Philosophical Foundation of Bengal Vaisnavism 8121511313, 9788121511315

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOlTNDATION OF BENGAL VAl$NAVISM •

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Authoritative publications for libraries a11d research scholars

Pringle Pattison-The Idea of God. P. K. Sengupta-Demonstration and Logical Truth. G. Sukumaran Nair- Principia Axiologia. H . P. Chakraborti--Pasupat Sutram. S. Chattopadhyaya--Early History of North India. S. Chattopadhyaya-Social Life in Ancient India. I·I. P. Chakraborti-Trade and Commerce of Ancient India. T. Banerjee-Internal Market of India. K. C. Bhandari-Nationalisation of Industries in India.

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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF BENGAL VAISNAVISM ( A Critical Exposition )

SUDHI NDRA CHAN DRA CHAKRAVARTI, M.A., P.UTT, R eader irF'PhiloJophy, Jlisva..Bharali Uni1:euity, Srmtinili etan .

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II PASotA!'rlAN GHOSH L\l'IE : : CALC1JTT4 t

1969

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© Reserved by the authoc First edition 1969 Price Rupees thirty in India Forty-live shillings in U.K.

Six dollars in U.S.A.

Chinnasya !!"; niryiseµvastuni pramiil)abhlva~; 5'.lvi1phy, I. pp. 545-46.

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Avatira who is a descent of God into man. The mmion of an Avatira cannot be fulfilled by a man even when he rises to God. The attitude of the Bengal school towards the un· aided capacity of man is rather peaimistic. According to the · teachers of this school, every descent of God results in some good to the world, which cannot be achieved by human efforts. From time to time the world requires the descent of an Avatara for its protection and well-being. The teachers of the Bengal school conceive Kr~a as the Absolute Artist-player who manifests Himself with perfect self. consciousness and freedom through His absolute power into finite and changing things in space and time. According to them, Absolute spirit and absolute po\\·er inseparably involve each other in the conaet.e personality of ~l}a. Kr~a is eternally above all limitations of time, space and relativity. But by virtue of His inscrutable power He eternally manifests HiU11Clf in the world· of time, space and relativity. Though one without a second, He can and does appear as many. He reveals Himself as the system of unconscious finite things and i-nnumerable iconscious individual's withoutJ undergoing any change or modification in His nature and without making any effort or expenditure of energy. ·He has absolute power and freedom of .self-revelation, se.lf-0.iversification and self-detcrmi· nation. From the viewpoint of the world of relativity He is ·conceived as absolutely powerful and .wise. absolutely great and good, absolutely majestic and beautiful-the perfect, eternal embodiment of all the highest ideals conceivable by the buman mind. The phenomenal world is a variegated and · progressive manifestation of what is eternally and infinitely realised in. the personality of Kr~!Ja. The manifestation of the world of material things and conscious minds is neither a case of evolution nor a case of emanation nor even an involuntary -action. The conceptions of evolution, emanation and in·voluntary action are incompatible with absolute self-consciousness a:nd absolute freedom of Krsna. Evolution and emanation . .. are not expressions of perfectly self-conscious agents, for they ·imply inexorable laws to which the ground of evolution and emanatio11 is subject. The manifestation of the world from Kr~t;ta does not mean the coming of the world from a lower order of being to a higher order of · being, while evolution 11

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VAIS~AVISM

signifim proceeding from pot.entiality to actuality, £rom the most undeveloped state of existence to more and more developed states of existence, from the lowest order of being to higher and higher orden of being. The world, being an expression of the Absolute spiritual personality, cannot be regarded as an emanation which usually implies the appearance of new phenomena out of inanimate objects. As for involuntary actions, they indicate extraneous limitations of the free rational nature of the performer. So long as the nature of the perfoi:mer is not perfectly spiritualised there is room for such involuntary or other determined action. But in the perfectly spiritual Divine nature there is no possibilit.y of involuntary actions. Nor can the manifestation of the world be likened to the voluntary actions of finit.e, imperfect, sclf-conscioua and self-determining penons. Will of finite beings like ourselves arises from some feeling of want or imperfection. Being discontent with what they have, the finite beings seek somet.hing which is expected to remove the feeling of want and bring about a comparatively satisfactory state of mind. It is the idea of the desirable object that serves as the motive of their voluntary action. The action ceases as soon as the object is attained and the purpose is fulfilled. In short the idea of voluntary action in the case . of imperfect beings is associated with t.he ideas of unattained desirable objects, unrealised goals. and unfulfilled purposes. If all the objects of desire are attained, if all the purposes are accomplished, a finite being will befully satisfied and have no experience of volition in that state. God's action cannot be understood on the analogy of our voluntary action, for there is no want, no sense of imperfection, nounrealised ideal, no feeling of discontent in His all-perfect spiritual personality. The question of any motive of His creative activity cannot arise at all, for He, being perfect, cannot have· any· motive to action. Even the suggestion that He feels the urge to create the world· because of His love or mercy for His cieatum does not appear satisfactory, as that would involvethe assumption of the existence of creatures before creation. A consistent conception of the self-expression of Kr~l)a can, howe\'er, be found in the analogy of a sportsman or an artist. True sportsmen and true artists give expression to their inner joy, beauty, power · and skill in various outward torms with

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perfect freedom and self-consciouaDCll.. The sportsman plays and the artist creates works of art not from any motive. They freely and consciously express themselves irt their works wir.b.out any sense of want or imperfection or discontent and without any concern about the consequences. A true sportsman finds pleasure in the play itself, and a true artist finds joy in his artistic creations. Both of them are indifferent to the external calculations of loss and gain. The ttue sportsman and the true artist do not seek to realise some unrealised ideal by dint of efforts, but. joyfully give expression to the ideals already realised within themselves. The skill and dexterity noticeable in the operations of the sportsmen and the harmony and beauty displayed in the works of the artists flow almost effortlessly from the fulness of their hearts in course of their respective operations. rrhough remarkably distinct from voluntary actions in the usual sense of the term, the act.ions of sportive or artistic character are not non-voluntary. They indicate free will, dynamic consciousness, creative talent, superior wisdom, right knowledge, wonderful power and extraordinary skill merged and unified in r.b.e deep sense of joy and beauty of the sportsmen or artists in their real moods. The manifestation of the world by God is likened to sport or art in the absence of a better analogy. Unlike ordinary actions, apon requires freedom from wants and desires, freedom from struggles and competitions, freedom from ambitions · and disappointments, freedom from worries and anxieties, freedom from weakness and fatigue. It requires perfect fulness of heart and complete peace of mind. Real sport knows no straining, for though voluntary by nature, it is a spontaneous expression of the inner joy of life. The ideal of sportive life is a life of perfect freedom, unrestricted power, infinite joy and ultimate beauty. All actions of such a life are of the nature of spontaneous expressions. The analogy of sportsman applied tD God suggests that though His self:manifestations in the form of the world of material things and individual souls indicate supreme wisdom, knowledge, power and resourcefulness, yet to Him they are nothing but the easy and delightful manifestations of His inner enjoyment. An ideal artist is a person who ha~ realised beauty in every fibre of his being and all whose thought~. emotions, wills and actions have become' diversified

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self-expresai00$ of his cnjo.yment of perfect beauty. Whatever he perceives, thinks, feels, wills and does is beautiful. In giving expression to His self-enjoyment God has not to overcome any obstacle either "from within or from without. His power of self-manifestation does not depend upon external conditions, means and mat.eriala, and He has not to cope with any resisting Iorce for iu realisation. No motive except that of freely enjoying th~ beauty realised in Hia own nature in a variety of objcaramapuman paramc5vara sa ckaf:i 1ti matJracala bhavatyanante hrda.yagate vraja tin vihaya diirat

