Pictish Studies: Settlement, Burial and Art in Dark Age Northern Britain 9780860542629, 9781407317366

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Pictish Studies Set t lement , Burial and Art in Dark Age Northern Britain

edited by

J. G. P. Friell and W. G. Watson

BAR British Seri�s I 2 5

1984

·e.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. 125,

1984: 'Pictish Studies'.

@) The Indi victual Authors,

198L.1c.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542629 paperback ISBN 9781407317366 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542629 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ontents

L ist o f C ontributors L ist o f f igures I ntroduction A cknowledgements

I i ii v i i x

T he A rchaeology o f t he P icts:

s ome c urrent p roblems

1

A nna R itchie A S urvey o f P ictish S ettlement A rchaeology

7

L eslie A lcock S ome P ictish P roblems a t D unadd

4 3

A lan L ane W here w ere t he P icts? A n e ssay i n s ettlement a rchaeology T revor W atkins

6 3

8 7

P ictish a nd O ther B urials J oanna C lose-Brooks T wo K erbed C airns f rom S andwick, C .

U nst, S hetland

1 15

F . B i ge low

A S ymbol S tone a nd C airn a t W atenan, C aithness

1 31

R obert G ourlay B urials i n B irsay, O rkney C hristopher D . M orris w ith N icholas F . G arbeg a nd W hitebridge:

1 35 P earson

T wo S quare-Barrow C emeteries

i n I nverness-shire J . B . S tevenson T he C airn C emetery a t G arbeg, D rumnadrochit L aurie M . M acLagan W edderburn a nd D orothy N . G rime T he P ictish C lass

IS ymbol S tones

1 45

1 51

1 69

C harles T homas Z oomorphic D esign : M argaret C . I ndex

A N ew L ook a t P ictish A rt?

1 89

S olly 2 11

L ist o f C ontributors

P rofessor L eslie A lcock M .A., F .S.A., F .R.Hist. D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f G lasgow.

S oc.,

G erald F . B igelow M .A., H unter C ollege o f t he C ity U niversity o f N ew Y ork, 6 95, P ark A venue, N ew Y ork, N Y 1 002. D r.

J oanna C lose-Brooks F .S.A., 6 , N orth H ead, M ilford, L ymington, H ants. 5 04 O LX

R obert B . G ourlay M .A., F .S.A.Scot.,

M .I.F.A.

D r. A lan L ane, D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity C ollege, P 0B ox 7 8, C ardiff. D r. A nna R itchie, c /o R oyal C ommission o f A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments, 5 2-54 M elville S treet, E dinburgh, 3 . M argaret C . S olly M .A., F .S.A.Scot., C ity a nd C ounty M useum, B roadgate, L incoln, L incs. J . S tevenson B .A., F .S.A., R oyal C ommission o f A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments, 5 2-54 M elville S treet, E dinburgh, 3 . P rofessor C harles T homas M .A., F .S.A., H on .M .R.L.A., D irector, I nstitute o f C ornish S tudies, U niversity o f E xeter C ornwall C ounty C ouncil, T revison H ouse, P ool, R edruth, C ornwall, T R15 3 RE -

1

D r.

T revor W atkins F .S.A., D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f E dinburgh.

L awrie M . M acLagan W edderburn M .A., T he O ld M anse, R othiemurchas, A viemore, I nverness. D orothy M . G rime. N icholas F .

P earson.

i i

L ist o f F igures

F ig.

2 .1

D istribution o f P ictish m onuments o f C lasses a nd

2 .2

I

I, p lotted a gainst g ood a nd h arsh l and.

2 .4

2 .5

8

P ictish h ouses, c ertain o r p ossible. C arlungie; B uckquoy; C oileagean a n t J dail; W ag o f F orse.

2 .3

P .

p .

1 2

P eripheral P ictish s ettlements. D un C uier; J arlshof.

p . . 1 6

P ictish f ortifications. B urghead; C latchard C raig; C raig P hadraig; D undurn ; U rquhart C astle; D unottar.

P .

2 0

p .

2 6

p .

2 8

D istribution o f c ertain c lasses o f m etalwork i n B ritain a nd

I reland.

2 .6

T he F orteviot a rea

3 .1

D unadd t rial p iece

( front)

P . 4 8

3 .2

D unadd t rial p iece

( back)

P . 5 0

3 .3

D istribution o f " Pictish" b rooches

P .

4 .1

N ewmill,

P . 6 7

4 .2

N ewmill. c hamber.

P erthshire.

S ite p lan.

S ection t hrough f ill o f s outerrain

4 .3

A rdestie, A ngus.

4 .4

C arlungie, A ngus.

4 .5

P itcur, A ngus.

5 .1

B roxmouth, E ast L othian.

5 .2

D istribution o f s quare-ditched g raves

5 .3

S ite p lan. S ite p lan.

S ite p lan.

I nvergighty, A ngus.

G rave u nder e xcavation.

B oysack M ills, A ngus. d itched g rave.

P .

7 0

p .

7 6

p .

7 6

P .

8 0

P . . 8 8 P .

9 0

P .

9 2

P .

9 3

S quare a nd r ound d itched

g raves. 5 .4

5 4

E xcavation o f s quare -

i ii

F ig.

5 .5

A ckergill, C aithness.

P lans o f c airns.

p ._93

5 .6

A ckergill, C aithness.

P lan o f c emetery.

P . 9 8

5 .7

A ckergill, C aithness.

S ections t hrough c airns.

5 .8

P .

1 00

K eiss, C aithness.

P .

1 00

5 .9

D unrobin,

P .

1 01

5 .10

D istribution o f p latform c airns; a lso G arbeg p .

l Q3

P .

1 04

P .

1 16

S utherland.

a nd W hitebridge. 5 .11

L undin L inks, F ife.

6 .1

S andwick,

U nst, S hetland:

6 .2

S andwick,

U nst.

P lans o f S WC c airn.

P .

1 17

6 .3

S andwick,

L i nst.

A erial v iew o f S WC c airn.

P .

1 18

6 .4

S andwick,

U nst.

S outhwest K erb o f S WC c airn.

P .

1 19

6 .5

S andwick,

U nst.

P lan o f S WD c airn.

p .

1 20

6 .6

S andwick,

U nst.

S WD c airn f rom n orthwest.

P .

1 22

6 .7

S andwick,

U nst.

F ragment o f e ngraved s tone.

P .

1 22

S andwick,

[ i nst.

S WD c airn w ith " cover s labs ' t P .

1 24

P .

1 26

P .

1 32

6 .8

P lan o f c emetery. t he r egional c ontext.

e xposed. 6 .9

S andwick, [ I nst.

7 .1

S ymbol s tone a nd c airn p lan, W atenan,

8 .1

T he B irsay B ay P roject e xcavation s ites.

p .

1 36

8 .2

B irsay S mall S ites

A rea 1 .

P .

1 37

8 .3

B irsay S mall S ites

A rea 2 .

P .

1 39

8 .4

L eft: c ist g rave a nd s keleton, B irsay S mall S ites A rea 1 . P .

1 40

R ight:

S keleton f rom S WC c airn.

-

-

C aithness.

? c ist g rave.

8 .5

C ist g rave, B irsay S mall S ites A rea 1 .

P .

1 42

9 .1

G arbeg,

P .

1 46

9 .2

W hitebridge,

P .

1 48

P .

1 52

P .

1 53

P .

1 55

g,

I nverness-shire.

P lan o f c emetery.

I nverness-shire.

1 0.1

G am

I nverness-shire.

1 0.2

G arbeg.

P lans o f c airns 1 ,

1 0.3

G arbeg.

P lan o f c airn 1 .

i v

P lan o f c emetery.

P lan o f e xcavations. 2a nd 3 .

F ig.

1 0.4

Garbeg.

P lan o f cairn 2 .

p .

1 55

1 0.5

Garbeg.

P lan of c airn 3 .

P .

1 57

1 0.

Garbeg.

P lan of c airn 8 .

P .

1 59

1 0.7

Garbeg.

F ragment of s ymbol s tone,

c rescent a nd V-rod.

P .

1 61

1 0.8

Garbeg.

Cairn

g eneral view t o northwest.

P .

1 63

1 0.9

Garbeg.

C airn 2 ,

l ooking north.

P .

1 63

1 0.10 Garbeg.

Cairn 2 ,

s howing l inear pit.

P .

1 64

1 0.11 Garbeg.

Cairn 3 ,

s howing g rave pit.

P .

1 64

1 0.12 Garbeg.

Cairn 3 ,

d etail of s tone

P .

1 65

1 0.13 Garbeg.

Cairn 3 ,

g eneral view t o s outh.

P .

1 65

1 0.14 Garbeg.

Cairn 8 ,

g eneral view t o n orthwest.

P .

1 66

1 0.15 Garbeg.

Cairn 8 ,

d etail

P .

1 66

1 0.16 Garbeg.

Cairn 8 ,

s howing l ong c ist.

P .

1 67

1 ,

i ncised with

s etting.

l ooking west.

1 2.1

D etail f rom I nverury No.4.

P .

1 90

1 2.2

C lass I I s lab

P .

1 91

P .

1 93

P .

1 95

P .

1 97

P .

1 98

P .

1 99

P .

2 01

P .

2 03

P .

2 05

P .

2 06

-

Elgin Cathedral.

1 2.3

"

1 2.4

Panels o f z oomorphic

1 2.5

Z oomorphic panel f rom t he Book o f Durrow.

1 2.6

" Ankle b racelets".

1 2.7

Three c ategories o f animals a ppearing i n

C el t ic

"

a nd " Germanic"

a nimals.

i nterlace.

Pictish a rt. 1 2.8

Hippocampi.

1 2.9

Naturalistic a nimals.

1 2.10 Mythical b easts. 1 2.11

Leonine animals.

V

I ntroduction J . G .

P .

F riell a nd W .

G . W atson

T he f ield o f P ictish S tudies h as s een g reat a dvances s ince W ainw right w restled w ith ' The P roblem o f t he P icts' 2 9 y ears a go ( Wainwright, 1 955). T his i s p articularly t rue o f t he m ass o f s ettlement a nd m ort uary e vidence w hich h as a ccumulated s ince W ainwright a dmitted " the s ad, i f s omewhat s urprising, f act t hat w e c annot w ith c onfidence a ffix t he l abel ' Pictish ' t o a s ingle d welling o r t o a s ingle b urial" ( Wainw right, 1 955, 8 7)(see A lcock, C lose-Brooks, t his v olume). T he g rowth o f o ur a rchaeological k nowledge o f t he P icts i n t he l ast d ecade h as h elped t o p lace t he h istorically a ttested P icti i n a b etter d efined c ontext t han w as p reviously p ossible. M any o f t he p roblems a ssociated w ith P ictish s tudies i n t he p ast w ere d ue t o t he t antalisingly i ncomplete h istorical a nd a rchaeological e vidence a vailable. O ur c oncept o f a P ictish p eople a nd k ingdom w as i nitially f ounded o n t he h istorical r eferences t o t hem c ontained i n a v ariety o f c ontemporary a nd l ater s ources. T he o ne c ommon f eature o f a ll t hese s ources ( save t he K ing-list p ossibly c ompiled a t A bernethy R itchie, J .N.G. a nd R itchie, A ., 1 981, 1 70) f rom E umenius t o B ede i s t hat t hey w ere p roduced b y f oreigners; t hat i s t o s ay t hat t hey w ere w ritten b y h istorians a nd c ommentators o f o ther p eoples a nd s tates w hose i nterest i n t he P icts w as l argely l imited t o a ny i nteraction b etween t hem a nd t he p rimary c oncern o f t heir c hronicle. M any ( most?) o f t hese r eferences t o P ictish s ociety m ust h ave b een p roduced w ith a t b est i ndirect k nowledge o f t hat s ociety a nd w ould t end t o r eflect i ts m ore u nusual a nd d istinctive e lements ( the r eferences t o p ersonal t atooing, e tc.). U nfortunately, h istorical s ources t end t o i gnore t he c ommonplace a nd s o w e a re b etter a cquainted w ith w hat a re p erhaps t he m ore a typical a spects o f t he p ast t han t he s ocietal n orms w hich w e m ight e xpect t o e ncounter i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. -

-

-

F or m any y ears, h owever, t hat a rchaeological r ecord w as a lso u nbalanced. B y t heir u niqueness a nd t heir n umbers t he s culptured s tones o f P ictiand c laimed t he f oremost p lace i n o ur d efinition o f P ictish m aterial c ulture ( Stevenson, 1 955,97). R ather t han t he e veryday a rtef acts w hich w e m ight e xpect a rchaeology t o r ecover P ictish s cholars w ere f aced w ith a u nique a nd l argely u nintelligible c orpus o f m aterial w hich s erved o nly t o r einforce t he c oncept o f t he P icts a s a n u nusual a nd m ysterious p eople; t hat t he f irst m ajor s tudy o f t he P icts s hould r efer s o s trongly t o ' The P roblem ' w hich t hey p resented i s s ymptiomatic o f t his d ifficulty. N ow t hat a rchaeology h as b egun t o p roduce f ortifications, s ettlem ents a nd b urials w hich c an b e s afely d efined a s P ictish s ome o f t he p roblems c reated b y t he b ias o f o ur t extual a nd s culptural s ources a re b eing r esolved. T he s teady f low o f n ewly-discovered s culptured s tones i s a lso r efining e arlier a ttempts t o d efine f unctions a nd d istribution V ii

p atterns. T heir r elation t o t he i ncreasing c orpus o f o gam i nscriptions ( Padell, 1 972), p lacename e vidence a nd t he t extual s ources i s p roviding g eographical r esolution t o t he p roblem o f t he e xtent o f ' true' P ictish c ulture ( see R itchie, t his v olume). T he c ontributions t o t his v olume c over m any o f t hese r ecent a dvances i n P ictish s tudies. T he e xtensive r eviews o f s ettlement s tudies ( Alcock) a nd b urial p ractices ( Close-Brooks) d emonstrate t he e xtent o f o ur c urrent k nowledge i n t hese m ajor f ields. O ther c ontrib utors p ropose n ew a pproaches t o s ome o f t he r emaining p roblems, s uch a s T revor W atkins o n s ettlement i n A ngus a nd M argaret S ally o n t he c hronology o f t he C lass I I s ymbol s tones. T he c overage o f P ictish s tudies i n t his v olume i s o bviously i ncomplete, b ut t he m ass o f a vailable m aterial w ould d efeat a ny a ttempt t o p roduce a c omprehensive P ictish s tudy e ven i f i t w ere d esirable ( which w e d oubt). I nstead i t i s h oped t hat t his v olume w ill p rovide a u seful r eview o f t he c urrent s tate o f P ictish s tudies a nd p erhaps o ffer s ome s uggestions f or f urther r esearch a nd p rogress w ithin t he s ubject.

J .G.P.F.

a nd W .G.W.

R eferences P adel, 0 .

1 972

I nscriptions o f P ictiand.

U npublished M .Litt.

t hesis,

U niversity o f E dinburgh. R itchie,

J .N.G.

H ist ry. S tevenson, W ainwright,

a nd R itchie, A .

1 981

S cotland: A rchaeology a nd E arly

L ondon.

R .B.K.

1 955

F .T.

1 955

W ainwright, E .T.

1 955

' Pictish A rt'

,

i n W ainwright,

' Houses a nd G raves',

1 955, 9 7-128.

i n W ainwright,

1 955,

8 7-

9 6. ( ed.)

T he P roblem o f t he P icts.

i x

E dinburgh.

A cknowledgements

W e w ould l ike t o t hank t he f ollowing p eople f or t heir a ssistance i n t he c ompilation o f t his v olume: P rofessor L eslie A lcock f or h is a dvice a s e ditorial c onsultant, a nd f or e ncouragement s ince o ur s tudent d ays; B AR a nd W .S. H anson a nd L .J.F. K eppie f or p ermission t o r eprint ' A S urvey o f P ictish s ettlement A rchaeology' f rom B AR I S 7 1; R outledge a nd K egan P aul f or p ermission t o r eprint f igures 4 .3 a nd 4 .4 f rom W ainwright ' The S outerrains o f S outhern P ictiand'; B ill H anson a nd J ohn B arrett o f t he A rchaeology D ept., U niversity o f G lasgow f or t heir a dvice; D r. J oanna C lose-Brooks f or h er w ork i n a rranging t he c ontributions t o t he s ection o n b urial; A nna R itchie f or h er e nthusiasm, a dvice a nd f or c hairing t he c onference w hich g enerated t his v olume; G lasgow U niversity A rchaeology S ociety f or i nviting u s t o o rganise t hat c onference; M rs C athy R ussell, o ur t ypist, f or h er p atience a nd h ard w ork; a nd M s. M argaret S olly f or h er a dvice a nd c omments d uring t he c ompilation o f t his v olume.

x

T he a rchaeology o f t he P icts:

s ome c urrent p roblems

b y A nna R itchie P ictish s tudies h ave e xpanded r apidly i n r ecent y ears. W hen t hat w ell-named b ook T he P roblem o f t he P icts w as p ublished i n 1 955, F rederick W ainwright w as p essimistic, a lmost d espairing, a bout t he l ack o f i nformation a bout P ictish h ouses a nd b urials ( 1955, 3 1). B ut t hat w as a lmost t wenty y ears a go, a nd t he s ituation n ow i s v ery d iff erent, a s t he c ontributions t o t his v olume s how. D istinctively P ictish t ypes o f h ouses, f orts a nd g rave-structures w ere i dentified i n t he 1 970 's, a nd t he s ame d ecade s aw t he p ublication o f m any i mport ant s tudies o f P ictish m etalwork, s tone-carving a nd p olitical a nd s ocial h istory ( many o f t hem r eviewed i n A lcock 1 980). T here a re o f c ourse s till p roblems, s ome o f w hich w ill b e s olved, o r e xacerbated, o nly b y s elective r esearch e xcavation; L eslie A lcock h as s hown t he w ay w ith h is l ong-term r esearch p roject o n e arly h istoric f ortificat ions i n S cotland. T he o bject o f t his s hort p aper i s n ot t o s ummarise t he c ontributions t o t his v olume, b ut t o d raw a ttention t o c ertain t hemes t hat a ppear t o t his a uthor t o b e i mportant t o c urrent P ictish s tudies. T he q uestion o f s ite c ontinuity i s c rucial t o t he c hronology o f P ictish a rchaeology. C an w e r eally t ake t hat a lmost a ccidental d ate o f A D 2 97 a nd a ssume a P ictish c haracter f or a ll m aterial c ulture d atable t hereafter? I n a rchaeological t erms, t he P icts a re c haract er is ed a nd i ndeed i dentified b y s ymbol s tones a nd r elated m etalwor ', t ogether w ith t he l inguistic e vidence p rovided b y p lace-names, o gam i nscriptions a nd n ames m entioned i n d ocumentary s ources. F ew s cholars w ould d ate t he s tones o r t he m etalwork b efore A D 6 00, a nd m uch o f t he l inguistic e vidence i s e ven l ater. T he a rchaeologist m ust d efine h is t erms w ith c are. H e s hould r ecognise t hat i n a rchaeology P ictish i s ac ultural t erm, n ot t he e thnic P icti, b e t hat t he s lang o f R oman s oldiers o r a n ame t hat m ight b e h eard i n n ative S trathmore. T he f act t hat P icti o ccurs i n d ocum entary s ources f rom A D 2 97 o nwards i s o f m inor r elevance t o t he a rcha eological r eality o f P ictish m aterial c ulture. N or d o t he P icts a ssume h istorical r eality u ntil t he m id 6 th c entury w ith t he w ella ttested r eign o f B ridei, s on o f M aelcon, a d ate v ery c lose t o, p erhaps e ven c ontemporary w ith, t he e mergence o f a n i dentifiable P ictish m aterial c ulture. C hronology a nd n omenclature a re i mportant t o t he c larity o f P ictish s tudies. T he b ad o ld d ays i n w hich b rochs w ere c alled ' Pictish t owers ' a re n ot l ong p ast, a nd, a s a r esult o f u sing t hat u nhelpful t erm ' Pr 'oto-Pictish ' ‚ s outerrains a re s till w idely r egarded a s P ictish s tructures. L et u s b e p lain: s outerrains a re n ot, t o t he b est o f c urrent k nowledge, p art o f t he P ictish c ultural a ssemblage. O nly t he A ngus-Perthshire g roup c an b e d ated w ith a ny c onfidence a nd t here t hey a ppear t o h ave b een a bandoned a nd i nfilled a round A D 2 00 t he r eason i s o bscure, b ut o ne m ight h azard a g uess t hat i t-had s omething t o d o -

1

w ith R oman m ilitary a ctivities. T he s torage c apacity o f as outerrain s uch a s N ewmill w as h uge: w as i t d esigned s imply t o m eet t he c ommunal n eeds o f l ocal f armers, o r m ight t he r equisitioning o f s upplies f or t he R oman a rmy i n t he f ield h ave h ad s omething t o d o w ith i ts u sage a nd u ltimate d estruction? W hatever t heir p urpose, s uch s outerrains w ere o bsolete b efore e ven t he h istorical P ictish e ra b egan a t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c entury. F urther n orth, s outerrains a re v irtually u ndatable a nd, b y a nalogy w ith s imilar s tructures o utside S cotland, w e s hould n ot e xpect e ither a c ommon c hronology o r ac ommon f unctional t radition. O ne m ight a ccuse t he ' Proto-Pict' o f b eing a n u nscientific r ed h erring b orn o f t he u neasy m arriage o f a rchaeology a nd h istory. W e c all i t t ext-aided a rchaeology, b ut s ometimes i t i s t ext-hindered i n t he s ense t hat a rchaeological m ethod b ecomes e ncumbered b y e thnic l abels t hat h ave l ittle j ustification o ther t han t heir e xistence i n t he h istorical r ecord. I n t he p resent s tate o f k nowledge, t he a rchae ologist o ught n ot t o u se t he t erm ' Pictish ' p rior t o t he 6 th c entury a t t he e arliest. T his i s n ot t o d eny t hat t he P icts h ad a ncestors t hey w ere n ot a n ew e lement i n t he p opulation b ut r ather a d evelopment o f t he o ld b ut t o b eg a r estricted a rchaeological u se o f t he t erm ' Pictish'. S uch a u sage o ught t o c larify t he i dentification o f s pecifically P ictish m aterial c ulture. -

-

T his i s w here t he q uestion o f s ite c ontinuity b ecomes c ritical: i f w e c ould p rove u nbroken o ccupation o f as ettlement f rom t he e arly c enturies A D t hrough t o t he 7 th c entury a t l east, w e s hould b e c loser t o e xtending P ictish c hronology b ackwards. B ut w here a re t he s ites s howing s uch c ontinuity? W atkins h as c laimed c ontinuity f rom p erhaps a s e arly a s t he I st c entury B C i nto t he 9 th c entury A D a t N ewmill i n P erthshire ( 1980a, 1 99), b ut t here i s i n f act a g ap o f s ome f ive o r s ix h undred y ears b etween t he p ost-souterrain o ccupation o f t he s ite a nd t he i ndustrial a ctivity r epresented b y t he f ire-pit d ated b y r adiocarbon a nalysis t o t he 9 th c entury. P roximity o f t he f ire-pit t o t he e arlier s ettlement d oes n ot p rove t hat o ccupation c ontinued o ver t he i ntervening c enturies. T he e nigmatic s ite a t D alladies 2 i n K incardineshire m ay h ave c ontinued i n o ccupation i nto t he 6 th c entury ( Watkins 1 980b). T here a ppears t o b e r eal s ite c ontinuity a t t he U dal o n N orth U ist f rom a bout A D 4 00 t o 8 00 b ut i s i t P ictish? C rawford d escribes t he s equence w ith c aution a s S cotto-Pictish ( 1974). I n t he N orthern I sles, b roch s ites w ith a l ong p ost-broch s tructural s equence s uch a s t he H owe a nd G urness i n O rkney s eem l ikely t o s how t he r equired c ontinuity o f s ettlement, b ut j udgement m ust b e s uspended u ntil t he e vidence i s f ully p ublished. R adiocarbon d ates f or t he n ailed t imber-laced r ampart a t B urghead o n t he M oray c oast s uggest t hat c onstruction o f t he f ort m ay h ave b egun a s e arly a s t he 4 th c entury A D ( Edwards a nd R alston 1 978) ; t he c oncentration h ere o f s tones b earing t he b ull s ymbol ( as m any a s 3 0 h ave b een r ecorded a lthough o nly 5 s urvive, A nderson 1 881, 8 6) i mplies t hat B urghead b ecame a m ajor e arly P ictish m ilitary a nd n aval c entre. T he P icts a nd S cots w ere c ertainly s ea-borne d uring G ildas' T hird P ictish W ar i n t he 4 40 's ( Thomas 1 981, 2 49), a nd t heir n aval p ower m ay w ell h ave b een e stablished a s e arly a s t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c entury ( Mann 1 974, 4 2). -

I t h as l ong b een r ecognised t hat t he u nion o f t he P icts a nd S cots i n A D 8 43 s hould b e v iewed n ot a s as udden o r u nexpected m ilitary c oup b ut r ather a s t he c ulmination o f a l ong-standing p olitical r elationship 2

b etween t he t wo p eoples. A edan o f D alriada m arried a P ictish p rincess a nd f athered a P ictish k ing ( Duncan 1 975, 4 3), a nd a lthough h e f ought a gainst t he P icts o n o ccasion i t s eems l ikely t hat f riendly r elations w ere a lso p ossible. S uch r elationships m ust c learly h ave h ad a n e ffect o n c ultural l ife, w ith a n e xchange o f i deas a nd o bjects t hat c ould e xtend w estwards t o I reland i tself. G ifts b etween r oyal f amilies a nd t he b artering o f m ore e ssential c ommodities, i ncluding p eople i n t he f orm o f s laves, a re s ome ' o f t he o bvious w ays i n w hich s uch c ultural e xchange m ay h ave t aken p lace. C ontact b etween I reland a nd P ictiand i s a t i ts m ost g raphic i n t he f igural p anels t hat a ppear b oth o n P icti sh s culpture a nd o n I rish h igh c rosses, a nd H icks h as r ecently e xami ned t he c lose a rtistic l inks b etween t he s culptures p roduced b y a C lonmacnois w orkshop i n I reland a round A D 8 00 a nd P ictish c ross-slabs o f c lasses

I I a nd I II

( 1980).

S cotto-Pictish r elationships o ught a lso t o b e d iscernible t hrough t he d istribution a nd c hronology o f o gam i nscriptions, b ut t his i s a d ifficult l inguistic a rea o n w hich t he a rchaeologist h as h esitated t o e ncroach. A re P ictish i nscriptions r eally a ll a s l ate a s o gam s cholars w ould h ave u s b elieve, o r c an w e m ore c redibly s pread t hem o ver a l onger p eriod? O n t he b asis o f t he d evelopment o f l etter f orms i n I reland, m ost P ictish o gam i nscriptions a re d ated t o t he 8 th c entury ( Jackson 1 955, 1 39), b ut a d ate i n t he 7 th c entury o r e arlier i s a llowed f or . s ome, s uch a s t he N ewton s tone ( Padel 1 972a, 1 97). C ertainly t hey c annot a s a g roup b e a ttributed t o S cottish i nfluence a fter t he u nion , a nd y et i t i s d ifficult t o e nvisage i n h uman t erms t he m eans b y w hich a nd t he r eason f or w hich a n I rish a lphabet s hould h ave b een a dopted i n P ictland. T he f requency a nd i nformality o f i nscriptions i n t he N orthern I sles s uggests a c onsiderable d egree o f f amiliarity t here w ith o gam, a nd t his p oint w ill b e t aken u p a gain l ater. I n c ertain s pheres o f m aterial c ulture, t he f ar n orth o f P ictiand m ay h ave h ad c loser t ies w ith t he G aelic-speaking w est t han w ith P ictl and p roper. T he c losest p arallels t o t he f igure-of-eight h ouse a t B uckquoy i n O rkney a re t he c ontemporary h ouses a t t he U dal o n N U ist ( Crawford a nd S witsur 1 977); C rawford h as a rgued o n t he b asis o f p ersonal n ames a nd g enealogies t hat D alriadic i nfluence h ad e xtended n orthwards a nd t hat t here w ere G aelic-speakers i n S kye a nd p erhaps L ewis a nd H arris b y t he 7 th a nd 8 th c enturies A D ( 1974, 2 ). T he a rchit ectural o rigin o f t he f igure-of-eight h ouse w ould a ppear t o l ie i n w heelhouse t radition ( Ritchie 1 977, 1 83), a t radition s tronger i n t he w est t han i n t he N orthern I sles, • w here e xamples o f t rue w heelhouses a re r are. D irect c ontact b etween t he N orthern I sles a nd t he H ebrides, a nd s ometimes f urther a field t o I reland, h as b een a f eature o f c ultural p atterns s ince e arly p rehistoric t imes, a t radition n ot t o b e b roken b y a ny s hort-term a ggression b etween S cots a nd P icts. W e s hould b ear i n m ind t hat, u ntil r ecently, s ea t ravel w as i nfinitely e asier t han t ravel o ver-land. T he A nnals o f U lster r ecord a n e xpedition t o O rkney b y t he D alriadic k ing A edan i n 5 80 o r 5 81, w ith n o m ention o f h ostilities h aving t aken p lace; M iller h as e ven s uggested t hat A edan m ay h ave b een a cting a s a n a lly o f t he P ictish k ing B ridei o n t hat o ccasion ( 1980, 3 20). I t i s a n o dd f act t hat s urviving e xamples o f t he f oot-marked s tones t raditionally a ssociated w ith S cottish i naugural c ustoms a re c oncentrated i n t he N orthern I sles a nd A rgyll. M oreover, t he c ultural l ink p rovided b y t he e arly C olumban c hurch s hould n ot b y u nderestimated. I f t here w ere a m easure o f d irect S cottish i nfluence r eaching t he 3

N orthern I sles, b oth s ecular a nd e cclesiastical, i t w ould c reate a s uita ble c ontext f or t he t aste a pparent t here f or u sing t he I rish o gam s cript. A lthough o gam i nscriptions o ccur s poradically t hroughout P ictl and, o ver 5 0 0o o f t he s urviving t otal h ave b een f ound i n t he N orthern I sles, n ine i n S hetland a nd s ix i n O rkney. A part f rom t he i nscription o n a s imple c ross-slab f rom t he B roch o f B urrian o n N orth R onaidsay ( MacGregor 1 974, 9 6, f ig 2 1), n one o f t he O rcadian i nscriptions h as a ny c laim t o f ormality. T he t hree f rom t he B rough o f B irsay a re i ncised a long t he n arrow f ace o f b uilding s labs, w hile t hose f rom B uckquoy ( Ritchie 1 977, 1 81-2, 1 97, f ig 8 , n o 8 4, 1 99, 2 21-2) a nd G urness a re i ncised o n a s tone s pindle w horl a nd o n ab one h andle r espectively. O liver P adel h as d rawn a ttention t o t he c asual t echnique a nd s ometimes c arelessly f ormed l etters o f t he O rkney g roup o f o gams, a nd h e w ould d ate n one o f t hem e arlier t han t he 8 th c entury ( 1972b,.2, 1 6). I n c ommon w ith P ictish o gams o utside O rkney, a ll t hese i nscriptions a re c haracteristically a nd t antalisingly i mcomprehensible. O gam a ppears t o h ave b een u sed a s a v ehicle f or t he o ld a boriginal P ictish t ongue r ather t han f or C eltic, a nd i t m ay w ell b e t hat t he o lder n on-Celtic e lement i n t he p opulation w as s tronger i n t he N orthern I sles t han f urther s outh. P rofessor J ackson h as a rgued o n p lace-name e vidence t hat t he m ain a rea o f C eltic l inguistic i nfluence l ay i n e astern S cotl and b etween t he F irth o f F orth a nd t he D ornoch F irth

( 1955,

1 46-53).

A ll t his l eads t o t he q uestion o f h ow w e s hould v iew P ictland: d oes t he r emarkable u niformity o f P ictish c arved s tone m onuments r eflect a u nified p olitical e ntity? A lcock h as s uggested t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he f ar n orth a nd t hose i n t he w est p rior t o t he S cottic c olonisation ' are l ikely t o h ave b orne a d iluted P ictish o r P roto-Pictish c ulture' ( 1980, 6 2), i n c omparison t o t hose l iving i n t he P ictish h eartland. T his i dea i s a t p resent i ncontrovertible a s f ar a s t he w est i n c oncerned, a nd i t i s p erhaps s upported b y t he e vidence d iscussed a bove f or S cottic i nfluence i n t he N orthern I sles, b ut t he p roblem r emains o f h ow i t s hould b e f itted i nto a ny t heoretical m odel o f P ictish p olitics. T he o ftq uoted p assage i n A domnan 's L ife o f C olumba m entions a n O rcadian r egulus a nd h ostages ( Anderson a nd A nderson 1 961, c hap I I, 4 2) a t t he c ourt o f B ridei i n t he l ater 6 th c entury, b ut i t i s a rguable w hether t his i mplies t hat O rkney w as a s ubordinate p rovince o f P ictiand o r a s eparate k ingdom i n w hich P ictish c ultural i nfluence w as s trong. T he w riter h as s ugg ested e lsewhere t hat t he O rcadian r uler m ay n ot h ave b een m uch i nferior i n s tatus t o B ridei ( Ritchie f orthcoming), w ho m ay i n a ny c ase h ave b een k ing o nly o ver t he n orthern P icts ( Duncan 1 975, 4 6-7). I t i s p erh aps u nlikely t hat t he P ictish p olitical f ramework r emained s tatic o ver t he t wo c enturies b etween C olumba 's B ridei a nd t he u nion w ith t he S cots; a s o ur k nowledge o f P ictish p olitics d erives f rom o utside o bservers l ike A domnan a nd B ede, w e s hould n ot b e s urprised i f t he o verall p icture i s b iased.

4

R eferences A lcock, L 1 980 ' Populi b estiales P ictorum f eroci a nimo: as urvey o f P ictish s ettlement a rchaeology' , i n H anson, W S a nd K eppie, L JF ( eds) R oman F rontier S tudies 1 979. B AR 1 5 7 1, O xford, 6 1-95. A nderson

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' A C lon r nacnois w orkshop i n s tone'

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,

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,

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W atkins, T 1 980b ' Excavation o f a n I ron A ge o pen s ettlement a t D ali. a dies, K incardineshire', P roc S oc A ntiq S cot, 1 10 ( 1978-80), 1 226 4.

6

A S urvey o f P ictish S ettlement A rchaeology L eslie A lcock I ntroduction T his p aper w as o riginally c ommissioned a s as urvey o f p ost-Roman S cotland f or t he T welfth I nternational C ongress o f R oman F rontier S tud ies, h eld a t S tirling i n S eptember, 1 979. I n t his f orm, i t w as p ubl ished i n t he C ongress p apers: H anson a nd K eppie 1 980, 6 1-95. E ven w hen f ull a llowance i s m ade, h owever, f or t he w ell k nown r ole o f t he P icts a s e nemies o f t he E mpire, a s urvey o f R oman f rontier p roblems i s n ot t he m ost o bvious p lace i n w hich t o f ind a s tudy o f P ictish s ettlement a rchaeology. W hen, t herefore, i t w as s uggested t hat t he p aper w ould b e a ppropriate f or t he p resent v olume, t he o riginal e ditors k indly g ave t heir p ermission f or i t t o b e r eprinted. T he o pportunity w as t hen t aken t o b ring b oth t ext a nd b ibliography u p t o d ate t o M ay 1 982. T he p roblematic P icts P opuli b estiales P ictorum f eroci a nimo w as t he v erdict o f a n E nglishm an o n t he n ation w hich h ad e ffectively b locked t he n orthward e xpansion o f t he A nglo-Saxons i n t he l ate 7 th c entury A D, j ust a s i t h ad b locked R oman e xpansion f our c enturies a nd m ore e arlier. T he w riter w as E ddius S tephanus, b iographer o f B ishop W ilfrid, a nd t he i mmediate o ccasion w as a m inor p unitive c ampaign a gainst t he P icts i n A D 6 71-673 ( Coigrave 1 927, 4 0-41); b ut E ddius w as a ctually w riting i n t he e arly 8 th c entury, a nd h e m ust h ave h ad f ully i n m ind t he o verwhelming P ictish v ictory a t N ectanesmere i n A D 6 85, w hen t he N orthumbrian k ing, E cgfrith, w as s lain w ith t he g reater p art o f h is a rmy ( Coigrave a nd N l ynors 1 969, 4 28-9; W ainwright 1 948). N ectanesmere w as o ne o f a n umber o f v ictories w hich d emonstrated t hat, i n t he 7 th a nd 8 th c enturies A D, t he P icts w ere s till, i n m ilitary t erms, t he m ost f ormidable p eople i n n orthern B ritain. A no ther m ajor s uccess w as t heir c apture o f D unadd, p rincipal s tronghold o f t he S cots o f D alriada, i n A D 7 36 ( Bannerman 1 974, 1 5-16; A lcock 1 981a, 1 66-6; 1 981 b ). T here t hey l eft, a s ' an e xpression o f d efiance', a n i nscription i n ' the e nigmatic O gams o f P ictiand' ‚ a s w ell a s a r ocks cribing o f a b oar w hich i s a lso r egarded a s P ictish ( Jackson 1 965). T he m ilitary s uccess o f t he P icts, h istorically a ttested i n t he 7 th a nd 8 th c enturies, i s, o f c ourse, f ully c onsistent w ith t he p rowess o f t heir a ncestors, p art i nferred a nd p art d ocumented, i n t he R oman c enturies. F or h owever e ffectively A gricola m ay h ave d ealt w ith t hem a t M ons G raupius i n A D 8 4 ( St. J oseph 1 978a), o r S everus a nd h is s ons i n t he e arly 3 rd c entury, i t w as t he C aledones o r C aledonii a nd o ther P icts w ho i n t he l ong t erm b oth b locked R oman e xpansion u p t he f ertile e astern l owlands o f S cotland, a nd n ecessitated t he p ermanent g arrisoni ng o f o ne o r o ther o f t he W alls w ith t heir s upporting f orts. E ven m ore i mportant, o ur s canty h istorical r ecords f or t he 5 th c entury d ecl are t hat i t w as t he a ggression o f t he P icts, a nd o f t he P icts a lone, w hich l ed t o t he l arge e mployment b y t he s outhern B ritons o f G ermanic 7

1 0

Harsh L and •

F ig.

0

I i ,

1 0 I

20 30 40

5 0 Miles

4

P ic t ish Monu ments

2 .1

D istribution o f P ictish m onuments o f C lasses I & I I, p lotted a gainst g ood a nd h arsh l and. H arsh l and a fter D awson i n M cNeil] . a nd N icholson 1 975; m onuments a fter H enderson, i bid.

8

m ercenaries, w ith m assive c onsequences f or t he e mergence o f t he E nglish n ation ( Winterbottom 1 978, e spec. 2 6 a nd 9 7). I mportant t hough t he P icts u ndoubtedly w ere, t hey h ave a lso b een a n e lusive p eople; s o m uch s o t hat t he m ajor s tudy o f t hem w as e ntitled T he P roblem o f t he P icts ( Wainwright 1 955). I t i s a s w ell t o b egin o ur a rchaeological s urvey, t herefore, b y d elimiting t hem i n t ime a nd s pace. I n s trictest t erms, t he H istorical P icts f irst a ppear i n A D 2 97, w hen E umenius w rites o f t he P icti, a long w ith t he H iberni, a s e nemies o f t he B ritanni ( Wainwright 1 965, 2 ). A s a s eparate n ation, t hey c ame t o a n e nd i n t he m iddle d ecades o f t he 9 th c entury, w hen t heir r oyal l ine w as s upp ressed b y K enneth s on o f A lpin, k ing o f S cots ( Henderson 1 967, 9 1-103). B efore E umenius s pecifically n amed t he P icti, t heir t erritory w as a lready o ccupied b y t ribes s uch a s t he C aledonii. S ince n o p opulation c hange o r m ovement i s k nown t o h ave c oincided w ith t he f irst a ppearance o f t he P icti i n h istorical s ources, t he C aledonii a nd o thers m ay a lready b e r egarded a s P roto-Pictish. W hat i s q uite u ncertain i s h ow f ar b ack i n t ime t his t erm c an b e p rojected w hile s till r etaining s ome v alidity. L iterary r eferences m ake i t c lear t hat t he P icts a nd P roto-Picts w ere l ocated n orth o f t he A ntonine W all, o r n orth o f t he F orth-Clyde i sthmus ( Wainwright 1 955: H enderson 1 967). T he p lace-names D umyat a nd M yot H ill a re h eld t o r efer t o a P ictish t ribe, t he M aeatae o f D io C assius, t he M iathi o f A domnan, a nd t o i ndicate, t herefore, t he l oc at ion o f t hat t ribe c entred o n m odern S tirlingshire. G iven t he F orth-Clyde i sthmus a s a n a pproximate s outhern b oundary, t hen w e m ay r easonably l ook f or s pecifically P ictish d istributions n orth o f t he i sthmus d uring t he p eriod o f t he H istoric P icts. T wo l argely o verlapping d istributions a re r elevant: f irstly, t hat o f t he i ncised a nd s culptured s tone m onum ents, b earing a d istinctive r epertory o f s ymbols a nd o ther d ecoration, w hich w e r egard a s P ictish ( Fig. 2 .1); a nd s econdly t hat o f p lace-names c ontaining t he e lement P it- f rom p ett-, a l inguistically P ictish w ord m eaning ' a p arcel o f l andt ( Jackson 1 955, 1 46-8 ). T he d istribution o f s ymbol s tones a nd P it- n ames, m assed i n t he e astern l owlands f rom t he F orth t o C aithness, d efines f or u s a P ictish h eartland ( McNeill a nd N icholson 1 975, M aps 3 b,

8 a nd 9 ).

T here i s a lso a s catter o f s ymbol s tones i nto t he N orthern I sles, a nd e ven f ewer a cross t he w est t o t he H ebrides. T o w hat e xtent t o t hese a lso d efine P ictish c ultural i nfluence, o r P ictish n ationhood? H istoric al e vidence, ( notably o n t he o ccasion o f C olumba 's m ission t o B rude, s on o f M aelchon, w ho w as r uling f rom t he N ess v alley), m akes i t c lear t hat t he O rkneys w ere c ertainly s ubordinate t o t he P ictish k ingdom i n t he l ater 6 th c entury ( Anderson a nd A nderson 1 961, 8 5; 4 40-441). T he c ase o f t he H ebrides, a nd m ainland S cotland w est o f t he g reat w atershed o f D ruim A lban t he r idge o f S cotland, i s m ore d ifficult. S ymbol s tones m ay b e r are ( a) b ecause, b y t he t ime o f t he H istoric P icts, t he p opul ation o f t he a rea w as s canty; o r ( b) b ecause P ictish c ultural i nflue nces w ere a ltogether w eak; o r ( c) b ecause S cots c olonizers h ad a lready t aken o ver t he w est, a nd s uppressed P ictish c ulture t here, b efore t he s ymbol s tone e merged a s ad istinctive P ictish m onument, w henever t hat m ight b e. T he e vidence d oes n ot e xist t o e nable u s t o d ecide b etween t hese t hree e qually r easonable e xplanations. I n t he a bsence o f d ecisive e vidence, w e m ay c onclude t hat, b efore t he S cottic c oloniz ation w henever t hat o ccurred t he i nhabitants o f t he w est, l ike t hose o f t he n orth, a re l ikely t o h ave b orne a d iluted P ictish o r P roto-Pictish c ulture. T hese p eople w e m ay c all P eripheral -

-

9

P icts,

a s d istinct f rom t he H eartland P icts o f t he e astern l owlands.

R ecent d evelopments i n P ictish s tudies T he l ast c omprehensive s tudy o f t he P icts w as t hat e dited b y W ainwright i n 1 955. I t i s c learly b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent p aper t o r eview a ll t hat h as b een w ritten s ince t hen, o r e ven t o p rov ide a c omprehensive b ibliography o f a q uarter o f ac entury o f s cholars hip. S ome m ajor d evelopments m ay n one t he l ess b e o utlined, a s a p relude t o a m ore i ntensive s urvey o f t he s ettlement a rchaeology. E cclesiastical a rchaeology i s d eliberately e xcluded, e xcept f or t he i ncised a nd c arved s tones o f C lasses I a nd I I; s urveys m ay b e f ound i n R adford 1 962b a nd T homas 1 968 a nd 1 971. T he r elations o f t he R omans w ith t he P icts h ave c ontinued t o a ttract s pecial d iscussion ( Richmond 1 958; R obertson 1 970 a nd 1 972; M ann 1 974; B reeze 1 975; M axwell 1 975; M iller 1 975; R eed 1 976). M ajor h istorical d ocuments r elevant t o t he P icts h ave b een p ublished w ith t ranslations a nd c ommentaries, s uch a s A domnan 's L ife o f C olumba ( Anderson a nd A nderson 1 961) a nd t he P ictish a nd S cottish r egnal l ists ( Anderson 1 973). W ide r anging g eneral s urveys h ave i ncluded H enderson ( 1967) a nd D uncan ( 1975), w hile m ore d etailed a spects o f P ictish h istory a nd h istoriography h ave b een e xamined b y H ughes ( 1970; 1 980); J ackson ( 1972); K irby ( 1976) a nd M iller ( 1978; 1 979a; 1 979b; 1 980; 1 981) T urning n ow t o t he a rchaeology, t he i nscribed a nd s culptured s tones h ave c ontinued t o a ttract m uch a ttention. N ew d iscoveries h ave b een f requently r eported i n t he P roceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland, a nd g eneral s urveys a nd s tudies o f p articular a spects h ave b een p ublished b y G ordon ( 1956; 1 966); H enderson ( 1958; 1 972; 1 978); K enworthy ( 1980); L ang ( 1974); R adford ( 1955; 1 962b; 1 977); S hepherd a nd S hepherd 1 978; S tevenson ( 1959; 1 970); a nd T homas ( 1961). P ictish s tones w ith O gam i nscriptions h ave b een s pecially n oticed b y C alder a nd J ackson ( 1957) a nd P adel ( 1972). I t c annot b e s aid t hat t hese s tudies h ave e stablished t he c hronology o f t he P ictish s tones o n a f irmer b asis: t he d ivergent d ates n oticed b y S tevenson i n 1 959 a re s till c urrent. F urther a dvances o n t he p urely a rt-historical f tont m ight p erhaps b e a chieved b y v ery d etailed c omparison o f t he ' HibernoS axon' i nterlaced a nimal m otifs o n t he s tones w ith t hose o n t he m etalw ork a nd i n d ecorated m anuscripts, a nd b y ac orrelation o f t he f igural s cenes o f t he C lass I I s tones w ith t hose o n t he p linths o f s ome I rish h igh c rosses. O f g reater g eneral i nterest h ave b een t he a nalysis o f t he d istribution o f t he s to r ies, e xamined m ore f ully b elow; a nd r enewed a ttempts t o i nterpret t he s ymbols o n t he s tones i n r elation t o P ictish s ocial s tructure a nd c eremonial l ife ( Thomas 1 963, J ackson 1 971). S uch i nterpretations m ust n ecessarily b e i nconclusive; b ut t hey s timul ate m ore t hought a bout t he p urpose o f t his m ajor P ictish a ctivity t he c arving a nd e rection o f t he s tones t han a ny n umber o f s eriation s tudies o f s ymbols o r i nterlace. I n p articular, t he s uggestions t hat -

-

t he s ymbols a re a l asting w itness t o t he f acial a nd b ody t attoos f rom w hich t he P icti m ay h ave d erived t heir n ame, a nd t hat t hey d enote f amily a nd r ank, s eem v ery r easonable ( contra H enderson 1 971b), a nd h ave n ow b een s trongly r eaffirmed b y P rofessor T homas i n h is p aper i n t his v olume, p p 1 69 1 87. -

A s h as j ust b een m entioned, t he a rt o f t he C lass I I s tones i s i n p art r elated t o t hat o f t he c ontemporary m etalwork a nd m anuscripts. 1 0

D iscussion o f t hese h as b een g reatly e nriched b y a n umber o f b ackground s tudies, n otably b y F ouler ( nee B urley) ( Burley 1 956; F ouler 1 960; 1 963; 1 968), w hile L ongley(1975) h as c ontributed a t hought p rovoking s eries o f d istribution m aps. T he m ain s timulus h as c ome, h owever, f rom t he d iscovery o f a h oard o f s ilver o bjects, b uried i n t he l ate 8 th c entury b eneath t he f loor o f ac hurch o n S t. N inian 's I sle, S hetland. P ublished i n a l udicrously e xtravagant f ormat b y S mall e t a l. ( 1973), t he S t. N inian 's t reasure a ppeared t o e stablish t he c laim o f t he P icts t o a d istinctive c lass o f p enannular b rooch, a nd a d istinctive v ariant o f H iberno-Saxon a rt ( Fig. 2 .5). T he c ase f or a n e cclesiastical, r ather t han s ecular, p urpose f or m ost o f t he o bjects i n t he t reasure ( McRoberts 1 961) w as s avaged b y W ilson ( in S mall e t a l. 1 973) a nd h as r eceived l ess t han i ts d ue a ttention. O ther s tudies, o f i ndividual m anuscripts, m etal o bjects a nd m inor w orks o f c raftsmanship, i nclude t hose b y B rown ( 1972); C lose-Brooks ( 1975); L aing ( 1974); S tevenson ( 1956; 1 974; 1 976); S tevenson a nd E mery ( 1964); a nd W ilson ( 1978). T he s ignificance o f t he d iscovery o f m oulds f or c asting j ewellery a t B irsay, C latchard C raig, C raig P hadraig, D unadd a nd D undurn i s d iscussed l ater. B urials p otentially a ttributable t o t he P icts w ere b riefly d iscuss ed b y W ainwright ( 1955, 8 7-96). I n p articular, t he m id-19th c entury d iscovery o f l ong-cist b urials i n t he v icinity o f as outerrain a t W est G range o f C onon, A ngus, w as h eld t o s uggest c omtemporaneity; a nd g iven t he P ictish c onnections o f A ngus s outerrains ( see b elow) i t s eemed t hat s ome l ong-cist b urials c ould b e P roto-Pictish o r P ictish. S ubsequent d iscoveries a nd d iscussion ( notably b y H enshall 1 956 a nd 1 966; a lso C outts 1 971; T aylor 1 960 a nd 1 969; T homas 1 968) h ave s trongly r einforced t his h ypothesis. A d ate r ange o f 3 rd-9th c enturies h as b een s uggested ( Henshall 1 956, 2 70-1); a nd w hile t he d istribution s hows t hat l ongc ist b urials w ere v ery m uch a t rait o f t he B ritons s outh o f t he F orth, t heir u se b y t he P icts o f F ife a nd A ngus i s e qually c ertain. L ooking m ore w idely, W ainwright h imself c onsidered t hat t here m ust h ave b een n ot o ne b ut s everal t ypes o f P ictish b urial. A mong t he P icts n orth o f t he M ounth, s ome b urials m ay h ave b een u nder k erbed c airns, b oth c irc ular a nd r ectangular. T his s uggestion ( Ritchie 1 974, 3 1-2) b ased o n e xcavations i n C aithness i n t he 1 920s ( Edwards 1 926 a nd 1 927), w as i n p art s upported b y b riefly r eported d iscoveries a bove L och N ess ( Wedd erburn a nd G rime, 1 974; 1 975). T hat s uch c airns h ave a m uch w ider d istribution h as n ow b een e stablished i n p apers b y A shmore ( 1980) a nd C lose-Brooks ( 1980 a nd t his v olume); a nd t hey m ay n ow b e r egarded a s a m ajor c lass o f P ictish m onument. I t i s e ven p ossible t o s peculate t hat i n s tone f ree a reas, s uch a s t he g ravel p lains o f L ower S trathearn a nd S trathmore, t he s quare a nd c ircular d itched b arrows w hich a ppear a s c rop-marks ( eq. S t. J oseph 1 978b; A lcock 1 982) m ay b elong t o t he h istorical P icts r ather t han t o r emote a ncestors o f e arly L a T ene d ate a s w ould b e t he c ase i n Y orkshire ( Stead 1 976). S ettlement S tudies I t i s i n t he s tudy o f s ettlement a rchaeology, i n t he w idest s ense, t hat t he g reatest d evelopments h ave b een m ade s ince 1 955, w hen W ainwright c ould o nly r eport t hat ' conclusions w hich w e m ight b uild u pon e vidence o f t his k ind l ie e ntirely i n t he f uture' ( 1955, 8 7). T he m ost a mbitious a ttempt t o a nalyse t he s ettlement p attern o f a r egion o f P ietland i n t his c ase, t he a rea b etween c entral F ife a nd t he M ounth i s t hat b y C ottam a nd S mall ( 1974). T hey d eploy a ll t he a pparatus o f l ocational g eography, i ncluding h exagonal g rids, s tochastic m odels a nd c omputer -

-

1 1

H

h ea r th p av ing

0 Fig.2.2 houses

Pictish houses, ( souterrain

certain or possible.

shown by pecked

souterrain-period house, 4 ,Coileagean A ,

an Udail,

after Curle

5

1 948.

i bid.

house

n ,

l Om l ,Carlungie,post-souterrain

l ine) ‚ after Wainwright

3 ,Buckquoy,

house

after Crawford

1 2

4 ,

1 973.

after

1 963.

2 ,Cariungie,

Ritchie

1 977.

5 , wag of Forse,

building

p redictions, t o e xamine t he r elationship o f P ictish s tones t o f orts a nd t o t he g eographical e nvironment. E arly i n t he p aper t hey r emark o n t he p roblems f or s uch a nalysis, w hich w ere p osed, f irstly b y t he d iversity o f l andscape i n S cotland, a nd s econdly b y u ncertainties a bout t he c ont emporaneity, a nd e ven t he b asic c hronology, o f u nexcavated f orts ( Cottam a nd S mall 1 974, 4 5). I t i s s ufficient h ere t o s ay t hat t hese t wo f actors, a nd o thers r elated t o t hem, v itiate t he p aper a s aw hole. O f f ar m ore s olid v alue i s a s tudy b y W hittington ( 1975, f ollowing f rom W hittington a nd S oulsby 1 968) o f t he d istribution o f p it placen ames, a nd C lass I a nd C lass I I s tones ( Fig.2.1). F rom t his i t a ppears t hat p it- n ames a re p rincipally f ound i n w ell-sheltered a nd w ell-drained l ocations, o n s oils o f C lasses 1 a nd 2 ( the t wo h ighest c ategories o ut o f at otal o f 8 ) i n t erms o f l and-use c apability. T his d istribution ' appears t o a gree w ith t he d istribution o f t he b est s oils i n E . S cotland; t hose w hich a re b est s uited t o a rable a griculture. I t w ould s eem u nl ikely t hat a rable a griculture h ad n ot b ecome t he m ainstay o f t he P ictish e conomy' ( Whittington 1 975, 1 02). I t i s f urther s uggested t hat p it- r eferred n ot m erely t o a s ettlement, b ut t o au nit o f l and a ssessm ent. I n c oarse t erms, t he d istribution o f P ictish s tones a grees w ith t hat o f n it- n ames, b ut i n d etail t here i s o ften n o c lose c oincidence. T his, i t i s h eld, m ay i mply t he e xistence o f s ettlements o ther t han t hose d enoted b y p it- n ames; p erhaps e ven a h ierarchy o f s ettlements. F inally, i t i s n oticed t hat p it- n ames s hun c oastal s ituations, a n o bservation w hich i s l argely t rue o f t he s tones a s w ell. T his, i t m ay b e o bserved, i s d ifficult t o r econcile w ith t he i mportance, s et o ut b elow, o f c oastal p romontories f or t he b uilding o f P ictish f orts. C learly t here w ere o ther e lements i n P ictish s ociety t han t hose r epres ented b y t he p it- n ames.

T he p attern o f P ictish s ettlement w ill

i nevitably b ecome r icher a nd m ore c omplex a s m ore e vidence b ecomes a vailable f rom t he i dentification a nd e xcavation o f t he a ctual m aterial r emains o f f arms,

f orts a od v illages.

S outerrain c omplexes A mong t he P roto-Picts a nd P icts o f t he s outhern h eartland, e xcavat ions, p ioneered b y W ainwright ( 1963) a nd r ecently c ontinued b y Watkins, r eveal t hat t he l eading s ettlement f orm w as t he s outerrain c omplex. W ainwright s howed t hat t he s tone s lab a nd b oulder l ined u nderground c hambers w ere o nly t he b est p reserved, a nd m ost r eadily r ecoverable, e lements o f s ettlements w hich i ncluded g round-level h ouses. V ery s canty f inds f rom A rdesLie a nd C arlungie I s howed t hat t he s outerrains w ere i n u se i n t he 2 nd, a nd p erhaps a lso t he 1 st c enturies A D; t hat t hey w ere d eliberately d emolished a nd f illed i n a bout A D 2 00 a t A rdestie, a nd p erhaps a l ittle l ater a t C arlungie I ; b ut t hat t he g round-level o ccup ation l asted f or a f urther t wo c enturies o r m ore. T he h ouses a t C arlungie a re c learer i n p lan t han t hose a t A rdestie. I n t he f irst p hase t here w ere f our o r m ore f igure-of-eight o r b icellular h ouses, l argely d etected b ecause o f t heir s tone-paved f loors ( Fig.2.2.2). T hese w ere r eplaced, a fter t he i nfilling o f t he s outerrains, b y t wo o val h ouses w ith p aved f loors a nd t races o f d ry-stone w alls ( Fig.2.2.1). T he f inds a re t hose o f a c ommunity o f m ixed f armers, g rowing a nd g rindi ng c orn; r aising c attle, s heep, p igs a nd p onies; h unting d eer; m aking a l ittle r ather c rude p ottery o f t heir o wn, a nd o btaining s ome f iner w ares t hrough r are R oman c ontacts; u sing a lso i ron, b ronze a nd l ead. T hese a re t he p eople w ho t roubled t he R omans, a nd w ith w hom A gricola a nd S everus h ad t o d eal. 1 3

M ore r ecently, W atkins h as o btained r adio-carbon d ates f or s outer r ains. A t N ewmill, a S outerrain c haracteristic o f W ainwright's A ngus g roup h ad b een b uilt a fter 5 5 ± 9 0 b .c. I t w as s ubsequently r efilled i n o r a fter a .d. 1 95 ± 5 5, o n t he e vidence o f c harcoal f rom a f ire a ctually i n t he f illing. T hese d ates a gree w ell w ith t hose p roposed b y W ainwright o n a rtefactual e vidence. W atkins i nferred t hat t he N ewm ill s outerrain h ad b een r oofed w ith t imber ( and P resumably t hatch) a nd h ad b een e ntered f rom i nside a c ircular p ost-built h ouse a bout 1 7.6m d iameter. N o e vidence w as r ecovered f or P ost-souterrain b uildings ( Watkins 1 979; 1 980b). W atkins h as a lso e xcavated a g roup o f s outerr ains i n K incardineshire o f r ather d ifferent p lan f rom t he A ngus e xamples. R adio-carbon d ates f rom t hese r ange f rom 1 97 ± 6 0 b .c. t o a .d. 5 01 ± 6 5, s o a gain a P roto-Pictish a nd P ictish a ttribution i s a ssured. I n t his c ase t he g round-level s ettlement w as o f o val p ost-built h ouses ( Watkins 1 980a). T he e vidence a nd i nterpretations s ummarized h ere a re f urther a mplified i n D r. W atkins's p aper i n t his v olume, p p 8 7 1 14. -

W atkins a lso d iscusses t he f unction o f t he A ngus S outerrains, w hich a re d istinguished f rom t hose, f or i nstance, i n I reland, b y t heir w idth a nd b y t he a bsence o f s harp k inks, n arrowings o r o ther d efensive f eatures a ppropriate t o a p lace o f r efuge. H e r ightly r ejects W ainwright's i nterpretation o f t hem a s u nderground c attle b yres, a nd s uggests t hat t hey w ere c ool, a nd o n t he w hole d ry, s torage p laces f or a f arming c ommunity. T his d oes i ndeed s eem a v ery r easonable e xplanation, t hough g iven t he v olume o f s torage s pace a vailable t he P roto-Pictish f armers o f A ngus m ust h ave b een v ery p rosperous i ndeed. S ince s outerrains a re a r eadily i dentifiable c lass o f m onument, t hey s hould p rovide a n e xcellent b asis f or t he s tudy o f t he d istribution p attern o f f arming c ommunities i n A ngus i n t he f irst p art o f t he i st m illennium A .D. W ainwright p rovided a b asic l ist ( 1963, 1 53-219: m ap 4 ), a nd o nly a f ew a dditions h ave b een r ecorded s ince 1 963 ( eg. T aylor 1 971; S mall, C ottam a nd D unbar 1 974). B ut s outerrains s till a wait t he k ind o f d ist ributional a nalysis d evoted, ( 1968), t o p it- p la ce n ames.

f or i nstance b y W hitti n g to n

a nd S ou] .sby

B eyond A ngus a nd t he a djacent a reas o f F ife a nd K incardineshire, s outerrains a re k nown w idely o ver t he l ands o f b oth t he h eartland a nd p eripheral P icts. C alled v ariously, w eems, e arth-houses, P icts' h ouses a nd v ariants o n t hese n ames, t hey d iffer i n f orm f rom t he A ngus t ype, a nd m ay b e a ssumed, t herefore, t o d iffer i n f unction a s w ell. S ome, i ndeed, s eem m ore f itted t o a ct a s p laces o f r efuge t han a s c ool s tores, a nd i n t his t hey r esemble I rish e xamples. T here i s l ittle d ating e vid ence, b ut s ome o f i t i s c onsistent w ith a m ain p eriod o f u se i n t he e arly i st m illennium A .D. I ndeed, M acKie h as a rgued ( 1966) t hat t he p ottery e vidence i s a dequate t o d ate t he e arth-house o f G ress L odge, S torno uay, t o t he 4 th 5 th c enturies A .D. A part f rom . a b rief s urvey b y W ainwright ( 1953), h owever, s outerrains o utwith A ngus h ave never b een s tudied s ystematically, s o i t i s n ot a t p resent p ossible t o a ssess t heir f ull c ontribution t o t he a rchaeology o f t he P icts a nd P roto_Picts, e specially t hose o f p eripheral a reas. -

B roch a nd w heelhouse s ettlements I n p eripheral P ictiand t he l eading c lass o f m onument a mong t he P roto-Picts w as u ndoubtedly t he b roch. S ince 1 955, n ew e xcavations, a nd t he s ystematic p ublication o f e arlier o nes, h ave p rovided m uch f resh i nformation a bout t he s tructure a nd c hronology o f b rochs ( Hamilton

1 4

1 956; 1 968; M acKie 1 974). H edges a nd B ell ( 1980) h ave a nalysed t he i nternal a rrangements o f b rochs, a nd h ave d iscussed t heir r ole a s o ne e lement i n a s ettlement c omplex. B ut t he m ain e ffort h as b een d evoted t o a v igorous d iscussion o f t he g enesis, d evelopment a nd d iffusion o f t he b roch a s a s tructure ( Hamilton 1 962 a nd 1 966; M acKie 1 971a a nd 1 975b; Y oung 1 962) a s w ell a s o f t he o rigins o f t he b roch b uilders a nd t heir c ulture ( Clarke 1 970; M acKie 1 965 a nd 1 971b; Y oung 1 966). F ortunately, i t i s o utside t he s cope o f t his p aper t o a djudicate o n m ost o f t his c ontroversy; b ut t wo o bservations a re n eeded o n t he s upposed s outhern B ritish o rigins o f t he b roch-wheelhouse c ulture, b ecause o f t heir r elevance t o t he p ossible o rigins o f t he p eripheral P roto-Picts. T he f irst m ay c laim t o b e b ased o n aw ide a nd p rofound k nowledge o f s outhern B ritish i ron-age p ottery. I t i s, t hat h ypers elected p oints o f s imilarity b etween s outhern c eramics a nd t hose o f A tlantic S cotland d o n ot a dd u p t o t he t ransference o f ac omplex o f c eramic t raits. H ence i t i s i mpossible t o u se t hem, i n a ll t heir r ari ty, t o i nfer a m ovement o f p otters, s till l ess o f aw hole p eople. T he s econd c omment i s b ased o n L ongley's d istribution m aps o f t rinkets a nd o ther m etalwork i n t he E arly H istoric p eriod. T hese s how, f or i nstance, t hat T ype B p ennanular b rooches o ccur w idely t hroughout w estern a nd s outh-eastern B ritain ( Longley 1 975, f ig 7 ). G roup 1 o penwork e scutc heons f or h anging b owls a re f ound i n b oth s outh-east B ritain a nd H ighl and S cotland ( ibid. f ig.11) ( Fig.2 .5). S ince t hese a re t he a rtefacts o f a n h istoric p eriod, w e k now f or c ertain t hat n o f olk m ovement w as r esponsible f or t heir d istribution. I t f ollows, a s am atter o f a rcha eological l ogic, t hat t he c omparable d istributions o f t rinkets s uch a s s piral f inger-rings, o r s pecialities s uch a s p arallelopiped d ice, c annot b e u sed t o i nfer f olk m ovements i n a p rehistoric p eriod. T here i s n othing i n t he a rchaeology t o s upport t he v iew t hat t he b rochw heelhouse c ulture o f t he p eripheral P roto-Picts w as a nything o ther t han a utochthonous. A t t his p oint, s ince i t h as a risen o bliquely, t he q uestion o f t he o rigins o f t he P icts a nd t heir c ulture r equires s ome f urther c omment. A mong t he r emote a ncestors o f t he h eartland P icts, i t i s r easonable t o s ee t he a ppearance o f t imber-laced f orts a s i mplying f oreign i nflue nces, a nd p robably i mmigrant p ersonnel, e arly i n t he 1 st m illennium B .C. T hereafter i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he c ulture o f t he a rea a s d eveloping a utogenously, w ith o ccasional e nrichment f rom a c ommon f und o f W est E uropean a nd i nsular m aterial c ulture, a nd w ith s ome r esponse t o e xternal p ressure d uring t he p eriod o f R oman e xpansion. I t m ay b e t hat t his w ill b e r egarded a s a n o versimplification, a nd, i ndeed, a n u ndervaluing o f o ther s cholars' d iscussions o f t he a rchaeological a ntecedents o f t he P icts ( Piggott 1 955; P owell 1 962; R adford 1 962a). I t i s, h owever, a b asic a ssumption o f t his p aper t hat t oo m uch a ttent ion h as b een d evoted t o q uestions o f P ictish ' origins', f or w hich a rchaeological e vidence i s s canty a nd u ncertain. I t i s n ow t ime t o c oncentrate o n t he a ctual a ctivities o f t he P roto-Picts a nd P icts, f or w hich t he e vidence i s c oncrete a nd a bundant. R eturning, t hen, t o t he m onuments o f t he n orth a nd t he w est, i t i s c ertain t hat, b y t he t ime t he P icts e merged i nto t he l ight o f h istory, b rochs w ere e verywhere i n a s tate o f d isuse a nd d ilapidation. S ome w ere b eing d emolished f or t he s ake o f s afety, o r w ere b eing q uarried t o b uild o ther s tructures. S o f ar a s t he v ery s canty d ating e vidence a llows, t he d ereliction o f b rochs s eems t o b elong t o a n arrow h orizon, i n t he f irst h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury A .D. ( MacKie 1 965, f ig. 8 ). T heir

1 5

F ig.2.3 P eripheral P ictish s ettlements ;. 1 ,Dun C uier, a fter Young 1 956. 2 , J arishof, a fter H am i lt on 1 956 , s how ing a n a isled r oundhouse i nserted i nto t he c ourtyard o f t he r uined b roch,

a nd f ollowed b y two p hases o f wheelhouse. 1 6

d isuse w ould s eem t o m ark a m ajor e ven t : i n P roto-Pictish h istory; p resumably, t he r emoval o f t he t hreat o f i nternal s trife o r e xternal r aiding w hich h ad l ed t o t he b uilding o f b rochs i n t he f irst p lace. A t p resent, h owever, w e c annot f ully d etermine w hat t hat t hreat m ight h ave b een, a nd a d etailed s tudy o f t he d istribution o f b rochs i n S hetl and s hows t hat a ny i nterpretation o f t heir m ilitary o r d efensive f unction m ust b e a s ubtle o ne ( Fojut 1 980). I t f ollows t hat w e c annot c learly s ee h ow o r w hy t he t hreat c ame t o b e l ifted: a nd a m ajor e vent i n P roto-Pictish h istory r emains o paque t o u s. O n s ome e xcavated b roch s ites i n t he l ater 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies A .D. t here a ppear c ircular o r s lightly o val s tone-built h ouses, u sually 7 .0 t o 1 0.5 m i n d iameter ( Fig.2.3.2). T he i nterior i s n ormally d ivided r adially b y p iers w hich a re e ither f ree-standing ( aisled r oundhouses) o r e lse b onded t o t he m ain w all ( wheelhouses). I n b oth c ases t he i ntent ion w as t o p roduce a c ircular a rea, s urrounded b y a n umber o f r oofed c ells. D espite t he o ccasional p rovision o f d rains, i t i s c onsidered t hat t he c entral s pace w as a r oofed h all r ather t han a n o pen c ourt. S ometimes, t he h ouse w as i nserted i nto t he b roch i tself, w ith a s kinw all b utting a gainst t he i nner f ace o f t he b roch. O n o ccasion, t he e ffect o f a c ircular r ange o f c ells w as a chieved b y d ividing t he b roch i nterior w ith r adial s labs. C omparable a isled r oundhouses a nd w heelh ouses w ere, h owever, m ore f requently b uilt o n s ites w here t here w as n o d ecrepit b roch t o p rovide a q uarry, b ut t here i s n o e vidence t hat t hese f ree-standing h ouses w ere a ny d ifferent i n d ate f rom t he p ostb roch e xamples. T he b uildings j ust d escribed w ere c ertainly t he h ouses o f t he P roto-Picts i n t he N orthern a nd W estern I sles. W e m ay g o e ven f urther a nd d escribe t hem a s t he h omesteads o f p rosperous f armers. I ndeed, t he w heelhouse o f A ' C heardach B heag h as p roduced t he e arliest i ron p lough-share t o b e f ound n orth o f t he F orth-Clyde i sthmus ( Fairhurst 1 971, 1 02-3). I t i s m ore d ifficult t o e stablish w hether t hey w ere a lso c haracteristic o f t he h istorical P ictish p hase. A t J arlshof, t he w heelhouses a re l ater t han t he m isled r oundhouse w hich s ucceeded t he b roch, b ut t o s ay t his i s n ot t o e stablish t heir d ate. T he p roblem a rises, i n p art, f rom t he d ifficulty o f f inding e xtrinsically d atable o bjects o f t he 4 th a nd l ater c enturies A .D. S tevenson ( 1955) h as a rgued t hat m any p ins, o f b oth m etal a nd b one, b elong t o t his p eriod r ather t han t o e arlier c enturies. T o t hese p ins, M acKie h as a dded c omposite b one c ombs ( 1965, 1 20). A s pecifically P ictish a ssemblage h as a lso b een i dentified, a lbeit a mbiguously, f rom t he s econdary p hases o f t he B roch o f B urrian, N orth R onaldsay. D espite s ome r eservations a bout t he i ntegrity o f t he s tratification, t he P ictish f inds w ould s eem t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he p artitioning o f t he b roch-interior b y m eans o f r adial w alls f ormed o f u pright s labs ( MacGregor 1 974). P ottery o f t he 5 th 7 th c enturies A D h as a lso b een r ecognized i n as econdary p hase o f a n i ntramural c ell a t D un C arloway, L ewis ( Tabraham a nd C loseB rooks 1 977). O ther i sland s ites i nclude D un C uier, B arra, w here c omposite b one c ombs, p ins a nd p ottery o f ' Pictish ' d ate c ame f rom a l ate p hase i n t he o ccupation o f a g alleried d un. T his w ould h ave p rovided a r oofed c ircular a rea a bout 7 .0 m i n d iameter, w ith a l arge c entral h earth, b ut n o r adial p artitions o r c ells ( Young 1 956)(Fig. 2 . 3.1). A t A 'Cheardach M hor, f inds o f t he 6 th 8 th c enturies i nclude a b ronze l oose-ring p in w ith f acetted h ead ( Young 1 958) a nd a c omposite b one c omb; t he a lleged s herd f rom a M editerranean a mphora i s, h owever, q uite d efinitely n ot a n i mport. T he P ictish p eriod m aterial c omes f rom -

-

1 7

s tructural p hases I V a nd \ J , w hen t he o riginal w heelhouse w as d erelict, a nd i ts r uins o verlaid b y a rcs o f d ry-stone w alling ( Young a nd R ichards on 1 960). A s t hey a re p reserved, t hese a re q uite i ndefini te, b ut t hey m ay h int a t s tructures c omparable w ith w ell p reserved e xamples a t C oileagean a n U dail, N orth U ist, a nd B uckquoy, O rkney. T hese a re b oth c oastal s ites. A t C oileagean a n L l dail, h uman o ccupations s panning m illennia r ather t han c enturies h ave c ombined w ith s and-blow t o p roduce a t ell-like m ound. A rtefacts, a nd f or t he E arlier B ronze A ge a nd t he E arly H istoric p eriod r adio-carbon d ates a s w ell, p rovide a f irm c hronological f ramework ( Crawford a nd S witsur 1 977). S tructural p hases X I-XIII (a s n umbered f rom t he t op d own a re t hose w hich c oncern u s, s ince t hey d ate b etween a bout A D 5 00 a nd t he a ppearance o f N orse h ouses, a nd p erhaps a f ortification , i n t he 9 th c entury A D. R eaching i ts f ullest d evelopment i n P hase X I w as a n ucleated v illage o f h ouses e ach c onsisting o f a p rincipal r oom a bout 6 .0 m l ong b y 3 .5 m b road, w ith o ne o r m ore t erminal o r l ateral c ells, r oughly c ircular a nd u p t o 2 .0 m i n d iameter ( Fig. 2 .2.4.). ( Precise d imensions a re d ifficult t o e stablish b ecause o f i nconsistencies i n t he s cales o f p ublished p lans). T he m ain r oom a lways h as a s lab-lined h earth a t t he c entre, a nd t his i s f lanked b y r aised s leeping b enches ( Crawford 1 973 f or b est p lan). T he e xcavator d escribes t his s ettlem ent, i n b rief, a s S cotto-Pictish, a nd s peculates t hat i ts a ffinities c ould b e G aelic, o r P ictish, o r p urely i ndigenous, o r a m ixture o f a ll t hree ( Crawford 1 974, 9 -11). I n m any w ays t he m ost i nteresting f eature o f t he h ouses i s t he w ay i n w hich t he d isposition o f r ooms m ay b e p aralleled a t B uckquoy a nd o ther p ost-broch b ut P re-Norse s ettlements i n t he N orthern I sles ( Ritchie 1 974, f ig 1 ; s cales i nconsistent). B uckquoy a ppears t o h ave b een a s maller s ettlement t han C oileagean a n t i dail, b ut t his m ay b e t he r esult o f c oastal e rosion. T he c learest e vidence f or P ictish h ouse-forms i s p rovided b y b uilding n o. 4 (Ritchie 1 977) ( Fig. 2 .2.3.). T his h ad a m ain r oom, e xpressly d escribed a s a l iving-hall, w ith a c entral s lab-lined h earth, a nd p ossibly f lanking b enches. O ff o ne e nd o pened a c ircular c orbelled c hamber. T hus f ar, l ayout a nd s ize a re c omparable w ith t he t ust h ouses, e ven t o t he e xternal d oor o pening o ff t he p rincipal r oom. T he m ain d ifference i s t hat a t B uckquoy, a xially o pposite t he c ircular e nd c hamber, w as a s ubr ectangular r oom w hich o pened t hen i nto a p orch o r l obby. T he s ubrect angular r oom a nd t he c ircular r oom w ere d emarcated f rom t he l iving h all b y s lab-lined p iers, r egarded b y t he e xcavator a s r eminiscent o f t he p iers o f a n a isled r oundhouse o r w heelhouse. T he i nhabitants u sed b one f or m aking s poons, p ins a nd c omposite c ombs, a nd h ad a l ittle p ottery. T hey a te p rincipally c attle, w ith s heep a nd p ig i n l esser p roportions, a nd a lso s ome f ish a nd s hell-fish; b ut t here i s n o a rcha eological e vidence f or a rable f arming. R itchie h as p ointed t o o ther e xamples o f P ictish h ouses i n w hich t he c ell-like r ooms a re a rranged n ot r adially a s i n w heelhouses , b ut a xially. A n o bvious e xample i s a p ost-broch b uilding a t B roch o f G urness ( Ritchie 1 974). V ery b roadly, s uch a l ayout r ecalls t he b icellular s outerrain-period h ouses a t C arlungie, A ngus ( Wainwright . 1 963, f ig. 3 0). I n s implified t erms, t hen, w e c an s ee t wo d ifferent t raditions t he c ircular a nd t he a xial a mong t he h ouses o f t he P roto-Picts a nd t he P icts. -

-

I ndeed, i f a s uggestion o f R itchie's i s a ccepted M acKie 1 971a, 1 6; 1 975a, 2 24), w e s hould a lso s ee t he

( 1974, 3 2, c ontra ' oblong w ags' o f

C aithness a s p ost-broch a nd t herefore p robably P roto-Pictish o r P ictish.

