Philippine Worldview 9789814379021

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PIDLIPPINE

WORLD-VIEW

The Southeasi" Asian S'tudies Progra~~ (SEASP) was established In December 1976 by a group of scholars from Southeast Asia. It alms at promotIng comparative research and writIng on Southeast As Ia by social science and humanities scholars of the region. It is directed by a committee composed of representatives of various countries in the region, but it Is based at and formally affiliated with the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. The lns1"i1"u1"e of Southeasi" Asian S'tudles was estab I I shed as an autonomous organization in May 1968. It is a regional research centre for scho Iars and other spec I a I i sts concerned wIth modern Southeast Asia, particularly the multi-faceted problems of stability and security, economic development, and political and social change. The InstItute is governed by a twenty-two member Board of Trustees comprIsIng nomInees from the SIngapore Government, the National University of Singapore, the various Chambers of Commerce, A ten-man Executive and professional and civic organizations. Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is chaired by the Director, the Institute's chief academic and administrative ott leer.

( i i)

PIIII,IPPINE

WOULD-VIEW EDITED BY VIRGILIO G. ENRIQUEZ

~-

~-

-~--::J

:sEASPI SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES PROGRAM

[-_

----

-~

IIEJII INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES

PublIshed by Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 0511 part of this publication may be No All rights reserved. reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior consent of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ~

1986 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

ISBN 9971-988-19-4 The responsibility for facts and opinions expressed in this publication rests exclusively with the contributors and their InterpretatIons do not necessar I I y ref Iect the vIews or the poI Icy of the Institute or its supporters.

(i v)

FOREWORD

The Southeast Asian Studies Program (SEASP) was established in 1976 in response to a need to promote comparative research and writing on Southeast Asia by scholars in the Social Sciences and Humanities. Of particular concern was the lack of appropriate tertiary level teaching and reference materials pertaining to the region and written from local, though not necessarily nationalistic, perspectives. Towards this end, SEASP launched three projects: one focused on the preparation of a series of country-specific vo 1 umes on Po 1 it i cs and Government, the second on Hi story, and the third on World-View. The project on World-View initially comprised the production of a volume each on Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, but was finally scaled down to those involving Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand only. As the work involved almost thirty scholars and the project was complicated, it became increasingly evident that the task was going to take much longer than originally envisaged. Each manuscript had to undergo a process of review by two independent referees - one from within and one from outside the region - to ensure the desired quality. The first volume of the series was published in Thailand in June this year. The second volume Malaysian World-View, was published in Singapore in September. (v)

Needless to say, the project on World-View could not have been completed without the co-operation of the individual contributors, the editor, and the co-ordinator involved. In the case of the Philippines, we are especially thankful to Prof Virgilio G. Enriquez, who in addition to being the editor, was the co-ordinator of the project as a whole. We would also like to express our appreciation to the Ford Foundation for its generous financial support to SEASP and its various projects, including that on World-View. In thanking all our benefactors and contributors, as well as others who have in one way or another helped to make this publication possible, it is clearly understood that the responsibility for the facts and opinions expressed in Philippine World-View rests with the individual authors and editor, and their interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of SEASP or its supporters.

THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES PROGRAM

(vi )