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feels that all objects of experience, even God Vi.sudeva and he himself, are one. Such a devotee is never visited by the .servants of the god of death. Madhuslidana has identified Vasudeva or Kr~JJ.a with the highest reality of the Vedanta.• The identity of j'iva and Brahman declared through the great 11aying (Mahavikya) of the Upani?ds means the absolute non• f humility, fellowship and self-surrender generated by the performance of acts and ceremonies in the previous stages. The feeling of humility is very prominent in Dasya which is not the mere act of service but includes the feeling that one is the servant of the Lord. Since even apart from the actual service which involves some effon, the feeling of servitude itself, when perfectly realised, is enough for attaining the highest good, it has been separately mentioned as a means of Bhalu.110 It is through this underlying feeling of servitude that. all devotional practices are uplifted.111 When the next stage, viz. Sak.hya, is reached, one feels the sense of friendship (bandhu-bhava), which, like Dasya, is a natural corollary of the true relation between the finite self and the perfect reality. The last stage in the series is designated as the stage of .Atmanivedana or complete surrender. It is a feeling of dedication of the self "" Bhakti-sandarbha: section 283. "°astu tavad bhajana-prayisaJ:i, kevala-.tadrsatvabhimanenapi siddhir bhavatlti abhipretyaivottaratra ni.rdeSa.S ca tasya. -Bhakti-sandarbba : Section 304. m tadetaddasya samvandbcnaiva sarvamapi bhajanam mahattaram bhavati. -Bhakti-sandarbha: Section 305.

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together with whatever it owns.1 u When this stage is reached one feels that one's body, mind, senses and the soul even are intended for the Lord. Consequently all one's efforts are directed towards the pleasure of the Lord (tadarthaika-ce~~­ mayata), no efforts being made for one's own self (itmirthace~~-iunyati) . As already indicated, these eleven elements are inter-related to one another-. Occasional praises of one or other of these in the scriptures should be taken to mean that the one or the other should be adopted and practised according to the capacity of the individual seeker of realisation. In fact the Vaidhi Bhakti may be attainable by means of one Anga only (ekinga) or by more than one Anga (anekanga). Bhakti was attained by Parik~it through listening to the Bhigavata, by Sukadeva through the relating of the Bhigavata, by Arjuna through friendship with K.r~IJa, by Hanumat through service of the Lord (as Rama), by Prahlida through recollection and by Bali through sell-surrender.ua But Amvari~a attained it by all the means.11• The Vaidhi sidhana-bhakti consists not only pf certain positive acts and practices which constitute its pasitive aspect, but includes in its negative aspect the avoidance of offences such as Sevapariidhas (offences relating to worship) 111 and Nimiparadhas (offences relating to the name of the Lord). Different lists of Sevi-paridhas have been given by the Vai~ava teachers, the least number of offences counted being t.hirtytwo. Entering the temple without washing one's feet, nonobservance of the festivals of the Lord, non-observance of silence during worship, violation of the duty of doing obeisance to the Lord, eating what is not offered to the Lord, etc. are cases of Sevaparadha. The Namaparadhas are ten in number, viz. (1) slandering saintly persons, (2) regarding the names dehidi-§uddhitma-paryantasya sarvatobhlvena tasmin evlrpaoam -Bhakti-sandarbha: Section 309. "' Srivi~i;iol:t sravai;ie partksidabhavadvaiyisakil:t kirtane Prahlidal,t smaraoe tadanghribhajane Lak~i Prthu pajane Akrurastvabhivandane kapipatirddasye' tha sakhye' rjunal:t sarvasvltmanivedane Balirabhiit Kr~i;iapriptire~m param. -Quoted by Riipa Gosvamin in his Bhaktirasimrta-sindhu. Piirva-v;bbiga " ' Bh!gavata: 9. 4. 18-20. - Caitanyacaritimrta: 2. 22. 130-1~1. ""Haribhakti-v;Iisa: 8. 209-16. iu

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and attributes of Siva as independent of those of Vi~QU, (3) ignoring the spiritual preceptors, (4) finding fault with the scriptures, (5) taking the praises of the Divine name a~ words of exaggeration, (6) cherishing desire to sin, knowing that all sins can be expiated through the chanting of the Divine name, (7) equalising the effect of the Divine name to the merit of other pious acts, (8) holding an attitude of- indifference to. the Divine name, (9) considering the interests of the ego superior to the Divine name, even though informed about the efficiency of the name and (10) giving instruction about the efficacy of the name to persons devoid of faith.116 The Divine name is essentially transcendental and therefore quite distinct from mundane sound. Srimadbhagavata has described it as VaikuQ~ha-nama,117 because it lies beyond the regions of time and space. The true relation between Kf~Qa and His name is conceived as that between the Vacya and the Vacaka. Viewed spiritually, the Vacaka is one and the same with the Vacya, Kr~Qa is one and the same with His name. Kr~Qa, the Vacya, descends on the mundane plane as name, the Vacaka. In the mundane plane name, form, attribute, actions, dwelling house, body, mind and soul appear as quite different from the person who possesses them. But in the spiritual plane the names, the forms, the attributes and the sports are not distinct from the Lord, but identical with Him. The divine name is not a non· connotative term like an ordinary proper name which can be assigned at pleasure to any one as a meaningless mark, but it is a signifi'cant word capable of rousing an intuitive experience of the Lord in the worshipper. Viewed as a phenomenal v;ord, the divine name is a sound expressive of the feeling of God· realisation arising in the purest of all pure hearts. Since it is a genuine expression of the experience of the Divine and since there are psychological evidences of expressions being the causes of mental modifications, it is reasonable to hold that the same ·spiritual experience will be elicited by its recital. The Lord's manifestation of Himself as name is regarded by the advocates of the Bengal school as an act of His grace. "'The list is based on ]Iva Gosvimin's account of Namaparidhas in his commentary on Bhaktirasamrta-sindhu, I. 2. 54. He has accepted it on the ~thority of the Padma-i>11rii:ia. Bhigavata: 6. 2. 14, 33.

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Even a short recitation of His name. by the devotee is enough for His satisfaction. But the true devotee goes on reciting the name, since it fills him with thrills of unspeakable joy. A -single recital, ho\vever, does not elicit the realisation, if the devotee is not pure at 'heart, for the Lord is not eagerly inclined to bestow His mercy on the sinners. T he great sinners are, therefore, advised to wash away all their sins through continuous recitation of the divine name. The divine name is omnipotent, and the recitai of it alone is enough for the des· truction of all sins including the worst amongst them. In· -sincerity (Kautilya), irreligiosity (Asraddha) and attachment to things undivine are the heaviest of all handicaps that impede the progress of attachment towards the Lord. 118 Crooked~ess of heart resulting from secular learning of the highest order often proves a stronger obstruction than the perpetration · of a -sin of the deadliest order or engrossment in deep ignorance. Lord's mercy finds its way to the latter, but does not extend to the former. Insincerity (Kautilya) . and irreligiosity (ASraddha) are due to formidable types of deep-rooted sins. A single recital is sufficient to bring about the realisation of God in the reciter in case he has no sins previous to the recital of the name, and desists from committing any serious offence subsequently.119 Recitation of the divine name at the time uf death is efficacious in the highest degree, since a single recital at the last moment of life, like the recital made by Ajamila, is sure to dispel all sins and grant intimate association with the Lord.120 The way of Vaidhi Bhakti is sometimes called the Maryadamarga or the way of convention, for, .as already pointed out, this type of Bhakti is conditioned by the injunc· tions of Vai~i:iava scriptures. As the devotional practices in· volved in this type of Bhakti are all guided by the fear of trans· gression of scriptural injunctions and not by any feeling of attachment or devotion to the Lord, it is rightly characterised as formal and mechanical. One who is born \Vith a natural and spontaneous attraction towards the Lord need not go through it, but for one who is lacking in the natural inclination '" Bhakti-sandarbha: Section 153. '" Bhakti-sandarbha: Section 159. ,. Ibid.

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for turning to the Lord it is indispensable, since it is only through the rigid preparatory disciplines enjoined by the scriptures that one devoid of inclination towards the Lord can pass on to the Riganuga Bhakti which is a higher form of sadhanabhaltti.

