Philology in the system of contemporary humanitarian disciplines

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Министерство науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации Южно-Уральский государственный университет Кафедра иностранных языков Ш143.21 C454

Н.С. Скрипичникова, Е.С. Баландина, Е.И. Хабирова

PHILOLOGY IN THE SYSTEM OF CONTEMPORARY HUMANITARIAN DISCIPLINES Учебное пособие

Челябинск Издательский центр ЮУрГУ 2019

ББК Ш143.21-923 C454

Одобрено учебно-методической комиссией Института лингвистики и международных коммуникаций

Рецензенты: к.филол.н. А.В. Таскаева, к.филол.н. Н.В. Иванченко

C454

Скрипичникова, Н.С. Philology in the system of contemporary humanitarian disciplines: учебное пособие / Н.С. Скрипичникова, Е.С. Баландина, Е.И. Хабирова. – Челябинск: Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2019. – 119 с. Учебное пособие предназначено для магистрантов I курса, обучающихся по направлению подготовки 45.04.01 «Филология (Теория и практика английского языка)». Цель пособия – формирование основ филологического знания как системы. В пособии, написанном на английском языке, освещаются вопросы, связанные с различными междисциплинарными аспектами современной филологии: этнолингвистика, психолингвистика, социолингвистика, когнитивная лингвистика, коммуникативная лингвистика. Практическая часть включает упражнения и задания, которые могут быть использованы как на аудиторных занятиях, так и для самостоятельной работы. В приложении приводится глоссарий ключевых терминов и краткий справочник выдающихся ученых в области филологии. Учебное пособие соответствует требованиям Федерального государственного образовательного стандарта. ББК Ш143.21-923

© Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2019 2  

CONTENTS 1. HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL STUDIES……………………………………. 4 2. LINGUISTICS AS A CENTRAL PART OF HUMANITIES…………………10 3. ETHNOLINGUISTICS OR CULTURAL LINGUISTICS…………………… 19 4. GENDER LINGUISTICS……………………………………………………... 28 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS……………………………………………………… 35 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS………………………………………………………… 44 7. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS…………………………………………………. 54 8. COMMUNICATIVE LINGUISTICS…………………………………………. 67 9. OTHER RELATIONSHIPS…………………………………………………… 75 10. PRACTICE…………………………………………………………………….79 GLOSSARY……………………………………………………………................. 94 APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………...... 103 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………................. 117

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1. HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL STUDIES Often pitted against the sciences, the humanities and sciences go hand-in-hand in understanding the world around us. Alyssa Walker

Discuss in pairs Why is it important to understand and study humanities and social science?

Basic terms: ANTHROPOLOGY The study of human societies and cultural diversity. Anthropology became a formal, professionalised discipline in the 19th century. In the early 20th century, anthropology in the United States took on a 4-fields approach, which subdivided the discipline into cultural anthropology, physical anthropology, linguistic anthropology and archaeology. However, contemporary anthropology encompasses many, more varied approaches. CIVIL SOCIETY When people voluntarily participate in public life, but not government, to achieve a common end. Eastwood argues that ‘what civil society encompasses is a highly contested subject in political and social theory’. Civil society includes individuals, families and non-government organisations. CONSCIOUSNESS A waking state in which an individual experiences and perceives thoughts and feelings. Consciousness is an awareness of the world and oneself. McFarland notes that consciousness is a human mental state that is sometimes attributed to animals. However, ‘Whether non-human animals have conscious experiences is a matter of controversy. For example, some believe that language is necessary for consciousness, while others do not believe this’. DISCOURSE In popular usage, refers to spoken or written communication. However, when used by academics, discourse is often referring to knowledge of a particular area – for example, ‘political discourse’ or ‘colonial discourse’. This usage is derived from Michel Foucault, for whom a discourse was ‘a strongly bounded area of social knowledge, a system of statements within which the world can be known’. EPISTEMOLOGY The study or theory of knowledge; the word is derived from the Greek episteme, meaning ‘knowledge’. This inquiry focuses on ‘the conditions, paradigms, and limits of knowledge, including the nature of truth claims and the historical contexts that have shaped human inquiry’. Epistemology is concerned with propositional knowledge, or the knowledge of facts, such as ‘3 plus 3 is 6’. Epistemology seeks to answer questions such as How can we know reality? What are acceptable sources of knowledge? How does knowledge differ from opinion or belief? HUMANITIES Visualization dedicated to exploring humanities questions. Visualizations in the VISUALIZATION service of interpretation, constructivist (acknowledging the human-constructedness of human knowledge). HUMANITIES Often a topic related to culture and open to interpretation. Your evidence is portrayals RESEARCH of the human experience and artifacts of human culture. Often have theoretical QUESTION agendas and are transparent about perspectives. To judge a humanities argument, we examine whether it has sound internal logic, whether it is relevant to the question, whether it has depth, helps you understand the world KNOWLEDGE Propositional knowledge or ‘knowledge-that’ is the knowledge of facts – for example, knowing that cows are mammals. This is distinct from practical knowledge or ‘knowledge-how’ – for example, knowing how to play the guitar. Sociologists such as Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann have pointed out that knowledge is something that is created by humans and as such will vary culturally and historically. LITERATURE Written works, including novels, short stories and poetry. Literature is a collective term and the boundaries of what it encompasses are porous. The term implies that the written work is of high quality and is held in esteem. 4 

ONTOLOGY The philosophical study of ‘being’. It is concerned with what we know about reality or what exists. An example of an ontological problem is the question of whether numbers exist. Ontology is also associated with research methods in the social sciences.

Task 1 The central concept of social science and humanities is HUMAN. Read the following article and explain the position of the term in humanity and social science research. An animal species known by the scientific name Homo sapiens. Sharing a common primate ancestor with apes, humans began evolving on the African continent somewhere between 6 million and 2 million years ago. The ability to walk on 2 legs occurred approximately 4 million years ago. Many different species of humans evolved during this period; some survived for longer than others, but all died out. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal) is the closest species to Homo sapiens. Neanderthals are thought to have died out approximately 40 000 years ago. The chimpanzee (genus Pan) is the closest relative of the human (Homo) species. Approximately 2 million years ago, humans began migrating to the Asian and European continents. Approximately 60 000 years ago, humans migrated to the Australian continent, and approximately 30 000 years ago they migrated to the North and South American continents. The human brain is large and complex. The species is characterised by its capacity for language, its ability to design and use sophisticated tools, and to understand and represent abstract concepts. Following the growth of complex social structures, humans developed culture approximately 70 000 years ago. Human development accelerated more quickly after the start of agriculture approximately 12 000 years ago, and has continued to accelerate since as improvements in technology and communication have facilitated more connections between humans, and scientific discoveries, including in medicine, have improved health and lifespan. The human species exhibits racial, ethnic, gender and cultural diversity. Humans also differ in their physical appearance, their blood type and their DNA sequence – no 2 humans are exactly alike (even identical twins). Human exceptionalism The belief that humans are unique and different from all other animals. This understanding is not universal. Various cultures in different time periods have held beliefs that understand the division (or lack thereof) between animals and humans differently. A common belief in the West is that humans possess intellect, consciousness, communication skills and free will in a manner superior to any other animal. This is the foundation of a belief in human superiority and has been used to justify the control of other animal species. However, in other cultures, animals can be considered sacred, holy or even divine. In these cultures, human exceptionalism is a less powerful notion. For further reading:  DeMello, M 2005, Animals and society: an introduction to human–animal studies, Columbia University Press, New York.  Harari, YN 2015, Sapiens: a brief history of humankind, Harper, New York.

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Task 2 Read the following information. What is the basic difference between two terms? SOCIAL SCIENCES The ‘social sciences’ is a categorisation of academic disciplines that study social life including sociology, human geography, economics, linguistics, anthropology and political science. Whereas the life sciences analyse the physical world, the social sciences analyse the social world. Social science research is concerned with things such as how society functions, human relationships, social policy, and social change and the influence this has on individuals. The social sciences became core curricula in universities from the late 19th century onwards. HUMANITIES The academic discipline focused on the study of human culture. The term and the discipline of study came to prominence in the Renaissance period, and are connected to the rise in humanism and humanist thought. During the Renaissance, studying the humanities was thought to make one more cultured and refined. Students of the humanities would read the classics, poetry, history and philosophy, and learn about grammar and rhetoric.

Task 3 Read the following information. Do the tasks after the text.  Anthropogenic civilization and technocratic thinking are

declining in the conditions of modern society. The value of human existence in its harmony with the outside world is becoming increasingly important. This leads to increased attention to the meaning of what is happening and being created by a person, to social and humanitarian knowledge and to a person forming a social and humanitarian education. Creativity and dialogue are becoming the most important characteristics of the modern model of the development of social and humanitarian knowledge, which is based on the new social development paradigm, when the focus is on a person, his development, values and the meaning of his life. This is explained by the connection with the fundamental issues of human existence, since objects and phenomena of the surrounding world not only possess inherent objective properties reflected in consciousness, but also have certain connections with a person, contributing to the cognition of objects and phenomena of reality and their evaluation. Obviously, it makes up the value system, global thinking, ability to analyze various information flows, readiness for creative problem solving, etc. Socio-humanitarian knowledge acts as a kind of mediator between the achievements of the culture of the past, present and future, reconciling them at the level of a reflexive attitude to the possibility of a productive dialogue of the times. The word "humanities" is derived from the Renaissance Latin expression studia humanitatis, or "study of humanitas" (a classical Latin word meaning–in addition to "humanity"–"culture, refinement, education" and, specifically, an "education befitting a cultivated man"). In its usage in the early 15th century, the studia humanitatis was a course of studies that consisted of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy, primarily derived from the study of Latin and Greek classics. Generally, human beings possess and show quality like rationality, kindness and tenderness. Such basic qualities of humans gain different connotations based on one’s environment, values, beliefs and experiences. They are the contributing factors to the refinement of human’s basic qualities. Humanities, however, should not be confused with the term humanism, which refers to a specific 6 

philosophical belief, nor with humanitarianism, which is the concern for charitable works and social reform. Academically, we refer to the humanities as the branches of learning concerned with the human thought, feelings and relations. Humanities have always been concern with the importance of human being, his feelings, and how he expresses those feelings. Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture. In the Renaissance, the term contrasted with divinity and referred to what is now called classics, the main area of secular study in universities at the time. Today, the humanities are more frequently contrasted with natural and social sciences as well as professional training. The humanities use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a significant historical element - as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences, yet, unlike the sciences, it has no central discipline. The humanities include ancient and modern languages, literature, philosophy, history, human geography, law, politics, religion, and art. 1. Give a definition of the ‘humanities’ which you think is the more appropriate and comprehensive. 2. Explain the meaning of the statement “the study of human experience is the study of mankind”.

Task 4 Read the following information and answer the question: “Why text is a central part of any social science?” In the literature, the humanities are defined as a group of academic disciplines united by the desire to study such aspects of human existence and qualitative approaches that do not imply a single scientific paradigm. The humanities are social sciences exploring cultural phenomena in their various manifestations and development. For example, history or cultural studies. However, for many scientists, for example M.M. Bakhtin, humanities are the sciences about man, his spiritual inner world, his intelligence, psyche, and also the product of this inner world from the point of view of his reflection in him”. We can distinguish the socio-economic sciences (sociology, political science, economic disciplines, law science), which study man and society in reality. And the humanities proper (for example, history, philology) explore homo sapiens and society in a reflected reality that perceived by an individual (reflected in his consciousness), in one way or another meaningful way and that is revealed in the form of an oral or written text. Humanitarian knowledge is a specific form of reality reflection that is mediated in texts. Hence the central thesis by M.M. Bakhtin: “The text is the primary given reality and the starting point of any humanitarian discipline.” Within the humanities differentiation is carried out according to the criterion of attitude to the text. So, for the historian the text is a document. The historian in the text looks for evidence of the reality. The text serves as a means and is evaluated solely by the reliability degree, the adequacy of the message to real events. The text is the window through which the historian tries to see what was in reality. For the philologist, the text is not only an object, but also a subject of study. The text is valuable in itself. This is not a document, but a basis which is worthy of a comprehensive study. The following statement is significant in this respect: “For the historian, the structural unit of memoirs is a documented historical episode. For a philologist, documentary accuracy is not enough. He is interested in the artistic merit of the work.” Find the information about “Text Research in Linguistics” by M.M. Bakhtin. What other prominent researchers are engaged in this scientific area? 7 

Task 5 Read the following information and explain the following terms: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality. SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF TEXTUALITY "[The] seven principles of textuality: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality, demonstrate how richly every text is connected to your knowledge of world and society, even a telephone directory. Since the appearance of the Introduction to Text Linguistics [by Robert de Beaugrande and Wolfgang Dressler] in 1981, which used these principles as its framework, we need to emphasize that they designate the major modes of connectedness and not (as some studies assumed) the linguistic features of text-artifacts nor the borderline between 'texts' versus 'non-texts' . The principles apply wherever an artifact is 'textualized,' even if someone judges the results 'incoherent,' 'unintentional,' 'unacceptable,' and so on. Such judgments indicate that the text is not appropriate (suitable to the occasion), or efficient (easy to handle), or effective (helpful for the goal); but it is still a text. Usually, disturbances or irregularities are discounted or at worst construed as signals of spontaneity, stress, overload, ignorance, and so on, and not as a loss or a denial of textuality."

Task 6 Read more information about text linguistics and answer the questions given below. In linguistics, the term text refers to: 1. The original words of something written, printed, or spoken, in contrast to a summary or paraphrase. 2. A coherent stretch of language that may be regarded as an object of critical analysis. Text linguistics refers to a form of discourse analysis – a method of studying written or spoken language – that is concerned with the description and analysis of extended texts (those beyond the level of the single sentence). A text can be an example of written or spoken language, from something as complex as a book or legal document to something as simple as the body of an email or the words on the back of a cereal box. In the humanities, different fields of study concern themselves with different forms of texts. Literary theorists, for example, focus primarily on literary texts – novels, essays, stories, and poems. Legal scholars focus on legal texts such as laws, contracts, decrees, and regulations. Cultural theorists work with a wide variety of texts, including those that may not typically be the subject of studies, such as advertisements, signage, instruction manuals, and other ephemera. Text Definition Traditionally, a text is understood to be a piece of written or spoken material in its primary form (as opposed to a paraphrase or summary). A text is any stretch of language that can be understood in context. It may be as simple as one word (such as a stop sign) or as complex as a novel. Any sequence of sentences that belong together can be considered a text. Text refers to content rather than form; for example, if you were talking about the text of "Don Quixote," you would be referring to the words in the book, not the physical book itself. Information related to a text, and often printed alongside it – such as an author's name, the publisher, the date of publication, etc.–is known as paratext. The idea of what constitutes a text has evolved over time. In recent years, the dynamics of technology – especially social media – have expanded the notion of the text to include symbols such as emoticons and emojis. A sociologist studying teenage communication, for example, might refer to texts that combine traditional language and graphic symbols. Texts and New Technologies The concept of the text is not a stable one. It is always changing as the technologies for publishing and disseminating texts evolve. In the past, texts were usually presented as printed matter in bound volumes such as pamphlets or books. Today, however, people are more likely to encounter texts in digital space, where the materials are becoming "more fluid," according to linguists David Barton 8 

and Carmen Lee: "Texts can no longer be thought of as relatively fixed and stable. They are more fluid with the changing affordances of new media. In addition, they are becoming increasingly multimodal and interactive. Links between texts are complex online, and intertextuality is common in online texts as people draw upon and play with other texts available on the web." An example of such intertextuality can be found in any popular news story. An article in the New York Times, for example, may contain embedded tweets from Twitter, links to outside articles, or links to primary sources such as press releases or other documents. With a text such as this, it is sometimes difficult to describe what exactly is part of the text and what is not. An embedded tweet, for instance, may be essential to understanding the text around it–and therefore part of the text itself–but it is also its own independent text. On social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as blogs and Wikipedia, it is common to find such relationships between texts. Text Linguistics Text linguistics is a field of study where texts are treated as communication systems. The analysis deals with stretches of language beyond the single sentence and focuses particularly on context, i.e. information that goes along with what is said and written. Context includes such as things as the social relationship between two speakers or correspondents, the place where communication occurs, and non-verbal information such as body language. Linguists use this contextual information to describe the "socio-cultural environment" in which a text exists. Answer the questions. 1. What makes text a text? 2. Can thinking be coherent and cohesive? 3. Is there any difference between a contextual definition and a definitional context?

Task 7 Read the information about two types of methods in humanities and social science research.

Quantitative research

Qualitative research

Qualitative research uses methods that allow Quantitative research uses methods that allow the the researcher to interpret or understand a researcher to quantify, or measure the extent of, problem (they look into the ‘qualities’ of a something. For example, if the research topic was the particular problem). For example, if the popularity of marriage in Australia, a quantitative research topic was the popularity of marriage approach might look at the statistics for marriage in Australia, qualitative research might involve rates in Australia in the past 20 years, or could in-depth interviews with people about their involve a large representative survey. views on marriage or an analysis of people’s wedding vows. Answer the questions. 1. When and how can you use these methods? 2. What are the main differences between these methods? 3. What other methods are used in social science researches? 9 

2. LINGUISTICS AS A CENTRAL PART OF HUMANITIES Never should an unfamiliar word be passed over without elucidation, for, with a little conscientious research, we may each day add to our conquests in the realm of philology and become more and more ready for graceful independent expression. H. P. Lovecraft

Discuss the following quotes. Do you agree or disagree? Why?  “Philology is a community of humanitarian disciplines - linguistics, literary studies, textual studies, source studies, paleography, etc., which study the spiritual culture of a person through language and stylistic analysis of written texts.”  “Philology is metaphorically defined as “service of understanding”, which “helps to fulfill one of the main human tasks - to understand another person (and another culture, another epoch)”.

Basic terms: ANAPHORA is sometimes characterized as the phenomenon whereby the interpretation of an occurrence of one expression depends on the interpretation of an occurrence of another or whereby an occurrence of an expression has its referent supplied by an occurrence of some other expression in the same or another sentence PRESCRIPTIVE grammar that we are taught in school. Typically a prescriptive grammar is about the GRAMMAR "shoulds and shouldn'ts" in a language rather than a description of what speakers actually know when they know a language. Prescriptive grammars typically reflect the grammar of a written standard and are concerned with making determinations about the "correct" choice when there are potential variants (e.g. in English, we can choose to either separate a preposition from the noun it modifies [What did you play with?] or not to do so [With what did you play]). The prescriptive grammar of English says that only one of those is "correct" even though all speakers of English have the option. STANDARD the variety of a language that serves as the model for what is "correct" and "incorrect" LANGUAGE for a given language. The standard language is generally the one that is written GENERATIVE The idea that a finite set of rules or constraints can generate [e.g. produce as an GRAMMAR output] an infinite number of utterances, many of them novel. This model shows that native speakers of a language acquire a set of rules and a lexicon rather than specific sentences PHONETICS The study of the sounds we use to produce/interpret speech PHONOLOGY The study of the sounds that occur in specific languages and the rules or constraints that govern when they occur MORPHOLOGY The study of the units of meaning (words, prefixes etc.) in a language and their patterns of occurrence LEXICON The set of morphemes in a language ROOT The main meaning morpheme in a word and the morpheme to which affixes attach (e.g. in 'untie', the root is 'tie'). INFLECTION The morphology that governs grammatical relationships between words (e.g. the 3rd person, present verb marker in English [-s] tells us something about the relationship between the noun and the verb). DERIVATION The morphology that governs how new meanings are created (e.g. if I attach the prefix 'un-' to a verb like 'tie', I create a new meaning--namely the opposite of the original word). SYNTAX The study of the construction of sentences in a language. This includes the linear order (e.g. Subject Verb Object vs. Subject Object Verb) as well as the relationships between the parts of the sentence. 10 

SEMANTICS The study of meaning (e.g. what does "open" mean). PRAGMATICS The study of meaning in context (e.g. "the door is open" can have different interpretations depending on the context). DIACHRONIC The study of language across time (e.g. the history of the changes in a language). SYNCHRONIC The study of language at a specific point in time.

Task 1 Read the text about prominent linguists. Can you find out more names? 7 LINGUISTS WHO CHANGED THE GAME We’ve all heard of famous physicists like Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein; everyone knows the names of famous composers like Beethoven, Bach, and Brahms. But how many people can claim that they know the names of some of the most influential linguists? Indeed, important names in linguistics have not quite infiltrated the mainstream in the way that they have in hard sciences and music. This list will give you a crash-course in big-name linguists, and the ideas they had which changed the field of linguistics forever. Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913): Linguistic signs Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure is widely considered to be one of the forefathers of both linguistics and semiology, which is the philosophical study of the interpretation of signs and symbols. Most notably, Saussure introduced the idea that every word is a linguistic sign, which consists of two components: the signifier, or the phonetic form of a word (e.g., the word “dog” consists of two consonants split up by a vowel); and the signified, or the conceptual meaning underlying the sign (e.g., a dog is a furry animal that is commonly used as a household pet). Crucially, Saussure articulated the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign: the phonetic form and the underlying concept of the word “dog” have no natural link, and instead are the product of social interaction. The arbitrariness of meaning and form is a fundamental tenet of modern linguistics. Roman Jakobson (1896-1982): Distinctive features Russian-born linguist and literary theorist Roman Jakobson had many influential ideas about language; most remarkably, he changed the way scholars studied phonology, the sound structure of language. Specifically, he proposed the idea of distinctive features, which suggests that all sounds of speech are marked by binary contrasts which can be described and quantified. The difference between “p” and “b”, for instance, is that “b” uses our vocal chords (it’s voiced), whereas “p” does not (it’s unvoiced). Similarly, “b” and “m” are the same, except in “m”, air comes out of the nose (it’s nasal), whereas in “b”, it does not (try it!). Though the idea of distinctive features has been questioned in recent years, it allowed linguistics to classify the sounds of languages in an organized, hierarchical structure, which had previously been impossible Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939): Linguistic relativity Edward Sapir was a linguistic anthropologist whose thorough classification of indigenous American languages is still widely used today. Sapir is most famous, however, for a concept known as linguistic relativity, which he developed with his student, Benjamin Whorf. This hypothesis, in its strongest form, claims that the language one speaks drastically influences the way in which one perceives the world. This hypothesis has been largely dismissed by modern linguists, but caused significant discussion and consideration about the link between language and culture

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Paul Grice (1913 - 1988): Cooperative principle Paul Grice is one of the most important contributors to pragmatics, which is the study of how context contributes to meaning. His best-known idea is the cooperative principle, which breaks down how people behave in conversations in order to enable effective communication. In general terms, Grice articulates that speakers must be truthful, relevant, and unambiguous, and must say neither too much nor too little. If a speaker violates one of these principles (known as “maxims” in Grice’s terminology), communication is compromised. A classic example of a violation of the cooperative principle is if somebody says to you, “I love you. Do you love me?” and you answer, “Yes.” This is saying too little, which suggests that your answer might be a lie. Noam Chomsky (born in 1928): Universal grammar Probably the best-known name on this list, Noam Chomsky is famous for many things. But within the realm of linguistics, he’s most famous for his idea of universal grammar, which poses that all languages have the same underlying structure, and simply use different words and sounds on the surface. Humans, Chomsky claims, are biologically equipped with a language acquisition device, which endows us with the innate ability to learn language Eve Clark (born in 1942): First language acquisition Users of Immersia are most likely interested in learning a second (or third, or fourth!) language. However, in order to understand how it’s best to learn a second language, we must also understand how we acquire our first language. Eve Clark is a pioneer in the field of first language acquisition, and has revolutionized the way in which we understand how children pick up language. From babbling to coherent conversation, Eve Clark proposes theories and cites evidence that sheds insight into the mystifying topic of how children learn their first language so successfully and efficiently. Ultimately, this information will help us understand how to maximize efficiency in second language acquisition, too Steven Pinker (born in 1954): Popularizing linguistics In his wildly popular books such as The Language Instinct, Steven Pinker argues for a biological basis of language acquisition. As the title suggests, he proposes that language is an instinct – a behavior which, like any other instinct, was formed by natural selection, and has adapted to suit humans’ communicative needs throughout time. His accessible, fun-to-read books have made great strides in popularizing the field of linguistics, and making it accessible to those outside the realm of academia. Nowadays, linguistics is a rich field with many subdivisions – sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics – and there are too many brilliant minds in each field to fit in this article. Still, these seven prominent figures are a good starting point if you’re looking to get a sense of who the major players are. Find out information about top 15 living linguistics researchers.  Noam Chomsky  Martin Haspelmath  Bernard Comrie  David Pesetsky  William Labov  Ray Jackendoff  George Lakoff  Geoff Pullum  Steven Pinker  Stephen Levinson  Michael Silverstein  John McCarthy  Robert Dixon  Geoffrey Nunberg  John Robert 'Haj' Ross 12 

Task 2 Read the text about linguistics and discuss the questions after the text. Linguistics is one of those subjects that not many people have heard of, so you might well be wondering exactly what it is. The simplest definition of Linguistics is that it’s the science of language. This is a simple definition but it contains some very important words. First, when we say that linguistics is a science, that doesn’t mean you need a lab coat and safety goggles to do linguistics. Instead, what it means is that the way we ask questions to learn about language uses a scientific approach. The scientific way of thinking about language involves making systematic, empirical observations. There’s another important word: empirical means that we observe data to find the evidence for our theories. All scientists make empirical observations: botanists observe how plants grow and reproduce. Chemists observe how substances interact with other. Linguists observe how people use their language. A crucial thing to keep in mind is that the observations we make about language use are NOT value judgments. Lots of people in the world – like your high school English teacher, various newspaper columnists, maybe your grandparents, and maybe even some of your friends – make judgments about how people use language. But linguists don’t. A short-hand way of saying this is that linguists have a descriptive approach to language, not a prescriptive approach. We describe what people do with their language, but we don’t prescribe how they should or shouldn’t do it. This descriptive approach is consistent with a scientific way of thinking. Think about an entomologist who studies beetles. Imagine that scientist observes that a species of beetle eats leaves. She’s not going to judge that the beetles are eating wrong, and tell them that they’d be more successful in life if only they eat the same thing as ants. No – she observes what the beetle eats and tries to figure out why: she develops a theory of why the beetle eats this plant and not that one. In the same way, linguists observe what people say and how they say it, and come up with theories of why people say certain things or make certain sounds but not others. In our simple definition of linguistics, there’s another important word we need to focus on: linguistics is the science of human language. There are plenty of species that communicate with each other in an impressive variety of ways, but in linguistics, our job is to focus on the unique system that humans use. It turns out that humans have some important differences to all other species that make our language unique. First, what we call the articulatory system: our lungs, larynx & vocal folds, and the shape of our tongue, teeth, lips, nose, all enable us to produce speech. No other species can do this in the way we can, not even our closest genetic relatives the chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans. Second, our auditory system is special: our ears are sensitive to exactly the frequencies that are most common in human speech. There are other species that have similar patterns of auditory sensitivity, but human newborns pay special attention to human speech, even more so than synthetic speech that is matched for acoustic characteristics. And most important of all, our neural system is special: no other species has a brain as complex and densely connected as ours with so many connections dedicated to producing and understanding language. Humans’ language ability is different from all other species’ communication systems, and linguistics is the science that studies this unique ability. Answer the questions. 1. What does it mean to say that Linguistics is a science? 2. Each of the sentences above represents something someone might say about language. Which of them illustrates a descriptive view of language? 3. Which of the following kinds of data would a linguist be likely to observe?

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Task 3 Read the information about philosophical interpretation of philology and differences in the interpretation of the term in the Western and Russian sciences and answer the questions below. According to modern philosophical interpretation, “philological sciences are a set of empirical and theoretical disciplines about language, literature, written and oral forms, structure and development. There are history and theory of literature, general and comparative linguistics, history of world languages, linguistics, semiotics, folk art, theory and practice of translation, vocabulary theory and practice, structural linguistics, which studies the structure of language, general laws of syntax, semantics, pragmatics and communication. The most important philosophical problems of philology are: the concept of language, the general structure and laws of language functioning, language and consciousness, language and human activity, language and social system, language and scientific knowledge.” Such interpretation puts philology on a “central” epistemological position in the system of humanitarian knowledge, since a person as an object of humanities is primarily a homo loquens that is “a speaking person” and the semantic etimon of Greek λογος is not only the "word", but also the "mind". There is a significant difference in the understanding of philology in the domestic and Western traditions. In the Western sense, philology is usually reduced to the study of the history of languages and literature, the interpretation of written evidence of past centuries and civilizations, opposing synchronous linguistics. Thus, in the explanatory dictionary Merriam-Webster, philology, on the one hand, is defined as “the study of literature and related disciplines, as well as the use of language in literature,” and on the other, it is interpreted as a partial synonym for “linguistics”, referring to either relatively - historical linguistics, or the study of language as a means of creating literary works and a source of information on the history of culture. At Oxford University, the corresponding faculty is called the Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics, that is, linguistics and philology are considered as disciplines of the same order, whereas in Russia philology is a generic concept in relation to linguistics. The demarcation of philology and linguistics that is characteristic of Western science is based on the ideas of F. de Saussure, who conducted a sharp opposition between these disciplines in terms of the diachronic and synchronous approach and the attitude to language as a subject of study: “Language is not the only object of philology: it primarily sets itself the task of establishing, interpreting and commenting on texts. This main task also leads her to study the history of literature, everyday life, social institutions, etc. ... Its interests lie almost exclusively in the field of Greek and Roman antiquities. " Philology deals with language only in order “to compare texts of various epochs, determine the language peculiar to a given author, decipher and explain inscriptions in archaic or poorly known languages,” but in linguistics “language is integrity in itself, being, therefore, the starting point (principle) of classification". Similar ideas were expressed by other founders of the science of language, in particular, V. Humboldt, G. Schuhardt. Currently, the opposition of philology and linguistics in Western science is supported by the presence of influential linguistic theories that show no interest in the study of texts (the generative grammar of N. Chomsky, the role grammar of R.D. van Valin, and others). Answer the questions. 1. How do you understand the basic difference between two interpretations of the term? 2. Could you remember distinguished philologists and linguists in both scientific fields?

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Task 4 Look at the main fields of linguistic researches. What do you know about these areas? Traditionally in philology, two main sections are singled out - linguistics and literary criticism. In more detail, the system of modern philology can be represented as follows:  The study of the history and current  Rhetoric state of national literatures  Synchronous and diachronic studies of national languages  Classical philology  Communicative Linguistics  Sociolinguistics  Narratology  Comparative Historical Linguistics  General linguistics  Comparative Literary Studies  Paleography  Textual  Applied Linguistics  Language theory  Folklore  Psycholinguistics  Ethnological Linguistics Disciplines that exist at the intersection of philology and other sciences. We indicate some of them:  semiotics (sēmeiōtikē Greek - the study of signs), which studies signs and sign systems. The central concept of semiotics is the sign;  hermeneutics (hermēneutikē Greek – interpretative), exploring ways of interpreting meaning. The central concepts of hermeneutics: meaning, understanding;  text theory that studies text in a semiotic sense. The text is not only a sequence of linguistic signs embodying the meaning, but also, for example, a picture, a city, a person, and other sequences created from non-linguistic signs or from a combination of linguistic and non-linguistic signs embodying the meaning. Such are, for example, statements like “Flies!” In conjunction with a gesture indicating, for example, the plane flying in the sky (meaning: “The plane flies!”). The central concept of text theory is text;  philological theory of communication, studying human activity on the creation and understanding of the text. The central concept is the communicative activity of homo loquens;  philological informatics, which studies ways and means of creating, storing, processing, studying, transmitting, etc., philological information using information (computer) technologies. In modern philology, the traditional division of philology by language (group of languages). There are different Slavic, Germanic, Romanesque, Turkic and other linguistics, Russian, Ukrainian, Altai, Buryat, etc. Each of the studies the corresponding languages / corresponding language and literature. Each of the philological disciplines has a special internal structure, its own connections with other philological, humanitarian and natural sciences and disciplines.

Task 5 Study the text about the relations between linguistics and philology. What is common and what is different between them? Do you agree, that these terms are synonyms? Give arguments. LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY – SEPARATE, OVERLAPPING OR SUBORDINATE/SUPERORDINATE DISCIPLINES? With the advent of linguistics as a discipline in the early 20th century, both the study of language change and the study of cross-linguistic features of languages became sub-disciplines of linguistics (namely, historical linguistics and typological linguistics, respectively). Similarly, philologists often produced grammatical descriptions of the languages found in their texts, an endeavor which, since the rise of linguistics, can most accurately and insightfully be conducted within the discipline of linguistics. The article considers the question of whether linguistics and philology in the twenty-first century should be viewed as separate disciplines, as overlapping disciplines or whether one discipline philology - should be viewed as a superordinate discipline which subsumes linguistics. 15 

Linguistics The term “linguistic science” was first used in the middle of the 19th century by William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894) to emphasize a new approach to the study of language that was developing and that he believed would be superior to philology. The independence of linguistics as a discipline was first declared in 1916 by Ferdinand de Saussure and then reiterated by Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1922. Both De Saussure and Jespersen understood linguistics to be separate from philology. De Saussure described the two as follows: “philology is neatly distinct from linguistics, in spite of the points of contact of the two sciences, and mutual services that they make.” Similarly, Jespersen wrote that “while the philologist looked upon language as a part of the culture of some nation, the linguist looked upon it as a natural object.” Linguistics, or linguistique, as the science of living languages was an Anglo-French reaction to the dominance of German philology and historically is linked not to Greek philology but to Greek philosophy. Speculative grammar also gave rise in 1660 to the efforts of the Port-Royal grammarians in devising a universal grammar with rules that underlie all languages. Structural linguistics in Europe began with De Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics in 1916, which can be summed up in three dichotomies, namely synchronic versus diachronic, langue (language system) versus parole (language behavior) and form (or structure or pattern) versus substance. Franz Boas (died 1942) and his student Edward Sapir (died 1939) were attracted to the relationship between language and thought (Sapir 1921), but it was left to one of Sapir’s student, Benjamin Lee Whorf, to formulate the thesis that language determines perception and thought. In the mid1950s Noam Chomsky adopted what he called a mentalistic theory of language. The linguist should be concerned with the speaker’s linguistic competence and not his performance. Chomsky’s generative linguistics has been the dominant theory of linguistics in the US for more than fifty years. Although approaches, theories and methodologies for studying language have changed since its inception as a discipline in the early 20th century, the focus of linguistics as a discipline has remained constant.

