Perspectives in Environmental Research [1 ed.] 9781621001560, 9781612094441

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Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Perspectives in Environmental Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Perspectives in Environmental Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

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PERSPECTIVES IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

PERSPECTIVES IN ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH

JONATHAN M. GULLBERT

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

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Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

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Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Perspectives in environmental research / editor, Jonathan M. Gullbert. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN H%RRN 1. Pollution. 2. Environmental degradation. 3. Environmental protection. I. Gullbert, Jonathan M. TD176.7.P47 2011 577--dc22 2011003545

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

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CONTENTS vii 

Preface Chapter 1

Ecotox: A Versatile Tool for Biomonitoring of Aquatic Ecosystems Hoda Ahmed and Donat-Peter Häder 

Chapter 2

Agricultural Land-Use in Forest Frontier Areas: Theory and Evidence from Indonesia Miet Maertens, Manfred Zeller and Regina Birner 

25 

A Review of Participatory Forest Regeneration Endeavours in West Bengal, India Manas K. Mukhopadhyay, Suvomoy Adak and Asis Mazumdar 

43 

Resource Based Integrated Land Use Planning: A Case Study from Indian Coalfields Manas K. Mukhopadhyay and Indra N. Sinha 

61 

PAHs in Sediments Associated with Coal and Coal-Derived Particles -- Occurrence, Mobility and Risk Assessment Yi Yang and Thilo Hofmann 

87 

Chapter 3

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Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

New Trends on Phenological Modelling Herminia García Mozo 

Chapter 7

Impact Assessment of Household Preparations in Reducing Dietary Intake of Chlorpyrifos Residues Through Cabbage Heads (Brassica Oleracea Var. Capitata) Md. Wasim Aktar, Swarnali Purkait, Dwaipayan Sengupta and Ashim Chowdhury 

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

On the Redistribution of Tissue Metal (Cadmium, Nickel And Lead) Loads in Mink Accompanying Parasitic Infection by the Giant Kidney Worm (Dioctophyme renale) Glenn H. Parker and Liane Capodagli  Neem : A Great Boon to Mankind Wasim Aktar 

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97 

111 

119  151 

vi Chapter 10

Chapter 11

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Chapter 12

Contents Cover Crops, Tillage, and Glyphosate Effects on Chemical and Biological Properties of a Lower Mississippi Delta Soil and Soybean Yield R. M. Zablotowicz, K. N. Reddy, M. A. Weaver, A. Mengistu,   L. J. Krutz, R. E. Gordon and N. Bellaloui  Use of Microarrays to Study Environmentally Relevant Organisms: A UK Perspective Michael J. Allen, Andrew R. Cossins, Neil Hall, Mark Blaxter, Terry Burke and Dawn Field  Metagenomics and Directed Evolution Approaches for Bioleaching Microorganisms: A Review Bidyut R. Mohapatra, W. Douglas Gould, Orlando Dinardo and David W. Koren 

Chapter 13

Geochemistry of Acid Mine Drainage: A Review A. S. Sheoran, V. Sheoran and R. P. Choudhary 

Chapter 14

Phytocapping: An Innovative Technique to Reduce Methane Emission from Landfills Kartik Venkatraman and Nanjappa Ashwath 

Chapter 15

The Plant Pathology of Native Plant Restoration Anthony Caesar and Upendra Sanju 

Chapter 16

Interactive Toxicity of Binary Mixtures to Daphnia Magna Straus and Stenocypris Werneri Daday: A New Concept for Predicting Joint Action of Similarly and Dissimilarly Acting Chemicals S. A. Mansour, A. M. Ibrahim and A. W. Ibrahim 

Chapter 17

Thoughts for Stream Restoration: Link between Riparian, Instream Vegetation and Macroinvertebrates J. M. C. K. Jayawardana 

Index

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187 

203 

217 

245  259 

271 

299  325 

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PREFACE This new book presents and discusses current research in the study of the environment. Topics discussed include biomonitoring of aquatic ecosystems; agricultural land-use in forest frontier areas; resource-based integrated land-use planning; participatory forest regeneration; phenological modelling; the use of microarrays in the study of environmentally relevant organisms; geochemistry of acid mine drainage and thoughts for stream restoration. Chapter 1 - Water covers more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and is the most valuable natural resource on our planet. The rapid increase of human population and industrial development as well as expanding use of chemicals causes pollution to aquatic ecosystems; therefore the demand for methods to determine the damaging and hazardous effects is greater than ever. Ecotoxicology is a field that evaluates the effect of toxins on biological systems. It is a fundamental tool in monitoring pollutants in the environment, toxicity and pollutant identification. The bioassay ECOTOX is an automatic early warning system to monitor probable pollution of freshwater, urban or industrial waste waters or aquatic ecosystems. It uses a real time image analysis of movement and orientation parameters of unicellular flagellate algae, such as the photosynthetic freshwater Euglena gracilis. This organism was found to be severely affected upon exposure to many classes of toxins, such as heavy metals and organic pollutants at low concentrations. In order to expand the application of the instrument to brackish and saline waters, marine flagellates were also evaluated as acknowledged bioassay organisms, e.g. Dunaliella, Prorocentrum and Tetraselmis suecica. The instrument gives the user the opportunity to automatically determine effect-concentration (EC) curves from which several parameters provide important information about the level of toxicity. The NOEC (non observed effect concentration), EC50 and LD (lethal dose) values can be deduced from the data. The system is applicable for short-term (direct exposure to toxins) as well as long-term (incubation time with toxins) risk assessment. The review provides a detailed description of the ECOTOX instruments, about their applications and results obtained so far. Chapter 2 - In this paper the authors develop a spatially explicit economic land-use model that gives insights into the determinants of land-use patterns and how these patterns are affected by policy changes. The model explicitly takes into account the decision-making process as to why and where farmers convert the use of forest land. This is different from previous spatially disaggregated models – such as simulation models – where the underlying decision-making process is imposed. The micro-economic focus in this paper is crucial for understanding the ongoing human-induced land-use change process and is essential in the

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land-use change literature – that is dominated by natural scientists focusing on geophysical and agro-climatic processes. The model is extremely valuable to inform land-use policy as it specifies how individual decision makers will react to policy and other exogenous changes in their environment and how this response will alter the landscape. The model is derived from the von Thunen-Ricardo land rent model that describes landuse patterns as a result of variability in geophysical land attributes and differences in location and transport costs. However, this model is valid only under certain assumptions and is less suited to describe land-use patterns in forest frontier areas characterized by semi-subsistence agriculture and imperfect markets. The authors refine the model to account for the fact that agricultural prices and wages might be endogenously determined and households cannot be considered as profit maximizing agents. The authors empirically estimate the model for a forest-frontier area in Indonesia using a combination of data from satellite image interpretation, GIS data and a socio-economic survey data. The results demonstrate that differences in Ricardian land rent are important in determining spatial land-use patterns. However, they do not find evidence in support of the von Thunen idea that land-use patterns are determined by differences in transport costs. Rather the labor intensity of land-use systems, population levels, the access to technology and household characteristics matter. This has important implications for forest conservation and land-use policy. In addition, the refinement of the von Thunen-Ricardo land rent model – which incorporates more realistic descriptions of economic behavior – is justified by the empirical results. Chapter 3 - Large scale deforestation and degradation of forest land were recognized as the principal reasons behind gradually dwindling forest cover in India, about a couple of decades ago. Over exploitation of forest resources for collection of dried vegetation as fuel source and grazing of live stocks or even illegal felling of trees by the economically backward population living in the vicinity of forests were affecting the forest regeneration process. Magnitude of the problem is understandable when one considers that about 200 million of India's population of around one billion are partially or wholly dependent on forest resources for their livelihood. As the local government in various states attempted to protect the existing forests and develop additional areas for supply of commercial timber and other forest produce on a sustainable basis, conflicts arose in several areas between rural population and government. Local governments realized the need for a holistic solution and experimented with several measures to make up for the socio-economic fall outs and at the same time raise and protect the forests utilizing the native villagers. Building social capital assets were planned as “Entry point activity” and employment generation for the poor people were ingrained into the participatory process of Joint Forest Management (JFM). JFM is being practiced in 28 states and union territories in India has resulted in a turnaround of the situation. Encouraged by the results union government of India passed Forest Dwellers Act in 2006 to strengthen ownership rights of forest dwellers. The authors have analyzed and attempted to identify the lacunae still existing in the JFM approach based on the field studies carried out in selected areas in West Bengal state in India. Chapter 4 - Land use zoning is gaining increasing popularity in India, amongst environmentalists and planners alike, as an important instrument governing siting of industrial, commercial, residential and other uses of land. 'Environmentally compatible land use zoning' is gaining increasing acceptance as an essential tool for effecting environmentally sustainable development. Most of the environmental problems in mining/ industrial regions

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can, in one way or the other, be related to improper land use zoning. Through an implicit integration of environmental constraints into the basic planning procedure, the zoning system arrests an otherwise (business-as-usual scenario) spiralling environmental management cost. However, environmentally compatible micro level zoning system is yet to find its right place in Indian planning set-up. Land use is expected to be altered significantly in power grade coal bearing regions in India that typically have a mix of large opencast mining projects, thermal power plants and other associated industries in coalfields. Power grade coalfields in the country are in river valleys that host rivers and large tract of forests and agricultural lands amid a majority of tribal population. Need to carry out a scientific inquest into zoning study in the power grade coalfields in the country can hardly be over emphasized. The paper discusses a new micro level zoning method applied for a representative power grade coalfield in the country. The authors have attempted to devise a mechanism for optimizing spatial zoning as per need based zoning policy. The study area was divided into segments of land parcels for spatial analysis of each parcel. Behaviour of infrastructural, socio economic and environmental attributes was studied to identify the underlying economic forces and environmental need. Land use forms of segments or land parcels were logically integrated to evolve overall land use zoning. Chapter 5 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous hydrophobic organic contaminants in the environment. They tend to be associated with particles and are widely transported by flooding and atmospheric pathways, resulting in elevated concentrations in sediments/soils. Coal and coal-derived particles in natural sediments/soils can act not only as strong sinks for the PAHs, but also as very important sources of PAHs in sediments/soils. The understanding of the mobility of these contaminants from the sediments/soils is very important, because sorption/desorption, especially sequestration of PAHs by these coal and coal-derived particles in soils can control their transportation, bioavailability, degradation and hence the potential risk in the environment. Chapter 6 - Although phenology modelling has a long history, in recent years, given to the major impact of climate change on ecosystems, the number of studies modelling the response of plant phenology to climate has highly increased. Most of them have indicated the strong relationship between temperature and plant phenology, especially in woody plants. Nevertheless recent studies have also highlighted the influence of photoperiod on the flowering of late spring species and the importance of water availability for the herbaceous species. Mechanistic models describe reproductive phenology known cause-effect relationship of some driving factors in the plant environment. Recently process-based models allow including different bioclimatic factors and also the relationship among them in order to obtain a better description of the biological behaviour and therefore better prediction of phenological events. The reproductive phenology of plants is commonly assumed to be strongly related to local meteorology and also locally adapted to different climate ranges. Recent research suggests that local adptatation is not as great as expected, due to high levels of gene flow, marked year-on-year climate variation and the plasticity of phenology. Studies are showing that phenological models can be established for plant populations including individuals scattered over wide regional areas. Traditionally, plant flowering phenological studies have been concentrated on changes through time but patterns across space remains largely unexplored. In last years, the combined use of GIS and Geostatistics has been demonstrated as instrumental methods for

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spatial analysis in environmental studies and also plant distribution. Both tools applied on floral phenology studies will contribute to create phenological maps in base of a limited number of sampled locations. Finally, although the role of remote sensing in phenology studies, although is still under development, is increasingly regarded as a key on large areas studies. Given that remote sensing phenology is able to estimate start, peak, duration and end of growing season over large areas, the combined application of phenological models and remote sensing vegetative data can offer very valuable information about the evolution of reproductive phenology of large areas. Chapter 7 - Chlorpyrifos (Dursban 20 EC) was applied @ 300 g a.i. ha-1 in Cabbage heads and the samples harvested at intervals of 0, 1 and 5 days after application. The calculated half-life value and safe waiting period (6.8 and 35.2 days respectively), indicated its longer persistence. Thus, to reduce the safe waiting period, efforts were made to decontaminate the chlorpyrifos residue from Cabbage curd by various household preparations (viz. washing, cooking, washing plus cooking, salt water dipping, dipping in boiled salt water, dipping in detergent solution and dipping in boiled detergent solution). Statistical analysis of the data using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test revealed that various household processing substantially reduced the residue of chlorpyrifos in Cabbage heads in the range of 27.9-73.3 % but none were able to satisfactorily bring down the residue below the tolerance level of 0.05 mg/kg. A minimum of about twelve days was suggested as safe waiting period. Chapter 8 - Patterns of metal uptake and accumulation in mink living under conditions of environmental pollution and simultaneously inflicted with the invasive giant kidney worm (Dioctophyme renale) parasite have not been examined, nor is the combined effect of these dual insults on the health and physical condition of the animal known. Using animals collected within the influence of the long-active ore-smelters at Sudbury, Ontario, an examination was made of toxic metal (Cd, Ni and Pb) levels and their tissue distributions within adult male mink bearing different intensities of parasite infection. Higher metal burdens were indicated within infected specimens than those uninfected. Combined renal and hepatic nickel and lead burdens were highest for mink with multiple worm infections, although only lead accumulations reached statistical significance. Cadmium accumulated to the greatest extent in the hypertrophied left kidney and liver, whereas nickel and lead were deposited more readily in the bony spicule of the parasitized right kidney cyst. The relative distribution of cadmium among renal, hepatic and renal cyst tissues (cast, spicule, worms) remained unchanged subsequent to D. renale infection, while the proportions of nickel and lead deposited in hepatic tissue were reduced. Metal burdens in female D. renale were threefold higher than those of male worms, with the difference being attributable to the substantially greater size of the females. Canonical Correlation Analyses of condition measures and body metal burdens failed to indicate a direct relationship between infection intensity and body fat deposits but did confirm a positive association between metal loads and increased fat levels, along with enhanced gonad weights, neck circumference and reduced spleen weights. Such associations may be productive aspects for future investigation into the combined effects of increased metal loads and parasitic infection on the host system. Chapter 9 - The Latin name of Neem is Azadirachta indica to Juss (syn: Melia indica Brandis, Melia azdirachta Linn and Melia parviflora Moon ) and the species belongs to the family Meliaceae. Well known since ancient times in the Indian subcontinent, neem has several common names in different languages.

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Chapter 10 - The adoption of sustainable cropping systems, including cover crops and notillage practices can promote soil conservation and improve soil quality. However, the selection of the best management practices to increase crop production is needed. A field study was conducted from 2001 to 2005 at Stoneville, MS, on a Dundee silt loam soil to assess the effects of cover crop (rye [Secale cereale L.], hairy vetch [Vicia villosa Roth], or none), tillage [conventional tillage (CT) or no-tillage (NT)] and herbicide (glyphosate or nonglyphosate post emergence), on soil chemical properties, soil microbial ecology, and soybean yield. Cover crops were killed before soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) planting, incorporated into CT soils, and left on surface in NT soils. Soil (0 to 5 cm depth) was sampled at planting, and mid season following soybean planting. Soil was analyzed for total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen content (TNC), nitrate, electrical conductivity, and soil moisture. Biological parameters included fluorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis, total bacteria, gramnegative bacteria and total fungi propagules, and microbial community analysis based on total fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis. The greatest accumulation of TOC and TNC was under NT, particularly under cover crop management. NT soils, especially under cover crop management maintained the highest soil moisture content. Soils managed under a hairy vetch cover crop maintained at least two-fold greater soil nitrate and electrical conductivity compared to no cover crop regardless of tillage. FDA hydrolysis was 55 to 120% greater under NT compared to CT with the highest activity associated with cover crop managed soils. Patterns of microbial community structure were dependent on year and sample time dependent with a greater effect of tillage compared to cover crop. Soybean yields were consistently similar under CT and NT systems. Despite the beneficial effects on soil properties, soybeans grown with rye cover crop, regardless of CT or NT system, consistently yielded lower compared to hairy vetch or no cover crop. Adoption of cover crop-based systems by soybean farmers is less likely due to additional costs. Alternatively, soybean farmers are more likely to adopt NT-based production systems to potentially increase soybean yield and improve soil quality. Chapter 11 - Historically, the majority of microarray work has been restricted to welldefined model organisms. This was primarily due to the limited availability of genomic or transcriptomic sequence data and the then high cost involved in developing microarrays. However, recent technological developments have greatly enhanced the speed of generating the underpinning sequence data for non-model species, and have opened up more costeffective approaches for microarray production to make them far more affordable for researchers at the lower end of the budget range. These developments have been seized upon by the environmental genomics community within the UK. The creation of a network of closely integrated facilities for sequencing, microarray printing and bioinformatics has opened the gateway for the study of environmentally relevant organisms. Here, we describe the infrastructure for microarray development within the UK, and the diverse applications for which they are currently being used. Chapter 12 - The bioleaching microbial communities comprised of sulfur- and ironoxidizing bacteria and archaea have attracted significant industrial interest as potential biocatalysts in eco-friendly recovery of base and precious metals, including Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Ag and Au from low-grade sulfide ores, and in bioremediation of toxic sulfide- and heavy metals-containing industrial waste effluents. Considerable efforts have been devoted in the identification of the mechanism of enzymatic regulatory pathways and the gene(s) encoding the enzymes responsible for catalysis of iron and inorganic sulfur compounds. The

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recognition that >99% of microorganisms in most environments cannot be cultured by standard methods stimulated the development of metagenomics: the genomic analysis of uncultured microorganisms. This paper provides an overview on the diversity of microorganisms involved in the bioleaching processes, and the advantages of application of metagenomics and directed evolution approaches for efficient utilization of bioleaching microorganisms. Chapter 13 - Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and the contaminants associated with it is the most persistent environmental pollution problem, which occurs worldwide in the coal/metal mining regions. It occurs as a result of natural oxidation of sulphide minerals contained in the mining wastes at operating/closed/decommissioned mine sites. Once it develops at a mine, its control can be difficult and expensive. Treatment of AMD usually costs more than control of AMD and may be required for many years after mining activity is ceased. Thus the early diagnosis of the problem would reduce the potential role of AMD generation and controlling the factors responsible for generation. The focus of this paper is on the review of basic chemistry involved in the generation of AMD and presents the various factors, which control the rate and extent of AMD generation. Chapter 14 - Greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide are produced from landfill when the waste comes in contact with water. Various techniques such as clay capping are used to minimise percolation of water into the waste and gas flaring and gas recovery systems are installed to reduce methane emission into the atmosphere. Flaring and recovery systems for reducing methane gas are very expensive for smaller and medium sized landfill (< 100,000 tonnes/annum) and the use of clay cap has proven to be ineffective in avoiding percolation of water (Albright et al. 2004) which controls methane emission. Thus, an alternative technique known as ‘Phytocapping’ was trialled at Rockhampton’s Lakes Creek Landfill using two soil depths of (700 mm and 1400 mm) of soil cover and 21 tree species. Methane emissions at the surface as well as at various depths of the two phytocaps were monitored. Results from this study show that Phytocaps can reduce surface methane emission 4 to 5 times more than the adjacent un-vegetated site, and the thick cap (1400 mm) reduces surface methane emission 45% more than the thin cap (700 mm). The root zone effects of 19 tree species on methane emission were also examined. The study also compared methane flux between phytocaps and non-vegetated sections of the same landfill. Results demonstrate that phytocapping technique can reduce surface methane flux by 75% - 85% compared to its adjacent non-vegetated site. Chapter 15 - It will be argued that restoration of ecologically degraded sites will benefit from the convergence of knowledge drawn from such disparate and often compartmentalized (and heretofore not widely considered) areas of research as soil microbial ecology, plant pathology and agronomy. Restoration following biological control will be discussed to highlight issues that we regard as more widely applicable to general restoration science and ecology. A main focal point of future restoration work in natural areas will be sites that were infested with exotic invasive plants. Invasive plant species has been shown cause soil microbial communities that significantly differ from those of prominent native species in the same habitat. These changes are further compounded by the effects on the microbial communities of control measures applied to large scale, heavy infestation of invasive species. Greater understanding of the effects of such an altered soil microbial ecology on the ability to establish or reestablish native forbs will be drawn from working within the intersection of ecological restoration science soil microbiology, plant pathology, and agronomy. The