Raganuga Bhakti is so-called because it follows the lines of Ragatmiki Bhakti of the residents of Vraja who stand in the actual relation of love to Kr~Qa. The eternal and spontaneous attachment of §aktis in the form of Parikaras towards the Saktimat, who is none other than Krsna, . . . serves as the model of Raganuga Bhakti. Riga means the spontaneous, deep and inseparable absorption in the desired object.121 Jiva Gosvamin defines it as the natural excess of attachment of a subject towards the object of desire.1 22 Just as a sense, for instance, an eye, is naturally drawn towards its object, no matter whether the self wishes it or not, so the devotee is irresistably attracted towards the Lord.ua_ Such ·spontaneous flow of ~ttachment towards an object is called Raga. The Raginuga, though belonging to the class of siidhana-bhaltti, must be distinguished from the Vaidhi. While the Vaidhi is guided by scriptural injunctions, Riganuga is prompted by the greed (lobha) of realising the feelings of the eternal residents of Vraja.LZ4 Meditation on or recollection (smaraQa) of Lord Kr~Qa and His dear ones, and residence in Vraja following the ways of that region (vrajalokinusaratal:i) with a desire to realise the feelings of the Lord's devor.ees there (tadbhavalipsa) constitute the essential elements of the Raganuga. Residence in Vra.ia means always living there not only mentally but also physically, if possible. The practice of the Raganuga requires the adoption of a particular bhaua (mood) of a particular favourite of Kr~Qa in a particular lila together with the ve~a (dress) and svabhava (habit) of that dear one of Kr~Qa and living in the rapture of that vicarious enjoyment through smara11a or the process Pf imaginative concentration which is regarded as the most suitable ,.. Bhaktirasiimrtasindhu, Piirva-vibhaga, -Siidhana-bhakti-lahari, 10.t. w vi$ayinal;t sviibhiiviko vi$llya-sarilsargcechitiSa.yamayal.t premii rii1tah -Bhaktisandarbha: section 310. "" Ibid. · 1 " Bhakti-rasiimrta-sindhu, Piirva-vibhiga, -Sadhana-bhakti-lahari, 118.

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nieth~d .of effecting a mystic union with the desifed object. He who is desirous of this way of realisation has to keep the whole of Vflldavana-lila of Kr~i:ia before his mind, enter into it imaginatively and play the role of a beloved of Kr~l}.a in accordance with his natural inclination and capacity of devotion. What he attains at this stage of Bhakti by imitating one or other of the beatific sports of the Lord with His attendants in Vraja, involving a display of the four blissful devotional sentiments, is not a direct personal contact with the Lord, but a vicarious experience of the passionate feelings of the devotees elaborately related in the Vai~i;iava literature. The Lord manifests Himself in diverse ways to His eternal attendants (parikaras) whose responsive feelings take various forms of the Ragatmika Bhakti. Consistently with the relationship in which a particular attendant eternally stands to the Lord and the attitude of feeling entertained by him towards the Lord, He manifests Himself in various forms. -Srimadbhagavata declares that He is the Beloved, the Soul, the Son, the Friend, the Elderly Ancestor, the Relative and the desirable Deity.UIS In the Vai~i:iava works it is said that He appeared as the Beloved (Priya) to. the Gopis and His Mahi~is (queens), as the Soul (atma) to ascetics like Sanaka, as the son (suta) to Nanda and Ya~oda, as the Friend (sakha) to Gopas like Sudaman, as the Elderly Ancestor (guru) to Pradyumna and others, as the Relative ·(Suhrd) to Subhadra and as the Desirable Deity (I~~deva) to Daruka ·and others. The parikaras represent the different aspects of the Lord's Hladini Sakti reflected in the eternal divine sport displayed in the divine dhamans (residences) . In emotional terms the Lord is conceived as Rasa (the sentiment of Bliss) , and the Parikaras are regarded as so many aspects of His §akti. Being expressed in different forms, the one and the same Rasa, namely, Bliss, stands to its aspects as the Saktimat to its §aktis. The varieties of Rasa reflected in its own various aspects constitute the different tYpes of Ragatmika Bhakti. · The relationship between the §aktimat and the §akti, between the Rasa and its various aspects, between the Lord and His cons.. tant attendants in the divine dhamans, is direct and spontaneous. Described in terms of emotional human relationship. ,.. Bbigavata: 3. 25. 38.

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the Lord is either the master, or the friend, or the child, or the lover of His constant attendants. The highe.st forms of devotional realiaation are those of the Lord's attendants in Vraja. who have intimate personal relationships with Him. · In the Rliganuga no attempt is made by the devotee to ~ lish a personal relationship with the Lord, what goes on in him being the preparation for such a direct personal contact through imitation and vicarious enjoyment of one or other of the devotional sentiments of the Lord's eternal attendants. An emotional realisation of the devotional sentiments of the Lord's Parikaras is essential to Raganuga Bhakti, but Vaidhi Bhakti need not involve any such emotional realisation. Though of the nature of an inward realisation, the Raginuga is lower than the Ragatmika on the lines of which it is modelled.12e Unlike the devotional sentiments of the Parikaras, it is not eternally spontaneous, but is generated by external efforts in the forms of imi.tation and emotional remembrance of the sentiments of one or other of the Parikaras. It is a form of Sidhana-bhakti in as much as its manifestation depends on external conditions, but it cannot be classed as Vaidhi, since the conditions needed for it are not scriptural and mechanical. Though five broad categories of Rasa, or devotional sentiments, namely, Santa, Dasya, Sakhya, Vatsalya and Madhurya, are recognised in this system, yet the place accorded to the first is the lowest. As described in the Gita, the SAnta Bhakti im· plies a state of mental composure (sarna) resulting in the complete identity of the individual with the Absolute. At this state the devotee is said to be Brahma-bhuta because of his realisation of himself as completely identical with 'Brahman. Such a realisation is sought only by those who seek Mukti or complete absorption in the impersonal Brahman. This mode of realisation is not entirely rejected, for it invo.lves an amount of Rhakti, though mixed with jfiana. But it is definitely inferior to Pure.-Bhakti which involves a distinct personal emotional relationship between the devotee and the Lord (Sam· bandha~~thapana) . The objective of the true devotee is not

-i • -------lUgltmiklmanusrta

yli sii rag!nngli -Bhaktirasiimrtasindhu. Sadhana-bhakti-lahari, 103.

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the attainment. of Mukti in the sense of colourless identity with impersonal Brahman, but a continuous loving service of the Lord even in the state of liberation. Worship of impersonal Brahman merely for the sake of relea~ from the bondage of the Maya.~akti and with a view to complete absorption in bliss is an inferior type of Bhakti. Pure Bhakti, being based on the idea of eternal personal relationship with the ultimate reality conceived as the perfect person, is superior to Mukti. It is never impelled by the idea of Lord's attributes of majesty and strength, but bases itself on the consciousness of His loving affection and charming features. Its beginning is marked by the desire for the loving service of the Lord which remains titifled by the consciousness of His awe-inspiring grandeur and strength in Mahii-vaiku11!ha or Para-Vyoman. Even in Dvaraka and Mathura, where majesty and sweetness of the Lord are equally evolved, the desire of the Lord's associates for His loving service is often stifled on account of occasional preponderance of majesty (ai§varya) over sweetness (madhurya). The highest amongst the Lord's dhiim.ans is Vrndavana where both His majesty (ai§varya) and sweetness (madhurya) find their fullest and most perfect expression; but the former instead of predominating over the latter is overwhelmingly preponderated over by the latter. It is here that the desire for loving service can find unobstructed expression. Unlike the Parikaras of Maha-VaikuQtha or Para-Vyoman who bear an 'attitude of thineness' (tadiya~) towards the Lord, the associates in Vrndavana entertain a 'feeling of mine-ness' (madiya-bhiva) towards Him. Love revealed in the feeling that the Lord is mine is undoubtedly superior to that expressed in the feeling that I belong to the Lord. The Lord can be realised only in and through the love displayed by His associates in Vrndavana, since He is pure love which can be realised by nothing short of pure love. In accordance with the principle of intensity involved, the loving service (Bhakti or Prema) of the associates of Vrndavana is divided into four classes. Dasya Bhakti is the loving service of those Parikaras who conceive the Lord as their eternal master and themselves as His eternal servitors. The Lord, however, is not a cruel master who rules by force, but the kindest and the most. affectionate of all masters who rule by love. Though a relation of genuine affection, Dasya-

