for Chinese emperors who enter with solemnity; and〔Ranjo〕is used to accompany Chinese lions. Thus, Emmert considered the traditional use of particular entrances. Newly composed material is heard on occasion, however, as in Emmert’s〔Hawk Dance〕. Each of the three contemporary Noh plays features a climactic hawk dance, accompanied by the〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕in all three cases. For some reason, in many new Noh plays the〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕is commonly heard accompanying the mai section. In the case of these particular three examples, however, it can be speculated that the banshiki mode, which was defined in chapter 3, was used because it relates to the theme of the Noh play. The Japanese adapted the ancient Chinese tradition of classifying everything in heaven and earth as one of the five basic elements: earth 土, metal 金, wood 木, fire 火, or water 水 (Tanabe 1926, 276). As with other musical scales, the banshiki mode is categorized as one of these elements. The Chinese origin of these scales is quite complex; briefly, these five elements are part of the go-­g yō cycle (Japanese reading, not Chinese reading) 五行, in which the banshiki mode is identified as water.44 In these three contemporary Noh plays, the old man and the young 44. For details concerning the go-­gyō cycle, see Tenri Toshokan Zenpon Sōsho Washo no Bu Henshū Iinkai (1974, 153–234).

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man come to the well, seeking the water of eternal life, but the hawk princess thwarts their effort to drink it. Thus, her dance is appropriately set to the banshiki mode, because it supports the water imagery that is so central to the plot of the drama. As these observations suggest, contemporary Noh plays feature close correlations with the traditional musical materials and their traditional usage. This may not be true with the other contemporary Noh plays, given that Yokomichi was—and Emmert remains—a leading figure in the field; hence, their musical material is carefully selected based upon their keen historical awareness. They treat traditional material deferentially, as seen by their use of oshirabe in the beginning and Tome at the end, as in traditional Noh plays.

Comparison of the Nohkan Notational System in the Three Utaibon The nohkan notation in the utaibon (Noh chant book) for the three contemporary plays further emphasizes Yokomichi’s and Emmert’s basis in tradition. The nohkan notational system used for the three plays shows marked similarities to that of traditional utaibon. Both of Yokomichi’s works use the traditional dan divisions, shōdan, and fushi (pitch indicators) 節, which look like sesame seeds next to the word, to indicate the pitches and movements of the chant.45 Some of the nohkan melodic patterns were indicated in the utaibon within the shōdan, and others were quickly mentioned at the rehearsals, such as the entry points for the [Ageuta] and [Sageuta] melodic patterns. The nohkan player was expected to have the requisite knowledge of traditional Noh practice to correctly interpret these directions. The English-language Noh play uses shōdan, but the utai pitches are written using a three-­lined staff notation to indicate high, middle, and low pitches. Traditional fushi may be used for Roman letters, but that method impedes visibility and complicates reading of the utaibon; the adaptation of the three-­lined notation thus proves helpful. Other than 45. See appendix J for a sample utaibon for Atsumori.

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this main difference, the nohkan melodic patterns were not spelled out, as they were with Yokomichi. In the contemporary settings examined here, despite the use of the original nohkan melodic patterns, there are also variants of the stock melodic patterns, newly composed materials, and passages of improvisation. To perform these plays satisfactorily, one must have a firm basis in traditional Noh, including knowledge of traditional Noh structure and of nohkan melodic patterns, plus an understanding of the instrument’s role alongside other instruments, musicians, and performers. More recently, composers with Western musical backgrounds have been composing nohkan music for contemporary Noh plays and non-­ Noh plays. Many of them have used Western staff notation for their compositions, because they lack the traditional background in nohkan or because they are seeking an instrument to play precisely notated melodies instead of varied melodic/percussive patterns. Western staff notation, however, poses problems for many fue-­kata. The majority of these nohkan players read only shōga and not Western staff notation, which presents a stumbling block that forces them to memorize the new melodies by ear—unless shōga and fingering charts are provided. Also, on the nohkan, it is difficult to play a scale with a precise tonal center, because each instrument is tuned differently. Yukihiro and Ranjō modified the internal construction of the nohkan to facilitate the production of specific pitches, but only a handful of people own these nohkan, and most fue-­kata would probably not be willing to learn the instrument or Western staff notation. In such cases, it would be easier to employ a nohkan player who can both read Western staff notation and play the specific written pitches on the regular nohkan or on the modified nohkan by Yukihiro and Ranjō. At present, this skill set would limit the number of nohgaku-­shi to one! In the amateur arena, although there are many more players who can read Western staff notation, only a few have sufficient knowledge of Noh. Obviously, these players are not nohgaku-­shi, and the opportunities for them to play onstage with professionals in these contemporary Noh plays are rare in Japan. Furthermore, the boundary between the professional and amateur Noh worlds in Japan is quite strict. In the non-­Japanese world, however, these boundaries do not

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exist. Thus, in English-­language Noh productions, the two groups are able to perform together without hindrance, allowing a fruitful collaboration of Noh that may take a variety of artistic and creative paths.46 The three contemporary Noh plays examined here demand flexibility and fluidity in the technique of the nohkan performers. In spite of different styles, compositions, structures, languages, music, and various other aspects, the nohkan is still used in a largely traditional manner. Thus, the importance of the traditional nohkan repertoire as well as an understanding of its role in traditional Noh plays cannot be emphasized enough. In Takahime, which departs from the traditional Noh structure, Takayuki’s “improvisational” nohkan melodies were borrowed and modeled after traditional melodic patterns and remained close to traditional nohkan playing. Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari’s structure followed more closely the traditional Noh plays, beginning with the entrance of the waki and then the shite, followed by the chorus members entering with their usual montsuki hakama. Many of the hayashi patterns, including the nohkan patterns, were drawn from the traditional repertoire. Yukihiro’s improvisations did not, however, resemble the traditional melodic patterns in any way. He played using two nohkan and two dengaku-­bue. Despite these new roles and melodic patterns required by him in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, knowledge of the traditional nohkan roles and performance practices were vital, for Yokomichi still used the nohkan in a traditional way in the [Ageuta], the [Sageuta], and the mai and in other places. The mastery of traditional nohkan melodic patterns and their proper role and context will always be present in some form in contemporary Noh plays, because it is part of the backbone of Noh plays. If Yeats had had a deeper understanding of Noh, something similar to Emmert’s English-­language Noh adaptation of At the Hawk’s Well could have been the result. Here, no improvisation was required of the 46. Examples of Japanese nohgaku-­shi performing with artists who would be considered “amateurs” in the Noh world would be the English-­language Noh production of Pagoda in 2009 and 2011 with the Oshima Nohgakudō, which is a Kita School, and Theatre Nohgaku.

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nohkan player, and so the personality of the individual performer did not play as large a role as it did in the two other contemporary Noh plays. Instead, Emmert’s own personality and musical preferences were highlighted by his newly composed material for the nohkan and the other instruments in the〔Hawk Dance〕, in which he deviated from the norm. The structure of this contemporary Noh play does not adhere strictly to tradition, yet much of its music and shōdan materials do follow the traditional repertoire, given that the established traditional melodic patterns are overwhelmingly influential and prevalent in Emmert’s work. This requires the nohkan performer to be familiar with traditional Noh plays, because a large portion of the nohkan part in Emmert’s setting draws from the traditional melodic patterns or slight modifications of them. Analyzing these three contemporary Noh plays elucidates that some nohkan melodies were newly composed for a specific scene or purpose and that the plays also exhibited musical innovations, expansion of traditional musical vocabulary, added improvisations, and new instrumental combinations. Most interestingly, despite these innovations, the basic role of the nohkan, its function, and its musical materials remained firmly rooted in tradition. As demonstrated by the Issō School players and by Emmert, many of these traditional nohkan melodic patterns remained in their unaltered forms, used in traditional and some nontraditional manners, and carefully selected so as not to contradict their traditional associations, attesting to the continuing power and value of tradition. A player cannot improvise on the nohkan without having a thorough working knowledge of its traditional shōga, just as one cannot effectively depart from the traditional Noh structure without first having a solid understanding of it. Thus, the influence of traditional materials will most likely endure in contemporary settings, highlighting the importance of continuity in modern Noh.

Reflections and Directions

Newly composed Noh plays proffer opportunities to experiment with nohkan music, as the three adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well have done. The established patterns of Noh plays, however—detailed in chapters 3 and 4—persist, and the music in these contemporary iterations, at least with regard to the nohkan’s role, does not depart in any significant way from the traditional ones. The analyses presented here demonstrate that the traditions of musical style and usage reign over contemporary Noh composition and performance practice. Nohkan music in contemporary Noh dramas does not deviate from traditional forms, content, and usage in any remarkable way; however, where variations do appear, they exhibit the performer’s imagination and inspiration within the confines of prescribed patterns, thereby indicating that the Noh structure, steeped as it is in tradition, still affords a degree of artistic license and innovation. Many people see Noh as still being a static “museum piece” that has not changed in structure, expression, or performance since the Muromachi period. They do not recognize that a capaciousness for artistic self-­ determination resides within the structure and that art forms are, indeed, living entities that change with the times, the energy of the audience in the hall, the performance techniques and abilities of the performers, the dedication of the performers to the art forms, and many other factors. Some performers may decide to move freely, to push the role to its full potential; some may decide to stay within the generic bounds and venture out only on occasion; and many play exactly what they learned from their teacher. Each individual has that freedom. The number of contemporary Noh plays, both in Japanese and in other languages, has increased, and the plays are covering more varied subject matters. Many pertain to subjects that affect today’s society, and some embed special messages in an effort to reach out to the younger generation. One writer of such plays in Japan is Umewaka Minoru [IV] 191

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梅若実, formerly known as Umewaka Genshō [II] 梅若玄祥 and as Umewaka Rokurō [LVI] 梅若六郎. He is one of the leading Kanze School shite-­kata and a Living National Treasure. He has been at the forefront of creating shinsaku (newly created) Noh in collaboration with individuals from diverse backgrounds. For example, he has commissioned new scripts from a manga writer, a Buddhist nun, and a movie director. In creating his new Noh plays, he seeks to exploit both the energy produced when traditional and contemporary materials meet face-­to-­face and the power that results from such stimulation (Hikawa 2002, 8). Tada Tomio 多田富雄 (1934–2010) was another prominent figure in shinsaku Noh. Tomio was an immunologist and an emeritus professor at Tokyo University, and his work encompasses varied subject matters. His plays include Mumyō no 〈 I 無名の井〉, which focuses on a brain-­ dead patient; Isseki sennin (Hermit Isseki)〈一石仙人〉, about Einstein’s theory of relativity; Genbakuki〈原爆忌〉, which portrays mourning for those killed in the bombing of Hiroshima; and several others that confront and navigate the challenges and realities of the modern world (Tada 2007; Yokomichi and Kobayashi 1996, 80). Performers in Japanese contemporary Noh plays are mostly professionals, and there are few opportunities for the amateur to participate because of the strict separation of professional and amateur worlds in Japan. Outside Japan, however, these boundaries do not exist; thus, performers from an array of musical backgrounds come together without objections, expanding and developing the art in new directions. In Theatre Nohgaku (TN), performers from different backgrounds and nationalities work together. Most come from non-­Noh backgrounds, each bringing a concentration in a specific area of the arts or theater. They receive months or years of Noh training from Richard Emmert, one of the founders of TN, or other professional nohgaku-­shi in order to master the essential elements of Noh while applying their knowledge and skills to English-­language Noh plays. The performances of TN, therefore, have garnered international acclaim, and the number of English speakers trained in Noh has increased, owing to Emmert’s workshops in Japan, the United States, the UK, and other regions.

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A good example of TN and nohgaku-­shi performing together would be the English-­language Noh production of Pagoda, which was written by British-­Chinese playwright Jannette Cheong with music composed by Emmert. Oshima Nohgakudō 大島能楽堂—of the Kita School and based in Fukuyama, Japan—and TN toured and performed Pagoda together in Europe in 2009 (London, Dublin, Oxford, Paris) and in Asia in 2011 (Tokyo, Kyoto, Beijing, Hong Kong).1 This production of Pagoda was unique in that it included individuals and groups with backgrounds from four countries: Cheong, who is from the United Kingdom but has roots in China, the Oshima family from Japan, and Emmert and TN from the United States. Collaboration on this scale, involving performers who represented four countries and making two world tours, is rare for any English-­language or newly created Noh. By observing the rehearsal and creative process of making Cheong’s Pagoda from 2009 to 2011 and accompanying TN on the Asia tour to observe rehearsals and performances, I saw firsthand how much energy was applied to bringing different elements of a traditional Noh such as dan, shōdan, nohkan melodic patterns, drum patterns, choreography, staging, and lighting to a new piece. Oshima Teruhisa is a Kita School shite-­kata and had several roles in creating Pagoda: performer (nochi-­tsure), choreographer, and costumer designer. He spoke to me about the process of producing a newly created Noh: The Noh structure is mainly set, but there are times when we can insert material for different scenes. It is true that in shinsaku Noh, we create new material, but fundamentally we bring together pieces scattered throughout different Noh and insert them [into a new one]. We usually don’t create something from nothing, but our process is to bring together existing pieces. There are many of those. Therefore, Emmert creates the foundation, and we think of the various pieces and combine them. . . . Then, we ask Jannette [Cheong] whether these pieces fit her overall imagination of her Noh.2 1. I have conducted three rounds of fieldwork with this production, between 2009 and 2011, in multiple countries. See Anno (2012) for details. 2. Oshima Teruhisa, interview by author, July 4, 2011, Beijing. Translation by author.

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These pieces are painstakingly assembled through trial and error and by questioning the playwright and other actors involved. However, two important points require mention: even after the pieces are prepared, they may not look cohesive in performance and may need further refining; and as with traditional Noh, an English-­language Noh will need polishing, as well as the removal of extraneous material. This second point had led traditional Noh to its current state, and newly created Noh must go through a similar refining process to become more “Noh-­ like.” Teruhisa expands on this refining process, using Pagoda as an example: I am constantly changing the performative aspects of it [such as the beginning part of Pagoda’s second act at each rehearsal]. In the end, I am always searching for the best way to express [the characters’ emotions and the scenes]. I’m always exploring. Other Noh plays have had hundreds of years of history to solidify and refine their performances. To refine that part [of Pagoda’s second act] meant having to go through various stages, processes, and a long period of trial and error to shed its “extra fat.” In order to create a good shinsaku Noh like that, we need to take time for that process [of shedding the extra fat]. Each time, we do a small experiment, looking for the best performance.3

This creative process not only more faithfully aligns the new Noh with traditional Noh but in particular allows talented, professional nohgaku-­shi such as Teruhisa to piece together various traditional Noh elements (and shōdan) to develop a new Noh—a process that allows TN members to observe and understand the Noh structure and the melodic and drum patterns within the shōdan. For the nohkan, most of the melodic patterns and entrances within the shōdan are the same as in traditional Noh (as observed in the English-­language Noh At the Hawk’s Well), but most of the newly composed material for the nohkan is found in the dances. The repertoire of English-language Noh plays has been expanding, as TN has been actively commissioning new works and hosting its writer’s workshops in Japan and the United States. The group has also 3. Ibid.

Reflections and Directions195

toured in North America, Europe, and Asia, performing At the Hawk’s Well (2002), The Gull (2006), Pine Barrens (2006), Crazy Jane (2007), Pagoda (2009, 2011), Blue Moon Over Memphis (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), Sumida River (2015, 2016), Zahdi Dates and Poppies (2016), Gettysburg (2017, 2019), Emily (2018, 2019), and a number of other new Noh plays.4 Thanks to the endeavors of both the Japanese and the non-­Japanese in shinsaku Noh, Noh is becoming an internationally recognized art form. Indeed, it has received recognition from UNESCO. Its appealing and stimulating subjects from the traditional and contemporary Noh repertoire have been gaining the interest of the younger generation and of audiences who formerly took no notice. My interest is in continuing research on how the musical characteristics of the nohkan are used in shinsaku Noh, both those plays that employ entirely new subjects and those that draw from traditional Noh subject matter. The nohkan is an instrument that has grown out of Noh and is difficult to examine outside that context. Many of the nohkan techniques developed mainly as part of the theater to express the emotions of the characters, support the utai, enhance the ambience onstage, and play other vital roles. Thus, to examine contemporary Noh plays and point out only the musical characteristics of the nohkan, without reviewing the basic foundation of its traditional musical characteristics, would be meaningless and unproductive. I have, therefore, studied and learned all aspects of Noh in order to understand this comprehensive art form. My proficiency and years of training in each area varies, but because I have been studying, teaching, and performing this art form to reach a level of understanding and to analyze Noh plays, I have begun to feel a new degree of comfort with the art form when rehearsing and performing English-­language Noh. As I play the nohkan or interact and converse with the other hayashi members, I am able to speak in their language. I can hear and name their patterns, understand their ma (space/ timing) for a phrase, and predict where the ending of a phrase might occur by interpreting the cues of the ensemble leader (the taiko, or the ōtsuzumi when the taiko is not present). It is this kind of interaction 4. See Anno (2012, 34) and Emmert (2008) for performance dates and details about TN’s English-­language Noh performances.

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among instrumentalists and actors that makes the stage so interesting and so exciting, creating a captivating enigma that lures the audience directly into this art form. In the introduction to this book, I referred to a performance of Blue Moon Over Memphis, describing how I was able to experiment with the freedom that exists within the nohkan melodic patterns. At the same time, this flexibility was possible by my intently listening to the drums and comprehending how their patterns and calls were intricately interwoven with each other, indicating the speed of each shōdan and segment and the precise entrance for the nohkan. This particular performance increased my appreciation of the Noh structure and of the nohkan melodic patterns in each shōdan and segment, as I began to hear how each instrument plays off of and communicates with each other. In each shōdan, the nohkan plays certain melodies, and memorizing these patterns makes it easier to predict what will come next. I have been asked how to memorize an English-­language Noh. I do not know how the professional nohgaku-­shi or veteran English-­language performers memorize their parts, but as a nohkan player, I have found it is most important to memorize the overarching structure of the Noh with its mae-­ba (first act) and nochi-­ba (second act). Then, the individual shōdan can be committed to memory. Understanding the shōdan, and knowing that a combination of shōdan creates a dan, will help the nohkan player remember the melodies and recognize how the nohkan melodies move with the utai. In fact, a dan is similar to a recitative/aria pairing in opera: the Noh begins with text and becomes more melodic as the text is recited, half-­spoken and half-­sung (like a recitative), and then it becomes more lyrical and tuneful (like an aria). Understanding this structure aids in the memorization of the patterns as the nohkan player figures out whether he or she plays in that shōdan. Alternatively, the nohkan player can pay attention to the other parts onstage, such as the relationship between the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi while he or she sings the utai subvocally. Knowing and memorizing the utai is the most important job in Noh; it propels the story forward and keeps the ensemble together. Blue Moon Over Memphis is a unique and enjoyable piece for the nohkan because of the newly created dance part called the〔Dance of

Reflections and Directions197

Loneliness〕. The melody begins with the traditional〔Chū no Mai〕, which subtly becomes Elvis’s famous song “Blue Moon,” played by the nohkan. Yet the nohkan obscures the melody line by intentionally delaying the beats, adding fukikomi and sashi-­yubi to create tension within the performance. The audiences are introduced to a familiar melody but cannot quite put their finger on it; by the end of the dance, listeners can clearly hear the melody as Elvis expresses his sorrow and loneliness in life and death. In reality, nohkan playing is flexible, and every nohkan player plays differently even though he or she may have learned from the same master. In my research and fieldwork, I have been fortunate to study not only with great nohkan players but also with drummers, singers, and dancers. After their performances and at my lessons, I have the chance to ask about their performances, the reason for their differences in pitch of the kakegoe when playing with a shite-­kata or a ko-­kata (child role actor), or variations or deviations from the norm in their patterns. These communications give me insight into the variety of performances according to schools, households, or personal interests. Fortunately, the music of the Noh drama has been passed on in families and their disciples through oral transmission, emphasizing the importance of tradition in Noh. A range of embellishment, creativity, and interpretation of the utai, the mai, and Noh plays by the nohkan player and (in fact, all nohgaku-­shi) materializes in today’s Noh performances, demonstrating the personality of the player and giving a sense of the strong connection between master and disciple when a strong resemblance in playing style is heard. Yet, despite this display of musicians’ diverse preferences, the structure of the traditional melodic patterns remains basically unchanged. In the same way, the variations of the nohkan part in contemporary Noh plays are due to the idiosyncratic preferences of the nohkan player or the composer, each of whom is tweaking, manipulating, or seeking to expand the established patterns and customary roles of the nohkan. The continuing life of this traditional instrument depends almost entirely on its creative use within the confines of the Noh drama. I began writing this section of this book after watching my nohkan master, Issō Yukihiro, perform in memory of his father’s passing thir-

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teen years earlier. The performance took place at the National Noh Theatre in the afternoon on July 9, 2017, as part of Yukihiro’s “Issō Yukihiro no Nohgakudō he ikō, 2017-­nen dai ni-­dan” (Let’s go to Issō Yukihiro’s Noh theater, part two in 2017) 「一噌幸弘の能楽堂へ行こう、2017年第 二弾」. The theater seats 627 people,5 and it was nearly full. The performance was divided into two main parts: (1) “Uketsugareru dentō” (Inherited tradition) 「受け継がれる伝統」, with traditional pieces performed with Yukihiro and nohgaku-­shi with whom he and/or his father were closely associated, followed by a break and a half-­Noh of Tōru; and (2) “Sōzō suru dentō” (Created tradition) 「創造する伝統」, consisting of Yukihiro’s compositions for Noh instruments as well as pieces for Western instruments, Noh instruments, and a shakuhachi.6 I was most impressed by two of his newly created pieces in the second part of the show. One, titled Jūnibyōshi no Sanbasō (Twelve-­beat Sanbasō) 「十二拍子の三番叟」, was a dance for the kyōgen-­kata accompanied by the Noh ensemble;7 the other was a Noh titled Hengenka (Transformation) 「変幻化」, with three role actors (shite, tsure, kyōgen) and an entire nohgaku-­bayashi (Noh musical ensemble) along 5. National Noh Theatre seating chart, accessed July 18, 2018, http://www .ntj.jac.go.jp/assets/files/nou/zaseki/zaseki_nou_2.pdf. 6. The shakuhachi 尺八 is an end-­blown flute made of bamboo, approximately 54.5 centimeters long. Its name is derived from its length of isshaku-­ hassun (one shaku, eight sun). According to Malm (2000), the Chinese dungxiao, which was similar to a pan pipe, was introduced to Japan and is thought to be the origin of the shakuhachi (166). The dungxiao is no longer found, except in paintings. The Gagaku shakuhachi became popular during the Heian period but also fell out of the repertoire because of the introduction of the hitoyogiri, another type of shakuhachi from China or Southwest Asia, during the Muromachi period (166–167). The hitoyogiri, mentioned in chapter 1, is thought to have played a repertoire similar to that of the nohkan, and vice versa. The modern shakuhachi became popular during the Edo period with the increase of komusō (wandering priests) 虚無僧, but during the Edo period, many were not necessarily “wandering priests” but rōnin 浪人, or samurai without masters (167–168). See Malm (2000, 165–176) for more history and other details about the shakuhachi. 7. Issō Yukihiro, “Issō Yukihiro no Nohgakudō he ikō, 2017-­nen dai ni-­ dan,” performed at the National Noh Theatre. Kyōgen: Nomura Manzō. Nohkan: Issō Yukihiro, Fujita Rokurobyōe; kotsuzumi: Ōkura Genjirō; ōtsuzumi: Kakihara Mitsuhiro.