Philology Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht defines philology as referring to a configuration of scholarly skills that are geared toward a historical text curatorship that refers exclusively to written texts. Accordingly philological practice, in the first place, has an affinity with those historical periods that see themselves as following a greater cultural moment; secondly, philology’s two-part core task is the identification and restoration of texts from each cultural past; thirdly, philology establishes a distance with respect to the intellectual space of hermeneutics and of interpretation as the textual practice that hermeneutics informs; and lastly, philology plays a particularly important and often predominant role within those academic disciplines that deal with the most chronologically and cultural remote segments of the past. Gumbrecht identifies five basic philological practices: identifying fragments, editing texts, writing historical commentaries, historicizing (that is, the awareness between different historical periods and cultures), and teaching by using the texts and cultures of the past. However, at different times and different places, the precise nature of the goals and methods of philology have manifested themselves in different ways. Until 1800 philology and its companions, rhetoric (the art of expressive speaking or writing) and antiquarianism (the study of relics of the past) show interconnectedness, but after 1800 each one began to fragment so that by 1900 there were independent disciplines with interdisciplinary cooperation.

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Task 6 Read the text. Is there a superordinate/subordinate relationship between linguistics and philology? The survey of linguistics and philology has shown that linguistics and philology are distinct. From a disciplinarity point of view in the twenty-first century, linguistics is a robust discipline with multiple theoretical perspectives which are constantly evolving as they are applied to data. By contrast, Classical Philology and Modern Philology of earlier eras had no central or competing theories and philological endeavors have been largely appropriated by other emergent disciplines. Only New Philology has proposed a new approach and methodology for textual criticism and the media history of texts. It actually and appropriately falls under the discipline of Editorial Theory, comprising the collection of fragments, the editing of texts, and the writing of commentaries. Presently in our modern and post-modern world, there is a drive to find ways to connect disciplines in a meaningful way. Turner’s approach to this problem is to revive 19th century Modern Philology as an umbrella for the integrated analysis of texts using multiple disciplines; it is understood as a new way of conceptualizing the humanities. Lopez takes this viewpoint and defines philology (Modern Philology) as the study of civilization based on texts. It accesses the world of the text and represents the meaning of the text in its own discursive context by using tools from linguistics, astronomy, biology, history, geology, etc. Revitalized Modern Philology thus become a superordinate discipline and linguistics becomes subordinate. This approach is deeply flawed in that it attempts to return both the study of texts and the study of language back more than a century to a time before the emergence of the disciplines of linguistics, translation studies, art history, archaeology, textual criticism, social and cultural anthropology, history, literature, and religious studies, etc. We propose rather the appropriation of complexity theory for integrating multiple disciplines in a coherent and holistic way. Complexity theory, the modern scientific study of complex systems, emerged from questioning the Western scientific program which is characterized by modernist and postmodernist methodology, both of which are reductionistic. Within complexity theory, scholars can use whatever disciplines are required for the study of the text–including inter alia linguistics, New Philology and the media history of the text–while maintaining the integrity of the disciplines that comprise it. In this way, linguistics as a discipline with each of its sub-disciplines can play its proper role in analyzing those features of the text related to the language of the text, including its formal features, its structure, its variation and diachronic development, its speakers/hearers/readers and its pragmatic and social contexts. Conversely, by analyzing language as a complex-adaptive system, it is possible within complexity theory to use any discipline – including New Philology – that makes a contribution to the study of language or the texts that represent the language. Crucially, within complexity theory, each discipline that is appropriated maintains its own identity, its theoretical basis and its methodological features, thus promoting transdisciplinarity while preserving disciplinarity. We conclude that attempts to revive Modern Philology as an overarching framework for the integrated analysis of texts using multiple disciplines are misguided. Old-fashioned Modern Philology as a superordinate category is an empty shell which lacks disciplinarity on its own; it has no theories or methodologies of its own, but only those of the disciplines that grew out of it. Put differently, the revival of Modern Philology is parasitic, depending upon other disciplines for its life. Both linguistics and New Philology as independent disciplines can move forward in the twentyfirst century to new and significant insights involving both the texts of the Hebrew Bible and the languages in which they are written. Does “speculative grammars” refer to something real or is it a purely nominal convention which refers to all the individual entities sharing certain traits? 17 

Task 7 Read and comment on the thoughts and quotes about philology more commonly known as historical linguistics. WHEN PHILOLOGY WAS QUEEN OF THE SCIENCES "Philology has fallen on hard times in the English-speaking world (much less so in continental Europe). Many college-educated Americans no longer recognize the word. Those who do often thinks it means no more than scrutiny of ancient Greek or Roman texts by a nit-picking classicist.  "It used to be chic, dashing, and much ampler in girth. Philology reigned as king of the sciences, the pride of the first great modern universities--those that grew up in Germany in the eighteenth and earlier nineteenth centuries. Philology inspired the most advanced humanistic studies in the United States and the United Kingdom in the decades before 1850 and sent its generative currents through the intellectual life of Europe and America. "The word philology in the nineteenth century covered three distinct modes of research: (1) textual philology (including classical and biblical studies, 'oriental' literatures such as those in Sanskrit and Arabic, and medieval and modern European writings); (2) theories of the origin and nature of language; and (3) comparative study of the structure and historical evolution of languages and language families." (James Turner) 

"What was happening from about 1800 on was the coming of 'comparative philology,' best described as the Darwinian event for the humanities as a whole. Like The Origin of Species, it was powered by wider horizons and new knowledge. By the late 18th century, conscientious British colonial administrators, who had had Latin and Greek drummed into them at school, found that they needed classical Persian, and even Sanskrit, to do their jobs properly. They could not help noticing the similarities between the Eastern languages and their classical counterparts. But what did these mean, and what was the origin, not of species, but of language differentiation? "Comparative philology, tracing the history and development of especially the Indo-European languages, rapidly gained immense prestige, most of all in Germany. No discipline, declared Jacob Grimm, doyen of philologists and fairy-tale collector, 'is haughtier, more disputatious, or more merciless to error.' It was a hard science in every sense, like math or physics, with a ruthless ethic of finicky detail." (Top Shippey)

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Henry Wyld on “Cranks and Quacks” (1921) "The public is extraordinarily interested in all sorts of questions connected with English Philology; in etymology, in varieties of pronunciation and grammatical usage, in the sources of the Cockney dialect, in vocabulary, in the origin of place and personal names, in the pronunciation of Chaucer and Shakespeare. You may hear these matters discussed in railway carriages and smoking-rooms; you may read long letters about them in the press, adorned sometimes with a display of curious information, collected at random, misunderstood, wrongly interpreted, and used in an absurd way to bolster up preposterous theories. No, the subject-matter of English Philology possesses a strange fascination for the man in the street, but almost everything that he thinks and says about it is incredibly and hopelessly wrong. There is no subject which attracts a larger number of cranks and quacks than English Philology. In no subject, probably, is the knowledge of the educated public at a lower ebb. The general ignorance concerning it is so profound that it is very difficult to persuade people that there really is a considerable mass of well-ascertained fact, and a definite body of doctrine on linguistic questions." Find out and present information about history of philology and linguistics. What are the main periods in linguistics research?

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3. ETHNOLINGUISTICS OR CULTURAL LINGUISTICS “A people without the knowledge of their past history, origin and culture is like a tree without roots.” Marcus Garvey Express your opinion on the following quotations. “Language is the road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going.” (Rita Mae Brown) “Language and culture cannot be separated. Language is vital to understanding our unique cultural perspective. Language is a tool that is used to explore and experience our cultures and the perspectives that are embedded in our cultures.” (Buffy Sainte Marie)

Basic terms: CULTURE The practices, customs, languages, symbols, beliefs, values, norms, artefacts and knowledge of a particular group. Individuals learn their culture through a process of socialisation, which involves entering a succession of different roles. A distinction is sometimes made between ‘high culture’ that is consumed by the elite and ‘popular’ or ‘mass culture’ that is consumed by people of all socioeconomic backgrounds. CULTURAL the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that is HERITAGE inherited from past generations CULTURAL physical items that are part of the cultural heritage of a group or society. They PROPERTY include such items as historic buildings, works of art, archaeological sites, libraries. and museums DIALECTICS, In ancient Greece, dialectic was ‘the art of conversation’. Through conversation, DIALECTICAL Socrates used questions and their answers as a form of reasoning. Dialectics refers to METHOD a method of reasoning that compares and contrasts opposing points of view so that a new point of view that incorporates the true parts of each original perspective can be established. ETHNICITY Broadly refers to cultural identity. Ethnicity is usually defined in terms of shared traits, including ancestry, language, religion, culture or history. For example, a person might be born in Australia but describe their ethnicity or ethnic background as Egyptian or Irish. ETHNOCENTRISM act of judging another culture based on preconceptions that are found in the values and standards of one's own culture – especially regarding language, behavior, customs, and religion. These aspects or categories are distinctions that define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. The term ethnocentrism was coined by Ludwig Gumplowicz and subsequently employed by social scientist William G. Sumner. Gumplowicz defined ethnocentrism as the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point, not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations, but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past. William G. Sumner defined ethnocentrism as "the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." ETHNIC Representations of a group identified by an ethnic label (such as Jews) which STEREOTYPES reproduce the most frequently represented traits associated with such groups. Selective perception or salience tends to reinforce such stereotypes by drawing attention to examples confirming it and blinding the observer to individual differences. So too does the imagery of mass-media entertainment genres. In popular usage, ethnicity is a euphemism for race, and such stereotypes are often racial stereotypes 19 

the expressive body of culture shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas and weddings, folk dances and initiation rites. Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact HERITAGE Heritage connects people to the past, and supports and consolidates cultural identity. It provides people with a sense of belonging. Heritage includes architecture, physical artefacts and cultural expression, such as arts, crafts, music, literature, art and folklore. It also extends to values, customs, spiritual beliefs/religion and language. Heritage is passed on from generation to generation. MYTHOLOGY In present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths. For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures. Folklorist Alan Dundes defines myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Dundes classified a sacred narrative as "a story that serves to define the fundamental worldview of a culture by explaining aspects of the natural world and delineating the psychological and social practices and ideals of a society". Anthropologist Bruce Lincoln defines myth as "ideology in narrative form. MYTH Definitions of myth to some extent vary by scholar. Finnish folklorist Lauri Honko offers a widely cited definition: Myth, a story of the gods, a religious account of the beginning of the world, the creation, fundamental events, the exemplary deeds of the gods as a result of which the world, nature and culture were created together with all parts thereof and given their order, which still obtains. A myth expresses and confirms society's religious values and norms, it provides a pattern of behavior to be imitated, testifies to the efficacy of ritual with its practical ends and establishes the sanctity of cult FOLKLORE

Task 1 Read the text and answer the questions given below. Ethnolinguistics is a field of linguistic anthropology which studies the relation between cultures (subculture) of people having different ways of living in a community including their social interactions and conversations. Ethnolinguistics attempts to unravel the underlying patterns and structures of cultural characteristics (such as language, mythology, gender, roles, symbols and rituals etc.) especially with regard to their historical development, similarities and dissimilarities. The term ‘ethnolinguistics’ can also be termed as ‘cultural linguistics’ as it is a combination between ‘ethnology’ and ‘linguistics’. It involves the cultural aspects through which the community people spend their life and which are distinguishable from the other communities. The earliest discussion regarding ethnolinguistics was given by American linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir. He is considered as the founder of ethnolinguistics for his contributions to the North American Indian Languages. According to Sapir, ‘man perceives the world through their language’. Further, Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf added to the thought that language structures our perception of the environment, and the speakers of diverse languages will respond to the same environmental stimulus differently. Wilhelm von Humboldt adumbrated their hypothesis in the following manner: “Language appears to present to us subjectively our entire mental activity (in a manner of our procedure), but it generates at the same time to object in as much as they are objects in our thinking… Language is, 20 

therefore, if not altogether, at least in terms of perception, the means by which [each] human being constructs at the same time himself and the world or by which he, rather, becomes conscious of himself by discriminating between himself and the world”. Therefore, the subject of ethnolinguistics is a unit of language and discourse possessing a culturally significant content, which is the «channel» by which we can enter the cultural and historical layer of the mentally-lingual complex. The goals and objectives of ethnolinguistic research are:  language and national mentality;  language and mythology;  ethnic areas and functions of languages;  the relationship between linguistic and ethnic consolidation;  types of language impact on ethnic processes;  reflection of ethnic culture in nominative units and stock phrases;  the impact of cultural differences on inter-ethnic communication in different life situations;  language and ethnic identity;  language and ethnic worldview, etc. Answer the questions. 1. What is ethnolinguistics? What is the research area of this branch? 2. What is the second term used for this field of linguistics? Why? 3. What is the historical background of ethnolinguistics? 4. What is considered to be the main subject of research? 5. What are the main goals and objectives of ethnolinguistic research?

Task 2 Read the text. Discuss the relations between cultural cognition, cultural conceptualization and language. Among the analytical tools that have proved particularly useful in examining aspects of cultural cognition and its instantiation in language are cultural schema, cultural category and cultural metaphor. Sharifian F. refers to these collectively as cultural conceptualisations. These analytical tools are seen as existing at the collective or macro level of cultural cognition, as well as that of the individual or micro level. Cultural conceptualisations and their entrenchment in language are intrinsic to cultural cognition. This formulation of the model of cultural cognition, cultural conceptualisations, and language are summarised diagrammatically in the Figure presented below.

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The figure captures the close relationship between language, cultural conceptualisations, and cultural cognition. As reflected, various features and levels of language, from morpho-syntactic features to pragmatic and semantic meanings may be embedded in cultural conceptualisations in the form of cultural schemas, cultural categories, and cultural metaphors. Discussion How do you understand the terms “cultural schema”, “cultural category”, “cultural metaphor”?

Task 3 Read the text and guess whether you were right or not. Answer the questions given below. Cultural schemas are a culturally constructed sub-class of schemas; that is, they are abstracted from the collective cognitions associated with a cultural group, and therefore to some extent based on shared experiences, common to the group, as opposed to being abstracted from an individual’s idiosyncratic experiences. They enable individuals to communicate cultural meanings. In terms of their development and their representation, at the macro level, cultural schemas emerge from interactions between the members of a cultural group, while they are constantly negotiated and renegotiated across time and space. At the micro level, over time each individual acquires and internalises these macrolevel schemas, albeit in a heterogeneously distributed fashion. That is, individuals who belong to the same cultural group may share some, but not all, components of a cultural schema. In other words, each person’s internalisation of a macro-level cultural schema is to some extent collective and to some extent idiosyncratic. This pattern is diagrammatically presented in following Figure.

The figure shows how a cultural schema may be represented in a heterogeneously distributed fashion across the minds of individuals. It schematically represents how members may have internalised some, but not all, components of a macro-level cultural schema. It also shows how individuals may share some, but not all the elements of a cultural schema with each other. It is to be noted that the individuals who internalise aspects of a cultural schema may not only be those who are viewed as the insiders by the cultural group. “Outsiders” who have somehow had contact and interaction with the group can also internalise aspects of their cultural schemas. Another class of cultural conceptualisation is that of the cultural category. Categorisation is one of the most fundamental human cognitive activities. Categorization research focuses on the acquisition and use of categories shared by a culture and associated with language – what we will call “cultural categorization”. Cultural categories exist for objects, events, settings, mental states, properties, relations and other components of experience (e.g. birds, weddings, parks, serenity, blue and above). 22 

Typically, these categories are acquired through exposure to caregivers and culture with little explicit instruction. As mentioned earlier, conceptual metaphor refers to the cognitive conceptualisation of one domain in terms of another (for example, Lakoff and Johnson). Extensive research in cognitive linguistics has shown how even our basic understanding of ourselves and our surroundings is mediated by conceptual metaphors. For example, in clock-and-calendar industrial cultures time is commonly understood in terms of a commodity, money, a limited resource, and so on. This is reflected in expressions such as buying time, saving time, and the like. More importantly our understanding of ourselves is achieved through conceptual metaphors. For example we can conceptualise our thoughts, feelings, personality traits, and so on in terms of our body parts.  Research in Ethnolinguistics or Cultural Linguistics is interested in exploring conceptual metaphors that are culturally constructed. Several studies have explored cultural schemas and models that give rise to conceptual metaphors, for example through ethnomedical or other cultural traditions. For example, in Indonesian it is hati ‘the liver’ that is associated with love, rather than the heart. Siahaan traces back such conceptualisations to the ritual of animal sacrifice, especially the interpretation of liver organ known as “liver divination”, which was practised in ancient Indonesia. In some languages, such as Tok Pisin, the belly is the seat of emotions. It was also observed that many linguistic expressions in Chinese reflect the conceptualisation of the heart is the ruler of the body. It is due to the fact that the target-domain concept here is an important one because the heart organ is regarded as the central faculty of cognition and the site of both affective and cognitive activities in ancient Chinese philosophy. Answer the questions. 1. What is a cultural schema? 2. How is it interpreted at the macro and micro levels? 3. Does an individual who belongs to the same cultural group share all components of a cultural schema? Why? Why not? 4. What is a cultural category? 5. How are the categories acquired? Give your examples. 6. What is a cultural metaphor? 7. Can you give any examples of cultural metaphors? Discuss in pairs. 1. How can you define the notions “ethnos”, “national mentality”, “culture”? 2. Discuss the relations between:  language and ethnos;  language and national mentality;  language and culture.

Task 4 Read the text and answer the questions given below. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE, LANGUAGE AND ETHNICITY. MODERN PROBLEMS OF ETHNOLINGUISTICS The problem of the connection between language and culture stands out in the history and modern linguistics. Culture is the totality of the achievements of human society in industrial, social and spiritual life; distinguish between material and spiritual culture. More often the term culture refers to the spiritual life of a people: they talk about ancient culture, the culture of a feudal society, the culture of the modern Western world, etc. It is possible to represent the culture of an individual people in different ways: culture can manifest itself in the culture of work and life, culture of behavior, culture of speech, etc. 23 

Language is associated primarily with spiritual culture - artistic and scientific life of society, philosophy and other forms of social consciousness. Language is directly connected with folklore, literature. When people talk about language as a form of national culture, they mean, first of all, fiction. Language as a primary element of culture determines the national identity of the work created on it. Mastering a native language is not only the acquisition of a means of communication, it is also an obligatory introduction to artistic creativity, which occurs simultaneously with the acquisition of a language. There is a dialectical connection between the three elements - language, culture and the spirit of the people (Wilhelm von Humboldt). Language is the product, component, and condition of a culture. Language and culture unite the human spirit, but the spirit itself is built by culture and is expressed in the word. The national language, among other things, plays a large role in the formation of social entities. People unite in groups, communities, states on the basis of unity of territory, traditions, religion, etc. The unity of social being and life of a certain people (ethnic group) fits into the concept of culture. Ethnic groups are groups of people united by one culture and, as a rule, one language. You can talk about French, German, Russian and other ethnic groups. Human language depends on the culture to which it belongs. At the junction of linguistics and ethnography there is a new discipline ethnolinguistics. Ethnolinguistics studies the interaction of linguistic ethnic factors. It raises and solves the issues of language and ethnos, language and culture, language and folk mentality. Ethnolinguistics is interested in the role of language in the formation and functioning of folk culture, psychology and creativity. In broad terms, ethnolinguistics includes dialectology, the language of folklore, a part of the history of the language associated with the historical dialectology, the cultural and ethnic history of the people, as well as almost all aspects of the study of language as a social phenomenon. The problem of the correlation of language and ethnos (cultural and everyday characteristics of a people) includes a large number of complex issues: the problem of the relationship between the structure of a language, the semantic side of speech and the peculiarities of nature surrounding the speakers of a given language. Ethnolinguistics is also interested in how the national character and spirit of the people is expressed in language, the problem of the adequacy of translation of works of art, oral speech, the relationship of language and ethnic processes (processes of assimilation of cultures and languages). Answer the questions. 1. Is it possible to say which of the language functions you are currently using when reading this book? 2. Why is it so difficult to give definitions of such concepts as culture and social phenomenon? Why is it typical to illustrate such difficulties through examples? 3. The range of social phenomena includes the most diverse spheres of human activity. What unites them all (besides the fact that these are manifestations of human activity)? 4. Language is a paradoxical phenomenon: it exists for all, but it exists in individual heads of specific people. How do the “common” and “individual” languages relate? 5. Why was it necessary to create such a science as sociolinguistics? 6. Describe the linguistic situation in the area in which you live. 7. What directions of language policy and what specific measures would you implement if you were the head of state (member of the government)?

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Task 5 Read the text. Find more connections and relationship of Language and Ethnicity& Ethnos. LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY A major resource in our understanding of peoples of the world is the Ethnologue, the primary authority on languages of the world. A few years ago the codeset of the Ethnologue became the world standard of the International Standards Organization (ISO) for languages of the world.  The entries in the Ethnologue indicate the main name of a language. Dialects of the language are listed, as well as alternative names under which the language or dialects have been listed previously.  In people group research, the Ethnologue language code is correlated with the similar code for peoples from the Registry of Peoples. In many cases the name of a dialect corresponds with the name of an ethnic group that speaks that form of the broader language. That just depends on the self-identity attitude of that group. You have to find out from them. This is where field linguists and anthropologists are so critical. For reference purposes, a list of peoples (ethnicities, tribes or people groups) of the world needs to indicate whether a certain known group is a separate entry or is considered a sub-group of another people. The formal world-level classification may be different from a more local database or cultural profile looking at more details of local relationships and interaction. So What Do you Do? I had this problem, for example, with the Gawwada people of Ethiopia. Several divisions of the Gawwada people were listed under the Gawwada entry in the Ethnologue, with their individual populations. But the Gobeze sub-group identified by the Ethnologue had no population. Should these people all be listed separately though they all spoke one language? What about the Gobeze? How different were they? Limited information is frustrating for the analytical westerner! As editor of the Registry of Peoples at the time, I had to make a call for classification purposes. At that point, I assumed that the report in the Ethnologue indicates that there are some separate ethnic groups who all speak forms of the same language. But I do not know how closely related they consider themselves. And why is no separate population or information given on the Gobeze people/dialect? With the state of information available, I considered that those listed with populations think of themselves as separate ethnic groups, but closely related. The information seemed to indicate that the name Gobeze referred to an identifiable variation of speech, but that if this name also indicates a discrete group of people (like a family, a village, a region, etc.), they consider themselves still to be part of the Gawwada. This was confirmed to some degree by a linguist investigating these speech forms (personal communication to me). He indicates that the term Gobeze is used for the main dialect, spoken by the greatest number and used as a "standard" language form for these closely-related peoples. With the uncertainty, I decided not to enter separate ethnic names in the main people group database, but to provide a complete picture, I would indicate them in the profile. We are always watching for further information and updates are made as needed. Anything that will clarify the communication and relationship patterns will be critical for outsiders who wish to work with this people cluster. This is a common situation around the world. So Who Cares? Language information can sometimes help clarify people identity. Linguists working on literacy development sometimes report one village or clan is unwilling to accept oral or written resources in the dialect of the neighboring village because it is not "theirs," even though they can communicate with no trouble at all with those neighbors. This is a complicating factor for the task-oriented westerner limited by funds, time and other resources in developing literacy programs and materials. This is not due to a peevish childish self-centeredness of that village or clan. This is a factor of the fundamental orientation to the world. The western worker has to decide: Do you want to help 25 

them learn to read and provide written or oral resources meaningful in their context? Or do you want to have to convert a whole culture to a new worldview and orientation to reality first? Worldviews change as opportunities appear and challenges are met. Self-identity is integrally related to Shared Significant Experiences within the group. Initial communication and presentation of possiblities must start within the current worldview.

Task 6 Read the text about GLOBISH. Find more information about universal global languages. GLOBISH Globish is a simplified version of Anglo-American English used as a worldwide lingua franca. The trademarked term Globish, a blend of the words global and English, was coined by French businessman Jean-Paul Nerrière in the mid-1990s. In his 2004 book Parlez Globish, Nerrière included a Globish vocabulary of 1,500 words. Globish is "not quite a pidgin," says linguist Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer. "Globish appears to be English without idioms, making it easier for nonAnglophones to understand and to communicate with one another. "[Globish] is not a language, it is a tool… A language is the vehicle of a culture. Globish doesn't want to be that at all. It is a means of communication." How to Learn Globish in a Week "Globish [is] the newest and most widely spoken language in the world. Globish is not like Esperanto or Volapuk; this is not a formally constructed language, but rather an organic patois, constantly adapting, emerging solely from practical usage, and spoken in some form or other by about 88 per cent of mankind. "Starting from scratch, anyone in the world should be able to learn Globish in about one week. [Jean-Paul] Nerrière's website [http://www.globish.com] . . . recommends that students use plenty of gesticulation when words fail, and listen to popular songs to aid pronunciation . . .. "'Incorrect' English can be extraordinarily rich, and non-standard forms of the language are developing outside the West in ways that are as lively and diverse as Chaucerian or Dickensian English." Examples of Globish "[Globish] dispenses with idioms, literary language and complex grammar. . . . [Nerrière's] books are about turning complicated English into useful English. For example, chat becomes speak casually to each other in Globish; and kitchen is the room in which you cook your food. Siblings, rather clumsily, are the other children of my parents. But pizza is still pizza, as it has an international currency, like taxi and police." Is Globish the Future of English? "Globish is a cultural and media phenomenon, one whose infrastructure is economic. Boom or bust, it is a story of 'Follow the money.' Globish remains based on trade, advertising and the global market. Traders in Singapore inevitably communicate in local languages at home; internationally they default to Globish. "Much gloomy American thinking about the future of its language and culture revolves around the assumption that it will inevitably become challenged by Mandarin Chinese or Spanish or even Arabic. What if the real threat--actually, no more than a challenge--is closer to home, and lies with this Globish supranational lingua franca, one that all Americans can identify with?" The Language of Europe "What language does Europe speak? France has lost its battle for French. Europeans now overwhelmingly opt for English. The Eurovision song contest, won this month by an Austrian crossdresser, is mostly English-speaking, even if the votes are translated into French. The European Union conducts ever more business in English. Interpreters sometimes feel they are speaking to themselves. Last year Germany’s president, Joachim Gauck, argued for an English-speaking Europe: national 26 

languages would be cherished for spirituality and poetry alongside 'a workable English for all of life’s situations and all age groups.' "Some detect a European form of global English (globish): a patois with English physiognomy, cross-dressed with continental cadences and syntax, a train of EU institutional jargon and sequins of linguistic false friends (mostly French). "Philippe Van Parijs, a professor at Louvain University, argues that European-level democracy does not require a homogenous culture, or ethnos; a common political community, or demos, needs only a lingua franca. . . . The answer to Europe’s democratic deficit, says Mr Van Parijs, is to accelerate the process so that English is not just the language of an elite but also the means for poorer Europeans to be heard. An approximate version of English, with a limited vocabulary of just a few hundred words, would suffice." Find information about the following concepts:  Pidgin English  Lingua Franca  Panglish  Cyberspace community language

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4. GENDER LINGUISTICS “Men don’t think and differently from women - they just make more noise about being able to.” Tamora Pierce Discuss in pairs. 1) Is there any difference between male/female speech style and male/female language? 2) What are male speech strategies? Female speech strategies? 3) What are the general features of male and female speech styles?

Basic terms: GENDER Gender is not the same thing as sex. Gender is a ‘social status and, personal identity’ (Shapiro). Gender, as a social status, varies in different cultures; it is ‘a set of values, beliefs and norms … that are created and enforced by society and assigned to individuals on the basis of birth sex’. What is considered to be masculine in one society, may be regarded as a feminine trait in another. Gender is also part of our personal identity. ‘Gender identity’ refers to ‘an individual’s sense of self as a man, woman, or alternative gender’. GENDERQUEER An umbrella term generally used by individuals to describe their gender identity when it is non-binary, or not exclusively feminine or masculine. Individuals who identify as genderqueer may identify as both male and female, neither male nor female, as different genders at different times, or as having no gender. Genderqueer identities are increasingly being recognised in legal, social and medical structures. SEX A way of categorising people based on biological characteristics. Shapiro defines sex as ‘socially interpreted meanings of chromosomes, genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics’. FEMINISM is a range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that women are treated unfairly within those societies. Efforts to change that include fighting gender stereotypes and seeking to establish educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men. SEXISM prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it systematically and primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.

Task 1 There are two basic notions in gender linguistics. What is the basic difference between GENDER and SEX in linguistics? Why? GENDER The classification of nouns into two or more classes with different grammatical properties. In many of the world’s languages, all the nouns are divided into two or more classes which require different grammatical forms on the noun and/or on certain other words grammatically linked

SEX DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE Differences between the speech of men and women. In some languages, there are very conspicuous differences between men’s and women’s speech: men and women may use different words for the same thing, they may use different grammatical endings, they may even 28 

with the noun or nouns in particular sentences. German, for example, has three gender classes, which require different forms for associated determiners and adjectives. Thus, ‘the table’ is der Tisch, ‘the pen’ is die Feder, and ‘the book’ is das Buch, where der, die, and das are all different forms of ‘the’. A gender language must have at least two gender classes, but it may have more - eight, ten, or possibly even more. In some gender languages, we can often guess from the form of a noun which gender it belongs to; in others, we can often guess from its meaning which gender it belongs to; in very many languages, however, we cannot guess, because gender assignment is arbitrary. In German, for example, a noun which denotes a male or a female usually (not always) goes into the der gender or the die gender, respectively, and nouns with certain endings usually go into a predictable gender. After that, though, the gender of the remaining nouns is impossible to guess. In Navaho, nouns denoting humans usually go into one gender, nouns denoting round things into a second gender, nouns denoting long stiff things into a third gender, and so on, but not all nouns can have their gender guessed in this way. English, it is worth pointing out, has no gender. We have a few sex-marked pronouns like he and she, and a few sex-marked nouns like duke and duchess, but we have no grammatical gender. Sociolinguists (and others) often use the term gender in a very different way, meaning roughly ‘a person’s biological sex, especially from the point of view of the associated social role’. This usage must be carefully distinguished from the strictly grammatical sense of the term. A young lady in Germany belongs to the female gender (in this second sense), but the noun Fräulein ‘young lady’ is grammatically neuter.

use different sets of consonants and vowels in their pronunciation. English has nothing quite so dramatic as this, but several decades of research have turned up some interesting differences even in English–though not all of the early claims have been substantiated by later work. For example, it has been suggested that women use more tag questions than men –as in It’s nice, isn’t it? –as if to seek approval for their opinions, but this has not been borne out by investigation. On the other hand, it does appear to be true that certain words are more typical of women, including terms of approval like cute, divine and adorable and specific colour terms like beige, burgundy and ecru. Admiring one another’s clothes is far more acceptable among women: a woman can say Julia, what an absolutely divine tunic!, but it would be decidedly unusual (in most circles, anyway) for a man to remark Those are great jeans you’re wearing, Ted. More striking still is the observation that men engage in floor-holding: one man speaks at a time, while the others remain silent and wait their turn, especially if the speaker is holding forth on a topic on which he is considered particularly knowledgeable. But women don’t do this: while one woman is speaking, the others are constantly chipping in with supporting remarks, ranging from That’s true to actually completing the speaker’s sentence for her. That is, a conversation among women is a collaborative enterprise, with all the women pulling together to construct a satisfactory discourse which is the product of all of them, while a conversation among men is rather a sequence of individual efforts.