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necessity of isolating, culturing and testing the effects of key members of the soil and rhizosphere microflora on native forbs and grasses intended for use as restoration species will be discussed. The importance of applying knowledge of such soil quality factors as soil aggregating fungi and bacteria will also be emphasized. This review is intended to develop a new perspective that the authors hope will provoke discussion of how multidisciplinary work can aid native species restoration. Chapter 16 - In aquatic toxicology, two different concepts, termed concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA), have been advanced to describe general relationship between the effects of single substances and the corresponding mixtures for similarly and dissimilarly acting substances, respectively. What so-called "cotoxicity factor (TF), based on simple formula, was earlier used for predicting joint action of binary pesticide mixtures against an insect species. In the present study, the above mentioned concepts were used to assess interactive toxicity of 15 binary mixtures of 6 heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn), as well as a total of 48 binary mixtures of the above mentioned metals with eight different pesticides (abamectin, bupirimate, fenarimol, fluazifop-butyl, imidacloprid, methomyl, niclosamide and triazophos). The bioassays were conducted on the single substances and the binary mixtures using two microcrustacean organisms; Daphnia magna Straus and Stenocypris werneri Daday. Copper was the most acutely toxic metal to D. magna (EC50 = 0.0002 ppm) and S. werneri (EC50 = 0.0012 ppm), while chromium was the least (EC50 = 0.73 ppm and 0.89 ppm, respectively). Niclosamide followed by abamectin showed superior acute toxicity to both organisms, and Daphnia seemed to be extremely sensitive than the ostracod, by an order of magnitude reached 90 and 60 folds, respectively. Joint action analysis based on CA concept, against D. magna, resulted in 2 heavy metal mixtures of additive effects, one mixture of more than additive and 12 mixtures of antagonistic effects. All the fifteen metal mixtures showed antagonistic effects against S. werneri. Regarding to mixtures of heavy metals with pesticides, as analyzed by IA concept, the majority of interaction was accounted to antagonism followed by synergism and additive for both tested organisms. The results of joint action estimated by cotoxicity factor (TF) method showed an agreement with the results of CA method accounting to 93-100% and 79% with IA method. Therefore, the TF model as a simple method was suggested to assess the interactive toxicity of binary mixtures of having either similar or dissimilar mode of action, as well as to be used in conjunction with the methods based on CA and IA models. Chapter 17 - Stream macroinvertebrates form an important link between levels of aquatic food chain. They may influence productivity and biodiversity on stream ecosystems and can have significant influence on aquatic ecosystem. The riparian zone plays a crucial role in linking stream ecosystems and their catchments. The energy budgets of the riparian zone and the lotic environment have a close link to aquatic biota. Instream vegetation also plays an important role in stream ecological functions and invertebrate production. In river restoration work, considerations of these important ecological processes are very important to maintain its health. This review discusses the effects of riparian and instream vegetation on lotic ecological processes and aquatic biota with special reference to macroinvertebrates. Examples are given from Australian river restoration work that faces the challenge of exotic riparian vegetation removal and revegetation of native species and their influence over stream ecological processes and aquatic biota. This review highlights the importance of riparian and instream vegetation management in river restoration work to maintain an ecological balance in rivers and streams.

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Versions of these chapters were also published in Environmental Research Journal, Volume 4, Numbers 1-4, edited by Frank Columbus, published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. They were submitted for appropriate modifications in an effort to encourage wider dissemination of research.

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In: Perspectives in Environmental Research Ed: Jonathan M. Gullbert

ISBN: 978-1-61209-444-1 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

ECOTOX: A VERSATILE TOOL FOR BIOMONITORING OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Hoda Ahmed and Donat-Peter Häder Department für Biologie, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Staudtstr. 5, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany

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ABSTRACT Water covers more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and is the most valuable natural resource on our planet. The rapid increase of human population and industrial development as well as expanding use of chemicals causes pollution to aquatic ecosystems; therefore the demand for methods to determine the damaging and hazardous effects is greater than ever. Ecotoxicology is a field that evaluates the effect of toxins on biological systems. It is a fundamental tool in monitoring pollutants in the environment, toxicity and pollutant identification. The bioassay ECOTOX is an automatic early warning system to monitor probable pollution of freshwater, urban or industrial waste waters or aquatic ecosystems. It uses a real time image analysis of movement and orientation parameters of unicellular flagellate algae, such as the photosynthetic freshwater Euglena gracilis. This organism was found to be severely affected upon exposure to many classes of toxins, such as heavy metals and organic pollutants at low concentrations. In order to expand the application of the instrument to brackish and saline waters, marine flagellates were also evaluated as acknowledged bioassay organisms, e.g. Dunaliella, Prorocentrum and Tetraselmis suecica. The instrument gives the user the opportunity to automatically determine effect-concentration (EC) curves from which several parameters provide important information about the level of toxicity. The NOEC (non observed effect concentration), EC50 and LD (lethal dose) values can be deduced from the data. The system is applicable for short-term (direct exposure to toxins) as well as long-term (incubation time with toxins) risk assessment. The review provides a detailed description of the ECOTOX instruments, about their applications and results obtained so far.

Keywords: Bioassay, Ecotoxicology, ECOTOX, aquatic ecosystems, Euglena gracilis

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Hoda Ahmed and Donat-Peter Häder

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INTRODUCTION Anthropogenic impacts that can stress aquatic ecosystems and expose them to risk originate from a variety of point and non-point sources. Several natural and chemical materials have been used and released without awareness of the possible impact on the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems [Cairns, 2006]. Freshwater pollutants have been monitored mainly by physical and chemical techniques [Hattingh, 977]. Bioavailability and accumulation of pollutants in natural environment is considered as a problem of many disciplines. In this context knowledge of the effective toxin concentration, which cause environmental damage, is of great interest to determine the toxin fate in the biosphere. Ecotoxicology is the science of the impact of toxic substances on living organisms [Fent, 1998]. Diverse approaches such as environmental chemistry, biochemistry, toxicology, and ecology are in demand to cover the tremendous assignment but also important task of appraising the increased influence of pollutants to our environment [Streb and Häder, 2003]. However, these studies have many shortages as they provide inadequate information on unknown hazardous compounds and their potential harmful effects on human and aquatic ecosystems [Cairns and Gruber, 1979]. Due to the fact that living organisms can reflect the integral of environmental conditions including affirmative and destructive chemical impacts by responding to the biologically active components in complex chemical waste, the use of bioassays has become an alternative and increasingly important approach in the monitoring and control of water toxicity [Cairns et al. 1977; Keddy et al. 1995]. Bioassays are methods that use biological organisms to detect the impact of these substances on certain species [Streb et al. 2002b]. Bioassays provide a more direct measure of environmentally relevant toxicity of contaminated sites than do chemical analyses [Keddy et al.1995]. This assay does not allow determining a particular chemical substance but it points to the existence of a contaminant above a potentially harmful threshold. Algal bioassays have been widely used in Europe for the last years. Algae are considered as effective bioindicators due to their abundance in aquatic habitats and quick response to environmental pollution [Streb et al. 2002a; Turbak et al. 1986; Walsh and Merrill, 1984]. Consequently tests using single organisms have achieved the most popularity due to their simplicity, reliability and good quality. Many parameters are used as endpoints, growth rate inhibition tests are those of common use [Nyhlom and Källqvist, 1989]. Furthermore, [Häder, 1997a] proposed to use other physiological parameters such as motility and cell shape in Euglena gracilis Klebs for reliable monitoring of water toxicity.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF ECOTOX FOR ECOTOXICOLOGY RESEARCH Various biological tests have been used to monitor the impacts of the chemical contaminants on living organisms at different levels (molecular, physiological, biochemical and cellular, see Table 1). In view of the fact that most of these assays demand hours or days, development of a rapid biomonitoring system is of high significance. ECOTOX is an automatic early warning system to measure toxicity of freshwater, urban or industrial waste waters or aquatic ecosystems. It is based on a real time image analysis of

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the motility and orientation parameters of the eukaryotic unicellular, photosynthetic flagellate Euglena gracilis [Tahedl and Häder. 1999a; 2001]. Table 1. Different examples of aquatic biotests Water sample

Toxic substance of known concentration

Unknown water sample

Organism

Measured parameter

bioluminescence bacteria (e.g. Vibrio fischeri)

Bioluminescence

Green algae (e.g. Scenedesmus subspicatus)

growth rate

Higher plants (e.g. Lemna minor)

growth inhibition

water invertebrate (e.g. Daphnia magna)

mortality, motility

Fish

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(e.g. Leuciscus idus melanotus)

mortality, motility

Motility, velocity, orientation and cell form parameters of the tested organism are calculated during measurement, and differences of these parameters in comparison to control measurement are interpreted as inhibition effect. The system can be programmed so that automatic dilution of the water sample can be performed and concentration-effect relationships can be calculated and recorded automatically. A whole measurement process, including control and sample measurement and filling and rinsing of the system, requires ca. 10 min. The effects of several organic and inorganic toxic compounds on E. gracilis were tested and the calculated EC50 values compared with literature data for the bioluminescence test with Vibrio fischeri [Tahedl and Häder, 2001]. In addition, measurements of effluent samples from different plants, long-term experiments were also performed.

Hardware The orientation as well as movement parameters of the swimming flagellates were monitored by an automatic biotest instrument (ECOTOX, Real Time Computer, Möhrendorf, Germany, Figure 1). The hardware consists of a miniaturized microscope fixed in a horizontal position connected to a Firewire camera (DMK 21F04, Imaging Source, Bremen, Germany) sensitive to the infrared measurement beam. It produces a video signal which is transmitted to the host computer via a IEEE 1294 cable with a spatial resolution of 640 x 480 pixels plugged

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Hoda Ahmed and Donat-Peter Häder

into a PC computer. A vertical cuvette consists of glass windows in a stainless frame to allow object observation with an infrared light emitting diode (λ = 875 nm) as light source.

Mixing chamber

Valves

Pumps

Sample

Algae LED Observation chamber (cuvette)

Water Waste CCD camera Miniaturized microscope

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Figure 1. Schematic overview of the biomonitoring system ECOTOX.

This cuvette configuration avoids disturbance of the cells by external light sources preventing other physiological actions like phototactic movement and photosynthesis [Tahedl and Häder. 1999a]. In the case of phototaxis measurements, an extra high power blue lightemitting LED directed at an angle of 4° to the surface of the observation cuvette was used as actinic light source. Three stepper motor pumps (motors: PK245-03A, Oriental, Neuss; pumping heads: SPQ048, Möller Feinmechanik, Fulda, Germany) are used to transport the tested flagellate culture, rinsing water and water samples into the examination cuvette through a mixing chamber. The instrument is supplied by a built-in microprocessor connected to the host computer via serial interface, which enable the system to work and control its operational functions (pump, rinsing, dilution series etc.) independently. Two other physical parameters are measured automatically during observation: temperature and light intensity. ECOTOX has a leak alarm system which initiates an alarm if a leak of liquids from tubing or pumps is detected.

Software The basis of the software is the electronic image analysis which analyzes the movement vectors of the organisms. The incoming video signal is digitized in real time (25 frames per second) every 40 ms. Objects are detected by their gray value which differs from that of the

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background. In the bright field modus of ECOTOX 5.0 the objects are dark over a bright background. The computer is connected to a built-in microprocessor via the serial port of the computer (minimum requirement Pentium IV). The microprocessor is responsible for operational functions of the system (e.g. rinsing, dilution series etc.) [Tahedl and Häder, 2001]. The device is able to produce different concentrations of the toxin solution by an automatic dilution series (1:2, 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32) to construct dose-effect curves. A control measurement is done first using cell culture with distilled water. The system can also be set so that several measurements of a known concentration toxin sample are done at defined intervals which enable the user to perform long-term bioassays. The image from the Firewire camera, observing the swimming cells, is displayed on the computer screen. An overview of the ECOTOX screen is shown in Figure 2. Digitization is done at 8-bit resolution and the digitized picture is binarized in dark (object) and bright (background) areas by a threshold operation [Haberäcker, 1985]. The user can identify the objects for calculation using the program settings menu in the ECOTOX screen. In this settings menu the user can set the minimum and maximum area and speed of the objects to be tested. By these setting too big objects as well as too small ones can be eliminated from the calculated results. Movement vectors are calculated from five successive frames of the selected objects (time delay between two subsequent frames: 40 ms). The centers of gravity are calculated for all identified objects and the vectors of corresponding objects in the first and last frame are computed, from which all movement parameters are calculated. The principle of movement parameters calculation is discussed in detail in [Tahedl and Häder, 2001]. The recorded movement parameters from sample measurements are compared to those of the control and the inhibition is calculated and graphically displayed as inhibition percentage against the toxin concentration [Tahedl and Häder, 1999a; 1999b]. All data are stored in ASCII files and can be imported into Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, USA) for further analysis.

Figure 2. An overview of the ECOTOX screen.

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Hoda Ahmed and Donat-Peter Häder

A single measurement with ECOTOX requires short time between 1 and 5 min. During this interval all track vectors are used to calculate the motile parameters. This is done by the principle of the gliding mean. A predefined number of vectors are used for the calculation of the parameters.

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Operation Modi Three different operation modi can be used with the ECOTOX system; the system is rinsed before, between and after each single measurement with rinsing solution depending on the used test organisms (either distilled water in the case of E. gracilis or salt water with marine flagellates). In the control modus cells with or without water are pumped to the observation cuvette and measured over the user-defined tracking time, afterwards system is rinsed with distilled water. This modus is applicable to examine cell culture quality and long incubation times experiments. The used cell suspensions are changed manually, or a sampler has to be installed. In the single toxin modus, control sample mixed with water is measured first followed by measurement of five different toxicant concentrations produced from automatically dilution series (1:2, 1:4, 1:8, 1:16, and 1:32) of the stock solution. For this purpose the cell suspension is diluted in a way that the cell concentration is kept constant and the dilution of the toxin is changed by adding distilled water. This is done using the stepper motor peristaltic pumps (Table 2). This modus can be used to obtain effect-concentration curves and a fast indication of the tested sample toxicity level. In the on-line or the single toxin modes a control measurement without toxins is performed first, in which the cell suspension is diluted with distilled water 1:1 to eliminate dilution effect. The measured values of control sample are graphically displayed in green. Afterwards the test solution with the toxins is mixed with a new volume of the cell suspension (1:1), and the measurement is repeated. These measured data are shown in red. The inhibition percentage of each parameter is calculated by comparison of the overlapping areas of the green control curve and red inhibition curve. The decrease in area is represented graphically as percent inhibition and stored in an ASCII file. In the online modus control measurements alternate with sample measurement at regular time intervals. The observation cuvette is rinsed automatically with distilled water between and after measurements.

Measured Parameters Several parameters can be measured using ECOTOX. The motility parameter indicates the percentage of motile cells; the percentage of cells swimming upward against the vector gravity is given by the parameter upward. The r-value shows the precision of gravitactic or phototactic orientation (Batschelet, 1981), which ranges between zero (random movement) and one (precise orientation of all organisms in the same direction). The r-value is calculated using the following formula:

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Table 2. The following scheme shows the necessary motor steps of each pump to define each concentration

Dilution factor 2 4 8 16 32

Mixing ratio

Steps of the pumps for

Sample Total

Distilled Water

Cell suspension

Sample

1:2 1:4 1:8 1:16 1:32

0 1 3 7 15

1 2 4 8 16

1 1 1 1 1

2

⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ns ⎛ ns ⎜⎜ ∑ sin α i ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ∑ cos α i ⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ i =1 ⎝ i =1 R-value: ns

2

The alignment parameter describes the cell swimming direction whether more vertically (positive values >0-1) or horizontally (negative values chi2 Pseudo R² Log Likelihood Robust Std. z Err.

55,464 12,945 0.000 0.380 -27,211 P>|z|

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Annual Crops LAG SLOPE SLOPE_LAG ELEV ASP ASP² TORIVER TOROAD TOVILL TOCITY TOCITY² TODISTRICT PARK lnPOP* POPWORK IRR_YRS Constant Perennial Crops LAG SLOPE SLOPE_LAG ELEV ASP ASP² TORIVER TOROAD TOVILL

0.8788 0.9410 1.0023 0.8047 0.9939 1.0000 0.7828 0.9982 0.5626 0.9351 1.0005 0.9862 0.2348 1.2459 1.0206 1.0048

-0.1292 -0.0608 0.0023 -0.2173 -0.0061 0.0000 -0.2449 -0.0018 -0.5752 -0.0671 0.0005 -0.0139 -1.4489 0.2199 0.0204 0.0047 2.9431

0.0123 0.0244 0.0013 0.0357 0.0020 0.0000 0.0910 0.0018 0.1183 0.0113 0.0001 0.0087 0.2325 0.1688 0.0106 0.0070 1.3890

-10.52 -2.50 1.74 -6.09 -3.14 2.11 -2.69 -1.03 -4.86 -5.93 5.82 -1.61 -6.23 1.30 1.92 0.68 2.12

0.000 0.013 0.082 0.000 0.002 0.035 0.007 0.304 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.108 0.000 0.193 0.054 0.497 0.034

0.9565 0.9760 1.0014 0.7016 0.9864 1.0000 0.9931 1.0008 0.6176

-0.0445 -0.0243 0.0014 -0.3544 -0.0137 0.0000 -0.0070 0.0008 -0.4819

0.0121 0.0175 0.0007 0.0304 0.0018 0.0000 0.0907 0.0016 0.0754

-3.68 -1.39 2.02 -11.65 -7.44 4.88 -0.08 0.52 -6.39

0.000 0.165 0.043 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.939 0.606 0.000

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Agricultural Land-Use in Forest Frontier Areas TOCITY TOCITY² TODISTRICT PARK lnPOP* POPWORK IRR_YRS Constant Grassland LAG SLOPE SLOPE_LAG ELEV ASP ASP² TORIVER TOROAD TOVILL TOCITY TOCITY² TODISTRICT PARK lnPOP* POPWORK IRR_YRS Constant

37

0.9383 1.0004 0.9921 0.4452 1.3876 1.0095 0.9827

-0.0637 0.0004 -0.0079 -0.8093 0.3276 0.0095 -0.0175 3.7524

0.0098 0.0001 0.0080 0.1892 0.1835 0.0111 0.0060 1.3486

-6.48 5.55 -0.98 -4.28 1.79 0.85 -2.93 2.78

0.000 0.000 0.325 0.000 0.074 0.393 0.003 0.005

0.8121 0.9841 1.0018 0.9086 0.9932 1.0000 1.0055 0.9941 1.0473 0.9809 1.0003 0.9767 0.1164 0.8251 1.0208 0.9974

-0.2082 -0.0160 0.0018 -0.0958 -0.0068 0.0000 0.0055 -0.0059 0.0463 -0.0193 0.0003 -0.0236 -2.1505 -0.1923 0.0206 -0.0026 0.6011

0.0215 0.0286 0.0016 0.0452 0.0019 0.0000 0.0692 0.0025 0.0497 0.0218 0.0002 0.0161 0.3463 0.3801 0.0215 0.0162 3.1487

-9.67 -0.56 1.10 -2.12 -3.59 3.70 0.08 -2.37 0.93 -0.88 2.02 -1.47 -6.21 -0.51 0.96 -0.16 0.19

0.000 0.576 0.270 0.034 0.000 0.000 0.937 0.018 0.352 0.377 0.043 0.142 0.000 0.613 0.337 0.874 0.849

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* Instrumented variable

The probability to find annual crops relative to forest is higher on flatter plots with a higher elevation, on less northward sloping hillsides, on plots closer to rivers and village centers, and outside the National Park. The same is true for perennial crops but the effects of slope and distance to rivers are a lot smaller and not statistically significant. The probability of a plot being allocated to agricultural land use, annual or perennial crops, is higher in villages closer to cities and district capitals and in villages with a larger population and work force. In addition, access to irrigation decreases the likelihood of perennial crops relative to forest cover. The probability to find grassland relative to forest is higher on plots at a lower altitude, further away from roads and in villages closer to cities and district capitals.