CONTENTS

~~~~

v

Acknowledgements Notes on Contributors Introduction

viii ix 1

Kapwa: A Core Concept in Filipino Social Psychology VIRGILIO G. ENRIQUEZ

6

Food and the Filipino DOREEN G. FERNANDEZ

20

The Philippine World-View in the Visual Arts ALICE G. GUILLERMO

45

An Appreciation of the Filipino Philosophical Outlook through Filipino Popular Lyrics ELEANOR T. ELEQUIN

81

From the Philippine Revolution 1896 to Military Rule, 1972: The Changing World-View in the Filipino Short Story PATRICIA M. MELENDREZ-CRUZ

100

Portrayals of Life and Reality in Radio and Television Drama VALERIO L. NOFUENTE

128

(vii )

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Philippine World-View was made possible through the efforts, interest,

co-operation

institutions. the

project

and

Wilfreda F. for

the

support

Arce

of

many

people

and

initiated the co-ordination of

Philippines,

a

task

seen

through

to

completion by Jesucita L. Sodusta as SEASP co-ordinator at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore. Crisanto,

Laura

Samson

and

the

Philippine

Ma. Trinidad

Psychology

Research

House with the assistance of Godofredo Lanu za and Augustin de l a Cruz participated in implementing the project in the Philippines by planning and organizing a seminar, "The Philippine World-View" held at the University of the Philippines from 29 May to 2 June

1978.

Some of the papers in the present compilation were written

in Filipino and translated into English by Josefina A. Regalado, Christopher Gonzaga and Beatrice Jacinto.

Manila

Virgilio G. Enriquez

February 1986

Editor

(viii)

NOTES ON THE CONTRIBUTORS

Eleanor T. Elequin is currently Professor of Education at the College of Education,

University of the Philippines.

She

has authored a number of books, among which is Organizing for Cross-Cu 1tu ra 1 Research:

Tactics in Culture Learning,

Vol V, East-West Center, Hawaii (1977).

Virgilio G.

Enriquez is

Psychology

Research

Philippines. Technology,

The

currently and

-

Training

National

of the

House,

Academy

Philippine

Quezon

of

City,

Science

and

Republic of the Philippines conferred upon him Scientist Award in 1982.

the Outstanding Young

1983

Chairman

April

1984 he

was

a

Visiting

From July

Professor

at

the

University of Malaya, Malaysia under SEASP.

Doreen G. Fernandez is Professor of Eng 1 ish at Ateneo de Manila University

where

Department

and

she the

is

Chairperson

Japanese

Studies

of

both the

Programme.

English She

is

founding Chairperson of the Cultural Research Association of the

Philippines

and

a

founding

member

of

the

Babaylan

Theatre Group.

Alice G. Guillenao is at present a faculty member of the College of Fine Arts, University of the Philippines where she also lectures at the Department of Humanities, and Letters. ( i X)

College of Arts

Patricia M. Melendrez-Cruz did research on the aboriginal theme in

Australian

University

literature,

for

her

at

M.A.

the

and

Australian

gained

her

National

doctorate

in

Philippine Studies from the University of the Philippines

Valerio

l.

Nofuente was

Assistant

Professor

of

Filipino

and

Philippine Literature at the University of the Philippines. He wrote various articles on Philippine literature in noted journals and periodicals as well as poems and short stories. Nofuente

met

circumstances

with in

Concerned Artists

a

1981.

violent He

has

death been

under

mysterious

honoured

by

the

of the Philippines as a martyr for the

cause of the nationalist struggle.

(x)

INTRODUCTION

VIRGILIO G. ENRIQUEZ

Anyone who finds it a challenge to pin down such concepts as truth, beauty and justice, should also attempt a definition of "world-view", more so, if the concept is qualified as a "Filipino world-view". Perhaps it is easier to handle a concept like "way of life", especially when "our way" can be distinguished from "your way". Even defining the concept "national character" is a controversial affair because of reservations, ranging from a refusal to be stereotyped to a reluctance to be i dent ifi ed with the cultural mainstream. Broadly speaking, world-view refers to the subjective basis of a subjective concept. It can refer to the underlying perceptions held of man, nature and the supernatural as expressed in a way of life or any aspect of it. The Philippine World-View is an attempt to articulate the nature of this "doubly subjective" concept as manifested in a selection of identifiable sources. Filipino food, radio and TV dramas, popular songs, short stories and native and folk arts are some of the sources chosen in the following contributions to this admittedly difficult task of articulating the Philippine world-view.

1

The

introductory article

Filipino

social

following

analyses

psychology

on

kapwa

provides

as a

a

core concept

background

for

in the

of constituent aspects of Filipino art and

culture as a basis for understanding the Philippine world-view. While

the

dictionary

translation

renders

the

word

kapwa

as

"others", the word in Filipino implies an altogether different perception in that it also includes the "self".

Kapwa, in fact,

is a recognition of shared identity for it encompasses the "self" and "others". One can catch a glimpse of the world-view of a Fi 1 i pi no in the food he takes. Accardi ng to Fernandez, what the Fi 1 i pi no eats, the sources of his food and the way it is prepared and served, indicate a relationship between man and nature as intimate

as

biological

it

is

practical.

imperative.

It

Food or eating

is

also

a

social

is

not

only a

necessity and a

socially defined phenomenon of sharing which fosters goodwill and friendship. When sharing food, the relationship can involve either the ibang-tao (outsider) or hindi category.

It

is

interesting

ibang-tao (one of us)

to note that

kapwa

is

the

so 1e

concept which embraces both categories. Guillermo, in her article on folk arts and the contemporary Filipino

painting,

stresses

the

idea

that

the

Philippine

world-view

is not a static but dynamic outcome of the circumstances in which peop 1e cope with change in the name of progress. The native and ethnic arts of the Filipinos, such as

weaving,

woodcarving

and

body

decoration,

interaction between man and nature. Filipino

house

(nipa

hut)

and

the

reflect

a

c 1 ose

Other expressions, as in the jeepney,

also

indicate a

closeness to nature and an openness to one's fellowmen.

This

kind of closeness and openness goes beyond pakikisama (level of internalized

conformity).

At

present,

there

is

a

gradual

development of mass-based artists whose aesthetic interests lie in depicting the peaks, depths, hardships and aspirations of 2

contemporary pakikiisa

Filipino

{level

of

life.

This

fusion),

the

undoubtedly highest

touches

level

on

of

kapwa

and

as

psychology. The

dialectics

of

kapwa

both

as

a

psychology

a

world-view include not only pakikiisa, as seen in the unity of man and nature, but also pakikibaka {level of fusion in a common struggle) in the face of injustice and exploitation. as

an

aspect

Filipinos' them to clutches

a

kapwa-oriented

world-view,

awakens

the

consciousness of present day realities and motivates

be as

motivation doubt,

of

Pakikibaka,

of to

one

the

in

their

neo-colonial

struggle might

because

non-antagonistic.

struggle to

the

set-up be

existing

tempered

kapwa

break away from the with

philosophy

today.

Their

reluctance is

and

basically

Elequin discovers this sentiment, reflected as

perplexity in a kapwa-oriented world-view,

in the song Digmaan

{War) by Florante de Leon:

laban sa kalooban ko man, Ako'y handang-handang lumaban Para sa ating kalayaan Ngunit bakit hindi ko maintindihan, Magkapwa-tao'y naglalaban ••• {Though my conscience disagrees I am ready to do battle For the cause of our freedom But why can't I understand A struggle amongst kapwa ••• ) Inasmuch as social Philippine social

reality shapes the Filipino world-view, the reality interpreted through contemporary song

is that of unemployment, prostitution and poverty. The relevance of social

issues also impels Cruz to remind 3

the Filipino writer that, as a Filipino, he has an obligation to respond to the people's needs and problems.

The Filipino writer,

once enchanted by the colonizer, unwittingly helped maintain the status quo as if under a spell.

The kapwa-oriented world-view

was displaced by an imported idealogy in the guise of humanism thus quelling the resistance against the existing socio-economic structure.

As

Cruz

puts

it,

a

truly

Filipino

world-view

necessarily includes the realization that the Filipinos are the "true creators of their own destiny". Nofuente goes a step further. and TV drama as powerful life,

he

is

Calling attention to

radio

instruments in the shaping of a way of

painfully aware that

manipulation by the powers-that-be.

the

media

is

vulnerable

to

Through TV and radio drama,

a distorted view of reality can be developed, conditioning the people to become passive, ills

of

the

country.

and tolerant of the existing social Thus

the

perception

of

ideological

manipulation in an attempt to manufacture a new world-view or a supposedly Filipino ideology comes to the fore.

For example, the

notion that the "oppressed are blessed" is propagated through the mass media, thus encouraging the Filipino to get stuck with his lot and not strive for betterment.

Helen

Remonteza is a good

example from Philippine drama: Helen Remonteza -- a woman, ready to shed tears, get hurt, face life, and shoulder the world of sufferings. Helen Remonteza -- will cry, hurt herself and sacrifice in the name of lave.... There

is

no

evidence

[ Nofuente, 1979] whatsoever

that

necessary ingredient of the Filipino world-view.

suffering

is

a

Recognizing and

starting out from his basically kapwa orientation is perhaps the Filipino's

first

step towards

his

liberation.

The

Philippine

World-View is a contribution towards that end -- by not simply describing the Filipino outlook as seen in their arts, in their 4

behaviour and culture, but in moving them to action on the basis of their own world-view and on their own terms.

5

KAPWA:

A CORE CONCEPT IN FILIPINO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY*

VIRGILIO G. ENRIQUEZ

The task of identifying key concepts for understanding a people's way of life, social psychology, mind, personality or behaviour is a most difficult one.

To begin with, it is merely assumed that

such concepts already exist or can be made to exist through a process of concept formulation. to formulate a theoretical

The present paper does not aim

construct which might be useful

for

understanding the Fi 1 i pi no mind but instead proposes to identify an existing, meaningful, and lexicalized concept in the Filipino national

language which

might

provide a

key to

understanding

Filipino psychology.

The Local Language as a Source of Concept Language is not merely a too 1 for communication. agree with the

Sa pi r-Whorf hypothesis

to

One need not

be con vi need of the

clear connection between language and culture.

Given this, one

*Paper read at "Key Concepts of Soc I a I Psycho I ogy in As I a" - The 20th Annua I Conference of the Japanese Society of Social Psychology, September 1979, International Christian University, Tokyo, Japan; also appeared In Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review KLII (1-4), January-December 1978.

6

is

understandab 1y

1ed to be 1 i eve that mean i ngfu 1 concepts for

understanding a society can most probably be identified in its indigenous with

language.

While this

uncertainties,

it

is

belief

quite

is

admittedly wrought

reasonable to infer that the

language of the Philippines is as good a starting point as any, if not better than most, for understanding Fi 1 i pi no behaviour. In any case, I would find it logical to look for a key concept for

understanding

Filipino behaviour

in the

Filipino

language

without discounting the possibility that such a key concept might be found in a non-Philippine language or that it may not even exist in any other language.

In a sense, science is faced with

the task of creating a 1anguage for understanding the behaviour of man; as such, we need not assume that the key concepts needed to

understand

a

people's

world-view are lexicalized

in their

native language. In

any

source

of

concepts meaningful for and significant to the local culture.

My

attempt

to

important

case,

the

identify to

the

native

in

the

language Filipino

understanding

of

is

a

rich

language

the

some

Filipino

concepts

personality,

world-view, and behaviour, initially turned out to be a rather difficult one. myself

that,

identified.

At one point, I almost gave up, until I reassured surely,

if there is

such

a concept,

it

can

be

Besides, the literature abounds in concepts such as

hiya, utang na loob, pakikisama, bahala na and amor propio, among others,

which

have

American-oriented

already

Filipino

been

identified

by

American

social

scientists

as

important

and in

understanding the Filipino character. In

spite

of

the

American

orientation

in

the

Philippine

social sciences, and the minimal use of the Filipino language in research,

teaching,

and

publication,

some supposedly important

concepts in the understanding of Filipino behaviour have already been identified in a number of Philippine languages.

7

The

use

token

1 anguage

of

has

supposedly

Filipino

concepts

to

i dent i fi cation

1 ed

Filipino

the

national

values.

frequently

mentioned

values

propriety),

pakikisama

(yielding

1 eader amor

or the majority) , propio

bayanihan regional

values

maratabat

which

are

utang

(sensitivity

(togetherness

and

to

hiya

(sense

to

the will

na

1 oob

common

have

been

local

of

some

Among the more

personal

in

the

of

of the

(gratitude) , affront)

effort).

recognized

and Some

include

(a complex combination of pride, honour and

shame), balatu {sharing one's fortune),

ilus

{sharing

surp 1 us food), kakugi

(meticulousness and attention to

detail),

(compassion),

patugsiling

hataggusto

or

pagbibigay

kalulu

(empathy),

(generosity),

paghiliupod

(faithful ness in need or in p1 enty) , and pags i nabtanay (fidelity to one's promises).

[See Elequin 1974; cited

in Enriquez 1977.] However, the majority of such concepts eventua 11 y turn out to b, "surface" concepts consistent with the wester.n orientation a ime• to perpetuate the co 1 oni a 1 status of the Filipino.

As I observe•

later: The

problems

psychological analysis

with

the

token

use

of

Filipino

concepts

in

the

context

of

relies

on

the

English

language

that

English categories of analysis are many,

a

western and

It no doubt

can lead to the distortion of Philippine social reality and

the

furtherance

Filipinos.

of

the

mi s-educat ion

of

the

It is no coincidence that Kaut {1961) hit

upon utang na loob {debt of gratitude) as a key concept for

the

analysis

of

Tagalog

interpersonal

relations

considering that utang na 1oob is just one among many psycho-soci a 1 concepts that re 1ate to the theoretically fertile

concept

of

loob.

8

We

have

sama

ng

loob

(resentment),

kusang loob

(initiative), lakas ng loob

(guts), and many many others.

Samonte [1973] needed no

1ess than three pages just to 1 i st down such concepts. In addition, Kaut admitted that "debt of gratitude" is not

altogether

unknown

in

Washington,

DC.

Even

Americans recognize utang na loob, they just happen to prefer

kaliwaan

possible. value

is

or

misleading

whenever

to

say the

least

and

Utang na 1oob would be convenient

perpetuating the colonial

mind.

pay-offs

To argue that utang na loob is a Filipino therefore

dangerous at best. in

immediate

status of the

Filipino

For example, the Filipino should be grateful for

"American aid" regardless of how much it is shown to be a form of imperialism [Hayter, 1971].

It is interest-

ing to contrast the socio-psychological implications of sama ng loob or kusang loob or lakas ng loob to that of utang na loob [Enriquez 1977]. Instead

of

lifting

a

Filipino

concept

from

the

network

of

concepts to which it belongs, it is far preferable to make full use of the language as the main resource.

The Concept of Kapwa

The bases of interaction aspect of

social

interaction

in

life.

the

among

people is clearly an

Without

Philippine

doubt,

an

environment

important

analysis of social as

codified

in

1 anguage revea 1 s a 1 ot about our wor 1d-v i ew and character.

the For

this reason, social interaction should be the meaningful focus of analysis in the process of identifying the concept of kapwa. The

Filipino 1 anguage, on this

distinctions

among

several

levels 9

score, and

provides conceptua 1

modes

of

social

inter-

action. levels: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Santiago and

Enriquez

[1976]

identified

eight

such

pakikitungo (transaction/civility with) pakikisalimuha (interaction with) pakikilahok (joining/participating with) pakikibagay (in conformity with/in accord with) pakikisama (being along with) pakikipagpalagayan/pakikipagpalagayang-loob (being in rapport/understanding/acceptance of) pakikisangkot (getting involved) pakikiisa (being one with)

The distinctions among these eight modes of interaction have significance beyond the conceptual and theoretical. More importantly than just interrelated modes of interpersonal relations, these eight levels represent interactions which range from the relatively uninvolved civility of pakikitungo to the total sense of identification of pakikiisa. The different levels of interpersonal relations are not just conceptually but also behaviourally different. As an example, Santiago [1976] looks at the language of food -- which is really the language of interpersonal relationship in food-sharing -among the Filipino Bulacan middle class. She discusses five behaviourally recognizable levels under two general categories: !bang-tao or "Outsider" Category Levels: Pakikitungo (level of amenities) Pakikibagay (level of conforming) Pakikisama (level of adjusting) Hindi ibang-tao or "One of us" Category Levels: Pakikipagpalagayang-loob (level of mutual trust) Pakikiisa (level of fusion, oneness and full trust) 10

The foregoing is evidence for the claim that the domain of interpersonal

relations

elaborate

Filipino.

in

is theoretically fertile and lexically Moreover,

anyone

looking

for

a core

concept that would help explain Filipino interpersonal behaviour cannot help but be struck by the superordinate concept of kapwa. It is the only concept which embraces both the categories of "outsider"

(ibang-tao)

and

Similarly,

pakikipagkapwa

"one

of

embraces

us"

all

(hindi

the

ibang-tao).

levels

in

both

categories.

The Meaning of Kapwa Filipino-English dictionaries generally give the words "both" and "fellow-being"

as

translations

of

kapwa

[Panganiban

1972,

Enriquez 1979, de Guzman 1968, Calderon 1957]. However, when asked for the closest English equivalent of kapwa, one word that generally comes to mind is the English word "others".

In meaning, the Filipino word kapwa is very different

from this:

kapwa is the unity of the "self" and "others".

In

English the word "others" is actually used in opposition to the "self", and implies the recognition of the self as a separate identity.

In

contrast,

kapwa

is

a

recognition

of

shared

identity. The concept of pakikipagkapwa turns out to be very important psychologically as well as philosophically.

While pagtutunguhan

is another term which can be used to refer to all

levels of

interaction, only the term pakikipagkapwa can be used for 'this same purpose and at the same time indicate an ide a, va 1 ue or paninindigan important. "superficial"

(conviction)

pagtutunguhan

Besides, level

which

of

interaction: 11

Filipinos a 1 so the

consider

connotes level

of

the

most most

amenities,

while pakikipagkapwa refers to "humanness to its highest level", as Santiago [1976] puts it. A person starts

having a kapwa not so much because of a

recognition of status given him by others but more so because of his

awareness

iba-sa-akin Hindi

of

shared

(others)

identity.

The

ako

(ego)

and

the

are one and the same in kapwa psychology:

ako iba sa aking kapwa

(I am no different from others).

Once ako starts thinking of himself as different from kapwa, the self, in effect, denies the status of kapwa to the other. Brislin [1977] notes that all cultures distinguish between the in-group and the out-group; the member and the non-member; the inside!' and the outsider.

He surmises that this might be an

example of an etic or "universal" distinction.

Yet, there seems

to

fit

be

at

least

perfectly:

one

culture

that

does

not

this

mould

that of the middle class Filipino from the Philippine

province of Bulacan.

For the Bulakeno the ibang-tao (outsider)

is kapwa in the same manner that the hindi i bang-tao (one of us) is also kapwa (the unity of the one of us and the other). Presumably because of the importance of kapwa, the Filipino language

has

two

pronouns

for

the

English

inclusive "we", and kami, an exclusive "we". national

"we":

tayo,

As found

an

in the

languages of Indonesia and Malaysia, kita includes the

listener; kami excludes him. Concepts

indigenous

to

Filipinos

are

not

necessarily

peculiar only to the Philippines, but they have specific meanings which are closer to the Filipino experience [cf. Enriquez 1976]. An example of this is Jocano's comment [1975] that perhaps he was saling-pusa

(literally,

left-over food

for cats)

National Conference on Filipino Psychology.

c\t the First

The term sal i ng-pusa

(figuratively, informal member), which has no exact equivalent in the

English

language,

is s i gni fi cant.

12

It

indicates the value

attached to the feelings

of one another so that

pakikipagkapwa is avoided.

hypocrisy

in

For example, if a young girl invited

to an important gathering discovers afterwards that she is not the first choice she natura 11 y wi 11 fee 1 hurt for it wou 1 d appear that she is merely a panakip-butas {literally "filling a gap").

Pakikisama or Pakikipagkapwa? Previous

work

characters

on

in

Philippine

Philippine

values

point

interpersonal

to

three

relations.

"evil"

These

are:

(1) the walang pakikisama (one inept at the level of adjustment);

(2) the walang hiya (one who lacks a sense of propriety); and (3) the

wa 1ang

utang

na

1oob

(one

who

1acks

adeptness

in

reciprocating by way of gratitude). Lynch [1964] proposes the construct of "smooth i nterpersona 1 relations"

as

acquired

euphemism,

and

the

successful

in

and

use

penetrating

i nterpersona 1 re 1 at ions

perceived

of

a

and

in the

through

go-between. reaching

the

pakikisama,

Perhaps, highest

he

was

level

of

i bang-tao category, thus making

him believe that pakikisama is a value.

However he did not take

cognizance of the importance of the other levels of interpersonal relations beyond pakikisama, making his observation valid to a point but definitely inadequate. Kaut [1961] singles out utang na loob as a key concept for the analysis of interpersonal relations in Tagalog while hiya has been interpreted by Fox [1956] as "self-esteem" and by Bulatao [1964] as "a painful emotion arising from a relationship with an authority figure or with society, inhibiting self-assertion in a situation which is perceived as dangerous to one's ego. kind of anxiety, a fear of being left exposed".

13

It is a

The attention given to pak i k i sam a has been interpreted as consistent with the mis-education of the Filipino: In

Dissent

argued

how

education

and the

can

well

instead

consciousness. the

academician

very

mis-educator out

Counter-consciousness,

Social

concept

pakikibagay,

Constantino

as

recipient

be the

Philippine

of

professing

of

mi s-

society's the

new

scientists who unwittingly yank

of

pakikisama

pakikisalimuha,

from

pakikitungo,

pakikipagpalagayang-loob

and paikiisa and then elevate it to a status of value are

at

the

same

unintentionally)

time

reinforcing

skills

and

talents

(intentionally •••

sold

to

or the

highest bidder -- usually the elite and vested interest groups.

Without

conformity

question

and

western

they

reward

orientation.

docility,

The

logical

consequence is that they are negative on social protest (Navarro, 1974). as

value which

More accurately it is not pakikisama is

important but pakikipagkapwa as a

Filipino paninindigan.

Take the supposed social value

of pakikisama.

not

It

is

clear if one should

even

accept and identify pakikisama as a Filipino value.

If

it is truly a value, how do we explain the fact that many insist on their pagkatao {dignity) and karapatan (rights) and say outright ayaw kong mak i sama ("I don't want to conform").

Supposing one does not want to have

a part in corruption he is identified as hindi marunong makisama. and

If he does not care for docility, conformity

the western

orientation,

What kind of value is that? create

for

the

Filipino

perpetuate such an idea? for

a westerner

he

is walang

pakisama.

What self-image does that should

social

scientists

It is probably understandable

interested

in

Philippine

society to

jump to the conclusion that pakikisama is a Filipino value.

After all

he is not immersed in the culture,

14

his interests and goals are different, and he does not even understand the 1 anguage~ However, the Fi 1 i pi no should marshal his knowledge as a culture bearer and as a speaker of the language to heighten his awareness of Philippine social reality [Enriquez, 1977]. In another article it was argued that pakikipagkapwa, not pakikisama, is what Filipinos value: In spite of the fact that western psychology looms large in psychological work in the Philippines, especially in western-oriented universities, the full use of Filipino has led to the identification of the value pakikipagkapwa which is surely more important than pakikisama. The barkada (peer group) would not be happy with the walang pakisama but the Philipine society at 1arge cannot accept the wa 1ang kapwa tao. Pakikipagkapwa is both a paninindigan (conviction) and a value. It includes all the other mentioned modes and Pakikisama is a form of levels of inter-action. pakikipagkapwa but not the other way around. In fact, pakikisalimuha is even closer than pakikisama in meaning to pakikipagkapwa [Enriquez, 1977]. One argument for the greater importance of kapwa in Filipino thought and behaviour is the shock or disbelief that the Filipino registers when confronted with one who is supposedly walang kapwa (-tao) [without respect for another human being]. If one is walang pakisama, others might still say "He will eventually learn" or "Let him be; that's his prerogative". If one is walang hiya {shameless), others say "His parents should teach him a thing or two". If one is wa 1ang utang na 1oob others might advise "Avoid him". But if one is walang kapwa tao, people say "He must have reached rock-bottom"; napakasama na niya, "He is the worst". 15

Pakikipagkapwa as a conviction does not simply imply either paki kitungo (amenities) or paki ki sama {adjusting) or any of the other modes and levels of inter-action. Pakikipagkapwa is much deeper and profound in its implications. It also means accepting and dealing with the other person as an equal. The company president and the clerk in an office may not have an equivalent role, status, or income but the Filipino way demands and implements the idea that they treat one another as fe 11 ow human beings ( kapwa-tao). This means a regard for the dignity and being of others. the socio-psychological dimension, Aside from pakikipagkapwa has a moral and normative aspect as a value and paninindigan (conviction). Situations change and relations vary according to environment. For example, pakikipagkapwa is definitely inconsistent with exploitative human transactions. Giving the Filipino a bad deal is a challenge to kapwa (-tao) [Enriquez, 1977 J. If on 1y to correct the impression that pak i ki pagkapwa is other-oriented 1 ike pak i ki sam a, one must note that the Fi 1 i pi no does not always concede. He knows how to resist even when he seems utterly powerless. He knows the meaning of co-operation and concerted action. He knows that pakikibaka (joining a struggle) is a valid aspect of pakikipagkapwa in the face of injustice and adversity. Let me cone 1ude with a Tag a 1og proverb: Mad a 1 i ang magi ng tao, mahirap ang magpakatao (It is easy to be born a tao [human], but it is not as easy to act 1 ike one). The Pampangos de 1 i ver essentially the same idea with: Malagua ing maguing tao, masaguit ing magpacatau.

But the Tagalogs add: 16

Kung mahirap ang

maging

tao,

lalong

mahirap

ang

makipagkapwa-tao

(If

it

is

d i ffi cult to be tao, it is even more difficult to mak i pagkapwatao) [Eugenio, 1967].

l7

Boston, Lynn C. 51 ( 1968).

11

FIIlplno Bahala Na and American Fatalism".

In Silliman Journal

Brlsl In, Richard. Personal Communication. Culture Learning Institute. West Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 1977. Bulatao, Jaime C.

"Hiya".

Calderon, Sotronlo G. 1957.

East-

Philippine Studies 12 no. 3 ( 1964).

Talasalltaan ng lnang Wlka.

Manila:

lnang Wlka Pub. Co.,

Bagong Dlkslyonaryo Plllplno-lngles/lngles-PIIlpino. de Guzman, Marla Odullo. Manila: National Bookstore, 1968. Elequln, Eleanor. "Educational Goals, Alms and Objectives". Report of a study by a workIng group In As I a. UNESCXJ NI ER Reg ion a I Programme tor Educat lena I National Institute tor Educational Research, Research In Asia. Tokyo: 1974. Enriquez, P. Jocobo, et al. Engllsh-Tagalog Vlsayan (Cebuano-llongo) Vocabulary. Manila: Phil lpplne Book Co., 1949. Enriquez, VIrgilio G. "PIIIplno In Psychology". Development of Scientific Terminology as Part of the Elaboration and Intel lectuallzatlon of PII lplno. Informal roundtable conferences on the Development of the Phil lpplne National Language. Manila, 7 December 1976. "Filipino Psychology In the Third World". Psychology 10 no. 1 (1977>.

In Philippine Journal of

Eugenio, Damlana L. "Philippine Proverb Lore". In Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review 31 nos. 3-4 (September-December 1966). Feliciano, Gloria. "The Limits of Western Social Research Methods Philippines: the Need tor InnovatIon". In L1 punan no. I ( 1965 l. Fox,

Robert. ~T~h~e~~F~I~I~I~p~ln~o~~C~o~n~c~e~p~t~~o~t--~S~e~l~t--=E~s~t~e~em~. Area Handbook Philippines. Vol. I Pt. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1956.

Hayter, Teresa.

Aid as Imperialism.

Middlesex, England:

In Rural

ot

the

Penguin, 1971.

Jocano, F. Landa. Ang mga Babaylan at Katalonan sa klnaglsnang slkolohlya. Ulat ng Unang Pambansang Kumperensya sa Slkolohlyng Plllplno. Lungsod Quezon: Unlbersldad, 1976. Kaut,

Charles R. "Utang-na-loob: A system ot contractual obligation Tagalogs". In Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 17 (1961).

18

among

Lynch, Frank. Social Acceptance. Four Readings on Philippine Values. Edited by F. Lynch. 2nd rev. ed. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1964. Panganlban, Jose VIlla. Dlksyunaryo-Tesauro Manlapaz Publishing Co., 1972.

Plllplno-lngles.

Quezon

City:

Samonte, Elena. "Kabuuan ng mga kahulugan ng mga sallta sa larangang lekslkal ng 'loob"'• Unpublished paper. Dillman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1973. Santiago, Carmen. "The language of food". Culinary Culture of the Philippines. Edited by Cordero, Gilda F. Bancom, Philippines: Audlovlslon Corporation, 1976. Santiago, Carmen and VIrgilio G. Enriquez. "Tungo sa pan ana II ks I k". Slkolohlyang Plllplno: Mga Ulat at Ballta Also published In Panday I no. I (January 1973).

19

makaplll plnong no. 4 ( 1976l.

FOOD AND THE FILIPINO

DOREEN G. FERNANDEZ

M.F.K.

Fisher

anyone at all

[1971],

a

famous

food

writer,

have devoted at 1east one of them to his not

a

that

who has had more than three thoughts, is sure to nourishment.

writes that even "Albert Einstein once said: is

once wrote

good

political

adviser',

as

Fisher

'An empty stomach

simply

as

if

he

were

chalking one more equation on the world's blackboard." The Filipino is no different.

Food punctuates his life, is

a touchstone to his memories, is a measure of his relationships with

nature,

with

his

fellowmen,

with