Task 2 Read the text paying attention to the references and find out more about Gender Linguistics, history and researchers of the scientific area: BACKGROUND AND EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE AND GENDER STUDIES "In the United States during the late 1960s and early 1970s, women began to examine and critique societal practices that supported gender discrimination in consciousness-raising groups, in feminist cells, in rallies and media events (see [Alice] Echols, 1989, for a history of the women's movement in the United States). In 29 

the academy, women and a few sympathetic men started to examine the practices and methods of their disciplines, subjecting them to similar critiques for similar ends: the elimination of societal inequities based upon gender. The study of language and gender was initiated in 1975 by three books, the latter two of which have continued to significantly influence sociolinguistic work: Male/Female Language (Mary Ritchie Key), Language and Women's Place (Robin Lakoff), and Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance (Barrie Thorne and Nancy Hedley, Eds.). . . . Overly dichotomous ideas of gender pervade Western society in ways that must be challenged. Because, however, it is important that challenging exaggerated notions of difference does not simply result in women assimilating to male, or mainstream, norms, feminist scholars must simultaneously document and describe the value of attitudes and behaviors long considered 'feminine.' In doing so, feminist scholars challenge their exclusive association with women and point out their value for all people." (Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny, "Language and Gender." Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching, ed. by Sandra Lee McKay and Nacy H. Hornberger. Cambridge University Press, 1996) "In the first phase of language/gender research, many of us were eager to piece together an overall portrayal of differences in the speech of women and men. We invented notions like 'genderlect' to provide overall characterizations of sex differences in speech. The 'genderlect' portrayal now seems too abstract and overdrawn, implying that there are differences in the basic codes used by women and men, rather than variably occurring differences, and similarities." (Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae, and Nancy Henley, 1983; quoted by Mary Crawford in Talking Difference: On Gender and Language. SAGE, 1995) "Interactional sociolinguistics [IS] serves as one of many theoretical orientations that have been drawn on to investigate gender and communication. The pioneering study of Maltz and Borker provided a starting point for [Deborah] Tannen's writing on language and gender in which Tannen investigates interactions between women and men as a kind of cross-cultural communication and firmly establishes IS as a useful approach to gendered interaction. Her general audience book You Just Don't Understand offers insights into everyday communication rituals of speakers of both genders. Much like Lakoff's Language and Women's Place, Tannen's work has fueled both academic and popular interest in the topic. In fact, language and gender research 'exploded' in the 1990s and continues to be a topic receiving a great deal of attention from researchers using various theoretical and methodological perspectives." (Cynthia Gordon, "Gumperz and Interactional Sociolinguistics." The SAGE Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by Ruth Wodak, Barbara Johnstone, and Paul Kerswill. SAGE, 2011) "Language and gender studies have seen significant expansion to encompass sexual orientation, ethnicity and multilingualism, and, to some extent, class, involving analyses of spoken, written, and signed gendered identities." (Mary Talbot, Language and Gender, 2nd ed. Polity Press, 2010)

Task 3 Read the text and discuss the main difference between male and female speech strategies. Do you agree with the information? Observations of the differences between the way males and females speak were long restricted to grammatical features, such as the differences between masculine and feminine in morphology in many languages. However, in the 1970s women researchers started looking at how a linguistic code transmitted sexist values and bias. Robin Lakoff’s work (Language and woman’s place,1975) is an example of this. The author raised questions such as: Do women have a more restricted vocabulary than men? Do they use more adjectives? Are their sentences incomplete? Do they use more ‘superficial’ words? Consequently, researchers started to investigate empirically both bias in the language and the differential usage of the code by men and women. Men and women use language differently. Differences in the choice of vocabulary, grammatical patterns, prosodic means are distinct enough to speak of male and female speech styles. The existence 30 

of the two speech styles is the linguistic reflection of social relations: until recently men have exercised more power in society and the tendency is still rather strong. Men’s verbal behaviour is more aggressive as it is supposed to demonstrate a position of dominance. Women were assigned a submissive role both in the workplace and at home, which accounts for more co-operative and less aggressive female speech strategies. Basic male speech strategies Basic female speech strategies  initiating and receiving more verbal and  supporting and maintaining conversation non-verbal interaction than women; rather than initiating it o by asking more questions,  introducing more topics while talking with o by encouraging the speaker to other people; proceed,  interrupting and disputing more o by responding more to other people’s frequently; remarks;  giving monosyllabic responses;  being more positive than males;  ignoring another person’s remarks;  making one’s point directly, explicitly, and  being verbose;  being emotive rather than objective; rationally;  being less dogmatic than males.  being dogmatic;  being reserved. While speaking, men rely more on the lexical and grammatical systems; alongside these two, women make effective use of the prosodic system − their pitch range is usually wider than men’s, stress patterns are more distinct. Vocabulary and syntactic structures of male Vocabulary and syntactic structures of female speech speech  slang,  effect and emotively charged words,  obscene words,  exclamations,  terms,  intensifiers (so, such, etc.),  simple, sometimes incorrect  diminutive forms and terms of sentences. endearment,  deferential forms,  socially prestigious lexical and syntactic forms,  forms of politeness,  tag questions,  coordinate and subordinate syntactic structures. These are but the most general features of male and female styles of speech. The lists are far from being complete; there are, of course, many exceptions, individual, social, and stylistic variations. Discuss in pairs. 1. How do you understand the terms “powerful speech” and “powerless speech”? 2. Can you give any characteristics of “powerful speech” and “powerless speech” (e.g. powerful speech – direct, logical, …; powerless speech – broken sentences, apologies, phrases that disclaim responsibility, …). 3. Do you have any associations between powerful/powerless speech and male/female speech styles? Why? Why not?

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Task 4 Read the text and answer the questions given below. In communication, the system of male/female speech styles overlaps with that of powerful/powerless speech. Forms of powerless speech are tag questions, hedges, apologies, phrases that disclaim responsibility (for example, I’m not sure), exclamations, forms of politeness, broken sentences, illogical sequences. Powerful speech is supposed to be clear, direct, and logical. The association between powerless speech and female speech styles reinforces the old gender stereotype of women as weaker and less competent members of society. Though in communication, the gender factor is not sufficient to understand how powerful or powerless a person is. We have to take into account a broad range of factors:  social factors − positions and roles of communicators; their origin; educational, occupational, professional, financial status; social distance between them;  situational context − setting and time of interaction, formal/informal context of interaction;  physiological factors – the speaker’s sex, age, physical condition;  psychological factors − state of mind, mood, attitudes, feelings, emotions, close/friendly/casual/formal relationship between communicators;  type of discourse − business, academic, political, conversational discourse, etc.; themes, topics discussed; formal/informal style, etc.;  pragmatic factors − speakers’ goals, intentions, strategies, etc.;  communicative competence of the speaker. The same person can use different styles in different speech situations. Let us consider the speech styles of Dumbledore and McGonagall, the characters of the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling. Professor Dumbledore, the Headmaster of Hogwarts School, is old and experienced; his wisdom, expertise, understanding of human nature are unrivalled. He does not have to be strict with his teachers or students, but his politeness is never mistaken for softness. Dumbledore’s verbal strategies are not meant to demonstrate his power, but both friends and enemies know that he is a very powerful man. Professor McGonagall, a female character, is explicitly described as a very stern person; students feel at once that she is not someone to cross. To characterize McGonagall’s speech style, Rowling often uses words and expressions such as snorted, barked, said tartly, said sharply, voice cracked like a whip. McGonagall’s reputation and professional standing are high; her curt style of speech is rather associated with that of men − it suggests competence and confidence. Yet when Dumbledore is treacherously killed, we see a different McGonagall. Similarly, when Harry is in dead peril, her speech style is different. Her confidence is gone, her speech shows every sign of powerlessness − broken sentences, hedges (I can’t believe it, I mean, I don’t think), expressions that disclaim responsibility (I don’t know exactly how …) hesitations, semantic and lexical repetitions, self-accusations, excuses, and explanations. Therefore, male/female speech style is not synonymous with powerful/powerless speech. The choice of style depends on who people talk to, on when and where they communicate, on what they say, and why they say it Answer the questions. 1. What is powerful/powerless language? 2. How is this notion different from the notion of male/female speech style? 3. What factors account for the use of powerful or powerless language in communication?

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Task 5 Read the text. Do you agree with the statement from the title? Can you find out key remarks of male speech? WOMEN’S SPEECH IS LESS DIRECT/ASSERTIVE THAN MEN’S In 1975, Robin Lakoff published an influential account of women’s language in her book entitled Language and Woman’s Place. In another article she published a set of basic assumptions about what marks the language of women. Among them she made some claims that women: • Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”, and so on. • Use (super)polite forms: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”. • Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?” • Speak in italics: intonational emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite. • Use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on • Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear enunciation. • Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often. • Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colors, men for sports. • Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?” • Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”) • Speak less frequently • Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I think that...”) • Apologize more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”) • Use modal constructions: (such as can, would, should, ought - “Should we turn up the heat?”) • Avoid coarse language or expletives • Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “My, isn't it cold in here?” - really a request to turn the heat on or close a window) • Use more intensifiers: especially so and very (for instance, “I am so glad you came!”) • Lack a sense of humor: women do not tell jokes well and often don't understand the punch line of jokes. Holmes (2001) and O´Barr and Atkins (1998) have both constructed similar lists of Lakoff’s work on “women’s language”. As can be noted, some of these statements are easier to verify by investigation and observation than others. It is easy to count the frequency with which tag questions or modal verbs occur.

Task 6 Read the text. What do you think of maleness in language? Feminist language? SEXIST LANGUAGE Language which, deliberately or unconsciously, is patronizing or contemptuous towards one sex, usually women. Sexism, of course, is not specifically a linguistic issue, but it shows up in languages in various ways, some of them rather deeply embedded. Almost without exception, sexist usages are patronizing of women. Here are a few examples. As is well known, English has only the sex-marked singular pronouns he and she, and hence a speaker addressing or talking about a mixed group has a problem: Somebody has forgotten his umbrella is sexist, while Somebody has forgotten his or her umbrella is almost unbearably clumsy. In this case, popular speech 33 

usually solves the problem by using their. Somebody has forgotten their umbrella. But some people find this distasteful, and it doesn’t really work very well in cases like Any student who considers themself adequately prepared is requested to present themself for their oral examination. Many pairs of sex-marked words have developed very differently. A master is a powerful or skilful man; a mistress is a woman kept for sexual purposes. A courtier is a polished man of high social status; a courtesan is just an up-market whore. There is nothing wrong with calling a man a bachelor, but calling a woman a spinster is contemptuous. Even a single word may behave differently: in American English, at least, when you call a man a pro, you mean that he is experienced, competent and reliable; when you call a woman a pro, you mean she’s a prostitute. The female suffix -ess causes particular problems: a man is a poet, while a woman is (perhaps) only a poetess. But there are many other such cases. Men play golf and cricket, while women play women’s golf and women’s cricket. A man can be a doctor, but a woman must often be a woman doctor. We are surprised when a professor or an engineer turns out to be a woman, or when a secretary or a model turns out to be a man (and male model is commonly used in this last case). A conference centre in Liverpool, noting that a sailors’ conference and a nurses’ conference were booked for the same week, put on a disco, which proved to be a disaster: all the sailors were men, and so were all the nurses. Among the most blatant examples of all are the following, both genuine: The assailant attacked his next-door neighbour’s wife (the woman was not his neighbour?); The pioneers trekked across the prairies with their cattle, their seed-corn and their wives (the wives were only there to cook, clean, sew and raise the children while their husbands were busy pioneering?). Once rarely remarked on, sexist language has been drawing the fire of feminists for several decades now, and a number of linguists have turned their attention to the issue. Attempts at stamping out sexist usages have enjoyed some success, and terms like fireman, postman and chairman are now commonly replaced by firefighter, letter carrier and chairperson (or simply chair); similarly, the use of man or men to denote human beings in general is slowly giving way to human beings or humans. But cases like manhole and man-eating tiger are more refractory. Sexism in proverbs Proverbs are certain condensation of one language. Therefore, the sexism can be reflected perfectly in proverbs. In an English proverb, “He who follows his wife's advice will never see the face of god.” We can clearly feel the wicked underlines by which men stretch their prejudice towards women. But this is not the end, we have something even worse, like: 1. A neck without a head, buttocks without a hole and a girl without shame are not worth admiring or marrying. 2. A woman has even cheated the devil. 3. A woman is like a lemon; you squeeze her and throw her away. 4. Seven women in their right senses are surpassed by a mad man. 5. Women have got long hair and short sense. 6. A woman’s tongue cracks bones. Not only in English, but also in many other languages, women are the victims of evil intentioned jokes or proverbs. Afghan jokes and folklore are blatantly sexist, such as this proverb: ‘If you see an old man, sit down and take a lesson; if you see an old woman, throw a stone.’ Could you find out more examples of feminisms and sexism in English language? Your mother tongue?

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5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS "Psycholinguistics is a scientific discipline whose goal is a coherent theory of the way in which language is produced and understood." Alan Garnham Express your opinion on the following quotation: “Language comes first. It is not that language grows out of consciousness, if you haven’t got language, you can’t be conscious.” (Alan Moore)

Basic terms: LANGUAGE PROCESSING LEXICAL STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PSYCHOLINGUISTIC EXPERIMENT

reading, writing, speaking, listening and memory. For instance, how words on paper are turned into meaning in the mind. the way words are stored in our minds and used. The ability to map words onto objects such as ‘ball’ and actions such as ‘kick’ and ‘love’ and access these when needed. how language is first learnt and used by children. For example, learning the rules of grammar and how to communicate with other people. is an active method of empirical knowledge the aim of which is to study the processes of speech activity; as a rule, it is organized in artificially created conditions when the respondents / interviewees are given some tasks under the control of the experimenter. how internal and external factors can impact language development

SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES THE BRAIN AND evolutionary explanations of why humans have the capacity to use language, and LANGUAGE the parts of the brain concerned with different areas of language, also considering whether or not non-human animals have the ability to use language too SPEECH a process of extracting the meaning behind the external form of speech utterances. PERCEPTION The perception and understanding of the grammatical form of speech organization requires knowledge of the linguistic patterns of its construction. The perception level reflects both the sequence of speech signal processing and the level nature of the construction of voice messages THINKING the process of thinking about something, creating an image or the emergence of ideas. MENTAL LEXICON is among the intensively developed problems of psycholinguistics. The mental lexicon is the whole body of knowledge of a person about words, their meanings and interrelations among themselves. It is arranged according to the rules that reflect the phonological, spelling and semantic characteristics of words. It is assumed that the search for a word in the mental lexicon depends not only on these internal characteristics of the word, but also on external ones, such as the frequency of the use of the word and the influence of the context. The main questions that psycholinguists are trying to find answers to are questions about how the lexical access to the dictionary entry is performed in the mental lexicon and how word recognition occurs UNDERSTANDING is deciphering the general meaning behind the directly perceived speech flow; it is the process of transforming perceived speech into its underlying meaning PROTO LANGUAGE the primary pre-verbal communication system. Note again that the proto-language has a non-verbal paralinguistic nature. It consists of gestures, mimic movements, manipulations with objects, non-speech sounds, etc

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Task 1 Read the text and answer the questions given below. Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental processes and skills underlying the production and comprehension of language, and of the acquisition of these skills. Psycholinguists consider the skilled human language user as a complex information-processing system. Their aim is to account for the user’s acquisition, production and comprehension of language in terms of the various components of this system and their interactions. The production of language is commonly viewed as involving the following main component processes. (a) conceptualizing: a conscious planning activity in which a communicative intention guides the construction of one or more messages. (b) formulating: generating natural language representations for messages. (c) articulating: executing the articulatory plan as a sequence of articulatory gestures. Language users are to some extent able to monitor and edit their own linguistic output, either before or after it is overtly articulated. Self-monitoring probably involves the language comprehension system. Language comprehension comprises at least the following component processes:  perceptual (auditory or visual) decoding: mapping linguistic input (connected speech, a stream of manual signs, or a string of printed words) onto some code that can be linguistically parsed. The nature of these codes in the different linguistic modalities is controversial. Parsing involves segmenting and recognizing words (phonological and morphological decoding, and accessing the mental lexicon), as well as assigning syntactic and semantic structure.  interpreting: inferring the intended meaning by identifying referents and computing a conceptual representation for the utterance on the basis of the result of parsing, along with prosody and contextual information. Ideally, the producer's intended meaning is derived and integrated in the developing discourse model. The production and comprehension systems are highly integrated in a skilled language user. In normal conversational dialog, conceptualizing and interpreting are two essential aspects of the same purposeful behavior: the negotiation of meaning between interlocutors. Attentional resources are shared between planning and interpreting utterances. In addition, the mental lexicon – the repository of a language user's words with their meanings and forms – is largely shared between the production and comprehension systems, as is grammatical and phonological knowledge. Psycholinguists study the kinds of representations that are computed by the various processing components (in particular, whether these correspond to representations in linguistic theory), and how these computations are executed in real time. It is a matter of much controversy to what degree the component processes are mutually independent; theories range from modular to interactive. Less controversial is that skilled language use involves a high degree of automaticity; the user’s attention can usually be limited to planning and interpretation. Since the other component processes are largely automatized, they can run in parallel and at high speed. Because the main empirical method in the study of language production and comprehension is experimentation, this part of the discipline is also called experimental psycholinguistics. Developmental psycholinguistics studies the acquisition of language be it the mother tongue or a second language. Its methods are both observational – using, in particular, the analysis of longitudinal corpora – and experimental. The aim is to account for the acquisition of natural language skills on the basis of the learner’s initial state of knowledge, the nature of the input, and the learner's inductive abilities. Psycholinguists have a vested interest in disorders of language, in particular aphasia and dyslexia. This is because malfunctions can reveal much about the architecture of the language processing system, and about the neurological implementation of natural language skills.

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Answer the questions. 1. What is psycholinguistics? 2. What is the main aim of this area of research? 3. How is the production of language commonly viewed? 4. What is understood by language comprehension? 5. What are the relations between the production and comprehension systems? 6. What is understood by language acquisition? Discuss in pairs. 1. What are the main areas of research in psycholinguistics? 2. What are the main trends in the modern psycholinguistic science?

Task 2 Read the information and discuss the main areas of psycholinguistic research. What areas you consider to be the most attractive? The goals and objectives of psycholinguistic research are:  the production (generation) of speech in an individual speech act;  speech perception in an individual speech act;  the formation of speech in the process of human ontogenesis;  the analysis of the linguistic consciousness as a system of images;  models of speech (psycholinguistic) activity of an individual;  experimental verification of the created models of an individual speech activity;  text as an object of psycholinguistics;  pathological deviations of the speech formation;  psycholinguistic units of speech perception;  the stages of generation and understanding speech statements;  psycholinguistic basics of language teaching (native and foreign languages);  speech education of preschoolers and questions of speech therapy. Discuss in pairs 1. What is Linguistics Behaviour? 2. What is psycholinguistics and its scope? 3. What does psycholinguistics study? 4. Which psychologists are associated with language development?

Task 3 Read the information. Were your suggestions right? What else have you found out about behavioural psycholinguistics?  PSYCHOLINGUISTICS OF WORD MEANINGS Behavioural psycholinguistic experiments can give us some insights into how word meanings are represented in the mind. The results of these experiments suggest that prototypes and fuzzy categories do play a part in our mental representations of word meanings, and that related word meanings are connected to each other in our minds. In the last unit, we suggested that intensions for word meanings might be organized in our minds in fuzzy categories. Our minds construct categories of things based on our experience in the world: each time we encounter an extension of a word, we count it as an exemplar in that fuzzy category. There is some evidence from psychology and psycholinguistics that our mind really does represent a difference between prototypical category members and peripheral members. For lots of 37 

categories, we have some instincts about what kinds of exemplars are prototypical and what kinds are peripheral. When we give somebody the name of a category and ask them to name an exemplar, people from a given language community are remarkably alike in the first things they name as exemplars. If your mental grammar for English is like mine, then perhaps your prototypical bird is a robin, your prototypical fruit is an apple, and your prototypical tool is a hammer. In a behavioural study of word recognition, participants saw a word appear on a screen and had to say the word out loud. This is called a rapid naming task. Some of the words referred to prototypical exemplars of their particular category and some of them referred to peripheral exemplars. The prototypical and peripheral exemplars were all mixed up in the experiment, but when the researchers measured how fast people had been able to name the word that they saw, the found that people were faster to name the prototypes than the peripheral exemplars. The same researchers used these words in a lexical decision task. In this kind of task, a word appears briefly on a screen, and the person’s job is just to decide whether it’s a word or not, and say Yes or No. So if the word pants appears on the screen, you would say “Yes”, because it’s a real word in English. But if pfonc appears, you say “no”, because that’s not a word of English. What the researchers found in the lexical decision experiment was, again, that people are fast to make a decision about a word if it refers to a prototypical category member, and slower to make the decision if the word refers to a peripheral member. These findings indicate that the process of recognizing a word is easier and faster if that word refers to a prototype. We can interpret these findings to mean that our intensions for categories are made up of exemplars and that prototypical exemplars have a privileged position in our intensions. So that’s a couple of examples of psycholinguistic tasks we can use to observe how words are processed in our minds: a simple naming task, and a lexical decision task. There’s an additional task that we can combine with each of these, to allow us to investigate relationships between different words. That task is called priming. A primed lexical decision task works like this: First, a word appears on the screen for a very short length of time: that word is called the prime. The prime disappears, and then a second word appears on the screen. This word is the target, and the participant makes a lexical decision about the target. The prime word can have an influence on how quickly people make their lexical decision about the target word. For example, in one condition, the prime might be doctor and the target nurse. In another condition, the prime could be apple and the target nurse. As you might expect, people are faster to make their lexical decision to nurse when it’s primed by doctor than when it’s primed by apple. When we observe this faster lexical decision, we interpret that to mean that these two words are connected to each other in our minds. Over the years, psychologists and psycholinguists have conducted thousands of experiments on priming, and the results of these experiments show us how words are related to each other in our minds. The scientific literature has shown priming between words that are members of the same category, for words that are synonyms, antonyms, and even for words that describe things that share attributes. For example, an orange and a baseball aren’t members of the same category, but they’re both spheres, so they can prime each other. Looking at all these and many other priming effects, we can conclude that those semantic relationships play an important role in how the meanings of a word are organized in our minds.

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Task 4 Read the information about language acquisition. Does it differ from child to adult?  WHAT IS LANGUAGE ACQUISITION? For children learning their native language, linguistic competence develops in stages, from babbling to one word to two word, then telegraphic speech. Babbling is now considered the earliest form of language acquisition because infants will produce sounds based on what language input they receive. One word sentences (holophrastic speech) are generally monosyllabic in consonant-vowel clusters. During two word stage, there are no syntactic or morphological markers, no inflections for plural or past tense, and pronouns are rare, but the intonation contour extends over the whole utterance. Telegraphic speech lacks function words and only carries the open class content words, so that the sentences sound like a telegram. The three theories of language acquisition: imitation, reinforcement and analogy, do not explain very well how children acquire language. Imitation does not work because children produce sentences never heard before, such as "cat stand up table." Even when they try to imitate adult speech, children cannot generate the same sentences because of their limited grammar. And children who are unable to speak still learn and understand the language, so that when they overcome their speech impairment they immediately begin speaking the language. Reinforcement also does not work because it actually seldomly occurs and when it does, the reinforcement is correcting pronunciation or truthfulness, and not grammar. A sentence such as "apples are purple" would be corrected more often because it is not true, as compared to a sentence such as "apples is red" regardless of the grammar. Analogy also cannot explain language acquisition. Analogy involves the formation of sentences or phrases by using other sentences as samples. If a child hears the sentence, "I painted a red barn," he can say, by analogy, "I painted a blue barn." Yet if he hears the sentence, "I painted a barn red," he cannot say "I saw a barn red." The analogy did not work this time, and this is not a sentence of English. The "Innateness Hypothesis" of child language acquisition, proposed by Noam Chomsky, states that the human species is pre-wired to acquire language, and that the kind of language is also determined. Many factors have led to this hypothesis such as the ease and rapidity of language acquisition despite impoverished input as well as the uniformity of languages. All children will learn a language, and children will also learn more than one language if they are exposed to it. Children follow the same general stages when learning a language, although the linguistic input is widely varied. The poverty of the stimulus states that children seem to learn or know the aspects of grammar for which they receive no information. In addition, children do not produce sentences that could not be sentences in some human language. The principles of Universal Grammar underlie the specific grammars of all languages and determine the class of languages that can be acquired unconsciously without instruction. It is the genetically determined faculty of the left hemisphere, and there is little doubt that the brain is specially equipped for acquisition of human language. The "Critical Age Hypothesis" suggests that there is a critical age for language acquisition without the need for special teaching or learning. During this critical period, language learning proceeds quickly and easily. After this period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult, and for some people, never fully achieved. Cases of children reared in social isolation have been used for testing the critical age hypothesis. None of the children who had little human contact were able to speak any language once reintroduced into society. Even the children who received linguistic input after being reintroduced to society were unable to fully develop language skills. These cases of isolated 39 

children, and of deaf children, show that humans cannot fully acquire any language to which they are exposed unless they are within the critical age. Beyond this age, humans are unable to acquire much of syntax and inflectional morphology. At least for humans, this critical age does not pertain to all of language, but to specific parts of the grammar.

Task 5 Read the information about language acquisition of children. Answer the questions after the text. IS THE LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS THE SAME FOR ALL CHILDREN? All children acquire language in the same way, regardless of what language they use or the number of languages they use. Acquiring a language is like learning to play a game. Children must learn the rules of the language game, for example how to articulate words and how to put them together in ways that are acceptable to the people around them. In order to understand child language acquisition, we need to keep two very important things in mind: First, children do not use language like adults, because children are not adults. Acquiring language is a gradual, lengthy process, and one that involves a lot of apparent 'errors'. We will see below that these 'errors' are in fact not errors at all, but a necessary part of the process of language acquisition. That is, they shouldn't be corrected, because they will disappear in time. Second, children will learn to speak the dialect(s) and language(s) that are used around them. Children usually begin by speaking like their parents or caregivers, but once they start to mix with other children (especially from the age of about 3 years) they start to speak like friends their own age. You cannot control the way your children speak: they will develop their own accents and they will learn the languages they think they need. If you don't like the local accent, you'll either have to put up with it or move to somewhere with an accent you like! On the other hand, if you don't like your own accent, and prefer the local one, you will be happy. A child will also learn the local grammar: 'He done it'; 'She never go there'; 'My brother happy' and so on are all examples of non-standard grammar found in some places where English is spoken. These might be judged wrong in school contexts (and all children will have to learn the standard version in school) but if adults in the child's community use them, they are not "wrong" in child language. These examples show that different dialects of English have their own rules. The same is of course true of other languages and their own dialects. In what follows, examples are in English, because that is the language in which this article is written, although the child strategies illustrated in the examples apply to any language and to any combination of languages that your child may be learning. Answer the questions. 1. What are the stages of child language acquisition? 2. What are the four stages of language acquisition? 3. How a child acquires his first language? 4. What do mean by language acquisition explain with examples? For further reading:  David Crystal's book Listen to your Child: A Parent's Guide to Children's Language (Penguin, 1989) offers a very accessible and very entertaining account of what children do with their own language learning.  Eve Clark's book First Language Acquisition (Cambridge University Press, 2003) is a comprehensive -- and more technical -- account of child language development.  The Learning Disabilities website lists typical milestones in cognitive, linguistic and social development. 40 

Task 6 Read the text about PARALANGUAGE and PARALINGUISTICS. What else do you find out about paralinguistics as an area of psycholinguistics?   PARALINGUISTICS Paralinguistics is the study of vocal (and sometimes non-vocal) signals beyond the basic verbal message or speech. Also known as vocalics. Paralinguistics, says Shirley Weitz, "sets great store on how something is said, not on what is said". Paralanguage includes accent, pitch, volume, speech rate, modulation, and fluency. Some researchers also include certain nonvocal phenomena under the heading of paralanguage: facial expressions, eye movements, hand gestures, and the like. "The boundaries of paralanguage," says Peter Matthews, "are (unavoidably) imprecise" (Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics). Although paralinguistics was once described as the "neglected stepchild" in language studies, linguists and other researchers have recently demonstrated greater interest in the field. Researchers Observations:  "We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our entire bodies.... Paralinguistic phenomena occur alongside spoken language, interact with it, and produce together with it a total system of communication.... The study of paralinguistic behavior is part of the study of conversation: the conversational use of spoken language cannot be properly understood unless paralinguistic elements are taken into account." (David Abercrombie, Elements of General Phonetics, 1968)  "Paralinguistics is commonly referred to as that which is left after subtracting the verbal content from speech. The simple cliche, language is what is said, paralanguage is how it is said, can be misleading because frequently how something is said determines the precise meaning of what is said." (Owen Hargie, Christine Saunders, and David Dickson, Social Skills in Interpersonal Communication, 3rd ed. Routledge, 1994)  Loudness in Different Cultures "A simple example of the adverse effects of paralinguistics is quoted in [Edward T.] Hall concerning the loudness with which one speaks. In Saudi Arabian cultures, in discussions among equals, the men attain a decibel level that would be considered aggressive, objectionable and obnoxious in the United States. Loudness connotes strength and sincerity among Arabs; a soft tone implies weakness and deviousness. Personal status also modulates voice tone. Lower classes lower their voices. Thus, if a Saudi Arab shows respect to an American he lowers his voice. Americans 'ask' people to talk more loudly by raising their own voices. The Arab then has his status confirmed and thus talks even more quietly. Both are misreading the cues!" (Colin Lago, Race, Culture And Counselling, 2nd ed. Open University Press, 2006)  Vocal and Nonvocal Phenomena "The more technical discussion of what is loosely described as tone of voice involves the recognition of a whole set of variations in the features of voice dynamics: loudness, tempo, pitch fluctuation, continuity, etc... It is a matter of everyday observation that a speaker will tend to speak more loudly and at an unusually high pitch when he is excited or angry (or, in certain situations, when he is merely simulating anger and thus, for whatever purpose, deliberately communicating false information).... Among the most obvious non-vocal phenomena classifiable as paralinguistic, and having a modulating, as well as punctuating, function is the nodding of the head (in certain cultures) with or without an accompanying utterance indicative of assent or agreement.... One general point that has been continually stressed in the literature is that both the vocal and nonvocal phenomena are to a considerable extent learned rather than instinctive and differ from language to language (or, perhaps one should say, from culture to culture)." (John Lyons, Semantics, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 1977)  Detecting Sarcasm Based on Paralinguistic Cues "There was nothing very interesting in Katherine Rankin's study of sarcasm–at least, nothing worth your important time. All she did was use 41 

an M.R.I. to find the place in the brain where the ability to detect sarcasm resides. But then, you probably already knew it was in the right parahippocampal gyrus... "Dr. Rankin, a neuropsychologist and assistant professor in the Memory and Aging Center at the University of California, San Francisco, used an innovative test developed in 2002, the Awareness of Social Inference Test, or Tasit. It incorporates videotaped examples of exchanges in which a person’s words seem straightforward enough on paper, but are delivered in a sarcastic style so ridiculously obvious to the able-brained that they seem lifted from a sitcom. "'I was testing people’s ability to detect sarcasm based entirely on paralinguistic cues, the manner of expression,' Dr. Rankin said... "To her surprise, . . . the magnetic resonance scans revealed that the part of the brain lost among those who failed to perceive sarcasm was not in the left hemisphere of the brain, which specializes in language and social interactions, but in a part of the right hemisphere previously identified as important only to detecting contextual background changes in visual tests. "'The right parahippocampal gyrus must be involved in detecting more than just visual context–it perceives social context as well,' Dr. Rankin said." (Dan Hurley, "The Science of Sarcasm (Not That You Care)." The New York Times, June 3, 2008)

Task 7 Read the following information and find out more about connection between brain zones and language. Find information about neurolinguistics.  THE MYSTERIES OF BROCA'S AREA AND SPEECH Broca's area is one of the main areas of the cerebral cortex responsible for producing language. This region of the brain was named for French neurosurgeon Paul Broca who discovered the function of this area during the 1850s while examining the brains of patients with language difficulties. Language Motor Functions Broca's area is found in the forebrain division of the brain. In directional terms, Broca's area is located in the lower portion of the left frontal lobe, and it controls motor functions involved with speech production and language comprehension. In earlier years, people with damage to Broca's area of the brain were believed to be able to understand language, but only have problems with forming words or speaking fluently. But, later studies show that damage to Broca's area can also affect language comprehension. The anterior part of Broca's area has been found to be responsible for understanding the meaning of words, in linguistics, this is known as semantics. The posterior part of Broca's area has been found to be responsible for understanding how words sound, known as phonology in linguistic terms. Primary Functions of Broca's Area Speech production Facial neuron control Language processing Broca's area is connected to another brain region known as Wernicke's area. Wernicke's area is considered the area where the actual understanding of language occurs. Brain's System of Language Processing Speech and language processing are complex functions of the brain. Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and the angular gyrus of the brain are all connected and work together in speech and language comprehension. Broca's area is connected to another language area of the brain known as Wernicke's area via a group of nerve fiber bundles called the arcuate fasciculus. Wernicke's area, located in the temporal lobe, processes both written and spoken language. Another brain area associated with language is called the angular gyrus. This area receives touch sensory information from the parietal lobe, visual information from the occipital lobe, and auditory information from the temporal lobe. The angular gyrus helps us utilize different types of sensory information to comprehend language. Damage to Broca's area of the brain results in a condition called Broca's aphasia. If you have Broca's aphasia, you will likely have difficulty with speech production. For example, if you have 42 

Broca's aphasia you may know what you want to say, but have difficulty verbalizing it. If you have a stutter, this language processing disorder is usually associated with underactivity in Broca's area. If you have Broca's aphasia, your speech may be slow, not grammatically correct, and consists primarily of simple words. For example, "Mom. Milk. Store." A person with Broca's aphasia is trying to say something like, "Mom went to go get milk at the store," or "Mom, we need milk. Go to the store." Conduction aphasia is a subset of Broca's aphasia where there is damage to the nerve fibers that connect Broca's area to Wernicke's area. If you have conduction aphasia, you may have difficulty repeating words or phrases properly, but you are able to comprehend language and speak coherently. Discuss in pairs. 1. What are the parts of the brain that work together for language processing? 2. Learn the Basic Anatomy of the Brain 3. Find out information about The Brain's Frontal Lobes: Centers for Personality and Cognition 4. What is Neurolinguistics?

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6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS “Language both reflects and shapes society. Little wonder that the words we used to talk to each other, and about each other, are the most important words in our language; they tell us who I am, they tell us who you are, they tell us who ‘they’ are.”

Rosalie Maggio Discuss in pairs. 1. Do you this that society can have a considerable impact on the language? Why? Why not? 2. What are the reasons for language variations in society?

Basic terms: ACCENT

BILINGUALISM

CODE SWITCHING

DIALECT

IDIOLECT INTERFERENCE

SOCIOLECT

1) Strictly speaking this refers to the pronunciation of a dialect, i.e. it is a reference to the collection of phonetic features which allow a speaker to be identified regionally or socially. It is frequently used to indicate that a given speaker does not speak the standard form of a language. The term is used in German to refer to grammatical features as well. 2) The stress placed on a syllable of a word or the type of stress used by a language (pressure or pitch). The ability to speak two languages with native-like competence. In every individual case one language will be dominant. Lay people often use the term if someone can simply speak a second language well. Moving from one language to another within a single sentence or phrase. This is a phenomenon found among bilinguals who feel it is appropriate to change languages (or dialects in some cases) – perhaps to say something which can only be said in the language switched to. Code-switching is governed by fairly strict rules concerning the points in a sentence at which one can change over. A traditional term referring to a variety of a language spoken in a certain place. There are urban and rural dialects. The boundaries between dialects are always gradual. The term dialect is used to denote a geographically distinct variety of a language. Two major points in this connection should be noted: 1) 'dialect' does not refer to the social or temporal aspect of language and 2) the term 'dialect' makes no reference to the standard variety of a language. In connection with the latter point it is important to stress that the standard of a language is nothing more than a dialect which achieved special political and social status at some stage in the past and which has been extensively codified orthographically. The language of an individual as opposed to that of a group. The transfer of certain phenomena from one language to another where they are not considered grammatical. This may happen on an individual level (during second language learning, for example) or collectively in which case it often leads to language change. A variety of a language which is typical of a certain class. Sociolects are most common in urban areas. In history, sociolects may play a role, e.g. in the formation of the English standard, Received Pronunciation, which derives from a city dialect (that of London in the late Middle Ages) but which has long since become a sociolect (Cockney being the dialect of London nowadays).