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Bhakti involves a sense of inferiority on the part of the serviwr, which proves an obstacle to the free growth of His loving service. Sakhya-Bhakti (loving service of the friend) , being immune from such a complex, is superior to Dasya-Bhakti. The Lord's comrades, while offering their loving ~rvice to Him, look upon Him as their equal in every respect and do not hesitate w have their services reciprocated in an exactly similar manner by the Lord Himself. Vatsalya or parental sentiment is still superior, since in this stage the devotee regards the Lord as His affectionate child deserving anxious parental care and kindness, and on account of the loving sense of superiority goes so far as to chastise and punish Him, if .s uch measures appear to him necessary for His correction. The 'mineness' involved in the parental love is much more intense than that involved in friendly love. The loving service of a friend or comrade even at its highest does not involve the sense of superiority and the intense feeling of care and anxiety for the object displayed in parental love. The climax of loving service is reached in Madhurya Bhakti or pure erotic love in which the sense of mineness is still more crystallised. This type of Bbakti resembles the mad love of a damsel for her amorous comrade or paramour. In Bengal Vai~i:iavism it has been sym• bolised by the unparalleled feeling of love displayed by the Gopis for Kr~i:ia. Lest the analogy of intense passion felt by a damsel for her lover should make one think that the highest type of Bhakti displayed by the Gopis is the most vulgar form of eroticism, the teachers of the Bengal school have pointed out the difference between eroticism (Kama) and love (Prema). Eroticism or Klima is mere sensual appetite seeking its own satisfaction. Love, on the other hand, is intense desire for the happiness of the beloved God. The passion of the Gopis, though resembling the yearning involved in sensual pleasure, is not eroticism, but pure love or prema,121 for the Gopis never thought of their own happiness, but they directed all their efforts towards effecting the supreme pleasure of Kr~i:ia. the Lord of their heart. Even this highest sentiment of pure love "' Premaiva goparArnanirh karna ityagamat prathim. -The first line of a verse of the Gautamiya Tantra quoted by Riip" in his Bbakti-rasimrta sindbu.

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displayed by the Gopis in their loving service of KT$1Ja can be imitated and vicariously realised at the Raganuga stage by a superior type of devotee, no matter whether .bis physical body belongs to the male or to the female class of humans. The Raganuga consists of an emotional sublimation of intimate human sentiments towards Kf$J)a who is Supreme Lo1•c. The teachers of the Bengal school rightly regard it as the easiest and safest way of attaining the goal, since in it the devotee is allowed to follow the line of his natural inclination. It is a fact that the natural love for one's own children, friends and the beloved involves no strain, but grows more and more intense almost unawares. If one can love Krsna ... as one does love one's friends and children or even as an unchaste wife recklessly loves her paramour, one's love for KT$J)a becomes firm, spontaneous and natural. ·rhe special message delivered by the advocates of the Raganuga is that the real attitude of devotion to Kr~J)a can be attained not through the suppres· sion or extinction of natural feelings and emotions but only through their sublimation. In order that one may reach the stage of perfect spontaneity of love for Kr~J)a one should adopt one or other of the natural relationships and rxy to sublimate the feeling natural to it through constant meditation of and occupation with the thought of Kr~IJa and His lilti. No doubt the way is long, but constant imitation of and unswerving devotion to one or other of the sports of Kr~IJa ultimately enable one to attain the direct realisation of the devotional sentiments of the Lord's constant attendants. Jiva Gosvamin has illustrated the supreme efficacy of the Raganuga as a mode of Bhakti by the examples of Putana and Sisupala. Although Putana had a sinister motive, yet by pretending Vatsalya or parental affection for Kr~J)a she artained the 'Status of the Lord's Dhatri or lvet nurse. The implication of the story of Putana is that even when the actual feeling of realisation is conspicuous by its absence, the mere imitativeness of a mode of Raganuga devotion is amply rewarded by divine grace. Sisupala bad not the least pretence of love for KT$1Ja. But on account of his feeling of life-long inveterate vindictiveness towards Kf$J)a his whole consciousness was always deeply focussed on Kr$1Ja. The fervency of Sisupala's feeling, despite its adverse nature, did not go unrewarded. His deep concentration on

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won for him Sayujya l\iukti (liberation in the form of absorption in the Brahman aspect of Kr~r.ia). But his attitude towards Kr~Qa being always adverse, he could not attain Prema or the highest good which consists in love for Kr~r.ia. The above examples, however, are often cited as proofs of the fact that the Raganuga Bhakti, even if it be adverse or merely imitative, is superior to the Vaidhi. The objection that the Raganuga, being independent of scriptural injunctions, cannot be regarded as Dharma, since Jaimini has defined Dharma as that which is enjoined by scriptural injunction (codana lak~ar.io'rtho dharmaJ:i) , is answered by saying that the Dharma based on Bhakti is of a quite different order, for its strength lies not in scriptural rules but in the devotional attitude springing from the intrinsic potency of divine ·names and attributes. Such Dharma is not a mere myth, for many illustrations of such devotion without any knowledge of scriptural rules can be gathered from experience. Indeed the Raganuga Bhakti is the Dharma of the highest order. In reply to another objection of a similar nature, namely, that the Raganuga is conflicting with the express teachings of the Vai~r.iava scripture that the Srutis and the Smrtis consisting of injunctions and prohibitions, being ~he directions of the Lord Himself, should not be disregarded by a Vai~r.iava, it is said that this anomaly can be reconciled by a clear understanding of the true object of the scriptural injunctions. Scriptural directions are not necessary for those who have a natural proneness to religious devotion. They are enjoined as outward mechanical rules only on those who have no natural inclination towards the Lord. So long as the mind of a devotee suffers from inward distraction which prevents him from being calm and composed the outward mechanical rules are obligatory, but when the state of composure is once reached somehow, there is no further necessity for compliance with them. Since the state of composure is essential for the Raganuga Bhakti, a devotee in the early stage of devotion is instructed to follow these mechanical rules to bring about the gradual concentration of his mind. On the attainment of the Raganuga stage of Bhakti which is characterised by a spontaneous and uninterrupted flow of devotion towards the Lord no outward mechanical rules can prove binding on the devotee. Thus scriptural injunctions are not