Reflections and Directions199

with a second nohkan, a shakuhachi, a violin, and a contrabass.8 The Jūnibyōshi no Sanbasō captured my attention because the twelve-­beat cycle was subdivided into a rhythmic pattern of 3+3+2+2+2 beats, influenced by flamenco (Issō Yukihiro, “Uketsugareru dentō” program notes, 2017a). This pattern was evident from the rhythms but also from the choreography of the kyōgen-­kata as performed by Nomura Manzō, imitating the posture of a flamenco dancer with one hand over his head and the other across his torso opposing the other arm. The entrances of the ōtsuzumi and taiko in relation to the two nohkan, which were divided into two parts of a six-­or eight-­beat cycle, created a polyrhythm unheard of in Noh. As I listened to the ōtsuzumi and taiko playing nontraditional rhythms without missing a beat of this complex polyrhythm, I was impressed by the versatility of the Noh musicians. They capably adjusted their rhythms according to those of the other instrumentalists. This reminded me of my interviews with the Kita School shite-­kata Matsui Akira, who spoke about his collaborations with performers from different genres overseas (Anno and Halebsky 2014). In talking about his performances abroad, Matsui related himself to a shōgi (Japanese chess) piece, demonstrating his view of the Noh actor’s body adapting to various situations. In one of the interviews, Matsui mentioned performing with Kathakali performers in India. Instead of having the Kathakali performers move and adjust to his slow Noh movements, Matsui accommodated the Kathakali performers by moving quickly and to the rhythm of other dancers. Hengenka was a shinsaku Noh that gave me a new perspective into Yukihiro’s activities and compositions. As outlined in the program notes, the story begins with a god of music (shite-­kata) entering the stage, singing and dancing to a seven-­beat dance. A crow (kyōgen-­kata) joins the music god and dances happily until it senses an ominous pres8. Issō Yukihiro, “Issō Yukihiro no Nohgakudō he ikō, 2017-­nen dai ni-­ dan,” performed at the National Noh Theatre. Shite: Umewaka Genshō (Minoru), Kanze Tetsunojō, Nomura Manzō. Nohkan: Issō Yukihiro, Fujita Rokurobyōe; kotsuzumi: Tanabe Kyōsuke; ōtsuzumi: Kakihara Mitsuhiro; taiko: Yoshitani Kiyoshi; shakuhachi: Tsujimoto Yoshimi; violin: Tsuboi Akihisa; contrabass: Yoshino Hiroshi.

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ence and departs. As the crow leaves the stage, the god of creation comes onstage and dances slowly. In the end, the two gods dance together to different melodies played by the Japanese and Western instruments. I was fascinated by this piece because, when I interviewed Yukihiro about the music of shinsaku Noh in 2009 for my fieldwork,9 he stated that they were similar to traditional Noh and were “similar to a kaeuta [parody of a song]” and that “kaeuta use the same melody but have different lyrics.” He then added that the hayashi usually plays traditional patterns and rarely new patterns. New topics are introduced, but the structure is taken from traditional Noh using the patterns of [Kuri], [Sashi], and [Kuse] shōdan in sequence followed by a dance and a [Kiri] shōdan. Yukihiro’s new composition did not follow the traditional Noh structure but was more like Yokomichi Mario’s shinsaku Noh Takahime, for which Yukihiro played a number of times. Yukihiro’s shinsaku Noh amalgamated Yukihiro’s previous pieces, culminating in a final product that brought his Noh and non-­Noh backgrounds together. After the “Sōzō suru dentō” performance, Yukihiro held a CD-­ signing session for his fans. Even after completing a three-­and-­a-­half-­ hour show—with two breaks between segments, totaling fifty minutes—he showed no sign of fatigue. In fact, he seemed radiant and ready to perform for another three-­and-­a-­half-­hour show, exemplifying his continued passion and love for the nohkan and how he continually seeks to find the instrument’s potential by composing and performing his own music. He presses on to achieve his goal. I also realized he has a unique ability to bring together musicians from different backgrounds, likely thanks to his identity as a nohgaku-­shi and because of his talents and understanding of both Japanese and Western music. My future research will focus on nohkan music and its compositions within Noh, but I am currently interested in Noh music and rhythm and how the English language fits in Noh rhythms. I inquire about how the English language, which is a stress-­timed language, is heard in English-­language Noh—whether it sounds natural or unnatural in its 9. Interview with author, December 2, 2008, Tokyo. See Anno (2009, 61– 62) for more details on this interview.

Reflections and Directions201

use of language and rhythm, a question that was posed by the late Yokomichi Mario (Yokomichi and Kobayashi 1996, 90). Japanese is a syllable-­timed (mora-­timed) language, in which each syllable is more or less sounded for the same length of time. When Noh was first developed, the relationship between the text and the Noh rhythm most likely had the Japanese language in mind. By imposing the English language onto Noh rhythms, I investigate what types of modifications or adaptions are made, or not made, in these English-­language Noh.10 Furthermore, I have been performing and watching the creative processes of English-­language Noh evolve over the years, and I see the power and potential of this art form to generate interest in traditional Noh.11 English-­language Noh is written in modern English, which can be understood by a general audience that speaks or has studied English. (Having a tangible copy of the text may also be useful, as seen in Noh theaters in Japan.) These stories depict modern-­day subjects, autobiographical stories, unsung heroes, martyrs, and popular icons, so they could prove useful in promoting interest in Noh, especially in Japan. Just as Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well was “reimported” into Japan as a topic for shinsaku Noh, Noh could regain the interest of Japanese audiences by being reimported as English-­language Noh plays. It is an exciting time to be involved in Japanese culture and in seeing how the nohkan will continue to develop. Noh is an entry point into Japanese music, culture, society, religions, and literature; this medium can serve to convey the core values for which Japanese people stand. Noh has given me a greater understanding of this culture and my position within it.

10. I have been researching this topic for a few years and hope to create a Noh music handbook for playwrights and composers interested in creating their own English-­language Noh, by giving examples from previous productions. 11. See Anno, “Eigo Noh no kenkyū: Theatre Nohgaku no sōsakukatei wo chūshin ni” (A study on English Noh: Creative processes and musical structures of transforming traditional Japanese Noh into English-­language productions) (PhD diss., 2012).

Appendix A Teaching and Playing the Nohkan in the United States

Performance of Torchlight Atsumori at the Noh Training Project in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania I was granted an opportunity to teach the nohkan at the Noh Training Project in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania, which has adopted the basic structure of Emmert’s Noh Training Project in Tokyo (NTP-­T) and expanded it further. The Noh Training Project–Bloomsburg (NTP-­B), held on the campus of Bloomsburg University in 1995–2014, lasted for three weeks each summer.1 Elizabeth Dowd, who started the program with the help of the Bloomsburg Theatre Ensemble and served as the producing director, codirected NTP-­B with Richard Emmert. At NTP-­B, traditional Noh transmission was treated as a foundation from which to begin and build. All of the teachers had themselves trained with Japanese Noh masters, learning through traditional transmission methods. In addition to learning from teachers who had received professional theater training in North America as well as traditional Noh training in Japan, the students at NTP-­B learned directly from Noh masters visiting from Japan. Matsui Akira, a Kita School shite-­kata, was invited to teach in 1997. In 2003 a hayashi teacher, Kama 1. The Noh Training Project–Bloomsburg was on hiatus from 2015 to 2018 but resumed in 2019 on a smaller scale than before and with a revised program. It offered Noh utai and shimai, the Alexander Technique, and sitting meditation classes for two weeks (Theatre Nohgaku, accessed September 18, 2019, https://www.theatrenohgaku.org/noh-training-project-us). 203

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Mitsuo 釜三夫 (1936–2011), was invited from Japan to teach ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi. And in 2006, Oshima Kinue 大島衣恵, another Kita School shite-­kata and the only professional Noh woman from that school, was brought in to give the female students a new singing and dancing experience. These masters generally used traditional transmission methods. I was given the opportunity to teach the nohkan at NTP-­B in 2010 and 2012 for beginning and returning students. In 2012 we performed a takigi Noh (torchlight Noh on an open-­air stage) 薪能 of Atsumori, for which I again instructed beginning and returning students using shōga and meeting with each student one-­on-­one, as the traditional process goes. That year, however, due to the takigi Noh, there were fewer individual lessons, especially during week three, because most students were taking part in the ji-­utai (chorus) or performing one of the tachi-­ kata. In this production of Atsumori, in fact, I did not perform the nohkan but decided to focus on singing in the women’s chorus for one of the nights, so that I could learn from Oshima Kinue, who was acting as the ji-­gashira (head of the chorus). Before I delve into my role as a nohkan instructor at NTP-­B and my observations at the 2012 takigi Noh performance of Atsumori, it is important to discuss the uniqueness of this performance. For the 2012 NTP-­B, an in-­house recital on August 2 allowed students to perform pieces they would not be able to fit into the formal final recitals on August 3–4 (due to time restrictions). (At the August 2 recital, I was given the opportunity to play the〔Chū no Mai〕on kotsuzumi with other performers.) At the final recitals, all students were allowed to dance a shimai (short dance section within a Noh) or a mai-­bayashi (instrumental dance piece) 舞囃子, as well as to participate in some aspect of the full Noh of Atsumori. The first night of Atsumori took place on August 3; the mae-­shite and nochi-­shite were performed by women, and the ji-­utai consisted of men. On August 4 the roles were reversed, with the shite parts performed by men and the chorus made up of women. (Usually, the mae-­shite and nochi-­shite are performed by one person, but because of time restrictions, all parts were dressed before the performance began.) On the first night, I danced the shimai from the Noh Kurozuka with

Appendix A205

a female chorus and watched the performance of Atsumori from behind the curtains. On the second night, I played the nohkan in a mai-­bayashi for the Noh Hagoromo and sang in a female chorus for Atsumori. Obviously, the experience of watching the short dance segments and the Noh Atsumori on the first night was quite different from being in the onstage chorus while bugs, especially mayflies, are swarming around torches and performers are trying to not swallow one and are working hard to keep them from their eyes. Despite the differences in each role, the performances of both nohkan players in Atsumori and in the excerpts from Noh plays demonstrated differences in playing style and interpretation of the utai. The nohkan on the first night was played by Emmert’s students, and Emmert himself played the nohkan on the second night. Since Emmert had taught the student the ashirai (unmatched style of playing the nohkan) for Atsumori, the entrances of the ashirai, therefore, should have been the same. They were indeed similar, but individual differences came out in how the nohkan was played in relation to the utai.2 As explained in the analysis of Atsumori’s theoretical and actual performances in chapter 4, the utai moves around in pitch but follows a typical pattern of movement. For example, in the [Michiyuki] of Atsumori, the chant begins in the high range for the first five syllables plus the first line, is followed by an uchikiri and then the nohkan melodic pattern Takane, and ends with the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” The second section begins with a repeat of the first line of text, which is where the chant moves between the high range and the middle range and the nohkan player is able to demonstrate his or her understanding of the chant movements. Here, the player plays Naka no Takane until the prescribed entrance point of Kote, where the chant is in the low range. In the introduction, I referred to my Kō School kotsuzumi master Sowa Masahiro and explained the nohkan’s relationship to the utai and how its role is similar to the utai’s, especially as an instrument situated physically next to the chanters. Even though the nohkan does not narrate or express the characters’ emotions with words, it paints the story 2. It is important to note that Emmert learned the nohkan from the late Issō Yukimasa (1929–2004), who was Issō Yukihiro’s father.

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with musical devices like certain melodic qualities and tone colors. It would make sense, therefore, that the nohkan pitches move in a perfect fourth interval, similar to those of the utai (since the utai’s trajectory from the high to the middle and low ranges work the distance of a perfect fourth). In the same way, as mentioned in chapter 4, Yukihiro likes to raise the “u” in the chū phrase (of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure), “O-­hya-­ hyu-­i-­hi-­hyo-­i-­u-­ri” (emphasis added by author), in order to avoid the interval of a perfect fourth and keep all the notes with the same range. Each of the two nohkan players performed the shōdan in Atsumori according to his own interpretation and embellishments passed down from his master, making each nohkan performance unique. The performances could also differ according to the performer’s interpretation of the utai or the Noh or because of the individual’s mind-­set and the surrounding environment. In this case, the performance took place in an open field, lined with lush green trees, grass, and mountains, all situated along the Susquehanna River. Birds were chirping and bugs were buzzing, while echoes of sound bounced off the hills. I remember Jubilith Moore, a Noh and Kyōgen performer and my friend, describing this outdoor performance to me and saying that the outdoor setting created an enjoyable ambience quite different from the inside of a formal theater; the scene, tone, and mood were already created for the performers, and the audiences proved enthusiastic and eager with anticipation even before the performance began. In analyzing performances, therefore, multiple factors must be taken into account, not just the oral transmission of the repertoire.

Teaching the Nohkan When I taught the first-­year and returning students at NTP-­B in 2010 and 2012, it was a priority to introduce them to the Shōga-­shū and Yubitsuke-­shū books. In addition, NTP-­B had, over the years, prepared nohkan sheets with Roman letters on the side to facilitate the learning and memorization process. It thus proved vital for me to be able to sing the shōga with the correct rhythm, and in a way that could be comprehensible to students unfamiliar with Noh or traditional Japanese per-

Appendix A207

forming arts. At the same time, I had to consider the students’ backgrounds and their learning style: to introduce an unfamiliar topic in which everything is in a foreign language requires that students understand and are not overwhelmed by the material. In her book Experiencing Ethnomusicology: Teaching and Learning in European Universities, Simone Krüger describes how teaching methods used in her ethnomusicology courses helped the students, likely introduced for the first time to new types of music in her classroom, better grasp ideas and concepts: “Students valued transmission methods that were clear and understandable to them. They also appreciated verbal explanations and conceptualizations, as it helped students grasp musical expression and form and decreased their anxiety about the final performance” (2009, 143). In the same way, I tailor my teaching according to the students, while trying to give them an experience close to what they could have in Japan. As I reflect on watching my students play, I am conflicted about how a teacher should respond and help a student when he or she makes a mistake. In recitals in Japan that involve a mai-­bayashi with other instruments and a dancer, a master may decide to sit behind the student as a kōken (assistant). If an instrument—for example, a kotsuzumi—and a singer are performing together, the master may decide to sit in front of the disciple at an angle (where the disciple can see the master from his or her left eye) so as to help the disciple if necessary, while not obstructing the audience’s view of the student. The master may also feel confident enough to let the disciple perform on his or her own, as my kotsuzumi master demonstrated with me. I have never performed in a nohkan kai (performance), because my master did not arrange one during the years I studied with him; thus, I do not know what he would have done. Based on my performing experience with other Noh instruments, I tend to give my students a choice, and they often chose to go onstage without me present. When I listen to my students perform and notice they are off by a beat, I typically avoid interjecting, for two reasons: (1) the student does not want me to interrupt the performance, and (2) I personally would not want someone to interject while I am playing because it is not the nohkan performer’s fault if he or she does not enter when the other instrumentalists expect.

208PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

It seems most typical that my students have enough confidence to perform on their own, so much so that they do not want me to sit behind them onstage. Many are certain they can find their way back even if they make a mistake.3 In addition, performers in Western music ensembles never let the audience know that they have made a mistake. A teacher yelling out the shōga embarrasses the student (and may startle the student and lead to further confusion) and puts the blame on the nohkan, even though the mistake may not be the nohkan player’s fault—which leads me to my second point. If the student is struggling and needs help, I would of course assist, but often it is another instrument that is off. The simple fact is that the nohkan is the only melodic instrument and therefore forms the glue that holds the ensemble together. Therefore, if the nohkan is not entering at the precise moment anticipated, some teachers are afraid that the whole ensemble may fall apart. These teachers are quick to yell out the shōga, thinking that immediate aid is necessary, whereas I allow the student and ensemble to put it all together. The basic dances constructed by the ryo-­chū-­kan structure, such as the〔Chū no Mai〕, the〔Otoko-­mai〕, and the〔Kami-­ mai〕, are cases in point: they all come to an end at each dan of a dance or they start a new dan, so the ensemble will eventually come back together and start anew. In my years of playing the nohkan, I have been blamed for mistakes I did not make. In a nohgaku-­bayashi (Noh musical ensemble) 能楽囃 子, the most likely instrument to get away with a mistake is the kotsuzumi. (Note: The kotsuzumi is a difficult instrument to get a sound out of, but it is still an instrument I thoroughly enjoy playing.) When there are three instruments, such as the ōtsuzumi, kotsuzumi, and nohkan, the ōtsuzumi is the leader of the ensemble and must indicate the starting beat. The kotsuzumi follows the ōtsuzumi’s lead. If the kotsuzumi makes a mistake, the nohkan player can continue to play until the beginning of the ji or until the end of the dan and start afresh at the new dan. 3. Some instructors do not agree with my method of teaching, telling me to sit behind the student in order to make sure that the ensemble stays together. However, I believe students are entitled to make their own decisions in the performance context.

Appendix A209

This leads me to another experience I had in the summer of 2007. I had arrived in Japan in October 2005 and started taking lessons with Yukihiro. I was asked to join a nohkan group called Shizuku no Kai; the iemoto of the Issō School, Issō Yōji, was the head of this group, which was run by nonprofessional Issō School disciples. I was asked to play the〔Sagariha〕on the nohkan along with the kotsuzumi, ōtsuzumi, and taiko. This was strictly an instrumental piece, with no dance. The〔Sagariha〕has the ryo-­chū-­kan structure, but its melodic lines are different from those of the〔Chū no Mai〕. In rehearsal, I played it incorrectly, since it was the first time I had played with the entire set of instruments, and it proved overwhelming to hear the different drums and their drum calls, even though I had rehearsed with my kotsuzumi colleague at her lesson.4 After rehearsal, the others gave me advice about how to play the piece correctly in the performance, and I indeed played it without a mistake, even though the ōtsuzumi and taiko players (the very ones who had given me pointers about how to play the piece correctly) had crumbled. I was told by the taiko player that she anticipated my mistake and had lost her place in the music because of it. She apologized for not playing it correctly and wanted to perform it again, but we decided it was best to go forward with the program. In this case, however, no one had yelled out the shōga to help the taiko player, which probably would not have helped her anyway. At the same time, no one had yelled out the taiko’s te (patterns) to help her get realigned. In any case, the nohkan is always blamed, whether he or she plays the patterns correctly or incorrectly, because of the nohkan’s role as a melodic and rhythmic instrument and a marker within Noh. Since 2005, I have been learning all the different aspects of Noh. I began studying the various instruments at different times across my research and study process (i.e., the nohkan, utai, and shimai in 2005, the kotsuzumi in 2007, and the ōtsuzumi and taiko in 2010), but I am most comfortable learning and teaching the nohkan because it is a transverse flute similar to what I have been playing since my youth. In learning the nohkan, I do what a good disciple is supposed to: I “steal” my master’s tricks, fingerings, and interpretation of Noh plays. In play4. See Anno (2010, 136) for more details about this lesson.

210PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

ing the nohkan, I focus on playing the melody of dances appropriate for the shite and the ambience onstage while accentuating the rhythm; in ashirai, I move with the utai line, trying to support and elaborate the text and melody line. In my teaching, I help students learn at their rate, finding methods that are suitable for them while teaching the traditional way of using shōga. I have found, however, that students memorize the shōga, nohkan fingerings, and dance rhythms on their own; beyond that, the most difficult part of the nohkan is getting a sound out of it, which is why many professional and amateur Noh practitioners tend to easily give up the instrument. In fact, some Noh amateurs never even consider learning the nohkan because they have been told it is a difficult instrument. Getting a sound out of the nohkan is about determining where the air hits the edge of the mouthpiece. It is similar to finding the spot where one can get a sound from blowing across a soft drink bottle. In my teaching, I help my students understand the logic (or physics) behind how a sound is produced, which allows for a more precise and accurate solution to the problem. One does not need to blow with all of one’s might to get a sound out, nor does the student have to continually blow into the instrument and hyperventilate. Helping the student stop, think about the issue at hand, and ponder a possible solution to the problem makes for a more efficient and effective lesson.5 This type of teaching is atypical, but I have found that it helps the students.

5. This teaching is derived from my Alexander Technique experiences with Joan and Alexander Murray at the Alexander Technique Center Urbana.

Appendix B Recordings of Issō Yukihiro on the Nohkan

The following audio recordings of Issō Yukihiro playing the nohkan, which have been mentioned elsewhere in this book, can be accessed at https://annomariko.wordpress.com. Track 1: Singing shōga of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure Track 2: Performance of the ryo-­chū-­kan structure with sashi-­yubi (embellishments) Recorded by Mariko Anno at Tokyo University of the Arts on October 12, 2006.

211

Appendix C Shōga and Transcription of the〔Chū no Mai〕Hagakari: Kanze School Length, San-­dan (Three Divisions)

Source: Issō Matarokurō ([1936b] 2003, 1–6). 213

214PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(a) Shōga (Oral Mnemonics)

Appendix C215

216PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix C217

218PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(b) Transcription Using Western Staff Notation1 A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) Kakari Kakari

4 &4 Œ

‰

œ 33 J

#˙ 2

O

hyā

˙™

#œ2

-

ra

Chū Chū

Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū Chū, Ryo,Ryo, Chū , Kan, Kan Kan, no Chū Kan no Chū

Ryo, Chū , Kan, Kan no Chū

Ryo, Chū , Kan, Kan no Chū

Ryo

4 &4 Œ

‰

œ 33 #œ2 J O

Chū

4 &4 ΠKan

4 &4 Œ

‰

‰

4 &4 Œ

#œ33

O

hyu

hya

œ 33 #œ2 J hya

# œ #œ nœ 3 hi

ra

œ 33 #œ2 J

O

Kan no Chū

hya

#œ 2

u

ru

œ #œ 2 œ 3

-

i

u

-

‰

i

i

hi

hi hyo

u

u

# œ 2 #œ2 J

nœ 3 #œ ™ J ≈ R #œ 33 i

ho

hi

nœ 3 œ #œ 2

hi hyo

œ #œ 2

ra

hyu

ho

nœ 3 #œ ™ R ‰ R #œ 3 3

#œ 2

#œ3 3

i

œ3 œ œ3 #œ 2

ri

#œ 2

u

ya

nœ3 œ #œ 2 i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

Ryo

Ryo

1. Many of the notes fall between pitches (i.e., quarter tones, microtones) in relation to the Western standard of A = 440 Hz. Arrows pointing up or down to the right side of the pitch are used to indicate these pitches, following the pattern from Nohgaku hayashi taikei (1973a).

Appendix C219

Chū Sho-dan Dan no fu

4 &4 Œ

#œ œ , œ3 3 # œ 2 #œ2 ≈ œ33 2 O hya - , O hi ya

œ #œ 2 -

# œ 2 #œ #œ2 # œ 2 œ œ , ‰ J 2

ri

hi

u

ya

ra

-

ri

Ryo Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū Chū

Sho-dan oroshi

4 &4 ΠRyo

‰

œ33 #œ2 J O

& Œ

‰

œ3 J

hya

œ3

# œ 2 , œ3 i

#œ 3 3

hya

œ3 œ

a

œ3

j œ

œ3 ra

œ

œ

-

, œ 3 œ3 #œ 3

#œ 33 œ

ri

- i - ta hya a hyu , #œ nœ #œ3 3 nœ3 #œ #œ ™3 3 nœ 3 œ #œ 2 œ œ œ3 ‰ J2 3 J ≈ R & - i hi u ru i hi hyo i u ri

u

œ3 #œ 33 ru

Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū Ryo Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū

Chū Ni-dan Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū Dan no fu

4 &Ryo4 Œ

Ryo Chū

Ryo

ro

œ nœ œ , œ 3 3 # œ 2 #œ 2 œ # œ # œJ 2 #œ2 #œ2 # œ 2 œ œ , ‰ ≈ 33 2 - ri - ri O hya - , O hi ya hi u ya ra

ra

220PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

4 &4 Œ

Ni-dan oroshi

O

& Π&

hya

œ3 J

‰ œ3

ru

ra

i

œ3

hya

œ3

# œ 2 , œ3

œ 33 #œ2 J

‰

œ3

hya

j œ

j œ

a

œ3

œ

j œ

ra

œ œ3 œ3 #œ3 3 - ri u hyu

i

œ3 œ3 #œ

œ

-

ra

œ 3 #œ #œ ™3 3 J ≈ R

a

œ3 œ3

ri

œ

nœ 3 œ #œ 2

hi hyo

i

u

ro

j œ

œ

ra

u

œ3

ra

-

ri

Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ② Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ② Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ‚ Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ② Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ‚ Chū, Ryo,Ryo, Chū, Kan, KanKan, no ChūKan ‚ no Chū ② Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū

Ryo

4 &4 Œ

‰

œ33 #œ2 J O

Chū

4 &4 Œ

‰

Kan

4 &4 Œ

‰

‚

hya

#œ33

O

hyu

hya

œ33 #œ2 J hya

Kan no Chū

Ryo Ryo

ra

œ33 #œ2 J

O

4 &4 Œ

#œ 2

-

hi

ru

ho

i

u

-

‰

i

i

hi

hi hyo

u

u

# œ 2 #œ2 J

nœ3 #œ #œ ™ J ≈ R 33 i

ho

hi

nœ œ #œ

hi hyo

œ #œ 2

ra

#œ33

i

œ3 œ œ3 #œ 2

nœ3 #œ ™ R ‰ R #œ 33

#œ 2

‚ #œ nœ3 ‰ J u

œ # œ 2 œ3

ri

#œ 2

u

ya

nœ3 œ #œ 2 i

u

ri

œ œ œ œ -

Appendix C221 San-dan Dan-gaeshi

#œ œ , œ 3 3 # œ 2 #œ 2 ≈ œ 33 2 O hya - , O hi ya

4 &4 Π&

œ œ , œ 3 3 #œ2 # œ -

ri

O

hya

-

œ #œ 2

#œ

ri

œ #œ 2

-

ya

‰

ri

‰

# œ 2 #œ 2 J

ri

hi

u

# œ 2 #œ 2 #œ2 # œ 2 J hi

u

ya

ra

Chū Ryo, Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ② Chū, Ryo,Ryo, Chū, Kan, KanKan, no ChūKan ‚ no Chū ② Ryo,Ryo Chū, Kan, Kan no Chū ‚ Chū

Ryo

Tome: Koiai or Uchiage

Tome: Koiai or Uchiage

#U œ2 4 &4 Koiai

,

Ri,

œ33

#U œ2

O

hya,

Uchiage

&

,

U œ3

œ3

œ3

œ3

U #œ 3

Ta

u

ta

u

ro

œ 33 O

#œ 2

#U œ2

hi

ya

#œ 2 , ri,

#U œ Hi

#œ 2 # œ 2 ya

ra

œ œ -

ri

Appendix D Transcriptions of Shōdan from Atsumori1 A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author) (a)〔Shidai〕 Nohkan

#Hishigi œ

&

Hi Ōtsuzumi

Kotsuzumi

œ -

-

ya

-

#œ

, #œ

a,

Hi

-

/

& Koiai

Koiai (1)

Kan-mitsuji

/

ï

ya

8

ha a

a 1

( )

ï

!