Christmas to a Filipino, and he will say:

the

world.

Mention

Oh yes, we always had

ensaimada and chocolate for breakfast, or puchero for lunch, or puto

bumbong and

bibingka after misa de

galla.

Not

trees or

presents or the weather does he remember but the food that he can almost sense in the remembering:

chocolate thick and frothy in a

small white cup, bibingka, golden on a singed banana leaf eaten with moist white grated coconut that make a little juice on the tongue.

Ask about his hometown, and a Filipino will

remember a

spinster aunt who made a past ill as de pili; or tul i ngan brought fresh

off

the

fishing

boats

on

the

seashore;

or

armfuls

of

dampalit gathered in fishponds for pickling; or ulang speared in shallow waters; or green mangoes snitched from the neighbour's trees.

Even

taste-buds

after

have

much

been

travel

attuned

to

and

acculturation,

wine

and

caviar

even and

after French

sauces, the Fi 1 i pi no will speak longingly of silver-grey shrimps 20

jumping in the basket, of bangus stuffed with tomatoes and onions and

thrown

on

a fire till

black and crusty,

of sawsawan and

pamutat and kamayan. Jean Anthelme Brillat Savarin, the French lawyer (1755-1826) renowned

as

the

philosopher

succintly

in

his

fourth

of

cuisine,

said

it

all

aphorism -- one of 20 that

preamble to his book The Physiology of Taste: eat, and I shall tell you what you are". aphorism, by the way, said:

very

serve as

"Tell me what you

The less quoted third

"The destiny of nations depends on

how they nourish themselves."

But that is a totally different

area of exploration. It

is

the

thesis

of

this

paper,

therefore,

that

an

exploration of what the Filipino eats --the sources of his food, the way it is prepared and served -- will reveal something of his view of the world, of nature, and of his fellow man.

Filipino Food and the Natural Environment The

Filipino's

indigenous

cuisine,

his

native

food before colonization by Spain and the United States, reveals an intimate knowledge of his environment.

It is a cuisine drawn directly

from nature -- from the biyaya ng lupa -- from nature thoroughly explored and imaginatively used. Let us look first at the foods he has chosen to cull from nature. tropical forests food:

Because of the anatomy of his country-- islands in a clime,

strung through teeming

are close at hand, the waters

seas, where fields

he has three principal

-- the sea, rivers,

and

sources of

brooks, estuaries, even

rice paddies; the plant life in the fields and forests; and the animal life that flourishes both on land and in the waters. 21

Since our ancestors typically settled near water sources, along rivers, on coastal lands, the waters constitute perhaps the most immediate source of food which is why most everyday Filipino dishes revolve around fish and seafood.

We do not spurn any of

the bounty of the waters; from the shark ( k i nunot na pat i ng) to the barely visible pinhead-size tabios; from the lobster to the a l amang; varieties

from the capi z to the lowly tul ya; and crabs of all --

from

the

tiny

talangka,

hundreds

of

which

are

immolated to produce the orange taba that we prodigiously pour on hot rice, to the igud or coconut robber crab which, because of its diet, carries within it the makings of its own sauce.

We eat

the heads of fishes, savouring the eyes, the maws, the brains; we suck out the fat in the heads of shrimps; we salt and pickle fish roe; we know how to savour the goodness of watery creatures in all their stages of growth, from tiny fry to giant breeder (for example, the sabalo, or mother bangus). The plant life around us bountiful

source

of

food.

provides us with our next most

From

the

vines,

shrubs,

plants,

grasses, and trees come the galaxy of gulays which we enjoy all year round.

We are amazed that the American table has little

more than lettuce and cabbage, peas and carrots, and potatoes for everyday found

on

seemingly

vegetables the

(artichokes

ordinary

endless

American

variety

of

and

Brussels

table).

For

roots

(gabi,

sprouts we

are

revel ube,

not in

a

kamote,

singkamas), delicate leaves (dahong bawang, malunggay, alugbate, pechay,

pako,

etc.),

tendrils

(talbos

ng

ampalaya,

kalabasa,

sayote), fruits (jack fruit and banana are vegetables as well as fruits),

seeds

(not only beans,

even flowers (katuray, squash).

but, say jackfruit seeds) and Lacking any dietary inhibitions,

we find provender in swamps, sea growth (sea weeds, for example), rice or cane fields or even on sidewalks.

We make use of what

some might call weeds (kulitis saluyot, talinum), of stalks and shoots, of pulp, peel and seed.

22

In field degrees

and

sinigang. or

forest,

varieties

too, we have found all

of

tartness

to

add

the shades,

piquancy

to

our

"Souring" with something obvious like kalamansi (lime)

tomatoes

imagination "souring" kamias,

and

is,

to

when

there

elements guavas,

the

native mind, are

around:

green

so

many

sampalok

pineapples,

abysmal

poverty

delightfully fruits

the

different

or young

leaves,

leaves,

batuan,

alibangbang

green mangoes, or combinations of these.

of

The native tongue has

tried and experienced their subtle differences, and their effects on the sour broths that are so refreshing in hot weather. In this plant environment, too, are available the spices, herbs, and flavourings that were not what Magellan was 1ooki ng for,

but which we know how to use with our native fare:

tanglad

or

lemon

grass which

Visayans

stuff

the

into lechon; the

star-shaped anise seed or sangke which gives aroma to certain putos; the kasubha which we put into arroz ca 1do and which is related to saffron; dilaw or turmeric and langkawas, which look like ginger but are quite different;

and all

the chillis and

peppers that render food hot and exciting. From the p1 ant 1 i fe in the environment too, come two gifts of cardi na 1 importance to the Fi 1 i pi no:

rice and the coconut.

The coconut is more than food to us, of course.

From its leaves

come palaspas for Palm Sundays, hats and balls for picnics, walls and

roofs

for sheds and entablado, while the stripped mid-rib

makes walis tingting and now matchstick curtains; the husks scrub our floors; the trunks bridge our creeks; the shells are scoops, mou 1ds, 1 adl es.

By way of food, we make use of the coconut from

birth to maturity.

The sap of the bud ferments into tuba; the

"cooling" water and the tender, translucent flesh of the buko are not only enjoyed fresh but also cooked with young shrimps in the Quezon pinais or with chicken in the Visayan binacol; the mature white meat we grate to go with kakanin, or squeeze for gata; the "freak" macapuno is a stap 1 e of the nation a 1 sweet tooth; and we

23

demand the death of the tree in order to have the fresh heart, the ubod for our lumpiang ubod. Rice cere a 1 •

is

even more

important,

for

it

is

more than

basic

It is the background against which a 11 our food is meant

to be eaten, and thus shapes our tastes and, in no small part, our cuisine.

Why do we

heavily

(tuyo,

Because

the

daing,

"sour"

(sinigang and paksiw)

bagoong),

b1 andness,

the

pepper

humility

or of

desirability of strong, sharp contrasts not demand.

flavour rice

or salt strongly?

suggests

the

something bread does

This is why the Filipino on a diet a 1ways moans:

But what is Filipino food without rice?

One can quite easily eat

steak and fried chicken without bread, but how can kari -kari and binagoongang baboy be enjoyed without rice? Rice can,

furt~er,

be ground into flour, and thus made into

the ka 1 ei doscope of rice cakes and sweets, puto of all colours and flavours,

found all over the Philippines, from the

Muslim south to the north.

The significance of rice is seen when

we discover that just about all victory

rituals

shapes,

in

our feasts

indigenous

(weddings, burials,

societies,

Christmas

Christianized regions) are associated with a rice specialty. the

expatriate,

the cosmopolite, the provincial,

and all

in Ask will

remember some form of rice cake marking the misa de gallo, or the media noche, or Christmas day itself:

the puto bumbong served

with free sa 1a bat in the early morning; in Pampanga the putong lusong with panara for media noche; in Vigan the tinubong cooking in bamboo tubes while all knelt at midnight Mass. Rice, therefore, is celebrative fare as well as the humble, daily, year-round stap 1 e.

Its water from washing provides broth

for sinigang; its young grains pounded flat make pinipig; it can be fermented into wine, or into the relish called buro.

Even the

tutong at the bottom of a cooking pot is eaten, not from hunger but with pleasure, as another taste experience.

24

In Quezon towns,

on

the

feast

colourful

of

San

wafer

Isidro

called

Labrador,

kiping

which,

rice

also

shaped

becomes

into

the

sunbursts,

chandeliers and whirls, decorate houses, and are also fried and eaten. Apart from the waters,

the

fields and forests, the third

source of food is the living animal Pi gafetta [1975] native hosts. pig

or

recorded that they were served pork by their

We do not know if that came from a domesticated

a wild

hesitate to

world in the Philippines.

one,

seek

since

for

the

food

Filipino,

beyond

his

even

now,

backyard.

does

not

He does

not

restrict himself to the pigs and chickens that he raises, but tries wild boar, mountain chicken, deer; the dog and the carabao (water buffalo); even his fighting cock when it loses its fight (there

is a special

other foods

Batangas dish

the

balut,

locust,

snake,

iguana,

fruit

octopus, ant eggs,

bat,

field kamaro

rat,

unhatched

(cricket),

Why not?

the

cooking very

freshness.

methods

did

the

wisest.

Because

Filipino

of

and

their

develop

for

baby

this

The very simplest

proximity,

all

life are avail able in all

this their

So what would be the best way to cook what is not

helado, frozen, or plastic-wrapped: pail

cat,

Biyaya ng lupa.

seafood and plant and animal

a

wild

in

All belong to the bounty of sea

varied feast gathered from his surroundings? and

duckling

the woodworm or tamilok -- almost anything

that flies or swims.

What

and

that the westerner considers either disgusting or

exotic:

and land:

called talunang manok)

shrimp;

jumping

for hito still thrashing in

from the tumpok,

and

crabs

still

nipping thumbs and crawling out of the kaserola? The best way to prepare food so fresh is to do as little as possible:

Do not mar its pristine quality; do not drown it in

heavy sauces and spices (which were used in Europe to distinguish food some steps away from freshness). 25

Eat it

raw, as oysters

from unpolluted waters should be eaten; or merely marinated in good strong native vinegar, as in kilawing dilis or tanguingue or hipin; or lightly steamed, as in halabos na hipon; or roasted on coals.

The special maliputo of Taal may be cooked in butter and

lemon,

but

kalamansi.

it

is

best

coal-roasted

with

bagoong

balayan

and

Or cooked in a little vinegar and garlic as paksiw,

which is good hot or cold, and is an excellent way of preserving food

where there are

broth as sinigang.

no

refrigerators.

Or cooked

in

a sour

Or just lightly boiled as tinola or pesa, or

nilaga. The rich,

greasy, cho l estero 1-hi gh methods of cooking are

alien to our understanding of what is proper for the freshness which nature

bestows

on us.

Because freshness

available, we demand it as a birth-right.

is

immediately

This plus the fact

that rice is a basic dietary staple and "background taste" have shaped our indigenous cuisine. Indigenous Philippine cuisine is thus clearly a result of the Filipino's peasant closeness to the land and to nature.

Not

only has he explored its nooks and crannies, cycles and seasons, sea,

plant

and

animal

life,

but,

in

his

work

as

farmer,

fisherman, carabao tender and gatherer of forest products, he is from birth attuned to season and weather.

He knows when ul ang

abound in the rivers; when to plant kamoteng kahoy or go out with lamp and fish net; when the wild edible fern is to be found and where; which bananas are for boiling, which for eating from the tree; which mushrooms are safe and what rains bring them. knowledge

is

empirical,

experimentation, experience.

gained

from

exposure,

observation,

The simplicity -- indeed meagreness

-- of his means made him an inventive improviser unneedful strict

formulae

His

(no native cook uses

of

recipes, or is bound by

"musts"; what is available is used), flexible, and able to make do.

This same simplicity makes him sensitive to flavour: the bitter, the succulent, the aromatic, the sour. His language has

26

words

for

equivalent

in

English:

malinamnam,

manamisnamis,

maanggo,

maaskad,

malabo,

no

mapakla,

malangsa,

stark

lifestyle

The

etc.

have

that

differences

subtle

those

developed

makes him waste nothing, not the gabi stalk {it is stripped for strings to tie the leaf-bundles in pinangat), the chicken feet or intestines (barbecued for pu 1a tan) or any i nterna 1 organs, b1 ood Native cuisine, born out of the land, the weather

or even bile. and

and

means

the

seasons,

the

people

of

lifestyle

in

an

agricultural society, reflects a relationship with nature that is inti mate, adventurous, pragmatic, and eminently wise -- as even the

gourmet

and

dietician

modern

would

cuisine minceur)

(of

agree.

The Filipino and his Fellow Man: are

There

relationship

Filipino's separate

his

to

would

but

studies,

his

in

aspects

many

•The Language of Food•

to

a number

worth

fellow man like

indicate

which

cuisine

focus

on

two

the of

rather

the sawsawan, and what Carmen E. Santiago has

disparate ones:

called "the 1 anguage of food" [Fernando, 1976]. When one partakes of a meal cooked by a French chef and asks for catsup or,

insult.

unpardonable

A-1

horrors, The

sauce, one is guilty of a great,

French chef, you see, ordains how a

dish should taste, and one is not supposed to add even a grain of salt or a pinch of pepper -- much less a glob of the

Filipino

taste.

chef.

He

does

not

prescribe

how

catsup~

a dish

Not so should

Although he knows the precise degree of sourness proper

to a sinigang, or of anghang proper to his pinangat, he fully expects his cooking to be embellished, enhanced, adjusted, and adapted to individual tastes by means of the sawsawan or dipping sauce.

In

other

words,

he

is

professing

no superiority; the

consumer has a part in the creation of the dish just as he has.

27

Our simple cooking methods -- boiling,

steaming,

roasting, and

sour-stewing -- do have flavours built in, but they are simple and basic, and invite "consumer participation". So squeeze kalamansi on your food; sprinkle it with patis; dip it in vinegar sprinkled with crushed garlic, black pepper, or crushed chillis; accompany it with a side-dish of bagoong sauted with bits of pork and sprinkled with wan soy, diced green mangoes mixed with tomatoes and bagoong, or bean paste sauted with onion and tomatoes.

Surround yourself, if you so please, with a galaxy

of

saucers

little

combinations. wish.

Tease

imagination.

Make your

containing

each

bite

tongue,

different

a different

tickle

your

flavour-teasing

experience,

palate,

Invent, combine, experiment.

if you

plunder

your

Aside from the basics

like toyo, suka, patis and kalamansi, Filipinos have added to the dipping lexicon:

tomatoes, onions, crunchy slices of kamias, the

young shoots of mango trees, little sour green paho, coriander 1 eaf or wan soy,

Chinese ce 1 ery or ki nchay, fermented

rice and

fish, fish roe, salted eggs, etc. What does it all mean?

That the chef and the eater -- the

creator and the consumer -- are on equal footing; that eating is an act of creation in which both participate, an experience in which both are creators and critics.

No Filipino cook would,

1 ike the chef Vate 1 , commit suicide because not enough fish had been delivered for a banquet. with

galunggong,

hipon,

and

He would probably have made do let

his

audience

share

in

the

adjustment he had to make. Our use of the sawsawan, therefore, betrays a laissez faire, non-prescriptive relationship between man (cook) and man (cooked for). It is a relaxed relationship, relationship with surrounding nature.

one of

a

piece

in the

The language of food is properly the study of psychologists

28

and perhaps psycholinguists. It certainly requires much more attention than has been devoted to it so far. However, what is very obvious to any Filipino is the fact that food "talks" -- as a gift it is always proper; it always says the right things. It is proper for a girlfriend, to whom one gives perhaps past ill as or candy. It is proper for an equal, like a fellow worker in an office or university, to whom the gift may range from Juicy Fruit (chewing gum) to mangoes or suman. It is proper for a superior, like one's boss or dean or ni nang or benefactor, to whom one gives either something unimaginative but expensive like a baked turkey, a bottle of Chivas Regal or a hamper, or, something small and rare, like leche flan made from carabao, milk cooked by one's own grandmother or a tin of Iranian caviar. And it is a proper gift for one way beyond one's social world, like visiting royalty or the local equivalent as when the relationship is casual, when it is intimate; when it is one of supplication and gratitude; when it is one of commitment, and also when it is non-committal. It carries favour, it stores up goodwill, it expresses friendship and it represents utang na loob and yet it can never be called a bribe. Food, then, is obviously a versatile "counter in the exchange of goodwill", a coin of different values that can be graded up and down and is never nakakahiya (inappropriate) to give or to accept -- an authentic language, the nuances of which are well understood by both the giver and the receiver. Yet another facet of its function as a language is seen in its sharing. When one is eating something, be it a sandwich or a feast, one is expected to invite whoever is around to share it -a bite, a sip, a lick must be offered even when patently impossible to accept. The obligation becomes stronger in one's home. Anyone who comes in (except perhaps a bill collector or the basurero), at meal-time or otherwise, should be fed something or invited to join a meal in progress. The soft drink or cracker 29

offered is a word of welcome: even more symbolic is the way the guest is urged to sit and join the meal

If one's

in progress.

presence, expected or not, occasions a fuss:

special dishes that

take time to prepare, served on guest china and silver kept in the cupboard for the purpose, then one is of the "bisita or ibang tao category" as noted by Carmen Santiago.

The dishes served to

such a guest are not usually those of the native cuisine (not paksiw and inihaw) but adapted from that of the colonizers -indigenized

Spanish

dishes

like

relleno

and

puchero,

indigenized American dishes like fried chicken and salad. however, fuss,

one's

presence,

or If,

expected or not, does not occasion a

but involves the use of the daily -- perhaps plastic --

tableware and the customary fare (pritong galunggong and ginisang ampalaya), then one is hindi ibang tao (one of us) and can share sawsawan and whatever food there is with the family.

The deepest

level of being hindi ibang tao is evident when one can walk into the kitchen to help oneself to a glass of water, or help bring out the food:

kasi

hindi ka naman bi sita ("You are now one of

us, no longer a guest"). The language of food

varies

in nuance and vocabulary, of

course, in urban and rural settings and in the different social classes.

In

a

burgis

{bourgeois)

home,

your

being

served

Filipino, Chinese, American, Spanish, or French food, is already an indication of the regard in which you are held. of

catering

and

eating

out,

there

is

a

In these days

whole

new

lexicon

involving the caterer your host chooses for the dinner honouring you

--

Aling

Gloria,

Magnolia

Rendezvous,

Plaza,

Via

Mare,

Peninsula -- or the place to which you are taken to lunch or dinner Italian Village, a coffee shop in one of the new hotels, Barrio Fiesta, La Tasca, Old Manila, for example. Does he take you there to show off?

To impress you because

he considers you a fellow gourmet or bon vivant?

Because it is

what

crispy

he

can

afford?

Because

30

he

really

likes

pata?

Because it is convenient, or quiet and a place to talk?

(If the

invitation is between a man and woman, of course, a whole new system of meanings comes into p1ay in which the sharing of food stands for anything from a hunger-stopper to tryst to seduction.)

The Filipino and the World: Although

the

foregoing

Novelty and Change in Native Cuisine

discussions

on

what

Filipino

cuisine

reveals about the Filipino's relationship to nature and to his fellow man cannot but indicate his world-view -- his intimacy with nature, his understanding of it as source of life, his imaginative exploration of its resources, his development of uniquely Filipino ways of handling (cooking) these resources, and his development of his own ways of using food as "coins" in social, economic and political transactions -- perhaps further insight can be achieved by an examination of how the Fi 1 i pi no handles change in his cuisine, specifically, the influence of foreign cooking. Certainly the two major influences on Filipino cuisine come from the Chinese and the Spanish [Lumbera and Maceda, 1977]. What was absorbed and how, from either foreign cuisine, makes an interesting study.

the

To Chinese cuisine we owe just about all our noodles: all pane it (noodles) , using mi ki , bi hon, sotanghon, pane it

Canton; noodles transparent, opaque, fat or thin. So thoroughly and well have we absorbed the noodle that almost no region is without a pancit of its own, varied and indigenized according to locale. Thus the fishing town of Malaban has pancit Malabon, with oysters and seafood; modest Lucban developed pancit habhab, "poor town's fare", says Monina A. Mercado, of miki cooked in the marketplace and eaten off squares of banana leaf. 31

Other regions used flaked tinapa, ground chicharron, Chinese sausages, sauces, mixtures of noodles. From the Chinese too, we 1earned to add broth to noodles, to produce l omi and mami ; to wrap vegetables in a thin rice wrapper to make lumpia; to encase meat in dough as siomai and siopao or in leaf lard or other wrapping to make kekiam. These are the Chinese dishes that have been most widely absorbed into our cuisine, cooked in homes, in small corner merenderos, and in school cafetarias. The legacy from Spanish cuisine is quite different, since its chief characteristic is its richness. From the Spaniards we learned how to saute. While they used olive oil and tomato sauce, we indigenized this into sauteing in garlic, onions, and tomatoes. From Spain too, came our rich stews like cocido and puchero, stews which would have been way beyond the native lifestyle, with their reckless combination of pork, chicken, beef, vegetables, chori zos, jamon China, morci ll a. Also Spanish are the rice-meat combinations that are derivations of paella, like arroz a la Valenciana. Very Spanish, certainly, are other fiesta dishes such as galantinas and rellenos, and the rich desserts that require time and leisure {the kind only our legions of old-maid aunts have to spare) to make: brazos de Mercedes, tortas imperiales, borrachos, suspires, etc. Also, the Christmas castanas, ensaimadas, and jamon Pina. One readily notices that the Chinese, who first came as traders, settlers, merchants, had their food absorbed into lower and middle-class cuisine, in homes, turo-turo restaurants, corner panciterias. The Spanish, on the other hand, who came as conquerors, as avowed superiors, exercised their culinary influence mainly on the elite, on the ilustrado class, and thus their food, even now, is mainly fiesta fare. The native -- or what we may call Malay -- cuisine is served at all levels as the "heartland" cuisine, but principally in the lower classes, where often even the Chinese influence is but barely felt because of economics. 32

However,

as

with

Fi 1 i pi no changed,

everything

i ndi geni zed,

else

he

adapted.

in

a

sweetish,

powdered peanuts.

garlicky

adopted,

the

The Chinese 1 umpi a is

now unmistakably Filipino, dipped in toyo, smothered

has

vinegar and garlic,

sauce,

or

spinkled

with

The Spanish paella has on the one hand assumed

a dignity it does not have in Spain by being made impossibly rich and expensive, and also evolved into a native dish, the sticky bringe, with malagkit and gata, and the variations in between. American

fried

chicken

is

marinated

in

soy

and

kalamansi

or

vinegar and garlic before frying; pies are filled with buko, and sa 1 ads

with

kaong;

pizza

seasoned

to

the native tongue.

And

although the Filipino wi 11 a 1ways fee 1 that the best bi bi ngka is made from hand-ground galapong and cooked on a banana leaf with coals above and below it, he adjusts to convenience and schedules by using baking powder, mixes, new ovens (he invents them).

He

may even, in an emergency, use sinigang mix from a packet, frozen shrimp, and the pressure cooker instead of the traditional, slow simmering

method

of

preparation.

The

layer of adaptation

is

evident, and necessary, but the core of the Filipino's thinking about food is a 1 oya 1ty to what nature provided, to the way it was intended to be, understood and used -- because that is the right way.

Being in harmony with nature is not just habit and

tradition; it is rightness. This harmony is fundamental to the Filipino's world-view and seen in his relations with his fellow men.

Historically, in the

agricultural

many

dominant

community

today,

which

harmony

because of mutua 1 need.

with

determined one's

fellow

men

values was

still

necessary

In a 1 i festyl e with but few resources,

the mutual help between neighbours contributes greatly to a man's wealth.

As suggested in the discussion of food as language, food

functions to keep this harmony operative.

The mutual sharing of

functions between the cook and the cooked-for, and the use of food

as

a

social

lubricant,

as

an

infinitely

communicator in all kinds of relationships, proves this. 33

flexible Food is

better than 1anguage, in a way, because it hardly ever offends, and

yet

its

non-verbal

meaning

is

communication

non-confrontative,

causes

unmistakable. the no

It

Filipino

pain,

and

so

is

the

kind

of

prefers;

it

is

does

disrupt

not

harmonies. The young Filipino's food preference is of course changing, si nee modern 1 ife is 1eadi ng him further and further away from tradition.

It is not only that few housewives have the time to

search for a 1 i bangbang and green pi neapp 1e with which to "sour" sinigang na baboy, or rear and fatten chickens for the Christmas tinola.

Even

convenience

is

more

notable

than

the new taste

the

supermarket-to-freezer

for convenience,

fast

food and,

especially, for the beguiling products of the transnational food corporations, like hamburgers, fried chicken and doughnuts.

The

young,

and

enticed

by

filet-a-fish,

french

fries,

pan

pizza

hamburgers, will soon look back on provincial cooking with little nostalgia, and no sense of loss.

Their children to come may well

be camp 1ete ly ignorant of subt 1et i es of sourness and sweetness, their tastes homogenized by global standards. When the preferences in the choice and preparation of food change,

it

will

be

an

indication

that

the

social

bases

are

changing too -- those which intimate the relationship to nature, to one's fellow men, and to the world. The legacy and experience of what was an agricultural community in the matrices of Filipino art,

drama,

expression

literature, among

most

food,

values,

Filipinos,

even

world-view, those

raised

still in

find urban

centres. In the future, however, this primal voice may be drowned out by changes too massive and powerful to be gracefully i ndi geni zed and adapted at the culture's own pace. When that happens, alas for the passing of inihaw sa uling, of sorbete sa garapinera, of burong dalag, and all they mean and imply beyond the flavour and taste of the Philippine countryside.

34

GLOSSARY alamang

very small shrimps made into a salty paste called bagoong

alibangbang

butterfly-shaped 1eaves of a small tree, used for "souring" certain dishes

alugbate

a succulent, herbaceous vine eaten as vegetable, especially in the Visayas

anghang

chilli-hotness in food; spiciness

arroz caldo (Sp.)

chicken and with ginger

bagoong

a salty paste used as an accompanying sauce

bagoong balayan

a bagoong made of small fish instead of small shrimps, for which Balayan (a town in Batangas, Philippines) is noted

balut

a Philippine delicacy consisting of a boiled duck's egg, with a partly formed chick inside

ban gus

milkfish

basurero

garbage collector

batuan

a sour fruit about 2 em. in diameter, with an acid, juicy edible pulp around a large seed; also used for "souring" broth

bawang

garlic

bibingka

a fat rice cake topped with slivers of carabao milk cheese and sometimes w1th salted eggs, eaten with grated coconut

bihon

Chinese rice noodles

35

rice gruel

flavoured

binacol

a boiled chicken dish formerly cooked in a length of bamboo or in a coconut; sometimes with strips of young coconut

binagoongang baboy

pork cooked in bagoong

bisita

guest

biyaya ng lupa

grace from the earth

buko

young coconut, the flesh eaten in a salad or by itself, the water taken as a refreshi ng drink

burgis

colloqui alized form of "bourgeoisie", now used to refer to the wealthy, those apart from the masses

buro

a fermented rice, fish

burong dalay

fermented mudfish

capiz

placuna shell with edible flesh, commonly used for the shell making window panes and lamps

chicharr on

pork cracklin g

cuisine minceur (Fr.)

cu1s1ne; "slim" nouvelle cuisine

dahong bawang

garlic leaves, used as a green vegetabl e or made into pickles

daing

fish split lengthwise and laid out flat, salted and sun dried

dampal it

a fleshy, spreading-branched herb growing along the seashore or in fishpond s, the stems and leaves of which are made into pickles

di maabot ng kawalng-malay

idiom for "that which the innocent mind cannot comprehend"

dilaw

tumeric; yellow ginger

36

food,

for

a

example,

term

for

ensaimada (Sp.)

a large, soft, sweet bread, buttered and dusted with sugar; sometimes laced with grated Edam cheese and slivers of ham; served at breakfast or with hot chocolate

entablado (Sp.)

stage

gabi

taro

ga 1a pong

rice flour

galunggong

a kind of fish scad"

gat a

coconut milk; made by grating coconut and 1eachi ng out the mi 1 k with water

ginisang ampalaya

sauted bitter melon

gulay

vegetables

halabos na hipon

steamed shrimps

helado (Sp.)

ice; stored on ice

hindi i bang tao

idiom for of us"

hipon

generic term for shrimps

hi to

catfish

ibang tao

idiom for "outsider"

igud

the coconut robber crab, feeds on coconut meat

inihaw

charcoal-broiled

kakanin

small snacks eaten between meals

kalabasa

squash

kal amansi

small native 1ime

37

known as

"not an

"round

outsider; one

which

kalan

a trivet, especially made of stone, used for cooking food direct over the fire

kamaro

cricket

kama ron

large shrimp; from Spanish camaron

kamay an

eating with one's hands; the act of eating together thus

kamias

a green, acidic cylindrical fruit used for "souring" broth

kamote

sweet potato

kamoteng kahoy

cassava root

kaong

sugar palm whose immature seeds are made into sweets

kare-kare

a stew of oxtail, calf's feet, intestines and tripe, with a sauce of crushed peanuts and ground toasted rice

kari -kari

(as above)

kaserola

saucepan; stewpan

kasi hindi ka naman bisita

"because you're not an outsider"

kasubha

a plant, the dried stigma and styles of which are used for colouring and flavouring food; similar to saffron

katuray

a semi-wild tree, the large, white flowers of which are eaten raw or steamed; the young pods are also edible

kilawing di 1is

long-jawed anchovy, boned and marinated in vinegar and onions

kinchay

Chinese celery

kinunot na pating

baby shark cooked in coconut milk

38

kiping

leafbright-coloured, edible, as used wafers shaped thin decoration at the Lucban and other Quezon province fiestas

kulitis