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to be ignored or violated. They are meant for and strictly binding on those who have not yet attained the stage of Raganuga Bhakti. At the stage of Raganuga a devotee does not wilfully ignore the scriptural injunctions, but if any violation of such injunctions takes place at all, it should not be treated as an offence, since it is a natural expression of the spirit of Bhaktt and not an obstruction to the spontaneous fl.ow of devotion towards the Lord. As already said, the natural attachment to Kr~i:ia eternally displayed by the people of Vraja is called the Ragatmika Bhakti which arises from desire (Kama), enmity (Dve~a), fear (Bhaya) or affection (Sneha) . .T he Gopis were attached to Kr~i:ia through the bond of Kama or desire which, however, is said to be different from ordinary lust; Ka.msa was engrossed in the thought of Kr~i:ia because of his enmity with Him, SiSupala was possessed by Kr~i:ia through fear, and the Yadavas were bound to Him by a tie of affection. But of all natural senti· ments, enmity (Dve~a) and fear (Bhaya) are quite uncongenial to Prema-bhakti, while affection (Sneha) in the sense of fellowship is an aspect of Prema-bhakti itself. But if the fellowship implied by the word sneha be used to signify a form of Sadhanabhakti, it must come under the Vaidhi which is far below the range of the Raganuga. Hence the Ragatmika Bhakti may be divided into two broad classes, namely, the Kiimarupii and the Sambandha-nipii.1~s The Kaman-1pa consists of a desire for erotic enjoyment of a mystic type involving an exclusive effort to please Kr~i:ia (Kr~i:ia-saukhyarl·hameva kevalaril udyamaJ:i) and resulting· in the most genuine form of Jove common only to the Gopis in Vraja. Since the Gopis never had the slightest desire for their own pleasure, but directed all their efforts towards bringing about the supreme pleasure of Kr~i:ia, their Kama has been identified with Prema. Kubja too had an intense desire for sporting with Kr~i:ia, but her desire was only for her own sensual pleasure. In view of its inferiority to the feeling of the Gopis Kubja's attitude has been designated as Kamapraya-rati and not as Kamanipa-rati. The Sambandharupa consists of an awareness of relationship to Kr~i;ia. This type of Ragatmika Bhakti is found in such eternal devotees as Nanda, .. Bhakti-raWllrtasindhu: Pilrva-vibhaga, Sadhana-bhakti-lahari.

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YaSoda, the Gopas and so forth. Following the above two subdivisions, Raganuga may be sub-divided into Kamanugii and Sambandhanuga. Kimanuga may assume either the form of the desire for enjoyment inspired by a sense of Kf~l)ll's spon or the form of a desire to realise the speci.6,c bhavas or sentiments of particular Gopis with special attention to erotic feelings in each of them. Sambandhanuga may assume different forms according to the different models of personal relationship imitated by the devotee. The second type of Uttama Bhakti, called Bhava.Bhakti, is a further maturing of the Raganuga Sadhana-bbakti. This Bhakti may also develop independently through the grace of Lord Kr~l)a or His devotees (Kr~Qa K.rpaya tadbhakta-kfpaya va) . It is the very first stage of natural attachment to the Lord as Love, and it is associated with minor physiological effects such as appearance of tears in eyes and erection of hairs on the body.12t As marking the dawn of Sadhya-bhalti it is higher than Raganuga. Even when born of siidhana-bhakti, it is not the direct result of extraneous ways and means, but arises spontaneously as a personal feeling. It is a particular form of Suddha-sattva manifesting itself as a pure and inborn feeling (iuddha-sattva.viJeia). Since its appearance resembles the first. appearance of the Sun in the morning sky, it is described as the first dawn of love (prmuwiiryiimsu..s4myabhak). It causes a smoothness of the heart (citta-nuisf11yakrt) through rel¥h (ruc1) . This relish is a strong desire having for its object either the attainment of the Lord (Bhagavat-praptya· bhilasa~) or His friendship (tadsauharddabhilasa}:t). Whenever there is a sprouting of this kind of Bhakti, a number of ensuing attendant circumstances occur as signs. One of these indications is placidity of mind (k~anti), which means a mental state in which the devotee remains unperturbed, even though there are causes of perturbation. Another sign consists in an effort to utilize one's time for the successful realisation of the feeling of devotion (avy.artha-kalatva). A third sign is read in the distaste for the objects of sense (virakti) . Lack of pride (mana-sunyata) is reckoned as a fourth sign. A fifth sign consists in cherishing a strong conviction regarding t·he attain"" Bhalctirasimrta-sindhu : I. 3. 3.

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ment of the ultimate realisation of God (Ma-bandha) . Eagerness for the attainment of the object (samutkal}.Pla) and taste for singing the name of the Lord always (nAf!la-gane sada rucil:i) may be taken as the sixth and the seventh sign respectively. Desire for the recital .and exposition of the glory and attributes of the Lord (asaktiI:i tadgu9a-vyakhyane), love for the place where the Lord lived (Pritil:i tad-vasati-sthale), etc. are amongst other indications of the sprouting of Bhava. The internal characteristic of Bhiva is Rati or a feeling of attachment causing an extreme smoothness and liquidity of heart. If such a feeling be associated with other desires including the desire for emancipation, it is regarded as a semblance of Rati (Ratyabhasa) . Ratyabhasa (semblance of Rati) assumes either the form of Pratibimba (Reflection) or that of Chaya (Shadow) . In the case of the former there is, no doubt, the appearance of one or two characteristic signs of Rati, but the desire for worldly enjoyment (bhoga) and emancipation is not absent, but still persistent. The latter is a short-lived curiosity bearing some superficial resemblance to true Rati. The advocates of the Bengal school earnestly believe that semblance of the feeling of attachment (Ratyabhasa) may suddenly get converted into the real Rati. The highest type of Uttama Bhakti, namely, Prema-bhakti, is really a further ripening of the Bhava-bhakti itself.llO Prema is but Bhava deepened. It appears when, after attaining sufficient development, Bhava or emotion gets solidified (sandratma) into a sentiment of love (preman); it renders the soul absolutely smooth (samyan-masrQa-svanta) and is characterised by the attribute of exclusive and loving attachment (mamatvatiiayankita). As direct development of Bhava it may arise either from the Vaidhi . Bhakti or from the Raganugabhava. It may also arise through the immediate grace of the Lord. The grace (prasada) may be independent of other circumstances such as performance of good deeds in previous life, effort8 made in this life, etc., or it may originate from the knowledge of H is greatness (mahatmya-jiiana). The former variety of gra~e is Raganuga, while the latter is Vaidhi. The successive stages in the growth and evolution of devotional love are (1) Sraddha (religious faith), (2) Sidhu-sanga (companionship with holy people), (3) Bhajanakriya (acts of wor-

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ship), (4) .~nartha-nivrtti (removal of unworthy objects), (5) Ni~tha (devotedness), (6) RuciJ:i (Relish), (7) .A.sakti (attachment), (8) Bhava (emotion) and (9) Preman (love). Sraddha or religious faith is the very first requirement of Premabhakti. It consists in the firm conviction that devotion to Krsna ... is the highest duty which being performed, no duty remains un· discharged.1s1 This faith leads the devotee to the company of the saintly persons who are exclusively devoted to Kr~i:ia. Much stress is laid on the companionship of holy persons, since in most cases it is found to be responsible for a religious turn of life. Holy people invariably engage themselves in topics concerning the Lord, and their discussions, being descriptions of their own innermost experiences, prove peculiarly convincing and highly efficacious to the minds of the listners.1 32 Hence Sadhu-sailga is followed by practical discipline and act of worship (Bhajana-Kriya). The immediate effect of the act of \VOrship . (Bhajana-kriya) is the removal of all positive hindrances to the growth of Bhakti. The obstacles being removed, Sraddha (religious faith) gains Ni~tha (fixity) . Fixity of faith gives rise to relish or taste (Ruci) . Relish begets attachment (A.sakti), and attachment generates BhAva (emotion). Bhava matures into Preman (love) . Jh;a GosvAmin has said that Bhakti to the Bhagavat is the only subject-matter (Abhidheya) of the Bhagavata. The general characteristic of Bhakti is devotional worship of Bha· gavat (tadupasana.Jak~ai:ia) , from which the true knolvledge of the Bhagavat arises. Viewed from the standpoint of their atti· tude towards the Lord, the jivas can be classified into two broad categories, namely, (l) those who naturally feel inclined towards the Lord and (2) those who have their natural prone· ness towards the Lord obstructed under the influence of Maya. The object of devo~ional worship is the conversion of an apostate soul towards the Lord (Bhagavat-sammukhya) by counteracting .its aversion. to Him (tad-vaimukhya). There are, however, different modes of worship helpful for the purpose, "'' bhava-bhakti-paripika eva ,.. Sraddhi sabde v1§vasa kahe sudrcjha niscaya Kr~i:ie bhakti kaile sarvakarma krta haya ,.. • · -Caitanya caritimrta : 2. 22. 62. Bhagavata: 3. 25. 25.