2

3

8

ya

ï

5

6

ha

ï

7

ha

¯8

Kan-mitsuji

& Koiai (2)

/

Koiai ya

ï

a

ha a

( )

!

ï

ya Mitsuji

Mitsuji

¯

ha

ï

ha

¯

ha

ï

ha

¯

& Koiai (3)

/

Koiai ya

ï

a

ha a

! ya Mitsuji

¯

Mitsuji (2)

1. Many of the notes fall between pitches (i.e., quarter tones, microtones) in relation to the Western standard of A = 440 Hz. Arrows pointing up or down to the right side of the pitch are used to indicate these pitches, following the pattern from Nohgaku hayashi taikei (1973a). 223

224PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

œ33

& Warutsuzuke (1)

O

Waru-tsuzuke ya a

!

/

( )

¯

Waru-tsuzuke ya a

!

/

ha a

ha a

! ha

¯

¯

#œ 2

#œ 33

nœ3

O

hya

yo

i

ya a

! ï

ya

ï

ha a

! ¯

ha

¯

hyo

!

ha a

!

¯

! ï

ya

ï

ha a

( )

! ¯

ï

ha

¯

ha

a

ha

¯

Tsuzuke

#œ2 ri

Sashiuchikiri

Uchikiri ya

Aigashira; Jōryaku

yo

a

!

i

¯

ya

ha

ya

ha

ï

Sashi-uchikiri

& Aigashira; Jōryaku

Aigashira

/

¯

ru

ya a

¯

( )

Tsuzuke (3)

ï

ha

nœ 3

#œ 33

hi Waru-tsuzuke ya a

/

/

¯

Tsuzuke

#œ

&

Uchikiri

ha

¯

œ 33 !

¯

( )

Tsuzuke (2)

&

ra

Tsuzuke

&

Warutsuzuke (3)

hya

! ï

ya

ï

¯

Tsuzuke (1)

Warutsuzuke (2)

#œ2

ya a

!

ha a

#œ2

iya

!

iya

!

Jōryaku yo

!

i

ya

a

ya a Jōryaku

ha ha

ha

ï

ha

a

¯

ha

¯

Appendix D225 ICHI - DAN

& Aigashira; "ha a" Aigashira; Kanmitsuji

ha ha

Aigashira iya

/

iya

! !

a a

( )

ï

ya

ha

ï

ha

ï

¯

Kan-mitsuji

& Koiai (1)

Koiai ya

ï

/

a

ha a

( )

!

ï

ya

Mitsuji (1)

¯

ha

ï

ha

¯

ha

ï

ha

¯

Mitsuji

& Koiai (2)

/

Koiai ya

ï

ha a

a

! ya

( )

¯

Mitsuji (2)

& Warutsuzuke (1)

Tsuzuke (1)

/

Tsuzuke (2)

œ Hya

Waru-tsuzuke ya a

!

( )

¯

ha a

ya a

! ï

¯

ya

! ï

ha a

œ3 œ 3

œ3

a

a

a

ha

¯

! ¯

ha

¯

Tsuzuke

& Warutsuzuke (2)

¯

Mitsuji

/

#œ 3 3

œ 3 #œ2

#œ 33

hyo ro Waru-tsuzuke

ru

ya a

!

( )

¯

nœ33 #œ2 #œ 33 nœ3 #œ33 œ3

ri,

ha a

¯ Tsuzuke

O

ya a

! ï

ya

! ï

hya

yo

i

hyo

( )

!

ï

ha a

¯

i

ha

¯

ha

¯

226PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

&

œ33 yo

Uchikiri

Uchikiri

/

ï

ya

yo

a

( )

!

i

¯

¯

ya

ha

ya

ha

ï

ha

a

ha

¯

ha

a

ha

¯

Uchikiri

Uchikiri

& Aigashira; Chūryaku

/

Chūryaku

Aigashira iya

!

iya

a

ha

ya

!

Aigashira; Chūryaku

Aigashira; Kanmitsuji

ha ha

ï

Chūryaku NI - DAN

& Aigashira; "ha a"

a ya a

ha

Aigashira iya

!

/

iya

a ha

( )

ï

a ya

!

ï

ha

ï

ha

¯

ha

ï

ha

¯

Kan-mitsuji

& Koiai

/ Mitsuji

Koiai ya

ï

a

ha a

! ya Mitsuji

¯

( )

¯

#œ

& Warutsuzuke (1)

Tsuzuke (1)

/

Hi

Waru-tsuzuke ya a

!

( )

¯

ha

ya a

a!

¯ Tsuzuke

ï

ya

! ï

ha

œ3

œ3

ya

u

a!

¯

ha

¯

ha

¯

Appendix D227

&

œ3

#œ33 hyu

Warutsuzuke (2)

i Waru-tsuzuke ya a

!

/

ha a

¯

&

ya

/

yo

ro

Hi

ya

ya

!

ya

ï

a

!

ha a

( )

¯

a

!

! ï

ha a

¯

ha

¯

!

ha a

!

¯

ha

¯

¯

ha

u

j œ�

œ

ï

ï

ya a

( )

ro

yoseru

¯

¯

œ22

œ33

ra Yoseru-tsuzuke

#œ33

&

ï

ha a

ha a

ï

#œ33

œ3 nœ33

i

hyū

i

!

¯

œ

œ3

ra

ra Uchikiri

ri

¯ ( )

¯

ï

ya

œ3 u

yo

a

¯ Uchikiri

!

ya

i,

( )

ï

ha

¯

i

œ3 œ3 œ3

Hya

a a a

ha a

¯

a

! ï

ha

¯

ha

¯

œ 3 œ3 œ3

Hya

ya

œ

!

! ï œ

ya

!

Tsuzuke j œ�

ro

yo,

¯

( )

œ3

ha a

#œ3

ya a

!

¯

Waru-tsuzuke ya a

/

ya

œ3

hyū

/

! ï

œ33

#œ3

i

Yose

Yose

Uchikiri

ya

ï

¯

œ3

/

&

ya a

!

Tsuzuke

Yoserutsuzuke

Uchikiri

œ3

Waru-tsuzuke

&

Tsuzuke

#œ

Tsuzuke

Tsuzuke (3)

Warutsuzuke

#œ3

¯

( )

Tsuzuke (2)

Warutsuzuke (3)

nœ 3

a

ha a

a

œ33

a

ro

( )

! ¯

ï

ha

¯

ha

¯

#œ 33

œ3

#œ

#œ 33

hyū

i,

hi

hyo

ya

ha

ya

ha

ï

ha

a

ha

¯

228PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(b)〔Issei〕 # œHishigi

&

Hi

œ -

-

ya

#œ -

,

a,

#œ Hi

/

Ôtsuzumi

Kotsuzumi

& ( )

ï

/

¯

¯

ha

ï

ha

¯

Uchidashi

Uchidashi

& Koiai (1)

Kanmitsuji

/

Koiai ya

ï

( )

¯

a

ha a

( )

ï

! ya

ï

Kan-mitsuji

ha

ï

ha

¯

Appendix D229

(c) [Ageuta #2]

° &

Nohkan

/

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

¢

œ

(movement in high range)

Ji: Mi

no

waza

no

° & / ¢

œ Sukeru

° & / ¢

iya iya

! !

kokoro

ni

yoritake

no

Takane

œ3 3

#œ 2

#œ 2

O

hya

ra

230PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° & /

œ

¢

(movement in high range, then drop to middle)

Sukeru

kokoro

ni

yoritake

no

° & /

œ

¢

Saeda

Semiore

samazama

ni

° & / ¢

œ Fue

no

na

wa

ōkeredomo

° & / ¢

œ Kusakari

no

fuku

fue

naraba

kore

mo

na

wa

Appendix D231

° & / œ

¢

œ

œ

Aoba

no

œ

fue

to

#œ

#œ33

nœ 3

#œ 2

Hi

hyō

ru

ri

no

migiwa

naraba

Naka no Takane

° &

oboshimese

/ œ

¢

Sumiyoshi

œ

° & / ¢

œ

Komabue

œ ni

ya

œ

aru

beki

232PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° #œ &

#œ 33

hi

nœ3

nœ 3 3

i

yo

hyo

/ œ

¢

Kore

wa

Suma

œ

Kote

° &

no

Hya

shioki

œ3 œ 3 3

œ3

a

a

a

no

œ3

œ3

œ3

ra

ri

u

j œ

/ (movement in middle and low range)

œ

¢

Ama

° œ & 33 ro

no

takizashi

to

œ 22

#œ

œ3

i,

tsu

u

oboshimese

œ3 3 ro

nœ 2 2 i

#œ 3 yo

/ ¢

œ Awa

no

takizashi

to

oboshimese

Appendix D233

(d) [Uta] Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

œ

(melody alternates between middle and high pitches) Utai

¢

Ji: Sute

sase

tamō

na

yo

° & / œ

¢

Hitokoe

dani

mo

tarinu

beki

ni

° & / ¢

œ Mainichi

maiyo

no

otomurai

234PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° & / ¢

œ Ara

arigata

ya

waga

na

o

ba

° & / ¢

œ Mōsazu

œ tote

mo

akekure

ni

° & / ¢

œ

œ

Mukaite

ēko

shitamaeru

° & / ¢

œ Sono

œ na

wa

wareto

iisutete

Appendix D235

° & / œ

¢

Sugata

œ

Kote

° &

mo

miezu

œ3 œ

œ3

a

a

Hya

a

,

usenikeri

œ

œ3

œ3 œ 3 œ 3 3 œ22

ra

ri

u

ro

/ (movement in low range)

œ œ

¢

Sugata

° #œ & tsu

/ ¢

mo

miezu

œ3 u

usenkeri

œ 33 ro

nœ 2 2 i

#œ 3 yo

i,

236PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(e) [Machi-­utai] Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

œ

(movement in high and middle range) Utai

¢

Waki: Kore

ni

tsukete

tomurai

mo

no

° & / ¢

œ Kore

° #œ &

ni

Naka no Takane

Hi

/ ¢

tsukete

mo

no

#œ 3 3

nœ3

#œ 2

hyō

ru

ri,

œ Hōji

tomurai

œ o

nashite

yo

mo

sugara

Appendix D237

° #œ &

nœ3

#œ 33

hi

hyō

nœ 3 3

i

yo

/ œ

¢

œ

Nenbustsu

° œ &

Kote

Hya

môshi

Atsumori

œ3

œ 33

œ3

a

a

a

no

œ3

œ3

œ3

ra

ri

u

j œ

œ3 3

œ22

ro

i,

/ œ

¢

Bodai

° #œ & tsu

o

œ3 u

nao

œ3 3 ro

mo

nœ22

#œ

i

yo

/ ¢

œ Bodai o

œ nao

mo

œ

tomurawan

tomurawan

#œ Hi

œ

Hishigi

ya

#œ , #œ a,

hi

238PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(f) [Uta #2] Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

œ

(pitches in high range) Utai

¢

Ji: Kore

ka

ya

° & /

œ

(pitches rise to "upper" pitches)

¢

Akunin

no

tomo

o

furisutete

° & /

œ

(movement in high and middle range)

¢

Zennin

no

kataki

o

maneke

to

wa

Appendix D239

° & / œ

œ

¢

On

° #œ &

-

-

œ

mi

no

koto

arigata

nœ3

#œ 2

hyō

ru

ri,

/ œ

(movement in middle and low range)

¢

œ

Arigatashi

arigatashi

° #œ & hi

#œ 3 3

nœ3

hyō

i

/ ¢

œ

Totemo

ya

#œ 3 3

Naka no Takane

Hi

ka

œ sange

no

œ

monogatari

nœ 33 yo

240PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° œ &

Kote

Hya

œ3

œ3

œ3

a

a

a,

,

œ

œ3

œ3

œ3

ra

ri

u

œ 33 ro

/ (movement in low range)

œ

¢

Yosugara

° œ 22 & i

#œ

œ3

tsu

u

/ ¢

œ

Yosugara

mōsan

izaya

izaya

mōsan

œ 33 ro

nœ 2 2 i

#œ 3 yo

Appendix D241

(g) [Kuri] Nohkan

/

Ō tsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

¢ Ji:

Hi

ri,

œ

Sore

hyū

¢

œ 33

(movement in high register with embellishments)

° #œ 33 & /

œ3 3

Sō no kuri

° &

haru

no

hana

jutō

no

ni

wa

noboru

œ3

#œ 33

œ3

nœ3 3

i

hyū

i

yo

œ Jōgu

bodai

no

ki

o

susume

° & / ¢

œ Aki

no

tsuki

no

suitei

ni

shizumu

wa

242PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° œ 3 3 #œ2 #œ3 3 nœ3 #œ2 #œ & Oru-takane-yuri

O

hya

yo

ru

ri,

Hi

nœ 3

œ 3 #œ2 #œ 2

ya

u

ri

œ3

Yuri

ri,

Fū,

/ œ

¢

Geke

° œ3 & Tā

Honyuri*

œ shujō

no

katachi

œ

o

misu

œ 33

œ3

œ 33

œ 3 œ 3 3 œ 3 œ 3 3 œ3 #œ

œ3 #œ 3 3 œ3

u

tā

u

tā

ya

u

tā

,

u

i

hyu

/ ¢

° œ3 & tā

œ 33

œ3

œ33

œ3

#œ

u

tā

,

u

i

œ3 ya

/ ¢ *Honyuri = extending the last syllable for eight pulses.

œ3 3

œ2 2

rō

i

i,

Appendix D243

(h) [Sashi] Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

œ

(movement in high pitch) Utai

¢

Shite: Shikaru

ni

ichimon

kado

o

narabe

° & / ¢

œ Ruiyō

eda

o

tsuraneshi

yosooi

° & / ¢

œ Ji: Mi

œ no

narawashi

koso

kaneshikere

œ

244PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° & / œ

¢

Shite: Kami

ni

atte

wa

shimo

,

o

Ryo no kote

° &

#œ Ho,

nayamashi

#œ

œ3 œ œ3 33

œ3 œ3

tsu

u

ri

ro

ra

#œ3

u

ro,

/ ¢

œ

œ

œ œ

œ œ œ

To

n

de

wa

ogori

œ3

œ3

œ3

a

a

a

° œ & hya

(movement in low range)

o

œ

shirazaru

nari

œ3

œ3

œ3

ra

ri

u

/ ¢

° œ & 33 ro

/ ¢

œ2 2

#œ

œ3

i,

tsu

u

œ 33 ro

nœ2 2 i

#œ 3 yo

Appendix D245

(i) [Kuse] Nohkan

° & /

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

(movement in low and middle range) Utai

¢ Ji:

œ Shikaru

ni

Heike

° & / œ

¢

Yo

totte

nijūyo

o

nen

° & / ¢

œ Makoto

ni

hitomukashi

no

246PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° & / œ

¢

Suguru

œ

wa

yume

no

uchi

nareya

° & / œ

¢

Juei

no

aki

no

ha

no

° & / œ

¢

Yomo Naka no Takane

° #œ &

Hi

/

no

#œ 3 3

arashi

hyo

ni

sasoware

ru

ri,

nœ 3

#œ 2

œ

(move to high range)

¢

Chirijiri

ni

naru

ichiyō

no

Appendix D247

° #œ & hi

#œ 3 3

nœ3

nœ 3 3

hyo

i

yo

/ (back to middle and low range)

œ

¢

Fune

ni

uki

nami

ni

fushite

° & / œ

¢

Yume

ni

œ

dani

mo

kaerazu

° & / œ

¢

Rōchō

no

kumo

o

koi

° & / ¢

œ Kigan

tsura

o

œ

midaru

naru

248PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° & / œ

¢

Sora

sadame

œ

naki

tabigoromo

° & / œ

¢

Hi

œ mo

œ

kasanarite

toshinami

no

° & / œ

¢

Tachi

kaeru

haru

no

koro

° & / ¢

œ Kono

Ichinotani

œ

ni

œ komorite

Appendix D249

° & / œ

¢

Shibashi

œ

wa

koko

ni

Suma

no

Ura

° & / ¢ Shite: Ushiro

no

yamakaze

fuki

ochite

° & / ¢

œ

Ji: No

mo

° œ 33 &

saekaeru

O

/

#œ 2

hyā

ra,

Fune

no

ni

œ

œ

(chant in high range)

¢

umigiwa

#œ 2

Age no Takane

yoru

to

naku

hiru

to

naki

250PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

° œ33 & O

/

#œ2

#œ 33

nœ2

#œ

#œ 33

nœ3

#œ2

hyā

yo

i

hi

hyo

ru

ri

no

koe

mo

waga

sode

mo

œ

¢ Chidori

° & /

œ

(movement in high and middle range)

¢

Nami

ni

œ shioruru

isomakura

° & / ¢

œ

œ

Ama

no

tomaya

ni

tomone

shite

° & / œ

¢

Suma

-

bito

ni

œ

nomi

sonare

° & / œ

¢

Tatsuru

° & /

œ

ya

œ usukemuri

matsu

no

/ œ

œ

¢ œ Appendix D251 Tatsuru

ya

usukemuri

° & / œ

¢

Shiba

to

iumono

ori

shikite

° & /

œ

(back up to high and middle range)

¢

Omoi

o

œ

Suma

no

yamazato

no

° & /

œ

¢

œ

Kakaru

° œ & Hya

Kote

tokoro

ni

œ3

œ3 3

œ3

a

a

a

sumai

shite

œ3

œ3

œ3

ra

ri

u

j œ�

œ 33 ro

/ (movement in middle and low range; end in low range)

œ

¢

Suma

° œ22 & i,

bito

to

nari

#œ

œ3

tsu

u

ro

no

hate

hatsuru

nœ 2 2

œ3 3

i

#œ 3 yo

/ ¢

œ Ichimon

œ

zo

kanashiki

252PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(j) [Waka] Sō no Tome

Nohkan

° œ3 3 & O

#œ 2

#œ2

#œ 2

hyā

ri

ya

ri

/

Ōtsuzumi Kotsuzumi

Utai

#œ2

¢ Ji:

° #œ & hi

œ

œ Ato

œ

tomuraite

tabitamae

#œ 33

nœ3

#œ2

hyō

ru

ri

/ œ

¢

œ

Ato

° &

œ

#œ

Hi

ya

a,

/ ¢

tomuraite

#œ

Hishigi

œ tabitamae

,

#œ Hi

Appendix E Yubitsuke (Fingerings) for the〔Shidai〕and the〔Issei〕 (a)〔Shidai〕

Source: Morikawa ([1940b] 2004, 36). 253

254PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(b)〔Issei〕

Source: Morikawa ([1940b] 2004, 38).

Appendix F Text for Yokomichi’s Taka no Izumi (1949)

Source: Masuda, Kobayashi, and Hata ([1977] 1985, 222–224). 255

256PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix F257

Appendix G Text for Yokomichi’s Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari (2004)

Source: Yokomichi, Taka no Izumi, Shu-gakari program notes, December 25, 2004, 30–31. 259

260PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix G261

Appendix H Text for Yokomichi’s Takahime (1998)

Source: Masuda, Kobayashi, and Hata ([1977] 1985, 224–229). 263

264PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix H265

266PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix H267

268PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix H269

Appendix I Contemporary Noh Play Performances and Their Casts, by Location and Date Table I-­1: Taka no Izumi performances (1949–1952) Performer (by performance) Role/instrument Shite Waki Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko Ji-­gashira

Japan, 1949

Japan, 1950

Japan, 1952

Kita Minoru Hōshō Yaichi Kita Nagayo Fujita Daigorō Kō Enjirō Yasufuku Haruo Komparu Sōuemon Tomoeda Kikuo

Kita Minoru Kanze Hideo Kita Sadayo

Kita Minoru Kanze Hideo Kita Sadayo

Sources: Yokomichi, “Takahime no shoen made,” Sanko no Kai, program notes from discussion with performers, December 14, 1987; Yokomichi, Taka no Izumi, Shu-­ gakari program notes, December 25, 2004.

271

272PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Table I-­2: Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari performance (Japan, December 25, 2004) Role/instrument Shite (Old Man) Tsure (Takahime) Waki (Cuchulain) Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko Ji-­utai

Kōken

Performer Tomoeda Akiyo Kanze Kiyokazu Sekine Yoshito Issō Yukihiro Ōkura Genjirō Kakihara Takashi Komparu Kunikazu Nomura Shirō (ji-­gashira) Yamamoto Nobuyuki Asai Fumiyoshi Oka Hisahiro Sekine Tomotaka Takeda Naohiro Asami Shigeyoshi Fujinami Shigehiko Kizuki Takayuki Kanze Yoshinobu Ueda Kimitake

Sources: Yokomichi, Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari program notes, December 25, 2004; Yokomichi, “Takahime no shoen made,” Sanko no Kai, program notes from discussion with performers, 1987.

273

Director Old Man Cuchulain Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Director Old Man Cuchulain Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Kanze Shizuo Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Denmark, September 17, 1972

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Kanze Shizuo Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Komparu Sōuemon

Japan, December 19 and 22, 1967

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Kanze Shizuo Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Italy, September 23, 1972

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Katayama Hirotarō Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, June 14, 1970

Table I-­3: Takahime performances (1967–2004)

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Kanze Shizuo Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Serbia (Yugoslavia), September 28, 1972

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Nomura Mansaku Kanze Hisao Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, December 1, 1970

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Kanze Shizuo Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, December 12, 1972

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Nomura Mansaku Kanze Hisao Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, July 26, 1971

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Hōshō Kan Kanze Hisao Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō (continued)

France, September 9, 1976

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hisao Nomura Mansaku Kanze Shizuo Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Denmark, September 16, 1972

274

Nomura Mannojō

Kanze Hideo Nomura Mannojō Kanze Tetsunojō Issō Yukimasa Ōkura Genjirō Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Old Man Cuchulain Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Japan, April 19, 1982

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Hōshō Kan Kanze Hisao Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Director(s)

Director Old Man Cuchulain Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Sweden, September 24, 1976

Table I-3: (continued)

Nomura Mannojō, Kanze Hideo Seo Kikuji Awaya Akio Awaya Yoshio Issō Hisayuki Kitamura Osamu Kunikawa Jun Kotera Sashichi

Japan, November 30, 1988

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Tetsunojō Hōshō Kan Yamamoto Nobuyuki Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, February 9, 1982

Kanze Hideo Kanze Akeo Kanze Tetsunojō Sugi Ichikazu Ōkura Genjirō Kawamura Masaru Mishima Gentarō

Nomura Mannojō

Japan, December 18, 1988

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Nomura Mannojō Asami Masakuni Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, February 10, 1982

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Seo Kikuji Awaya Yoshio Asai Fumiyoshi Issō Hisayuki Kitamura Osamu Kunikawa Jun Kotera Sashichi

Japan, February 3 and 4, 1989

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Tetsunojō Hōshō Kan Yamamoto Nobuyuki Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, February 11, 1982

Nomura Manzō Kanze Hideo Kanze Tetsunojō Hōshō Kinya Ōtsuki Bunzō Issō Takayuki Ōkura Genjirō Kamei Hirotada Kanze Motonori

Japan, June 30, 1998

Nomura Mannojō Kanze Hideo Nomura Mannojō Asami Masakuni Issō Yukimasa Kitamura Osamu Kamei Tadao Mishima Gentarō

Japan, February 11, 1982

275

Umewaka Rokurō Ōtsuki Bunzō Nomura Mansai Umewaka Rokurō Fujita Rokurobyōe Ōkura Genjirō Kamei Hirotada Kanze Motonori

Yokomichi Mario Kanze Hideo Yamamoto Norishige Kanze Tetsunojō Matsuda Hiroyuki Ōkura Genjirō Yamamoto Tetsuya Mishima Gentarō

Japan, July 15, 2004

Akamatsu Yoshihide Fujita Rokurobyōe Ōkura Genjirō Yamamoto Tetsuya Ueda Satoru

Ōtsuki Bunzō Kanze Akeo Fukuō Kazuyuki

Japan, July 21, 1999

Umewaka Rokurō Umewaka Rokurō Nomura Mansai Umewaka Shinya

Japan, July 25, 2004

Umewaka Shinya Fujita Rokurobyōe Ōkura Genjirō Kamei Hirotada Sukegawa Osamu

Umewaka Rokurō Umewaka Rokurō Nomura Mansai

Japan, October 14, 2003

Tomoeda Akiyo Fujita Rokurobyōe Ōkura Genjirō Kamei Hirotada Sukegawa Osamu

Umewaka Rokurō Umewaka Rokurō Nomura Mansai

Japan, December 19, 2003

Umewaka Rokurō Umewaka Rokurō* Yamamoto  Norishige Umewaka Rokurō* Fujita Rokurobyōe Ōkura Genjirō Kamei Hirotada Kanze Motonori

Japan, March 13, 2004

Source: Takahime utaibon attachment. Note: Not all name changes are indicated in the chart. *Umewaka Rokurō is noted twice on March 13, 2004, in the source. There is a possibility that Umewaka Shinya performed the role of Takahime.