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Task 1 Read the text and answer the questions given below. Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,  including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society's effect on language. Sociolinguistics aims to study the effects of language use within and upon societies and the reciprocal effects of social organization and social contexts on language use. In contemporary theoretical perspectives, sociolinguists view language and society as being mutually constitutive: each influences the other in ways that are inseparable and complex. Language is imbued with and carries social, cultural, and personal meaning. Through the use of linguistic markers, speakers symbolically define self and society. Simply put, language is not merely content; rather, it is something that we do, and it affects how we act and interact as social beings in the world. The study of language and society – sociolinguistics – can be dated to about the middle of the twentieth century. Before that there were authors who commented on how language use was influenced or indeed guided by socially relevant factors, such as class, profession, age or gender. Indeed the father of modern linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure, saw language as a type of social behaviour and in this he reflected French sociological thinking of his day, above all that of his contemporary Emile Durkheim. But a set of independent, objective principles, in short a methodology for investigating social factors in language use, was not available until some decades after the advent of Saussurean structuralism. The development of sociolinguistics is bound up with the activity of American and British linguists since the early 1960s. First and foremost of these is William Labov who, in a pioneering investigation of the English of New York city published in 1966, arrived at many new conclusions concerning language variation and language change. Answer the questions. 1. What is sociolinguistics? 2. What is the main aim of this branch of linguistics? 3. What are the relations between language and society? 4. What is the historical background of sociolinguistics?

Task 2 Divide into groups. Each group reads a certain part of the information given below. After reading be ready to explain the main ideas of each part to other students. Be ready to discuss and give examples. Part 1: Sociolinguistics and language change When a system is dynamic and shows movement, there is change. This truism applies to language as much as it does to any other area. During the heyday of historical linguistics, in the nineteenth century, change which had taken place over the centuries was described in great detail. However, the mechanisms of language change, were only partially considered. Only internal change in sound systems and grammar were investigated. But the large area of externally motivated change, determined by currents in society, was never given its due recognition. With the advent of sociolinguistics, the process of language change became the subject of close scrutiny. Sociolinguists maintained that the minute shifts in language use which can be observed in contemporary societies are, in accumulation, no different from the large-scale changes observed over centuries. Sociolinguistics has provided insights not just into the course of language change in society, but also into its motivation. One powerful motive is the desire of individuals to make their speech more like that of a group they aspire to. Typically, this could involve a higher social class, an urban dialect 45   

vis a vis a rural one, the language of a powerful neighbour vis a vis that of a smaller country. Changing one’s language to make it more like that of another group is called accommodation: speakers attempt, in face to face interaction, to approximate their speech to that of their partners in conversation most probably to increase their acceptance by the group who language features are being adopted. Such accommodation can be short-term or long-term. If the latter, and if it is community-wide, then it can lead to language change. The reverse side of the coin is dissociation where speakers attempt to make their speech more different from that of a group they wish to distance themselves from. In both accommodation and dissociation, speakers are normally not aware of the alterations to their language which they make, i.e. one is dealing here with unconscious linguistic behaviour. Part 2: Social networks Understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the social networks in which language is embedded. A social network is another way of describing a particular speech community in terms of relations between individual members in a community. Networks can be defined by how dense and multiplex they are. For instance, if a speaker A not only knows other speakers B, C, D, E, etc. but the latter also know each other then the network is dense. If the individuals in a network are more isolated and not mutual acquaintances then it shows low-density. A network is multiplex if its members interact in more than one way, e.g. if members have a number of work colleagues in their network with whom they also spend their spare time, through communal neighbourhood activities or sports for example, then the network is multiplex because there is more than one factor uniting members. A focussed and bound network can impose rigid linguistic norms on its members which in turn acquire a defining character, albeit an unconscious one, for the network itself. Such networks tend to be impervious to influence from outside, specifically from the prestigious norm of the society of which they are part. Speakers who engage in loose-knit networks, such as the suburban middle-classes, are relatively more accessible to language norms. Because loose networks do not show clear defining features, these speakers adopt the norms of the socially prestigious standard. Conversely, workingclass sections of society – those with strong networks – do not see middle-class speech as a model because they have their own linguistic norms from within their network. A social network may apply to the macro level of a country or a city, but also to the interpersonal level of neighborhoods or a single family. Recently, social networks have been formed by the Internet, through chat rooms, Facebook groups, organizations, and online dating services. Part 3: Sociolinguistics and language variation Language, as it is described in books on semantics and morphology, is often introduced as a uniform entity. However, even within one language community, significant differences can be noticed. Such regional variation of languages is also subject to linguistic investigations. General descriptions of languages focusing on pronunciation, or grammar, usually provide information about the standard variety of a given language. The standard language is chosen for such accounts because it is frequently the official kind. One of the most easily noticeable features characterising some regional features of a language is accent. Every language speaker utters words with some kind of accent which can tell the listeners where the speaker is from. The term, accent characterizes the way of pronouncing words, showing which country, or part of a country, the speaker is from. Accent is frequently confused with the term ‘dialect’ which denotes aspects of pronunciation together with words and syntax slightly different from the standard variety. Although various dialects of one language possess grammar rules and distinct vocabulary, speakers of different dialects of one language understand each other without any difficulty. Moreover, one language user can speak two different dialects, or varieties of one language. In some countries, there are distinct forms of language used on everyday basis and on special occasions. Such linguistic situation, when one variety of language is regarded more prestigious and one moves vernacular, but both are used depending on situation, is called diglossia. Apart from regional variations of a language within the boundaries of a country or speech community, there are 46 

other factors influencing language change. In certain areas of the world, English has been used as a lexifier, i.e., a language which is a source of words for varieties of language called pidgins. A pidgin, or a contact language, is a mixture of two other languages, usually created because of trading aims between peoples who do not share a common means of communication. English-based pidgins are, for example, used in India and Cameroon. Part 4: Differences according to class Class and occupation are among the most important linguistic markers found in society. One of the fundamental findings of sociolinguistics, which has been hard to disprove, is that class and language variety are related. Members of the working class tend to speak less standard language, while the lower, middle, and upper middle class will in turn speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may often speak 'less' standard than the middle class. This is because not only class, but class aspirations, are important. Studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social aspirations influence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the process of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who are moving in that direction socio-economically will adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. However, not being native upper class speakers, they often hypercorrect, which involves overcorrecting their speech to the point of introducing new errors. The same is true for individuals moving down in socioeconomic status. In any contact situation, there is a power dynamic, be it a teacher-student or employeecustomer situation, this power dynamic results in a hierarchical differentiation between languages. Discuss in pairs. 1. What kind of scales do researchers usually conduct when investigating about language attitudes? 2. Why focus on "language use" in actual interactions is important to study the relationship between language and society? 3. How can the frequency of words in sociolinguistic studies be measured? 4. What could the language of the internet add to sociolinguistics?

Task 3 Read the text. What does lect mean? What types of lects do you know? LANGUAGE VARIETIES In sociolinguistics, language variety–also called lect - is a general term for any distinctive form of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language variety (or simply variety) as a cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including dialect, register, jargon, and idiolect. To understand the meaning of language varieties, it's important to consider how lects differ from standard English. Even what constitutes standard English is a topic of hot debate among linguists. Standard English is a controversial term for a form of the English language that is written and spoken by educated users. For some linguists, standard English is a synonym for good or correct English usage. Others use the term to refer to a specific geographical dialect of English or a dialect favored by the most powerful and prestigious social group. Varieties of language develop for a number of reasons: differences can come about for geographical reasons; people who live in different geographic areas often develop distinct dialects– variations of standard English. Those who belong to a specific group, often academic or professional, 47 

tend to adopt jargon that is known to and understood by only members of that select group. Even individuals develop idiolects, their own specific ways of speaking. The word dialect - which contains "lect" within the term - derives from the Greek words diameaning "across, between" and legein "speak." A dialect is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary. The term dialect is often used to characterize a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the language. Sarah Thomason of the Linguistic Society of America notes: "All dialects start with the same system, and their partly independent histories leave different parts of the parent system intact. This gives rise to some of the most persistent myths about language, such as the claim that the people of Appalachia speak pure Elizabethan English." Certain dialects have gained negative connotations in the U.S. as well as in other countries. Indeed, the term dialect prejudice refers to discrimination based on a person's dialect or way of speaking. Dialect prejudice is a type of linguicism–discrimination based on dialect. In their article "Applied Social Dialectology," published in "Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society," Carolyn Temple and Donna Christian observe: "...dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated, and institutionalized in social enterprises that affect almost everyone, such as education and the media. There is limited knowledge about and little regard for linguistic study showing that all varieties of a language display systematicity and that the elevated social position of standard varieties has no scientific linguistic basis." Due to this kind of dialectic prejudice, Suzanne Romaine, in "Language in Society," notes: "Many linguists now prefer the term variety or lect to avoid the sometimes pejorative connotations that the term 'dialect' has." Register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body language. You probably behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a formal dinner party or during a job interview. These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are known as registers in linguistics. They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context, purpose, and audience. Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms, the use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace. Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed. Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes. Jargon refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group. Such language is often meaningless to outsiders. American poet David Lehman has described jargon as "the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable; it gives an air of novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would seem superficial, stale, frivolous, or false." George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016 article in the New Yorker magazine: “Professional jargon - on Wall Street, in humanities departments, in government offices - can be a fence raised to keep out the uninitiated and permit those within it to persist in the belief that what they do is too hard, too complex, to be questioned. Jargon acts not only to euphemize but to license, setting insiders against outsiders and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.” Pam Fitzpatrick, a senior research director at Gartner, a Stamford, Connecticut-based research and advisory firm specializing in high tech, writing on LinkedIn, puts it more bluntly: "Jargon is waste. Wasted breath, wasted energy. It absorbs time and space but does nothing to further our goal of persuading people to help us solve complex problems." In other words, jargon is a faux method of creating a sort of dialect that only those on this inside group can understand. Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in reverse: It is a way of making those who understand this particular variety of language more erudite and learned; 48 

those who are members of the group that understands the particular jargon are considered smart, while those on the outside are simply not bright enough to comprehend this kind of language. In addition to the distinctions discussed previously, different types of lects also echo the types of language varieties:  Regional dialect: A variety spoken in a particular region.  Sociolect: Also known as a social dialect, a variety of language (or register) used by a socioeconomic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group.  Ethnolect: A lect spoken by a specific ethnic group. For example, Ebonics, the vernacular spoken by some African-Americans, is a type of ethnolect, notes e2f, a language-translation firm.  Idiolect: According to e2f, the language or languages spoken by each individual. For example, if you are multilingual and can speak in different registers and styles, your idiolect comprises several languages, each with multiple registers and styles. In the end, language varieties come down to judgments, often "illogical," that are, according to Edward Finegan in "Language: Its Structure and Use": "...imported from outside the realm of language and represent attitudes to particular varieties or to forms of expression within particular varieties." The language varieties, or lects, that people speak often serve as the basis for judgment, and even exclusion, from certain social groups, professions, and business organizations. As you study language varieties, keep in mind that they are often based on judgments one group is making in regard to another. Answer the questions. 1. What is understood by the term language variety? 2. What is a dialect? Give examples. 3. How can you define the term register? What types of registers do you know? 4. What is a jargon? Professional jargon? 5. What are the main types of lects? For further reading:  Chaika, Elaine. Language: The Social Mirror. 3rd ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1994.  Coulmas, Florian, ed. The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.  Macaulay, Ronald K. S. The Social Art: Language and Its Uses. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.  Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society. London: Penguin Books, 1995.  Wardhaugh, Ronald. An introduction to sociolinguistics. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992.  Wolfram, Walt. Dialects and American English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. (reissued by Basil Blackwell in 1998 as American English: Dialects and variation).

Task 4 Read the text about social types of language. Can you provide examples of different sociolects?  SOCIAL DIALECTOLOGY The methodology of generative grammar was first applied to dialectology in the 1960s, when the use of statistical means to measure the similarity or difference between dialects also became increasingly common. The most important development of that time, however, was the rapid growth of methods for investigating the social variation of dialects; social variation, in contrast to geographic variation, is prominent in the United States, above all in large urban centres. In cities such as New York, a whole scale of speech variation can be found to correlate with the social status and educational level of the speakers. In addition, age groups exhibit different patterns, but such patterns of variation 49 

differ from one social stratum to another. Still another dimension of variation, especially important in the United States, is connected with the race and ethnic origin of a speaker as well as with the speaker’s date of immigration. So-called Black English, or African American English, has been influenced by the southeastern U.S. origin of most of the African American population of non-southern U.S. regions: many Black English peculiarities are in reality transplanted southeastern dialectal traits. Normally, speakers of one of the social dialects of a city possess at least some awareness of the other dialects. In this way, speech characteristics also become subjectively integrated into the system of signs indicating social status. And, in seeking to enhance their social status, poorer and less educated speakers may try to acquire the dialect of the socially prestigious. Certain groups–e.g., African Americans and the working class–however, will, under certain conditions, show a consciousness of solidarity and a tendency to reject members who imitate either the speech or other types of behaviour of models outside their own social group. As a consequence of an individual’s daily contacts with speakers of the various social dialects of a city, elements of the other dialects are imperceptibly drawn into his dialect. The collective result of such experiences is the spread of linguistic variables–i.e., groups of variants (sounds or grammatical phenomena) primarily determined by social (educational, racial, age, class) influences, an example being the existence of the two forms “He don’t know” and the standard “He doesn’t know.” Traits representing variables in intergroup relations can become variable features in the speech of individuals as well; i.e., an individual may employ two or more variants for the same feature in his own speech, such as “seeing” and “seein” or “he don’t” and “he doesn’t.” The frequency of usage for each variable varies with the individual speaker as well as with the social group. There are intermediate stages of frequency between different social groups and entire scales of transitions between different age groups, thus creating even greater variation within the dialect of an individual. The variables also behave differently in the various styles of written or spoken language used by each speaker. The study of variables is one of the central tasks of any investigation of the dialects of American cities. Applying the statistical methods of modern sociology, linguists have worked out investigative procedures sharply different from those of traditional dialectology. The chief contributor was William Labov, the pioneer of social dialectology in the U.S. The basic task is to determine the correlation between a group of linguistic variables - such as the different ways of pronouncing a certain vowel and extralinguistic variables, such as education, social status, age, and race. For a reasonable degree of statistical reliability, one must record a great number of speakers. In general, several examples of the same variable must be elicited from each individual in order to examine the frequency and probability of its usage. Accordingly, the number of linguistic variables that can be examined is quite limited, in comparison with the number of dialectal features normally recorded by traditional fieldworkers in rural communities; in these situations, the investigator is often satisfied with one or two responses for each feature. A completely new, flexible, and imaginative method of interviewing is needed for such work in urban centres, as well as new ways of finding and making contact with informants. One example is Labov’s method for testing the fate of final and preconsonantal r in speakers of different social levels. Choosing three New York City department stores, each oriented to a completely different social stratum, he approached a large number of salesladies, asking each of them about the location of a certain department that he knew to be on the fourth floor. Thus, their answers always contained two words with potential r’s - “fourth” and “floor.” This shortcut enabled Labov to establish in a relatively short time that the salesladies in the store with richer customers clearly tended to use “r-full” forms, whereas those in the stores geared to the poorer social strata more commonly used “r-less” forms. Social dialectology has focused on the subjective evaluation of linguistic features and the degree of an individual’s linguistic security, phenomena that have considerable influence on linguistic change. Linguistic scientists, in studying the mechanism of such change, have found that it seems to proceed gradually from one social group to another, always attaining greater frequency among the young. Social dialectology also has great relevance for a society as a whole, in that the data it furnishes will help deal with the extremely complex problems connected with the speech of the socially underprivileged, especially of minority groups. Thus, the recent emphasis on the speech of minority 50 

groups, such as the Black English of American cities, is not a chance phenomenon. Specific methods for such investigation are being developed, as well as ways of applying the results of such investigation to educational policies. Example: Among older European-American speakers in Charleston, South Carolina, the absence of r in words such as bear and court is associated with aristocratic, high-status groups whereas in New York City the same pattern of r-lessness is associated with working-class, low-status groups. Such opposite social interpretations of the same linguistic trait over time and space point to the arbitrariness of the linguistic symbols that carry social meaning. Find out more examples.

Task 5 Read the text. Before reading give definitions to the following terms: socialization, socioeconomic classes, code-switching, diglossia, bilingualism, nonverbal behavior. SOCIAL DIMENSIONS Language is probably the most important instrument of socialization that exists in all human societies and cultures. It is largely by means of language that one generation passes on to the next its myths, laws, customs, and beliefs, and it is largely by means of language that the child comes to appreciate the structure of the society into which he is born and his own place in that society. As a social force, language serves both to strengthen the links that bind the members of the same group and to differentiate the members of one group from those of another. In many countries there are social dialects as well as regional dialects, so that it is possible to tell from a person’s speech not only where he comes from but what class he belongs to. In some instances social dialects can transcend regional dialects. This is notable in England, where standard English in the socalled Received Pronunciation (RP) can be heard from members of the upper class and upper middle class in all parts of the country. The example of England is but an extreme manifestation of a tendency that is found in all countries: there is less regional variation in the speech of the higher than in that of the lower socioeconomic classes. In Britain and the United States and in most of the other Englishspeaking countries, people will almost always use the same dialect, regional or social, however formal or informal the situation and regardless of whether their listeners speak the same dialect or not. (Relatively minor adjustments of vocabulary may, however, be made: an Englishman speaking to an American may employ the word “elevator” rather than “lift” and so on.) In many communities throughout the world, it is common for members to speak two or more different dialects and to use one dialect rather than another in particular social situations. This is commonly referred to as codeswitching. Code-switching may operate between two distinct languages (e.g., Spanish and English among Puerto Ricans in New York) as well as between two dialects of the same language. The term diglossia (rather than bilingualism) is frequently used by sociolinguists to refer to this by no means uncommon phenomenon. In every situation, what one says and how one says it depends upon the nature of that situation, the social role being played at the time, one’s status vis-à-vis that of the person addressed, one’s attitude towards him, and so on. Language interacts with nonverbal behaviour in social situations and serves to clarify and reinforce the various roles and relationships important in a particular culture. Sociolinguistics is far from having satisfactorily analyzed or even identified all the factors involved in the selection of one language feature rather than another in particular situations. Among those that have been discussed in relation to various languages are: the formality or informality of the situation; power and solidarity relationships between the participants; differences of sex, age, occupation, socioeconomic class, and educational background; and personal or transactional situations. Terms such as style and register (as well as a variety of others) are employed by many linguists to refer to the socially relevant dimensions of phonological, grammatical, and lexical variation within one language. So far there is very little agreement as to the precise application of such terms. 51 

Task 6 Read the text about Internet slang. Have you heard about LOL-language? Can you find out more examples? THE LINGUISTICS OF LOL WHAT INTERNET VERNACULAR REVEALS ABOUT THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE When two friends created the site I Can Has Cheezburger?, in 2007, to share cat photos with funny, misspelled captions, it was a way of cheering themselves up. They probably weren’t thinking about long-term sociolinguistic implications. But seven years later, the “cheezpeep” community is still active online, chattering away in LOL speak, its own distinctive variety of English. LOL speak was meant to sound like the twisted language inside a cat’s brain, and has ended up resembling a downSouth baby talk with some very strange characteristics, including deliberate misspellings (teh, ennyfing), unique verb forms (gotted, can haz), and word reduplication (fastfastfast). It can be difficult to master. One user writes that it used to take at least 10 minutes “to read adn unnerstand” a paragraph. (“Nao, it’z almost like a sekund lanjuaje.”) To a linguist, all of this sounds a lot like a sociolect: a language variety that’s spoken within a social group, like Valley Girl–influenced ValTalk or African American Vernacular English. (The word dialect, by contrast, commonly refers to a variety spoken by a geographic group–think Appalachian or Lumbee.) Over the past 20 years, online sociolects have been springing up around the world, from Jejenese in the Philippines to Ali G Language, a British lingo inspired by the Sacha Baron Cohen character. There’s also Padonkaffsky jargon, an aughts-era slang beloved by Russia’s selfdescribed “scum” (they call themselves Padonki–a garbling of podonok, the actual Russian word for “scum”), with phonetic spellings, offensive language, and a popular meme involving outdoor sex and an inopportune bear. Israel has Fakatsa, a sociolect beloved by teen girls–terms from which have popped up on baby clothes and menstrual-pain products. Like LOL speak, other Internet sociolects tend to start as a game or a kind of insider-y oneupmanship, then snowball in complexity. As semi-illegible versions of an official language, they can act as a private code for anyone trying to write furtively–hackers, activists, spammers, teenagers. But according to Susan Herring, a linguist at Indiana University at Bloomington, they have another important function: they can generate words that spill into the broader lexicon. In 2011, for example, the Concise Oxford English Dictionary added woot, from the hacker sociolect leetspeak (defining it as an exclamation “used to express elation, enthusiasm, or triumph … especially in electronic communication”). Because online sociolects develop so quickly, and leave such an extensive record, they offer linguists a chance to observe linguistic change with a precision that would be impossible for an oral dialect. Herring eagerly awaits the next wave of sociolects. “These are almost certainly out there,” she said. “We just haven’t discovered them yet.” BRITT PETERSON The Atlantic, October 2014 Answer the questions. 1. How is an idiolect different from a sociolect? 2. What are the main sociolects of London? 3. What is the difference between a dialect, sociolect and accent? 4. What are some examples of dialect words and how are they used?

Task 7 Read the text and discuss the main sociolinguistics prospective. Those who identify themselves as sociolinguists are concerned with the study of how individuals use language to be understood within particular communication contexts. This includes research about sports, courts of law, teen talk, conversations between individuals of the same or different genders, and 52 

even ITM (instant text messaging). Sociolinguists primarily concentrate on spoken languages or on gestural languages, such as American Sign Language. However, several scholars have become curious about written languages, especially about literacy. Rather than using formal linguistics, as did the structural linguists, sociolinguists use observations about the human condition, human situations, and ethnographic data to understand language. When their research includes formal linguistic analyses, it is to demonstrate language interpretations and comparisons of language use within particular social contexts. Sociolinguists are well acquainted with the theories of Saussure. Although Saussure was only 2 years old when Darwin wrote On the Origin of the Species (1859), linguists in the early 20th century have remarked that Saussure showed an awareness of Darwin’s ideas in his lectures on language change and evolution. At that time, those linguists who were concerned with anthropology or language growth and language interactions within societies more than with the formal characterization of languages attended to linguistic performance rather than to linguistic competence. This was the period of structural and comparative linguistics. Until the early 1950s, the term sociolinguist was not used. In the following two decades, researchers were involved in what now is commonly identified as sociolinguistic studies, but these individuals were not fully recognized within the subfield of linguistics called sociolinguistics until well into the 1970s. Sociolinguists are especially concerned with the processes involved in language use in societies. Their research designs are commonly ethnographic. Dell Hymes has been identified as the father of the ethnography of communication approach used in sociolinguistic research. As an anthropologist, Hymes observed that those in his field and those in linguistics needed to combine theoretical dispositions to fill in the gaps in each other’s research. He saw that the legacy of Boas resulted in many anthropologists thinking about the use of linguistics in their work only at the level of a tool as Agar has interpreted it. Hymes also saw that linguists were focusing on what he thought was too much formalism. An ethnography of speaking would enable those in each field to get a fuller picture of the language processes used by individuals, as well as reasons for their use, processes that are associated with one of a variety of social constructs–politeness behaviors, courts of law, and the deference to the elderly. Deborah Tannen’s research, concerning gender differences in conversations in the United States in the 1980s, involved the use of video to compare the conversational behaviors of children, teens, and adults who were paired by gender and put into a room for a short time with only their partners. Her work has added much to understanding the effects of communication behaviors, by environment and human nature, along the continuum to adulthood. Although Tannen could have dissected her subjects’ conversations using formal grammatical methods, she was much better able to answer her research questions by analyzing the processes, both verbal and nonverbal, that they used. In fact, the nonverbal behaviors were especially revealing. Tannen’s previous research had prepared her for her gender comparison study. In one early piece of research, she participated as a collaborator with several other linguists to observe and subsequently characterize differences in verbal interpretations of a film by individuals from several nations around the world. This led to the publication in 1980 of The Pear Stories, edited by Wallace Chafe. Tannen compared the narratives of Athenian Greeks to those of American English speakers and concluded that the style and form of interpretations vary according to how people of a given culture adopt the conventionalization of rhetorical forms used in their culture. She supports her claims with research from sociolinguists John Gumperz and Dell Hymes. Her comments about cultural stereotypes in this early study are one reason that this work should be reread in the 21st century, especially by political scientists and those concerned about cultural misunderstandings derived from translations between the languages of two nations, particularly when the conversations have consequences for peace between these nations. The cultural differences which have emerged in the present study constitute real differences in habitual ways of talking which operate in actual interaction and create impressions on listeners – the intended impression, very likely, on listeners from the same culture, but possibly confused or misguided impressions on listeners from other cultures. It is easy to see how stereotypes may be created and reinforced. 53 

7. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS Our minds influence the key activity of the brain, which then influences everything; perception, cognition, thoughts and feelings, personal relationships; they're all a projection of you. Deepak Chopra

Discuss in pairs. 1. What are cognitive linguistic skills? 2. What does cognitive linguistics study? 3. What is language and cognition?

Basic terms: CATEGORY A term used to denote a group of expressions or entities which share a common set of similar properties. In linguistics, the term is used for expressions which share a common set of grammatical features, in the cognitive process of categorization a category is called because it is possible to provide necessary and sufficient conditions for determining that an entity belongs to a particular group COGNITIVE a special approach of the cognitive linguistics based on the organization of the GRAMMAR linguistic expressions available to language users for the symbolization of thought and for their communication of these symbolizations. It claims that grammar is intrinsically symbolic, having no independent existence apart from semantic and phonological structure COGNITIVE as an interdisciplinary science has close correlations with other cognitive LINGUISTICS sciences, and analyses the interaction between the representation and perception of language knowledge. COGNITIVE SCIENCE was a synthesis concerned with the kinds of knowledge that underlie human cognition, the details of human cognitive processing, and the computational modeling of those processes. There are five major topic areas in cognitive science: knowledge representation, language, learning, thinking, and perception CONCEPT a unit of cognitive experience; a way people have of abstracting over their experiences in the world. The core meaning of a word; the set of entities or events in the real world which a word is understood to refer to CONCEPTUAL an element of meaning that is expressed by a systematic variation in form. For CATEGORY example, ‘past tense’ is a conceptual category in English because English speakers expect each verb to have a special form to denote past tense CONCEPTUALISATION the process of meaning construction to which language contributes. It does so by providing access to rich encyclopedic knowledge and by prompting for complex processes of conceptual integration. Conceptualisation relates to the nature of dynamic thought to which language can contribute CONCEPTUAL a form of conceptual projection involving mappings or correspondences holding METAPHOR between distinct conceptual domains. Conceptual metaphors often consist of a series of conventional mappings which relate aspects of two distinct conceptual domains. The purpose of such a set of mappings is to provide structure from one conceptual domain, the source domain, by projecting the structure onto the target domain. This allows inferences which hold in the source to be applied to the target ENCODING encoding refers to the processes of how items are placed into memory FRAME schematization of experience (a knowledge structure), which is represented at the conceptual level and held in long-term memory and which relates elements and entities associated with a particular culturally embedded scene, situation or event from human experience. Frames include different sorts of knowledge including attributes, and relations between attributes 54 

GENERALIZATION the process by which the meaning component is broadened to the basic meaning GESTALT a term borrowed from psychology which means "unified whole". It refers to theories that attempt to describe how people tend to organize elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied IDIOM a string of words which has idiosyncratic meaning IMAGE SCHEMA a relatively abstract conceptual representation that arises directly from our everyday interaction with and observation of the world around us. Image schemas derive from sensory and perceptual experience. Accordingly, they derive from embodied experience LANGUAGE in cognitive linguistics is described as an integral facet of cognition which reflects the interaction of social, cultural, psychological, communicative and functional considerations, and which can only be understood in the context of a realistic view of acquisition, cognitive development and mental processing. It seeks insofar to explicate language structure in terms of the other facets of cognition on which it draws, as well as the communicative function it serves. In Cognitive Grammar it is defined as a set of resources that are available to language users for the symbolization of thought, and for the communication of these symbolizations, where the knowledge of language is based on knowledge of actual usage and of generalization made over usage events. MAPPING one of the factors which governs the attentional system in the conceptual structuring system. Mapping governs the way in which pats of an attention pattern are mapped onto parts of the scene described by a linguistic utterance. Mappings are considered as correspondences between entities inhering in regions of the conceptual system. Some mappings are relatively stable and persist in long-term memory while others are temporary associations set up due to dynamic processes of meaning-construction METAPHOR the use of a word or phrase to label an object or concept that it does not literally denote, suggesting a comparison of that object or concept to the phrase's denoted concept or object. In metaphor the semantic link is based on the similarity between two elements or situations belonging to different domains. Metaphor involves a relationship between a source domain, the source of the literal meaning of the metaphorical expression; and a target domain PARADIGM a related set of conceptual categories PROTOTYPE the central or typical member of a category; the basis on which individuals are evaluated as belonging to the category SCHEMA a schema representation is a way of capturing the insight that concepts are defined by a configuration of features, and each of these features involves specifying a value the object has on some attribute. The schema represents a concept by pairing a class of attribute with a particular value, and stringing all the attributes together. They are a way of encoding regularities in categories, whether these regularities are propositional or perceptual. They are also general, rather than specific, so that they can be used in many situations SEMANTIC ROLES roles that participant play in message-world situations. The semantic roles exist independently of linguistic structure TARGET DOMAIN With respect to semantic roles that are indicated in the action chain refers to ‘tail’ or ‘downstream’ elements that are affected (directly or indirectly) by energy transmitting from elements farther ‘upstream’ in the action chain UTTERANCE a linguistic expression used in a context to accomplish an actual communicative act. Utterances are distinct from words, phrases, clauses, and sentences

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Task 1 Read the text and define the main terms and notions of Cognitive Linguistics. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS Cognitive linguistics is a cluster of overlapping approaches to the study of language as a mental phenomenon. Cognitive linguistics emerged as a school of linguistic thought in the 1970s. In the introduction to Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, linguist Dirk Geeraerts makes a distinction between uncapitalized cognitive linguistics ("referring to all approaches in which natural language is studied as a mental phenomenon") and capitalized Cognitive Linguistics ("one form of cognitive linguistics"). Cognitive Models and Cultural Models Cognitive models, as the term suggests, represent a cognitive, basically psychological, view of the stored knowledge about a certain field. Since psychological states are always private and individual experiences, descriptions of such cognitive models necessarily involve a considerable degree of idealization. In other words, descriptions of cognitive models are based on the assumption that many people have roughly the same basic knowledge about things like sandcastles and beaches. However,... this is only part of the story. Cognitive models are of course not universal, but depend on the culture in which a person grows up and lives. The culture provides the background for all the situations that we have to experience in order to be able to form a cognitive model. A Russian or German may not have formed a cognitive model of cricket simply because it is not part of the culture of his own country to play that game. So, cognitive models for particular domains ultimately depend on so-called cultural models. In reverse, cultural models can be seen as cognitive models that are shared by people belonging to a social group or subgroup. Essentially, cognitive models and cultural models are thus just two sides of the same coin. While the term 'cognitive model' stresses the psychological nature of these cognitive entities and allows for inter-individual differences, the term 'cultural model' emphasizes the unifying aspect of its being collectively shared by many people. Although 'cognitive models' are related to cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics while 'cultural models' belong to sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics, researchers in all of these fields should be, and usually are, aware of both dimensions of their object of study. Research in Cognitive Linguistics One of the central assumptions underlying research in cognitive linguistics is that language use reflects conceptual structure, and that therefore the study of language can inform us of the mental structures on which language is based. One of the goals of the field is therefore to properly determine what sorts of mental representations are constructed by various sorts of linguistic utterances. Initial research in the field was conducted by way of theoretical discussions, which were based on the methods of introspection and rational reasoning. These methods were used to examine diverse topics such as the mental representation of presupposition, negation, counterfactuals and metaphor, to name a few. Unfortunately, the observation of one's mental structures via introspection may be limited in its accuracy. As a result, investigators have come to realize that it is important to examine theoretical claims by using experimental methods... The methods that we will discuss are ones that are often used in psycholinguistic research. These are: a. Lexical decision and naming features. b. Memory measures. c. Item recognition measures. d. Reading times. e. Self report measures. f. The effects of language comprehension on a subsequent task. 56   

Each of these methods is based on observing an experimental measure to draw conclusions about the mental representations constructed by a certain linguistic unit." Cognitive Psychologists vs. Cognitive Linguists Cognitive psychologists, and others, criticize cognitive linguistic work because it is so heavily based on individual analysts' intuitions,... and thus does not constitute the kind of objective, replicable data preferred by many scholars in the cognitive and natural sciences (e.g., data collected on large numbers of naive participants under controlled laboratory conditions. Scientists Observations  "Language offers a window into cognitive function, providing insights into the nature, structure and organization of thoughts and ideas. The most important way in which cognitive linguistics differs from other approaches to the study of language, then, is that language is assumed to reflect certain fundamental properties and design features of the human mind." (Vyvyan Evans and Melanie Green, 2006)  "Cognitive Linguistics is the study of language in its cognitive function, where cognitive refers to the crucial role of intermediate informational structures with our encounters with the world. Cognitive Linguistics... [assumes] that our interaction with the world is mediated through informational structures in the mind. It is more specific than cognitive psychology, however, by focusing on natural language as a means for organizing, processing, and conveying that information...  "[W]hat holds together the diverse forms of Cognitive Linguistics is the belief that linguistic knowledge involves not just knowledge of the language, but knowledge of our experience of the world as mediated by the language." (Dirk Geeraerts and Herbert Cuyckens, eds., 2007)

Task 2 Read the text. What do you know about concepts? Frames? Conceptual meaning? SHELL NOUN In English grammar and cognitive linguistics, a shell noun is an abstract noun that, in a particular context, conveys or refers to a complex idea. A shell noun can be identified on the basis of its behavior in an individual clause, not on the basis of its inherent lexical meaning. Also called container noun and carrier noun. The term shell noun was coined in 1997 by linguist Hans-Jörg Schmid, who went on to explore the concept at length in English Abstract Nouns as Conceptual Shells. Schmid defines shell nouns as "an open-ended, functionally defined class of abstract nouns that have, to varying degrees, the potential for being used as conceptual shells for complex, proposition-like pieces of information." "In essence," says Vyvyan Evans, "the content associated with shell nouns comes from the idea, that is the utterance context, they relate to". In his study, Schmid considers 670 nouns that can function as shell nouns (including aim, case, fact, idea, news, problem, position, reason, situation, and thing) but notes that "it is impossible to give an exhaustive list of shell nouns because in suitable contexts, many more than [these 670 nouns] can be found in shell noun uses." Given that shell-nounhood is determined by the way speakers put nouns to use, it seems reasonable to introduce two examples of shell nouns in typical contexts as reference points for the further discussion: (1) The problem is that the water companies are as loath since privatisation as they were before it to transfer the reservoirs of surplus water to where they are needed. (PAPERS) 57   

(2) The problem was to safeguard the many civil radar sites round Britain from encroachment by property development. (NEWSCI) The two examples demonstrate that the relation between shell nouns and the concepts they activate in given uses is variable. What the noun problem conveys in the two examples (or, in cognitive terminology, what kind of conceptualisations it activates in the speech participants) is not the same. The variability is not a case of polysemy. . . . Rather it is due to the fact that the actual conceptual significance of the noun emerges only from its interaction with the context. Shell nouns are, as Ivanic aptly puts it in the title of her paper, 'nouns in search of a context. I hold the view that the noun problem only provides conceptual shells, and that these are filled in by two different contents in the two examples. This gives rise to the activation of two different conceptualisations, which are temporary and ephemeral in nature because they are only relevant for one particular speech situation. Primary Functions of Nouns Used as Shell Nouns What . . . are the functions that define uses of nouns as shell nouns? What do the nouns allow speakers to do? . . . Three functions . . . stand out from the rest because they can be seen to play a role in all uses of shell-content complexes. As a consequence, these three can be used to define the functional class of shell nouns: (1) Shell nouns serve the semantic function of characterizing and perspectivizing complex chunks of information which are expressed in clauses or even longer stretches of text. (2) Shell nouns serve the cognitive function of temporary concept-formation. This means that they allow speakers to encapsulate these complex chunks of information in temporary nominal concepts with apparently rigid and clear-cut conceptual boundaries. (3) Shell nouns serve the textual function of linking these nominal concepts with clauses or other pieces of text which contain the actual details of information, thereby instructing the hearer to interpret different sections of a text together. In view of the fact that many linguistic items have the potential to characterize, form concepts and/or link pieces of text, it must be emphasized that shell nouns fulfill these functions in a very special way. In order to demonstrate this, it will be helpful to compare shell nouns to full content nouns on the one hand, which can be seen as best examples of characterizing and concept-forming linguistic items, and to anaphoric elements such as the personal and demonstrative pronouns on the other, which are arguably the best examples of nominal linking items.... Examples of the three types of words are given [below]: (a) Full-content nouns: teacher, cat, journey (b) Shell nouns: fact, problem, idea, aim (c) Pronouns with anaphoric function: she, it, this, that The discourse or rhetorical functions of shell nouns are perhaps the most straightforward category. Similar to pronouns used cataphorically or anaphorically, shell nouns serve as important cohesive devices in discourse. Aim as a Shell Noun [T]he semantic value of the shell noun is normally determined by the utterance context. Moreover, the shell noun itself serves to characterize and encapsulate the idea whose meaning it simultaneously takes on. Thus, the meaning associated with the shell noun is, paradoxically, both a function of and a contributor to the utterance context in which it is embedded. To illustrate, consider the following example drawn from Schmid: The government's aim is to make GPs more financially accountable, in charge of their own budgets , as well as to extend the choice of the patient. In [this] example, the shell noun is in bold. The idea the shell noun relates to is [italicized]. The shell noun, the noun phrase in which it occurs, and the idea it relates to, which here is mediated by the copula is, are collectively termed the 'shell-content-complex.' [T]he shell-like function of the shell noun is not an inalienable property of the noun itself, but rather derives from the way it is used. In this example, the speaker presents a particular idea ('to make GPs more financially accountable, in charge of their own budgets, as well as to extend the choice of 58   

the patient') as an 'aim.' This provides a particular characterization for the idea. Moreover, by providing this characterization, the shell noun also serves to encapsulate the various components and complex ideas contained in the idea as a single, relatively stable, albeit temporary, concept.