Implications of the Empirical Model The results of the multinominal logit model indicate that geophysical land characteristics are very important factors in determining the spatial land-use pattern. Other spatially explicit land-use studies also found highly significant effects of topographic features and other geophysical land characteristics on the probability of certain land-use types or land-use changes (e.g. Nelson and Hellerstein, 1997; Cropper et al., 2001; Deininger and Minten,

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Miet Maertens, Manfred Zeller and Regina Birner

2002; Müller and Zeller, 2002). The estimated effect of slope and lagged slope on the probability of agricultural land use relative to forest is negative while the interaction term of slope and lagged slope has a positive effect. This means that agriculture is found more often on flatter plots and in less mountainous surroundings. Yet, the probability to find agricultural land on steeper plots is higher in more mountainous surroundings. Further, annual crops are found closer to rivers and on less steep slopes, which indicates that (potential) agricultural yields of annual crops are determined to a large extent by topographic characteristics and access to water. The likelihood of perennial crops relative to forest is less influenced by the slope of the plot. In addition, the estimated effects show that agricultural land use becomes less likely and forest more likely with increasing elevation. The results demonstrate that differences in Ricardian land rent are very important in explaining the present land-use pattern. The location of a plot in relation to villages and roads is hypothesized to be crucial in determining land use. The results show that the distance to populated centers has a much larger effect on land use than the distance to roads, which is statistically not significant4. For each additional five kilometer away from a village center, it is 18 times less likely to find annual crops and 11 times less likely to find perennial crops compared to forest5. Further, the accessibility to cities and major towns might matter. We find that with every ten kilometer distance between the village center and the district capital, it becomes 1.15 times less likely to find annual crops and 1.08 times less likely to find perennial crops compared to forest. It is almost two times less likely to find perennial or annual crops on plots in villages located ten kilometer further away from the city. These results indicate that the distance from plots to village centers is much more important in determining land use than the distance from villages to towns and markets. As in other spatially explicit economic land-use studies, the model for the Lore Lindu region shows that the attributes and the location of plots influence land use. However, most studies find a much larger impact of access to roads (e.g. Deininger and Minten, 2002; Müller and Zeller, 2002). Our results indicate that the location of plots with respect to roads is not important at all in determining the land-use type. Rather, the location of plots in relation to village centers and to a lesser extent the access of villages to markets matters. The land-use pattern in the Lore Lindu region is centered on villages rather than around roads and major markets, which relates to the history of the area. Villages might have a long history of establishment while roads were built more recently to connect villages. The spatial land-use pattern is quite different than for instance in the Amazon regions, which are characterized by road colonization implying clearance and settlement of forested areas after roads have been built. The land-use pattern is centered on villages with annual crops cultivated closer to the village and perennial crops further away at forest margins. This could be related to the fact 4

5

To exclude the possibility that the effect of distance to roads is statistically not significant because of multicollinearity problems, we estimated the multinominal regression dropping all other cost-of-access variables that are correlated to some extent with distance to roads. The estimated effects of distance to roads and the level of significance did not change much, which demonstrates that there is no multicollinearity problem for the variable. The variable TOVILL is measured in km and the estimated coefficients for this variable are –0.5752 and – 0.4819 for annual crops and perennial crops respectively. So, the odds ratio for a five units (= 5 km) change is 1/exp (-0.5752*5)=18 for annual crops and 1/exp (-0.4819*5)=11 for perennial crops. Other odds ratios can be calculated in similar way.

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that village centers are located in flatter areas, which are more suitable for the cultivation of annual crops. However, differences in topographic features are accounted for in the model. Also in villages without much topographic variation the same land-use pattern emerges. The relation between distance to the village and the likelihood to find annual respectively perennial crops is likely associated with differences in labor intensity. Land-use systems based on the cultivation of annual crops are more labor intensive than systems with perennial crops. More labor-intensive land-use systems are located closer to village centers and less labor-intensive systems further away because this reduces the time spent to reach the fields. The variable expressing distance to the city and its square have an opposite sign with an inflection point around 70 kilometer. This implies a U-shaped relation between distance to the city and the likelihood of agriculture land use relative to forest. The interpretation of this result is not straightforward and should be done with some caution. On the one hand, in villages closer than 70 kilometer from the city, the probability of agriculture decreases with distance to the city at an increasing rate. Since villages closer to the cities are better connected to the road network this could mean that the cost-of-access rather than the Euclidian distance between villages and cities matters. Better access to markets and lower transport costs increase the profitability of farming and increase the likelihood of agriculture relative to forest. On the other hand, in villages further than 70 kilometer from the city, the probability of agriculture increases with distance to the city. This could imply that in villages further from the market agriculture is more extensive, resulting in a lower probability of forest cover. In addition, remote villages are also more mountainous such that agriculture and forest compete for less suitable land. Further, we find that the probability to find annual crops relative to forest is much more influenced by the distance to district capital towns than is the case for perennial crops. Concerning the accessibility to major cities, similar effects are found for both land-use types. Annual crops constitute food crops such as rice and corn while perennial crops are usually export crops such as coffee and cocoa. Hence, the results suggest that local markets in the district capital towns are more important for trade of food crops while cities are important for the marketing of both food crops and export crops. The original von Thunen model and its application in spatial land-use models emphasize the importance of differences in transport costs for different crops in determining the spatial pattern of land use. Since the effect of distance to the city is not different for annual crops than for perennial crops, we do not find much evidence in support of this idea. The differences in transport costs between rice, the major annual crop, and cocoa beans, the major perennial crop product, might not be that large because these are both bulk products, which are quite easily transported. Further, the results demonstrate that inside the Lore Lindu National Park it is 4.3 times less likely to find annual crops, 2.2 times less likely to find perennial crops and 8.6 times less likely to find grassland compared to forest. The forest inside the National Park is less likely to be cleared, which suggests that the establishment of a National Park is to some extent effective for forest conservation. Yet, the forest inside the National Park is more likely to be cleared for the cultivation of perennial crops than for the cultivation of annual crops. There are several possible explanations for this observation. First, the borders of the National Park are set along topographic features and the land inside the Park is less suitable for the cultivation of annual crops. Second, the risk of being caught (and fined) is less because plots with perennial crops inside the forest are less conspicuous. Third, the risk of being caught while working on the plot is less because perennial crops are less labor demanding. Fourth, it

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is easier to avoid fines by claiming to have planted perennial crops already before the demarcation of the National Park. Next, we find that access to an improved irrigation system reduces the probability of perennial crops compared to forest. This implies that technical progress for paddy rice cultivation reduces pressure on forests. The results show that the likelihood of agricultural land use compared to forest increases with population and the share of workers in the population. A one percent increase in village population increases the probability of perennial crops and annual crops relative to forest with 33 and 22 percent respectively. With every five percent increase in the share of workers among the village population, it becomes 1.1 times more likely to find annual crops and 1.04 times more likely to find perennial crops relative to forest. Excluding the effects that are statistically not significant, these results point to the importance of population in shaping the spatial land-use pattern. There is not much evidence for a substantial effect of population and other socioeconomic variables in spatial land-use models in the literature. However, the effect might have been obscured due to the difference in aggregation level between land-use data at the pixel level and socioeconomic data at a much more aggregated level. For example, Cropper et al. (2001) and Deininger and Minten (2002) included district-level population into a spatial land-use model and find no significant effect. The aggregation bias might have led to an erroneous conclusion about the effect of population and other socioeconomic factors on land-use change and deforestation. Our model using village-level data might be better suited to elucidate the effects of socioeconomic factors on spatial land-use patterns.

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5. CONCLUSION We can conclude that the refinement of the von Thunen – Ricardo model to let prices (especially relative wages) be determined not solely by transport costs to a major output market, has provided a good basis for a description of the spatial land-use pattern in the Lore Lindu region. Land use is very much determined by differences in geophysical land characteristics and is centered around villages with labor-intensive land-use systems closer to populated centers. Differences in population levels, the available technology and the location of major markets and towns further shape the spatial land-use pattern.

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Cropper, M., J. Puri, and C. Griffiths. 2001. Predicting the Location of Deforestation: The Role of Roads and Protected Areas in North Thailand. Land Economics. 77: 172-186. Deininger, K. and B. Minten. 1999. Poverty, Policies, and Deforestation: The Case of Mexico. Economic Development and Cultural Change. 47:313-343. Fox, J., R. Kanter, S. Yarnasarn, M. Ekasingh, and R. Jones. 1994. Farmer Decision Making and Spatial Variables in Northern Thailand. Environmental Management. 18: 391-399. Gobin, A., P. Campling, and J. Feyen. 2002. Logistic Modelling to Derive Agricultural Land Use Determinants: A Case Study from Southeastern Nigeria . Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 89: 213-228. Irwin, E.G. and J. Geoghegan. 2001. Theory, Data, Methods: Developing Spatially Explicit Economic Models of Land Use Change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 85: 7-23. Lambin, E.F., M.D.A. Rounsevell, and H.J. Geist. 2000. Are Agricultural Land-Use Models Able to Predict Changes in Land-Use Intensity? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 82:321-331. Liu, D.S., L.R. Iverson, and S. Brown. 1993. Rates and Patterns of Deforestation in the Philippines: Application of Geographic Information System Analysis. Forest Ecology and Management. 57:1-16. Mertens, B. and E.F. Lambin. 1997. Spatial Modelling of Deforestation in Southern Cameroon - Spatial Desegregation of Diverse Deforestation Processes. Applied Geography. 17:143-162. Mertens, B. and E.F. Lambin. 2000. Land-Cover-Change Trajectories in Southern Cameroon. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 90:467-494. Munroe, D., J. Southworth, and C.M. Tucker. 2002. The Dynamics of Land-Cover Change in Western Honduras: Exploring Spatial and Temporal Complexity. Agricultural Economics. 27:355-369. Müller, D. and M. Zeller. 2002. Land Use Dynamics in the Central Highlands of Vietnam: A spatial Model Combining Village Survey Data and Satellite Imagery Interpretation. Agricultural Economics. 27:333-354. Nelson, G.C. 2002. Introduction to the Special Issue on Spatial Analysis for Agricultural Economists. Agricultural Economics. 27:197-200. Nelson, G.C. and J. Geoghegan. 2002. Deforestation and Land Use Change: Sparse Data Environments. Agricultural Economics. 27:201-216. Nelson, G.C., V. Harris, and S.W. Stone. 2001. Deforestation, Land Use, and Property Rights: Empirical Evidence from Darien, Panama. Land Economics. 77:187-205. Nelson, G.C. and D. Hellerstein. 1997. Do Roads Cause Deforestation? Using Satellite Images in Econometric Analysis of Land Use. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 79:80-88. Serneels, S. and E.F. Lambin. 2001. Proximate Causes of Land-Use Change in Narok District, Kenya: A Spatial Statistical Model. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 85:65-81. Vance, C. and J. Geoghegan. 2002. Temporal and Spatial Modelling of Tropcial Deforestation: a Survival Analysis Linking Satellite and Household Survey Data. Agricultural Economics. 27:317-332. Verburg, P.H., Y. Chen, and T. Veldkamp. 2000. Spatial Explorations of Land Use Change and Grain Production in China. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 82:333-354.

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Miet Maertens, Manfred Zeller and Regina Birner

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Verburg, P.H., T. Veldkamp, and J. Bouma. 1999. Land Use Change under Conditions of High Population Pressure: The Case of Java. Global Environmental Change. 9:303-312. Verburg, P.H. and A. Veldkamp. 2001. The Role of Spatially Explicit Models in Land-Use Change Research: A Case Study for Cropping Patterns in China." Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 85:177-190. Von Thünen, J.H. 1826. Der Isolierte Staat in Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und Nationaloekonomie. Waltert, M., M. Langkau, M. Maertens, M. Härtel, S. Erasmi, and M. Mühlenberg. 2003. Predicting the Loss of Bird Species from Deforestation in Central Sulawesi. In G. Gerold, M. Fremery, and E. Guhardja, editors, Land Use, Nature Conservation and the Stability of Rainforest Margins in Southeast Asia. Springer. Berlin.

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Chapter 3

A REVIEW OF PARCIPATORY FOREST REGENERATION ENDEAVOURS IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA Manas K. Mukhopadhyay1,* Suvomoy Adak1 and Asis Mazumdar2 MECON Limited, Ranchi - 834 002, India 2 Jadavpur University and Jt. Coordinator, Regional Centre for National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board, Kolkata – 7000 032, India 1

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ABSTRACT Large scale deforestation and degradation of forest land were recognized as the principal reasons behind gradually dwindling forest cover in India, about a couple of decades ago. Over exploitation of forest resources for collection of dried vegetation as fuel source and grazing of live stocks or even illegal felling of trees by the economically backward population living in the vicinity of forests were affecting the forest regeneration process. Magnitude of the problem is understandable when one considers that about 200 million of India's population of around one billion are partially or wholly dependent on forest resources for their livelihood. As the local government in various states attempted to protect the existing forests and develop additional areas for supply of commercial timber and other forest produce on a sustainable basis, conflicts arose in several areas between rural population and government. Local governments realized the need for a holistic solution and experimented with several measures to make up for the socio-economic fall outs and at the same time raise and protect the forests utilizing the native villagers. Building social capital assets were planned as “Entry point activity” and employment generation for the poor people were ingrained into the participatory process of Joint Forest Management (JFM). JFM is being practiced in 28 states and union territories in India has resulted in a turnaround of the situation. Encouraged by the results union government of India passed Forest Dwellers Act in 2006 to strengthen ownership *

Manas K Mukhopadhyay, B 10, Shyamali Colony, Doranda, Ranchi – 834 002, Jharkhand, India, Email: [email protected], Phone: (Res) ++ 91-651-2412366, Fax: (Off) ++ 91-651-2482189

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay, Suvomoy Adak and Asis Mazumdar rights of forest dwellers. The authors have analyzed and attempted to identify the lacunae still existing in the JFM approach based on the field studies carried out in selected areas in West Bengal state in India.

ABBREVIATIONS

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(AOFFPS) (ASTRP) (BLCC) (CD) (EDC) (FDA) (FPC) (IAEPS) (IVAE) (JFM) (MoEF) (NAEB) (NTFP) (OBC) (QGS) (RLCC) (SC) (ST) (UNESCO) (VFC)

Area Oriented Fuelwood and Fodder Projects Scheme Association of Schedule Tribes and Rural Poor in regeneration of degraded forests Beat Level Co-ordination Committees Crown Density Eco-development Committee Forest Development Agency Forest Protection Committee Integrated Afforestation and Eco-development Project Scheme Integrated Village Afforestation and Eco-development Joint Forest Management Ministry of Environment and Forests National Afforestation and Eco Restoration Board Non Timber Forest Produce Other Backward Classes Quick Growing Species Range Level Co-ordination Committees Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Village Forest Committee

Keywords: Forest regeneration, afforestation, Joint forest management, Forest dweller’s right, Employment generation, Entry point activity, India

1. INTRODUCTION The Forest Survey of India has estimated that lass than 20% of India’s geographical area is covered by forests and of this about half is composed of degraded, open and scrub forests with crown density of less than 40%. Forest cover has been declining every year persistently during last few decades (Pandey, 2006). This gradual dwindling of forests renders significant impact on environment and economy of the country. Government of India has initiated several steps to conserve the remaining forests and increase the forest cover wherever possible. In Indian context, one of the major factors, which have profound effect on effective conservation of forests, is the dependence of poor rural communities on forests for meeting their daily requirements of fuel, fodder, food and other means of livelihood (Anon, 2002).

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The traditional rural development schemes have known limitations in addressing these problems adequately. Therefore, it was planned to integrate forest development and rural employment generation under a single umbrella. IVAE is an umbrella scheme integrating common afforestation and eco-development schemes of the MoEF of Government of India, with enhanced financial allocation from the Planning Commission of India in the Tenth Plan period. The scheme is being implemented in a phased manner in various Territorial Forest and Wildlife divisions of the Country. In order to give impetus to the projects under the scheme, rural communities have been involved in project planning and implementation. In order to integrate and co-ordinate administration and activities of the village level forest committees, FDAs have been constituated in forest / wildlife divisions. The FDA includes representatives from government as well as VFCs. The FDAs receive funds directly from central government for implementation of integrated afforestation and rural development schemes. Performance of FDAs in terms of forest development, socio-economic development of rural communities and hurdles faced by them were studied by NAEB (the body under MoEF which administers all central government sponsored JFM schemes / projects). The authors have discussed findings of the evaluation studies (Anon, 2006 , Anon, 2008) carried out in Kharagpur, Bankura (North), Burdwan, Coochbehar, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling and Sundarban forest divisions of West Bengal state in India. The work at Sundarban region was carried out under an earlier JFM scheme known as IAEP.

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2. GENESIS OF JFM In view of villagers’ dependence on forests or their livelihood, there was constant conflict between villagers and forest department officials. This began to change when the Forest department evolved and introduced the concept of JFM (Khare, et al., 2002) JFM originated in West Bengal at the Arabari forest range of erstwhile Midnapore Forest Division in erstwhile Midnapore district (now West Midnapore district), near Midnapore town in 1971. The major hardwood of Arabari is Shorea robusta, a commercially profitable forest crop. Ajit K. Banerjee, the Divisional Forest Officer, was conducting trials which were constantly being disturbed by grazing and illegal harvesting by local villagers. At the time there were no initiatives for sharing of forest resources between government and the locals. Realising that the conflict between government and the locals was leading nowhere, Banerjee sought out representatives of eleven local villages and negotiated the terms of a contract with an ad hoc FPC. The initial program involved 612 families managing 12.7 km2 of forests classified as "degraded". 25% of profits from the forests were shared with the villagers. The experiment was successful and was expanded to other parts of the state in 1987. JFM is still in force at Arabari. A few years later, JFM was employed in the state of Haryana to prevent soil erosion and deforestation. In 1977, villagers were persuaded that instead of grazing their livestock on erosion-prone hills, building small dams would help agricultural output on areas under cultivation. The program led to reforestation of many hills in the state. JFM is the official and popular term in India for partnerships in forest management involving both the state forest departments and local communities. The policies and objectives of JFM are detailed in the Indian comprehensive National Forest Policy of 1988 and the Joint Forest Management Guidelines of 1990 of the Government of India.

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay, Suvomoy Adak and Asis Mazumdar

Although schemes vary from state to state and are known by different names in different Indian languages, usually a village committee known as the FPC /VFC and the forest department enter into a JFM agreement. Villagers agree to assist in safeguarding forest resources through protection from fire, grazing, and illegal harvesting in exchange for which they receive NTFP and a share of the revenue from the sale of timber products. In order to attract the villagers towards JFM schemes, the government also allocated funds for rural development works as a part of fund allocation for afforestation works. Various JFM schemes have been implemented under the National Afforestation Programme. These include IAEPS, AOFFPS, Conservation and Development of NTFP including Medicinal Plants scheme , ASTRP, QGS etc. Government of India has formulated a scheme titled “National Afforestation Programme” by merging of four afforestation schemes namely; IAEPS, AOFFPS, NTFP and ASTRP to reduce multiplicity of the schemes and institutionalizing peoples participation in project formulation and its implementation. The schemes are implemented under two tier setup; FDAs and JFM Committees . The two tier approach apart from building capabilities at the grass roots level also empowers the local people to participate in the decision making process. FDAs are constituted at the territorial / wild life forest division level and are registered with the Government. The FDAs include ex-officio government officials, representatives of the JFM committees within the forest division and representatives of local self governments. As on 31st March, 2009 a total of 795 FDA projects / proposals covering 1579024 ha area had been sanctioned (Anon, 2009).