Director Old Man Cuchulain Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Akamatsu Yoshihide Fujita Rokurobyōe Ōkura Genjirō Yamamoto Tetsuya Ueda Satoru

Takahime Nohkan Kotsuzumi Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Japan, March 29, 2004

Ōtsuki Bunzō Kanze Akeo Fukuō Kazuyuki

Director Old Man Cuchulain

Japan, July 20, 1999

276PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION Table I-­4: At the Hawk’s Well performances by English-language Noh performance groups (1981–2002)

Director(s) (Cloth) Folders Spirits

Kyoto, 1981, by NOHO Jonah Salz

Tokyo, 1982, by NOHO Richard Emmert

Sydney, 1984, by Matsui and Emmert Matsui Akira Richard Emmert

Chin Kham Yoke

Matsui Akira

John McAteer

Gregory Anderson

Andrea King Rebecca Jennison Geoffrey O’Kane

Hawk (Takahime) Guardian of the Chin Kham Yoke Well Old Man John McAteer Young Man  (Cuchulain)

Quentin Durning

Quentin Durning

Philip Parr

Singers

Soren Bisgaard Peter Golightly Larry Kominz

Rebecca Jennison Carolyn Haynes Erika Bilder

Narrator

Geoffrey O’Kane

Geoffrey O’Kane

Sally Brereton Megan Green Jenny Neville Katrina Onishi

Chorus

Andrea King Rebecca Jennison Geoffrey O’Kane

Kama Mitsuo David Crandall Steven Nelson Christopher Blasdel Phil Rubin

Nohkan

Richard Emmert

Richard Emmert

Kotsuzumi

Araki Teruo

Araki Teruo

Ōtsuzumi Taiko

Ōkura Shōnosuke Mishima Gentarō

Ōkura Shōnosuke Mishima Gentarō

Mary Callanan Lewis Cornwell Richard Emmert Kelvin Hastie Allan Marett Friedrich Rauchbauer Mike Ryan Meg Jardine Allan Marett Mary Callanan Rafael May John Hardy Anthony Hood

Sources: 1981, 1985, 1990 by NOHO, program notes; 1982 by NOHO (Tokyo), program notes and DVD of performance; 1984 by University of Sydney, program notes; 2002 by Theatre Nohgaku (USA), program notes and DVD of performances. Jonah Salz, email message to author, February 1, 2020. Richard Emmert, email message to author, February 12, 2020. Table created by author. *The cast for Old Man and Young Man (Cuchulain) alternated throughout the tour. Numbers

Appendix I277

Kyoto, 1985, by NOHO Jonah Salz Karen Seiber Silvia Remkins Katia Sazevich

Kyoto, 1990, by NOHO Richard Emmert

Richard Emmert David Crandall

Wakamatsu Yukio (Matsui Akira) John Elzey

Yoke Chin Kham

Mark Pigram

Matsui Akira

Maruishi Yasushi

Julie Kabat Kimberly Nelson Sally Schwager Richard Emmert Ronald Koening

USA, 2002, by Theatre Nohgaku* Richard Emmert

Matsui Akira David Crandall (3) Richard Emmert (3) Jubilith Moore (2) Elizabeth Dowd (3) Matthew Dubroff (2) John Oglevee (3)

Richard Emmert (5) David Crandall (5) Elizabeth Dowd (3) Matthew Dubroff (6) John Oglevee (5) Lluis Valls (8)

Akai Keizo

Fujita Rokurobyōe

Tanaka Yoshikazu

Hisada Shunichirō

Hisada Shunichirō

Kama Mitsuo

Kawamura Masaru Ueda Satoru

Kawamura Masaru Ueda Satoru

Ōkura Eitarō Mishima Taku

next to cast member names indicate the number of each member’s performances. This table includes an additional performance, which took place at Hampden-Sydney College in Virginia on September 10, 2002. The program at Hampden-Sydney College was different from the seven performances organized by Theatre of Yugen. According to Richard Emmert, at each performance, “[t]here were always four chorus members, one kōken, and two roles (old man and young man)” (Email message to author, February 12, 2020).

Appendix J Kanze School Utaibon for Atsumori

Source: Kanze Sakon ([1950] 1975, 973–979). 279

280PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix J281

282PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

Appendix K Nohkan Pitches Used for Theoretical Transcriptions1 A = 440 Hz; actual nohkan pitches are an octave higher than the written pitches. (Music transcribed by author)

(a) Nohkan Scale with “Right 4” Covered (Usual)

ïï ï ïï ¯ï

ïï ï ï ¯ïï

ïï ï ¯¯ï ï

ïï ï ¯¯ ¯ï

ï ¯ï ¯¯ ¯ï

¯¯ï ¯¯ ¯ï

¯¯ ¯ ¯¯ ¯ï

œ2

œ2

œ 33

#œ3

#œ 3

#œ3

#œ 3

#œ2

& œ

œ3

œ33

#œ3 3

Left

1 2 3

Right

1 2 3 4

&

ïï ï ïï ïï

Fukura

Seme

œ3

#œ2

#œ 3

œ

1. Many of the notes fall between pitches (i.e., quarter tones, microtones) in relation to the Western standard A = 440 Hz. Arrows pointing up or down to the right side of the pitch are used to indicate these pitches, following the pattern from Nohgaku hayashi taikei (1973a). 283

284PIERCING the STRUCTURE of TRADITION

(b) Nohkan Scale with “Right 4” Finger Uncovered

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ï ¯ï ¯¯ ¯¯

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œ2

œ2

œ3

#œ 3

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#œ 3

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& œ

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œ3

#œ 3

œ3

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#œ 2

Left 12 3

Right

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1 2 3 4

ïï ï ïï ïï

Fukura

Seme

(c) Irregular Notes and Fingerings

œ

Glossary

agemaku 揚ゲ幕   A hanging curtain separating the hashi-­gakari from the backstage area. It is raised and lowered to allow the entrance and exit of the performers. [Age no Ei 上ノ詠]  A shōdan (building block) within a Noh structure. Age no Takane 上ノ高音   A nohkan melodic pattern. [Ageuta 上歌]   Translated as “high-­pitched song” and categorized as an utai-­goto shōdan. The nohkan plays the melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Roku no Ge (or Kote), entering at different points of the utai (chant). The chant begins in the high range for the first five syllables plus the first line, followed by an uchikiri (short musical break) of the drums’ “iyaΔ,” after which the nohkan melodic pattern of Takane is played until the kotsuzumi’s “ha• ha○.” ai-­kyōgen アイ狂言   A Kyōgen interlude performed by the kyōgen-­ kata that comes between the mae-­ba (first act) and nochi-­ba (second act) of a Noh play. See also Kyōgen; kyōgen-­kata. ashirai-­buki アシライ吹キ   One of the two styles of playing the nohkan, in which the nohkan is not constrained by strict beats of the drum patterns. Referred to as unmatched playing, this style is used in both hayashi-­goto and utai-­goto. ashirai-­buki (ashirai) senritsu-­kei アシライ吹キ旋律型  Unmatched-­ playing melodic patterns. 〔Ashirai-­dashi アシライ出シ〕  An ashirai played only by the ko­ tsuzumi and ōtsuzumi. ato-­za 後座   The rear (or upstage) space of a Noh stage, occupied mainly by the hayashi-­kata (instrumentalists) and the kōken (stage assistants). 285

286Glossary

awase-­buki 合ワセ吹キ   One of the two styles of playing the nohkan, in which the nohkan plays according to the rhythm and tempo established by the drums. Referred to as matched playing, this style is found in hayashi-­goto. awase-­buki senritsu-­kei 合ワセ吹キ旋律型  Matched-­ playing melodic patterns. 〔Ayumi アユミ〕  A hayashi-­goto in which the nohkan plays the ashirai-­buki melodic patterns of Naka no Takane and Roku no Ge. ba 場   An act in a play; the first order of division of a Noh play. bachi 撥   Two sticks used to play the taiko. banshiki-­chō 盤渉調   A scalar mode that came from China. It is higher in pitch than ōshiki-­chō. 〔Banshiki Deha-­bataraki 盤渉・出羽働〕  A variation of the〔Deha-­bataraki〕that does not exist in the traditional Noh repertoire but was created for the Noh play Takahime. It was played in banshiki-­chō without taiko, using only the nohkan, kotsuzumi, and ōtsuzumi. 〔Banshiki Haya-­mai 盤渉早舞〕  A hayashi-­goto used to accompany fun and elegant dances of high-­class male ghosts. It follows the ryo-­chū-­kan structure similar to the〔Chū no Mai〕until the sho-­dan (first dan or section) but changes mode from the ōshiki to the banshiki. 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai 盤渉・急ノ舞〕   The fastest of all Noh dances in the banshiki-­chō mode. It follows the ryo-­chū-­kan structure. chinkon 鎮魂   Pacification of spirits of the dead. 〔Chū no Mai 中ノ舞〕   An instrumentally accompanied dance used in twenty-­three plays of the traditional Noh repertoire, each one with a character unique to that play. It also can be considered the most basic dance in the repertoire. chū-­nori 中ノリ   Translated as “medium rhythm”; also known as shura-­nori, which may be translated as “warrior rhythm” and is com-

Glossary287

monly used in battle scenes. In an eight-­beat phrase, sixteen syllables are evenly distributed with other rhythmic variations. Thus, it does not use the more typical poetic meter of 7+5 syllables but, rather, divides the text into 8+8 syllables. [Chū-­nori-­ji 中ノリ地]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. chū-­on 中音   Middle pitches in singing. chū-­uki 中ウキ   A note that is a major second above chū-­on in yowa-­ gin. 〔Deha-­bataraki 出羽働〕  A hayashi-­goto that exists in ōshiki-­chō in traditional Noh plays and is usually played with the taiko. Daijin Shidai 大臣次第   A type of〔Shin no Shidai〕reserved for higher-­ranking characters in waki Noh. dai-­shō mae 大小前   Literally translated as “in front of the ōtsuzumi and kotsuzumi”; the rear center (or upstage center) area of a Noh stage. dan 段   Translated as “divisions” or “scenes”; the second order of division of a Noh play. It can also refer to a section within a dance. [Dan-­uta 段歌]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. 〔Deha 出端〕   A type of entrance music that accompanies nonhuman characters such as demons, celestial maidens, and ghosts. The tempo of the music changes according to the specific character entering, and it is usually not played in the first part of a Noh play. Dengaku 田楽   One of the origins of Noh; a folk entertainment that developed in farming villages as a ritual praying for a good harvest. dengaku-­bue 田楽笛   A type of flute created by Issō Yukihiro and Ranjō that is modeled on the flute that may have been played in Dengaku. fue 笛   A general term for a transverse flute. fue-­bashira 笛柱   The pillar near where the nohkan player sits. fue-­kata 笛方   A nohkan player in Noh. fue-­za-­mae 笛座前   Literally translated as “in front of the flute seat”; the rear corner (or upstage left) area of a Noh stage.

288Glossary

fukikomi 吹キ込ミ   An instantaneous burst of fast, strong air blown through the nohkan, causing a shakuhachi-­like white noise. fushi 節   (1) Joints of a bamboo stem. (2) Marks that look like sesame seeds next to a word or syllable in Noh vocal music notation, indicating pitches and movements of the utai (chant). act mugen Noh with futabagata mugen Noh 二場型夢幻能  A two-­ a mae-­shite and a nochi-­shite. Gagaku 雅楽   Court music that traces its ancestry to China. ge no chū-­on 下ノ中音   A note that is about a second (or minor third when written in Western staff notation) below the jō-­on and chū-­on in tsuyo-­gin. [Ge no Ei 下ノ詠]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. genzai Noh 現在能   Real-­world Noh plays; one of the three divisions of Noh plays. ge-­on 下音   Low pitches in singing. gobandate 五番立   Five categories of Noh plays. gobanme-­mono 五番目物  Fifth-­ category Noh: kiri Noh (ending Noh) or kichiku Noh (demon and creature Noh), in which the shite is a demon or a supernatural creature. This category is usually placed at the end of the program, as suggested by its name, and the structure of the Noh play is straightforward, emphasizing the mai (dance) at the end. go-­dan 五段  A five-­ dan (five-­section) dance. go-­gyō 五行 (Japanese reading)   One of many Chinese superstitions adapted in Japan; the concept that everything in heaven and earth can be classified as one of five elements (earth, metal, wood, fire, or water). gonin-­bayashi 五人囃子   The five musicians in Hina-­matsuri. Gyō no Tome 行ノ留   A nohkan melodic pattern played near the end of a Noh play. han-­ku 半句   Half of a line of poetry; a subdivision of a shōdan.

Glossary289

hannya 般若   A jealous woman turned demon, with horns on the forehead and bulging metallic eyes. hashi-­gakari 橋掛リ   A bridgeway on a Noh stage that extends on the left side of the hon-­butai (main stage), from the audience’s view. 〔Haya-­fue 早笛〕  A hayashi-­goto used to accompany entrances of dragon kings and gods. hayashi 囃子   A musical ensemble. hayashi-­goto 囃子事   One of the three categories of shōdan, identified by〔　〕brackets. Hayashi-­goto are purely instrumental music pieces, usually accompanying entrances or exits of characters and mai (dance). hayashi-­kata 囃子方   Instrumentalists in a musical ensemble. Hina-­matsuri 雛祭り   Translated as “Doll Festival” or “Girl’s Day”; a traditional event held annually on March 3, praying for girls’ growth and happiness. hina-­mōsen 雛毛氈   Red cloth that covers the platform of the hina-­ ningyō (hina dolls). hinoki 檜   Cypress, which is used to make Noh stages. The wood is smoothed and polished to facilitate the actors’ suri-­ashi, a technique of walking that involves sliding the feet. hira-­nori 平ノリ   Translated as “standard rhythm”; one of the three rhythms of hyōshi-­ai. It is the most commonly used and the most complicated, as it is used to accompany the Japanese 7+5 syllable poetic meter called shichi-­go chō. Shōdan such as the [Ageuta] and the [Sageuta] are sung using this poetic meter with the twelve syllables spread across eight beats, also known as yatsu-­byōshi. hishigi ヒシギ   A high-­pitched sound with complex harmonic overtones produced by the nohkan. hita-­men 直面   Literally translated as “direct mask.” Usually a mask is worn by the shite and the tsure, but when actors portray middle-­ aged men living in the present, they perform these roles without a

290Glossary

mask, instead maintaining a masklike expression referred to as hita-­ men. hitobagata mugen Noh 一場型夢幻能  A one-­ act mugen Noh with the shite appearing as an apparition, or spirit, from the beginning of the play and ending in the same form. hito-­kusari 一鎖   “One chain,” or “one phrase,” that is divided into eight beats. hon-­butai 本舞台   A square space where Noh and Kyōgen performances take place, measuring approximately six meters on each side, without curtains and open on three sides. hyōshi-­ai 拍子合   One of the two rhythmic styles, translated as “matched rhythm.” There are three types of matched rhythms between the chant (and/or nohkan) and the drums: hira-­nori (standard rhythm), chū-­nori (medium rhythm), and ō-­nori (large rhythm). hyōshi-­awazu 拍子不合   One of the two rhythmic styles, translated as “unmatched rhythm.” In the hyōshi-­awazu, the rhythms of the chant (and/or nohkan) do not correspond to the beat of the drums, although the drums play in relation to each other. When the nohkan plays during hyōshi-­awazu, it plays using the ashirai-­buki (unmatched-­playing) style, which is not constrained by strict beats. ichi-­no-­matsu 一ノ松   The first pine tree located on the side of the hashi-­gakari. iemoto 家元   Head of the household. iemoto seido 家元制度  Family regulation(s). 〔Iroe-­deha イロエ出端〕  A hayashi-­goto commonly used for gods and goddesses. 〔Issei 一声〕  A hayashi-­goto played for entrances of incarnate spirits, ghosts or apparitions, and fairies. Issō-­r yū 一噌流   One of three nohkan schools. iwa-­bue 石笛   A flute/whistle from the Jōmon period (10,000–300 BC) made of stone and featuring one mouth hole and a few finger holes. It is able to produce a high, piercing pitch.

Glossary291

ji 地   A ground pattern for drums. jibyōshi 地拍子  Noh rhythms. ji-­gashira 地頭  The head ji-­utai (chorus) singer. jitori 地取   The low, quiet voice of the ji-­utai used when it repeats the lines of the actor. ji-­utai 地謡  The chorus. ji-­utai-­mae 地謡前   Literally translated as “in front of the ji-­utai”; the left center (or stage left) area of a Noh stage. ji-­utai-­za 地謡座   The space for the ji-­utai. jo-­ha-­kyū 序破急   A basic structure that pervades Japanese traditional music. In Western terms, it is often compared to an “introduction-­ development-­ conclusion” pattern because it has a slow introduction, development that breaks the mood, and a fast conclusion. Jōmon period 縄文時代  10,000–300 BC. 〔Jo no Mai 序ノ舞〕   Translated as “Slow Elegant Dance.” Similar in structure to the〔Chū no Mai〕, it follows the ryo-­chū-­kan structure with its cyclic ground pattern but is much slower in tempo, with a prominent slow beginning. It gradually speeds up in accordance with the jo-­ha-­kyū progression. jō-­on 上音   High pitches in singing. jō-­uki 上ウキ   A note that is a major second above jō-­on in yowa-­ gin. jō-­za 常座  The shite’s spot on the Noh stage. kaba 樺   Thin strips of birch used to bind the nohkan for support and for aesthetic reasons. kae no fu 替エノ譜   An alternate melody. kaeshi カエシ   One of three techniques employed in making the nohkan; translated as “reversal method.” kagami-­ita 鏡板   A large pine tree painted on the back wall of the Noh stage.

292Glossary

kagami no ma 鏡ノ間   Literally translated as “mirror room,” where the instrumentalists warm up and where the shite, and sometimes the tsure, put on their masks and wait to go onstage, while viewing themselves in a mirror. kakari 掛リ   The beginning section of a mai. [Kakeai 掛ケ合]   An exchange between two characters. kakegoe カケ声   Vocal calls of the drummers. kami-­asobi 神遊び  Deity entertainment. 〔Kami-­mai 神舞〕   Translated as “God dance”; similar in structure to the〔Chū no Mai〕with its repeating ji (ground pattern) in the ryo-­chū-­kan structure, but much faster in tempo. kami-­okuri 神送り   Sending off the deity. kami-­oroshi 神降ろし   The descent of a deity. kana 仮名   Japanese syllables that embody the musical expressions that give rise to individuality and variations. kan-­guri 甲グリ   (1) One of the notes in yowa-­gin, which is a perfect fifth above jō-­on, used for embellishments and used regularly by the Hōshō School performers. (2) One of the notes in tsuyo-­gin, which is approximately a perfect fifth above the jō-­on. kashira-­gane 頭金   A gold cap relief that bears the nohkan maker’s mark and encloses the top portion of the nohkan. kazakiri かざきり   The edge of the nohkan’s mouth hole. [Kiri キリ]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. kiri-­do 切戸   The side door of a Noh stage. kogaki 小書   A special production performance. ko-­kata 子方   The child role actor who always appears without a mask and usually represents a child. The ko-­kata might also represent an exalted figure such as an emperor, using his or her natural appearance and voice.

Glossary293

kōken 後見  Stage assistant(s). Kō-­r yū 幸流   One of four kotsuzumi schools. Kote 小手   A nohkan melodic pattern played near the end of an utai-­goto, as in the [Ageuta]. kotoba コトバ   A vocal style that is not sung, in contrast to the singing styles yowa-­gin and tsuyo-­gin. It is more like a stylized speech and is used in dialogues between characters. kotsuzumi 小鼓   A shoulder drum. There are four kotsuzumi schools: Kō, Kōsei, Ōkura, and Kanze. ku 句   A line of poetry; a subdivision of a shōdan. kuchi-­shōga 口唱歌  See shōga. kumorasu クモラス   A technique of playing with angles of light and the shadows thus created. Kumorasu refers to tilting a Noh mask downward to express sadness. See also terasu. [Kuri クリ]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. kuri-­on クリ音   (1) One of the notes in yowa-­gin that is approximately a minor third above jō-­on and ryo and a perfect fifth below ge-­on. (2) One of the notes in tsuyo-­gin located a half step above jō-­ on and chū-­on. kusari 鎖  A phrase. [Kuse クセ]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. Kyōgen   A comedic stage art performed between Noh plays. There two Kyōgen schools: Ōkura and Izumi. See also ai-­kyōgen; kyōgen-­ kata. kyōgen-­kata 狂言方   The Kyōgen role actors who perform Kyōgen interludes within Noh plays. Kyōgen-­kata also perform in Kyōgen plays. See also ai-­kyōgen; Kyōgen. mae-­ba 前場   The first or beginning act of a mugen Noh play. mae-­shite 前シテ  The shite in the first act of a mugen Noh play.

294Glossary

mai 舞  A dance. mai-­bayashi 舞囃子   An instrumental dance piece. marukan 丸管   Literally translated as “round pipe”; one of three techniques employed in making the nohkan. meri-­kari メリカリ   Adjustment of the pitch produced by the nohkan accomplished by rolling the mouth hole in and out, which changes the angle of the air hitting the mouth hole. metsuke-­bashira 目付柱   The “viewing pillar” on a Noh stage. It serves as a crucial marker for the masked characters, with their limited view, to find their position onstage. [Michiyuki 道行]   A type of [Ageuta] that has the melodic patterns of Takane, Naka no Takane, and Roku no Ge or Kote. minzoku geinō 民俗芸能  Folk entertainments. [Mondō 問答]   A dialogue between characters in a stylized speech form. 〔Monogi-­ashirai 物着アシライ〕   A type of hayashi-­goto played when an actor changes part of his or her costume while remaining onstage. montsuki hakama 紋付袴   A formal kimono and divided skirt. mōshi-­awase 申合セ  Rehearsal. mugen Noh 夢幻能   Dream-­world Noh plays; one of the three divisions of Noh plays. Mugen Noh are “plays in which the shite is a being from another dimension of existence, either a god, demon, faerie, or plant spirit, or the ghost of a human being” (Hare 1986, 297). nakairi 中入リ  The shite’s costume change, for which he or she either exits the stage or remains onstage but within a contained area. Naka no Takane 中ノ高音   Literally translated as “medium-­high sound/pitch.” The nohkan plays this melodic pattern in an utai-­goto, as in the [Ageuta].