Task 3 Read the information about reference frames. Can you give more examples according to types of reference frames? Reference frames: means of assigning a set of directions to a spatial representation of an object, a scene, or the body. They consist of several types: 1. Viewer-Based: Uses a part of the viewer's body as the landmark, to which spatial locations of other body parts or external stimuli are referenced. Crucial for the implementation of motor behavior towards stimuli in near space (e.g., reflexive orienting). For example, a rapidly approaching baseball must be located with respect to the viewer's body, if the viewer is to be able to effectively avoid it. 2. Object-Based: Describes the spatial relations among various components of an object. Important for object identification. For example, a tilted figure requires that an object-based set of directions be applied to that object, independent of other objects, or the environment in general, in order for its intrinsic spatial relations (e.g, top, bottom, sides, etc.) to be recognized, and thus in order for the object itself to be recognized. 3. Scene-based: Describes the spatial relations among components of a scene (usually a number of objects, but may include the viewer as well). For example, letters on a stop sign may be considered as components of the scene (the sign). Regardless of the position of the sign in relation to the viewer, when the sign is divided into left and right sides, the 'S' and 'T' are on the left of the scene, and the 'O' and 'P' are on the right of the scene. 4. Gravitational: Describes the dimensions of up and down using the pull of the Earth's gravity as a spatial landmark. The gravitational reference is maintained by the vestibular and somatosensory systems of the brain, which allow the organism to maintain balance and posture, and to locomote effectively. Referent: A message-world entity to by a noun, a pronoun, or any other referential element. For example, the referent of the phrase my grandmother is a person in the message world – the speaker’s grandmother, whereas the determined noun phrase my grandmother is referential from that may refer to or ‘mention’ this referent.    Answer the questions. 1. Is there incongruity in use of words, surprise or unexpected terms? 2. Is emotion elicited by what was said? Is it from another domain? 3. Is there any sense of evaluation or judgment? Is it from another domain? 4. Does what was said seem to move in or point to a certain direction? 5. Given what was said, would it seem normal to do a certain kind of thing, proceed in a certain direction? 6. Is there a gap in logic or understanding that is somehow filled in by what is not said? 7. Are there Agents, Affected Entities, Force or Movement, Locations, Obstacles, Possessions, starting or destination points that are alluded to? Any of these suggest the existence of any of the others. 8. Are sequences, processes, events talked about as things or objects (reification)? 9. Are people talked about as animals or plants; or vice versa? 10. Is a general case spoken of strictly in terms of a specific instance?  

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Task 4 Read the information about ANAPHORA and answer the questions after the text.  ANAPHORA Anaphora is sometimes characterized as the phenomenon whereby the interpretation of an occurrence of one expression depends on the interpretation of an occurrence of another or whereby an occurrence of an expression has its referent supplied by an occurrence of some other expression in the same or another sentence. However, these are at best very rough characterizations of the phenomena, since things other than anaphoric expressions satisfy the first characterization and many cases of anaphora fail to satisfy the second. For example, in some sense of “interpretation”, the interpretation of the expression “bank” in the following sentence depends on the interpretation of other expressions (in particular, “of the river”): John is down by the bank of the river. But no one would say this is an example of anaphora. And as to the second characterization, though all agree that the following is an example of anaphora (and “he” is an anaphoric pronoun here on one reading of the sentence), it is not a case of the referent of one expression being supplied by another expression, (since “he” is not a referring expression on the reading in question): Every male lawyer believes he is smart. Hence, rather than attempting to characterize anaphora generally and abstractly, we shall begin with some examples. There is generally thought to be many types of anaphora, though in some cases there is disagreement as to whether to classify those cases as anaphora or not.  Pronominal anaphora: John left. He said he was ill. (The antecedent is “John” and the anaphoric expression is “he”.)  VP anaphora (also called VP ellipsis): Mary Anne took out the garbage. Claudia did too. (The antecedent is “took out the garbage” and the anaphoric expression a null VP.  Propositional anaphora: One plaintiff was passed over for promotion three times. But the jury didn’t believe this. (The antecedent is the proposition expressed by the first sentence. The anaphoric expression is “this”.)  Adjectival anaphora: A kind stranger returned my wallet. Such people are rare. (The antecedent is “kind stranger” and the anaphoric expression “such”.)  Modal anaphora: John might give a presentation. He would use slides. (The antecedent is the possibility described by the first sentence, and the anaphoric expression is the modal “would”.)  Temporal anaphora: Sheila had a party last Friday and Sam got drunk. (The time at which Sam got drunk is anaphoric on the time at which Sheila had the party.)  Kind-level anaphora: John gave a presentation. Sarah gave one too. (The antecedent is “a presentation”, and the anaphoric expression is “one”.) The antecedent also does not always have to precede the anaphoric expression; when it doesn’t, these are called cases of cataphora or backwards anaphora: If she doesn’t show up soon, Jane will be disqualified from the competition. Despite there being many kinds of anaphora, this article will focus on pronominal anaphora, since this is the type of anaphora that has received the most attention in the linguistics and (especially) philosophical literature. Some anaphoric pronouns are referring expressions that inherit their referents from other referring expressions. For example, “He” inherits its referent from “John”, which is said to be the antecedent of the pronoun. Such anaphora is simple and well understood. In cases such as above, the anaphoric pronoun has as its antecedent a quantifier, and essentially functions as a variable bound by the quantifier. Again, such cases are well understood. There are some anaphoric pronouns that cannot be understood as referring expressions that inherit their referents from other referring expressions, nor as variables bound by quantified antecedents. These cases of anaphora are of interest to philosophers and linguists because formulating proper semantic theories for them has 60   

proved to be a difficult and interesting task. Many theories of these cases are currently being advocated. Answer the questions. 1. What is the effect of anaphora? 2. Can you give the example of anaphora? 3. What is the purpose of anaphora?  

Task 5 Read the text. Concept is the main term in cognitive linguistics. Create a concept map of any concept you would like.  

Cognitive linguistics is a scientific sphere that studies the knowledge about the world formed in the human mind, its inner structures, representative methods and regularities. Cognitive linguistics also aims at modeling the world and the structure of linguistic cognition. The world representation is formed in one’s mind through feelings (tactile, visual, taste-bud) on the level of notion (signs, worldview) or thoughts organisation. When these matters are being formed in one’s mind, they represent the known information about the world. Cognitive linguistics, or cognitive metaphor theory serves as a means to systematise and form linguistics with regard to concepts of the linguistic world image. The concept of any given word is determined through its semantic and associative field. Words express the information in the semantic and associative fields, and they are regarded as separate elements of cognitive and pragmatic meanings. A concept is a unit that preserves and proceeds information about reality. It is an ethno cultural group of words and a basic mental phenomenon that expresses the natives’ cognitive consciousness. A concept is a small unit of an ideal consciousness and experience of native speakers. The English language is rich in phraseological units with colour components. The colour symbolism helps to understand better the mindset of any ethnos. The English phraseological units with colour components are mostly include blue, red and white. The colour blue in the English language is associated with consistency, honesty, honour, royal power and nobility. It is also the colour of doubt and sorrow. Blue means the colour of a sea and the sky, it is often used by military men. Blue blood – a descendant of a renowned family, a member of a royal dynasty; blue to principles – principal, loyal to his ideals, firm; blue coat – a police officer, warrior, sailor (depending on the colour of clothes); the blues – sorrow, for example, to have the blues – mourn, be bored; Blues – a blues-style melody that originated in the USA in the 19th century and creates a melancholic mood; blue-sky ideas – senseless and insignificant ideas, a golden dream; Blue beard – a nickname of femicides from the British folklore; blue moon – extremely rare, for instance, in a blue moon – be really hard to find; to cry the blues – helplessness, to act like meek (AmE), for example, dad often cries the blues; to look blue – to hang down one’s head, feel depressed, for instance, he looked blue when it was raining; Blue blood –a noble family. The expression blue blood is used to describe noble families. It has a French (le sang bleu) and Spanish (la sangre azul) analogues. The noblemen of Spanish Catalonia were the first to call themselves using this phraseological unit. The thing is their ancestors never married the Moors and other black people. Due to this set expression a belief arose that blue blood ran through the veins of white people, while black people had the blood of other colour. Blue book – an official document of the British government that represents information on the chosen topic; in the USA it is a list of state employees. Dark Blue and Light Blue – teams of Oxford and Cambridge Universities, the first prize and the first quality – blue ribbon (reband). 61   

The phraseological unit bluebird symbolises happiness, and a beautiful but unreachable dream. This set expression originated from M. Maeterlinck’s play “The Blue Bird” where children are searching for this bird. The one who catches the bird will become all-seeing and all-knowing. However, the children fail to find this mystical animal, and it turns out to be a beautiful fairy-tale about happiness. Discuss in pairs. 1. What are symbols? 2. What is the connection between language and symbols?

Task 6 Read the text about “Language is symbolic in nature”. How do Cognitive Linguistics explain the connection between signs, language and consciousness? Langacker starts his chapter on the general assumptions of his Foundations of Cognitive Grammar precisely with this assertion, namely that language: makes available to the speaker… an open-ended set of linguistic signs or expressions, each of which associates a semantic representation of some kind with a phonological representation. Hence, language is symbolic because it is based on the association between semantic representation and phonological representation. This association of two different poles refers to the Saussurian conception of the linguistic sign. However, it is radically different on one basic point: the arbitrariness of the sign. While it is true that there is always a certain essential arbitrary component in the association of words with what they mean, nonetheless, this arbitrariness is very restricted. The choice of the sequence of sounds ikusi in Basque (or see in English, ver in Spanish) to express the concept of vision as in 1) is arbitrary. However, what it is not arbitrary is the fact that these same sequences of sounds are also used to express knowledge as in 2). As Sweetser points out, we intuitively notice that there must a reason why we can use the same verb ikusi in these two „apparently‟ unrelated domains, perception and cognition. We sense that this choice is not random, but well-motivated. 1) Etxea ikusten dut house.abs see.hab aux „I see the house‟ 2) Orduan ez nuen ikusi zer esan nahi zuen hour.loc neg aux see.per what say.per want aux „I didn‟t see at the time what he wanted to say‟ Cognitive Linguistics explains the link between perception and cognition in these two examples on the basis of our conceptual organisation. We perceive and understand these two processes as related. On the basis of our experience as human beings, we see similarities between vision and knowledge, and it is because of these similarities that we conceptualise them as related concepts. For cognitive linguists, language is not structured arbitrarily. It is motivated and grounded more or less directly in experience, in our bodily, physical, social, and cultural experiences because after all, “we are beings of the flesh”. This notion of a „grounding‟ is known in Cognitive Linguistics as „embodiment‟ and finds its philosophical roots in the phenomenological tradition. Its basic idea is that mental and linguistic categories are not abstract disembodied and human independent categories; we create them on the basis of our concrete experiences and under the constraints imposed by our bodies. This kind of embodiment corresponds to one of the three levels that Lakoff and Johnson call the „embodiment of concepts‟. It is the „phenomenological level‟ which: consists of everything we can be aware of, especially our own mental states, our bodies, our environment, and our physical and social interactions. This is the level at which one can speak about the feel of experience, the distinctive qualities of experiences, and the way in which things appear to us. There are two more levels of embodiment: the „neural embodiment‟ which deals with structures that define concepts and operations at the neural level6, and the „cognitive unconscious‟ which concerns all mental operations that structure and make 62   

possible all conscious experience. According to these authors it is only by means of descriptions and explanations at these three levels that one can achieve a full understanding of the mind. Discuss in pairs. 1. What is metaphor? Conceptual metaphor? 2. What is the difference between source domain and target domain?

Task 7 Read the text about conceptual metaphor. Find the information about source domain and target domain. Present your ideas in schemes. A conceptual metaphor is a metaphor (or figurative comparison) in which one idea (or conceptual domain) is understood in terms of another. In cognitive linguistics, the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is known as the source domain. The conceptual domain that is understood in this way is the target domain. Thus the source domain of the journey is commonly used to explain the target domain of life. Basic conceptual metaphors are part of the common conceptual apparatus shared by members of a culture. They are systematic in that there is a fixed correspondence between the structure of the domain to be understood (e.g., death) and the structure of the domain in terms of which we are understanding it (e.g., departure). We usually understand them in terms of common experiences. They are largely unconscious, though attention may be drawn to them. Their operation in cognition is almost automatic. And they are widely conventionalized in language, that is, there are a great number of words and idiomatic expressions in our language whose meanings depend upon those conceptual metaphors. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson mention these variations on the conceptual metaphor TIME IS MONEY:  You're wasting my time.  This gadget will save you hours.  I don't have the time to give you.  How do you spend your time these days?  That flat tire cost me an hour.  I've invested a lot of time in her.  You're running out of time.  Is that worth your while?  He's living on borrowed time. Five Tenets of Conceptual Metaphor Theory "Conceptual Metaphor Theory rejects the notion that metaphor is a decorative device, peripheral to language and thought. Instead, the theory holds that metaphor is central to thought, and therefore to language. From this starting point, a number of tenets are derived, which are discussed here with particular reference to language. These tenets are:  Metaphors structure thinking;  Metaphors structure knowledge;  Metaphor is central to abstract language;  Metaphor is grounded in physical experience;  Metaphor is ideological."

 

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Task 8 Read the information and examples about three types of conceptual metaphors according to George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Find examples of all the types and present your findings. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson identify three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors: ORIENTATIONAL METAPHOR An orientational metaphor is a metaphor (or figurative comparison) that involves spatial relationships (such as UP-DOWN, IN-OUT, ON-OFF, and FRONT-BACK). Orientational metaphor (a figure that "organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another") is one of the three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors identified by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in Metaphors We Live B). The other two categories are structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. Examples  "[A]ll the following concepts are characterized by an 'upward' orientation, while their 'opposites' receive a 'downward' orientation.  More is up; less is down: speak up, please. keep your voice down, please. Healthy is up; sick is down: lazarus rose from the dead. he fell ill. Conscious is up; unconscious is down: wake up. he sank into a coma. Control is up; lack of control is down: i'm on top of the situation. he is under my control.  Happy is up; sad is down: i'm feeling up today. he's really low these days. virtue is up; lack of virtue is down: she's an upstanding citizen. that was a low-down thing to do.  Rational is up; nonrational is down: The discussion fell to an emotional level. He couldn't rise above his emotions.  Upward orientation tends to go together with positive evaluation, while downward orientation with a negative one." Physical and Cultural Elements in Orientational Metaphors Orientational metaphors that are strongly cultural in content form an internally consistent set with those that emerge most directly from our physical experience. The up-down orientational metaphor can apply to situations that contain both physical and cultural elements, such as:  He's at the peak of health.  She came down with pneumonia. Here good health is associated with 'up,' in part because of the general metaphor that 'Better is up' and perhaps also because when we are well we are on our feet, and when we are ill we are more likely to be lying down. Other orientational metaphors are obviously cultural in origin:  He's one of the higher-ranking officials in the agency.  These people have very high standards.  I tried to raise the level of the discussion. Whether the experience on which an orientational metaphor is based is directly emergent physical experience or one drawn from the social domain, the core metaphorical framework is the same in all of them. There is only one verticality concept 'up.' We apply it differently, depending on the kind of experience on which we base the metaphor." ONTOLOGICAL METAPHOR An ontological metaphor is a type of metaphor (or figurative comparison) in which something concrete is projected onto something abstract. Ontological metaphor (a figure that provides "ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances") is one of the three 64   

overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors identified by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in Metaphors We Live By (1980). Ontological metaphors "are so natural and persuasive in our thought," say Lakoff and Johnson, "that they are usually taken as self-evident, direct descriptions of mental phenomena." Indeed, they say, ontological metaphors "are among the most basic devices we have for comprehending our experience." What is an Ontological Metaphor? In general, ontological metaphors enable us to see more sharply delineated structure where there is very little or none ... We can perceive of personification as a form of ontological metaphor. In personification, human qualities are given to nonhuman entities. Personification is very common in literature, but it also abounds in everyday discourse, as the examples below show:  His theory explained to me the behavior of chickens raised in factories.  Life has cheated me.  Inflation is eating up our profits.  Cancer finally caught up with him.  The computer went dead on me. Theory, life, inflation, cancer, computer are not humans, but they are given qualities of human beings, such as explaining, cheating, eating, catching up, and dying. Personification makes use of one of the best source domains we have--ourselves. In personifying nonhumans as humans, we can begin to understand them a little better." Ontological metaphors serve various purposes, and the various kinds of metaphors there are reflect the kinds of purposes served. Take the experience of rising prices, which can be metaphorically viewed as an entity via the noun inflation. This gives us a way of referring to the experience:  INFLATION IS AN ENTITY  Inflation is lowering our standard of living.  If there's much more inflation, we'll never survive.  We need to combat inflation.  Inflation is backing us into a corner.  Inflation is taking its toll at the checkout counter and the gas pump.  Buying land is the best way of dealing with inflation.  Inflation makes me sick. In these cases, viewing inflation as an entity allows us to refer to it, quantify it, identify a particular aspect of it, see it as a cause, act with respect to it, and perhaps even believe that we understand it. Ontological metaphors like this are necessary for even attempting to deal rationally with our experiences." STRUCTURAL METAPHOR A structural metaphor is a metaphorical system in which one complex concept (typically abstract) is presented in terms of some other (usually more concrete) concept. A structural metaphor "need not be explicitly articulated or defined," according to John Goss, "but it operates as a guide to meaning and action in the discursive context within which it operates". Structural metaphor is one of the three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors identified by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in Metaphors We Live By. (The other two categories are orientational metaphor and ontological metaphor.) "Each individual structural metaphor is internally consistent," say Lakoff and Johnson, and it "imposes a consistent structure on the concept it structures." "ARGUMENT IS WAR is an example of a structural metaphor. According to Lakoff and Johnson, structural metaphors are 'cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another'. Source domains provide frameworks for target domains: these determine the ways in which we think and talk about the entities and activities to which the target domains refer and even the ways in which we behave or carry out activities, as in the case of argument”

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The War Metaphor In the structural metaphor economic activity = war, concepts from the source domain WARFARE are transferred to the target domain, because physical conflict is ubiquitous in human life and therefore quite well-structured and more readily understandable. It coherently structures the relations between the various factors in economic activity: business is war; the economy is a battlefield; competitors are warriors or even armies fighting each other, and economic activities are conceptualized in terms of attack and defense, as illustrated in the following example:  As a result of the crisis, the Asians will strike back; they will launch an export offensive. (Wall Street Journal)  the war metaphor is realized in the following schemata: attack and defense as causes and win/lose as the result: successful attack and defense result in victory; unsuccessful attack and defense result in loss . . .."  

Find more information about Cognitive Linguistics and scientific areas: cognitive grammar, mapping, meaning, etc. For further reading: To learn more about the nature and power of figures and tropes, see these topics:  What Is Irony? To say one thing but to mean something else"--that may be the simplest definition of irony. But in truth there's nothing at all simple about the rhetorical concept of irony. In this article, we've gathered a variety of definitions and interpretations of irony, both ancient and modern.  What Is a Metaphor? Some people think of metaphors as nothing more than the sweet stuff of songs and poems--Love is a jewel, or a rose, or a butterfly. But in fact all of us speak and write and think in metaphors every day. They can't be avoided: metaphors are built right into our language. Here we look at some of the different kinds of metaphors, with examples drawn from advertisements, poems, essays, songs, and TV programs.  What Is the Value of the Figures of Speech? Over a century ago, a popular Canadian novelist and professor of rhetoric, James De Mille, offered several good reasons for studying the figures of speech. Though we might word them a bit differently today, the points he made in 1878 still hold true.                         66   

8. COMMUNICATIVE LINGUISTICS Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. Words have energy and power with the ability to help, to heal, to hinder, to hurt, to harm, to humiliate and to humble. Yehuda Berg

Express your opinion on the following quotations.  “Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. We can choose to use this force constructively with words of encouragement, or destructively using words of despair. Words have energy and power with the ability to help, to heal, to hinder, to hurt, to harm, to humiliate and to humble.” (Yehuda Berg)  “Miscommunication is the number one cause of all problems; communication is your bridge to other people. Without it, there's nothing. So when it's damaged, you have to solve all these problems it creates.” (Earl Sweatshirt)

Basic terms: is intelligence demonstrated by machines. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is used to describe machines that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving". LINGUISTIC a systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional COMMUNICATION symbols; "he taught foreign languages"; "the language introduced is standard throughout the text"; "the speed with which a program can be executed depends on the language in which it is written" LANGUAGE something that is communicated by or to or between people or groups COMMUNICATION USAGE the customary manner in which a language (or a form of a language) is spoken or written DEAD LANGUAGE a language that is no longer learned as a native language words SOURCE LANGUAGE INDIGENOUS a language that originated in a specified place and was not brought to that place fro LANGUAGE m elsewhere SUPERSTRATE, SUP the language of a later invading people that is imposed on an indigenous ERSTRATUM population and contributes features to their language TONGUE a human written or spoken language used by a community; opposed to e.g. a computer language NATIVE LANGUAGE the language that a person has spoken from earliest childhood METALANGUAGE a language that can be used to describe languages SIGN LANGUAGE language expressed by visible hand gestures KOINE a common language used by speakers of different languages; "Koine is a dialect of ancient Greek that was the lingua franca of the empire of Alexander the Great and was widely spoken throughout the eastern Mediterranean area in Roman times" EXPRESSIVE STYLE a way of expressing something (in language or art or music etc.) that is characteristi c of a particular person or group of people or period; BARRAGE, the rapid and continuous delivery of linguistic communication (spoken or written) BOMBARDMENT ORAL (language) communication by word of mouth; "his speech was garbled COMMUNICATION, SLANGUAGE language characterized by excessive use of slang SYNCHRONIC concerned with phenomena (especially language) at a particular period without considering historical antecedents DIACHRONIC, used of the study of a phenomenon (especially language) as it changes through HISTORICAL time; "diachronic linguistics 67  ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

 

Task 1 Read the information about Communicative Competence. What are the basic components of communicative competence. If a language learner is asked what they think the goal of a language course is, they would probably answer that it is to teach the grammar and vocabulary of that language. However, if they are asked what their goal is as language learners, they would most probably answer that it is to be able to communicate in that language. I am not saying that in actuality the goal of a language course is to teach solely grammar and vocabulary – well, at least it shouldn’t be just that anymore. (I’ve been in a course with such an outdated approach, and the results were, of course, poor). Fortunately, the focus of second language teaching has moved from purely teaching grammar and vocabulary, to providing the skills for effective communication. In linguistics terminology, a language course should not only have “linguistic competence” as its goal, but “communicative competence” in general. But what do these terms mean? Communicative competence is a term coined by Dell Hymes in 1966 in reaction to Noam Chomsky’s (1965) notion of “linguistic competence”. Communicative competence is the intuitive functional knowledge and control of the principles of language usage. As Hymes observes: “…a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others.” In other words, a language user needs to use the language not only correctly (based on linguistic competence), but also appropriately (based on communicative competence). Of course, this approach does not diminish the importance of learning the grammatical rules of a language. In fact, it is one of the four components of communicative competence: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. 1. Linguistic competence is the knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and vocabulary, and also of the conventions of its written representation (script and orthography). The grammar component includes the knowledge of the sounds and their pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound interactions and patterns (i.e. phonology), the formation of words by means of e.g. inflection and derivation (i.e. morphology), the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to structure sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (i.e. semantics). 2. Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of sociocultural rules of use, i.e. knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately. The appropriateness depends on the setting of the communication, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. Moreover, being appropriate depends on knowing what the taboos of the other culture are, what politeness indices are used in each case, what the politically correct term would be for something, how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness, courtesy, irony etc.) is expressed etc. 3. Discourse competence is the knowledge of how to produce and comprehend oral or written texts in the modes of speaking/writing and listening/reading respectively. It’s knowing how to combine language structures into a cohesive and coherent oral or written text of different types. Thus, discourse competence deals with organising words, phrases and sentences in order to create conversations, speeches, poetry, email messages, newspaper articles etc. 4. Strategic competence is the ability to recognise and repair communication breakdowns before, during, or after they occur. For instance, the speaker may not know a certain word, thus will plan to either paraphrase, or ask what that word is in the target language. During the conversation, background noise or other factors may hinder communication; thus the 68   

speaker must know how to keep the communication channel open. If the communication was unsuccessful due to external factors (such as interruptions), or due to the message being misunderstood, the speaker must know how to restore communication. These strategies may be requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech, or the usage of gestures, taking turns in conversation etc. These four components of communicative competence should be respected in teaching a foreign language –and they usually are by modern teaching methods employed in second language teaching. Usually most of the above are best learned if the language learner immerses into the culture of a country that speaks the target language. Wouldn’t it be great if the language teaching methodologies helped language learners reach communicative competence to a great degree even if the learner has never immersed into the target culture? For further reading:  Chomsky, Noam (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.  Hymes, Dell H. (1966). “Two types of linguistic relativity”. In Bright, W. Sociolinguistics. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 114–158.  Hymes, Dell H. (1972). “On communicative competence”. In Pride, J.B.; Holmes, J. Sociolinguistics: selected readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp. 269–293. Discuss in pairs. 1. What is communication and explain? 2. What is the different between communication and language? 3. What are some examples of communication? 4. What is the difference between linguistic and communicative competence? 5. What is Linguistics communication? 6. What is the meaning of communicative language teaching? 7. What is non linguistic communication?

Task 2 Read the information about APPROPRIATENESS IN COMMUNICATION. Discuss the quote of Elaine R. Silliman: “All speakers, regardless of the dialect they speak, tailor their discourse and linguistic choices to meet social conventions for interactional and linguistic appropriateness”. In linguistics and communication studies, appropriateness is the extent to which an utterance is perceived as suitable for a particular purpose and a particular audience in a particular social context. The opposite of appropriateness is inappropriateness. In the mid to late 1960s awareness was increasing among applied linguists of the problem of over-emphasis on structural competence and insufficient attention paid to other dimensions of communicative competence, particularly appropriateness. Newmark (1966) is a clear example of this awareness, and his paper speaks of the student who may be entirely 'structurally competent,' yet who is unable to perform even the simplest communicative task. In his seminal paper ["On Communicative Competence"], [Dell] Hymes (1970) provides the theoretical framework in which this issue can be addressed. He describes four parameters of communicative competence: the possible, the feasible, the appropriate and the performed. He argues that Chomskyian linguistics placed too much attention on the first of these, and there is no doubt that language teaching had done the same. Of the three remaining parameters it was the appropriate that caught the attention of applied linguists interested in language teaching, and a good part of what came to be called communicative language teaching (CLT) may be seen as an attempt to bring the teaching of appropriateness into the language classroom." 69   

Examples of Communicative Appropriateness The appropriateness of a contribution and its linguistic realization as one or more utterances has been defined as being calculated with regard to the nature of of the connectedness between a coparticipant's communicative intention, its linguistic realization and its embeddedness in linguistic and social contexts, as is illustrated with regard to the following examples (1) and (2):  I hereby declare this meeting closed and wish you a happy new year.  Let's call it a day, and let's hope 2003 is not gonna be as chaotic as 2002. Contribution (1) is undoubtedly grammatical, well-formed and acceptable, and it can be assigned the status of an appropriate contribution if particular social-context constraints and requirements obtain. Because of the verbal form gonna, contribution (2) cannot necessarily be seen as grammatical and well-formed, but it can be assigned the status of an acceptable contribution and it can also be assigned the status of an appropriate contribution in a contextual configuration which must be similar to the one required for (1). So, what contextual constraints and requirements are necessary to assign (1) and (2) the statuses of appropriate contributions? Both contributions have to be produced by the chairperson of a meeting--a fairly formal meeting in (1) and a fairly informal meeting in (2) - and the chair has to address the ratified participants of the meeting. As regards time and location, both must be uttered right at the end or right at the beginning of a calendar year, and both must be uttered in an institutional setting, a more formal one in (1) and a more informal one in (2). In spite of their different linguistic realizations, (1) and (2) require identical interactional roles. Unlike (1), however, (2) requires less fixed social roles and a less determinate setting in which it is possible to close a meeting in a less routinized manner. As a consequence of these contextual configurations, well-formed discourse and appropriate discourse meet in their interrelated categories of communicative intention, linguistic realization and linguistic context, and they depart with regard to their accommodation of social contexts. Hence, well-formed discourse is not necessarily appropriate, but appropriate discourse is necessarily well-formed. Appropriateness and Austin's Felicity Conditions How shall we begin an analysis of appropriateness/inappropriateness? We start with [John L.] Austin's (1962) felicity conditions. Austin's felicity conditions are usually interpreted as nothing more than the conditions for performing a speech act felicitously. We, however, claim that Austin, in describing how an act becomes felicitous or infelicitous, describes the special relationship between an act performed and its circumstances, i.e. between a speech act and its internal context. Such a description illustrates what it is for an act to be performed. [T]he elements of performing an illocutionary act, other than uttering a certain sentence, include certain conventions existing and applicable, along with circumstances and persons existing (conventionality); the speaker's actual, accurate performance and the hearer's actual, expected response (performativity); and a thought/feeling/intention, and a commitment personified (personification). Appropriateness in Online English In this age of tremendous technological change there is great uncertainty as to the appropriateness of linguistic choices in digital writing. [N]on-native speakers of English have a double burden: deciphering what is culturally appropriate in English, while contending with the same puzzlement as native speakers regarding how to respond to the affordances and constraints of new media. It would be a mistake to attribute changing linguistic patterns to technological factors alone. The trend toward greater informality was already recognized in the early 1980s, before personal computers became common. Robin Lakoff (1982) noted that written documents of all kinds were becoming more speech-like. The Plain Language in the USA and the UK pursued the reform of bureaucratic and legal language to make it, in effect, more like speech. Naomi Baron (2000) showed that ideological change regarding the teaching of writing fostered a more oral style."