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but the way of Bhakti is the best among them. Dedication of all fruits to the Lord, it is true, is productive of a proneness towards the Lord. But this is after all an indirect mode. Direct realisation is aimed at by jfiana, yoga and Bhakti. Of these three modes of direct worship, Jiiana leads to the reali· :;ation of indeterminate Brahman. Yoga aims at the realisation -0f Paramatman (Supreme Soul) . Since both Brahman and Paramatman are imperfect manifestations of the Bhagavat, none of these realisations can be regarded as the realisation of the Lord in His perfect nature: Realisation of the Lord in His threefold form as Brahman, Paramatman and Bhagavat is attainable only through Bhakti. Jiiana in the sense of knowledge of Brahman (tattvajfiana) is only a secondary effect of Bhakti, since when the Bhagavat is realised through Bhakti, Brahman cannot remain unrealised. Realisation of the Bhagavat is much higher than the realisation of liberation which the nondualists identify with true philosophic knowledge or the knowledge of Brahman, since Bhakti brings not only the philosophic knowledge but also the realisation of the Bhagavat. Bhakti alone can enable the devotee to realise the nature of the Lord in His threefold form or in any one of His partial aspects. As already said, Bhakti manifests itself as servitude -0r se\'a of the Lord.. According to its character and origin, it is classified into (I) Aropa·siddha (accomplished through external imposition), (2) Sailga-siddha (accomplished by asso· ciation with other devotees) and (3) Svarupa-siddha (accomplished by its very nature). In Aropa-siddha there is no spon· taneous rise of Bhakti, but the feeling attains the state of Bhakti through the performance of acts dedicated to the Lord. Jn Sailga-siddha also there is no spontaneous growth of Bhakti, but the feeling re-suiting from jiiana, karma and auxiliaries thereof (jiiana-karma-tadailgarupa) is taken to be included in that mode simply because it is conducive to Pure bhakti. The Svarupa-siddha is NirguJJa (beyond all phenomenal guJJas), Kevala (self-subsistent), ~uddha (pure) and Mukhya (primary). Jt is unmixed with karma, jiiana and yoga. Being independent of all conditions, it may arise in the devotee even without his knowledge. Its appearance never fails to foster the growth of Bhakti, but nourishes a positive inclination towards it. Devotional acts such as listening to the divine name, taking of the 15

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divine name, etc. are indicative of this inclination. It is on account of the rise of suarupatiddhii-bhakti that in his previous life Prahlada observed religious fasting on the Nrsimha-catur· da5i day quite unawares. The story of the compulsory circum· bulation of the Lord's temple by a hawk while it was being carried in the mouth of a dog, is another illustration of this attitude of devotion. Bhakti may be either SakaitaTJa or :lliaitava according as it appears either with or without con· trivance. In the first two cases the feeling is called Sakaitava, for in them the attainment of the state of Bhakti is taken only as a means. The Svariipa-siddha is caHed Sakaitava, if through some other motive the feeling of devotion is subordinated to karma and jiiana. If there is no other motive except the pleasure of the Lord, the feeling is Akaita:va. Akaitava is also described as Ahaituki or .i\.kiiicana. It is the purest of all devotional feelings and admits of the two stages, viz. the Vaidhi and the Raganuga, which have been already described. The natural inclination for turning to the Lord is gradually r.oused by the association of saintly persons and intensified by the study of \Tai~Qava scriptures such as the Bhagavata-puraQa. The immediate consequence of association with great devotees is the dissociation of the mind from rajas and tamas and a'vakening of ruci or relish in God and the modes of His 'vorship. This ruci or relish produces sraddha or belief in God and the mode of His "'orship, which is a preliminary stage of Bhakti.taa When with the deepening nf attachment the know· ledge of the nature of God and His realisation dawns upon the de'4t..tee, his egoism disappears, his doubts dissolve and the boiifls of hist'Karma b~eak off. The acts of reciting God's narrit. and lis"fe(ling to the Bhagavata dispel the objective igno· rance.'regardi~g the nature of God; deep thought and special concentration ~of the mind with . reference to the name, fonn etc. of the Lgi:d destroy subjective ignorance in the form of illusory views· regarding the nature of the Lord, while the personal impe:fection of the devotee \vhich stands in the way of right comprehension of the nature of the Lord is removed ,.. The sequence by which Prema-bhakti develops has been described in a different way by Rupa Gosvamin in his Bhaktirasamrtasindhu, 1. 4. 11. Adau sraddha tatah, sadhusango'tha bhajanakriya tato'narthanivrttih, syat tato ni$\ha rucistatah,.

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by the direct vision (sak~atkara) of the Lord. The best devotee has the experience of the profound unity of all things in One who is the personal Cod. He sees Cod in all beings and perceives all beings as parts of himself and of God who reveals Himself in him.la• The devotee who entertains love for Cod, friendship for His devotees, mercy for the ignorant and an attitude of indifference to enemies, belongs to the nex' best class of devotees.135 A lower rank is assigned to those devotees \vho worship the image of Cod with faith and devotion, but have no special regard for other persons including the devotees of the Lord.188 . True Bhakti is free from desire of worldly objects and leads to the Lord by producing an inclina tion towards Him. Its appearance is marked by the destruction of all Karmas. It does not, however, cease to function even when the bondage of karma is destroyed, but goes on maturing itself into Prema (love) which is an endless reali'ation.

'" Bhagavata : 11. 2. 45. '" Bhiigavata: 11. 2. 46 . .., Bhag:ivata: 11. 2. 47.

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CHAPTER IX THE SUPREME REALISATION Priti, the summumbonum - Priti is delightful not only to the devotee but also to the Lord - The Bhagavat as Saccidananda - Existence, consciousne55 and bliss as powers of the Bhagavat Bliss distinguished from phenomenal pleasure - The cause of the finite soul's bondage and suffering - The absence of the knowledge of the Bhagavat, a case of antecedent non-existence remvable by the knowkdge of the Bhagavat - Meaning of Mukti Kinds of Mukti - Different conceptions of the highest realization according to the Advaitins, the Yogins and the Bhaktas - Why Priti should be regarded as the highest ideal of life - Priti involves experience of joy in the state of emancipation - The possibility of jlvanmukli admitted - Sayujya mukti decried Antal:t·sik~itkira and Bahil:t-slik~atkira explained - Priti, the true form of Mukti - The concept of liberation (Mok~) in Indian philosophy - V ai$r;iava conception of liberation as release from egoity - Release implying both liberty and necessity - Shifting of the centre of interest from ego-consciousness to God-consciousness - A parallel conception held by the .\lvlirs - The four ends of human life recognised by the Indians - Addition of Priti as the fifth and highest end. by the advocates of the Bengal school of Vai~i;iavism Sukha and Priyati, the two elements of Prlti Sukha and Priyati distinguished - The nature of Suddhi Priti Svarftpinanda and Saktyananda - Manasananda and Aisvarylinanda - R.esemblance between Priti and physical love superficial - Wonderful power of Priti - Priti distinguished from what is called Suklia in Sinkhya - Priti distinguished from Brahmananda - Priti distinguished from the Ananda ( ioY) of the finite soul Priti in i~ perfection manifested in the PaTikaras of Kr~1,1a - The effect of the appearance of Priti in the devotee - The successive stages of the development of Priti - Madhura-rasa - Its Sthayibh4vo, Vibhatt.nt:s or pa"reht-like oli~ ana looks upon 't he Bhagavat as h is child. Vltsalya, it is saii:I, 'involves X!attaa'td ·or 'the 'feelihg that ''K~r,a u ·m1 child." Ins~ of his awareness. ·oi lhe abroltite lordship 6l Iq~r,a .. the devolee ' . ., cannot regard 'Hitn as the sup~cfne c!eity ·tiWfng "to filial ~ of an extreme 'nature '\Vhidt niakes 'him blind th the absolote'ness of K.r~r,'a. Even It" Kt~a 'H~tild 'mlhtifes\s His lorilship 'to a devotee lfke YaJOCll, she ii aW'e-stfudt only 'fClr thle momeM and So6h ma:n'ages 'to reacr t'o 'ft as one does 'to in 'illusion ·di an evil otb.'c!n. · ?t ha! bee~ 's aid 'in the BM'tawta t'lia't while ' being ·suck~ed 'by His mother Ya'Aodi, 'Rr~Qa showed h'er Hfs univertal ;foritl. 48'.ioti for Him. The lhatti ii comtnonly uted as another name of Dl&a.:b"91tli Whit!h fJ lhth infericilt 'lb MaAurt.tlrti. ft h*9 bee.ti already ·saM thilt M.Aurkalt 'Cle-velap frca die '1tllg'e df Prema thro\l~ ~ iutceuiVe llagft of Sflf!lr•; ,.,.,., ~a, ft!Jt'a antl J41utrtlgtr ~ !lllahabhitil&. 'i lte rclarioln hetwtitn ~t;ta and ·tl~ Oopk ls tM>t 'a todll Telatien, not 11 Mooa-~O'n, l\~t ll ~lallon eetaMhheli ~ ihiu¥iilgt or sahcd~ lhrdtlgh &by \ltdie !rituth. It is a ipott uhaUoyti! i'ekK.ien di. ;piritual 10\'e. Th~ '4JUlWardly Memo l>Rhg the conjugat k>~ ~ b'Um• h h• ·no tle~nt ·Of ~ ou!iltess 1n n. 111'1 fac!t 'the ·Mll'ete'ntt ~ the hlpest r,pe ~ love Of man and WOW&n, ana 'tlM of K:r~a ahd the Gopll who are tbe ermb&dhnetltl ot Hts ~wtt ol bt1" is tbsolo•. T!l1e conj\tgal !o+'e of butBan 'llehlgs iand 'the ttoh-pll.enotbiMal