a wild p1ant, the tender 1eaves and stems of which are eaten as a vegetable; also called native spinach

langkawa

an aromatic ginger-like root

1eche (Sp.)

milk

lechon (Sp.)

roast pig with lemon grass stuffing

lumpia

spring roll

lumpiang ubod

spring roll filled with heart of palm cut into julienne strips, and sauted with pork and shrimps; may be fried

maanggo

with or having spoiled meat

maaskad

with or having a slightly bitter acrid taste

macapuno

"freaked" coconut

mal agkit

glutinous rice

mal abo

spongy in consistency, as fruits or tubers

malangsa

fishy; sme 11

malinamnam

creamy and tender quality of taste and texture, associated with something very fresh

maliputo

fresh-water jack, found only in Taal Lake

malunggay

the horseradish plant; the young leaves are eaten as a leafy vegetable; sometimes even flowers and half-ripe fruits are cooked 39

the

smell

of

having a fishy taste or

manamisnamis

on the sweet side of taste

mapakla

acrid in taste, as of young guava fruits or unripe bananas

media noche (Sp.)

the midnight meal traditionally taken on Christmas eve

merenderos

snack sellers

miki

a noodle made from wheat flour, and sold fresh, not dried

misa de galla (Sp.)

dawn masses held for nine consecutive days before Christmas

nakakahiya

shameful; disgraceful

nilaga

boiled

ninong

godfather

paho

a fruit that looks like a miniature mango; eaten as a pickle or as a component of a dip or side dish

pako

an edible cooked

paksiw

fish or pork cooked in vinegar, garlic, and long cooking peppers

palaspas

palm leaves, woven into various shapes and taken to the church on Palm Sunday for blessing

pamutat

referring to something used as a side dish or eaten as horsd'oeuvres

panara

a fried rice-flour turnover or pasty, fi 11 ed with sauted vegetables

pan cit

a generic term for a noodle dish

pans it

(as above)

panciteria

noodle restaurant 40

fern,

eaten

raw

or

pastillas de pili

sweets in the form of little bars or cylinders, made of tubers or milk, with pili nuts

pat a

leg of pork

patis

a very coloured sauce

pechay

one of the most widely-grown vegetab 1es in the Phi 1i ppi nes, with soft, large green leaves and white petioles

pes a

fish boiled in rice washing with ginger, tomatoes and onions

pinais

fish or shrimp wrapped in banana leaves and steamed with onions, tomatoes, and young coconut

pinangat

spicy Bi co 1 dish with stuffed taro leaves and hot peppers

pinipig

young rice pounded flat, somewhat like corn flakes; usually eaten with coconut mi 1 k or hot chocolate

pritong galunggong

fried round scad

puc hero

a stew Spanish in or1g1n consisting of beef, chicken, sausages, chick peas and vegetables; and a tomato sauce

pulutan

canapes

puto

generic cake

puto bumbong

a sticky, chewy purple snack based on wild glutinous rice, steamed in narrow bamboo tubes set vertically on a fire, and eaten with sugar and grated coconut

putong lusong

anise-flavoured rice cake

41

salty, thin, amberliquid fish or shrimp

term

for

steamed

rice

relleno

chicken; a stuffed, stuffed referring to chicken, turkey, fish, etc

sabalo

a large milkfish from the sea, not from a fishpond

salabat

ginger tea

sampal ok

tamarind

sangke

star anise

sawsawan

dips usually mixed by the diner himself at table to go with whatever he is about to eat

sayote

Chayote; a light-green, fruit (10 em), soft and when cooked

singkamas

tuberous root, large, whitefleshed and turnip-shaped, eaten raw as a fruit or cooked as a vegetable

sinigang

a dish of pork, beef, shrimp or fish in a broth soured with acidic fruits

sorbete sagarapinera (Sp.)

ice cream

sotanghan

translucent noodles

suka

vinegar

tab a

fat

talangka

small variety crabs, their orange fat

talbos ng ampalaya

tendrils of the bitter melon vine; used as a vegetable

talinum

a fleshy herb; used as substitute for spinach

talunang manok

"defeated cock"; a dish made from a rooster defeated in a cockfight

tanglad

lemon grass or citronella 42

eaten

ova 1 bland

for

tanguingue

Spanish mackerel

tinapa

smoked fish

tinola

a dish of chicken, green papayas, common gourd, and broth, flavoured with ginger and peppercorns

tinubong

rice cake cooked in a bamboo tube; a Christmas food of Vi gan, Il ocos Sur

to yo

soya sauce

tuba

nipa or coconut wine

tulingan

big-eyed tuna

tulya

tiny fresh-water clams

tumpok

a small mound, used as a unit for selling fish or vegetables

turo-turo

food stalls

tutong

that part of boiled rice left sticking at the bottom of the cooking pot

tuyo

dried salted fish, whole

ube

yam

ubod

pith or heart of a palm; eaten raw as a crisp salad or cooked as a vegetable

ulang

variety large crayfish

utang na loob

debt of gratitude

walis tingting

a stiff coarse broom made from the ribs of coconut leaves

wan soy

coriander leaves used as seasoning

43

of

fresh-water

REFERENCES

Brll lat-Savarln, Jean Anthelme. The Physiology of Taste or Meditations on Transcendenta I Gastronomy. Trans I a ted by M. F.K. FIsher. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971. Fernando, Gilda Cordero, ed. The Culinary Culture of the Philippines. Bancom Audlovlslon Corporation, 1976.

Manila:

Lumbera, C.N. and T.G. Maceda, ads. Rediscovery, Essays on Phil lpplne Lite and ~· Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1977. Plgatetta, Antonio. ~M~a~g~e~l~l=a~n-'=s__V~o=y~a~g~e=:~~A~~N~a~r~r~a~t~l~v~e--~A=c=co==u~nt~~o=t~-t~h~e=-~F~I~r~s~t Navigation. Translated and edited by R.A. Skelton. London: The Fol lo Society, 1975.

44

THE FILIPINO WORLD-VIEW IN THE VISUAL ARTS

ALICE G. GUILLERMO

A close study of the Filipino world-view as manifested in the arts is of primary value in shedding light on the question of nation a 1 identity. First,

the

In such a study, two points come to the fore.

concept of national

identity is

based on national

interest, on the interest of the broad masses of the people, and not on the values and interests of a single social class, such as the middle class or the petty bourgeoisie based in Manila and other urban centres. pegged

to

political,

one and

Secondly, a world-view is not static or

historical economic

period

aspects

alone,

since

of national

the

social,

life are dynamic

forces that continually develop and usher in change. The

world-view

of

a

people,

or

the

concept of national

identity for that matter, is unlike a painting or portrait which has already received the finishing touches of the painter's brush and which is then presumed to serve as model for all values and manners now and for all time. of

a

"national

spirit",

for

The same may be said of the idea while

it

is true

that

a nation

possesses a unifying spirit, nevertheless it is not possible to view it as a static or immutable configuration.

If at first

glance there seem to be e 1ements which remain constant, these elements took shape over a long period of time and did not appear overnight.

Central

to the concept of national

identity is the

capacity to change and to re-interpret the nation a 1 interest in the light of historical development. 45

There are some, however, who consider national

identity as

something that is already complete or fully realized, instead of looking at it as a process of continual realization.

The static

point of view is bred of the philosophy of "essences" which hold an

absolute

character.

Such

an

a

priori

development and adaptability to change.

outlook

precludes

It also maintains the

conservative position that the solution to our present problems lies

in

our

past

patterns

of

response

in

our

customs

and

traditional beliefs. There are many pitfalls in this kind of thinking.

It may

lead us to a romantic and false view of our past, engendering a form of nativism which limits itself to values of our indigenous culture.

It may also rebound to a pessimistic determinism that

regards character and identity as basic givens, with inherent and therefore

unchangeable

defects

and

shortcomings.

This

easily

relates to the line of thinking that we have a petty and limited mentality, that reckon

in

we are a people who think small

terms

of

vinegar and oil. shortcomings

15

and

25

centavos

worth

and can only of

cornerstore

A critical harping on what are believed to be

inherent

in

the

national

character

can

only

perpetuate a condition of neo-colonial dependency. The term

"visual

painting

and

artistic

expressions

textiles,

sculpture

products

of

indigenous

of

done and

bamboo,

Southeast Asia. colonial

rooted

used

by

here

known

ethnic

and

or metal,

design. in

the

refers

not

only to

but

also

to

art,

such

as

artists,

jewellery,

wood

indigenous base

as

called

ornaments

receptacles

Spanish

arts"

folk

woodcarving, as

well

Philippine larger

pottery,

as many culture

cultural

other

has

an

complex

of

The arts produced by the Filipinos before the period

artistic expression.

are

the

first

forms

of

indigenous

Extant pieces discovered in archaeological

excavations have found their way to various museums where one can view these silent existing testimonies of our early culture -46

clay vessels, weapons, jewellery and other artifacts that were buried beneath the dust of centuries and are only being revealed to

our

eyes

relationship

ancient between

arts

that

life and art.

tell

These

of

the

intimate

indigenous arts are

also mentioned and described in the records of Spanish friars and adelantados Chirino

{high

[Jocano,

ranking 1975],

officials).

among

others,

Pigafetta referred

to

and

Padre

the

anitos

(idols) of clay, wood and even gold, as well as to the fabrics and body ornaments worn by our ancestors. In our time, indigenous aesthetics is made manifest in the ethnic

arts

of

the

various

groups

that

resisted

or actively

fought against the incursions of Spanish and American colonization.

These groups have refused Christianity or have otherwise

lived

outside

its

reach

and

the

forces

of

westernization.

Despite Spanish attempts at massive destruction and burning of the products of indigenous faith and thought, these groups were able

to

hold

on

to

traditions

threatened

by the

colonizers.

These groups now called "cultural communities" have long suffered oppression chauvinism.

and

deprivation

due

to

Christian

and

colonial

Among them are the Ifugao, Bontok, Kalinga and other

re 1 a ted groups of the north.

In the south they are the Maranao,

Magindanao, Tausog, Samal and other Muslim groups, as well as the T'boli, Bagobo, Mandaya, Mansaka, and others in the mountains and forests of Davao and Cotabato.

Ethnic Art Ethnic

art

carries

the

indigenous

aesthetics

uninfluenced by colonial and Western culture. Southeast Asian as well two

aspects

which

are

and

world-view

This art carries a

as a particularly Philippine character, closely

interrelated.

What

we

call

"indigenous" is formed out of the Asian spirit and culture and

47

the local

adaptations of these to our social

and geographical

environment. These

arts

carry

our

indigenous

traditions

of

artistic

forms, designs and techniques which go back to the pre-colonial past.

Ethnic art is slow to change:

firstly because it is bound

to religion and to religious and social rituals; secondly because it is a product of a long-maintained simple economy based on planting, hunting, and fishing.

In such a context the rhythms of

life are slow and the concept of time is cyclic following the basic activities of planting and harvesting that are related to the wet and dry seasons.

Relationship to Nature and Religious Beliefs Si nee the economy of our ancestors as well as the broad base of the

present

population

including

the

cultural

communities

is

agricultural, their arts have shown the close relationship of man and his natural

environment.

In the ancient animistic outlook,

the whole of nature is a living force that holds the divine and magical properties of the nature and ancestor gods, the anitos. Man is part of this vast natural environment, as expressed in the legend of Kalakas and Maganda who emerged from the bamboo.

In

this view of nature, plants, trees, and flowers, as well as the creatures of air, earth and water are ascribed with human traits -- attributes which relate to the values of the community and society. In

Ifugao texti 1 es and tattoo marks, the 1 ightning motif

symbolizes bravery.

In the Maranao okir (Muslim visual art), the

nag a, which is the Asian serpent archetype and symbo 1 , is used for the kris so that the weapon may assume the snake's deadly power.

Weapons, shields and spears recall the shape of birds so 48

that they may acquire

swiftness and agi 1 i ty.

In Tuwaang, the

epic of the Bagobos, the interstices of rattan weaving patterns are compared to the eyes of different kinds of birds.

Weapons

such as the spear are given the names of their victims or of folk heroes, as well

as those of animals and snakes.

The blade one

draws from the sheath is 1 i kened to a restless dog that tugs at its leash and cannot wait to break away.

Thus, objects acquire a

life and spirit of their own drawn from the natural environment. In this outlook in which man and nature closely interrelate, man and beast, bird,

fish or plant can exchange properties in

metamorphosis.

is

metamorphosis nature-based

This of

man

symbolism

relationship.

In

borne into

out bird,

developed

Bontok

by

weave,

the

beast

many or

from

this

for

instance,

legends

plant.

of Rich

intimate man-nature the

motifs

of

standing man, lizard or crocodile, shield, axe, spear and star constitute

a

series

exp 1 a nation of the

within

a

single

band.

Bontok, the hunter will

with his spear and axe; the shield will star his guiding light.

According

to

the

slay the crocodile

be his defence and the

They use the beautiful blankets bearing

these motifs as shrouds for the dead.

The Mansakas of Mindanao,

on the other hand, p1 ace a high va 1 ue on the sun symbo 1 •

They

wear this symbol on their person in the form of a 1 arge and thin silver disc that emblazons their colourful attire. These motifs and symbols drawn from nature are also linked to

religious

around us.

animism that gives life and

power to the things

It becomes important that these forces that influence

man's 1 i fe be wooed and honoured, and not offended or angered. Man's

actions

can

either maintain

or

disrupt

harmony

between

himself and these forces. The component indigenous

religious of

animism of our ancestors

ancestor-worship.

respect

and

This

reverence 49

is

given

a 1 so

included the

at

the

root

of

the

to

the

elderly

and

recognized 1eaders of the group by reason of their experience and wisdom. form

in

the

many

rich 1 i fe

The departed ancestors may a 1 so be given

statues

of

anitos

honoured

with

ritual

offerings. Many arts associated with rituals for the dead attest to the indigenous belief in the afterlife.

In many places the dead is

carefully clothed and provided with numerous goods to establish him in his new existence.

Among these are precious objects such

as porcelain plates and bowls, jewellery and weapons.

The wooden

coffins may be carved with various symbols to serve as guides and guardian

figures.

Among

the

Sam a 1 ,

the

ornate 1y

carved

gravemarkers manifest their esteem and respect for the dead. the

pre-colonial

period,

with incised motifs.

some

groups

The Manunggul

fashioned

burial

gold

In

eye-masks

jar is particularly

distinctive for its sculptural cover featuring two human figures in a boat.

Their large round eyes seem to signify the vast and

mysterious world of spirits towards which they trave 1 in their journey by water. Records of the early Spanish missionaries attest to the fact that the early inhabitants of the country worshipped idols of stone, wood or gold set up in altars where they placed offerings of food and flowers -- a religious custom possibly derived from Up to our times, religous images, be they of anitos or

Hinduism.

Christian saints, hold an important place in the household. Ifugao house usually feature bulol

figures

An

(wooden statues), a

male and female pair, which are believed to guard the house and granary. without

The the

possessing

bulol

is

carved

individualizing a

strong

and

in

a

intent impressive

creatures of the underworld,

the evil

simple conceptual of

portraits,

presence.

style,

but As

for

often the

spirits that hide under

cover of darkness and hover by houses in search of prey, these recall the bi hang (wood sculpture of the Cordill eras) of fearsome mien intended to drive away ma 1 i gnant influences. 50

The fantastic

and

hair-raising

mythical

appearance

imagination

relates

of

the

to

the

monsters rich

and

devils

Southeast

Asian

of and

Indian mythologies.

Indigenous Aesthetics ·and Socio-religious Values How then does the indigenous concept of self take shape?

What is

the self-image of the indigenous Filipino as seen in the forms of ethnic art? is

formed

To the unwesternized Filipino, the concept of self from

collective.

its

relationship

with

divinity and the social

The search for values of individualism and privacy

would lead nowhere.

The norms of behaviour are social and find

outward expression in work such as agriculture and hunting, in participation in religous rituals, and in group worship of the gods. For

the

T'boli,

their

society

elaborate attention to physical

demands

particular

adornment and clothing.

and It is

important for them to wear beautiful handwoven clothes as well as jewellery and tattoos, which

is why they have evolved a rich

variety of forms and designs for bodily ornaments.

They believe

that beauty of person will please the gods and will win them many favours. weeks

Their clothing of t'nalak weave which takes

of

embroidery,

close

work,

and

their

everyday wear. from

personal

their wide

jackets bands

of

covered

with

beaded

design

several

colourful are

for

Their concept of self seems to be inseparable adornment, the lack of which would constitute a

severe omission in the sight of the gods and the community. Body ornamentation

such as j ewe 11 ery and tattoos

fact, related to religious beliefs and social values. form

of

jewellery such as necklaces,

are,

in

The first

earrings and waistbands,

also had the original function of charms or anting-anting to ward

51

off

danger

and

evil.

The

tattoos

on

the

chest

serve

to

illuminate the soul, and that on the 1 egs serve to release the soul

upon

death.

Aside

from

these

functions,

clothing

and

adornment also signify one's position in the group or society. In

the

epic

Lam-ang,

for

instance,

personal

family wealth are given primary importance.

possessions

and

In courting the lady

Ines Kannoyan, Lam-ang boasts of his seven chains of gold so fine that

they melt

in the sun, and of his

pantaloons,

shirt and

kerchief embellished with distinctive embroidery designs. A close

relationship

religious ritual. ritual: create

All

exists

between

indigenous

art

and

forms of artistic expression converge in

song, dance, music, drama, and art objects all together a

colourful

event

or

celebration.

Indeed,

no

sharp

distinctions exist to separate the various arts; instead, they all create a total experience within the social framework. To be sure, the indigenous arts have a social significance. Tattooing, for instance, is not only a beauty ritual, it is also an endurance test for working in the fields.

Bilaan and T'boli

maidens wear a wide waistband with numerous bells to announce their presence with tinkling grace.

But above all, these arts

are signs of social standing in the community. Among

the

Bagobo,

the

red

kerchief

bordered

with

fine

embroidery can on 1y be worn by a rna 1e reputed for bravery, one who has also killed a number of people.

To the Maranao, the

yellow malong (sarong) is reserved only for prominent families, such

as

that

of

the

sultan.

Another

social

symbol

sarimanok (bird motif) of wood, brass or other material okir designs of the Maranao.

is

the

in the

Its size, fineness of execution,

and expense of material are indications of the wealth and social position of the owner. To the Ifugao, the nagabi, which is a ceremonial bench carved from a single tree trunk, is a traditional sign of status.

And for the Maranao, again, objects 52

such as the brass gadur, a handsome vessel incised with geometric designs, are gifts for weddings and special occasions, the social significance of which exceeds their purely functional aspect.

As

many of the traditional arts have a meaning in the religious and ritualistic context, these cannot be sold to outsiders for they form

part

of

the

family's

important

possessions

and

prized

heirlooms. The

indigenous

aesthetics

is

seen

in the many objects of

everyday use, such as kitchen utensils, farm and fishing tools objects which combine function

aesthetic design.

wooden ladles and coconut grater

There are

ornamented with the curvilinear

okir, as well as the agita used as a mat press to give lustre to newly woven mats, the colourful lakub with its geometric designs used to hold tobacco or betel chew, or the decorative food covers made of pandanus 1 eaves.

The

Ifugao have a 1 ong tradition of

basket weaving in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and functions.

Principles of Composition Indigenous

art

qualities

based

including on

ethnic

spatial

value, and craftsmanship.

and

folk

composition,

manifests

line,

shape,

certain colour,

With regard to the use of space, one

characteristic is the filling up of space or the covering of the entire surface with design motifs.

This may follow a rhythm of

alternating patterns, as in the t'nalak (tie-dye) weave of the T'bol i.

It may observe a sectional

composition of horizontal

bands intersected in areas by vertical panels, as in the lfugao blankets and Maranao malong.

Ifugao cloth may have a broad and

white central section which strongly contrasts with the adjacent areas of black and red.

This is also seen in the landap malong

where broad colourful sections are intersected by the 1 angkit of intricate woven design.

The Taosug pis or head kerchief shows an

53

integrated design composition within its square format. The design of the sections and the borders relates symmetrically to the central square pattern. These ex amp 1es i 11 ustrate the various spatia 1 compositions in indigenous art. The first is the composition based on the simple alternation of motifs within one band and between the bands themselves. The second is the division into sections, vertical and horizontal, with a central vertical panel distinctive for its broader width or different and sometimes more e1abo rate design. The third is the fi 11 i ng up of space with a compact and integrated composition featuring a central section and symmetrical side sections within a square format. The handwoven cloth serves as a good illustration of indigenous design and use of space in which figure and ground are interrelated. The figure or design is not simply a positive element against a negative space thus expressing a static relationship; on the contrary, figure and space and ground relate dynamically. This is borne out in the reversible t'nalak cloth of the T'bol i in which the geometric design and the ground are equal in importance. In the malang, the sections or fields of intense colour -- red, yellow, or green -- are not mere passive vehi c1es of the bands of geometric design. This i nterre 1at ionship of figure and ground contributes to the richness and liveliness of indigenous art.

Penchant for Curvilinear Lines As to line, the curvilinear line occurs in great frequency in the traditional arts. There are long curved lines that meander, spiral, or spring out in flourishes. The okir-a-datu of the Maranao exhibit the curvilinear line in their carving on numerous 54

objects such as vessels and tools made of wood.

The designs may

be of growing ferns, spreading vines or legendary creatures such as the naga or the sarimanok. The curv i 1 i near ok i r is found in numerous everyday objects, in

musical

instruments

such with

as

the

kudyapi

graduated

brass

(guitar)

and

the

gongs),

in

the

kul i ntang

(instrument

ornamental

panels and beams of the torogan, which is the large

wooden house of the datus (chiefs), in status symbols such as the sarimanok, and even in gravemarkers and boat prows. many objects also conforms to the curved 1 ine:

The shape of

rattan baskets,

bladed weapons, shields, as well as women's ornaments. There are a number of possible explanations for the artist's penchant for the curvilinear line. tropical

This may derive from a lush

environment in which curve of leaf, branch, tree, fruit

and flower becomes engraved in the artistic sensibility.

Man is

surrounded by a kind and generous nature providing all his needs the fertility of a land yet unpoisoned by exploiting greed. The curvilinear line is akin to the rhythm of ritual religious festivity, as well The

spirit

of

relationships seen,

for

ritual

of

the

instance,

especially elders or people one

hardly

as the wavelike chanting of epics.

pervades

indigenous in

the

much

of

Filipino

the

and

interpersonal

Asian.

This

indirect way of addressing

superior~,

knows.

and

Much

honoured value

guests,

is

is

people,

strangers, or

placed on

respectful

greeting and exchange, as in the use of the third person sila or kayo in direct address and not the second person i kaw except for members of the family and close friends. not

mentioned

right

away

but

are

Desires or requests are preceded

by

preliminary

conversation; criticism is softened by the use of metaphors. genera 1 ,

the

i nterpersona 1

re 1at i onshi ps

of

the

In

indigenous

Fi 1 i pi no has a ri tua 1 i st i c character bound with the s 1 ow rhythms of man and nature in a feuda 1 setting.

55

Furthermore,

the

curvilinear

line

that

flourishes

into

branches and leaves as in the okir and its motifs such as the pako-rabong

(growing

fern),

expressive of emotional

naga,

and

manuk-manuk

(bird)

spontaneity in the arts as well

outgoing and out-reaching orientation.

is

as an

The indigenous aesthetics

is bound with much that is lyrico-romantic in feeling. Nevertheless, there exist side by side with the curvilinear, forms of geometric and austere artistic expressions.

This second

type is found primarily in the north with its mountainous regions and narrow coastal existence.

The

straightforward groups, bulols.

their

strips that geometric

and stern

austere

set more arduous conditions of

style

is

figure

sculpture

ancestral

also

figures

and

linked of

to

the

the mountain

guardian

gods,

the

The geometric style also exists among the Mangyans in

the many versions of the pakudos, basically cross figures, that are used as embroidery designs for their blouses.

The Function of Colours In

indigenous

colours.

art, much

value

is

placed

on

bright

and

vivid

Bright colours are much more desirable than pale tints

which are often considered as faded.

Strong and vivid colours

also express vitality and life; warm and emotional, they can be likened to fragrant and rich aromas. often of high

intensity and

The col ours used are thus

saturation.

In

indigenous colour

schemes, lively reds and yellows may occur side by side, as in painted woodcarving or in textiles.

Another scheme may juxtapose

a rich deep red with dark black as in Bontoc textiles.

The use

of colours may follow traditional symbolism, as red for bravery and · yell ow

for

royal

status.

Often,

bright

col ours

are

expressive of abundance, while pale and dull tints are associated with deprivation.

But above all , the use of col our is generally

56

expressive of feeling and of a warm and romantic temperament. This also relates artistic expression and emotional values in an art steeped in a sunlit tropical climate that has never known the darkness and cold of winter. But alongside this, there are a number of poor national minorities with a limited sense and experience of colour as well as a weak capacity for distinguishing colour. They perceive primarily in terms of values ranging from very dark to very light rather than in terms of hues. As a consequence, their design is based on the pairing or alternation of dark and bright or vivid and pale colours, or on the interrelationship of dark and light elements. When bright colours are juxtaposed, the colours are applied flat on the surface without tonal modulations within one area. If the I'wak have a very limited colour sense, confined only to black, white, and red, the T'boli exhibit a refined sense of values from dark to light and vivid to pale in their woven textiles. In the practice of the various arts, much value is placed on difficulty of execution and on the technical dexterity of the artist. One of the most difficult weaving processes is involved in the making of the t'nalak. The threads are counted and sections covered with twine, after which they are soaked in dye. The mass is then dried in the sun until it achieves the desired shade of colour, deep red, green or brown. Only then is it finally woven with the intricate design taking shape. T'boli beadwork also involves a painstaking process. For it is not enough for them to string them on a single thread; they must

weave the

beads into wide bands of ingenuous geometric design. Other artistic expressions requiring painstaking work are the landaE malong with its lan9kit, which is a colourful panel of woven geometric design, the ok i r in carved wood with its rich designs, and the Samal mats of a marvellous intricacy. 57

Ethnic art manifests a different valuation of materials.

In

its various forms, particularly in body ornaments and in vessels or containers, together.

a wide

There

assortment of materials may be brought

are,

for

instance,

bamboo or

rattan

baskets

decorated around with wide bands of beadwork and with hanging tufts

of

horse

hair.

T'boli

earrings

combine tiny chains of

brass with equally tiny and fine chains of horsehair. an

indigenous

appreciation

for

There is

organic materials derived

animals and plants, such as bone, teeth,

from

hair, seed, grain or

fruit, since all these belong to nature.

Folk Art With Spanish colonization, the indigenous traditions persisted in the ethnic art of groups who resisted colonization and in the folk art of the Christi ani zed l owl anders. aspects:

Folk art carries two

the indigenous which it shares with ethnic art, and the

colonial with its Christian religious subject matter or Western artistic

influence.

It

retains much of the

indigenous spirit

despite its Christian and Western stamp. With variety

the of

spread

arts

of

and

Christianity,

crafts

they

revolving

developed

around

a

wide

fiestas.

The

ceremonies to honour the patron saint and the processions which began

from

replaced

the

the

church

earlier

and

through

rituals

led

by

the the

streets

of

babaylan

the

town

(shaman

or

native high priest).

Everybody converged at the plaza to watch

the

and

religious dramas

bamboo

and

flowers

were

participate in the games. constructed

and

families

Arches of brought out

their best in food and fiesta fare. The Christian fiestas and celebrations served in drawing the people to the new religion.

These were likewise of significant 58

influence

on

people,

as

the

were

and

artistic

occasions

of

creativity

lavish

and

of

the

colourful

Of a most impressive aspect were the 1arge statues

saints,

formal

imagination

they

spectacles. of

the

of

church

Christ,

the

Virgin

and

the

holy

statues often of Caucasian features,

patrons:

heavy with

gold and jewellery from their crown to their lavishly embroidered clothes.

Looked

divine as

up

well

as

to

and

worldly

venerated, power.

they became symbols of

In their glittering,

costumes, they reaffirmed the authority of the colonial class

and

number

of

de 1 i cacy,

the

landed

image the

elite.

types:

Furthermore,

the

Virgin

there

regal ruling

developed

a

of exceeding modesty and

humb 1 e and 1 ong-sufferi ng Christ, or the

kingly

Christ who perpetuates monarchic power. These

images

of

wealth

counterpart in the moro-moro

and

royalty

also

(folk drama) and

had

their

religious dramas

which provided ample opportunity to display costumes vying with one

another

in

rich

material

and

trimmings.