Glossary295

Nanatsu-­yuri 七揺   A “wavering” nohkan melodic pattern. [Nanori 名ノリ]  A shōdan during which the waki announces his name, character, and/or purpose of his travel. 〔Nanori-­bue 名ノリ笛〕  A hayashi-­goto, ashirai-­buki shōdan that accompanies the entrance of the waki, in which the nohkan plays without drum accompaniment. 〔Narai no Issei 習ノ一声〕  A hayashi-­goto used for entrances of characters in traditional Noh plays. 〔Narai no Shidai 習ノ次第〕  A hayashi-­goto used for entrances in traditional Noh plays. Narai no Te 習ノ手   A specially composed pattern. Nemuri no Fu 眠りの譜   Literally translated as “Sleeping Music”; played by Issō Takayuki in Takahime. 〔Netori 音取リ〕  A hayashi-­goto played by the nohkan and the kotsuzumi at the opening of traditional Noh plays. It may also be known as〔Shin no Netori〕by the Issō School. nibanme-­mono 二番目物  Second-­ category Noh: shura-­mono (warrior plays) in which the shite is a warrior, with most stories taken from the battles portrayed in the Heike monogatari. nochi-­ba 後場   The second or last act of a mugen Noh play. nochi-­shite 後シテ  The shite in the second act of a mugen Noh play. nodo 喉   A thin bamboo tube inserted between the mouth hole and the first finger hole of a nohkan. This tube deliberately distorts the instrument’s natural acoustics. nodo-­nashi nohkan ノドナシ能管   A type of nohkan without a nodo (throat) that has been created by Issō Yukihiro and Ranjō. Noh 能   “Talent, ability, skill . . . and the skill of specialty that one demonstrates” (Omote 1978, 61). nohgaku 能楽   The performance arts of Noh and Kyōgen. nohgaku-­bayashi 能楽囃子   A Noh musical ensemble.

296Glossary

nohgaku-­dō 能楽堂   A Noh theater. nohgaku-­shi 能楽師   A professional Noh performer. noh ichiban 能一番   A Noh play. nohkan 能管   Literally translated as “Noh pipe”; also known as fue (flute). The three nohkan schools are Issō, Morita, and Fujita. [Nokori-­dome 残リ留]  A shōdan near the end of the English-­ language Noh At the Hawk’s Well. [Nokori-­dome] can also be used as a nohkan melodic pattern played at the end of a Noh. [Nori-­ji ノリ地]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. nori-­urushi のり漆   A glue lacquer used to bind kaeshi strips together when constructing a nohkan. 〔Ō-­beshi 大ベシ〕   Music played during entrances of long-­nosed goblins or gods. Okina Sarugaku 翁猿楽   Thought to be the “authentic” Sarugaku performance, before the addition of dramatic elements and forms. It had five characters: chigo 児, okina-­men 翁面, sanba-­sarugaku 三番 猿楽, kaja 冠者, and chichi no jō 父允. Zeami later called it Shiki-­ sanban 〈式三番〉. Today it is known as Okina 〈翁〉. 〔Oki-­tsuzumi 置鼓〕   Also known as the〔Shin no Netori〕by the Issō School fue-­kata. It is played by the kotsuzumi and the nohkan to accompany the entrance of characters of elevated status. After playing the〔Shin no Netori〕, the nohkan plays the〔Shin no Nanori〕. 〔Okuri-­bue 送リ笛〕   Literally translated as “sending flute.” In the Issō School, the nohkan alone plays consecutively Naka no Takane and Roku no Ge as the shite—and the tsure if a tsure is present— leaves the stage via the bridgeway for a costume change (nakairi). If both characters are present and are near the curtain of the bridgeway, the〔Okuri-­bue〕is usually omitted. If the nohkan performer thinks, however, that there is enough time for part of the〔Okuri-­ bue〕, he or she may decide to play Kote, which is a shorter version of Roku no Ge. This option is at the discretion of the nohkan performer.

Glossary297

〔Okuri-­ōyuri 送リ大ユリ〕  A hayashi-­goto shōdan. omori おもり   A small lead weight added to the hollow headpiece of the upper segment of the nohkan. It is thought that this lead weight affects the balance of the instrument by countering the weight of the heavier lower segments. ō-­nori 大ノリ   Translated as “large rhythm;” a rhythmic pattern that fits 4+4 syllables into an eight-­beat phrase, which may be thought of as placing eight syllables into eight beats. The taiko is often present for ō-­nori. oroshi オロシ   A ritard section (a section in which the overall tempo slows down) that occurs in a mai of each dan. ōshiki-­chō 黄鐘調   A scalar mode that originated in China and to which most Noh dances are set. oshirabe お調べ   The tuning of the instruments before a Noh performance. ōtsuzumi 大鼓 or ōkawa 大皮   A hip drum. The ōtsuzumi has five schools: Kadono, Takayasu, Ishii, Ōkura, and Kanze. Ō-­yuri 大ユリ   A nohkan melodic pattern with a “wavering” pattern. 〔Raijo 来序〕 A hayashi-goto that the nohkan plays as an ashirai-buki melodic pattern to usher a character offstage, which is followed by an ai-kyōgen entering in a spritely manner. 〔Ranjo 乱序〕  A hayashi-­goto used to accompany entrances of Chinese lions. Renji-­shi no Te 連獅子ノ手   Translated as “Twin Lion Dance”; a nohkan melodic pattern derived from the〔Shishi〕(Lion dance) and usually played only in the Hōshō School of Noh. rō 蝋   Beeswax added to the nohkan from the mouth hole to serve as a plug between the main body and the attached sections of the instrument. Roku no Ge 六ノ下   A nohkan melodic pattern played near the end of an utai-­goto, as in the [Ageuta].

298Glossary

[Rongi ロンギ]   A dialogue between the characters and the chorus, usually with the chorus ending the shōdan. ryo 呂   A pitch that is approximately a perfect fifth below ge-­on in yowa-­gin. ryo-­age 呂上ゲ   A term used for dan endings of the Kanze School dances, which always end with ryo. Ryo no Kake no Ashirai 呂ノカケノアシライ   A nohkan melodic pattern. Ryo no Kote 呂ノ小手   A nohkan melodic pattern. ryo-­chū-­kan keishiki 呂中干形式  The ryo-­chū-­kan structure, which consists of a four-­phrase cycle: ryo (low), chū (middle), kan (high), and kan no chū (high middle). This structure makes up the ji (ground pattern) in a mai (dance). ryōgakari Noh 両掛能   Plays that fall between mugen and genzai Noh; one of the three divisions of Noh plays. ryūgi 流儀   Schools for actors and musicians. ryūteki 龍笛   A flute of Chinese ancestry that is played in Gagaku. 〔Sagariha 下リ端〕  A hayashi-­goto that is categorized as an awase-­buki nohkan melodic pattern and is played by all four instruments. It is played at medium tempo to accompany characters from the present world or gods with elegance and buoyancy. [Sageuta 下歌]   A low-­pitched song categorized as an utai-­goto shōdan. The movements of the utai (chant) are between the middle and low ranges, with the nohkan entering where the utai drops from the middle to low pitch, ending with an uchikiri and leading into the next section. sanbanme-­mono 三番目物  Third-­ category Noh: kazura-­mono (wig Noh), or onna Noh (women plays), in which the shite typically portrays a young woman or, in some cases, an angel or the spirit of a plant. This category is thought to represent the pinnacle of “Noh-­ like” beauty and to be the most difficult category to perform. san-­dan 三段  A three-­ dan (three-­section) dance.

Glossary299

Sangaku 散楽   One of the forerunners of Noh that came from China to Japan during the Nara period. Sarugaku 猿楽   An early form of performance art. It is thought that the Sangaku of China, which consisted of various entertainments, intermixed with Japanese ancient arts and later the Japanese version of Sangaku. The earlier version of Japanese Sangaku seems to have included acrobatics, stunts, and magic similar to the elements of its Chinese ancestor. It later incorporated humorous and comical mimicry into its repertoire and became known as Sarugaku (Omote 1978). [Sashi サシ]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. sashinori サシノリ   Similar to a recitative in opera. sashi-­yubi 差し指   Embellishments played on the nohkan to enhance the mood, ambience, and musical elements during performances. semi 蝉   The swollen part of the bamboo that is near the upper part of the nohkan, where most nohkan makers carve it into the desired shape. It is called a semi (literally translated as “cicada”) because the shape is thought to resemble that of a cicada. senritsu-­kei 旋律型   A melodic pattern. setsu 節   A stanza; a subdivision of a shōdan. shakuhachi 尺八   An end-­blown flute made of bamboo, approximately 54.5 centimeters long. Its name is derived from its measurement of isshaku-­hassun (one shaku, eight sun). shibyōshi 四拍子   The four instruments in the nohgaku-bayashi (Noh musical ensemble). shichi-­go chō 七五調   A Japanese 7+5 poetic meter. Shōdan such as the [Ageuta] and the [Sageuta] are sung using this poetic meter, with the twelve syllables spread across eight beats, also known as yatsu-­ byōshi. 〔Shidai 次第〕  A hayashi-­goto used to accompany the entrance of characters.

300Glossary

[Shidai 次第]  An utai-­goto entrance song sung by the character to express his or her intent, actions, and emotions. shijima-­goto 無言事   Translated as “quiet shōdan”; one of the three categories of shōdan, identified by {　} brackets. In shijima-­goto, neither the utai (chant) nor the hayashi (musical ensemble) is present. shikigaku 式楽   Ceremonial performance (of the military ruling class). shimai 仕舞   A short dance section within a Noh. 〔Shin no Issei 真ノ一声〕   A type of〔Issei〕accompanying characters of elevated social status in waki Noh. Shin no Kuri 真ノクリ   A nohkan melodic pattern played in waki Noh. 〔Shin no Nanori 真ノ名乗リ〕  See〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕. 〔Shin no Netori 真ノ音取リ〕  See〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕. 〔Shin no Raijo 真ノ来序〕  A hayashi-­goto that the nohkan plays as an ashirai-­buki melodic pattern to accompany characters who enter with solemnity—usually Chinese emperors in traditional Noh. Shin no Roku no Ge 真ノ六ノ下   A nohkan melodic pattern played in waki Noh. Shin no Ryo 真ノ呂   A nohkan melodic pattern played in waki Noh. 〔Shin no Shidai 真ノ次第〕   A type of〔Shidai〕reserved for higher-­ranking characters in waki Noh. Shin no Tome 真ノ留メ   A nohkan melodic pattern played in waki Noh. shinsaku Noh 新作能   A new or newly created Noh play. shite シテ   The main role actor. shite-­bashira シテ柱   A pillar where the shite first stands when entering the hon-­butai (main stage); located upstage right of a Noh stage.

Glossary301

shite-­kata シテ方   The main role actors in a Noh play. They may perform with a tsure (the shite’s companion role actor) and usually wear a mask, representing a character from another dimension. They are also responsible for singing in the ji-­utai, which is comparable to a chorus in Western theater. There are five schools for the shite-­kata: the kami-­gakari (upper-­lineage) schools of Kanze and Hōshō and the shimo-­gakari (lower-­lineage) schools of Komparu, Kongō, and Kita. shobanme-­mono 初番目物  First-­ category Noh: kami Noh (god plays), or waki Noh (literally, side Noh), in which the shite is a god who blesses the land with peace and prosperity. shōdan 小段   The third order of division within a Noh play; units that act as the building blocks of a Noh play. shōga 唱歌   Translated as “songs to be chanted”; also known as kuchi-­shōga. Shōga are mnemonic devices that aid in the memorization of the nohkan repertoire and are also used by instructors in correcting or leading the student while he or she plays the instrument. All three schools of the nohkan use this teaching method through oral transmission. shōga-­shū 唱歌集  Shōga books. shō-­ku 小句   Small units within a line of poetry; subdivisions of a shōdan. Shōmon no Ashirai 松門ノアシライ   A melodic pattern played in the traditional Noh play Kagekiyo, in which the nohkan portrays a quiet and calm scene before the entrance of the utai. shōnaka 正中   Literally translated as “center middle”; the center (or center stage) area of a Noh stage. shosa 所作   A dance or movement. shōsaki 正先   The front center (or downstage center) area of a Noh stage. shōzoku 装束   Noh costumes made of silk with elaborate embroidery. Their intricate designs and colors, augmented by the addition

302Glossary

of headgear and hand props, indicate the nobility and social status of the characters being portrayed. shura-­mono 修羅物  Warrior plays. shura-­nori 修羅ノリ  See chū-­nori. Sō no Kuri 草ノクリ   A nohkan melodic pattern played during the [Kuri]. Sō no Tome 草ノ留   A nohkan melodic pattern played near the end of a Noh play. Sō-­shidai 僧次第   A type of〔Shidai〕for priests. su-­bayashi 素囃子  An instrumental hayashi. Sumi 角 or metsuke 目付   The downstage right corner area of a Noh stage. suri-­ashi 摺リ足   A technique for sliding one’s feet, allowing Noh actors to keep their balance while maintaining a strong, erect posture when moving across the stage—an especially difficult feat for the shite actor, who has a limited view. susu-­dake 煤竹   Smoked bamboo used to make nohkan. tachi-­kata 立チ方   Performers responsible for the acting and singing in Noh. There are three roles: shite-­kata, waki-­kata, and kyōgen-­ kata. 〔Tachi-­mawari 立廻リ〕  A hayashi-­goto that accompanies the action onstage. The nohkan may play the melody〔Tachi-­mawari〕 or〔Deha-­bataraki〕, also known as〔Hataraki〕. taiko 太鼓   A barrel drum or stick drum played with two sticks. There are two schools for taiko: Kanze and Komparu. Takane 高音   Literally translated as “high sound/pitch.” The nohkan plays Takane in utai-­goto such as the [Ageuta]. Takane-­haneru 高音ハネル   A nohkan melodic pattern. Takayasu-­r yū 高安流   One of the five ōtsuzumi schools. takigi Noh 薪能   Torchlight Noh, presented on an open-­air stage.

Glossary303

tatedaen 縦楕円   Elliptical in shape. te 手  A pattern. terasu テラス   A technique of playing with angles of light and the shadows thus created. Terasu refers to tilting a Noh mask upward to express joy. See also kumorasu. te-­sarugaku 手猿楽   An amateur Noh performance. tō 籐   Thin strips of rattan used to bind the nohkan for support and aesthetic reasons. [Tsuki-­zerifu 着キゼリフ]  An utai-­goto shōdan with the waki’s lines indicating his arrival at his destination and allowing for the transition between scenes. tsure ツレ  The shite’s companion role actor(s). tsuyo-­gin ツヨ吟・強吟 or gō-­gin 剛吟   Literally translated as “strong singing”; one of the two singing styles. Tsuyo-­gin is an intense, powerful singing style that is usually used to portray “forceful characters or in dramatically dynamic or intense situations” (Bethe and Emmert 1995, 43). Unlike yowa-­gin, tsuyo-­gin has a narrow range of pitches and is forceful in its use of air. It is sung using strong vibrato, and the pitches are rather unstable. uchikiri 打切   A short musical break, when the “iyaΔ” of the drums is followed by the nohkan. urushi 漆   Lacquer used to cover the inside and outside of the nohkan. The entire body is lacquered with black urushi, and the outside of the mouth and finger holes is painted with red urushi. [Uta 歌]  A shōdan within a Noh structure. utaguchi 歌口   The mouth hole of the nohkan. utai 謡   Noh singing or chant. utaibon 謡本   A Noh chant book. utai-­goto 謡事   One of the three types of shōdan (building blocks), identified by [　] brackets. Utai-­goto feature the utai (chant) and are

304Glossary

sometimes accompanied by instruments and/or shosa (dance or movements) of the actor(s). utsu 打ツ  To hit. [(Waka 和歌)]   An abbreviated poetic song. waki ワキ   The supporting role actor in a Noh play. waki-bashira ワキ柱  A pillar on a Noh stage near the waki-za (waki’s spot); located downstage left of a Noh stage. waki-kata ワキ方  Actors who play the supporting role in a Noh play. They do not wear masks, because they represent humans from the real world, as opposed to the world of the shite (main role actor). There are three schools for waki-kata: Takayasu, Fukuō, and Hōshō. waki Noh 脇能   First-­category Noh plays; literally translated as “side Noh.” See shobanme-­mono. waki-­tsure ワキツレ  The waki’s companion role actor, who also does not wear a mask.

waki-za ワキ座 The waki’s spot on a Noh stage. washi 和紙   Japanese paper made from mulberry bark. It is placed, along with an omori, into the barrel of the nohkan from the top in order to cushion the omori. yatsu-­byōshi 八拍子   The eight-­beat division in hito-­kusari. See shichi-­go chō. yatsuwari 八ツ割   Literally translated as “eight divisions”; a score with marks indicating eight beats to identify what the instruments are playing for each beat. yobanme-­mono 四番目物  Fourth-­ category Noh: zatsu Noh (miscellaneous plays). This category is labeled “miscellaneous” because it includes Noh plays on various subjects such as mothers who have been separated from their child, Chinese stories about jealous women, and other subjects that tend to be particularly dramatic in nature.

Glossary305

yosegi ヨセギ   One of three techniques employed in making the nohkan. yowa-­gin ヨワ吟・弱吟 or wa-­gin 和吟   Literally translated as “soft singing”; one of the two singing styles. This is most like melodic song in Western terms, with three central pitches: jō-­on, chū-­on, and ge-­on (high, middle, and low pitches, respectively). These central notes are approximately a perfect fourth apart.

Bibliography

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312Bibliography ———. 1998. Troubled Souls from Japanese Noh Plays of the Fourth Group. Cornell East Asia Series, no. 95. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University East Asia Program. Smethurst, Mae J. 1998. Dramatic Representations of Filial Piety: Five Noh in Translation. Cornell East Asia Series, no. 97. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University East Asia Program. Smethurst, Mae J., and Christina Laffin, eds. 2003. The Noh Ominameshi: A Flower Viewed from Many Directions. Cornell East Asia Series, no. 118. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University East Asia Program. Takakuwa Izumi. 2002. “Nō and Kyōgen.” In The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 7, East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, edited by Robert C. Provine, Yosihiko Tokumaru, and J. Lawrence Witzleben, 629–637. New York: Routledge. Takeda, Sharon Sadako, and Monica Bethe. 2002. Miracles and Mischief: Noh and Kyōgen Theater in Japan. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Agency for Cultural Affairs, Government of Japan. Taylor, Richard. 1976. The Drama of W. B. Yeats: Irish Myth and the Japanese Nō. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Teele, Rebecca, ed. 1984. Nō/Kyōgen Masks and Performance: Essays and Interviews. Special issue, Mime Journal. Claremont, CA: Pomona College Theater Department for the Claremont Colleges. Thornhill, Arthur H., III. 1997 “Yūgen after Zeami.” In Nō and Kyōgen in the Contemporary World, edited by James R. Brandon, 36–64. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. Toff, Nancy. 1985. The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Tsuge, Gen’ichi. 1986. Japanese Music: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland. Tyler, Royall, trans. 1978. Pining Wind: A Cycle of Noh Plays. Cornell East Asia Series, no. 17. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University East Asia Program. ———, ed. and trans. 1992. Japanese Nō Dramas. London: Penguin Books. Waley, Arthur. 1957. The Nō Plays of Japan. New York: Grove Press. Yeats, W. B. 1921. Four Plays for Dancers. New York: Macmillan. ———. (1952) 1977. At the Hawk’s Well. In The Collected Plays of W. B. Yeats, 207–220. 2nd ed. Reprint, London: Macmillan.

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Bibliography313 Sources in Japanese Andō Yoshinori. (1989) 1994. “Nihon-gakki no onkyōteki-tokusei.” In Iwanami Kōza: Nihon no ongaku/Asia no ongaku, vol. 5, Ongaku no Kōzō, edited by Gamō Satoaki, Shibata Minao, Tokumaru Yoshihiko, Hirano Kenji, Yamaguchi Osamu, and Yokomichi Mario, 49–65. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Anno, Mariko. 2009. “Shinsaku Noh ni okeru ongaku-­gihō: Nohkan wo chūshin ni” [A study on the musical aspects of new Noh plays]. Master’s thesis, Tokyo University of the Arts. ———. 2012. “Eigo Noh no kenkyū: Theatre Nohgaku no sōsakukatei wo chūshin ni” [A study on English Noh: Creative processes and musical structures of transforming traditional Japanese Noh into English-­language productions]. PhD diss., Tokyo University of the Arts. Emmert, Richard. 1978. “Noh ni okeru mai-­goto no kenkyū: Chū no Mai wo chūshin to shite.” Master’s thesis, Tokyo University of the Arts. ———. 2011. “Eigo Noh.” In Shinpan Noh/Kyōgen jiten, edited by Nishino Haruo and Hata Hisashi, 257–260. Tokyo: Heibonsha. Fenollosa, Ernest. 2001. Ernest F. Fenollosa Bunshō-­shūsē—Honkoku/Honyaku to kenkyū (ge). Translated and edited by Murakata Akiko. Kyoto: Kyoto Daigaku Gakujutsu Shuppan-­kai. Fujita Takanori. 2003. “Noh no Utai no Gakushū katei ni okeru hyōshi he no mukanshin: Jittai, eikyō, kachi.” Ongaku-­gaku 49 (1): 33–47. ———. 2010. Noh no Nori to Jibyōshi: Rizumu no Minzoku-­ongakugaku. Tokyo: Hinoki Shoten. Furukawa Hisashi. 1969. Meiji Nohgaku-­shi Josetsu. Tokyo: Wanya Shoten. Gamō Satoaki. 1989. “Sashi-­yubi.” In Nihon ongaku daijiten, edited by Hirano Kenji, Kamisangō Yūsuke, and Gamō Satoaki, 116. Tokyo: Heibonsha. Gondō Yoshikazu. 2003. Nohgaku techō. Tokyo: Nohgaku Shorin. Hata Hisashi. 1991. “Taka no Ido no Tsuiseki.” Geinō 33 (2): 13–16. Hikawa Mariko. 2002. Umewaka Rokurō, Noh no Shin-­seiki: Koten–Shinsaku made. Vol. 3, Nohgaku Nyūmon, edited by Umewaka Rokurō. Tokyo: Shōgaku-­kan. ———. 2006. Shinsaku noh: Kurenai tennyo no sekai. Edited by Miuchi Suzue. Tokyo: Hakusensha. Hirano Kenji, Kamisangō Yūsuke, and Gamō Satoaki, eds. 1989. Nihon ongaku daijiten. Tokyo: Heibonsha. Hirata Tokuboku. 1981. Eibungaku essay. Vol. 2, Hirata Tokuboku senshū, edited by Shimada Kinji and Ogawa Kazuo. Tokyo: Nanundō. Hirose Ryōhei. 1978. “Nohkan no Fushigi.” In Noh, compiled by Omote Akira and edited by Takahashi Yōji. Betsusatsu taiyō, Nihon no Kokoro, no. 25 (Winter): 181. Tokyo: Heibon-­sha.

314Bibliography Hōshō Fusao, Komparu Sōuemon, and Masuda Shozō, eds. 1978. Liner notes to Hōshō-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi. Tokyo: Victor. SJL-­180–183. LP. Issō Matarokurō. (1936a) 1987. Issō-­ryū shōga-­shū, Ge-­maki. Vol. 2. Publishing permission from Issō Eiji. Reprint, Tokyo: Wanya Shoten. ———. (1936b) 2003. Issō-­ryū shōga-­shū, Jō-­maki. Vol. 1. Publishing permission from Issō Eiji. Reprint, Tokyo: Wanya Shoten. “Issō Yukihiro, Fue no concert.” 2006. Shūkan Bunshun 48, no. 4 (February): 129. Issō Yukihiro and Narabe Kazumi. 2006. “Noh ga miete kuru.” Nohgaku Times 650 (May): 2–3. Issō Yukimasa. n.d.(a). Issō-­ryū fue, Keiko hikae, kogaki-­hen. Performance notes on Noh play by Issō Yukimasa. Tokyo: privately published. ———. n.d.(b). Issō-­ryū fue yubitsuke-­shū. Notes and fingering charts for Noh plays by Issō Yukimasa. Tokyo: privately and posthumously published. “Jukusei suru fue no majutsu-­shi tōzai wo kakeru gensō no tabi: Issō Yukihiro-­ shi ni kiku.” 2006. Den 36 (January–March): 40–41. Kanze Hisao. (1980a) 1998. “Takahime I.” In Zeami no Sekai. Vol. 1, Kanze Hisao Chosaku-­shū, 267–268. Reprint, Tokyo: Heibonsha. ———. (1980b) 1998. “Takahime II.” In Zeami no Sekai. Vol. 1, Kanze Hisao Chosaku-­shū, 268–270. Reprint, Tokyo: Heibonsha. ———. (1980–1981) 1998. Kanze Hisao Chosaku-­shū. 4 vols. Reprint, Tokyo: Heibonsha. Kanze Sakon. (1950) 1975. Kanze-­ryū yōkyoku hyakuban-­shū, Taiseiban. Reprint, Tokyo: Hinoki Shoten. ———. (1952) 1988. Kanze-­ryū yōkyoku zoku hyakuban-­shū, Taiseiban. Reprint, Tokyo: Hinoki Shoten. Kō Yoshimitsu. (1956) 2004. Kō-­ryū kotsuzumi seifu, Jo maki no Jō. Edited by Yokomichi Mario. Reprint, Tokyo: Nohgaku Shorin. Kobayashi Yasuharu, ed. (2000) 2005. Nohgaku handbook kaitei-­ban. Rev. ed. Tokyo: Sansei-­dō. Kodama Kōta, ed. 2005. Nihonshi Nenpyō/Chizu. 11th ed. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbun-­kan. Komparu Kunio. 1980. Noh he no Inazai: Jo-­ha-­kyū to ma no science. Kyoto: Tankō-­sha. ———. 1984. Zoku Noh he no Inazai: Kōzō to kumitate no mekanizumu. Kyoto: Tankō-­sha. Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda Shozō, eds. 1976a. Liner notes to Kanze-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi. Tokyo: Victor. SJL-­111–115. LP. ———. (1976b) 2010. Liner notes to Kanze-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi (fukkoku). Reproduction of Kanze-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi. Tokyo: Victor. VZCG-­8453–6. CD.