1 8

O n t he e vidence o f t he b est k nown e xample, t hat a t F orse i n C aithness ( Curie 1 941, 1 946 a nd 1 948), t hese a re a isled s ubrectangular b uildings w ith h ipped r oofs ( Fig. 2 .2.5.). T he e xcavator's v iew t hat t hey a re f olds f or c attle o r s heep i s q uite u nacceptable, a nd t hey m ust b e s een a s f armsteads, g rouped i n s mall n ucleated c lusters. A t F orse, t hey a re c ertainly s econdary t o a v ery a nomalous, t hin-wailed c ircular d un, a nd p roduce p ottery w hich c ould b elong t o t he b road b roch-wheelhouse t radition ( Curie 1 948,

f ig.

3 ).

F ortifications T urning n ow f rom o pen s ettlements t o t he f ortifications o f t he P icts, i t c an b e s aid t hat s olid p rogress h as b een m ade s ince 1 955 i n t heir i dentification a nd e xcavation. A t t hat t ime, F eachem c ould p rop ose t wo m ain c lasses o f c andidate: t he f inal p hase, o ften a s mall . s tone-walled c itadel, o f m ulti-phase f orts; a nd t he c lass o f n uclear f ort a lready d efined b y S tevenson i n 1 949. R egrettably, n othing h as b een d one t o u nravel t he c hronologies o f m ulti-phase f orts, b ut f ieldw ork a nd d iscussion h ave b oth b een d evoted t o t he n uclear c lass. S tevenson's o riginal d efinition w as i n t erms o f ' outworks l ooping o ut f rom a c entral a rea ' ( 1949, 1 86-7), t he f ortification o f w hich w as e xpressly d escribed a s ' a c itadel ' ( ibid, 1 91). H istorical e vidence f or f orts o f t his p lan a t D unadd i n D alriada a nd a t D undurn i n F ortriu s howed t hat t hey c ould b e d ated t o t he l ate 7 th a nd 8 th c enturies A D, a nd D undurn c ould b e r egarded a s am ajor P ictish s tronghold. S ubsequent d iscussion o f n uclear f orts h as t aken t wo l ines. F irstly, F eachem, a nd u nder h is i nfluence, t he R oyal C ommission o n A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments, S cotland, h ave e xtended t he l ist o f e xamples, t o i nclude s ome c ases w here a n o riginal u nitary d esign s eems d oubtful ( Hogg 1 975, 4 5). C ertainly a ny l ist o f ' nuclear' f orts i s i n n eed o f d rastic p runing, p referably o n t he b asis o f e xcavation. I t h as a lready b een d emonstrated t hat t he B ritish s tronghold o f A lt C lut ( Castle R ock, D umbarton) a nd t he S cottish f ort o f D un 0 11aigh, b oth p roposed a s n uclear b y S tevenson ( 1949, 1 96), w ere n ot, i n f act, o f t his t ype ( Alcock 1 976, 1 07; 1 979a). S econdly, F eachem h as p roposed t hat D unadd a nd D undurn w ere n ot c reations d e n ovo o f t he E arly H istoric p eriod, b ut ' represent E arly I ron-Age h ill-forts t he d efences o f w hich m ay h ave b een r epaired o r i mproved' ( 1966, 8 5). I n t he c ase o f D unadd, t his p roposition h as s till t o b e d emonstrated;

b ut a t D undurn i t h as b een d ecisively d is-

p roved b y e xcavation ( Alcock,

1 978).

D undurn o ccupies a c raggy p yramidal k noll i n u pper S trathearn ( Fig. 2 .4.4.). I t i s g enerally r egarded a s g uarding t he P ictish h eartland, w ith i ts r oyal c entres a t S cone a nd F orteviot, a gainst a ttack f rom t he w est a long o ne o f t he p rincipal H ighland p asses. C alibrated r adioc arbon d ates f rom t he s tructural t imbers o f t he e arliest c itadel g ive t he 2 -sigma b rackets o f 4 90-830, 5 40-880 a nd 6 10-950 A D. T hese w ould s uggest t hat t he d efences w ere f irst b uilt d uring t he 7 th c entury A D, a s p ressure f rom t he D alriadic S cots m ounted. T his i s c onsistent w ith ar ecorded s iege i n A D 6 83. I n t he f irst p hase o f f ortification, i t s eems t hat t he t erraces b elow t he c itadel w ere p rotected a t b est b y a t imber s tockade. A fter t he f irst c itadel h ad b een d estroyed b y f ire, i t w as r ebuilt w ith a d ry-stone w all s ome 4 .0 m t hick, w hile t he l ower t erraces n ow h ad m assive w alls u p t o 8 .0 m w ide. S trictly s peaking t hese d o n ot ' loop o ut', i n S tevenson 's t erms, f rom t he c itadel, b ut n one t he l ess i t w as i n t his s econd p hase o f t he d efences t hat D undurn

1 9

N

2

‚L A A £

14 1

_

5

.4

4

r

d r " 0

4 00

r

0 Fig.2.4 Craig,

Dunottar, K ey

to

#

Pictish

4 ,Dundurn,

d ,

2 00 f ortifications.

after Fife

after Alcock

s ymbols:

1 978. 1 981a,

a , earthwork

masonry; e , walls

6

M etres

1 ,Burghead,

after

I nventory , 3 ,Craig Phadraig,

after Alcock

r

F eet

5 ,Urquart Castle,

Hogg

after after

1 975.

Small

2 ,Clatcha d

and Cottam

Simpson

1 964.

1 972.

6 ,

1 71-2. defences; b , dry-stone

and banks of other periods;

2 0

f ,

walling; c , i nferred walling; cliffs

and c rags.

a cquired i ts c haracteristic n uclear p lan. S ince t he c alibrated r adioc arbon d ates f or t his p hase, ( 510-770, 5 80-920 a nd 6 20-940 A D a t t he 2 -sigma l evel), o verlap t hose f or t he f irst c itadel, i t i s l ikely t hat t he r ebuilding f ollowed h ard o n t he d estruction o f t he e arlier w ork. T he c onstruction o f t he f irst r ampart o f t he c itadel n ow d emands f uller c onsideration. A lthough i t h ad b een t otally b urned a nd t he d ebris d ragged d ownhill, e nough r emained t o s how t hat i t h ad c onsisted o f af ramework o f o ak b eams a nd h azel w ickerwork, i nfilled w ith s tone r ubble. T he m ost r emarkable f eature w as t hat t he o ak b eams h ad b een f astened t ogether w ith i ron n ails. T he t echnique i s t hat o f t he m urus q allicus o f p re-Roman G aul, b ut h ere t he r adio-carbon d ates g uarantee a d ate s ome e ight c enturies l ater. H itherto t he o nly n ailed t imberw ork k nown i n B ritain w as a t B urghead, a m ulti-vallate p romontory f ort j utting o ut i nto t he M oray F irth ( Cotton 1 954, 5 6-7; 6 3; 9 3-4) ( Fig. 2 . 4 .1.). T he g reater p art o f t he m ultiple r amparts h ad b een d estroyed t o b uild t he t own a nd h arbour o f B urghead i n t he e arly 1 9th c entury, b ut f ortunately t he d efences h ad b een s urveyed b efore t his h appened ( Hogg 1 975, 1 46-8). I n p laces, i n f act, t he w est r ampart o f t he u pper f ort s till r emains t o a h eight o f 3 .0 m a nd a w idth o f o ver 8 .0 m ( Wilson 1 967, 2 72). A s a m ulti-vallate p romontory f ort, B urghead a ppeared t ypical o f t he P re-Roman I ron A ge; a nd t his a ttribution a ppeare d t o b e c onfirmed b y t he L a T ene I II f eature o f n ailed t imberwork r ei nforcing i ts s tone w alls. R ecently, h owever, r adio-carbon d ates h ave b een o btained f rom a n o rganic l ayer w hich a pparently p recedes t he b uilding o f t he r ampart, f rom c harcoal a mong f ire-reddened r ubble w hich i s t aken t o c ome f rom t he s tructural t imbers o f t he r ampart a nd f rom o ther b urnt o ak b eams w hich m ay h ave s upported a n i nternal r ange o f b uildings a gainst t he b ack o f t he r ampart. T he p re-rampart d ate i s 2 60 ± 4 0 a .d; t hose f rom t he b urnt t imbers r ange f rom 3 90 1 10 a nd 3 90 ± 1 15 a .d. t hrough 6 10 ± 1 05 a .d. t o 8 65 ± 4 0 a .d.(Small 1 969; E dwards a nd R alston 1 978). T hese d ates m ake i t c lear t hat B urghead i s c ertainly n ot a L a Tne I II c onstruction, b ut m ust b e r ecognised a s aw ork o f t he h istorical P icts. T his i s c onsistent w ith t he u se o f i ron n ails i n t he r amparts a t b oth B urghead a nd D undurn, a nd a lso w ith t he r ecovery o l ' n umerous C lass I s tones, t ypically i ncised w ith b ulls, f rom B urghead. O n a rte f actual g rounds, t he o ccupation m ay h ave l asted a t l east u ntil t he 9 th c entury A D,

o n t he e vidence o f a s ilver m ount f rom a b last-horn o f A nglo-

S axon d erivation ( Graham-Campbell 1 973). B ut t his l eaves t he p roblem o f t he w ide c hronological r ange o f t he r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he t imbers a ssociated w ith t he r ampart. I f, a s t he s implest h ypothesis d emands, t he r ampart i s t aken t o h ave b een a s ingle b uild, t hen t he l atest d ate f or a s tructural t imber, 8 65 4 0 a .d., g ives t he e arliest p ossible d ate f or i ts c onstruction. A p ref erred h ypothesis i s t hat i t m arks a l ate r epair t o a r ampart w hich h ad b een w ell m aintained, a nd t hat t he 3 90-610 g roup o f d ates, s tatist ically i ndistinguishable, g ives t he d ate o f i ts f ounding. I t i s n ot e xplained h ow d ecaying t imbers i n t he h eart o f ad ry s tone w all c an b e r epaired o r r eplaced w ithout c ausing a m ajor c ollapse. I n a ny c ase, n one o f t he c harcoal h as b een d erived f rom s tructural t imbers t hat w ere d emonstrably i n p osition. A lthough i ts m ultivallation m akes B urghead u nique a mong t he P ictish f orts k nown a t p resent, i ts p romontory p osition c an b e r eadily p aralleled.

2 1

S ome 3 5 k m e ast a long t he c oast o f t he M oray F irth, t he t iny h eadland o f G reen C astle, P ortknockie, w as f irst d efended i n a n e arly p hase o f t he I ron A ge w ith a t imber s tockade. L ong a fter t his h ad d ecayed, t he p romontory w as m ore m assively d efended, w ith a n e laborate t imber-laced w all ( Ralston 1 978). B urnt s tructural t imbers f rom t his g ive u ncalib rated d ates o f 6 85 t 4 0 a nd 7 40 ± 4 5 a .d. l ate e nough t o s uggest t hat t he d efences m ay e ven h ave b een b uilt a gainst t he V ikings. A nother, m uch l arger P ictish p romontory f ort a ppears t o h ave o ccupied t he p re-

c ipitous N orth S ea h eadland o f D unottar ( Fig. 2 .4. 6). A ccording t o h istorical r eferences, D un F other ( Dunottar) w as b esieged i n A D 6 81 a nd a gain i n A D 6 94, a nd w as d estroyed b y t he V ikings d uring t he r eign o f D onald s on o f C onstantine, A D 8 89-900. A lthough t he h eadland i s l argely c overed w ith a m asonry c astle, a n e arly d efensive b ank o verlooking t he r oot o f t he p romontory m ay b e s uspected b eneath l ater e arthworks ( Alcock 1 981a, 1 71-2). R ecently, h owever, a s econd e arthwork h as b een d iscovered o n t he c liff t op o verlooking t he p romontory, w hich m ay h ave a s g ood a c laim t o b e D un F other. E xcavation s eems d esirable h ere t o e stablish w hich w as t he o riginal P ictish s tronghold. T he e xamples o f B urghead, D undurn a nd G reen C astle, P ortknockie a ll s how t hat t imber-lacing, w hether n ailed o r n ot, w as a f eature o f P ictish f orts. T imber-lacing, o f c ourse, l ends i tself t o d estruction, w hether d eliberately o r a ccidentally, b y f ire; a nd g iven t he r ight c ombination o f r ock a nd f orced d raught, t he d ry-stone r ubble o f ar ampart m ay t hen f use o r v itrify. C onsequently, w e a lso h ave t he w ide f ield o f v itrified f orts t o s earch f or p ossible P ictish o r P roto-Pictish f oundations. T he l argely c omplementary d istributions o f v itrified f orts a nd b rochs ( map i n R ivet 1 966) h ad f ormerly l ed t o t he v iew t hat t hese t wo c lasses o f m onument w ere n ecessarily c ontemporary a nd r epresented, m oreover, m utu ally-hostile p opulations. M ore r ecently, h owever, e xcavation o f v itrified f orts, a ssisted t hat t imber-lacing c annot 1 976). I t w as a lready i n b ut, a s w e h ave j ust s een, t he 7 th-8th c enturies A D. I n o ther w ords,

b y r adio-carbon d ating, h as m ade i t c lear b e h eld t o a n arrow c hronological s pan ( MacKie u se a s e arly a s t he 8 th o r 7 th c enturies B C; t he t echnique w as s till b eing e mployed i n

a mong t he t otal p opulation o f v itrified a nd -t imber-

l aced f orts, s ome m ay h ave b een b uilt b y t he h istorical P icts o r t heir i mmediate a ncestors, b ut e vidence o ther t han v itrification i s n eeded t o p rove t his. A p ossible c ase i s t he v itrified f ort w hich i s k nown t o u nderly t he h ighest p oint, t he s o-called ' Motte', o f t he m edieval m asonry c astle o f U rquhart ( Simpson 1 951 a nd 1 964) ( Fig.2.4.5). T his o ccupies a h eadland j utting i nto L och N ess. T he r oot o f t he p romontory i s f ormed b y a h igh b oss, v ery s uitable f or a c itadel, a nd i t i s h ere t hat v itrifaction h as b een n oted. T he r est o f t he p romontory c ould w ell a ccommodate t he l ooping-out o r s ubordinate e nclosures o f an uclear f ort. T hat t here w as a t imber-laced f ort h ere, a t s ome t ime b efore t he m asonry c astle, i s c ertain. I ts a ttribution t o t he P icts i s b ased p artly o n t he a lleged d iscovery o f t he t erminal o f a P ictish s ilver b rooch a t U rquhart C astle ( Small e t a l. 1 973, 9 0); p artly o n t he h ypot hesis t hat t his i s a l ikely c andidate f or t he m unitio o f B rude s on o f M aelchon, . w hich w as v isited b y S t. C olumba i n t he l ate 6 th c entury A D ( Alcock 1 981a, 1 59-61). B ut w ithout t he e vidence o f e xcavation, w e c annot b e s ure w hether U rquhart w as a p rehistoric f ort u tilized b y t he P icts w ith i ts r amparts i n d ecay; a p rehistoric f ort r efurbished b y t he P icts; o r a n ew P ictish f oundation. T he p ossibility o f t he f irst t wo h ypotheses i s d emonstrated b y o ther s ites.

2 2

F or i nstance, t he c oastal p romontory o f C astle P oint, T roup ( otherw ise k nown a s C ullykhan) h ad a c omplicated h istory o f p rehistoric f ortif ication, g oing b ack, o n r adio-carbon e vidence, t o t he 6 th o r 5 th c enturies B C. I n a l ate p hase o f t his s equence, a t imber-laced w all w as b uilt a nd s ubsequently d estroyed b y f ire, c ausing i t t o b ecome v itrified. L ater s till, b ut a pparently w ithout a ny r efurbishing o f t he d efences, t he s ite w as r e-occupied b y p eople w ho u sed l ate R oman p ottery, a nd a w ooden o bject w ith a n u ncalibrated r adio-carbon d ate o f 3 17 ± 4 0 a .d.; i n o ther w ords, b y t he h istorical P icts. I t s hould b e s tressed, h owever, t hat t he a rea o f e xcavation h as b een t oo l imited t o e stablish c onclusively t hat t here a re n o f ortifications o f P ictish d ate o n t he C ullykhan h eadl and; n or h as t he w ork b een p ublished a t s uch a l evel a s t o m ake v alid j udgements p ossible ( Creig 1 971; 1 972). S econdly, t he s mall h illtop o f C raig P hadraiu w as d efended b y a t imber-laced, a nd s ubsequently v itrified, f ort p robably i n t he 4 th c entury B C o n t he e vidence o f c alibrated r adio-carbon d ates ( Small a nd C ottam 1 972) ( Fig. 2 .4.3). I n t he f ort i nterior, e arlier o ccupation l evels w ere c overed b y a s terile l ayer, w hich i n t urn w as o verlaid b y m aterial a ttributable t o t he P ictish p eriod. T his i ncluded a m ould f or m aking a h anging b owl e scutcheon o f t he 5 th-7th c enturies A D ( Stevenson 1 976), a nd a lso s herds o f a n on-local k itchen-ware k nown a s C lass E ( Thomas 1 959 a nd 1 976), w hich n ow h as a r adio-carbon d ate o f 6 40-750 A D a t D unollie ( Alcock 1 981c). C onsistent w ith t he f inds i s a r adio-carbon d ate f rom t his s econdary h orizon o f 4 10 t 8 5 a .d., w hich w ould c alibrate t o t he l ate 4 th e arly 6 th c enturies A D. I n t he o riginal i nterim r eport, t here w as n o e vidence t hat t he v itrified d efences h ad b een r efurbished d uring t he P ictish o ccupation: i ndeed, t he s pecific s tatement w as m ade t hat ' about t he t ime o f K ing B rude... t he d efences a t t he f ort w ere i n a s imilar s tate t o w hat t hey a re t oday ' ( Small a nd C ottam, 1 972, 4 8). B ut f urther e xcavation i n 1 972 s howed t hat, o n t he n orth-west s ector o f t he p erimeter ' the m ain r ampart h ad b een p artly r econstructed a fter i ts c ollapse o n v itrific ation ' ( Small 1 972). T his m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith t he e xtension o f t he o uter r ampart ( which h ad o riginally f ormed o nly a h ornuork a round t he S W s ector) t o c over t he r emainder o f t he p erimeter ( Small i n l it. 8 .xi.73). U nfortunately n o d ates a re a vailable f or t his s econdary w ork, n or h as i t e ver b een p ublished i n a ny b ut t he m ost s ummary f orm. I f t he r efurbishing o f t he r ampart w as i ndeed a P ictish w ork, i t m ay b e n ecessary t o r evive t he i dea t hat t his, r ather t han U rquhart, w as t he m unitlo B rudei v isited b y C olumba ( modifying A lcock 1 981a, 1 59-61). T his w ould c ertainly b e c onsistent w ith t he a rchaeolog ical e vidence f or h igh-quality p ottery a nd c raftsmanship i n b ronze -

a mong t he f inds. O ne p rehistoric f ort w hich w as c ertainly r efortified b y t he P icts w as C latchard C raig, F ife ( Fife I nventory, n o 5 , f ig. 7 1; F eacham 1 963, 1 26)(Fig. 2 .4.2). T his s tood o r t he e dge o f p recipice o verlooking t he T ay e stuary j ust b elow t he c onfluence o f t he E arn. T here a re u p t o 6 r amparts, o f w hich t he 4 o utermost f ormed a m ulti-vallate f ort. F eachem h as s uggested t hat t hese m ay r einforce t he m assive r ampart w hich d efended a n e arlier o val e nclosure. A ll t his w ork i s l ikely t o b e p reh istoric; b ut w ithin i t w as b uilt a s ubrectangular f ort, w hich u ses R oman m asonry i n i ts c onstruction. S uch r e-use o f d ressed R oman m asonry i n l ater d ry-stone f orts i s a lso k nown f rom R uberslaw, R oxburghshire ( Curie 1 905; A lcock 1 979b) a nd a t C adbury C astle, S omerset, w here i t c an b e d ated t o t he d ecades a round A D 5 00 ( Alcock 1 972, 1 76-7). A t

2 3

R ubersiaw a nd C adbury t he s ource o f t he d ressed s tone i s u nknown; b ut a t C latchard C raig i t i s m ost l ikely t o h ave b een r obbed f rom t he R oman l egionary_vexillation f ortress a t C arpow, 4 k m t o t he w est, w here m asonry b uildings a re k nown t o h ave e xisted ( Leach a nd W ilkes 1 976). C arpow w ould h ave b een e vacuated o n t he c onclusion o f t he S cottish c ampaigns o f S everus a nd h is S ons i n o r a fter 2 12 A D; b ut s ince t hose c ampaigns h ad d ealt e xpressly w ith t he C aledonians a nd M aeatae, i t i s u nlikely t hat t hese P roto-Picts w ould h ave f elt c onfident e nough t o u se t he f ortress a s a s tone q uarry f or a g eneration o r m ore. I n f act w e d o n ot k now w hen C latchard C raig w as r efortified, b ut o ccupation c omparable a nd c ontemporary w ith t hat a t C raig P hadraig i s d emonstrated b y s herds o f C lass E k itchen-ware a nd m oulds f or m aking p enannular b rooches ( ex i nf. J . C lose-Brooks). F inally, m ention s hould b e m ade o f a q uite d ifferent t ype o f f ort a t A ldclune, P erthshire, w here a m ound a nd a p air o f r ing f orts c rown a r idge o verlooking t he v alley o f t he r iver C arry. R adio-carbon d ates p ut t hese i n t he l ate c enturies B C. B ut t he a rtefacts i nclude a s plend id s ilver-gilt p enannular b rooch o f P ictish t ype, t ogether w ith a n i ron s pearhead a nd a s trike-a-light w hich a re b oth o f P ictish r ather t han p rehistoric d ate. C learly t here h ad b een s ome s ubstantial r e-use o f t he r idge a nd i ts e arthworks ( Triscott 1 980). S ummary s tatements o f t he k ind c ontained i n t he l ast f ew p arag raphs c an n ow b e m ade a bout P ictish f ortifications t o a n e xtent w hich w as n ot p ossible i n 1 955. B ut i n n o c ase c an t hey b e w holly t rusted, o r e xpanded i n a ny d etail, f or i n n o c ase a re t hey b ased o n d efinitive, f ully i llustrated e xcavation r eports. T o t his e xtent P ictland h as b een b adly s erved b y t he e xcavators o f t he p resent g eneration. N one t he l ess, o ne g roup o f h istorical g eneralizations d oes s eem r eliable. T he P roto . _Picts w ere n either b uilding n or o ccupying f orts d uring t he c ent uries o f R oman i nvolvement n orth o f t he F orth-Clyde i sthmus. A lthough t he P icts c ame t o r e-occupy, o r e ven r efurbish e arlier f orts, a s w ell a s t o b uild f orts d e n ovo, t here i s n o e vidence t hat t hey d id t his b efore t he l ate 4 th c entury a t t he v ery e arliest. T he f unction a nd s tatus o f f orts B ecause w e a re d ealing w ith a h istoric p eriod, w e c an s ay m ore a bout t he f unction a nd s tatus o f t he P ictish f orts t han i s p ossible i n a p rehistoric p eriod. A c lear m ilitary p urpose i s i mplied b y t he c ont emporary r ecord o f s ieges a t D undurn a nd D unottar. I t m ight b e a dded t hat t he P icts w ere e qually a dept a t a ttacking f ortified p laces, f or a s w e h ave s een t hey c aptured D unadd, a m ajor s tronghold o f t he S cots o f D alriada, i n A D 7 36. T he c haracter o f t he r ecords i mplies t hat t he n amed f orts w ere c entres o f p olitical p ower. W hether w e l ocate i t a t U rquhart, o r a t C raig P hadraig, o r e lsewhere, A domnan 's m ention o f m unitlo B rudei m akes i t c lear t hat t his w as a r oyal s tronghold. A domnan, w riting a c entury o r s o l ater, h ad, o f c ourse, n o p ersonal k nowledge o f t he m unitio, a nd w e s hould n ot m ake t oo m uch o f t he d etails o f h is a ccount. B ut h e e vidently t hought t hat t he f ort w ould h ave h ad a t wol eaved w ooden d oor t o c lose i ts g ateway, a nd t hat i t w ould h ave c ontained t he h all o f t he k ing ( Anderson a nd A nderson 1 961, 4 00-409). W ider c omparisons w ith b etter d ocumented a reas o f n orth B ritain s uggest t hat t he f orts w ould h ave b een v isited p eriodically b y t he k ing o n c ircuit, a ccompanied b y h is w arba r id a nd c ourt. O ne o bject o f t he

2 4

c ircuit w ould h ave b een t o r eceive f ood-gifts; i n o ther w ords, t he r enders-in-kind w hich p aid f or t he m aintenance o f k ing a nd a rmy. I n t he i ntervals, a f ort m ight b e p ermanently o ccupied b y a r oyal o fficial r eferred t o in L atin a s a p raefectus, s upported, o f c ourse, b y h is ow n w arband ( Alcock, 1 981b). I t i s c onsistent w ith t he l ocation o f o ther f orts o f t he E arly H istoric p eriod t hat P ictish s trongholds w ere f requently b uilt o n c oastal p romontories ( Alcock 1 981a; 1 981b), a nd i t i s w orthy o f n ote t hat t wo o f t hese, B urghead a nd G reen C astle, s tand b eside r ecognised m odern h arbours ( Graham 1 977). C uriously e nough, e xcept f or a s ocketed s pearhead f rom A ldclune, a nd t he s pears a nd s word f ragments f rom D unadd w hich m ay b e e ither P ictish o r S cottish, w e l ack t he a rms a nd a rmour u sed b y t he d efenders o f t hese h illtops a nd p romontories. O ur o nly e vidence, t herefore, f or t he w eaponry o f t he P icts i s t he d epiction o f b attle s cenes o n t he C lass I s tones. T hese s how t he c arrying o f s words, s pears a nd s mall r ound s hields b y b oth i nfantry a nd c avalry, a nd m ay a lso i ndicate t he w earing o f h elmets. I t i s q uite u ncertain, h owever, i n t he p resent s tate o f s tudy o f t he s tones, w hether t hese a re s cenes f rom P ictish l ife a nd d eath, o r m ere c opy-book p atterns. D espite t he u ncertainty, i t i s i nteresting t hat t wo s tones a re c laimed t o s how t he c rossbow i n u se a mong t he P icts ( Gilbert 1 976). T his i s n ot e ntirely i mprobable, f or i ron b olt-heads, a nd a n a ntler n ut f rom t he m echanism o f ac rossb ow ( MacGregor 1 976), h ave b een f ound a t t he B ritish c rannog a t B uiston i n A yrshire, w here t hey m ay b e o f E arly H istoric d ate. B y t he s ame t oken, t he c rossbow n ut f rom U rquhart C astle m ay b elong w ith t he s upp osed P ictish v itrified f ort r ather t han w ith t he m edieval m asonry c astle. A rtefacts a nd e nvironment D omestic o bjects, b y c ontrast, a re v ery c ommonly r ecovered b y e xcavation, s o t hat i t i s b ecoming p ossible t o o utline a l arge p art o f t he r epertory o f P ictish m aterial c ulture. W ithin t he s cope o f t his p aper, o nly a v ery s ummary l ist i s p ossible. P ottery i n t he b roc w heelhouse t radition w as c ommon, s ometimes v ery c ommon, a mong t he P eripheral P icts ( MacKie 1 965; Y oung 1 966). I n t he h eartland, h owever, n ative p ottery w as a lmost u nknown i n b oth t he P roto-Pictish a nd H ist oric p eriods. A f ew v essels w ere i mported f rom t he R omans, w hile t he 6 th-8th c enturies s aw t he v ery r are u se o f p ost-Roman C lass E k itchenw are a t, f or i nstance, C raig P hadraig a nd C latchard C raig. S ite f inds o f m etal a re r are, b ut i nclude i ron k nives, b arrel p adlocks, a nd b ronze p ins. S tone w as u sed f or r otary q uerns ( MacKie 1 972) a nd s pindle w horls, a nd p ainted p ebbles h ave b een s hown t o b e a P ictish s peciality ( Ritchie 1 972). A part f rom t he p ottery i n p eripheral P ictland, b one i s t he c ommonest m aterial w here p reservation c onditions a re s uitable. I t w as u sed e specially f or p ins a nd c omposite c ombs, a s, i ndeed, i t w as a mong t he c ontemporary B ritons a nd A nglo-Saxons. W here i t w as a vaila ble, w hale-bone w as u sed f or l arger o bjects. T he l ist b egins t o l ook i mpressive; b ut i t i s n ecessary t o r epeat h ere a w arning g iven o n t he b asis o f i nventories o f h ousehold g oods d etailed, f or i nstance i n t he W elsh L aws o f H ywel D da, i n r elation t o a C eltic s ociety a t t he s ame e conomic l evel a s t hat o f t he P icts ( Alcock 1 971, 1 45; 2 29-31). T he l egal i nventories m ake i t c lear t hat t he m assed a rchaeological e vidence i s n o m ore t han a f raction o f w hat a p rosperous f arming c ommunity t he i nhabitants o f a p ett m ight h ave b een e xpected t o p ossess. -

-

2 5

1

V

B e rgen

c : Q

Fig.2.5

Distribution of

1 , Pictish brooches

of

G penannular brooches, i bid.

certain classes

St.

Ninian's

after

I sle

Longley

of metalwork type,

1 975.

2 6

after

3 ,Group

in Britain and Small et

al.

Ireland.

1 973.

2 ,Type

I hanging bowl escutcheons,

O bjects o f q uality a re r elatively r are a s s ite f inds. P ride o f p lace m ust g o t o a s ilver-gilt p enannular b rooch f rom A ldclune. T his i s o rnamented i n r elief o n t he p in, t he h oop a nd t he t erminals, a nd i s f urther e mbellished w ith b ossed s ettings o f s tone a nd g lass ( AMBS 1 981, p 1. f acing p .6). F rom D undurn c omes a b ase s ilver d angle w ith a nimal o rnament, i ncluding a b east b iting i ts f orepaw. B ut t he m ost e xciting p iece f rom D undurn i s a g lass b oss, w hich p robably d ecorated a c asket o r c halice. A gainst a b ackground o f d ark g reen a nd w hite s wirling s tripes, t his b ears f ive k nobs a nd f ive d iscs o f l ight b lue s wirls o n a d ark b lue g round, r eminiscent o f t he s piral o rnamented b osses o n t he P ictish C lass I I s lab f rom N igg ( Alcock 1 980). O ne c lass o f o bject d eserves t o b e s ingled o ut f or s pecial m ent ion, n amely t he m oulds f or c asting p ins, b rooches a nd o ther o bjects, w hich h ave b een f ound a t B irsay ( Curle 1 974), C raig P hadraig ( Stevens on 1 976), C latchard C raig ( ex i nf. J . C lose-Brooks) D undurn ( Alcock 1 978; 1 980) a nd D unadd ( Lane, t his v olume, p p43-62). W hereas f inished p roducts a re h ighly p ortable, i t s eems c ertain t hat m ould f ragments w ould o nly b e d iscarded a t t he w orkshop s ite i tself, s o t hey t ell u s w here d ifferent c lasses o f o bject w ere a ctually m ade. S ome m oulds, l ike t he o ne f rom D undurn a nd s ome f rom C latchard C raig, a re f or v arieties o f p in a nd b rooch w hich c annot r eadily b e p aralleled i n t he k nown m etalwork. B ut C latchard C raig a nd B irsay h ave b oth y ielded m oulds f or p enannular b rooches o f t he d istinctive S t. N inian 's t ype. T his a ppeared t o c onfirm i ts a ttribution t o t he P icts; b ut A lan L ane's r ecent d iscovery o f s imilar m oulds a t t he S cottish s tronghold o f D unadd c learly w eakens t he c ase. M oreover, a mong t he B irsay m aterial i s a l ead d ie, o r s tamp, o r t rial c asting f or a d isc o rnamented w ith t rumpet s pir als w hich m ight h ave b een f ound a nywhere i n B ritain i n t he 6 th-7th c enturies A D. T he C raig P hadraig m ould f or a h anging b owl e scutcheon i s l ikewise n ot d istinctively P ictish. I t i s t rue t hat t here i s ac lose p arallel f rom C astle T ioram a t t he o ther e nd o f t he G reat G len, b ut e qually c omparable p ieces a re w idespread i n s outhern B ritain ( Longley 1 975). C learly, t he s tudy o f m oulds m ust l ead u s t o a pproach w ith c aution t he a ttribution o f c ertain c lasses o f m etalwork t o p articular n amed p eoples

( Fig.2.5.).

E xcavations a nd s mall-scale s elective s ampling a re n ow p roducing e vidence f or t he n atural e nvironment o f s ome P ictish f orts. A t G reen C astle, t he o ccurrence o f a rd-marks c ombines w ith p ollen a nalysis t o i ndicate t hat t he h eadland h ad b een p loughed p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t he f ort. T he r ampart o f B urghead, b y c ontrast, w as f ounded o n a n o pen g rassy p romontory. C uriously e nough, o ak w as n ot r epresented i n t he p re-rampart p ollen r ecord, a nd t here w as o nly a l ittle b irch a nd w illow, d espite t he i mportance o f a ll t hree t imbers i n t he s tructure o f t he r ampart ( Edwards a nd R alston 1 978). T he e arliest l evels e xplored a t D undurn f ormed a d eep o rganic d eposit. T his w as f ound t o c onsist l argely o f b racken w hich h ad b een g athered d eliberately f or b edding o r f looring, a nd w hich w as t herefore n ot n ecessarily t ypical o f t he l ocal e nvironment. P ollen a nalysis, h owever, s uggested t hat t he s lopes b elow P ictish D undurn m ay h ave c arried b irch s crub a nd b racken a s t hey d o t oday, w ith a lders g rowing b eside t he s treams a t t he f oot o f t he k noll. B ut P ictish c ultivation i s a lso i ndicated b y l evels o f P lantago l anceo lata w hich w ere h igher i n P ictish t imes t han i n t he m odern p ollen s pectrum. I n c ontrast w ith B urghead, Q uercus f orms 3 6% o f t he f ossil a rboreal p ollen, s uggesting t hat t he o ak b eams r equired f or t he f irst p hase o f t he c itadel c ould h ave b een o btained n ear a t h and ( Brough 1 980). 2 7

F ig.

2 .6

T he F orteviot a rea, s hoving a pproximate s ite o f d iscovery o f t he c arved s tone a rch; a lso c ropmarks o f p rehistoric c eremonial a nd b urial s ites a nd t he p ossible p alace c omp lex. S outhern g roup o f c ropmarks a fter S t. J oseph 1 978b; n orthern g roup p lotted b y R . B . G ourlay f rom C rown C opyr ight a ir p hotographs t aken b y J ohn D ewar o n b ehalf o f t he S cottish D evelopment D epartment.

2 8

H alls a nd P alaces F inally, w e s hould n otice t hat t he p olitical a nd s ocial o rganisa tion o f t he P icts w as n ot b ased e xclusively o n f ortified h illtops. F rom t he m uddled h istorical a ccounts o f t he e nd o f t he P ictish k ingdom a nd t he b eginnings o f t he u nited k ingdom o f P icts a nd S cots, i t e merges t hat a m ajor r oyal c entre w as a t F orteviot i n S trathearn, w here D urst s on o f F erat, t he l ast k ing o f t he P icts, w as s lain b y t he S cots, a nd w here h is s uccessor, K enneth s on o f A lpin, f irst r uler o f t he c ombined k ingdom, d ied i n p alacio, i n t he r oyal h all o r p alace ( Anderson 1 973, 2 50)(Fig.2.6 ). T he a ncient f ocus o f F orteviot, a s d emonstrated b y c hance d iscoveries o f C lass I I a nd C lass I II s tones, w as o n a f ertile g ravel t errace i n l ower S trathearn, o verlooking t he W ater o f M ay ( Allen a nd A nderson 1 903, 3 21-7). T he o nly e vidence f or m onumental a rchitecture h ereabouts i s p art o f a r ichly c arved m onolithic a rch, w hich w as a ctua lly f ound i n t he W ater o f M ay. T he d ate o f t his i s d isputed, b ut i t m ore p robably b elongs t o t he p eriod o f K enneth i n t he m id-ninth c entury t han t o t hat o f h is P ictish p redecessors. I ts c entral f eature i s a c ross, s uggesting t hat i t h ad f ormed a n a rch i n t he r oyal c hapel. U nfortunately, e xcavations i n 1 981 s howed t hat t his n otable b uilding h ad b een e ntirely s wept a way b y r iver e rosion ( Alcock 1 982a). T o t he h istorical r eferences, a nd t he e vidence o f t he c arved s tones m ust n ow b e a dded t hat o f a erial r econnaissance. P hotographs t aken i n 1 975 a nd s ubsequently h ave r evealed t hat F orteviot i s s urr ounded b y r itual a nd b urial m onuments o f t he I I n d a nd I s t m illennia B C. ( St. J oseph 1 978b; M acinnes i n A lcock 1 982a) m a p rofusion r emin-

( a

i sce r 3t m ore o f I rish r oyal r itual c entres s uch a s t he Hill o f T ara R iord in 1 957) o r o f C ruachain ( Dillon a nd C hadwick 1 967, m ap 8 ), t han o f a ny h itherto k nown s ite i n B ritain. T his m ight s uggest t hat t he P ictish p alace a nd i ts S cottish s uccessor h ad b een l ocated i n a l ong h allowed a rea. M oreover, s ome p hotographs a ppear t o s how a r ectangular b uilding o r e nclosure, s et w ithin a l arge f enced c ompound. O utside t he r ectangular s tructure a re a n umber o f e ast/west o riented p its, s uggesting C hristian g raves. I t i s t empting t o t hink t hat w e m ay b e s eeing h ere e vidence f or t he p alace c hapel a nd g raveyard o f t he P ictish d ynasty i n t he 9 th c entury ( Alcock 1 982b). U nfortunately, t here i s n o t race o n t he a vailable p hotographs o f t he l arge f easting-hall w hich m ight b e e xpected w ithin a p alace c omplex . I t i s e ven p ossible t hat s uch a s tructure h as b een o bliterated b y t he m edieval a nd m odern b uildings o f F orteviot. E lsewhere i n P ictland, h owever, b oth i n A ngus a nd o n D eeside, r ecent a ir p hotographs h ave r evealed l arge r ectangular t imber h alls. O f t hese, t he c rop-marks o f o ne a t B albridie, o n D eeside, s o c losely r esembled a p roven B ritish h all o f t he 6 th c entury A D a t D oon H ill, E ast L othian, a s t o s uggest v ery p ositively a P ictish r oyal h all o f s imilar d ate. T he e xcavation o f B aibridie, h owever, h as p roduced o nly N eolithic p ottery; a nd r adio-carbon d ates, p robably f rom b urned s tructural t imbers, p lace i t i n t he 4 th m illennium B C ( Reynolds 1 978). W ithout e xcavation, i t i s i mpossible t o k now w hether t he o ther t imber h alls a re l ikewise N eolithic, o r w hether o ne o r m ore o f t hem d oes i ndeed b elong t o H ist oric P icts. C onclusion I n c onclusion: f ieldwork o ver t he l ast q uarter o f ac entury m akes i t p ossible n ow t o w rite p ositively a bout t he s ettlement-archaeology 2 9

a nd e veryday c rafts o f t he P icts. A h ealthy s hift f rom t he d iscussion o f o rigins t o t he d escription o f a ctivities h as, i n i tself, d one m uch t o d ispose o f " The P roblem o f t he P icts". C urrently, i t w ould b e p ref erable t o t alk o f t he P aradox o r e ven P aradoxes o f t he P icts. T wo e xamples o f s uch p aradoxes m ust s uffice. I n t he e arly p eriod o f t he H istoric P icts, w e m ust w onder h ow a p eople w ho a ppear, i n t he a rcha eology o f t heir h omeland, a s s imple p eaceful f armers, c ould o ffer t o t he o utside w orld s o m uch r esistance, a nd l ater s o m uch a ggression, w ith s uch f ateful c onsequences. B ut i n t he l ater p eriod, w e h ave t he r everse p aradox. H ow c ould a p rolific n ation, w ith s uch a r ich e conomic b ase, a nd w ith s trong f ortifications t o d efend i t, f all u nder t he s way o f i nvaders c oming a cross d ifficult m ountain p asses f rom t he b arren c rags a nd p eat-bogs o f t he w est? A part f rom a f ew m onths i n 1 745 a nd ' 46 i ndeed, t his s eems t o b e t he o nly t ime i n t he h istory o f N orthern B ritain w hen t he H ighland W est d ecisively d ominated t he L owland E ast. T his p aradox, h owever, i s f or t he h istorian t o r esolve. -

-

A cknowledgements M y f irst d ebt i s t o t he O rganizing C ommittee o f t he X llth L imes C ongress f or i nviting m e t o d eliver t he o riginal p aper, t hereby m aking i t n ecessary f or m e t o s ort o ut m y t houghts o n t he P icts; a nd t here i s n o l ess a d ebt t o t he o rganisers o f t he 1 982 G lasgow c onference, w ho e nabled m e t o r evise t hose t houghts. S everal c olleagues a ssisted b y p roviding d etailed i nformation, a nd I h ope t hat t hey a re a ll s uitably a cknowledged i n t he t ext. I n t he e vent, m ost o f t hem c ontribute f ull p apers t o t his p resent v olume. I n a ddition, A lan L ane a nd A nna R itchie r ead a d raft o f t he o riginal p aper, w hich w as m uch i mproved a s ar esult o f t heir c omments. T he f inal e xecution o wes m uch t o t he t yping o f M yraid D odds a nd t he d raughtsmanship o f A manda C lydesdale a nd A lison M cGhie. A t e very s tage, f rom i nitial f ield v isits t o t he l ast r efere nce, m y w ife's c ollaboration h as b een i nvaluable.

3 0

B ibliography B ecause T he P roblem o f t he P icts ( Wainwright 1 955) w as s uch a w ide-ranging s urvey, a nd i ts b ibliography w as c orrespondingly c ompreh ensive, t he p resent b ibliography i ncludes v ery f ew i tems p ublished b efore 1 955. R egrettably, h owever, i t h as n ot b een p ossible t o m ake i t t otally i nclusive o f r elevant b ooks a nd a rticles w hich h ave a ppeared s ince t hen. I t d oes, n one t he l ess, i nclude a n umber o f g eneral w orks w hich a re n ot s pecifically r eferred t o i n t he t ext o f t he p aper, a nd i t i s h oped t hat, t aken w ith W ainwright's b ibliography, i t w ill p rovide a u seful i ntroduction t o t he l iterature o n t he P icts. A lcock,

L .

1 971 .

A rthur's B ritain, h istory a nd a rchaeology A D 3 67

6 34,

-

L ondon. A lcock,

L .

1 972.

" By S outh C adbury i s t hat C amelot

a t C adbury C astle

.

.

•„

E xcavations

1 966-70, L ondon.

A lcock, L . 1 976 . A m ulti-disciplinary c hronology f or A lt C lut, C astle R ock, D umbarton, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 07, 1 975 6 , 1 03 -

-

1 3. A lcock, L . 1 978. E xcavations 7 7: a n i nterim r eport,

a t D undurn, S t. F illans, P erthshire, 1 976D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity

o f G lasgow. A lcock, L . 1 979a . E xcavations a t D un 0 11aigh, O ban, A rgyll, 1 978: a n i nterim r eport, D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f G lasgow. A lcock, L . 1 979b. T he N orth B ritons, T he P icts a nd t he S cots i n C asey, P .J. ( ed.), T he E nd o f R oman B ritain, O xford, 1 34 4 2 -

A lcock,

L .

1 980.

T hree d ecorated o bjects f rom D undurn, S t. F illans,

P erthshire, A ntiq.

J . 6 0, 3 44

-

7 .

A lcock, L . 1 981a. E arly h istoric f ortifications i n S cotland i n G uilb ert, C . ( ed .) , H illfort S tudies: E ssays f or A .H.A. H ogg, L eicester U niversity P ress, 1 50 8 0. -

A lcock,

L .

1 981b. E arly h istoric f ortifications o f S cotland, C urr.

A rchaeol.

7 , O ct.

1 981,

2 30-36.

A lcock, L . 1 981c. D unollie C astle, E arly m edieval o ccupation, D iscovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland 1 981, 2 7. A lcock, L . 1 982a . S urvey a nd E xcavation a t F orteviot, P erths., D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f G lasgow.

1 981,

A lcock, L . 1 982b. F orteviot: a P ictish a nd S cottish r oyal c hurch a nd p alace i n P earce, S M. ( ed.), T he e arly c hurch i n w estern B ritain a nd I reland, O xford 2 11-39. A llen, J R a nd A nderson, J . 1 903. T he e arly c hristian m onuments o f S cotland, 2 v ols., E dinburgh. A MBS,

1 981.

A ncient M onuments B oard f or S cotland:

1 980 ( HMSO E dinburgh). 3 1

2 7th A nnual R eport

A nderson, M O.

1 973.

K ings a nd k ingship i n e arly S cotland, E dinburgh.

A shmore, P 3. 1 980. L ow c airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones, S oc. A ntiq . S cot. 1 10, 1 978-80, 3 46-55. B annerman, J .

1 974.

P roc.

S tudies i n t he h istory o f D airiada, E dinburgh.

B reeze, D J. 1 975. T he a bandonment o f t he A ntonine W all: a nd i mplications, S cot. A rchaeol. F orum 7 , 6 7-80.

i ts d ate

B rough, O W. 1 980. T he i nterpretation o f o rganic m aterial f rom a P ictish h illf 'ort a t D undurn i n P erthshire, B .Sc. D issertation, D epartment o f B otany, U niversity o f G lasgow. B rown, T J .1972. 1 , 2 19-46.

N orthumbria a nd t he B ook o f K eils, A nglo-Saxon E ngl.

B urley, E . 1 956. M etalwork f rom T raprain, P roc. 1 955-56, 1 18-226. C alder, W M . and J ackson K H. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 0,

S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 8 9,

1 957. A n i nscription f rom A ltyre, P roc. 1 956-57, 2 46-50.

C larke, D V. 1 970. B one d ice a nd t he S cottish I ron A ge, S oc. 3 6, 2 14-32. C lose-Brooks, J . S oc. A ntiq . C lose-Brooks,

J .

S utherland,

1 975. S cot.

P roc.

P rehist.

A P ictish p in f rom G oispie, S utherland, 1 06, 1 974-5, 2 08-10.

1 980.

E xcavations i n t he D airy P ark,

1 977, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot.

1 10,

P roc.

D un'obin,

1 978-80, 3 28-45.

C lose-Brooks, J . a nd M axwell, S . 1 974. T he M ackenzie C ollection, P roc. S ac, A ntiq. S cot. 1 05, 1 972-4, 2 87-93. C oigrave, B . ( ed. a nd t rans.) 1 927. E ddius S tephanus, C ambridge.

T he l ife o f B ishop W ilfrid b y

C olgrave, B . a nd f i ynors, R AB. ( eds. a nd t rans.) 1 969. t ical h istory o f t he E nglish p eople, O xford.

B ede's e cclesias-

C orcoran, J XWP. 1 968. T he s outerrain a t R osal, S trath N aver, S utherl and, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 00, 1 967-68, 1 14-8 . C ottam, M B a nd S mall A . 1 974. T he d istribution o f s ettlement i n s outhern P ictland, M edieval A rchaeol. 1 8, 4 3-65. C otton, M A. 1 954. B ritish c amps w ith t imber-laced r amparts, A rchaeol. J . 1 11, 2 6-105. C outts, H . 1 971. S oc. A ntiq .

T wo l ong c ists a t t he H igh S treet, C arnoustie, S cot. 1 03, 1 970-1, 2 33-5.

C rawford, I A.1973. E xcavations a t C oileagean a n U dail: r eport 1 973, C ambridge. C rawford, 6 , 1 -16.

I A.

1 974.

S cot

P roc.

1 0th i nterim

( ? )‚ N orseman a nd G ael, S cot A rchaeol. F orum 3 2

C rawford, I A. 1 981. W ar o r p eace V iking c olonization i n t he N orthern a nd W estern I sles o f S cotland r eviewed i n B ekker-Nielsen, H ., F oote, P . a nd O lsen, 0 ., ( eds), P roc. E ighth V iking C ongress, O dense U niv ersity P ress, 2 59-69. -

C rawford,

I . a nd S witsur, R .

1 977. S andscaping a nd C l4: t he U dal, N .

U ist, A ntiquity 5 1, 1 24-36. C ruden, S .

1 964.

T he E arly C hristian a nd P ictish M onuments o f S cotland,

H MSO ( 2nd e dn.), E dinburgh. C urie, A Di , 1 905. F ortifications o n R ubersiaw, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 3 9, 1 904-5, 2 19-32. C urle, A D. 1 941. A n a ccount o f t he p artial e xcavation o f a " wag" o r g alleried b uilding a t F orse, i n t he p arish o f L atheron, C aithness, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 7 5,

1 940-1, 2 3-39.

C urle, A D. 1 946. T he e xcavation o f t he " wag" o r P rehistoric C attlef old a t F orse, C aithness, a nd t he r elation o f w ags t o B rochs, "

"

a nd i mplications a rising t herefrom, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 8 0, 1 945-6, 1 1-25. C urie, A U. 1 948. T he " wag" o f F orse, C aithness, E xcavations 1 947-48, P roc. S oc. A ntiq . S cot. 8 2, 1 947-8, 2 75-85. C urle, C L. 1 974. A n e ngraved l ead d isc f rom t he B rough a t B irsay, O rkney, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 05, 1 972-4, 3 01-7. D illon, M . and C hadwick, N K. D uncan, A AM.

1 975.

1 967.

T he C eltic r ealms, L ondon .

S cotland, t he m aking o f t he k ingdom, E dinburgh.

D uncan, A AM. 1 981. B ede, I ona a nd t he P icts i n D avis, R HC. a nd W allaceH adrill, J M.(eds.) , T he w riting o f h istory i n t he m iddle a ges, e ssays p resented t o R W S outhern, O xford, 1 -42. E dwards, A JH.

1 926.

E xcavation o f an umber o f g raves i n am ound a t

A ckergill, C aithness, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 6 0,

1 925-6, 1 60-82.

E dwards, A JH. 1 927. E xcavation o f g raves a t A ckergill a nd o f a n e arthh ouse a t F res u iick L inks, C aithness P roc. S oc. A ntiq . S cot. .. . ‚

6 1,

1 926-7,

1 96-200.

E dwards, K J . a nd R alston, I . 1 978. N ew d ating a nd e nvironmental e vidence f rom B urghead, M oray, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 09, 1 977-8, 2 02-10. F airhurst, H . 1 971. T he w heelhouse s ite a t A 'Cheardach B heag o n D rimore m achair, S outh U ist, G lasgow A rchaeol. J . 2 , 7 2-106. F eachem,

R W.

1 963.

A g uide t o p rehistoric S octland, L ondon.

F eachem, R W.

1 966.

T he h ill-forts o f n orthern B ritain i n R ivet 1 966,

5 9-87. F ife I nventory. R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onum ents o f S cotland: C ounties o f F ife, K inross a nd C lackmannan, E dinburgh,

1 933. 3 3

F ojut, N . 1 980. U npublished P h.D. d issertation, U niversity o f G lasgow.

o n S hetland B rochs,

F owler, E . 1 960. T he o rigin a nd d evelopment o f t he p enannular b rooch i n E urope, P roc. P rehist. S oc. 2 6, 1 49-77. F owler, E . 1 963. C eltic m etalwork o f t he f ifth a nd s ixth c enturies A D, a r eappraisal, A rchaeol. J . 1 20, 9 8-160. F owler, E . 1 968. H anging b owls i n C oles, J M a nd S impson, D DA ( eds .) S tudies i n a ncient E urope, L eicester, 2 87-310. G ilbert, J M, 1 976. C rossbows o n P ictish s tones, P roc. S cot. 1 07, 1 975-6, 3 16-7.

S oc. A ntiq.

G ordon, C A. 1 956. C arving t echnique o n t he s ymbol s tones o f n orthe ast S cotland, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 8 8, 1 954-6, 4 0-6. G ordon, C A. 1 966. T he P ictish a nimals o bserved, S cot. 9 8, 1 964-6, 2 15-24. G raham, A .,

1 977.

o f S cotland,

P roc.

S oc. A ntiq.

O ld h arbours a nd l anding-places o n t he e ast c oast P roc. S oc. A ntiq.

S cot.

1 08,

1 976-77,

3 32-65.

G raham-Campbell, J . 1 973. T he 9 th-century A nglo-Saxon h orn-mount f rom B urghead, M orayshire, S cotland, M edieval A rchaeol. 1 7, 4 3-51. G reig, J C. 1 971. E xcavations a t C ullykhan, C astle P oint, T roup, B anffshire, S cot. A rchaeol. F orum 3 , 1 5-21. G reig, J C.

1 972.

H amilton, J RC. H amilton, ] RC. 5 3-90.

C ullykhan, C urr. A rchaeol. 3 2, M ay 1 972, 2 27-31. 1 956.

1 962.

E xcavations a t J ar1shof 1 S hetland. E dinburgh. B rochs a nd b roch b uilders i n W ainwright 1 962a.

H amilton, J RC. 1 966. F orts, b rochs a nd w heel-houses i n n orthern S cotland i n R ivet 1 966, 5 9-87. H amilton,

J RC.

1 968.

E xcavations a t C lickhimin,

S hetland, E dinburgh .

H anson, W F . a nd K eppie, L JF. 1 980. R oman f rontier s tudies, 1 979, O xford, ( BAR I nternational S eries 7 1). H edges, J W .and B ell, B . 1 980. T hat t ower o f S cottish p rehistory, t he b roch, A ntiquity 5 4, 8 7-94.

-

H enderson, I M. 1 958. T he o rigin c entre o f t he P ictish s ymbol s tones, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 1, 1 957-8, 4 4-60. H enderson,

I N,

1 967.

H enderson,

I M.

1 971a.

T he P icts, L ondon . N orth P ictland i n M eidrum 1 971,

3 7-52.

H enderson, I M. 1 971b. T he m eaning o f t he P ictish s ymbol s tones i n M eldrum 1 971, 5 3-68.

3 4

H enderson,

I M,

1 972.

A rchaeol, J .

T he P icts o f A berdeenshire a nd t heir m onuments,

1 29,

1 66-74.

H enderson, I M. 1 978. S culpture n orth o f t he F orth a fter t he t ake-over b y t he S cots i n L ang, J , ( ed.), A nglo-Saxon a nd V iking A ge S culpture, O xford, 4 7-73. H enshall, A S. 1 956. T he l ong c ist c emetery a t L asswade, M idlothian, P roc. S oc. A ntiq . S cot. 8 9, 1 955-6, 2 52-83. H enshall, A S. 1 966. S econd r eport o f c ist b urials a t P arkburn s and-pit, L asswade, M idlothian, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 8, 1 964-6, 2 04-14. H ogg, A HA.

1 975.

H ill-forts o f B ritain, L ondon.

H ogg, A HA.

1 979.

B ritish h ill-forts, a n i ndex, O xford.

H ughes, K .

1 970.

E arly C hristianity i n P ictiand, J arrow L ecture 1 970,

J arrow, n .d. H ughes, K . 1 980. C eltic B ritain i n t he e arly m iddle a ges, W oodbridge, t he B oydell P ress. J ackson,

A .

S tud.

1 971. 1 5,

P ictish s ocial s tructure a nd s ymbol-stones, S cot.

1 21-40.

J ackson,

K H.

1 955.

T he P ictish l anguage i n W ainwright 1 955,

1 29-66.

J ackson,

K H.

1 965.

T he O gam i nscription a t D unadd, A nti qu ity 3 9,

J ackson,

K H.

1 972.

T he G aelic n otes i n t he B ook o f D eer, C ambridge.

3 00-2.

K enworthy, J B. 1 980. A f urther f ragment o f e arly c hristian s culpture f rom S t. M ary o f t he R ock, S t. A ndrews, F ife, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. K irby, D P.

1 10,

1 978-80, 3 56-63.

1 976.

. . .

p er u niverses P ictorum p rovincias,

( ed.), F amulus C hristi, L ondon, L aing, L i I L 1 974. S cot.

1 05,

i n

P icts, S axons a nd C eltic m etalwork, P roc. S oc.

1 972-4,

C .

B onner,

2 86-324. A ntiq .

1 89-99.

L aing, L l R .

1 975a. S ettlement t ypes i n p ost-Roman S cotland, O xford.

L aing,

1 975b. L ate C eltic B ritain a nd I reland, c . 4 00-1200 A D.

L l I L

L ondon. L ane, A M . 1 980. D unadd,

f ort, D iscovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland

1 980, 3 1. L ane, A M. 1 981, L ang, i T. 1 05, L each, J D.

1 981.

D unadd,

f ort, D iscovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland

3 0-1. 1 974. 1 972-4,

H ogback m onuments i n S cotland, P roc.

S oc. A ntiq. S cot.

2 06-35.

a nd W ilkes, J J.

1 976.

L arpow R oman f ortress, D iscovery a nd

e xcavation i n S cotland, 5 0. 3 5

L ongley, D . 1 975. H anging-bowls, p enannular b rooches a nd t he A ngloS axon c onnexion, O xford. M acGregor, A . 1 974. T he b rach o f B urrian, N orth R onaidsay, O rkney, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 05, 1 972-4, 6 3-118. M acGregor, A . 1 976. T wo a ntler c rossbow n uts a nd s ome n otes o n t he e arly d evelopment o f t he c rossbow, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 07, 1 975-6, 3 17-21. M acKie, E W 1 965. T he o rigin a nd d evelopment o f t he b rach a nd w heelh ouse b uilding c ultures o f t he S cottish I ron A ge, P roc. P rehist. S oc. 3 1, 9 3-146. M acKie, E W. 1 966. I ron A ge p ottery f rom t he C ress L odge e arth-house, S tornoway, L ewis, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 8, 1 964-6, 1 99-203. M acKie, E W. 1 971a. C ontinuity i n I ron A ge f ort b uilding t raditions i n C aithness i m M eldrum 1 971, 5 -23. M acKie, L W. 1 971b. E nglish m igrants a nd S cottish b rochs, G lasgow A rchaeol. J . 2 , 3 9-71. M acKie, E W. 1 972. S ome n ew q uernstones f rom b rochs a nd d uns, S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 04, 1 971-2, 1 37-46. M acKie, L W .

1 974.

M acKie, L W.

1 975a.

D un M ar V aul, S cotland:

P roc.

a n i ron a ge b roch o n T iree, G lasgow.

a n a rchaeological g uide,

L ondon.

M acKie, L W. 1 975b. T he b rochs o f S cotland i n F owler, P i.(ed.), R ecent w ork i n r ural a rchaeology, B radford-on-Avon, 7 2-92. M acKie, L W. 1 976. T he v itrified f orts o f S cotland i n H arding, D W .(ed.) H illforts, l ater p rehistoric e arthworks i n B ritain a nd I reland, L ondon, 2 05-35. M cNeill, R a nd N icholson, R . 1 975. c . 4 00-1600 , S t. A ndrews. M cRoberts, D . 1 961. I sle t reasure, M ann, J C. 1 974a. J . 3 , 3 4-42. M ann,

A n h istorical a tlas o f S cotland

T he e cclesiastical s ignificance o f t he S t. P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 4, 1 960-1, 3 01-14.

T he n orthern f rontier a fter A D 3 69,

N inian 's

G lasgow A rchaeol.

J C. 1 974b. T he f rontiers o f t he P rincipate i n T emporini, H . ( ed.) A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R 6mischen W elt I I, 1 , B erlin, 5 08-33.

M axwell, C S, 1 969. D uns a nd f orts an ote o n s ome I ron A ge m onuments o f t he A tlantic P rovince, S cot. A rchaeol, F orum 1 , 4 1-52. -

M axwell, ' C S. 1 975. C asus b elli: n ative p ressure a nd R oman p olicy, S cot. A rchaeol. F orum 7 , 3 1-49. M eldrum, E . ( ed.) F ield C lub.

1 971.

T he D ark A ges i n t he H ighlands, I nverness

3 6

M iller, M .

1 975.

S tilicho 's P ictish W ar, B ritannia 6 ,

1 41-5.

M iller, N .

1 978.

E anfrith 's P ictish s on, N orthern H ist.

1 4, 4 7-66.

M iller, N . 1 979a. T he d isputed h istorical h orizon o f t he P ictish k ing-lists, S cot. H ist. R ev. 5 8, 1 -34. M iller, M . 2 3,

1 979b.

T he l ast c entury o f P ictish s uccession, S cot. S tud.

3 9-67.

M iller, M .

1 980.

H iberni r eversuri, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot.

1 10,

1 978

1 980, 3 05-27.

-

M iller, N . 1 981. M atriliny b y t reaty: t he P ictish f oundation l egend i n W hitelock, Dand M ackitterick, R L. ( eds.), I reland i n e arly m edieval E urope: s tudies i n m emory o f K athleen H ughes, C ambridge. M orris,

C D.

1 978.

B irsay, O rkney:

A rchaeol. R ep. u pon T yne,

" small s ites" e xcavation a nd s urvey

f or 1 978, U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle

1 1-19.

M orris, C D. 1 981. E xcavations a nd s urvey a t B irsay, O rkney, A rchaeol. R ep. f or 1 981, U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle u pon T yne, 4 6-53. M orrison, A . 1 974. S ome p rehistoric s ites i n S cotland w ith m edieval o ccupation, S cot. A rchaeol. F orum, 6 , 6 6-74. M yres,

J NL.

1 970.

T wo A nglo-Saxon p otters'

s tamps, A ntiq. J . 5 0, 3 50.

N eil, N R3. 1 980. F irst s ummary o f t he P ictish a nd r ecent l ayers i n t renches C a nd s outhern F , i n H edges, J W. ( ed .) E xcavations a t t he H owe, S tromness, O rkney, 3 . 1

/

/

0 'Riordain, S P.

1 957.

T ara, t he m onuments o n t he H ill, D undalk.

O rdnance S urvey,

1 966.

O rdnance S urvey,

1 973.

O rdnance S urvey,

B ritain i n t he D ark A ges,

2 nd e dn, C hessington.

B ritain b efore t he N orman C onquest, S outhampton.

1 978.

N ap o f R oman B ritain, 4 th e dn,

S outhampton.

P adel, 01 , 1 972. A n ote o n t he O gham i nscriptions o n t he s tones a t N ewton a nd L ogie H ouse, A rchaeol, J . 1 29, 1 96-8. P iggott,

S .

1 955.

T he a rchaeological b ackground i n W ainwright 1 955,

( ed.)

1 962.

5 4-65. P iggott, P owell,

S . I CE,

R adford ' , C AR.

1 962.

R adford, C AR.

T he c oming o f t he C elts i n P iggott 1 962.

1 955.

A rchaeol, J .

T he P rehistoric P eoples o f S cotland,

T wo S cottish s hrines:

L ondon. 1 05-24.

. ] edburgh a nd S t. A ndrews,

1 12, 4 3-60.

1 962a.

F rom p rehistory t o h istory i n P iggott 1 962,

1 25-54.

3 7

R adford, C AR. 1 962b. A rt a nd a rchitecture: w right 1 962a, 1 63-87.

C eltic a nd N orse i n W ain-

R adford, C AR. 1 977. T he M editerranean s ources o f s culpture i n s tone a mong t he i nsular C elts a nd t he s urvival i nto t he f ull m edieval a ge i n L aing. [ 1. ( ed.), S tudies i n C eltic s urvival, O xford, 1 13-23. R alston, I BM. 1 978. T he G reen C astle a nd t he p romontory f orts o f n ortheast S cotland, S cot. A rchaeol, F orum 1 0, 2 7-40 R eed, N . 1 976. T he S cottish c ampaign o f S eptimius S everus, P roc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 07, 1 975-6, 9 2-102. R eynolds, N . 4 1-60. R ichmond, I A. b urgh.

1 978.

( ed.)

S oc.

D ark A ge t imber h alls, S cot. A rchaeol. F orum 1 0,

1 958.

R oman a nd n ative i n n orth B ritain, E din-

R itchie, A . 1 972. P ainted p ebbles i n e arly S cotland, S cot. 1 04, 1 971-2, 2 97-301.

P roc. S oc. A ntiq.

R itchie, A . 1 974. P ict a nd N orsemen i n n orthern S cotland, S cot. A rchaeol. F orum, 6 , 2 3-36. R itchie, A . 1 977. E xcavation o f P ictish a nd V iking-age f armsteads a t B uckquoy, O rkney, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 08, 1 976-7, 1 74-227. R itchie, A . f orthcoming, O rkney i n t he P ictish k ingdom, i n R enfrew, C . T he p rehistory o f O rkney, E dinburgh U niversity P ress. R itchie, J NG. 1 971. I ron a ge f inds f rom Dun a n F heurain, G allanach, A rgyll, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 03, 1 970-71, 1 00-12. R itchie, i NG. h istory,

a nd R itchie, A , L ondon.