A survival

of

monarchic values, this tendency continues to manifest itself in the Santakrusan in the month of May. clothes

and

sparkling

jewellery was

The wearing of beautiful a

symbolic

habit

of the

ruling class which the people sought to emulate. The feast days of the saints attested to the influence of the

new

religion

and

its concommitant

values.

These entailed

leaving the work in the fields in order to participate in the festivities which could last for a whole week. maintain or assert social

The desire to

status involved preparing a generous

table and wearing new clothes.

The duties of piety necessitated

a tour of the churches preferably on foot summer sun; otherwise on most

in the heat of the

feast days one wa 1 ked on one's

knees on the cold floor tiles traversing the whole length of the nave from

portal

to altar; one may also light

votive candles

before religious statues and wear habits patterned after those of the saints, such as that of the Nazarene in maroon with a gold

59

cincture which is worn by wrinkled grandmothers and protesting toddlers alike. public

more

The more valorous of the menfolk may opt for a

and

painful

profession

of

faith

by

joining

the

procession of flagellants on Good Friday, while the faint-hearted content themse 1 ves with devout 1y wiping the statue or its glass case with a kerchief which they kiss and wear on their person for its healing properties, and then in making a seemingly endless chain of signs of the cross. Above

all,

the

fiesta

unites

the

whole

town

in

its

collective character.

A good example is the Pahiyas of Lukban in

which all

participate in ornamenting their exterior

walls

households

with

colourful

kiping,

thin

and

glazed

rice wafers the

shape of 1 eaves, with first fruits all in a heavy bunch or with sheaves of

rice on the

stalk, if not with finely woven hats,

wooden c 1 ogs and other househo 1d era fts meant to honour their patron saint, Isidro the Ploughman.

Towns such as Antipolo and

Obando attract pilgrims because of the famed miraculous efficacy of their patrons. inspired people

ardent from

The vivid

religious

their

and colourful

feeling

oppression

and

at

images of religion

served

the

same

to distract the time

that

they

reinforced the people's hope in the promised salvation through prayer and sacrifices.

Persistence of Indigenous Aesthetics In

the

the fact,

folk

statues of These

of

derived saints

believed are

the

spirit

Catholicism

component are

art

indigenous

to

offered

in from are be

Christianized

inspite

of

its

the

Philippines

the

earlier

regarded

endowed flower

wreaths

60

one

has

a

systems

of

like

with

groups colonial

the

idols

individual and

piously

perceives

content. strong

In folk

belief. of

old

magical wiped

The which

powers. with

a

kerchief

in

the

hope

of

absorbing

some

of

their

miraculous

properties. New

elements

Biblical

are

sometimes

also

introduced

stories such as that of the

around

which

the

Marinduque

centurion masks,

into

original

passion of Jesus

moriones,

a

festival

revolves elaborating on the

Christ

with

Roman

role of Longinus.

The highly creative and colourful masks, often grotesque or twofaced

and

furbished

Christian recall

with tin

iconography.

ancient

foil,

There

times

such

are

as

do

not

belong to orthodox

likewise

the

festivities

Ati-atihan

and

which

Binirayan of

Anti que fo 1 k theatre which re 1 ate the story of the ten Bornean datus (chiefs). The old holy

amulets made of teeth and

medals,

agnus

dei

and

bone were

scapulars

or

by

replaced

new

kinds

by of

charms be 1 i eved to have miraculous properties such as providing immunity Latin

to

prayers.

counteract and

bullets As

magic

misfortune

weapons.

It

Colorum a 1 ong

in

weapons

pre-colonial and

well

was the

bladed

spells as

uprisings with

and

times,

witchcraft,

as

to

belief

reappearance

to

during in

of

ward

are

the

and

period became

native

worn

pig to

off sickness

bullets

amulets the

of their

these

deflect

particularly that

because

metal of

the

widespread

priests

ca 11 ed

babaylan. There are still

other

folk arts

related to fiestas:

the

sweet and thin San Nicolas bread baked in finely carved wooden moulds with the image of the saint surrounded by flowering vines, the

pastillas

(soft

candy)

wrappers

of

thin

featuring cut-outs of letterings with floral

coloured

paper

and scenic designs.

Palm Sunday is the time for hundreds and hundreds of plaited palm fronds,

palaspas, entwined with colourful

to folk ingenuity in the use of materials.

flowers, which attest Not to be overlooked

are the Christmas 1 anterns which vie with one another in design

61

whether and decorative detail : flickering in tune with music.

revolving,

lighting

up

or

If ethnic art served the needs of a particular group, folk

art covers a larger area of function.

While it answers the needs

of a community, town, or region, it also fills the demands of the colonial ruling elite and the landlord class. new

religion

demanded

religious folk arts: elaborate

virinas

production

of

The Church and the a

large

variety

of

statues of saints decked in colourful and

costumes,

procession,

the

carriages for

t·o

ho 1 d

family altars.

folk craftsmen made jewellery of all

these

For the

statues social

in

elite,

kinds, clothes accessories

such as hats and canes, and furniture, often copied from European models.

Indeed,

folk

art answered the needs not only of the

folk, but also of foreign patrons with their different aesthetic standards.

Colour Scheme and Spatial Composition Folk art is related to ethnic art in the indigenous qualities evident in both popular and elitist types.

The use of bright

colours is also seen in the Moriones masks of European features, in the costumes of performers of the komedya and moro-moro, in Paste's papier mache figures of animals, birds and people, and in the popular example of the jeepney.

Even more striking is the

use of colour in food and native delicacies made of rice flour. The sweet glutinous cakes of malagkit rice are of a bright red, yellow, or green; haleya puddings are of dark violet, the colour of the ubi

root crop;

reddish-brown egg-yolk.

and

while kutsinta

popular

pan

de

(rice cakes)

limon

is

of

the

are a rich colour

of

Anatto seed colouring (atsuwuete) is frequently used

in foods such as pansit luglug and kare-kare.

Salted eggs have

she 11 s dyed a deep red and even shrimp paste ( bagoong a 1 amang) 62

has a reddish colouring.

In the San Isidro festival

of Lucban,

the facades of houses are hung with colourful kiping {glazed rice wafers)

arranged

into giant flowers,

like enormous petals.

lanterns, or set in rows

This penchant for bright colours indicates

the desire for festive spectacles and visual entertainment in a warm and happy ambience.

It is likewise indicative of a folk

openness, vigour and strength of feeling. In ethnic and folk art, there is the obvious tendency to cover

the

entire

space

with

left

free,

or

motifs

or

intentionally variety

of

generosity, and wealth.

design.

the

designs

Hardly

any

up

space

filling is

of

expressive

of

area

is

with

a

abundance,

It implies fields dense and heavy.with

rice grain, trees and orchards bursting with fruit, large hauls of fish from the sea, or even the sky aglitter with a myriad of stars.

The fertility of the soil and the sea is of primary value

to farmers and fishermen, and in Central Luzon alone, all depends on the yield of the vast, low-lying fields that stretch out of view.

This value of fertility and natural

expressed

in

folk

abundance has been

arts and era fts in a manner related to the

primitive belief that what occurs in the image will also occur in real1ty. lack,

On the other hand, space which is not filled may imply

deprivation

and

poverty,

all

negative

qualities.

This

valuation may also extend to social occasions and fiestas where the

ideal

is

to

cover

the

table

with

numerous

dishes

and

delicacies in the common folk attitude that to err in excess is a lesser sin than to fall short of social expectations. This folk treatment of space is likewise seen in the Pahiyas of Lukban, which space:

is again

another good example of the use of

kiping, rice stalks, fruits, even hats and shoes cover

entire walls

along the street where the procession will

pass.

The same is seen in the costumes of the actors of folk dramas, an important attraction of which consists in the glittering robes full

of

detail

and

covered

with 63

multicoloured

sequins

and

embroidery,

and

performance.

the

number

of

costume

changes

This treatment of space is

in

a

single

related to the value

placed on fertility and abundance in an agrarian society. not

enough,

twin

desirable:

fruits

thus,

a big

signify

good

luck,

and

One is

quantity

is

harvest, many fruits, much food, many

changes of clothing, many household utensils, even many children. For the farmer or fisherman, this abundance derives from nature which they woo with diligent labour and the fruits of which they may enjoy. With the development of a money economy and the growth of industries land-based wealth is transformed into capital.

In the

new economic context, the value placed on the numerical quantity of goods becomes easily translated complete

set

into a drive to acquire a

of household appliances while the well-to-do

buy

appliances for display in addition to those actually used in the kitchen.

Middle-class

everyday use as well soot

away

from

the

households

may

have a dining

room

for

as a dirty kitchen to keep the sweat and guests.

There

is

the common

tendency to

display rows of canned goods and bottles of spices filling the kitchen

shelves

colourful

and

drawing

packaging.

The

attention

same

concept

to

their

bright

is

displayed

in

and the

bedrooms where bottles of perfume and lotion as well as cases of various cosmetics line the tocador shelves on both sides of the mirror. display

In the living of

considered

fine too

room there are glass cabinets

chinaware,

expensive

or

bric-a-brac, too

beautiful

figurines,

for or

to

be

soiled

may

be

hung

the toys by

children's wear and tear.

The Filipino House and its Extensions Inside

the

house,

the

doors

and

windows

with

crocheted curtains; even the sofa and the rest of the furniture 64

may have head and armrests of crocheted designs. an

interesting study of Filipino values.

found

framed

holy

images

or

statues

The walls are

On these are usually

on

a

stand

with

candle

holders or blinking light bulbs, the most popular being that of the Sacred Heart or Christ the found

the

framed

diplomas

King.

Alongside these may be

of the members

of the

family

from

elementary to college, including Boy Scout or barangay awards. Then there are the family pictures both old and new, "solo" or-in groups, as well as pictures of film idols especially those who have

gone

mirror

up

from

framed

by

poverty.

an

On

assortment

the

of

same

sea

small

pictures inserted in the wooden frame.

ledge

or

on

plaster of

top

Boddhisatvas savings

in

of

the

nipa

coconut-lined beach.

obese

of

the

common

these,

there

from hut

in

the

may

or

be

with

a

more

In a corner on a

be a colourful

and

manner

Aside a

radio may

laughing

the

banks.

landscape

of

Paris,

wall

shells

Buddha

in

and surrounded by child

fields

stereotype may or

be

of

used as

a

formula

sunset

in

a

As for other paintings, the dining area may

feature a cheap version or reproduction of the ori gina 1 Leonardo da

Vinci's

relief.

Last

Supper,

which

Another popular wall

can

also

be

in

wood

or metal

decor is a woollen tapestry of a

tiger or peacock or some such colourful creature in a woodland setting.

In the bedroom, the mats may be colourful, with flowers

and vines along the border while in the centre may be a legend bearing

the

"Recuerdo",

words

"Mr.

expressive

and of

Mrs.", the

"Love

familial

and

Devotion",

sentiments

of

or the

Filipino. Close family ties are seen in the indigenous house. standard

nipa

hut,

regional

variations,

which

is

the

there are no

basic

indigenous

room partitions.

In the

house

with

There are

likewise no partitions in the Bontok or Ifugao house or in the Maranao house, such as the datu's torogan. family

all

relatives

sleep and

together

even

guests.

in one

room, often

Little 65

The members of the

value

is

including other thus

placed

on

Even in errands individualism and privacy. Filipino shuns aloneness and seeks a companion.

and

trips,

the

The qualities of the indigenous house and its use of space are also seen in public conveyance. In fact, vehicles such as the jeepney, bus, or taxi are often made into extensions of the house. It is particularly in jeeps where people are seated next to each other, face to face, with knees touching, so that one can see the closeness and gregarious nature of the Filipino. Passengers often engage in lengthy conversations regarding their personal experiences within the hearing of the others. Such close physical propinquity with strangers is not often seen in other countries. Elsewhere, because of the desire for privacy, trains are divided into compartments curtained off from the other areas. The absence of partitions in the indigenous house as well as the maximization of space in houses and vehicles may also be related to the poverty and poor living conditions of the majority of the people. Individualism and privacy cannot be primary values in a society which is basically semi-feudal and semi -colonial. Public conveyances such as jeeps, buses, taxis, even tricycles are furbished with house decor. These often sport curtains of cloth, crocheted yarn, or plastic trimmings all along their windows. The entire panel above the windshield beside the driver's mirror is treated like a miniature exhibit wall. Juxtaposed here are pictures of Christ and the Virgin, their statuettes or wooden icons adorned with red blinking lights or framed with rosaries and sampaguita lie alongside garish stickers of scantily-clad sirens. These stickers as well as the wood and plastic hangings may contain mostly humorous expressions of latter-day folk wit regarding sex, work, or life in general, or they may simply contain titles of songs, designed apparently to encourage the passengers to fantasize about their "theme songs". It is also in these public conveyances that one finds the 66

concerted use of a great variety of materia 1 s:

on the hood, a

pair or several pairs of chrome horses that link up the jeepney with

older

calesa

traditional

(horse-cart),

forms

of

plastic

transportation

trimmings

and

such

as

the

furbelows

in

all

colours, crocheted curtains for the windows, and saints of wood and plaster of Paris. The folk treatment of space is also seen in the garden or in the disposition of plants with respect to the house.

Often one

sees potted plants along the walls of the house, or they may hang from the window eaves and sills especially when there is little p1 anti ng

space.

Thus,

rows of p1 ants may 1 i ne the walls

and

windows as well as both sides of the stairs or the main door.

In

fact, the whole house may be surrounded with potted plants, and the pathway from the gate to the door may be 1 i ned with pots. The exterior of the house and the garden both imply the value placed on numerical

quantity and the multiplication of objects.

Most often then, the garden is a grouping of potted plants grown and

collected

through

the

years,

surviving hardily in one corner.

or

even

of

plants

in

cans

The concept of the garden, like

that of the interior wall of the house, is based on accumulation and multiplication of units

rather than on a unified

plan or

design.

Economic Set-up and Social Values As a matter of fact, we have a natura 1 penchant for collecting and

accumulating

things,

including

old,

worn

out

and

useless

objects, like old clothes and shoes, broken toys and dolls, empty batt 1 es and cans.

As in the use of space, the va 1 ue p1 aced on

numeri ca 1 quantity and the accumulation of goods and objects is part and parcel of the poverty economy.

We are reluctant to part

with o1d and defective objects in the hope that these can be

67

One reason for the keeping

reused or recycled in whatever form. association

emotional

objects

these

of

accumulation

and

may

they

as

relatives and friends, things pertaining to them Aside from the fact that these

are carefully kept and treasured.

Because much

past.

the

of

also

are

they

money,

hard-earned

with

bought

were

things

friends,

of

reminders

be

or

Because of the high value placed

relations or memorable events. on the family,

mementoes

sentimental

their

is

importance

emotional

is

placed on past experience and on family history, objects which serve as souvenirs or reminders are not thrown away so that the Thus the present is enriched by

past is never camp l ete l y lost. the

past and the future both converge in the

past, while the

present. The

long-term

on

placed

value

semi-feudal

a

In

relationships.

on the

based

is

objects

on

placed

value

sentimental

of

people,

particularly within the family, is of great importance.

This is

society,

what

from

different

quite

relationship

harmonious

and

close

the

obtains

industry such as the United States.

a

in

society

by

run

big

In the interest of the fast

turn-over of production, there is a rapid change of objects for use.

every year and sporting the latest in

Owning a new model

measure

the

fashion

become

current

products

are

immediately replaced.

economic

of

disposable, Industrial

power.

discarded

of

Many after

use

the and

production is speeded up, and

buying, using, discarding and replacing proceed at the same fast rate.

view

This

orientation

is

of

objects

different

from

based

on

an

our traditional

active

consumer

view of

things

based on human relations in a semi-feudal set-up. As in ethnic art, a high premium is placed on difficulty and intricacy of execution in folk art.

Sometimes the making of a

folk art can constitute a technical

puzzle or problem and the

artist's skill

is much admired.

This is seen, for instance, in

the hand-carved centrepieces of Pakil which are very finely done

68

sculptures of pineapples, trees of life, fantastic birds, or fans often held by a chain carved from a single piece of palo-china wood.

Such delicate craftsmanship is also seen in the pastillas

wrappers of San Miguel, Bulacan, made of thin coloured paper and featuring fine cut-outs of flowers, ni pa huts and other designs with words of greeting for a particular occasion.

The barong

embroidery

calado

of

open-work

Batangas

design

in

also which

features every

a

difficult

thread

is

counted.

or The

importance placed on handicraft and manual skills is still part of the land-based economy especially in the countryside, where the impact of mechanized and mass production of objects is hardly felt.

Art in the Spanish Colonial Period Colonial

art

in the Philippines emerged with colonization and

Christi ani zat ion. patron artists

of

the

and

For a 1ong period the Church was the biggest

arts;

consequently,

craftsmen

was

the

channelled

talent

into

of

our

religious

native

art.

To

practice their occupation painters, sculptors, and engravers were required

to

secure

ecclesiastical

permission

and

work

under

ecclesiastical guidance as a safeguard against the intrusion of animistic or pagan elements. The

power

people's

minds

Spaniards.

of

authority

colonial

with

town

the

became

planning

impressed

introduced

on

the

by

the

The plaza complex included the town squares flanked

on each side by major public buildings such as the cathedral or church and the town hall.

All over the archipelago buildings in

a native adaptation of ornate baroque began to spring up. residential

houses

of

stone

and

wood

secular power and economic authority. reflected the monarchical

also

became

The

symbols of

Colonial art and culture

system of Spain, and colonial art and

69

architecture

heightened

the

difference

between

the

social

classes. Manila,

being

the

seat

of the colonial

became the focus of foreign influence. application indigenous

of

Western

aesthetic

everyday 1 ife were

aesthetic

values

that

government,

also

With the introduction and concepts

long

and

standards,

constituted

a

part

of

For one thing,

there

arose the new dichotomy between "fine" and "applied" art.

Fine

art,

such

as

g radua 11 y modified.

painting

and

sculpture,

required

absorbed

contemplation and aesthetic deliberation, a form of leisure which suited the upper social classes.

On the other hand, the applied

arts were related to everyday needs and to manual work.

Because

of their aristocratic attitude which disdained art combined with function, the Spaniards had a lower regard for the applied arts. As a consequence, some arts came to be regarded as "higher" and other

arts

as

"lower"

or

secondary

--

a

view

based

on

an

aristocratic and hierarchical social system. Colonialism also brought with it the concept that the work of art

should

not only answer

present needs

address itself to future generations. qualities

considered

universal

and

but

should also

Much value was placed on eternal

rather

than

on

qualities peculiar to a social group or a people or even to a particular time. artist for

Thus, it became the aspiration of the native

to create masterpieces

all

time,

beyond

his

which would address own

country

and

all

people

contemporaneous

realities. Such a view of art is rooted in classical philosophy which lays stress on the ideal and the unchanging absolute.

This is at

variance with the indigenous view of art which is rooted in the daily needs of the community.

What is important for the ethnic

or folk artist is that art be a continuous activity, an unbroken exercise and expression of artistic creativity rather than the

70

making of individual and unique masterpieces.

For indigenous art

is not an isolated or occasional thing but a process, indeed, a living stream related to life and social needs.

New Forms of Artistic Expression Colonization also brought over new forms of artistic creation. Among these was the new medium of easel canvas

and

Painting,

with

and

the

figurative arts

in

and

painting using oil

narrative

general,

subject

became

vehicles

religious propaganda of the Spanish missionaries.

on

matter. for

the

Religious art,

the image of the saints in painting and sculpture, could reach the large masses of the population and win them to the new fatih. For the public images, the friars imported or brought copies and models for painting, engraving, and sculpture from Europe. Painting in the Philippines, however, flourished only in the middle of the nineteenth century. the country to

world trade.

This period saw the opening of

As a result,

the

landlord class

gained in wealth because of export crops paid in cash, while the peasant

class

imposed

by

became

more

new conditions.

impoverished Another

because

factor

of

pressures

of change was the

opening of the Suez Can a 1 in 1869 which shortened the distance between Spain soon

began

and

the

Philippines.

Ilustrado

(elite)

families

sending their sons to Europe where these gentlemen

savoured the fullness of Western culture and received exposure to progressive

socio-political

thought,

a

product

of

the

French

Revolution and the Industrial Revolution in England. It

was,

indeed, the

ilustrado class which

benefited most

from the economic progress of the mid-nineteenth century.

The

ilustrado

the

were

the

first

Filipinos

to

gain

entrance

in

colleges of Manila which were originally open only to Spaniards. 71

They spent a number of years in major European cities where their outlook and philosophy were reshaped according to Western modes until

they desired to share and possess this culture which set

their

criteria

in

life

and

art.

A number

of

them

became

propagandists who worked for reforms within the co 1 on i a 1 system seeking

to

free

themselves

from

colonial

oppression

and

discrimination, to safeguard their class interests and to bind political power with their economic power. The infatuation with Western culture was manifested in the lifestyle of the ilustrado class. from

cash crops,

they

With their considerable income

imported furniture

and

precious crystal

from Europe to furnish their mansions of wood and stone.

They,

too, emerged as patrons of the arts, as they began to commission paintings, well

as

demand.

at

first

sculpture,

religious was

and then

invigorated

as

secular.

Painting, as

a

of

result

ilustrado

Likewise, in Europe, patronage of the arts was shifting

from the Church to the

large middle class, in

recognition of

which fact, the Spanish King Charles III relaxed the ruling on ecclesiastical permission and freed the artists from the bends of the Church in 1785. secular

forms

From then on, art in the colonies developed

such as

portraits, landscapes, and

still

lifes.

The artist sought and found his new c 1 i ents in the 1 andl ords and merchants.

It was then in painting and the other arts that the

values of the elite class found expression. Because of the need of the il ustrado class for symbols of their privileged position, painting became a visual document of their class. of

formal

The portraitists of the period turned out a gallery and

unsmiling

faces,

conscious

of

their

social

position, but more than this was the painstaking attention paid to the costumes rich in exquisite embroidery on the large sleeves and on

the neck piece,

to the fetching designs on the si 1 k or

satin skirts, or to the handsome military uniforms of men.

At

times, the richly-dressed daughter of the house would pose her 72

fingers on the ivory keys of a piano, as in a painting of Melantic. Or she might devoutly hold a prayer book with hands bejewelled on every finger, as in one of Justiniano Asuncion. The interests of the client demanded of the painter a meticulous care in the rendering of the deta i 1 s of costume and design, as well as a sensitiveness to textures -- the thin and transparent ~veiling the finely moulded arms, or the thick glossy fall of choice silk-- a literal verisimilitude made the principal criterion of the artist's talent. A larger number of portraits of women subjects than of men were painted, for the lady or daughter of the house was showered with all kinds of luxury because of her role as image and symbol of social status. In fact, these paintings do manifest the values placed by the ilustrados of the period on material property and objects equated with economic power. Feudal values were g1v1ng way to mercantilist values, although the new wealth was still derived from land ownership.

Luna and Hidalgo The political

orientation of the ilustrados and their position

with respect to the colonial set-up is seen in the paintings of Juan Luna and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, Filipino expatriate artists in Europe peripherally associated with the propagandists. In the Madrid Exposition of 1884, Luna's Spoliarium won a gold meda 1 , and Hi da 1 go's Vi rgenes Christi an as Expuestas a 1 Popul acho won a silver meda 1 • The subject of their paints was drawn from classical Roman antiquity, depicting the period of the Roman persecution of the Christians. In fact these images of oppression were an allegory of the injustices within the Spanish colonial system. Yet, what the propagandists strove for were reforms within the system and the change of the status of the country from a colony to a province of Spain in which they would enjoy equal rights with the Spaniards. 73

Compact

Legaspi and Sikatuna.

treaty

the

represents

which

between

friendship

of

Blood

Luna's

in

seen

point of view is also

The colonial

What strikes the viewer in this painting,

however, is the stress the artist places on the superior power While Legaspi is shown full-face

and strength of the Spaniards. raising

and

soldiers

cup

the

under

of

friendship

flag

the

surrounded

Spain,

of

Si kat una

by

friars

and

his

back

has

Thus,

completely turned as if without any supporting company.

the painting does not give an equal and balanced representation of the two parties, an indication of the colonial orientation of the artist. Espana y Filipinas or

painting

This is also true of the Spain

Here,

Leading the Philippines on the Path of Progress.

woman garbed in a classical gown

Spain is represented as a tall

Madre

and friar figure in blue.

who guides Filipinas, a small

Espana points to the sun rising in the east while they walk up the marble steps strewn with roses. The

expatriate

other

Felix

artist,

Resurreccion

Hidalgo

painted in the same period of the Propaganda Movement a 1 arge having as Estado, canvas entitled La 19lesia Contra el subject

the Bustamante y

the

of assasination Bustillo by the

friars

Governor in

Genera 1

Manuel

This

subject

1719.

re 1 a ted to the anti-c 1 eri ca 1 sentiments of the propagandists who demanded the expul sian of the friars and the secularization of parishes.

Except

for

this

canvas,

Hidalgo

largely

remained

outside the political movements of his time; most of his works were idyllic landscapes far from the conflict and social change in his native country. he

celebrated

the

In Per Pacem et Li bertatem done in 1902,

acceptance

of

the

Philippines

of

the

new

American colonial regime even while armed resistance continued in the countryside.

74

Art during the American Regime

The .American col on i a1 era saw a new patronage of the arts in the many .Americans who came over to explore the new colony. They had an eye for "orienta 1 exoticism" , tropi ca 1 scenes, picturesque nipa huts, ricefields, carabaos (water buffaloes), and colourful peasants who would grace many postcards and calendars. The artist who amply responded to the expectations of the new patrons was Fernando Amorsolo whose career reached its peak in the Commonwealth Period. From his studio issued hundreds of paintings of sun-drenched ricefields and "pretty" peasants. The new virgin of art was the maiden working in the fields, carrying fruits in a basket, cooking rice over a fire, or bathing in a stream, her delicate complexion unmarred by the sun and the weather. These images perpetuated feud a1 va 1ues such as coyness and submissiveness in women. Charming indeed are such rural idylls but how remote from the rea 1i ty of wide spread agrarian discontent. It was also during the .American Regime that the Rizal call was deliberately fostered by the new colonialists. The spirit of Rizal the reformist was more in tune with the ambitions and desires of American colonialism than the incendiary and subversive inclinations of Andres Bonifacio. When Guillermo Tolentino, the outstanding sculptor of the period, was commissioned to do the Bonifacio movement in Calorcan, he executed it in such a way that there was hardly a tree 1eft for dynamism and force of the revolutionary patriot.

The Rise of Modernism

Modernism in art gradually reached Philippine shores from Europe and the United States. The first painters who espoused and 75

introduced the Carlos

new art were Vi ctori o Edades, Ga 1 o Ocampo, and

Francisco,

Vicente 1946,

followed

Manansa 1 a, the

Cesar

United

by

Diosdado

Legaspi ,

States

and

Lorenzo, Anita

"granted"

fact,

public

the

American

education

colonial

which

regime

supported

its

Ocampo,

Magsaysay-Ho.

independence

Philippines, though colonialism persisted In

H.R.

In

to

the

in a disguised form. had

given

political

priority to and

economic

interests.

The period saw the cream of Filipine students sent to -ehe United States as pension ados or scho 1 ars who 1ater occupied high positions in education and government. It was national to

the

in the decade of the fifties that the prob 1 em of

identity, raised by a number of cultural writers, came fore.

Many

painters

and

artists

develop our own culture and art.

tried

drawing images from the familiar environment. to

more

paintings

cockfights still

of

nipa

in the

huts

romantic

to

They saw the and

to

This, however, led

ricefields,