Bibliography315 Komparu Sōuemon, Masuda Shōzō, Gamō Satoaki, Hata Hisashi, Nishino Haruo, and Matsumoto Yasushi. 1973a. Liner notes to Nohgaku hayashi taikei, edited by Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda Shozō. English translation by Chifumi Shimazaki. Tokyo: Victor. SJL-­64–69. LP. ———. (1973b) 2009. Liner notes to Nohgaku hayashi taikei (fukkoku), edited by Komparu Sōuemon and Masuda Shozō. Reproduction of Nohgaku hayashi taikei. Tokyo: Victor. VZCG-­8421–8428. CD. Koyama Hiroshi, ed. (1987) 1993. Kyōgen no Sekai. Vol. 5, Iwanami Kōza: Noh/ Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. ———. (1989) 1993. Noh kanshō annai. Vol. 6, Iwanami Kōza: Noh/Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Koyama Hiroshi and Satō Kenichirō, eds. (1997) 2003. Yōkyoku-­shū (1). Vol. 58, Nihon koten bungaku zenshū. Reprint, Tokyo: Shōgaku-­kan. ———. (1998) 2003. Yōkyoku-­shū (2). Vol. 59, Nihon koten bungaku zenshū. Reprint, Tokyo: Shōgaku-­kan. Maruoka Akira. 1954. Gendai no Noh. Tokyo: Nohgaku Shorin. ———. 1961. Nohgaku kanshō jiten. Tokyo: Kawade Shobō Shin-­sha. Masuda Shōzō, Kobayashi Seki, and Hata Hisashi, eds. (1977) 1985. Noh: Honsetsu to tenkai. Reprint, Tokyo: Ō-­fūsha. Masuda Shōzō, Richard Emmert, Janine Beichman, Leonard Holvik, Allan Marett, Arthur Little, and William Butler Yeats. 1990. Liner notes to Eigo-­noh: Sekai wo kakeru Yugenism, edited by Masuda Shōzō. Tokyo: Teichiku Records. TECY-­28010. CD. Mitsutomi Toshirō. 2006. “Musician Tōjō 2: Ippon no fue ga kiri hiraku mugendai no ongaku, Issō Yukihiro san.” Misesu 613 (February): 290. Miura Hiroko. (1998) 2003. Noh/Kyōgen no ongaku nyūmon. Vol. 79, Ongaku sensho. Reprint, Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomosha. ———. (1999) 2005. Hajimete no Noh/Kyōgen. Vol. 1, Nohgaku nyūmon. Reprint, Tokyo: Shōgaku-­kan. Morikawa Sōkichi. (1940a) 1944. Issō-­ryū fue kashira-­tsuke. Reprint, Dalian: Ichiju-­kai. ———, ed. (1940b) 2004. Issō-­ryū fue yubitsuke-­shū. Publishing permission given by Issō Eiji. Reprint, Tokyo: Wanya Shoten. Morita Toki. 2006. “Nohkan no ongaku-­gihō kenkyū: Shōga kara mita tayōsē.” PhD diss., Tokyo University of the Arts. ———. 2018. Nohkan no ensō-­gihō to denshō. Kyoto: Shibunkaku Shuppan. Narabe Kazumi. 2004. Hōgakki-­zukuri no shi-­tachi: Fue, Taiko, Shamisen, Koto, Shakuhachi. Ongaku no Shi Series. Tokyo: Yamaha Music Media. Nishi (Isshō) Kazuyoshi and Matsuda Tamotsu, eds. 1988. Nohgaku kaigai kōen shiyō. Tokyo: Kinseisha.

316Bibliography Nishikawa Kōhei. 2003. Shitte-­iru-­yōde shiranai Hōgaku omoshiro zatsugaku jiten. Tokyo: Yamaha Music Media. Nishino Haruo. 2004. “Shinsaku Noh hyakunen no nagare” [Directions of newly composed Noh over the last one hundred years]. Presentation at Dai Kyūkai Hōsei Daigaku Nohgaku Seminar: Shinsaku Noh wo Kangaeru [Ninth annual Nohgaku Seminar at Hosei University: Considering newly composed Noh plays], July 16. ———. 2005. “Shinsaku-­ noh no Hyakunen (1), Shinsaku-­ noh Nenpyō—1904–2004.” In Nōgaku Kenkyū, Nōgaku Kenkyū-­jo Kiyō [Journal of the Nōgaku Research Institute of Hosei University] 29, 112–142. Tokyo: Nogami Memorial Noh Theatre Research Institute of Hosei University. ———. 2006. “Shinsaku-­noh no Hyakunen (2).” In Nohgaku Kenkyū, Nōgaku Kenkyū-­jo Kiyō [Journal of the Nōgaku Research Institute of Hosei University] 30, 215–248. Tokyo: Nogami Memorial Noh Theatre Research Institute of Hosei University. ———. 2018. “Shinsaku-­noh no Hyakunen (3).” In Nohgaku Kenkyū, Nōgaku Kenkyū-­jo Kiyō [Journal of the Nōgaku Research Institute of Hosei University] 42, 117–192. Tokyo: Nogami Memorial Noh Theatre Research Institute of Hosei University. Nishino Haruo and Hata Hisashi, eds. (1999) 2006. Shintei zōho, Noh/Kyōgen jiten. Tokyo: Heibonsha. Nishiyama Matsunosuke. 1982. Iemoto no kenkyū. Vol. 1, Nishiyama Matsunosuke Chosakushū. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. Nose Asaji. 1960. Zeami jūrokubushū hyōshaku, Ge. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. “Nohgaku-­kai ni shinkiun Takahime-­shinsaku to Tsukimizatō.” 1968. Nohgaku Times 191 (February): 1, 4. “Nohgaku note: Hayashi dai-­kaibō, fue.” 2005. In collaboration with Issō Yukihiro. Kensyo 58 (October): 50. Ōkubo Naoki. 1967a. “Yeats to Noh—Taka no I wo chūshin ni.” Hikaku bungaku kenkyū 12 (April): 20–32. ———. 1967b. “Yeats to Taka no I.” Tessen 155 (December): 5–6. Omote Akira, comp. 1978a. Noh. Edited by Takahashi Yōji. Betsusatsu taiyō, Nihon no Kokoro, no. 25 (Winter). Tokyo: Heibon-­sha. ———. 1978b. “Noh no rekishi.” In Noh, compiled by Omote Akira, and edited by Takahashi Yōji. Betsusatsu taiyō, Nihon no Kokoro 25 (Winter): 61–77. Tokyo: Heibon-­sha. Omote Akira and Amano Fumio. (1987) 1992. Nohgaku no rekishi. Vol. 1, Iwanami Kōza: Noh/Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Omote Akira and Takemoto Mikio. (1988) 1992. Nohgaku no densho to geiron. Vol. 2, Iwanami Kōza: Noh/Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.

Bibliography317 Ongaku no Tomosha, ed. 2007. Ongaku no Kiso yōgo jiten. Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomosha. Ōtani Jun, Ōtani Izumi, Okuyama Keiko, Oda Sachiko, Gamō Satoaki, Gamō Mitsuko, Kishibe Shigeo, et al. 1982. Liner notes to Noh/Kyōgen, edited by Kikkawa Eishi, Kindaichi Haruhiko, Koizumi Fumio, and Yokomichi Mario. Vol. 2, Nihon koten ongaku taikei. Tokyo: Kodansha. KD-­1201. LP. Sanari Kentarō. 1963–1964. Yōkyoku taikan. Tokyo: Meiji Shoin. Seki Kobayashi, Nishi Tetsuo, and Hata Hisashi. 2012. Nohgaku daijiten. Tokyo: Satsuma-­shobō. Tada Tomio. 2007. Noh no mieru Fūkei. Tokyo: Fujiwara Shoten. Takahashi Yasunari. 2003. Hashi-­gakari: Engeki-­teki naru mono wo motomete. Edited by Sasayama Takashi. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Takakuwa Izumi. 2003. Noh no hayashi to enshutsu. Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomosha. ———. 2009. “X-­sen tōka satsuei ni yoru nohkan/ryūteki no kōzō kaimei” [Manufacturing methods for nohkan and ryūteki as clarified by radiography]. Mukei bunka isan kenkyū hōkoku [Research and reports on intangible cultural heritage], edited by Tokyo Bunkazai Kenkyūjo, no. 3 (March): 1–20. ———. 2011. “Kishū Tokugawa-­ ke denrai no Ryūteki/Nohkan ni tsuite” [Ryūteki/nohkan of the heirloom of the Kishū-­Tokugawa family]. In Kokuritsu Rekishi Minzoku Hakubutsukan Kenkyū Hōkokusho [Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History] 166 (March): 131–152. Tamai Aya. 2003. “Umi o wattata noh no kiseki: Shingeki Taka no Ido kara Shinsaku Noh Takahime he.” BA thesis, Tokyo University of the Arts. Tanabe Hisao. 1926. Ongaku kōwa. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Tanaka Makoto, ed. 1975. Kōhon, Yoza-­yakusha mokuroku, kaitei zōho. Vol. 6, Nohgaku-­shiryō. Tokyo: Wanya Shoten. ———. 1980. “Yōkyoku no Genson-­kyoku.” In Nohgaku zensho, rev. ed., edited by Nogami Toyoichirō, 3:227–231. Tokyo: Tokyo Sōgensha. Tazaki Enjirō. 1927. Shibyōshi tetsuke taisei (Jō/Ge). Tokyo: Hinoki-­taikadō Shoten. Tenri Toshokan Zenpon Sōsho Washo no Bu Henshū Iinkai, ed. 1974. “Kangen ongi.” In Kogakusho-­ishu, vol. 16, 153–234. Tokyo: Yagi Shoten. Tessenkai. 1967. “Takahime Joen made.” Tessen 155 (December): 3–4. Torii Akio. 1989. Chinkon no Chūse. Tokyo: Perikan-­sha. Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai [Society for Research in Asiatic Music], ed. 1990. Noh no hayashi-­goto [Instrumental music in Noh]. Vol. 4, Toyō ongaku sensho [The series of research in Asian music]. Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomosha. Yamanaka Reiko. 1998. Noh no Enshutsu: Sono keisei to Henyō. Vol. 6, Chūsei-­ bungaku-­kenkyū-­sōshō. Tokyo: Wakakusa-­shobō.

318Bibliography Yasufuku Haruo. (1960) 1968. Takayasu-­ryū ōtsuzumi, Jō no Maki. Reprint, Tokyo: Nohgaku Shorin. Yokohama Nohgakudō, ed. (1999) 2001. Noh no Shi-­tachi: So no waza to meihin. Vol. 2, Nohgaku Nyūmon. Reprint, Tokyo: Shōgaku-­kan. Yokomichi Mario. 1963a. Zeami seitan roppyaku-­nen kinen, Noh: Go-­ryū/ Goban, Ge. Vol. 2. Yokohama: Victor. SJ-­3006-­1–3. Three records and liner notes. ———. 1963b. Zeami seitan roppyaku-­nen kinen, Noh: Go-­ryū/Goban, Jō. Vol. 1. Yokohama: Victor. SJ-­3005-­1–3. Three records and liner notes. ———. 1984. Noh-­geki shōyō. Tokyo: Chikuma Shoten. ———. 1986. Noh-­geki no Kenkyū. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. ———. (1987a) 1993. Noh no Kōzō to gihō. Vol. 4, Iwanami Kōza: Noh/Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. ———. 1989. “Nohkan.” In Nihon ongaku daijiten, edited by Hirano Kenji, Kamisangō Yūsuke, and Gamō Satoaki, 322–325. Tokyo: Heibonsha. ———. 1992. Utai-­rizumu no kōzō to jitsugi: Noh . . . Jibyōshi to gihō. Tokyo: Hinoki Shoten. ———, ed. (1992) 1993. Bekkan, Nohgaku zusetsu. Separate volume of Iwanami Kōza: Noh and Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Yokomichi Mario and Gamō Satoaki, eds. 1978. Kuchi-­shōga taikei: Nihon no gakki no solumi-­zation. Tokyo: CBS/Sony. 00AG-­457–461. Five records and liner notes. Yokomichi Mario and Kobayashi Seki. 1996. Noh/Kyōgen: Nihon koten geinō to gendai. Iwanami Seminar Books, no. 59. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Yokomichi Mario, Nishino Haruo, and Hata Hisashi. (1987) 1992. Noh no sakusha to sakuhin. Vol. 3, Iwanami Kōza: Noh and Kyōgen. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Yokomichi Mario and Omote Akira, eds. (1960) 1976. Yōkyoku-­shū, Jō. Vol. 40, Nihon koten bungaku taikei. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. ———, eds. (1963) 1975. Yōkyoku-­shū, Ge. Vol. 41, Nihon koten bungaku taikei. Reprint, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.

DVDs At the Hawk’s Well. 2002. Directed by Richard Emmert. Theatre Nohgaku, at the University of San Francisco Presentation Theatre. Unpublished DVD. Takahime. 1998. Directed by Yokomichi Mario. Hōshō Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo. Unpublished DVD. Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari. 2004. Directed by Yokomichi Mario. Kokuritsu Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo. Sponsored by Kanze Bunko. Unpublished DVD.

Bibliography319 Websites Issō Yukihiro. n.d. Yukihiro Isso Official Website. Accessed July 7, 2018. http:// issoyukihiro.com. Japan Arts Council. 2018. “History of Noh and Kyogen.” Accessed October 20, 2017. http://www2.ntj.jac.go.jp/unesco/noh/en/history/history1.html. Japan Arts Foundation. n.d. “Oto to oto no aida.” Accessed December 1, 2006. http://www.jpartsfdn.org/oto_to_otonoaida/02_issou.html (site discontinued). Japan Foundation, Performing Arts Network Japan. 2005. “From the Noh Stage to the Contemporary Music Scene: Talking to Innovator Yukihiro Isso.” Artist interview, recorded December 28, 2005. Accessed October 20, 2017. http://www.performingarts.jp/E/art_interview/0512/1.html. Japan Traditional Cultures Foundation. n.d. “Issō Yukihiro.” Accessed December 1, 2006. http://japan.japo-­net.or.jp/artist/file/isso-­yukihiro.html (site discontinued). Kanze.net Official Website. n.d. “Kanze-­ryū no Goannai.” Accessed February 21, 2019. https://kanze.net/publics/index/9/. Nohgaku Performers’ Association. n.d. “Issō School Members.” Accessed December 1, 2017. http://www.nohgaku.or.jp/members/. NPO Hōjin Carinavi. n.d. “Carinavi: Hayashi Hōjyu, Nohkan Maker/Repairer.” Accessed October 5, 2006. http://www.carinavi.org/ja/career/381/article .jsp?page=1 (site discontinued). NPO Hōjin sensu. 2005. “Issō Yukihiro, ‘fue’ live: Fue, guitar, tabla ni yoru ibunka yūgō live.” Accessed October 20, 2017. http://www.sense-­nohgaku .com/articles/event/event_200506.php. Rinsen. n.d. “Issō Yukihiro.” Accessed December 1, 2006. http://www.rinsen .co.jp/html/isso/iso_prf.html (site discontinued). Sector88. 1991–2008. “Issō-­ryū fue-­kata: Issō Yukihiro.” Kensyo, vol. 57. Interview by Hirano Ryoko. Accessed October 20, 2017. http://www.nohkyo gen.jp/kensyo/int/57/57i.html. Theatre Nohgaku. 2004–2010. “Theatre Nohgaku.” Accessed October 20, 2017. http://www.theatrenohgaku.org/mission. ———. 2006. “Theatre Nohgaku.” Accessed October 1, 2006. http://www. theatrenohgaku.org/index_e.php (site discontinued). ———. 2019. “Noh Training Project US.” Accessed September 18, 2019. https:// www.theatrenohgaku.org/noh-training-project-us. Tokyo Opera City Cultural Foundation. 2006. “OperaCity.jp.” Accessed December 1, 2006. http://www.operacity.jp/concert/2005/060224_pro.php (site discontinued). UNESCO Cultural Sector. n.d. “Living Heritage: Intangible Heritage, 2003

320Bibliography Convention.” Accessed February 15, 2007. http://www.unesco.org/culture /ich/index.php?cp=JP&topic=mp#TOC1 (web page discontinued). UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. n.d. “Nōgaku Theatre.” Accessed July 7, 2018. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/nogaku-­theatre-­00012 (web page content changed).

Performances Issō Yukihiro. 2006a. Issō Yukihiro: Fue/Gensō no Tabi. Tokyo Opera City Concert Hall, Takemitsu Tōru Memorial, February 24. ———. 2006b. Yukihiro/Mansai/Hirotada: Nohgaku Genzai-­kei. Hōshō Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, April 27. ———. 2017a. Uketsugareru dentō, Sōzō suru dentō: Issō Yukimasa Jūsankai-­ki Tsuizenkai. National Noh Theatre, Tokyo, July 9. Kanze Kyūkō-­kai. 2006. Atsumori. Yarai Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, September 10.

Program Notes Issō Yukihiro. 2017b. “Issō Yukihiro: Fue/Gensō no Tabi.” Program notes for Takemitsu Tōru Memorial, Tokyo Opera City Concert Hall, July 24. ———. 2017c. “Uketsugareru dentō, Sōzō suru dentō: Issō Yukimasa Jūsankai-­ki Tsuizenkai.” Program notes, National Noh Theatre, Tokyo, July 9. NOHO Theatre Group. 1981. “At the Hawk’s Well.” Program notes, Oe Noh Stage, Kyoto, December 9, and Yamamoto Noh Stage, Osaka, December 11. ———. 1982. “At the Hawk’s Well.” Program notes, Umewaka Noh Theatre, Tokyo, May 20, 21, and 22. ———. 1985. “Beckett/Yeats.” Program notes for At the Hawk’s Well, Kongō Noh Theatre, Kyoto, August 29, and Osaka Nohgaku-kaikan, Osaka, September 2. ———. 1990. “eye of the mind.” Program notes for At the Hawk’s Well, Tenth Anniversary Performance, Kyoto. Theatre of Yugen, and Theatre Nohgaku. 2002. “At the Hawk’s Well National Tour 2002.” Program Notes, San Francisco, September 13 and 14. University of Sydney, Department of Music. 1984. “Japanese Noh Drama.” Program notes for At the Hawk’s Well, Seymour Theatre Centre, Sydney, August 22, 23, 24, and 25.

Bibliography321 Yokomichi Mario. 1987b. “Takahime no shoen made.” Sanko no Kai. Program notes from discussion with performers, December 14. ———. 1988. “Takahime no shoen made.” Program notes for Takahime. Sponsored by Sanko no Kai. ———. 2004a. “Takahime no Enshutsu ni attate.” Program notes for performance by Nohgaku-­za, National Noh Theatre, Tokyo, July 15. ———. 2004b. Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari program notes, December 25. ———. 2004c. “Taka no noroi (bekkō).” Program notes, September. Zeami. Atsumori. 2006. Program notes, Yarai Nohgaku-­dō, Tokyo, September 10.

Recording Issō Yukihiro. 2006. Sound recording by author, Tokyo University of the Arts, October 12. Minidisc.

Scripts Emmert, Richard (music), and William Butler Yeats (text). 2002. “At the Hawk’s Well.” Unpublished script. Yokomichi Mario. 1998. “Takahime.” Unpublished script. ———. 2004c. “Takahime.” Unpublished script. ———. 2004d. “Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari.” Unpublished script.