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE FDA/IAEP WORK REVIEW AREAS

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3.1. Kharagpur Forest Division Kharagpur forest division falls within Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal state. The forest division comprises of seven ranges viz. Belda, Hijli, Kalaikunda, Ghatal, Panskura, Contai and Bajkul. The FDA project evaluated covers three ranges: Belda, Hijli and Kalaikunda. The project area covers 10803.43 ha. of forest land of which 9270.30 ha is dense forest (density >0.4) and 1523.13 ha is considered as blank and degraded forest. The FDA project has targeted 86 FPCs of the 100 FPCs present in Kharagpur forest division. The 86 FPCs covered by the project have a total membership of 16678 of whom 24% are SCs and 24.57% are STs. Women constitute 7% of the members. Bulk of the households are landless, marginal land holders or small land holders. Most of the people in the project area are dependent on rainfed agriculture. Employment opportunities are irregular and scarce particularly during April, May, September and October. Shorea robusta is the dominant species and entire forest in the region is of coppice origin. The usual associates are Terminalia arjuna, Madhuca indica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Diospyros melanoxylon etc. The undergrowth consist of Zizyphus spp., Holarrhena antidyssenterica etc. Common climbers are Combretum decandum, Butea spp., Dioscorea spp. etc. Scrub forests occur in disjointed patches of varying sizes and often as isolated patches. Forests of Shorea robusta having intensive biotic pressure degenerates into scrub forests and in extreme cases to bushes. The lack of compactness has materially contributed to general degradation, depending upon the intensity of felling, grazing, lopping and removal of

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stumps to which the forests had been subjected in the past. Degraded blank patches or scrubby forests have been regenerated into plantations consisting of Eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis, Anacardium occidentale Terminalia chebula, Embelica officinalis, Terminalia bellirica, Azadirachta indica etc. Substantial pressure on forest resources are recorded due to (i) grazing of cattle in forest areas as stall feeding of cattle is not practiced, (ii) lack of suitable alternate domestic fuels (villagers depend almost entirely on forests for meeting fuel need), (iii) villagers depend on forests for non-timber forest produce and, (iv) the area has wide spread termite infestation. Termites are responsible for high mortality of trees in the forests.

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3.2. Bankura (North) Forest Division The Bankura (North) forest division is located in the northern part of Bankura district of West Bengal state covering about 25% of the district’s geographical area. The division comprises of ten forest ranges: Bankura (North), Barjora, Beliatore, Chatna, Gangajalghati, Mejhia, Patrasayer, Radhanagar, Saltora and Sonamukhi. The FDA project studied comprises of 12730.36 ha of forest land protected by 100 FPCs. The project area is in economically backward region of the state and most of the people in the project area are in marginalized condition. Most of the people are engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Employment opportunities are erratic. More than 75% of the people are either land-less or marginal farmers. Major part of agriculture is dependent on scanty rainfall. Drought is common. Employment opportunity is very less during the months of April, May, September and October. The population of the project area villages is 63634 (as per last National Census in 2001) of whom, 9.63% are STs, 29.94% are SCs and 16.33% belong to OBC. The original flora of the FDA area is characterised by stand of coppices of Shorea robusta forests over an extensive area. However, ecological imbalances brought about primarily by biotic interference have changed the original flora. Deflected succession has, in many places, arrested and replaced the original succession into a number of preclimatic stages with predominance of Tropophilous and Xerphilous elements. The shape and size of the forest belts vary widely from place to place depending on configuration of the terrain. Due to extension of cultivation across the forest fringes, forest areas are no longer compact and their boundaries are highly tortuous, though several long belts are still found in the district’s eastern part. The Shorea robusta forests in the area are classified as “Northern Tropical Dry Peninsula Forests”. The common species in “Mixed Forest” (dry type) habitat are Anogeissus spp., Lanea grandis, Nyctanthes spp. In areas which have suffered set backs due to biotic factors, the forests are often open scrub type with Randia and Zizyphus.Extensive riverine forests occur near the river beds, though not as a rule. The commonly occurring species are Terminalia arjuna, Holoptelia integrifolia, Pongamia spp., Phyllanthus spp., Dalbergia sissoo, etc. Evergreen Forest occurs in small pockets in eastern parts of the division with characteristic species like Saraca indica, Dillenia spp., Bischofia spp., Litsea spp., Eleocarpus glauca etc.

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The increase in population with dependence on agriculture and rising domestic needs have put additional pressure on the forests. The forests are under pressure for demand of fuelwood, house building materials, materials for carts and tools, grazing by domestic livestock and wild elephants, forest fires during February – May, termite attack, fungal infections (Fomes caryophylla severely damages Shorea robusta), parasitic climbers and erratic rainfall and drought.

3.3. Burdwan Forest Division

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Burdwan forest division comprises of three ranges :Durgapur, Gushkara and Panagarh. FDA project area comprises of 19104.56 ha of forest land and 20.50 ha of community land; 1151 ha of forest land is considered to be treatable. The project area is protected by 57 FPCs. The 57 FPCs covered by the project have a total membership of 16249 of whom 41.63% are SCs and 26.64% are STs. 14.23% of the members are women. Bulk of the households are landless or marginal land holders or small land holders. Shorea robusta is the dominant species and this type of forest is present in the north laterite tracts stretching over Durgapur, Panagarh and Gushkara ranges. Scrub Forests occur in disjointed patches of varying sizes and often as isolated patches. Shorea robusta forests having intensive biotic pressure degenerates into scrub forests and in extreme cases to bushes. Degraded blank patches have been regenerated into plantations of Eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis, Dalbergia sissoo, Terminalia arjuna, Cassia siamea, Anacardium occidentale Terminalia chebula, Embelica officinalis, Terminalia bellirica, Azadirachta indica etc. Similar to other forest divisions pressure on forest resources are due to cattle grazing and fuel wood collection.

3.4. Jalpaiguri Forest Division The forest division comprises of the civil blocks of Mal, Matiali, Nagarakata, Dhupguri, Madarihat and Maynaguri. Besides forests, the area also includes more than eighty teagardens. The division comprises of eight ranges: Banarhat, Chalsa, Diana, Lataguri, Ramsai, Nathua, Dalgaon and Moraghat. The Gorumara National Park lies within this forest division. The FDA project surveyed targeted twenty-three villages. These villages have a total population of 29152, of which 39.8% are SCs, 32.15% are STs and 4.48% are OBCs. Jalpaiguri forest division covers 273.64 km2 of reserved forests, 36.70 km2 of unclassified forests and 0.41 km2 of non forest land. Of these dense forests (CD >0.4) cover 90 km2, open forests (CD >0.2) cover 60 km2 and blank areas (CD > 0.1) cover 150.75 km2 . Main types are moist deciduous forests, evergreen forests, savannah riverine forests and swamps. Shorea robusta forests in the division can be primarily classified on the basis of proportion of Shorea robusta and other associates. Evergreen forests have been analyzed under mixed type where lauraceous species predominate along with Syzygium, Aesculus, Echinocarpous, Taulauma and Artocarpus. Savannah forests exhibit the early seral of normal succession, composed of grasses with scattered trees in riverine areas. The riverine forests of

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this division are deciduous forests, having dominant species like Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo. At some places Sterculia villosa and Lagerstroemia parviflora are found in large proportions. Villagers depend on forests for non-timber forest produce and small timber. Dependence on forests for livelihood has increased recently due to closure of a number of tea gardens in the area. Grazing by wild herbivores is common in the forest division.

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3.5. Coochbehar Forest Division Coochbehar forest division is spread in and around Jaldapara wildlife sanctuary in Jalpaiguri district. The forest ranges reviewed are Chilapata, Kodalbasti, Nilpara, Madarihat, Lankapara, Jaldapara (south) , Jaldapara (north), Jaldapara (east) and Jaldapara (west). FDA project area has 46 villages. These villages are home to about 10,606 house-holds. 34.51% of the households belong to the SCs and 35.87% belong to the STs. Most of the villagers are engaged in agriculture and allied activities or are wage labourers. The forest division covers 294.09 km2 of which the Jaldapara sanctuary alone covers 216.51 km2. The forest area lying west of the Hasimara – Jaigaon road forms one compact block from the Bhutan border in the north to Chilapata reserve forest. in the south. In addition there are four isolated reserve forest blocks viz. Dhumchi, Khairbari, Nilpara and Salkumar. Northern dry deciduous seral riverine forests occur along the banks of river Torsa in Jaigaon-1, Jaigaon-2, Titi-3, Titi-4, Hasimara, Jaldapara, Malangi and Torsa Blocks. Moist mixed forest of the type East Himalayan moist mixed deciduous category occurs in Khairbari and Dhumchi blocks of Madarihat range. Shorea robusta forests occur in Chilapata Range. Evergreen forest occurs in Chilapata range along stream banks. Savannah forests occur along the riverine areas of Nilpara range, Jaldapara sanctuary and old clearings of Nilpara range. Most of the forests are in good condition. Some of the forests have become degraded due to tree felling in the past. In these degraded forest areas, there is profuse growth of weeds, most of which are ferns. The area is also a prime wildlife habitat with sizeable population of Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Deer (Axis porcinus, Cervus unicolor, Muntiacus muntjak), Wild pigs (Sus scrofa), Hares (Lepas spp.). Consequently, grazing pressure on the forests is high (Banerjee, 1993).

3.6. Darjeeling Forest Division Darjeeling Forest Division is located in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and comprises of all the civil blocks of Darjeeling sub-division and part of Kalimpong sub-division. The forest ranges reviewed are Darjeeling, Ghoom-Simana, Tonglu, Takdah and Tista Valley. The FDA project area has 87 villages. FPCs have been formed in 65 villages, which are home to 5231 house-holds. 4.61% of the members are SCs, 41.54% are STs and 20.47% belong to OBCs. Most of the villagers are engaged in agriculture or are wage labourers.

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Darjeeling Forest Division is situated in the Eastern Himalayan region at altitudes between 180 m and 3700 m above mean sea level. The area includes 176.66 km2 of forests of which 108.26 km2 are dense forests, 56.30 km2 are open forests and 12.20 km2 are blank forests. The types of forests in this division as defined in the Working Plan of the forest division are Riverine Forests, Lower Hill Forests, Middle Hill Forests and Upper Hill and Alpine Forests. Riverine forests occur at lower altitudes along the banks of Tista and Mahananda rivers. They are dominated by Albizzia spp. and Garuga spp. Lower Hill Forests occur at altitudes below 900 m. Shorea robusta is the dominant species and is associated with Schima wallichii, Terminalia sps., Amoora sps., Michelia champaca, etc. Middle Hill Forests occur at altitudes between 900 m and 1500 m. Schima wallichii, Engelhardita spicata, Castanopsis spp., Betula spp., Beilschimedia spp., Phoeba attenuate, Cedrella febriluge are the common species. Upper Hill and Alpine Forests occur at altitudes between 1500 m and 3700 m. Quercus sps., Magnolia spp. Betula alnoidesa, Bucklandia populnea are domnant initially. At 2900 m altitude, Abies densa, Tsuga dumosa, Rhododendron sps., Betula utilis appear and become the dominant species with increasing altitude. Villagers obtain most of their fuel needs from the forests. Grazing of livestock in the forests is common. Villagers also collect small timber and NTFP from the forests.

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3.7. Sundarban area Sundarban area comprises of parts of North 24-Pargana and South 24-Pargana districts of West Bengal state. The Sundarbans are the largest mangrove forest system in the world and covers a total area of about 26,000 km2 of which 9630 km2 lies in India and the balance is in Bangladesh. The Indian part of the Sundarbans are bounded by the estuary of river Hooghly in the west, rivers Ichamati-Raimangal in the east, bay of Bengal in the south and an imaginary Dampier-Hodges line in the north. The area comprises of a group of 54 islands interspersed with innumerable tidal rivulets, creeks and rivers. The forests have been gradually cleared from the 18th century onwards for habitation, settlements and agriculture. At present 5430 km2 of the area is inhabited. Sundarban is representative of an area of very rich bio-diversity of mangrove flora and fauna in the Asian province where environmental adaptation limits are severely stretched. The Sundarbans are one of the richest ecosystems in South Asia. The flora includes 46 species of mangroves and mangrove associates, making it the most diverse mangrove forest in the world. 1434 species of fauna have been identified in the Sundarbans which includes 8 species of Poriferans, 49 Gastropod Molluscs, 38 Bivalve Molluscs, 240 Crustaceans, 33 Arachnids, 201 Insects, 20 Echinoderms, 176 fishes, 8 amphbians, 163 birds (110 of them resident), 58 reptiles and 40 mammals (Mandal and Nandi, 1989; Das, 2001).Some of the species such as Tiger, Salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), Water Monitor Lizard (Varanus salvator), Batagur terrapin (Batagur baska), Ganges Dolphin (Platanista gangetica), Ganges Shark (Glyphis gangeticus) are endangered. The Sundarbans is the habitat of the world’s largest population of tigers. Many marine turtles, birds, fishes and crustaceans breed and nest in the Sundarbans. In order to protect the unique Sundarban ecosystem, the entire Sundarban area in India was declared a biosphere reserve on 29th March, 1989 under the aegis of the Man and Biosphere

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programme of UNESCO. The results of the forest depletion has led to land erosion, loss of sources of fodder, fuel wood and timber, decrease in bio-diversity, and loss of habitat of animals.

4. FOREST DWELLER’S RIGHTS: REGULATORY PROVISIONS

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India's forests are home to millions of people, including many ethnic tribes, who live in or near the forest areas. Forests provide sustenance through uninterrupted supply of NTFP, water, grazing grounds and habitat for shifting cultivation. Some of lands concerned are actually not forests but are classified as "forest" under India's forest laws, and those who cultivate these lands are deemed to have commited an offence. The two primary forest laws in India are the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The former empowers the government to declare any area to be a reserved forest, protected forest or village forest. The latter allows any area to be constituted as a "protected area", namely a national park, wildlife sanctuary, tiger reserve or community conservation area. Under these laws, the rights of people living in or depending on the area to be declared as a forest or protected area are to be "settled" by a "forest settlement officer." Studies have shown that in many areas this process either did not take place at all or took place in a highly faulty manner. In case rights of forest dwellers are not recorded during the settlement process they are susceptible to eviction and harassment in various forms by forest officials. The “Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006” describes it as a law intended to correct the "historical injustice" done to forest dwellers by the failure to recognise their rights (Ghosh, 2006). The Act grants four types of rights: 1. Title rights - i.e. ownership - to land that is being farmed by tribals or forest dwellers as on December 13, 2005, subject to a maximum of 4 hectares; ownership is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family as on that date, meaning that no new lands are granted; 2. Use rights - to NTFP (also including ownership), to grazing areas, to pastoralist routes, etc.; 3. Relief and development rights - to rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection; 4. Forest management rights - to protect forests and wildlife. Eligibility to get rights under the Act is confined to those who "primarily reside in forests" and who depend on forests and forest land for a livelihood. Further, either the claimant must be a member of the ST scheduled in that area or must have been residing in the forest for 75 years. The Act provides that the village assembly, will initially pass a resolution recommending a dweller’s right to a recognized resource (i.e. which land belongs to whom, how much land was under the cultivation of each person as on Dec 13, 2005, etc.). This resolution is then screened and approved at the level of the sub-division and subsequently at the district level.

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The screening committee consists of three government officials (forest, revenue and tribal welfare departments) and three elected members of the local body at that level. The Act lays out a procedure by which people can be resettled from areas if it is found to be necessary for wildlife conservation. The first step is to show that relocation is scientifically necessary and no other alternative is available; this has to be done through a process of public consultation. The second step is to ensure that the local community must consent to the resettlement. Finally, the resettlement must provide not only compensation but a secure livelihood. The Act has met with wide concern and opposition from environmentalists and wildlife conservationists. Some of the opponents regard it as a land distribution scheme that will lead to the handing over of forests to tribals and forest dwellers. The strongest opposition to the Act has come from wildlife conservationists who fear that the law will make it impossible to create "inviolate spaces", or areas free of human presence, for the purposes of wildlife conservation. Tiger conservation in particular has been an object of concern. Supporters of the Act take the position that the Act is not a land distribution measure, rather the Act is more transparent than existing law and so can help stop land grabbing. Regarding wildlife conservation, they argue that the Act actually provides a clear and explicit procedure for resettling people where necessary for wildlife protection, and provides safeguards to prevent arbitrary practises. Supporters of the Act also argue that the provisions of the Act for community conservation will in fact strengthen forest protection in the country, because it will provide legal rights for communities themselves to protect the forest. While supporting the principles of the law, forest rights supporters are not entirely satisfied with the law as finally passed. The recommendations of a Joint Parliamentary Committee on the law were partly rejected, and supporters of forest rights have claimed that some of the rejected clauses were important. In particular, the final form of the law is said to make it easier to exclude some categories of both tribal and non-tribal forest dwellers, to have undermined the democratic nature of the processes in the Act and to have placed additional hindrances and bureacratic restrictions on people's rights.

5. FDA/IAEP PROJECT OBJECTIVES Objectives of the FDA/IAEP projects are to: 1. Disseminate and implement the principles of JFM in terms of guidelines and directions of Government of West Bengal and Government of India. 2. Execute forest and eco-development works through forest FPCs and EDCs in terms of directives of Government of West Bengal and Government of India 3. Arrest and reverse the trend of forest degradation due to unsustainable removal of forest products by the communities living inside and nearby the forest areas. The same forest inhabitants are engaged for monitoring removals from the forest. 4. Provide sustained and assured employment opportunities to the forest fringe population with special emphasis to tribal, land-less and other economically weaker sections of the society. 5. Create durable community assets for such populations, which would contribute to overall eco-development of the target areas

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6. Involve the village community in the execution of the schemes and make the exercise fully participatory. 7. Create an effective mechanism in order to ensure that the medium of the FDA is used to reach the beneficiaries by other government departments also. 8. Augment the professional and vocational skills of the FPC and EDC members and other individuals / institutions / government personnel who are concerned with development of forests and wildlife 9. Protect the unique ecosystems like Sundarbans The project components, in general, are (i) artificial regeneration, (ii) mixed plantation, (iii) rehabilitation of degraded forests, (iv) silvipasture development, (v) bamboo plantation, (vi) soil and moisture conservation works, and (vi) socio-economic development of fringe dwellers

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6. FDA STRUCTURE, JFM COMMITTEE AND DEVELOPMENT FUNDS The FDA has a general body and also an executive body. Besides the chairman and the member secretary, the general body consists of several ex-officio members (including representatives from the state government from departments other than the forest department) and maximum fifty nominated members from amongst the FPCs / EDCs. The executive body also consists of several ex-officio members (including representatives from the state government from departments other than the forest department) and maximum fifteen elected members from amongst the FPCs / EDCs. At the range level there are RLCCs headed by the concerned range officers. At the beat level, BLCCs are headed by the concerned beat officers. The RLCCs and BLCCs are actually involved in planning and implementing the various works and the FPCs / EDCs are represented in the committees. At each village, there is a FPC or EDC. At least one adult member of each household is a member of the FPC / EDC. The FPC and EDC are formed as per government notification / resolution. The local beat officer / forester is the member secretary of the FPC / EDC. The FPCs / EDCs are represented on the BLCC, RLCC, executive body and the general body of the FDA as per constitution of the FDA. Each FPC / EDC prepares a mico-plan detailing the works to be undertaken. The micro-plan also spells out the responsibilities of all involved, how the activities will be monitored and how the benefits of various activities will be distributed. Strengths of the FDAs include: • • •

FPCs play a major role in planning and execution of works. The local villagers are best aware of the problems in the area. Experienced forest department personnel are involved in implementation of plantation works. Rural employment generation and development are integrated with forestry work. This has improved efficiency greatly as only a single agency carries out the whole work.