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Find out more about following definitions:  Communicative Competence  Context  Conversationalization and Informalization  Correctness  Grammaticality  Pragmatics  Style-Shifting

Task 3 Read the text about “Communicative Competence: Definition, Examples, and Glossary” and discuss the main theories about communicative competence. The term communicative competence refers to both the tacit knowledge of a language and the ability to use it effectively. It's also called communication competence, and it's the key to social acceptance. The concept of communicative competence (a term coined by linguist Dell Hymes in 1972) grew out of resistance to the concept of linguistic competence introduced by Noam Chomsky. Most scholars now consider linguistic competence to be a part of communicative competence. Researchers Observations "Why have so many scholars, from so many fields, studied communicative competence within so many relational, institutional, and cultural contexts? Our hunch is that scholars, as well as the contemporary Western societies in which most live and work, widely accept the following tacit beliefs: (a) within any situation, not all things that can be said and done are equally competent; (b) success in personal and professional relationships depends, in no small part, on communicative competence; and (c) most people display incompetence in at least a few situations, and a smaller number are judged incompetent across many situations." (Wilson and Sabee) "By far the most important development in TESOL has been the emphasis on a communicative approach in language teaching. The one thing that everyone is certain about is the necessity to use language for communicative purposes in the classroom. Consequently, the concern for teaching linguistic competence has widened to include communicative competence, the socially appropriate use of language, and the methods reflect this shift from form to function." (Paulston) "We have then to account for the fact that a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishment by others. This competence, moreover, is integral with attitudes, values, and motivations concerning language, its features and uses, and integral with competence for, and attitudes toward, the interrelation of language with the other code of communicative conduct."(Hymes) Canale and Swain's Model of Communicative Competence In "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing" (Applied Linguistics, 1980), Michael Canale and Merrill Swain identified these four components of communicative competence:  Grammatical competence includes knowledge of phonology, orthography, vocabulary, word formation and sentence formation.  Sociolinguistic competence includes knowledge of sociocultural rules of use. It is concerned with the learners' ability to handle for example settings, topics and communicative functions in different sociolinguistic contexts. In addition, it deals with the use of appropriate grammatical forms for different communicative functions in different sociolinguistic contexts 71   

 

Discourse competence is related to the learners' mastery of understanding and producing texts in the modes of listening, speaking, reading and writing. It deals with cohesion and coherence in different types of texts. Strategic competence refers to compensatory strategies in case of grammatical or sociolinguistic or discourse difficulties, such as the use of reference sources, grammatical and lexical paraphrase, requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech, or problems in addressing strangers when unsure of their social status or in finding the right cohesion devices. It is also concerned with such performance factors as coping with the nuisance of background noise or using gap fillers.

For further reading:  Canale, Michael, and Merrill Swain. “Theoretical Bases Of Communicative Approaches To Second Language Teaching And Testing.” Applied Linguistics, I, no. 1, 1 Mar. 1980, pp. 1-47, doi:10.1093/applin/i.1.1.  Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT, 1965.  Hymes, Dell H. “Models of the Interaction of Language and Social Life.” Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication, edited by John J. Gumperz and Dell Hymes, Wiley-Blackwell, 1991, pp. 35-71.  Hymes, Dell H. “On Communicative Competence.” Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings, edited by John Bernard Pride and Janet Holmes, Penguin, 1985, pp. 269-293.  Paulston, Christina Bratt. Linguistics and Communicative Competence: Topics in ESL. Multilingual Matters, 1992.  Peterwagner, Reinhold. What Is the Matter with Communicative Competence?: An Analysis to Encourage Teachers of English to Assess the Very Basis of Their Teaching. LIT Verlang, 2005.  Rickheit, Gert, and Hans Strohner, editors. Handbook of Communication Competence: Handbooks of Applied Linguistics. De Gruyter, 2010.  Wilson, Steven R., and Christina M. Sabee. “Explicating Communicative Competence as a Theoretical Term.” Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills, edited by John O. Greene and Brant Raney Burleson, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003, pp. 3-50.

Task 4 Read the text and answer the question: “What is linguistic competence”? Find more information about linguistic competence. The term linguistic competence refers to the unconscious knowledge of grammar that allows a speaker to use and understand a language. Also known as grammatical competence or Ilanguage. Contrast with linguistic performance. As used by Noam Chomsky and other linguists, linguistic competence is not an evaluative term. Rather, it refers to the innate linguistic knowledge that allows a person to match sounds and meanings. In Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Chomsky wrote, "We thus make a fundamental distinction between competence (the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of language in concrete situations)." Observations Linguistic competence constitutes knowledge of language, but that knowledge is tacit, implicit. This means that people do not have conscious access to the principles and rules that govern the combination of sounds, words, and sentences; however, they do recognize when those rules and principles have been violated. For example, when a person judges that the sentence John said that Jane helped himself is ungrammatical, it is because the person has tacit knowledge of the grammatical principle that reflexive pronouns must refer to an NP in the same clause. Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance In [Noam] Chomsky's theory, our linguistic competence is our unconscious knowledge of languages and is similar in some ways to [Ferdinand de] Saussure's concept of langue, the 72   

organizing principles of a language. What we actually produce as utterances is similar to Saussure's parole, and is called linguistic performance. The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be illustrated by slips of the tongue, such as 'noble tons of soil' for 'noble sons of toil.' Uttering such a slip doesn't mean that we don't know English but rather that we've simply made a mistake because we were tired, distracted, or whatever. Such 'errors' also aren't evidence that you are (assuming you are a native speaker) a poor English speaker or that you don't know English as well as someone else does. It means that linguistic performance is different from linguistic competence. When we say that someone is a better speaker than someone else (Martin Luther King, Jr., for example, was a terrific orator, much better than you might be), these judgements tell us about performance, not competence. Native speakers of a language, whether they are famous public speakers or not, don't know the language any better than any other speaker in terms of linguistic competence." Two language users may have the same 'program' for carrying out specific tasks of production and recognition, but differ in their ability to apply it because of exogenous differences (such as shortterm memory capacity). The two are accordingly equally language-competent but not necessarily equally adept at making use of their competence. The linguistic competence of a human being should accordingly be identified with that individual's internalized 'program' for production and recognition. While many linguists would identify the study of this program with the study of performance rather than competence, it should be clear that this identification is mistaken since we have deliberately abstracted away from any consideration of what happens when a language user actually attempts to put the program to use. A major goal of the psychology of language is to construct a viable hypothesis as to the structure of this program.

Task 5 Read the text about pragmatics and answer why it is important for linguistics researches. PRAGMATICS: THE WAY PEOPLE USE LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language. In other words, pragmatics refers to the way people use language in social situations and the way that language is interpreted. The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by C.W. Morris. Pragmatics was developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s. Pragmatics has its roots in philosophy, sociology, and anthropology. Morris, a psychologist and philosopher, drew on his background in these fields when he laid out his theory of pragmatics in his book "Signs, Language and Behavior," explaining that the linguistic term "deals with the origins, uses, and effects of signs within the total behavior of the interpreters of signs." Signs, in terms of pragmatics, refers not to physical signs but to the subtle movements, gestures, tone of voice, and body language that often accompany speech. Sociology–the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society–as well as anthropology also played a large role in pragmatics. Morris developed his theory based on earlier work he did in editing the writings and lectures of George Herbert Mead, an American philosopher, sociologist and psychologist, in the book "Mind, Self, and Society: From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist," John Shook writes in Pragmatism Cybrary, an online pragmatism encyclopedia. In that work, Mead, whose own work also drew heavily on anthropology (the study of human societies and cultures and their development), explained how communication involves much more than just the words people use; it involves the all-important social signs people make when they communicate. Pragmatics vs. Semantics Morris also explained that pragmatics is different than semantics, which concerns just the relations between signs and the objects they signify. Semantics refers to the specific meaning of language; pragmatics, by contrast, involves all of the other social cues that accompany language. 73   

Pragmatics focuses not on what people say but how they say it and how others interpret their utterances in social contexts, says Geoffrey Finch in "Linguistic Terms and Concepts." Utterances are literally the units of sound you make when you talk, but the signs that accompany those utterances are what give the sounds their true meaning. Pragmatics in Action The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) gives two examples of how pragmatics works, or how it influences language and its interpretation. In the first, ASHA notes: "You invited your friend over for dinner. Your child sees your friend reach for some cookies and says, 'Better not take those, or you'll get even bigger.' You can't believe your child could be so rude." In a literal sense, the daughter is simply saying that eating cookies can make you gain weight. But due to the social context, the mother interprets that same sentence to mean that her daughter is calling her friend fat. The first sentence in this explanation refers to the semantics–the literal meaning of the sentence. The second and third refer to the pragmatics, the actual meaning of the words as interpreted by a listener based on social context. In another example, ASHA notes: "You talk with a neighbor about his new car. He has trouble staying on topic and starts talking about his favorite TV show. He doesn't look at you when you talk and doesn't laugh at your jokes. He keeps talking, even when you look at your watch and say, 'Wow. It's getting late.' You finally leave, thinking about how hard it is to talk with him." In this all-too-familiar scenario, the speaker is literally just talking about a new car and his favorite TV show. But the listener interprets the signs the speaker is using–not looking at the listener and not laughing at his jokes–as the speaker being unaware of the listener's views (let alone his presence) and monopolizing his time. You've likely been in this kind of situation before, where the speaker is talking about perfectly reasonable, simple subjects but is unaware of your presence and your need to escape. Where the speaker sees the talk as a simple sharing of information (the semantics), you see it as a rude monopolization of your time (the pragmatics). Pragmatics have even proved helpful in working with children with autism. Beverly Vicker, a speech and language pathologist writing on the Autism Support Network website, notes that many children with autism find it difficult to understand and pick up on what she, and many autism theorists, describe as "social pragmatics," which refers to: "...the ability to effectively use and adjust communication messages for a variety of purposes with an array of communication partners within diverse circumstances." Yet when educators, speech pathologists, and other interventionists teach these explicit communication skills–or social pragmatics–to children with autism spectrum disorder the results are often quite profound and can have a big impact in improving their conversational interaction skills. Importance of Pragmatics Pragmatics is the "meaning minus semantics," says Frank Brisard in his essay "Introduction: Meaning and Use in Grammar," published in "Grammar, Meaning and Pragmatics." Semantics, as noted, refers to the literal meaning of a spoken utterance. Grammar, Brisard says, involves the rules defining how the language is put together. Pragmatics takes context into account in order to complement the contribution that semantics and grammar make to meaning, he says. David Lodge, writing in the Paradise News, further explains why pragmatics is so important to understanding language: "What does pragmatics have to offer that cannot be found in good oldfashioned linguistics? What do pragmatic methods give us in the way of greater understanding of how the human mind works, how humans communicate, how they manipulate one another, and in general, how they use language?" Lodge says that pragmatics is needed because it gives humans "a fuller, deeper, and generally more reasonable account of human language behavior." Without pragmatics, there is often no understanding of what language actually means, or what a person truly means when she is speaking. The context–the social signs, body language, and tone of voice (the pragmatics)–is what makes utterances clear or unclear to the speaker and her listeners.

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9. OTHER RELATIONSHIPS In general, the philological movement opened up countless sources relevant to linguistic issues, treating them in quite a different spirit from traditional grammar; for instance, the study of inscriptions and their language. But not yet in the spirit of linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure

Discuss in pair. 1. What contemporary linguistics research do you know? 2. What are the most developed linguistic areas except mentioned do you know?

Basic terms: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE NATURAL INTELLIGENCE CONNECTIONISM

COGNITIVE SCIENCE

INTERFERENCE

TEXT LINGUISTICS APPLIED LINGUISTICS CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

is intelligence demonstrated by machines. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is used to describe machines that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving". is all the systems of control that are not artefacts, but rather are present in biology. Normally when we think of NI we think about how animal or human brains function, but there is more to natural intelligence than neuroscience is a movement in cognitive science that hopes to explain intellectual abilities using artificial neural networks (also known as ‘neural networks’ or ‘neural nets’). Neural networks are simplified models of the brain composed of large numbers of units (the analogs of neurons) together with weights that measure the strength of connections between the units. is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology. Its intellectual origins are in the mid-1950s when researchers in several fields began to develop theories of mind based on complex representations and computational procedures. Its organizational origins are in the mid-1970s when the Cognitive Science Society was formed and the journal Cognitive Science began. the transfer of certain phenomena from one language to another where they are not considered grammatical. This may happen on an individual level (during second language learning, for example) or collectively in which case it often leads to language change. the investigation of the structure and style of texts, of pieces of language which consist of more than a single sentence. studies the uses to which linguistic insights can be put, especially in second language teaching. the techniques for examining and structuring conversations or any type of social interaction which involves spoken language

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Task 1 Divide into groups. Each group reads a certain part of the information given below. After reading be ready to explain the main ideas of each part to other students. Be ready to discuss the information. Find out more about the areas of linguistics or other kinds of linguistics researches. ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS The fundamental concern of anthropological linguistics is to investigate the relationship between language and culture. To what extent the structure of a particular language is determined by or determines the form and content of the culture with which it is associated remains a controversial question. Vocabulary differences between languages correlate obviously enough with cultural differences, but even here the interdependence of language and culture is not so strong that one can argue from the presence or absence of a corresponding cultural difference. For example, from the fact that English– unlike French, German, Russian, and many other languages–distinguishes lexically between monkeys and apes, one cannot conclude that there is an associated difference in the cultural significance attached to these animals by English-speaking societies. Some of the major grammatical distinctions in certain languages may have originated in culturally important categories (e.g., the distinction between an animate and an inanimate gender). But they seem to endure independently of any continuing cultural significance. The “Whorfian hypothesis” (the thesis that one’s thought and even perception are determined by the language one happens to speak), in its strong form at least, is no longer debated as vigorously as it was a few years ago. Anthropologists continue to draw upon linguistics for the assistance it can give them in the analysis of such topics as the structure of kinship. A later development, but one that has not so far produced any very substantial results, is the application of notions derived from generative grammar to the analysis of ritual and other kinds of culturally prescribed behaviour. “Human knowledge is expressed in language. So computational linguistics is very important.” Mark Steedman COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS By computational linguistics is meant no more than the use of electronic digital computers in linguistic research. At a theoretically trivial level, computers are employed to scan texts and to produce, more rapidly and more reliably than was possible in the past, such valuable aids to linguistic and stylistic research as word lists, frequency counts, and concordances. Theoretically more interesting, though much more difficult, is the automatic grammatical analysis of texts by computer. Considerable progress was made in this area by research groups working on machine translation and information retrieval in the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and a few other countries in the decade between the mid-1950s and the mid1960s. But much of the original impetus for this work disappeared, for a time at least, in part because of the realization that the theoretical problems involved in machine translation are much more difficult than they were at first thought to be and in part as a consequence of a loss of interest among linguists in the development of discovery procedures. Whether automatic syntactic analysis and fully automatic high-quality machine translation are even feasible in principle remains a controversial question.

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MATHEMATICAL LINGUISTICS What is commonly referred to as mathematical linguistics comprises two areas of research: the study of the statistical structure of texts and the construction of mathematical models of the phonological and grammatical structure of languages. These two branches of mathematical linguistics, which may be termed statistical and algebraic linguistics, respectively, are typically distinct. Attempts have been made to derive the grammatical rules of languages from the statistical structure of texts written in those languages, but such attempts are generally thought to have been not only unsuccessful so far in practice but also, in principle, doomed to failure. That languages have a statistical structure is a fact well known to cryptographers. Within linguistics, it is of considerable typological interest to compare languages from a statistical point of view (the ratio of consonants to vowels, of nouns to verbs, and so on). Statistical considerations are also of value in stylistics. Algebraic linguistics derives principally from the work of Chomsky in the field of generative grammar. In his earliest work Chomsky described three different models of grammar–finite-state grammar, phrase-structure grammar, and transformational grammar–and compared them in terms of their capacity to generate all and only the sentences of natural languages and, in doing so, to reflect in an intuitively satisfying manner the underlying formal principles and processes. Other models have also been investigated, and it has been shown that certain different models are equivalent in generative power to phrase-structure grammars. The problem is to construct a model that has all the formal properties required to handle the processes found to be operative in languages but that prohibits rules that are not required for linguistic description. STYLISTICS The term stylistics is employed in a variety of senses by different linguists. In its widest interpretation it is understood to deal with every kind of synchronic variation in language other than what can be ascribed to differences of regional dialect. At its narrowest interpretation it refers to the linguistic analysis of literary texts. One of the aims of stylistics in this sense is to identify those features of a text that give it its individual stamp and mark it as the work of a particular author. Another is to identify the linguistic features of the text that produce a certain aesthetic response in the reader. The aims of stylistics are the traditional aims of literary criticism. What distinguishes stylistics as a branch of linguistics (for those who regard it as such) is the fact that it draws upon the methodological and theoretical principles of modern linguistics.

CORPUS LINGUISTICS Corpus linguistics is an increasingly popular field of linguistics which involves the analysis of (usually) very large collections of electronically stored texts,aided by computer software. Corpus linguistics is firmly rooted in empirical, inductive forms of analysis, relying on real-world instances of language use in order to derive rules or explore trends about the ways in which people actually produce language (as opposed to models of language that rely on made-up examples or introspection). There are sound theoretical justifications for this approach: humans do not always make accurate introspective judgements regarding language, instead relying on cognitive and social biases. In addition, computers can calculate frequencies and carry out statistical tests quickly and accurately, giving researchers access to linguistic patterns and trends – such as collocational information (e.g. instances where two words tend to co-occur such as tell and story) – that were previously inaccessible. Corpus analysis can therefore enable researchers to confirm or refute hypotheses about language use, as well as allowing them to raise new questions and theories about language that otherwise would not have been possible.

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS In the sense in which the term applied linguistics is most commonly used nowadays it is restricted to the application of linguistics to language teaching. Much of the expansion of linguistics as a subject of teaching and research in the second half of the 20th century came about because of its value, actual and potential, for writing better language textbooks and devising more efficient methods of teaching languages. Linguistics is also widely held to be relevant to the training of speech therapists and teachers of the deaf. Outside the field of education in the narrower sense, applied linguistics (and, more particularly, applied sociolinguistics) has an important part to play in what is called language planning - i.e., in advising governments, especially in recently created states, as to which language or dialect should be made the official language of the country and how it should be standardized.

Task 2 Read the following information. Where can you realize your knowledge and degree in other linguistics areas? What other perspective linguistic researches do you know What is computational linguistics? The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) describes computational linguistics as the scientific study of language from a computational perspective. Computational linguists provide computational models of various types of linguistic phenomena. Computational linguistics (CL) combines resources from linguistics and computer science to discover how human language works. Computational linguistics is a field of vital importance in the information age. Computational linguists create tools for important practical tasks such as machine translation, speech recognition, speech synthesis, information extraction from text, grammar checking, text mining and more. Computational Linguistics Graduate Programs The major schools in computational linguistics typically have a strong interdisciplinary culture with the linguistics department and the computer science department and with others. Computational linguistic students study subjects such as semantics, computational semantics, syntax, models in cognitive science, natural language processing systems and applications, morphology, linguistic phonetics and phonology. Students may also study sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, machine learning, applied text analysis, grounded models of meaning, data-intensive computing for text analysis, and information retrieval. During their journey computational linguistic students typically take computer programming courses as well as math and statistics courses. However, some general courses such as methods in computational linguistics teach computer programming at a level which provides students the skills to begin creating computer applications to address computational linguistics tasks. Some Ph.D. programs require students to have a proficiency in discrete mathematics or mathematical linguistics. Ph.D. students specializing in CL in the computer science department can take courses such as operating systems, programming languages, analysis of algorithms, natural language processing, computation and formal systems, science of data structures, machine learning, artificial intelligence, and computer architecture. Computational Linguistics Careers Computational linguistics is the most commercially viable branch of linguistics; hundreds of companies in the United States work on computational linguistics. Computational linguists work for high tech companies, creating and testing models for improving or developing new software in areas such as speech recognition, grammar checkers, dictionary development and more. Computational linguists also work in the areas of computer-mediated language learning and artificial intelligence. They also work in research groups at universities and government research labs.   78   

10. PRACTICE  

ESSENTIALS OF LINGUISTICS: LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE 1. Generate a sentence of English that you have never, ever uttered or heard before. Have a friend do the same thing. Exchange sentences with your friend. Were you able to understand each other’s sentences? How could you understand them, even though you had never heard them before? 2. Pretend you’re working for a start-up. Your company has developed a very cool new product, and they turn to you, the linguist, to come up with a name for this new product. It has to be a unique name that doesn’t already exist. What will you name your company’s cool new product? Now, look at this list of product names generated by other students. Which of them are good product names and which aren’t? What makes something a good name? mentocular

swoodiei

torrix

baizan

jibberdab

keerild

euquinu

tuitionary

kzen

zirka

hbiufk

fluxon

3. Think of a word that has only recently entered English, so it’s not yet in mainstream dictionaries. Observe some examples of the word being used in context, either in your regular conversations or by searching online. Based on your observations of the word in context, write a dictionary definition of the word. 4. Think about all the languages that you speak, or about a variety of language that you’ve heard spoken by someone you know. Make two scientific observations about that language or a variety. Your observations might be about the sounds of the language, about the words, about how the sentences are organized, or about how people use different elements of the language. Remember that scientific observations are descriptive, not prescriptive. 5. What does it mean to say that Linguistics is a science?  The field consists of a set of true facts that can be proven objectively.  The field uses the scientific method to determine objective rankings of language quality.  The field uses empirical observations to develop theories of language behaviour. 6. Each of the following sentences represents something someone might say about language. Which of them illustrates a descriptive view of language?  The use of quotative like in sentences such as, “She was like, I can’t believe you did that!” began to enter Canadian English with the generation of speakers born in 1971.  The song “I can’t get no satisfaction” should really mean that “I can get some satisfaction” because two negatives always make a positive.  In a phrase like, “the people who the bride invited to the wedding,” it’s proper to use whom rather than who. 7. Which of the following kinds of data would a linguist be likely to observe?  Which method is most effective to help a child stop stuttering.  Whether Korean includes tones that change the meaning of words.  How many undergraduates can correctly use the words affect and effect in their essays.  If second-language speakers can pronounce English words correctly. 79   

8. What do linguists do? The famous American social linguist, William Labov, once said, “Linguists work in five different fields, in five different areas in the world. They work in the library, they work in the bush, they work in the closet, they work in the laboratory, and they work on the street.” Do you agree with William Labov’s quotation? Discuss in pairs. 9. Watch the video “Discussion with Marten and Inge: What do Linguists do?” https://www.coursera.org/lecture/human-language/discussion-with-marten-and-inge-what-do-linguistsdo-DJ0AO and take notes upon the following 5 points and be ready to comment upon them: the library _________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ the bush___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ the closet__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ the laboratory_______________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ the street___________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 10. Search for the detailed information on the following questions and be ready to give oral presentations: 1. Linguistics as Science. 2. Linguistics vs Philology. 3. Language as a system 4. Language as a structure 5. Language and Culture 6. Synchronic and Diachronic Approaches to Language Studies 11. Watch the video and write down the outline of Mr.Pinker's lecture "Steven Pinker: Linguistics as a Window to Understanding the Brain". Be ready to discuss the main ideas of the video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-B_ONJIEcE 12. Write an essay on the topic “Language as a window to a human mind”. 13. Search for the research articles on Philology and Linguistics.

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14. Read the article “Linguistics vs Philology: Self-Definition of a Field or Rhetorical Stance?” By Koerner, Konrad (Language Sciences, v19 n2 p167-75 Apr 1997) and complete the table: Philology Linguistics Schleicher

Historical discipline, regards Natural science, it concerns itself with lanhuage as a medium for the natural historu of man investigating the thought and cultural life

Brugmann Jankowsky Bartsch and Vennemann Hogg 15. Write an essay on the topic “Linguistics vs Philology”. PSYCOLINGUISTICS The following are questions to enhance your learning and understanding of the above material. In answering, consider evidence from this chapter and from your own experience with words (or other research you have done in this area). 16. Word Relationships: Identify and explain the relationship between these pairs or groups of words. For example, hyponyms, synonyms, etc. There may be more than one answer. a) Seat-Pew b) Raise-Lower c) Cat-Feline d) Blue-Aquamarine e) Chair-Table f) Dark-Light g) Distasteful-Gross h) Foot-Head-Pay i) Visionary-Idealist j) Toilet-Powder Room k) Vista-Play (noun)-Scene l) Strong-Weak m) Animal-Calf n) Inebriated-Drunk-Wasted o) Present-Absent p) Bottle-Container q) Die-Pass Away 17. Discuss the differences between Saussure's concept of the sign (signifier/signified) and Aitchison's idea of fuzzy edges (with evidence from Labov). Do they disagree, or do their ideas support each other? Do you agree with one or with both? Write a brief essay, using support from both authors. 18. We have learned that words are fluid. Explain the reasons and results of this fluidity, using both semantic and grammatical evidence. What kind of words are not fluid, and why? Write a short essay (several paragraphs). Come up with your own examples. 81   

19. Most of the examples above come from English. Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of this in several paragraphs--is it more effective to look at words from the viewpoint of a single language, or to examine the concept of "word" always in a cross-linguistic context? If you are familiar with another language, discuss the processes and ideas identified in this chapter in relation to that language. Can you discover any radical differences, or do words exhibit similar behaviours and patterns regardless of language? If you do not know another language, verb paradigms, pronoun charts and many other simple tools can easily be accessed on the internet. Find a source like this for another language and compare it to English. 20. The following are concepts that need labels. a) The process of change in measurements of groundwater radiation levels over time b) Moving back home with your parents after having moved out to go to university c) The condition of seeing real life as a two-dimensional world of violence as a result of playing too many video games d) The fatigue felt after reading a lengthy textbook on psycholinguistics e) Anxiety experienced over not knowing the answer to an exam question f) A person who lives a very modest life, while having a fortune in the bank Make up a new word to label these things. Your term can be made up of more than one typographic word (i.e. it can have spaces in it, as in "flower pot") but should be as succinct as possible. It must not be a phrase, but instead must function syntactically as one unit. (This is crucial if something is to be considered a word.) Then explain in a paragraph or two why your term is a good label for the concept, and why it could be adopted as the general term in English (although of course this probably won't happen). 21. Identify all the morphemes used in your words. Are they free or bound? What categories do they create? Are they derivational or inflectional? 22. Read the following section of the script from the movie, “Snatch” Narrator: There was a problem with pikeys or gypsies. Mickey: What're you doing? Get out of the way, man. Narrator: You can't understand what's being said. Mickey: You Tommy? Come about the caravan? Call me Mickey. Narrator: Not Irish, not English. Tommy: How are you? Mickey: Weather's been kind, but it's harsh, to be honest. Narrator: It's just, well, it's just Pikey. Mickey: Would you look at the size of him? How big are you? Kids, how big is he? Kids: Big man, that's for sure. Mickey: Hey, Mam, come and look at the size of this fella. Bet you box a little, can't you, sir? You look like a boxer. Mickey’s Mom: Get out of the way. See if they'd like a drink. Tommy: I could murder one. Mickey’s Mom: Be no murdering done around here, I don't mind telling you. Mickey: Get your hands out of there, you cheeky little boy. Cup of tea for the big fella? Mickey’s Mom: Don't be silly, Mickey. Offer the man a proper drink, boy. Read it again. Explain how expectations and top-down processing affected your perception of speech in this sound clip. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: LEXICAL ACCESS 23. Please answer the following questions to test your comprehension and application skills regarding lexical access. All questions should be answered in a short answer response (between 2-5 sentences) 82   



      

Swinney’s (1979) Cross-Modality Priming Study was conducted to demonstrate the semantic priming effects in relationship to lexical access. Based on the following target sentence: "Rumor had it that for years the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was surprised when he found spiders and other bugs in the room," the words ant, sew and spy were visually presented immediately or after two seconds. Based on this description, what do you anticipate the outcome of this experiment would be? Would lexical decision occur faster, slower or be unaffected by the use of the primed sentence? Would the duration of time between presenting the above sentence and the target word affect the speed of lexical access? Lastly, does the duration of time between presenting the target sentence and target word affect which semantic meaning is accessed? Does context affect lexical access? What are the advantages and disadvantages of bringing context into the process of lexical access at an early stage. List two benefits and two criticisms of the selective and exhaustive access of word meanings. Which model is better supported by experimental research? Why does this model better explain lexical access than the other? Thinking back to the description of the Logogen Model by Morton, identify two features that characterize this model. Then, identify another model of lexical access and compare the similarities and differences between the Logogen model and your selected model. What are the most important factors that influence lexical access? What experimental support are there for these factors? Explain the difference between words which have dominant meanings and those which have subordinate meanings. Provide one example for each type of meaning that differs from the information in this chapter. Identify the three types of lexical access "files" in Forster's (1976) Autonomous Search Model. Briefly explain what type of information would be stored in each file Identify which of the following sentences are lexically ambiguous. Identify which word in each sentence is the cause of this ambiguity:  The lady hit the man with an umbrella  John saw her duck  He gave her cat food  Margaret could not read the note  The man saw the boy with the binoculars

24. The meaning association of words are usually paired based on meaning categories rather then physical similarities (i.e., pen and paper rather than pen and highlighter). Common associations are based on co-ordination (i.e., salt and pepper), collection (i.e., salt and water), opposite (salt and sweet), and superordination (i.e., butterfly and insect). Figure 11 below is required to complete the following word association question. Please review the ten most common word association responses for the following stimuli: butterfly, hungry, red, and salt and identify which given words appear to have the strongest semantic links with each stimuli. Why do think some words listed have a stronger semantic link to the stimuli then others? Classify the word association relationship for all ten words for each category (i.e., superordination, opposite, collection)

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25. Examine your answers from previous question. Was one type of word association significantly more represented than the others? Identify what type of word association response this would be and why you believe it was the most salient in comparison to other types of word association relationship (i.e., superordination, opposite, collection) 26. Consider the category vehicle. Generate a list of at least twelve words that refer to members of the vehicle category, and rank them in order of most prototypical to most peripheral category members. Discuss, briefly, what features make something a prototypical vehicle. What features do the peripheral members have (or not have) that make them less prototypical? 27. Discuss the information from the links to video lectures on Language Acquisition:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prMGbLrbudA  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_12OZGNGlPU  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWmjpAlEqN0 28. Cover the following issues in the reports of your own: 1. The History of Psycholinguistics. 2. The contribution of Noam Chomsky into Psycholinguistics. 3. Language Acquisition: definition, stages (phases), problems. 4. Second Language Acquisition. 5. Speech perception. 6. Methods of psycholinguistics. 7. The Impact of cultural interference in second language acquisition (Faysal?) 29. You are welcome with some other issues related to Psycholinguistics. 1. Noam Chomsky - a pioneer in Psycholinguistics. His contribution into this branch. 2. Speech Perception. 3. Common mistakes of non-native speakers in Second Language Acquisition. 4. The influence of bilingualism on the development of children's mental abilities. 5. The choice of teaching methods in relation to the principles of Language Acquisition and Second Language Acquisition. 30. Write an essay (30- 40 sentences): Language: innate or learned? Discuss both points, provide examples and give your own opinion.