rural

respond

importance of carabaos

and

genre of Amorsolo.

In

time, these subjects, which constituted a simplistic approach to the

problem,

became

familiar

stereotyped

pub 1i c

artists and the outworn

and

lifeless

formulas.

The

came to rea 1 i ze that the use of these

motifs

contributed

little

or

nothing

to

the

shaping of our national art and culture. With

the

Second

World

War came widespread

and

grievious

misery and economic strife in both countryside and city.

Many

peop 1e 1ost their homes and their 1 i ve 1 i hood and became beggars and vagrants. In these difficult times, the social consciousness of artists was awakened and they turned out canvases of social import. thorns

Galo Ocampo did a series of Christ figures crowned with and

aircraft.

besieged

from

overhead

with

bombs

and

flaming

Of this period, too, Manansala's Madonna of the Slums

with its image of poor mother and child in a background of gray lean-tos Even

H.R.

stood

out

Ocampo,

as

a

later

statement of the known 76

for

his

Filipino condition. abstracts,

also

did

paintings of impoverished beggars and workers where he contrasted slums

with

high-rise

buildings

and

where

he

protested

the

conditions of the worker as exploited and exposed to the hazards of industrial

pollution.

paintings, which,

This was the period of barong-barong*

as one moved away from the war years,

lost

their social meaning and became purely decorative compositions. A successful use of Filipino themes and materials is seen in the work of Carlos historical

Francisco, an Angono painter.

An assiduous

researcher, he drew his themes from native folktales

and legends, from the ancient pre-colonial past, from episodes of history, and from the daily life of farmers and fishermen. paintings

and

his

historical

mural

done

for

the

The

Maharnilad

celebrate indigenous valour and beauty, as that of Raja Seliman and

the

qualities

legendary of

Maria

indigenous

Makiling. art

such

In

as

his

the

works

are

seen

predominance of the

curvilinear line and of bright, warm colours, expressive of the exuberance of the native temperament. Meanwhile,

the

influence

of

modernism

and

the

new

art

continue to be felt -- styles such as surrealism, cubism and the abstract idioms.

The influence of these European styles can be

seen in the works of our artists, but these have been modified to suit

the

Filipino

sensibility.

The

cubism of

Manansala,

for

instance, does no violence to the subject of human figures and objects, unlike in the works of Braque and Picasso who dissected and

fragmented

their

figures.

In

the

Filipino

artist

is

a

reluctance to break up the human figure, perhaps out of feelings of reverence, especially for the face which is not made to suffer the

artist's

analytical

dissection.

In

Manansala,

too,

is

the indigenous use of space as it is filled up with a variety of closely interrelated forms.

*Make-shift shacks where painters worked.

77

In abstract painting, colour often becomes expressive of feeling as Filipino painters are acutely sensitive to the emotional expressiveness of colour. This is seen in many of the works of Cesar Legaspi where his reds, oranges, and greens seem to exude a rich fragrance. It is likewise seen in Joya's abstracts where deep blues, cool greens, and warm reds and yellows drawn from the hues of nature express a wide range of feeling. This use of colour is also true of Nena Saguil as well as of younger painters. As the painter approaches the latest modernist trends in the West, the emotional valuation of colour is gradually replaced by the objective and scientific approach to it. In geometric abstraction, the Filipino painter often cultivates the values of neatness and precision. Except for the influence of abstract expressionism in the decade of the fifties, he avoids diffuseness and eruptive spontaneity in favour of circumspect and disciplined form, expressive of his care in interpersonal relationships in which he rarely adopts a hurting, threatening, or startling posture. At present some artists persist in the tradition of nostalgia and rura 1 romanticism. There are some who borrow the Western theme of alienation and solitariness, or the theme of man 1ost in the vastness of his environment. But these themes do not jibe with our native consciousness. The experience of nature for the indigenous Filipino is based on an intimacy with his surroundings with which he closely interacts. And the 1i fe of peasants in the countryside has no place for solitariness but is marked by the bayanihan spirit of co-operation. In the shaping of the Filipino spirit in the arts, some artists turn to hi story to shed light on the present and prepare for the future. An increasing number of artists who seek to integrate indigenous and Asian motifs and aesthetics into the 78

modern idioms. with the

There have also been young artists who have dealt

life and

art of the minorities.

All

these efforts

canst i tute recent and laudable trends in contemporary Philippine art. More and more painters and scul pta rs have come to realize the relation of commercialism to elitism.

At the present, the

artist works only for the small sector of the social elite.

In

order

to

to

remedy

this

situation

and

make

everyone, there are a number of pass i bil it i es.

art

available

One would be to

hold art exhibits in open public places such as plazas, parks, and churches, as well as to hold art caravans over the country. Moreover,

artists

need not to confine themselves to works on

canvas, but could rather explore other media which could reach a larger

number

of

people,

such

as

print-making,

stencilling,

comics and cartoons. By going against the currents of commercialism and elitism, the artists will move towards creating an art available to all and sensitive to the aspirations of the Filipino, an art born of the life, loves, struggles and sufferings of the people. art

will

finally

be

restored

to

all

who

will

Then

share

participate in the making of a truly meaningful Philippine art.

79

and

REFERENCE

F.

Landa

Jocano,

EnterprIses,

ed.

The

Phi I i pp I nes

I 97 5.

00

at

the

SpanIsh

Contact.

Man I I a:

MCS

AN APPRECIATION OF THE FILIPINO PHILOSOPHICAL OUTLOOK THROUGH FILIPINO POPULAR LYRICS*

ELEANOR T. ELEQUIN

This paper attempts to generate some insights into the Filipino philosophy or world-view drawing on the lyrics of Filipino popular music. It is not concerned with giving a historical account of Filipino music, though such an undertaking would be of great value, but with looking at it as an expression of the Filipino philosophical outlook. For example, these lines taken from a popular song are an apt description of how we, Filipinos, perceive 1ife in genera 1 : Mahiwaga ang buhay ng tao Ang bukas ay di natin piho At manalig lagi sana tayo Ang Diyos, siyang pag-asa ng mundo

(Mysterious is the life of man Tomorrow is uncertain Let us always have faith In God, the hope of the world} From:

*Trans I a ted

from

Mahiwaga (Mysterious), A. Torres and M.P. Villar

F i I i pi no

by

Josef i no

Psychology, University of the Philippines.

81

A.

Raga I ado

of

the

Department

of

Well

acclaimed among

people from all

walks of life,

from the

lowest to the highest strata of society, this song can be heard coming

from jukeboxes

five-star

hotels

of

in cheap Roxas

restaurants as well

Boulevard,

sung

by

as

famous

in the Filipino

entertainers for an audience of tourists or moneyed compatriots. In

other

words,

the

song

Mahiwaga

caters

to

the

general

sensibilities of the Filipinos. The value and significance of exam1 n 1 ng a song as a way by which we can take a closer look at Filipino philosophy has been observed in the analyses of several scholars.

According to E.

Thayer Gaston [1968], a song is a medium through which people can express

their

emotions.

Man's

music

thoughts, aspirations, and beliefs.

reflects

his

deepest

From the very content of his

music can be gleaned the rationale for his manifest behaviour. Similarly, to Curt Sachs: man.

the story of music is the story of

Thus, a better understanding of man can be inferred from

the meaning of his music.

The foregoing statements underlie the

evolving interest in ascertaining what aspects of man's thoughts and actions can be transformed into the musical dimension. What is the re l at i onshi p between the Filipino song and the philosophy and behaviour of Filipinos?

While this may seem an

interesting topic worthy of discussion among those involved in the relevant scholarly disciplines, its wider relevance to the understanding of the motives and aspirations underlying the daily lives of Filipinos should not be denied. our concept of Filipino music?

But, firstly, what is

Relatedly, do we really have an

indigenous Filipino music? In reply to these questions opinions

of

two

scholars

of

I would like to refer to the

Filipino

music.

Felipe de

Leon

commented that there are some who believe that Filipino music is a result of the historical contact and synthesis of eastern and western music.

With the passage of time, it is argued, foreign

82

musical influences have been adapted and incorporated in what was and is Filipino.

In other words, Filipino music can be likened

to what is otherwise known as the mestizo Filipino race. Pfeiffer gave a simple but different view on Filipino music. According

to

elements

unique

him,

temperament,

Filipino music and

that

attuned

which

is that which the

to

clearly

possesses the

Filipino

expresses

his

taste

and

thoughts

and

feelings, virtually a part of his psychology and personality. He also added that there really exists an indigenous Filipino music -- the music of our forefathers -- which shapes our attitudes, sentiments, beliefs, values and traditions. Undoubtedly

it

can

permeated by foreign particular.

be

said

that

influences

our

customs

have

been

the American and Spanish in

Nonethe 1es s, we can be proud to say we have our own

identity -- one which existed prior to the Spanish colonization. As

can

valued

still

be observed,

aspects

example.

At

of

the

this

even at

Filipino

point,

it

present,

heritage

would

seem

we

still

cherish

like

the

family

for

that

the

problem

is

actually that of having a system of understanding the thought processes, feelings, beliefs and values of Filipinos and, consequently, the articulation of these in Filipino music. It

is

quite

aforementioned Filipino

music.

materials

from

difficult

statements To

to

best

quote

determine

explains

Pfeiffer:

researchers to

the "There

which true is

not

authoritatively explain

music, its meaning and its entirety".

of

meaning

the of

enough Filipino

Based on this, we could

very well say that this insufficiency of data on Filipino music, specifically the popular song, is a significant setback to the cause of research in this area. It is the observation of the scholars mentioned that have prompted this effort of taking a closer look at Filipino music,

83

especially difficult

popular

contemporary

to contend that

song.

the

It

latter

is

would

not

be

truly

rather

Filipino,

particularly those composed by Filipinos themselves.

That such

compositions

does

show

traces

of

foreign

influence

not

necessarily mean they are not Filipino but, rather, that they are reflective of accepted

present

that

Filipino thinking.

such

influences

at

It

the

also

has

present

to be

time

are

unavoidable, being a consequence of modern communication.

Comments on the Lyrics of Selected Filipino Popular Songs In spite of the dearth of materials, I have attempted to analyse the

lyrics

philosophical specific

of

a

selection

content.

aspect

of

of

have

our

music

Filipino

songs

concentrated which

to

for

primarily

popular

their on

belief

a is

representative of the kind of music which appeals to the greater majority of the pub 1 i c -- Fi 1 i pi no contemporary song, which I further

categorize

as

popular

song.

will

now

present

a

selection of some Filipino songs which I collected and analysed closely. In

analysing

philosophy of

the

lyrics,

life clearly

musical compositions.

the

emerged

Filipino

between

the

concepts

and

lines of the

It can be said, as a generalization, that

these concepts represent the philosophy and goals of the greater majority for whom the compositions cater.

What then are these

concepts? Incorporated in the themes of the songs are the Filipinos' view of the meaning of life, fate, love, joy, and suffering. song

Mahiwaga

predetermined

quoted fate.

earlier, What

expressed

transpires

on

the

belief

earth

manipulation of a powerful Supreme Being or Force.

84

is

in

The man's

due to the

Even love is ascertained by fate, according to Filipino belief: Kaya't tayo'y magpasalamat sa ating kapalaran Nasa atin ang kaganapang hinahanap Ng bawa't Nilalang na may puso rin

(So let's be grateful for our fate Ahead is a fulfilled tomorrow Sought by everyone ••• ) From:

May Minamahal (In Love), W. Cruz

Dahil sa iyo Nang maitadhanang ako'y isilang sa mundo Upang sa araw-araw ay siyang makapilang mo

(Because of you Destiny brought me into this world That we may, forever, be together) From:

Ngayon at Kailanman (Now and Forever), G. Canseco

That fate also determines one's social and economic status, is another belief: Bakit ba ganyan ang buhay ng tao Mayro'ong mayaman May api sa mundo ••• Kapalaran kung hanapin Di matagpuan At kung minsa'y lumalapit Nang'di mo alam ••• 85

(Why is the 1ife of man so Some are rich Some are oppressed Destiny, when searched for Is nowhere to be found And sometimes, just comes Without notice ••• ) From:

Kapalaran (Destiny), 0. Ilacad E. de la Pena

Through music a Filipino expresses his values and goals -the high regard for the family, the care of parents for their children and vice versa is the norm: Nang isilang ka sa mundong ito Laking tuwa ng •agulang .a At ang ka.ay nila ang iyong ilaw

000

(When you were born into this world Your parents rejoiced greatly~ And their hands became your light ••• ) From:

Anak (Child), Freddie Aguilar

The high value placed on education is so because it has become the basis of social status, it seems: Ako'y isang anak •ahirap Sa akin ay walang tumatanggap Mababa raw ang aking pinag-aralan Grade one lang ang tinapos ko No read, no write pa ako Paano na ngayon ang buhay ko? 000

86

(I am a poor man's son ••• Nobody accepts me For I am of a low education I reached only first grade I can't read nor write How then can I go about life?) From:

Dukha (Poor), Judas

The sublime aspiration to achieve national identity has been expressed thus: Ako'y Pinoy Ako'y Ako'y

isang Pinoy sa puso't diwa na isinilang sa ating bansa hindi sanay sa wikang mga banyaga Pinoy na mayroong sariling wika

(I am a Filipino in heart and spirit Born a Filipino into our nation am not skilled in foreign tongues I am a Filipino of my own ••• ) From:

Pinoy (Filipino), Florante de Leon

An oft-expressed value beliefs:

is that placed on traditions and

At bakit nangyayari ito Nagkalayo-layo na tayo Ibalik natin ang dating pagtitinginan ••• Pagmamahal sa Diyos ang dapat Nang itanghal Pa~a.ahal sa kapwa at sarili

87

(And why has this happened We have parted Let's put back the lost intimacy Let's proclaim the love of God The love of kapwa and self.) From:

Magkaibigan tayo (Friends, You and I), M. Hanopel

And, of course, a Filipino's underlying doubts, fears and conscience are also philosophically treated: Lahat tayo•y naglalakbay Aking nakikita Saan tayo tutungo Saan tayo pupunta Hanggang saan aabot Ang ating paghinga •••

(We are all on a pilgrimage I can see Where are we going Where to ••• To where Are we to live ••• ) From:

Ihip ng Hangin (Wisp of the Wind), H. Bartolome

Masdan n yo ang ating paligid Alcala mo•y walang ligalig May saya at mayroong awit Ngunit may namimilipit At siya•y humihibik ••• 88

(Look around us Peace is apparent There is joy and there are songs But there are some who suffer and plead) From:

Oy Utol (Hey Brother), H. Bartolome

Laban sa kalooban ko man Ako'y handang-handang lumaban Para sa ating kalayaan Ngunit bakit hindi ko maintindihan Magkapwa-tao'y naglalaban ••• (Though my conscience disagrees I am ready to do battle For the cause of our freedom But why can't I understand A struggle amongst kapwa ••• ) From:

Digmaan (War), Florante de Leon

From popular

the songs

philosophy.

foregoing,

it

incorporate

some

be

seen

central

that

the

aspects

lyrics

of

of

Filipino

In the succeeding analysis, I would like to give a

commentary of the changing music

can

bearing

in

mind

that

trend it

I is

have observed necessarily

in

Fi 1 i pi no

preliminary

in

nature due to the insufficiency of materials to substantiate a more rigorous explanation.

The Changing Themes of Filipino Popular Music Filipino popular music can be readily classified into two types:

89

the realistic and the romantic.

Traces of these are incorporated

not only in the lyrics of the songs, but also in the rhythm and melody, so influencing their organization medium and texture, and other artistic elements.

(The latter mentioned elements are not

within the scope of this study which deals only with the lyrical content.

It is hoped that future research will clarify and focus and equally relevant-- elements of music.)

on the other

Popular music of the sixties and seventies was characterized by derivations from American melody and copied in their compositions.

rhythm which Filipinos

Some of these songs still survive,

like Di Magmamaliw (Never to Fade) which is set to the melody of Evergreen by Paul Williams and Barbara Streisand.

There are also

some Filipino compositions whose form is patterned on that of foreign music, for example, jazz, rock and roll, or country and western music. The themes of the musical pieces of that era show no attempt to deviate from those of foreign music and romanticism.

Musical

performers like Nora Aunor, Vilma Santos, Tirso Cruz III and now, Rico Puno, Hajji Alejandro, Basil Valdez and others exemplify the vogue

of that

expressed

in

period. their

From

music,

a

an

analysis

seeming

direction in thought can be inferred.

of the

confusion

or

philosophies absence of

It would seem that, not

knowing how to re 1 ate to what was rea 1 i ty, we ran away from it. Nora

Aunor

became

Filipino, who,

a success

for

she symbolized the perplexed

at a loss to confront the meaning in life and

events, sang songs that made him forget and thus provided him a diversion. or

having

It was easier to indulge in fantasies about happiness the

luxuries

in

life

than

to

discover the true form and flow of life. tools

which

were

easily

accessible

for

observe,

search

and

We readily utilized this

spoon-fed with imitations of foreign culture.

purpose,

being

Our isolation and

sufferings were given catharses in the laughter generated by the gestures of Rico Puno, the sad stories of dejected lovers in the

90

songs of Ti rso Cruz

I I I, Basil

Va 1 dez, and the 1 ike.

Through

fantasies, what we envisioned to be the natural flow of life were made real. However, to my mind, we are closing in on the discovery of ourselves. confront

Contemporary reality,

to

lyrics,

give

show

direction

aspirations and beliefs expressed.

an to

honest the

flow

effort of

to

ideas,

The Filipino is beginning to

"see" himself and assess the natural endowments of his person. Contemporary music expresses more clearly and obviously the Filipino

philosophy,

viewing life.

showing

a

greater

sense

of

realism

in

Consider the analysis of day-to-day activities in

Pasahero:

•pasahero• Kay hirap ng buhay Punung-puno sa bus, tila sardinas ••• kakaway-kaway, di makasakay ("Passenger" Life is so difficult The bus is packed like sardines making gestures and still without a ride) From:

Pasahero (Passenger), H. Bartolome

Or consider the awakening perceptions of real needs and problems in Awit sa Magulang and Buhay Pinoy:

Mga magulang Maadan ninyo ang mga bata Gutom sila araw-araw Di niyo ba nakikita 91

Sila'y mga bubad Mga payat at may sakit Humihingi ng paglingap Nguni't kapos ang daigdig

(Parents Look at your children They are hungry everyday Can't you see They are thin and ill Begging for care But the world is wanting) From:

Awit sa Magulang (A Song to Parents), H. Bartolome

Tingnan ninyo sa bangketa, pulubi ay naghilera Mga kamay laging nakasahod, doon sila natutulog Ako'y .ayroong kaibigan, siya'y hindi nakapag-aral At dahil sa kanyang kahirapan, siya'y napilitang magnakaw

(Look at the beggars on the sidewalk There they sleep, and beg with palms outstretched I have a friend who did not go to school And because of poverty, was driven to steal) From:

Buhay Pinoy (Filipino Life), H. Bartolome

Both these songs, according to Sison, consider overpopulation as the source of poverty, but, he goes on to question: But is this the case? Is overpopulation the real cause of poverty? I don't think so. There may be a 1ot of 92

people,

but

if

the

wealth

poverty won't be a problem.

is

equally

distributed,

Overpopulation is simply a

concurrent excuse to cover up for the real cause of the situation which is the exploitation of the Filipinos by the ruling class. Despite this limitation, the song Buhay Pinoy sends a message

which

Magulang.

is

relevant,

compared

to

Awit

sa

This is because Buhay Pinoy poses questions

1 ike:

Ganyan ba talaga ang buhay Pinoy? Ganyan be talaga tayo sa habang panahon? Problema'y dumarami, sana'y isipin niyo Sana'y 1s1p1n niyo na mayroong pag-asa Isipin niyo, isipin niyo (Is Pinoy life really like this? Shall we remain this way forever? The problems of life are increasing I hope you think this over There is still hope Think it over, think it over) Aside

from

throwing

"thought-provoking"

questions

to

the

audience,

it

also

provides an optimistic attitude towards the

problem.

It also

implies that there is a deeper side to the

dilemma (in the last few lines of the song), thus, suggesting that we should think things over more closely. The massive migration of Filipinos to other countries tackled in the song Pinay:

Dapat ka bang mangibang-bayan? Dito ba'y Mala kang paglagyan? 93

is

(Do you have to leave the country? Don't you have a place there?) From:

Pinay (Philippine Woman), Florante de Leon

The song Nena is about the plight of Nena, a poor girl forced into prostitution: Ang nanay niya•y ummiyak, ang tata•y niya•y patay Naipit ng makina doon sa pabrika Sinikap ng kanyang nanay na sila ay mabuhay Sa paglalaba ay tumulong siya

(Her mother was crying, in anguish over the death of her father Who died while operating the machines in the factory The mother tried her best so that they will survive In helping her with the washing, Nena had to leave school) From:

Nena, Bartolome and Banyuhay

Due to the hardships that the family encounters, Nena then has to earn a living: Bago dumilim si Nena•y uma1is Laging nana make-up, maigsi ang damit Bukas na ng umaga ang kanyang balik Ayaw ni Nena ngunit siya•y nagigipit

(Before dark, Nena leaves the house 94

Her face always with make-up, her dress very short It would be morning when she comes back This is not what she wants, but she has to) From:

Nena

Sison gives his analysis: The

lowly state

in

without rea son. labourers blame. to

the

like

which

Nena

finds

herself is not

The factory owners (who exp 1oi t their the

case

of

Nena's

father),

are

to

When Nena's father died, no damages were given bereaved

unreasonable.

family.

The

labour

practices

are

The only solution to this is to fight

imperialism, the root of all this exploitation of our labourers.

Because of imperialism, only a few enjoy

the wealth created by the "productive force"

of the

country.

general

The

case

of

Nena

exemplified

labour policy in the Philippines:

the

if you don't have a

high educational attainment, a good job is not for you. Prostitution is a product of the oppressive system of our

society

where

exploitation

is

prevalent.

The

economic nature and cause of the problem is obvious. An analysis by Sison of the song Saranggol a ni Pepe (Pepe' s Kite) by Nonoy Gallardo is imaginative and interesting:

Matayog ang lipad ng saranggola ni Pepe Matayog ang pangarap ng matandang bingi Umihip ng hangin, nawala sa paningin. Sigaw ng kahapon, nilamon ng alon (Pepe's kite soared in the sky As high as the old and deaf man's dreams The wind blew, the eyes lost sight of them 95

The echoes of yesterday, swallowed up by The waves in the ocean) In this song, Pepe represents the Filipino who has high hopes for the motherland. But everything changed (the wind blew, the eyes lost sight of them ••• ) when the foreigners took over the Philippines. Our native culture faded from the scene because they gave us a foreign culture. Malabo ang tunog ng kampanilya ni Padre Maingay ang taginting, rosaryo ng babae

(The sound of the Padre's Church bells can faintly be heard from A distance but the sound of women Saying the rosary is loud and noisy) The first colonizers of the Philippine shore were the Spaniards (symbolized by the Padre). Christianity was used as a tool to bring the Filipinos under their control. The taginting (tinkling), kampanilya (church bells) and rosaryo (rosary) led us to oppression by the Spaniards. Hinuli ang ibon, pinagsuot ng pantalon Tinali ang pisi, hindi na nagsinturon Dumaan ang jeepney at gumuhit pa Sa kalye. Mauling ang iniwan, Hindi na tinabi

(He caught the bird, made it wear trousers Used a string and no belt to hold it Together. The jeepney passed by and Lined the streets, left some dirt Behind, didn't even have the sense to Push it aside) 96

The Filipinos passed from the hands of the Spaniards to those of the Americans. The Americans gave us civilization (so they say), taught us how to dress up decently (so they say, as symbolized by the trousers), but instead of a belt, what was simply used was a string, which means that the Filipinos were fooled and deceived, exploited and brought away from their native culture. Here, we also witness the mis-education of the Filipinos. Lastly, the jeepney also represents the United States si nee the spare parts are imported from the United States. Pinilit uma.nt, ang naglaro'y isang ingit Lumuha ang langit, ang mundo'y manliit Kumakaway sa bakod ang anghel na nakatanod Sumusuway sa utos, puso'y sinusunod

(He tried to sing, but what came out Was a grunt, so heavens wept, the world Felt small. The angel in watch waved From the fence going against the rule He followed his heart) There were attempts to unite and fight this type of neocolonialism. Although there are collaborators and followers, they did not give in so easily. Instead, they defied the orders of the authorities to win their freedom. These are only a selection from the many contemporary songs which expresses the prevailing Filipino outlook in life. If we organize the concepts embodied in the songs, articulations of Filipino thought emerge clearly. By way of conclusion, three important questions posed by Sison may be useful in directing discussion in this area: Is Filipino music a reflection of Filipino culture and society? Does it answer an existing need and, if so, what is that need? 97

Does it respond to the needs of the majority? the

discussion

of

Filipino

popular lyrics

It is hoped that

introduced

in

this

article will suggest a research pattern for the study of Filipino philosophy through music and serve to draw the attention of researchers to some of the elements of contemporary song which, I believe, can effectively elucidate how Filipinos view and interpret life.

98

REFEREN:ES

de Leon, Felipe, "Poetry, Music and Social Consciousness", Vol 17, No 2 (1973), Gaston, E, Thayer,

Music In Therapy.

New York:

Philippine Studies,

MacMillan Book Co,, 1968,

Maim, William P, Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near Asia, Prentice Hall, 1967,

New Jersey:

Pfeiffer, WII I lam, Music in the Phi I ippines, Indigenous, Folk, Modern: Introductory Survey, Dumaguete City: Sll I iman University, 1975, Rodriguez, Ces, ed, Jingle Chordbook Magazine, Jingle Clan Publications Corp,, 1976, Jingle Chordbook Magazine, Publications Corp,, 1976, Jingle Song Hits Publications Corp,, 1977,

Chapter XXIII,

Chapter XXVI II,

Magazine,

No

Quezon City:

Quezon City:

Quezon

23,

An

City:

Jingle Clan

Jingle

Clan

Romantic Song Movie Magazine, Vol VI, No 12, Sachs, Curt,

The Wellspring of Music,

New York:

McGraw-HI I I Book Co,, 1965,

Scheider, E,H, and R,D, Sedorls, Current Issues in Music Education: A Symposium for College Teachers of Music Education, the Ohio State University. 1967, SIson B, "The ReI evance and I rre I evance of PI noy Rock and Rhythm", Collegian, University of the Philippines, 26 March 1979,

99

Ph I I I pp I ne

FROM THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION, 1896 TO MILITARY RULE, 1972: THE CHANGING WORLD-VIEW IN THE FILIPINO SHORT STORY*

PATRICIA M. MELENDREZ-CRUZ

A literary work has its own character, its own life and truth. At the same time, it is a social creation and, therefore, historical in character. This is true because a literary work is the creation of a particular writer in a particular society, time, and culture. A literary work embodies the writer's world-view which in turn reflects that of the class he represents or the one prevalent in the society. Because of his heightened sensibility, the writer is able to voice either the feelings, principles, beliefs, and aspirations of the class to which he belongs or those which are more widely accepted in society. Further, the writer's world view does not only dictate the subject matter, it also gives form meaning and value to his art. This paper will attempt to identify the socio-political philosophies of writers at different times in history through an analysis of their short stories. It wi 11 also situate these works in the historical contexts giving rise to the specific philosophy of the writer and his society. Based on the philosophies expressed by the writer, he will be assessed either as a supporter of the existing order or a catalyst of social change.

*Translated from Filipino by Beatrice Jacinto, Department Comparative Literature, University of the Philippines.

100

of

English

and

The Inception of American Colonization and the Development of the Filipino Short Story: The Pre-War Period Spanish colonialism

gave birth to

Filipino nationalism -- the

awareness among Filipinos that they are the on 1y ones who caul d free

themselves

colonizers.

from

The

their

bondage

contradictions

by

in

fighting

the

against their

society

Revolution for Philippine independence in 1896.

led

to

the

It was then that

the United States entered the scene in support of the Filipino revolutionaries

against

the

Spanish

colonizers,

purportedly

because of the former's democratic tradition and, supposedly, to help the

Filipinos win their independence.

At this time, the

United States had already begun their intervention in Cuba. Not

long

Philippines

after,

surfaced

Philippine-American

however, when

the

its

United

1899 in

War of

colonial

an

aims

States

on

the

ignited

the

attempt to justify her

conquest of the country.

It did not take 1 ong before the fervour

of

was

Filipino

nationalism

military prowess turned

its

subdued,

not because of

American

but because the ruling F·ilipino middle class

back

on

the

revolutionary

government.

The

intelligentsia saw an opportunity to perpetuate itself under the new colonial

order

through

the

pacification

campaign

and the

benevolent assimilationist policy. The

new

colonizers

learned

from

the

mistakes

refused to

of

their

predecessors.

While the Spaniards had

provide the

Filipinos with

schools and share with them their language and

culture, which the Americans, because of their "generous hearts", required

all

assimilated

these in

this

for

the

manner,

Filipinos.

The

maintaining

their

colonials, the "obedient brown Americans". intellectual

Filipinos status

were

as good

The sympathies of the

class were won over by the new government through

the policy of Filipinizing the bureaucracy, which also eliminated any possible opposition to the imperialist aims of the United

101

States.

Even after being forced to grant po 1 it i ca 1 independence

to

Philippines,

the

the

United

still

States

maintains

its

occupation,

the

economic grip within the country today. During dagli,