Index

Figures and tables are indicated by “f” and “t” following the page numbers. Italicized page numbers indicate transcriptions in Western staff notation. acoustics, 23 [Age no Ei], 92t, 94t, 108 Age no Takane (melodic pattern), 103, 107, 169 [Ageuta], 285; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; in Atsumori, 100–102, 133; comparison of traditional plays and, 88–95t; English text and, 183; flexibility within, 117; in Izutsu, 109; jo-­ha-­kyū structure and, 79t; in Kinuta, 111, 112; nohkan’s role in, 25, 86–87, 117; poetic meter in, 85; shōdan categories and, 81–82t; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 169, 170; in Takasago, 107, 108; transcriptions of, 133, 134–139, 229–232; uchikiri in, 162 ai-­ba (interlude), 77t, 101n11 ai-­kyōgen (Kyōgen interlude), 59n5, 77t, 170 ai-­kyōgen (Kyōgen role actor), 76, 102, 107. See also kyōgen-­kata Alexander Technique, 203n1, 210n5 amateur vs. professional performers, 16, 22, 187–188, 192 ambience and atmosphere: hishigi and, 105n13; nohkan’s responsiveness to, 119, 206; nohkan’s role in establishing, 25–26, 46, 48, 68, 116, 140, 157, 165–166

Andō Yoshinori, 23n1 Anno, Mariko: Emmert and, 62–63, 179n37; fieldwork by, 13–21, 50n2, 193n1; nohkan performance by, 3, 65n9, 204–206; nohkan teaching by, 65n9, 203–210; Yukihiro and, 60–65 ashi-­byōshi (foot stamps), 160, 173 ashirai-­buki (unmatched playing): ambience from, 48–49; in Atsumori, 100–103; drums and, 81– 82, 85, 160; in Izutsu, 109; in Kinuta, 110–112; melodic entrances/end points and, 20, 86– 87, 120, 205; in [Sageuta], 131; in〔Shidai〕, 98; shōdan categories and, 82t; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 169, 173, 174; in Takahime, 158–160; in Takasago, 106–108; utai pitches in relation to, 124–126; Zeami and, 28 〔Ashirai-­dashi〕, 89t, 111, 153t, 180, 184, 285 At the Hawk’s Well (play): continuity in experimentation of, 184–186, 189; list of performers/performances, 276–277; structure and melodic patterns of, 178–183; Takahime and, 179, 182–183 atmosphere. See ambience and atmosphere

323

324Index Atsumori, 5; analysis of, 97–105; Bethe and Emmert booklet on, 86; Kanze School utaibon for, 279–282; Noh Training Project performance of, 204–206; as point of reference, 22, 96, 105, 116; Tōru compared to, 113; transcriptions from, 122–127, 131– 132, 134–139, 141–142, 223–252 audio files, 19, 21, 68, 70, 211 awase-­buki (matched playing), 49, 81–82, 96, 104, 112, 181 〔Ayumi〕, 153t, 180, 186, 286 ba. See ai-­kyōgen; mae-­ba; nochi-­ba Bach, Johann Sebastian, 176 Balme, Christopher: Nō Theatre Transversal, 11 bamboo, 23, 32, 37–42, 38n14, 44– 45n17 〔Banshiki Deha-­bataraki〕, 159, 286 〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕, 113–115, 286 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕, 155t, 160– 161, 173, 174, 182, 185, 286 banshiki mode, 27, 27n5, 114–115, 114t, 159, 171, 173, 185–186 Battle of Ichinotani, 97, 102, 104 battle scenes, 85, 160 beeswax (rō), 41 Berger, Donald Paul, 8–9, 24, 35–36, 37f, 38, 42 Bethe, Monica, 4n5, 78, 86, 87, 96, 97, 100–105, 120 Binchō, 42f, 43–44 birch (kaba) in nohkan construction, 40–42, 43f Blacker, Carmen, 7n8 Blue Moon Over Memphis (play), 3, 195–197 Boehm, Theobald, 24 brackets and bracket styles, 80–81, 87 Bradley, Anthony, 148n2 Brandon, James R.: Nō and Kyōgen in the Contemporary Worlds, 11

Brazell, Karen, 78, 120 Buddhism and Buddhist chanting, 6, 29, 76 characters. See specific roles Cheong, Jannette: Pagoda, 193 chinkon (pacification of spirits of the dead), 6, 286 〔Chū no Mai〕, 286; in Atsumori, 104; in Blue Moon Over Memphis, 197; fingering charts for, 55–56f; Fujita recording of, 58; 〔Jo no Mai〕compared to, 110; nohkan in, 63, 82; ōshiki mode and, 113– 114; shōga of, 50–54, 52–53f, 61, 64, 66, 113–114, 214–217; structure of, 57, 96, 142, 143t; transcriptions of, 66, 140–146, 141– 142, 218–221 chū-­nori (medium rhythm), 85–86, 162, 286–287 [Chū-­nori-­ji], 79, 95t, 104–105, 156t, 173 chū-­on (middle pitch), 25, 83–85 chū-­uki (pitch in utai), 83–84 construction of nohkan, 2–3; Berger on, 9; color of sounds from, 69; pitch variation and, 35–37; Ranjō and, 19, 35–40, 39f, 176–177; techniques for, 24, 37–46; Yukihiro and, 176–177 contemporary Noh. See shinsaku Noh; specific plays continuity: At the Hawk’s Well and, 184–186, 189; dance and, 184, 185, 188, 194; experimentation and, 22, 191, 194, 196; through Issō School, 2; tradition and, 22, 184–189 Cornell East Asia Series, 73 costumes, 4n5, 163, 168, 179, 183 Crazy Jane (play), 195 dan (subdivisions): aesthetics of, 79; of Atsumori, 97–105; 〔Chū no

Index325 Mai〕and, 141–143; comparison of contemporary plays through, 153–156t; comparison of traditional plays through, 88–95t; of Emmert’s At the Hawk’s Well, 179–183; flexibility in structure of, 97, 99, 105, 109; of Izutsu, 108–110; of Kinuta, 110–112; memorization and, 196; in mugen Noh, 77–79; of Takasago, 105– 108; of Tōru, 112–115; in utaibon for contemporary plays, 186; of Yokomichi’s adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well, 153–156t, 162–163, 166–174 Dan-­gaeshi, 143t Dan no fu, 143t [Dan-­uta], 112 〔Dance of Loneliness〕, 197 dances (mai): in At the Hawk’s Well, 182n42; in Atsumori, 104; continuity and, 184, 185, 188, 194; Dengaku and, 35n13; Emmert and, 11; gobanme-­mono plays and, 74; in Izutsu, 109–110; in Kinuta, 112; in mugen Noh, 77– 79; nohkan’s relationship to, 26, 194; rehearsal and, 51; shōga and, 51, 64–65; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­ gakari, 167, 173; in Takahime, 160–161; in Takasago, 108; tempo of, 62. See also 〔Chū no Mai〕 Debussy, Claude, 176 〔Deha〕, 93t, 95t, 107–108, 109– 113, 184, 185, 287 Deha-­bataraki, 173 〔Deha-­bataraki〕, 159, 161, 173, 287 Dengaku, 34–35, 35n13 dengaku-­bue, 16–17, 17n15, 19, 28– 30, 156, 171, 173, 174 Dengaku-­sangaku/Sechie ensemble, 17 diatonic scales, 23, 32 Dowd, Elizabeth, 203, 277

drums and drumming: nohkan and, 81–82, 96, 98–99, 102–104, 107, 131–132, 157; role of, 2, 99n9, 208; transcription of, 9–10, 118; utai and, 85–86. See also specific drums dung-­xiao (pan pipe), 198n6 Edo period, 30n10, 31, 73–75, 147, 198n6 Emily (play), 195 Emmert, Richard: At the Hawk’s Well and, 21, 149, 177–179, 182–183, 188–189, 276–277; Atsumori booklet by, 86; continuity in experimentation of, 184–186, 189, 193; English-­language Noh and, 11; Noh Performance Guide, 87, 96, 100–105; Noh Training Project and, 19, 203, 205; nohkan teaching by, 62–63; Pagoda and, 193; photograph of, 12f; on Takahime, 163; Theatre Nohgaku and, 192; transcription and, 10; on utai, 120 English-­language Noh, 11, 148n1, 177–178, 183, 186–188, 194–196, 200–201, 201n10. See also At the Hawk’s Well entrances and end points: ashirai-­buki and, 20, 86–87, 120, 205; in At the Hawk’s Well, 182–183; in Atsumori, 97–105, 117, 135–137; in〔Chū no Mai〕, 144; hayashi-­ goto and, 184–185; hishigi and, 6, 33, 105, 105n13, 145, 146, 182; identification and measurement of, 87, 98–99, 115–116, 118–120, 135–137, 208; Issō School and, 118; in [Michiyuki], 123–124, 128–130; mugen Noh and, 75, 77, 111n16; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­ gakari, 168–169; in Takahime, 158 experimentation. See innovation and experimentation

326Index Fenollosa, Ernest, 148 fifth-­category plays (gobanme-­mono), 74, 112, 288 fingerings: 〔Chū no Mai〕and, 55– 56f; embellishments and, 69–71, 144; 〔Issei〕and, 254; Naka no Takane and, 129–130; nohkan pitches and, 283–285; 〔Raijo〕 and, 170n30; 〔Shidai〕and, 98, 253; shōga and, 50, 54–59. See also Yubitsuke-­shū first-­category plays (shobanme-­ mono), 74 flattement, 172 Flindt, Willi, 11, 75, 77, 80 flutes, 2–3; Dengaku and, 35n13; in early modern period, 28–29; Issō Yukihiro and, 14; mouth holes and, 45–46; nohkan compared to Western, 23n1, 24, 31–32, 46 form. See dan; mugen Noh; shōdan; specific plays formants, 56–57 fourth-­category plays (yobanme-­ mono), 74 Fue-­hikobē, 49 fue-­kata: Noh schools and, 13, 17; nohkan melodic patterns and, 87, 136–137; sashi-­yubi, 140; shōga singing and, 69; Takayuki on, 165–166; Western compositions and, 187 Fujita Daigorō, 50, 57–59, 120, 167 Fujita Rokurobyōe, 198n7 Fujita School, 58 Fujita Takanori: “Kuchishōga: The Vocal Rendition of Instrumental Expression in the Oral and Literate Tradition of Japanese Music,” 9 fukikomi, 5, 145, 197, 288 Fukuō School, 58–59 Furukawa Hisashi, 148n2 fushi (joint/pitch indicators), 41, 186, 288

futabagata (two-­act) mugen Noh, 76, 151, 166 Gagaku (court music), 29–30, 32, 78 Gamō Satoaki, 8, 50, 86–87, 120 [Ge no Ei], 93t, 103 ge-­on (low pitches), 83–85 Gempei seisui-­ki, 97 Genbakuki (play), 192 genzai Noh (real-­world plays), 73, 75 Gettysburg (play), 195 gō-­gin (strong singing), 83–85 go-­gyō cycle, 185, 288 gobandate (five categories of Noh plays), 5, 73–75, 96, 288 gobanme-­mono (fifth-­category plays), 74, 112, 288 The Gull (play), 195 Gyō no Tome (melodic pattern), 112, 288 han-­ku (half of a line of poetry), 80 Hare, Thomas, 78, 79, 105–106, 120, 181 Harvard Dictionary of Music, 172 Hasegawa Teruaki, 19, 19n17. See also Ranjō hashi-­gakari (bridgeway), 1, 159, 160, 168, 170, 173, 179 Hata Hisashi, 50, 86, 169, 180 〔Hawk Dance〕, 182, 183, 185, 189 〔Haya-­fue〕, 184, 185, 289 〔Haya-­mai〕, 114n17 hayashi (musical ensemble), 8, 10; in Atsumori, 97–98; leadership in, 99n9; Noh schools and, 17; nohkan’s role in, 13, 49, 87; Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari and, 168; Yukihiro on, 200 〔Hayashi 3〕, 153t, 157 〔Hayashi 4〕, 154–155t, 159, 172 〔Hayashi 5〕, 154–155t, 159, 172 〔Hayashi 6〕, 154–155t, 160, 172– 173

Index327 〔Hayashi 7〕, 155t, 160, 173 〔Hayashi 8〕, 156t, 161–162 〔Hayashi 9〕, 156t, 162 hayashi-­goto (instrumental shōdan): in Atsumori, 98, 99, 101–102, 104, 140; character entrances and, 146, 184–185; defined, 80–82, 289; in Izutsu, 109; in Kinuta, 111, 112; nohkan melodic patterns and, 86–87; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 173; in Takasago, 106, 107; transcription of, 119–121. See also specific shōdan Hayashi Hōju, 19, 19n19, 44–45, 44n16 Heian period, 28–29, 198n6 Heike monogatari, 74, 96 Higaimoto Hikojirō Hidetsugu, 14, 49 Hina-­matsuri (Doll Festival), 34, 289 hira-­nori (standard rhythm), 85, 289 Hiraiwa School, 49 Hirata Tokuboku, 148n2 Hirose Ryōhei, 33 hishigi, 1, 1n1; nodo and, 36; role of, 6, 33, 105, 105n13, 145, 182; shōdan beginning with, 98, 179 hito-­kusari (phrase), 52 hitobagata mugen Noh (one-­act mugen Noh), 77 hitoyogiri (flute), 30n10, 198n6 Hoff, Frank, 7n8, 11, 75, 77, 80 hon-­butai (main stage), 159, 160 hon-­yuri (real wavering pattern), 25 Hori, Ichirō, 7n8 Hosei University “Nohgaku Seminar” (2004), 10, 10n10, 147 Hōshō Fusao, 7 Hōshō Kinya, 128 Hōshō School, 58–59, 83, 128, 161 Hughes, David W., 47–50, 56–59, 64–65

hyōshi-­ai (utai rhythm), 85–86, 290 hyōshi-­awazu (utai rhythm), 85–86, 290 iemoto, 16, 18, 58, 149, 152n13, 209 improvisation and interpretation: melodic patterns and, 116, 117; Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari and, 167, 170, 173, 174, 188; Takahime and, 151, 156–157, 165, 172, 174; tradition and, 2, 3, 116, 188–189; utai and, 205–206; Yukihiro on, 175–177 innovation and experimentation: At the Hawk’s Well and, 183–186, 189; construction of instruments and, 19, 176–177; continuity and, 22, 191, 194, 196; controversy from, 15–16; Taka no Izumi, Shu-­ gakari and, 175–176; Takahime and, 151, 163–166; tradition and, 2, 6, 15–16, 22, 165, 177, 191; Yukihiro and, 175–177 〔Iroe-­deha〕, 184, 185, 290 Ise monogatari, 109, 112 Ishii School, 58 〔Issei〕, 290; in Atsumori, 102–103; fingerings for, 254; hishigi and, 146; in Izutsu, 109–110; shōdan categories and, 81–82t, 184–185; in Takasago, 106–108; in Tōru, 113; transcription of, 228 Isseki sennin (play), 192 Issō-­ryū fue kashira-­tsuke (Issō School flute entrance book), 20 Issō School, 2, 5; Anno at, 14, 17, 18; At the Hawk’s Well and, 22; 〔Chū no Mai〕recording by, 58; flute fingering book of, 54–56; nohkan melodic patterns and, 87, 99, 136–138; sashi-­yubi and, 138– 140; shōga books of, 30–31, 51– 52, 61, 130; shōga singing and, 9; tradition/continuity and, 6, 14, 184, 189

328Index Issō Takayuki, 21, 151, 152, 156–159, 161–163, 165–166, 174–177 Issō Yōji, 19, 19n19, 44n16, 54 Issō Yukihiro, 5; on ambience from nohkan, 140–141, 145; background and practice of, 14–17, 17n15; contemporary Noh and, 174–177, 187–188, 198; on nohkan entrances, 87, 124–126; nohkan promotion by, 47, 200; photograph of, 15; Ranjō and, 19, 156; recordings of, 211; sashi-­yubi and, 63–64, 67–71, 137–139, 144–145; shōga singing compared to performance of, 65–71, 144; on Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 169; teaching of, 21, 60–65; transcriptions from Atsumori of, 117–121, 122–127, 128, 131, 132, 134–139, 141–142; performances and compositions by: Hengenka, 198–200; “Issō Yukihiro no Nohgakudō he ikō,” 16, 198; Jūnibyōshi no Sanbasō, 198–199; Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 168–170, 173, 174, 188; “Taka no Shidai,” 176 Issō Yukihiro Group, 14 Issō Yukimasa, 14, 20, 63, 87, 129, 176, 205n2 Itō Michio, 149, 150 iwa-­bue (stone flute/whistle), 33, 290 Izumi School, 16, 59 Izutsu, 5, 88–95t, 96, 108–110, 112 Japanese language, 201 ji-­gashira (head of the chorus), 83, 172 ji-­utai (chorus): in At the Hawk’s Well, 179–183; in Atsumori, 101, 103, 104; shite and, 27n5, 78n4; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 170– 174; in Takahime, 157, 159–165 jitori (low voice), 99, 151

jo-­ha-­kyū structure, 75, 78–79, 110, 291 〔Jo no Mai〕, 109–110, 291 jō-­on (high pitch), 25, 83–85 Jōmon period, 33 kaba (birch) in nohkan construction, 40–42, 43f Kabuki, 23 Kadono School, 58, 128 kae no fu (alternate melody), 169, 175 Kaeshi-­dome musical group, 14 kaeshi (bamboo reversal) method of nohkan construction, 24, 37, 40, 42–46 kagami no ma, 168, 292 Kagekiyo, 158 Kaichikushō, 29–30 kakari (beginning section), 108, 110, 143t, 144 [Kakeai], 90–95t, 101, 103, 107, 109 kakegoe, 1, 62–63, 197 Kakihara Mitsuhiro, 198n7 Kama Mitsuo, 179n36, 203–204, 277 Kamei Hirotada, 128 〔Kami-­mai〕, 94t, 108, 110, 292 kami Noh (god plays), 74 kan-­guri (pitch in utai), 83 kana (syllables), 9, 47, 49–54, 70, 82, 113–115 Kan’ami, 147 Kanze Bunko, 152n11 Kanze Hideo, 151, 152n12, 164f Kanze Hisao, 151, 163–164 Kanze Kiyokazu, 152n13 Kanze Sakon, 96 Kanze School, 16, 18, 18n16, 58, 96, 141, 192, 279–282; Kanze-­ryū: Mai no Hayashi (Kanze School: Instrumental dance music), 58– 59; Kanze-­ryū yōkyoku hyakuban-­ shū, Taiseiban (Compilation of one hundred Kanze School chants), 96

Index329 Kanze Tetsunojō [VIII], 152 kashira-­gane (gold cap relief), 41, 42f [Katari], 91–92t, 102, 154t, 169, 170 Kathakali, 199 kazakiri (mouth hole edge), 46 kazura-­mono (wig Noh), 68n13, 74, 108–109 kichiku Noh (demon and creature Noh), 74 Kinuta, 5, 88–95t, 96, 110–113 [Kiri], 95t, 112, 156t, 182, 200 kiri-­do (side door), 157, 168, 179 kiri Noh (ending Noh), 74 Kita Minoru, 16, 149, 150 Kita Sadayo, 166n20 Kita School, 11, 16, 58, 149, 166, 188n46, 193 Kitagawa, Joseph M., 7n8 kizami (drum patterns), 162 ko-­kata (child role actor), 292 Kō School, 33–34, 58, 118 Kō Yoshimitsu, 118 Kobayashi Seki: Noh/Kyōgen: Nihon koten geinō to gendai, 10, 152n13 Kobayashi Shizuo, 150, 173–174 kogaki performances and notation, 6n7, 17, 151–152, 167 kōken (stage assistants), 111 Kokinshū, 112 Komparu School, 58 Komparu Sōuemon, 7, 35, 37f, 50, 58, 67, 86, 167 komusō (wandering priests), 198n6 Kongō School, 58 Kōsei School, 58, 128 Kote (melodic pattern): in [Ageuta], 25, 86–87, 101, 103, 133–134, 136, 139; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; in Atsumori, 100–103; in Izutsu, 109; in Kinuta, 111; in [Michiyuki], 100, 127, 128–130; in [Sageuta], 101, 130, 131–132; shōdan including, 117; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 169; in Taka-

hime, 158; in Takasago, 106–107; in Tōru, 113; in traditional plays, 88–94t kotoba (vocal style), 85 [Kotoba], 153–156t, 180 kotsuzumi, 1; in [Ageuta], 133; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; drum strokes/sounds of, xv; Hina-­ matsuri (Doll Festival) and, 34; kakegoe (calls) of, xvi; in Kinuta, 110; in [Michiyuki], 121–122, 125, 128; Noh schools and, 17; in [Sageuta], 132–133; schools of, 58; in 〔Shidai〕, 98–99; study of, 62, 208–209; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 168–170, 172–174; in Takahime, 152–153, 154t, 156t, 157–162, 165; transcription of, 118, 120 Krüger, Simone: Experiencing Ethnomusicology, 207 ku (line of poetry), 80 kuchi-­shōga. See shōga system [Kuri], 103–104, 107, 109, 113, 169– 171, 180–181, 241–242 kuri-­on (high pitch), 83–85, 180, 293 [Kuse], 78n4; in Atsumori, 103–104; in Izutsu, 109; shōdan categories and, 81–82t, 200; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 169–170; in Takasago, 107; in traditional plays, 91–94t; transcription of, 245–251 Kyōgen, 4, 59n5 kyōgen-­kata, 17, 59, 59n5. See also ai-­ kyōgen (Kyōgen role actor) lacquer (urushi), 40–42 LaFleur, William R., 7n8 Leeyari musical group, 14 ma-­dake (male bamboo), 38n14 [Machi-­utai], 92–95t, 102, 107, 108, 111, 113, 236–237

330Index mae-­ba (first act), 76–77, 97, 105, 113, 196, 293 mae-­shite (beginning shite), 76–77, 107, 166, 204 mai. See dances Malm, William P., 4–5, 11, 21, 24–26, 28, 96, 140, 145, 198n6 marukan method of nohkan construction, 37–42, 44 Maruoka Akira, 166 masks, 4, 4n5, 163, 179, 183 Masuda Shōzō, 7, 50, 58, 86 Matsudaira, Narimitsu, 7n8 Matsui Akira, 15–16, 177, 179n36, 182n42, 199, 203–204, 276–277 Matsumoto Yasushi, 50, 86 matsuri-­bayashi, 29 me-­dake (female bamboo), 38n14 Meiji period, 147 Meishō, 25, 27–28, 28n6 melody and melodic patterns: in Atsumori, 88–95t, 97–105, 117–118; continuity through, 183–187, 197; flexibility of, 117, 156–157; Issō School and, 87; in Izutsu, 108–110; in Kinuta, 110–112; nohkan’s role in, 25–29, 35, 116, 117, 141; oral transmission of, 53–54; pitch variation in, 48; in Takasago, 105–108; in Tōru, 112– 115; traditional plays compared through, 88–95t; in Yokomichi’s adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well, 153–156t, 189. See also entrances and end points; specific melodic patterns memorization: of English-­language Noh, 196; fue-­kata and Western staff notation, 187; shōga and, 49, 54, 56, 59–61, 64, 206–207, 210, 301 [Michiyuki]: [Ageuta] compared to, 133; in Atsumori, 99–101; comparison of traditional plays and,

88t, 95t; melodic pattern deviation in, 112, 117, 129–130; Noh Training Project performance and, 205–206; in Takasago, 108– 110; transcription of, 121–126, 122–124, 127, 128–129; uchikiri in, 162 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan, 13 Mishima Taku, 179n36, 277 mitsuji (“three grounds” pattern), 99 Miura Hiroko, 83 Miyake Akiko, 31 mnemonics, 47, 56, 301. See also shōga system modern Noh. See shinsaku Noh; specific plays [Mondō], 79t, 81–82t, 88–93t, 101, 102, 107, 109–111, 153–156t Monogi (melodic pattern), 111 〔Monogi-­ashirai〕, 11, 91t, 111, 294 montsuki hakama (kimono and divided skirt), 163, 168 Moore, Jubilith, 179n36, 206, 277 Morikawa Sōkichi: Issō-­ryū fue kashira-­tsuke, 20, 87 Morisawa Yūji, 128 Morita Hatsutaro Mitsutoshi, 18n16 Morita School, 9, 18, 18n16, 49, 58, 138–139 Morita Toki: on nohkan melodic patterns, 81–82, 96; Nohkan no Ensō-­gihō to Denshō, 8; on oral transmission, 54, 59–60, 65; on origins of nohkan schools, 49, 49n1; on sashi-­yubi, 137–140; shōga book research by, 30–31, 50–53, 130n6; shōga chanting and, 48, 63, 68; on variations across performances, 17 mōshi-­awase (rehearsal), 51, 99, 103, 157, 168, 186, 194

Index331 mouth hole of nohkan (utaguchi), 38, 39, 41, 45–46 mugen Noh (dream-­world plays): adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well and, 167–168; defined, 73; entrances and end points in, 75, 77, 111n16; structure of, 75–82, 97, 101n11, 104, 109, 110, 111n16. See also specific plays Mumyō no I (play), 192 Murakata Akiko, 148n2 Muromachi period, 30n10, 73, 147, 198n6 Murray, Joan and Alexander, 45, 210n5 Naka no Takane (melodic pattern): in [Ageuta], 133–134, 136, 139; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; in Atsumori, 100–103; comparison of traditional plays and, 88–95t; entrances and end points of, 86–87; in Izutsu, 109; in [Michiyuki], 122–123, 128–130; shōdan including, 117; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 169; in Takahime, 158; in Takasago, 106–107; Takayuki on, 165–166; in Tōru, 112–113; utai and, 25 nakairi (shite’s costume change), 76, 101, 101n11, 107, 109, 113, 157, 159, 161 nakairi-­ba, 77t Nakamura Shichizaemon, 14 Nanatsu-­yuri (wavering pattern), 154t, 159 [Nanori], 79t, 88t, 109, 110, 153t, 295 〔Nanori-­bue〕, 88t, 109, 110, 112, 185, 295 〔Narai no Issei〕, 184, 295 〔Narai no Shidai 〕, 184, 295 Narai no Te (drum pattern), 162 Nemuri no Fu (melodic pattern), 153–154t, 157, 159, 163

〔Netori〕, 157, 295 ni-­no-­matsu (second pine tree), 170 nibanme-­mono (second-­category plays), 74, 105 Nihon koten bungaku taikei (Compendium of classical Japanese literature), 11 Nishino Haruo, 10n10, 50, 86, 169, 180 Nishiyama Matsunosuke, 152n13 nochi-­ba (second act), 76–78, 97, 105, 113, 196, 295 nochi-­shite (latter shite), 76–77, 102– 103, 107, 109–113, 162, 166, 173, 204 nodo (throat): construction of nohkan and, 40; historical development of, 28, 30; nohkan’s sound from, 3, 23, 35, 60; photograph of, 36; X-­ray study of nohkan and, 44–45n17, 17 nodo-­nashi nohkan, 14 Nogami Memorial Noh Theatre Research Institute (Hosei University), 31 Noh: Honsetsu no tenkai (Noh: Foundation and development), 166 Noh theater, 1; categories of, 68n13, 73–75; comprehensive nature of, 13, 195; creation of, 4; fieldwork in, 13–21; as international art form, 4, 10, 16, 187–188, 192– 193, 195, 201; jo-­ha-­kyū structure in, 78–79; literary scholarship on, 7–8; mugen structure of, 75–82; nohkan’s role in, 1–6, 24–28; religio-­aesthetic debate in, 6–7; scores for, 13; Shinto festivals and, 76; shōga and, 51; study of, 61–62. See also English-­language Noh; mugen Noh; schools of Noh; shinsaku Noh Noh Training Project–Bloomsburg (NTP-­B), 65n9, 146, 203–210