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay, Suvomoy Adak and Asis Mazumdar •

•

•

The forest department and local villagers are inclined to plant economically important timber species only, which may not be always advisable considering local ecology. If original forests are to be restored, expert ecologists with knowledge on ecology of the area should be included in the planning process. Beat officers are often inadequately qualified to handle large responsibilities normally assigned to them. Beat offices are often inadequately equipped and manned to carry out all the assigned works. Representatives from other departments are included in the decision making process but these honorary members hardly play any role in the FDA.

A bank account is opened in the name of FPC / EDC, with the initial seed money provided by the members. Subsequently, development funds are provided by the FDA. Money earned by the FPC / EDC is deposited in this account. Money required to be spent for development works is drawn from the account on the basis of resolution passed by the executive committee of the FPC / EDC.

1200 1000

thousand USD

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800 600 400 200 0

Kharag p ur

Bankura

Burd wan

J alp aig uri

Darjeeling

Co o chb ehar

Plantation creation and maintenance Monitoring, planning, training & maintenance Overheads Entry point activities Soil & moisture conservation

Note: Financial outlay for Sundarban forest division is not available. Figure 1. Approved programme of works and Annual Financial outlays.

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7. WORK PROGRAMME INCLUDING ‘ENTRY POINT ACTIVITIES’ Approved programme of works by FDAs and financial outlays (for 2006) are given at Figure 1. Monitoring details of gowth of plantations by various state level agencies have been provided at Table 1. The recommended plantation densities for mixed and bamboo plantations are 1100 saplings/ha and 625 saplings/ha,respectively. In mangrove plantations density of 10,000/ ha were maintained. In Kharagpur, Bankura (North) and Burdwan forest divisions, the FPC members have been allowed to select 80% of the tree species to be planted. Consequently, large proportions of exotic species of good economic value but of doubtful ecological importance (Eucalyptus spp., Acacia auriculiformes) have been planted. In Jalpaiguri and Coochbehar, only locally growing species have been planted as the project areas are within or around wild-life sanctuaries. In Darjeeling, tree felling is banned by judicial order and hence mostly native species have been planted. This has benefited local ecology. Under Entry Point Activities, community assets viz. construction of village roads, community halls, village drinking water supply schemes, purchase of agricultural machinery, construction of minor irrigation schemes, digging or desiltation of village ponds and wells, etc were created, Financial and / or material assistance were provided to self-help groups and village women’s co-operatives to enable mushroom farming, poultry farming, piggery, sewing and knitting enterprises etc. The community assets created are maintained by the designated functionaries of the FPCs. Table 1. Evaluation by State level agencies

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Forest Division Kharagpur

Bankura

Burdwan

Evaluating agency

Year

Findings

(i) The Monitoring and Evaluation Cell of the State Directorate of Forests and (ii) Department of Botany, Vidyasagar University

2006

(i) The Monitoring and Evaluation Cell of the State Directorate of Forests and (ii) Department of Botany, Christian College, Burdwan University (i) The Monitoring and Evaluation Cell of the State Directorate of Forests and (ii) Department of Botany, Burdwan University

2006

(i) Survival rates and growth satisfactory. Profuse natural regeneration of native flora especially of Diospyros melanoxylon observed, and (ii) in almost all plantations, maintenance is found insufficient; excessive growth of weeds observed (i) survival rate is high

2006

(i) Survival rates affected by poor soil and pests (ii) maintenance insufficient; excessive growth of weeds.

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay, Suvomoy Adak and Asis Mazumdar Table 1. (Continued)

Jalpaiguri

The Monitoring and Evaluation Cell of the State Directorate of Forests

2006

Cooch behar

Chief Conservator of Forests

2006

Darjeeling

The Monitoring and Evaluation Cell of the State Directorate of Forests The Monitoring and Evaluation Cell of the State Directorate of Forests

2006

Sundarban

2002

(i) Plantation density is significantly higher than the recommended 1100 / ha. (ii) Locally available tree species preferred by wild herbivores have been planted (iii) Survival rates 74 – 92%. Survival rates affected by drought and wild animals’ activities (iv) Maintenance insufficient; excessive growth of weeds. (i) Locally available tree species preferred by wild herbivores have been planted (ii) Survival rates affected by poor soil and pests (iii) Maintenance insufficient; excessive growth of weeds. (i) Survival rates in mixed plantations, more than 80% and in bamboo, less than 60% (i) Survival rate of about 80% in the nonmangrove plantations (ii) For Mangrove plantations, the survival rate is about 30% close to the water’s edge gradually increasing to more than 95% on the landward side.

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8. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION BY NAEB APPOINTED EVALUATORS The FDA project evaluators visited the forest ranges in the forest divisions and inspected the ground level activities. Findings are in general, as follows: 1. The plantations created in the projects show increase in green cover. Profuse regeneration of native flora has been noted. Some of the plantations are located in degraded forests of Shorea robusta. Protection provided to the plantations have enabled a variety native species, including Shorea robusta and associates, to regenerate. 2. Notable success is recorded by project personnel while experimenting with shorea robusta plantations, which is regarded as difficult considering very short viability of seeds and high sapling mortality. The project authorities are confident of large scale shorea robusta plantation, if supported with the necessary funds 3. Intrusion of wild animals into the plantations show positive trend in habitat acceptability for wild animals. 4. In almost all the plantation areas more than 85% of the saplings survive. Survival rate of bamboo is however, very low. In some of the plantation areas growth of saplings was substantially less compared to other areas (due to poor soil quality). 5. Species selected for planting have been identified in Working Plan of the divisions. The local people are convinced that some of the species will provide them with minor forest products

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6. Some of the project authorities have resorted to block plantations in anticipation of better results. 7. There was knee – high grasses in many plantation areas. The reason is lack of maintenance due to unavailability of funds. The dried up grasses pose fire hazard. 8. Termite infestations exist. Eucalyptus saplings are especially prone to termite attack. 9. No evidence of felling by local villagers noticed. 10. The projects have generated substantial direct and indirect employment resulting in increased per-capita income, increased availability of water, fuel, fodder, improved communications and quality of life and have helped checking social and law and order problems. The FPC members are allowed to collect grass, dry leaves and twigs as much as possible from the plantations. The monetary value of the same has not been quantified, but some families earn their livelihood by selling dry leaves and twigs from the plantations. 11. In Darjeeling dividion some of the dried up natural springs have revived after generation of artificial forests on degraded forest lands. Occurrence of landslides on hill slopes have also reduced. 12. Community assets created under Entry Point Activities are maintained satisfactorily by the FPCs. The Executive Committee of the FDA maintains strict vigil through the RLCC and BLCC to prevent their misuse. 13. Most of the FPCs are co-operating fully with the authorities. 14. Temporary field nurseries are set up adjacent to the plantation sites. The nursery records are noted in the respective plantation journals. The available plantation journals have been maintained properly and kept up to date, in most of the cases. The plantation journals also have scaled drawings of the plantation site duly approved by the concerned authorities. All expenditures have been regularly entered in the journal. The format of the plantation journals has been prepared and standardised by the state directorate of forests. 15. Utilisation Certificates and Audit Reports of each quarter, bank statements, renewal of societies’ registrations etc have been submitted regularly to the Central government. Periodical requirements of MoEF have also been submitted as and when asked for. For Sundarban area the evaluators reported the following: 1. Mangrove plantations have been carried out in inter-tidal zones of river banks and in islands some of which completely submerge during high tides. The evaluators felt that mangrove plantations are necessary for these areas for stabilisation of land and protecting nearby areas from action of waves, tides and strong winds. 2. Large numbers of Eucalyptus and Acacia auriculiformis plantation in the area may have adverse effects on local environment in the long run. 3. As regards to quality of work it was noted that the quality of work was good in almost all the cases except the non-mangrove plantations along side roads. In the road side plantations, part of the plantations have been damaged due to road widening, but the surviving trees are healthy and flourishing. At the site of the older mangrove plantations the river banks have not been eroded, whereas in adjacent areas beyond the plantations, the river banks have severely eroded. The survival rates

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay, Suvomoy Adak and Asis Mazumdar are high, especially in the mangrove plantations. High density of Mangrove plantation (>7000 trees / ha) is maintained to fulfill the objectives of the project. 4. In the mangrove plantations, natural regeneration of flora as well as colonisation by mangrove fauna were observed. 5. For a wide variety of reasons, conflict beween humans and tigers is common in the Sundarbans. Tigers regularly intrude into forest fringe villages to prey upon domestc livestock and even human beings. Earlier, villagers made efforts to kill intruding tigers. However, their attitude has now changed due to influence of entry point activities and afforestation works which protect their land from erosion and storms. Villagers now inform forest officials about tiger intrusions and assist in driving the intruding tigers back into the forests. Also the villagers willingly assist forest officials in anti-poaching activities.

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On the basis of the observations made during the site visit in the forest ranges of Sundarban, the evaluators felt that the project should be continued with the following modifications: 1. Plantations along side of roads should be avoided because such plantations are often damaged due to road widening and accidents. Instead, fallow lands elsewhere may be used for plantation. 2. Large number of Eucalyptus and Acacia auriculiformis have been planted. Although these species are popular among local villagers, planting of these exotic species should be reduced or even discontinued. 3. Azadirachta indica, which is not planted now, should be planted in large numbers. It is a local species, is fast growing, has medicinal properties and has a spreading root system which binds the soil. Moreover its fruits are relished by birds which scatter its seeds. Similarly, Ficus bengalensis , Zizyphus spp., Mangifera indic, Syzygium cuminii may also be tried. 4. Chemical fertilisers used in plantation areas should be replaced by organic manure. 5. A permanent nursery for mangroves should be set up to supply large number of well developed healthy saplings. 6. Some of the plantation sites are river islands which are submerged during high tides. Once these islands are stabilized and parts of them are permanently above water, pioneer species of plants, which help to stabilise these islands, should be planted. 7. Many of the mangrove plantations are damaged due to trampling by villagers collecting fish and prawn. In order to protect the plantations and the wild stocks of fish and prawns, hatcheries should be set up under ‘Entry Point Activities’. These hatcheries should be run by local villagers on co-operative basis. 8. In the villages adjoining the forest areas, villagers trained in bee keeping, may be given financial assistance to set up beehives as an alternate source of income.

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CONCLUSIONS

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Considerable progress has been achieved through integration of forstry work with social fabrics of ethnic people. Periodic review and fine tuning the process is built-in in the overall mechanism. Some of the improvement areas needing attention of local government are discussed below: In all the cases described in the article delay in receipt of funds from NAEB resulted delay in planting work, maintenance work, soil moisture conservation and Entry Point Activities. Funds are to be made available no later by the last week of October so that necessary advance work for the next season’s planting can be taken up. Arbitrary curtailment of funds by the funding agency may impair the work. Fund allocations should be revised commensurate with the revised labour rates in the state. The the present practice of allowing villagers to select species for planting should be modified as villagers insist only on planting economically valuable exotic species which may not be beneficial for the local ecology. In plantation sites with good soil, infilling may be carried out using indigenous species for the benefit of the local ecology. Exclusive bamboo plantations should be discontinued in Kharagpur and Bankura divisions as in the project areas, the soil is not conducive for growth of bamboo. If bamboo plantations must be created, they should be created only as a proportion of plantations and that too where soil conditions are conducive for growth of bamboo. Again, silvipasture development should be discontinued in view of the poor results and utility especially in Kharagpur and Bankura divisions. The allotted funds may be utilized in a more fruitful way in other works. Forest floor management needs to be introduced in the plantations. This will provide additional NTFPs (medicinal herbs, mushrooms etc.) to the beneficiaries.Shorea rebusta plantations should be generated in areas where natural Shorea robusta forests existed. The plantation efforts should be supported by adequate funding arrangements where experiements have yielded encouraging results.

REFERENCES Anon, (2002). Proceedings on 3rd International Training Course in India on Sustaitable NTFP Management for Rural Development. Indian Institute of Forest Management. Bhopal. India. Anon. (2006). Proceedings on Regional Interactive Monitoring and Evaluation Workshop on NAEB Projects (Evaluated). Regional Centre for NAEB, Jadavpur University, Kolkata. India. Anon. (2008). Proceedings on Regional Interactive Monitoring and Evaluation Workshop on NAEB Projects. Regional Centre for NAEB, Jadavpur University, Kolkata. India. Anon. (2009). Annual Report 2008 - 2009. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Banerjee. L.K. (1993). Plant Resources of Jaldapara Rhino Sanctuary. Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India. Das. A.K. (2001). Mangroves.In J.R.B. Alfred, A.K.Das. and A.K.Sanyal (Eds), Ecosystems of India (2001, pp. 240-259). Kolkata, India: Zoological Survey of India.

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Ghosh, S. (2006). India: The Forest Rights Act, a weapon of struggle. National Forum of Forest People and Forest Workers (NFFPFW), and Campaign for Survival and Dignity. Available from: http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/115/India.html Khare, A., Mayers. J., and Morrison, E. (2000). Joint Forest Management: Policy, Practice and Prospects : India Country Study. London: International Institute for Environment and Development, India. Mandal. A.K., and Nandi. N.C. (1989). Fauna of Sundarban Mangrove Eco-system, West Bengal, India. Calcutta: Zoological Survey of India. Pandey, D. (2006). Monitoring of Forest Cover. Available from: www.gofc-gold.unijena.de/documents/deforest/2.5-Pandey-National_example_India.pdf.

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Chapter 4

RESOURCE BASED INTEGRATED LAND USE PLANNING: A CASE STUDY FROM INDIAN COALFIELDS Manas K Mukhopadhyay1* and Indra N Sinha2 1. MECON Limited, Ranchi - 834 002, India 2. Bengal Engineering and Science University Howrah -700003, West Bengal, India

ABSTRACT

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Land use zoning is gaining increasing popularity in India, amongst environmentalists and planners alike, as an important instrument governing siting of industrial, commercial, residential and other uses of land. 'Environmentally compatible land use zoning' is gaining increasing acceptance as an essential tool for effecting environmentally sustainable development. Most of the environmental problems in mining/ industrial regions can, in one way or the other, be related to improper land use zoning. Through an implicit integration of environmental constraints into the basic planning procedure, the zoning system arrests an otherwise (business-as-usual scenario) spiralling environmental management cost. However, environmentally compatible micro level zoning system is yet to find its right place in Indian planning set-up. Land use is expected to be altered significantly in power grade coal bearing regions in India that typically have a mix of large opencast mining projects, thermal power plants and other associated industries in coalfields. Power grade coalfields in the country are in river valleys that host rivers and large tract of forests and agricultural lands amid a majority of tribal population. Need to carry out a scientific inquest into zoning study in the power grade coalfields in the country can hardly be over emphasized. The paper discusses a new micro level zoning method applied for a representative power grade coalfield in the country. The authors have attempted to devise a mechanism for optimizing spatial zoning as per need based zoning policy. The study area was divided into segments of land parcels for spatial analysis of each parcel. Behaviour of *

Correspondence:Manas K Mukhopadhyay ,B 10, Shyamali Colony, Doranda,Ranchi – 834 002, Jharkhand, India, Email: [email protected] Phone: (Res) ++ 91-651-2412366 Fax: (Off) ++ 91-651-2482189.

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay and Indra N. Sinha infrastructural, socio economic and environmental attributes was studied to identify the underlying economic forces and environmental need. Land use forms of segments or land parcels were logically integrated to evolve overall land use zoning.

Keywords: Zoning, Land use suitability, Environmental sustainability, Analyzing framework, GIS, Incompatibility, India

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1. INTRODUCTION Power grade coalfields in India are gradually being subjected to compounded environmental pressure due to rapid rise of demand for power grade coal in India. A huge energy demand projection (by the year 2012, India’s peak demand would be 157,107 MW with energy requirement of 975 BU) sets out phenomenal rise of demand for indigenous power grade coal production (Bhaskaran and Ravikumar, 2002). In 2007-08, of the total 453.80 million tonnes of indigenous coal off take, more than 77% was power grade coal (Anon, 2007a). Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India and accounts for 55% of India's energy need (Anon, 2007b). A share of such magnitude in the commercial energy spectrum of the country is in conformity with comparatively favourable reserve potential of coal vis-à-vis other energy resource like oil, natural gas or hydropower. As a measure to jack up productivity in coal sector, government of India has planned for liberalization of the coal sector to private sector players including the MNCs. Private and public sector entrepreneurs, mostly power plant operators, are being allotted coal blocks for captive mining. Typically, power grade coalfields in the country are in river valleys that host dense forests and fertile agricultural land amid a majority of tribal populace. The pristine environmental setup are feared to be impacted significantly due to large scale exploitation of surface land by open cast coal mining and downstream coal based industries - thermal power plants in particular. Tchno-economic factors tend to favour location of coal based industries at sites close to coal resources and water supply base. In addition to the physical pollution potential, the areas in and around the coalfields is prone to significant socio-economic impacts due to large-scale economic in-migration and de-settlement of population. In order to ensure that developmental projects do not inflict environmental stress beyond supportive and assimilative capacity of receiving environment, it has been found useful to carry out at first, an appropriate land use exercise so as to distribute the activities over space and time to ensure optimum resource allocation at minimum pollution contribution. Environmentally compatible spatial zoning is a possible method for effecting environmental sustainability of an environmentally subdued region. Through an implicit integration of environmental constraints into the basic planning procedure the zoning system fulfils longterm environmental goals.

1.1. Land Use Models and Recent Approach The twentieth century witnessed significant development in the area of modelling land use structure. Burgess (1925; cited in Rhind and Hudson, 1980) suggested that the urban

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Resource Based Integrated Land Use Planning

63

areas may be conceived as five concentric rings of different types of land use. According to Burgess the central most area of a city is generally occupied by the Central Business District (CBD), - the focal point of commercial, civic and social life in the city. Transport routes converge on CBD, which is thus the most accessible location within the urban area. The second zone is the transition zone, an area characterized by blighted conditions and the penetration of commercial and industrial uses into residential areas. The remaining three rings of (i) zone of working men’s homes, (ii) residential zone and (iii) commuters’ zone are purely residential with the quality of residential areas increasing with distance from the centre of the city. These phenomena are seen as response to the differential ability of groups of people to be able to afford the cost of travel to work. Hoyt (1939) specified directional as well as distance component from the city centre to urban land use patterns. Harris and Ulman (1945) proposed a composite model of urban structure, which reconciled of those of Burgess (1925) and Hyot (1939) together with the addition of multiple nuclei to display functional specializations. Berry et al. (1963; cited in Rhind and Hudson, 1980) have shown a relationship between the relative importance of road intersections and localized peaks in land value. With respect to manufacturing industry Hamilton (1968) proposed a model of the spatial industrial structure of a metropolis, which distinguishes between four categories of manufacturing industries, each with distinct site requirements. In the last few years, Cellular Automata (CA) has gained popularity as modelling tools for urban process simulation. Barredo et al. (2003) explained that from a practical point of view, the process of urban dynamics can be defined as an iterative probabilistic system (White et al., 1999) in which the probability that a place in a city is occupied by a land use in a given time, is a function of the concerned factors measured for that land use: suitability, accessibility, land use zoning status, neighbourhood influence and a stochastic perturbation. Grabaum and Meyer (1998) introduced a novel way of using GIS to support decision making in the planning process and to develop regional guidelines. The method of ‘multicriteria optimisation' helps new methodological standards to be established for integrating the various results of functional landscape ecology assessments of the type usually carried out in ecological planning, and enables the overall comparison of competing aims. This technique allows different aims in a geographical region to be quantified and takes into account different weightings of scenarios. They carried out different functional assessments and an assessment of the agricultural production function using GIS for a test site in Saxony, Germany and presented the results in the form of ordinal assessment classes, which express tendencies. On the basis of the assessment results, objectives for the calculation of an optimal land-use pattern were defined and weighted in different scenarios. The authors have attempted multi-criteria optimization approach with an optimization strategy suitable for environmentally compatible micro level land use zoning applicable for a representative power grade coalfield in India. The research work undertakes (i) identification of principle attributes and their functionality that governs land use forms in subject area (ii) development of criteria (goal function values) for deciding optimal land use that fosters economic development without sacrificing environmental sustainability goals, and (iii) devising a mechanism for optimizing spatial zoning based on understanding of impacting attributes. A step-by-step application of the suggested zoning strategy is presented in this paper with the help of an in-depth analysis of various techno-economic, environmental and social attributes.