1 981.

S cotland:

a rchaeology a nd e arly

R itchie, P R. 1 959. A n e arth-house a t S outh U nigarth, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 2, 1 958-9, 1 18-9. R ivet, A LF . ( ed.)

1 966.

S andwick,

O rkney,

T he i ron a ge i n n orthern B ritain, E dinburgh.

R obertson, A S. 1 970. R oman f inds f rom n on-Roman s ites i n S cotland. M ore R oman " Drift" i n C aledonia, B ritannia 1 , 1 98-226. R obertson, A S. 1 972. T he R oman p enetration o f n orth-east S cotland, A rchaeol, J . 1 29, 1 63-5. S t.

J oseph, J K. 1 978a. T he c amp a t D urno, A berdeenshire, a nd t he s ite o f l i ons G raupius, B ritannia, 9 , 2 71-87.

S t. J oseph, J K. 1 978b. A ir r econnaissance: A ntiquity 5 2, 4 7-50, w ith p 1. V III.

r ecent r esults, 4 4,

S hepherd, I AG a nd S hepherd, A N, 1 978. A n i ncised P ictish f igure a nd a n ew s ymbol s tone f rom B arflat, R hynie, G ordon d istrict, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 09, 1 977-8, 2 11-22.

3 8

S impson, W D. 1 951. G len U rquhart a nd i ts c astle i n G rimes, W F. ( ed.), A spects o f a rchaeology i n B ritain a nd b eyond, L ondon. 3 16-31. S impson, W D. S mall, A .

1 964.

1 966.

E xcavations a t U nderhoull, U nst, S hetland, P roc. S oc.

A ntiq. S cot. S mall, A .

U rquhart C astle, E dinburgh.

1 969.

9 8,

1 964-6,

2 25-48.

B urghea c t, S cot. A rchaeol, F orum 1 , 6 1-8.

S mall, A . 1 972. C raig P hadraig v itrified f ort, D iscovery & E xcavation i n S cotland 1 972, 2 3. S mall, A .

a nd

C ottam M B.

1 972, C raig P hadraig.

I nterim r eport o n

1 971 e xcavation, D undee. S mall, A ., C ottam, M B. a nd D unbar, J O. 1 974. S outerrain a nd l ater s tructures a t N orth u iaterbridge, K incardineshire, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot.

1 05,

1 972-4,

2 93-6.

S mall, A ., T homas, A C., W ilson, D M. e t a l., 1 973. a nd i ts t reasure, 2 v ols, A berdeen/Oxford.

S t. N inian 's I sle

S tead, I M. 1 976. L a T ene b urials b etween B urton F leming a nd R udston, N orth H umberside, A ntiq. J . 5 6, 2 17-26. S teer, K A. 1 958. R oman a nd n ative i n n orth B ritain: t he S everan r eorganisation i n R ichmond 1 958, 9 1-111. S tevenson,

R BK.

1 949.

T he n uclear f ort a t D almahoy, M idlothian a nd o ther

D ark A ge c apitals, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. S tevenson,

R BK.

P rehist.

1 955.

S oc.

2 1,

8 3,

1 948-9,

P ins a nd t he c hronology o f b rochs,

1 86-98.

P roc.

2 82-94.

S tevenson, R BK. 1 956. P ictish c hain, R oman s ilver a nd b auxite b eads, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 8 8, 1 954-6, 2 28-30. S tevenson, R BK. 1 959. T he I nchyra s tone a nd s ome o ther u npublished E arly C hristian m onuments, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 2, 1 958-9, 3 3-55. S tevenson, R BK. 1 970. S culpture i n S cotland i n t he 6 th-9th c enturies A D i n K olloquium ü ber s p tantike u nd f rjhmittelalterliche S kulptur, V ortragstexte 1 970, M ainz a m R hein, 6 5-74. S tevenson,

R BK.

1 974.

M edieval A rchaeol.

T he H unterston b rooch a nd i ts s ignificance, 1 8,

1 6-42.

S tevenson, R BK. 1 976. T he e arlier m etalwork o f P ictland i n H ega u i, J VS. ( ed.), T o i llustrate t he m onuments: e ssays o n a rchaeology p resented t o S tuart P iggott.

L ondon,

2 46-51.

S tevenson, R BK. a nd E mery, J . 1 964. T he G aulcross h oard o f P ictish s ilver, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 7, 1 963-4, 2 06-11. T abraham, C .

a nd C lose-Brooks,

J .

1 977.

3 9

E xcavations a t D un C arlo u iay

b roch,

I sle o f L ewis, P roc. S oc.

A ntiq. S cot.

1 08,

1 976-77,

T aylor, D R. 1 960. L ong c ist b urials a t K ingoodie, L ongforgan, s hire, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 3, 1 959-60, 2 02-16.

1 56-67.

P erth-

T aylor, D B. 1 969. E xamination o f t he s ite o f a l ong c ist c emetery a t L euchars, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 01, 1 968-9, 2 87-8. T aylor, D B. 1 1-14.

1 971.

H urly H awkin, A ngus,

S cot. A rchaeol. F orum 3 ,

T homas, A C. 1 959. I mported p ottery i n d ark-age w estern B ritain, M edieval A rchaeol, 3 , 8 9-111. T homas, A C. 1 961. T he a nimal a rt o f t he S cottish I ron A ge a nd i ts o rigins, A rchaeol. J . 1 18, 1 4-64. T homas, A C. 1 963. T he i nterpretation o f t he P ictish s ymbols, J . 1 20, 3 0-97.

A rchaeol.

T homas, A C. 1 968. T he e vidence f rom n orth B ritain i n B arley, M W. a nd H anson, R PC .(eds.), C hristianity i n B ritain, 3 00-700, L eicester, 9 3-121. T homas, A C. 1 971. O xford.

T he E arly C hristian a rchaeology o f n orth B ritain,

T homas, A C. 1 976. I mported L ate-Roman M editerranean p ottery i n I reland a nd w estern B ritain: c hronologies a nd i mplications i n C olloquium o n H iberno-Roman r elations a nd m aterial r emains P roc. R oy. J r. A cad., C , 7 6, 2 45-55. T riscott, J . 1 980. A ldclune, d efended e nclosures, D iscovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland, 8 2-83. T riscott, J . 1 981. A ldclune i n A MBS, a nd f acing p 1.

2 7th A nnual R eport, 1 981, 6

W ainwright, F T.

1 948.

N echtanesmere, A ntiquity 2 2,

8 2-97 .

W ainwright, F T.

1 953.

S outerrains i n S cotland, A ntiquity 2 7,

W ainwright, F T.

( ed.)

1 955.

2 19-32.

T he P roblem o f t he P icts, E dinburgh.

W ainwright, F T.1956. A s outerrain a t L ongforgan i n P erthshire, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 8 8, 1 954-6, 5 7-64. W ainwright, F T.

( ed.)

W ainwright, F T.

1 962b.

W ainwright, F T .

1 963.

1 962a.

T he N orthern I sles,

E dinburgh.

P icts a nd S cots i n W ainwright

1 962a,

T he s outerrains o f s outhern P ictiand,

9 1-116. L ondon

W atkins, T . 1 978. D alladies: t he e xcavation o f a n i ron a ge s ettlement i n K incardineshire, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 09, 1 977-8. W atkins,

T .

1 979.

T he N ewmill s outerrain, C urr. A rchaeol, 6 ,

4 0

A pril

1 979,

2 05-9.

W atkins, T . 1 980. E xcavation o f a n i ron a ge o pen s ettlement a t D alladies, K incardineshire, P roc. S oc. A ntiq . S cot. 1 10, 1 9798 0,

1 22-64.

W atkins, T . 1 980. E xcavation o f as ettlement a nd s outerrain a t N ewmill, n ear B ankfoot, P erthshire, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 10, 1 978-80, 1 65-205. W edderburn, L MM. a nd G rime, D M. 1 975. D rumnadrochit, G arbeg, C airns, D iscovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland 1 974, 3 9; 1 975, 2 6. W hittington, G . 1 975. P lacenames a nd t he s ettlement p attern o f d arka ge S cotland, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 06, 1 974-5, 9 9-110. W hittington, G . a nd S oulsby, J A, 1 968. A p reliminary r eport o n a n i nvestigation i nto P it p lacenames, S cottish G eogr. M ag. 8 4, 1 17-25. W ilson, D M.

1 967.

A rchaeol. W ilson,

D M.

M edieval B ritain i n 1 966.

1 1,

1 970.

1 .

P re-Conquest, M edieval

2 62-72. R eflections o n t he S t. N inian 's I sle T reasure,

J arrow L ecture 1 969, J arrow. W ilson, D M. 1 978. T he a rt a nd a rchaeology o f B edan N orthumbria i n F arrell, R T.(ed.), B ede a nd A nglo-Saxon E ngland, O xford, 1 -22. W interbottom, M .

( ed.

a nd t rans.)

1 978.

G ildas,

T he R uin o f B ritain

a nd o ther w orks, L ondon Y oung, A . d es,

1 956. E xcavations a t D un C uier, I sle o f B arra, O uter H ebriP roc. S oc. A ntiq . S cot. 8 9, 1 955-6, 2 90-328.

Y oung,

A .

1 958.

A b ronze p in f rom S outh U ist, A ntiq .J. 3 8,

Y oung,

A .

1 962.

B rochs a nd d uns, P roc.

9 2-4.

S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 5,

1 961-2,

1 71-98. Y oung,

A .

1 966.

T he s equence o f H ebridean p ottery i n R ivet 1 966,

4 5-58. Y oung, A . a nd R ichardson, K M. 1 960. A ' Cheardach M hor, D rimore, S outh U ist, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 9 3, 1 959-60, 1 35-73.

4 1

S ome P ictish P roblems a t D unadd A lan L ane T he

i nclusion o f a p aper o n D unadd i n av olume c oncerned w ith t he

P icts m ay s eem o dd t o t hose w ho k now o f t he s ite a s t he r eputed " capita l t ? a nd i nauguration p lace o f t he S cottish k ingdom o f D airiada. H owe ver t he s ite h as f igured i n a n umber o f a ccounts o f t he P icts a nd o f P ictish a rchaeology, a nd r ecent e xcavations h ave p osed f resh q uestions c oncerning t he p ossible r elationships b etween t he P icts a nd D unadd. I i ntend f irst t o l ook a t t he w ays i n w hich t he P icts a nd D unadd h ave b een l inked i n p revious a ccounts, d iscussing s ome o f t he p roblems t hat a rise f rom t hese a nd q uestioning c ertain o f t he v iews t hat h ave b een s uggested i n t he p ast. T hen I s hall l ook a t o ther a spects o f t he a rchaeology o f D unadd, a nd i n p articular t hose a rising f rom t he r ecent e xcavations a nd s how h ow t hese p ose o ther p roblems o f s ignificance f or P ictish a rchaeology. I n m ost c ases I c annot p rovide d efinitive a nswers t o t he p roblems, b ut I h ope i n t he p rocess t o h ighlight i ssues t hat d eserve f urther i nvestigation a nd m ay c ast n ew l ight o n t he P icts a nd o n t he e arly h istory o f S cotland. A lthough D unadd i s c ommonly p resented a s t he c apital o f S cottish D airiada,

t here i s n o s pecific d ocumentation t o t hat e ffect.

T his

i dentification a s c apital i s b ased o n c ertain i nterpretations o f t he l imited h istorical e vidence ( Skene 1 886, 2 29) a nd o f t he s ignificance o f p articular a rchaeological f eatures o f t he s ite ( Thomas 1 879; S tevens on 1 949). D unadd i s o ne o f a g roup o f f ortified s ites i n n orthern B ritain m entioned i n I rish a nnalistic s ources ( Alcock 1 981a). T hese r ecords, l argely o f s ieges, b urnings a nd o ther m ilitary e vents, a re t hought t o h ave r eached I reland f rom a n o riginal c hronicle k ept o n I ona ( Bannerman 1 974,

9 -26;

S myth 1 972).

O nly t wo h istorical r eferences c an b e a ssociated w ith D unadd w ith a ny c onfidence. T he f irst i n 6 83 i s at ypically l aconic r eference t o as iege " obsesio D uin A tt" ( Bannerman 1 974, 1 5). N either b esieger n or b esieged i s n amed b ut t he c onjuncture o f t his r eference w ith o ne t o D undurn i n P erthshire h as l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat t his r efers t o ac onflict b etween P icts a nd S cots ( Alcock 1 981a, 1 66). T he s econd r eference i n 7 36 i s s lightly f uller. T his r ecords t hat " Oengus m ac F ergusso r ex P ictorum v astavit r egiones D al R iatai, 7 o btenuit D un A t, 7c ombussit C reic, 7 d uos f ilios S elbaich, c atenis a lligavit i . D onngal 7F eradach ' ( Hennessy 1 887, 1 90-91). A nderson t ranslates t his a s " Angus, F ergus' s on, k ing o f t he P icts, w asted t he d istricts o f D alriada, a nd g ained D unadd, a nd b urned C reic; a nd h e b ound w ith c hains t wo s ons o f S elbach, n amely D ungal a nd F eradach" ( 1922, 2 32-3). K athleen H ughes a rgued t hat t his r eference r eached t he I rish a nnals f rom a n ow l ost P ictish c hronicle, p ossibly o riginally k ept a t S t. A ndrews ( 1980, 9 7-8). T his i s t he o nly h istorically d ocumented P ictish p resence a t D unadd b ut t he f act t hat i ts c apture b y t he P ictish k ing i s r ecorded m ay e mphasise t he i mportance o f t he s ite. T he s ubsequent h istory o f D unadd i s u nknown a nd a s ar esult t his r eference i n p articular h as i nfluenced i nterpretations o f t he s ite's a rchaeological r ecord. T here s eems n o -

-

4 3

b asis f or t he a ttribution o f a ny o ther r eferences t o t he s ite ( Watson 1 926, 3 94-5). T hus t he h istorical d ocumentation i s s canty, b ut w ould s eem t o i ndicate t hat t he s ite w as o f s ome i mportance i n t he s eventh a nd e ighth c enturies. I n a ddition t o t his r ecorded P ictish p resence i n 7 36 i t h as b een s uggested t hat w e s hould r egard D unadd a s aP ictish s ite ( Feachem 1 977, 1 08; A nderson 1 973, 1 35) p rior t o t he s upposed p eriod o f t he D airiadic s ettlement t he d ynasty of F ergus M or m ac E irc i s s aid t o h ave a rrived i n S cotland c 5 00 A D ( Bannerman 1 974, 7 3-5). T he c laim t hat D unadd w as P ictish p rior t o t he D alriadic " arrival" d epends f irstly o n a rcha eological e vidence t hat t he f ort p re-dates 5 00 A D a nd s econdly o n h istorical e vidence t hat t he a rea w as P ictish p rior t o t his p eriod. -

T he a rchaeological e vidence i s t wofold t hat t he f ort c an b e d ated o n t ypological g rounds t o t he I ron A ge, a nd t hat f inds f rom t he s ite d ate i t b efore 5 00 A D. T he t ypological a rgument, t hat D unadd w as a n " Early I ron-Age h illfort r epaired o r i mproved b y i ndiscrimina ting o r d esperate p ersons u ntil a s l ate a s t he s eventh c entury", w as p art o f F eachem 's r ejection o f t he c oncept o f n uclear f orts ( 1966, 8 5). S tevenson 's o riginal d efinition o f " nuclear f orts" a s a D ark-age f ort t ype w as b ased l argely o n t he e vidence o f D unadd a nd D undurn ( 1949). S ubsequently t he t ype d efinition s eems t o h ave b een l oosened t o t ake i n c learly m ulti-period s ites w hich o nly s uperficially, a s ap alimpsests o f d ifferent p eriods, h ave n uclei a nd o utworks ( eg. L aing 1 975b, 1 -6). H owever, A lcock h as n ow d emonstrated t hat D undurn w as n ot b uilt -

.

.

.

u ntil t he s eventh o r e ighth c entury A D ( Alcock 1 981a, 1 68-71), a nd a lthough i ts s tructural h istory i s m ore c omplex t han s urface p lans i ndicate ( ibid., f ig. 3 8, n o 8 ) t he c oncept o f t he n uclear f ort w ould s eem t o h ave s ome v alidity a t D undurn. T hus t he t ypological d ating o f D unadd t o t he I ron A ge m ight a lso b e r ejected. I f t he a scription o f D unadd t o t he I ron A ge o n t ypological g rounds a ppears i nvalid w hat o f t he e vidence o f a rtefacts? N either t he 1 904 n or 1 929 e xcavations d ated t he c onstruction o f t he d efences ( Christison a nd A nderson 1 905; C raw 1 930), a nd i ndeed t he e xcavators r ecognised n o s tratigraphy b y w hich t he f inds m ight b e r elated t o t he d efences o r e ven g rouped t ogether i n s uccessive a ssemblages. H owever, t hey d id r ecover f inds w hich h ave b een a rgued i ndicate I ron-age a ctivity o n t he s ite ( Mackie 1 975, 1 47; C raw 1 930, 1 25-6). S ome a rtefacts c an b e d ated p re-500 A D t here a re f lints, f ragments o f aF ood V essel a nd a c arved s tone b all, a ll o f w hich a re l ikely t o b e p rehistoric i n d ate ( Campbell a nd S andeman 1 962, 1 17). I n a ddition t here a re a f ew f ragments o f R oman g lass a nd s amian p ottery ( Robertson 1 970, T able 1 ), a f ew s addle q uerns ( Christison a nd A nderson 1 905, f ig. 2 9) a nd a s ocketed i ron " axe" ( Craw 1 930, f ig. 5 , n o.8). I t i s t hese R oman a nd " Iron-age" a rtefacts w hich h ave b een q uoted i n s upport o f a n I ron-age d ate f or -

t he f ort. B ut s amian f ragments a re n otorious f or t heir o ccurrence o n D ark-age s ites i n W estern B ritain a nd I reland a nd c annot i n t hemselves b e u sed t o d ate t he f ort ( Laing 1 975b, 3 ). T he " native" a rtefacts m ay b e m ore l ikely t o i ndicate e arly a ctivity ( Laing i bid; C aulfield 1 978) b ut c annot b e r elated t o t he d efences a ny m ore t han c an t he e arly p reh istoric f inds. T hus n one o f t he c laimed e vidence t hat t he f ort a t D unadd i s I ron-age i n d ate b ears c ritical e xamination. O ne o f t he p rime a ims o f t he r ecent w ork o n D unadd w as t o a ttempt t o c larify t he d ate o f t he d efences ( Lane 1 980 a nd 1 981.) T hree o f t he

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m ain e nclosure r amparts h ave n ow b een e xamined. N o r adio-carbon d ates a re y et a vailable f or t he f ort a nd s ome o f t he p hasing o f t he s ite w ill d epend o n t hese, b ut s ome t hings a re a lready c lear. L ike D undurn, D unadd n ow a ppears m ore c omplex t han t he p revious e xcavations o r t he p ublished p lans h ad s uggested ( Christison a nd A nderson 1 905, f ig.20). I n a ddition t o t hose a lready k nown ( Craw 1 930, f ig. 2 ) t wo m ore s tone r amparts . w ere r ecognised o ne o n t he s teep w est s ide o f t he h ill b elow t he " citadel", c utting o ff a f airly e asy a pproach f rom C rinan M oss; t he o ther, l ess c ertainly, a t t he b ase o f t he h ill o n t he e ast ( Lane 1 981, 8 ). O n t he s ummit t here a re a t l east t wo m ajor p hases f irst a n o val a rea, p robably c 2 0 m b y 1 4 m , w as e nclosed b y ad rys tone r ampart c 3 .5 m w ide. A fter o ccupation d eposits h ad b uilt u p w ithin t his i ts s outhern e nd w as d emolished a nd a n ew l ength o f r amp art, c 4 m w ide, w as b uilt t o e nclose t he r est o f t he t op o f t he h ill t hus g iving t he f ort i ts d istinctive " pear-shape" a s s hown o n t he 1 905 p lan ( Christison a nd A nderson 1 905, f ig. 2 0). T he o utermost o f C hristison 's r amparts o n t he l ower f ort h as a t l east t wo p hases o f c onstruction a nd o verlies s ome e vidence o f p rior a ctivity ( Lane 1 980, 7 -9). I t a lso a ppears t o b e s econdary t o t he i nner r ampart ( Christison 's f ort D ), w hich a ppropriately s eems t o h ave b een r obbed i n a ntiquity a fter w hich m etalworking d ebris w as d eposited t o i ts r ear ( Christison -

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a nd A nderson 1 905,

f ig.

2 0;

L ane

1 981, 4 -7).

O nly t he s ummit h as d efinite d ating e vidence a s y et, f or t here t he s econdary r ampart e xtension s eals a n [ -ware r im w hich c an b e l oosely d ated b etween t he s ixth a nd e ighth c enturies A D ( Alcock 1 971, 2 05). T he p rimary r ampart i s n ot y et d ated b ut s ome p otsherds o f p ossible I ron-age d ate w ere f ound b eneath i t. T he o ther r amparts w ill r equire r adio-carbon d eterminations t o d ate t hem b ut o n p resent e vidence s eem l ikely t o b e D ark-age. T hus t here s eems n o g ood e vidence f or r egardi ng t he d efences o f D unadd a s b eing I ron-age o r ' pre-Dalriadic' I n a ddition t he i dea t hat t he v icinity o f D unadd o r t he a djacent a reas o f A rgyll w ere e ver P ictish i n a ny m eaningful s ense i s q uestiona ble. T he t ribal n ame r eported b y P tolemy, f or t he a rea t o t he s outh i n K intyre, i s t he E pidii a P -Celtic n ame w hich K enneth J ackson h as a rgued i s m ore l ikely t o b e B ritish t han P ictish ( 1955, 1 34). F urther-

m ore B annerman h as a rgued t hat S cottish s ettlement m ay h ave b egun w ell b efore 5 00 A D a nd t hat t he a rrival o f t he D alriadic d ynasty i s a s ign o f t he i mportance o f t he " colony" r ather t han o f i ts b eachhead f ounda tion ( Bannerman 1 974 ,122-6). T his d oes r aise t he q uestion a s t o w hy D unadd d oes n ot b ear a ny r esemblance t o s ites i n I rish D alriada o r e lsewhere i n I reland ( Alcock 1 971, 2 66). T his w as o ne o f F eachem 's a rguments f or r ejecting a D ark-age d ate f or t he s ite ( 1966, 8 5). H owe ver s ince t he f ort a s i t i s v isible n ow m ay b e q uite l ate i n d ate D undurn i s n ow t hought t o b e s eventh o r e ighth c entury ( Alcock 1 981a, 1 68-71) t here i s n o r eason t o e xpect a r esemblance t o I rish s ites. S uch a d ivergence b etween S cotland a nd I reland i s e ven m ore c redible i f W arner i s c orrect i n a rguing t hat n one o f t he c lassic I rish r ingf orts w ere b uilt b efore t he s ixth c entury A D ( 1981) a fter t he d ate o f a ny s upposed m igration, w hether b y F ergus o r e arlier a nonymous o r e ponymous s ettlers. C onsequently o n b oth a rchaeological a nd h istori-

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c al g rounds a p re-Dalriadic P ictish f oundation o f t he s ite c an b e r ejected. T he o ther m ajor l ink m ade b etween t he P icts a nd D unadd i s f rom t he e vidence o f t he r ock c arvings o n t he s ite. O ne o f t he m ost r emark-

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a ble f eatures o f t he s ite i s t he g roup o f c arvings o n a r ock e xposure j ust b elow t he s ummit f ort ( Prehistoric S ociety 1 973, 2 3). Ad eeply c arved h uman f ootprint, a m ore l ightly p ecked o utline o f a f oot a nd a h emispherical b owl-shaped h ollow h ave b een c laimed t o r elate t o r oyal i nauguration c eremonies ( Thomas 1 879; A lcock 1 981a, 1 67). A lthough t here i s n o h istorical d ocumentation f or D airiadic i nauguration o n t he s ite t he l ater u se o f a n i nauguration s tone a t S cone ( Duncan 1 975, 1 15-6), a nd t he e ven c loser a nalogies o f t he u se o f i nauguration f ootp rints i n l ate M edieval I reland a nd o n I slay ( Hamilton 1 968, 1 51-6; H ayes-McCoy 1 970; M artin 1 703, 2 40-41) d o l end c onsiderable c redence t o t he s uggestion t hat D unadd w as a p lace o f r oyal i nauguration. I n t he p resent c ontext i t i s t he a djacent c arving o f a n i ncised o utline o f a b oar a nd a n o gam i nscription w hich a re o f n ote. T he b oar i s c losely c omparable t o t he a nimal c arvings o f t he P ictish k ingd om ( of C hristison a nd A nderson 1 905, f ig. 2 2 a nd T homas 1 963, f ig. 1 1) b ut i t i s n otable a s t he o nly s uch c arving k nown f rom t he t erritory o f e arly D airiada ( Stevenson 1 955, 1 00). T he o gam i s l ikewise r egarded a s P ictish b ecause o f i ts u nintelligibility ( Jackson 1 965) a nd i s e ven m ore o f a g eographical o utlier w ith n o o ther P ictish o gam s tone c arvings b eing f ound a nywhere o n t he w est o f S cotland ( Wainwright 1 962, f ig. 2 7). T he p resence o f t wo P ictish f eatures o n t he s upposed i nauguration p lace o f t he D airiadic k ings i nside o ne o f t he m ajor f ortified s ites o f D alriada i s o bviously a m atter o f s ome n ote. T he b oar, k nown s ince 1 905, h as d rawn m ost c omment. C ecil C urle s aid t hat ' it m ight b e e xplained a s t he w ork o f a r aiding p arty o f v ictorious P icts' ( 1940, 6 7). R aleigh R adford t hought t hat i t, a nd t wo o ther c arvings o utside t he b orders o f P ictland, ' should c ommemorate P ictish l eaders, w ho f ell i n a ttacks o n t hese f ortresses' ( 1953, 2 38-9) t he c arving o f t he b oar a t D unadd b eing a ttributed t o t he s eizure o f 7 36. C harles T homas t oo a dopted t his e xplanation ' The m ost l ikely o ccasion f or t he c arving o f a P ictish s ymbol i nside t he s ummit o f aD airiadic s tronghold w ould b e a fter a ( successful) P ictish a ssault' ( 1963, 4 0) w ith t he s ingle a nimal s ymbol b eing s een a s a m ark o f t he a ncestry o r p erhaps k indred o f t he a ttacker ( Thomas 1 963, 6 7-70). K enneth J ackson a nd F TWainw right c ommented o n t he o gam w hich s eems t o h ave e scaped d etection u ntil t he 1 950 's a nd w as f irst p ublished i n 1 965. J ackson s aw t he o gam ' typical o f t he e nigmatic o gams o f P ictland' a s a n ' expression o f d efiance s et t here b y a v ictorious P ictish a rmy a fter t he f inal s ack o f D unadd a nd i ts a bandonment b y D al R iada' ( Jackson 1 965, 3 02.) W ainwright w as m ore c autious b ut t entatively s uggested t hat t he o gam m ight ' mark t he e xultant c ulmination o f aP ictish a ttack o n D alriada' ( 1959, 2 75). -

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H owever a s A lcock h as r ecently p ointed o ut i f w e a ccept t his e xplanation i t i s d ifficult t o s ee w hy t his s upposed v andalism o r p ropoganda s tatement w as n ot o bliterated w hen t he S cots r egained c ontrol o f m id-Argyll ( 1981a, 1 67). J ackson w as a ware o f t his p roblem a nd a rgued t hat r egular o ccupation o f t he s ite w as u nlikely a fter t his c apture s ince ' otherwise t he i nscription w ould s urely h ave b een d est royed b y t he m en o f D al R iada' ( 1965, 3 02). T he i nference w as t hat o ccupation o n t he s ite s hould h ave e nded i n 7 36 o r s ome o ther d ate i n t he e ighth c entury. B ut t here i s e vidence t o s how a ctivity l ater t han t he c apture o f 7 36 a nd l ater t han t he p eriod n ormally s uggested f or t he c arving o f c lass 1 s ymbols i n t he s eventh a nd e ighth c enturies ( Henderson 1 972; S tevenson 1 970, 6 9-70; T homas 1 963, 3 3). I n h is

4 6

d iscussion o f t he S t. N inian 's I sle m etalwork f inds, D avid W ilson a ssigned l ate e ighth/ninth c entury d ates t o m etalworking f inds f rom D unadd w ith p articular e mphasis l aid o n as late t rial p iece w hich h as t he i ncised o utline o f a p enannular b rooch ( Wilson 1 973, 8 7-8 a nd 9 0). T he f inds f rom t he e xcavations i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 w ould s eem t o c onfirm t his s uggestion. C onsequently I w ould a rgue t hat t he e xplanation o f t he c arvings a s P ictish m emorials o r g raffiti c ut i n d efiance o f t he c onquered S cots m ust b e r econsidered. W e m ight c onsider w hether t he c arvings a re P ictish?; w hat e vidence t here i s f or t heir d ates o f c utting?; a nd w hether t heir m eaning a llows u s t o r ecognise a c ontext a ppropriate t o t heir c utting? I t s hould p erhaps b e s tressed t hat t hough t he c arvings d o o ccur w ithin t he f ort t hey h ave n o s tratigraphic a ssocia tion w ith t he s tructures o r f inds f rom t he e xcavations a nd n eed n ot a ll h ave b een c ut a t t he s ame t ime a p oint e mphasised b y t he c laim t hat t he ' basin ' i s ap rehistoric c up-mark ( Morris 1 977, 7 5). -

T he b oar d oes s eem b est c omparable w ith t he a nimal c arvings o f t he P ictish k ingdom ( Henderson 1 972, 5 3 a nd f ig. 1 ). I t a ppears t o l ack t he e laborated j oint s crolls w hich a re t ypical o f t he b est c lass Is tones, b ut t hese a re n ot a n i nvariable f eature ( Stevenson 1 955, 1 07). H enderson h as s uggested t hat t he t heory o f d ebasement f rom ' correct' f orms m ay b e a pplicable t o s ome a nimals a s w ell a s t o t he a bstract s ymbols a rgued b y S tevenson ( Henderson 1 967, 1 12-15; S tevenson 1 955; 1 04-6), a nd c onsequently i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he D unadd b oar i s ' late' i n t he s equence o f i ncised a nimals. T he d ate o f t he i ncised a nimal s tones i s h owever d ebateable:- l ate-seventh t o n inth c entury a ccording t o S tevenson ( 1959, 5 5; 1 970, 6 9); m ostly l ate f ifth t o l ate s eventh a ccording t o T homas ( 1963, 3 3); a nd s eventh t o e ighth a ccording t o H enderson ( 1972, 5 3-4). T he o nly p recise d ates o ffered f or t he D unadd a nimal h ave b een b ased o n t he h istorical a ssumptions a lready n oted. I t m ust a lso b e s tressed t hat t he m eaning o f t he s ymb ols a nd t he f unction o f t he s ymbol s tones i s c ontroversial ( cf T homas 1 963; J ackson 1 971; a nd H enderson 1 972). T here i s a ccumulating e vidence f or a n a ssociation o f s tones w ith b urials ( Close-Brooks 1 980; A shmore 1 980) b ut t he f ragmentary . c ondition o f s ome o f t hese a ssociated s tones m ay n egate t he s uggestion t hat t his i s t heir p rimary f unction ( Ashmore 1 980, 3 52). I n a ddition t he o ccurrence o f s ymbols o n m etalw ork, o n s tone a nd b one o bjects, a nd o n c ave w alls w ould a gain s uggest t hat a p urely m emorial f unction i s n ot a ppropriate t o t he s ymbols e ven i f i t i s t he p referred e xplanation f or c lass I s tones. T hus w e m ay a ccept t hat t he D unadd b oar i s P ictish b ut c annot a ssume t hat i t c ommemorates a n i ndividual w hether d ead o r a live. T he o gam p resents r ather d ifferent p roblems. J ackson 's a rgument t hat t he o gam i s g ibberish a nd t herefore l ikely t o b e P ictish i s a l ittle d isingenuous ( 1965, 3 02). A s P adel h as p ointed o ut t he r eading J ackson g ives i s n ot t ypical o f t he o gams o f P ictland b ecause i t h as n o v owels a nd i s ' uniquely q uite u npronounceable' ( Padel 1 972, 8 9). T hus e ither i t m ust b e d iscarded a s g ibberish a nd c onsequently e thnic ally a nonymous ( or e ven m odern), o r t he s temline m ust b e m oved t o i ntroduce v owels a s J ackson h imself s uggested ( 1965, 3 02). P adel d oes t his p roducing a n e qually u nintelligible r eading b ut o ne t hat i s n ow ' pronounceable' a nd h ence m uch m ore c omparable t o t he r est o f t he l argely u nintelligible P ictish s eries ( Padel 1 972, 8 9-92). T he j ugg ling o f t he s temline o n t he D unadd i nscription h as o ther i nteresting

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D unadd t rial p iece

4 8

f rom s ummit

f ort

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i mplications. T he s tyle o f t he o gam p roduced i n t his r eading i s m uch c loser t o t he I rish s eries a nd s eparates i t f rom t he " Scholastic" n ature o f m ost o f t he P ictish c orpus ( Jackson 1 955, 1 39). P adel a rgues t hat o n s tylistic g rounds t he D unadd o gam c ould b e o ne o f t he e arliest o f t he P ictish s eries a s e arly a s t he s eventh c entury, w hereas t he b ulk o f P ictish i nscriptions a re a ttributed t o t he e ighth a nd n inth c enturies ( 1972, 2 7 a nd 8 9). T his d ate w ould o f c ourse r einforce t he p oint t hat t he o gam r emained u ndefaced d uring a p eriod o f u ndisp utable S cottish c ontrol o f t he s ite a nd m ight h ave b een c ut a t s uch a t ime. T hat a P ictish o gam i n A rgyll s hould b e e arly i n t he P ictish s eries a nd s how ' Irish ' f eatures i s p erhaps n ot s urprising i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he o nly t wo I rish o gams i n S cotland w ere f ound i n t his a rea ( Wainwright 1 962, 9 6 n ote 6 ) a nd t he o gam a lphabet i s t hought t o h ave b een t ransmitted t o t he P icts f rom D alriada ( Jackson 1 955, 1 39). S ince w e c annot t ranslate t he i nscription i ts m eaning i s l ost, b ut, a s w ith t he s ymbols, t he o gams o ccur o n s tone a nd b one a rtefacts a nd s o i t i s u nlikely t hat a ll o f t hem h ad a f unerary o r m emorial f unction. -

T hus i t w ould s till s eem l ikely t hat b oth t he b oar a nd t he o gam s hould b e r egarded a s P ictish b ut t heir d ate a nd m eaning i s u ncertain a nd t hey c annot n ecessarily b e a ttributed t o c onquering P icts i n t he e ighth c entury. H owever i f t heir m eaning i s u nknown d oes their c ont ext i mply s omething o f t heir p ossible s ignificance? S ince t he c arvings w ere n ot e rased a nd t hey a re c ut o n t he s ame r ock e xposure a s t he t wo f ootprints i t m ay b e t hat a ll t he c arvings r elate t o t he p ostulated i nauguration r ites r ather t han t o P ictish v andalism. T he c arvings a re s et o ut o n t he r ock i n a f airly e ven m anner w ith n o h int o f o ver c utting o r d efacement, o ther t han g raffiti a nd a n o utline h uman h ead a ttributed t o m odern a ctivities. C ould t hese c arvings b e as ymbolic r ecognition o f D alriadic l ordship o r a t oken o f P ictish o verlordship? S ince w e c annot t ranslate t he i nscription a nd c an o nly g uess a t t he m eaning o f t he b oar s uch s uggestions c an o nly b e s peculation. H owever t he m eans b y w hich S cottish a nd P ictish c ross-cultural b orrowing t ook p lace a re n ot y et f ully d ocumented o r u nderstood a nd t he D unadd c arv ings s hould p erhaps b e c onsidered i n t he l ight o f t hose c ultural e xchanges a s w ell a s t he h istorical p rocesses w hich l ed t o t he a malg amation o f t he t wo k ingdoms i n t he n inth c entury. F urther e vidence o f p ossible S cotto-Pictish i nteraction e merged i n t he c ourse o f t he 1 980 a nd 1 981 e xcavations a t D unadd. F rom t he s ummit f ort c omes a n ew t rial p iece w ith t he i ncised o utlines o f t wo a nimals, t wo b irds a nd a s eries o f a ttempts a t a q uite e laborate r osette m otif ( fig. 1 & 2 ). T his w as f ound i n a n u nsealed c ontext d isturbed b y b oth o f t he e arlier e xcavations, a nd s o c annot b e d ated o n g rounds o f a ssociation o r s tratigraphy. I nitial e xamination o f t he p iece s uggested a D ark-age d ate a nd i f t his w ere c orrect i t w ould c learly b e o f s ome i nterest i n v iew o f t he p roximity o f t he b oar. H owever t he a nimals a re o f s imple, n ot e asily d ateable f orms a nd t he i nterlace i s d ifficult t o p arallel i n e arly c ontexts. T his h as l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat t he p iece s hould b e s een a s l ate M edieval i n d ate a nd r elated t o t he W est H ighland c ross a nd g rave s lab s eries r ecently s tudied b y S teer a nd B annerman ( 1977). T his s uggestion m ight b e s upported b y t he s hape o f t he ' trial p iece' i tself n ot u nlike a r oof-slate t hough i n a f ine g rained s hale u nlike a ny o f t he o ther p erforated s tones f rom t he s ite. B ut t he q uestion o f w hy a l ateM edieval t rial p iece s hould b e d eposited o n a l ong a bandoned h ilifort w ould p ose s ome p roblems o f i nterpretation f or t here i s n o e vidence -

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t hat t he s ite c ontinued t o b e r egarded a s i mportant t ill t he m iddle o f t he n ineteenth c entury w hen S kene r ediscovered i t ( Thomas 1 878, 3 2). T he s implicity o f t he a nimal f orms p recludes c onvincing s tylistic a ssertions, a nd a lthough s imple i ncised a nimals o ccur e lsewhere t hey a re e qually p oorly d ated, e g. t he a nimal f igures i ncised o n s lates f rom S t. B lanc's B ute ( Anderson 1 900). T he i nterlace s hould b e m ore a menable t o s tylistic a ssessment.. S uch t riple s trand r osettes d o n ot s eem t o b e ac ommon f eature o f D ark-age s culpture o r m etalwork, b ut n one o f t he l ate M edieval m aterial p ublished b y S teer s eems p articularly c losely c omparable ( Steer a nd B annerman 1 977, f ig. 3 a nd 1 0). RBKS tevenson h as p ointed t o p ossible s imilarities w ith t he f ifteenth c entury l eather s atchel o f t he B ook o f A rmagh ( Mitchell 1 977, 2 17-8 a nd p late 6 7) b ut o ther r esearchers w ould s ee a l ate P ictish o r I rish a rtistic m ilieu a s m ore a ppropriate ( per c omm N . E dwards) . I t w ill b e c lear t hat a s y et t here a re f ew c ertainties r egarding t his p iece. I f i t i s l ate-Medieval w e m ust e xplain w hy s uch a n o bject s hould b e d eposited o n as ite w hich h as a lready p roduced a ll t he p araphernalia o f aD ark-age m etalworking s ite i ncluding o ther t rial p ieces, m oulds a nd c rucibles ( Christison a nd A nderson 1 905, 3 10-13; C raw 1 930). I f aD ark-age d ate i s p referred D unadd i s f urther m arked o ut a s as pecial s ite a nd w e m ay h ave m ore e vidence o f c ultural e xchange. T his s uggestion o f c ultural e xchange c an b e f urther e xplor d i n t he e vidence o f t he m etalworking a ctivities o n t he s ite. D unadd i s o ne o f a g roup o f f ortified s ites i n w estern B ritain a nd I reland w hich h ave q uite s ubstantial e vidence f or m etalworking a ctivities o n s ite ( Laing 1 975a, 2 46-52 ). T he m oulds f rom t he o ld e xcavations a re o ne o f t he l argest c ollections i n B ritain o r I reland L amm q uotes s ome 1 00 f ragments f rom t he s ite ( 1980, 1 05). T hese h ave n ot y et b een p roperly p ublished b ut i ndividual p ieces h ave b een r eferred t o i n v arious d iscussions o f D ark-age m etalwork ( eg. F owler 1 963, f ig. 4 n o 6 ). O ne o f t he m ost i mportant f eatures o f t he 1 980 a nd 1 981 s easons a t D unadd w as t he d iscovery o f a pparently u ndisturbed m etalworking d ebris t o t he r ear o f t he i nner r ampart o f t he l ower e nclosure ( Lane 1 980, 9 -11). T hese d eposits, c ontaining m oulds, c rucibles a nd o ther a rtefacts, s eem t o p ost-date t he r obbing a nd d isuse o f t his i nner r ampart t hough t he f ailure t o f ully e xcavate t he a rea i n 1 981 c ludes a bsolute c ertainty o f t his r elationship o r o f t he n ature o f t he e arlier d eposits. T his i s n ot t he p lace t o f ully d escribe t his a rea o r t he f inds f rom i t. T he p oint o f i mportance i n t he p resent c ontext i s t hat a mong t he m oulds a re s everal t ypes o f p enannular b rooch i ncluding s ome t hat s eem t o r elate t o P ictish m etalwork. -

I t i s o nly i n t he l ast d ecade t hat i t h as b ecome p ossible t o p oint t o a ny s izeable b ody o f f ine m etalwork w hich c ould b e a ttributed t o t he P icts w ith c onfidence. W ith t he p ublication o f t he S t. N inian 's I sle h oard f rom S hetland D avid W ilson a rgued t hat c ertain t ypes o f b rooch c ould b e r egarded a s P ictish ( 1973). T hese h ave v arious d ist inctive f eatures i ncluding p enannular f orm, h oop p anels w ith c urved e nds, r aised m etal r idges ( cusps) a t t he j unction o f h oop a nd t erminal a nd a h poked p in f orm ( Wilson 1 973, 8 1-8). B y m eans o f t hese m orphol ogical f eatures a nd v arious d ecorative t raits W ilson i dentified s ome 4 3 b rooches o r f ragments w hich h e a ttributed t o t he P icts o n t he b asis o f ' the d ecided s imilarity i n d istribution o f t hese o bjects t o t hat o f t he P ictish s ymbol s tones a nd o bjects d ecorated w ith P ictish s ymbols ' ( 1973, 8 8 a nd f ig. 1 4).

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O ne o bject f rom D unadd d rew W ilson 's a ttention a s p ossibly c ont radicting t he P ictish a ttribution o f t he g roup. T he p enannular b rooch t rial p iece ( Christison a nd A nderson 1 905, f ig. 3 1) w hich I h ave a lready m entioned h as a n umber o f f eatures o f t he P ictish t ype. H owever t he d ecoration o f t he t erminals o f t he s ketched b rooch s eemed s imilar t o b ossed b rooches o f l ater d ate. I n f act W ilson a rgued t hat t he D unadd p iece w as a t ypological l ink b etween t he P ictish s eries a nd t hese l ater ' Hiberno-Saxon ' b ossed b rooches ( 1973, 8 3) a lthough n one o f t he m oulds a t t he s ite w ere t hought t o r elate t o t he P ictish s eries a nd a gain W ilson t hought t hat s ome a t l east w ere l ater i n d ate ( 1973, 8 7-8). T his v iew t hat n one o f t he D unadd m oulds f rom t he o ld e xcavations s how a ny f eatures o f t he P ictish s eries i s o pen t o q uestion. O ne f ragment ( Craw 1 930, f ig. 7 n o 6 ) a ppears t o b e ac urved h oop p anel w ith s mall p aired b osses a nd s imple i nterlace ( per c omm H . D uncan). T hough n ot e xactly p aralleled i n t he P ictish s eries s mall b osses o ccur o n t he h oop p anel o f S t. N inian 's I sle n o 2 0 ( Wilson 1 973, 7 1) a nd i nterlace i n c urve-ended h oop-panels i s a lmost i nvariable. L ikewise o ne m ould s eems t o b e t he b ack h alf o f ab rooch s imilar t o t he s mall S utherland s hire f ind w hich m ay h ave o riginally b een p art o f t he R ogart h oard ( Craw 1 930, f ig. 7 n o 8 ; W ilson 1 973, 8 2 a nd p late x xxviia). H owever, a lthough t hese t wo p ieces c an b e c ompared t o t he P ictish s eries, t he b ulk o f t he f inds c annot. B ut t he n ew e xcavations h ave p roduced a m uch l arger m ould a ssemblage w ith s ome p ieces w hich a llow m ore p osit ive c orrelation w ith t he P ictish s eries. O ne m ould h as ' tear-shaped' t erminals w ith c rescentic p rotrusions v ery s imilar t o t he U rquhart f ragment t hough o n t he l atter t he t erminal i s c ircular ( cf L ane 1 981 p late 2 b; W ilson 1 973, p late x livb). A nother m ould f ragment i ndicates a l obed d isc t erminal w ith a ' cusp ' e nclosing a n i nterlace k not r ather s imilar t o S t. N inian 's I sle n o. 2 1 ( ibid., p late x xxivc). A nother f ragment i ndicates a c urved h oop p anel. -

I n a ddition t here a re m oulds w hich c ombine ' Pictish' a nd ' Irish ' f eatures ( Wilson 1 973, 8 3-8). O ne w ith a r ounded t erminal a nd ' cusp ' h as a r aised s quare-ended p anel o n t he h oop. A nother d amaged e xample c ombines a s unken s quare-ended h oop p anel w ith a pparently r ounded t erm inals w hich w ould p roduce a b rooch r ather l ike t hat f rom E rvey . , C o. M eath o r t he c orroded b rooch f rom K ildonan, A rgyll ( Wilson 1 973, p late x liie a nd a ). T wo m oulds h ave b ird-headed t erminals w ith r aised s quar ed p anels o n t he h oops ( Lane 1 981, p late 2 a). T hese m ay r elate t o t he b ird-heads s een o n s uch b rooches a s S t. N inian 's I sle n o 1 9 ( Wilson . 1 973, p late x xxiia) o r, i n ad ifferent f orm, o n t he m oulds f rom B irsay ( Curle 1 974, f ig. 2 a a nd c ). T hus f eatures o f t he P ictish s eries c an b e s een i n t he D unadd m ould a ssemblage. B ut h ow s ignificant a re t hese s imilarities? A lthough t he f ragmentary n ature o f t he m oulds p recludes c ertainty i t s eems l ikely t hat s ome o f t he b rooches p roduced w ould b e c lassified a s P ictish o n W ilson 's d efinition. L ikewise b rooches s uch a s t hat f rom E rvey h ave b een s aid t o c ombine P ictish a nd I rish f eatures ( Wilson 1 973, 8 3-4) a nd b y i mplication t his c ould b e a pplied t o s ome o f t he m oulds n oted a bove. T hus u sing c urrent d efinitions t he D unadd m oulds c an b e r elated t o t he P ictish s eries. B ut h ow a re t hey r elated? A re t he D unadd m oulds e arlier t han t he " Pictish" b rooches, i n w hich c ase s ome e lements o f t he P ictish s eries m ay b e d erived f rom D airiada?; o r a re t hey l ater a nd w e a re s eeing P ictish m etalworking

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i nfluence a t D unadd?; o r a re t hey c ontemporary a nd t hese e thnic d efini tions s uspect? I t s hould p erhaps b e s tressed t hat k nowledge o f t he b rooches b eing m ade a nd u sed i n e ighth c entury D airiada i s m inimal ( cf S tevenson 1 974; L aing 1 974 a nd 1 976; G raham-Campbell 1 976, 2 80 a nd 1 978, 3 54). T he P ictish s eries a nd i n p articular t he b rooches i n t he t hree h oards w hich h elped t o d efine t he t ypes, l e t hose f rom S t. N inian's I sle, R ogart a nd C roy, w ere d ated b y W ilson t o t he l ater e ighth a nd e arlier n inth c enturies o n s tylistic a nd t ypological g rounds ( 1973, 1 00-3). W hat d ate a re t he D unadd m oulds? I n t erms o f t he ' Pictish ' b rooches t he m oulds d o n ot a ppear t o h ave t he f eatures w hich a re s aid t o b e e arly, c f t he l arge R ogart b rooch ( Wilson 1 973, p late x xxvi) a nd t he P erth b rooch ( ibid., p late x liid) b ut s uch c omparisons d o n ot g ive u s i ndependent e vidence o f d ate. A n umber o f d ifferent b rooch m ould t ypes o ccur i n t hese m etalworking d eposits a nd a lthough t he p rec ise n ature o f t he d eposits i s u nclear t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat a l ong p eriod o f t ime i s i nvolved i n t he d eposition o f t he m oulds. T hus a d ate f or t he w hole m ould a ssemblage o r f or t he d eposits t hems elves w ould g ive u s ad ate f or t he ' Pictish ' m oulds. A s y et t here a re n o r adio-carbon d ates f or t he s ite o r t he m etalworking a ctivity s o w e a re d ependent o n a r ange o f a ssociated a rtefacts a nd o n v arious s tylistic a rguments. T aking t he s tylistic a rguments f irst, w idely d ivergent d ates c an b e o btained f rom d ifferent a uthorities. T here i s o ne b ird-headed b rooch l ike t he D unadd m oulds. T his i s t he b rooch f rom C logh, C o. A ntrim, n ow i n t he B ritish M useum, w hich F rancoise H enry d ates t o t he s eventh c entury ( 1965, 5 8-63 a nd f ig. 2 c) b ut f or w hich b oth J ames G raham C ampbell a nd R B K S tevenson h ave a rgued a n inth-century d ate ( Graham C ampbell 1 974, 5 5; S tevenson 1 974, 3 5 n ote 3 7(i)). S tevenson s ees t he m ost e laborate o f t he D unadd b ird-head b rooch m oulds ( Lane 1 981, p late 2 a ) a s a n e arlier t ypological s tage a nd s uggests a d ate o f c 8 00 A D ( per c omm S tevenson). S imilarly d ivergent d ates c an b e q uoted f or o ther o f t he b rooch m oulds. C lass G p enannular b rooch m oulds c ome f rom t he s ame c ontexts a t D unadd. L aing s ees t hese a s ' a s ub-Roman t ype c urrent i n t he f ifth t o s ixth c enturies' ( 1975b, 5 ) o n t he b asis o f e vidence f rom s outhern B ritain a nd h is i nterpretation o f M ote o f M ark. B ut G raham-Campbell h as p ointed t o t he d iversity o f b rooch f orms i ncorporated i n c lass B a nd h as s uggested r ecognition o f f our d ifferent v arieties c urrent i n d ifferent a reas a t d ifferent t imes ( 1976, 2 79). T he D unadd m oulds w ould s eem t o m atch m ost c losely h is t ype G 3 w hich h e a rgues i s o f n inth-century d ate. A f ew d o n ot e xactly f it h is d escriptions b ut h ave a f orm w hich c an b e c losely p aralleled a t D ooey, C o. D onegal ( 0 'Riordain a nd R ynne 1 961, f ig. 7 ) a nd a re c loser t o t he G 3 t ype t han a ny o f t he o ther f orms. T he o nly c losely d ated G 3 i s i n t he n inth c entury l rewhiddle h oard ( Wilson a nd B lunt 1 961, 9 8-9; G raham-Campbell 1 976, 2 79). A nother d istinctive m ould i n t he a ssemblage i s f or a s mall b ossed b rooch. T his i s a lmost e xactly m atched b y t he u nique b ossed p enannular b rooch f rom t he R ogart h oard w hich W ilson s uggests m ay h ave b een b uried i n t he l ate e ighth o r e arly n inth c entury ( 1973, 1 01). G raham-Campbell p laces t his b rooch i n t he n inth c entury a nd u ses i t i n c onjunction w ith t he D unadd b rooch t rial p iece t o r estate W ilson 's c ase t hat t hese a re

5 3

4 1

F ig.

3 .3

D istribution o f " Pictish" b rooches f ig.

after

1 4) w ith e mendations a nd a dditions

5 4

Wils

on

( 19 i 7

( see n ote i i).

a l ink b etween t he P ictish s eries a nd t he l ater I rish b ossed b rooches ( Graham-Campbell 1 975, 4 3 a nd p late V IIB; J ohansen 1 973). T he o ccurr ence o f a m ould a t D unadd f or a v ery s imilar b rooch m ust r einforce t he r ole o f t he w est o f S cotland i n t his p rocess. A lthough s tylistic a rguments c an s ometimes a ppear c ircular i n t heir l ogic a r easoned c ase c an b e m ade f or d ating t he D unadd m oulds t o t he e arly n inth c entury. T he e vidence o f a ssociated f inds i s u ncertain, p artly b ecause m any o f t hem a re c hronologically i nsensitive. S ome f inds, w hich c an b e d ated, w ere m anufactured e arlier t han t he s uggested s tylistic d ate. E -ware i s c onventionally d ated t o t he s ixth t o e ighth c enturies t hough i n t he a bsence o f p roduction s ites t his i s l argely i nferential ( Alcock 1 971, 2 05). N ew e vidence f rom C logher, C o. T yrone , a nd D unollie, A rgyll , s eems t o i mply a l ater s ixth t o m id-eighth c entury o r l ater d ate f or i ts c urrency ( Warner 1 979, 3 8; A lcock 1 981b, 2 34; H . D uncan i n l itt 1 982). T hree f inely d ecorated m etalwork p ieces af iligree o rnamented g arnet i nset, a n e namelled b ronze d isc, a nd a z oomorphic s tamped b ronze s uggest s eventh a nd e ighth c entury d ates b ut a s t hese s eem l ikely t o h ave b een l ost i n t he p rocess o f r eworking t hey d o n ot n ecessarily p rov ide a nything m ore t han a t erminus p ost q uem f or t he d eposits. T hus t hough t he e vidence o f a ssociated f inds i s u ncertain t hey m ight s uggest a n e ighth c entury d ate a t e arliest. A lthough t his w ould a llow a n e arl ier d ate i t d oes n ot s eem g rounds f or r ejecting t he s tylistic d ate o f t he e arly n inth c entury o r c 8 00 A D a s s uggested b y S tevenson. -

-

W hat i mplications d o t hese d ates h ave f or t he i nterpretation o f t he m etalworking a nd t he s ite? W e h ave i n a ssociation a v ariety o f b rooches, s ome o f w hich h ave f eatures o f t he P ictish s eries a nd o ther f eatures s aid t o b e d erived f rom t hem, t entatively d ated t o c 8 00 A D o r l ater. O ne v iew m ight b e t o c all i nto q uestion t he e thnic d efinition o f t he b rooches a s P ictish. A s I h ave n oted e arlier W ilson a rgued f or a P ictish d erivation o n t he b asis o f t he b rooch d istribution. H owever l ike m any d istribution m aps W ilson 's i llustration i s i nterpretable i n o ther w ays ( 1973, f ig. 1 4). S ome o f t he o ccurrences p lotted a re o f ' Viking' b urials a nd s ett lement s ites. I n v iew o f t he n otorious p ropensity o f t he V ikings t o t ranspose f inds f rom t heir p lace o f o rigin, t hese c ould b e r egarded a s j ust a s i rrelevant t o t he o riginal d istribution a s t he b rooches a ctually f ound i n S candinavia. R emoval o f ' Viking' f inds w ould e xclude t he f inds f rom V altos, F reswick, B irsay a nd J arlshof. T he n ew d istribution o f f indspots i s r ather d ifferent ( fig 3 ( u) ). T his s hows a m uch m ore e ven s pread o f f inds f rom t he P ictish k ingdom t hrough D alriada a nd i nto I reland, a nd s eems t o i nvalidate t he c omparison w ith P ictish s ymbol s tones ( cf S tevenson 1 955, m ap 3 ). I s t his a ' Pictish ' d istrib ution? I t c an b e a rgued t hat t he m ajority o f b rooches a re c oncentrated i n t he n orth-east w ith u p t o 2 0 b rooches o r f ragments f rom t he t hree h oards, R ogart, C roy a nd S t. N inian 's I sle. H owever h oard d eposition i s ad istinct c ultural p henomenon w hich m ay b e s kewing a n o riginal d istribution ( cf G raham-Campbell 1 975, 4 0 a nd f ig. 1 3), a nd i n a ddition t he s imilarity b etween t he R ogart b ossed b rooch a nd t he D unadd m ould p oses s erious q uestions a s t o h ow f indspots o f m etalwork r elate t o p rod uction a reas. N evertheless, t he m ajority o f b rooches i ncluding t hose c laimed t o

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b e e arly w ere f ound i n P ictish a reas a nd p roduction o f s ome f orms i n t he n orth i s i ndicated b y t he B irsay m ould e vidence ( Curie 1 974). I f t he D unadd m oulds a re c orrectly d ated o n s tylistic g rounds t o l ater t han t he S t. N inian's I sle f orms w e c an d ismiss a ny s uggestion t hat t he P ictish b rooches d erive f rom t ypes a t D unadd. O ne a lternative w ould b e t o s ee t he m oulds a s e vidence o f l ate P ictish i nfluence i n D alriada, o r p erhaps a n a malgamation , o f P ictish a nd D a1riadic t raditions. I n i ts m ost e xtreme f orm t his i nfluence m ight b e s een a s ar esult o f t he P ictish c apture o f t he s ite i n 7 36. I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he h istorical s ources f or t he l ater e ighth c entury i n n orth B ritain a re p oor a nd t he f low o f i nformation i nto t he I rish a nnals o f t his p eriod d eclines m arkedly. O pinions a bout t he l ongevity o f P ictish c ontrol o f D alriada a nd t he n ature o f S cotto-Pictish r elations v ary. D uncan a rgues t hat D airiada w as s ubjected t o P ictish o verlordship f or m uch o f t he c entury f rom 7 41 ( 1975, 5 4) b ut B annerman a nd A nderson d ispute t his, B annerman s eeing a c ontinuing S cottish a ggrandisement d uring t he c ourse o f t he l ater e ighth c entury ( 1971, 7 5-6; A nderson 1 973, 1 88-96). T hus t he o pacity o f t he h istorical s ources d oes n ot h elp t o c ons truct a c lear f ramework f or i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological e vid ence. B ut i f t he n ature o f t he r elationship o f S cots a nd P icts i s u nclear f urther e vidence f or c ultural c ontact i s n ot l acking. S tevens on s ees t he I ona H igh C rosses a s o wing m uch t o t he P ictish ' Boss' s tyle ( 1956, 1 19). M ore c ontroversially t he B ook o f K ells m ay h ave b een w ritten a nd i llustrated a t I ona a nd i t t oo h as s trong P ictish e lements ( Henry 1 940, 1 48-9; H enry 1 967, 6 9-70; S tevenson 1 956 a nd 1 970, 6 8; B rown 1 972). T hus a t a pproximately t he s ame p eriod i n t he l ater e ighth a nd e arly n inth c entury w hen t he D unadd m etalworking f inds s how w hat m ay b e P ictish i nfluence s imilar e vidence c an b e a dduced f or I ona, t he m ajor m onastic c entre o f D airiada. H owever t he m eans b y w hich t he i nfluences w ere a bsorbed h ave b een l ittle d iscussed a nd t his i nterpret ation o f t he D unadd m etalworking m ust b e r egarded a s t entative. Ih ave s et o ut i n t his p aper t o e xamine t he w ays i n w hich t he P icts a nd P ictish a rchaeology h ave i mpinged o n p revious i nterpretations o f D unadd. T his h as i nvolved l ooking a t t he b rief h istorical r eferences, a t t he t ypological e vidence o f t he f ort i tself a nd a t i nterpretations o f t he r ock c arvings. A lthough I h ave q ueried s ome o f t he p ast i nterp retations o f t his e vidence I h ave t ried t o s uggest a s lightly m ore c omplex v iew o f ' Picto-Scottish ' i nteraction a t t he s ite. T his h as i nvolved s uggestions o f c ross-cultural e xchange a s e videnced b y t he r ock c arvings a nd t he m etalworking o n t he s ite. W hether t his s hould b e s een a s S cottish a cquisition o f P ictish ' cultural s ymbols' o r a s e vidence o f P ictish c ultural h egemony d oes n ot a ppear r esolvable a t p resent. T hese s uggestions a re o ffered t entatively a nd t he n eed f or i ndependent c hronological e vidence a nd a c larification o f t he n ature a nd l ongevity o f s ite a ctivity i ncluding t he m etalworking w ill b e a pparent. S imilarly i t w ill b e o bvious t hat i f e vidence c an b e g athe red t o i ndicate t he n ature o f t he b rooches b eing m ade a nd w orn i n e ighth c entury D airiada t he s uggestion o f P ictish i nfluence o n t he l ater m etalwork m ay h ave t o b e m odified. N evertheless I h ope t o h ave s hown t he p otential o f f urther e xcavation a nd r esearch a t D unadd a nd e lsew here, a nd t o h ave i ndicated t he n ature o f s ome o f t he p roblems i nvolv ing t he P icts a nd D unadd a nd m ore g enerally o f P icto-Scottish r elations.

5 6

N otes: ( I) R ichard W arner o f t he U lster M useum, B elfast, i nforms m e t hat t he b ird-headed b rooch i n t he B ritish M useum w as f ound a t C logh, C o. A ntrim ( per c omm 1 981). ( ii) F igure 3 i s b ased o n W ilson 's d istribution o f P ictish b rooches w ith e mendations ( see W ilson 1 973, 8 9-90 a nd f ig 1 4 f or h is n umbered l ist a nd d istribution). D ifferences f rom W ilson 's m ap ( noting h is b rooch r eference n umbers) a re a s f ollows:T he V iking f inds f rom V altos ( 21), F reswick ( 7 a nd 8 ), B irsay ( 2), a nd ] arlshof ( 9) h ave b een e xcluded a s h ave t he f inds i n S candinavia ( 273 1). T he n ew f ind f rom Y ork h as n ot b een p lotted f or t he s ame r eason. T he f ind f rom M achrins, C olonsay ( 11) h as n ot b een r emoved, b ecause a lthough V iking g raves h ave b een f ound i n t he a rea t he b rooch i tself w as n ot f ound i n ag rave ( Anderson 1 907, 4 41). T he P ierowall f ind ( 13) h as b een e xcluded b ecause S tevenson h as s hown t hat i t w as a p seudop enannular b rooch a nd h ence d oes n ot f it W ilson 's P ictish d efinition ( Stevenson 1 974, 3 7-8). T he t wo S utherlandshire b rooches ( 18 a nd 1 9) a re a ccepted a s p art o f t he R ogart h oard a s W ilson s uggests ( 1973, 8 1-2). T he n ew b rooch f ind f rom A ldclune, n ear P itlochry h as b een i ncluded. T he f ind f rom C lachan ( 3) h as b een m oved t o C lachan, a t t he h ead o f L och F yne r ather t han C lachan, K intyre w here i t i s m arked o n W ilson 's f ig 1 4 ( he l ists i ts l ocation c orrectly). T he B allynaglogh, C o. A ntrim b rooch ( 24) h as a lso b een m oved i n a ccordance w ith t he e vidence q uoted b y W arner

( 1974, 6 3 a nd 6 9 n ote 7 8).

N B. T he b rooch f ind i n M id-Argyll i s n ot f rom D unadd b ut f rom L och G lashan c rannog ( 10), c 4 m iles t o t he e ast.

5 7

A cknowledgements M y t hanks a re d ue t o t he staff of t he A ncient M onuments B ranch o f t he S cottish D evelopment D epartment f or t heir a ssistance i n o rgani sing t he 1 980 a nd 1 981 s easons a t D unadd. T he w ork w as f unded b y, a nd u ndertaken o n b ehalf o f, t he S DD. V arious p eople h ave a ssisted w ith t he d rafting o f t his p aper a nd in p articular I w ould l ike t o t hank M ary B raithwaite f or h er c omments o n s everal d rafts a nd H olly D uncan f or c omments o n t he f inal v ersion. M rs. D uncan h as b een m ost h elpful i n d iscussing h er c atalogue a nd d iscussion o f t he o ld f inds f rom D unadd w hich s he i s p reparing a s p art o f a n M .Phil t hesis a t t he U niversity o f G lasgow. H er c omments o n t he n ew f inds h ave a lso b een i nvaluable. RBK S tevenson, J ames G raham-Campbell a nd N ancy E dwards h ave b een k ind e nough t o c omment o n v arious a spects o f t he s ite a nd i ts f inds. H oward M ason p repared t he f igures a nd N ary B raithwaite a nd S abina T hompson t yped t he f inal d raft. F inal t hanks a re d ue t o L eslie A lcock f or h is e ncouragement a nd i ncisive c omments o ver a n umber o f y ears, a nd t o t he s tudents o f G UAS f or e ncouraging m e t o p resent t his p aper t o t heir c onference. A ny e rrors o f f act o r j udgement a re o f c ourse t he r esponsibility o f t he a uthor.

5 8

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A rchaeologia

W HERE W ERE T HE P ICTS? A n e ssay i n s ettlement a rchaeology T revor W atkins A q uarter o f a c entury a go t he t hen ' modern ' c ompendium o f k nowl edge o f t he P icts w as e dited b y F . T . W ainwright u nder t he t itle o f T he P roblem o f t he P icts. A s aw arning t o t he l ikes o f m e W ainwright ( 1955:13) w rote i n t he o pening c hapter, ' It i s u nwise f or a s cholar t o s tray t oo f ar f rom f ields w ith w hich h e i s f amiliar, a nd n o p roblem i s a t o nce s o s eductive a nd s o t reacherous a s t hat o f t he P icts. S o m any r eputations h ave b een s hattered t hat o nly t he c onfident a nd t he c areless w ill t oday v enture i nto t his g raveyard o f r ejected t heories'. S o l et m e, a N ear E astern a rchaeologist, e nter t hese s eductive y et t reacherous p astures w ith c are, f or w hat I a m a bout t o d o i s s urely u nwise. N o-one w ould w ant t o e mulate t he f ate o f t hat p oor l earned O xford s cholar i n J ohn B uchan 's t ale ' The W atcher b y t he T hreshold' ( Buchan 1 902), w hose p ainfully a cquired k nowledge o f t he P icts b rought h im n othing b ut r idicule a nd a p remature d eath. I t m ay b e u seful t o t he r eader t o k now t hat t his p aper w as p ut t ogether ( in s hortened f orm) i n r esponse t o t he i nvitation t o g ive a p aper a t t he c onference w hich w as t he o rigin o f t his p ublication. T he i nvitation t o s peak o n P ictish s ettlement p resumably r elated t o m y e xcavation e xperience. T hus w hat f ollows s hould n ot b e c onsidered a s t he f ruits o f l ong o r d eep r esearch: i t i s i ntended a s ac ock-shy w hich w ill t empt o thers i nto w hat s eems t o m e t o b e a n i nteresting f ield o f r esearch, a nd a f ield w hich i s d istinctly u nderpopulated a t p resent. T he q uestion i n m y t itle i s i ntended a s a s patial e quivalent t o t he u sual q uestion ' Who w ere t he P icts? ' , a sked o f a ny m ysterious p eople. W hat I h ope t o d o i s t o s how t hat P ictish r ural s ettlement p atterns a re b eginning t o b e e stablished, a nd t hen g o o n t o s uggest w ays i n w hich t he s ettlement a rchaeology c ould b e m ade t o a dvance o ur k nowledge o f t he s ocial, e conomic a nd p olitical d evelopment o f t he P icts a nd t heir i mmediate p redecessors, t he p roto-Picts a s W ainwright c alled t hem. B efore t aking u p t he q uestion ' Where w ere t he P icts?' I s hall b egin w ith a s impler q uestion. W ho w ere t he P icts? T he P icts w ere c alled i nto b eing w hen t hey w ere f irst n amed i n w riting i n A D 2 97, a nd t hey c eased t o e xist a s a n i ndependent p olitical e ntity a round 8 43, a lthough o f c ourse s ome o f t he c ultural d istinctiveness o f t he P ictish p eople r emained f or c ent uries t o c ome. F or e xample, e ven t hough t he P ictish l anguage w as s wamped o ut b y G aelic p resumably a round t he s ame t ime a s t he P ictish k ingdom w as a bsorbed b y t hat o f t he S cots, t he h abit ' Pit'- n aming p laces s eems t o b e a lmost e xclusively P ictish. L inguistically w e a re t old t hat t he P icts w ere a m ixture o f a p re-Celtic s ubstratum w ith p -Celtic s peakers. A rchaeologically w e k now s o l ittle o f t he P icts t hat i t i s i mpossible t o i dentify a s et o f p ractices a nd a rtifacts a s a s pecifically P ictish c ulture, c urrent t hroughout t he a rea c ommonly a scribed t o t he P icts. T he t erm i s e thnic a nd l inguistic r ather t han a rchaeological, b ut i t a lso h as p olitical c onnotations: a mong t hose 6 3

p eople w ho w ere k nown a s t he P icts t here g rew u p a k ingdom w hich i n i ts d ay w as a s p owerful a s a ny i n B ritain. A nd t hat i s t he s ource o f m y i nterest, f or a m ajor f ield o f m y t eaching i s i n t he a ncient N ear E ast a nd I h ave a r esearch i nterest t here i n t he e volution f rom s impler t o c omplex s ocieties a nd t he e mergence o f p rimal s tates i n a reas l ike M esopotamia. H aving w orked o n p roto-Pictish a nd P ictish s ettlement s ites i n e ast S cotland t hrough c hance i nvolvement i n r escue e xcavation i n S cotland I h ave b ecome i nterested i n t he p arallel e volution t here o f as imilarly p rimal s tate, t he k ingdom o f t he P icts. J ust a s i n M esopotamia, s o i n P ictiand, t he p rimal s tate e merges a s ak ingdom; a nd, j ust a s i n M esopotamia, t he d ocumentary r ecord o f t hat e mergent k ingdom i s e xtremely s parse, p utt ing a h eavy b urden o n t he a rchaeological s ources. J ust a s i n M esopo tamia, t he p rocesses w hereby P ictish k ingship e volved f rom e arlier s tages i n t he d evelopmental c hain i s e ssentially u ndocumented i n t he w ritten r ecord a nd o nly a pproach a b le b y means of a rchaeological m ethods. I t m ay s eem c ontentious t o a ver t hat t he P ictish k ingdom w as a p rimal s tate i n t he s ense t hat i t a rose s ui g eneris a nd n ot i n r esponse t o a n e xternal s timulus i n t he f orm o f ac ivilized m odel w hich e xerted s ignificant i nfluence o ver t he m ore b arbarous p roto-Pictish p eople. T hat t he c omings a nd g oings o f t he R oman l egions h ad s ome s ort o f i nfluence o n t he p olitical e volution o f t he e ast S cottish t ribes m ust b e t rue, f or n o c ulture o perates i n ac ultural v acuum, w ithout r egard t o i ts e nvironment. A p ossibly i lluminating e thnohistorical a nalogy i s s uggested b y S ervice ( 1971: 1 57) w hen h e c oncludes t hat t he m ilit aristic s tates o f A frica a nd P olynesia f amiliar t o u s t hrough t he a nthropological l iterature w ere p robably t he p roducts o f s laving, n ew w eapons, p opulation d isruption a nd c olonialist a dvances f rom t he w hite E uropean s tates. H e p oints o ut t hat t he Z ulu s tate a lmost c ertainly r esulted f rom t he E uropean i mpact, t he p revious p olitical p attern b eing o ne o f s everal c hiefdoms. T here i s c ertainly n o r eason t o t hink t hat P ictish k ingship w as d evised o n ap attern o bservable s omewhere i n t he r omanised w orld t o t he s outh, n or i s t here a ny o ther c andidate w hich c ould s erve a s a p aragon o f s tatehood f or t he P icts t o e mulate. W hether o ne c onsiders t he e mergence o f u rbanism, o f t he s tete, o r o f s tratified c lass-societies t o b e t he m ost i mportant, t hese p henomena r epresent t he d evelopment t o a n a dvanced l evel o f e conomic, s ocial a nd p olitical i ntegration, e mbracing l arger a nd l arger b odies o f p eople i n h eirarchical a s o pposed t o s imply s egmental o rganisations. T o a n a rchaeological m ind i t s hould b e i mpossible t o c ontemplate t he e xami nation o f t he P ictish k ingship a nd i ts o rigins s eparately f rom t he r est o f t he o rganisation o f P ictish s ociety a nd i ts e conomy. A nthropolog ists a nd a rchaeological t heorists i llustrate f or u s c learly h ow c omplex a nd i nterdependent a re t he s ocial, e conomic, p olitical a nd i deational d evelopments i nvolved i n a ny p rocess o f c hange, a nd t he e mergence o f k ingship a s ap olitical f orm i s ac ase i n p oint. I ndeed, i f t he c ult ural e volutionists a re r ight, t u e s hould b e a ble t o d etect s ome o f t he a ssociated t ransformations i n t he s ocial a nd e conomic r ecord e ven i f k ings, c hiefs o r o ther l eaders a re n otoriously d ifficult t o p in d own i n t he d efective a nd s imple a rchaeological r eco rd . As t he e as t o f S cotland m oved t owards t he e stablishment o f t he P ictish k ingdom w e s hould e xpect t he p attern o f P ictish s ettlement t o c hange r eflecting t he g rowth o f a n i ncreasingly c omplex a nd c entralised e conomic s ystem, a n i ncreasingly h ierarchical s ocial s ystem a nd u ltimately a n i ncreasi ngly o vertly a rticulated a nd c entralised p olitical s ystem.