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love of Kr~i:ia ain" 'tire ~Tt ate f{ualtmtively different. · &ptl' love 'fdr KrsWa . . . is m:.t tlutnah t~ve railed to itl zenith. . It ts a '111fSra\:e to tliffll: ~al the ftefatfuns iove IHtd *1fec:tMft fMf.. il\g fn 'VP\dlWna llte l:M!at 'eatthly retaril:>Wl . in lh~ 'Mtt'lla., realised and perfected form. The difference between the love attitude of Copls towards .E."i:ia arid that ·of ·a :wotnan 'towards a man is not -.e of •t.gree but one of fundamental principle.

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While the basic principle of the love and atfection of the Gopi~ at Vrndtvana i9 the desire to contribute to the joy of Kr~I}a, that of eanhly love and affection is the desire for one's own pleasure. The feeling involved in the conjugal love at VrndtVlfna is an other-regarding one. whereas that involved i.n the conjugality of eanhly life is egoistic or aelf-regarding. Not t speak of one being the culmination of the other, the two feelings are opposed to each other aa light and darkness.m. The self-giving love of the Gopia is Prema, while the pleasureseeling love ol the humans is called Klma. Even i.n its most· perfect form earthly love or feeling cannot be identified with the feeling experienced by the denizens of Vpldavana, the highest heaven. The mind, the body and the senses that serve as · the medium of earthly love are all carnal and transitory and'as ~uch they cannot lead to the •eatatic joy enjoyed by the inhabitants of Vrndlvana through the medium of mind, body· uid 1senaes which are spiritual. Moralilt.s · In · general decry. Bengal Va~l)avism on the grounc! that it encourages the ideal of promiscuous sexualism. The narrative of K.rf1.1a'a pasti~ ' with the Gopia '(spiritual milkmaids) of Vraja is interpreted by them aa a case of polygamous adultery repulsive to civiliz.ed mind. But the teachers of the Bengal school point out that there is no element of sexuality in the transcendental amorous putimes of Krfl}a with die Gopil. They condtmn sexuality aa the mott harmful of' lill the!' delusid!is to which men are aubject in the state of imperfection. According to them·, the IOUI in ·its pure state baa ooconnectibn whauotver with matter and mind deluded by it. In the ·statct of sin it wrongly believes that its union with matter is· a permanent fact of its· very constitution. It forgets that it is. eternally aftd wholly separate from matter and things material' and constitutionally belongs to the Absolute apirit as a manifeltation of His power or iakti. The faculties and instincts: which it assumes to be its very own in the state of sin are but petveniorts of the corresponding principles of the soul in its; pu11e state. The ·material world which ·bolds out the prospect d. ·mmidane protperity fa only the perverted :reflection of the • ataeva klma-pfeP.!e bahuta ani.ra . ldima-.andha~, prcma-nirmala bhlskara.

-cdaD,a-caritimrta. 1. 4. 171.

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real world which ill spiritual." The So\ll in its pure state is a citizen of the real world. Somehow oblivious of its genuine status and function in the real world, the soul develops an unnatural hankering after material prosperity in the world of shado,v and abstraction. Since a shadow invariably refers to an original, and an abstraction to a substance, the material world must have its basis in some substantive world. The Bengal school maintains that distorted by the defective mind and the senses in their impure state, the spiritual world itself is reflected as the material world. Strictly speaking, the world presented by the material aenses has no connection with the real self. But so long as the self remaina fettered by the shackles of matter, it regards all material phenomena including sex as a part and parcel of its essential nature and busies itself with the fulfilment o1 the matuial requirements of. phenomenal life. A pure soul, however, has no material requirements. Hence every attempt to increllle the power and scope of empirical life leads one away from the true ideal of the soul. Sexuality is foreign to spiritual life. An inaeue in the power and scope of the sexual instinct only strengthens the soul's connection with matter and prolongs the period of its delusion. The soul has no aex. It is on account of its association with matter that it attains sex-consciousness· and attaches much value to sexual power and enjoyment. So long as this consciouanea prevails, the aoul cannot revert to ita . natural condition· of unlimited existence and etemal bliss. The cultivation of sexuality is positively detrimental to the interests of the soul which is eternally and categorically .different from matter. The true ideal of Bengal Vai~l}aviam demands that the soul should be ·restored to its own position by preventing it from being misdirected towards any baser · ideal ·of material enjoyment. None but the ·fallen soul itself is responsible for its unnattiral hankering for eex anci material prosperity. All desires for material enjoyment are due to the wrong use of the faculty ol free reuon with which a· soul is naturally endowed. The proper function of every soul is to serve the Truth. The soul ii &ee to choose between truth and material enjoyment. It may rec:ojplite iu material limitations and submit to the . ., N . .K.. Sanyal : The Erotic Principle and Vnalloyed Devotion, p. 9. -(Published by Gau4lya Mission, Calcutta).