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Watch the following links about Psycholinguistics to get the ideas:  Language Design - Noam Chomsky https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLk47AMBdTA  Noam Chomsky - "The machine, the ghost, and the limits of understanding"  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D5in5EdjhD0  The Concept of Language (Noam Chomsky) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdUbIlwHRkY  Noam Chomsky - The Structure of Language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E3U6MsdBalg  Noam Chomsky on Mind & Language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DBDUlDA3t0  William Labov - at the University of York 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCJh8nFXBUE 31. Read and write a review of the following chapters from the book “Thinking and Speech” by L. S. Vygotsky 1934:  Chapter 4. The Genetic Roots of Thought and Speech pp.95- 114  Chapter 7 Thought and Word pp. 245- 284 SOCIOLINGUISTICS 32. Study the following links on Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics - the study of variation in language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eYIyMCoIAZY Sociolinguistics by Walt Wolfram http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/sociolinguistics 33. Match the terms from the list with their definitions below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. sociolinguistics 7. language 8. speech community 9. microsociolinguistcs 10. identity

variety dialect macrosociolinguistics sociolect societal norms

_______________the study of who speaks what to whom, when, where, and to what end. Roles that people have; contexts. The reason why people use these codes. Socio = behavior. The code is arbitrary: it only means what we agree it to mean. The study of language itself. The study of relationships: power relationships. How language works in society. _______________the part of sociolinguistics that addresses the relationship between the use of specific varieties or linguistic features and social structure and categories. Have an understanding of language through study of relationships between languages and social use. Study of language in relation to society. How social structure influences way we talk. _______________part of sociolinguistics that addresses larger societal patterns of language use (language attitudes) seeks to better understand social structure through the study of relationship between language and its social use. Study of society in relation to language. What societies do with their language: distribution of speech forms, etc. _______________a system of signs used for communication; in sociolinguistics, one focus is on how to define the boundaries of such a system. Usually taken to mean the dominate category of a variety which includes dialects, one of which is the standard. Particular to a group. Includes speaking, writing, and signed modes of communication. 85   

_______________condition of being oneself, not another. your qualities, beliefs, that distinguish you. your sense of self, providing sameness and continuity in your personality over time. a self conception. identity is dynamic and ever changing. _______________the term used to refer to a particular way of speaking a language which is associated with a particular region or social group. typically dialects are not written. In France, a dialect is a regional variety that has its own literary tradition. For example, the Walloon dialect which traces its literary tradition to the 16th century. _______________the unique pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and stylistic range of a group of people _______________a generic term that many linguists use to refer to the speech of some non-distinct group of people. Could refer to a dialect or a language. _______________a group of people who share similar patterns of language use behavior, and shared speech patterns and shared linguistic norms. For example, in various Native American groups, narratives produced in English have distinctive features which can be traced back to narrative structures in the Native American languages. Such speakers use English in special ways to show their identity. The shares patterns of behavior indicate shared perceptions of the social meaning of a particular way of speaking. The perceived social meaning of the linguistic forms is what unites people. _______________a set of connected behaviors, rights, obligations, beliefs, norms, as conceptualized by people in a social situation. 34. Read and write a review of the following article on Sociolinguistics by Gerard Van Herk In: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 22. 2015, Pages 949-953 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.53081-5) 35. Make up your own slide-show about Sociolinguistics. The approximate number of slides required is 8-10. Use the following links for extra information about the terms. https://quizlet.com/152790147/sociolinguistics-definitions-test-flash-cards/ 36. Read and write a review of the following article on Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis In: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 20. 2015, Pages 903-906 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.52017-0 37. Watch the video “Peter Trudgill: Languages in Contact and Isolation: Mature Phenomena and Societies of Intimates”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjy1CkH1FOE and take notes on the following points: - Sociolinguistic typology - Complexification vs simplification - Language contacts (short-term vs long term) - Lexical transparency - Mature phenomena 38. Role-play the interview with William Labov. Use the following articles: LABOV, William. Sociolinguistics: an interview with William Labov. Revista Virtual de Estudos da Linguagem - ReVEL. Vol. 5, n. 9, agosto de 2007. ISSN 1678-8931 [www.revel.inf.br]. Journal of English Linguistics Volume 34 Number 4 December 2006 332-351 Interview with William Labov Matthew J. Gordon (interviewer and transcriber) 39. Find out the definitions to the following list of terms: 1. Dialect 2. Accent 3. Language 4. Language variation. 86   

5. Speech community 6.Standard language 7. Non-standard language 8. Sociolect 9. Code-switching 10. Turn-taking. COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS 40. Find out information about the following topics:  The history and origins of Computational Linguistics  The key problems of Computational Linguistics  The concept of Artificial Intelligence  The Association for Computational Linguistics and the journal "Computational Linguistics". 41. Questions for Self-check: 1. In what ways can computers be used in Linguistics? 2. What is AI? 3. When did CL appear as an area of AI? 4. What sciences is CL connected with? 5. What applications can be used in CL? 6. What is the impact of computers on Linguistics? 42. Read and review the article "Machine translation for Arabic dialects" by Salima Harrat, Karima Meftouh, Kamel Smaili and highlight the main ideas. Information Processing & Management, Volume 56, Issue 2, March 2019, Pages 262-273. 43. Watch a video “Artificial Intelligence: it will kill us” https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=BrNs0M77Pd4 and write an essay (350-400 words) "Will artificial intelligence replace humans in the future?", expressing your opinion, based upon the ideas of the video. LANGUAGE ACQUSITION 44. Follow the link to get to the jeopardy challenge I created to test your knowledge on the theories of language acquisition. Try to answer correctly as many questions as you can, collecting jeopardy cash along the way until you meet the final jeopardy question at the end. Good luck! Jeopardy Challenge: http://www.superteachertools.com/jeopardyx/jeopardy-review-game.php?gamefile=1299185662 45. Answer the following essay questions to the best of your ability, using external sources if needed.  You are a new theorist in the field of psycholinguistics and are trying to determine which perspective you are willing to take on how individuals acquire language. Being the great researcher that you are, you want your opinions to be based on evidence-based knowledge. Analyze and pick a position based on new evidence from within the field of linguistics defending why a certain perspective or theory better explains language acquisition. Make sure to contrast your arguments against other theories or models and clearly support why other theorists should accept your view. If you want to be really ambitious you can even create your own theory or model to endorse your ideas, but make sure that you have evidence backing why you think your theory could hold up against any other.  Language acquisition has been a subject of debate for decades. It is so complex that there is really no single principle that can be applied to all. Its complexity has led to multiple theories and studies that has shaped our general perception and understanding towards it. Working in the Gulf for more than a decade exposed me to multicultural students and second language 87   

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speakers. Undeniably, all language acquisition theories acknowledge individual differences. In my observation, generally, individual learns language through a combination of innate and cognitive abilities ( Innateness l cognitive theory ) and external factors (optimality theory). A child grows up with interaction with mother, parents and / or nanny. So their exposure to people continuously interacting with them plays a great role in their language acquisition. Contrary to that Piaget’s theory, modern theories focuses on the amount of input / output in the child’s “little world”. As for me, one of factor that we should also focus are children born to multi-lingual parents. Because of migration, mixed marriages, children automatically becomes exposed to several language input / barriers. I have students who are native Arabic but cannot speak in their own language but can understand it but cannot converse with it. They are more oriented to English language. In my observation, a child will always have innate capability to learn language, the amount of exposure a child gets ( from environment ) will determine the extent of the usefulness of language a child acquired. One area of language that I would like to add and I believe more studies must ne done on this is the exposure to social media. Authenticity of the “carrier” of language must be clearly identified. With our fast phased life and continuous advancement in technology, we must acknowledge its effect on child’s growth, more so with their language acquisition. I am not pointing to its advantages or disadvantages but only its acceptance in our field of study of language acquisition. I prepared a model of this concept: This represent my position on how a child acquire language. Input - immediate social factors like parents, nannies, social background, positive reinforcements Individual - innate cognitive abilities Technological Evolution - social media, access to gadgets Recently someone you knew had a baby and with your ne found psycholinguistics knowledge you realize that you may have some advice to help with the baby's language acquisition when the time comes. Using what you know about the theories and models of language acquisition, what tips or guidance could you give this person to help her baby to achieve language acquisition? Specifically describe with examples if there are certain aspects of the theories or models of language acquisition that could support the infant in developing language skills. With what I learn from the theories that I have studied and read, I will mention to her that her presence is very much vital in the child’s language acquisition. Development stages of the child also will affect his/her language. If her neighbor’s son speaks at 1 year old and hers has not yet, then she must understand it is different for every child. When this happens, then she can add more input that may come from other members of the family and other positive reinforcements. She can increase amount of input especially in the formative years. The goal is to create a positive learning environment to a child so he or she can develop confidence in what a child does. For me, a great amount of confidence is required for a child to be effective in acquiring language. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS

46. Search for the detailed information on the following questions and be ready to give oral presentations:  The History of Cognitive Linguistics.  The Basic Notions of Cognitive Science.  Language and Cognition.  Categories and Levels of Categorization.  Metaphors we live by (Lakoff). 47. The contemporary theory of metaphor. Choose one of the articles for review from the journal “Review of Cognitive Linguistics 13:1” (you may choose any you like): 88   

https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/rcl.13.1.06cue/fulltext https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/rcl.13.1.07kno/fulltext https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/rcl.13.1.05bai/fulltext https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/rcl.13.1.04her/fulltext 48. Read and take notes in “Cognitive Linguistics Research”(2006) Chapter 6 (p.185-238) Conceptual metaphor The contemporary theory of metaphor by George Lakoff CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR THEORY Summarise the key claims of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. 49. Identifying mappings. The following sentences are motivated by the metaphor TIME IS (MOTION ALONG) A PATH, which relates to the moving ego model. Identify the set of mappings underlying these examples. (a) We’re approaching Christmas. (b) Graduation is still a long way away. (c) Easter is ahead of us. (d) We’ve left the summer behind us. (e) When he was a boy he used to play football over the summer vacation. 50. Identifying metaphors. Identify the metaphors that underlie these examples. Identify possible source and target domains, and state the metaphor in the form ‘A is B’. (a) That marriage is on the rocks. (b) This once great country has become weaker over the years. (c) In defending her point of view she took no prisoners. (d) Those two are still quite close. (e) We’ve got a big day ahead of us tomorrow. (f) A different species is going extinct everyday. 51. Primary vs. compound metaphors. For the metaphors you identified early, determine whether these are likely to be examples of primary or compound metaphor. In view of the discussion, explain your reasoning for each example. CORRELATION VS. RESEMBLANCE-BASED METAPHORS 52. Consider the following examples. Explain how the metaphors that underlie them illustrate the distinction between metaphors motivated by correlation versus metaphors motivated by perceived resemblance: (a) My boss is a real pussycat. (b) So far, things are going smoothly for the Liberal Democrats in the election campaign. 53. Metaphor vs. metonymy. Describe the main differences between conceptual metaphor and conceptual metonymy, and explain how the function of each type of conceptual projection differs. 54. Identifying metonymies. Identify the conceptual metonymies that underlie each of the following examples. For each example, identify the vehicle and the target, and explain how you reached your conclusions. (a) George Bush arrested Saddam Hussein. (b) The White House is refusing to talk to the Elysée Palace these days while the Kremlin is talking to everyone. (c) Watergate continues to have a lasting impact on American politics. 89   

(d) She loves Picasso. (e) The restaurant refused to serve the couple as they weren’t properly dressed. (f) She xeroxed the page. (g) Jane has a long face. (h) She’s not just a pretty face. (i) All hands on deck! 55. Textual analysis. Select an excerpt from a newspaper or magazine article. Analyse the excerpt with respect to conceptual metaphor and metonymy. Identify the source/vehicle and target in each case, and explain your reasoning. Below are some examples of the sorts of texts you might consider selecting: (a) an article from a woman’s interest magazine relating to make-up and beauty products; (b) an example from a men’s magazine dealing with health and/or fitness; (c) an article from a newspaper relating to sports coverage, such as rivalry between football teams or their managers; (d) an article from a newspaper’s ‘opinion/comment’ page(s), dealing with a current political controversy; (e) an excerpt from an agony-aunt column dealing with relationships; (f) a pop-song lyric dealing with love; (g) slogans or text from advertisements that appear in newspapers or magazines.

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FINAL (SELF-CHECK) TEST 1. Morse code, semaphore, traffic signals, public symbols; and the information exchange processes used by bees, birds, dolphins, apes are examples of: A. B. C. D.

Language Rule governed communication systems Derivational Creoles Organized iconic constructs

2. Which of the following best defines “linguistics”? A. the study of language and its structure: how it works and how it is used B. the ability to speak English fluently C. the study of foreign languages D. parasites that attach themselves to the tongue, thereby affecting a persons’ ability to speak 3. Which one of the following famous people is/was not a linguist? A. George Lakoff B. Noam Chomsky C. Alexander Graham Bell D. William Labov 4. Which of the following is not a linguistic field? A. Computational Linguistics B. Cognitive linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Anthropology 5. What is diachronic linguistics? A. The branch of linguistics which looks at the effect of mental disorders B. A long-term illness brought about by talking too much C. The study of words relating to or characteristic of the devil D. The study of language change over time (i.e. historical linguistics) 6. What is the study of language as it pertains to social classes, ethnic groups and genders? A. Psycholinguistics B. Comparative linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Linguistics 7. The study of the meaning of languages? A. Phonetics B. Syntax C. Linguistics D. Semantics 8. Which of the following could be a definition for Sociolinguistics? A. the study of language variation as a human phenomenon that affects large parts of the population B. a field of research that deals with the relation between language and society 91   

C. research aim at finding the reasons for linguistic variations in social and environmental conditions D. all of the above 9. What is the aim of Sociology of Language? A. to investigate and describe the relationship between language and society B. finding basic grammatical structures that could account for the existence of structured patterns across languages C. the study of society and how we can understand it through the study of language D. all of the above 10. A form of a language that people speak in a particular part of a country, containing some different words and grammar, etc. A. accent B. dialect C. speech D. mother tongue 11. What is an “idiolect”? A. an idiotic way of speaking B. the form of speech used by an individual C. someone who uses a lot of idioms D. the form of speech used by a particular social class 12. What is the name of the “organ” in the brain which allows children to learn language? A. the Language Acquisition Device B. the Behaviourist Acquisition Tool C. the Word Cruncher D. the Language Grinder 13. What is psycholinguistics? A. The study of psychopaths’’ use of language B. A completely crazy form of linguistics C. The study of language and mind D. The study of the language and psychiatry 14. Regions of conceptual space that contain specific kinds of information A cognitive models B image schemas C mental spaces D prototypes 15. Mappings are A linguistic variations correlated with social categories, style, or attitudes; B style shifting occurring across language boundaries, C a series of stages through which a language moves from full vitality to eventual language death. D correspondences between entities inhering in regions of the conceptual system.

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16. Which of the following best defines “metaphor”? A. a word or phrase applied to an object or action to which it is not strictly applicable B. a phrase which is constantly repeated C. a person who struggles with words D. a polite way of saying something rude 17. To what does “corpus linguistics” refer? A. a set of terms used in linguistics to denote “the dead”? B. a style of “corporate” language used in business settings C. the linguistic analysis of the functions of common exclamations, such as “cor” and “wow” D. the use of large, computerized bodies of text or “corpora” for linguistic description and analysis 18. Translation carried out by a computer A. machine translation B. artificial intelligence C. computational linguistics D. corpus translation

   

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GLOSSARY   GENERAL FEATURES OF LANGUAGE applied linguistics the application of insights from theoretical linguistics to practical matters such as language teaching, remedial linguistic therapy, language planning or whatever. areas of linguistics any of a number of areas of study in which linguistic insights have been brought to bear, for instance sociolinguistics in which scholars study society and the way language is used in it. context a term referring to the environment in which an element (sound, word, phrase) occurs. The context may determine what elements may present, in which case one says that there are 'co-occurrence restrictions' for instance 1) /r/ may not occur after /s/ in a syllable in English, e.g. */sri:n/ is not phonotactically permissible in English; 2) the progressive form cannot occur with state verbs, e.g. We are knowing German is not well-formed in English.

arbitrariness an essential notion in structural linguistics which denies any necessary relationship between linguistic signs and their referents, e.g. objects in the outside world. competence according to Chomsky in his Aspects of the theory of syntax (1965) this is the abstract ability of an individual to speak the language which he/she has learned as native language in his/her childhood. The competence of a speaker is unaffected by such factors as nervousness, temporary loss of memory, speech errors, etc. These latter phenomena are entirely within the domain of performance which refers to the process of applying one's competence in the act of speaking. Bear in mind that competence also refers to the ability to judge if a sentence is grammatically well-formed; it is an unconscious ability. convention an agreement, usually reached unconsciously by speakers in a community, that relationships are to apply between linguistic items, between these and the outside world or to apply in the use of rules in the grammar of their language.

descriptive an approach to linguistics which is concerned with saying what language is like and not what it should be like (prescriptivism).

diachronic refers to language viewed over time and contrasts with synchronic which refers to a point in time. This is one of the major structural distinctions introduced by Saussure and which is used to characterise types of linguistic investigation.

economy a principle of linguistic analysis which demands that rules and units are to be kept to a minimum, i.e. every postulated rule or unit must be justified linguistically by capturing a generalisation about the language being analysed, if not about all languages.

extralinguistic any phenomenon which lies outside of language. An extralinguistic reason for a linguistic feature would be one which is not to be found in the language itself.

figurative any use of a word in a non-literal sense, e.g. at the foot of the mountain where foot is employed figuratively to indicate the bottom of the mountain. Figurative usage is the source of the second meaning of polysemous words.

formalist an adjective referring to linguistic analyses which lay emphasis on relatively abstract conceptions of language structure.

general linguistics a broad term for investigations which are concerned with the nature of language, procedures of linguistic analysis, etc. without considering to what use these can be put. It contrasts explicitly with applied linguistics.

generative a reference to a type of linguistic analysis which relies heavily on the formulation of rules for the exhaustive description (generation) of the sentences of a language.

head the center of a phrase or sentence which is possibly qualified by further optional elements, in the phrase these bright new signs the head is signs as all other elements refer to it and are optional. The term is also used in lexicology to refer to the determining section of a compound; in family tree, the

hierarchy any order of elements from the most central or basic to the most peripheral, e.g. a hierarchy of word classes in English would include nouns and verbs at the top and elements like adjectives and adverbs further down with conjunctions and subordinators still further down. The notions of top and bottom are intended in a metaphorical sense.

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element tree is head and family is modifier. This has consequences for grammar, especially in synthetic languages, such as German where in a compound like Stammbuch the gender is neuter (with das) because the head Buch is although the modifying word is masculine (der Stamm). language a system which consists of a set of symbols (sentences) – realised phonetically by sounds – which are used in a regular order to convey a certain meaning. Apart from these formal characteristics, definitions of languages tend to highlight other aspects such as the fact that language is used regularly by humans and that it has a powerful social function.

linguistics the study of language. As a scientific discipline built on objective principles, linguistics did not develop until the beginning of the 19th century. The approach then was historical as linguists were mainly concerned with the reconstruction of the Indo-European language. With the advent of structuralism at the beginning of the 20th century, it became oriented towards viewing language at one point in time. The middle of this century saw a radically new approach – known as generative grammar – which stressed our unconscious knowledge of language and underlying structures to be found in all languages. metaphor an application of a word to another with which it is figuratively but not literally associated, e.g. food for thought. This process is very common in the use of language and may lead to changes in grammar as with the verb go in English where its spatial meaning has come to be used metaphorically for temporal contexts as in He's going to learn Russian. parameter any aspect of language which can obtain a specific value in a given language, e.g. canonical word-order which can have the verb in a declarative sentence either before the subject, after the subject or after both subject and object. Contrast principle in this respect. root 1) In grammar the unalterable core of a word to which all suffixes are added, e.g. friend in un-friend-li-ness. 2) In etymology, the earliest form of a word. 3) In phonetics, the part of the tongue which lies furthest back in the mouth.

structuralism a type of linguistic analysis which stresses the interrelatedness of all levels and sub-levels of language. It

level a reference to a set of recognizable divisions in the structure of natural language. These divisions are largely independent of each other and are characterised by rules and regularities of organisation. Traditionally five levels are recognised: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics. Pragmatics may also be considered as a separate level from semantics. Furthermore levels may have subdivisions as is the case with morphology which falls into inflectional and derivational morphology (the former is concerned with grammatical endings and the latter with processes of word-formation). The term 'level' may also be taken to refer to divisions within syntax in generative grammar. linguistic determinism refers to the view, propounded by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that language determines the way in which people think. metalanguage the language which is used to discuss language; see also object language. marked a term used to state that a particular form is statistically unusual or unexpected in a certain context. For instance zero plurals in English such as sheep or deer are marked. paradigm the set of forms belonging to a particular word-class or member of a word-class. A paradigm can be thought of as a vertical list of forms which can occupy a slot in a syntagm.

rhetoric the technique of speaking effectively in public. Regarded in the past as an art and cultivated deliberately. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis the notion that thought is determined by language. While few linguists nowadays accept this strict link, there would seem to be some truth to the postulation of the two American anthropologists/linguists. synchronic a reference to one point of time in a language. This may be the present but need not be. Forms a dichotomy with diachronic. Structural studies of language are usually synchronic and the Indo-Europeanists of the 19th century were diachronic in their approach. taxonomic a reference to linguistics in which the main aim is to list and classify features and phenomena. It is usually implied

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was introduced at the beginning of the century by Ferdinand that no attempt for linguistic generalisations is made. de Saussure (1957-1913) as a deliberate reaction to the historically oriented linguistics of the 19th century and theoretical linguistics subsequently established itself as the standard paradigm the study of the structure of language without any concern until the 1950's when it was joined, if not replaced, by for practical applications which might arise from one's generative grammar. work. LEXICOLOGY base a free lexical word to which one or more endings can be added. A base can itself consist of more than one morpheme whereas a root contains only one.

Lexicology is the study of the structure of the lexicon. citation form the form of a linguistic item which is given when it occurs on its own. Often the form used for a dictionary entry, typically the nominative of nouns and the infinitive of verbs (in English and German). conversion the use of an item of one class in another without any formal change, e.g. to breakfast from breakfast. Conversion is a common feature of analytical languages such as English. lexical 1) Pertaining to the vocabulary of a language and/or information which is deposited in the mental lexicon of the speaker. 2) Irregular, 'quirky', not conforming to a given pattern. This second use implies that a form cannot be derived by rule and hence it must be learned as an indivisible whole during language acquisition and stored in the lexicon in its full, unalterable form. loan-word any word which can be shown to have been imported from one language into another, that is which does not represent an historical continuation of an earlier form (although loanwords may be related at a greater time depth). The word cardiac is a Greek loan as it is derived from the word for 'heart' in the latter language although it is ultimately related to English heart as both stem from the same root in Indo-European *kerd. vocabulary the set of words in a language. These are usually grouped into word fields so that the vocabulary can be said to show an internal structure. The term lexicon is also found here but the latter has two meanings (the words of a language and one's mental storehouse for these words). word formation the second main branch of morphology (the other being inflection) and the chief process in lexicology (the study of the vocabulary of a language). Word formational processes are closely connected to a language's type: German as a synthetic language has much compounding but English as an analytic language has somewhat less, though in this sphere a tendency towards complex formations is noticeable, e.g. part-financed, low-intensity, small-scale

compound a term from derivational morphology, i.e. a lexicological term, which refers to a word which contains more than one lexical morpheme. lexeme the smallest (abstract) unit which is recognised as semantically independent in the lexicon of a language. A lexeme subsumes a set of forms which are related semantically, e.g. the lexeme walk unites the various forms walk, walks, walked, walking. lexicon the vocabulary of a language. It can refer to the book form of a dictionary (usually with an alphabetic listing of words) or the assumed lexicon which speakers possess mentally. The precise nature and organisation of this mental lexicon is much debated in linguistic literature as it is generally assumed to be radically different in organisation from a conventional dictionary. neologism a new word in the vocabulary of a language. Frequently a borrowing but not necessarily so. thesaurus a kind of dictionary which consists of words grouped according to similarity in meaning. transparent a reference to a form or a process in morphology whose structure can be understood without any additional information, particularly of an historical nature, from the language concerned. For instance the German compound Kinderarzt is transparent but English pediatrician, which is derived from the Greek word for 'child' is not so. Former transparent compounds may change in the course of time. The English word hussey is a reduced form of 'housewife' and because of loss of transparency underwent a semantic shift to 'unpleasant woman' with the transparent housewife being re-introduced into the language. Transparent contrasts directly with opaque.

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SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS connotation additional meaning which arises due to the associations a word has.

Semantics is the study of meaning in language. denotation the relationship between a word and the non-linguistic, 'outside' world. For instance one could say that the denotation of cup is a small vessel-like object for holding beverages.

homograph any two (or more) words which are written the same, though the pronunciation may be different, e.g. lead, a verb, and lead, a noun.

homonym any set of words which share their form but have different meanings, e.g. bar 'legal profession' and bar 'public house'. The formal similarity is an accident of phonological development and the forms do not share a common historical root, contrast this situation with that of polysemy.

idiom a set of words which always co-occur and where the meaning is not necessarily derived by concatenating the individual parts of the idiom, e.g to take coals to Newcastle 'to do something entirely superfluous'.

indirect speech act any utterance where there is a discrepancy between literal and intended meaning, e.g. It's cold in here said in a room with the window open in winter where the intention of the speech act would be to have the window closed.

lexical meaning the meaning of a word which is specifiable independently of other words – ultimately with reference to the nonlinguistic world – and which is independent of the grammar of the language.

meaning, grammatical a type of meaning which is determined by the grammatical context in which a form occurs. Typical elements with grammatical meaning are prepositions, articles or conjunctions.

meaning, lexical a type of meaning which is specifiable independently of other words or of grammatical context. The lexical meaning of table is 'a piece of furniture with a horizontal surface designed to be sat at'.

meaning, sentence a further type of meaning in which the sentence structure together with lexical and grammatical meaning determines what is meant. For instance the sentence role of a noun as subject or object is significant in determining the meaning of an entire sentence. pragmatics the study of language in use in interpersonal communication. Apart from the purely linguistic approach there is a philosophical type of pragmatics, as developed in the late 19th century by American philosophers such as William James and Charles Peirce.

meaning, utterance a kind of meaning which refers to the context in which a sentence is spoken and where the latter determines what is actually meant, for instance the sentence It's draughty in here can be taken to have utterance meaning as a request to close a window or door; see indirect speech act.

proposition a statement which can be assessed as being true or false, e.g. The sun is shining contains the proposition that 'the celestial body at the centre of the solar system is casting its light directly on the surface of the earth' and in any given situation this statement is either true or false.

quantifier any term which serves to indicate an amount such as all, some, a few, or the set of numerals in a language.

semantic field a collective term for sets of meanings which are taken to belong together, e.g. colour, furniture, food, clothes. Most of the vocabulary of any language is organised into such fields, i.e. there are few if any words which are semantically isolated. sense relations the semantic relationships which obtain between words as opposed to those which hold between words and the outside world.

presupposition any information which is taken for granted in a discourse situation, for instance the sentence Did you enjoy your breakfast? assumes that the interlocutor already had breakfast.

semantics the study of meaning in language. This is an independent level and has several subtypes, such as word, grammatical, sentence and utterance meaning.

signifiant a linguistic item which signifies something; contrasts with signifié which is what is signified. The term derives from Ferdinand de Saussure.

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speech act the act of speaking with another individual. This has become a discipline in its own right since the pioneering work of Austin in the early 1960's. It was put on a firm linguistic footing by Searle at the end of the decade and has since become part of the standard repertoire of all linguists. theme that part of a sentence which is the focus of interest and usually introduced at the beginning. unmarked a reference to any linguistic form which is the most general and least specific of its kind. For instance the present tense is unmarked vis à vis the subjunctive, the nominative vis à vis the genitive, the singular vis à vis the plural, a positive form (clean) vis à vis a negative one (unclean), unround front vowels vis à vis rounded front vowels, etc. Forms which are unmarked in this conceptual sense tend indeed to be formally less marked, i.e. the plural usually involves the addition of an ending, the genitive has more phonetic substance than the nominative, etc.

synonym a word which is taken to have the same meaning as one or more other words. The collocations in which words occur may – indeed usually do – differ as seen with cranium and skull which are distinguished according to register: the former is a medical term, the latter an everyday one. rheme a term applied to the new information conveyed in a sentence. utterance any stretch of spoken speech, a sentence or phrase with emphasis on the characteristics of the spoken medium in contrast either with the written form or with more abstract forms of a linguistic analysis.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is used in society. Although some writers on language had recognised the importance of social factors in linguistic behaviour it was not until the 1960's with the seminal work of Labov that the attention of large numbers of linguists was focussed on language use in a social context. In particular the successful explanation of many instances of language change helped to establish sociolinguistics as an independent sub-discipline in linguistics and led to a great impetus for research in this area.

correctness an extra-linguistic notion, usually deriving from institutions in society like a language academy or a major publishing house, which attempts to lay down rigid rules for language use, especially in written form. Notions of correctness show a high degree of arbitrariness and are based on somewhat conservative usage, intended to maintain an unchanging standard in a language – a complete fiction.

creole a term used to describe a pidgin after it has become the mother tongue of a certain population. This development usually implies that the pidgin has become more complex grammatically and has increased its vocabulary in order to deal with the entire set of situations in which a native language is used. A well-known example is Tok Pisin, a creole spoken in Papua New Guinea and which has official status there. honorific a specific use of language to express deference in a social context. This can encompass special pronominal forms (Tand V-forms in continental European languages) and fixed titular phrases (Mr., Mrs., Ms., etc. in English) or special adjectives (honourable, reverend, esquire).

ethnography of communication the study of cultural differences in acts of communication. This is a comprehensive term which goes beyond simple differences in language to cover additional aspects such as formulaic use of language (e.g. in greeting or parting rituals), proxemics (the use of distance between partners in a conversation) and kinesics (the study of body movements used in communication).

langue a term used by Saussure to refer to the collective knowledge of a community of the language spoken by its members.

linguistic taboo forbidding the use of certain forms. Taboo words change from generation to generation, e.g. the means of referring to

hypercorrection a kind of linguistic situation in which a speaker overgeneralises a phenomenon which he/she does not have in his/her native variety. For example if a speaker from northern England pronounces butcher /butʃə/ with the vowel in but, i.e. as /bʌtʃə/, then this is almost certainly hypercorrection as he/she does not have the but-sound in his/her own dialect and, in an effort to speak 'correct' English, overdoes it. The same applies to native speakers of Rhenish German when they pronounce Kirschen like Kirchen when they are talking to speakers of High German. linguistic stigma the condemnation of certain forms in a language by the majority of a social group.

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sex and sexual practices, as older taboo words lose their strength and become part of general vocabulary. register a style level in a language. When we speak we automatically locate ourselves on a specific stylistic level. This can vary depending on the situation in which we find ourselves. For example when talking to the postman one would most likely use a different register than when one is holding a public address. standard a variety of a language which by virtue of historical accident has become the leading form of the language in a certain country. As a result of this, the standard may be expanded due to the increase in function which it experiences due to its position in society. There is nothing inherently superior about a standard although nearly all speakers of a community accept that it has highest prestige. variety a term used to refer to any variant of a language which can be sufficiently delimited from another variant. The grounds for such differentiation may be social, historical, spatial or a combination of these. The necessity for a neutral term such as variety arose from the loaded use of the term dialect: this was not only used in the sense defined above, but also with the implication that the linguistically most interesting varieties of a language are those spoken by the older rural population. This view is understandable given the origin of dialectology in the 19th century, that is in the heydey of historical linguistics. Nowadays, sociolinguistic attitudes are prevalent and the need for a term which can include the linguistic investigation of urban populations from a social point of view became evident.

pidgin a language which arises from the need to communicate between two communities. Historically, and indeed in almost all cases, one of the communities is socially superior to the other. The language of the former provides the base on which the latter then creates the pidgin. A pidgin which has become the mother language of a later generation is termed a creole. Pidgins are of special interest to the linguist as they are languages which have been created from scratch and because they are not subject to the normalising influence of a standard. Classically pidgins arose during trade between European countries and those outside of Europe. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually taken from the lexifier language (the European one in question) and its grammar may derive from native input (such as the languages of West Africa during the slave trade with the Caribbean and America) or may take elements from the lexifier language or may 'invent' its own structures going on an innate blueprint which many linguists assume speakers have from birth. The further development of a pidgin is a creole, although this stage does not have to be reached if there is no necessity to develop a native language. vernacular the indigenous language or dialect of a community. This is an English term which refers to purely spoken forms of a language.

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS Psycholinguistics is the study of language is relation to our cognition and in particular to the way we acquire our first language. behaviourism one of the main schools of thought in 20th century psychology which maintains that language acquisition proceeds by imitation. It contrasts with nativism which assumes that knowledge of language is innate, the view behind the generative grammar view of language acquisition. first language the language which is acquired initially by a child and which is his/her native language. For bilinguals another language may be acquired more or less simultaneously though a situation in which two languages are absolutely equal does not probably exist. language acquisition the process by which children acquire knowledge about their native language in their early childhood. Acquisition is distinguished from learning which refers to gaining knowledge of a second language in later life.

acquisition the process whereby a child takes in linguistic information unconsciously and internalises it, using it later when he/she wishes to speak the language in question – his/her native language. This narrower, linguistic definition restricts acquisition to the period of childhood. Acquisition is unconscious, largely unguided and shows a high degree of completeness compared to second language learning. critical period a period in early childhood in which language acquisition is most effective (roughly the first 6 years). If exposure to a language begins considerably later then acquisition rarely results in native-like competence. The watershed for successful natural language acquisition is puberty after which it is nearly always incomplete. innateness hypothesis in language acquisition studies, the notion that children are born with a predisposition to learn language. It contrasts explicitly with the notion that knowledge of language is gained by experience (a view typical of behaviourism in psychology).

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS conversation analysis the techniques for examining and structuring conversations or any type of social interaction which involves spoken language.

discourse analysis the investigation of the structure and patterning of discourse (human speech). It contrasts explicitly with analyses of written language or of contrived examples in linguistic works. interference the transfer of certain phenomena from one language to another where they are not considered grammatical. This may happen on an individual level (during second language learning, for example) or collectively in which case it often leads to language change.

corpus any structured and principled collection of data from a particular language – usually in electronic form, i.e. on disk – which has been compiled for the purpose of subsequent analysis. The number of corpora available has increased greatly since the spread of the personal computer in the 1980's. The most famous corpus for historical forms of English is the Helsinki Corpus of English. text linguistics the investigation of the structure and style of texts, of pieces of language which consist of more than a single sentence. second language teaching this is probably the main area of applied linguistics. There are many views on how a second language is learned, above all in comparison with the relative perfection of first language acquisition. Research here tends to concentrate on developing models to explain the process and ideally they should be applied to the actually teaching of foreign languages to improve results.

LANGUAGE CHANGE language change is the investigation of the manner in which languages change their structure over time. Language change is continual in every language and it is largely regular. However, the rate of language change is different among different languages. It depends on a number of factors, not least on the amount of contact and informational exchange with other linguistic communities on the one hand (this tends to further change) and the degree of standardisation and universal education in the speech community on the other hand (this tends to hamper change).

borrowing the act of adopting some aspect of one language into another. It may be lexical (the most obvious and common type of borrowing) but also syntactic, morphological or phonological. The latter types of borrowing require that some section of the population be in direct contact with the second language. Lexical borrowing can be due to written influence as with the English loanwords in Modern German yielding so-called 'cultural borrowings'. Borrowing is one of the chief means of expanding the vocabulary of a language.

comparative method the method used in comparative philology. The technique involves comparing cognate forms from genetically related languages (such as those of the Indo-European family) with a view to reconstructing the proto-language from which all others can be taken to have derived. Such a method must take regular sound changes and later analogy into account. This allows one to link up forms which are superficially different but which can be traced back to a single form, itself usually non-attested. For instance English heart, German Herz, Latin cordia, Greek kardios can be shown to derive regularly from an Indo-European root *kerd.

contact a term which refers to a situation in which speakers of two languages or varieties are continually in contact with each other, either due to geographical or social closeness or both. The mutual influence which results from such contact can and does lead to changes in the structure – or at least in the lexicon – of one or both languages.

convergence in a general sense a process whereby two languages or varieties come to resemble each other more and more. In historical linguistics the term is often used to refer to a situation whereby two causes are taken to have led to a certain effect, e.g. where a feature in a present-day dialect is taken to derive from both substrate interference and language-internal developments.

etymology an area within historical linguistics which is concerned with the origin and development of the form and meaning of words and the relationship of both these aspects to each other.

drift an imperceptible change in the typology of a language in a more or less constant direction as with the shift from synthetic to analytic in the course of the history of English.