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H ence t he q uestion, w here w ere t he P icts: i f w e c ould f ind P ictish o r p roto-Pictish s ettlements o ver t he p eriod o f t ime f rom t he l ast c enturies b efore C hrist t hrough t he e arly c enturies o f t he C hristi an e ra w e c ould b egin t o l ook f or s hifts a nd t ransformations i n t he s ettlement p attern t hrough t ime, a nd t hese m ight b e i nterpreted a s e vidence f or t he g estation o f w hat e merges a s t he h istorical P ictish k ingdom. T hirty y ears a go W ainwright r ecognised t hat ' the e xamination o f e ven a s ingle P ictish . village s hould g ive u s a f irm p icture o f t heir s ocial a nd e conomic a rrangements'. B ut , h e w ent o n, ' it i s a s ad, i f s omewhat s urprising, f act t hat w e c annot w ith c onfidence a ffix t he l abel " Pictish" t o a s ingle d welling o r t o a s ingle b urial ' ( Wainw right 1 955: 8 7). T hat g loomy a ccount o f t he l ack o f a ny s ettlement o r b urial i s n ow s uperceded, b ut i n t his p aper I c onfine m yself t o s ettlement, a nd i n p articular s ettlement i n t he a rea w hich w as t o b ecome t he v ery h eartland o f t he P ictish k ingdom. It ake t his n arrow v iew o f s ettlement i n p art b ecause I h ave f irst-hand e xperience o f t he a rea, t hough i t m eans t hat t here w ill b e n o m ention h ere o f t he i mport ant r ecent w ork o n s ettlements o f t he r elevant p eriod i n t he N orthern a nd W estern I sles. T here i s a nother g ood r eason f or c onfining o ur i nterest t o t he a rea o f s outh-east P erthshire, A ngus a nd p ossibly s outh K incardineshire, w hich i s t hat t his a rea s hould c ontain t he v ital e vidence f or t he c ritical s ocial a nd e conomic t ransformations o n w hich t he P ictish k ingdom w as b ased, f or t his i s t he a rea w here t he h istorical k ingdom w as c entred. Id o n ot p ropose t o b e b ounded b y t he c onventional d ate o f A D 2 97, f or t hat i s s imply t he d ate o f t he e arliest s urviving w ritten r eference t o t he P icts, i mplying t hat t hat e ntity, t he P icts, w as a lready i n e xistence; i n a rchaeological t erms i t i s m erely a v ery l oose t erminus a nte q uem. W e m ust b e p repared t o l ook b ack t o at ime b efore t he e mergence o f t he P icts a s a n e ntity i n a ny c ase, f or t he e mergence o f t hat e thnic e ntity w as i tself p art o f t he p rocess o f p olitical e volution w hich l ed u ltimately t o t he P ictish k ingship. A ccording t o B ruce T rigger ( 1978: 1 69) s ettlement p atterns c an b e c onsidered a t t hree l evels, t hat o f t he i ndividual b uilding, t hat o f t he s ettlement o r g roup o f b uildings, a nd t hat o f t he s ettled l ands cape. I t i s q uite c lear t hat w e d o n ot h ave e nough i nformation t o b e a ble t o b uild a m ap o f P ictish o r p roto-Pictish s ettlement; a t t he o ther e nd o f t he s cale, f rom m y l imited e xperience a t l east, t here i s n ot e nough e vidence t o a llow a nalysis o f t he f unctioning o f a s ettlement a t t he b asic l evel o f t he i ndividual h ousehold. W e s hall, h owever, s ee t hat s ome a nalysis i s p ossible a nd p erhaps f ruitful a t t he i nterm ediate l evel o f t he i ndividual s ettlement. A t t his s tage t he d isc laimer m ust b e e ntered t hat t he a uthor k nows f ull w ell t hat h e i s s uggesting h ypotheses w hich a re n ot d emonstrable i n t he c onfines o f t his p aper; h e i s a lso w ell a ware t hat t he h ypotheses a re b ased o n s ome d oubtless d readful a ssumptions. T he p urpose o f t his p aper i s t o r aise s ome i deas w hich a re e ither a ttractive e nough t o b ecome t he s ubject o f d iscussion, s timulating e nough t o e ncourage t heir t esting i n t he f ield, o r r epulsive e nough t o p rovoke t heir r easoned d ismissal a nd r eplacement. I t i s l ikewise n ot w holly s atisfactory, o f c ourse, t o g eneralize f or s outhern P ictland f rom a b asis o f o ne o r t wo e xcav ations, , b ut t his a uthor r ejects t he v iew t hat a rchaeologists s hould w ait u ntil t he d atabase i s a dequate: o n t he o ne h and a rchaeological d ata i s o f i ts n ature d efective a nd i ncomplete, a nd t hus i n s ome m easure a lways i nadequate, a nd o n t he o ther h and p rogress i n a rchaeol ogical c omprehension s urely d epends o n t hinking a bout a nd d iscussing t he d ata w e h ave, h owever p oor, i n o rder t o d evelop t he q uestions w hich w ill l ead t o t he d iscovery o f n ew d ata a nd t he f ormulation o f b etter e xplanations. 6 5

F rom s ome s everal c enturies b efore C hrist s ettlement n orth o f t he T ay w as n otably o pen, u ndefended a nd a mid g ood f arming l and, a nd s o i t a pparently r emained t hrough a t l east t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst m ill ennium A D. J ill K endrick's e xcavations f or t he S DD ( Ancient M onum ents) a t D ouglasmuir h ave r evealed a s mall r ural s ettlement o f c ircular, t imber-framed h ouses o n. a f luvio-glacial s and a nd g ravel o utwash f an i n t he L unan v alley i n A ngus ( Kendrick 1 980, 1 982). T he r adio-carbon d ates i ndicate - o ccupation b efore t he m iddle o f t he f irst m illennium B C. A t t his d ate a nd f or m uch l ater, s ettlement e lsewhere i n S cotland, w hether t o t he s outh, w est o r n orth, w as d efended, e nclosed, a nd i n m any a reas r estricted i n s ize o f s ettlement u nit t o t he b asic s ingle h ousehold. U nenclosed, n ucleated s ettlements a re n ow f airly f requently d ocumented i n a erial s urvey i n t he a rea o f o ur p resent i nterest, s uggesting t hat D ouglasmuir i s f ar f rom u nique. O ne h ouse i n p articular a t D ouglasmuir i s o f p articular i nterest h ere i n t hat J ill K endrick h as s uggested ( pers c omm: s ee a lso H ill 1 981: 3 0) t hat t he d eep, c urving, p assagel ike h ole b eneath i ts f loor m ay h ave b een t he p rototype o f t he s outerrain. S ome v ery c lose p arallels f or t he c onstruction o f t he D ouglasmuir p roto-souterrain e xist a t D alladies S ite 2 o n t he K incardineshire s ide o f t he N orth E sk n ear E dzell ( Watkins 1 981a). D alladies 2 i s a lso a n u nenclosed, n ucleated, i f l inear s ettlement, w hose o ccupation r anged f rom t he l ate f irst m illennium B C i nto t he f irst m illennium A D. L ike D ouglasmuir D alladies 2 c onsisted o f an umber o f c ircular, t imberf ramed h ouses, b ut i t a lso h ad a n umber a nd a v ariety o f s outerrains. S ome o f t he s outerrains c losely r esemble t he s ubterranean f eature a t D ouglasmuir r eferred t o a bove i n t he n ature o f t he c onstruction m ade f rom o rganic m aterials w hich e xisted w ithin t he p roto-souterrain. A t D ouglasmuir K endrick f ound t races o f h urdling a s am eans o f r etaining t he g ravel s ides o f t he e xcavation, w hile a t D alladies 2 s ockets f or t imber p osts w ere r ecovered i n an umber o f t he s outerrains. F or t he l atter s ite i t w as a rgued ( Watkins 1 981a: 1 43-5) t hat t hese t imber p osts w ere p arts o f a f ramework o f t imber w hich h eld s ome s ort o f r etaining m edium ( planking w as s uggested, b ut h urdling s eems m ore l ikely i n t he l ight o f K endrick's d iscoveries) a gainst t he o ften v ertical o r n ear v ertical g ravel s ides. A t D alladies 2 s ome o f t he s outerrains c an b e s hown t o h ave b een p artly w ithin a nd p artly w ithout t he h ouse ( eq. W atkins 1 9812: F ig 4 ), w hile o thers s eem t o h ave b een s tructurally u nconnected w ith t he n earest h ouse; i n a t l east o ne o r t wo i nstances i t w ould s eem t hat a s outerrain h ad a p orch w ith a g abled r oof a t i ts e ntrance ( Watkins 1 981a: 1 45, a nd a nother e xample o n P l I Xa). W hile s ome o f t he s outerrains a t D alladies 2 w ere l ined w ith o rganic m aterials h eld b y t imber f raming, a f ew ( two w ere e xcavated a nd a t hird w as s een b ut n ot e xcavated) i ncluded l engths o r p anels o f d rystone m asonry a s am eans o f r etaining t he s ides. I n t he c ase o f t he h ouse i dentified a s p osthole g roup 2 , o f w hich a s mall a rea o f p aved f loor a nd m ost o f ac ircle o f p ostholes w as r ecovered ( Watkins 1 981a: 1 25 a nd F ig 2 2), i t i s p ossible t o r econstruct t he s uperstructure m ore p robably t han w as d one i n t he e xcavation r eport b y t aking t he D ouglasmuir e vidence a s a nalogous: t hus i t m ay w ell b e t hat t he s hallow, s emi-subterranean f eature l abelled f eature 2 l ay w ithin t he h ouse r ather t han i mmediately o utside i t, g iving u s a nother e xample o f t he s o-called r ing-ditch h ouse, a nd a nother e xample o f t he s emi-souterrain e ntirely w ithin t he h ouse. T he f ill o f F eature 2 , i ncidentally, g ave a r adio-carbon d ate o f 2 4 t 4 0 B C ( SRR-526). A t o r j ust b eyond t he c ultural b oundary o f s outhern P ictland D alladies 2 s erves t o e xtend t he h istory o f u nenclosed, n ucleated s ettlement a nd t he h istory o f s outerrain c onstruction f rom t he

6 6

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h ouse i s i ndicated b y t he s olid b lack p ostholes.

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T he l ast

f irst m illennium B C t o t he f irst m illennium A D. S outerrains a re w orth y et m ore c onsideration h ere. T hey o ccur i n s ome n umbers a s c onstituents o f s ettlements i n t he e ast o f S cotland, p articularly n orth o f t he T ay, s o t hat t hey m ay s erve a s ak ey f or l ocating s ettlements d ating t o t he l ast c entury o r s o B C a nd t he f irst t wo c enturies o r s o A D a t t he l east: o ur d ating e vidence f or s outerr ains i n e ast S cotland i s s till p oor , b ut g ood e nough f or t hat s tatement. H owever, w e s hould b e p repared t o a dd t he c aveat t hat s ettlement o n s ites w hich i nclude s outerrains m ay h ave b egun e arlier a nd p robably d id c ontinue l ater t han t he a ge-range o f s outerrains t hemselves. A t N ewmill ( See F ig 1 h ere), a s ettlement s ite w ith o ne l arge s outerrain a f ew m iles n orth o f P erth, t here i s g ood e vidence t hat t he l ast t imber f ramed h ouse, w hich h ad f unctioned i ntegrally w ith t he s outerrain, s urv ived t he s outerrain's d emise a nd c ontinued i n o ccupation ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 79-80 a nd 1 96). E ventually t hat h ouse w as a bandoned a nd n o m ore w ere b uilt o n t hat s tance, b ut t here i s am uch l ater r adio-carbon d ate f rom a p it n earby, a s hallow p it u sed r epeatedly f or i ntense f ires a pparently c onnected w ith i ron- w orking; t his p it w as o ne o f t hree s uch f ound o n t he p art o f t he s ite w hich w as a vailable f or e xcavation. T he l ate d ate w as 7 80-900 A D ( CU- 1 018), a nd i t m ight s eem t empting e ither t o r eject t his s ingle d ate a s i nconsistent w ith t he r est, o r t o s uppose t hat i t m arks a c ompletely u nconnected p hase o f l ater a ctivity o n t he s ame s ite. H owever, t he s ame p henomenon c an b e f ound a t D alladies 2 . T here t he e vidence o f t he r adio-carbon d ates s uggests a n o ccupation l asting f rom a c ouple o f c enturies B C t hrough t he R oman i nterlude a nd b eyond, a t l east u ntil t he s ixth c entury ( Watkins 1 981a: 1 64). A dmitt edly, n on-occupation, a p eriod o f d esertion f ollowed b y r e-occupation o r a t l east r e-use, w ould b e f earfully d ifficult t o d etect p ositively o n s ites s uch a s t hese, b ut o n t he o ther h and t he s tatistical p robability o f c oincidental r e-use o f t he o ld s ite m ust b e f airly l ow, a nd t he c hances t hat t he s ame i mprobability o ccurred a t b oth s ites a re v ery p oor i ndeed. I t i s h elpful i n t his d ifficulty t o c onsider t he c ontexts f rom w hich r adio-carbon s amples w ere a vailable a t b oth D alladies 2 a nd N ewmill: i t i s ad emonstration o f h ow t he a ccident o f a rchaeological s urvival c an c ondition o ur a ccess t o i nformation. A t N ewmill t he s outerrain r oof w as r emoved a nd t he c hamber i tself o bliterated i n t he l ate s econd o r e arly t hird c entury A D a nd n o l ater c ontexts f or r adio-carbon s amples w ere a vailable f rom t hat e lement o f t he s ite. O ver t he r est o f t he s ite a vailable f or e xcavation t he o nly k inds o f f eatures w ere p ostholes, t wo s lots w hich h oused r ows o f f enceposts a nd t he t hree f ire-pits, f rom o ne o f w hich c ame t he l ate r adio-carbon d ate. I n a ddition t here w as a n a rea o f p aving b ut i t s ealed n o d eposit b eneath i tself, a nd i ts s urfaces d id n ot c onstitute a s ealed d eposit, b eing a t t he b ase o f t he t opsoil a nd o pen t o a ny c ontamination. O f t he p ostholes m ost w ere t oo s mall t o p rovide u seable s amples o r c ont exts w hich c ould b e c onsidered d efinable o r s ecure. T he o nly s amples o btained f rom t he s ite o ther t han f rom t he s outerrain a nd i ts f ill w ere t hree f rom t heintact p ackings o f p osts i n l arge p ostholes b elonging t o t he l arge t imber b uildings w hich s tood i n s uccession o n t he s tance b eside t he s outerrain, a nd t he s ample s ealed w ithin t he f irepit. A s h as a lready b een s aid, t he l ast h ouse b eside t he s outerrain a t N ewmill s urvived t he s outerrain b y s omewhat , b ut a fter i ts d emise t he s tance w as n ever r e-occupied. I f t here w ere c ontinued o ccupation n earby,

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b ut t here w as n o h ouse a s l arge a s t hat w hich p reviously s tood b es ide t he s outerrain, t here w ould b e n o p ostholes l arge e nough t o p rovide d ecent r adio-carbon s amples f rom d ecent a rchaeological c ontexts; w e a re t herefore l eft w ith t he l ate d ate, w hich c on ies f rom t he o nly o ther t ype o f c ontext w hich c ould h ave p rovided a d ate. I t w ould s eem t o m e t hat, g ranted t he d eficiencies o f t he s ite ( the s mall a rea o f t he t otal s ite a vailable f or e xcavation, a nd t he s urvival c onditions o f t he r emains i n t hat a rea), w e m ay c onclude t hat t he s ite m ay h ave b een c ontinuously o ccupied u ntil t he n inth c entury, b ut w e h ave n o r ight t o e xpect r adio-carbon e vidence f or that c ontinuity: a nd I w ould p refer t o c onclude t hat c ontinuity o f o ccupation l ay b ehind t he r adioc arbon c hronology r ather t han t he s omewhat m ore c omplicated r econstruct ion o f o ccupation f ollowed b y a bandonment f ollowed b y r eoccupation o r r e-use. S imilarly a t D alladies 2 t here w ere s amples a -plenty t o b e c ollected f rom t he s outerrain f ills, b ut a d earth o f o ther c ontexts w hich c ould o ffer s ufficient s ize o f s ample o r s ecurity o f c ontext w ith t he e xception o f t he p it w hich p rovided t he c arbonised b arley w hich g ave t he l ate d ate. I f o ne s upposes t hat s outerrains a t D alladies 2w ent o ut o f u se a round t he t ime t hat o ther s outerrains w ent o ut o f u se ( late s econd o r t hird c enturies A D), t hen a t D alladies 2 , a s a t N ewmill, t here w ould b e p recious f ew c ontexts f rom w hich r eliable s amples f or r adio-carbon d ating c ould b e t aken. Iw ould p refer t o t hink t hat t he t wo l ate d ates, o ne f rom e ach s ite, r epresent c hance r ecovery o f t he r emains o f p ost-third c entury o ccupation; i f t here h ad b een m ore a rea a t N ewmill t o e xcavate a nd m ore t ime t o i nvestigate i t, o r i f t here h ad b een m ore o pportunity t o t ake s amples f rom o ther c ontexts s een b ut n ot i nvestigated a t D alladies 2 , w e m ight n ow h ave e ither t he o dd d ate t o f ill t he g aps o r i ndeed, e ven l ater d ates. O ne m ight p oint a lso t o t he t antalising b ut a mbiguous e vidence f rom t he s ite o f N orthwaterbridge ( Small, C ottam a nd D unbar 1 975; W atkins 1 981a: 1 62 a nd F ig 1 9), c lose t o D alladies 2 . T he s ite w as d readfully m utilated b efore i t w as r ecognised b ut b eside t he s outerr ain w as a n a rea o f p aving w hich m ay r epresent p art o f t he f loor o f t he c ontemporary h ouse; a nd n earby w ere o ther f ragments o f b uilding, a l ittle w all a nd s ome m ore p aving a mongst w hich w ere t wo i mportant, r e-used s tones, a f ragment o f ac ross-slab r ecognised a s b elonging t o T homas' ( 1971) ' primary c ross s lab ' c lass a nd . a p iece o f p robably t hirteenth c entury m asonry. O nce a gain t he e vidence i s n ot a t a ll g ood: w e c annot r ely o n j uxtaposition a s as ubstitute f or a ssociation. B ut i s i t v ery s trange t hat y et a gain t here i s e vidence f or l ater o ccupation a t as ite w hich w as f irst n oted b ecause o f i ts s outerrain. T o a dd t o t he e vidence t hat s ettlements w hich a t o ne t ime i ncluded s outerrains o n o ccasion c ontinued f or c enturies a fterwards t here a re t he o ne o r t wo c oincidences o f t he c hance f inds o f a l ong-cist c emetery t ogether w ith t he c hance f ind o f as outerrain. W est G range o f C onan, n ear A rbroath, ( Jervise 1 862) p resents s uch a c oincidence; t he i nvestig ation o f t he t hen n ewly d iscovered s outerrain o n t he f arm l ed t o t he d iscovery c lose b y o f h alf a d ozen l ong c ist g raves a nd, v ery i nteresti ngly, a n a rea o f p aving e nclosed i n t he a rc o f t he s outerrain. I n t he l ight o f t he N ewmill e xcavations o ne i s t empted t o s peculate t hat t he a rea o f p aving a t W est G range o f C onan w as a t race o f t he f loor o f ah ouse, t o w hich t he s outerrain b elonged, w hile t he l ong c ist c emetery r epresented t he c ontinuation o f t he s ettlement's e xistence i nto t he p eriod o f l ong-cist c emeteries i n t he m iddle o f t he f irst m illennium, a lbeit w ith t he s ettlement's f ocus s hifted a way f rom t he s outerrain a nd i ts h ouse. W ainwright ( 1963: 1 21-2) s uspected a s imilar 6 9

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S ections t hrough t he f ill o f t he s outerrain

c hamber. G -H i s a t ransverse s ection; Ii i s a n a xial s ection f rom t he m iddle o f G -H t o t he e nd-wall o f t he c hamber.

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c onjunction o f l ong-cist c emetery a nd s outerrain a t C arlungie. T he c emetery w as r eported l ong a go ( Hutcheson 1 903:237) b ut i t s eems t o h ave b een v ery c lose t o t he s ettlement o f w hich t he C arlungie s outerr ain f ormed a p art. O ne c onclusion t o w hich i t s eems o n b alance r easonable t o p oint, t hen, i s t hat t he p attern o f r ural s ettlement i n s outhern P ictland r emained b asically u nchanged f rom b efore C hrist ( and b efore s outerr ains) u ntil a t l east w ell i nto t he P ictish p eriod p roper ( and a fter s outerrains); a nd t he f orm o f s ettlement, n amely n ucleated, o pen v ill ages o f c ircular t imber-framed h ouses, r emained t he s ame f rom a n e ven e arlier b eginning. W hen t hat s ettlement p attern f inally c hanged a nd g ave w ay t o s omething n ew i n t he f orm o f r ural s ettlement r emains t horoughly o bscure; a nd t here a re g oing t o b e d ifficulties i n i nvestig ating t his q uestion i n t hat, a lmost b y d efinition, t he s ites w hich a re t urning u p a s c rop-marks i n a erial s urvey a re p reserved o nly a t a l evel b elow t he t hen f loors i n m ost c ases. H ow t o f ind a w ell-pres erved s ite w ith a v ertically s tratified d eposit? Is hould a dd h ere t hat I d o n ot i ntend t o i mply t hat t he u nenclosed n ucleated v illage w as t he o nly f orm o f s ettlement d uring t his l ong p eriod; t he q uestion o f h ow t he r ural s ettlement p attern a rticulated f or e xample w ith t he D ark A ge f ortified s ites i s o ne t o w hich I h ave n ot a ddressed m yself i n t his p aper b ecause i t s eems t o m e w e n eed s ome m ore a ssurance t hat t he r ural s ettlements w ere s till i nhabited w hen t he f ortified s ites w ere i n u se, a nd I f or o ne d o n ot k now w hat e xisted i nside t hese D ark A ge f ortifications. S omething w hich h as p ersistently p uzzled s ome p eople i s t he a band onment a nd o bliteration o f s outerrains. W ainwright ( 1963:25,74,99) c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat b oth t he A rdestie a nd C arlungie s outerr ains h ad b een o bliterated b y t he r emoval o f t heir r oofs a nd t he f illing o f t he c hamber w ith s oil. T his w as a p articular p oint w hich w e t ested f airly t horoughly i n t he N ewmill s outerrain e xcavation a nd a t D alladies 2 . A t N ewmill t here w as c learly r ecognisable e vidence o f d eliberate b ack-filling o f t he s outerrain c hamber, f or w hich p urpose t he r oof o f t he c hamber m ust h ave f irst b een r emoved ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 74-00). T he f ill e xhibited n othing o f t he c haracteristics a ssociated w ith a s low, n atural s ilting: o n t he c ontrary, e verywhere o ur s ections s howed s harply d efined d eposits o f v ariegated m aterial w hich h ad b een t ipped i n f rom a ll d irections, b ut e specially f rom t he d ownhill s ide o f t he s outerr ain , t he u phill s ide b eing w here t he h ouse w as s tanding i mmediately a djacent. N one o f t he s ections a greed i n g eneral s tructure w ith a ny o ther, a s s hould h ave b een t he c ase i f t he f ill h ad a ccumulated t hrough n atural p rocesses, u niform t hroughout t he c hamber's l ength. T wo o f t he s ections a re i llustrated h ere ( Fig 2 ) f or c onvenience o f t he r eader; t he u pper i s t he t ransverse s ection n earest t he f ar e nd o f t he c hamber, a nd t he l ower i s t he a xial s ection a t r ight a ngles t o t he u pper s ection, r eaching t o t he c hamber's e nd-wall. I t w as n oticeable t hat a t f loor l evel t here h ad b een n o b uild-up o f f ine d irt o n t he a bandoned f loor; i ndeed t here w as n o t race o f a ny d irt h aving b een a llowed t o a ccumulate o n t he f loor a t a ll. S imilarly t here w as n o t race o f ac ollapsed r oof, an d i t i s a rgued i n t he r eport t hat t he r oof m ust h ave b een t imberf ramed, -a n i dea e arlier p roposed b y A bercromby ( 1904:114-20 )inthe c ontext o f A berdeenshire s outerrains. A t N ewmill t he t imber r oof h ad b een d eliberately r emoved s o t hat b ackfilling c ould t ake p lace ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 77-80). A t D alladies 2 o ne o f t he s outerrains w as s elected f or s ystematic c ross-sectioning i n o rder t o d etermine t he h omogeneity o r o therwise o f t he r efilling p rocess ( Watkins 1 981a: 1 39-40 a nd F ig 7 1

1 0). T he s ections m ake i t q uite c lear t hat t he f eature w as d eliberately f illed i n, a s w e h ad a lready s uspected f rom p revious e xcavation e xperi ence o n t he s ite. I t i s t herefore o f r eal i nterest t o d iscover w hy m any s outerrains w ere n ot j ust a bandoned b ut a ctually d ismantled a nd o bliterated w hile t he s ettlement t o w hich t hey h ad b elonged a pparently c ontinued. B ut f irst w e n eed t o k now w hat f unction souterrains f ulfilled i n t hese s ettlements, f or t hen w e s hall k now w hat f unction c eased o r w as r eplac ed. O nce a gain i t m ust b e e mphasised t hat I a m h ere r eferring o nly t o t he s outerrains o f W ainwright's s outhern P ictiand. T his i s t he a rea o f b ig s outerrains, a nd w ith o ne o r t wo e xceptions i t i s n oticea ble t hat t hese s outerrains o ccur s ingly. O ne o f t he e xceptions i s C arlungie w here W ainwright e xcavated o ne s outerrain a nd s ounded a s econd d iscovered a t a lmost t he s ame t ime ' about 1 50yards ' f rom t he f irst ( Wainwright 1 963: 1 77). A p ossible s econd e xample i s M udhall, B endochy, P erthshire w here ' several s ubterraneous b uildings w ere u nc overed' w hich a nswer c losely t o t he d escription o f s outerrains; t he o riginal r eport w as w ritten b y t he p arish m inister o f B endochy i n h is e ntry f or t he O ld S tatistical A ccount, a nd t he n umerous l ater r epetit ions o f t his r eference a re g athered b y W ainwright ( 1963: 1 98-9). T here m ay h ave b een s even ( or m ore) s outerrains i n t he p arish o f A irlie i n A ngus ( Wainwright 1 963: 1 54-60), b ut t hey w ere f airly e venly s pread a nd w idely s paced t hrough t his r ural p arish w ith n o s uggestion o f a ny c luster o f s outerrains a s f or e xample a t D alladies 2 t o t he n orth

(t hough A irlie I II m ay j ust p ossibly, a ccording t o W àinwright, h ave b een o nly a bout 5 0 m f rom t he p reserved s outerrain l isted b y h im a s

A irlie I ( Wainwright 1 963: 1 57-8). T here a re a lso t wo s outerrains l isted u nder t he n ame o f P itcur ( Wainwright 1 963: 2 00-04), b ut t he s ites a re i n f act s everal h undred m etres a part. T hese p ossible p airs o f s outerrains ( and o ther p utative p airs o n a erial p hotographs) w ould o f c ourse n eed i nvestigation b y e xcavation i n o rder t o e stablish t heir s ynchronous a s o pposed t o s equential u se, a nd t wo i n a ny c ase i s s carc ely a c luster. N o s outerrain t o m y k nowledge h as y ielded c lear a nd p ositive e vid ence a s t o i ts u se, a nd t o d ate N ewmill s upplies a s g ood a n i llustrat ion a s a ny o f t he r elationship o f as outerrain t o i ts s ettlement. E ven t here t he r elationship i s t antalisingly i ncompletely r evealed a nd i t r equires a g ood d eal o f d arning i f n ot d ownright e mbroidery t o p ull t he s trands t ogether. A t N ewmill w e s ee t he s outerrain s tructurally l inked w ith a v ery l arge t imber-framed h ouse w hose p ostholes a re v ery b adly p reserved i n s ome s ectors. F rom w ithin t he h ouse a p aved r amp l ed d own t o a s tone-framed d oorway s ituated b elow t he h ouse w all; t he d oorway g ave o nto t he c hamber o f t he s outerrain w hich l ay o utside t he h ouse. T he a rguments f or t he i ntegral r elationship o f t he h ouse a nd i ts s outerrain a re r ehear ed i n t he r eport ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 96). T he s outerrain w as e quipped w ith n o i nternal f ixtures o r f ittings w hich m ight b etray i ts f unction: a ll o ne c an d o i s w eigh t he p reviously s uggested e xplanations, o r a ny n ew o nes t hat c an b e d evised, a gainst t he N ewmill e vidence a nd c onclude t hat d ry f ood s torage b est f its t he n egative e vidence ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 97-8), a g eneral c onclusion r eached b y o ther r ecent a uthorities ( Ritchie a nd R itchie 1 981: 1 15). T he o nly o ther h ypothesis w hich b ears e xamination i s t hat o f a r itual o r c erem onial f unction ( cf C hristie 1 978); t hat, t oo, c ould r equire a b uilding w ith v ery f ew a rchitectural c omponents a part f rom f loor, w alls a nd r oof, a nd t he c leanliness o f t he f loor o f t he N ewmill s outerrain ( Watkins

7 2

1 981b: 1 74-7) c ould l ikewise r esult f rom r eligious s cruple. H owever, i t m ust b e l aid a gainst t he r itual h ypothesis t hat s outerrains i n I rel and a nd i n C ornwall a re d ocumented a s h aving b een u sed a s s tores ( Lucas 1 980; C harles T homas, p ers c omm). T he r equirements o f ag ranary a re a n e nclosed, w eatherproof v olume o f s pace w here a n e ven, c ool t empe rature i s m aintained. I nterestingly L ucas ( 1980) h as s hown t hat d ocumentary e vidence f or t he r egular - f unction o f I rish s outerrains a s s tores e xists i n s urprising a bundance. I f i t i s a ccepted t hat e ast S cottish s outerrains w ere s torage f acilities, t hen i t b ecomes i nteresti ng t o n ote t he g eneral c oincidence b etween t he d enser c oncentration o f s outerrains w ithin t his a rea a nd t he m ost p roductive c ereal-growing a reas a s m apped b y C oppock ( 1976) i n A n A gricultural A tlas o f S cotland. -

T he i mplication i s t hat t he d evelopment o f s outerrains, e specially i n t he e ast o f S cotland, p erhaps s tarting w ith t he t ype o f i nternal s ub-floor i nstallations a t D ouglasmuir, i s t o b e a ssociated w ith m ore i ntensive c ereal a griculture; i n w hich c ontext I t hrow i n, o nce a gain p arenthetically, t he o bservation t hat s outerrains h ave r emarkably f req uently b een n oted t o h ave r otary q uerns i n s ome s ort o f a ssociation ( best d ocumented i n G realey 1 972). I f i t i s c orrect t o a ssociate s oute rrains a nd t heir p rototypes w ith m ore i ntensive c ereal a griculture t hen o nce a gain s outhern P ictiand-to-be i s m arked o ut i n c ontrast w ith m any o ther p arts o f S cotland i n t erms o f i ts a gricultural p otential a nd, m ore p articularly, i ts u se o f t hat p otential. T he s ubsistence b asis o f t he e conomy i n g eneral h as i mplications f or t he s ettlement p attern o f a c ulture. A nd i t s hould b e n oted t hat c ereal a griculture i n p articular h as t he p otential, i f p roduction i s i ntensified b eyond s ubsistence n eeds a nd i f t hat p roduction c an b e c oncentrated, f or a ccumulation a nd r edistribution. T his i s t he b asis o f a ll a ncient c ivilizations i n t he N ear E ast, t he F ar E ast a nd t he A mericas; a nd m ore a dvanced, m ore c omplex, m ore c entralised a nd h ierarchical e conomic s ystems m irror m ore a dvanced c entralised a nd h ierarchical s ocial a nd o rganisational s ystems. W hat, t hen, w ould b e t he d etectable,

a rchaeological t race o f a ny

m ore h ierarchical s ocial p attern? G eographers h ave d efined h ierarchic ally o rdered n etworks o f l esser s ettlements a round ' central p laces' i n t erms o f t he e conomic r elationships a mong t he c omponents o f t he s ettlement p attern, b ut s uch a m apping o f s ettlements i n a p rehistoric o r p rotohistoric c ontext i n a n a ttempt t o d efine a nalogous m acro-economic s ystems i s u nderstandably f raught w ith d angers. I n o rder t o a chieve a nything s imilar w e s hould n eed f or a s tart t o h ave s ome c onfidence t hat w e h ad m ost o f t he r elevant s ettlements o n o ur m ap, w hereas w e h ave i n f act o nly t hose s ites w hich h ad s outerrains, w hose s outerrains h ave b een a ccidentally d iscovered, w hose d iscovery h as b y c hance l eaked i nto t he l iterature, o r w hich h ave b een e xcavated a nd r eported. I f t hat w ere n ot s ufficient o bstacle w e s hould n eed t o k now t he s ize o f o ur s ites a nd t heir d ensity o f o ccupation, a nd, m ost d ifficult o f a ll i n s ome w ays, w e s hould n eed t o b e s ure t hat a ll t he s ites w ere i nhabited a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime. W hat w e n eed i s s ome w ay o f d efining t he e xistence o f c omplex s ocio-economic s ystems w ithin a s ingle s ite. I n t he N ear E ast t his h as b een t ried w ith s ome s uccess ( eg. W right 1 972; W right & J ohnson 1 975; J ohnson 1 973; J ohnson 1 975; K ohl 1 978; D avidson a nd W atkins 1 981; D avidson a nd M cKerrell 1 972; D avidson a nd M cKerrell 1 980; D avidson 1 981; N icholas 1 981; A lden 1 982) t hrough t he m edium o f r aw m aterials, t heir r edistribution b y m an, t heir m anufacture i nto g oods a nd t he i nter-site o r i ntra-site d istribution o f t hose m anufac-

7 3

t ured g oods. R uefully o ne m ust a dmit t hat P ictish a nd p roto-Piötish s ettlements i n t he h eart o f s outhern P ictland d o n ot a bound i n d isc arded m aterial c ulture r emains. L amberg-Karlovsky ( 307-9), w orking i n s outh I ran, c onsidered t hat t he r emains o f am id- t o l ate f ourth m illennium B C b uilding c omplex a t t he s ite o f T epe Y ahya w ere s ufficientl y d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he d omestic b uildings w hich b oth p receded a nd s urrounded t hem t o a llow h im t o d istinguish t he b uilding, w hich w as c omparatively s ymmetrically l aid o ut a nd s ubstantially b uilt, a s a n ' administrative c entre', t he s eat o f s ome b ody w ith e conomic, s ocial a nd p olitical a uthority. T here a gain, h owever, h e w as n ot p roceeding o n t he b asis o f a rchitectural a nalysis a lone, b ut w as a ided c onsidera bly b y a rtifactual f inds i ndicating c entralised a nd s pecialised m anuf acture o f e laborate s tone v ases o f a p articular s tone, c hlorite, a nd t he m onopolistic c ontrol o f t he o nward t rade i n l apis l azuli i nter a lia. H e w as f urther s upported i n h is a nalysis b y t he r ecognition o f c lay t ablets i n o ne r oom, s ome o f t hem a bandoned u nwritten; a lthough t he s igns c annot b e r ead i t i s c lear t hat t hese w ere a dministration a nd a ccounting t ests. M eanwhile, b ack i n P ictiand, w e m ust r ecall t hat w e a re d ealing w ith s ites a lmost t otally b ereft o f a rtifactual r emains. ( Four a nd a h alf w eeks a t N ewmill f ailed t o p roduce a s ingle s herd o f p ottery o lder t han t he l ast c entury, n o m etal o bject, a nd i n t hose s oil c ond itions b one d oes n ot s urvive; f our s easons a t D alladies 2 p roduced o ne b arely r ecognisable f eatureless b ody s herd o f c rude n ative p ottery.) W hat s urvives o n t hese s ites a re t he p ostholes o f t imber f ramed b uildi ngs; v ery r arely d o t he f loor l evels o f t hose b uildings s urvive a s u seful a rchaeological c ontexts, s o t hat e ven t he a rchitectural a nalysis o f t he b uilding c onstruction m ust b e as omewhat s ubjective e xercise, a nd a nalysis f or t he f unctioning o f t he b uilding o r i ts v arious p arts i s p ractically i mpossible. I n a ny c ase i t i s d ifficult f or a c ircular b uilding t o b e c omplex i n t he w ay t hat a r ectilinear b uilding c an b e c omplex. T here r emains o nly m onumentality o r s ize. -

A mong a g roup o f a verage-sized c ircular b uildings w ould t he l ast h ouse a t N ewmill, s tanding m ore t han 1 0.5 a ( ca 3 5ft) t all a t t he a pex o f i ts c onical r oof, a nd h aving a f loor a rea o f a bout 2 40 s q m ( 2580 s q f t), t wo a nd a h alf t imes t he f loor a rea o f a n a verage m odern s emid etached h ouse, w ould t hat h ouse s tand o ut a s m arkedly d ifferent f rom t he o thers? A fter a ll i ts f loor a rea w as a bout t wo a nd a h alf t imes g reater t han t he a verage f or h ouses o f t hat t ime a lso. D oes t hat d ifference s ignify a ny d ifference i n t he s ocial c lass o f t he o ccupants? O r w ere t hey m erely a t t he p rofessional a nd e xecutive e nd o f ac ontinu ous s pectrum s tretching f rom h umble p overty a t o ne e nd t o r ather c onspicuous a ffluence a t t he o ther? R elative s ize o n i ts o wn i s n ot m uch u se: w e n eed t o k now s omething o f t he d istribution o f h ouse s izes w ithin t hat c ulture-area a t t hat p eriod b efore w e c an t ell w hether t he s ize o f t he l ast N ewmill h ouse i s s ignificant. I f w e w ere t o f ind t hat p roto-Pictish h ouses r anged t hrough a s tatistically ' normal' d ist ribution, a nd t hat t he N ewmill h ouse l ay t owards t he ' large' e nd o f t hat d istribution, w e s hould b egin t o t hink i n t erms o f a r ange o f w ealth, s tatus o r c ohabiting s ocial u nit r eflected i n h ouse s ize. B ut i f w e f ound t he d istribution o f h ouse s izes w as n ot a ' normal ' d istrib ution, a nd t hat, f or e xample, t here w as a s mall b ut d istinct g roup o f s ignificantly l arger h ouses, t hen w e s hould b e a ble t o c onclude t hat t he m arkedly l arger h ouses a ccommodated p eople w ho c onstituted a m arkedly d ifferent g roup, s mall i n n umber b ut i mportant i n s tatus,

7 4

a n e lite. S uch a n h ypothesis r emains m ere s peculation u ntil, o f c ourse, t here i s a c orpus o f e xtensively e xcavated s ites a gainst w hich i t m ay b e t ested. M ost o f t he r est o f t he s ettlement a t N ewmill w as, s adly, d estroye d u nrecognised a nd u nrecorded, t hough e nough e vidence e xists t o s ay t hat t here w ere m ore h ouses a nd t here w ere n ot m ore s outerrains ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 98-9). T hese o bservations a llow u s t o c onstruct a h ypothesis w hich c ould b e t ested n ext t ime a m ajor n ew s outerrain-containing s ettlement i s d iscovered o r a k nown o ne e xplored. T he p remises o f t he h ypothesis f all i nto t wo p arts. I nitially i t c an b e a rgued t hat t he s torage c apacity o f t he s outerrain a t N ewmill w as s o g reat t hat i t c ould h ave s erved t he w hole c ommunity, o r a t l east m ore p eople t han c ould h ave l ived i n t he a djacent h ouse, l arge t hough t hat w as ( Watkins 1 981b: 1 99). T he o ther p remise i s b ased o n t he i ntegral c onstruction o f t he l ast h ouse w ith t he e ntrance t o t he s outerrain c hamber, s o t hat a ccess t o w hatever w as s tored i n t he s outerrain w as e ffectively c ontrolled b y t he o ccupants o f t he h ouse. O n t he p lan t he p ostholes i dentified a s b elonging t o t he l ast h ouse a re s hown i n s olid b lack. T he i nner c ircle o f l arge p ostholes s upported t he m ain w eight o f t he r oof; t he a rc o f s maller p osts r epresents a p art o f t he w all. I t w ould s eem t hat t he d oor o f t he h ouse w as a t t he s outh e dge o f t he e xcavation. T he a rc o f p ostholes r epresenting t he w all f ails p art w ay r ound s ince t he s hallow h oles w ere e roded a way, b ut a c ompassd rawn c ircle c entred o n t he g eometrical c entre o f t he h ouse e xtends e xactly a cross t he d oorframe o f t he s outerrain 's a xial e ntrance. T he e ntrance r amp t o t he s outerrain l ay i nside t he h ouse, a nd t he d oor t o t he s outerrain c hamber l ay b elow t he h ouse-wall. A s imilar a rrangem ent w ith a s outerrain a nd h ouse o f s maller s ize w as n oted l ong a go b y A bercromby ( 1904) i n A berdeenshire. I f b oth p remises w ere c orrect i t w ould s uggest t hat t he m ajor h ouse a t N ewmill e xercised c ontrol o ver t he v ery l arge f ood-store, w hich e ither s erved t he n eeds o f t he w hole c ommunity o r r epresented a v ery s ignificant c oncentration o f a gricultural p roduce a s w ealth o n t he p art o f o ne p articular h ousehold. I n e ither c ase t hat h ousehold i s m arked o ut a s q ualitatively d ifferent f rom t he a verage r un o f r ural h ouseholds, a s m ay a lso b e t he c ase o n g rounds o f h ouse s ize. T he h ypothesis i s t hat b y t he t ime o f C hrist t here e xisted a h igher s tratum o f s ociety, f amilies w ho c ould a ccumulate w ealth o r c ontrol l ocal f ood r esources i n t erms o f s torable a gricultural p roduce, a nd w ho l ived i n h ouses o r m arkedly g reater s ize t han t he o rdinary p eople. I n t he c ontext o f t hese s peculations i t i s o f c onsequence t o n ote t hat, a lthough t he p lans o f t he s equence o f t imber b uildings w hich s tood i n t urn o n t he s tance b eside t he s outerrain c annot b e r econstructed w ith t he e xception o f t he h ypothetical r estoration o f t he g round p lan o f t he l ast i n t he s eries, t his l ast h ouse s eems t o h ave b een t he g reatest; a mong t he t races o f t wo o r t hree e arlier h ouses o n t hat s tance t here i s a n a rc o f p ostholes r epresenting a w all o f a n e arlier h ouse w ith a s maller d iameter o f a round 1 2 m ( 39 f t) a nd t here a re p lenty o f l arge p ostholes i n t he a rea w here t he m ain s truct ural p osts o f t he l ast h ouse s tood, b ut n one s o m assive a s t hose o f t he l ast house. W ould i t b e r easonable, t hen, t o i nfer t hat t he i ncreas ing s ize o f t he h ouse b eside t he s outerrain w as a m ark o f t he g rowing s tatus a nd d ifferential o f t he o ccupants a s t hey e xploited t heir e cono mic a scendancy? T his h ypothesis i s o f c ourse p roposed o n t he b asis o f as ingle s ite e xcavated, a nd t he t wo w ell-known s ites o f A rdestie

7 5

F ig. 4 .3

F ig. 4 .4

A rdestie, A ngus. S ite p lan. ( Reproduced f rom W ainwright, P ictiand".)

" The S outerrains o f S outhern

C arlungie, A ngus • S ite p lan. ( Reproduced f rom W ainwright, " The S outerrains o f S outhern P ictland". ) 7 6

a nd C arlungie, w here W ainwright ( 1963) f ound s urface b uildings c ont emporary w ith t he s outerrains, m ight s eem a t o nce t o c ontradict i t. B oth A rdestie a nd C arlungie p resented s urface s tructures w hich a re v ery s mall a nd c onsist o f a reas o f s tone-paved f loor s ometimes a ssociated w ith p eripheral s tone-based w alls. S o f ar a s c an b e j udged W ainwright d id n ot r emove t he s tone s tructures t o s ee w hat t races o f t imber-framed s tructures, r epresenting e ither t he w alls a nd r oof s upp orts o r t he s tone-floored p hase o r t he s ole r emains o f e arlier b uildi ngs, m ight b e f ound i n t he s ub-soil. T he r elationship o f t he l ittle s tone s tructures t o t he s outerrains w as t hought t o b e o ne o f c ontemp oraneity b y W ainwright; t he p ost-souterrain s ettlement r emains o verlay b oth t he s outerrain a nd t he e arlier s tone-floored s tructures r espected t he s outerrain. A t A rdestie H uts 3 a nd 4 ( see F ig 3 ) w ere s hown t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he s outerrain; W ainwright d emonstrated t hat t hey w ere n ot o nly b uilt a t t he s ame t ime b ut s ince t here w as a ccess f rom H ut 4 t o t he s outerrain, t hat t hey w ere i n u se a t t he s ame t ime ( Wainw right 1 963: 7 0). I t w ould s eem l ikely t hat t he h uts a t A rdestie, w hich m ay a lso h ave b een s emi-subterranean ( see W ainwright 1 963:57, F igs 1 4 a nd 1 5, w here t he s outerrain s eems c learly t o h ave b een t runc ated, a nd t he f loor o f H ut 4 i s s een t o b e l et i nto t he s ubsoil a nd n ot m ore t han 6 0 c m a bove t he f loor o f t he s outerrain), w ere m ore i n t he n ature o f w orkplaces a ssociated w ith t he s outerrain t han t he h ouse o r h ouses w here t he s outerrain 's o wners l ived. O n t he a nalogy o f N ewm ill t he a xial e ntrance a nd e xit o f t he s outerrain l ed t o a nd f rom t he m ost i mportant s tructure; a t A rdestie t hat w ould m ean t hat t he p aved ' courtyard' w ith i ts ' shellfish t ank ' p erhaps l ay i n t he h ouse b eside t he s outerrain, w ith t he c hain o f l ittle w orkshop-huts s andwiched b etween i t a nd t he c urving s outerrain ( Of W ainwright 1 963: 4 7, F ig 8 ). U nfortunately, t he r elevant a rea, t o t he s outh-west o f t he a xial e ntrance o f t he s outerrain w as t oo l ittle e xplored b oth i n a rea a nd i n a pproach; u ntil r ecently t he p ossibility o f t he e xistence o f t imberf ramed b uildings w ith l ittle o r n o s tone c omponent w as n ot r ecognised. A s f ar a s C arlungie I ( See F ig 4 ) i s c oncerned t here a lso t he s ettlement r emains c ontemporary w ith t he s outerrain c onsist o f an umb er o f v ery s mall s tructures d efined b y a reas o f s tone-paved f loor, a nd l ying i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he s outerrain i tself. A djacent t o t he s outerrain t o t he s outh w as o ne s tructure w hich i s c learly a lmost a s s ubterranean a s t he s outerrain i tself; W ainwright d escribes i t a s t he'workshop a nnexe ' ( Wainwright 1 963:89, a lso F ig 2 9 f or s ection, a nd P i X XVII). T he s tructures l abelled H uts 1 t o 6a re l ike t hose a t A rdestie i n b eing v ery s mall, s tone - f loored , a nd i nterconnecting. O nly i n ' Hut 7 ' d id W ainwright f ind p ostholes, f ive o f ap robable c ircle o f s ix l ying w ithin t he e xcavation a rea; W ainwright s uggests t hat t he p osthole c ircle m arks t he p erimeter o f t he h ut, b ut w ith a d iameter o f o nly a l ittle o ver 3 m etres i t w ould h ave m ade a m ean d welling f or f olk w ho b uilt t he g reat s outerrain s tructure f or t heir c attle i n W ainwright 's v iew. P erhaps ' Hut 7 ' i s t he r ing o f p osts s upporting t he r oof o f ah ouse o f l arger d imensions, b ut i ts s tratigraphic a nd c hronological r elationship w ith t he s outerrain w hatever i ts s ize, i s e nigmatic, t hough i t d oes l ie t emptingly c lose t o aw ell-made e ntrance p assage -t o t he s outerrain o n t he o ne h and a nd t he e ntrance t o t he s emis ubterranean ' workshop a nnexe' o n t he o ther. T he c onclusion o f t his d iscussion o f t he s urface b uildings a t A rdestie a nd C arlungie I i s t hat a t n either s ite d o t he l ittle h uts s uggest t hat t hey r epresent t he d omestic d wellings o f t he i nhabitants o f t he s ettlement, b ut r ather

7 7

t hey m ay b e i nterpreted a s s mall a nd o ften s emi-subterranean w orkshops a nd s ubsidiary s tores, s queezed i n o dd s paces a round t he s outerrain i tself. I t t here w ere l arger, m ore c onventional I ron A ge t imber-framed r oundhouses a t A rdestie a nd C arlungie, i t w ould h ave b een e asy f or t he e xcavations o f t hose t imes n ot t o h ave f ound o r r ecognised t hem. T he q uestion t o w hich w e c an n ow a ddress o urselves i s t hat o f t he s ignificance o f t he a bandonment o f s outerrains i n s outhern P ictland. T he r adio-carbon d ate f or t he d estruction o f t he N ewmill s outerrain ( AD 1 95 t 5 5; C U 1 019) a ccords w ell w ith e vidence f rom s ites l ike P itcur ( MacRitchie 1 904), A rdestie a nd C arlungie ( Wainwright 1 963: 3 8), w here R oman p ottery w as i ncorporated i n t he f ill o r i n c ontemporary s tructures a bandoned w ith t he s outerrain, s uggesting a l ate s econd o r t hird c entury d estruction o r a bandonment. A t N ewmill t he a bandonment w as c onfined t o t he s outerrain: t he a djacent h ouse c ontinued a t l east f or a w hile, a nd t he s ite w as a pparently s till i n u se i n t he n inth c entury. T he p resent i ndications, i mprecise a nd i nsufficient a s t hey m ay b e, s eem t o p oint t o t he a bandonment o f s outerrain u se b y o r s oon a fter t he t hird c entury. -

L et u s f or t he m oment s uppose t hat s outerrains w ere n ot r eplaced b y s ome a s y et u nidentified t ype o f s urface b uilding. T hen i t w ould a ppear t hat t he f unction f ulfilled b y l arge s outerrains w as a bandoned o n t hose s ites. I f t hat f unction w ere l inked w ith t he e xistence o f a l ocal u pper c lass, d id t hat c lass d isappear? T hat m ay s eem u nlikely: l ites t end t o b e r ather r esistant t o e xtinction, a nd w e k now t hat t he P icts w ere a bout t o e merge a s ap owerful f orce a nd w ould g o o n t o p rod uce a n i mportant D ark A ge k ingdom. W e w ould p robably e xpect t o s ee a ny e litist t endency r einforced. W hile t he p rocess l eading t o t he e mergence o f t he o vert s tate i s u sually t hought t o i nvolve p rogressive i ncrease i n t he s cale o f t hings, t he s ize o f t he s ocial u nit e ncomp assing l arger g eographical a reas, g reater c entralisation, r aising t he h eight o f t he s ocial h ierarchy a nd s o o n, i t w ould b e t oo s imple-minded t o t hink t hat t his a lways h appened b y s imple a ddition a t t he t op, t hat n ew t iers c ould b e a dded t o t he e xisting h ierarchy f or e xample. W hat Ia m s uggesting i s t hat t he d ismantlement o f s outerrains m ay s ignify t he d ismantlement o f a n i mportant f unction o f t he l ocal u pper c lass w hen t hat l ocal u pper c lass w as s uperceded b y ar egional u pper c lass a t ah igher l evel o f s ocial, e conomic a nd p olitical i ntegration. S hould w e n ot e xpect t o k now o f as mall n umber o f s uper-souterr ains, t hen, r epresenting t he m ore c entralised s torage f acilities o f t his h ypothetical n ew, r egional l ite? T here i s, I t hink, a f airly s imple e xplanation o f t he a bsence o f s uch c hance f inds, a nd i t i s t hat t hey d o n ot e xist: t here m ust b e as tructural p oint w hen f urther i ncrease o f t he s ize o f as outerrain b ecomes t oo d ifficult. A s outerr ain t he s ize o f t hat a t N ewmill i s v ery d ifficult t o i magine w ith a s tone r oof; t here m ust b e p ractical l imits t o t he s pan o f as imple w ooden r oof i f i t i s u nsupported b y p osts f rom f loor l evel; u nless e laborate d esigns a re i ntroduced f or i ncreasing t he r oof s pan t here a re o nly t wo o ther w ays t o i ncrease t he v olume o f t he i nterior o f a s outerr ain, t hose b eing t o l ower t he f loor o r e xtend t he p assage-like c hamber. T he w alls a t N ewmill w ere a s h igh a s a ny s outerrain a t 2 m ‚ a nd, a gain, t here m ust b e as tructural l imit t o t he h eight o f d rystone w alls w hich b oth s upport h eavy r oofs a nd r etain t he s and a nd g ravel i n w hich s outerr ains w ere u sually b uilt. T he o nly o ther s olution w ould b e t o i ncrease t he l ength o f t he c hamber, b ut o nce a gain t here w ill c ome a p oint a t w hich u tility b egins t o s uffer; i f e ach s uper-souterrain w ere t o r eplace 7 8

t hree a verage A ngus s outerrains t he l ength o f t he c hamber w ould n eed t o b e t rebled, a nd r emoval o f g oods f rom t he f urther e nd w ould b ecome v ery t iresome, n ot t o m ention t he c onstraints o n a bove-ground a ctivity t hat a s outerrain o f 6 0 m l ength w ould e nforce. P erhaps t he s urviving a nd c ompound s ite a t P itcur ( See F ig 5 ) i s a n e xample o f a n e xpanded s outerrain, b ut u nfortunately w e k now n othing o f t he s ettlement t o w hich i t-belonged a nd l ittle e nough a bout t he s outerrain i tself. H owe ver, t o c onclude t his d iscussion, i t s eems t o m e t hat t here m ust b e a p oint a t w hich i t b ecomes s impler a nd p referable t o r eplace a s outerr ain w ith a n a bove-ground b uilding i f t here w ere a n eed t o i ncrease s torage c apacity. T his p aper h as b een c oncerned w ith t he s earch f or i ndications o f s ocial, e conomic a nd b y i mplication p olitical t ransformations i n t he p roto-Pictish a nd e arly P ictish w orld. G ordon M axwell ( 1975:6) h as a lso s hed s ome l ight o n t his s ubject, o bserving t hat, i f t he c hanges i n t he t ribal o r n ational n ames r ecorded b y t he h istorian D io ( lxxvii, 1 2) a re t o b e t hought s ignificant t hey r efer ' to a n i ntermediate s tage i n t he g radual e volution o f t he n ationes i nhabiting C aledonia i nto t he h istoric k ingdom o f t he P icts' a t at ime i n t he t hird c entury. E ven i f t he l ast p art o f t his d iscussion s eems h ighly s peculative a nd n ot s usceptible t o t esting a t p resent, t wo o f t he h ypotheses I h ave p roposed a re t estable. T hat h ypothesis w hich c oncerns t he r ole o f t he s ingle, l arge s outerrains o f s outhern P ictland a s m arking t he w ealth s torage o r e conomic c ontrol o f a l ocal e lite c an b e e xamined b y s ustained e xcavation o f a c omplete s ettlement o r t wo; t here a re c ertainly e nough m ajor s outerrain s ites k nown w here n o s urface w ork h as b een c arried o ut a nd w here m odern a griculture i s n ow b eginning t o c ut a way t he a rchaeological r emains w hich h ave s urvived t he c enturies. T here i s a lso t he h ypothesis p roposed e arlier i n t his p aper, n amely t hat p roto-Pictish s ettlements, w hich a re t raceable ( some o f t hem) b y t heir s outerrains, l ived o n a s P ictish s ettlements. T hat, t oo, i s t estable b y f urther e xcavation, p referably o n b etter p reserved s ites t han e ither N ewmill, w hich w as r educed t o a f raction b efore i t w as n oticed, o r D alladies 2 , w here t he r emains w ere e xtensive b ut n ot w ell p reserved. A c ompletely d ifferent a nd c hronologically l ater c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern i s m arked b y t he p ractice o f u sing P it- ( earlier P ett-) a s a n i nitial e lement i n c ompound p lacenames. I t h as l ong b een r ealised t hat P it-names w ere e ssentially P ictish i n p hysical d istrib ution a nd t hat t hey b elong i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst m illennium ( Watson 1 926 ; J ackson 1 953 ; J ackson 1 955: 1 46-8; N icolaisen 1 976: 1 51-9). A s W hittington a nd S oulsby ( 1968:124) h ave d emonstrated f or F ife a nd f ormer K inross, P it-names a re m ostly n ow t o b e f ound a ssocia ted w ith f arms a nd t he l ocation o f t hese f arms d emonstrates a c lear p reference f or g ood s oil, s outh-facing a spect, a s lope p osition a nd g ood d rainage. I n as ubsequent p aper W hittington ( 1975) s urveyed t he d istribution o f P it-names t hroughout S cotland a nd m ade i mportant n ew o bservations a nd s ubstantial r efinements o f h is p osition. H e f ound av ery s . trong c orrelation b etween P it- p lacenames a nd C lasses 1 a nd 2 a gricultural l and o n t he L and U se C apability M aps, r einforcing t he v iew t hat t he s iting o f P it-places r elated t o h igh a rable p otential. W hittington a nd S oulsby ( 1968:117) r emarked t hat t he s patial d istrib ution o f t he p lace-name e lement P it- s hould b e c apable o f y ielding i nformation o n P ictish s ettlement. H owever, t hey s upposed a s imple

7 9

1 ' ar L i1 ly c overed .

cca/ e 0 0(F ee l ' I -

F ig. 4 .5

L 2 0

i ø

P itcur, A ngus.

8 0

J ervise's p lan.

c orrelation o f P it-names a nd P ictish s ettlement w hich a llowed t hem t o m ake i nferences f rom t he d istribution c oncerning ' the p referred h abitat o f t he P ictish p eople ' T his s eems t o b e a n u nduly s imple a pproach, f or i t i gnores t wo i mportant c onsiderations. F irstly t here i s n o a ssureance t hat P itn ames w ere g enerally u sed f or a ll f arms o r s ettlements: i t i s p erf ectly p ossible t hat t he . P it-name r eferred t o a p articular k ind o f s ettlement, o r t hat i t w as i n u se o nly a t ap articular p eriod o f t ime. S econdly, i t c annot b e s aid t hat t he P it-names m ark t he a rrival a nd s ettlement o f t he P icts: a ll t he i ndications a re t hat t he P icts w ere a lready t here w here t heir a ncestors, W ainwright 's p roto-Picts, h ad a lso b een. T herefore t he c hoice o f t hose l ocations p erceived a s m ore d esirable i n a l andscape w here s ettlement l ocation w as c onstrained b y t he e xistence o f a n a utochthonous p opulation m ust r epresent s omething m ore c omplex t han t he a rrival o f t he P icts i n a n u npopulated w orld w here t he b est l ocations w ere f reely a vailable a nd u ncontested. O n t he f ace o f i t o ne w ould e xpect t he c hoicest s ites t o h ave b een l ong i nh abited, a nd t he P it-names w ould t hus r epresent t he r enaming o f s ett lements b y t heir i nhabitants, o r t he r eplacement o f t he o ld i nhabit ants b y n ew o ccupants w ho c hanged t he n ame o f t heir n ew r esidences. I n s hort P it-names a re m ore l ikely t o b e t he n ew n ames o f . o ld s ettlem ents r ather t han b rand-new n ames f or b rand-new p laces. I f i t i s a ccepted t hat P it-names a re s igns o f ar enaming o f c hoice s ettlement l ocations i n P ictiand, i t i s p erhaps c onceivable t hat t he r eason f or t he r enaming w as n ot s imply l inguistic. A ll t he a uthorities s eem t o b e h appy t hat t he P it-name, r egardless o f t he s econd e lement o f t he c ompound, i s P ictish, w hich w ould s uggest t hat t he r eason f or c hanging t he n ame w as n ot a c hange o f l anguage. A nother r eason f or c hanging t he n ame o f ap lace i s t hat t he f unction o f t he p lace h as c hanged, b ut w e k now n othing w hatever a bout p laces b efore t hey a cquired t heir P it-names o r i ndeed a bout t he p laces t o w hich P it-names w ere g iven. I t w ould a lso b e o f i nterest t o k now w hen t he c hange o f n ame t ook p lace. N icolaisen r emarks t hat t he g reat m ajority o f t he s econd e lements i n t he P it-compounds i s G aelic, a nd o nly asmall m inority i s P ictish ( Nicolaisen 1 976: 1 54). F rom t his h e c oncludes t hat t he p rocess w as h appening s oon a fter 8 40 a s G aelic s peakers i nfiltrated P ictland i n t he w ake o f K enneth M acAlpin 's a bsorption o f t he P ictish k ingdom ( Nicolaisen 1 976: 1 56). I t t hat w ere s o t hen w e m ay see i n t his p roc ess t he r eplacement o f n ative P icts b y G aels i n a n umber o f t he g eographically m ost f avoured f arming s ites a t at ime w hen a d egree o f b ilingualism w as i n e vidence. T hat w ould c onstitute a nother i nteresti ng c hange i n t he s ettlement p attern, w ith i ncomers b eing a ble t o r eplace t he a boriginal i nhabitants o n c hoice l ocations i n c onsequence o f t he p olitical d omination o f aG aelic-speaking S cottish m onarch. T he f act t hat t he i ncomers n ot o nly t ook o ver p laces b ut t hat a n ew f orm o f p lace-name w as d evised f or t hem m ight s ugges t that t he i ncomers w ere o f ad ifferent k ind a s w ell a s o f ad ifferent l anguage; t he s uggestion i s t hat t hey m ay h ave o wed t heir a bility t o r eplace n ative P ictish f amili es t o t he p ower o f t he S cottish c rown, a nd i ndeed t hat t hey m ay h ave b een l ipked t o t hat p ower i n s ome s ignificant w ay. B ut t here a re p roblems w ith N icolaisen 's r econstruction. I n t he f irst p lace h e s eems t o h ave c oncluded t hat t he P it-names w ere b eing f ormed i n t he w ake o f t he S cottish t akeover o f t he P ictish k ingship o n t he a ssumption t hat t he s wamping o f P ictish s peech b y G aelic s peak-

8 1

e rs f ollowed f rom t he p olitical u nification. S o f ar a s Ia m a ware n oo ne h as d emonstrated t hat t he l inguistic p rocess a nd t he p olitical u nion w ere r elated i n t hat w ay. I t i s n ot a t a ll i mpossible t o i magine t hat t he a bsorption o f t he P ictish k ingship w as m ade s o m uch t he e asier b ecause o f ap receding p rocess o f c ultural and l inguistic a bsorption. I ndeed, A lan L ane i n h is p aper i n t his v olume a rgues . t hat P ictish c ultura L i nfluence i s d iscernible i n D alriada p rior t o t he n inth c ent ury a nd s uggests t hat t his i s e vidence f or c ultural a malgamation o r m utual i nfluence b efore t he p olitical u nion. S econdly, i t n eeds to b e e xplained w hy d ominant G aelic-speakers e lected t o u se a h ybrid P ictishG aelic t ype o f p lace-name w hose P ictish e lement w as e ntirely n ovel, a nd a lso w hy a n umber o f t he p lace-names a re i n f act w holely P ictish. T hirdly, i t r emains t o b e i nvestigated t o w hat e xtent t he a ppearance o f G aelic i n t he e ast w as t he r esult o f l inguistic c hange a nd t o w hat e xtent t he e ffect o f p opulation m ovement. P resumably t he p ersonal n ames o f S cottish t ype a ppearing i n t he e ast s uggest t hat s ome d egree o f p opulation m ovem ent w as i nvolved, b ut o therwise t he e xclusively P ictish d istribution o f t he m ostly b ut n ot e ntirely h ybrid P it-name w ould s eem t o a rgue f or i ts u se ( but n ot n ecessarily i ts f irst u se) b y P ictish p eople a t at ime w hen t heir l anguage w as b eing r eplaced b y G aelic. T he h ybrid P ictishG aelic p lacenames c ould t hen b e s een a s t he s ubstitution o f aG aelic s econd e lement w hile t he P it-prefix w as r etained. O ne r eason w hy t he P it- e lement m ay h ave b een r etained i s t hat i t s ignified a s pecific i nstitution f or w hich n o G aelic w ord s ufficed. T here i s e vidence f or P it- b eing s ubstituted b y B al- i n m ore r ecent h istorical t imes, b ut o f c ourse b y t hose t imes i t i s p erfectly p ossible t hat t he i nstitution d efined b y P it- h ad w ithered a way s o t hat t he s urviving f arm b earing t he P it-name m ight j ust a s w ell b e c alled b y a B al-type n ame. W hittington ( 1975: 1 05) c omes t o t he c onclusion t hat t he P it-element o riginally p ossessed a ' land a ssessment c onnotation". H e p oints t o n umerous P it-names w hich s ignify s ubdivisions o f s omething l arger. B arrow ( 1973: 5 9) s omewhat s imilarly c oncluded t hat t he P itp lace w as a n e arlier e quivalent o f t he d avoch, t hough W hittington d oubts t heir p recise e quation. B oth a gree, h owever, t hat t he P it- p lacenames o riginated t o i ndicate a n e lement i n as ettlement h ierarchy, g enerally r anking a bove t he b asic f arm. P utting t ogether t hese c onclusions, o f w hich I a m p ersuaded, t he P it- p lacename s ignified a p lace o f g reater i mport t han a s imple f arm; i t w as a n e lement i n l and a ssessment, w hich i tself i mplies t he e xiste nce o f ah igher l evel o f o rganization; a nd i t w as a t ype o f p lacename a lready c urrent w hen G aelic w as r eplacing P ictish a s t he s poken l angu age i n t he e ast o f S cotland. I t i s i mpossible t o d iscover a t p resent h ow m uch e arlier t han t he G aelic r eplacement o f P ictish t he P it-names o riginated, b ut a gain W hittington ( 1975: 1 08) h as s ome a ttractive i deas t o o ffer. H e a rgues t hat t he P it-names i n a reas l ike t he L othians a nd o ver i n t he w est, f or e xample i n G leneig, m ay b e t he r elic o f a n e arly l and a ssessment s ystem w hich w as s wamped o ut, r ather t han t hat t hey w ere a l ate s pread o f t he p lace-names b eyond i ts o riginal a rea o f d ist ribution. H e n otes t hat t he N orse l anguage a nd c ulture w ould h ave e ntirely s wamped o ut t rue P it-names i n t he n orthern i sles a nd s uggests t hat G aelic D alriada w ould h ave h ad a s imilar e ffect i n t he w est, w hile t he A nglian a dvance o f t he s eventh c entury w ould h ave s imilarly a ffected t he L othians. I f t his l ine o f a rgument c ould b e s hown t o b e c orrect i t w ould t ake t he f ormation o f t he P it-names i n S cotland b ack t o av ery d istinctively e arlier p eriod t han t he n inth o r t enth c ent uries. 8 2

O ne m ay a lso n ote t he t endency d etected b y W hittington a nd S oulsby ( 1968: 1 24) f or t he P it-names t o c luster i n t he v icinity o f k nown e arly c entres o f p olitical i mportance s uch a s A bernethy, D unfermline a nd S t. A ndrews. W ere t hey c lustered a round t he c entres o f r oyal p ower b ecause t he p eople t o w hom t hey b elonged w ere t hemselves r elated t o t hat r oyal p ower? F inally t here i s o ne o ther a spect o f t he P it-names w hich d oes n ot s eem t o h ave a ttracted c omment, a nd t hat i s t he w ord P it- i tself, U nlike m any o ther p lacename e lements P it- i s n either t opographically n or f unctionally d escriptive: i t d oes n ot d enote ( so f ar a s w e a re t old) a f arm, o r at own, o r ah ill, o r a f ield, b ut s omething r ather n eutral l ike a p arcel o r ap iece ( of l and). O nce m ore I d escend t o m ere s pecu lation w hen I s uggest t hat p erhaps t he n ovelty o f t he P it-name w as t hat i t w as a p arcel o f l and, a n e state a s o pposed t o a f arm a nd t hat P it-names d enote t he g ranting o f e states o f v ariable a nd u sually n o g reat s ize a s p art o f t he c onsolidation o f P ictish r oyal p ower. T he q uestion p osed i n t he t itle o f t his p aper w as ' Where w ere t he P icts?' T here t hey a re, I s uggest, l iving o n i n t he s ame s ettlements w here t heir a ncestors t he p roto-Picts h ad l ived, g oing p atiently t hrough t he f ormative s tages o f s ocial, e conomic, a nd p olitical d evelopment t owards t he e mergence o f ap owerful k ingdom a nd a w idespread n ation. A nd t he c ore o f t hat d evelopment t ook p lace i n t hat v ery p art o f t he P ictish w orld, A ngus a nd t he M earns, w hich w as l ater c alled t he p ars p rincipalis o f t he P ictish k ingdom. T he q uestion b ecomes ' Why a re a rchaeological r esearchers a nd f ield-workers n ot i nterested? ' T he t heoretical a nd t echnical r ange o f a rchaeology h as i ncreased g reatly i n t he l ast t wo d ecades; i n t he N ear E ast a rchaeologists f all o ver e ach o ther, a ll e ager t o t ry t heir a dvanced t echniques a nd e levated t heories o f s ocial a rchaeology. W here i s t heir l ike h ere? O r i s i t t hat d eep d own w e p refer t he P icts o f o ur i magination? A re t he c omfort o f a rmchair r omance a nd t he i rrefutability o f t he q uick a nd e asy s pecu lation p referable t o t he s weat o f f ieldwork a nd t he s low a nd t roubles ome t oil o f i ntellectual e nquiry? It ake m y c losing q uotation f rom t he f oreword o f ac olourful n ovel o f t hat l iterary g enre, h istory l abelled s cience f iction; i t e pitomises o ur p reference f or t he r omance o f t he p ast. H ow c an I w ear t he h arness o f t oil A nd s weat a t t he d aily r ound, W hile i n m y s oul f orever T he d rums o f P ictdom s ound? ( Howard 1 976)

8 3

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D avidson, T .E. & M cKerrell, H . 1 976. " Pottery A nalysis a nd H alaf P eriod T rade i n t he K habur H eadwaters R egion." I raq 3 8 ( 1976), 4 5-56. , D avidson, T .E. & M cKerrell, H . " The N eutron A ctivation A nalysis o f H alaf a nd U baid P ottery f rom T ell A rpachiyah a nd T epe G awra." I raq 4 2 ( 1980). D avidson, T .E. & W atkins, T . 1 981. " The s easons o f e xcavation a t T ell A qab i n t he J ezirah, N .E. S yria." I raq 4 3 ( 1981): 1 -18. G realey, S . 1 972. " The S outerrains o f G reat B ritain a nd I reland." U npublished M A t hesis p resented t o t he U niversity o f L iverpool. H arding, D .W. ( ed) 1 982. " Later P rehistoric S ettlement E ast S cotland." O ccasional P aper o f t he D epartment U niversity o f E dinburgh. H ill,

i n t he S outh o f A rchaeology,

P .H. 1 981. " Towards a n ew c lassification o f p rehistoric h ouses. S cottish A rchaeological R eview 1 , P tl ( 1981), 2 4-31.