the

the

published

first

decade

incipient in

the

form

of the

of

the

nationalistic

American Tagalog

papers.

short

story,

Nationalism

was

was then

suppressed by the Sedition Law, the Anti-Brigandage Act, and the Flag Law. The

relevant

daglis

followed

nationalistic propagandists. to

stop

them,

the

tradition

of

the

Despite attempts by the colonizers

writers

through their writings.

the

rekindled

nationalistic

feelings

In Kaalakbay sa Daan (Fellow Traveller)

by Gonzalo C. Malay [1908], freedom, the birthright of the race, is presented as the cure to the ills of mother country.

In Luha

ng Alipin (Tears of a Slave), Inigo Ed. Regalado [1909] justifies the use of violence to restore the freedom and honour which were violently seized by the colonizers, while Antonio Abad [1910] in Sa Sumpa ng Ina (In the Mother's Curse), brands as traitors, the Filipinos who co-operate with the colonizers. The nationalistic sentiment was also shown in the negative portrayals of the Americans.

In Pagwawagi ng Katwiran ni Pag-Asa

(Triumph of Pag-Asa's Argument), a writer known as "Mapagsikap" [1908]

relates

things

they do.

how drunken The

Americans

Americans

are

have no qualms about the also

portrayed

in

"Mister

Drunkard" written by one "Sinamok" not only as drunkards but also as

burot

(braggarts)

who

act

as

if they

are

somebody

when,

actually they are nothing more than small fries back in America. Corollary

to

anti-Americanism,

the

dagli

indicted

the

colonial-minded Filipinos.

Inigo Ed. Regalado [1907], using the

pen

depicts

name

"Tengkeleng",

them,

in

Estrangheritis

("Foreignities"), as admirers of what is foreign and who cannot be expected to serve the country although they benefit from it. 102

The

short

stories

also

criticized

the

Filipinos'

moral

decline with the introduction of nightclubs, bars and gambling dens by Americans who aimed to make easy money. Katwiran

ni

Pag-Asa,

the

Filipinos

materialism of the Americans.

are

In Pagwawagi ng

influenced

by

the

Maikling Kasaysayan (short story,

1906), written by a certain "Malay", warns against gambling; the traditional beliefs of our ancestors in fate and luck serve as a strong attraction towards this vice. With secularism came criticisms of fanatic Taos

na

Pangarap

(Heartfelt

Dream),

by

beliefs, as in

Francisco

Laksamana

[1908], also known as "Fidel", and Ang Huling Himala (The Last Miracle),

by "Ric A Clarin", the pseudonym of Rosauro Almario

[1911]. Two vices learned by the Filipinos from their Spanish and American colonizers, fanaticism and gambling respectively, became negative means of escape for the Filipinos from their oppressed life.

But as social critics, the writers were not able to link

these to colonialism; instead they took a moralistic view towards these vices.

It was only Francisco Laksamana [1911] who realized

that that the lowly life of the Filipino worker was rooted in the colonial situation of the country, as shown in Buhay at Kalayaan (Life and Freedom). Consciousness of the oppression and lowly life among urban and

rural

workers

is

evident

in

the

short

stories

Arsciwals, Patricio del Rosario and Antero Gempesaw. Bavani

of

Juan

In Isa Pang

(Another Hero), Arsciwals [1915] relays to the labourers

the idea that if they do not sacrifice their love for themselves and their talents for the good of the many, slavery will not be solved nor redemption attained. In Puring, del Rosario [1918] informs the workers that they belong to one class: 103

• •• Ang KATUBUSAN ng mga manggagawa nat in, tulad sa ibang bansa ay tatamuhing walang sala sa pamamagitan ng BANAL NA PAGDADAMAYAN, TAPAT NA PAGSASAPI-SAPI at MASIKAP NG PAGPARANGAl ng lahat sa kanilang pagkamanggagawa. ( ••• The SALVATION of our workers, like those of other countries, HONEST

is

inevitable through

UNIONIZING

and

SACRED CO-OPERATION,

EARNEST ELEVATION by everybody

for their being labourers.) The two agrarian problems, tenancy and usury, are discussed by

Gempesaw

Living). (How

[1918]

The

Idiotic

in

Mga

Suliranin

ng

germinal

idea of

feudalism

of

written

by

Me),

surfaced in Katubusan (Redemption).

one

Buhay

(Problems

of

in Napakatunggak Ako named

"Liling"

[1909]

The tenants are oppressed by

the landlord; to free themselves from this slavery they are urged to unite to achieve redemption through unity and alliance, their main union

sources

of power in their struggle against capital.

becomes

The

an organization through which the oppressed can

help each other and eliminate usury. As

reflected

established

and

in

Gempesaw's

headed

by the

in

1902

by

the

intellectual

union -- Union de Litografos e established

book,

first

unions

were

class.

(The

first

Impresores de Filipinas -- was

Isabelo

de

los

Reyes.)

It

was

not

surprising, therefore, that these unions held the political views of the ilustrado (educated elite).

The leaders saw in unionism

an effective weapon for improving the economic situation of the workers.

But,

between capital

because they did

not see the conflict existing

and labour, they did

existing economic structure.

not aim at changing the

The foremost aim of the union was

to teach the workers how to become good citizens, the second, to help

its

members

in

their

Constantino, The Philippines:

financial

difficulties

A Past Revisited, 1975]. 104

[Renata

The socially conscious views of writers at the turn of the century

were

more

reformist

than

radical.

The

writers

unwittingly accepted free enterprise capitalism as introduced by the

Americans.

They

self-discipline,

upheld

industry,

the

ethics

economy

and

of

labour

initiative

such and

as

urged

workers to save so that they can start their own businesses to overcome their poverty. labour

and

capital

As far as the writers were concerned,

were

forces of production.

not

conflicting,

but

complementary,

The existing evils did not stem from the

socio-economic system but from the morally-flawed character of the peop 1e canst itut i ng the system.

They therefore appea 1ed to

the capitalist's conscience -- to 1 imit the concern for profit, to treat workers in a humane manner.

Likewise, the workers were

advised to be industrious and thrifty, to avoid vices like wine, gambling

and

women,

which

corrupted

them

physically

and

spiritually. The writers also accepted as a social reality the division into

classes

recognized

according

the

to

resultant

economic class

status.

relations

as

But

though they

exploitative

and

oppressive, they did not relate it to the differing interests of classes.

Instead, they believed, the classes would be brought

together by love. During the twenties and thirties, there was an increase in the number of stories centring on love, mostly between the rich and

the

Stories:

poor

as

in

1925-1935),

Mga

Kuwentong

edited

by

Ginto: Alejandro

1925-1935 G.

(Golden

Abadilla

and

Cl odua 1do de 1 Mundo [1936], and 50 Kuwentong Gi nto ng 50 Bat i kang Manunulat

(50 Golden

Stories by 50 Story Masters), edited by

Pedrito Reyes [1939]. The prevalence of the themes of love and courtship confirmed the

success

of colonial

education

as

contra ll i ng the minds of the Filipinos. 105

a means

of taming

and

Whereas in the past the

Spaniards

had

used

religion

as

the

primary

instrument

of

subjugation, education -- long denied by the Spaniards -- was the instrument

of

bondage

employed

Pagwawagi ng Katwi ran ni

by

the

Americans.

The

story

Pag-Asa reflects the Fi 1 i pi nos' desire

for education as a means of improving themselves, the society and the

nation.

American

military

rule

was

also

aided

by

the

wide spread pub 1 i c education estab 1 i shed in 1901 , the Pension ada (scholarship)

Programme in 1903 and the use of English as the

medium of instruction. and

Love),

Gempesaw

mentality intent

brought

in

In Ang Diwa at ang Pag-ibig (Principle

[1919]

about

remoulding

by

the

de-Filipinizing them.

criticises the

the

American

character

of

resulting system

the

of

a

chance

education

Filipinos

in

As could be expected, the revolutionary

zeal of the revolutions of 1896 and 1899 was quelled. stand

colonial

against

the

public

schools'

It did not

indoctrination

of

Filipino youth which included singing the Star-Spangled Banner daily in front of the waving Stars and Stripes; memorizing the Gettysburgh Address;

listening to stories about Washington and

the cherry tree; and being fined for using the native language. The

literary

colonizers writers.

environment

suppressed

the

nationalistic

by

the

sentiments

American of

the

Just as the Spaniards propagated the 1 i terature of the

Middle Ages 1 ike the pasyon passion

cultivated

of

Christ)

and

( narrative verse on the 1 ife and

the

awit

and

korido

(both

metrical

romances either on the 1 ife and adventures of knight-errants or those of saints), the American teachers placed more emphasis on the outward appearance and 1ess on the essence of Anglo-American romanticism. Hiawatha,

The literary fare consisted mainly of works like Miles

Standish,

Alhambra,

Sohrab

and

Rustum,

Evange 1 i ne, Anna be 1 Lee, The Lady of the Lake, The Raven, Be 11 s, Treasure

Island,

The

Last

of

the

Mohicans,

Rebecca

of

the

Sunnybrook, How Do I Love Thee, My Last Duchess -- works which like the pasyon, awit, and korido, directed the attention of the Fi 1 i pi no writers and readers to matters other than the here and 106

now.

Thus, the writers did not imbibe true romanticism but only

puerile sentimentalism. Understandably, writers

to

the Americans

discover

the

did

romantic

not

allow the

ideas

about

Filipino

revolution,

individual ism, progress and, most of all, national ism, precisely because these were the effective weapons against them. have

suicidal

been

for

them

to

enrich

Filipino

It would

nationalism.

Thus, on the who 1e stories that were written were directed away from the realities of life and society and the writers abnegated their role as social critic but not as preacher of conventional morality.

Japanese Occupation and Post-war Social Concerns The world of the writers was shattered by the difficult struggle caused by World War II.

Like previous colonizers, the Japanese

justified their occupation as being for the good of the nation. They "saved" the Filipinos from the Americans and offered them the blessings of their culture and of their Co-Prosperity Sphere in the Greater East Asia Programme.

To win the allegiance of the

Filipinos, the Japanese emphasized the policy of developing the Filipino native culture.

They prohibited the use of English and

proclaimed Tagalog and Nippongo as official languages.

With this

move towards Filipinization, the Filipino culture was enriched; writers turned their attention to the native land. The

romantic

sentiments

for

the

nation

can

be

Narciso G. Reyes' [1943] Luoang Tinubuan (Native Land). glance,

strict But a

will

seems sense

"safe" the

theme

in

the of

subversion to the Japanese colonizers.

107

light

of

At first

the

eye

work

in

censorship during the period -- the theme was patriotism. keener

the

seen

nationalism,

which spelt

A nationalist fights for

independence as the condition for the freedom and the rights ot the

people.

Only

the

people

can

determine

and

chart

their

destiny and from them the nation derives its sovereignty. The Suyuan

idyllic

countryside life of Macario Pineda [1943] in

sa Tubigan

(Courtship in

the Paddies), is corrupted by

modernization in Nagbibihis na ang Nayon (The Barrio Now Grooms) by Brigido Batungbakal

[1937]:

ugly is the other face of the

countryside; inevitable change brings both evil and good. The

city,

Nagmamadali

ang

"buy-and-sell" worldly,

presented

by

(Manila

Maynil a

period,

materialistic

Serafin

Gui nigundo Hurries),

is

troublesome,

and

deceitful.

[1943]

during

confusing, In

this

in that

uncertain,

"jungle",

an

individual survives through wiliness, cheating, and selfishness. Poverty in the city is more pronounced because the poor worker has no one to turn to. family.

Staging a strike means hunger for his

See Genoveva Edroza [ 1938], Wa 1 ong Taong Gu 1ang (Eight

Years Old) and Hernando R. Ocampo [1939], Bakya (Wooden Shoes). Nevertheless, the workers have no choice but to strike to get their share of capital. their

strength

rests

They only

realize that in their struggle, in

themselves.

Not

even

the

journalists, who are supposed to reveal the injustices committed in the society are on their side as they are controlled by the enemy class.

See Batungbakal [1940], Akiasan (Strike).

It is in times of crises that one's character is tested and maul ded. Kahoy,

Poverty and need move the character of Ang Tao, ang at

Aristeo

ang

Florida

calamity.

Bagyo

(The

[1943],

to

Man, put

the

Tree,

and

the

aside superstitions,

Storm), and

by face

In Jose Sibal's [1946] May Gunita Pa ang mga Bulaklak

(The Flowers Still Hold Memories), the male character is able to accept

his physical

handicap as a result of war, because this

symbolizes freedom of the motherland.

Love for country over 1 ave

for oneself is shown by Pablo Pilar [1943] in Tabak at Sampagita 108

(Bolo and the Sampaguita). Balantukan

(The

Scar

Mabini

Remains),

Rey Centeno's Maghilom Ma'y

depicts

how

businessmen

take

advantage of crises to earn money, even if it is to the detriment of their fellowmen.

In Dugo at Utak (Blood and Brains), Cornelio

Reyes [1943] shows how a character's creativity gives way to the responsibilities of love and the needs of daily living. Despite improvement

the

widening

scope

of

subject

of

writing

techniques,

a

matter

and

deepened

the

soc i a 1

consciousness among the writers did not result because of their world-view.

In

general,

the

writers,

assumed a responsibility as moral

as

disciples

of

art,

teachers or guides of their

race in accordance with their Christian point of view, wherein the world order including personal, social and national relations are ordered and dictated by the Creator. accepted anyone

and who

considered did

so

was

sacred. punished.

obedience was to be rewarded. accepted

as

ordained

Creator's trials.

To

by

Such a world order was

disobey On

the

was other

to

sin,

hand,

and blind

As such, the social structure was

God.

Suffering

and

Man comes from God and will

abuse

were

the

go back to Him

once he has proven that he is worthy of the heavenly kingdom by leading a good earthly life.

He is blessed who is poor for he

will inherit the kingdom of God.

Didn't Christ preach that it is

easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter God's kingdom? the whole world but loses his soul?

What will

he gain if he owns

Thus, poverty and suffering

were seen as willed by God and not as caused by the existing socio-economic structure.

The 1950s and Early 1960s:

The Ideals of Liberal IndividualiSII

and Free Enterprise Capitalis• In the stories during the 1950s liberal individualism prevailed. 109

In enclosing themselves in their "cockroach-infested temples" in brushing aside the so-called "earthly concerns" of society and country, writers of that period could not link their art with the march of the nation's history. Thus, the events of that decade were not given much attention. Even if they were, the treatment was superficial. There was the Cold War for example, where the nation a 1 1eadershi p' s proud support for the Americans' foreign policies resulted in the country's involvements in the Korean and, later, the Vietnam wars. Accordingly, in their blind allegiance to the American crusade against communism, the Filipino leaders outlawed the Hukbalahap movement and the National Farmers' Union. Socio-economic conditions worsened leading to the Hukbalahap Revolt (1950-52) aimed at changing the existing order. It was not that these events did not affect the general consciousness of the writers; but their approach was humanistic rather than ideological. They did not perceive the need for a radical social change. Thus, in the final analysis, unwittingly perhaps, they are identified with the powerful landlords. In Nagtatanong s i I ton (I ton Questions), by Centeno [ 1948], I ton continues to be frustrated in his longed for social change •

••• Nagunita ni Iton na sa nakalipas na panahon, ang mga kanayon din niyang ito, katuld niya, ang nakinig at nan i wa l a sa i ba nillllilng. Matandang Tano, i ba 1 t i bang lider at sa bawat bagong lider ay isang bagong pag-asa, at i sang pani bagong pana l angi ng nawa 1 y ito na nag ang pagkakataon, ito na nga sana ang manunubos. (... Iton remembers that in the past, these same townpeople, like him, listened and believed in other Old Tanos, numerous leaders who individually promised a new hope, and a new prayer -- "May this be the right person now. May he be our redeemer".) The ending of the story is ambiguous. 110

Isang mapait na ngiti

ang gumuhit sa labi

ni

Iton,

ngunit isang uhiwagang kislap ang naglaro sa kanyang mga mata. Ipinagpatuloy niya ang pagkain. (Iton

smiles.

Ironically.

His

eyes glittering with

He continues his eating.)

mystery.

Can this glitter be a prelude to !ton's course of action?

Can

this mean that Iton 's constant disappointments wi 11 1ead him to his own alternatives? movement?

Wi 11

he take on the 1 eadershi p of the

Does Centeno want to portray to the farmers that the

leadership of the movement should come from them? In contrast to Centeno's vague ending is Olimpio Villasin's [1947],

in

Kamatayan

ng

Isang

Huk

(Death

of

a

Huk),

where

punitive military actions push the orphans and survivors to join the Hukbalahap movement in revenge for the oppression they have suffered and the deaths of their loved ones. viewpoint

is

defeatist.

With

the

However, Villasin's

senseless

death

of

the

character, what is conveyed is a sense of hopelessness. In Liwanag sa Usok ng Punlo (Light in the Smoke of the Gun), Batungbaka

[1948]

depicts

the

senseless

killing

of

both

government troops, and their opponents, the Huks, because both are from the poor classes. aims

of

individual

the

Hukbalahap,

participant

organization when he their

enemies

fighting.

are

Although Batungbakal he

gives

soldier.

The

more Huk

justifies the

importance

to

the

character leaves the

realizes that the soldiers they regard as also

from

the

class

for

which

they

are

Honouring the death of the soldier, the author writes:

Ang maglinglood sa hukbo ay isand tungkulin sa bansa ••• dapat paglinkuran ang bansa upang ~~~aibalik ang kapayapaan ng mga si•ulain. 111

( ••• and to serve in the army is a duty to the nation ••• The nation should be served to bring back harmony.) The humanistic view of Batungbakal places him on the side of the existing order; he accepts that the conflicts within the system need to be resolved, but does not favour a radical manner of attaining them. His is the view of the reformist. The stories Luntiang Bukid (Verdant Fields) by Eduardo B. Reyes [1959-60] and Ponciano P.B. Pineda's Malalim ang Gabi (Deep is the Night) portray the Hukbalahap movement as violent and destructive to the peaceful citizens. Reyes' liberal individualism can be seen in his main character, Mang Itoy, who, as an independent person, values labour greatly and believes that he alone has a right to the fruits of his 1abour for which he will fight even to the point of death because: "in the fourth part of that harvest rests my dreams for you Nene and Totoy ••• my rights over what belongs to me ••• and my faith in living on one's own efforts". The views of Manue 1 Ocampo [1951-52] in Kamatayan sa Gu 1od (Death on the Hill ) , and Ed roza-Matute [1951-52] in Pagbaba 1 i k (The Return), are founded on the moral character of the Huk. Ocampo praises Ta syo, the rna in character, for standing firm on his principles and for his humanity in not shooting at a surrendering ally. Matute dramatizes the treachery of a Huk towards his companion, and his subsequent repentance and suicide. Both Ocampo and Matute portray the absolute nature of moral values. Another manifestation of liberal individualism was the high regard among writers for education. To them, this was the pathway to progress and improved life. In Lupa, Ulan ••• at Supling (Earth, Rain and Saplings), Martin del Rosario [1955-56] portrays the endeavours of a farmer to provide his 112

children with education for a better future, free from the burden of the soil. In

Sending his children to school

the story Angkan

is an investment.

(Lineage), by Elpidio Kapulong [1950s], a

family gains when an educated son begins to earn.

In Panahon ng

Aking Pag-ibig (Season of my Love), Andres Cristobal Cruz [1956] upholds the idea that an individual decides his own destiny; one need only depend on one's abilities to attain a good life. finishing

his

By

studies, the character-writer is able to escape

from life in Tondo.

This, however, does not mean abandoning it.

For Cristobal Cruz, in Panahon ng Aking Pag-ibig (Season of My Love), Pedro Ricarte [1958-59], in Estero (Slum Alleys), and Pedro Dandan [1947], in May Buhay sa Looban (There is Life in the Sl urns),

poverty

impossible.

in

the

1 ooban

From these

( s 1 urns)

stories,

to

one

fulfil

does not make

humanism

notes the belief in the

individual's

ability

himself

regardless

environment.

Such is the measure of his value as well.

of

his

Macario Pineda [1950] writes of feudalism and paternalism in society in Kasalan sa Malaking Bahay (Wedding Feast in the Big House).

Realizing

the

class

differences

in

society,

Pineda

however, does not accept that classes conflict with each other: there

will

be

no

problem of

if

the

loving

upper

one's

class

neighbour

practises as

the

Christian

commandment

one loves

oneself.

Pineda also believes that love can bring the classes

together; love is the foundation of a good society. P.P.B.

Pineda's [1957-58] Ang Mangingisda

(The Fisherman),

distinguishes between the social classes -- on the one hand the rich,

represented

by

Don

Cesar,

represented by the rna in character.

and

on

the

other

the

poor,

However Pi ned a's approach to

the social and economic problems presented is romantic.

He makes

the sea and fate the enemies of the fisherman, not Don Cesar who owns the powerful

fishing boats.

The fisherman also dreams of

owning just one boat and works hard to fulfil this dream. 113

But,

while Don Cesar's boats increase in number, he remains Finally, after days of luckless fishing, he empty-handed. Instead of decides to use dynamite which leads to his death. reaching the conclusion that the social structure forced his death -- because Don Cesar's boats were taking most of the catch Pineda saw the hand of fate. Thus, the main character emerges as a romantic rebel, standing alone in a mean world. The main character in Kinagisnang Balon (The Well that was There), by Cristobal Cruz [1959-60] is also a romantic rebel. Narsing rebels against the kind of life which like the old well handed down to him by the previous generation -- to become a water carrier, an occupation which his father, in turn, inherited from his father. Although the story is given a socio-politicoeconomic dimension through the treatment of the feudal and co 1oni a 1 character of society which 1 imits Nars i ng' s future and the nation's progress, the writer still maintains the reformist view. Still rebellious, Narsing accepts the 1 ivel ihood passed on to him and decides to take care of the backyard that used to be theirs. The story proposes no change in the existing order. Instead, it advocates striving for the best possible under the present order. Those who wrote about the war were, likewise, humanist in their view. They portrayed the horrors of war which remained in the minds of the people: an individual degenerates and eventually loses his humanity, turning into a murderer as in Alfredo S. Enriquez [1950s], Ang Ulo (The Head), Dandan, [1956-57], Sukat ng Digma (Wound of War); the decline in the moral values of the people as in Centeno [1948], Si Tinong Kikil (Tino, the Tong Man); Gonzalo P. Flores [1948], Mga Kamay (Hands); or the illnesses at the spiritual level-- worse than phys i ca 1 ones -- which, even if they he a 1 , 1eave 1 ife-1 ong sears. Nevertheless, hunger, disease, disorder and oppression do not erase the people's humanism as in Efren Abueg [1959], Mapanglaw 114

ang Mukha [1946],

ng

At

Buwan

(Sad

Patuloy

is the Face of the Moon);

ang mga

Anino

(And the

Shadows

Dandan [1950s], Ang Inahing Aso at Limang Tuta

Guinigundo Continue);

(The Mother Dog

and Her Five Puppies). The humanistic view of the writers is clearly seen in their stories

on

people

with

mental

or

physical

promote compassion for the handicapped. [1950s],

Vicenteng Bingi

disorders.

They

See Jose V. Panganiban

(Vicente, the Deaf); Dandan [1955-56],

Mga Butil ••• Mga Busal (Bits and Pieces); and Mabangis na Kamay, Maamong Kamay

(Savage Hands, Gentle Hands); Kapulong [1945-55],

Batingaw (Bell); Simplicia Basa [1957-58], Mahaba ang Daangbakal (The Railroad Stretches Far); Mariano Pascual [1943], Matamis ang Liwanag (Sweet Illumination); Rogelio Sikat [1962], Quentin; E.B. Reyes [1956-57], Pag-uugat ••• Pagsusupl i ng (Roots ••• Saplings); Domingo (Petals

G.

Landicho

on

conditions

[1966-67],

the

Barren

inside

the

Mga

Land). national

Tatulot

sa

Similarly

Pagas

treated

penitentiary

as

in

na

Lupa

are

the

Wilfreda

Virtusio [1966], Ang Bilanggo (The Prisoner). Liberal about

family

individualism can also be observed in the stories relationships where writers

each member to be respected.

invoke

the

rights of

The number of stories on the family

is proof that it is a primary social

institution.

Dealing with

the relationships between husband and wife, parents and children, or those among siblings and relatives, the stories show children as the main reason for the existence of the family. bility of the parents is given much weight.

The responsi-

They should be ready

to sacrifice anything to ensure their children's future as a manifestation of their love for them.

On the other hand, children

are expected to show gratitude to their parents; they too should be

willing

to

make

sacrifices

for

their

parents.

Aid,

in

whatever form, to the family and close relatives is also valued. Liberal individualism is also reflected in the indictment of

115

certain traditions and current practices, such as grand weddings as in Eleotrio Fojas [1950s], Kasalan sa Nayon (Wedding in the Country);

immoderate camaraderie as in Fernando Samonte [1955]

Kamatayan ng !sang !dolo (Death of an Idol); the dependence of married couples on parents as in Guinigundo [1948],

Babagyang

Tag-araw sa !sang Tahanah (Little Summertime in a Family); and the phenomenon of growing materialism as in Cenon Rivers [1950s], Bangus (Milkfish); Hernani de la Riva (Amado V. Hernandez) [1956] Kamag-anak (Relative). Even during the 1960s, and especially during the first half, the prevalent outlook was still that of liberal individualism. The

main

tenet

of

liberal

individualism

individual moulds his own fate through personal obvious in several

that

an

effort -- are

works such as Dominador Mirasol [1967], Ang

Yaman sa Kagubatan (The Wealth in the Forest); Sikat [1963], Lupa ng saril ing Bayan (In the Land of My Country); [1968], Kung Saan Nakaluhod ang Bathala (Where God

~

Landicho Kneels);

Edgardo M. Reyes [1964], Si Ama (My Father), and Levy Balgos de la Cruz [1967], Bulaklak sa Gilid ng Landas (Blossoms Along the Road).

Stories were also written in defence of a child choosing

his own future as in de la Cruz [1965], Ginintuang Katulad ng Palay

(Golden

Like

the

Palay);

Landicho

[1968],

Himagsik

ni

Emmanuel Lazaro (The Rebellion of Emmanuel Lazaro); Sikat [1963], Pagbabal i k sa Sa Rogue (Return to San Roque); Abueg [1962], May Pugad ang Langay-Langayan (Langay-Langayan has a Nest).

Others

dealt with the right to one's own happiness as in Sikat [1964], Sa Kasal

ni

Ate Elena

(In

Sister Elena's Wedding).

Nor did

hardships pose obstacles to success as in Abueg [1965], Huwag Kang Lilingon (Don't Look Back); Mirasol [1970], May Baitang sa Hangarin (The Step to the Goal); Sikat [1963], May !sang Sagala (The Muse in

the

Procession);

Landicho [1969],

Ang Bughaw na

Langit ni Angelo (The Blue Sky of Angelo); and de la Cruz [1969], Nakangiti ang mga Rosas (The Roses Smile). 116

The

writers

of

the

entrepreneurial capitalism.

.. ':0s

a 1so

up he 1d

the

ide a

of

Th1s is seen in the resolution to

the problems of the working classes; the characters are enjoined to engage in small businesses as in Jose Rey Munsayac [1968], Ang Biyahera't

ang

Magpapalay

(The

Woman

Man); Mirasol [1966], Ang Kasal

Traveller and the Palay

(The Wedding); and de la Cruz

[1969], Ang Pamana (The Inheritance). Education was of foremost value as a means to self-progress in the eyes of many liberal individualist writers as in Mirasol [1967], Ang Makabagong Mesiyas (The Modern Messiah); Munsayac [1969], Emmanuel; de la Cruz [1971], Paalam sa Buwan (Goodbye to the Moon); and Ang Bal iw sa Mangubat (The Fool of Mangubat); Ave Perez Jacob [1961], Kislap ng Kadakilaan (Glitter of Greatness); Landicho [1967], Nang Yumao ang Matanda sa Malaking Bahay (When the Old Man in the Big House Died); and Abueg [1960], Bahala ang In similar vein, the social Hinaharap (The Future Knows). progress brought about by graduates upon returning to their hometowns was also a common theme as in Mirasol [1969], Dalawang Mukha ng Kapalaran (Two Faces of Destiny); Abueg [1965], Ang Salot (The Plague); Landicho [1969], Elias at Salome (Elias and Salome); Jacob [1960], Sa San Pascual Isang Umaga (In San Pascual One Morning). This

humanism

is

a

component

of

the

individualism of their, and even our, time. writers nature, -- that through

be 1 i eved in the goodness good. Together with this the social order can be man's efforts. But the

prevailing

liberal

As romantics, those

of man inasmuch as he is, by was their belief in meliorism improved, and this is achieved view is still reformist and

mora 1 i st because it centres on inner change of the i ndi vi dua 1 • As writers, they stood firm in their idealism against the materialism of the existing socio-economic order. In pace of the enslaved and oppressed life, they depicted an ideal nature -- a peaceful, beautiful and humanistic life. As liberals, they

117

upheld freedom as the foremost value.

As individualists, they

believed that the individual is the matter of himself, and that he holds in his hands his fate.

It is only when he is free that

he becomes human and part of society. democratic;

whatever

everybody else.

they

asked

for

These writers were also themselves

was

also

for

Everyone is deemed equal -- with rights to life,

liberty, happiness, self-fulfilment and possessions. While the writers saw contradictions stemming from the socioeconomic

structure

which

are

detrimental

they mistook the result for the cause. go beyond reformism. dualists, selves.

their

to

self-advancement,

This is why they did not

Added to this was the fact that, as indivi-

rebellion

did

not

transcend

their

individual

Since they were from the lower and middle classes, the

writers viewed society as a neutra 1 ground wherein each man is free to achieve self-fulfilment; if he fails, no one else but himself is to blame, for he makes his own destiny.

The existing

social order, therefore, remains blameless and inviolable. the writers

accepted

Also

stratification according to capabilities,

which for them was different from stratification based on wealth or lineage.

Not to mention the fact that it flattered their ego.

Thus, the writers consciously or unconsciously supported the existing socio-economic structure.

Their beliefs directed their

minds away from the more important social

issues of the times.

As a result, they were not able to instill Filipino

conscience;

and

they

failed

to

in themselves the verbalize

the

true

aspirations of the Filipino people for a free and dignified life in a just and humane society.

The Early 1960s: Naturalism and the Response to Growing Social Inequality During the first half of the 1960s, the worsening socio-economic 118

situation brought about by oppression, poverty, vi o 1 ence and the colonial mentality led to changes in the optimistic view of life held among the writers.

Naturalism, which brought to light the