332 Nohgaku hayashi taikei, 35, 37f, 67, 67n11, 86, 114n18, 118 Nohgaku Performers’ Association, 137n7 “Nohgaku Seminar” (2004, Hosei University), 10, 10n10, 147 nohgaku-­shi (performers): cast lists of, from contemporary plays, 271–277; context’s influence on, 146, 205, 206; individual style of, 65–68, 70, 98, 135–137, 191, 197; professional/amateur divide and, 16, 22, 187–188, 192; shōga’s importance to, 51, 59–60; versatility of, 199 nohkan, 1; ambience from, 25–26, 46, 48, 68, 116, 140, 157, 165–166; contemporary plays and, 194– 195; dissemination of, 16; entrances and end points of, 87, 98– 99, 115–116, 118–120, 135–137, 208; history of, 23–24, 28–35; musical modes of, 23, 28–32; nodo and unique sound of, 3, 23, 35, 60; in oroshi sections, 65, 65n8; photograph of, 33; pitch variation in, 35–37, 48, 67, 187– 188; role of, 24–28, 104, 115–116, 195, 197, 205–206, 208–209; ryūteki and, 32, 33, 69; scholarship on, 7–11, 13; Takayuki on, 165–166; teaching of, 11, 13, 57– 65, 203–210; techniques of, 23, 59, 60, 64, 68–70, 104, 141, 145, 172, 181; theory vs. practice of, 22. See also construction of nohkan; entrances and exits; fue-­kata; melody and melodic patterns; specific melodic patterns NOHO Theatre Group, 148, 177–178, 276–277 Nokori-­dome (melodic pattern), 156t, 163, 182n43, 296 [Nokori-­dome], 156t, 182, 296 Nomura Mansai, 16

Index Nomura Manzō, 152n12, 198n7, 199 [Nori-­ji], 79t, 81t, 104–105 nori-­urushi (glue lacquer), 42 Notare (melodic pattern), 108 〔Ō-­beshi〕, 184, 185, 296 o dake (male bamboo), 38, 38n14 ō-­nori (large rhythm), 85–86, 105, 162, 297 Ō-­yuri (melodic pattern), 155t, 161 octaves, 23, 32 Oglevee, John, 179n36, 277 〔Oki-­tsuzumi〕, 153t, 168–169, 176, 185, 296 Okina (ritual piece), 75 Ōkubo Naoki, 148n2 Ōkura Eitarō, 179n36, 277 Ōkura Genjirō, 152–153, 198n7 Ōkura School, 58–59 〔Okuri-­bue〕, 81–82t, 90–95t, 101– 102, 111, 296 〔Okuri-­ōyuri〕, 92t, 107 omori (small lead weight), 41 Omote Akira, 75, 96, 97, 104 onna Noh (woman plays), 68n13, 74, 108–109 oral transmission: performance evidence for, 134; sashi-­yubi and, 68–71; tradition and, 197; utaibon and, 87. See also shōga system oroshi (ritard section), 51, 62–65, 65n8, 108, 110, 113, 141 Ortolani, Benito, 7n8 Osada Gokyō, 149 osaraikai (disciple’s recitals), 60 ōshiki mode, 113–115, 114t, 159, 171, 173, 182 Oshima Kinue, 204 Oshima Nohgakudō, 188n46, 193 Oshima Teruhisa, 193–194 oshirabe (tuning of instruments), 157, 168, 179, 186 ōtsuzumi, 1; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; in 〔Chū no Mai〕, 63, 140–

Index333 141; drum strokes/sounds of, xv; Hina-­matsuri (Doll Festival) and, 34; kakegoe (calls) of, xvi; in Kinuta, 110; in [Michiyuki], 121– 122, 125, 128; Noh schools and, 17; role of, 27, 99, 99n9, 195, 208; schools of, 58; in 〔Shidai〕, 98– 99; study of, 62; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 170, 172–174; in Takahime, 154t, 156t, 157–161, 165; transcription of, 118, 120; in Yukihiro’s Jūnibyōshi no Sanbasō, 199 Pagoda (play), 188n46, 193–195 patterns. See melody and melodic patterns; specific melodic patterns performers. See nohgaku-­shi Pine Barrens (play), 195 pitches: Berger’s guide to, 9; in〔Chū no Mai〕, 144; construction of nohkan and, 35–37; historical perspectives on, 28–29; of nohkan in relation to utai, 124–126, 205–206; nohkan’s role in establishing, 25–28; quarter tone transcription and, 67n11, 69n14, 114n18; rō and, 41; sashi-­yubi and, 139–140; shōga singing and, 59, 67–71; transcription of nohkan and, 36–37, 48, 69, 121n3, 283–285; in tsuyo-­gin (strong singing), 84–85; utai transcription and, 120, 186–187; vowels and, 48, 56–57; in yowa-­gin (soft singing), 83–84 Pleioblastus simonii bamboo, 23, 32, 38, 38n14 Plutschow, H. E., 6n8; Chaos and Cosmos, 76 poetry and poetic meter, 100, 103 Pound, Ezra, 148 Preston, Carrie J., 149n4 professional vs. amateur performers, 16, 22, 187–188, 192

Qamber, Ahktar, 148n2 quarter tones in transcription, 67n11, 69n14, 114n18 〔Raijo〕, 154–155t, 170, 297 Ranjō, 37f; dengaku-­bue created by, 156; kashira-­gane of, 42f; nohkan construction and, 19, 35–41, 43– 44; nohkan diagram by, 39f; nohkan scale of, 114–115, 118, 120; photograph of, 20f 〔Ranjo〕, 185, 297 rankei mode, 27, 27n5 Rath, Eric C., 17–18 Raz, Jacob, 7n8 rehearsal (mōshi-­awase), 51, 99, 103, 157, 194 Renji-­shi no Te (Twin lion dance), 155t, 161, 173, 297 rhythm and rhythmic patterns: in At the Hawk’s Well, 182; English language and, 200–201; freedom within, 120–121; kakegoe indicating, 62–63; nohkan’s role in, 35, 104, 115–116; scholarship on, 11; in 〔Shidai〕, 99; in shōdan, 27n5, 80; in Takahime, 162, 165; of utai singing, 85–86, 181; in Yukihiro’s Jūnibyōshi no Sanbasō, 199 Rimer, J. Thomas: Shūdōsho (trans.), 26 rō (beeswax), 41 rōjo-­mono (old-­women plays), 175 Roku no Ge (melodic pattern): in Atsumori, 100–102; comparison of traditional plays and, 88–95t; entrances and end points of, 86–87; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; in Izutsu, 109; in Kinuta, 111; Kote and, 130; in [Michiyuki], 123– 126, 128–130; shōdan including, 117; in Tōru, 113; utai and, 25 [Rongi], 27, 91–95t, 107, 108, 298 Rubin, Jay, 7n8

334Index ryo-­chū-­kan structure, 298; 〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕and, 113–115; 〔Banshiki Kyū no Mai〕 and, 160; 〔Chū no Mai〕and, 58, 140–143; oroshi and, 65n8; performance compared to shōga singing, 65–71; shōdan similarity through, 108, 110; shōga of, 52– 53f; teaching of, 208; Yukihiro and, 21, 50, 61, 65–71, 206 Ryo no Ashirai (melodic pattern), 154t, 169 Ryo no Fukiage (melodic pattern), 89t, 94t, 106, 154t, 158 Ryo no Kake no Ashirai (melodic pattern), 154t, 169 Ryo no Kote (melodic pattern), 91t, 94t, 103, 170 ryōgakari Noh, 73 ryūgi. See schools of Noh Ryūmeishō (Compendium on the dragon’s call), 28–30 ryūteki (flute), 14, 28–30, 32–33, 33, 35, 36, 49 〔Sagariha〕, 153t, 155t, 171, 181, 185, 209, 298 [Sageuta], 298; in Atsumori, 101, 112; in Izutsu, 109; in Kinuta, 111, 112; nohkan’s patterns in, 117; performance transcription of, 132, 132–133; poetic meter in, 85; in Takasago, 107; theoretical transcription of, 130–132, 131 Salz, Jonah, 177–178, 276–277 san-­no-­matsu (third pine tree), 159 sanbanme-­mono (third-­category plays), 68n13, 74, 105n13, 108– 109 Sangaku, 34–35n12 Sarugaku, 29, 30, 34–35, 35n12, 73, 74, 296, 299 Sasaki Dōyo, 27 sasara (percussive instrument), 35n13

[Sashi]: in adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well, 153–156t, 169–170, 180n39; in Atsumori, 101, 103– 104; in Izutsu, 109; shōdan categories and, 81t; in Takasago, 106– 108; in traditional plays, 88–94t; transcription of, 243–244 sashi-­yubi (embellishments), 5; ambience from, 116, 141; in Blue Moon Over Memphis, 197; in 〔Chū no Mai〕, 104, 144–145; factors influencing, 118–119; individual style from, 70–71, 116, 119; Morita on, 137–139; oral transmission of, 51, 63–64; shōga memorization and, 56, 63; Takayuki on, 166, 174; tradition and, 22; transcription of, 67, 69– 70; in yowa-­gin (soft singing), 83; Yukihiro and, 63–64, 67–71, 137– 139, 144–145 satokagura-­bue, 28–30 scales of the nohkan, 35–37 Scholz-­Ciona, Stanca: Nō Theatre Transversal, 11 schools of Noh (ryūgi): active repertoire of, 147; oral transmission and, 49; shōga books and, 31; structure and divisions of, 17–19, 58–59; variations across, 13, 58– 59, 82–83, 98, 128. See also specific schools second-­category plays (nibanme-­ mono), 74, 105 section markers. See dan; hishigi semi (cicada), 41, 299 senritsu-­kei (melodic patterns), 5, 88–95t, 96. See also melody and melodic patterns setsu (stanza), 80 Shakkyō (Noh play), 68 shakuhachi (flute), 23, 23n2, 30n10, 198–199, 299 shamanism, 6

Index335 Shibyōshi tetsuke taisei (Compilation of patterns for four instruments), 118 shichi-­go chō (poetic meter), 85, 299 [Shidai], 79t, 88–91t, 100, 109, 150, 153t, 179 〔Shidai〕: in adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well, 153t; in Atsumori, 98–102; in Emmert’s At the Hawk’s Well, 179–180, 184–185; fingerings for, 253; in Izutsu, 109; shōdan categories and, 81t; in Takasago, 108; in traditional plays, 88–89t; transcription of, 223–227 Shigeyama Akira, 177 shijima-­goto (quiet shōdan), 80–81, 300 Shikisanban, 108 “Shikō no hana, Noh Takahime” (play), 164n19 〔Shin no Issei〕, 106, 108, 184 Shin no Kuri (melodic pattern), 107 〔Shin no Nanori〕, 153t, 169, 184 〔Shin no Netori〕, 153t, 168–169, 176, 185 〔Shin no Raijo〕, 185 Shin no Roku no Ge (melodic pattern), 107 Shin no Ryo (melodic pattern), 107 〔Shin no Shidai〕, 106, 184 Shin no Tome (melodic pattern), 95t, 108, 156t, 182, 300 shinobue (flute), 14, 19, 156 shinsaku Noh: experimental aspects of, 163–166, 176–177; growth of, 191–192, 194–195; hishigi and, 182; importance of, 147–148; list of performers/performances, 271–277; scholarship on, 10–11; tradition and, 162, 169, 174–177, 183–189, 191, 193–194; Yukihiro on, 200 Shinto, 6

Shinto festivals, 76 〔Shishi〕, 68 shite and shite-­kata: in Atsumori, 100–104, 107, 130, 131–132, 133, 134, 137; categories of plays and, 73–74, 108; in Izutsu, 109–110; ji-­ utai and, 27n5, 78n4; in Kinuta, 110–112; in mugen Noh, 76–79; Noh schools and, 17, 18, 58; nohkan’s relationship to, 26, 96; oroshi section and, 65n8; Rongi and, 27n5; speed determined by, 62; in Taka no Izumi, 150, 167; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 168–170, 173, 188; in Takasago, 106–107; in Tōru, 112–113 shite-­bashira (shite’s pillar), 99 shite no shigoto, 77–78, 97 Shizuku no Kai (nohkan group), 19, 209 shō-­ku (half of a line of poetry), 80 shobanme-­mono (first-­category plays), 74 shōdan (building blocks), 5, 80f; of Atsumori, 88–95t, 97–105; categories of, 80–81; contemporary plays and, 153–156t, 186, 194; of Emmert’s At the Hawk’s Well, 179–183; in Izutsu, 108–110; jo-­ ha-­kyū structure and, 78n4, 79; of Kinuta, 110–112; melodic patterns of, 87, 88–95t, 118–119; memorization and, 196; nohkan’s role in, 25, 81–82, 115–116, 196; poetic meter in, 85; in Takasago, 105–108; in Tōru, 112–115; traditional plays compared through, 88–95t; transcription practices for, 119–121; variations across, 48, 117; in Yokomichi’s adaptations of At the Hawk’s Well, 153–156t, 163, 166–174. See also melody and melodic patterns; specific shōdan shōga-­shū, 8

336Index shōga system, 49–50; 〔Banshiki Haya-­mai〕and, 113; challenges of, 7, 47–48; chanting/singing of, 48, 49, 51, 59–60, 60n6, 63–65, 67, 69; 〔Chū no Mai〕and, 50– 54, 52f, 53f, 61, 64, 66, 113–114, 214–217; ensemble aspects of, 51, 65; Issō School books of, 30–31, 54–56; literary transmission and, 31; live performance compared to, 65–71, 122n4, 140, 144–145; Naka no Takane and, 129–130; Noh schools and, 17, 49; oral transmission and, 50–54, 56–57, 64–65, 71; ryo-­chū-­kan structure and, 52f, 53f, 66, 142; scholarship on, 8–9; teaching nohkan and, 57–65, 71, 206–207; transcription and, 9–10, 120, 122n4; utaibon and, 175; Western compositions and, 187, 189 Shōmon no Ashirai (melodic pattern), 154t, 158, 301 Shu-­gakari, 167 Shūdōsho (Zeami), 25–28 Shun-­nichi School, 49 shura-­mono (warrior plays), 74, 97 singing. See utai Sō no Kuri (melodic pattern), 90t, 94t, 102, 103, 169–170, 180, 181 Sō no Tome (melodic pattern), 105, 112 sōke, 152, 152n13 Sōke-­azukari in Noh schools, 18, 18n16 Sowa Masahiro, 33–34, 205–206 su-­bayashi (instruments-­only ensemble), 68 subdivisions. See dan Sumida River, 195 susu-­dake (smoked bamboo), 38 tachi-­kata, 17, 59, 62 〔Tachi-­mawari〕, 156t, 161–162, 173

Tada Tomio, 192 taiko and taiko-­kata: Dengaku and, 35n13; Hina-­matsuri (Doll Festival) and, 34; Noh schools and, 17; role of, 27, 195; study of, 62; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 171; in Takahime, 161, 162, 165; utai and, 86; in Yukihiro’s Jūnibyōshi no Sanbasō, 199 Taka no Izumi, 6; creation of, 148– 151; list of performers/performances, 271; structure and melodic patterns of, 153–156t, 166–167; text for, 255–257; utai in, 160; Yokomichi on, 167– 168n27 Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari: creation of, 151–152; improvisation in, 167, 170, 173, 174, 188; list of performers/performances, 271; structure and melodic patterns of, 153–156t, 168–174; Takahime and, 167–168, 171; text for, 259– 260; tradition/continuity through, 184, 188; Yokomichi on, 167 Takahashi Yasunari, 148n2 Takahime: alternate stagings of, 164n19; At the Hawk’s Well and, 179, 182–183; creation of, 148, 151; experimental aspects of, 163–166; improvisation in, 151, 156–157, 165, 172, 174; list of performers/performances, 271; scholarship on, 10–11; structure and melodic patterns of, 152, 153–156t, 156–163; Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari and, 167–168, 171; text for, 263–269; tradition/ continuity through, 188 Takakuwa Izumi: on construction of nohkan, 44–45n17; on Dengaku, 35n13; on historial development of nohkan, 28–30, 35; Noh no hayashi to enshutsu, 8; on nohkan’s

Index337 role, 25; on utai, 120; on Zeami, 28, 28n6 Takane (melodic pattern): in [Ageuta], 133–134, 134, 137; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180; in Atsumori, 100–102; in Kinuta, 112; in [Michiyuki], 121–125, 128–130; sashi-­yubi (embellishments) and, 139–140; shōdan including, 117; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 173–174; in Takahime, 153t, 156t, 162; in Takasago, 106–107; in Tōru, 112–113; in traditional plays and, 86–95t; utai and, 25 Takane-­haneru (melodic pattern), 107 Takasago, 5, 88–95t, 96, 105–109, 111, 117, 184 Takayasu School, 58; Takayasu-­ryū ōtsuzumi, Jō no Maki, 118 Takayuki. See Issō Takayuki Takemoto Mikio, 31 takigi Noh, 146, 204 Tamai Aya: “Umi o wattata noh no kiseki: Shingeki Taka no Ido kara Shinsaku Noh Takahime he,” 10–11 Tamba, Akira: La structure musicale du Nō: Théâtre traditionnel japonais, 8 Tanaka Binchō, 42f, 43–44 Tanaka Yoshikazu, 179n36, 183, 277 Taylor, Cecil, 14 Taylor, Richard, 148n2 Tazaki Enjirō: Shibyōshi tetsuke taisei, 118 teaching: of nohkan, 11, 13, 57–65, 203–210; ryo-­chū-­kan structure and, 208; scholarship on, 9; shōga system for, 49–50, 54, 57–65, 71, 206–207; in United States, 203– 210 Teele, Rebecca, 4n5, 11 Teika, 68–69 tempo, 62–63, 108, 110, 140–141, 145

Terai Sanshirō, 18n16 Theatre Nohgaku (TN): Anno and, 14; At the Hawk’s Well, 148, 177, 277; Emmert and, 11; nohgaku-­ shi and, 188n46; tradition and collaboration in, 22, 192–195 third-­category plays (sanbanme-­ mono), 68n13, 74, 105n13, 108– 109 tō (rattan) in nohkan construction, 40, 41 Toff, Nancy, 172 Toki Zenmaro, 149 Tokugawa period. See Edo period Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, 44 Tokyo University of the Arts, 13 Tome (melodic pattern), 163, 174, 186 Tōru, 5, 88–95t, 96, 112–116 Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai (Society for Research in Asiatic Music), 8, 80, 87, 169, 184 tradition: continuity and, 22, 184– 189; innovation and, 2, 6, 15–16, 22, 165, 177, 191; instrument construction and, 19; Noh Training Project–Bloomsburg and, 203–204; shinsaku Noh and, 162, 169, 174–177, 183–189, 191, 193– 194 transcription: mnemonics and, 56; nohkan’s pitches and, 36–37, 48, 69, 121n3, 283–285; quarter tones in, 67n11, 69n14, 114n18; role of, 9, 49; scores from, 13; of shōga singing vs. performance, 65–71; shōga system and, 9–10, 47–49; of theoretical vs. actual performances, 119–121; utai and, 120. See also Atsumori; specific shōdan transverse flute, 24, 29, 31–32, 35, 176–177 Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, 31

338Index [Tsuki-­zerifu], 88t, 100, 110, 303 tsukuri-­mono (prop), 157, 159, 161, 162, 168, 171, 179 tsure (shite’s companion roles): in Atsumori, 100–101, 130, 131–132, 133, 134, 137; in Kinuta, 110–111; in Taka no Izumi, 167; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 168, 171; in Takasago, 106–107 tsuyo-­gin (strong singing), 83–85, 303 tsuzuke pattern, 63, 63n7, 98–99, 224–227 Tyler, Royall, 110 uchikiri (short musical breaks), 87, 102, 107, 121–122, 130–133, 162, 180 Umewaka Rokurō/Genshō/Minoru, 16, 164n19, 191–192, 199n8 Unison Ashirai (melodic pattern), 171–172 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 4, 195 unmatched playing. See ashirai-­buki urushi (lacquer), 40–42 [Uta], 88–95t, 101, 103, 109, 154t, 233–235, 238–240 utaguchi (mouth hole), 38, 39, 41, 45–46 utai (chant): [Ageuta] and, 133–134; in At the Hawk’s Well, 180–181; Hina-­matsuri (Doll Festival) and, 34; improvisation and, 170; memorization and, 196; [Michiyuki] and, 121–129; nohkan melodic patterns and, 25–28, 48–49, 82, 85–87, 103, 106, 120, 124–126, 129–130, 134, 140, 158–159, 165– 166; performance factors of, 205– 206; [Sageuta] and, 130–133; sashi-­yubi and, 174; styles and rhythms of, 82–86; Takhime and, 162–163; transcription of, 120; Unison Ashirai and, 171–172

utai-­goto (chant shōdan): in Atsumori, 101, 103; defined, 80–82; in Kinuta, 110–112; nohkan melodic patterns and, 86, 87; in Takahime, 158–159; in Takasago, 106, 108; transcription of, 119– 121, 134–140. See also specific shōdan utaibon (Noh chant book): of Emmert, 181n41, 182n43, 186–187; Kanze school for Atsumori, 279– 282; oral transmission and, 87; of Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 168; of Takayuki, 158, 175; tradition/ continuity evidenced in, 186–189; of Yokomichi, 186–187; of Yukihiro, 129, 171, 175 utsu (fingering technique), 54, 70, 104 variations across schools of Noh, 13, 58–59, 82–83, 98, 128. See also improvisation and interpretation; kae no fu wa-­gin (soft singing), 82–84 [Waka], 94t, 104, 252, 304 waki and waki-­kata, 1; in Atsumori, 97–104; hishigi and, 33; in Izutsu, 109; in Kinuta, 110–111; [Michiyuki] and, 121; in mugen Noh, 76–79; Noh schools and, 17, 58– 59, 98; in Taka no Izumi, 167; in Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 168– 170, 172–174, 188; in Takasago, 106, 107; in Tōru, 112–113 waki Noh, 74, 105–106, 108, 117 washi (paper from mulberry bark), 41 Watanabe Kazumi, 14 Western music and art forms: collaboration with, 16, 22, 187–188; nohkan in, 23, 47; Yukihiro and, 69 Western staff notation: nohkan and, 48–49, 67, 115, 187; quarter tones

Index339 in, 67n11, 69n14, 114n18. See also transcription World War II, 149–150 X-­rays in nohkan analysis, 44–45n17 Yamamoto Norishige, 164f Yamanaka Reiko, 31 Yamashita Yōsuke, 14 Yamazaki Masakazu: Shūdōsho (trans.), 26 Yasufuku Haruo, 118 yatsu-­byōshi (eight beats), 52, 85, 289 Yeats, William Butler: At the Hawk’s Well, 2, 5–6, 22, 148–152, 177, 181n41, 182, 201; Noh theater and, 148–149, 168, 188 yobanme-­mono (fourth-­category plays), 74 Yokomichi Mario: on mugen Noh, 75; on nohkan’s melodic patterns, 25, 54, 86–87, 120; on ōshiki vs. banshiki mode, 115; on sanbanme-­ mono, 108; shōdan categories of, 80–81, 96, 104; tradition/continuity through, 186, 188; on utai, 82, 120; on World War II’s influence, 149–150; Yeats and, 2; performances and compositions by: Taka no Izumi, 6, 148–151, 255– 257; Taka no Izumi, Shu-­gakari, 6, 151–152, 170, 171, 175–176,

259–260; Takahime, 5, 148, 151, 163–164, 179, 263–269; scholarship by: Kuchi-­shōga taikei: Nihon no gakki no solumi-­zation, 7–8, 50, 86–87; Noh/Kyōgen: Nihon koten geinō to gendai, 10, 152n13, 156n13; Noh no Kōzō to gihō, 50, 108; Utai-­rizumu no kōzō to jitsugi: Noh . . . Jibyōshi to gihō, 82; Yōkyoku-­shū, Jō, 96, 97; Zeami seitan roppyaku-­nen kinen, Noh: Go-­ryū/Goban, Jō/Ge (liner notes), 8, 9, 82 yose pattern, 1 yosegi method of nohkan construction, 37–38 yoseru-­tsuzuke (drum pattern), 99 yowa-­gin (soft singing), 82–84, 305 Yubitsuke-­shū (Issō School flute fingering book), 54–56, 61, 102, 159n16, 170n30, 206–207, 253– 255 Yukihiro. See Issō Yukihiro yuri (wavering), 25, 181 Zahdi Dates and Poppies (play), 195 zatsu Noh (miscellaneous plays), 74, 110 Zeami: jo-­ha-­kyū structure in plays of, 78, 79; Meishō and, 27–28; mugen repertoire of, 5, 21, 76, 96, 115, 147; Sandō, 78–79; Shūdōsho, 25–28