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1.2. The Representative Power Grade Coalfield

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Physiographical and Geomorphologic characteristics of power grade coalfields in the states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand present significant similarity. The coalfields are drained by major rivers that serve as water sources for thermal power plants and downstream coal based industries. Over the years good communication network through rail and road links have developed in these coalfields. Common site related features exhibited by Indian power grade coalfields include (i) valleys amid undulated hilly topography (plains have elevation range of 250-300 mRL and the hill tops are, in general, at 500-600 mRL) (ii) protected and reserve forest cover especially in the hill tops (iii) substantial agricultural fields because of good drainage at river basin (iv) similar socio-economic profile with predominance of migration economy and agriculture as the second alternative employment, and (v) plenty of rainfall (1200-1600 mm annually) through a distinct south west monsoon ranging predominantly from June to August. The Talcher coalfield, a truly representative power grade coalfield was chosen for the study because: •

All governing attributes related to environmental, infrastructural, industrial and socio-economic aspects are well exhibited in the coalfield. Huge unexploited reserve calls for a long term infrastructure planning. This coalfield has a mix of opencast and underground (very less underground typical to power grade coalfields) mines, government and private ownership (coal blocks have been allotted by government of India for captive lease), rural and urban character.

•

Talcher coalfield, better known as Angul-Talcher area, has been identified by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India as a critically polluted area. Angul-Talcher area is identified for assistance by Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation (NORAD).

•

Land use zoning requires an extensive large database on a variety of aspects. Substantial secondary data is available for Angul-Talcher area.

The coalfield, covering an area of about 1815 sq km is connected with the Puri-Talcher branch line of south-eastern railway and the connected road network includes NH-23 and NH-42. The area is drained by the Brahamani river flowing in the eastern extremity of the coalfield. About 400 sq km areas on eastern part have coal-bearing exposure of Barakar and Karharbari formation. History of coal mining in the coalfield dates back to 1921 whereas coal based thermal power generation took off in 1967. Existing large opencast coal mines are located at Bharatpur, Jagannath, South Balanda, Anant and Lingraj. The coal production of Talcher Coal field has attained phenomenal growth from 0.91 million tones in 1972-73 to 50.582 million tones in 2006-07. A rapid growth of industrial activities has taken place in the region because of favourable market condition backed by ready availability of resources and cheap labour force. More than a decade back a regional EIA study carried out on Talcher coalfield identified a plethora of serious environmental issues that included: deposition of fly ash and air pollution, deterioration of water quality of Brahamani river, deforestation and degradation of forests and, change of land use etc (Anon, 1994). Major industries located in the coalfield are (i) coal mines operated by the Mahanadi Coalfields Limited (MCL), mostly large open cast

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coal projects; (ii) thermal power stations of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at Talcher and Kaniha; (iii) Aluminium smelter of National Aluminium Company (NALCO), NALCO has Captive power plant also; (iv) Chemical plant of Orichem Limited to manufacture sodium dichromate and basic chromium sulphate. Basic fuels burnt in the industries are coal, HSD, Furnace oil, LDO and Synthetic gas. A variety of chemicals viz. sulphuric acid, alum, caustic soda, lime, methanol, ammonia etc. and ores viz. limestone and chromite are used as raw materials. Status of coal mining in Talcher coalfield is elaborated in Table 1. Besides, there are about 35 small-scale industries mostly engaged in mechanical and fabrication works, carpentry, manufacture of food products, aluminium utensils, electronic equipment etc.

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Table 1. Status of coal mining in Talcher coalfield Mining/exploration

Total area (sq. km)

Type of mining

Coal reserves (Million t)

Existing Underground Mines Existing Opencast Mines Mines for which Detailed Exploration Completed Mines for which Semi-detailed Exploration Completed Mines for which Detailed Exploration in Progress

25.00 28.37 8.07

440.71 821.13 528.00

48.92

Underground Opencast Opencast & Underground Opencast

1,720.08

32.00

Opencast

1,677.50

Coal projects and associated industries are located in a broad valley between the hilly terrains on the north-eastern and south-western parts of the coalfield. River Brahamani traverses the valley from north to southeast and drains directly into the Bay of Bengal. The major part of the area forms the plains of river Brahamani and its tributaries viz., Nandira jhor, Singhada jhor and Tikra nala. The western and southern hill ranges form watershed between river Brahamani and Mahanadi whereas the eastern hill ranges divide the catchments of river Brahamani and river Ramaila. Most of the hill slopes are covered with forests and scrubby vegetation. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show Physiography and land use of the area respectively. The area has the following socio-environmental characteristics: •

In the pre-industrialization era (1960-70), the area had predominantly rural character with scattered small villages in the valley between forested hill ranges. Population density of the region was very low. Agriculture was the only means of livelihood.

•

Large-scale industrialization has taken place due to availability of suitable resources and infrastructures e.g., coal (from Talcher coalfield), water (from Brahamani river and its tributaries), communication link (NH-33, 42 and well developed state highway networks) etc.

•

After industrialization, air pollution (majority of industrial area has ground level concentration of suspended particulate matter, more than 500 μg/m3), water contamination (in Nandira jhor and Brahamani river downstream of confluence with

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay and Indra N. Sinha Nandira jhor), Soil contamination (storage area, workshops, waste disposal area in industries) and land degradation (opencast coal mines) have increased. Large-scale immigration has taken place. •

With development of industries although the natural resources have been subjected to taxing, social capital resources have improved. Medical facilities have increased (although health status has deteriorated due to increased air pollution related diseases) and educational facilities have improved (literacy rate has increased). Although substantial prime agricultural land is under pressure, agriculture is still an important occupation in the region. Increased earning from industry and business activity has resulted in increased investment in agriculture.

•

A number of environmental and social assets e.g., stretches of reserve and protected forests, water quality of Brahamani river, a good stretch of prime agriculture land, a few places of historical importance and, ambient air quality at a few location are in urgent need of protection.

•

Large-scale land use alteration is inevitable in and around the ongoing and potential coal mining areas due to massive opencast excavation.

2. LAND USE ZONING OBJECTIVES FOR THE REPRESENTATIVE POWER GRADE COALFIELD

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Appropriate land use zoning facilitates formulation of an optimum resource utilization policy within the environmental carrying capacity of the region thereby encouraging intended land uses and or discouraging yet another set of land uses, and thus ensuring an optimized environmental performance, on a continual basis. The broad environmental zoning policy for the representative study area aims: I.

II. III.

to recognize economic, social and environmental aspects of the power grade coalfield and to plan coal mining and associated development in an environmentally sustainable way through optimization of land uses with the objectives of (i) having long term suitability of land uses from economic and social perspectives on sustainable basis; (ii) rendering minimum possible pollution load to human habitats local or distant; and, (iii) maximize generation of social, capital and environmental resources as much as possible. to protect and improve the specific natural resources viz., reserve forest areas, protected forest areas, biosphere reserves and wetlands in line with national policy. to protect areas with unique features of social/cultural, commercial interest viz., historical monuments, specific faunal/floral habitat etc.

The policy framework for zoning recognised that coal mining,- being the host economic attribute for the power grade coalfield, is central to the zoning exercise and zoning criterion should be liberal on coal mining.

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3. RESOURCE BASED LAND USE SUITABILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Prevailing land use of any land parcel is governed by a host of techno-economic factors with a view to optimise maximum yield of economic rent (Mukhopadhyay and Sinha, 2005). The prevailing land use type requires a certain degree of socio-infrastructural resource requirement for socio-economic viability. In order to ensure environmentally sustainable development of a region is to maintain an uninterrupted supply of acceptable quality of input resources. For continuing suitability of a land use type it is important that the site meets longterm resource requirements for the type of land use. Continual over exploitation of resources by an existing or adjoining land use type may gradually render the land use unsuitable due to unavailability of required resources. This, in environmental parlance, is called reduction of supportive capacity. The degraded or altered resource combination, then, attracts a different land use category. Land use changes in coalfield areas may be triggered due to overuse of resources (e.g., drawal of ground water beyond natural yield capacity creating a draft) or contamination of resources (e.g., contaminating ground water, surface water and soil through effluents from industrial land use, pesticides from agricultural land use, untreated sewage from residential land use etc.). Recent years have seen growing interest in the identification and encouragement of economic development strategies that are environmentally and socially sustainable (Serageldin, 1996; Vosti and Reardon, 1997). Table 2. Key resource indicators for common land use categories

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Land use category

Industrial (TPPs and other processing and manufacture industries) Commercial Residential

Agricultural

Forestry

Pasture

Resource requirement Natural Infrastructural and socioeconomic Water, large flat land Cheap labour, a good communication area network, proximity of coal base as raw material resource, proximity of market for the product Large flat or moderately Sizeable population density around, flat land area good communication Proximity of Proximity of earning source, proximity agricultural resource, of medical facilities, proximity of water source, flat or educational facilities, communication, moderately flat area electricity, sewerage connection Good soil capability, Cheap labour, electricity, proximity of flat or moderately flat market for the product area, water source Adequate soil Arrangements such as “social forestry” capability, adequate or “joint forest management” spatial or altitudinal distance from habitation area. Flat or sloped area Proximity to habitation area

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Key infrastructural resource requirement for common land use categories (industrial, commercial, residential, agricultural, forestry and pasture) are shown in Table 2. Table 3 explains environmental risks associated with the land use forms with respect to environmental attributes. Socio-infrastructural (or economic) suitability factors are elaborated at Table 4.

Industrial projects

District Roads

Existing mining blocks

Land under settlements

Proposed mining blocks

Railway line

River/Streams

Reserve / Protected forests 0

National Highway

5

10 km

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Figure 1. Physiography of the Angul -Talcher area

Land under settlements

Proposed mining blocks Existing quarries

Railway line

Pond / reservoirs

Reserve / Protected forests

River/Streams

Mixed forests with open/degraded patch

National Highway District Roads

Prime agricultural land Land under pasture, scrubs & other agriculture

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0

5

10 km

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Table 3. Environmental risk issues associated with common land uses Attributes

Environmental Risk issues

Erosion proneness

Increased erosion affects agriculture and forestry

Background level

Maximum permissible limit (as per CPCB) is 200 μg/m3 for residential area and 500 μg/m3 for industrial area

particulate

Background SO2 level

Maximum permissible limit (as per CPCB) is 80 μg/m3 for residential area and 120 μg/m3 for industrial area

Background NOx level

Maximum permissible limit (as per CPCB) is 80 μg/m3 for residential area and 120 μg/m3 for industrial area

Water contamination

Critical with Residential and agriculture land use

Background noise level

Maximum permissible level (as per CPCB) is 45 dB(A) for residential area (night time); 55 dB(A) for commercial area (night time), and 65 dB(A) for Industrial area (night time)

Soil contamination

Risk more with Residential and Agriculture land uses

Soil capability

Poor soil capability affects Agriculture and Forestry

Proximity to hazardous material storage

Risk increases with proximity. Particularly important for Residential, Commercial and Agriculture

Proximity to religious, historic or archaeological monuments

Risk increases with proximity to Industry.

Proximity to biosphere reserves, sanctuaries, national parks

Risk increases with proximity to Industry.

Proximity to defence installations

Safety/security matters with proximity to Industrial, Commercial and Residential land uses.

Proximity to active surface mine

Risk increases with proximity to Residential zone.

Impounded water on upstream side nearby

Risk of flooding increases when high quantities of water is impounded on nearby upstream side with respect to Residential or Commercial zone.

Subsidence /landslide prone zone

Critical when history of subsidence is present in Residential and Commercial land use.

Proximity to tribal/ethnic people’s habitation

Possibility of dilution of ethnic culture increases with proximity to ethnic people’s habitation to Industry, Commercial and Residential zone.

Flooding hazard from river

Critical when history of flooding is present in Residential and Industrial zone

Proximity to Reserve and Protected forest area

Risk increases with proximity to Residential and Industrial zone

Prime agricultural land

Conversion to any other type of land use is unwanted.

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3.1. Land Use Suitability Evaluation Chen and Verburgi (2000) explored the relationships between land use and the factors that can be used to predict it. They used correlation and regression analyses to identify the most important explanatory variables from a large set of factors and found that the spatial distribution of all land use types is best described by an integrated set of biophysical and socio-economic factors. They called for prudence and postulated that relationships obtained at a certain scale of analysis should not be directly applied at other scales or in other areas. Table 4. Economic/infrastructural suitability factors associated with common land uses Economic/ infrastructural Risk issues Attributes Proximity to city/town Distance from Highway Access to river or lake Access to public sewer system Distance from market (domestic) Distance from railroad Slope of the area

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Ground water availability Distance from colliery (coal supply) Availability of labour Distance from important medical base Distance from High school Population density

Suitability for Industrial land use decreases and suitability for Residential, Commercial and Agriculture zone increases Suitability for Industrial, Residential and Commercial zone decreases with distance from highway Suitability for Industrial land use decreases with distance from river/lake Suitability for Residential land use decreases with distance from public sewer system Suitability for Residential and Agricultural land use decreases with distance from market (domestic) Suitability for Industrial and Commercial land use decreases with distance from railroad Suitability decreases with steepness for Industrial, Commercial and Residential land use Poor ground water availability affects Agricultural and Residential land uses Suitability for Industrial land use decreases with distance from coal supply base Suitability decreases if skilled/unskilled labour is not available for Industry and Agriculture Suitability for Residential land use decreases with distance from medical base Suitability for Residential land use decreases with distance from educational facilities Suitability for commercial and Residential land use decreases with decrease of population density

From practical point of view, several land use allocation factors have been identified in the science of spatio-temporal decision-making (Eastman et al., 1993; Voogd, 1983; Carver, 1991). Barredo et al. (2003) identifies five groups of factors: (i) environmental characteristics, (ii) local-scale neighbourhood characteristics, (iii) spatial characteristics (i.e., accessibility), (iv) urban and regional planning policies, and (v) factors related to individual preferences, level of economic development, socio-economic and political systems. Lawrence et al. (1986) have stated to define the scale of investigation (global, regional, local) prior to selecting factors for land use study. Herzog and Buhler-Natour (1999) give importance to certain points regarding criteria selection at regional level, such as: (i) analysis of the main characteristics of the region including its history (ii) all dimensions of sustainability should be taken into consideration, e.g., the agro-ecological, socio-economic and cultural aspects (iii) the criteria should be suitable for simple application in political decision making processes (iv) criteria from the global level should be differentiated and criteria from the local level should be aggregated (v) interaction and interdependence between the criteria should be formulated, to facilitate substitution; and, (v) criteria for analyzing the study site should be applied.

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Pauleit and Duhme (2000) demonstrate that environmental quality targets and standards applied to different types of land uses would provide a clear framework and guidance for innovative planning and design on a more detailed level. Allocation of space to the different human activities in a city and prescriptions to their physical design are the principal means of development plans and control. Environmental, social and economic implications of the spatial pattern of human activities in the city must be understood to integrate sustainability principles into development practice. It is established that adequate supply of socio-infrastructural resources assure better economic return and increased unsuitability of environmental aspects call for additional costs for damage repairing (to comply with regulatory standards) which the economists term as “environmental externalities”. Increased “environmental externalities” mar the economic prospect of a practising land use. The concept of “damage repair cost” is not workable for certain environmental conditions when damage repairing is not possible because of nonavailability of a viable mitigation measure. In the present case of Talcher coalfield, environmental and socio-infrastructural attributes have been dealt with side by side. Environmental incompatibility has been identified with respect to varying levels of socioinfrastructural development. The subject area was divided into small land parcels for analysis using GIS. Environmental and socio-infrastructural factors applicable for all the land parcels were studied. A framework (Table 5) for analysis of environmental suitability has been prepared based on Table 3. Environmental conditions, in applicable ranges, are listed against land use categories. Rationale for scoring environmental attributes is given in Table 6. The scoring pattern points to a logical, though hypothetical, economic cost indicator for damage repairment. Lesser the score better is environmental suitability. Table 7 shows another framework (prepared based on Table 4) for analysis of socio-infrastructural resource requirement where applicable ranges of resource attributes are listed against land use categories. A scoring pattern (0 to 4) has been evolved that suggests 0 for best suitability to 4 for moderate suitability and R (Restrict) as unsuitable condition. Lesser score indicates lesser resource requirement and ensures better suitability (conversely, greater score implies absence of a required resource and takes into account an imaginary economic cost for its establishment). Rationale for scoring pattern is given at Table 8. Following stepped tasks were carried out to ascertain degrees of land use suitability: I.

Classification of Spatial Information: ƒ ƒ

About 4500 sq.km area with the coalfield at center was divided into 3141 land parcels of each 1.2 km x 1.2 km for analysis using GIS. Infrastructural and social requirements and environmental characteristics of the individual land parcels were identified using GIS. Existing land use of the parcels was noted.

Land use restrictions of land parcels were noted based on legal non-compliance, intense environmental degradation or intense resource consumption beyond natural regeneration potential or infrastructural incapability beyond investment cut off.

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay and Indra N. Sinha Table 5. Framework for analyzing environmental issues

Erosion proneness

Slight Less Moderate Severe

μg/m3

Background particulate level

μg/m3 μg/m3

Pasture

Forestry

Agriculture

Residential 0 0 1 2

1 2 4 R

0 0 2 3

0 0 1 2

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

200– 400 and

Low dispersion potential

1

2

R

1

0

0

>400 – 500 and

High dispersion potential

1

2

R

1

0

0

Low dispersion potential High dispersion potential Low dispersion potential

2 2 R

2 2 R

R R R

2 1 3

0 0 1

0 0 1

High dispersion potential

R

R

R

2

1

1

Low dispersion potential

0

0

0

0

0

0

High dispersion potential

0

0

0

0

0

0

>120 and

Low dispersion potential High dispersion potential Low dispersion potential High dispersion potential Low dispersion potential High dispersion potential

1 0 2 2 R R

2 2 2 2 R R

R R R R R R

2 1 2 2 3 2

1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 1

100 – 120 and

80 – 100 and >100 – 120 and >120 and

Water contaminatio n

Absent Present

0 1

0 2

0 4

0 R

0 2

0 2

Background noise level

55 - 75 >75

0 0 1 4

0 0 3 4

0 2 R R

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

dB(A)

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0 0 0 2

Low dispersion potential High dispersion potential

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

>2 - 5

0

1

2

1

0

0

1

2

4

3

0

0

10 >5 - 10 2-5 10 >5 - 10 2- 5 10 >5 - 10 2-5 4 >2- 4 1-2 5 lakh m3)

2

1

3

1

1

1

Absent Has potential but no incidence

0 R

0 1

0 R

0 0

0 0

0 0

Has potential and incidence present

R

2

R

0

0

0

Proximity to religious, historic or archaeologica l monuments Proximity to biosphere reserves, sanctuaries, national parks Proximity to defence installations

km

1- 2

km

km

Soil contamination

Proximity to active surface mine

km

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Issues

Unit

Land use applicability score

Impounded water on upstream side nearby Subsidence /landslide prone zone

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Manas K. Mukhopadhyay and Indra N. Sinha Table 5. Framework for analyzing environmental issues (continued)

Proximity to tribal/ethnic people’s habitation

Pasture

Forestry

Agriculture

Residential

Parameter rankings

Commercial

Industrial

Issues

Unit

Land use applicability score

0 1 2 3

0 0 1 3

0 0 2 3

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

Flooding hazard from river

Absent Has potential but no incidence Has potential and incidence present

0 4 R

0 1 2

0 4 R

0 1 2

0 0 1

0 0 1

Proximity to Reserve and Protected forest area

>4 >2- 4 1-2 10 >5 - 10 2-5 6

0

3

3

2

0

1

>3 - 6

1

1

2

1

0

1

1- 3

3

0

1

0

0

0

10

4

4

4

2

0

0

>5 - 10

3

3

4

2

0

0

2-5

1

2

3

1

0

0

10

R

0

2

3

0

0

>5 - 10

3

0

1

2

0

0

2-5

1

0

0

1

0

0

6

2

2

4

0

0

0

>3 - 6

1

1

3

0

0

0

1-3

1

1

1

0

0

0

10

0

0

4

4

0

0

>5 - 10

0

0

3

2

0

0

3-5

0

0

1

1

0

0

10

3

3

2

0

0

0

>5 - 10

2

2

1

0

0

0

2-5

1

1

0

0

0

0

10

3

0

0

0

0

0

>5 - 10

2

0

0

0

0

0

2-5

1

0

0

0

0

0

10

2

2

4

0

0

0

>5 - 10

1

1

2

0

0

0

2-5

0

1

1

0

0

0

6

0

0

4

0

0

0

>4 - 6

0

0

3

0

0

0

2-4

0

0

1

0

0

0

600

0

0

0

0

2

0

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Table 8. Rationale for scoring infrastructure based issues Score

Scoring rationale

R (Restrict)

Not acceptable due to resource constraints/High risk

4

Very Less suitability. Acceptable at huge cost

2-3

Less suitability. Acceptable at higher cost

1

Moderate suitability. Acceptable at moderate cost

0

Best suitability. Acceptable without appreciable cost towards arrangement for resource availability

II.