H oward,

R .E.

J ackson,

K .

J ackson, K . 1 29-66.

1 976. 1 953. 1 955.

" Worms o f t he E arth." L ondon. " Language a nd H istory o f E arly B ritain." E dinburgh. " The P ictish L anguage". i n F .T. W ainwright

1 955:

J ohnson, G .A. 1 973. " Local e xchange a nd e arly s tate d evelopment i n s outh w estern I ran." U niversity o f M ichigan M useum o f A nthropology, A nthropological P apers 5 1. A nn A rbor. J ohnson, G .A. 1 975. " Locational a nalysis a nd t he i nvestigation o f U ruk l ocal e xchange s ystems". I n S abloff a nd L amberg-Karlovsky ( eds.) 1 975. K endrick,

J .

1 980.

" Douglasmuir:

t he e xcavations o f a n e arly s ettlement 8 4

a nd N eolithic e nclosure 1 979-80: P reliminary R eport." S cottish D evelopment D epartment, E dinburgh. K endrick, J . 1 982. " Excavations a t D ouglasmuir, H arding, ( ed.) 1 982.

1 979-80." I n D .W.

K ohl, P . . 1 978. " The b alance o f t rade i n S outhwest A sia i n t he m idt hird m illennium." C urrent A nthropology 1 9 ( 1978): 4 63-92. L amberg-Karlovsky, C .C. 1 973. " Urban i nteraction o n t he I ranian p late au: e xcavations a t T epe Y ahya, 1 967-73." P roc. B rit. A cad. 5 9 ( 1973):

2 83-319.

M acRitchie, D . 1 900. " Description o f a n E arth-house a t P itcur, F orf arshire." P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. X XXIV ( 1899-1900): 1 78-97. M axwell, G .

1 975.

" Roman a nd N ative".

P aper p resented t o t he c onfer-

e nce R oman I mpact o n t he N orth, D urham. N icholas,

I .

1 981.

3 ( 1981):

" Investigating a n A ncient S uburb".

E xpedition 2 3,

3 9-47.

N icolaisen, W .F.H.

1 976.

" Scottish P lace-names, t heir s tudy a nd s igni-

f icance." L ondon. R itchie,

G . a nd R itchie, A .

1 981.

" Scotland, A rchaeology a nd E arly

H istory." L ondon. S abloff, J . & L amberg-Karlovsky, C .C. T rade." A lbuquerque, N ew M exico.

1 975.

" Ancient C ivilization a nd

S mall, A ., C ottam, M .B. a nd D unbar, J .G. 1 974. " Souterrain a nd l ater s tructures a t N orthwaterbridge, K incardineshire". P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. T homas,

1 05

A .C.

( 1972-4): 1 971.

2 93-6.

" The E arly C hristian A rchaeology o f N orth B ritain."

L ondon. T rigger,

B .J.

1 978.

" Time a nd T raditions: E ssays i n A rchaeological

I nterpretation." E dinburgh. W ainwright, F .T.

( ed).

1 955.

" The P roblem o f t he P icts." L ondon.

W ainwright, F .T.

1 963.

" The S outerrains o f S outhern P ictland." L ondon.

W atkins, T . 1 981a. " Excavations o f a n I ron A ge o pen s ettlement a t D alladies, K incardineshire". P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 10 ( 19788 0),

1 22-64.

W atkins, T . 1 981b. " Excavations o f a s ettlement a nd s outerrain a t N ewmill, B ankfoot, P erthshire". P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 10 ( 19788 0),, 1 65-208. W atson, W .J.

1 926.

" The H istory o f t he C eltic P lace-names o f S cotland."

E dinburgh. W hittington, G . 1 975. " Placenames a nd t he s ettlement p attern o f d arka ge S cotland." P roc. S oc. A ntigs. S cot. 1 06 ( 1974-75): 9 9-110. 6 5

W hittington, C . & S oulsby, J .A.

1 968.

" A P reliminary R eport o n a n

i nvestigation i nto P it P lace-names." 1 17-25.

S cott C eo M agazine 8 4 ( 1968):

W ilmsen E . ( ed.) 1 972. " Social E xchange a nd I nteraction." U niversity o f M ichigan M useum o f A nthropology. " A nthropological P apers 4 6. A nn A rbor. W right, H .T. 1 972. " A c onsideration o f i nterregional e xchange i n G reater M esopotamia: 4 000-3000 B C." I n W ilsem 1 972. W right, H .T. & J ohnson, G .A. 1 975. " Population, e xchange a nd e arly s tate-formation i n s outh w estern I ran." A merican A nthropologist 7 7 ( 1975): 2 67-89.

8 6

P ICTIS I I A ND O THER B URIALS J oanna C lose-Brooks " Almost e verything c oncerned w ith t he P icts h as f ormed t he s ubject o f c ontroversy a t s ome t ime o r o ther", ( Jackson 1 955, 1 29). T he f act t hat t here h as b een n o p articular c ontroversy a bout P ictish b urials c an o nly h ave b een d ue t o t he g eneral s carcity o f i nformation o n t his s ubject. W ainwright ( 1955, 8 7-8, 9 5-6) d iscussed P ictish g raves i n a f ew p aragraphs; h e c oncluded t hat b y t he h istorical P ictish p eriod i t s eemed p robable t hat l ong c ists w ere n ormally u sed f or i nhumations, t hough h e a lso n oted t hat m any b urials h ad b een r eported u nder, o r i n t he v icinity o f, P ictish s ymbol s tones. E xcavation a nd r ecording i n t he i ntervening p eriod h as a dded s omew hat t o o ur k nowledge, a nd s ome n ew t ype o f g raves h ave b een i dentified, b elonging t o t he P ictish o r p roto-Pictish p eriods. T his p aper a ttempts t o s ummarise t he p resent s tate o f k nowledge, b ut i t m ust b e e mphasised t hat t he s ituation i s c hanging y ear b y y ear a s e xcavation a nd f ieldwork c ontinues. B efore l ooking a t w hat i s k nown o f b urials i n t he h istoric al P ictish p eriod ( in s ay t he 6 th-9th c enturies A D), a q uick s urvey w ill b e m ade o f e arlier I ron A ge b urials, i ncluding t hese i n s outhern S cotland w hen e vidence f rom n orth o f t he F irth o f F orth i s l acking. S ince m any o f t he g raves u nder d iscussion h ave n ot c ontained a ny a rtefacts, r adio-carbon d ating i s a n i mportant f actor i n a ttempting t o e stablish a c hronological f ramework. A l ist o f r elevant d ates i s g iven i n A ppendix I . I n t he b ody o f t his p aper a ny r adio-carbon d ates m entioned a re u ncalibrated, a nd a re g enerally e xpressed a t t heir f ull r ange o f t wo s tandard d eviations. T he l atest k nown B ronze A ge b urials i n S cotland a re c remations; c remations i n u rns, c remations s imply p laced i n h oles i n t he g round, a nd f inally, c remations i n t he b ody o f k erb c airns. F ollowing t his i n t he l ast s ix o r s even c enturies B C i s ap eriod t o w hich i t h as n ot p reviously b een p ossible t o a ttribute a ny g raves f or c ertain. H owever, t he r ecent e xcavations a t B roxmouth h ilifort a nd D ryburn B ridge p alis aded e nclosure, b oth i n E ast L othian, h ave p rovided e xamples o f I ron A ge b urials d ated b y C 14, a nd t hese a re c rouched o r f lexed i nhumations i n g raves w hich f it i nto t he g eneral p attern o f I ron A ge b urial i n B ritain n ow c onveniently s ummarised b y W himster ( 1989). A t B roxmouth P eter H ill f ound a n umber o f i solated b urials o f t his k ind w ithin t he f ort, a nd h e a nd J ean C omrie a lso e xcavated a s mall c emetry o f n ine g raves j ust o utside t he o utermost d itch ( Hill 1 979; C omrie 1 979). A ll t he b odies, n ormally o f s ingle i ndividuals, w ere c rouched o r f lexed i n o val g raves; i n s everal c ases t he g raves w ere l ined w ith s tones, b ut t here w as l ittle a ttempt t o c onstruct a n eat r ectangular c ist ( fig. 1 ). S ix r adio-carbon d ates f rom t he B roxmouth c emetery s uggest t hat l t w as I n u se i n t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd c entury b c; w hile t wo i solated b urials w ithin B roxmouth f ort m ay b e o f t he s ame d ate o r e arlier. ( See A ppendix 1 ). J onathan T riscott h as e xcavated 8 7

F ig. 5 .1

B roxmouth, a g rave.

E ast L othian.

T hree s tages i n t he e xcavation o f

( Croon C opyright:

8 8

S cottish D evelopment D epartment).

ag roup o f t en s imilar g raves a t D ryburn B ridge ; C 14 d ates s uggest t hese d ate t o b etween t he 7 th a nd 3 rd c entury b c ( Triacott 1 982; A ppendix 1 ). S imilar g raves a re n ow k nown i n ' proto-Pictish ' t erritory. I n 1 980 J onathan W ordsworth f ound s ix c rouched b urials i n g raves b elow a l ong c ist c emetery a t K irkhill, S t. A ndrews, F ife. C iA d ates f or t hese a re a waited ( Wordsworth 1 981). I n t he e arly c enturies A D t he b urial r ite c hanged, a nd e xtended i nhumation b urial ( that i s, w ith t he b odies l aid o ut a f ull l ength) w as i ntroduced, w hether u nder n ative o r R oman i nfluence. T here w as a t f irst ag reat v ariety o f g rave s tructure, w ith b oth c rouched a nd e xtended i nhumations, t hough a fter a f ew c enturies e xtended b urial i n m ore o r l ess e xtensive c emeteries o f l ong c ists b uilt t o af airly s tandard p attern a ppears t o h ave b ecome t he g eneral r ule o ver m ost o f S cotland. T he i ntroduction o f t he e xtended r ite w as s hown a t B roxmouth b y o ne b urial w ithin t he f ort i n as imple d ug g rave w ith a C 14 d ate -p lacing i t w ithin t he 2 nd t o 4 th c entury a d ( see A ppendix 1 ). E lsewhere i n s outhern S cotland s ome d ozen o r s o g raves, g enerally i solated a nd m ost f ound i n t he p ast c entury, c an b e a ttributed t o t he f irst t wo o r t hree c enturies A D b y t heir g oods. A f ew e xamples w ill s how t he w ide v ariety o f g rave s tructure a nd r ite. A m assive c ist l ined w ith a m ixture o f s tone s labs a nd d ry s tone w alls w as f ound n ear D unbar i n 1 962, a nd c ontained t he j umbled r emains o f a t l east t wenty-one i ndividuals, w ith t races o f a p rimary c rouched i nhumation ( Longworth 1 965). I n t he c ist w ere t wo i ron p enannular b rooches a nd a n i ron s tud w ith r ed e namel, p erhaps d ating t o t he i st 2 nd c entury A D. As omewhat s imilar b urial o f a t l east 1 8 i ndividuals i n ar e-used c ist i n ac airn h as s ince b een f ound a t B eadnell, N orthu mberland, w ith a b ronze p enannular b rooch o f t he 1 st t o 3 rd c enturies A D ( Jobey 1 966). A l ong g rave l ined w ith b oulders a t B urnmouth, B erwickshire h eld t he f lexed i nhumation o f a n a dult m ale, w ith p ig b ones, a nd i ron d agger, a nd t wo o f t hose d ecorated b ronze o bjects k nown t o a rchaeologists a s " spoons", t his p air d ated b y M orna M acGregor ( 1976, 1 44-5) t o t he 2 nd h alf o f t he 1 st c entury A D ( Craw 1 924). A nother b oulder-lined c ist a t C amelon, S tirlingshire h eld a c rouched i nhumation w ith a n i ron s word ( Breeze, C lose-Brooks a nd R itchie, 1 976, 7 7). B urials -

i n s hort c ists b uilt o f f our s labs, a nd p resumably w ith c rouched i nh umations, i nclude o ne a t M oredun, E dinburgh w ith a n i ron p enannular b rooch, a p rojecting r ing-headed p in, a nd a n i ron d olphin b rooch p rob ably o f t he 2 nd c entury A D ( Coles, 1 904); t he r emains o f a nother s tone c ist a t C amelon, S tirlingshire h ad h eld t wo e xtended b odies, a ccomp anied b y t wo i ron s pears, a s word w ith a rched h ilt g uard a nd a r ound i ron s hield b oss; p ossibly t he b urial o f n ative B ritons s erving i n a R oman a uxiliary r egiment i n t he l ater 1 st c entury A D ( Breeze, C loseB rooks a nd R itchie 1 976). T hese v aried t raditions r eappear i n t he e arly c enturies A D i n F ife a nd A ngus. A t C raigie, A ngus w hat s eems t o h ave b een a s lab-built l ong c ist w ith e xtended i nhumation a lso h eld a n i ron p enannular b rooch, p erhaps d ating t o t he 2 nd o r 3 rd c entury A D ( Hutcheson, 1 903). A t A irlie, • Angus, a s hort c ist h eld a c rouched o r f lexed i nhumation w ith a R oman g lass c up ( Davidson, 1 886). A t T arland, A berdeenshire, a b adly r ecorded f ind s eems t o h ave b een a c ist o f s ome k ind, w ith h uman b one, as ilver p enannular b rooch, g lass a nd p ebble g aming-pieces a nd a m inia ture b ronze c auldron ( Callendar, 1 915). M ost r ecently, E dwina P roud-

8 9

F ig. 5 .2

D istribution o f s quare-ditched g raves f rom a erial p hotog raphs, i ncluding B oysack M ills ( BM); a lso G arbeg ( G) a nd W hitebridge ( W).

9 0

f oot 's e xcavations a t H allowhill, F ife, h ave l ed t o t he r ediscovery o f as mall c ist, e mptied b y t he V ictorians, w hich h ad h eld a R oman g lass v essel a nd o ther o bjects, n ow l ost, a nd t he b urial o f ac hild. S he a lso f ound a n ew a nd m ost i nteresting b urial i n w hat m ay b e d esc ribed a s am assive c ist, b ut w ithout e nd s labs. T here m ay h ave b een a n u pper b urial, n ow l ost; b ut b elow t he f loor s lab w as t he b urial o f ay oung c hild a ccompanied b y ac urious c ollection o f s mall o bjects i ncluding a R oman s eal-box w ith m illefiori l id, p erhaps a ll b uried t ogether i n ab ag o r p urse, a nd v ery r eminiscent o f o bjects i n p urses f ound i n s ome A nglo-Saxon g raves. T he d ate o f t hese H allowhill c ists i s u nknown a t t he m oment, a s i s t heir r elationship t o t he s urrounding l ong c ists d iscussed b elow ( Proudfoot, 1 976, 1 977). T wo i rregularly b uilt s hort c ists f ound a t G oispie, S utherland, m ay b elong t o t his g roup; t he s mall f ragments o f c lay m oulds f ound i n o ne o f t hem c an o nly b e d ated l oosely a s I ron A ge o r D ark A ge ( Woodham a nd M ackenzie 1 957). A t otally n ew d evelopment i n g rave a rchaeology o ver r ecent y ears h as b een t he i dentification o n a ir p hotographs o f s ingle g raves s urr ounded b y s quare d itches, g enerally o ccuring i n s mall g roups i n p loughe d f ields o ften a ccompanied b y a pparently s imilar g raves w ithin r ound d itches. P resumably t he d itches p rovided m aterial f or a c overing m ound o ver t he g rave, b ut f or t he p resent t hese m onuments w ill b e r eferred t o a s " square-ditched g raves" r ather t han " barrows". S ome s ites h ave b een n oted o n p hotographs t aken b y t he C ambridge C ommittee f or A erial P hotography, a nd m any o thers o n p hotographs b y t he R oyal C ommission o n A ncient M onuments f or S cotland. S ixteen s ites a re l isted i n A ppendix 2 . T hey f all b roadly s peaking i nto t wo g roups, o ne r ound t he T ay e stuary w ith a c oncentration i n t he L unan V alley a nd o ne o n t he s outh s ide o f t he M oray F irth ( fig 2 ). T he s ite a t F orteviot h as b een p ublished w ith d rawings b y S t. J oseph ( 1978) a nd A lcock ( 1979) a nd a p hotograph o f Coftgowan p ublished b y M axwell ( 1978, p 122). O n m any o f t hese s ites o nly o ne o r t wo s quare-ditched g raves a re n ow a pparent. H owever, a t C roftgowan, I nverness-shire a nd a t I nvergighty C ottage, A ngus ( fig 3 ) ac onsiderable n umber o f d itched g raves a re v isible, b oth r ound a nd s quare, t hough i t i s n ot a lways p ossible t o d istinguish t he s hape. T here a re a t l east f ifteen d itched g raves i n t he p loughed a rea a t C roftgowan, p robably m ore, a nd o thers m ay l ie u nder t he a djoining g rassland. T here s eem t o b e a t l east t wenty c ert ain d itched g raves a t I nvergighty w ith t he p robability o f o thers. O n a ll s ites i t i s p ossible t hat r elatively s hallow d itches c ould h ave b een c ompletely d estroyed b y c ultivation. W hile o n a ll s ites m ost o f t he g raves a re q uite w idely s paced t here a re s everal i nstances o f t wo a djoining s quare-ditched g raves w ith o ne c ommon s ide, a nd a t I nvergighty t here a ppears t o b e ag roup o f f our f orming a s quare. A n u nusual f eature n oted a t t he t hree s ites i n I nverness-shire i s t he d istinct g aps v isible a t t he c orners o f s ome s quare d itches ( RCAMS . 1 979, 1 2). M ost o f t he d itched g raves s een o n t he p hotos s eem t o b e a pproximately 5 m 1 1 ma cross ( measured w ithin t he d itches) t hough s ome o f t he c ircular d itches a t I nvergighty a re l arger, u p t o a bout -

1 4 m i nternal d iameter. O ne s ite h as b een e xcavated. A t B oysack M ills, A ngus, D iana R eynolds e xcavated o ne s quare d itch a nd o ne r ing d itch, a nd p arts o f t wo o thers, a ll a bout t o b e d estroyed b y g ravel q uarrying ( Reynolds

9 1

F ig. 5 .3

I nvergighty, A ngus. A erial p hotograph o f s quare- a nd r ound-ditched g raves. ( Crown C opyright: N ational M onuments R ecord f or S cotland).

9 2

' . ,

# . 2

•

5 11. 7L )

0 5

© I NC i1L5 I2 0

1 i

5

' 0

1 5

2 0

3 2 F EET

2 3

©

I II

F ig. 5 .4

B oysack M ills, A ngus. S quare d itched g rave u nder e xcavation. ( Crown C opyright: S cottish D evelopment D epartment).

F ig. 5 .5

A ckergill, C aithness.

P lan o f c airns 9 3

( from E dwards 1 926).

1 976; R CAMS 1 978, 9 ). N o t race o f a ny c overing m ounds r emained, b ut t he s ite h ad b een h eavily p loughed. T he c omplete s quare d itch, a bout 5 ms quare, s urrounded a n e xceptionally d eep g rave p it ( fig 4 ).Halfway d own w ere a n umber o f l arge b oulders , a nd a t t hQ , b ottom a n e xtended b urial w ith a n i ron p in o n t he s houlder i n t he r emains o f aw ooden c offin. T his p in h as b een X -rayed b y t he C onservation L aboratory o f t he N ationa l M useum o f A ntiquities o f S cotland a nd s hown t o b e a t ypical p rojecti ng r ing-headed p in. D ating i s d ifficult. S imilar p ins, i ron o r b ronze, h ave b een f ound a ll o ver S cotland b ut r arely i n d ateable c ont exts ( Clarke 1 971). T he e vidence f rom T raprain L aw s uggests a d ate f or s uch p ins i n t he i st 2 nd c entury A D, o r p erhaps e ven t he 3 rd c entury, b ut n o l ater; a nd t he s imilar p in f rom M oredun, m entioned a bove, w as i n ag rave w ith w hat i s t hought t o b e a i st o r 2 nd c entury R oman b rooch. S o t his B oysack g rave m ay d ate t o t he i st o r 2 nd, o r p ossibly 3 rd c entury A D, t he o nly d ating e vidence s o f ar f or t he s ixt een s ites i dentified o n a ir p hotographs. ( A C 14 d ate c entring o n t he 1 0th c entury A D w as o btained f rom f ragments o f c harcoal i n t he u pper f ill o f t he B oysack M ills g rave, b ut t his i s c learly u nreliable. M rs. R eynolds a lso f ound t iny s herds o f N eolithic p ottery i n ar ound d itch a t B oysack M ills, b ut t hese m ay b e r ubbish s urvival). -

E ver s ince t he d iscovery o f t hese d itched g raves, t heir r esemblance t o t he s quare b arrows o f t he A rras c ulture i n Y orkshire h as b een r emarked o n, a nd p ossible c onnections d iscussed ( Maxwell 1 978; W himster 1 980; A shmore 1 980). T he e arly d ate o f t he B oysack g rave m akes a d irect l ink w ith t he Y orkshire c emeteries e ven m ore p lausible t han h ad p reviously s eemed p ossible. M oreover, t he e xcavations a t B urton F leming h ave s hown a c hange f rom f lexed o r c rouched i nhumations i n s hallow g raves s urrounded b y d eep s quare d itches, a nd g enerally o rientated N -S, t o e xtended i nhumations i n d eeper g raves o rientated E -W, a nd w ith s hallower d itches ( Stead 1 979; W himster 1 980, 9 7, 1 03, 1 07-8). T his c hange m ay h ave t aken p lace a round t he f irst c entury B C, a nd i t i s t he l ater s eries o f e xtended i nhumations t hat s eem c losest t o t he S cottish c emeteries, a gain m aking a d irect l ink a p ossibility. O nly a f ew e mig rants m ight h ave b een n eeded t o i ntroduce t he n ew g rave r ite, s o t he a pparent l ack o f ac orresponding i nflux o f L ate L a J ene m etal t ypes i n n orthern S cotland n eed n ot b e a p roblem. H ow l ong s uch d itched g rave c emeteries c ontinued i s a t p resent u nclear. I f t here i s ad irect l ink b etween t he Y orkshire s quare-ditched g raves a nd t he S cottish o nes, a t w hatever d ate i n t he e arly c enturies B C o r A D, t he p ossibility e xists t hat t here m ay b e ac art o r c hariot b urial s omewhere i n S cotland. S uch b urials m ight e ven b e r ecognisable o n a ir p hotographs a s r ather l arge-sized g rave p its. T he m ost t ypical a nd w idespread t ype o f g rave f ound i n D ark A ge S cotland i s t he l ong c ist. I t o ccurs i n as tandardised s ize a nd s hape w hich c ontrasts w ith t he w ide v ariety o f b urial r ite s een e arlier. I n a l ong c ist g rave t he i nhumed b ody, w ithout g rave g oods, i s e xtended i n a n arrow f ull-length g rave, l ined, r oofed a nd o ften f loored w ith f lat s tone s labs, s everal s labs s et v ertically b eing u sed t o f orm t he l ong s ides. T he c ists a re g enerally o rientated E -W w ith t he h ead t o t he w est, a nd m ay b e f ound i n c emeteries o f u p t o s everal h undred g raves. I n t hese c emeteries t he g raves m ay b e a rranged i n r egular r ows, e ither s ide b y s ide o r e nd t o e nd. L ong c ist c emeteries a re g enerally f ound a t s ome d istance f rom t he n earest p arish c hurch; o ften i n t he m iddle o f a f lat f ield o r o pen c ountry, t heir e xistence q uite u nknown

9 4

u ntil r evealed b y p loughing, r oadworks, o r q uarrying. T he l ast d etailed s urvey w as b y A udrey H enshall ( 1956). S he d efined c emeteries, f or t he p urpose o f h er p aper, a s g roups o f s ix o r m ore l ong c ists, a d efinition f ollowed h ere. T he l ist a nd m ap s he p repared s hows t hat m ost o f t he k nown c emeteries w ere i n S E S cotland, i n t he B , ritish t erritory o f L othian, a nd i n t he P ictish a reas o f F ife a nd A ngus. O utwith t his , a rea, a nd n orth o f t he F orth-Clyde i sthmus, s he n oted o nly t wo a ctual c emeteries o f l ong c ists, a t G alson, L ewis a nd t he B rough o f B irsay, O rkney. D ates f or l ong c ist c emeteries, i n t he a bsence o f g rave g oods, h ave b een l argely a m atter o f g uesswork. T hey a re g enerally a ssumed t o b e C hristian, t hough S tevenson(1952), H enshall ( 1956) a nd o thers h ave p ointed o ut t his n eed n ot n ecessarily b e s o i n e very c ase; a nd m ost a re t hought t o h ave g radually g one o ut o f u se a s b urial w as . c oncentrated a t s ites w hich l ater b ecame m edieval p arish c hurches. C ertainly t he a bandonment o f s o m any l ong c ist c emeteries i mplies a c hange i n t he l ocation o f t he p opulation a s s uggested b y W atkins ( this v olume, p p63-86). H enshall s uggested t hat l ong c ist c emeteries a re m ost l ikely t o d ate w ithin t he 6 th t o 9 th c enturies A D, t hough s ome i n t he L othians a nd B orders, s uch a s t hose a t t he C atestane a nd a t Y arrow w hich a re a pparently l inked t o s tones w ith E arly C hristian i nscriptions, p erhaps s tarted i n t he 5 th c entury A D, a nd w ere c onnected w ith t he p re-Columban c hurch. L ong c ist c emeteries a re k nown i n W ales, C ornwall, t he I sle o f M an a nd I reland, a nd a lso s eem t o b e o f D ark A ge d ate. A t B alladoole, I sle o f M an, B ersu e xcavated a g roup o f t ypical l ong c ists w hich w ere o verlain b y aV iking b urial c airn ( Bersu a nd W ilson 1 966). M ost d iscoveries i n S cotland s ince 1 956 h ave a gain b een i n t he s outh e ast w here y et m ore l ong c ist c emeteries h ave b een n oted. A n i mportant d evelopment h as b een t he s ystematic e xcavation o f t wo l arge c emeteries. T revor C owie ( 1978) h as p ublished h is e xcavation o f s ome f ifty g raves i n t he c emetery a djoining t he C atestane a t E dinburgh a irp ort. T hough s ome g raves h ad b een e mptied i n t he 1 9th c entury, . h e o btained f ive C 14 d ates f rom a s mall g roup o f c ists o n t he e ast s ide o f t he c emetery. T hree d ates c entred o n t he 5 th c entury a d a nd t wo o n t he 7 th c entury; h owever i n v iew o f t he a pparent c ontemporaneity o f t his g roup i t m ay b e b est t o l ook a t t he a rea w ithin w hich t he d ates o verlap w hich w ould g ive a d ate i n t he 5 th o r 6 th c enturies a d; p erhaps e arlier t han e xpected b ut i nterestingly c lose t o t he d ate s uggested f or t he i nscription o n t he C atestane ( Rutherford a nd R itchie 1 974, 1 84). E dwina P roudfoot h as r ecently d ug s ome 1 40 g raves i n t he l ong c ist c emetery a t H allowhill, n ear S t. A ndrews, F ife; g raves w hich p robably q ualify a s P ictish b urials ( Proudfoot 1 976, 1 977). S o f ar t here a re n o C 14 d ates f rom t his c emetery, b ut t hey w ill b e o btained o nce t he m ass o f s keletal m aterial h as b een w orked t hrough. T hough l ong c ist g raves d o n ot n ormally y ield a rtefacts, e xcavation o n s uch a s cale a s t his s hould f or t he f irst t ime p roduce s ome e vidence a bout p opulation a ge g roups, d isease a nd s o o n i n P ictish s ociety. A mong t he l ong c ists a t H allowhill w ere a f ew u ncisted b urials, at ype C harles T homas ( 1971) c alls d ug g raves. C emeteries o f u ncisted g raves o f D ark A ge d ate a re k nown i n s outh w est S cotland, a s a t S t.

9 5

N inian 's P oint, B ute, A rdwall I sle, K irkcudbrightshire a nd C amphill, T rohoughton, D umfriesshire. H owever, t he r ecent e xcavations a t K irkh ill, S t. A ndrews, h ave r evealed a l arge c emetery o f d ug g raves, o nly a bout t wo m iles f rom H allowhill ( Wordsworth 1 981). I n t his c emetery t here a re o nly t wo l ong c ists i n t he m iddle o f a l ong s equence o f d ug g raves t hat p robably c ontinued, i n t he a rea e xcavated, t o t he 1 4th c entury 1 W. T wo e arly d ug g raves f rom K irkhill h ave C 14 d ates t hat p lace t hem i n t he 7 th o r 8 th c enturies A D, f irmly i n t he P ictish p eriod. S o u nless a ll t he g raves a t H allowhill a re e arlier t han this, w hich i s a p ossibility, t he t wo c emeteries m ust o verlap i n t ime. I f t hey d o t he s ignificance o f t he d ifferent b urial r ite i s u nknown. B ut w hat o f P ictish b urials o utside F ife, A ngus a nd P erthshire? I s l ong c ist b urial t he r egular p ractice e lsewhere? D espite a s tubborn n on-appearance o f l ong c ists i n t he G rampian r egion, t he a nswer d oes a ppear t o b e y es, a t l east i n t he n orth a nd w est. A f ew m ore a ctual c emeteries o f l ong c ists c an n ow b e a dded t o t he o riginal l ist, f or i nstance t hose a t S t. N inian 's I sle, S hetland ( Small e t a l, 1 973) S aevar H owe, O rkney ( Hedges e t a l, 1 980, 2 -3) a nd K eiss, C aithness ( Laing 1 866). G roups o f l ess t han s ix c ists a ctually s een b y a rchaeol ogists, b ut w ith r umours o f m ore, i nclude t hose a t G airloch, W ester R oss ( Stevenson, 1 952) a nd a t D unrobin i n S utherland ( Close-Brooks 1 980, 3 34). S ites w here o ne o r t wo l ong c ists h ave b een f ound i n p otentially D ark A ge c ontexts i nclude B uckquoy, O rkney ( Ritchie 1 977, 1 83-4); a n i ntriguing e xample a t S yre, S trathnaver, S utherland w hich i s s aid t o h ave h ad n o l ess t han s ix s mall c ross-slabs u sed a s c aps tones ( RCAMS 1 911, 6 9-70) a nd a n umber f ound o n b roch s ites b ut i n p ost-broch c ontexts. T hese o ccurred f or i nstance i n t he r ecent e xcav ations a t C rosskirk ( Fairhurst 1 971) a nd i n o ld e xcavations a t B rauna ban a nd a t W ester B roch, K eiss, a ll i n C aithness ( RCAMS 1 911, 1 52, 1 534 ). T here i s, h owever, a c hance t hat s ome i solated l ong c ists i n t he n orth a nd w est a re N orse. E ven i n t he G rampian r egion, w here n o l ong c ists h ave p reviously b een n oted, r esearch f or t he R oyal C ommission 's L ist o f A rchaeological S ites a nd M onuments i n s outh K incardine ( RCAMS 1 982) h as p roduced r ecords o f l ong c ists a t C ushnie, G allowhill, I nverb ervie, J ohnshaven a nd W est M ondynes ( RCAMS 1 982). O ld r ecords o f " cists", t ype u nspecified, m ay L onceal y et m ore g roups o f l ong c ists i n t he G rampian r egion a nd e lsewhere. T he s ignificance o f i solated l ong c ists i s s urely t hat t he c ontemporary c emeteries, w hen w e f ind t hem, w ill a lso b e o f l ong c ists. S o n ot o nly f or t he P icts o f l owland c entral S cotland, b ut f or L eslie A lcock 's P eripheral P icts o f t he N orth a nd W est o f S cotland ( Alcock 1 979), l ong c ist b urial w as t he s tandard r ite. O ne m ust p erhaps e nter h ere a n ote o f c aution a bout O rkney a nd S hetland. I n t he N orthern I sles, b urial i n s hort c ist s eems t o h ave l asted s urprisingly l ong, c ertainly w ell i nto t he B ronze A ge a nd p erh aps i nto t he e arly I ron A ge. A n e ven l ater d ate i s s uggested b y 1 9th c entury r eports o f s hort c ists e xcavated b y t he l ocal f armer a bove t he r uins o f O xtro B roch o n O rkney ( Hedges 1 980, 4 9-50), w hile s hort c ists w ith c rouched s keletons w ere p ossibly o f I ron A ge d ate a t S t. N inian 's I sle, S hetland ( Small e t a l, 1 973, 6 -7). I f t he O xtro e vidence i s c orrect, a nd i t i s n ot w holly c onvincing, s hort c ists m ay h ave c ontinu ed i nto t he f irst f ew c enturies A D i n O rkney a nd S hetland t o b e s ucc eeded b y l ong c ists a s t he P icts b ecame C hristian. T his a ccount o f l ong c ist c emeteries h as e vaded m ost o f t he t horny 9 6

q uestions o f t heir o rigin, d ate, a nd r elation t o t he e arly C hristian c hurch i n P ictland. T here i s m uch r esearch t o b e d one o n t hese p rob lems, b ut p referably w ith t he h elp o f f uture e xcavations-and m ore r adio-carbon d ates. A n i mportant n ew d evelopment i n r ecent y ears h as b een t he r ecogn ition o f a n umber o f s ites w here l ow s tone c airns, s quare o r r ound i n p lan w ith c arefully l aid k erbs, h ave b een b uilt o ver l ong c ist g raves. I n s everal c ases a n umber o f o ther l ong c ists, w ithout c airns, w ere a lso f ound. I n t hree i nstances P ictish s ymbol s tones h ave b een f ound o n t he c airns, t hough i n t wo o f t hese n o g raves a re y et i dentified, a nd i n n o c ase c ould a c ertain o riginal a ssociation o f s ymbol s tone a nd c airn b e p roved. ( The w riter b elieves c lass I s ymbol s tones t o d ate f rom t he l ater 7 th c entury A D a nd t o b e C hristian). P atrick A shmore ( 1980) h as r ecently l isted t hese s ites a nd d iscussed t heir s ignific ance. T he c emetery a t A ckergill, C aithness w as e xcavated i n 1 925-6 ( Edwards 1 926, 1 927). A t t he t ime i t w as t hought t o b e o f V iking a ge, b ecause o f a b ronze c hain w ith b and-shaped l inks f ound r ound t he n eck o f o ne s keleton. I ngmar J ansson ( in a l etter) w rites t hat h e h as t ried h ard t o f ind n orthern p arallels f or t his c hain, b ut c oncludes t hat t he A ckergill c hain i s t oo s imple, a nd t he u se o f o rnamental c hains t oo w idespread, t o a llow a ny c ertain c onclusion a s t o i ts d ate a nd p rovenance. H e d oes n ot, h owever, s ee a ny r eason t o m aintain a S cand inavian, F innish, o r E ast B altic o rigin. I f t hen t he g raves n eed n ot b e V iking, w hat a re t hey? A nna R itchie ( 1974) w as t he f irst t o s uggest t hat t his m ay b e a P ictish c emetery, a nd n ew d iscoveries h ave m ade t his v irtually c ertain. A t A ckergill E dwards d ug i nto w hat h e c alled a m ound, p robably a s and-dune, a nd f ound s even s quare o r r ectangular c airns, i n t wo g roups, t wo s eparate l ong c ists, a nd a n i solated r ound c airn s ome 5 .5 m i n d iam eter ( fig. 6 ). B uilt i nto t he b ody o f t he r ound c airn w as a n u nusually m assive c ist 713 " ( 2.2 m ) l ong, w ith d ry s tone w alls w hich c ontained f our s keletons a t v arious l evels, t hree e xtended a nd o ne f lexed, t he u pper b urial b eing a w oman w ith t he b ronze c hain r ound h er n eck. C ould t here b y a ny c onnection b etween t his b urial a nd t he m ultiple b urials a t D unbar a nd B eadnell m entioned a bove? I n t he a bsence o f r adio-carbon d ates f rom A ckergill w e s hall p robably n ever k now, b ut t he p ossibility m ust j ust b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he r ound c airn i s o f ad ifferent d ate t o t he r ectangular c airns. M oreover, a f ragment o f b ronze c hain f rom t he R oman f ort a t N ewstead, a nd s o d ating t o t he I st o r 2 nd c entury A D ( in t he N ational M useum, c at. n o. E RA 9 65) p rovides a c lose p arallel f or t he A ckergill c hain. P arts o f t wo P ictish s ymbol s tones w ere f ound o n t he s andy m ound, t hough n ot a ssociated w ith g raves, a nd b oth a re n ow i n t he N ational M useum. O ne s lab h as a r ectangle s ymbol, p art o f a f ish a nd p art o f a n o gam i nscription o n i t. T his r eads, u nintelligibly, f rom t he b otton u pwards, N EHTETRI---, t hen i t i s b roken o ff. T he o ther i s as mall f ragment o f a t hinner s lab, w ith a r ectangle o n i t. T he s quare o r r ectangular c airns a t A ckergill w ere c arefully c onstructed a nd a ll c overed o ne o r m ore l ong c ists, v ariously o rient ated ( figs 5 -7). T he b ody o f t he c airns w as c omposed o f b oulders a t t he b ottom w ith p ebbles a bove, a nd t he k erbs w ere e ither s labs l aid

9 7

F ig. 5 .6

A ckergill, 1 927).

C aithness.

P lan o f c emetery

9 8

( after E dwards 1 926,

i n h orizontal c ourses o r s labs s et v ertically o n t heir l ong e dges. T he c orners o f t he g rave w ere e mphasised b y t all p ost-shaped s labs s et v ertically, a nd i n s ome i nstances a n e xtra s lab w as s et u pright i n t he m iddle o f t he l ong s ides. S ome c ists w ere c onstructed i n t he b ody o f t he c airn, s ome s everal f eet b elow. A ll t he s urviving b odies w ere e xtended, b ut i n t wo c ases o ne i n a r ound c airn, l ay o n t heir l eft s ides. A ll t he c airns w ere v ery l ow a nd f lat, b etween o ne a nd t wo f eet h igh ( only t he c ircular c airn, s ome 1 .50 m h igh, i s a gain a n e xception). S ome g eneral n ame i s n eeded t o d escribe t his g roup o f l ow, t hough n ot n ecessarily s mall, c airns, a nd I p ropose t o c all t hem p latform c airns, a n ame u sed b y H ogg ( 1977) i n aW elsh c ontext d iscuss ed b elow. T wo s quare p latform c airns, e xtraordinarily s imilar t o t hose a t A ckergill, w ere e xcavated b y G erald B igelow a t S andwick o n U nst, S hetl and i n 1 978 a nd 1 980. ( Bigelow, t his v olume, p pll5-130) . s imilarity t o t he A ckergill c airns e xtends t o t he c airn m aterial w ith p ebbles c overing b oulders, t he n eat s lab-built k erbs a nd t he p rominent s tones s et v ertically a t t he c orners a nd i n t he c entres o f t he s ides. T he C 14 d ate f or t he e xtended b urial o f aw oman l ying o n h er l eft s ide i n t he f irst c airn s uggests i t w as b uilt i n t he 4 th, 5 th o r 6 th c enturies A D. P arts o f t wo f lat, r oughly c ircular c airns w ith d ry s tone-walls h ave b een e xcavated a t B irsay o n O rkney b y C hris M orris ( this v olume p p 1 35-144). B oth c airns c overed b urials i n l ong c ists, a nd i n o ne t he e xtended s keleton l ay o n i ts s ide. S tratigraphy s uggests t he c airns b elong t o t he P ictish p eriod i n O rkney. T hey r esemble c airns a t W atenan a nd K eiss d escribed b elow. I n C aithness, t he c emetery a t A ckergill h as a lready b een d escribed. E dwards ( 1926) a nd A shmore ( 1980) h ave a lso d rawn a ttention t o d iscove ries i n s and-dunes o n K eiss L inks ( Laing 1 866). D igging i n t he s maller o f t wo m ounds k nown a s t he B irkle H ills, L aing f ound a s ymbol s tone i n s ome s ort o f r ectangular s tructure. I n t he l arger m ound, h e f ound a t l east e ight s traightforward l ong c ists, w hile o thers h ad b een d estroyed p reviously. O ne l ong c ist, w hich h e c alls t he c hief's k ist, w as c overed b y ac ircular c airn s ome 5 .4 m i n d iameter ( fig. 8 ). T his h ad a n eatly m ade d rystone k erb a nd t he b ody o f t he c airn, t hough i t l ooks l ike s and i n t he i llustration, i s d escribed b y L aing a s b eing o f s tones ' disposed w ith s ome c are' t owards t he c entre. T his g rave c an p robably b e a ccepte d a s a nother p latform c airn r elated t o, t hough l arger t han, t he c ircul ar c airns a t B irsay. T he s tructures a t G arrywhin, d escribed i n t he C aithness I nventory ( RCAMS 1 911, 1 68-9) a nd p ut f orward b y E dwards a nd A shmore a s a f urther p arallel, s eem m ore d oubtful. T he d escription s uggests a g roup o f s hort c ists a nd a h ut c ircle, n ot a g roup o f l ong c ists a nd a p latform c airn. S till i n C aithness,

p art o f as ymbol s tone w as f ound l ying o n a

s mall c airn o f s tones n ear L och W atenan i n 1 979 ( Gourlay, t his v olume p p 1 31-133). I nvestigation o f t his f ind h as s hown t he c airn t o b e a f lat, m ore o r l ess r ound s tructure, a bout 3 .50 m i n d iameter, w ith t wo o r t hree c ourses o f n eat d ry-stone k erbing s howing t hrough t he p eat, a ppare ntly s imilar i n s ize a nd c onstruction t o t he c airns a t B irsay d escribed a bove. T he f ragment o f s ymbol s tone h as p art o f ac rescent a nd V -rod s ymbol o n i t

( fig 7 .1).

I n 1 977 a P ictish s ymbol s tone w as p loughed u p i n a f ield n ear

9 9

'

:

_

_

.

.

/ r / 1 7 44 /

5F EET

F

@

5CT ION A -A

5LCT I ON I NChLSI2

0

C -C 5

1 0 FE ET

-

:'

• -

F ig. 5 .7

A ckergill, C aithness. S ections o f c airns ( from E dwards 1 926, 1 927). T he c rosses i n C airn 6 m ark t he p osition o f s keletons.

F ig. 5 .8

K eiss, C aithness

( from L aing 1 866).

1 00

s ymbo l s t one

e dge o f s and l e ve l

©

3m e t re s

A

V

F ig. 5 .9

E I )

D unrobin, S utherland

1 01

B

C

( from C lose-Brooks 1 980).

D unrobin C astle, i n S utherland. I t h ad o n i t ad ouble d isc s ymbol, as nake a nd Z -rod, a nd a m irror a nd c omb; a ll a pparently w ell d rawn a nd s o p robably e arly i n t he s eries o f s ymbol s tones. T his s lab i s n ow i n D unrobin C astle M useum. A nother s ymbol s tone, f ound n earby i n 1 854, h ad b een r e-used a s o ne c apstone o f a l ong c ist, s o a s hort r escue e xcavation w as u ndertaken ( Close-Brooks 1 980). T he symbol s tone h ad b een f ound i n an ewly p loughed f ield c lose t o t he e dge o f t he s ea, a nd n ear a t rack w hich, f or g eographical r easons, w as t he m ain a nd i ndeed o nly r oad t o C aithness u ntil t he 1 9th c entury A D, s o t he s tone m ay o nce h ave s tood n ear a P ictish r oad o n t he s ame l ine. E xcavation r evealed t he r emains o f a l ong, l ow, r ectangular c airn, a bout 9 .50 m l ong a nd 7 m w ide, a ligned p arallel t o t he s hore ( fig 9 ) T wo s ides o f t he c airn h ad b een r obbed a way i n t he p ast, a nd t he t op s everely d amaged b y t he d eep t ractor p loughing t hat r evealed t he s ymbol s tone. I n t he c entre o f t he c airn w as a c ist g rave d ug i nto t he n atural g ravel, i ts c apstones p artially c ollapsed i nwards, c ontaining t he e xtended i nhumation o f a n a dult f emale. T he c airn, s o f ar a s i t s urvived, w as b uilt o f al ayer o f c lean y ellow s and c overed b y p ebbles, w ith a v ery c rude k erb m ade o f b oulders a nd s labs, s ome p itched o bliquely . N o s ocket f or t he s ymbol s tone c ould b e f ound, b ut i t s urely s tood u pright o n t he c airn o riginally. A s a l ow, k erbed m ound o ver a n e xtend ed b urial i n a c ist t his m onument c ompares w ell w ith t he o thers i n t his g roup, t hough i t d iffers i n i ts l arger s ize ( the l ong c airn a t A ckergill w as o nly a bout 6 m etres l ong) a nd i n i ts v ery c rude k erb. C 14 d ates f rom t he s keleton s uggest t he b urial t ook p lace i n t he 6 th 7 th o r 8 th c enturies A D. A nother s trange s ite i n S utherland m ay b e i rrelevant, b ut t here i s j ust a f aint p ossibility t hat i t i s l inked t o t he s quare c airns u nder r eview. C alled " Lettie's G rave"it w as p ut i n a m iscellaneous c ategory i n t he S utherland i nventory, n ot s urprisingly, a s i t f alls i nto n o o bvious c lass ( RCAMS 1 911, 1 82). I t s tands h idden a mong b racken o n a h illside n ear R ogart i n S utherland. I t c onsists o f t wo s quare e nclosures m easuring a bout 1 .5 x 1 .75 m , o utlined b y a k erb o f s labs l aid o n t heir l ong e dges, a nd a p ossible t race o f a t hird e nc losure. O ne e nclosure h as s tone ' posts' s tanding a t t wo c orners, b ut t here i s n o s ign o f c airn m aterial w ithin t he k erbs. C ould t here n evertheless b e a l ink w ith t he c orner p ost c airns a t A ckergill a nd S andwick? M oving m uch f arther s outh w e c ome t o i nland A berdeenshire. A t T illytarmont, t hree c lass I s ymbol s tones w ere r ecorded b y R omilly A llen, a nd t wo m ore h ave b een f ound r ecently i n t he s ame f ield. T rial e xcavations b y D r. A . A . W oodham i n 1 975 s howed t hree g roupings o f s tones i n l ine ( Ashmore 1 980, 3 49-50). T wo w ere s imply s tone s preads, d amaged b y p loughing. O ne o f t he n ew s ymbol s tones w as f ound a bove o ne s tone s pread, w hile t he o ther i s s aid t o b e t he s ite o f a s ymbol s tone f ound l ast c entury. B etween t he t wo s preads w as a n eatly m ade f lat c airn, r oughly 4 .25 m etres s quare, b uilt o f t wo l ayers o f b oulders. T wo q uadrants o f t his c airn w ere r emoved, a nd n o g rave f ound i n t he u nderlying s and, b ut w ithout c omplete e xcavation v arious p ossibilities m ust r emain o pen, s uch a s t he g rave b eing e ccentric i n t he c airn o r f urther d own i n t he s and. T he l ast g roup o f p latform c airns t o b e d iscussed i s i n F ife, 1 02

a nd

S andw ick i

•

•K e iss

A ckerg i l l • Wo ten an . !

Garbeg •

T i l ly tarmon t

•

Wh i teb r idge

L und in L i nks

F ig. 5 .10

D istribution o f p latform c airns; a lso G arbeg a nd W hitebridge.

1 03

H—

9

\

\ \ \ \ \

\ \

N N

\\ N

F ig.

I K I HI

\

\

5 .11

L undin L inks,

F ife.

1 04

P lan o f c emetery.

i s t he m ost e xtensive s o f ar d iscovered. C olvin G reig i n 1 966 e xcavated a g roup o f c airns e roding o ut o f as andy f oreshore a t L unkin L inks, F ife, o n t he n orth s hore o f t he F irth o f F orth ( Ashmore 1 980). T his c onsisted o f s ome t welve c airns, b oth r ound a nd r ectangular, a nd f ive u ncairned l ong c ists. T he e xact n umber o f c airns c ounted d epends o n w hether o ne t reats c onjoined c airns, s uch a s n o.6, a s o ne o r m ore c airns. ( I a m m ost g rateful t o C olvin G reig f or s upplying a s ite p lan ( fig. 1 1), i nformation a bout t he s ite a nd f or a llowing h is C 14 d ates t o b e q uoted h ere i n a dvan ce o f h is o wn f orthcoming p ublication). Y et m ore c airns a re n ow a ppeari ng i n t he d unes i mmediately w est a nd e ast o f t he e xcavated g roup, s o i t s eems t he l imits o f t he c emetery a re n ot y et k nown. L ong c ists h ave b een f ound u nder a ll t he c airns e xcavated, t he c airns a nd c ists b eing a ligned m ore o r l ess p arallel t o t he s hore. T he r ound c airns h ad n eatly m ade b oulder k erbs, w hile s ome o f t he r ectangular c airns h ad k erbs m ade o f s labs s et o n e dge. T here w ere n o p rominent c orner p osts. S ome o f t he c ist g raves w ere s ome d epth b elow t he c airns, a nd a s a t S andwick a nd B irs ay , i t p roved d ifficult t o t race t he g rave p its d ug t hrough t he b lown s and b elow t he c airn, t hough t hey c ould r eadily b e s een i n t he u nderlying b each m aterial. I t i s i mportant t hat i n a t l east o ne i nstance t he p it c ould b e s een t o b e c ut, a s o ne w ould e xpect, f rom t he l evel o n w hich t he a airn w as l aid. T he t hree o riginal r adiocarbon d ates f or b urials i n t his c emetery, o btained f rom f oreign l aboratories, h ave n ever s eemed v ery c onvincing ( Appendix 1 ). I t w as v ery h ard t o b elieve t hat a d ate i n t he 5 th o r 4 th c enturies B C w as c orrect f or t he b urial u nder t he r ound c airn a t t he w est e nd o f t he ' dumb-bell '. W hile t he t wo l ater d ates f or u ncairned l ong c ists w ere a t l east p ossible, a n a pparent g ap o f s ome 5 00 y ears b etween t hem s eemed o verlong. B ecause o f t hese d ifficulties s amples f rom t wo m ore b uri als b oth i n l ong c ists u nder c airns w ere s ent t o G lasgow U niversity. T he r esults c ame t hrough a s t his p aper w ent t o p ress a nd a re i ncluded i n A ppe ndix 1 . T hese n ew d ates s uggest t he L unkin L inks c airns w ere b uilt i n t he 5 th, 6 th, o r 7 th c enturies A D, a p eriod i n k eeping w ith d ates f rom S andwick a nd D unrobin, a nd o ne w hich m ay f airly b e c alled P ictish. S ince t he t erm " platform c airn" h as b een a dopted f or t his g roup, b rief r eference m ust b e m ade t o t he o riginal p latform c airn, a t erm c oined b y H ogg ( 1977) f or a c airn i n C ardiganshire, W ales. T his w as a l ow r ound c airn w ith d rystone k erb c overing a c entral l ong c ist g rave. T he s tructure p roduced n o d ating e vidence s o H ogg g uessed a t aB ronze A ge d ate, b ut t he S cottish e vidence n ow m akes a D ark A ge d ate f or t he W elsh c airn a s trong p ossibility. T his b rief s urvey h as s hown a r emarkable s imilarity i n ap articular b urial t ype f rom S hetland t o F ife, a u niformity m atched o nly, p erhaps, b y t he e qually s triking u niformity o f P ictish s ymbols o ver p recisely t he s ame a rea. P resent e vidence s uggests t hat t hese c airns w ere b uilt w ithi n t he 4 th-8th c enturies A D, t hose a t S andwick, D unrobin a nd L unkin L inks b eing d ated b y r adiocarbon, B irsay b y s tratigraphy a nd t he o thers b y a nalogy. O nly s ome o f t he s ites h ave y ielded P ictish s ymbol s tones, b ut i f t hese i ndeed b egan i n t he l ater 7 th c entury A D, t hey w ould b e c ontemp orary o nly w ith t he l ater p latform c airns. T wo f urther s ites t o b e d iscussed h ere h ave s ome l inks w ith p latform c airns, b ut a re i n m any w ays s tructurally d ifferent. T he t wo s ites a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge, o n o pposite s ides o f L och N ess ( fig. 1 0) a re d escribed e lsewhere i n t his v olume ( Stevenson, p p145-150) b oth s ites a ppear o n t he g round a s g roups o f l ow s quare a nd r ound m ounds, t wentyo ne a t G arbeg, s ix a t W hitebridge, g enerally s urrounded b y a 1 05

d itch a nd s ometimes w ith a n e xternal b ank, w hile s ome o f t he s quare m ounds h ave g aps a t t he c orners o f t he d itches. E xcavations a t G arbeg ( Wedderburn t his v olume p p155-168) , h ave d emonstrated t hat t he m ounds c over e xtended b urials i n r ather c rude l ong c ists. T he u pper p art o f as ymbol s tone, b roken i nto s everal p ieces, ( fig.10.7 ) w as f ound a mong t he s tones o n o ne o f t he r ound m ounds a t G arbeg e xcavated b y W edderburn. U nfortunately, t here i s n o c ertainty t hat t his i s c ontemporary w ith t he c onstruction o f t he m onument, p articularly a s t he l ower p art o f t he s lab i s m issing. T wo s ymbol s tones, n ow i n t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquities o f S cotland, w ere f ound i n 1 864 o n t he n eighbouring f arm o f D ru r nbuie, a bout a m ile a way, t hough u nfortunately t he e xact s ite i s u nknown ( Allen 1 903, 9 9-100; M acKay 1 886.) A ccounts o f t he d iscovery d iffer s lightly, b ut t he t wo s tones a pparently f ormed t he c apstones o f ac ist-like s tructure, p ossibly a c ist i n ac airn. I f t he s ite w ere l ocated, i t c ould b e e xamined f or t races o f a nother G arbeg-type c emet ery. I t i s r eally v ery d ifficult t o k now w hat o verall t erm t o u se f or t he s tructures a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge; a s t he c overing m ound c onsists o f a n e arthen p latform s urmounted, i n s ome c ases a t l east, b y a p latform o f s tones, t hey a re s trictly s peaking n either c airn n or b arrow b ut a m ixture o f t he t wo. T he s ites a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge, s o f ar a s w e u nderstand t hem a t p resent, h ave s ome l inks w ith p latform c airns i n t heir l ow, s quare o r r ound m ounds, s mall s ize, u nderlying c ist g raves, a nd p erhaps, i n o ne c ase, b y t he p resence o f as ymbol s tone. T he b oulders p laced i n t he g aps a t t he c orners o f t he d itches i n t wo m ounds a t G arbeg s how t he s ame e mphasis o n t he c orners o f t he s tructure a s t he " corner-posts" a t S andwick a nd A ckergill. I f h owever, o ne c ould i magine G arbeg a nd W hitebridge p loughed f lat, t hey w ould p robably l ook j ust l ike t he r ound- a nd s quare-ditched e nclosures w ith c entral g rave p its r ecorded o n a ir p hotographs a nd d isc ussed a bove. G arbeg a nd W hitebridge a re s urely t wo u pstanding m onum ents o f t his t ype, t he o nly t wo s o f ar d iscovered w hich h ave e scaped d amage b y p loughing b ecause t hey a re o n m arginal l and. E ven t he g aps i n t he d itch c orners a re p aralleled a t A llanfearn, K errowaird a nd C roftgowan i n I nvernessshire. T his i dentification r aises s ome c hronol ogical p roblems, f or, i f t he s ymbol s tone a t G arbeg i s i ndeed c ontemp orary w ith t he g rave, t here i s ac onsiderable g ap b etween t he i st 3 rd c entury A D d ate s uggested f or t he B oysack d itched g rave, a nd t he l ate 7 th c entury d ate f or t he s ymbol s tone a t G arbeg. W hat t hen i s t he r elationship t o p latform c airns a nd a re s quare-ditched g raves r eally l ate e nough t o b e c alled P ictish? C learly n o d efinite a nswer c an y et b e g iven, w ith o nly a f ew C 14 d ates t o w ork w ith, b ut a t l east w e k now t hese a re p roblems t hat f uture e xcavations s hould b e a ble, f or o nce, t o r esolve. I n t he m eantime, o ne c an m ake a f ew g uesses. -

A t l east s ixteen s ites w ith g raves w ithin s quare d itches n ow k nown, a nd i t i s p ossible t o i magine t hat t his t ype o f b urial h as a c onsidera ble h istory. I t m ay h ave s tarted, a s t he d ate o f t he B oysack b urial s uggests, i n t he l ast c entury B C o r t he f irst c entury o r s o A D; e ither d irectly f rom Y orkshire, o r t hrough a s y et u nidentified s ites i n N orthu mberland ( the s ite a t A inham ( Jobey 1 966, 2 5-33) m ay b e r elevant h ere, t hough t he b urial w as b y c remation). I t m ay t hen h ave s pread n orth a cross S cotland, s urviving i nto t he h istoric P ictish a nd C hristian P ictish p eriods, w ith a l ong c ist r eplacing t he d ug g rave a t t he c entre

1 06

o f t he d itch. A lcock ( 1979, 6 5) h as s uggested t hat t hese d itched g raves i n s tone f ree a reas m ay b e t he e quivalent o f k erbed s tone c airns i n o ther a reas; p latform c airns i n f act s eem t o b e c oncentrated o n s and w here d itch d igging w ould b e u nprofitable. H owever, t he e xtent t o w hich d itched g raves a nd p latform c airns a re c ontemporary, i f a t a ll, a nd t heir r elationship t o l ong c ist c emeteries, w ill o nly b e u nders tood w ith m ore e xcavation a nd m ore C 14 d ates. T he i dea o f g raves u nder s quare o r r ound b arrows a s c ontemporary w ith C hristian l ong c ist c emeteries m ay s eem s trange a t f irst. B ut o ne c an p erhaps c ompare t he w ay i mportant R oman t ombs a re o ften f ound, n ot i n c emeteries, b ut s trung o ut a long m ain r oads l eading i nto t owns, n otably a long t he V ia A ppia n ear R ome. G raves, o r a t l east t he l ater g raves, u nder b arrows o r c airns m ay b e t hose o f m ore i mportant p eople; a nd a t L undin L inks, A ckergill a nd D unrobin t he c airns c ould w ell b e a ligned, n ot w ith t he s hore, b ut w ith a r oad o r t rack i tself r unning p arallel w ith t he s hore. F inally, s ome l inks b etween P ictish s ymbol s tones ( those c alled C lass 1 b y A llen ( 1903)) a nd g raves a nd c airns m ay b e m entioned. T here i s s till n o c onclusive p roof b ut m ore a nd m ore c ircumstantial e vidence t hat P ictish s ymbol s tones w ere g ravestones. A t W atenan a nd p erhaps a t T illytarmount t hey h ave b een f ound o n c airns, a t D unrobin a nd G arb eg o n a c airn o r m ound a bove a g rave. A t D unrobin t here w as a m irror a nd c omb o n t he s tone, a nd a w oman b uried i n t he g rave. I n n o c ase c an t he a ssociation b e p roved f or c ertain, b ut i t i s r eally a v ery s trange c oincidence t hat i n t he f our r ecent c ases w here p eople h ave i nvestigated b elow n ewly f ound s ymbol s tones, a c airn, o r ac airn a nd g rave,

h ave b een f ound.

A nother l ink b etween s ymbol s tones a nd g raves i s t he f act t hat s ome s ymbol s tones h ave b een f ound c lose b y l ong c ist c emeteries, a s a t G airloch, K eiss a nd A ckergill, o r h ave b een f ound r e-used a s c ist c overs f or l ater g raves, a s a t D unrobin, G olspie, E asterton o f R oseisle, a nd D rumbuie, o nly a m ile o r s o f rom G arbeg; b oth c ircums tances s uggesting t hat t he s ymbol s tones o riginally s tood n earby, p erhaps m arking e arlier g raves. A pparently P ictish s ymbol s tones q uickly l ost t heir o riginal p urp ose a nd m eaning, f or t hey a re k nown t o h ave b een r e-used, n ot o nly a s p arts o f c ists, b ut a s s ymbol s tones a gain, i n o ne c ase r e-used t wice. A t l east s even s tones h ave b een r e-used i n t his w ay ( Stevenson 1 959, 3 6). C ould t his, l inked w ith t he f act s ome s ymbols a re d ifficult t o s ee a nyway, m ean t he s ymbols w ere o riginally c oloured i n w ith p aint, a nd w hen t he p aint w ore o ff t he s tone r ather l ost i ts m eaning? W ere t here, i ndeed, e ven e arlier w ooden s ymbol-slabs, s imilarly i ncised a nd p ainted? T his w e m ay n ever k now, b ut c areful e xcavation s hould o ne d ay s how i f s ymbol s tones i ndeed m arked P ictish g raves, a nd i f t his c ould b e p roved, i t w ould b e a n i mportant s tep o n i n t he i nterpretation o f P ictish s ymbols.

1 07

A ppendix 1 R adio-carbon d ates f or b urials n ot o therwise d etailed i n t his v olume. A ll d eterminations f rom h uman s keletal m aterial. B roxmouth, E ast L othian ( Hill 1 979;

C omrie 1 979).

B urials i n c emetery o utside h illfort G U 1 138

2 255

t7 0

C U 1 139

2 155

'

C U 1 141

2 160 + 6 0 b p

C U 1 143

2 020

6 5 b p

C U 1 145

2 060

6 0 b p

C U 1 146

2 145

6 0 b p

b p

6 0 b p

( see f ig 2 )

B urials w ithin h ilifort C U 1 140

2 270

6 5 b p

C I J 1 142

1 670

6 0 b p

C U 1 144

2 200

6 5 b p

( extended b urial)

D ryburn B ridge, E ast L othian ( Triscott 1 982) B urials

t7 0

C U 1 149

2 210

b p

C U 1 404

2 400

1 00 b p

C U 1 405

2 665

1 65 b p

C U 1 410

2 415

8 0 b p

C U 1 412

2 300

1 25 b p

G U 1 414

2 040

1 80 b p

T he C atestane, M idlothian ( Cowie

1 978)

B urials i n l ong c ists C U 1 155

1 520

7 0 b p

C U 1 156

1 595

8 5 b p

C U 1 157

1 365

t8 0

b p

1 08

C U 1 158

1 550

C U 1 159

1 335

t7 0 b p 1 20 b p

K irk H ill, S t. A ndrews, F ife B urials

1n

( Wordsworth 1 981)

d ug g raves

C U 1 461

1 265

5 5 b p

C U 1 462

1 200

t5 5 b p

D unrobin,

S utherland ( Close-Brooks 1 980)

B urial i n l ong c ist u nder r ectangular c airn. f rom t he s ame s keleton. C U 1 039

1 335

C U 1 039B

1 135

:40

B oth d eterminations

b p

1 00 b p

L undin L inks, F ife B urials C X 1 998

2 340 ± 1 10 b p

( cairn a t e ast e nd o f d umb-bell)

N 1 591

1 630

±9 5 b p

( uncairned l ong c ist)

N 1 590

1 090

t1 00 b p

( uncairned l ong c ist)

C U 1 593

1 360 ± 6 0 b p

( cairn 1 )

C U 1 594

1 475 ± 6 0 b p

( cairn a t w est e nd o f d umb-bell)

1 09

A ppendix 2 .

S quare-ditched g raves

S ingle s quare-ditched g raves o r g roups o f s uch g raves, i dentified c ert ainly o r p robably o n a erial p hotographs. C ompiled f rom i nformation i n t he N ational M onuments R ecord f or S cotland. ( See m ap, f ig 2 ).

S ite

N GR

R eference

B alneaves C ottages

N O 6 05497

R CAHMS 1 978, 9

B oysack

N O 6 18494

R CAHMS 1 978, 9

B oysack M ills

N O 6 26491

R CAHMS 1 978, 9

F isherhills

N O 7 28621

H atton M ill

N O 6 17498

I nvergighty

N O 6 20495

L endrick L odge

N O 3 53505

R ed C astle

N O 6 87509

A NGUS

I NVERNESS-SHIRE A llanfearn S tation

N H 7 13475

R CAHMS 1 979, 1 2

C roftgowan

N H 8 63085

M axwell 1 978

K errowaird

N H 7 64498

R CAHMS 1 979, 1 2

K INROSS K illyford B ridge

N O 1 47054

N ether D allachie

N J 3 59635

M ORAY

P ERTHSHIRE A beruthven

N O 9 89149

S t J oseph 1 978, W himster 1 980

F orteviot

N O 0 54170

S t. J oseph 1 978, 5 0; A lcock 1 979

W elltown

N O 1 96439

1 10

5 0;

A cknowledgements M any c olleagues h ave m ost g enerously p rovided i nformation, c omment, c riticism a nd o ther h elp, i ncluding P atrick A shmore, D iana R eynolds, J ack S tevenson, G erald B igelow, C hris a nd C olleen M orris, R obert G ourl ay, L aurie W edderburn, G ordon M axwell, E dwina P roudfoot, I ngmar J ansson, a nd T revor C owie. Ia m p articularly.grateful t o P eter H ill, J ean C omrie, J onathan T riscott, J onath?n W ordsworth, a nd t he S cottish D evelopment D epartment f or a llowing m e t o q uote u npublished r adiocarbon d ates; t o P eter H ill, J ean C omrie a nd D iana R eynolds f or a llowing m e t o u se e xcavation p hotographs i n a dvance o f t heir o wn p ublications; t o C olvin G r ig f or i nformation a bout L unkin L inks, a nd t o J ack S tevenson, A lan L eith a nd I an P arker f or t heir w ork o n G arbeg a nd W hitebridge. H elen J ackson d rew f igs. 2 , 5a nd 1 0.

1 11

R eferences A lcock, L 1 979 " Populi b estiales P ictorum f eroci a nimo: a s urvey o f P ictish s ettlement a rchaeology,"in H anson W S a nd K eppi .e L 3 F e dd, R oman F rontier S tudies 1 979. O xford 1 950, B AR 7 1. A llen, J .R.

1 903

" The E arly C hristian M onuments o f S cotland, " E dinburgh

A shmore, P .J. 1 980 " Low c airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones", P roc S oc A nt S cot 1 10, 1 978-80, 3 46-355. B ersu 6 a nd W ilson D .M. L ondon.

1 966 " Three V iking g raves i n t he I sle o f M an."

B reeze D .J., C lose-Brooks 3 a nd R itchie J .N.G. 1 976 a t C amelon, S tirlingshire", B ritannia 7 , 7 3-95.

" Soldier's b urials

C allender J .G. 1 915 " Notice o f ab ronze c up a nd o ther o bjects f ound a pparently i n as epulchral d eposit n ear T arland, A berdeenshire", P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 4 9, 1 914-5, 2 03-6. C larke D .V. 1 971 " Small f inds i n t he A tlantic P rovince: P roblems o f A pproach, " S cot A rchaeol F orum, 1 971, 2 2-54 C lose-Brooks J . 1 980 " Excavations i n t he D airy P ark, D unrobin, S utherl and, 1 977", P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 1 10, 1 978-80, 3 28-345. C oles, F .R. 1 904 " Discovery o f ac ist o f t he E arly I ron A ge o n t he e state o f M oredun, n ear G ilmerton", P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 3 8, 1 0934 , 4 27-45. C omrie, J . 1 979 " Broxmouth C emetery,"Discovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland 1 979, 1 9 C owie, T . 1 978 " Excavations a t t he C atestane, M idlothian, S oc A ntiq S cot 1 09, 1 977-8, 1 66-201.

1 977,"Proc

C raw J .H. 1 924 " On t wo b ronze s poons f rom a n E arly I ron A ge g rave n ear B urnmouth, B erwickshire,"Proc S oc A ntiq S cot 5 8, 1 43-60 D avidson, J . 1 886 " Notice o f as mall c up-shaped g lass v essel f ound i n as tone c ist a t t he P ublic S chool, A irlie, A ngus,"Proc S oc A ntiq S cot 2 0, 1 885-6, 1 36-41. E dwards, A .J.H. 1 926 " Excavation o f an umber o f g raves i n am ound a t A ckergili, C aithness' P roc S oc. A ntiq. S cot 6 0, 1 925-6, 1 60-179. E dwards A .J.H. 1 927 " Excavation o f g raves a t A ckergill a nd o f a n e arthhouse a t F reswick L inks, C aithness. . . ' P roc S oc. A ntiq, S cot. 6 1, 1 926-7, 1 96-209 E wart, E , a nd C urie, AM.

1 908 " Cairn a nd i nterment s

of

t h e Ea r l y I r on

A ge a t B lack R ocks, G uilane, H addingtonshire,"Proc S oc. A ntiq. S cot 4 2, 1 907-8, 3 32041. F airhurst H . a nd T aylor D .B. E xcavation i n S cotland,

1 971 " Crosskirk B roch' D iscovery a nd 1 971, 5 3.