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etymological fallacy a common but erroneous opinion, found among lay speakers and historically with many authors before the advent of linguistics as a scientific discipline in the 19th century, that the oldest meaning of a word is the most genuine or correct. Note that the 'oldest meaning' is a fiction in itself as it is usually impossible to trace words back to their initial use, this lying in pre-history.

family a group of languages that can be shown to stem from a single proto-language by a process of splitting at various points in the latter's history.

family tree a model of language development common in the last century (the term derives from August Schleicher) which sees languages as splitting further in a manner reminiscent of genetic relationships. A major alternative to this was the wave model of Johannes Schmidt (1870).

genetic classification the arrangement of languages into groups on the basis of their historically recognisable relationships and not going on any similarity in structure.

historical linguistics the study of how languages develop over time as opposed to viewing them at a single point in time. The major direction in linguistics up until the advent of structuralism at the beginning of the 20th century.

grammaticalisation this is an historical process in language which refers to a change in status from lexical to grammatical for certain elements, frequently due to semantic bleaching (loss of lexical meaning). For instance the (archaic) adverb/adjective whilom 'formerly, erstwhile' derives from a dative plural of the Old English word hwīlom 'at times' which was with time not felt to be an inflected noun but a different word class, an adverb or adjective.

language death the process by which a language ceases to exist. It is characterised by the switch over to some other language which surrounds the dying language and which is a superstratum to it, e.g. English vis à vis Manx on the Isle of Man in the middle of the present century.

language contact a situation in which speakers of two languages intermingle. The causes of this range from invasion and deportation to voluntary emigration to a new country. The results of this intermingling depend on external factors such as the relative status of the two linguistic groups and on internal factors such as the typological similarity of the languages involved, i.e. whether their grammatical structures are comparable or not.

lexical diffusion a type of language change in which a certain feature spreads slowly rather than establishing itself at once. Cases of lexical diffusion are characterised by incompleteness, otherwise it is not recognisable afterwards and is a case of normal change which affects the entire vocabulary. The lexical diffusion type of change usually ceases before it can cover all theoretical instances in a language, e.g. the lowering of short /u/ in the Early Modern English period which does not apply to instances before [ʃ] and after a labial stop: bush, push palatalisation a common historical process whereby sounds produced at the velum are progressively shifted forward towards the palate. This is usually a change in manner of articulation from stop to affricate and possibly to fricative. Cf. /k/ > /c/ > /tæ/ > /tʃ/ (> /ʃ/) as can be seen in the development of Latin camera to Modern French chambre. substrate a language which is socially less prestigious than another spoken in the same area but which can nonetheless be the source for grammatical or phonological features in the more prestigious language. Substratum influence is often quoted as being instrumental in the formation of pidgins and creoles and as being responsible for many instances of historical change.

law a formulation of an ordered or predictable relationship between forms. Such laws can be diachronic or synchronic. An example of the former is Grimm's Law which states (simply) that Indo-European voiceless stops changed to corresponding fricatives at the beginning of Germanic. A synchronic law would be the devoicing of obstruents at the end of words (and syllables) in German. A law is taken to be virtually without exception. metonymy a type of semantic change in which a single aspect of a meaning or an attribute is used for the entire phenomenon, e.g. Whitehall for the English parliament, Paris for the French government, The White House for the American administration. superstrate a variety of a language which enjoys a position of power and/or prestige compared to another. It may be a standard form of a language or a different language from that found natively in a specific country or region.

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LANGUAGE TYPOLOGY language typology is the study of the synchronic structure of languages for the purpose of classifying them according to recurring patterns and regularities.

cross-linguistic refers to phenomena which occur in several different languages or in investigations which draw on data from diverse languages. linguistic area a part of the world in which several genetically unrelated languages are spoken but which nonetheless show structural similarities. Such areas usually form an approximate geographical unit, e.g. the Balkans, the Caucasus, perhaps the eastern Baltic Sea region. The term is a translation of German Sprachbund, lit. 'language federation'. polysynthetic a reference to a language which has large complex words in which several grammatical categories are fused together. typology the description of the grammatical structure of language independently of genetic relationships. There are many commonalities between languages which result from morphological principles so that this view of language structure is just as valid as an historical consideration. Furthermore, languages which occupy a geographically delimited area, for instance the Balkans, may come to share structural properties, irrespective of historical background or genetic affiliation.

analytic a term used for a language which tends to use free morphemes to indicate grammatical categories. Examples are Modern English and French to a certain extent. Other languages, such as Chinese or Vietnamese, are very clearly analytic and approach a relationship of one word per morpheme. isolating language a language type where individual words do not vary in form and where grammatical categories and relations are indicated by separate words and/or by word-order. English is fairly isolating; Chinese much more so. linguistic universals a postulated set of linguistic features which are common to all languages and which ultimately derive from our psychological make-up and our perception of the world, e.g. the existence of subject, predicate, object or first, second and third pronouns in all languages. synthetic a language which is characterised by an extensive inflectional morphology, e.g. Latin and Modern German. This type contrasts with analytic and can be taken to have developed historically from the latter through centuries of change during which words fused together to give compound forms. For this reason new languages, like pidgins and creoles, are never synthetic in type. universal any feature or property which holds for all languages. These are few and far between though near-universals, i.e. those which are good for the vast majority of languages, are more common and often more interesting in the insights which they lead to concerning the nature of human language in general.

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APPENDIX LINGUISTICS GENERAL LINGUISTICS AND PHILOLOGY

LINGUISTS Ferdinand de Saussure (26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913), Swiss linguist and semiotician

CONTRIBUTION Saussure had a major impact on the development of linguistic theory in the first half of the 20th century. His two currents of thought emerged independently of each other, one in Europe, the other in America. The results of each incorporated the basic notions of Saussure's thought in forming the central tenets of structural linguistics. According to him, linguistic entities are parts of a system and are defined by their relations to one another within said system. Saussure's most influential work is Course in General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale). Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-time production and comprehension. Examples of these elements include his notion of the linguistic sign, which is composed of the signifier and the signified. Though the sign may also have a referent, Saussure took that to lie beyond the linguist's purview. Saussure is one of the founding fathers of semiotics. Saussure believed that the relationship that exists between the signifier and the signified is purely arbitrary and analytical. Equally crucial is the dimension of the syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes of linguistic description.

Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt (22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) Prussian philosopher, linguist

He is especially remembered as a linguist who made important contributions to the philosophy of language, ethnolinguistics and to the theory and practice of education. He is credited with being the first European linguist to identify human language as a rule-governed system, rather than just a collection of words and phrases paired with meanings. This idea is one of the foundations of Noam Chomsky's theory of language. He has also been credited as an originator of the linguistic relativity hypothesis A pioneer of structural linguistics, Jakobson was one of the most celebrated and influential linguists of the twentieth century. Russian-born linguist and literary theorist Roman Jakobson had many influential ideas about language; most remarkably, he changed the way scholars studied phonology, the sound structure of language. With Nikolai Trubetzkoy, he developed revolutionary new techniques for the analysis of linguistic sound systems. Specifically, he proposed the idea of distinctive features, which suggests that all sounds of speech are marked by binary contrasts which can be described and quantified. The difference between “p” and “b”, for instance, is that “b” uses our vocal chords (it’s voiced), whereas “p” does not (it’s unvoiced). Similarly, “b” and “m” are the same, except in “m”, air comes out of the nose (it’s nasal), whereas in “b”, it does not (try it!).

Roman Jakobson (11, 1896 – July 18, 1982) a Jewish Russian linguist a nd literary theorist, Distinctive features of language

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Jakobson went on to extend similar principles and techniques to the study of other aspects of language such as syntax, morphology and semantics. He made numerous contributions to Slavic linguistics, most notably two studies of Russian case and an analysis of the categories of the Russian verb. Influenced by Karl Bühler, he distinguishes six communication functions, each associated with a dimension or factor of the communication process: Functions referential (contextual information), aesthetic/poetic (auto-reflection), emotive (selfexpression), conative (vocative or imperative addressing of receiver), phatic (checking channel working), metalingual (checking code working). One of the six functions is always the dominant function in a text and usually related to the type of text. He developed the internationally influential systemic Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday functional linguistics (SFL) model of language. His (13 April 1925 – 15 April grammatical descriptions go by the name of systemic 2018) functional grammar. Halliday describes language as an English-born linguist a semiotic system, "not in the sense of a system of signs, but a systemic resource for meaning". For Halliday, language is a "meaning potential". He defines linguistics as the study of "how people exchange meanings by 'languaging'". Halliday describes himself as a generalist, meaning that he has tried "to look at language from every possible vantage point", and has described his work as "wander the highways and byways of language". Halliday's grammar differs markedly from traditional accounts that emphasize classification of individual words (e.g. noun, verb, pronoun, preposition) in formal, written sentences in a restricted number of "valued" varieties of English. Halliday's model conceives grammar explicitly as how meanings are coded into wordings, in both spoken and written modes in all varieties and formal registers of a language. Halliday's conception of grammar – or "lexicogrammar", a term he coined to argue that lexis and grammar are part of the same phenomenon – is based on a more general theory of language as a social semiotic resource, or "meaning potential". In enumerating his claims about the trajectory of children's language development, Halliday eschews the metaphor of "acquisition", in which language is considered a static product which the child takes on when sufficient exposure to natural language enables "parameter setting". Learning how to mean is the name of his well-known early study of a child's language development. Halliday identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years. For Halliday, children are motivated to develop language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions. 104   

Korzybski is the founder of the field of general semantics, which was intended as a generalization of the field of semantics to encompass both behavior in general and non-human communication. His big preoccupation was teaching people to think clearly by paying careful attention to the way they habitually communicated (who they spoke, wrote, and, in the broadest sense, behaved), in order to avoid obscurantism, mysticism, or scientism (in plainer terms, bullshitting). To this end, he made many bold and eccentric proclamations, including suggesting that students practice writing without using any form of the verb to be. Korzybski was something more like a guru than a serious academic, and although he didn't make a big mark on linguistics, some people (mostly science fiction writers, for some reason) still regard him warmly as the source of much sage advice about how to think, write, and reason clearly. For instance, he was a big influence on famous American inventor Buckminster Fuller, Scientology-founder L. Ron Hubbard, Republican senator S. I. Hayakawa, and surrealist and anarchist Jan Bucquoy. Among linguists, he had a big influence on John Grinder and Benjamin Lee Whorf, who are also mentioned in this list. His most famous saying is "The map is not the territory," a reminder not to confuse the means you use to express an idea with the idea itself. Edward Sapir He is widely considered to be one of the most (Jan. 26, 1884 – Feb. 4, important figures in the early development of the 1939) discipline of linguistics. Among his major contributions to linguistics is his classification of an Indigenous languages of the Americas, upon which American anthropologisthe elaborated for most of his professional life. He linguist played an important role in developing the modern concept of the phoneme, greatly advancing the understanding of phonology. Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of historical linguistics to languages of indigenous peoples because they were believed to be more primitive than the Indo-European languages. Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of comparative linguistics were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages. Sapir's anthropological thought has been described as isolated within the field of anthropology in his own days. Instead of searching for the ways in which culture influences human behavior, Sapir was interested in understanding how cultural patterns themselves were shaped by the composition of individual personalities that make up a society. It has been suggested that there is a close relation between Sapir's literary interests and his anthropological thought. His literary theory saw individual aesthetic sensibilities and creativity to interact with learned cultural traditions to produce unique and new poetic forms, echoing the way that he also saw individuals and cultural patterns to dialectically influence each 105  Alfred Korzybski (July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) a Polish-American independent scholar, linguist who developed general semantics

ETHNOLINGUISTICS OR CULTURAL LINGUISTICS

 

other. Sapir was active in the international auxiliary language movement. In his paper "The Function of an International Auxiliary Language", he argued for the benefits of a regular grammar and advocated a critical focus on the fundamentals of language, unbiased by the idiosyncrasies of national languages, in the choice of an international auxiliary language. A theoretician of semiotics and linguistic Michael Silverstein (born 1945) anthropology. Over the course of his career he has Professor of anthropology, drawn together research on linguistic pragmatics, linguistics, and psychology sociolinguistics, language ideology, semiotic anthropology and grammatical theory into a comprehensive account of language in culture. Among other achievements, he has been instrumental in introducing the semiotic terminology of Charles Sanders Peirce, including especially the notion of indexicality, into the linguistic and anthropological literature; with coining the terms metapragmatics and metasemantics in drawing attention to the central importance of metasemiotic phenomena for any understanding of language or social life; and with developing language ideology as a field of study. His works are noted for their terminological complexity and technical difficulty. Silverstein's work has caused a theoretical and conceptual shift in anthropology, linguistics and sociolinguistics. It has led to a renewed interest in the study of linguistic relativity. It has also added another perspective of critique of 'Chomskyan' conceptions of language and it has boosted a critical and politically sensitive trend in the study of language in society, influencing notably the study of language policy, language planning, and language in education Baudouin de Courtenay established the Kazan Jan Niecisław Ignacy Baudouin de Courtenay school of linguistics in the mid-1870s and served as (13 March 1845 – 3 Nov. professor at the local university from 1875. Later he 1929) was was chosen as the head of linguistics faculty at the a Polish linguist and Slavist University of Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia). In 1925 he , best known for his theory was one of the co-founders of the Polish Linguistic of the phoneme Society. His work had a major impact on 20thand phonetic alternations. century linguistic theory, and it served as a foundation for several schools of phonology. He was an early champion of synchronic linguistics, the study of contemporary spoken languages, which he developed contemporaneously with the structuralist linguistic theory of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Among the most notable of his achievements is the distinction between statics and dynamics of languages and between a language (an abstract group of elements) and speech (its implementation by individuals) – compare Saussure's concepts of langue and parole. Together with his students, Mikołaj Kruszewski and Lev Shcherba, he also shaped the modern usage of the term phoneme which had been coined in 1873 by the French linguist A. Dufriche106   

Desgenettes. His work on the theory of phonetic alternations may have had an influence on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. Three major schools of 20th-century phonology arose directly from his distinction between physiophonetic and psychophonetic (morphophonological) alternations. All schools developed different positions on the nature of Baudouin's alternational dichotomy. The Prague School was best known outside the field of Slavic linguistics. Throughout his life he published hundreds of scientific works in Polish, Russian, Czech, Slovenian, Italian, French and German. There are two parts to the Fortunatov heritage: IndoPhillip Fedorovich European studies and studies on the general theory of Fortunatov (Jan.2, 1848, - Sept.20, grammar; He made a significant contribution to both 1914) of these areas. Russian linguist, professor, Theory of grammar: In a number of works (but full member of the St. mainly in the lectures of the "Moscow" period of his Petersburg Academy of activity) Fortunatov expressed original theoretical Sciences (1898), the views on general morphology. They primarily founder of the Moscow concern such concepts as grammatical form, linguistic school inflection, word formation and morphogenesis, as well as the classification of parts of speech. Fortunatov drew attention to the difference in grammatical and non-grammatical meanings and to the special character of the expression of these meanings in languages of the inflection type; The opposition between “inflection” and “formation”, as well as “syntactic” and “non-syntactic” grammatical categories (used later in one or another degree in the studies of P. S. Kuznetsova, R.I. Avanesova) also goes back to Fortunatov. , A. I. Smirnitsky and others). He particularly emphasized the role of morphological (or “formal” - whence the naming of his school) correlates of linguistic meanings and, in particular, proposed a nontraditional classification of parts of speech based almost exclusively on morphological criteria. When analyzing the views of Fortunatov, one should take into account that they were not formulated by him in a holistic form and are largely reconstructed based on the analysis of individual examples and texts of lectures; Not all the works of Fortunatov are published even now. On the other hand, the ideas of Fortunatov, expressed during the 25 years of teaching, had a significant impact on the next generation of Russian linguists and in many ways set the stage for the emergence of Russian structuralism in the person of N. S. Trubetskoy and R. O. Yakobson. As a historian of the language, and as a theoretician of Fortunatov, he remained an adherent of “strict” methods all his life; his peculiar scientific style, combining depth and accuracy with dryness and a certain ponderousness of presentation, also had a great influence on subsequent generations of linguists, especially those who wished to distance themselves from the philological tradition of the “grape school”. 107   

He took degrees in French language and literature at the Free University (VU) of Amsterdam. He also studied in Strasbourg, Paris and Berkeley. His early research was about the linguistic study of literature, but soon changed to the development of "text grammars" and discourse pragmatics, later followed by research (partly with Walter Kintsch) on the cognitive psychology of discourse processing. His work in the 1980s focused on two major areas, viz., the study of the structures, production and comprehension of news reports in the press, and the analysis of the expression of ethnic prejudices in various types of discourse (textbooks, news reports, conversations, parliamentary discourse, corporate discourse), with special emphasis on the relations between discourse structures, (prejudiced) social cognitions about ethnic minority groups and Third World peoples, and the ways "elite racism" is reproduced in (Western) societies. In the 1990s this work is being extended towards a more general study of the role of power and ideology in discourse and the reproduction of socio-political beliefs in society. His currents projects are about discourse, knowledge and context. He also directs an international project (with teams in Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Peru) on discourse and racism in Latin America. This research has been published in some 30 monographs and edited books, and in more than 200 scholarly articles. He holds two honorary doctorates and his work has been translated into a dozen foreign languages (including Russian, Arabic, Chinese and Japanese). Teun A. van Dijk founded the journal TTT (a Dutch linguistics journal) and six international journals, Discourse and Society, Discourse Studies, and the internet journal in Spanish Discurso & Sociedad of which he still edits the latter four. Teun A. van Dijk has lectured widely in Europe, the Americas, and other countries. He speaks Dutch, English, Spanish, German, French and Portuguese, and understands (and speaks more or less) Italian, Catalan, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian. Her 1975 book Language and Woman's Place is often Robin Lakoff (born Nov. 27, 1942) credited for making language and gender a huge is a professor of linguistics debate in linguistics and other disciplines. Lakoff's work Language and Woman's Place introduces to the field of socio- linguistics many ideas about women's language that are now often commonplace. It has inspired many different strategies for studying language and gender, across national borders as well as across class and race lines. Her work is noted for its attention to class, power, and social justice in addition to gender. Lakoff proposes that women's speech can be distinguished from that of men in a number of ways (part of gender deficit model), including: Hedges, Empty adjectives, Superpolite forms, Apologize more, etc. Lakoff developed 108 

Teun A. van Dijk (born 1943) professor of Discourse Studies at the University of Amsterda m

GENDER LINGUISTICS

 

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Jacob Robert Kantor (August 8, 1888 – 1984) a prominent American psychologist, psycholinguist Lev Semionovich Vygotsky (November 17, 1896 – June 11, 1934) – a Russian psychologist

Alexander Potebnja (22 Sep. 1835 - 11 Dec. 1891) a specialist in the evolution of Russian phonetics

the "Politeness Principle," in which she devised three maxims that are usually followed in interaction. These are: Don't impose, give the receiver options, and make the receiver feel good. She stated that these are paramount in good interaction. By not adhering to these maxims, a speaker is said to be "flouting the maxims." Lakoff's The Language War performs a linguistic analysis of discourse on contemporary issues. He was the first to use the term "psycholinguistics" in his book An Objective Psychology of Grammar in 1936. Perhaps Vygotsky's most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This problem was explored in Vygotsky's book, Thinking and speech, entitled in Russian, Myshlenie i rech, that was published in 1934. In fact, this book was a mere collection of essays and scholarly papers that Vygotsky wrote during different periods of his thought development and included writings of his "instrumental" and "holistic" periods. he book establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different from verbal external speech. Although Vygotsky believed inner speech developed from external speech via a gradual process of "internalization" (i.e., transition from the external to the internal), with younger children only really able to "think out loud", he claimed that in its mature form, inner speech would not resemble spoken language as we know it (in particular, being greatly compressed). Hence, thought itself developing socially. He constructed a theory of language and consciousness that later influenced the thinking of his countryman the Psychologist Lev Vygotsky. His main work was "Language and Thought" (mysl' i jazyk) (1862). He was a corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, the foremost academic institution in the Russian Empire. As a linguist Potebnja specialized in four areas: the philosophy of language, the historical phonetics of the East Slavic languages, etymology, and Slavic historical syntax. He was particularly interested in the relations among language, thought, and reality. Language for him was primarily the means by which the mind ordered the influx of impressions and stimuli. Words carry not only a meaning, but also the past experience of the individual and the nation, through which all new experience is filtered. Thus a word usually has three aspects: an external form, a meaning, and an internal form. It is through the 109 

 

internal form that the objective world is subjectivized. In many cases the internal form is rooted in myth and, hence, acts as a bridge between language and folklore (with its symbols). Regarding language as an individual's or a nation's only possible means of perceiving the world and of thinking, Potebnja protested vehemently against denationalization in general and the Russification of Ukrainians in particular, and equated this process with spiritual and intellectual disintegration. Potebnja's philosophy of language is rooted in Wilhelm von Humboldt's romantic idealism, but he was also influenced by J. Herbart's and H. Lotze's associative psychology, and particularly by Heymann Steinthal's psycholinguistic writings. SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Joshua Aaron Fishman (July 18, 1926 – March 1, 2015) an American linguist who specialized in the sociology of language, language and eth nicity.

Fishman wrote over 1000 articles and monographs on multilingualism, bilingual education and minority education, the sociology and history of the Yiddish language, language planning, reversing language shift, language revival, 'language and nationalism', 'language and religion', and 'language and ethnicity'. Fishman is the founder and editor of the Contributions to the Sociology of Language book series by Mouton de Gruyter. The influential Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) for determining whether languages are endangered was devised by Fishman in his book Reversing Language Shift. The Enhanced GIDS was based on this and is used by Ethnologue. Fishman created an intellectual platform that has greatly facilitated the introduction and dissemination of novel models and revolutionary theories that have led to numerous academic debates, syntheses and cross-fertilizations. He has often acted as an epistemological bridge between, and antidote for, parallel discourses. And "One ought to assess the breadth and depth of Fishman’s work through a combined Jewishsociolinguistic lens. Zuckermann has argued that "Fishman’s research embodies the integration of Jewish scholarship with general linguistics. Jewish linguistics, the exploration of Jewish languages such as Yiddish, has shaped general sociolinguistics. Throughout history Jews have been multilingual immigrants, resulting in Jewish languages embodying intricate and intriguing mechanisms of language contact and identity. These languages were thus fertile ground for the establishment and evolution of the sociology of language in general. Given the importance in Judaism not only of humaneness but also of education and 'on the other hand' dialectics, it is not surprising to find the self-propelled institute Fishman trailblazing simultaneously both in Yiddish scholarship in particular and in the sociology of language in general." 110 

 

 

William Labov (born December 4, 1927) an American linguist, widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics.

He has been described as "an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of the methodology" of sociolinguistics. The methods he used to collect data for his study of the varieties of English spoken in New York City, published as The Social Stratification of English in New York City (1966), have been influential in social dialectology. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, his studies of the linguistic features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) were also influential: he argued that AAVE should not be stigmatized as substandard, but respected as a variety of English with its own grammatical rules. He has also pursued research in referential indeterminacy, and he is noted for his seminal studies of the way ordinary people structure narrative stories of their own lives. In addition, several of his classes are service-based with students going out into the West Philadelphia region to help tutor young children while simultaneously learning linguistics from different dialects such as AAVE. Labov's works include The Study of Nonstandard English (1969), Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular (1972), Sociolinguistic Patterns (1972), Principles of Linguistic Change (vol.I Internal Factors, 1994; vol.II Social Factors, 2001, vol.III Cognitive and Cultural factors, 2010), and, together with Sharon Ash and Charles Boberg, The Atlas of North American English (2006). One of Labov's most quoted contributions to theories of language change is his Golden Age Principle (or Golden Age Theory). It claims that any changes in the sounds or the grammar that have come to conscious awareness in a speech community trigger a uniformly negative reaction. Labov was awarded the 2013 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science by the Franklin Institute with the citation "for establishing the cognitive basis of language variation and change through rigorous analysis of linguistic data, and for the study of non-standard dialects with significant social and cultural implications."

Basil Bernard Bernstein (1 November 1924 – 24 September 2000) a British sociologist

He worked on socio-linguistics and the connection between the manner of speaking and social organization. Bernstein made a significant contribution to the study of communication with his sociolinguistic theory of language codes. Within the broader category of language codes are elaborated and restricted codes. The term code, as defined by Stephen Littlejohn in Theories of Human Communication (2002), "refers to a set of organizing principles behind the language employed by members of a social group" (p. 178). Littlejohn (2002) suggests that Bernstein's theory shows how the language people use in everyday conversation both reflects and shapes the assumptions of a certain social group. Furthermore, relationships 111 

COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS

 

George P. Lakoff (born May 24, 1941 ) an American cognitive linguist and philosopher

established within the social group affect the way that group uses language, and the type of speech that is used. As an educator, he was interested in accounting for the relatively poor performance of working-class students in language-based subjects, when they were achieving scores as high as their middle-class counterparts on mathematical topics. In his theory, Bernstein asserts a direct relationship between societal class and language. According to Bernstein in Class, Codes and Control (1971): Forms of spoken language in the process of their learning initiate, generalize and reinforce special types of relationship with the environment and thus create for the individual particular forms of significance (p.76). That is to say that the way language is used within a particular societal class affects the way people assign significance and meaning to the things about which they are speaking. Bernstein suggests a correlation between social class and the use of either elaborated or restricted code. He argues that in the working class you are likely to find the use of the restricted code, whereas in the middle class you find the use of both the restricted and elaborated codes. His research suggests that the working class individuals have access only to restricted codes, the ones they learned in the socialisation process. According to Bernstein (1971), a working class person communicates in restricted code as a result of the conditions in which they were raised and the socialisation process. The same is true for the middle class person with the exception that they were exposed to the elaborated code as well.Though Bernstein's sociolinguistic work on 'restricted code' and 'elaborated code' is widely known it represents only his very earliest work. This early work was the subject of considerable misunderstanding and controversy. Bernstein emphasised that 'code' was not dialect and that code theory was neither a bourgeois alibi for middle-class speech nor a denigrating deficit account of working-class language. He is best known for his thesis that lives of individuals are significantly influenced by the central metaphors they use to explain complex phenomena. The more general theory that elaborated his thesis is known as embodied mind. Although some of Lakoff's research involves questions traditionally pursued by linguists, such as the conditions under which a certain linguistic construction is grammatically viable, he is best known for his reappraisal of the role that metaphors play in the socio-political life of humans. Metaphor has been seen within the Western scientific tradition as a purely linguistic construction. The essential 112 

thrust of Lakoff's work has been the argument that metaphors are a primarily conceptual construction and are in fact central to the development of thought. In his words: "Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature." When Lakoff claims the mind is "embodied", he is arguing that almost all of human cognition, up through the most abstract reasoning, depends on and makes use of such concrete and "low-level" facilities as the sensorimotor system and the emotions. Therefore, embodiment is a rejection not only of dualism vis-a-vis mind and matter, but also of claims that human reason can be basically understood without reference to the underlying "implementation details". A leading thinker of our times, and, according to Avram Noam Chomsky (born 1928) the New York Times, arguably the most important an American linguist, intellectual alive. Chomsky's approach to linguistics anarchist, political theorist has become known as the Chomskyan revolution and activist and has earned him the title of “father of modern linguistics.” Chomsky attracts both passionate disciples and antagonists. He bridges disciplines, yet some consider him extremely divisive. There is no doubt that the academic world has never been quite the same since Chomsky first published the now famous sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.” This entry will focus on Chomsky's contribution to linguistics, which has exerted a strong influence in other disciplines including anthropology. Chomsky has made vast irreversible and seminal contributions to the sciences and humanities in general, and particularly to linguistics, psychology, and philosophy. His theories have been an unremitting presence in the field of linguistics concerning the nature of language, its acquisition, and the method for studying it. Chomsky concludes that language is a form of knowledge, a cognitive capacity, uniquely and equally shared by humans as part of their biological endowment. Thus, Chomsky understands the mind as compartmentalized into separate modules, such as vision, logic, or language. To Chomsky, language cannot consist of observable responses to stimuli as its use differs remarkably from all other means of communication in terms of its creativity and productivity. Speakers of any language are able to understand novel grammatical utterances and can recognize them as such even when they appear meaningless (e.g., Colorless green ideas sleep furiously). Chomsky developed a nativist theory of language, shifting attention to the nature of linguistic knowledge, how it is acquired, and how the mind works. Over the years, Chomsky has introduced several research concepts, such as the universal grammar (UG), a theory of the language faculty; competence and performance; deep structure versus surface structure; initial state 113   

Leonard Talmy

Charles J. Fillmore (August 9, 1929 – February 13, 2014) an American linguist

versus final state of the language faculty; internal language (I-language) versus external language (Elanguage); and Principles and Parameters, all in an effort to distinguish the knowledge of language from its use or manifestations, characterize the properties of linguistic knowledge, and articulate a theory of the mind that is biologically endowed to derive the grammar of a language from brief exposure and use the derived grammar creatively to generate an infinity of expressions. Within the linguistic community Talmy counts as one of the leading language typologists and is probably best known as one of the ‘founding fathers’ of Cognitive Linguistics, which is a more semantically oriented counterbalance to formal cognitive linguistics of the Chomskyan strand. In Cognitive Linguistics Talmy has defined his own outstanding profile by establishing what has become known as Cognitive Semantics. Talmy’s understanding of Cognitive Linguistics is rooted in the conviction that language as a cognitive system shares some of its fundamental design features with other cognitive systems (e.g., the human visual system), but also exhibits characteristics and organizational principles genuine to language alone. Thus, language structures can neither be directly derived from general cognition nor is language to be seen as a completely autonomous model of human cognitive architecture. Talmy’s integrative and encompassive "Overlapping Systems Model of Cognitive Organization," an independent stance within Cognitive Linguistics, might not be shared by all members of the community, but it may well explain why Leonard Talmy’s work has been received and widely appreciated not only by linguists outside the paradigm, but also by developmental psychologists, applied linguists and foreign language teaching experts, and even philosophers. Among his best known and outstanding accomplishments at the interface of language and cognition are seminal studies on motion typology, cross-linguistic representations of space concepts, lexicalization patterns in the languages of the world, an evolutionary model of compositionality in language that is very much compatible with current neuroscientific binding models of neural synchrony. Beyond the core area of cognitive semantics, Leonard Talmy has published influential articles on the culture system and on narrative structure that testify to his rigorously interdisciplinary stance. Fillmore is now widely recognized as one of the founders of cognitive linguistics. The first chapter of “Cognitive Linguistics” by Cruse and Croft (2004), for instance, begins with a summary of Fillmore's work. Fillmore served as President of the Linguistic Society of America in 1991 and was awarded an 114 

 

COMMUNICATIVE LINGUISTICS

 

honorary doctorate from the University of Chicago in 2000. By 1965, Fillmore had come to acknowledge that semantics plays a crucial role in grammar. In 1968, he published his theory of Case Grammar (Fillmore 1968), which highlighted the fact that syntactic structure can be predicted by semantic participants. An action can have an agent, a patient, purposes, locations, and so on. These participants were called "cases" in his original paper, but later came to be known as semantic roles or thematic relations, which are similar to theta roles in generative grammar. Following his move to the University of California, Berkeley, in 1971, this theory eventually evolved into a broader cognitive linguistic theory called Frame Semantics (1976). Around the same time, Fillmore's Santa Cruz Lectures on Deixis, delivered in 1971 and published in 1975, contributed to establishing the field of linguistic pragmatics, which studies the relationship between linguistic form and the context of utterance.n all of this research, he illuminated the fundamental importance of semantics, and its role in motivating syntactic and morphological phenomena. His collaboration with Paul Kay and George Lakoff was generalized into the theory of Construction Grammar. This work aimed at developing a complete theory of grammar that would fully acknowledge the role of semantics right from the start, while simultaneously adopting constraint-based formalisms as popular in computer science and natural language processing. This theory built on the notion of construction from traditional and pedagogical grammars rather than the rule-based formalisms that dominate most of generative grammar. One of Fillmore's most widely noticed works of the time (with Paul Kay and Cathy O'Connor) appeared in 'Language' in 1988 as "Regularity and Idiomaticity in Grammatical Constructions: The Case of Let Alone". Their paper highlighted the merits of such a theory of by focusing on the 'let alone' construction. Over time, construction grammar developed into a research area of its own, and a number of variants have been proposed over the years by different researchers. He worked on literary theory, ethics, and Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin the philosophy of language. He is known today for his interest in a wide variety of subjects, ideas, (16 Nov. 1895 – 7 vocabularies, and periods, as well as his use of March 1975) a Russian philosopher, liter authorial disguises, and for his influence on the growth of Western scholarship on the novel as a ary critic, semiotician and premiere literary genre. Bakhtin's works have also scholar been useful in anthropology, especially theories of ritual. Some suggest that Bakhtin introduces a new meaning to rhetoric because of his tendency to reject the separation of language and ideology. As Leslie 115 

Baxter explains, for Bakhtin, "Because all language use is riddled with multiple voices (to be understood more generally as discourses, ideologies, perspectives, or themes), meaning-making in general can be understood as the interplay of those voices." "Bakhtin’s life work can be understood as a critique of the monologization of the human experience that he perceived in the dominant linguistic, literary, philosophical, and political theories of his time." According to Bakhtin, the meaning found in any dialogue is unique to the sender and recipient based upon their personal understanding of the world as influenced by the socio-cultural background. "Bakhtin’s dialogism opens up space for communication scholars to conceive of difference in new ways" meaning they must take the background of a subject into consideration when conducting research into their understanding of any text as "a dialogic perspective argues that difference (of all kinds) is basic to the human experience." His ideas of art as a vehicle oriented towards interaction with its audience in order to express or communicate any sort of intention is reminiscent of Clifford Geertz’s theories on culture. Culture and communication become inextricably linked to one another as one's understanding, according to Bakhtin, of a given utterance, text, or message, is contingent upon their culture background and experience.

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