Statistical Analysis of Spatial Information:

Degrees of land use incompatibility of the land parcels for environmental as well as infrastructural issues were ascertained through a structured framework (Table 4 and Table 6) and compared with existing land use. Scores of each land parcel is summed up separately for aggregate scores on environmental and socio-infrastructural accounts. A statistical summary of the land parcels is given in Table 9. III.

Identification of levels of infrastructural and environmental incompatibility:

The land parcels meeting environmental and socio-infrastructural incompatibility on strategic limiting cut-offs were mapped using GIS AutoDesk Map 6.0. The strategic cut-offs used are defined in Table 10 and Table 11 for environmental and infrastructural resource linked incompatibility, respectively.

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Table 9. Statistics of the Range of scores on infrastructural and environmental aspects Industrial

Commercial

Residential

Agricultural

Forestry

Pasture

Env

Infra

Env

Infra

Env

Infra

Env

Infra

Env

Infra

Env

Infra

Total no of parcels*

1450

2610

3141

2805

3141

1730

3141

3045

3141

2808

3141

2808

Minimum

5

0

2

0

7

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

Maximum

22

8

20

12

35

12

16

8

4

8

6

5

Average

14.76

0.70

16.08

1.20

29.59

1.99

12.98

3.91

2.65

2.11

3.43

0.73

St.Deviation

3.77

1.13

3.70

1.58

5.58

1.54

3.33

1.28

1.061

1.49

1.63

0.60

20 percentile

11

0

13

0

25

1

10

2

3

0

2

0

50 percentile

15

0

17

1

31

2

14

4

3

3

3

1

80 percentile

18

1

19

2

34

3

16

5

3

3

6

1

95 percentile

20

3

20

3

35

4

16

6

4

3

6

1

98 percentile

21

4

20

5

35

5

16

6

4

4

6

2

99 percentile

22

5

20

8

35

7

16

7

4

5

6

3

78

Manas K. Mukhopadhyay and Indra N. Sinha Table 10. Degrees of environmental incompatibility

Cut-off indicator 20 percentile on aggregate score of environmental issues w.r.t. a specific land use 50 percentile on aggregate score of environmental issues w.r.t. a specific land use 80 percentile on aggregate score of environmental issues w.r.t. a specific land use

Cut-off percentile score Ind :0 Com 0 Res: 1 Agr:2 For : 0,Pas : 0

Definition of cutoff percentile level 20 percentile environmental incompatibility

Significa nce

Comparison with site condition

Low level of incompat ibility

Comfortable gap between existing pollution level and permissible limits

Ind :0,Com :1 Res: 2 Agr:4 For : 3 Pas : 1

50 percentile environmental incompatibility

Average level of incompat ibility

Moderate gap gap between existing pollution level and permissible limits

Average

Ind :1 Com :2 Res: 3 Agr:5 For : 3,Pas : 1

80 percentile infrastructural incompatibility

High level of incompat ibility

Narrow gap between existing pollution level and permissible limits

High

Indicated level of investment Low

Note : Ind =Industrial; Com = Commercial; Res = Residential; Agr = Agricultural; For = Forestry; Pas = Pasture land uses

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Table 11. Degrees of infrastructural resource linked incompatibility Cut-off indicator

Cut-off Definition of Significance Comparison Indicated percentile cut-off with site level of score percentile level condition investment 20 percentile on Ind :11 20 percentile Low level of Small gap Low aggregate score Com :13 infrastructural incompatibility and between on infrastructural Res: 25 incompatibility hence low level of resource based issues w.r.t. a Agr:10 additional resource demand and specific land use For : 3 requirement supply Pas : 2 50 percentile on Ind :15 50 percentile Average level of Moderate gap Average aggregate score Com :17 infrastructural incompatibility between on infrastructural Res: 31 incompatibility resource based issues w.r.t. a Agr:14 demand and specific land use For : 3 supply Pas : 3 80 percentile on Ind :18 80 percentile High level of Wide gap High aggregate score Com :19 infrastructural incompatibility and between on infrastructural Res: 34 incompatibility hence high level of resource based issues w.r.t. a Agr:16 additional resource demand and specific land use For : 3 requirement supply Pas : 6 Note : Ind =Industrial; Com = Commercial; Res = Residential; Agr = Agricultural; For = Forestry; Pas = Pasture land uses

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IV Optimization of infrastructural and environmental indicators to develop integrated zoning alternatives: By combining/querying the infrastructural incompatibility scenarios with the environmental incompatibility scenarios for a specific land use category, land parcels with 20, 50 and 80 percentile environmental incompatibility at 20, 50 and 80 percentile infrastructural incompatibility were identified. For all land use categories such incompatibility scenarios were prepared. By combining/querying all such incompatibility information (infrastructural as well as environmental), for all land use categories, it was possible to generate nine different zoning scenarios with combination of different environmental and infrastructural incompatibilities of land use categories. For the Talcher coalfield case, the following three strategic zoning scenarios were developed: Scenario I:

20 percentile environmental incompatibility at 50 percentile infrastructural incompatibility Scenario II: 20 percentile environmental incompatibility at 80 percentile infrastructural incompatibility Scenario III: 50 percentile environmental incompatibility at 50 percentile infrastructural incompatibility

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Scenarios I, II and III have been shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5, respectively.

Fig.3. Zoning with 20-percentile environmental and 50 percentile infrastructural incompatibility cut-off

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Fig.4: Zoning with 20 percentile environmental and 80 percentile infrastructural incompatibility cut-off

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Following significant observations were made from the developed zoning maps: ƒ

All the alternative zoning scenarios show combination of the zones of mixed land use of specified categories and single land use zones. The mixed land use zones are, in fact, zones of superimposition of suitable land uses classes.

ƒ

Incidence of mixed land use zones is higher at higher percentile of incompatibility. Theoretically, at the highest level of incompatibility there will be just one mixed zone for all the land use classes (at no restriction level).

ƒ

All the scenarios follow a basic pattern. Merging of zones (forming mixed use zones) increases at higher level of incompatibility.

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Fig.5: Zoning with 50 percentile environmental and 50 percentile infrastructural incompatibility cut-off

ƒ

Deciding the appropriate cut-off combination is of paramount importance to arrive at the desired zoning scenario. Appropriate cut-off combination should depend on the state of infrastructural and environmental development.

ƒ

A lower to moderate infrastructural incompatibility cut-off depicts a realistic scenario (for a developing economy, as in India) and a lower environmental incompatibility cut-off assures stringent environmental safeguard. Land use operators discourage higher infrastructural incompatibility zones, as it demands a higher investment input to bridge the infrastructure demand gap. A stringent environmental cut-off, however, has the risk of restricting infrastructural development. While planning land use zoning in predominantly virgin area, a strict environmental cut–off can be employed to begin with, whereas for the areas where pollution level is already high a moderate environmental cut-off (that does not compromise with environmental performance) can be planned. Infrastructural and environmental cut offs may vary from country to country based on existing infrastructural development, environmental performance and strength of economy of the country.

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ƒ

Certain extent of land parcels is not selected by any of the scenarios. The land parcels have land use restrictions. Open space zoning is suggested to be practiced there.

An 80-percentile infrastructural incompatibility scenario, even if combined with the best environmental scenario does not show enough promise. Zoning based on 50 percentile environmental scenario combined with 50 percentile infrastructural scenario is poised optimally to handle environmental and resource based issues in polluted coalfields, at least to ensure regulatory compliance of environmental issues and a level of resource conservation without compromising environmental sustainability. Even 99 percentile cut-offs filter only such land parcels that conform to regulatory limits, as non-compliant parcels are restricted a priori from selection. Combination of the 20-percentile environmental incompatibility and 50-percentile infrastructural incompatibility scenario more than fulfils the zoning policy commitments for the virgin power grade coalfields, at least in the present Indian situation. The optimal strategy would be to initially develop a low level of infrastructural and environmental incompatibility scenario to isolate the core land use centres. It may be followed by a moderate level of infrastructural incompatibility combined with lower/moderate environmental incompatibility to identify the future growth directions. Fig.3 (20 environmental: 50 infrastructure) indicates the core land use centres. Fig.5 (50 environmental: 50 infrastructure) includes peripheral permissible buffers with mixed-use zones beyond the core land use centres Since mining activities occupy the centre-stage of economy in a coalfield, the zoning exercise may not impose any restriction on coal mining in any of the land parcels. Instead of keeping the land parcels from purview of the GIS analysis (similar to land parcels under river, protected and reserve forests etc which are not intended for change and hence were not analysed) the coal bearing land parcels were subjected to land use suitability analysis with an objective to identify interim land uses, and a logical buffer land use selection. Predicted optimum land use (other than industrial) over coal bearing parcels are suggested to be practised as interim land use only, till coal mining commences in the parcels. Cut-off percentile for infrastructural aspects should ideally depend on: ƒ

degree of existing demands or linking of available resources viz., availability of river water, road traffic density, railway goods carrying capacity, soil capability or agricultural productivity etc. In the Talcher coalfield case, the principal cut-off deciding criteria should be the peak season availability of water from Brahamani river and unhindered supply of required quality of coal. Government of India is granting captive coal blocks to private entrepreneurs but river water allocation remains an important concern. A safe cushion is required to be planned between availability and exploitation of resources. Permissible infrastructural development can be decided based on allowable environmental performance cut off.

ƒ

an optimistic infrastructural planning at which entrepreneurs stay invested

Cut-off percentile on environmental account should trade off to ensure adequate margin from environmental regulatory limits. A comparison of the developed scenarios with the existing land use at Talcher site reveals the following: ƒ

All the three scenarios follow a basic pattern and conform, by and large, to the existing land uses. Existing central industrial zone, forest buffers at corners and

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residential and commercial land use at the outer ring of industrial zone is noted in the developed scenarios especially at scenario I and III. Significant conformity exists between predicted and existing profile of industrial zone. Given that a number of parcels remained unselected due to environmental unsuitability in the vicinity of predicted/existing industrial zone, only low air pollution potential, low water pollution potential and low land contamination potential industries are admissible in hitherto unoccupied industrial parcels. Such low pollution prone industries should be adequately buffered by forestry/pasture. ƒ

Zone with prime agricultural land is not selected in any of the scenarios. The reasons are (i) the zone is identified as water contamination area, at the same time, and (ii) change of land use is restricted as this area is the only prime agricultural area (a high degree of water contamination control is the only feasible solution).

ƒ

Another notable point of disagreement is land parcels near Talcher Super Thermal Power station at Kaniha. Because of presence of a place of religious importance nearby, the land parcels have not been selected as Industrial land use (indicating unwise land area selection for the Thermal Power Plant)

ƒ

Present SPM level in residential areas of Angul exceeds the permissible limits. The areas, which exceed permissible thresholds, have not been selected by the zoning scenario. The cases where a land use change is not possible call for a stricter management of issues.

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5. CONCLUSIONS Work on macro level zoning study and preparation of zoning atlas for industrial land use is nearing completion in India. The next important task would be to devise micro level zoning mechanism in the identified critically polluted areas. This study presented a step-by-step detail of identification and optimization of various environmental, socio-economic and infrastructural attributes to devise micro level zoning in the context of a power grade coalfield, which is identified as a critically polluted area by CPCB of India. The developed zoning scenarios are dependent on the land use suitability framework. Certain degree of subjectivity is associated while assigning the comparative scores for assessing land use suitability. The subjectivity can be minimized by developing detail scoring rationales. For land use applicability scoring (0-4, R) a better result may be possible if weighted average of expert opinions (scores) are considered. Societal information base and public participation should be an important element of the zoning study. In the present case societal attributes of the coalfield could not be considered due to paucity of relevant information. Village level workshops will give better insight into socio-economic, infrastructural and environmental needs of the region. The work methodology presented in the study can be adopted suitably while developing zoning methodology in other environs also, with selection of an applicable set of attributes following a suitable zoning policy. It is important to carry out similar exercise in the identified critically polluted areas in India and other developing countries where growth possibilities exist. Putting in place a reliable system of data base development and

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management may go a long way in facilitating undertaking of similar exercises in other environs.

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REFERENCES Anon. (1994). Environmental Management Plan for Angul-Talcher Area, Orissa Environment Programme, Bhubaneshwar. Anon. (2007a). India Core: Information on Indian Infrastructure & Core Sectors; power. http://www.indiacore.com/power.html, 2007. Anon. (2007b). India Core: Information on Indian Infrastructure & Core Sectors; coal. http://www.indiacore.com/coal.html, 2007. Barredo, J.I., Kasanko, M., McCormick, N., & Lavalle, C. (2003). Modelling dynamic spatial processes: simulation of urban future scenarios through cellular automata. Landsc. Urban Plann. 64, 145–160. Berry, B. J. L, Tennant, R. J., Garner, B. J. & Simmons, J.W. (1963). Commercial Structure and Commercial Blight. Department of Geography. University of Chicago Bhaskaran R., & Ravikumar V. (2002). Future of Indian lignite industry. J. Mines Metals Fuels 50, 273-285. Burgess, E.W. (1925).The growth of the city: an introduction to a research project, in: Park, R.E., & Burgess, E.W. (Eds.), The city, Chicago, pp. 47-62. Carver, S.J. (1991). Integrating multi-criteria evaluation with geographical information systems. Int. J. Geogr. Inform. Syst. 5, 321–339. Chen, O., & Verburgi, P.H. (2000). Multiscale characterisation of Land-use patterns in China. Ecosystems. 3, 369–385. Eastman, J.R., Kyem, P.A., Toledano, J., & Jin, W. (1993). GIS and Decision Making. United Nations Institute for Training and Research, UNITAR, Geneva. Grabaum, R., & Meyer, B.C. (1998). Multicriteria optimisation of landscapes using GISbased functional assessments. Landsc. Urban Plann. 43, 21-34. Hamilton, E.F.I. (1968). Models of industrial location. in : Chorley, R.J., & Haggett, P. (Eds.), Socio-Economic Models in Geography. Methuen, London, pp. 362-424. Harries, C.D., & Ullman, E.L. (1945). The nature of cities. American Academy of Pol. and Sci. 242, 7-17. Herzog, F., & Buhler-Natour, C. (1999). Criteria for sustainability and their application at a regional level: the case of clearing islands in the Dubener Heide nature park (Eastern Germany). Landsc. Urban Plann. 46, 51-62. Hoyt, H. (1939). The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighbourhoods in American Cities. US Federal Housing Administration. Washington D.C Lowrence, R., Hendrix, P.F., & Odum, E.P. (1986). A hierarchical approach to sustainable agriculture. Amer. J. Alt. Agr. 1, 169-173. Mukhopadhyay, M.K., & Sinha, I.N. (2005). A Review of Conceptual Aspects of Agri and Urban land Use Models. Int. J. Env. Prot. 25, 339-344. Pauleit, S., & Duhme, F. (2000). Assessing the environmental performance of land cover types for urban planning. Landsc. Urban Plann. 52, 1-20. Rhind, D., & Hudson, R. (1980). Land use. London. Methuen. Serageldin, I. (1996). Sustainable development: from theory to practice. Finance Developmnt. 33, 55-66.

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Sharma N.K. (2002). Indian coal industry perspectives. J. Mines Metals Fuels. 50 (7), 233-237. Voogd, H. (1983). Multicriteria Evaluation for Urban and Regional Planning. London. Pion. Vosti, S. A., & Reardon, T. (1997). Sustainability, Growth, and Poverty Alleviation: A Policy and Agroecological Perspective. , Baltimore. The Johns Hopkins University Press. White, R., Engelen, C., Uljee, I., Lavalle, C., & Erlich, D. (1999). Developing an urban land use simulator for European cities, in: Proceedings of the 5th EC-GIS Workshop. Italy. Stresa.

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In: Perspectives in Environmental Research Ed: Jonathan M. Gullbert

ISBN: 978-1-61209-444-1 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

PAHS IN SEDIMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL AND COAL-DERIVED PARTICLES -- OCCURRENCE, MOBILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT Yi Yang∗1 and Thilo Hofmann2 1

School of Resources and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University 2 Department of Environmental Geosciences, Vienna University

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ABSTRACT Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous hydrophobic organic contaminants in the environment. They tend to be associated with particles and are widely transported by flooding and atmospheric pathways, resulting in elevated concentrations in sediments/soils. Coal and coal-derived particles in natural sediments/soils can act not only as strong sinks for the PAHs, but also as very important sources of PAHs in sediments/soils. The understanding of the mobility of these contaminants from the sediments/soils is very important, because sorption/desorption, especially sequestration of PAHs by these coal and coal-derived particles in soils can control their transportation, bioavailability, degradation and hence the potential risk in the environment.

1. INTRODUCTION Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous hydrophobic organic contaminants in the environment. They tend to be associated with particles and are widely transported by flooding and atmospheric pathways, resulting in elevated concentrations in sediments/soils. Coal and coal-derived particles produced by coal industry can be wild spread in the aquatic system through atmospheric transportation, runoff and flooding etc. Coal and coal-derived particles in natural sediments can act not only as strong sinks for the PAHs, but also as very important sources of PAHs in sediment. The understanding of the mobility of ∗

E-mail: [email protected]

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these contaminants from the sediments/soils is very important, because sorption/desorption, especially sequestration of PAHs by these coal and coal-derived particles in soils can control their transportation, bioavailability, degradation and hence the potential risk in the environment.

2. OCCURRENCE OF COAL AND COAL-DERIVED PARTICLE ASSOCIATED PAHS IN SEDIMENTS

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2.1. Identification of Coal and Coal-Derived Particles in Sediments Hard coal product has increase from less than 1 billion ton to almost 5 million ton from 1900 to 2005 [1]. Due to coal mining, coal industry, atmospheric transport, runoff, and flooding etc, unburnt coal and coal-derived particles can be wild spread in the aquatic system, and consequently settled in sediments. For example, unburnt coal particles can be released by open pit mining; coal stored at industrial sites for the production of coke, gas or steam, is subjected to erosion; moreover, coal naturally eroded into aquatic systems for sedimentary rock outcroppings containing coal seams. Occurrence of coal in sediments was reported from harbors such as Hamilton Harbour [2] and Roberts Bank coal terminal, in Canada [3]. Coal particles present in sediments made up 10.5 to 11.9 % dry weight of the soil mass in the vicinity of coal-loading terminals and was reported as non-hydrolysable solids. The classic method to identify coal and coal-derived particles in sediments is the coal petrography. Using optical microscopy enables the observation, identification, classification and quantification of coal and coal derived particles in natural sediments [4-8]. In a recent study, about 75 vol-% of the light fraction (i.e., the fraction with a density < 2 g/cm³, predominantly organic carbon) in a river floodplain soil were identified as hard coal particles [9]. Photomicrographs in Figure 1 show different coal and coal-derived particles identified by organic petrography techniques in sediment samples collected from Mosel River bank, where intensive coal mining activities happened in the former time.