1 12

H edges J .W. 1 980 " Short c ists r ecently e xcavated a t L ower E llibister a nd o ther l ocations i n O rkney," P roc S oc A ntiq S cot. 1 10, 1 9787 8 0, 4 4-71. H edges J .W. e t a l 1 980 " Trial E xcavations -a t S aevar H owe, B irsay, O rkney, " N orth o f S cotland A rchaeo logical S ervices, O rkney H enshal1, A .S. 1 956 " A 1 on c ist c emetery a t P arkburn s and p it, L asswade, M idlothian, ' P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 8 9, 1 955-6, 2 52-277. H ill, P 1 979 " Broxmouth H ilifort E xcavations, 1 977-78." A n I nterim R eport, U niversity o f E dinburgh, D ept o f A rchaeology, O ccasional, P aper N o 2 . H ogg, A .M.A. 1 977. " Two c airns a t A ber C amddwr, n ear P onterwyd, C ardiganshire,"Archaeol C ambrensis 1 26, 2 4-37. H utcheson A .A. 1 903 " Discovery o f a f ull-length s tone c ist c ontaining h uman r emains a nd a p enannular b rooch a t C raigie, n ear D undee", P roc S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 3 7, 1 902-3, 2 33-40. J ackson, K . J obey, G .

1 955 " The P ictish L anguage,"in W ainwright 1 955.

1 966

" Excavations o n p alisaded s ettlements a nd c airnfieids

a t A lnham, N orthumberland", A rchaeol A eliana 4 4, 5 -48. L aing, S .

1 866 " Prehistoric R emains o f C aithness."

L ondon a nd E din-

b urgh. L ongworth, I .H. 1 965 " A m assive c ist w ith m ultiple b urials o f I ron A ge d ate a t L ochend, D unbar, " P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 9 8, 1 964-5, 1 739 0. M acGregor, M .

1 976 " Early I ron A ge A rt i n N orth B ritain."

L eicester

M ackay W . 1 886 " Notice o f t wo s culptured s tones i n G len U rquhart," P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 2 0, 1 885-6, 3 58-60. M axwell, G .S. 1 978 " Air P hotography a nd t he W ork o f t he R oyal C ommiss ion o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments o f S cotland ;'A erial A rchaeology 2 , 1 978, 3 7-44. P roudfoot, E .V.W. 1 976 " Hallowhill. E arly C hristian C emetery, "Discovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland, 1 976, 3 3-4. P roudfoot, E .V.W. 1 977 " Hallow H ill L ong C ist C emetery,"Discovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland, 1 977 1 6. -

R eynolds, D .

1 977 " Discovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland,"1977, 5

R CAMS 1 911a " The R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f S cotland" I nventory o f S utherland, E dinburgh. R CAMS 1 911b " The R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f S cotland" I nventory o f S utherland. R CAMS 1 978

E dinburgh.

" The R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f S cotland," 1 13

T he A rchaeological S ites a nd M onuments of S cotland, 4 , L unán V alley A ngus D istrict, T ayside R egion. E dinburgh. R CAMS

1 979 " The R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f S cotland T he A rchaeological S ites a nd M onuments of S cotland,"B, N orth-east I nverness, I nverness D istrict, H ighland R egion. E dinburgh.

R CAMS

1 982 " The R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient M onuments o f S cotland, T he A rchaeological S ites a nd M onuments o f S cotland,"15, S outh K incardine, K incardine A nd D eeside D istrict, G rampion R egion. E dinburgh.

R itchie A . 1 974(1975) A rchaeol F orum 6 ,

" Pict a nd N orseman i n n orthern S cotland,"Scot 1 974 ( 1975), 2 3-36.

R itchie A . 1 977 " Excavation o f P ictish a nd V iking-age f armsteads a t B uckquoy, O rkney, " P roc S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 08, 1 976-7, 1 74-227 R utherford A . a nd R itchie J .N.G. S cot 1 05, 1 972-74, 1 83-8. S mall A . e t a l

1 974 " The C atestane,"Proc S oc A ntiq

1 973 " St. N inian 's I sle a nd i ts T reasure." O xford.

S t. J oseph J .K. 1 978 " Air r econnaissance: r ecent r esults, 4 4", A ntiquity 5 2, 1 978, 4 7-50 S tead, I .

1 979

" The A rras C ulture", Y ork.

S tevenson R .B.K. 1 952 " Long c ist b urials, p articularly t hose a t C alson ( Lewis) a nd C airloch ( Wester R oss) w ith a S ymbol S tone a t G airloch,"Proc S oc A ntiq S cot 8 6, 1 951-2, 1 06-114. S tevenson R .B.K. 1 959 " The I nchyra s tone a nd o ther u npublished E arly C hristian M onuments,"Proc S oc A ntiq S cot 9 2, 1 958-9, 3 3-55. T homas C .

1 971 " The E arly C hristian A rchaeology o f N orth B ritain."Glasgow.

T riscott J . 1 982 " Excavations a t D ryburn B ridge, E ast L othian, 1 978-79," i n H arding D .W. ( ed), L ater P rehistoric S ettlement i n S .E. S cotland. E dinburgh. W ainwright, F .T.

1 955

" The P roblem o f t he P icts." E dinburgh

W himster, R . 1 980 " Burial P ractices i n I ron A ge B ritain: a D iscussion a nd G azeteer o t t he E vidence c 7 00 B C A D 4 3. O xford. B AR 9 0 -

W oodham A .A. a nd M ackenzie J . 1 957 " Two c ists a t G olspie, S utherland", P roc S oc A ntiq S cot 9 0, 1 956-7, 2 34-38. W ordsworth J . 1 981 " St. M ary 's K irkhill ( St A ndrews)." C emetery, D isc overy a nd E xcavation i n S cotland 1 981, 1 2.

1 14

T WO K ERBED C AIRNS F ROM S ANDWICK, C .

F .

U NST,

S HETLAND

B igelow

I NTRODUCTION T wo s quare k erbed c airns w ere d iscovered i n e xcavations a t S andwick, U nst, S hetland ( Nat. G rid H P 6 19022) d uring 1 978 a nd 1 980 ( fig 1 ). T he e xcavations w ere i nitiated t o s alvage a L ate N orse s ettlement t hreatened b y m arine e rosion a nd t he c airns a ppeared u ne xpectedly d uring t he c ourse o f t he p roject ( Bigelow 1 980; i n p ress). T heir o nly s urface i ndication w as a s mall c oncentration o f w hite q uartzite p ebbles w hich t he a uthor r ecorded i n a s urvey i n l ate 1 977. I n t he 7 m onths w hich p assed b etween t he t ime o f t he s urvey a nd t he f irst s eason o f e xcavation, w ind d eflation u ncovered o ne s ide o f t he S WC c airn ( Fig 2 , F ig 3 ) , r evealing t he t rue s ignificance o f t he a ssoci ated p ebble s catter. T he s udden e xposure o f t his f irst c airn d emons trates t he n eed f or f requent a rchaeological s urveillance o f c oastal s ites, e specially t hose o n f ragile s oils, v ulnerable t o e rosion ( Crawford 1 974, R itchie & R itchie 1 981: 1 1). C ontinued d eflation w ould h ave d estroyed t hese f eatures i n a m atter o f y ears, b ut a s ingle n ortheasterly g ale w ith h igh w inds c ould h ave o bliterated t hem t hrough w ave a ction i n t he s pace o f a f ew h ours. T HE C AIRNS

t ive.

T he S WC c airn d iscovered i n 1 978 p roved t o b e t he m ost i nformaI t c onsisted o f a n ear-square e nclosure -c4.25 m o n t he s ide--

o f t hin s tone s labs ( mostly o f l ocal M uness p hyllite) s et u pright, w ith h igher s labs o r p rismatic b locks p laced a t t he m id-point o f e ach s ide a nd a t t he f our c orners ( Fig. 2 a, F ig . 4 ). T he n orthern c orner a nd a ssociated k erbing w as l ost t o e rosion, b ut t he s ymmetry o f t he r emaini ng s ides s uggests t hat t he m issing e lements c ompleted t he o verall d esign. T he s lightly c onvex s urface o f t he c airn w as c overed w ith f ists ized b each p ebbles, m any o f w hite q uartzite, e xcept i n t he c entral a rea. A n u nderlying l ayer o f l arge w aterworn b locks w as e xposed t here , p ossibly u ncovered t hrough e rosion. T his c arefully p acked a ngular r ubble f illed m ost o f t he s tructure's i nterior, b ut o nly i n at hickn ess o f o ne c ourse ( Fig. 2 b). S tones u sed i n t he k erbing a nd f ill w ere e xamined f or e ngravings o r t oolmarks b ut n one d isplayed a ny c lear s igns o f m odification. A h uman s keleton w as f ound j ust w est o f t he c airn 's N /S a xis

( fig

2 d). T he b ody h ad a pparently b een p laced i n a s hallow t rench a nd c overed w ith a pproximately 2 0-30 c m o f c lean s and. A n a lignment o f s elected l arge r ocks ( c60-90cm) w as t hen l aid o ver t he i nhumation ( Fig 2 c). T hese " cover s labs" f ormed p art o f t he f orementioned r ubble l ayer, b ut w ere c onspicuously l arger t han o ther s tones i n t hat l evel. T he s keleton w as i n p erfect a rticulation, a part f rom a f ew t erminal 1 15

F ig.

6 .1

T he S andwick s ite a nd i ts R egional C ontext.

1 16

0

0

S A N D W I C K , U N S T , S H E T L A N D

U )

u J

F ig. 6 .2

P lans o f t he S WC c airn: a ) s urface; b ) r ubble l evel; c ) " cover s labs"; d ) i nhumation; e ) E -W s ection S haded s tones i ndicate a ccented c orners a nd K erb m idpoints. 1 17

F ig.

6 .3

A erial v iew o f 5 JC c airn. S outheast i s a t t op o f p hotog raph. S cale: 1 m etre. ( Taken a t 1 0 m etres w ith a W hittlesey b ipod).

1 18

S outhwest K erb o f S WC c airn,

s howing t he i nterface b etween

t he s urface p ebble l ayer a nd t he u nderlying r ubble.

1 19

L 7 0

SWD SAND W ICK , UNST , SHETLAND 0

1

2

METRES

F ig.

6 .5

P lan o f S WD c airn :

1 20

s urface

p halanges w hich w ere m oved b y r odent b urrowing. T he i nhumation w as e xtended a nd t he b ody h ad b een l aid o n i ts l eft s ide f acing d ownward ( Fig.9 ). M r. C . B . D enston, D epartment o f P hysical A nthropology, U nivers ite o f C ambridge, e xamined t he s keleton a nd f ound t hat i t w as f rom a f emale o f a bout 5 0 y ears o f a ge w ith a s tature o f a pproximately 1 55 1 59 c m ( 1979). T he f ull r eport o n t he s keleton w ill a ppear i n t he f inal p ublication o f t he S andwick S ite. -

At ibia f rom t he s keleton w as s ubmitted t o t he U niversity o f G lasgow R adio-carbon D ating L aboratory f or a ssay. D r. M .J. S tenhouse h as r eported t hat i t y ielded a d ate o f 1 530 ± 5 5 y ears b .p. ( GU 1 291). N o g rave g oods a ccompanied t he b urial. T he S WD c airn, e xcavated i n 1 980, w as v ery s imilar t o S WC e xcept i n af ew d etails, s ome o f m inor i mportance a nd o ne o f c rucial s ignific ance. T he s tructure h ad b een b uilt o n t he s ame g round s urface a s t he o ther c airn, a bout 5 0 c m t o t he s outheast. I n s ize a nd c onstruction i t m irrored S WC e xcept t hat i ts k erbing b owed o utward a nd t he c overing o f b each p ebbles c ontained a s maller f raction o f w hite q uartzite. ( Fig 5 , F ig. 6 ). T he c urvature o f t he s ides w as p robably a d esign e lement a nd n ot t he r esult o f s ettling a nd o utward s pread o f t he c airn 's r ubble f ill. T here w ere n o e xpansion g aps b etween t he k erbstones a s o ne w ould e xpect i f t hey h ad b een s played o ut t hrough s ettling. T he k erbing w as m issing f rom t he s outheast s ide. Ac urved l ine o f s mall u pright s tones w as d iscovered i n t his a rea a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he k erb w as r obbed o ut w hen t his s econdary a lignment w as b uilt. M ost o f t his a rea w as b adly d isturbed b y w ave a ction a nd t he s tratig raphic c ontext a nd s tructural s ignificance o f t his s econdary s etting c ould n ot b e d etermined. A f ragment o f a n e ngraved s tone w as a lso d iscovered h ere, u nfort unately f ound l oose i n t he b each r ubble, d uring t he a uthor's 1 977 s urvey. I t i s as pall f rom t he e dge o f a l arger p iece o f g rey s ands tone a nd m easures 1 26 x 6 8 x 2 0 m m ( Fig 7 ). T he c omposition o f e ngraved l ines s uggests t hat t he f ragment d oes n ot r epresent p art o f aP ictish s ymbol. T he p resence o f ac urved e lement a mong t he v ertical s lashes i s a lso u ncharacteristic o f o gham. I t i s m ore l ikely p art o f t he u pper h alf o f ar unic s equence. I f s o, t he f ragment i s t oo s mall t o p ermit ar econstruction o f t he i nscription. J udging b y t he p reserved p ortions, t he r unes w ere p robably 9 0 1 20 m m i n h eight. I t m ust b e s tressed -

h ere t hat t here w as n o d irect a ssociation b etween t his f ind a nd t he c airns: i t w as r ecovered i n t he s ame g eneral l ocation b ut o nly a s a s urface f ind i n a n a rea o f o ngoing d eflation a nd m arine e rosion. A ll o f t hese t raits m ay b e m inor v ariations o n t he S WC d esign. H owever, t here w as o ne i mportant d istinguishing c haracteristic o f S WD: i t l acked a n o ccupant. A s i n t he o ther s tructure, a n a lignment o f u nusually l arge s tones h ad b een p laced o n t he c airn 's N W/SE a xis ( F ig 8 ) b ut n o t races o f i nhumation w ere v isible u nder t hat a lignment n or i n a ny o ther l ocation w ithin t he e nclosure, d espite p rotracted e xcavation. T he i nterior o f t he c airn w as e ventually s tripped t o ad epth o f 1 .5 m a nd t hen t he e ntire a rea w as c arefully ( and f utiley) p robed f or v ariat ions i n s and t exture. N o i ntrusion i nto t he n atural s trata, s uch a s t hat f ound u nder t he " cover s labs" i n S WC, w as a pparent i n t he S WD c airn. T his f act, t ogether w ith t he c omparably f ine c onditions f or b one p reservation a nd t he l ack o f a ny s igns o f d isturbance, s uggests t hat t he c airn w as o riginally b uilt f or p urposes o ther t han h ousing o r m ark1 21

F ig.

6 .6

S WD c airn f rom t he n orthwest. H orizontal s cale: 2 m etres; v ertical s cale: 1 m etre ( resting o n o riginal g round s urface).

F ig.

6 .7

F ragment o f a n e ngraved s tone f ound i n t he b each r ubble j ust e ast o f S WD. T he u pper e dge i s n atural, t he o ther e dges a nd t he b ack o f t he f ragment a re a ll f racture s urfaces ( 1:1).

1 22

I ng a n i nhumation. C HRONOLOGY M ost o f t he s tratigraphy w hich l inked t he s outhern p art o f t he S andwick s ite, w here t he c airns w ere f ound, t o t he n orthern s ection w ith i ts L ate N orse s ettlement, h as b een d estroyed b y d eflation. H owe ver, a s mall p atch o f u ndisturbed l ate c ultural d eposits w as f ound o verlying t he s outheast c orner o f S WD, s eparated f rom i t b y am etre o f s terile s and ( see F ig. 6 : t he v ertical s cale w as r esting o n t he o ld c airn p eriod g round s urface). A rtefacts f rom t his i solated d eposit i ndicate t hat i t w as f ormed d uring t he L ate N orse o ccupation, i .e. t he 1 2th t hrough 1 4th c enturies A .D. T he c alibrated ( Clarke 1 975) r adioc arbon d ate o f 4 45 t 7 5 y ears A .D. f or S WC i s t hus p lausible i n t erms o f t he c airn 's s tratigraphic r elationship t o t he s ite ' s medieval l evels. I t i s a lso c lear t hat t he 5 th c entury g round s urface t ilted a way f rom t he s horeline: S WC a nd S WD m ay h ave b een b uilt o n t he l andward s lope o f a l arge d une, n ow a lmost e ntirely e roded. D ISCUSSION P arallels i n f orm a nd c onstruction b etween t he S WC c airn a nd t hose f ound a t o ther n orthern s ites w ere d iscussed b y P .J. A shmore i n h is p aper o n " Low C airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones" ( 1981). I t i s u nnecessary t o r eview t he i ntra-regional p atterning i n b urial p ractice w hich w as d escribed i n t hat p aper. I nstead, s ome a dditional p oints p artly i nspired b y t he n ew r adio-carbon d ate f or S WC a nd t he d iscovery -

o f S WD

-

w ill b e o utlined.

A lthough a ttributes o f b oth c airns h ave a ppeared i n g rave s tructures f ound a t 1 1 o ther S cottish s ites, t he s trongest a ppear i n c airns e xcav ated a t A ckergill, C aithness b y A .J.H. E dwards i n 1 925 a nd 1 926 ( Edwards 1 926, 1 927). A t otal o f 1 5 i nhumations w ere u ncovered t here: 9 i n f our-sided k erbed c airns, 4 i n a r ound k erbed c airn a nd 2 i n i solated c ists. A mong t he f our-sided e xamples w ere s everal p arallelogram s haped s tructures w ith k erbs o f u pright f lags, s ome w ith c orner a nd m id-side " posts" ( 1926: F ig 2 , 1 64-168; 1 927: 1 98-200). A n umber w ere a lso c owered w ith w hite q uartzite p ebbles. W ith f ew v ariations, S WC a nd S WD a re a lmost i dentical t o t hese c airns. T he m ain d ifference i s t hat b urials i n a ll o f t he A ckergill c airns w ere i nside s tone c ists, a f eature w hich w as n ot a t p resent a t S andwick. P ossibly a nalogous " cover s labs" d id o ccur, h owever, i n b oth S WC a nd S WD. T here i s r elatively l ittle u seful f lagstone m aterial i n t he i mmediate a rea o f t he s ite, a f actor p ossibly d iscouraging e xtensive u se o f f lags b eyond t he r equirements o f k erbing. T he l ack o f c ists i n t he S andwick s tructures m ay a lso b e a s imple s tylistic v ariation. A nother d ifference i n d esign i s s een i n t he i nterior c onstruction o f t he A ckergill c airns. T hey s eem t o h ave b een l iterally f illed w ith s tone s tarting f rom t he b ase o f t he k erbing ( 1926: F ig 5 ). I n b oth o f t he S andwick s tructures t he k erb w as s et i nto c lean s and, b elow t he l ev l o f t he t hin r ubble f ill ( Fig. l E). T hey a re c omparatively s hallow i n d epth. H owever, i t i s t he s imilarity, r ather t han t he v ariability, b etween t he s ites, t hat i s m ost s triking. I n b oth c ases f our -6ided c airns w ere

1 23

F ig.

6 .8

S WD c airn w ith " cover s labs" e xposed.

1 24 .

b uilt a djacent t o o ne a nother, s eparated b y l ess t han o ne m etre. A t A ckergill, t his p ractice l ed t o t he d evelopment o f a l ine r c emetery. T here w ere a lso a dditional g raves a t S andwick: a n umber o f s imple c ist b urials h ave e roded o ut i n t he g eneral v icinity o f S WC a nd S WD w ithin r ecent m emory ( 1. S tickle p ers. c or n .; D r. R . S aunders p ers. c or n .; T he S cotsman 1 959). I n l ocal t radition a c hapel s tood i n t he a rea o f t he S andwick s ite, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t his n otion t ook r oot w hen s kel etons f irst s tarted t o w ash o ut a long t he b each. I t i s l ikely, h owever t hat a dditional c airns h ave n ot a ppeared a nd d isappeared t here i n t he l ast 3 0 t o 4 0 y ears, a s t hey a re d istinctive, c onspicuous s tructures a nd w ould d efinitely h ave b een p erceived a nd r eported b y t he i nhabit an is o f t he a rea. h e m atching o f m inor d esign d etails i n t he S andwick a nd A ckergill g raves i s r emarkable. T he p arallelogram s hapes o f S WC a nd A ckergill c airns N os 3 ,4 a nd 5 , f or e xample, a re i mpressively s imilar: a ll a re s ubtly w arped s quares o r r ectangles, d eliberately s kewed o nly a f ew d egrees o ut o f r ight a ngle p erfection. S WD, w ith i ts b owed s ides, i s a nomalous, b ut i ts d erivation f rom t he s quare d esign i s c lear f rom t he a ccentuation o f c orners a nd k erb m id-points. A nother p ossible p arallel l inking t he t wo s ites i s i n t he f inal p ositioning o f b odies i n g raves. E leven o f t he . Ackergill i nhumations w ere s ufficiently w ell-preserved t o a llow s exing o f t he s keletons. O f 6 m ale i nhumations, S b odies h ad b een l aid o n t heir b acks a nd o ne w as l aid o n i ts l eft s ide, f acing w est. A mong t he 5 f emale i nhumations, 2 l ay o n t heir b acks, w hile 3 w ere e xtended o n t heir l eft s ides, f acing d ownward. T he f emale s keleton i n S WC w as a lso f ound i n t his u nusual p osition ( Fig 9 ). C learly t his i s as mall s ample o n w hich t o b ase a m odel o f s ex-specific f unerary r itual, b ut i t m ay b e s ignificant t hat t his u ncommon p ractice s eems t o b e r estricted t o b urials o f w omen . I t i s c ertainly a p oint t o b e e xplored i n f uture e xcavations o f s imilar c airns. I t i s a lso a pparent f rom t he S WC g rave t hat t his p lacement w as d eliberate a nd n ot a r esult o f p ost-interment s ettling o r c ompression: t he s keleton w as t oo w ell-articulated t o h ave s hifted s ignificantly a fter b eing c overed. T he l ack o f g rave g oods a t S andwick i s a lso r eminiscent o f A ckerg ill o ut o f 1 5 i nhumations a t t hat s ite, o nly o ne w as a ccompanied b y a n a rtefact ( Edwards 1 926: 1 71-172). -

I t i s d ifficult t o i nterpret . the a bsence o f a n i nhumation i n S WD. T wice i n t he p ast, i t w as b elieved t hat s imilar c enotaph-like c airns h ad b een d iscovered ( Edwards 1 926: 1 64; W oodham 1 978), b ut i n t he c ase o f t he A ckergill e xample, f urther e xcavation p roved t hat t he s keleton w as m erely b uried v ery d eeply ( 1927: 1 98). T hrough a c ombination o f e xcav ation a nd p robing, t he S WD c airn w as i nvestigated t o ad epth o f a pproxi mately 2 m etres. S ince t he s keleton i n S WC l ay d irectly u nder t he " cover s labs", i t s eems v irtually i mpossible t hat a n i nhumation i n a p erfectly a nalogous s tructure w ould l ie o ver 2 m etres b elow a nalogous " cover s labs". A t t his p oint i t i s i mpossible t o a ssess t he c ultural s ignificance o f t his c enotaph-like m onument.

1 25

F ig. 6 .9

S keleton d iscovered i n 5 UL f ic i ng 5uLJL he sL ) P ortions o f t he r ubble l ayer l eft i n s itu a re v isible i n t he b ackg round; n ote t he s hallow d epth o f t he i nterment. O ne k erb m idpoint f lag i s a lso v isible i n t he u pper l eft c orner. .

1 26

C ONCLUSIONS T he d iscovery o f t he S andwick g raves e xtends t he k nown d istribution o f t hese a rchaeological p henomena t o t he n orthernmost B ritish I sle. A t t he s ame t ime, t he 4 th t o 6 th c entury r adiocarbon d ate f or S WC a dds t o a n a ccumulating b ody o f e vidence t hat t hese c airns w ere p art o f t he f unerary p ractices o f t he h istorically-known " Picts" ( Ritchie 1 974: 3 1, R itchie & R itchie 1 981:

1 75).

A P ictish o ccupation o f S hetland i s a lready k nown f rom s ymbol s tones, t he S t. N inian 's I sle h oard, p lacenames a nd p ossibly, t he l ate P ost-Broch s tructures a t J arlshof a nd C lickhimin ( Wainwright 1 962: 9 5, H amilton 1 956, 1 968, S mall, T homas & W ilson 1 970). T he d iscovery o f t hese n ew c airns d oes m ore t han j ust f ill o ut t his e xisting r ather n arrow v iew o f P ictish s ettlement: i t d emonstrates a n i dentifiably " Pictish" c ulture w as p resent i n S hetland p ossibly a s e arly a s t he l ate 4 th c entury. U ltimately, t he m ost i nteresting a spect o f t he c airns m ay b e t heir a ffinity t o A ckergill : h ighly s imilar, c omplex b urial t raditions h ave b een f ound o n t wo s ites 1 80 m iles a part a nd s eparated b y s everal s tretches o f f requently t umultuous s ea. I f A shmore's t entative m odel o f t he e volution o f t his b urial t ype f rom e arlier n ative f orms i s c orrect, t hen t he e arly d ate o f t he " remote" S andwick e xamples a nd t heir c ongruity w ith A ckergill h ave s everal i mplications: 1 .

i f t he t wo s ites a re r oughly c ontemporary, t he s imilarity m ost l ikely r eflects r apid d iffusion o f t his f unerary c omplex

2 .

t hey m ay b e p roducts o f a n e arly r apid d iffusion o f t he c omplex, f ollowed b y a l ong p eriod o f c ultural s tability, a t l east i n m ortuary p ractice ( some m ainland s ites h ave y ielded r adio-carbon d ates a s l ate a s t he 8 th ' to 1 1th c enturies f or r elated f orms; s ee G reig i ntra)

3 .

t heir s imilarity m ay r eflect r egular c ommunication a nd f requent, l arge s cale s ocial c ontacts b etween C aithness a nd S hetland i n t he P ost B roch/Pre-Norse p eriod.

I t w ould a ppear t hat t he b urial c ustoms e xpressed a t A ckergill a nd S andwick, a nd t o a l esser e xtent, a t o ther s imilar s ites ( Ashmore 1 981 ), a re u nlikely t o b e s olely t he r esult o f c onvergent e volution f rom w idely d istributed e arlier t ypes: t he t radition i s t oo c omplex a nd s ubtle -in s hared d etail t o h ave b een r epeatedly r einvented. I t s eems m ore t han l ikely t hat t his t radition w as t ransmitted b y d iffusion f rom a c entral d evelopmental l ocus. F uture r esearch m ay b e d irected t oward d efining t his c entre a nd i nvestigating t he n ature o f t his d iffusion. W as t his c omplex s pread t hrough t he m ovement o f e ntire s ocieties, t he m ovement o f e lites, o r a s i s o ften t he c ase w ith r eligion, t hrough t he t ransm ission o f i deology b etween s ocieties? I n a ttempting t o a nswer t hese q uestions, w e s hould b e a ble t o r efine o ur c oncepts o f t he c ultural o rigins o f " the l east u nderstood h istorical p eople" o f S cotland ( Ritchie &R itchie 1 981:

1 59).

1 27

A ck now l edgeme n ts T he S andwick e xcavations w ere f unded b y t he S cottish D evelopment D epartment ( Ancient M onuments), B ritish P etroleum D evelopment L td a nd t he R esearch F oundation o f t he C ity U niversity o f N ew Y ork. Iw ould l ike t o t hank M essrs. P . M oar, T . S tickle a nd R . S aunders, t he P eter s ons o f L ower T oft, M uness, a nd t he S hetland C ounty M useum f or i nform ation c oncerning t he S andwick a rea. Ia m a lso g rateful t o C . B . D enston, D r. N . J . S tenhouse, P . J . A shmore, N . M . R eynolds, S . N . B uttler, D rs. A . R itchie, T . H . M cGovern a nd J . C lose-Brooks f or t heir v arious c ontributions t o t he a nalysis a nd p ublication o f t he S andwick c airns. H owever, t he a uthor t akes f ull r esponsibility f or t he o pinions e xpressed i n t his p aper.

1 28

R EFERENCES A shmore,

P .J.

S oc.

1 981 " Low C airns, L ong C ists a nd S ymbol S tones", P roc.

A nt.

S cot.

1 10.

( 1978-80), 3 46-355).

B igelow, G .F. 1 980 " Sandwick, U nst P arish. L ate N orse S ettlement, P re-Norse B urials", D iscovery a nd E xcavation i n S cotland, ( 1980) 2 6-27. i n p ress " Sandwick, U nst a nd L ate N orse S hetland E conomy", B .(ed) A rchaeology i n S hetland, L erwick.

i n S mith

C larke, R .M. 1 975 " A C alibration C urve f or R adiocarbon D ates", A ntiquity 6 9 ( 1975), 2 51-266. C rawford, I .A. 1 974 " Destruction i n t he H ighlands a nd I slands", i n R ahtz, P .A. ( ed) R ESCUE A rchaeology, B altimore, ( 1974), 1 83-213. D enston, C .B. 1 979 " The H uman S keleton E xcavated a t S andwick, U nst, S hetland I slands" u npublished r eport, D ept. o f P hysical A nthrop ology, U niversity o f C ambridge. E dwards, A .J.H. 1 926 " Excavation o f aN umber o f G raves i n aM ound a t A ckergill, C aithness", P roc. S oc. A nt. S cot. 6 0 ( 1925-26), 1 60-182. 1 927

" Excavation o f G raves a t A ckergill", P roc. S oc. A nt. S cot. 6 1 ( 1926-27),

H amilton,

1 96-209.

J .R.C.

1 956

E xcavations a t J arishof , S hetland, E dinburgh,

( 1956). 1 968

E xcavations a t C lickhimin, S hetland, E dinburgh,

R itchie,

A .

1 974

" Pict a nd N orseman i n N orthern S cotland", S cottish

A rchaeological F orum 6 ( 1974), R itchie,

G . & R itchie, A .

H istory, L ondon, S aunders,

( 1968).

1 981

2 3-36.

S cotland:

A rchaeology a nd E arly

( 1981).

R .

1 979

p ersonal c ommunications, B edford, B edfordshire.

T he S cotsman

1 959

" Skeleton i n S tone G rave",

S mall,

A :

T homas, A .C. & W ilson D .

T reasure, A berdeen S tenhouse, N .J.

1 980

1 970

A pril 7 .

S t. N inian 's I sle a nd i ts

( 1970). p ersonal c ommunication, R adiocarbon D ating

L aboratory, U niversity o f G lasgow. S tickle,

T .

W ainwright,

1 978-80 p ersonal c ommunications, U yeasound, U nst. F .T.

L ondon, W oodham, A .A.

1 962

( 1962), 1 976

i n S cotland,

" Picts a nd S cots",

i n

( ed) T he N orthern I sles

9 1-116. " Tillytarmont N J533472", D iscovery a nd E xcavation

( 1976) 6 .

1 29

A S YMBOL S TONE A ND C AIRN AT W ATENAN,

C AITHNESS

R obert G ourlay I n t he s ummer o f 1 977, M r. D avid S utherland, n ow r esident i n W ick, f ound t he b roken r emains o f a P ictish s ymbol s tone o n t op o f a s mall c airn i n r ough h eather m oorland a t W atenan, C aithness ( ND 3 117 4 076). T he s maller f ragment o f t he s tone w as r emoved b y M r S utherland f or s afety, a nd t he l arger p iece c oncealed. F urther e xamination o f t he c airn b y P atrick A shmore o f t he I nspectorate o f A ncient M onuments i n 1 979 r evealed t hat t he c airn w as n ot a c learance m ound a s w as f irst s uspected, b ut a b uilt s tructure w ith a l ow d rystone k erb, p robably c onstructed f or t he p urpose o f b urial. I n F ebruary, 1 982, t he l arger p art o f t he s tone w as r emoved t o W ick b y t he w riter a nd r eunited w ith i ts c ompanion. T here t hey r emain a t p resent. T he s tone a nd c airn a re a s d escribed b elow:T he S ymbol S tone T he s tone c omprises t wo f ragments o f l ocal f lagstone, b oth b earing p art o f a n i ncised " V-rod a nd C rescent" s ymbol ( Fig. 1 ; t op), a nd t heref ore f alling w ithin J . R omilly A llen 's C lass I . T he t wo f ragments, h owever, a re c learly o nly p art o f t he o riginal s culpture, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat e xcavation o f t he c airn m ight r ecover t he m issing p ort ions o f t he o riginal s tone. T he f orm o f t he d ecoration i s a s s hown w ith s ome d oubt r egarding a f ragmentary c urved g roove w hich a ppears t o t erminate b efore r eaching t he e dge o f t he s maller f ragment. T he t wo p ieces t ogether m easure a m aximum o f 9 8 c m a cross b oth h orizontal a nd v ertical p lanes, w ith a t hickness v arying b etween 5 2 a nd 6 1 m m. T he e dges o f t he s tone o pposite t he c arving a re w orn a nd f eathered ' i nto a s moothish c urve b etween t he p oints A -A' a nd B -B 1 a s s hown i n t he d rawing. E lsewhere, t he e dges a re s harper a nd m ore a brupt, s ugg esting r elative f reshness. T he n otch a t t he b ase h as b roken a long a n atural c leavage p lane, w hich c ontinues i nto t he s lab f or s ome w ay a s ah air-line c rack. A t t he c arved e nd, t he b reaks o ccur i n w hat m ight b e s ignificant p laces t he u ppermost c ontinuous b reak c oinciding e xactly w ith t wo i ntersections o f t he c arved d esign, a nd c urving a long t he i nner a rc o f t he c rescent. W hile t he c arving i tself m ight h ave l ed t o i nherent w eakness i n t he s tone, i t i s p ossible t hat i t w as b roken d uring m anufacture. A dditionally, b y p rojecting t he c urve o f t he w eathered e dges, i t m ight a lso b e t hat t he s tone w as d eliberately l eft a s a n e llipse w ith t he s ymbol o ccuring i n i ts u pper e nd. R ecovery -

o f t he m issing f ragments w ould a nswer t his q uestion. T he C airn T he c airn l ies a t a n a ltitude o f a bout 1 10 m O D o n at errace b elow t he c hambered c airn o f B roughwhin, a nd c ommands a f ine v iew e astwards o ver t he N orth S ea. I t w as i nitially r evealed a fter a h eather f ire g ot o ut o f h and, b urning o ff t he p eat t o ad epth o f s ome 1 0-15 c m i n p laces. A s i t s tands a t p resent, i t a ppears t o b e a s mall s tone c airn 1 31

5,0

1 00 c m

Co l lapse Area o f poss ib le f lag capp ing

I S tructura l ca irn m ater ia l no t r ead i ly I dent if ied be lo w m oss

/

Wa l l co l laps ing Out wards

I ?

F ig.

7 .1

2

S ymbol s tone ( 1:10)

a nd c airn

1 32

3

4m

( 1:40) a t W atenan.

s ome 3 .40 m i n d iameter, r oughly c ircular i n s hape, b ut w ith s traight e lements i n t he s ides w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e d eliberate ( Fig. 1 ; b ottom). I t i s b ounded b y ad rystone k erb w hich i s r evealed t o a m aximum o f t hree c ourses. W here m ore t han o ne c ourse i s v isible t his h as b een i ndicated o n t he p lan. T he u pper s urface o f t he c airn s till c arries a s ubstantial a mount o f p eat, w hich, w ith o bvious d isturbance t o s ome o f t he s tones, c onceals w hich s tones a bove t he k erb a re s tructural. T he k erb e dge h as t heref ore o nly b een d rawn, t ogether w ith a l arge, s tructurally-unlinked s lab w hich l ies a top t he c airn i n as lightly e ccentric p osition. A s mall a rea o f t he c airn s urface h as a f lat a rea w hich m ight r epresent a d eliberate c apping o f h orizontally l aid s labs l evel w ith t he t op o f t he k erb. H owever, t his o r a ny o ther a nalysis o f t he s tructure o f t he c airn w ill r equire e xcavation. T he w riter w ishes t o t hank M r. S utherland f or h is a ccount o f t he i nitial d iscovery, a nd M r. G eorge W atson o f T hurso f or h is a ssistance b oth i n t he p lanning o f t he c airn a nd h auling t he l arger f ragment a bout a k ilometre o ver w et p eat b og a nd h eather m oor t o t he n earest r oad.

1 33

B URIALS I N B IRSAY,

O RKNEY

b y C hristopher D . M orris w ith N icholas F . P earson ( Viking & E arly S ettlement A rchaeological R esearch P roject, D urham U niv.) E xcavations t ook p lace i n 1 976 a nd 1 978 a t a s ite b eside t he r oad l eading f rom B irsay v illage t o t he B rough o f B irsay, a s ar esult o f c oastal e rosion. T he e ffect o f s torms i n 1 976 r evealed h uman b one, b oth i n t he c liff-section a nd i n l oose s and b elow, a nd a s hort r escue e xcavation t ook p lace o ver t wo d ays w ith p ersonnel a t t hat t ime e ng aged i n t he e xcavation o f t he B rough o f D eerness. T he b one w as s hown t o b e f rom a c ist-grave w ith t wo b odies b uried i n i t; o nly t he l ower p arts o f t he b odies r emained. T wo f urther f eatures i n t he c liff-edge w ere b riefly e xamined a t t he s ame t ime, a s t hey a ppeared t o b e s imilar i n f orm, b ut n o s keletons w ere f ound. I n a ddition, a l imited a rea o f t he e roded c liff-face w as c leaned u p a nd p hotographed. T hese l imited e xercises w ere s olely a r esponse t o a n i mmediate s itua tion, a nd h ad a s t heir p rimary a im t he r ecovery o f a rchaeological i nformation a nd m aterial t hat m ight o therwise h ave b een l ost t o t he n ext s torm. F urther o bservation o f t he a rea i n 1 977, d uring e xcav ations a t t he B rough o f B irsay, e stablished t hat f urther e rosion h ad t aken p lace o ver t he w inter i n t his a rea a s w ell a s o ther l ocations f urther a long t he c liff-edge b eside t he r oad. T rial e xcavations t ook p lace a t E aster, 1 978, d uring a " training e xcavation" f or m embers o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, D urham U niversity, w hich w as f unded m ainly b y t he U niversity, b ut w ith s ome a dditional s upport f rom t he I nspectorate o f A ncient M onuments, t hen i n t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment. A gain, l imited o bjectives w ere p ursued, n amely, t he e stablishment ( or o therwise) b y s urvey a nd e xcavation o f t he a rchaeol ogical p otential o f t he t hreatened a rea b eside t he r oad. T he e xcav ation b ehind t he a rea w here t he o riginal c ist-grave w as l ocated i n 1 976 e stablished t hat t here w ere r emains o f t wo c urving s tructures, o ne p ossibly a ssociated w ith i t, a nd a f urther g rave o n t op o n o ne o f t hem. C leaning a nd d rawing o f t he a rea o f c liff c leaned i n 1 976 l ocated t he f ragmentary r emains o f a f urther c ist-grave, w ith a s kelet on, s et I nto a t hick m idden d eposit. T he t hird a rea e xamined c learly h ad m ost o f a b uilding o f u nusual f orm i ntact. A s a r esult o f t his e xploratory w ork, t he I nspectorate s upported f ull-scale e xcavation d uring t he L ong V acation o f 1 978. D uring t his w ork i t b ecame c lear t hat, a part f rom t he m ajor b uilding m entioned a bove, t his a rea h ad o riginally h ad o ther s tructures, w ith a ssociated m idden d eposits w hich c ould b e s een t o p ost-date t he c ircular s tructures which e merged a s w ell-constructed s tone c airns o verlying c ist-graves. I nto t his m idden, a s w ell a s t he f ragmentary c ist-grave l ocated a t E aster 1 978, w as a m oderately c omplete, i f d isturbed c ist-burial w ith s ome g rave-goods. I n a ll, t hen, i n t hree s eparate e xcavations, s ix b urials w ere e xcavated i n f ive g raves. I t n eed h ardly b e s aid t hat i t w ould h ave b een a ltogether m ore s atisfactory i f t hey h ad b een r ecovered i n o ne e xcavation b ut s uch w ere t he c ircumstances t hat i t w as f ortunate 1 35

F ig.

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T he B irsay B ay P roject:

1 36

e xcavation s ites.

F ig.

A rea 1 .

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t hat s o m uch w as r ecovered b efore t he m iddle o f S eptember 1 978. T he e xcavations w ere d evastated a t t hat t ime b y t he t ailend o f " Hurricane F lossie", a nd i t i s c lear t hat t he p olicy o f i mmediate e xcavation a fter t he e xploratory w ork i n 1 978 w as v indicated b y t he u nfortunate e vents t hat b rought a p remature e nd t o t he e xcavations. A s t he F inal R eport i s i n p reparation, t his i s n ot t he p lace e ither t o d escribe o r t o d iscuss t hese b urials i n g reat d etail; i ndeed, m ore w ork i s r equried b efore d efinitive s tatements c an b e m ade a bout t he r esults o f t he e xcavation. A t p resent, f or i nstance, n o r adioc arbon d eterminations a re a vailable f rom t hese b urials, a nd s uggested c hronological o r c ultural a ttribution h as t o b e b ased o n s tratigraphy a nd r elative c hronology. M ore w ork i s, i n f act, a lso n eeded o n t he s tratigraphy, a s i t w ill b e o bvious t hat t he f ar-from-ideal c ircums tances o f t hree s eparate i nvestigations h ave c reated a dditional q uestions o f c orrelation i n d etail. T he r elative c hronology o f t he v arious b urials c an b e s tated i n b road t erms. B elow t he t urf a nd t opsoil c overing t he w hole a rea w ere s andy s ubsoils w hich c overed a n e xtensive m idden d eposit. S ome m idden m aterial o verlay t he c apping-stones o f ar ough c ist-grave, w hich i tself w as p laced i nto m idden m aterial ( Area 1 , C ist-grave 2 ). I t w as c lear, t herefore, t hat t he g rave w as p laced i n am idden t hat w as s till i n u se. T he g rave w as o rientated e ast-west, a nd h ad b een m uch d isturbed b y a nimal b urrowing. L ying w ith t he b ody w ere f our p ieces o f m etal, o ne o f w hich c ould p erhaps h ave b een a k nife, a nd a n ear-complete a ntler c omb. T his c omb i s h og-backed i n s hape, a nd h as i ncised d ecora tion t hat w ould n ormally b e t aken i n S candinavia t o i ndicate a V iking d ate. A s econd c ist-grave ( Area 2 , C ist-grave 1 ), l ay s ome d istance a way, b ut i n a s imilar s tratigraphic p osition v is a v is t he m idden, a s i t t oo, w as c ut i nto t he m idden. O ne m etal a rtefact, p robably a k nife , w as f ound w ith t he h alf o f t he s keleton t hat r emained, b ut t here w as n o o ther s urviving m aterial. T his b urial w as o rientated r oughly e astw est. A t hick d eposit o f s and u nderlay t he m idden i nto w hich t hese t wo c ist-graves h ad b een c ut, b ut n o o bvious h uman a ctivity w as n oted. P robably a t a n e arlier p eriod ( although c ertainty i s n ot p ossible o wing t o a nimal b urrowing), a s ingle b ody ( Area 1 , S keleton 1 ) h ad b een l aid t o r est o n a n e ast-west o rientation. N o a rtefacts w ere f ound w ith t he b ody, n o e vidence o f a c ist o r c offin, a nd n o c lear g rave-cut f or a d ug-grave. T his s keleton w as o bserved t o o verlie t he s tones o f t he f irst c ircular s tructure ( Area 1 , C airn 1 ), b ut i t i s p erfectly p ossible t hat t his w as c oincidental, t he p resence o f l arge s tones s imply p rev enting a d eeper b urial o f t his l ater b ody. T he c airn a ppeared t o b e i n a ssociation w ith t he f irst c ist-grave u ncovered ( Area 1 , C istg rave 1 ), w ith p robably a n i ntervening l ayer o f s and b etween t he c airn a nd t he c ist-grave ( containing t wo s keletons), b ut a bsolute c ertainty i s n ot p ossible a s t he h urricane i ntervened b efore t he c ompletion o f w ork. B oth s keletons w ere o rientated n orth-south. M uch c learer w as t he r elationship o f t he s econd c airn ( Area 1 , C airn 2 ), w hich w as d emonstrably o verlain b y t he m idden d eposits a nd t he t hick s and d eposit f ound o ver C airn 1 , a nd i tself e nclosed a l ow m ound o f s and a nd s tones a nd o verlay o ther d eposits a bove a l ayer o f b arren s and o ver a c istg rave ( Area 1 , C ist-grave 3 ). A gain t his g rave h ad n o a ssociated a rtefacts, b ut, u nlike C ist-grave 1 , h ad o nly o ne e xtended i nhumation, o rientated N NW-SSE. T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he t wo c ist-graves b elow t he t wo c airns a re i n a p rimary p osition, r elative t o t he s econd ary s keleton o n t op o f C airn 1 , a nd t he t hick d eposit o f s and b elow

1 38

B IRSAY SMALL S ITES

5

0

M .

1

F ig.

A rea 2 .

8 .3 1 39

AREA 2

F ig.

8 .4

L eft: R ight: P h:

A rea 1 , F ist-grave 1 , U pper s keleton C utting 3 , ?cist-grave.

C . D .

M orris.

, 1 40

C rown C opyright.

( A).

t he m idden, i nto w hich t wo t hird-phase g raves w ere c ut, o ne o f w hich h ad a t ypologically-diagnostic a rtefact f rom t he V iking p eriod. S ome d etails o f t he c airns a nd a ssociated c ist-graves m ay b e i n o rder h ere. T he c omplete C airn 2 c onsisted o f a n o uter h orizontally c oursed k erbing o f m edium-sized s andstone s labs, s tanding s even o r e ight c ourses h igh, w ithin w hich w as a l ow m ound o f s and a nd s tones o f i rregular s hape a nd s ize. T he m ore f ragmentary C airn 1 w as c onst ructed o f v ery r ough s andstone s labs, a nd i n m ost p laces s tood o nly o ne c ourse h igh. H owever, i n s ome p laces i t w as t wo o r t hree c ourses h igh, a nd g ave t he i mpression t hat i t m ight h ave b een k erbed a nd h ad am ound o f s tones p laced o ver i t, l ike C airn 1 . N o a ttempt c an b e m ade t o e stimate t he s ize o f C airn 1 , b ut C airn 2 w as c .2.4m a cross w here c omplete; h owever, i n b oth c ases i t s eems c lear t hat t he c airns w ere p robably o riginally o val, w ith a l ong a xis g reater i n l ength t han t his. C ertainly t he c ist-grave b elow C airn 2 i s o rientated a lmost e xactly a long t he l ong a xis. S even l arge s tones w ere f ound i n a ssociation w ith C ist-grave 3 , s ix p robably r epresenting o ne s ide o f ac ist, a nd t he s eventh t he e nd s tone b eyond t he h ead; c uriously, n othing r emained o f t he o ther t wo s ides. F ar c learer i nformation e merged f rom C istg rave 1 , b elow C airn 1 . H ere l arge s andstone s labs o n t he t hree r emaining s ides e nclosed t he b ody-space, a nd, a lthough s keleton B , t he l ower b ody, w as l aid d irectly o nto t he s hell s and b elow, t he u pper b ody, s keleton A , w as s et o n a l ayer o f s andstone s labs. L arge s ands tone s labs c apped t he c ist. T he l ower s keleton a ppeared t o h ave o rigi nally b een l aid o n i ts s ide, w hereas t he u pper b ody w as p robably o n i ts b ack. T hat i n C ist-grave 3 , b elow C airn 2 , w as l aid o n i ts s ide, t he l eft, a s w ith t he l ower o ne u nder C airn 1 . F rom t he d etails o f c onstruction o f c airn a nd c ist-grave, a nd t he d isposition o f t he g raves, w hile i t i s e vident t hat t here w ere s ome d ifferences b etween t he t wo, i t i s c lear t hat i t i s r easonable t o c onsider t hem a s b roadly i n t he s ame t radition. I t i s s uggested b y s everal a uthors, i ncluding D r. A nna R itchie ( 1981, 1 74-5), M r. P .J . A shmore ( Ashmore 1 978-80), a nd D r. J . C loseB rooks ( below), t hat t hese c airns a nd a ssociated c ist-graves m ay w ell b e P ictish b urials, o n t he g rounds o f t heir f orm a nd r elation hip t o o ther c ircular c airns i n S cotland. c onsistent w ith t he s tratigraphy a s t hat r adio-carbon d eterminations o n a rea o f B irsay w ill a ssist w ith t he

I t i s as uggestion t hat w ould b e o utlined a bove, a nd i t i s h oped b ones f rom a ll t he g raves i n t his e stablishment o f a n a bsolute a s

w ell a s r elative c hronology f or t he b urials.

1 41

F ig.

8 .5

A rea 1 , C ist-grave 2 . P h: J . D ickson. C rown C opyright.

1 42

A cknowledgements T he e xcavations, o f w hich t he m aterial d iscussed a bove f ormed a p art, w ere d irected b y C hristopher D . M orris, a ssisted i n 1 976 b y S onia T hingstad a nd i n 1 978 b y N icholas P earson. W e a re g rateful f or t he a ssistance o f M r. P . J . A shmore a nd D r. D . J . B reeze o f t he I nspect orate o f A ncient M onuments w ho r esponded p ositively t o p leas f or a ssistance a nd r esponsibility o n as cale b eyond t he r esources o f a U niversity d epartment. I n B irsay, t he V iking a nd E arly S ettlement A rchaeological R esearch P roject h as d eliberately f ocused a ttention o n t hose a rchaeological f eatures t hreatened w ith d estruction, w hether M anm ade o r " Act o f G od". " Rescue a rchaeology w ithin a r esearch f ramework" h as b een t he d eliberate a im, a nd t ook o n a n ew m eaning i n t he w ake o f ' Hurricane F lossie ' I t i s h oped t hat t he r esults o f t his w ork w ill d emonstrate t he v alue o f i ntensive w ork i n a l imited a rea, e ven w here a t f irst i t m ay s eem t hat a ttention i s f ocused u pon m inor f eatures. N icholas P earson p repared m uch o f t he m aterial f rom t he e xcavation, u pon w hich t he a ccount a bove i s b ased, b ut t he f inal t ext i s e ntirely t he r esponsibility o f C hristopher M orris. I llustrative m aterial w as p repared b y N icholas P earson a nd N orman E mery, a nd t hanks a re a lso d ue t o t he P hotographic s ection o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, D urham U niversity.

1 43

R eferences A shmore, P .J. 1 978-80 S oc. A ntiq. S cot. R itchie, U & A 1 981

1 981

L ow c airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones, 1 10, 3 46-55. ( 1978-80). S cotland.

A rchaeology a nd E arly H istory,

1 44

P roc.

L ondon

G ARBEG A ND W I -L [TEBRIDGE: T wo S quare-Barrow C emeteries i n I nverness-shire J B S tevenson T his s urvey o f t he b arrow c emeteries a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge, I nverness-shire w as u ndertaken b y O fficers o f t he R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments o f S cotland i n c onjunction w ith D r. J oanna C lose-Brooks, a s ap art o f h er r e-assessment o f P ictish b urial p ractices ( Close-Brooks, t his v olume). A lthough a t l east f ive c emet eries c ontaining s quare a nd r ound b arrows h ave b een r ecognised i n I nverness-shire ( see m ap, p . 90 ) ‚ o nly t hose a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge c an b e i dentified o n t he g round; t he r emainder A llanfearn a nd K errow aird ( RCAMS 1 979, p .12, n os. 4 9-50) a nd C roftgowan ( Maxwell 1 978, 4 3) h ave b een r educed t o c rop-marks. T he b arrows a t G arbeg w ere f irst i dentified b y L M M W edderburn i n 1 975 f ollowing t he d iscovery o f f ragments o f a P ictish s ymbol s tone i n o ne o f t hem ( Wedderburn a nd -

-

G rime: W edderburn, t his v olume), a nd i n 1 979 J L D avidson d rew a ttent ion t o W hitebridge d uring t he c ourse o f f ieldwork c arried o ut b y O fficers o f t he O rdnance S urvey. G arbeg T he c emetery a t G arbeg, D rumnadrochit ( NH 5 11 3 22) i s s ituated a t ah eight o f a bout 3 00 m O D o n t he N s ide o f G len U rquhart 9 00 m N NE o f G arbeg f armhouse. I t l ies o n h eather m oorland a t t he f oot o f as light b reak i n s lope, a nd i s s urrounded b y d ispersed g roups o f h ut c ircles, f ield-systems a nd c airns w hich e xtend f or c onsiderable d ist ances i n a ll d irections. T here a re t wenty-one i ndividual e lements i n t he c emetery ( Fig. 1 ), w ith a n a dditional o utlier 8 5 m t o t he N . I nclud ed w ithin t he a rea o f s urvey t here i s a h ut-circle, b ut i t p robably p redates t he c emetery b y a l ong p eriod o f t ime, a nd d amage t o i ts N E s ide m ay h ave b een c aused b y r obbing f or c airn m aterial. T he b arrows e xhibit c onsiderable s tructural v ariation b ut t he m ajority a re d itched, a nd t hey c an b e d ivided i nto t wo b asic t ypes s quare/rectlinear a nd c ircular. T here a re t welve s quare/recilinear b arrows, m easuring f rom 3 m ( No .20) t o 5 .5 m ( No .11) w ithin s hallow d itches w hich i n t wo c ases a re a ccompanied b y o uter b anks ( Nos. 1 9, 2 1). A t t he c orners o f t he b arrows t he d itches a re i nterrupted b y c auseways, a nd a t N o .3 l arge s tones h ave b een s et i n t he g aps b etween t he d itch t erminals. W ithin t he e nclosures f ormed b y t he d itches t here a re m ounds w hich c an b e d ivided i nto t hree d ifferent t ypes: a t N os . 5, 1 6, 1 9, 2 0 a nd 2 1 t he f lat-topped s tony m ound f orms t he m ost p rominent f eature o f t he b arrow, r ising t o a h eight o f 0 .45 m ; a t N os. 1 0, 1 1, 1 2, 1 3 a nd 1 5 t he m ound i s e arthen a nd s tands t o a h eight o f o nly 0 .2 m ; -

t he t hird t ype, r epresented b y t wo o f t he e xcavated e xamples ( Nos .2 a nd 3 ), h as a l ow s tony m ound s eparated f rom t he d itch b y a b erm. W ith o ne e xception ( No -4), e ach o f t he c ircular b arrows i s s urr ounded b y ad itch ( occasionally d ug i n s traight s ections N os -9 a nd 1 8, a nd a t t he l atter a ccompanied b y a n o uter b ank). T he b arrows 1 45

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r n

1 0

2 0

F ig . I .G arbeg

F ig.

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G arbeg,

I nverness-shire.

1 46

P lan o f c emetery.

3 0 ,

m easure u p t o 8 m i n d iameter w ithin t heir d itches a nd, l ike t he s quare b arrows, c an b e d ivided i nto t hree c ategories: s tony m ounds u p t o 0 .45 m h igh ( Nos.l, 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 1 8); l ow e arthen m ounds ( Nos. 9 , 1 4); a nd a s tony m ound s eparated f rom t he d itch b y a b erm ( No .22). F ive o f t he d itched b arrows ( Nos.l, 6 , 1 4, 1 8, 2 2) h ave c auseways, b ut t hese d o n ot s how a c ommon o rientation. A n e xception t o t he g eneral f orm o f t he c ircular b arrows i s p rovided b y N o. 1 7; h ere t he c ausew ayed d itch s urrounds a p enannular r ing-bank, w hich a ppears t o b e a n o riginal f eature r ather t han t he r esult o f t he r obbing o f ac ircular m ound. I mmediately S E o f b arrow N o -18 t here i s a n i rregular p ile o f s tones w hich m ay e ither c over a b urial o r b e t he r emains o f ac learanceh eap c ontemporary w ith t he h ut-circle. T he b arrows a re n ot r andomly d isposed w ithin t he c emetery b ut a ppear t o f all i nto a t l east t hree g roups c omprising N os. 1 -8, 9 -13, a nd 1 7-21. T he g roups t hemselves a re a rranged i n r oughly l inear s ettings, e ach c ontaining b oth s quare a nd c ircular b arrows. M oreover, t he g roups a re n ot o nly d ifferentiated o n s patial g rounds, b ut c an b e d istinguished b y s imilarities i n f orm a nd c onstruction; N os. 9 -13 a re a ll l ow e arthen m ounds, a nd N os. 1 7-20 a re a ll p rominent s tony m ounds. T hese g roupings m ay b e e xplained e ither c hronologically o r i n s ocial t erms, w ith t he l inear s etting p ossibly r epresenting k inship g roups. W hitebridge T he b arrows a t W hitebridge a re s ituated 1 .8km N NE o fW hitebridge v ill age a nd l ie o n t wo a djacent g ravel r idges a t t he n eck o f ap romontory f ormed b y t he c onfluence o f t he R iver F echlin a nd t he A llt a n L oin ( NH 4 92 1 71). L ater s ettlement a nd a griculture h ave e ncroached o n t he s ite, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat o riginally t he c emetery w as m ore e xtens ive. T he c emetery ( Fig. 2 ) c omprises f our s quare b arrows, t wo d itched r ound b arrows, f ive u nditched c airns, a nd a n i ndeterminate m ound. T hree o f t he s quare b arrows ( Nos . 1 , 3 , 6 ) c losely r esemble o ne a nother, m easuring u p t o 1 4 m s quare w ithin a b ank a nd i nternal d itch. T he d itches a re g enerally i nterrupted b y c auseways a t t he a ngles, a lthough i n s ome c ases t here i s n o c orresponding b reak i n t he b anks. T he a rea e nclosed b y t he d itches a t N os. 1 a nd 3 i s l evel w ith n o t race o f a m ound v isible, a nd w ithin N o .6 t here i s o nly a t hin s pread o f s tones w hich m ay b e n o m ore t han t he r esult o f at ree-pull. A t N o. 4 , h owever, t he c entral, f lat-topped m ound ( 0.6 m h igh) f orms t he m ost p rominent f eature. T he t wo d itched c ircular b arrows ( Nos -2 a nd 5 ) a re s imilar i n d esign; b oth c omprise a p enannular d itch a nd o uter b ank ( with c auseways o n t he N E), w hich s urround a l ow s tony m ound s eparated f rom t he i nner l ip o f t he d itch b y a b erm. T he c airns ( Nos -7 1 1) a re s imply s tony m ounds u p t o 0 .5 m h igh, a nd a t N o .11 a l ow s tony b ank m ay l ink i t w ith N o .5. T he n ature o f t he s tony m ound ( No -12) i s u ncertain; W allace ( 1911, 3 27-8) d escribed i t a s r ectangular b ut i t m ay b e n o m ore t han a f ield-clearance h eap. -

D iscussion T he a rchaeological b ackground f or t he t ype o f c emetery t o w hich G arbeg a nd W hitebridge b elong h as a lready b een d iscussed i n t his v olume 1 47

1 0

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9 .2

0 i

W hitebridge,

2 0

3 0

I nverness-shire. .

1 48

P lan o f c emetery.

b y C lose-Brooks, a nd e lsewhere b y A shmore ( 1981). T he s urveys d o, h owever, a llow a m ore d etailed a nalysis o f t he v ariations i n t he b arrow f orms a nd e nable c omparisons t o b e m ade b etween t hese t wo u nploughed c emeteries a nd t he m ajority o f t he s ites t hat a re k nown o nly f rom c ropmarks. A ttention h as b een d rawn t o t he d egree o f v ariation i n t he f orms o f t he b arrows, a nd i t a ppears t hat a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge t here a re t wo d istinct t ypes o f s quare b arrow a nd p ossibly t wo t ypes o f d itched c ircular b arrow. I n t he f irst t ype o f s quare b arrow, t he c entral f lat-topped m ound f orms t he m ost p rominent f eature ( Garbeg N os. 5 , 1 6, 1 9-21, a nd b efore e xcavation p robably N os . 2 -3; W hitebridge N o -4); i n t he s econd t he m ound i s a bsent o r m inimal ( Garbeg N os . 1 0-13, 1 5; W hitebridge N os .l, 3 , 6 ). D espite c onsiderable s tructural v ariety s hown b y t he c ircular b arrows ( ditches, c auseways, o uter b anks), t wo b asic p lans a re a pparent: t he f irst, i n w hich t he m ound r ises d irectly f rom t he d itch ( Garbeg N os . 1 , 6 -9, 1 4, 1 8); t he s econd, i n w hich t he c entral m ound f orms a l ess d ominant f eature a nd i s s eparated f rom t he i nner l ip o f t he d itch b y a b erm ( Garbeg N o . 2 2; W hitebridge N os . 2 , 5 ). A lthough a f undamental d istinction h as b een m ade b etween t he s quare/rectilinear a nd c ircular f orms o f t he b arrows, t his s hould n ot d etract f rom a n umber o f s hared c haracteristics w hich b ind t he t wo f orms c losely t ogether. T hese c ommon f eatures i nclude: t he o bvious i mportance p laced o n t he d itch a s as tructural e lement; t he u se o f c auseways; t he s ignificance o f b erms a nd l ow m ounds ( cf. G arbeg N os. 2 -3 a nd 2 2 w ith W hitebridge N os. 2 -3); a nd t he f orm o f t he m ounds ( e.g. t he s tructural s imilarities b etween t he l ow e arthen s quare b arrows 0 .10, 1 1, 1 2, 1 3, 1 5, a nd t he c ircular b arrow 0 14). F inally t he r ange o f b arrow t ypes a t G arbeg a nd W hitebridge c ontrasts w ith t he p icture g ained f rom a erial p hotography o f c rop m ark e xamples, w here o nly b asic d istinctions b etween s quare a nd c ircul ar c an n ormally b e m ade. P loughing r educes t he a bility t o d etect s uch s ubtleties, a nd t hese m ay n ot b e r ecoverable e ven b y e xcavation; i t w ould t herefore, b e u nwise t o p lace u ndue r eliance o n t he r esults o f t he e xcavation o f c ropmark s ites o r o n t he e xcavation o f s ingle b arrows w ithin a c emetery. A cknowledgements T he s urveys w ere u ndertaken o n b ehalf o f t he R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments o f S cotland, a nd t his a ccount i s p ublished b y c ourtesy o f t he C ommissioners. Ia m g rateful t o D r. J . C lose-Brooks a nd t o M r. J .M .L . Y ounie, G arbeg F arm, f or t heir a ssistance; t o m y c olleagues M r. A . L eith a nd M r. I . P arker, w ho u ndertook t he d rawings, a nd t o M r. A . M acLaren f or h is a dvice d uring t he p reparation o f t his p aper.

1 49

B ibliography A shmore, P .J. 1 981 L ow c airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones, S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 1 10 ( 1978-80), 3 46-55.

P roc.

M axwell, G .S. 1 978 A ir P hotography a nd t he W ork o f t he R oyal C ommiss ion o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments o f S cotland, A erial A rchaeology, 2 , 3 7-43. R CAMS

1 979 T he R oyal C ommission o n t he A ncient a nd H istorical M onuments o f S cotland, T he A rchaeological s ites a nd M onuments o f S cotland, 8 , N orth-east I nverness, I nverness D istrict, H ighland R egion.

W allace, T . 1 911 M ilitary R oads a nd F ortifications i n t he H ighlands, w ith B ridges a nd M ilestones, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cot. 4 5 ( 1910-11), 3 18-33. W edderburn, L .M.M. & G rime, D .M. A C airn C emetery a t G arbeg, D rumnad rochit: A P reliminary R eport.

1 50

T HE C AIRN C EMETERY A T G ARBEG,

D RUMNADROCHIT

L aurie M . M acLagan W edderburn, a nd D orothy M . G rime I n J uly 1 974 i t w as r eported t o I nverness M useum b y M r. J .L.H. Y ounie o f G arbeg F arm, D rumnadrochit, t hat h e h ad u nearthed f ragments o f c arved s tone f rom t he c entre o f ac airn. O n i nspection t his p roved t o b e a s lab o f r eddish s andstone i ncised w ith a c rescent a nd V -rod s ymbol. T he s ite w as v isited a nd i t w as d ecided, f or t he f ollowing r easons, t o e xcavate: f irstly, t o r ecover a s m uch i nformation a s p oss ible f rom t he a lready d isturbed s tructure, a nd s econdly, t o a ttempt t o a scertain w hether o r n ot t he s ymbol s tone a nd t he c airn w ere c ontemp orary. T he s ite ( NH 5 11319), l ies a t a bout 2 80 m O D o n t he s outh e astern s lope o f a l ow r idge a bove a p eat-covered p lateau a bout 7 50 m n orth e ast o f t he f armhouse a t G arbeg. I t c onsists o f s ome s eventeen d itched c airns t ightly g rouped i n t he s outh e astern c orner o f a n a rea d efined b y ad egraded a nd t urf-covered d rystone d yke. T he a rea w ithin t he d yke a lso c ontains a s catter o f w hat a ppear t o b e f ield c learance h eaps a nd a mongst t he c airns l ies a c ircular e nclosure w hich m ay b e ah ut c ircle. T he c airn w hich p roduced t he s ymbol s tone ( Cairn 1 ) l ies a t t he n orth e astern e nd o f t he m ain g roup a nd h ad b een e xtensively d ug i nto b y t he f inder i n h is s earch f or a dditional f ragments o f t he s tone. I t w as t herefore, d ecided t o e xamine t he r emains o f t his c airn a nd t o e xcavate a pparently u ndamaged s tructures a s ac omparison. ( Fig. 1 ). N .B . S ite N orth i s a n a rbitrarily d esignated d irection r elated t o t he o rientation o f t he s urvey g rid a nd u sed t o f acilitate d escription. C airn 1 ( Fig.

3 )

T his c airn h ad b een e xtensively d isturbed p rior t o e xcavation b y t he f inder o f t he s ymbol s tone i n h is s earch f or t he r emaining f ragments. T he d isturbed m aterial w as c leared a nd c arefully e xamined. T he s tructure c onsisted o n a p enannular d itch, i nternal d iameter 5m5 0 c ms, 8 0 c ms w ide a nd 2 0 c ms d eep w ith a 1 m w ide g ap i n t he s outh e ast q uadrant. T he b ody o f t he c airn, w hich a ppeared t o h ave b een n o m ore t han a f lat p latform r aised s ome 5 0 c ms a bove o ld g round s urface, w as c omposed o f ar andom m ass o f m ottled e arth, c lay a nd s tones w ith p atches o f p eaty s oil. B eneath t his, a nd a pparently s ealed b y t his m aterial, a lthough o wing t o d isturbance t his c annot b e p roved, l ay a p it 1 m 6 0 c ms l ong b y 7 0 c ms w ide b y 6 8 c ms d eep w ith r ounded e nds a nd aU -shaped b ase. T he p it l ay s lightly t o t he e ast o f c entre o f t he r ing d itch a nd w as c ut t hrough a 6 c m t hick l ayer o f p eat i nto t he b ase. I t w as f illed w ith l oose s tony c lay w ith o ccasional f ragments o f p eaty s oil a nd w as o therwise e mpty. S everal s mall f ragments o f O ld R ed S ands tone s labs w ere r ecovered b ut n one w as d ecorated o r f itted t he s ymbol 1 51

4 1,

1-

0

C O

0

u J

z

o C N

0

Pu ,

e n

o U

n

F ig.

1 0.1

U arbeg,

I nverness-shire.

1 52

P lan o f e xcavations.

h B r o w n E a r t

/ /

z

U )

0 0

E

F ig.

1 0.2

P lans o f c airns 1 ,

1 53

2 a nd 3 .

s tone a nd n one c an b e p roved t o h ave c ome f rom t he p it. S tratigraphy F 1 . F 2 . F 3 . F4. F 5 . F 6 . F 7 .

T opsoil a nd p eaty h umus L oose s tony r ubble E arth c lay a nd s tones P eat D ark g rey t o b lack p eat D itch L oose s andy c lay

F 8 .

A rea w here d isturbance h as p enetrated o riginal g round s urface.

F inds S ymbol s tone

( Fig.

7 )

I nterpretation T he s equence o f e vents w ould a ppear t o b e a s f ollows: F irstly, t he d igging o f t he p it a nd t he r ing d itch t hrough a s urf ace c overed w ith a t hin l ayer o f p eat. I t i s i mpossible t o a scertain w hich w as d one f irst s ince t he a rea r ound t he p it w as d isturbed. T he b ody o f t he c airn o r p latform w as m ade u p o f a m aterial d ug f rom t he d itch a nd t he f ill o f t he p it c onsisted a lmost e ntirely o f m aterial f rom t he b ase b oulder c lay w ith o ne o r t wo p atches o f p eaty s oil. T he f act t hat F 5 w as r estricted t o t he d itch w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat i t w as d eliberately f illed s ince n o s uch e xtreme p eat d evelopment w as o bserved o utside t he d itch a nd b oth c airn a nd d itch f ill w ere s ealed b y F 2 w hich a ppears t o r epresent l ater a ctivity o n t he s ite. T he s tatus o f t he s ymbol s tone r emains a mbiguous. L ack o f a s trati graphical l ocation m akes i t i mpossible t o p rov e w hether i t i s c ontemp orary w ith t he c airn o r a l ater d eposit. C airn 2 ( Figs.

2 a nd 4 )

T his w as a m uch d isturbed s etting a nd a ppeared t o b e s imilar t o c airn 3 , a lthough i nsufficient r emained t o b e c ertain o f i ts o riginal s hape. I t c onsisted o f a r oughly s quare s etting o f a ngular a nd s uba ngular s tones 1 .3 m a long i ts e ast/west a xis a nd 1 .2 m a long i ts n orth/ s outh a xis, w ith a r ough k erbing a long i ts n orthern e dge. T he c airn m aterial w as n oticeably m ore t ightly p acked i n i ts n orthern h alf, b ec oming l ooser a nd m ore f ragmentary t owards w here a s outhern k erb m ight h ave b een a nd d isappearing a ltogether s ome 3 0-60 c ms s hort o f t wo l arge o utlying b oulders 2 5 e ms i n d iameter. T hese m ay b e t he d isplaced r emnants o f a s outhern k erb b ut l ay d irectly o n t he s urface o f a l ater c ut o r s crape w hich h ad r emoved t he c airn m aterial d own t o t he n atural a nd w as s urfaced w ith a s catter o f p ebbles 3 -6 c ms i n d iameter. S ectioning r evealed t hat t he s tone s etting h ad b een p laced e ccent rically a bove a p it ( F 6 ) 1 .4 m l ong b y 5 0 c ms w ide b y 4 0 c ms d eep m ost o f w hich l ay o utside t he n orthern k erbing a nd h ad, p rior t o s ectioning b een r epresented b y a l inear, p eat-filled, d epression a djacent t o t he k erbing. T he p it c ontained a n umber o f f lat, a ngular, s chist s labs i n

1 54

GAR B EG F ig . 3 SN

S cr n. I 80

‚p C o irn 1

GARBEG -

F i g .4 SN

F ig.

1 0.3

P lan o f c airn 1 .

F ig.

1 0.4

P lan o f c airn 2 .