gloomy conditions of people and society, to an extent replaced romanticism.

The characters in stories were then presented as

prisoners

of

their

obstacles

and

environment,

frustrated

in

unable

their

to

overcome

attempts

to

society's

improve

their

lives. The

writers

still

considered

the

city

a

jungle

as

in

Mabangis na Lunsod (Savage City) by Abueg [1961] where power and violence rule.

The little the poor make are ferociously grabbed

by the strong who refuse to work.

Strength overpowers the puny

whose poverty is worsened by the cruelty of their fellowmen.

So

does the city destroy one's efforts to lead a dignified existence in Isang Ina sa Panahon ng Trahedya (A Mother in Time of Tragedy) by

Mirasol

[1969].

The

life

of

Aling

Marta's

good

mercilessly destroyed by the evils of the looban.

son

is

Justice cannot

be sought because his murderer is an illegitimate son of a police sergeant.

Force

also

wins

in

Sikat's

[1961-62]

Impeng

Negro

(Impen, the Negro).

The main character uses violence to finally

end

--

his

oppression

respected

by

others.

the The

only

way

--

conclusion

so

that

he

is:

in

a

will

be

violent

surrounding, one also becomes violent. Poverty is seen as widespread in society, worsened by the fact that innocent people are the ones victimized. ng Kawalang Malay

In Di Maabot

(Beyond the Innocent), by E.M. Reyes [1960],

the child who is the main character, cannot comprehend how her mother can support the three of them or how she is able to bring home pancit (noodles) and medicine. The countryside was still depicted as a paradise in Abueg's [1963]

Bagong

situation,

Paraiso

however,

did

(Modern not

Paradise).

last long. 119

In

This

Eden-like

Abueg's

[1963-64]

Dugo sa Ulo ni Corbo (Blood on Corbo's Head). war destroys peace in the barrio and the death of the farmer-soldier is as dreadful as the death of his carabao (water buffalo).

The story Sa Lupa

ng Sariling Bayan (In the Land of My Country) by Sikat [1963], once

again

deals

with

love

for

one's

native

land,

though

differently from that in earlier works like Lupang Tinu~~~~ (Land of Birth) by Reyes, and At Nupling ang Luntiang Halaman (And the Green

Tree

Bears

Fruit)

by

Dandan

[1948].

Reyes

and

Dandan

justified love for one's country in terms of Ibrras in Rizal's Noli Me Tangere -- because one owes the country one's happiness. On the other hand Sikat took the position of Elias -- because the country gave him his sufferings.

This notwithstanding, the main

character remains faithful to his country. In

Bagong

Paraiso

the

corrupting

influence

of

the

city

enters the barrio, and in Lugmok ng ang Mayon (The Countryside is Aground) by E.M. Reyes [1964], city people take advantage of the goodness

of their

countryside

relatives.

Thus

does

the

city

prosper. By now, the writers clearly saw the class conflicts in their society.

They no longer believed the classes exist harmoniously.

In Tata Selo

(Old Man

Selo),

Sikat [1963] presented the poor

conditions of the peasant class which comprises the majority of the people in a feudal society. in

the

tragic

Social injustice is incorporated

life of Tata Selo who, aside from

having been

robbed of his parcel of land, was dishonoured by the landlord who abused his daughter.

Land is at the root of conflict.

The land

is valuable because it is the source of livelihood for both the landlord and the tenant.

The case of the tenant is more basic as

he is more dependent on the land which is as valuable as his life -- his reason for being.

He invests his physical strength on the

land, owns it as long as he has the strength to till, but loses the

rights to

it

once

his

strength

is

gone.

Ironically the

greater the strength he invests on the land, the sooner he loses 120

it.

On the other hand, the landlord does not treat him as a

human being but as an instrument.

He has authority not only over

the tenant but also on the latter's family; he can take whatever he wants -- even the honour of his subjects. In Dugo ni Juan Lazaro (Blood of Juan Lazaro) by Rogel io Ordonez [1961], the worker is forced to become selfish for the good

of

his

family.

In

his

Buhawi

(Tornado),

the worker

is

forced to use violence -- to axe the foreman who refuses his plea to keep his job.

The sawmill owner's dog is treated even better

than the workers in Aso sa Lagari an (Dog in the Saw Mill), by Mirasol [1963] where the company is able to get the most of the workers' labour without giving them just compensation. Although

they

correctly

diagnosed

the

social

ills,

the

writers are misled by their naturalistic view in propounding the cure.

The

violent

action

resorted

to

by

their

respective

characters out of desperation is individualistic and anarchistic.

The Prelude to Military Rule, Emergence of Class Consciousness

1972:

Nationalism

and

the

In the stories during the second half of the 1960s up to the imposition of martial

law in 1972, the nationalistic ideas of

Senator Claro M. Recto surged forth.

The stories made clear that

poverty, violence, oppression and the colonial mentality were the effects of the colonial

and feudal

socio-economic structure in

society, and presented the conflict between American imperialism and the interests of the Filipino people as the primary problem. The once tamed nationalistic sentiment was rekindled. Also influential in shaping the awareness that was gathering momentum

during

that

period 121

was

Amado

Guerrero's

[1971],

Philippine Society and Revolution which clarified the foremost antagonistic contradiction in Philippine society, and the proper level

of class stuggle towards launching a national

revolution. twenty

democratic

A national cultural revolution had begun after about

years

of

organizations

slumber.

united

Among

under

the

the

militant

Movement

nationalistic

for

a

Democratic

Philippines was an organization of writers, PAKSA

the Panulat

Para sa Kaun l a ran ng Sambayanan (Writing for the Progress of the Nation) which served as a cultural counterpart to the ideological activism of the

turbulent

period

martial law on 21 September 1972.

prior to the declaration of PAKSA was organized under what

was called the Second Propaganda Movement (in recognition of and to 1 ink it to the first which had given way to the Philippine revolutions of 1896 and 1899) which held that literature and art were

to

specifically

Filipino people.

serve

the

interests

The writers were to deal

and

causes

of

the

with the life and

struggles of the Filipino people for greater freedom and social equity.

Literature was

to

be

"from and

for

the

masses"

written from the point of view of the proletariat in Filipino. PAKSA aimed to create a body of 1 iterature imbued with the essence of national

democracy and to help shape the political

consciousness of the masses: to

one

class.

Therefore,

the consciousness that they belong committed

literature

was

a

class

literature in support of the revolution for national democracy. However

all

these

plans

were

nipped

in

the

bud

with

the

declaration of martial law. The intense nationalistic

ideas

reflected

in the Filipino

short stories during the second half of the 1960s intertwined with

the emergent class-oriented

perspective.

In

Daluyong

sa

Ilaya (Storm in Ilaya), Abueg [1971] portrays a society divided into classes by the private Ol''nership of the production forces, and the unjust division of labour; the majority are poor and needy, and progress belongs to the few who own the natural wealth 122

of the country. the

1 aw that

In this society "one law alone is deified

if you

persevere,

no matter

barriers you meet, you wi 11 overcome them".

what

hardships

and

This law is up he 1d

and praised even by the rich who see it as proof of justice under the systern.

Therefore, as a sacred responsibility of everyone in

the society, the structure should be preserved -- a view shared by numerous poor people.

They cling to this belief in the hope

that someday they will be able to rise from poverty.

This same

hope

oppressed

suppresses

life.

any

desire

to

revolt

against

their

Thus, this law was a justification for the perpetuation of

the socio-economic structure. The inhumane

existing and

all

society

is

seen

institutions

as

are

unjust

pest-ridden:

structure would collapse in no time at all Jr., [1967-68] Anay (Termites).

because

it

the

is

whole

as in E. San Juan,

In this society, the worker in

Ordonez's [1968] Inuuod na Bi sing sa Tiyan ng Buwaya (Worm-eaten Arm in the Crocodile's Stomach), like the farmer,

(in Sikat's,

Tata Selo),

His wage

is oppressed

by the

powerful

hardly enough for himself and his family. to keep him strong enough to work. relationship

between

the

two

class.

is

It is not even enough

There is no justice in the

classes:

while

the

worker

capitalizes on his life and the capitalist on an instrument or property, the latter gets the greater benefit, 1 ike a vampire sucking the blood of the working class. But working

there

is

class,

for

a

limit when

to

the

injustice

suffered

oppression

threatens

the

individual it has to be stopped.

by

the

life of an

The working class will realize

that they need to unite or else become easy prey for the ruling class.

To 1 ive -- and not just exist -- they have to fight for

their rights and their former status as a force in production. This is the discovery by the workers in Landicho's [1972] Dugo ang Langit sa Balon (The Sky of the Well is Blood).

123

Unionism as the first collective view,

rather

step in a class struggle, and the

than

that of the

individualist, were

emphasized in the works of the conscientized and nationalistic radical youth, in and out of the campus Jacob [1972], in Ang Pagdating ni Elias Plaridel {The Arrival of Elias Plaridel); Landicho [1969], in Elias at Salome {Elias and Salome); Virtusio, [1970],

in Maria,

ang

Iyong Anak

(Maria, Thine Child);

Norma

Miraflor [1970], Sulat Mul_~~~PritJ.l (Letter from Pritil) were among those sowing the seeds of revolutionary thought and enriching the proletarian consciousness. As the proletarian consciousness in literature deepened through the concomittant involvement of the radical youth, the proletarian struggle rose to the political level symbolized by the movement in the hi 11 s: the armed struggle which waul d free the working class and the whole society from the oppressive inhuman capitalist social order as in Abueg [1971], Daluyong sa Ilaya (Storm in Ilaya). In Kamatayan ni Tiyo Samuel

(Death of Uncle Samuel), Abueg

[1966] dramatizes the neo-colonial condition of the country after

America granted it its "independence" in 1946. Exposing shades of American neo-colonialism in the Philippines, Abueg suggests a nationalistic

industrialization

to

free

the country

from

its

situation. In Mga Bang kay sa Da 1amp as i gan ng mga Uwak (Corpse Along the Shore of the Crows), Mirasol [1969] reveals the foreign -- Spanish, American and Chinese -- domination of the whole Philippine economy. The Filipinos, enslaved in their own country, are thus forced to use violence. They are, however, faced with the forces of the law and nature. By this time, the evils of American imperialism had been widely exposed; the fallacy of the view that the presence of foreign interests in the country was to the advantage of the Filipinos was clear. The pro-American sentiment of Batungbakal 124

[1948],

in

Walang

Hanggang

Pangarap

(Foremost

Dream), or of

Carlos Bulosan in America is in the Heart, was gone. State fascism was also now depicted as a support of the semi-feudal and neo-colonial structure in suppressing the growing awareness of the free and freedom-seeking class as in Virtusio, Maria, ang Iyong Anak (Maria, Thine Child); Landicho, Dugo ang Langit sa Balon (The Sky in the Well is Blood); Ricardo Lee [ 1971], Si Tatang, s i Freddie, s i Tandang Senyong at i ba Pang Tauhan ng Aking Kuwento (Father, Freddie, Old Man Senyong and Other Characters in My Story). Isang Araw sa Buhay ni Juan Lazaro (A Day in the Life of Juan Lazaro) by Munsayac [1970] shows that the mass base of the military comes from the peasant class for its perpetuation through the military. The peasant class is now presented as a support of the powerful military institution in eliminating itself. For the contemporary society, individualism and selfishness were seen as prevalent. In Virtusio's Maria, ang Iyong Anak (Maria, Thine Child), Maria, because of her selfishness, allows herself to be used by the ruling class against her own. In Isang Daang Damit (One Hundred Dresses) by Fanny Garcia [1972], the main character, in her desire to alleviate herself from poverty, attends on 1y to her own needs. The story Dapi thapon ng I sang Mesiyas (Dusk of a Messiah) by Lee [1969] similarly portrays Dong, who turns his back on his own class origin. The nationalist writers of this period instructed that the fulfilled life could not be achieved through separate, individual and selfish actions but by joining those oppressed and poor and participating in their struggle to achieve class consciousness. In Edgardo Maranan's [1971] Ipis sa Guhong Templo {Cockroaches in the Ruined Temple), and Lee's Si Tatang, si Freddie, si Tandang Senyong at iba Pang Tauhan ng Aking Kuwento (Father, Freddie, Old Man Senyong and Other Characters in My Story), the authors show 125

that, for that phase of history, the social consciousness of the writer was

no

longer enough;

consciousness.

the

writer should possess class

It was no longer enough to expose and criticize,

writers had to suggest the course of action and participate in the class struggle for a free, progressive and peaceful society. Uncommitted and false writers, like the one in E. San Juan Jr.,'s [1967], Masaya ang Alitaptap sa Labi

ng Kabibe (The Firefly on

the Lip of the Clam is Happy), had no place and significance in the scheme of things being advocated. and

ideology

flowed

freely

Nationalistic sentiment

through

the

stories

considered.

Independence from foreign interests and domination was presented as

the

condition

for

Philippine

freedom

as

was

the

need

for

liberation from the bondage of feudalism.

Concluding Remarks All

the

writers

in

the

period

Christian humanism, liberal

covered

held

humanistic views:

individualist humanism, and national

collective humanism and national democracy, all of which prevailed

simultaneously

during

the

1960s and

early 1970s.

Writers

began to recognize that the Fi 1 i pi nos are the true creators of their

own destiny,

nation's

needs,

the

that

if they

nation

continuously attended to the

would

inevitably

become

free

and

1 i berated. But, colonial

before

this,

influences,

their consciousness.

writers

to connect

need

to

their

free

national

themselves

from

character with

Only by going back to the fountain of life

of their art -- the Filipino people -- by participating in the national struggle, and by basing literature on the aspirations of the Filipino people, will writers be able to fulfil their duty as communicator and giver of meaning to the Filipino experience, and voice

the

hope

of

the

people

progressive and free society. 126

for

a

humane,

just,

peaceful,

Today, the most important step for Filipino writers is to first recognize and accept the reality that they are Filipino, and write well.

This is the "vow to freedom" of the writer and

of art.

127

PORTRAYALS OF LIFE AND REALITY IN RADIO AND TELEVISION DRAMA*

VALERIO L. NOFUENTE

Radio and TV drama are close kin. Radio drama was born first -some claim that radio programmes were aired even before the outbreak of early 1960s, drama, like spelled the

the World War II [Vitug, 1975]. Later, during the TV drama arrived. In America the appearance of TV the Biblical character Cain who slew his brother, demise of its close kin, radio drama. So captured

was the attention of viewers that, because of the stiff competition, radio drama ceased in 1960 [Laguardia, 1977]. However, in the Philippines, radio and TV drama flourish side by side and continue to share programmes and even manpower -- from directors and script writers, down to performers. If the programmes presented by commercial radio and TV stations are compared, it can therefore be surmised that they would be almost the same in content and form, both playing three kinds of drama; real life, usually about domestic problems and love; make-believe or fantasy, and comedy [Vitug, 1975]. On TV, the one-hour drama was the norm until Gulong ng Palad (Wheel of Life) [BBC Channel 2] introduced serialized drama in 1977, fo 11 owed by Mga Kuwento-ng Pag- i big (Love Stories) [RPN Channe 1

*Translated from Fit lplno by Christopher Gonzaga, University of the Philippines.

128

9] and Damdamin (Emotion) [GMA Channel 7] in 1978. On radio, serialized dramas are usually broadcast in five half-hour episodes from Monday to Saturday. Rea 1 1i fe drama on radio is more common than the comedy drama; on TV, there are almost the same number of both. Presentations on TV are often borrowed from the radio, for example, Tang Tarang-Tang (Daddy, Oh Daddy, Daddy), Kuwentong Kutsero (Fish Story), Habang May Buhay (As Long as There's Life), Kahapon Lamang (Just Yesterday), Gulong ng Palad (Wheel of Life), and Ito ang Inyong Tia Dely (This is Your Auntie Dely). Radio and TV are powerful public attractions. According to the study of J. Walter Thompson, 78 per cent of the families in the Philippines own a radio [Chanco III, 1976], the most popular programme is the drama [Perni to, 1972]. There were over 800,000 television sets in the Greater Manila area, so that some 59-70 per cent of the Greater Manila population enjoy home "theatre" [Chanco III, 1976]. Considering that the Filipino family is usually an extended family, and that the neighbours are close to one another, ignored.

the

influence

of

TV

on

a community cannot

be

Why are radio and TV so popular in the Philippines? Firstly, because of their relative 1ow cost a few turns of the electric meter or a few batteries 1ast the whole day. Secondly, they are easy to use as they are portable and accessible, and provide a variety of programmes at the flick of a switch.

Portrayals of Life and Reality in Radio and TV Drama Views or portrayals of life are a people's perception of reality and not reality per se. Reality is the existing condition and perception is the subjective estimate of this. 129

Views

of

life,

subjective views political

of

an

individual

or

a

collective,

like

of anything, vary according to the personal,

and social

grew up in a feudal

upbringing of an individual.

Anybody who

society should be expected to possess a

different perception from somebody who grew up in a capitalist society; perceptions within each of these may also vary with the social

status

of

a

person

in

such

societies

prosper while the poor are exploited.

where

the

rich

Views of life are also

dynamic, not static; a nation's view of life may change over time due to soc i eta 1 changes, or factors which they need to face the future.

It is also possible for the view of life of the ruling

class to be fed to the exploited class such that the latter's view of life will no longer be manifested. Present day radio and TV drama in the Phi 1 i ppi nes dull the perceptions of reality of the people instead of clarifying them. Without doubt radio and te 1 evi s ion produce a view of 1 i fe which greatly influence Filipino behaviour and thinking.

Radio and TV

stations are owned by those in the capitalist class, or to the c 1 ass that benefits from the present order in society and radio and TV feed the public with drama, and a variety of shows which all contain a view of life. may

alter

if

the

need

Unlike presentations on stage which occurs,

even

during

successive

performances, presentations on radio and TV are not continually repeated

and are,

therefore,

unchangeable.

The public accept

them as they are, prepared and controlled by the capitalists and their adherents.

In the context of this relationship between the

producers and the consumers of radio and TV drama, a number of views of life are distinguishable.

That Destiny Decides Everything on Earth Fate is the great Cause and consequent Effect of all that happens 130

in the world.

If one suffers today, it is God's test; if one is

happy, it is God's reward.

"We cannot resist Destiny, let us

accept His dictum", Auntie Lading always tells Loida whenever she asks for advice on her love for Raul, an ex-convict in Maja Vida This same view Is given by Midlng (~ayed by actress

[RPN DWWW].

Rosa Rosal) to her children grumbling over the little food they share

in

death:

a

scene

in

Ulila

(Orhpan)

soon

after

her

husband's

"Don't complain anymore.

At least, we have fried fish.

We have a lot to thank God for.

And continue your studies" in

Kailan

Sisikat ang Araw

(When Will

the Sun

Rise),

Ulila [BBC

Channel 2]. Destiny

is also

conflicts. (played

In

shown

Damdamin

by actress

as the giver of resolution to all

(Emotion)

Alicia

Alonzo)

7],

[GMA Channel is

Rosa Reyes

brought to court

by her

husband who maltreated, tyrannized, and 1eft her in his attempt to blackmail

her; Dante, the husband (played by Nante Montreal),

knows Rosa's secret which will send her to prison.

However, five

minutes before the end of the final episode, Dante is reported to have

been

killed

Investigation

by

(NBI).

the

agents

This

view

of

the

National

encourages

people

Bureau to

of

accept

destiny as the force behind everything, to accept life as it is. It removes their incentive, creativity and desire to change their way of 1 ife.

life Among the Poor is Peaceful As often shown in drama, the poor are blessed because the life of the rich is full of complications and problems.

In Kasaysayan ni

Aida Nunez (Story of Aida Nunez), True Confessions [DZPH], Aida Nunez,

the

only

daughter

of

a

industrious at home and in school. to

get

rich

even

through

unlawful

131

poor

couple,

1earns

to

be

Her father, in turn, strives means.

He succeeds.

Aida

experiences what it is to have a lot of money; she changes; begins to socialize; learns how to drink and smoke marijuana. Later, she becomes the "sugar mommy" of her boyfriend. Poor people are also happy.

In an old television show, My

Family Thr~~· Tina Revilla, Jingle and Frankie Navaja, Jr., have a dilapidated bus as their house but they are very happy and are occupied with nothing more than singing, dancing and caring for one another. In John and Marsha, the family of John (played by comedian Dolphy) try living in a beautiful apartment owned by his mother-in-law Dona Delilah (played by Dely Atay-Atayan). Finally John leads his family back to their old shanty because he feels more comfortable there. In Pinagpala (Blessed) [DZRN], mother and daughter Merced and Remedios are unhappy because their rise to riches goes to the head of Raymundo Alfon, the head of the family who becomes increasingly bad tempered and with their financial success.

ill-mannered

So, why should one strive to improve his lot? Those in poverty are lucky, for theirs is peace on earth, and glory in heaven. God loves the poor -- hence their great number. A camel can pass through the eye of a needle more easily than a rich man can enter the kingdom of God. From this, it is clear that if people in economic bondage who need independence listen daily to the message glorifying the poor in their condition, how can they possibly free themselves? People suffer poverty because only a few control the wealth of the country; surely every poor individual cannot be experiencing Shangri-la.

The Oppressed are Blessed It is common on Philippine radio and TV drama for the main character to be oppressed by those around him, or by destiny.

132

This is the typical situation of: or

daughter;

gambler; abused

a by

a woman child

her

who marries

with

a

master.

(Heartbeat)

and

victims

oppression

of

a mother with a delinquent son

very Even

karate

strict

the

Ramon first

unloving,

babysitter;

muscleman

expert in

a lazy, Vic

Zamora part

a

Vargas in

drunkardhousemaid in

Pintig

Monza,

a1 ways

of their

respective

shows, typify the ritualistic sufferings of Christ. Women, it seems, have been destined to portray the role of the oppressed.

Take,

for

example,

the beginning of the drama

Helen Remonteza: Helen Remonteza -- a woman, ready to shed tears, get hurt, face life, and shoulder the world of sufferings. Helen Remonteza -- will cry, hurt herself and sacrifice in the name of love. When slapped, Helen Remonteza is like Christ, offering the other cheek; after suffering, she forgives all in the end.

The Present Order Offers Hope After

every

evening

brightness of day.

comes

the

dawn;

after

the

storm

is

the

This is the message of each drama production:

sacrifice -- and tomorrow will be yours; Christ reached heaven after Calvary. The happy-ever-after ending is very common.

The unfaithful

husband will

come back; the delinquent child will

culprit shall

be punished; the innocent will receive material or

repent; the

spiritual reward.

This is reflected even in the titles:

na

(Forgotten

Madaling

Araw

Morn)

[DZXL];

Lumipas

Bukang-Liwayway

sa

Takipsilim (Dawn at Dusk) [DZRH]; Habang May Buhay (As Long as

133

There's Life) [IBC Channel 13]; and Gulong ng Palad [BBC Channel 2]. The narrator in a dramatized true-to-life story always spends a minute or two at the end mora 1 i zing and offering some hope and encouragement: "Don't 1ose hope. If you were robbed of your land, seek the help of the authorities. are the robbers, seek the help of

If the authorities

God~"

Drama has also created numerous defenders of the oppressed in: Luis Latigo (Luis, the Whip), Eddi Junior: Detektib (Eddie Junior, Detective), Johnny Davao, Lag a 1ag, Kapitan Ki dl at (Captain Thunder), Daria: ang Babaeng Lawin (Daria: the Woman Eagle), Monza, Kolbok, Cleopatra Jones, Ginang Hukom (Mrs Judge), Ginang Milyonarya (Millionairess), and Kuwatro Bravos (Four Brave Men). If justice prevails, there comes Ginang Hukom (Mrs Judge); if the powerful oppress, Kapitan Ki dl at (Captain Thunder) arrives to the rescue; and when deep in poverty, wait for the financial aid of Ginang Milyonarya. Why then should one spend energy thinking about the solution to oppression? Why not, with arms folded, just wait for the help of the supernatural heroes?

Everything in life is love If the problems in the drama are analysed, it will be seen that

love is the primary problem of man; 90 per cent of the dramas on radio and TV deal with love. Love is powerful In Makul ay na Dai gdi g ni Nora (Wonderful World of Nora) [RPN Channel 9], the mother of Nora is imprisoned because of her fury over her beloved. Nora, on the other hand, commits murder because of the loss of her lover. The last part was pitiful; the two criminals, mother and daughter, are together in one prison cell in the correctional institute.

134

Love is powerful ••• The rich man falls in love with a poor and uneducated woman. He gives up his riches just to marry the girl. Here, it is clear that the struggle between the rich and the poor is being covered up while an improbable love affair is fantasized between the two characters. Even the titles foreshadow the theme of 1 ove: Mga Kuwento ng Pag- i big (Love Stories) [RPN Channel 9], Damdamin [GMA Channel 7], Di ko Malilimot (I Will Never Forget) [RMN DZXL], Ala-ala ng Isang Awit (Memory of a Song) [RMN DZXL], Hi bi k ng Puso (Utterances of the Heart) [DZXL], Kapantay ay Langit (Up To the Heavens) [RPN DWWW], and Love Story [DZRH].

Drama as

Pasti~

There is a traditional alienation people: it

tradition in the Philippines of categorizing drama -or contemporary -- as a pastime. This has caused the of the content of drama from the vocation of the has become an escape from reality.

A clear example is the drama on the radio generally listened to by housewives and maids while working in the house. People listen to these, according to a study, to forget their problems and the hardships of everyday household chores. The main character in the drama is usually as preoccupied with problems as the listeners, but is portrayed such as to enliven and enlighten the depressed listeners. Drama is a pastime that teaches everybody to dream, escape, and become insensitive to the problems in society.

of

Comedy drama is similarly formulated as entertainment. Some them on radio include: John and Marsha, Buhay Artista

(Performer's World), Tang-Tarang-Tang, Son of My Son, Prinsipe Abante, and Baltic and Company on TV, and Jeprox Jr., Bionic 135

Atsay (Bionic Housemaid), Tambul i:

Ang Teksas na Pato (Tambul i:

the White Game Cock) and Larga Manak (Cockfighting). Laughter is already an institution, and jesting and making fun

are

very

Channel 2].

common.

Take

the

case of Tang- Tarang- Tang [BBC

It has been broadcast as Sebya, Mahal Kita (Sebya, I

Love You) as far back as the 1950s. through

other media

Yantok Mindoro ~--------~~ Father)

and

--

films

{Mindoro

Inaku

and

Rattan),

Tatang

Since then it has continued television

under the titles

Si Tatang Kasi ~~~~~~~

(Mother,

Look

at

(Because

Father)

--

of

with

practically the same script and cast.

In the original script by

Deer Flores, only Bentot was retarded.

With the passing of time,

Leroy Salvador, the older brother of Ben tot, acts in a seemingly retarded manner too.

Though already losing his hair, he is still

satisfied with ligaw-tingin (courting a girl by just looking at her and not by telling her of his feelings). Melodrama

on

the

causing them to fall

other

hand,

entertains

the

public

by

into tears while their favourite character

is maltreated by the strict mother or babysitter, a masochistic experience

after

which

the

audience

feel

relieved

and

forget

their own problems.

Portrayals of Life:

Truth or Illusion?

The view of life being fed to the Filipino people through radio and TV should be assessed in relation to the existing realities in

society.

Filipino.

Our In

country

is

not

a

paradise

for

the

average

it, 90 per cent of the people suffer poverty, a

situation that worsens with the passing of time and the rampant oppression all

over the

Philippines.

Class oppression exists:

workers are not all owed to stage strikes, the common people are not given the chance to speak out through the mass media, and the

136

country

is

ruled

by

the

power

of

the

gun

and

Oppression and poverty are not institutionalized. foreign investors exploit our natural wealth.

harassment.

Added to this,

If the Philippines

is a prison camp for its citizens, it is a paradise for these people.

Teaming up with the few powerful

rich Filipinos, these

foreigners control the radio and TV; they are the creators of the drama witnessed by the people. On the whole, Filipinos realize that they are being fed with nothing more than a feudalistic view of life: destiny and

fate,

and to

beyond the law to control Drama

has

existing

become social

an

accept their oppression

-- which

is

-- with love, tears and contentment.

anaesthetic

order.

to have faith in

The

for

the

pain

feudalistic

caused

by

the

of

life

is

view

maintained to perpetuate the colonial order in the country. While one

would expect a revolutionary impoverished

Filipino

people,

reaction they

from the

oppressed

and

seem

to

be

passive.

As some have commented, if what is happening in the

Philippines today had happened elsewhere those living there would have

revolted

a long time

ago.

Through colonization,

several

foreign powers have ruled over the Phil i ppi nes; now it is under martial

law.

Why is it that the people seem to have accepted

everything? No-- the Filipino people are not happy with their existing objective reality; life is both sad and full of hardships.

But

the views of life being fed to thern by those in power served to perpetuate

the

imbalanced

order.

Thus

fed

thus injected with anaesthetic, they dreamed:

137

with

make-believe,

they forgot.

REFEREt«:ES

Chanco, Pedro

Ill.

the Medium. Pernlto,

VIrgilio.

thesis!.

"Mass medIa and natlona I developement". In The Village to Communication Foundation for Asia, 1976.

Manila:

"Soap

Quezon City:

Vitug, Virgilio.

11 Pabrlka

Opera

and the Sexual Attitude of 1-busewlves" University of the Philippines, 1972.

ng luha at pantasya".

138

IM.A.

Sagslsag 14 (September 1975).