Figure 1. Coal and coal-derived particles identified by organic petrography techniques.

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2.2. Elevated d Concentrration of PAHs P in Seediments wiith Coal an nd CoalD Derived Partticles

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Coal is deefined as a sedimentary rock containing more thaan 70% by volume of caarbonaceous material withh a three-dim mensional maacromolecularr matrix ‘network’. In adddition to the network struucture, a multtitude of smalll molecules, i.e. a ‘mobilee phase’, is prresent within the t network annd is of particuular environm mental interest.. These molecuules can be reeleased from the coal network moree rapidly beccause they are a less bound to the m macromolecula ar matrix com mpared to thee cross-linked molecules within w the nettwork. The nuumber of con njugated arom matic rings peer structural unit u within thhe matrix incrreases with inncreasing coalification (matuurity), ultimattely resulting in i graphite [100]. mined in hardd coals with thhe concentratiion up to hunndreds, and PAHs weree often determ evven few thousands of mg/kkg. The charaacteristics of coal, includinng its PAH content c and diistribution patttern depend on o (1) originaal biological raw r materials (coal type) and a (2) the deegree to whicch the coal-beearing strata have been alltered by the affects of prressure and teemperature asssociated with burial b over geologic time (ccoal rank) [11--15]. Due to the low density, coal c particles are a preferentiaally transporteed and can acccumulate in reemote areas, reesulting in eleevated PAH cooncentrations in sediments [4, 15]. For exxample, up too 80 mg/kg EP PA-PAHs were found in bannk sediment saamples from thhe Saar and Mosel M River (F Figure 2).

Fiigure 2. Elevateed PAH concenttrations (sum of EPA-PAHs, 11 and 2- methylated naphthaleenes and peerylene) in Saarr and Mosel Rivver floodplain soils, Germany [16]. [ The flow direction d is from m SW to N and the Saar coal mining areea is near Saarbburg. Coal transportation by ships occurred froom the NE m mining area via the t Saar River, towards t NE intto the Mosel Rivver and further into the Rhine River. R

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The light fraction, dominated by coal and coal-derived particles was collected by density separation. Although contributing 1, the joint action is less than additive.

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c) Response addition (independent action, IA) method: this method was applied to 48 binary mixtures of heavy metals with pesticides according to Faust et al. (2003), using the following formula: E (Cmix) = E (C1) + E (C2) (1 - E (C1))

(3)

E (C1) and E (C2) denote the fractional effects (x %) caused by the individual constituents C1 and C2, and E (Cmix) is the total effect of the mixture. The joint action can be estimated by comparing empirical and observed effects of the mixture in question.

2.4. Toxicity Bioassay Acute toxicity tests, either to D. magna or S. werneri were carried out separately. About 60 animals were used for each test divided into five replicates of 10 organisms each plus control for each series of concentrations (5-7). The test animals were placed in 250 mL glass beakers containing 200 mL of test solution. Mortality (complete immobilization) was counted 24h after exposure and subjected to probit analysis (Finney, 1971) to estimate EC values, 95% confidence limits and slopes of regression lines. The latter's were constructed by the aid of an Ld-P Software program (www.ehabsoft.com). Test methods were performed in general accordance with respective standardized protocols (OECD, 2000).

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3.1. Single Substance Toxicity In all bioassays considered no mortality occurred in control treatments. Based on 24h EC50 values, the tested heavy metals against Daphnia magna showed values ranging between 0.0002 ppm for Cu and 0.73 ppm for Cr (Table 1). This means that Cu was the most toxic metal, while Cr was the least one. The same finding was obtained with Stenocypris werneri (Table 1). However, the order of toxicity of the other four tested metals differed to some extend. For example, the order of toxicity based on EC50 values for D. magna was as follows: Zn > Cd > Pb > Mn. In case of S. werneri, such finding was as follows: Cd > Zn = Pb > Mn. The slope values of the regression lines showed that some of the tested metals possessed nearly equal values (e.g., Cd ≈ Zn and Cr ≈ Mn; for D. magna), and (e.g., Cd ≈ Cu and Pb ≈ Zn; for S. werneri). Therefore, the dosage-response curves of such metals appeared to be nearly paralleled (not included here). The acute toxicity data for pesticides to D. magna and S. werneri are shown in Table 2. The molluscicide niclosamide showed a 24h- EC50 against D. magna and S. werneri equaled 0.000005 ppm and 0.0003 ppm, respectively; achieving the highest toxicity. Also, the fungicide bupirimate showed the lowest toxicity against both tested organisms and its EC50 values were respectively accounted to 2.31 ppm and 3.98 ppm.

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Table 1. Acute toxicity of certain heavy metals to Daphnia magna and Stenocypris werneri 24h toxicity values in ppm (average and means)a Heavy metal salts

a

CdCl2 CrCl3 CuCl2 MnCl2 PbCl2 ZnCl2

EC25 0.12 (0.079-0.155) 0.46(0.41-0.51) 0.0001(0.000079-0.0001) 0.33(0.28-0.37) 0.046(0.023-0.075) 0.098(0.069-0.13)

Daphnia magna EC50 0.33(0.27-0.39) 0.73(0.68-0.79) 0.0002(0.0002-0.0002) 0.5(0.45-0.54) 0.39(0.29-0.52) 0.27(0.22-0.32)

Slope 1.51 3.36 2.14 3.69 0.73 1.53

Stenocypris werneri EC25 EC50 0.15(0.12-0.19) 0.34(0.29-0.39) 0.51(0.42-0.58) 0.89(0.79-0.99) 0.0005(0.0004-0.0006) 0.0012(0.001-0.0013) 0.35(0.31-0.38) 0.54(0.50-0.58) 0.24(0.19-0.28) 0.47(0.42-0.53) 0.23(0.19-0.26) 0.47(0.42-0.52)

Slope 1.92 2.73 1.71 3.59 2.27 2.19

The values between parenthesis represent the lower and upper limits of the corresponding values.

Table 2. Acute toxicity of certain pesticides to Daphnia magna and Stenocypris werneri 24h toxicity values in ppm (average and means)a Pesticides Abamectin Bupirimate Fenarimol Fluazifop-butyl Imidacloprid Methomyl Niclosamide Triazophos a

Daphnia magna EC25 EC50 0.0002(0.0002-0.0002) 0.0003(0.0003-0.0004) 1.38(1.15-1.58) 2.31(2.08-2.53) 0.16(0.13-0.18) 0.28(0.25-0.31) 1.05(0.89-1.21) 2.12(1.91-2.36) 0.11(0.089-0.13) 0.26(0.22-0.30) 0.0055(0.0047-0.0062) 0.0088(0.008-0.0096) 0.0000033(0.0000030-0.0000036) 0.0000050(0.0000047-0.0000054) 0.0068(0.0053-0.0084) 0.0018(0.016-0.022)

Slope 3.12 3.02 2.60 2.22 1.81 3.24 3.73 1.57

Stenocypris werneri EC25 EC50 0.014(0.011-0.016) 0.027(0.023-0.03) 1.83(1.51-2.15) 3.98(3.49-4.49) 0.26(0.22-0.29) 0.43(0.38-0.47) 1.99(1.68-2.24) 3.07(2.79-3.33) 0.26(0.23-0.29) 0.42(0.38-0.45) 0.018(0.014-0.022) 0.036(0.031-0.04) 0.0002(0.0002-0.0002) 0.0003(0.0003-0.0003) 0.029(0.026-0.032) 0.042(0.039-0.044)

The values between parenthesis represent the lower and upper limits of the corresponding values.

Slope 2.37 2.01 3.08 3.56 3.35 2.29 2.97 4.49

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Table 3. Joint action analysis, based on cotoxicity factor concept, for heavy metal mixtures against Daphnia magna and Stenocypris werneri Mixture

Cd + Cr Cd + Cu Cd + Mn Cd + Pb Cd + Zn Cr + Cu Cr + Mn Cr + Pb Cr + Zn Cu + Mn Cu + Pb Cu + Zn Mn + Pb Mn + Zn Pb + Zn a

Expected %Mortality 50.8 43.3 49.9 55.6 43.3 47.5 54.1 50.8 47.5 46.6 43.3 40.0 49.9 46.6 43.3

Daphnia magna Observed Cotoxicity %Mortality Factor 28.6 -39.8 50.0 +15.5 31.25 -34.9 57.0 +2.52 19.4 -55.9 30.0 -36.8 12.5 -78.9 15.4 -69.7 11.9 -74.9 36.4 -21.9 24.2 -44.1 22.7 -25.8 36.4 -27.1 15.0 -67.8 35.2 -18.7

Joint Actiona An Ad An Ad An An An An An An An An An An Ad

Expected %Mortality 60.0 58.6 56.3 58.4 50.0 58.6 56.3 58.4 50.0 54.9 57.0 48.6 54.7 46.3 48.4

Stenocypris werneri Observed Cotoxicity %Mortality Factor 16.1 -73.2 8.9 -84.8 17.2 -69.4 25.4 -56.5 12.9 -74.2 19.5 -66.7 25.7 -54.4 9.4 -83.9 6.7 -86.6 9.7 -82.3 16.7 -70.7 7.9 -83.7 26.2 -52.1 3.3 -92.9 9.1 -81.2

Joint Actiona An An An An An An An An An An An An An An An

Joint Action: Ad: additive ; An: antagonism. A cotoxicity factor of more than (+20) means synergism; less than (-20) means antagonism; and a cotoxicity factor between (-20 and +20) means additive.

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S. A. Mansour, A. M. Ibrahim and A. W. Ibrahim

The data presented in Tables 1 and 2 could be used to assess relative sensitivity of both tested organisms towards the studied toxicants. The obtained data demonstrate high sensitivity of D. magna compared with S. werneri, generally. In case of Cu, sensitivity of D. magna accounted to 6 folds as that of S. werneri. The situation with pesticides was much pronounced. For example, D. magna compared with S. werneri exhibited high sensitivity to abamectin, niclosamide and triazophos by factors, if calculated, account to 90, 60 and 23.3 folds, respectively.

3.2. Mixture Toxicity

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Comparisons of empirical and observed toxicity of binary mixtures with those of the individual components are depicted from the data presented in Tables 1-2 and the respective LC-P lines (not included here). Analyses of joint actions of the studied mixtures were performed by three different concepts (i.e., TF, CA and IA).

3.2.1. Results of Joint Action Based on Cotoxicity Factor (TF) Concept (Formula No. 1) Except three mixtures from fifteen showed antagonistic effects towards D. magna. The three excluded ones (Cd + Cu, Cd + Pb and Pb +Zn) showed additive effects (Table 3). The value of cotoxicity factor could be used in identifying the type of interaction (i.e., antagonism, synergism and additive). Also, it could be used to compare the degree of interactive effects. By other word, the cotoxicity factor could be used to assess the interaction in qualitative and quantitative sense. For example, a mixture such as Cr + Mn of a cotoxicity factor of (- 78.9) had far antagonistic effect than a mixture such as Cr + Cu (cotoxicity factor = - 36.8). In case of S. werneri, all the tested mixtures showed antagonistic effects to different degrees (Table 3). The highest antagonistic action achieved by Mn + Zn (- 92.9), while the lowest entitled to Mn + Pb (- 52.1). Mixtures such as Cd + Cu, Cr + Pb, Cr + Zn, Cu + Mn, Cu + Zn and Pb + Zn showed cotoxicity factors ranged between – 81.2 and – 86.6. This may suggest that such mixtures exhibited nearly equal degree of interactive effect against S. werneri. Interaction of binary mixtures of heavy metals with pesticides showed different types of joint action either towards D. magna or S. werneri. According to the data presented in Table 4, interaction between Cd and each of abamectin, bupirimate, fenarimol, niclosamide and triazophos was accounted to synergistic effect towards D. magna. The same metal in conjunction with fluazifop-butyl or imidacloprid induced additive effects, while with methomyl interacted antagonistically. All the mixtures contained manganese with any of the used pesticides interacted antagonistically. The overall results of testing 48 binary mixtures of heavy metals with pesticides against D. magna revealed that the majority of mixtures interacted antagonistically (27 mixtures). Thirteen and eight mixtures interacted synergistically and additively, respectively. In case of S. werneri, the mixtures of Mn with 7 of 8 pesticides showed antagonistic effects (Table 5). The other tested mixtures induced different types of interaction. Of the 48 tested mixtures, 10, 16 and 22 combinations induced synergism, additive and antagonism, respectively.

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3.2.2. Results of Joint Action Based on Concentration Addition (CA) Concept (Formula No. 2) The toxic unit (TU) estimated for fifteen pairs of heavy metal mixtures against D. magna gave values more or less than 1, thus the joint action was ranked as more or less than additive. In rating the joint action respective to the estimated TU, we suggested a ± 0.05 as a safety factor. This means that TU of 1 ± 0.05, instead of 1.00, has to be considered "additive". Accordingly, the mixtures Cd + Cu and Pb + Zn which exhibited TU of 1.02 and 1.03, respectively, were ranked as mixtures of additive effects (Table 6).

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Table 4. Joint action analysis, based on co-toxicity factor concept, for heavy metalpesticide mixtures tested against Daphnia magna Toxicant mixture (Heavy metal + pesticides) Cadmium + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Chromium+ Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Copper + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Lead + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos

Expected % Mortality 40 50 40 47.1 43.3 49.7 43 46.6 47.5 57.5 47.5 54.6 50.8 57.2 50.5 54.1 40 50 43 47.1 53.3 49.7 43 46.6 43 53 43 50.1 46.3 52.7 46 46.6

Observed % Mortality 100 97.6 75 38 35.8 9.8 96.6 86 26.6 32.4 18.9 33.3 53 6.6 3.4 66.6 57.6 50.9 28.6 26.8 27.5 6.6 53.3 80 48.4 68 18.8 18.9 19.4 33.3 40.5 53.5

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Co-toxicity factor 150 95.2 87.5 - 19.3 -17.3 - 80.5 124.7 84.5 - 44 - 43.7 - 60.2 - 39 4.3 - 88.5 - 93.3 23.1 44 1.8 - 33.5 - 43.1 - 48.4 - 86.7 24 71.7 12.6 28.3 -56.3 - 62.3 - 58.1 - 36.8 12 14.8

Joint action Sy Sy Sy Ad Ad An Sy Sy An An An An. Ad An An Sy Sy Ad An An An An Sy Sy Ad Sy An An An An Ad Ad

280

S. A. Mansour, A. M. Ibrahim and A. W. Ibrahim Table 4 Continued Manganese + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Zinc + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos

Sy: means Ad: means An: means

46.6 56.6 46.6 53.7 49.9 56.3 49.6 53.2 40 50 40 47.1 43.3 49.7 43 46.6

23.3 6.6 13.3 13.3 16.6 39.4 30 29 38.7 21.2 65.7 65.1 26.6 26.2 16.6 57.8

- 50 - 88.3 - 71.5 - 75.2 - 66.7 - 30 - 39.5 - 45.5 - 3.3 - 57.6 64.3 38.2 - 38.6 - 47.3 - 61.4 24

An An An An An An An An Ad An Sy Sy An An An Sy

Synergism of cotoxicity factor > +20. Additive of cotoxicity factor between -20 and +20. Antagonism of cotoxicity factor < -20.

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Table 5. Joint action analysis, based on co-toxicity factor concept, for heavy metalpesticide mixtures tested against Stenocypris werneri Toxicant mixture (Heavy metal + pesticides) Cadmium + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Chromium + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Copper + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl

Expected % Mortality 57.9 55 55 60 59.4 50 60 50 57.9 55.5 55 60 59.4 50 60 50 50.9 48.5 48 53 52.4 43

Observed % Mortality 80 59.5 70 62 76.9 43.6 89.3 75 65.2 16.6 16.7 51.8 36.5 20.6 12.4 60.9 40.6 10.6 36.4 51.6 53.1 25

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Co-toxicity factor 38.2 8.20 27.3 3.3 29.5 -12.8 48.8 50 12.6 -70.1 -69.6 -13.7 -38.6 -58.8 -79.3 21 -20.0 -78.1 -24.2 -2.6 1.31 -41.9

Joint action Sy Ad Sy Ad Sy Ad Sy Sy Ad An An Ad An An An Sy Ad An An Ad Ad An

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Interactive Toxicity of Binary Mixtures to Daphnia Magna Straus… + Niclosamide + Triazophos Lead + Abamectin + Bupirimate Toxicant mixture (Heavy metal + pesticides) + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Manganese + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Zinc + Abamectin + Bupirimate + Fenarimol + Fluazifop-butyl + Imidacloprid + Methomyl + Niclosamide + Triazophos Sy: means Ad: means An: means

53 43 56.3 53.9 Expected % Mortality 53.2 58.4 57.8 48.4 58.4 48.4 54.2 51.8 51.3 56.3 55.7 46.3 56.3 46.3 47.9 45.5 45 50 49.4 40 50 40

46.3 70 51 61.3 Observed % Mortality 22.2 31.5 32.6 14.7 37.3 40 43.3 26.3 9.6 24.4 27.7 5.4 18.4 20 75 25.6 70.8 54.2 40 42.3 13.3 50

-12.6 62.8 -9.4 13.7 Co-toxicity factor -58.3 -46.1 -43.6 -69.6 -36.1 -17.4 -20.0 -49.2 -81.3 -56.7 -50.3 -88.4 -67.3 -56.8 56.6 -43.7 57.3 8.4 -9.5 5.8 -73.4 25

281

Ad Sy Ad Ad Joint action An An An An An Ad Ad An An An An An An An Sy An Sy Ad Ad Ad An Sy

Synergism of cotoxicity factor > +20. Additive of cotoxicity factor between -20 and +20. Antagonism of cotoxicity factor < -20.

Only, Cd + Pb (TU = 0.50) was the mixture entitled to greater than additive effect. The remaining 12 mixtures seemed to possess less than additive effects. According to the data presented in Table 6, the TU estimated for the fifteen mixtures against S. werneri exceeded 1; therefore the joint action was accounted to less than additive. Mixtures such as Cr + Zn (TU= 6.55) and Mn + Zn (TU= 6.35) may be considered as mixtures having nearly an equal degree of interactive effect. On the other hand, these may be seen as much more effective than mixtures such as Cr + Mn (TU= 1.55) and Mn + Pb (TU= 1.50).

3.2.3. Results of Joint Action Based on Response Addition (IA) Concept (Formula No. 3) Analysis of joint action for 48 binary mixtures of heavy metals-pesticides according to independent action method is presented in Table 7 for D. magna and Table 8 for S. werneri.

Perspectives in Environmental Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Perspectives in Environmental Research, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,

Copyright © 2011. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Table 6. Joint action analysis, based on concentration addition concept, for heavy metal mixtures tested against Daphnia magna and Stenocypris werneri Mixture

Cd + Cr Cd + Cu Cd + Mn Cd + Pb Cd + Zn Cr + Cu Cr + Mn Cr + Pb Cr + Zn Cu + Mn Cu + Pb Cu + Zn Mn + Pb Mn + Zn Pb + Zn a

Effect of mixture test (as %mortality) 28.6 50.0 31.25 57.0 19.4 30.0 12.5 15.4 11.9 36.4 24.2 22.7 36.4 15.0 35.2

Daphnia magna x2 / LC(B) x1 / LC(A)

TUa

Joint Action

0.83 0.40 0.82 0.40 1.20 0.83 1.60 1.15 1.31 0.82 0.95 1.00 0.82 1.65 0.38

1.92 1.02 1.48 0.50 2.29 1.66 3.00 5.75 3.27 1.48 1.95 1.10 1.20 3.61 1.03