1 55

am atrix o f b rown p eaty e arth a nd s mall s tones. S ome 2 0 c ms o utside t he w estern e dge o f t he s tone s etting l ay a p it ( F 9 ), 4 0 c ms i n d iam eter a nd 9 e ms d eep, c ut i nto t he n atural a nd b earing a s imilar s tratigraphic r elationship t o t he s tone s etting a s d id t he l inear p it ( F 6 ). S tratigraphy F F F F F F F F F F

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0.

T opsoil P eat E arth a nd s tone C airn m aterial D ry c rumbly p eat L inear p it D ark, m ottled p eaty s oil P ebble s catter P it B rown p eaty e arth a nd s tones.

I nterpretation T he s equence o f e vents i s m ore d ifficult t o f ollow h ere t han i n t he o ther c airns o wing t o t he f ragmentary n ature o f t he r emains, h owe ver i t d oes a ppear t o b e s imilar. F irstly t he l inear p it ( F 6 ) a nd, p resumably t he p it ( F 9 ) w ere d ug, t he u pcast b eing r epresented b y F7 . I t w as a lso a pparent t hat t he f ill o f t he l inear p it ( F 1 0) w as c omposed o f t his m aterial. T he s tone s etting w as t hen c onstructed o n t op, n ot o f t he l inear p it i tself, b ut o f t he m ound o f m aterial w hich r emained a fter t he p it h ad b een f illed i n. T he w hole s outhern s ection o f t he s tructure w ould a ppear t o h ave b een c ut a way a t a l ater t ime. T he e xtensive s catter o f p ebbles o n t he s urface o f t his c ut h ad t he a ppeara nce o f b eing d eliberately l aid a lthough t ime d id n ot p ermit i ts f urther e xamination. S ome 0 .5 1 .0 m n orth o f c airn 2 l ay a d itch 2 m l ong b y 3 5 m w ide b y 1 5 c m d eep. ( Fig 2 ) T he d imensions a nd a lignment o f t his d itch a re c learly r eminiscent o f t he d itches s urrounding c airns 1 a nd 3 . T here w as n o s ign o f a m atching d itch t o t he s outh o f c airn 2 , a lthough, o wing t o l ater d isturbance i t w as n ot p ossible t o a scertain w hether o r n ot t here h ad b een o ne. -

C airn 3 ( Fig. 5 ) A r ectangular s tructure c onsisting o f f our l inear d itches a long e ach o f t he f our s ides o n a verage 3 m 3 0 e ms l ong, 5 8 c ms w ide a nd 2 0 c ms d eep, t hese d itches d id n ot m eet, l eaving b aulks a t t he f our c orners u pon e ach o f w hich h ad b een p laced a s chist b oulder. T he a rea e nclosed b y t he d itches h ad b een r aised s ome 1 5 2 0 c ms a bove o ld g round l evel a nd w as c omposed o r a r andom m ass o f i mpacted p eaty s oil a nd s tones. O n t op o f t his a nd r oughly i n t he c entre o f t he a rea e nclosed b y t he d itches, l ay a r ectangular s tone s etting, e xternal d imensions 2 m 4 2 c ms b y 1 m 6 8 e ms, w ith i ts l ong a xis a ligned E /W, c onsisting o f a k erb o f s chist a nd q uartzite b oulders 2 5 4 0 c ms a cross e nclosing a r andom m ass o f s tones 5 3 5 e ms i n d iameter s et i n a m atrix o f i mpacted p eaty s oil. T his s etting w as s ectioned a nd t he i nterior p acking r emoved. F urther e xcavation r evealed a g rave p it 1 m 7 2 e ms l ong b y 5 0 e ms w ide b y 6 6 e ms d eep c ut i nto t he b ase a nd f illed w ith a m ass o f l oose s andy -

-

-

1 56

F ig.

1 0.5

P lan o f c airn 3 .

1 57

c lay a nd s tones. T he p it w as u nlined e xcept f or a n umber o f 2c m t hick s andstone s labs l aid i n t he b ase a nd c ontained a v ery b adly d ecayed s kull a nd w hat a ppeared t o b e t he s haft o f o ne h uman f emur. S tratigraphy F 1 . F2 . F3 .

T opsoil a nd p eaty h umus P eat S tone s etting

F F F F

I mpacted p eaty s oil a nd s tones L oose s andy c lay a nd s tones G rave p it B asal s labs

4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

F inds H uman S kull H uman F emur I nterpretation T he s equence o f e vents w ould s eem t o b e a s f ollows: F irstly, t he d igging o f t he p it, p lacing o f t he b ody a nd r e-filling. T he d itches w ere t hen d ug a nd t he m aterial p iled u p i n t he c entre a nd f inally t he c onstruction o f t he s tone s etting. H orizon 2 s eems t o r epresent a p eat a ccumulation w hich o ccurred a fter c ompletion o f t he s tructure. T here w ere n o t races o f ap eat h orizon o n t he o ld g round s urface a s t here w as i n t he c ase o f C airns 1a nd 8 . C airn 8 ( Fig. 6 ) T his s tructure h ad b een m uch e aten i nto b y as heep s crape, a nd i t w as f elt t hat e xcavation s hould b e u ndertaken b efore a ny f urther d amage c ould b e d one. I t c onsisted o n a p ennanular d itch, i nternal d iameter a pproximately 4 m 2 0 c ms, 5 0 c ms w ide a nd 1 6 c ms d eep. T he g ap o r b aulk i n t he d itch l ay o n t he w estern s ide a s i n C airn 1 . T he b ody o f t he c airn c onsisted o f am ass o f s oil a nd s tones a nd r ose t o am aximum h eight o f a bout 3 0 c ms. B eneath a nd s ealed b y t his m aterial l ay a m assive l ong c ist, 1 m 3 0 c ms l ong b y 3 9 c ms w ide b y 5 6 c ms d eep w hich w as l ined w ith w ater r ounded s chist a nd q uartzite b oulders w ith t heir f latter f aces i nwards, j ammed i nto a p it 1 m 7 0 c ms l ong b y 9 0 c ms w ide b y 5 6 c ms d eep, c ut i nto t he n atural. T he c ist w as f illed w ith a m ass o f l oose c lay a nd s tones a nd f our s chist b oulders h ad b een p laced a cross t he t op. T he c ist w as o therwise e mpty. O utside t he d itch o n t he w est s ide t here a ppeared a n a rea o f e xtremely t ightly p acked s tones, w hich a lthough c ontaining m any a ngular f ragments, h as t he a ppearance o f a c obbled f loor o r w alk. S tratigraphy F 1 . F 2 . F3 .

T opsoil a nd p eaty h umus T ightly p acked r ubble L oose s tony r ubble

1 58

F ig.

1 0.6

P lan o f c airn B .

1 59

F4 . F5 .

P eat D itch

F6 . F 7 . F 8 .

L ight b rown s andy c lay w ith a f ew s tones B rown s oil w ith s tones C ist

F9 .

B ase

-

y ellow s andy c lay w ith s tones

F inds F ragment o f p ottery S mall q uantities o f c harcoal a nd c alcined b one I nterpretation T he s equence o f e vents w ould a ppear t o b e a s f ollows: F irstly, t he e xcavation a nd c onstruction o f t he l ong c ist. T his w as c learly s ealed b y F 7w hich, t ogether w ith F 6 r epresents t he s econd p hase t he d igging o f t he d itch a nd p iling u p o f t he r esulting m aterial t o f orm t he c airn. I t i s p ossible t hat t he d itch w as f illed w ith p eat, a lthough t his i s b y n o m eans a s d efinite a c onclusion a s i n t he c ase o f C airn 1 s ince t he f illing w as a s t hin a s 4 c m i n p laces. T here f ollowed a p eriod i n w hich a l oose s tony r ubble w as d eposited. O n t he s urface o f t his t o t he w est a nd e xtending u p o ver t he c airn t here a ppears a f urther h orizon ( F 2 ) r epresenting t he m ost r ecent a ctivity. -

T he F inds F ragment o f p ottery. W all s hard o f g ritty, f riable w are, b uff o n t he o utside a nd b lack o n t he i nside s urface, 3 .5 c ms x 2 .2 c ms x 1 .1 c m t hick. R ecovered f rom t he b ase o f F 7 i n C airn 8 a t ap oint w here t here w ere f aint t races o f ap ossible o riginal p eat s urface v ery l ike t hat i n C airn 1 . T hese t races w ere v ery f aint a nd d id n ot a ppear i n t he s ection. T he f ragment i s t ypical o f S cottish m aterial f rom t he i st m illenium'BC o nwards a lthough l ack o f ar im o r d ecoration p recludes a ny f urther c omment. S ymbol S tone ( Fig. 7 ) T his c onsists o f as lab o f O ld R ed S andstone 5 0.5 c ms x 5 0.5 c ms x6 .5 c ms t hick, b roken i nto s even f ragments. I t b ears o n o ne f ace p art o f aC rescent a nd V -rod s ymbol i ncised b y p ecking w ith a g roove 1c m w ide a nd 0 .3 c ms d eep. T he l over l eft h and f ragment a lone b ears a ny s ians o f w eathering a nd i s t he o ne w hich w as f irst r ecognised b y t he f inder. T he i ncised l ines o n t his f ragment, t he l eft h and p oint o f t he c rescent a nd a bout h alf o f t he t erminal o f t he V -rod, a re e xtreme ly f aint a nd w orn i n c ontrast t o t he c arving o n t he r est o f t he s lab w hich i s s o s harp a nd c lear t hat i t c annot h ave b een e xposed t o t he e lements f or a ny l ength o f t ime. I n t he l ower r ight h and c orner o f t he f ragment a ppears t he r emains o f f urther i ncised w ork, b ut i nsuff icient r emains t o i dentify i t w ith c ertainty. I n 1 864 t wo s ymbol s tones w ere f ound a t D rumbuie ( Romilly A llen a nd A nderson 1 903). U nfortunately n o e xact f ind s pot i s k nown b ut i t

1 60

GARBEG

F ig .7

S ca le 1 : 1 0

F ig. 1 0.7

F ragment o f s ymbol s tone,

1 61

i ncised w ith c rescent a nd V -rod.

c annot h ave b een m ore t han 1 k m s outh o f G arbeg. t he c apstone o f a " Cist-like-structure".

T hese t wo s labs f ormed

C onclusion G arbeg h as s o f ar p roduced o nly t wo i tems s uggestive o f a d ate; t he f ragment o f p ottery a nd t he s ymbol s tone. T he p ottery i s t ypical o f S cottish i st m illenium BC w are a nd, f ound a s i t w as o n t he o ld g round s urface o r i n d itch u pcast i n C airn 8 m ust r epresent e ither a n e arlier o ccupation o r e lse a d eposit o f t he c airn b uilders t hemselves. T he s ymbol s tone i s u nstratified a nd t he p ossibility o f a l ater d eposit c annot b e r uled o ut. T he s ubject o f t he d ating o f G arbeg a nd a n umber o f p ossibly c omparable s ites h as b een e xtensively d ealt w ith b y P .J. A shmore ( Ashmore 1 980) a nd f urther c omment b y t he p resent a uthors w ould b e s uperfluous. A cknowledgements T he a uthors a re i ndebted t o M r. J .M.L. Y ounie a nd h is f amily f or t heir k indness, h elp a nd i nterest, t o M iss J . C lose-Brooks f or a dvice a nd s upport a nd f or t he d rawing o f t he s ymbol s tone, a nd t o t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland f or f inancial s upport. R eferences A shmore, P .J. L owcairns, L ongcists a nd S ymbol S tones. 1 10 D P 3 46. A llen, R .J. a nd A nderson, J . E dinburgh. 1 903.

P .S.A.S.

V ol.

" The E arly C hristian M onuments o f S cotland"

1 62

F ig.

1 0.8

F ig.

C airn 1

1 0.9

G eneral v iew l ooking n orthwest.

C airn 2 : l ooking n orth.

1 63

F ig.

1 0.10

C airn 2

l ooking s outh, s hoving l inear p it.

F ig.

1 0.11

C airn 3

s tone s etting e xcavated, s howing g rave p it.

1 64

F ig.

1 0.12

F ig.

C airn 3 : d etail o f s tone s etting l ooking W est.

1 0.13

C airn 3 : g eneral v iew l ooking s outh.

1 65

F ig.

1 0.14 F ig.

C airn B : g eneral v iew l ooking n ortheast. 1 0.15

C airn 8

d etail l ooking e ast.

1 66

F ig.

1 0.16

C airn 8 : l ong c ist l ooking e ast.

1 67

T HE P ICTISH C LASS I S YMBOL S TONES C harles T homas A d rawback i n t he w riting o f p apers t hat t reat o f p rovocative a nd u nusual t opics, a nd t hat p ut f orward c ontentious i deas, i s t hat s uch p apers a re l iable t o b e c ited i n f ootnotes, l ong a fter t he a uthor m ay h ave m odified o r e ven i n p art d iscarded t he o riginals. S ince I p rod uced T he A nimal A rt o f t he S cottish I ron A ge, a nd t hen T he I nterpret ation o f t he P ictish S ymbols, i n 1 963 a nd 1 964, I d o n ot t hink t here h as b een a v olume o f P SAS l et a lone o f m any l esser j ournals t hat h as n ot r eferred t o o ne, o r b oth, o f t hese e ssays; e ither t o d emolish t hem a s t argets o f s traw, o r t o e mploy t hem a s p rops f or s ome f uture c ock-shy. N one t he l ess, t his i s w hat a rchaeological d ebate s hould b e; ac ontinued d evelopment, a nd n ot j ust a s tring o f f ossilised a ssertions. A nd I a m t herefore g rateful t o o ur C onference o rganisers f or t his o pportunity t o e xhume m y e ssays, n otably t he s econd ( completed, I s ee, t wenty y ears a go t his m onth); t o p olish u p m y o wn f ossils, a nd t o s et -

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t hem c licking a round t he f loor a gain. L et m e t ake s ome t ime t o e xplain, p erhaps t o j ustify, m y i nterest. W hen I w as a s choolboy I d iscovered J oseph A nderson 's S cotland i n E arly C hristian T imes ( among t he g reater p rizes o f C aledonian l earning), a nd s eized u pon t hose p assages t hat c over t he e xtraordinary, p erpetually e nigmatic t heme o f P ictish m onumental a rt. A t i ntervals, l ike a r ich p ickled o nion s wallowed w ith i njudicious s peed, a ll t his c ame b ack t o m e; a s w hen, a 1 7-year o ld s oldier s tationed i n t he T rossachs, I s potted t hose s ilver t rinkets r eproducing P ictish d esigns i n t he G lasgow a rcades. T hen, i n 1 959, w hen m y s alary a s a l ecturer a t E dinburgh r eached t he d izzy p eak o f £ 800 p er a nnum, I c ould a t l ast a fford t o m arry. L ife w as s tern a nd e arnest. O ur h oneymoon w as s pent a ttending t he f irst I nternational C ongress o f C eltic S tudies, i n D ublin. A fter d utifully y awning t hrough " The O ld I rish p reterite i n r o- 1 , a nd s imilar p erformances, I s trayed b y c hance i nto t he w rong s ession, a nd s tayed, e lectrified, t o h ear t he y oung I sabel H enderson g ive a 2 0-minute t alk o n t he a rt o f t he P ictish b easts. I n t he y ear t hat f ollowed I r ead a ll t hat I c ould f ind a bout t he P icts a nd t heir a rt, r ejecting ( in t he m anner o f t he c allous y oung) 9 0 p er c ent a s o bsolescent g uess-work. N ow t his w as a p eriod w hen, t hanks t o P iggott, H awkes, R ivet, F eachem a nd o thers, t he S cottish I ron A ge w as b eing n ot m erely c odified b ut t o a l arge e xtent i nvented. T hose s plendid N elson v olumes, p roducts o f t he o ld S cottish S ummer S chool a nd o f F rederick W ainwright's s cholarship a nd d rive, w ere a ppearing o ne b y o ne, a nd t hat f or t he 1 952 m eeting, T he P roblem o f t he P icts, c ame o ut d uring 1 955. T he P icts w ere n o l onger p art o f a n o lder l unacy, g athering d ust i n t he p ress o f p re-1914 S cottish a ntiquarianism. T hey w ere f ashionable, e xciting, o f a f resh I ron A ge r elevance, a nd s till j ust a n e nigmatic a s t hey h ad b een i n t he d ays o f D aniel W atson, S kene a nd t he g reat J oe A nderson. B ut I f ound i t c urious t hat h ardly a t hing w as b eing s aid a bout t he o rigin, t he f unction,

o r t he c ontemporary m eaning o f t he P ictish 1 69

d esigns. A ll d iscussion o f t he g raphic a nd g lyptic a rt a ttributed t o t he P icts w as c onducted, o r s o i t s eemed, a lmost e ntirely a long a rth istorical a nd t ypological l ines, w ith a m ethodology d ominated b y p arallel s tudies i n A nglo-Saxon o r L ate C eltic m etalwork a nd m anuscript i llumination. I t w as a ssumed t hat t he r adical a spects o f P ictish a rt w ere t hings b eyond h uman e nquiry; p erhaps t hat, s een a gainst t he d esirability o f m atching s ome f acet o f s ymbolic o rnament w ith a h angi ng b owl p elta o r t he i llumination o f o ur g reater I nsular m anuscripts, e ffort d irected t owards t he d eeper p uzzles w ould b e b arely c onstruct ive. W as t his r eally t he s pirit o f J oseph A nderson? W e w ere i nside t hat s yndrome, p eriodically a ll t oo f amiliar t o a rchaeologists, w here p roblems t o w hich a ny a nswers a re d eemed ( by t heir n ature) i ncapable o f p roof a re t hereby r eckoned a s i nsoluble f rom t he o utset. Id id n ot w ant t o b elieve t hat, e ven i n 1 959, a nd I d o n ot n ow, a nd I h ope t hat n o-one e lse b elieves s uch n onsense. T he h uman b rain w ith i ts i ntuitive a nd i nductive c apacities, a n o rganism b eside w hich t he m ost e laborate c omputer i s n o m ore t han n eatly-assembled s crap m etal, m ust a pply i tself t o s uch c hallenges. T o d o l ess i s t o b etray t he c umulative p urpose o f s cholarship. T he c osmic m ysteries a part, l et u s a ssert t ogether t hat a nything, o f a ny p eriod, d evised b y h umans f or h umans i s n ot o nly a p roper f ocus o f e nquiry b ut m ust e vent ually b e c apable o f e lucidations. E lucidations, p lural; f or o ne m ajor c ontribution o f t he N ew A r c ha eo l o gy o f th e 1 960s w as t o s how u s h ow m odel-building, t he d evelopment o f s cales o f p robabilities, a nd a c loser e mulation o f t he m ethods u sed i n t heoretical s ciences c ould a t t he v ery l east f ree u s f rom s tatic a ttitudes t o t he s upposedly u na scertainable. A round 1 960, I u sed t o s pend m uch t ime i n t he g reat c ity c emeteries o f G eorgian a nd V ictorian E dinburgh, a bsorbing t heir s trange a nd m anif old l essons. I t s truck m e o ne f ine e vening t hat t he o ld t ag o f H olinsh ed, T empora m utantur n os e t m utamur i n i llis ( "The s easons c hange, a nd w e a re c hanged a long w ith t hem") m ight n ot h old g ood i n r espect o f t he S cots' a ttitude t o t he c ommemoration o f t he d ead. T his w as ap eriod w hen c ertain s ociologists w ere e xamining c emeteries a s r eflect ions o f s ocial a ttitudes, r anking, a nd w hat t hey c alled w ealth-dis-

p lay. Ih ad o bserved, a s aC ornishman, t hat t he p ost-1800 c ity c emeteri es o f S cotland d o i n m any d etail d iffer s ignificantly f rom t heir c ounterparts i n o ur d eepest S outh. S uch d ifferences l ie i n t he S cottish e mphasis u pon d escent, f amily a nd m arital l inks, a nd p ersonal s tatue a nd a ttributes. I n t ombstone t erms w e c an f ollow t his b ack, t hrough a n 1 8th c entury p eak ( last e legantly p ublished i n 1 978: W illsher & H unter, 1 978) t o t he W est H ighland s labs ( 14th c entury t o t he R eform ation) a nd e ven t o s ome S cotto-Norman s labs o f e arlier d ate. Ih ad a lready b egun t o d ecide t hat, g iven t he v arious a lternatives t he w eight o f p robability w as t hat t he P ictish C lass I s tones w ere t ombstones o r m emorials. W ithout r ashly t rying t o b ridge t he g ap b etween t he 8 th a nd 1 2th c enturies A D, s till l ess t he 8 th a nd 1 8th, i t s truck m e t hat t he d ispositions o f t he s ymbols o n C lass I s tones ( something I h ad s ubjected t o m atrix a nalysis) m ight s upport a m odel a nalogous t o a nother t hat c ould b e e xtracted f rom, s ay, t ombstones o f t he N ew T own p rofessional c lasses, 1 750-1850. T he n ext d ay I f orced a s cript u pon t he l ate A ngus G raham. H e g ave m e m uch h elp a nd a dvice, e nding w ith t he E dwardian p recept, " Don't

1 70

s end a b oy o ut t o d o am an 's w ork". H e w as r ight, a nd i t w as t wo m ore y ears b efore I f elt a ble t o p ublish. R eading t hat p aper ( Thomas, 1 964) a gain t his a utumn, a s Ic aught u p w ith t he P ictish l iterature o f t he l ast d ecade, I s ee t hat t here a re s alient p oints d iscussed w ith A ngus G raham s ome h is, s ome m ine, s ome d rawn f rom a s f ar b ack a s F .C. D iack ( 1944) t hat h ave n ever b een a nswered, n or p roperly r e-examined. It hink D e c ould n ow p rofitably g o b ack t o f irst p rinciples. -

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L et u s c onsider t he w hole p roblem a new, w ith n o p reconceptions. W e h ave a bout 1 60 l arge s tones I o mit, f or t his o ccasion, a rtistic ally-related p ieces o f m etal a nd b one, a nd v arious p ebbles. T here a re a f ew r ock-fast b oulders, a s a t T rusty 's H ill, b ut m ost o f t he s tones c ould b e a nd a lmost c ertainly h ave b een m oved, s ome s everal t imes. O n a m ap ( eg. H enderson 1 967, 1 09) w e n otice o utliers i n t he N orthern I sles, i n S kye a nd t he w estern I sles, a nd i n L othian, t he B orders a nd G alloway. T he m ajority f orms h owever, a l arge d istributiona l s pread o n t he e ast o f S cotland, f rom t he c entral F ife h ills n orthw ard t o t he M oray F irth a nd t he s outh-east S utherland c oast. O n t hese -

s tones t here a re i ncised c ut, c hannelled, p ecked, a nd r eamed, b ut l et u s s ay " incised" ( Gordon, 1 956), i n c onfident o utlines as eries o f d evices a nd m otifs. T heir r epertoire a mounts t o s ome f igure b etween 4 0 a nd 5 0, t he e xact t otal b eing a rguable; a nd t hey a ppear s ingly, o r i n g roups o f t wo t o f our, t hose w ith t wo b eing c ommonest. T he s ymbols a re d iscrete, i e. d o n ot g enerally o verlap n or t ouch e ach o ther. T heir o utline s hapes a ppear t o b e, w ithin n arrow l imits, f ixed. T hey a re r epetitious, i n t hat c ertain s ymbols a nd p airs o f s pecific s ymbols -

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a ppear m ore f requently t han r andom c hance w ould a llow. E ven w hen w e a gree t hat t hese s tones b elong t o ac losed g roup, o ne w e c hoose t o l abel " Class I s ymbol-stones", t his v ery a scription t o t he h istorically-defined p eople t hat w e c all i n m odern E nglish " the P icts" i s i tself o nly a n a ssumption. I t r ests o n t wo a nalogies a nd a n i nference, n ot u pon a ny d ocumented h istorical e vidence. T he d istribution o f t he g roup i s t hought t o c orrespond a cceptably t o a w ide p rovince a ssigned, o n h istorical c onstructs, t o t he p eople w ho f rom t he 3 rd t o 8 th c enturies A D w ere k nown m ostly a s P icti t o t heir c o-habitants i n B ritain. I t a lso c orresponds, g enerally, t o t he p attern ( map: J ackson 1 955, 1 47) o f ap lace-name e lement ( pett, l ater p it " a l and-holding, a t enement") a rgued l inguistically t o h ave b een p eculiar t o t he s ame p eople. T hese c oincidences s upport o ur i dentification. A nd w e d efine a s a nother g roup, " Class I I", a r ange o f s tones, g enerally r egularly-shaped, o n w hich m any o f t he C lass I s ymbols a re v isible i n a m ixture o f l ow r elief a nd i ncised t echniques; -

j oined b y f igure-scenes, h umans, s trange m onsters, d ecorative e lements, a nd m ost p articularly d eveloped f orms o f t he C hristian c ross. S ome C lass I I s tones o ccur a t p laces t hat, b etween t he 8 th a nd 1 2th c enturi es, h istorical r ecords w ould j ustify o ur d escribing a s C hristian s ites. S ome b ear s hort i nscriptions, e pigraphically a ssigned t o t his p eriod. S ome o f t he o rnament c an b e m atched o n o ther a nd n on-lithic m aterial i ndependently a ssigned b y c areful s tudy t o t he s ame d ate-range. C lass I I s tones, w e t herefore s uppose, p ost-date t he c onversion o f t heir P ictish m akers t o C hristianity. W e c hoose t o d etect a t ypolo gy f rom s ymbols a lone t o s ymbols_plus_ornamentation_plus_the-Cross -

f rom i ncised w ork a lone t o i ncisions-plus-relief-work, a nd f rom r aw s tones t o s haped a nd d ressed s labs w ith b ifacial d isplays. A nd s o w e i nfer t hat t he C lass I s tones a nte-date t he P ictish c onversion. T hat

1 71

n either t his e vent, n or t he i nterval b efore i t i n t ime w hen t he e arliest C lass I s tones w ere s et u p, a re t hrough a ny m ethod o f r esearch y et f ixed b eyond q uestion, c onstitutes a n o bstacle, e ven t hough i t s hould n ot d eter u s. T he d ate o f t he c onversion t o C hristianity, p robably a l ong p hase, o r p hases s ince i t w as n ot n ecessarily t he s ame t hroughout P ict l and, m ust b e a rgued f rom h istorical c lues ( Henderson 1 967, c h. i ii; H ughes 1 970; K irby 1 973; D uncan 1 981). T he p eriod o f c urrency o f C lass Is tones c annot o f c ourse b e a rgued f rom h istory a t a ll; i t m ight b e r efined f rom a rt-historical e stimates, o r f rom l inked a rchaeological d iscoveries a llowing s cientifically-determined a bsolute d ates. Ih ave p ointed t his o ut, v ery c arefully, b ecause i f w hat I h ave t o s ay r ests l ike t he f oregoing o n a nalogy a nd i nference t hen s o, t oo, w ith t he e xception o f a l imited b ody o f d ynastic a nd a nnalistic s tatem ents r edacted i n t he M iddle A ges, d oes v irtually e verything c oncerning t he P icts. W e a re f orced t o r ealise a nd t o a ccept t his. W e c ould e xamine a s eparate m odel, i n w hich C lass I a nd C lass I I s tones a re p arallel i n t ime, d ifferent m ainly i n t heir s ocial c urrency a nd a dverti sement o f s piritual b eliefs, a nd b oth s pring f rom a s ingle, l ate, E ast-Coast i nnovation i mported f rom n orth-west E urope. T he s ource, m ost d imly p erceived, w ould i n o ther c ircumstances h ave g iven r ise t o t he B ildsteine o f B altic G otland a nd ( less p articularly) t o r elated s tones i n S candinavia a nd n orthern G ermany. N onsense, w e s ay a t o nce, y es, b ut d isprove i t f rom t he u ninscribed B ildsteine; a nd i n s aying " nonsense" l et u s a dmit t hat p ast i ntellectual i nvestment, s ooner t han r ational d ebate, m oves u s. W hat, t hen, i s t he e ssential p roblem o f t hese C lass I s tones w hich w e w ill a ssume c ame i nto b eing i n w hat w e c all P ictland, d uring t he a ge o f t he P icts o f h istory a t a ny r ate, l ater t han A gricola 's c ampaign, e arlier t han Q ueen M argaret's r eign a nd w ere c arved a s w e s ee t hem b y P icts? Iw ould p ropose n ot o ne, b ut s ix p roblems, a s f ollows: -

-

-

(i n

1 )

T he n ature a nd c haracter o f t he s tones o f f unction a nd l ife-support);

2 )

T he o rigin o f t he c ustom o f p icking o ut, t hese s tones f or d isplay;

3 )

T he p urpose,

4 )

T he o rigins o f t he v arious i ndividual s ymbols a rbitrary, d istinct ive a nd a pparently ( as w e s ee t hem) s tereotyped;

5 )

T he m eanings t he s emantic v alues c onveyed b y t he s ymbols, p articularly w hen i n p airs o r g roups;

i ncising,

a nd s etting u p

o f t his d isplay; -

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a nd l astly 6 )

o r f unction ( if a ny)

a rchaeologist's t erms

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T he l ength o f t ime, a pproximately i n a bsolute d ates,

b etween t he

e rection o f t he o ldest C lass I s tones a nd t heir a ssumed s upersession b y t he r elief-worked, c ross-enriched, C lass I I. T his m ay s ound l ike a v ery t all o rder a nd a d eliberate c omplication a nd o bfuscation o f t he p roblem, u ndivided. R eflect t hough t hat t he s ix q uestions c ould g enuinely d iffer f rom e ach o ther, b ecause c onstructing

1 72

a nswers t o t hem c alls f or d ifferent t echniques a nd p hilosophies. I c ould i llustrate t his b y a pplying s imilar q uestions t o t he t ombstones o f V ictorian E dinburgh o r, c ome t o t hat, o f a ny o ther E uropean c ity. N o. 1 , n ature a nd c haracter n ot a rchitectural c omponents, n ot m echa nically f unctional, n ot o vertly c omponents o f a ny l ife-support s ystem. T he a rchaeological a nswer; r itual a rtefacts, t he m aterial c ounterpart o f s piritual b eliefs. N o. 2 , o rigin o f t he c ustom d emonstrably r ooted i n t he l ate R oman e mpire, w eakly c urrent i n R oman B ritain, a nd r e-introd uced s everal t imes b efore t he f ull M iddle A ges, w hence a c ontinuous t ypological s equence t akes u s t o t he p resent d ay. N o. 3 , p urpose o r f unction o f t he d isplay a nswer b est c ouched i n s ociological t erms, a n i diosyncratic r esponse t o k nown i nterpretations o f C hristian d octrine, a dditionally t o b e a nalysed a s r ole-assertion. N o. 4 , o rigins o f t he s ymbols ( on m odern t ombstones) ac omplex a rt-historical a nswer, a gain t aking u s b ack t o R oman t imes, i nvolving t ransferred m odels, r evived a rchaisms ( eg. c hi-rho: T homas, 1 981, 8 6), f ortuitous c urrency o f p attern b ooks, a nd s o f orth. N o. 5 , m eanings t he w ritten d isplays ( in E nglish a nd L atin) a re i ntelligible t o u s, b ut s tereotyped, a nd t he p ictorial m otifs h ave u ndergone n umerous d ocumented c hanges o f m eaning, -

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-

-

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i nfluenced b y l iterary t rends. L astly, N o. 6 , p eriod o f c urrency f ortunately, t his c an b e d erived f rom s tated a bsolute d ates.

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C an w e a pply t his t reatment t o P ictish C lass I s tones? W e c ould; p erhaps w e s hould; a nd I s uggest t hat w e d o s o. I nitially w e m ight a gree t hat, a ccepting a s i n s econdary c ontexts t hose f ew C lass I s tones d iscovered i n u se a s l intels o r s ide-slabs f or c ists, t hey w ere d ecora ted f or p ublic v isibility a nd, h aving n o c onceivable s tructural o r l ifes upport f unctions, w ere r itual a rtefacts. N ow e ven a t t his e arly s tage c ertain i nferences l urk b efore u s. C lass I s tones, a s f ar a s Ik now, w ere p roduced f rom t heir i mmediate l ocalities, u nlike ( say) m any o f t he m ilestones o f R oman B ritian, o r t he W est H ighland g rave s labs s hipped a round a s G . H . C ollins ( Steer a nd B annerman, 1 977, 1 95-200) h as s hown p etrologically f rom f avoured b ut d istant q uarries. T he d isplay i tself, n ot t he s tone b ack-cloth, w as t he i mportant f actor c ommon t o t he w hole d istribution a rea. A nd i f ad isplay, f or s ome r itual p urpose, w as p rimary a nd c onstant t hroughout P ictland, w e c ould a rgue t hat p ublic c omprehension o f t he d isplay r ange w as e qually c onsistent a nd w idespread. -

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I g o b ack n ow t o t he s econd q uestion, t he o rigin o f t he c ustom o f s etting u p s uch s tones. H ere, t o s ome d egree, w e h ave t o b eg t he a nswer t o q uestion s ix, t he c urrency o f C lass I i n a bsolute t ime. I f w e c onfine o urselves t o t he h istorically-supportable a ssertion t hat t he n orthern P icts a dopted C hristianity w ithin t he 7 th c entury, a nd a ccept t he a rguments t hat C lass I I s tones w ith C hristian s ymbols p ost-date, a nd C lass I s tones t ypologically a nte-date t his e vent, w e h ave t he p remise t hat s ome C lass I s tones w ere s et u p i n n orthern P ictland w ithin t he 7 th c entury. Ia m n ot h ere a dducing t hose s eparate a rt-historical j udgements t hat f avour v ery m uch t he s ame d ating. W e h ave t o b alance t he l ikelihoods o f i ndependent i nvention v ersus d iffusion. W hat d o w e k now i n p re-7th c entury B ritain a nd I reland a bout o ther g roups o f s tones, i ncised w ith d isplays t hat a re p ictorial o r l iterate o r b oth, e rected f or r itual o r s ocietal o r e ven b ureaucratic e nds a nd, f urther, w hich a lso e mploy f ixed f orms, s emantically v alid o ver l arge a reas a nd f or s ubstantial p eriods o f t ime? Ic an t hink o f a t l east f ive s uch c lasses. W ithin R oman B ritain, w e h ave t he w hole r ange o f m onumental i nscriptions l arge a nd s mall, g rand a nd p etty; -

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d edications, a ltars, m ilestones a nd d istance-slabs, t ombstones, a nd t he r est. T hen t here i s a l esser g roup o f d epictions ( other t han in t he r ound), o r n ative d eities, d iscussed b y D r. A nne R oss ( 1967) i n h er c orpus v olume. I n p ost-Roman t imes w e h ave t he i nscribed m emorial t ombstones i n t he m ain, w ith l ettering, b ut a lso w ith s ome p ictorial m otifs i n W ales a nd t he s outh-west, w ith a n orthern s catter i n M an a nd s outhern S cotland. T here i s a p arallel C hristian c ategory, m uch m ore s imple, a lmost w holly p ictorial, a nd I rish a nd n orth B ritish i n e mphasis w hat I d efined i n m y 1 968 G lasgow H unter M arshall l ect ures ( Thomas 1 971, c hap. 4 ) a s ' primary g rave-markers" a nd " primary c ross-incised s labs". A nd f ifthly t here i s a n I rish g roup, e xtended t o A tlantic B ritish r egions s ettled b y I rish c olonists, i nvolving l iteracy p rimarily i n t he o gam, n ot L atin, a lphabet. -

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T he l ast t hree o f t hese f ive c lasses l ast i n p oint o f t ime, w ith o gam s tones f rom t he l at e fo ur t h cen tu ry, inscr i b ed m emorial -

s tones f rom t he l ater f ifth, a nd p rimary c ross-slabs f rom t he s ixth a re a lmost e ntirely f unerary. T hey a re ( if w e e xclude s ome o f t he f irst o gams) m aterial r eflections o f t he C hristian r eligion ; r itual, a nd o nly e xceptionally a rchitecturally f unctional; s tereotyped a s t o l iterate a nd p ictorial c ontent; r epetitious; m ade f rom l ocal s elected a nd g enerally u nshaped s tone; a nd c onveying, a t r oot, a s imple a nd w idely c omprehensible m essage ( "A C hristian w as b uried h ere") t hat m ay o r m ay n ot b e f urther q ualified. -

W ithout p rejudice a s t o a nswering o ur q uestion 3 , t he p urpose o r f unction o f t he C lass I d isplayed s ymbols, I f ind i t h ard t o c redit t hat t he a ppearance o f t hese C lass I s tones i n P ictiand c an i n s o r elatively c onfined a t erritory a s t he n orthern t hird o f t he B ritish m ainland h ave b een t otally i ndependent o f, t otally u n-influenced b y, a ll o f t hese o ther a nd p utatively e arlier c lasses. A nd t his r aises t he m atter o f r elative d ating. L et u s t ry m odels i n t ime. I f C lass I s tones b egan a round A D 5 00, s hould w e s uspect t hat P icts w hose s poradic i ncursions b y s ea a nd l and a s f ar s outh a s t he H umber a re n ow b eing m uch d iscussed b y e arly h istorians ( Miller 1 981; T homas 1 981 c hap. 1 0 a nd r efs) h ad a mple o pportunity t o s ee p rototypes o n a nd b ehind H adrian 's W all, a long w hat r emained o f t he A ntonine l ine, a nd e ven a s f ar n orth a s C arpow a nd o ther s tations? I f w e c hange t he d ate t o 6 00 c an w e t hen g uess t hat, a s w ell a s n oticing a ny s urviving R oman m onumenta b y n ow c rack-

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e d, o r b uried, o r l osing t heir p aintwork P icts w ere m ade a ware t hat I rish C hristians i n I ona a nd A rgyll w ere e mploying p rimary c ross-slabs, a nd N orth B ritish C hristians i n L othian w ere e recting t heir i nscribed m emorial s tones? W e c an g o l ater s till; a nd t he r ange o f a vailable C hristian m odels i n w hat i s n ow S cotland i s t herefore e xpanded. -

Id o n ot w ish t o p re-empt j udgement o f t he d ating a nd I d o n ot t hink t he a nswer i s n ecessarily s traightforward. S ave f or a s light, p robably f ortuitous, r esemblance b etween C lass I P ictish a nimal m otifs, a nd c ertain w idely-used R oman o nes a r esemblance t hat m ight b etter b e r eferred t o s ome c ommon a ncestral s tratum e lsewhere t he P ictish s ymb ols a re n ot b orrowed f rom a ny o f t hese o ther g roups, n or o f c ourse ( by s heer d efinition) i s a ny o f t he l iterate d isplay. I t a ppears t hat w e m ust f irmly d istinguish t he s ymbols f rom t heir s ettings. A s f or o ur o riginal q uestion t wo, t he o rigin o f t he c ustom i tself, t he a nswer m ay w ell b e, i mitation o f t he p ractices o bserved e lsewhere. A nd I w ould s uspect t hat a ny P ictish i mitators i ncluded t hose w ho k new t hat t he m odels e lsewhere w ere v irtually a ll e mployed a s t ombstones. -

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W e m ust r eturn t o t hat i mportant d istinction. T here i s a p oint o n w hich, u nusually, a ll s erious s tudents o f P ictish a rt a re a t o ne; t he C lass I p ictorial m otifs, t he s ymbols, a re n ot o nly d emonstrably n ot b orrowed a s t hey s tand f rom a ny o ther o rnamental g roup t hey a re, s upposedly f rom t he b eginning, s tereotypes, i n a f ashion t hat s eems t o r ule o ut a g enuine t ypological e volution o f t he k ind t hat w e c an s how o n C hristian t ombstones b etween t he 4 th a nd 8 th c enturies. A nd t his m ight i mply t hat t he s ymbols, i n c ontrast t o t he s tones o n w hich f rom 5 00 o r 6 00 o r 6 50 o r a ny o ther t ime-horizon t hey a ppear, p ossess t heir o wn s eparate h istory. T he s uspicion m ay a rise t hat t hey c ould a nte-date t he C lass I s tones b y c enturies r ather t han b y d ecades. -

O ur q uestion 3 w as, w hat i s t he p urpose o r f unction o f t he d isp lay? I n m y 1 964 p aper, i t w as p ointed o ut t he C lass I s tones w ith g roups o f t wo, o r t hree, s ymbols t he t hird c ommonly b eing t he M irror S ymbol w ere f ive t imes a s n umerous a s s tones w ith a s ingle s ymbol; a nd t hat t he r epetition o f p articular p airs, i n w idely-separated l ocalities, i f i t h ad m eaning, o r a lluded t o a nything, p resumably a lluded t o t he s ame e vents a nd c ircumstances ( Thomas 1 964, 4 1). A nd i t w as c laimed t hat C lass I s tones, w hen l ast n oticed a nd p ublished, h ad b een f ound f ar m ore o ften g iven t he s cale e ven o f P ictland t han c oicidence s hould p ermit, i n, u nder o r a round k nown b urial-grounds a nd k irkyards o f l ater d ate. I n s ubsequent w ritings o n o ther t opics Ih ave a rgued, f rom a w eighty b ody o f r ecord, t hat ( notably i n H ighland B ritain) t he d egree o f d irect c ontinuity b etween p re-Christian a nd C hristian c emeteries m ay h ave b een u nder-estimated ( eg. T homas 1 971, 5 3-66). In ow a dd f rom g eneral a nalogy t he s uggestion a nd i t c annot b e m ore t han o ne s uch t hat s ome P icts w ere c onsciously i mitating -

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w hat t hey k new t o b e t he f unerary-stone p ractices o f t heir I rish o r B ritish n eighbours. I n s hort I s till c ontend t hat, b alancing t he p robabilities, C lass I s tones w ere e rected a s m emorials, w ithin t he p enumbra o f s ome f orm o f n on-Christian b elief. Iw as n ot t he f irst p erson t o c laim t his a nd I d oubt I s hall b e, o n w hatever g rounds, t he l ast o ne t o d o s o. B ut i t s urprised m e t o n ote t he r eactions t his n otion p rovoked. T hey f ell b etween t he p urely n egative ( eg. s ince t his c annot b e u niversally p roved, i t c annot b e t he c ase) a nd t he c onstructive a lternative. N o, i t c annot y et b e a rchaeologically d emonstrated, a nd I h ave s aid i t i s ar easoned b alance o f p robabilities. I t i s h owever o f i nterest, a nd I r efer y ou t o t he p apers b y D r. C lose-Brooks ( 1981) a nd M r. A shmore ( 1981), a nd t o t he t enor o f s everal o ther c ontributions t o P SAS i n r ecent y ears, t o s ee t hat f resh f inds h ave t ended t o s upport t his c oncept. L et m e h ave r ecourse a gain t o a nalogy. T he 1 60-odd s tones a mong p erhaps a h alf-million P icts s tand a longside t he 3 00-odd s tones a mong am illion W elsh a nd t he 5 0-odd a mong a h undred t housand D umnonians ( cf. M acalister 1 945). I n a ll t hree p rovinces w e n ow h ave w hat? ah alf? t wenty p er c ent? f ive p er c ent? s pared b y T ime o ut o f t he o riginal, r eal, t otals. W e d o n ot k now h ow t he o rdinary P ict's b urial w as m arked, b ut n or d o w e k now h ow m ost o f t he p ost-Roman C hristian B ritish g raves w ere m arked, e ither. T hese W elsh a nd N orth B ritish s tones a re d emonstrably C hristian t ombstones; m any o f t he i nscriptions s ay s o, i n p lain e nough f orm. Y et h ardly o ne h as b een r ecorded a s -

h aving b een f ound i n i ts o riginal a nd p rimary a ssociation w ith a b urial. T hey h ave h owever b een f ound Ir epeat m yself f ar m ore o ften t han c oincidence s hould p ermit, i n, u nder, o r a round k nown b urial-grounds -

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o f l ater d ate.

I n t he n earest a pproach t o ac losed f ind o r s ealed

c ontext, t he B eacon H ill c emetery o n t he r emote i sland o f L undy ( Thomas 1 969, i llus), w ith f our s uch i nscribed s tones ( 5th t o 7 th c enturies) s till t oday s tanding w ithin a n e nclosed E arly C hristian b urial-ground l ittle l arger t han a t ennis c ourt, I e xposed s ome 5 0 c ist-graves a nd d ug g raves w ithout f inding a ny i ndication o f w here t hese t ombstones o f t he i mmediately l ocal g ranite o riginally s tood.

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A mong t he c onstructive a lternatives, o nly t wo n eed c oncern u s. A t o ne s tage I d id w onder w hether C lass I s tones, p articularly w ith s ingle a nimal s ymbols, h ad a ny t erritorial s ignificance. T o c heck t his, I c onstructed l arge-scale m aps o f P ictland a nd u sed c oloured p ins t o c arry o ut a l ong, t edious a nd a s i t t ranspired f ruitless e xerc ise a nyone c ould c onsult E CMS a nd a ll s ubsequent r ecords, a nd d o t he s ame. N o d istribution o f a ny g iven s ymbol o ffers t he s lightest s upport f or t he n otion. B ut a kin t o t his i s t he v iew p ut f orward Im ust a dd i n a ll f airness t o i ts a uthor, n ot n ow p ressed b y I sabel H enderson ( 1970, 6 6). I q uote h er, ' Ownership ( a b asic f act t o b e c onveyed t o s ociety i n g eneral) s eems t o m e t o b e t he m ost l ikely a nswer, n ot p erhaps s imply t he f act o f o wnership, b ut s omething a bout t he n ature o f t he o wnership, t he r ights i nvolved i n t he o wnership o f ac ertain p iece o f l and, o r s tretch o f r iver-bank. T he s ymbol-stones w ould t hen b ecome n otice-boards, d efining t he a rea o f s ome p erson's o r s ome i nstitution 's t erritorial i nfluence." T his d oes n ot m eet t he p oint t hat s o s mall a r ange o f s ymbols, i f t hey r efer i n a ny w ay a t a ll t o -

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p eople, m ust h ave a r epetitive g eneral, n ot a h ighly s pecific, a llusive q uality; a nd a gain t hat I c annot f ind a ny d etailed-scale d istributional s upport f or a ny k ind o f l ocative i nterpretation. T he o ther a lternative w e o we t o D r. A nthony J ackson ( 1971). H e a ssumes t hat t he P icts w ere m atrilineal a nd p olygynous, a nd w ere t hus l ikely t o h ave b een d ivided i nto s mall g roups o f m atri-clans p ractis ing p atrilateral c ross-cousin m arriage b ased u pon a vunculocal r esidence. C lass I s tones, a t a ny r ate t hose w ith t wo s ymbols, c ould c ommemorate p olitical a lliances b etween l ineages. W here t here a re t hree s ymbols, t he t hird b eing a m irror, t he g iving o f b ride-wealth i s r ecorded. T he a uthor, i n m y o wn v iew, t akes s ome l iberties w ith t hose s tones w here t he g roups, o r t otals o f s ymbols, d o n ot c onform t o h is m odel. H e o ffers n o e xplanation a s t o w hy t he s tones s hould a ppear o nly a t a s econdary s tage i n P ictish l ife, a nd a voids a ny q uestion o f d ate. I n h is a pproach t o t he o rigins a nd f orms o f a ctual s ymbols a nd t his i s n ot j ust t he m ain b ut t he o nly d istinctive, n ationally-peculiar, -

f acet o f P ictish a rt i t m ay s trike o ne a s i nadequate t o s uppose i n a n a nthropological e ssay o f t his c omplexity t hat " their d erivation m ay b e f rom m any s ources, e q. b adges o r o rnaments, m anuscripts o r n ative i nvention q uite s imply." -

I n s aying t hat D r. J ackson 's s cheme s trikes o ne a s v ery c omplex w e m ust a dmit t hat t his o f i tself i s n o r eason w hy t he P icts, l ike t he r ecent H aida a nd T simshian t ribes o f B ritish C olumbia, s hould n ot h ave f ollowed i t. B ut t he n ecessary a ssumptions t hat t he P icts a ll t he P icts? w ere m atrilineal, p olygynous, a nd c onfined t o p atrilateral c ross-cousin m arriage, e tc., i s a t b est o nly a nother a rgument b y a nal ogy f rom v ery m uch l ater p rimitive s ocieties i n o ther c ontinents. I t g oes f ar b eyond t he e xtremely l imited s tatements b ehind a b elief t hat P ictish m arriage o r d escent c ould d iffer f rom, s ay, A nglo-Saxon o r B ritish m arriage o r d escent. E ven f or t he P ictish r ulers w ho f licker -

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i n a nd o ut o f q uasi-history, s uch a c ontention m ust d epend o n i nfere nces h ard-won a nd h ard-argued f rom r econstructed g enealogies, a p roc ess s till i n t he m aking. A nd a gain, a s w ith M rs. H enderson 's b ound s tone n oticeboards, w e l ack a ny e xemplars i nconnection w ith t he n umerous g roups o f ( predominantly f unerary) d isplayed s tones i n O ld W orld p rotoh istory. T he b alance o f p robabilities m ust f avour, a fter a ll, t he t ombstone i nterpretation. T he a nswers t o o ur q uestions f our a nd f ive w hat w ere t he o rigins o f t he i ndividual P ictish s ymbols, a nd w hat m eanings d id t hey c onvey w hen d isplayed i n c ombination? h ave t o b e l inked, e ven i f t hese t wo a spects m ust b e s trictly s eparated. I f t his s ounds a t a ll c onfusing, t hink o f o ur p resent-day l iterate s ymbols, t he R oman c apital l etters C , Aa nd T . I n c ombination t hey c onvey t he m eaning " a s mall f urred c arnivore". I ndividually, a s s ymbols, t hey o riginated l ong a go, t hrough t he L atin, E truscan a nd G reek a lphabets, i n N orth S emitic s ymbols o f t he B ronze A ge, a nd f rom i deographic o r e ven p ictographic r oots t hey a cquired p honetic v alues. A nyone f amiliar w ith C hinese w ill g rasp t he i ntended d istinction e ven m ore r eadily. B ut w e c an p reface d isc ussion w ith a r eminder t hat E nglish " Pict", l ike L atin " Picti"is a lmost c ertainly a p ortmanteau t erm. In eed n ot r ecall t he c atalogue o f a rchaeological f inds a nd s ites, v ariously d ated, f rom w hich i t h as b een s upposed t hat b etween ( say) 1 000 B C a nd t he f irst c entury A D S cotland n orth o f t he F orth-Clyde l ine w as s uccessively s ettled b y i ncomers. Ic an r emind y ou t hat, p erhaps i n t he l atter r ather t han e arlier h alf o f t his p eriod, o ne s uch w ave s hould h ave i ntroduced a C eltic t ongue, P -Celtic P ictish, t he r emnants o f w hich i nduced K enneth J ackson ( 1955) t o s et o ut c ertain t entative c onclusions; w e m ight u se t hese t o s ay P ictish w as r elated t o B ritish s omewhat a s O ld F risian w as t o O ld E nglish, o r S ardinian i s t o I talian c lose b ut n ot r eally i dentical. Y et w ell i nto t he f irst m illenium A D w e s pot t he t antalising r emains o f t hat o ther l anguage, n on-Indo-European P ictish; a nd t hough t oday c onnections b etween l anguage, r ace a nd s ociety a re s haky g ounds f or i nferences, i n t his p articular s etting i t w ould b e h ard n ot t o s uppose t his o ther l anguage w as a N eolithic o r B ronze A ge r elic. I t m atters l ittle w hether i t w as E urafrican o r, l ike B asque, o f H ispanoC aucasian c haracter ( cf. A dams 1 970); t he p oint i s t hat i ts l ate s urvival h ints a t a c orresponding l ack o f e thnic h omogeneity. I t w ould b e a ttractive t o p ut f orward a m odel i n w hich t he P icts, w hose i ntran ational n ame ( what t hey c alled t hemselves a t h ome) m ay h ave b een P riteni, c onsisted o f E arly I ron A ge C elts r uling o ver a m ass o f B asque-type p astoralists; b ut s ince P ictish r oyal n ames a ppear t o b e d rawn f rom b oth l anguages t his c ould b e w ell w ide o f t he m ark. -

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T his i nternal c omplexity o f t he P icts, a p oint m uch b elaboured b y p rehistorians w hose i nterests f all w ell s hort o f a rt a nd l anguage, l ed m e t o a sk m yself w hether t he C lass I s ymbols, a t w hatever d ate a nd f or w hatever r eason t hey e ventually b ecame f ixed i n f orm, m ight s omehow r eflect a d iverse l inguistic, e thnic a nd c ultural b ackground. N ow i f a nyone a dopts t he e asy s tep o f d rawing o ut a ll t he s ymbols o n c ards, a nd t hen s orts t hem m erely a s p ictures, i t w ill a t o nce b e s een t hat t here a re t hree k inds c reatures ( that i s, a nimals, b irds, s nake, f ish a nd a c ouple o f m onsters, t he E lephant a nd S -dragon); o bjects t hat l ook l ike p ictures o f r eal a nd o ne-time e veryday t hings ( for i nstance -

m irror, c omb, h ammer, s hort s word, a nd s o o n); a nd a bstracts o r s trange g eometrical s hapes. Is uspect t hat a m ore g enuine d ivision e xists b etween a ll t he c reatures, a nd a ll t he n on-creature s ymbols; i t m ust r emain a m atter o f i ndividual j udgement, a nd o ne w here s ome o f t he 1 77

a bstract o r g eometric f orms a re o r a re n ot a ctually u nfamiliar d epicti ons o f o nce-familiar r eal t hings. I t w as S ir A lfred C lapham ( 1934) w ho e xpanded J oseph A nderson 's i dea a nd s tated h is v iew t hat t he f orms o f t he m irror s ymbol w ere s imp lified o utline d rawings, n ot o f 7 th- o r 8 th-century m irrors ( for w e h ave n o e vidence a s t o t hese), b ut m irrors o f I nsular L a l ene t ype. I e xpanded t his, a fter 1 961, t o c over r ather m ore o f t he O bject s ymbols. Ic ontended t hen a nd I d o n ow t hat, i nsofar a s t hese a re p ictures ( and f or s tone-incising p urposes t hey h ave t o b e s implified o utlines) o f r eal t hings, t he c umulative i mpression i s t hat t he o riginals d id n ot b elong t o t he m aterial c ulture o f P ictland b etween t he 6 th a nd 8 th c enturies. T hey a re, r ather, p roper t o t he n ative I ron A ge o f t he i st t o 3 rd c enturies A D, o r w hat w as o nce c alled " East S cottish T hird B /C". I h ave n ot s een t his i dea p roperly d iscussed, a nd c ertainly n ot b y a nyone w ho h as p roperly a cquainted h imself w ith t he d etailed l iterature; t he r esemblances a re, o bjectively s triking. T he n otion i s o f c ourse f atal t o a ny p reconception t hat a ll t he s ymbols w ere d erived, o riginally, a s t hey s tand, f rom 7 th-century H iberno-Northumbrian a rt. S ome o f t he s ymbols m ay b e s ui g eneris; b ut t here a re s till o thers o f t he a bstract k ind, w here t he c ongeners c ould b e s ought i n a n o lder b ody o f r ock-art, n ow ( thanks t o R onald M orris ( 1977; 1 979; 1 981) a nd o thers) r eadily a ccessible. I t i s i mmaterial w hat, i f a nything, c upa nd-ring d esigns m eant t o t heir c reators; i t i s m aterial t hat e xamples w ould h ave b een v isible, p erhaps q uite w idely s o, i n P ictish t imes a nd t hat P icts m ay h ave a ttached t heir o wn s ignificance t o c ertain c ircular o r c urvilinear m otifs. A nd s till p artly p ostponing q uestion f our, t he o rigins o f t he s ymbols t his b rings u s t o q uestion f ive, t he m ost i ntriguing o f t hem a ll, t he s ixty-four d ollar q uestion; w hat m essages d id t hese g lyptic s tatements c onvey t o t he P ictish b eholder? C ommonsense a s w ell a s -

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a nalogy w ill n arrow t he f ield o f p ossibilities. T here i s n o m etric e lement, f or a s tart. S ymbols d o n ot a ppear i n s tandard s ized o utlines. E ven i f m egalithic i nches a nd s maller d ivisions r eally e xisted ( which Ig reatly d oubt, w ith M orris, 1 979, 2 1) n o-one i s g oing t o e xtract a stronomical d ata f rom C lass I s tones. T here w ould s eem t o b e n o p ossible e lement a s o n c ertain R oman i nscriptions o f c ommand; n oo ne i s b eing p atently a sked t o g o a nywhere o r d o a nything. I f a ny s uch m essage c onveys a ny i nformation, i t c an d o s o o nly i n g eneral, p assive t erms. Is uggest t he a nalogy o f " statement" r oad-signs ( humped b ridges, r oad n arrows, o ne i n t en g radient) o r, b etter, t hose s trange h oardings a longside t he F rench m otorways a nnouncing t hat a f lock o f e agles, a p icturesque f orest o r s ome m oyen-ageuse r uin i s a bout t o e nliven t he p assing v iew. T he i nformation o n C lass I s tones c annot r elate t o m ore t han c lasses o f d ata, b ecause t here a re i nsufficient s ymbols t o r efer u nambiguously ( as w ritten s tatements c an) t o a ll m embers o f a ll c lasses o f d ata. -

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I f w e a pply t his t o o ur m odel o f C lass I s tones a s t ombstones w e c ould f irstly d raw, b y w ay o f a nalogy, s ome o bservations f rom o ther k nown t ombstone g roups b oth e arlier a nd l ater t han C lass I . A nd w e s hall o bserve a s c ommon f actors t hat h umans w ho h ave c ommemorated t heir d ead t hrough w ritings o r s ymbols h ave e mphasised ( 1) t he d eceased's p osition i n s ocietal t ime Iw ill e xplain t his i n am oment: ( 2) p ersonal s tatus, o ften l inked t o ( 3) p ersonal o ccupation: a nd, b ut l ess c ommonly, ( 4) r elationship o f t he c ommemorator(s) t o t he d eceased. I o mit a s -

1 78

a c ommon f actor t he r elatively r ecent a ddition o f d ates i n y ears A D. B y " position i n s ocietal t ime", I m ean t he f ixing o f a d ead p erson t o ar ecognised p re-existing s ocial g rouping; t he d eliberate a nchoring o f t he d eceased, n ot j ust i n r elative t ime, b ut w ithin t he f low o f a p arent s ociety d eveloping t hrough t ime. O n R oman m emorials t his t akes t he f orm o f r eciting n omina f ather 's p raenomen, a c ognomen, a R oman t ribal n ame a nd ( with m ilitary b urials) t he t itle o f t he u nit. O n o ur E arly C hristian s tones i t i s u sually j ust t he p arent's n ame ( "Of A , o f t he s on o f B ") a nd r ather l ess o ften a k ind o f r eligious o r t ribal l abel, a s w ith I rish n ames o f t he M accu-decceti t ype. F or W est H ighland -

s labs, t his c ould b e i llustrated b y o ne f rom L ewis ( Steer a nd B annerman 1 977, 9 7) d ated 1 503 t hat r eads, t ranslated, " Here l ies M argaret, d aug hter o f R oderick M acLeod o f L ewis, w idow o f L achlan M ackinnon" r elati ng h er t o f ixed p oints i n t wo e xtended f amilies, o ne f urther d isting uished t erritorially. W hile r ecent S cottish t ombstones c an b e a lmost a s i nformative b ecause o f t he c ustom o f t he w ife r etaining h er o riginal -

s urname a fter m arriage, t he n ear-universal f orm i s a s f or " Charles A lfred P atterson, s on o f D r. J ames P atterson o f G lasgow." A s f or s tatus a nd/or o ccupation, a R oman m emorial w ill r ecite s ome o fficial p osition o r m ilitary r ank, a nd a n E arly C hristian o ne ( much m ore r arely) s uch t erms a s p rinceps, t ribunus, e ven p rotictor ( Macalister 1 945, 4 93, 4 55, 3 42). F rom t he m edieval I ona s labs w e h ave a bbot, p rior, p rioress, a nd d ominus/domina i n t he s ense o f t erritorial " lord" o r " lady" ( Steer & B annerman 1 977 i ndex). C oncent rating o n s pecialised o ccupation, o ne c ould n ote f rom t he E arly C hristian p eriod m edicus ( in W ales) a nd f aber " smith" ( from D evon) ( Macalister 1 945, 3 64, 4 67). T he n ame o f C ristinus, f aber, o ccurs o n s everal m edieval s labs f rom K napdale, o ne b eing h is t omb, a nd a nother s uch h as J ohannes c arpentarius ( Steer a nd B annerman 1 977 1 51). I n m odern t imes w hen m emorials a re s ocially w ider s pread, l et u s n ote f rom t he E dinburgh D ean c emetery j ust t wo, t hose o f a p rofessor o f a natomy,

a nd a p lumber a nd b rass-founder.

I a m n ot i mplying t hat P ictish C lass I s tones a re d irectly r elated t o t hese e arlier a nd l ater g roups. Id o s uggest t hat t hey i nstruct u s a s t o t he k ind o f i nformation t hat m ight b e c onveyed b y ad isplay o f t wo o r m ore s ymbols. A ny s uch d isplay c annot c onvey a n i ndividual 's p honetic n ame. I t c ould i n t heory c over t he d eceased's s ocial o r c ontextual p osition, a nd, m ore p articularly, p ersonal s tatus a nd/or o ccupation, t hese t wo a spects b eing l ess s eparable i n e arly s ocieties. N ow w hat m ust l end s upport t o t his n otion i s t he o bservat ion t hat i nformation o f t his c alibre b oth c an b e, a nd h as b een, i ndic ated w holly i n p ictorial t erms, w ith o r w ithout w ritten a mplification. I t h appens t o b e r are i n R oman a nd E arly C hristian B ritain, b ut r emember t hat ( for i nstance) a t Y ork w e h ave a s mith 's t ombstone s howi ng h im w ith h ammer, a nvil a nd t ongs ( Eburacum, 1 28 N o 9 6). W ithin S cotland l et u s r ecall o ne n ow i n t he W hithorn M useum ( not c atalogued i n t he H MSO G uide), p robably 1 3th-14th c entury; a t all c ross w ith s mith 's h ammer a nd a nvil. O n t he W est H ighland s labs, q uite a part f rom h eraldic e lements o n s hields o r d epictions o f s pecialised d ress, s ymbolic o rnament i s c onsiderably d eveloped ( Steer a nd B annerman 1 977, f igs. 2 1-23). I t i ncludes s words a nd l esser w eapons; a h atchet ( for ac arpenter); h ammer, t ongs a nd a nvils ( for s miths); s hears ( of u ncert ain s ignificance); c halices ( for c lerics); m irror a nd c omb ( in b oth c ases, f or f emales); g alleys, c astles, a nd a h arp o n t he s lab o f t wo p rofessional h arpers. T he e xtension c r r evival o f t his c ustom i nto 1 79

p ost-medieval S cotland, n otably t he e astern c ounties, i s v ery t horoughly d ocumented; a nd t he p ractice i s f ar f rom e xtinct e ven i f n owadays i t h as b ecome m ore s ubtle a nd a llusive. O ne c ould s elect, f rom t he E dinb urgh c emeteries a lone, a n a ccurate r elief r epresentation o f a ccoutrem ents o f a n o fficer i n t he 1 0th B engal C avalry; t he F reemasons' i nsignia; a nd t he p ilot's w ings o f t he f ormer R oyal F lying C orps. I s t here r eally a m ost g uarded l esson b y a nalogy h ere? O f c ourse t here i s; i ts e ssence i s s urely t he c onstancy o f a h uman r esponse t o a n u nchanging n eed o r s ocial i mpulse. I n t he c ase o f t he P icts t he r esponse w as c onstrained b y n on-literacy a nd t he n arrow r ange o f p ublicly-accepted s ymbols. I a m n ot g oing t o r epeat a ll t he d etailed i dentifications s et o ut, o ver-confidently, a nd i n p art a s a b allon d 'essai, t wenty y ears b ack. B ut s ince, e ven g iven o ur i mperfect h istorical s ources, m ost s tudents w ould a gree t hat " the P icts" a t t heir h eight s pread o ver s ome 1 0,000 s quare m iles, o f d iverse e thnic o rigins a nd, f rom P tolemy o nwards, c onstantly r epresented a s s ubject t o a t l east g eographical s ub-division c ould h ave p ossessed c omponent g roups, t ribes, c lans, f ratries o r w hat y ou w ill, i s i t n ot l ikely t hat s ome s ymbols a llude t o i nherent m embership o f s uch g roupings? Is elected t he c reature s ymbols f or t his r ole. T hroughout a ll o ur r etrospective i nsular l itera ture f rom C aesar t o t he M iddle A ges t he p art p layed b y c reatures n ative, f eral a nd d omesticated i n r ecorded t ribal n ames, p re-Christian b eliefs, a nd p ossibly w hat a mounted t o t otemism h ardly n eeds t o b e s tressed. -

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A mong a ll t he o ther, n on-creature s ymbols, t hen, w e s hould l ook f or a llusions t o s tatus a nd o ccupation. I t i s p robable t hat, b y a p rocess o f e xclusion a nd a nalogy a nd f resh e xamination, o ne c ould p rof itably r e-work t he c atalogue I o ffered i n 1 964. Ic annot s ee w hy r ecognisable m etalsmiths' i mplements, m arking a s t hey d o t he m emorials o f R oman a nd m edieval ( and p ost-medieval) s miths, c annot c arry t his m eaning o n C lass I s tones. I f n ot, w hat? I f s o, m ay n ot o ther " real o bject" s ymbols h ave h ad c ognate m eanings? A re o ther a nd l ess s traightf orward m odels e qually a s w ell s upported b y b road a nalogy o ver s o l ong a p eriod? I l eave a side n ow t he p articular m irror-and-comb s ymbols p uzzle, e xcept t o r emind y ou t hat t here a re h istorical i ndications t hat s ome P ictish w omen e njoyed p articularised s ocial p osition; a nd t hat s pecifically f emale m emorials o ccur b oth i n R oman a nd p ost-Roman B ritain. A nd t his b rings u s t o t he l ast o f t hose s ix q uestions t he d ates a nd a lso t o t he l ast a nd m ost d ifficult p ortion o f t his p aper. M ay I c hoose a s t ext t he c losing w ords ( 1901, 3 55) o f P atrick A shmore's r ecent p aper o n l ow c airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones? " For t he m oment t he m ost s timulating h ypothesis t o t est i s t hat t he L a J ene b urial t radition c ontinued s ufficiently l ong i n S cotland t o b e i ncorp orated i n P ictish c ulture". Iw ould j oin t o t his a n e arlier c omment t hat " the w holly p erplexing f eature ( of C lass I s ymbols) i s t hat t he O bject s ymbols i dentifiable a s p ictures o f r eal t hings r elate, n ot t o t he m aterial c ulture o f t he h istorical P icti, b ut t o t he e quipage o f t heir C aledonian f orbears i n t he S cottish I ron A ge" ( Thomas 1 964, 9 3). -

T he c rux o f t he p roblem i s n ot, I s uggest, t he d ate-band d uring w hich i t b ecame c ustomary t o e rect C lass I I s tones w ith C hristian d ev ices. T hat e stimate r ests u pon h istorical a ssessment, i n t he s etting o f a n u nusual a nd p oorly-documented e pisode o f e cclesiastical h istory, a nd w e c an a ccept t hat, a llowing s ome c ultural l ag, i t i s n ot l ikely

1 80

t o h ave b een e arlier t han t he m id-7th c entury. Im ight w ith d ifficulty c redit, a long w ith R obert S tevenson ( 1955, i ll), t hat n o P ictish s ymbols tone o f a ny s ort e xisted b efore a bout 6 50. Ic annot f ollow h im i n t he e ntirely a rt-historical c onclusion t hat " the e vidence a ll p oints t o t he s ymbols b eing d evised a fter t he P icts b ecame C hristian." I r eject t his f or t wo r easons. F irstly, I b elieve i t t o b e an ons equitur. S econdly, I b elieve t hat t he n umber o f s tones, t heir d istrib ution b oth i nside a nd f orth o f h istorical P ictiand, a nd t he o bserved v ariations b oth i n t he o utlines a nd o rnamentations o f t he s ymbols i mply a gain, l argely b y a nalogy ac urrency l onger t han a m ere t wenty-five o r f ifty y ears. -

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T he n on-sequitur o ccurs b ecause i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t he C lass Is tones, a s a rtefacts, a nd t he s ymbols d isplayed o n t hem, a s a rtefacts, " begin" s imultaneously. S ixth- o r s eventh-century P icts, i f ( as W hittington a nd S oulsby ( 1968) h ave s hown) f airly c ompetent i n t erms o f l and e xploitation, c onstituted a s ociety t hat w as n on-literate, n onm onetary, a t t his s tage n on-Christian a nd t o s ome e xtent n on-accessible. I f, w ith a ll t his, t hey p reserved a p re-Iron A ge s peech, a p re-Iron A ge s ystem o f m atrilineal d escent, a nd i f t hey e ven f avoured p re-Roman b urial r ites, w e m ight c hoose t o v iew t his a s ac onserving, n ot a s a n i nnovative, s ociety. T he p ositive i mitative i nnovation, o f e recting C lass I s tones, w as c onfined t o t he b are a ct. T hey d id n ot b orrow t he p ictorial s ymbolism ( such a s i t w as), s till l ess t he i nscriptions t hat c haracterised a ny s imilar m onuments e lsewhere. I nstantly, c onfidently, a nd u niversally t he P icts e mployed t heir o wn s ymbolic r ange. T his o bservation h as l ong l ed m e t o c onclude t hat t he C lass I s ymbols m ust p re-date t he C lass I s tones. T hey a re a nd h ere a gain n early a ll w ho s tudy t hem a re o f o ne m ind p resented f ully-fledged, s tylised, d eveloped, s tereo-typed, a nd w ith f ew d ivergences a s t o t heir o utlines. I f t hey w ere a lready e xtant, i t w ould m ultiply h ypotheses u nnecessarily t o s uppose t hat t heir e arlier m eanings, i ndividual s emant ic v alues, d iffered s ignificantly f rom t heir C lass I s tones m eanings. H ow, i n s o t erse a s ystem, c ould a ny n ational c hange o f m eaning b e e ffected o r b roadcast? -

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T he g ap e xists, t hen, b etween t he e volution o f as ubstantial p roportion o f t he s ymbols, s tabilised b ecause o f a ttached m eanings, a nd t heir f irst g eneral d isplay u pon C lass I s tones. N ow w e m ight ( going o ff a t a t angent) s uppose t hat e arly P icts r aiding s outhwards s aw t hat R omans h ad e rected a nd p ainted m onumental s labs; f ought a gainst R oman t roops w ith p ainted s hieds; w ere t hemselves a ble t o s plit s easoned t imber i n t heir h omeland, a nd f oreshadowed C lass I s tones w ith p ainted C lass I p lanks. U nlike t he s uggestion ( eg, T homas 1 971, 1 23) t hat c ertain E arly C hristian c ross-slabs a nd s haped c rosses e xhibit s keuomorphic d etails w hich p ermit u s t o i nfer l imited w ooden p rototypes t he i dea o f C lass I p ainted p lanks f inds n o a rchaeological s upport. T he g ap s till e xists. Ic an o nly g uess t hat i t y awns b etween t he l ate R oman p eriod t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies a nd t he l ate 6 th o r 7 th. O f a ll t he p ossible m edia i nvolved, I w ould s till p ress t he c laims o f p ersonal ' t attooing. -

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H owever m uch o bjections a re r aised,

o ne c annot w riggle o ut o f t he

e xistence o f t he n ame P icti. I n K enneth J ackson 's w ords ( 1955, 1 59), " the R omans w ho u sed i t o bviously u nderstood i t t o m ean t he P ainted P eople, a r eference t o t he c ustom o f p ainting a nd t attooing, w hich h ad 1 81

s urvived a mong t hese r emote n orthern t ribes l ong a fter i t h ad d ied o ut f arther s outh. T he p robability i s t hat i t w as a lways t he L atin v erbal a djective p icti, a nd i t i s n ot i mpossible t hat i t w as f irst u sed a s a t ranslation o f P riteni." N ot i mpossible, n o, i f t his, p erhaps t he B ritish I ron A ge A i ntra-national n ame, r eally i s C eltic a nd r eally d oes m ean P eople o f t he D esigns; b ut I s uggest l ess l ikely t han t hat P icti a rose s pontaneously, i n c amp L atin, i n R oman a nd R omanised m ouths. Ia m n ot g oing t o r etail a ll t he r eferences t o t attooed P icts, n ot e ven H erodian 's, w hich i s n o m ore e asily e xplained a way t han t he w ork P icti; n or d issect a n i dea o f t he l ate N ora C hadwick's ( 1958) t hat P icti w as r eally p icatae , d aubed w ith p itch, u niquely e mployed b y P ictish b oats. I t w ould t ake a nother p aper t o e xamine t he d iffuse b ut n one t he l ess i mpressive c orpus o f e arly e vidence f or p ersonal t attooi ng s ometimes i n g uises n o l ess e laborate t han P ictish s ymbolism i n p re- a nd p rotohistory o ver a n e normous s wathe o f t he O ld W orld, P ictiand t o K amchatka. I t w ould i nclude t hose G auls w hose t attooed c heeks, s o t he l ate D erek A llen a ssured m e, a ppear o n t heir c oins ( cf. T homas 1 964, f ig. 1 5). I n 1 915 K uno M eyer d rew a ttention t o e ntries i n C ormac's G lossary a nd a nother e arly t ext, T he C auldron o f P oesy, t o a n I rish h abit o f t attooing b lue l ines o n d as S chienbein, t he l ower -

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f ront l eg ( Meyer 1 915). I n a c urious d ocument, a r eport b y h is l egates t o P ope H adrian d escribing t heir v isit t o M ercia, i n 7 86, a re l isted v arious d ecrees i mpressed u pon t he E nglish. T he l egates f ound i t n ecessary t o w arn a gainst s urviving p agan h abits, o ne o f w hich ( "hideous s cars d efiling a nd d isfiguring t he b ody i njury o f s taining") as imilar p ossibility ( Whitelock 1 979, 8 38). -

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r aises

W herever i n p rehistoric E urasia t attooing m ay h ave o riginated, i t a ppears t o h ave l ingered p eripherally a long t he w hole n orthern s weep, p erhaps a ided b y t he s o-called c ircumpolar r etention o f b one n eedles a nd s inew t hread; o ne c ommonly-recorded m ethod i s t o d raw s oot o r d ye -

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s teeped t hreads j ust b elow t he s kin. F rom n orth-east A sia i t m ay h ave s pread i nto N orth A merica, a nd d own t he P acific c oast. T here a re i nteresting a nalogies f rom l ater o bservers. C harles D arwin c ould w rite, o f t he N ew Z ealand N aoris, t hat " the l ines u pon t he f ace a re n ot a rbit rary m arks, i nvented o r i ncreased a t t he c aprice o f i ndividuals, o r t he f ancy o f t he o perator t hey a re h eraldic o rnaments, d istinct ions f ar m ore i ntelligible t o t he n atives o f N ew Z ealand t han o ur o wn a rmorial b earings a re t o m any o f u s." T he t attoo m arks w ere, i n f orm, s ocially f ixed. T he l ate S ergei R udenko i n h is a ccount ( 1949) o f A siatic E skimo t attooing i f t his i s s till p ractised, n ow g reatly d egenerated w as a ble t o s how f rom m any e arlier d rawings t hat t he s cheme o f t attoo-markings h e c opied o ff l iving E skimos i n 1 945 w as " even i n t he m ost m inute d etail e xactly s imilar t o t hat p ractised 2 00 y ears a go". A nd i t i s w holly r elevant t hat t he e arliest e xample o f E urasiatic t attooing, a lso r eported b y R udenko ( 1953, e sp. c haps. V a nd I X) t hat o n t he f rozen c adavers f rom t he P azirik t ombs i n c entral S iberia s hows i n c onsiderable d etail t hat z oomorphic a nd a bstract d esigns u sed a s t attoos w ere t he s ame a s t hose e mployed o n c ontemporary m etalwork, c hip-carved w ood a nd a pplique f elt-work. .