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guidance of a superior re:non or It rrRf refuse to admowledge its own littlenesa and ababclan the :Jead oi higher reum. If lt wilfully abuses ita free reuon and builda a world oi its own, if it ignorea "the truth of its muur.al limitationa and rcfu~ to be guided by a higher rason when the latter makes its appearance, it ia doomed to live a life of suffering. Addie· tlon to 5elt..life is the dire comequenee of this abU&C of freedom. So long as the reason is in a petverted ·condition, ·no amowtt of effort can rid the soul ·of its sufferings. The very fint thing needed fpy bHad tht perverted reason to dle iiliJllGnllM points ·of dilh!1ence bttme11 .t he twe>. Tbt ainorous pltltim1a of ·~i,a widl &be Gopis in ·the fnln!ceodeinal J>lane constitute tht highest kihd of Tl'UdL. Bat to a pa-· •erted reason they appear a1 die scxulll J>erfonnances of 'the debauchees df ibis '\totkl. In 1att •thic amou.n of ~ ase ategorically diffttent from lilts of sexuality. Ju• a1 a sut. bntt is 11tffert!11t 'hOttl itt :cHatorttd shadow, 11> the spiritual arMJUri df lCtr~a aad 'lhi: Gopll art di«tri!nt ftom the 'leXUal actimit• df woi1dly :people. Wllitc ·the tnlllcendedlal amorcna paatlltlts uf ·Kr~c,a with die Gopf• al'! the etenr.d •~•.,e-. titMs cif ihe hi&4Jtit 'Fttlth, tl&e ·se~l p!!rftfnnlPlets cf 'lbe dtbauth~ ·of mis WCll'ld are tilte ·unwtiolcsome perverted Rlfttc. til:Nla of mose ·manilcftatiOru. 11Nalgence in ·sexuaJ.ky ';ettm , 11 W ·soul to the ~ lHJ'd '&0r1'0wl cif 'Phcnomtnaf csblicnot, While meditation em the 'llpiriMll ramanrs of ;Kf\11.* with 'tm ·OOJ* telfewg the 'fatten ·5bfd d 1hc malady ·of rmaUty. ' llt ii •dlt «ern'lfl ·ddty df evt!f11 ICJ8l to tertt 'l.a.. th4 1up~me- JM!rtOll, is the Ahtoluiie Truth. He canaot be re~lifed by the . progre111jve moveqaf$ qf thought. The .kflowledp of the relative, however mucih c;xtcoded, cannpt lµd. to thie r~Ji~ion- of the Absohne Person." Rev~ation: of Trµtb ~pen4a. !lot UPQn some proalll of advan" bur uJ>O'), tlle remo~l of tlJ.e· dpfecta tlµlt oblcure tJte. '1isio1J;. All thip~?J . on1 \he mul)dme plapc, whetlior empiricists or rationalista, fail to realise the Absolute Tru&Ji Qa. ac and tilings. 1Jl~terial. The UWhJ which tbey reach thr~h the progrwiv.e movement of &ense.kqowlc~ are only half-uutbf. Irupitc o~ their hard endeavour to atta.in: iha Albeolute Truth they fail to tr~cf!lld the plane of material exi,tmce anct wute thdr time and enagy iJa, tJie endlllffo tjlff. of rejectienses in the hope of achieving the highest spiritual wellbeing for themselves. Kr~J}.a is the Deity Himself. He is the -only male or enjoyer in the spiritual sense of the term. In order to teach the world the right method of serving Him He has Himself become His own servant in the form of ~adhika.2s Radhika is His own intrinsic power of bliss. Being in essence the serving principle of Kr~Qa, Radhika has expanded herself into other Gopis who help her in her services of Kf~J}.a. The finite beings in the forms of males and females in the mundane plane are all sensuous and weak-minded. Being deluded by Maya, the extrinsic power of Kf~J}.a, they liken their sensuousness and sexuality to the amorous pastimes of Kr~i:ia and ventute to imitate Him. This dangerous imitation is sure to lead them to ruin. ~uka has compared their fate to that of the mortals who foolishly venture to imitate Rudra, the immortal, by swallowing the poison of the sea.l19 Kr~Qa's dalliances with Radhika and other Gopis are but the lovedealings of the Supreme Deity with the spiritual embodiments of His own power of bliss. Kr~Qa, the supreme Deity or the :Shagavat, is Rasa in the highest and fullest sense of the term. He is at once the source and enjoyer of all relishes. He manifests His beauty and sweetness in the highest degree to His own counterwhole, Radhika, who invariably approaches Him with Maha-bhava (the ideal or the perfect sentiment o~ love). The ideal sentiment of love manifested through His counterwhole is as endless as the manifestation of His sweetness and beauty. He eternally enjoys the relish of Radhika's love in all its phases. The ecstatic joy which He feels through the reciprocation of Radhika's love knows no bounds. T·h e exuberance of this joy manifests itself in the choral dance of Kr~Qa and Radhika. Riidhika extends herself into thousands of Gopis for the loving service of Kr~i:ia who reciprocates their love individually. Everyone of the Gopis feels that in response to her love Kr~i:ia has formed a loving pair with her and remains enchantedly engaged in a dual dance with Him. The ecstatic dance of numberless loving pain in a circle is

: N. _K. Sanyal: The Erotic Principle and Unalloyed Devotion, p. 22. Bhagavata: 10. 33. 30.

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known as Rdsa-lil4.•o This dance must not be confounded with the dance of the material atoms or electrons to which many scientists attribute the origin of the physical world, for the constituents of the Risa-dance are all of the nature of bliss, while those of the physical world are only material. No doubt the advocates of the Bengal school accept the Vedantic view that creation proceeds from the bliss aspect of the ultimate reality, but they take special care to distinguish the ct'eation of the material world from the manife.station of the Risa-lilt.11 Although both flow from the exuberance of Kf~a·s joy, yet the former owes its existence to the Bahiranga .fakti (external power) of Kf~t)a, while the latter is a direct manifestation of His S11artipa-Jakti (intrinsic power). The dance of the material atoms is caused by the Miyi-,akti of the Lord, but the Risa-dance is intrinsic to the euential nature of 0wer. But it may be considered, secondly, as it is from God, the mover, and thus it has a necessity-not indeed of coercion, but of infallibilitvas reirards what it is ordained to by, since God's intention cannot fail, according to the saying of Augustine. in his book on the Predest;,sa1ion. of !he Saints, that by God's good gifts whoever is liberated, is most cer· tainly liberated. Hence if God intends, while moving that the one whose ·heart He move~ should attain grace, he will infallibly attain to it, according to John VI. 45: Every one that hath heard of the Father, and hath learned, cometh to Me." -Ibid. Q. 112. Art. 3.

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lead, but find arguments for the scriptural conclusions given in advance. Thomas prefers Aristotle's system to Plato's as. the basis of Christian philosophy. He follows the genuine Aristotle and thinks that the Mohammedans and Christian Averroists have obscured and misinterpreted Aristotle. Jiva Gosvamin prefers the theistic interpretation of the Vedantasutra to the non-dualistic interpretation of the same by Sankara. He finds the real opinion of the author of the Vedanta-siitra in the Dhagavata and declares that Sankara and other commentators have obscured and distorted the teachings of Vyasa, the siitrakara. The Bhagavata, being the commentary on the Vedanta-siitra by the Sutraklira himself, is segarded by him as the only reliable commentary. He thinks that an impartial intellect must agree with the teachings of Vyisa to whom the essence of the Bhagavata was revealed, for reason cannot contradict a genuine revelation. Thomas too says that revelation and reason cannot contradict each other, and insists on the corroboration of scriptures by reason. But unlike Jiva Gosvamin, he has no hesitation to accept non-scriptural testimony like that of Aristotle. He usually upholds Aristotle's views unless they are found to contradict one another. He has applied the Aristotelian principle of the real distinction between act and pote.ntiality to every department of Philosophy and Theology. Potentiality means absence of perfection, while act means perfection. Unless moved by something which is in the state of act, potentiality cannot become act. God is the Prime Mover of all things, of causalitr, and of actual grace. Both Jiva Gosvamin and Thomas are extremely loyal to truth. Both protest against merging the fields of empirical and theological investigation. Both set limit to the rights of human reason. But Jiva Gosvamin has emphasised the supra-logical (acintya) nature of truth. He is not eager to judge God by the human principle of non-contradiction, but he maintains on the authority of the scripture that all contradictions merge in God. The system of Thomas is primarily intellectual in character. He has emphasised the logical aspect of truth. \t-Wldarbha, 29£., Slf, Sattwa,56-7,61,69. n,75,84,86, 91,140,144,147,ISl.176-7, 251.

190. Slndilya Yid,S, 187. Slrffya,237. SirUpya,231. Slm.bhauma, 150-1. Slstra, 8, II, 269. Slttriku, Slttvib.-bhlv:i, 256,261,345,347. Slittvib.pur'1)&,IO. Scepticism, 318, J.."O. Science. 405. Selwyn, 389, 392. 5"1. 191 , 193, 225. Sedparlidha, 211 . SiddhJ.nt.o.-ratnln!I, 334. Sik'11tal