.

.

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W e c an o nly h ypothesise; w e d o n ot h ave p ermafrost b urials i n S cotland. B ut t he i nferences f rom l anguage, h istory a nd e ven a nalogy a re n ot t o b e d ismissed j ust b ecause t hey a re n ot i nferences f rom o bserved a nd t angible f inds, a s i n a rchaeological m ethod; o r f rom a ny o ne o bserver's p erception o f v isual s equential r esemblances, a s i n

1 82

a rt-history. T he v ery n ame P icti i s am ajor o bstacle t o t he i dea t hat P icts w ere n ot c orporeally d ecorated. Ih ave f ound n o c onvincing e xplanation a s t o w here, i f n ot f rom r eported R oman o bservances o f P ictish c orpses, H erodian g ot t he n otion t hat t he b odies w ere m arked w ith c omplicated d esigns a nd z oon p antodapon e ikosin" t he f igures o f a ll s orts o f c reatures." I f t he P icts r etained, a longside o ther a ttributes o f e arlier o rigin, t he h abit o f p ersonal t attooing t hen w e m ight b y a nalogy s uspect t hat e ach m ark h ad e volved s ome d efinite m eaning a nd t hat t he e ssential f orm, t he o utline, w as t ransmitted b y f airly s trict c opying. S hould w e a lso s uspect t hat ., a s w ith D arwin 's M aoris, t he d esigns o n a ny o ne m an a lluded o nly a nd d irectly t o t heir b earer? T his i s w hat m uch o lder e thnographers b elieved a bout b arbarians i n H ither A sia; r ead H erodotus o n t he T hracians o r P omponius M ela o n t he A gathyrsi. W e d o n ot h ave t o s uppose t hat, i n t he 3 rd c entury, t he f ull r ange o f 7 th-century s ymbols w as s o e mployed; b ut, g iven a ll t he c onvolutions o f s ubsequent N orthern h istory, c ould n ot a dditional s ymbols h ave b een i ncorporated? I f w e s till w onder h ow, w hen C lass I s tones w ere f irst s et u p, i t c ould e ver h ave b een i ntended t hat a s ymbolic d isplay c ould b e l inked s pecifically t o a p erson o r p ersons s o c ommemorated, t he a nswer m ust b e t hat t his i s o nly f easible t hrough f ixed, g enerally -a llusive s ymbols. A nd i t i s e ntirely f easible. W hat, a part f rom a m atter o f d egree, w ould b e t he d istinction b etween a P ictish w arrior's s tone a nnouncing ( let u s s uppose) h is s ocietal g roup a nd p ersonal v alour, a nd a r elief-carved e ffigy s lab o f t he f ull M iddle A ges s howing s ome n oble c ommander i n a ppropriate a rmour, w ith h elm, s word, s hield a nd a rmorial d evice? O r i ndeed a R oman t ombstone, l ike t hat o f t he s ignifer F lavinus o f t he A la P etriana n ow i n H exham A bbey ( = R IB 1 172); i t s hows t he b old y oung c avalryman i n u niform, s word a nd a ll, g rasping h is s ignum a s h is p rancing c harger r ears o ver a c ouple o f c ringing, s tark-naked P icts. T he d istinctions l ie i n t he l evels o f s tone-carving t echnology, t he s ociet al v alues o f t he c ommemorators a nd t he r elevant s ymbolisms; n ot i n t he e ssential f unction o f p ictorial s ymbols a s s uch. W e h ave t ried t o a nswer a ll t hose s ix q uestions. B efore I s ummarise, t here a re s ome m inor p oints c oncerning P ictish C lass I I m onuments. I n v iew o f w hat h as b een c laimed a bout t he P ictish p eople, t he s equence f rom t he f irst C lass I s tones t o f ully-developed C lass I I s labs s haped, r ich i n f igures, o rnate s ymbols, r elief c rosses a nd p artly-zoomorphic i nterlace m ay a ppear a s a r emarkable, a lmost u n-Pictish p rocess o f i nvention a nd a daptation. I t i s i ndeed, a nd i t i s l egitimate t o a dduce t he s pur o f a dvanced e xternal i nfluences. Y et t here a re e xtraordinary i nnovations, f or i nstance o n t he r everse o f t he A berlemno S tone, w hich Is hall s tate f irmly i s n ot m erely a f igure-scene b ut, l ike a s trip c artoon, a c onsecutive p ictorial n arrative. A nd t his w hole d evelopment, a ided a s i t w as b y N orthumbrian a nd o ther c ontacts, i s a ctually p arall eled s lightly s taggered a s t o t ime b y t he m ainly I rish d evelopment f rom c ross-incised s labs t o t he e arliest H igh C ross g roups a nd t he f ull r ecumbent-slab t radition; a nd a lso i n N orthumbria b y t hat f rom t he f irst n ame-stones a nd t he l ike t o t he g reatest o f t he p re-Norse, a nd t hen A nglo-Scandinavian, m onuments. W hat t he P icts r etained, a long w ith t heir a boriginal l anguage, w as a t l east a p art o f t heir s ymbolic r epertoire. O n s ome C lass I I s labs, s et-piece m ythical s cenes a part, c ertain s ymbols a nd h uman f igures a re j uxtaposed a s t o i mply, w ith -

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1 83

i mpressive l ikelihood, t hat t he f ormer r efer d irectly a nd i ntentionally ( and s till i ntelligibly) t o t he l atter. T he i mplication s upports t he i dea t hat s ymbols o n C lass I s tones a re s emantically p ersonal. S uch j uxtapositions h ad p reviously o ccurred i n e arlier E uropean s ocieties; a nd t hey r e-emerge, n o d oubt i ndependently, i n m edieval a nd l ater S cotland a nd f or t hat m atter i n m edieval W ales ( cf. G resham 1 968, f ig 8 4, n o 1 88). T he m odel I p ropose i s o ne i n w hich P ictish C lass I s tones w ere m emorials, a nd t hat a ll o r m ost w ere o riginally s et u p a t o r h ard b y P ictish g raves, i ncluding l ow-cairn, l ong-cist i nterments. T he g roup w as e ventually s uperseded b y C lass I I s labs, f ollowing t he P ictish a doption o f C hristianity. T he b eginnings o f t he p ractice ( of C lass I ) c an o nly b e e stimated p robably w ithin t he 6 th a nd 7 th c enturies A D a nd i t a rose f rom i mitation o f s tone f unerary m emorials e lsewhere; v ery p robably f rom l ate R oman B ritain, m ore p robably t he p ost-Roman i nscribed s tones o f N orth B ritain o r t he p rimary g rave-slabs a s t hey d eveloped i n t he I rish-settled W est. I n t he a bsence o f w riting, P icts c ommemorated t heir d ead p ictorially, c onfining t he d isplays t o p ublicly-intelligible " statements" a bout s ocietal g roupings, p ersonal s tatus a nd/or o ccupation, a nd p ossibly o n o ccasions g ender. T o d o t his t hey u sed s ymbols o f f ixed f orm, t hough p robably w ith a dditions a s r equired, t hese l atter n otably t o i ndicate c ontemporary s pecialised o ccupations. T he c ore o f t he s ymbolic r epertoire, d ivisible a s i t w as b etween r epresentations o f c reatures, a nd a m elange o f r ecognisable o bjects a nd a bstract s hapes, w as i mmediately a pplicable b ecause i t h ad p reviously b een u sed f or ( literal) p ersonal a pplication. T his w as e ffected, p ossibly b y p ainting o r s taining, b ut m uch m ore p robably b y t attooing; e ither r ubbing s oot a nd d yes i nto p inpricks o r s ubcuta neous t hreadings. T he n ature o f c ertain s ymbols s uggests t hey w ere a dopted n o l ater t han t he R oman p eriod, a nd o thers m ay a rise f rom i mit ating p re-Roman c arved d esigns. T attooing, o nce a c ustom w idely s pread i n E urope a nd A sia, w as f amiliar t o R omans ( as t o G reeks) f rom e xamples s een i n w est-central A sia, A sia M inor, n orthern E urope a nd e ven N orth A frica. A part f rom t he P icts a nd t heir l ocal a ncestors, i ts f irst-millenium A D c urrency i n n orth-west E urope i s s uggested b y c ertain r emarks b y T acitus o n t he e arly G ermans; G aulish c oins; a nd s ome a llusions t o t he I rish a nd t he A nglo-Saxons. C lassical w riters a lleged t hat t he e arly P icts d ecorated, p resumably t attooed, t heir b odies; a nd t he d esigns v isible o n e xposed l imbs o r r itually-bared p ersons i n b attle i nspired t he e xtra-national n ame P icti, o riginating i n R oman m ilitary c ontact a nd m aintained i n p ost-Roman B ritish L atin. T he C lass I I s tones r aise a n i nference t hat t he a doption o f C hristianity d id n ot p er s e r ender m ost o f t he s ymbols i nvalid o r o bjectionable, a nd t he s ignificance p roposed a bove i s o ne o f v ery f ew e xplanations t hat w ould a ccount f or t his. T he i nternal a nd e xternal d ecorative e nrichment o f t he s ymbols o n b oth C lass I a nd C lass I I s tones m ust b e d istinguished f rom r epeated p ortrayal o f t he b asic o utline, p res erving i n e ach c ase a C lass I s tereo-type o f f ixed m eaning. -

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It rust t hat m y s ummary i s n ot t oo c omplex, b ut i t d escribes a c omplex m odel. I t i s a s i nsusceptible o f t otal p roof a s a m odel o f t he d iffusion o f p roducts o f N eolithic a xe-factories, o r o f t he o rganisation o f M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ge m etalworking a nd t he t ypology o f i ts p roducts, o r o f t he p resent m ainly c eramic-based d ivisions o f t he p reR oman I ron A ge. N o a lternative m odel o f P ictish C lass I c an e xpect t o c ommand c redence u nless i t c an e mbrace t hese a nd m any o ther p oints, a nd

1 84

c an b ring t o b ear a t l east a n e quivalent r ange o f a rguments b y a nalogy, p robabilities a nd a ppropriate i nferences. Ih ope t hat I m yself d o n ot s ound t oo c onservative, a s o pposed t o i nnovative, w hen h aving c arefully e xamined a nd w eighed a ll t he i deas a nd p robabilities Ic onclude t hat P ictish C lass I s tones c onstituted, i n am anner u nique i n e arly B ritain, t hough n ot i n E urope, t he p ictorial f unerary m onuments o f t he h istoric, -

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p re-Christian P icts.

1 85

R ef erences A dams, G .B. ( 1970) " Language a nd M an i n I reland", U lster F olk L ife 1 5/16 ( Belfast), 1 40-171. A shmore, P .J. ( 1981) " Low c airns, l ong c ists a nd s ymbol s tones", P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cotland 1 10, 1 978-80, 3 46-55 C hadwick, N .K. ( 1958) " The N ame P ict" 5 8 ( Aberdeen), 1 46-76. C lapham, ( Sir) A lfred ( 1934) A ntiquity 8 , 4 3 f f. C lose-Brooks, J . S utherland, 3 28-45.

( 1981) 1 977",

S cot. G aelic S tudies 8 ,

" The O rigins o f H iberno-Saxon A rt",

" Excavations i n t he D airy P ark, D unrobin, P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cotland 1 10, 1 978-80,

D iack, F .C. ( 1944) T he I nscriptions o f P ietland ( Aberdeen: S palding C lub). D uncan, A .A.M.

( 1981)

1 955-

" Bede,

I ona a nd t he P icts",

i n:

T hird

D avis, R .H.C.

a nd W allace-Hadrill, J .M., e ds. T he W riting o f H istory i n t he M iddle A ges: E ssays P resented t o R .W. S outhern ( Oxford) 1 -42. G ordon, C .A.

( 1956)

" Carving T echnique o n t he S ymbol S tones o f

N ortheast S cotland", P roc. S oc. A ntiq. S cotland 8 8,

1 954-56, 4 0-46.

G resham, C .A.

( 1968)

M edieval S tone C arving i n N orth W ales ( Cardiff)

H enderson,

( 1967)

T he P icts

I .

H enderson, I . ( 1971) M eidrum, E ., e d. C lub), 5 3-68. H ughes, K .W.

( 1970)

" The M eaning o f t he P ictish S ymbol S tones", i n: T he D ark A ges i n t he H ighlands ( Inverness F ield

E arly C hristianity i n P ictland ( Jarrow L ecture)

J ackson, A . ( 1971) " Pictish S ocial S tructure a nd S ymbol-Stones A n a nthropological a ssessment". S cottish S tudies 1 5 ( Edinburgh) 1 21-40. -

J ackson, K .H. 6 6.

( 1955)

K irby, D .P. ( 1973) ( Glasgow), 6 -

" The P ictish L anguage" i n: W ainwright ( 1955),

" Bede a nd t he P ictish C hurch", 2 5.

M acalister, R .A.S. ( 1945) v ol. I ( Dublin).

1 29-

I nnes R eview 2 4

C orpus I nscriptionum I nsularum C elticarum,

M eyer, K . ( 1915) " Tatowierung b ei d en I ren", Z eitschr. P hilologie 1 0, 4 00-1. M iller, W . ( 1981) " Hiberni r eversuri", 1 10, 1 978-80, 3 05-27.

1 86

P roc.

f . C eltische

S oc. A ntiq. S cotland

M orris,

R .W.B.

M orris,

R .W.B.

( 1977)

T he P rehistoric R ock A rt o f A rgyll ( Poole)

( 1979)

T he P rehistoric R ock A rt o f G alloway a nd t he

I sle o f M an ( Poole). M orris, R .W.B. ( 1981) T he P rehistoric R ock A rt o f S outhern S cotland ( except A rgyll a nd G alloway) ( 8.A.R., B rit.ser.86, O xford). R oss, A nne R udenko,

( 1967)

S .I.

P agan C eltic B ritain

( 1949)

" Tatuirovka A ziatskikh E skimosov", S ovetskaya

E tnografia I ( Moscow), R udenko,

S .I.

( 1953)

1 49-54

K ultura n aseleniya g ornoga A ltaya v 5 kifskue

v remya ( Moscow-Leningrad) S teer, K .A. & B annerman, J .W.M. ( 1977) L ate M edieval M onumental S culpture i n t he W est H ighlands ( Edinburgh) S tevenson, R .B.K. T homas, C .

( 1963)

1 18, 1 961, T homas C .

C .

T homas,

C .

" Pictish A rt)

i n: W ainwright ( 1955), 9 7-128

" Animal A rt i n t he S cottish I ron A ge", A rchaeol.

J .

1 4-64.

( 1964)

J 1 20, T homas,

( 1955)

" The I nterpretation o f t he P ictish S ymbols", A rchaeol.

1 963, 3 1-97. ( 1969)

" Lundy,

( 1971)

1 969", C urrent A rchaeol.2.5( 16),

1 38-42.

T he E arly C hristian A rchaeology o f N orth B ritain

( Oxford). T homas,

C .

( 1981)

W ainwright, F .T. W hitelock, D .

C hristianity i n R oman B ritian t o A D 5 00.

( 1955), e d.

( 1979)

T he P roblem o f t he P icts

E nglish H isLorical D ocuments, v ol.1. c .5Lf l-'042:

2 nd e dn. W hittington, 0 ., a nd S ouisby, J .A. ( 1968) I nvestigation i nto P IT P lace N ames",

" A P reliminary R eport o n a n S cottish G eogr. M agazine.

8 4.2 k 1 17-25. W illsher, B etty, a nd H unter, D oreen ( 1978), S tones ag uide t o s ome r emarkable e ighteenth c entury g ravestones ( Edinburgh) -

1 87

Z OOMORPHIC D ESIGN: M .

A N EW L OOK A T P ICTISH A RT? C .

S olly

I t i s i nteresting, a nd p erhaps s omewhat s urprising, t o d iscover t hat n o t horough d etailed s tudy o f t he z oomorphic d esigns f ound o n P ictish s tones h as s o f ar b een p ublished. I n 1 939, M rs.

C .

L . C urie s tated t hat:

S ince R omilly A llen a nd J oseph A nderson p ublished, i n 1 903, ' The E arly C hristian M onuments o f S cotland' , t here h as b een n o d etailed s tudy o f t hese m onuments. T his b ook i s s till t he s tandard w ork o f r eference o n t he s ubject. I n i t a re p hotog raphs o r d rawings o f a ll t he m onuments t hen k nown, a nd a d etailed a nalysis o f t he d ecorative m otifs". ( P.S.A.S. 1 9394 0,

V ol L XXIV , p .60).

O ne t hing w hich M rs. C urie d id n ot m ake c lear, w as t hat e ven R omiliy A lien a nd A nderson 's v olume d oes n ot c ontain a ny d etailed s urvey o f t he z oomorphic m otifs. T his p oint h as b een e mphasised r ecently b y J ames K enworthy i n h is d iscussion o f a d ecorated f ragment o f s tone f ound a t S t. A ndrew 's i n F ife: " This c hance d iscovery, t hen a llows u s t o t ake a f ew t entat ive s teps f orward, b ut t he s ituation w ill r emain u nsatisf actory u ntil m ore d etailed w ork i s p ublished o n t he l ater p ictish s tones, t heir a nimal o rnament a nd t heir i nterlace". ( P.S.A.S.

1 970-80, V ol. C X,

p .363).

T here h ave b een v arious o ther b ooks a nd p apers p ublished o n t he s ubject o f t he s tones, s ome o f t he m ost n otable b eing R .B.K. S tevenson 's c hapter o n P ictish a rt i n " The P roblem o f t he P icts" ( ed. F .T. W ainw right, l ot e dn. 1 955) a nd D r. I sabel H enderson 's c hapter o n t he s ame s ubject i n h er b ook " The P icts" ( 1967). T hese a re g eneral s tudies a nd o ther p ublished w ork t ends t owards l imited d iscussions o f i ndividual s tones o r r elated o bjects. A llen a nd A nderson 's m agnificent v olume m ust s till b e a dmired, a nd m any o f t heir o bservations a nd i deas a re s till c urrent t oday. T he m ost n otable o f t hese i s t heir m ethod o f g rouping t he s tones. T hree c lasses o f s tones w ere d efined i n t heir 1 903 p ublication. C lass I c onsists o f r ough, u nshaped b oulders w ith i ncised d esigns. T hese a re g enerally r eferred t o a s P ictish ' symbols'. O ccasionally, t hese s tones p ortray o nly a n i ncised a nimal, s uch a s t he h orse o n s tone N o.4, a t I nverury, A ber deenshire.(Fig. C lass

1 ).

I I a re g enerally l arger,

s haped s labs o f s tone.

A gain,

t hey e xhibit e xamples o f t he ' symbols' b ut m ore i mportant i s t he a ddit ion o f ac ross e xecuted i n l ow r elief a s a m ajor e lement i n t he d esign. F igural s cenes o ften f eature o n t he r everse.

1 89

F ig.

1 2.1

a )

I nverury N o. 4 , A berdeenshire.

1 90

F ig.

1 2.2

C athedral, E lgin.

( after A llen a nd A nderson,

1 91

1 903).

C lass I II d iffers o nly i n i ts t otal

l ack o f a ny o f t he s ymbols.

T hese t hree c lasses r emain t he m ost w idely a ccepted t erms w ith w hich t o d escribe t he s tones t oday. H owever, t here a re i ncreasing c urrents o f d issatisfaction a mong m any s cholars c oncerning t heir v alidity. I ndeed, t heir r e-classification m ust n ow b e c onsidered o f p ara m ount i mportance. U ntil s uch t ime a s t his b adly n eeded p iece o f r e s earch i s c arried o ut, i t w ould s eem b est t o r etain t he c urrent s tructure. H owever, i f t he c lassifications a re i n n eed o f c hange, t hen t he g enerally a ccepted c hronological o rder o f t he s tones m ust a lso r equire s ome a ttention. T he m ain a im o f t his p aper i s t o s how t hat t his f eat m ay n ot b e q uite a s i mpossible a s o ne w ould f irst i magine. I n t he s tudy o f z oomo rphic d esign l ies a n u ntapped s ource o f c omparative d ating e vidence. T rue, a s tudy o f t his n ature c annot a lone p rovide a r evised d ating s ystem f or t he s tones, b ut i t m ust b e o f c onsiderable v alue i n t he a rgument. H aving b riefly r eviewed b oth t he p ast a nd p resent s ituations r eg arding t he s tones, t he r emainder o f t he p aper w ill c oncentrate o n w hat m ight b e a chieved i n t he f uture, p articularly b y a d etailed s tudy o f t he z oomorphic o rnament. T he m ajority o f t he m aterial i n t his c ategory f alls i nto c lass I I, a lthough e xamples f rom o ther c ategories w ill b e u sed w here n ecessary. I n 1 980, G eorge S peake p ublished a b ook e ntitled " Anglo-Saxon A nimal A rt" w hich n ow p rovides a s tandard r eference w ork o n t hat s peciali sed s ection o f t he a rt o f t he s ixth a nd s eventh c enturies. S peake d oes e mphasise t hat h is w ork s hould n ot b e c onsidered a s ad efinite c orpus o r c atalogue. N evertheless, i t s till p rovides a n e xtremely u seful g uide t o t he e xtant m aterial a s w ell a s d iscussion o n o rigin, d evelopment a nd c hronology. F urther w ork o n t he z oomorphic d esigns f ound o n t he P ictish s tones c ould a t l east e qual t he p ractical v alue o f S peake's w ork. H owever, a r evision o f t he c hronology o f t he'stones i s t he p rimary a im, a nd p reliminary r esults d o a ppear t o s how s ome p romise i n t his d irection. T here a re, o f c ourse, m any p roblems t o o vercome s ome g eneral, a nd s ome s pecific t o t he t ype o f s tudy. P erhaps t he m ajor d isadvantage i s t hat o f t he S cottish c limate. M any o f t he s tones r emain i n t heir o riginal o pen-air p ositions a nd a re t herefore o pen t o t he f orces o f a ll e lements. T his h as l ed, n aturally, t o s ome c ases o f s evere w eathe ring. T he s culpture o n t he s tones, o nly e xecuted i n l ow r elief, i s g radually d isappearing. T his c an b e a mply d emonstrated b y t he s tone n ow s ituated i n t he r uins o f E lgin C athedral. ( Fig. 2 ). I n A llen a nd A nderson, a d rawing s hows a p anel o f i nterlaced s erpentine c reatures n ear t he b ase o f t he s tone. T oday, o nly e ighty y ears l ater, i t i s d ifficult e ven t o d istinguish t he p osition o f t he p anel i tself, m uch l ess t he d etails o f t he a rtwork. I t w ould s eem b est, i n t his s ituation t o a void u sing s uch c ases w hen e xamining o r c omparing m inor d etails. T his i s n ot t o c ast a spersions o n A llen a nd A nderson 's r ecording t ec hn iques, b ut s imply t o a void m aking s tatements w hich c annot n ow b e v erified. -

T here a re o ther p roblems t oo, s uch a s t he d efacing o f s ome o f t he 1 92

a

b

C

F ig.

1 2.3

" Celtic" a nd " Germanic" a nimals. a )

S word p ommel, C rundale D own, K ent.

b ) c )

D etail f rom t he T ara b rooch. N eu ibigging L eslie, A berdeenshire.

1 93

s tones i n m edieval a nd l ater t imes b y t heir r e-use. T he s tone f rom R eay, C aithness h as b een p artially r e-cut f or u se a s a g ravestone. A nother, n ow i n t he c hurchyard a t A berlemno, A ngus, w as i n u se a s a g atepost ( as w itnessed b y t he l arge h ole b ored c ompletely t hrough t he s lab), b efore i ts r emoval t o i ts p resent r esting p lace. O n t he o ther h and, m any o f t he s tones w ould a ppear t o b e i n, o r n ear, t heir o riginal s ettings. M oving o bjects o f t heir s ize a nd w eight c ould n ever h ave b een a p opular p astime M any o f t hose w hich h ave b een m oved a re n ow i n M useum c ollections s uch a s t hose a t M eigle, A ngus -

a nd t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquities o f S cotland, E dinburgh a nd t heir o riginal p ositions h ave b een d ocumented. T his s tate o f a ffairs -

w ould o bviously h elp i n a ny s tudy o f " regional" c haracteristics, o f c ontent o r s tyle.

e ither

R eturning t o t he q uestion o f z oomorphic o rnament, i n 1 943, N ils A berg p ublished t hree v olumes e ntitled " The O ccident a nd O rient i n t he A rt o f t he S eventh C entury", o ne o f w hich d eals s pecifically w ith t he B ritish I sles. T his i s t he m ajor a vailable w ork o n z oomorphic o rnament f ound i n t his c ountry A rt").

( excluding G eorge S peake's " Anglo-Saxon A nimal

A berg n oted t hat t here w ere b asic d ifferences b etween t he C eltic a nd G ermanic ( Anglo-Saxon) s tyles o f z oomorphic d esigns. ( For t he p urposes o f t his p aper, t he t erms " Celtic" a nd " Germanic" w ill b e u sed t o d istinguish b etween t wo e ssentially d ifferent a rt s tyles, a nd w ill n ot n ecessarily r efer t o t he p eoples o f s pecific a reas). V arious s tudies h ave s hown t hat m ost o f t he c ountry w as s ubject t o s imilar i nfluences o f b asic i nterlace p atterns. H owever, t hese i nitial i nfluences t hen u nderwent i ndividual c hanges, e ventually p rod ucing t wo f airly d istinctive s tyles. T o t hese u nadorned i nterlace p atterns w ere a dded z oomorphic f eatures, w hich, i n m any c ases i ncreased t he d ifference o f a pproach b eweeen t he t wo s tyles. T hese c ontrasting a pproaches c an b est b e i llustrated b y c omparing " typical" e xamples o f e ach. ( Fig. 3 ) F igure 3 a i s a n e xample o f Aberg 's " Germanic" s tyle; t he d ecorated s word p ommel f rom C rundale D own, K ent. F igures 3 b a nd c a re " Celtic" a nimals, f rom t he T ara b rooch a nd t he d og o r w olf f rom N ewbigging, A berdeenshire. A berg s uggests t hat t he " Germanic" s tyle o f d ecoration c an b e r ecognised b y t he e xtended t rail-like j aws, a nd t he f eet o f t he b easts w hich r esemble a c loven p almette o r p lumelike L uft. B y c omparison, t he " Celtic" s tyle o f a nimal t ends t o h ave a m ore n aturalistic o utline o f t he h ead a nd o f t he f eet, w hich a re f ashioned a s p ads o r c laws. T he h eads u sually h ave e ars, a nd a w ell-defined e ye w ith p upil. N ote t oo, t he f eature w hich p ortrays t he u pper t highs o f t he G ermanic a nimals a s s eparate u nits t hey a ppear t o h ave b een p laced o nto t he b ody, r ather t han a n i ntegral p art o f i t. -

U sing t hese o bservations i t i s o ften p ossible t o d istinguish t he m ain i nfluences, w hether C eltic o r G ermanic, i n m ost e xamples o f a rtw ork r egardless o f m edium. E xamining p anels o f z oomorphic i nterlace i llustrates b oth t he

1 94

b

F ig.

1 2.4

P anels o f z oomorphic a ) b )

i nterlace.

G old b uckle, S utton H oo S ide p anel f rom s tone a t R osemarkie, R oss-shire.

1 95

d ifferences m ore c learly ( Fig. 4 ). G ermanic p anels a re c haracterised b y t he a pparent a ddition o f a nimal h eads a nd e xtremities t o o therwise s traightforward i nterlace d esigns, a s i s d emonstrated b y t he c entral p anel o f t he g reat g old b uckle f rom S utton H oo. O n t he o ther h and, t he p anel o f e ntwined s erpents f rom t he s tone a t R osemarkie, o n t he B lack I sle, r eveals a c onsiderably m ore n aturalistic a pproach. H ere t he a rtist h as a ttempted t o b reathe l ife i nto t he s erpents b y m eans o f w idening a nd t apering t heir b odies. T he w hole g ives a n i mpression o f l iving, m oving c reatures. O bviously a ll e xamples o f z oomorphic o rnament a re n ot g oing t o f it i n n eatly t o a " Germanic" o r " Celtic" p igeon-hole, a nd o ne g ood e xample t o d emonstrate t his p roblem i s t he p anel o f i nterlace f rom t he i lluminated M s. " The B ook o f D urrow". ( Fig. 5 ) H ere c an b e s een t he t uft-like f eet c haracteristic o f G ermanic a rt, t ogether w ith t he e long ated j aws a nd " applied t highs". T he f orm o f t he a nimals i s c ertainly m ore n aturalistic t han m ost G ermanic d esigns, a nd b oth t he e yes a nd e ars a re g enerally w ell-defined. A re t hese C eltic o r G ermanic? T he e asiest a nswer w ould b e t hat i t r epresents a n a malgamation i n t he d evelopment o f t he t wo s tyles. T his t ype o f s tatement i s b oth i nacc urate a nd p roblematic. I t s uggests t hat a fter a c ertain p eriod b oth g roups s tarted t o p roduce h ighly s imilar w ork. A t n o t ime d uring t he w hole o f t he E arly C hristian p eriod i n B ritain c ould i t b e s aid t hat a u niversal s chool o f d esign w as f unctioning. T rue, t he t wo s tyles d o i nfluence e ach o ther, a nd t his i nteraction i s m ost a pparent i n w ork p roduced i n t he N orthumbrian a rea. A rtwork o f t his t ype h as b een c onveniently l abelled " Hiberno-Saxon" i n t he p ast, b ut t his i s a s light m isnomer. At erm w hich i s b ecoming m ore w idely u sed i s t hat o f " Insular a rt". H owever, i t i s s till p ossible t o d etermine t he m ain s ources o f i nfluence i n t he m ajority o f e xamples. O f c ourse, a s w ith m ost a rchae ological s tudies, t here w ill a lways b e t he f ew o bligatory e nigmas. M ost o f t he d istinguishing f eatures o f G ermanic a nimals h ave b een m entioned p reviously. T o t he " applied" t highs, t ufted f eet a nd e long ated j aws m ust b e a dded a nother n oticeable e lement t he a nkle b racelet. T his c onsists e ither o f a l ine d rawn o r e ngraved o ver t he a nkle, o r, i n m any c ases, a p ronounced b ulging f or w hich t he t erm b racelet i s t he m ost a pt. T he e xamples s hown a re f rom t he d ecorated s word p ommel f rom C rundale D own, K ent; t he S utton H oo g old b uckle; t he B ook o f D urrow a nd t he T aplow d rinking h orn, B ucks. ( Fig. 6 ). -

A part f rom t heir g enerally n aturalistic o utline, C eltic a nimals a lso h ave t heir o wn d istinctive d etailed c haracteristics. T hese c onsist o f an umber o f s mall d etails, i ncluding t he g eneral p revalence o f e yes w ith c learly m arked p upils; w ell-shaped e ars; f eet w hich t ake t he f orm o f p ads o r c laws; a nd r olled s nouts. T he m ajority o f t he a nimals w hich a ppear o n t he P ictish s tones d o s eem t o b e o f a C eltic n ature i n t hat t hey e xhibit m any o f t he c haract eristics c ommon t o C eltic a rt, a nd t end t o l ack a ny o f a G ermanic n ature. -

T his c an b e d emonstrated m ore c learly b y e xamining t he v arious o ccurrences o f t he a nimals o n t he s tones. P reliminary s tudy h as s hown

1 96

F ig.

1 2.5

Z oomorphic p anel f rom t he ' Book o f D urro u i".

1 97

f .192v.

b

C

d

F ig.

1 2.6

' Ankle b racelets". a ) b ) C ) d )

S word p ommel, F rundale D own, K ent. D etail f rom t he g old b uckle, S utton H oo. D etail f rom t he " Book o f D urro u i". D etail f rom t he T aplo u i d rinking h orn.

1 98

a

C

b F ig.

1 2.7

a ) b ) c )

P erthshire; R ossie P riory, C ategory 1 : D unfallandy P erthshire. oss-shire. C ategory 2 R osemarkie, R erthshire; M eigle N o. 2 3, C ategory 3 S t. M adoes, P P erthshire. 1 99

t hat t hey c an b e d ivided i nto t hree c ategories.

T hese a re:

1 )

s ingle o r m ixed p airs o f a nimals/beasts

2 ) 3 )

p anels o f i nterlace i ncorporating z oor norphic d etails p airs o f s imilar i nterlaced/intertwined a nimals/beasts

E xamples f rom e ach o f t hese c ategories a re s hown, s erve t o i llustrate m ore-closely t he m ajor d ifferences

( Fig. 7 ) a nd i n c omposition.

A lthough t he o verall i mpressions o f t hese t hree t ypes d iffers, a c loser e xamination o f t he i ndividual a nimals i nvolved c larifies a ny a nalogies i n s tyle. I n c ategory ( 1), t he e xamples f rom D unfallandy a nd R ossie P riory a gain e xhibit n aturalistic o utlines, w ell-defined e yes a nd e ars, a nd f eet w hich r esemble p ads w ith e xtended c laws. T here i s n o f eature i n t heir m ake-up w hich h ints a t a G ermanic i nfluence, a s w ith t he p airs o f a nimals f rom S t. M adoes a nd M eigle N o.23. T he e xample f rom t he s econd c ategory ( 2), t hat o f a p anel o f s erpentine i nterlace f rom t he s tone a t R osemarkie, a ppears a t f irst t o b e s lightly m ore p roblematic. M eandering l acertine c reature a re, a fter a ll, a s tandard e lement i n G ermanic a nimal a rt s tyles. I n t his p articular P ictish d esign, t he h eads c ould s imply h ave b een a dded t o d esign. H owever, a s s tated p reviously, t he d esign c onsists q uite p lainly o f b odies, n ot s trands o f i nterlace. T he w hole p anel h as b een c onstructed a s ac ontrolled, r epetitive p attern a round a r ow o f c entral b osses a nd i s c ompletely u nlike t he m ajority o f c omparable G ermanic P anels. T he i nitial s tudy o f t hese t hree p roposed c ategories h as s uggested t hat t he f irst t wo-single/mixed p airs a nd i nterlace p anels a ppear t o b e m ore p opular w ithin s pecific g eographical a reas. T his o f c ourse, m ust b e r elated t o t he o verall d istribution o f t he m onuments t hemselves. F or i nstance, s ingle/mixed p airs o f a nimals a ppear m ost f requent i n P erthshire a nd t he i mmediate s urroundings; w hereas p anels o f i nterlace a re c onfined m ainly t o t he m ore n orthern a reas o f d istribution,-such a s R oss-shire. T he t hird c ategory p aired a nimals s eems g enerally m ore -

-

-

p opular a nd a s y et n o g eographical s ignificance h as b ecome a pparent. W ithin a nd o verlapping t he f orms o f z oomorphic o rnament, a nother t hree c ategories c an b e d iscerned t hose o f t he a ctual m otifs e mployed. -

T he f irst c ategory c ontains t wo e lements h ippocampi a nd s erpents. T hese t wo m otifs o ccur f requently o n t he s tones t hroughout t he w hole a rea o f d istribution. N either d isplays a d istribution e xclusive t o t he o ther; t hey s imply s eem t o r epresent a " favourite" m otif o f t he a rtists. P erhaps, l ike t he " symbols" t hey h eld s ome s pecial s ignific ance f or t he c ommunities a t t he t ime. -

B oth m otifs t end t o o ccur i n p airs, a nd s erpents a ppear o ften i n p anels o . f i nterlace. T he l atter i s h ardly s urprising, s erpents o bviously l end t hemselves w ell t o t hat p articular f orm o f d esign. P airs o f h ippocampi a lways f ace e ach o ther. T he s kill a nd d etail w ith w hich t hey a re e xecuted v aries i mmensely a s c an b e s een b y c omparing t he c rudely e xecuted p air f rom M ortlach w ith t he e xceptionally f ine d rawi ng f rom t he A berlemno c hurchyard s tone. ( Fig. 8 ). -

2 00

a

b

F ig.

1 2.8

" Hippocampi . a ) b )

F 1 ort1ach, B anffshire. A berlemno, F orfarshire.

2 01

T he h ippocampus i s o riginally n ative t o m editerranean a rt, s o i f i t w ere p ossible t o d etermine b y w hich r outes i t r eached t he P ictish a rea, a nd t he t ime o f f irst a ppearance, a l arge s tep c ould b e t aken t owards a m ore d efinite c hronology. T he h ippocampus m otif a ppears o n o ther o bjects o utside t he P ictish a rea, s uch a s t he t wo c reatures f ound o n a p enannular b rooch f rom A rnoy, C ounty A ntrim i n N . I reland, a nd a s imilar d esign o n a n o penwork, e namelled b ronze d isc f rom F avers ham, K ent. I t s hould b e p ossible, w ith d ue c are, t o n ote t he v aried o ccurrences o f t his m otif a nd u sing t he s ites o r a reas i n w hich t hey w ere f ound a s a p ointer, t ogether w ith t he t ypes o f o bject o n w hich t hey o ccur, t o o btain a r ough g uide t o t he m otif's c hronology. I t i s t empting t o s imply e xamine h ippocampi o n t he s tones a nd m ap o ut a d evelopment b ased o n t he s tandard o f t he d esigns p resented, b ut t his p ath i s b eset w ith p itfalls. O bviously, u nless a ll o f t he s tones w ere c arved b y t he s ame c raftsman ( which t hey w ere n ot), t he s tandard o f w ork w ill v ary d ramatically. I t w ould n eed a n e xtremely c areful c orrelation o f a ll t he a rtwork o n t he s tones, a nd i ts m eaning f or c hronology, b efore a ny c onclusions c ould b e a ttempted. I t w ould s eem m ore l ogical t o a ttempt a n i ndividual s tudy o f t his p articular m otif b efore r elating i t d irectly t o t he c hronology o f t he s tones p erhaps m ore s o a s i t i s o ne o f t he f ew e stablished f oreign m otifs w ithin t he z oomorphic r epertoire. -

T he s econd c ategory o f m otifs a re t he n aturalistic a nimals, m ost e asily i dentifiable a s b irds, o r q uadrupeds o f l ocal o rigin, s uch a s s tags. T hese m otifs o ccur b oth a s s ingle a nimals a nd i n p airs. T he e xamples s hown a re f rom N igg, E assie, A ldbar a nd D unfallandy. ( Fig. 9 ). H orses a re a f avourite f igure o n t he s tones, b ut t hese o ccur, w ithout e xception, a s p art o f t he f igural s cenes d epicted o n t he r everse o f t he s tones. A s s uch, t hey s hould b e c onsidered o utwith t he r ealms o f t his s tudy, w hich i s c oncerned w ith t he u se o f a nimals a s a p urely d ecorative d esign. B efore c ontinuing, t his l ast r emark m ust b e f urther q ualified. T he a nimals w hich a ppear o n t he s tones m ay s imply b e " fillers" f or a p redetermined p attern, o r t hey m ay b e s omewhat s ymbolic. N onethel ess, a ny s ignificance c an o nly b e d etermined b y e xamining t hose w hich a ppear a s c omplete, s eparate c omponents, a s o pposed t o a n i ntegral p art o f a l arger s cene. H orses a re a n e xample o f t he l atter, a s t oo a re t he " lions" f rom t he " Daniel i n t he L ion 's D en" s cene o n t he M eigle s tone N o. 2 . T his c ategory ( naturalistic b irds/beasts) p robably p oses t he m ajority o f t he p roblems t o b e f aced i n as tudy o f t his t ype. H ow c an o ne d ecide w hat i s n atural a nd w hat i s n ot, i n at ruly o bjective m anner? T he o nly w ay t o c ategorize t hese a nimals s uccessfully l ies i n t he c reation o f a b asic s et o f c riteria t o w hich e ach e xample m ust a dhere. F or t he n aturalistic a nimals t his m ight t ake t he f orm o f: 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) . 5 )

m ust h ave f our l egs/two c laws. m ust h ave o ne h ead. m ust h ave a r ecognizable b ody. m ust h ave t wo e yes. ( if a pplicable) m ust h ave t wo e ars.

T his t ype o f f ormula w ould a llow a nimals w hich a re ( to u s) r ecogn izable a s l iving c reatures a nd s ome d oubtfu l e xamples, w hich c ould b e e xcused b y t he s tandard o f t he a rtist's w ork. M ore i mportantly, i t 2 02

d

C

Fig. 12. 9

"Naturalistic animals". a) b) c) d)

Nigg, Ross-shire. Eassie, Forfarshire. Aldbar, Forfarshire. Dunfallandy, Perthshire. 203

w ould r emove t he s ubjective t emptations p revalent i n t his t ype o f s tudy. S imilar c riteria c ould b e f ormed f or t he o ther c ategories a s w ell. T he t hird a nd f inal c ategory a re t he m ythical b easts. T hese t ake m any f orms f rom q uadrupeds e xhibiting s pecific u nnatural f eatures, s uch a s t he e xample f rom t he s tone a t R ossie P riory, P erthshire, t o p urely f antastic c reations, s uch a s t hat f rom t he s tone a t C ask w ith o thers f rom t he S kinnet C hapel, H alkirk; R osemarkie a nd B envie. ( Fig. 1 0). M any o f t hese m otifs c ould b e s atisfactorily e xplained a s i llust rations o f l ocal f olklore, i n t he s ame w ay i n w hich f airy t ales a re i llustrated t oday. -

-

O ne e lement w hich d oes a ppear o n s ome o f t he s tones i s t he c entaur; h alf-man a nd h alf-horse. A s i t d oes n ot a dhere t o t he c riteria s et o ut f or n aturalistic a nimals ( it h as f our l egs a nd t wo a rms), i t w ould c ertainly b e c lassified a s a m ythical b east. I ts o ccurrence i s r ather f ortunate, f or t wo r easons. F irst, i t g oes s ome w ay t o p roving t hat a n a dequate s ystem o f c riteria c ould, o bjectively, c ategorize t he a nimals f ound o n t he s tones. S econdly, w e k now t hat t his i s a m ythical b east, o f c lassical o rigin, a nd t herefore i t h as b een p laced i n t he c orrect g roup. T he c entaur c an b e c onsidered i n t he s ame l ight a s t he h ippocampus, a s b oth c ame f rom a c lassical s ource, a nd b oth a ppear a s a n i ntrusive e lement. I t i s a n i nteresting t hought t hat b oth t hese r ecognised i ntrusive e lements a re ( 1) c lassical a nd ( 2) n ot a c ommon f eature o f t he-illumi nated m anuscripts. I n f act, t here i s r eally o nly o ne m ajor e xample o f P ictish z oomorphic d esign w hich e xhibits c haracteristics s imilar t o s ome o f t he a nimals f ound i n t he e arlier o f t he m anuscripts. T his i s t he s tone a t P apil, W est B urra, S hetland. ( Fig. 1 1). I t h as b een s uggested, a nd v ery o ften a ccepted, t hat t his b east r epresents a l ion, m ainly b ecause o f t he w ay i n w hich i ts t ail c urves o ver i ts b ack. I ndeed, i n m any o f t he e vangelist s ymbols f ound i n t he i lluminated g ospels, t he l ion i s p ortrayed i n t his m anner. T he c losest p arallel f or t he P apil s tone i s t hat o f t he l ion o f S t. M ark i n t he B ook o f B urrow. H owever, a part f rom t he t ail, t here a re n o p articularly f eline f eatures a bout t his a nimal, m uch l ess a nything l eonine. I n f act, t he t ail i s o nly c onsidered t o b e as ymbol o f a l ion b ecause i t a ppears i n t his m anner i n t he B ook o f D urrow. I t i s e qually p ossible t hat t his d esign r epresents o nly t he m ore c ommon d og o r w olf. I t i s h ighly u nlikely t hat t he a rtist h ad e ver s een a r eal l ion, a nd t his c ould b e s aid t o b e h is r epresentation a f air c omment. H owever, i t d oes s eem s lightly i mprobable t hat a d escription f rom s omeone e lse c ould b e s o v ague a s t o " forget" o ne o f t he m ost i mportant a nd o utstanding f eatures o f t he c reature i ts m ane. O ther l ions d o a ppear o n P ictish s tones, t he m ost n otable b eing f rom M eigle N o.2. ( previously m entioned). A lthough t he f iner d etails o n t his s tone h ave b een l ost t hrough w eathe ring o ver t he y ears, i t i s s till a mply c lear t hat t hese l ions d o h ave m anes. I s t he P apil a nimal m eant t o b e a l ion, o r s omething e lse e ntirely? P erhaps t he q uestion w ill n ever b e a nswered. O ne t hing i s c lear a t l east s ome o f t he P ictish a rtists k new w hat l ions l ooked l ike, a nd t o s uggest t hat a ll o f t hese i nterpretations w ere b ased o n t hose f ound i n t he i lluminated M SS i s e xtremely m isleading. I n t urn, t his n egates t he i dea t hat a ny s tones w hich i nclude t hese a nimals m ust b e o f a l ater d ate t han t he B ook o f D urrow. -

-

-

2 04

C '

a

C

F ig.

1 2.10

" Mythical b easts". a ) b ) c ) d ) e )

R ossie P riory, P erthshire. G ask, P erthshire. S kinnet c hapel, H alkirk, C aithness. R osemarkie, R oss-shire. B envie, F orfarshire.

2 05

a

b

F ig.

1 2.11

a ) b )

A nimal f rom t he s tone a t P apil, W est B urra, L ion o f S t. M ark, B ook o f D urrow.

2 06

S hetland.

S o, t he z oomorphic a rtwork o n t he P ictish s tones c an b e s ubd ivided i nto t wo m ain g roups w ith t hree c ategories i n e ach. T hat o f " form", c ategory ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)

b eing s ingle/mixed p airs o f a nimals p anels w ith z oomorphic f eatures p airs o f s imilar i nterlaced/intertwined b easts/birds.

T he t hree c ategories w hich c an b e d istinguished i n t he " motifs" e mployed a re: ( 1) s erpents/hippocampi ( 2) n aturalistic q uadrupeds/birds ( 3) m ythical a nimals T he m ajority o f t he s tones e xhibit a m ixture o f t he a bove t ypes o f d esign. R egrettably, i t h as n ot s o f ar b een p ossible t o s tudy t hese c ombinations f or a ny s ignificance. F ollowing t he c ompilation o f a c omprehensive c orpus o f a ll k nown z oomorphic m otifs f ound o n t he s tones, ac orrelation o f t he c ombinations d isplayed, w ith t heir g eographical l ocations m ust b e a ttempted. A s y et, a ny p ossible s ignificance t o b e g ained f rom t his e xercise i s p ure g uess-work. N onetheless, i t w ould s eem v alid t o p ropose t he i dea, e ven a t t his s tage. T his d iscussion h as d ealt s pecifically w ith t he z oomorphic d esigns a pparent o n P ictish s tones, p rincipally c lass I I. T his h as b een f or a r eason, a s i t i s i mperative t o u nderstand t his m aterial a s f ully a s p ossible b efore a ttempting t o e stablish r elationships w ith d esigns o n o ther m aterials. E ven w ith d esigns f rom m etal o bjects w hich a re n ow a lso c onsidered a s P ictish, s uch a s t hose f rom t he S t. N inian's I sle h oard, i n S hetland, g reat c are m ust b e t aken n ot t o e stablish c lose p arallels f or d ating p urposes u nless t hey a re d uly m erited. T his i s s o i mportant b ecause t hroughout t he e ntire E arly C hristian p eriod, z oomorphic o rnament w as a p redominant f eature o f a rt w ithin t he B ritish I sles, a nd t here a re n umerous a rtefacts w hich e xist t oday p roviding u s w ith a r emarkably f ull r epertoire f or t he p eriod. I t i s p ossibly t his a bundance o f d esigns w hich, i n t he p ast, h as l ed t o a t endency t o p ortray s uperficial p arallels. T his p oint c annot b e o ver-emphasised: i t i s b oth d angerous a nd i rresponsible t o c reate p arallels w hich a re t hen u sed a s a b asis f or c hronology, w here t hey m ay n ot r eally e xist. T here s hould g enerally b e ad istinct r esemblance b etween a n umber o f k ey f eatures, a nd p referably w ith t he d esigns a s aw hole b efore a ny r eliance i s p laced o n ar esulting d ate. I t i s a ll t oo e asy t o f asten o n t o o ne p articular d etail ( eg. t he n umber o f t oes/ c laws o n a n a nimals f oot) a nd c laim t hat t his p rovides a d atable c ommodity. W hile v oicing t his w arning, i t i s u ndeniable t hat i n a ny a ttempt t o p roduce a n a bsolute c hronology, t he s tudy o f e xtant i lluminated m anuscripts a nd m etal o bjects a longside t hat o f t he s tones i s i nevitable. T he m ain p roblems h ere, a re t hat ( with o ne o r t wo n otable e xceptions) b oth o f t hese c lasses o f a rtefact a re o nly d ated o n a rt-historical o r t ypological g rounds t hemselves. T herefore, t he w hole q uestion o f t heir v alidity a s c hronological i ndicators i s t hrown i nto d oubt. T oo o ften,

2 07

t he " notable e xceptions" a re u sed a s c entral p oints o f r eference t o w hich a ll o ther e xamples a re a ttached, e ver-expanding l ike t he r ipples i n a p ond. O ne o f t he c lassic e xamples i s t he S utton H oo m aterial, w hich, a lthough c ontaining c oins, c ould b e d ated a nytime w ithin a f ifty y ear p eriod. I n t he c ase o f t he P ictish s tones, e specially c lass

I, t he

i nclusion o f a c ross a s a m ajor e lement o f d esign i mposes s ome r estrict ions o n t he p ossible d ate f or t heir i ntroduction. W ork p ublished o n t he i ntroduction o f C hristianity t o t he P icts ( eg. K . H ughes, J arrow L ecture, 1 970 ), a long w ith s urviving d ocumentary e vidence w ill h elp i mmensely w ith t his p articular p roblem. E qually, t he d isappearance o f t he s ymbols a nd t he e volution o f s culptu ral d etail o n t he c lass I II s tones s hould m ake i t f easible t o e stimate ad ate f or t he d ecline o f t he c lass I I p hase. T hat m any o f t he s tones a re i n, o r n ear t heir o riginal s ettings a lso i ncreases t he c hances o f t racing d evelopment, a nd t herefore e stablishing a r elative c hronology w ithin t he p reviously s et c hronological f ramework. T his i s a n e xtremely s implified v iew o f as olution t o t he p roblem o f c hronology, a nd o ne w hich w ill m ost c ertainly r equire a g reat d eal o f m odification a s t he r esearch p roceeds. N onetheless, i t i s f elt t hat t he g eneral i dea s hows s ome p romise, b ased o n p reliminary w ork. I t i s a lso i mportant t o s tate t he g eneral l ack o f s tudy f rom w hich t he z oomorphic d esigns o n P ictish s tones s uffers. T aking a p essimistic v iew, t his s tudy m ay o nly b e o f b enefit i n i ts p roduction o f a c atalogue o f P ictish z oomorphic d esigns. H owever, o n a n o ptimistic n ote, i t d oes a ppear a t t he m oment t o o ffer e nough s cope f or a t entative r evision o f t he o verall c hronology o f t hese m onuments. I t i s h oped t hat a t s ome t ime i n t he f uture,

a t l east s ome o f t he

a ims p roposed i n t his p aper w ill b e r ealised, a nd t hat m ore e mphasis c an b e p laced o n t he f acts, r ather t han t he f iction, o f t he c hronology o f t he P ictish s tones.

2 08

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A berg, N . " The O ccident a nd t he O rient i n t he A rt o f t he S eventh C entury T he M erovingian E mpire". P art I II, 1 947. -

A dams, W . " Celtic I nterlace a nd C optic I nterlace" i n A ntiquity, V ol. 4 9, 1 975 ( pp 3 01-3). A lcock,

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A nderson, J . " Scotland i n E arly C hristian T imes". A rchaeology 1 880). V ol 2 , 1 881.

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B rowning, R .

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R .L.S.

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B urkitt, F .C. " Kells, D urro u i a nd L indisfarne". 1 935. ( pp 3 3-37).

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i n A ntiquity, V ol.

9 .

C lapham, A .W. " Notes o n t he O rigins o f H iberno-Saxon A rt" i n A ntiquity, V ol. 8 . 1 934. ( pp 4 3-57). C ramp,

R .

" Early N orthumbrian S culpture" . J arrow L ecture.

1 965.

C ruden, S . " The E arly C hristian a nd P ictish M onuments o f S cotland". H .M.S.O. 1 964. C urle, C .L. " The C hronology o f t he E arly C hristian M onuments o f S cotland" i n ' Proceedin s o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland' V ol L XXXIV. 1 939-40. ( pp 6 0-116). D e P aor,

L . & N .

" Early C hristian I reland".

1 958.

E eles, F . " The M onymusk R eliquary o r B recbennoch o f S t. C olumba" i n ' Proceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland', V ol. L XVIII. 1 933-4. ( pp 4 33-8). F inlay,

I .

" Celtic A rt".

1 973.

H aseloff, G . " Fragments o f a h anging-bowl f rom B ekesbourne, K ent a nd s ome O rnamental P roblems" i n M edieval A rchaeology, V ol 2 . 1 958. ( pp 7 2-103). H enderson,

I .

" The P icts".

1 967.

H enderson, I . " Sculpture N orth o f t he F orth a fter t he t akeover b y t he S cots" i n ' Anglo-Saxon a nd V iking-Age S culpture' e d. J . L ang. 1 978. ( pp 4 7-74). H enry,

F .

" Irish A rt i n t he E arly C hristian P eriod t o B OO A .D."

2 09

1 940.

H enry, F .

" Irish H igh C rosses".

K endrick,

T .D.

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" Anglo-Saxon A rt t o 9 00 A .D."

1 938.

K envorthy, J . " A f urther f ragment o f e arly C hristian s culpture f rom S t. M ary o f t he R ock, S t. A ndrews, F ife" i n ' Proceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland' L aing,

L .

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" Late C eltic B ritain a nd I reland".

1 978-80,

( pp 3 56-36

1 975.

L aing, L . " The M ote o f M ark a nd t he O rigins o f C eltic I nterlace" A ntiquity, V ol 4 9. 1 975. ( pp 9 8-108).

i n

L atham, R .E. " Bede; A H istory o f t he E nglish C hurch a nd P eople". 1 965. ( revised e dition). L eeds, E .T. 1 933.

" Celtic O rnament i n t he B ritish I sles d own t o 7 00 A .D."

M onsignor M cRoberts. " The E cclesiastical S ignificance o f S t. N inian 's I sle T reasure" i n ' Proceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland' V ol X CIV. 1 960-1. ( pp 3 01-13). N ordenfalk, C . 1 8. 1 947.

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" St. N inian's I sle T reasure". A berdeen U niversity S tudies 1 963.

R omilly A llen, J . a nd A nderson, J . S cotland". 3 p arts. 1 903. S alm , B .

V ol.

" The E arly C hristian M onuments o f

" Die A ltgermanische T ierornamentik".

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S mall, A ., T homas, C . a nd W ilson, D .M. ( ed) " St. N inian's I sle a nd i t . ; T reasure". 2 V ols. A berdeen U niversity S tudies. N o. 1 52. 1 973. S tevenson, R .B.K. " Pictish A rt" i n " The P roblem o f t he P icts". e d. W ainwright, r evised e dition. 1 980. S tevenson, R .B.K. " The H unterston B rooch a nd i ts S ignificance" i n M edieval A rchaeology. V ol. 1 8. 1 974. p p 1 6-42). S tevenson, R .B.K. " The E arlier M etalwork o f P ictland" i n T o I llustrat E ' t he M onuments. e d. M egaw, J .V.S. 1 976. p p 2 45-53). W ilson, D .H. L ecture.

" Reflections o n t he S t. N inian 's I sle T reasure". J arrow 1 969.

2 10

I ndex

A berg, N . A berlemno A 'Cheardach B heag A 'Cheardach N i hor A ckergill A domnan A domnan, L ife o f C olumba A edan A gricola, G naius J ulius A irlie A idbar A id C lune A llanfearn A lit a n L oin A inham A lt F lut " Anglo-Saxon A nimal A rt" A ngus m acFergus A ngus, s outerrains o f " The A nimal A rt o f t he S cottish I ron A ge" A ntonine W all, T he A rdestie A rdoall A rgyll A rnoy, C o. A ntrim A tlantic B ritain

1 94 1 83,192,200, F ig. 1 2.8 1 7 1 7 9 7,99,102,107,123,125,127, F igs. 5 .6, 5 .7 4 ,9,10,24 4 3 7 ,172 7 2,89 2 00, F ig. 1 2.9 2 4-26 1 06,145 1 47 1 06 1 9 1 92 4 3 1 1,65f. 1 69 9 ,174 1 3,77f., F ig. 4 .3 9 6 1 74 2 00 1 74

B albridie B alladoole, 1 .0 N i . B eacon H ill B eadnell, N orthumbria B ede B envie, F orfarshire B ildsteine B irds B irkie H ills B irsay

2 9 9 5 1 76 8 9,97 4 2 02, F ig. 1 2.10 1 72 2 00 9 9 2 7,55f.,99,105,135,141, F ig.

B irsay, B rough o f B oysack M ills B ridel B roch o f B urrian B rochs B rounaban B roxmouth

4 ,95,135 9 1,94,106, F ig. 3 4 ,17 1 4-17 9 6 8 7, F ig. 5 .1 2 11

5 .4

8 .1

5 .5,

B rude

9 ,22,23

B uckquoy B uiston

3 ,4,19,96, F ig. 2 5

B urghead B urnmouth B urton F leming B ute

2 ,21,22,25,27, F ig. 8 9 9 4 9 6

C adbury C astle c airns C aithness C aledones/Caledonii C amelon C amphill

2 3 1 45 1 31 7 ,9,24 8 9 9 6

C arlungie C arpow C astle P oint, T roup/Cully K han C astle T ioram C atestane C eltic a rt C eltic l anguage C entaur C hi-rho C hristianity C hristianity, i ntroduction t o

1 3,18,71f.,76f., 2 4,174 2 3 2 7 9 5 1 94 6 3 2 02 1 73 1 71,173-6

t he P icts C hristian s ites C lachan, L och F yne C lass I C lass I I C lass I II C latchard C raig C lickhimin C logher C lonmacnois C lough, C o. A ntrim C lynemilton, S utherland C oileagan a n U dail C olumba " cover s labs" C raigie

1 80,181,184,207 1 71,176,179 5 7 1 3,170-85,189 1 89 1 89 2 3,25,27, F ig. 2 .4 1 27 5 5 3 5 3,57 F ig. 1 2.1 1 8 9 ,23 1 15,121,123 8 9

C raig P hadraig C reic c rescent a nd V -rod C roftgooan c ropmarks c rossbo u is C rosskirk c ross s labs C roy, h oard f rom C ruachan C rundale D own, K ent, C ushie

2 3-27, F ig. 2 .4 4 3 1 51,160 9 1,106,145 1 45,149 2 5 9 6 1 74,181 5 3,55 2 9 1 94,196, F igs. 1 2.3, 9 6

s word p ommel

D alladies D alriada

2 ,68f. ‚ 79 4 3

D eerness, B rough o f D evon

1 35 1 79 2 12

2 .2 2 .4

F igs.

2 .2, 4 ,4

1 2.6

d iffusion D im C assius D ooey, C o. D onegal D ouglasmuir D rumbuie D rumnadrochit D ryburn B ridge D umyat D unadd D unbar D un C arloway D un C uier D undurn D ungal m ac S elbach D unfallandy D un 0 11aigh D unottar D unrobin D urro u i, B ook o f D urst, s on o f F erant

1 27 9 ,79 5 3 7 3 1 07 1 45,151 8 7 9 7 ,19,24,25,27 8 9,97 1 7 1 7, F ig. 2 .3 1 9,22,23,24,27,43-5, F ig. 2 .4 4 3 1 96,200, F igs. 1 2.7, 1 2.9 1 9,55 2 3-4, F ig. 2 .4 9 6,102,107, F ig. 5 .9 1 94,196,204, F igs. 1 2.5, 1 2.6, 2 9

E assie E asterton E cgfrith E ddius S tephanus E ivey, C o. M eath E lgin C athedral e ngraved s tones E pidii E umenius Ew are

2 00, F ig. 1 2.9 1 07 7 7 5 2 1 92, F ig. 1 2.2 1 15,121 4 5 9 4 5

F aversham, K ent F eredach m ac S elback F ergus M or m ac E irc f ield s ystems F orse F orteviot F reswick

2 00 4 3 4 4-5 1 45 1 9, F ig. 2 .2 2 9,91, F ig. 2 .6 5 5,57

G aelic G airloch G alson G arbeg G arrywhin G ask, P erthshire

6 3 9 8 9 5 1 05-7,145,147,149,151,162, 1 0.1-10.16 9 9 2 02, F ig. 1 2.10

G ermanic G ildas G len U rquhart G olspie g rave p it g rave g pods G reen C astle, P ortknockie G ress L odge G urness

1 94 2 1 45 9 1,107 1 56,158 1 25 2 2,25,27 1 4 2

2 13

1 2.11

F igs. 9 .1,

H adrian 's W all H allovhill H arris H iberni H iberno-Northumbrian a rt H iberno-Saxon a rt H igh C rosses H ippocampi H orses H ove H umber h ut c ircles

1 74 9 1,95 3 9 1 78,183 1 96 1 83 2 00, F ig. 2 00,202 2 1 74 1 45,151

i nhumations I nsular a rt I nsular m anuscripts " The I nterpretation o f t he P ictish S ymbols" I nvergighty I nverury, A berdeenshire I reland I slay

1 15,121,123,125 1 96 1 70 1 69 9 1, F ig. 5 .3 1 89, F ig. 1 2.1 4 6,173 4 6

J arlshof 3 ohnshaven

1 7,55,57,127, F ig. 9 6

K eiss, C aithness K eils, B ook o f K enneth m ac A lpin K erbstones K errowaird K ildonan K irkhill, S t. A ndrews, F ife K inship g roups K napdale

9 6,99,107, F ig. 5 .8 5 6 9 ,29 1 15 ‚ 121 ‚ 123 ‚ 125 ‚ 154 ‚ 156 ‚ 158 1 06,145 5 2 9 6 1 47 1 79

L atin L ettie's G rave, L ewis L ions L och W atenan l ong c ists L othian L unan V alley L undin L inks L undy I sland

1 73,174,182,184 1 02 1 79 2 02, F ig. 1 2.11 1 31 1 1,123,125 1 71 6 6,91 1 07, F ig. 5 .11 1 76

S utherland

M aelcon M aetae/Miathi M an M eigle, A ngus M ons G raupius M oredun M ortlach M ortuary p ractices M ote o f M ark M udhall M yot H ill

1 2.8

2 .3

1 9 ,24 1 74 1 92,196,200,202,204, 7 8 9,94 2 00, F ig. 1 2.8 1 23,125,127,145 5 3 7 2 9 2 14

F igs.

1 2.7,

1 2.9

N .M.A.S. N ectanesmere N ew A rchaeology N ewbigging , A berdeenshire N ewmill

1 92 7 1 70 1 94, F ig. 1 2.3 2 ,14,68-9,71-2, F igs. 4 .1, 4 .2

N ewstead N ewton S tone N igg, R oss-shire

9 7 3 2 00, F ig.

n orthern G ermany N orthumbria N orthwaterbridge N uclear f orts

1 72 1 96 6 9 4 4

O gam

3 ,10,46,121,174

O rdnance S urvey O rkney O xtro

1 45 3 ,4 9 6

P apil, W est B urra, S hetland p enannular d itches p enannular r ing-banks P erthshire p ett P icti

2 02,204, F ig. 1 2.11 1 51,154,158 1 47 6 5,200 1 71 1 ,9,171,177,180-4,189

P ictish s ettlement P ictland p it P itcur p ottery

1 27 1 72-182 1 3,171 7 2,79, F ig. 4 .5 1 60,162

P tolemy

1 2,45

q uartzite

1 15,121,123,156,158

Q ueen M argaret

1 72

R eay, C aithness R iver F echlin R ogart h oard R oman B ritain R oseisle R osemarkie, B lack I sle R ossie P riory

1 92 1 47 5 2-57 1 73,179,180,184 1 57 1 94,196,202, F igs. 1 2.4, 1 2.7, 1 96,202, F igs. 1 2.7, 1 2.10

R oss-shire r ound b arrows r ound c airns R CAHMS

2 00 1 45-9 1 23 1 45,149

R ubersla u i r unic i nscription

2 3 1 21, F ig. 6 .7

S t. A ndrew's, F ife S t. B lanc's, B ute S t. M adoe's S t. N inian 's I sle h oard S t. N inian 's p oint s amian w are S andwick, U nst, S hetland

4 3,189 5 1 1 96, F ig. 1 2.7 1 1,47,51-2,55-6,127,204 9 6 4 4 9 9,105,115-127, F igs. 6 .1-6.9

S candinavia s erpents

1 38,172 2 00 2 15

1 2.9

1 2.10

S everus s keletal r emains S kinnet C hapel, H alkirk, C aithness s outerrains s quare b arrows s quare c airns s quare k erbed c airns s tags s tone c ists S uevar H owe, O rkney S utton H oo s ymbols, P ictish s ymbol s tones Sy re

7 ,24 1 15,125,158 2 02, F igs. 1 2.1-12.10 1 ,2,13,14,66ff. 1 45-9 1 54-6 1 15-125 2 00 1 23,125 9 6 1 94,196,207, F igs. 1 2.4, 1 21 1 45,151,154,160,162 9 6

T aplow, B ucks. T ara b rooch T ara, H ill o f t atooing T ay T illytormont t oolmarks T orland T raprain L aw T rusty's H ill

1 96, F ig. 1 2.6 1 94, F ig. 1 2.3 2 9 1 82-4 6 6 1 02,107 1 15 8 9 9 4 1 71

U dal U rquhart

2 -3 2 4-5

V ita C olumbani V altos

1 0 5 5,57

W ales W atenan, c airn W atenan, L och W ater o f M ay W ester, b roch W estern I sles W est G range o f C onan W est H ighland g rave s labs W est M ondykes w heelhouses W hite b ridge W hit h orn W ilfrid

1 74,179 9 9,107,131, F ig. 7 .1 9 9 2 9, F ig. 2 .6 9 6 6 5 1 1,69 1 70,173 ‚ 179 9 6 3 ,17,18 1 05,145-9, F igs. 5 .10, 1 79 7

Y arrow Y ork

9 5 5 7,179

2 16

1 2.6

9 .2