Pashas, Begs, and Effendis: A Historical Dictionary of Titles and Terms in the Ottoman Empire 9781463229894

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Pashas, Begs, and Effendis

Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies

A co-publication with The Isis Press, Istanbul, the series consists of collections of thematic essays focused on specific themes of Ottoman and Turkish studies. These scholarly volumes address important issues throughout Turkish history, offering in a single volume the accumulated insights of a single author over a career of research on the subject.

Pashas, Begs, and Effendis

A Historical Dictionary of Titles and Terms in the Ottoman Empire

Gustav Bayerle

The Isis Press, Istanbul

preSS 2011

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright© 2011 by The Isis Press, Istanbul Originally published in 1997 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of The Isis Press, Istanbul. 2011

ISBN 978-1-61143-109-4

Reprinted from the 1997 Istanbul edition.

Printed in the United States of America

FOREWORD

The compilation of the present glossary of Ottoman historical terms took many years. I began to collect them while still a student, since their definitions in Redhouse1 were imprecise, at times even misleading. During those years my three-by-five cards with references were handy for tests and exams. Eventually I began teaching, and instead of answering the questions on tests I had to put them together ; my yellowing batch of cards still served me well. As years went by the collection continued to grow. I copied glossaries from studies of my colleagues, appropriated felicitous phrases and scores of good definitions from the footnotes of scholarly monographs. Titles were culled from published Ottoman documents, terms copied from encyclopedias. Without the arrival of the computer age this dictionary would be still just cards in a box. 1 got my first computer in 1983 and soon the cards were turned into files. The definitions were endlessly reedited and supplemented ; whenever it was feasible sources were attributed, their actual use in archival documents were noted. The history of the Ottoman Empire encompasses more than 600 years. In such a long span, terms and institutions evolved and fell into disuse, their functions altered; I endeavored to record these changes in the individual entries. Throughout the centuries the English rendering of Ottoman terms created problems to contemporary writers, and numerous variants exist ; some of the early ones can be practically unrecognizable2 to the untrained readers. For this reason I decided to observe a version of the traditional transliteration system of Ottomanists as listed in the inside cover of the International Journal of Middle Eastl Studies. Following that tradition I render words of Arabic and Persian origins rather closely but, only the consonants are marked in words of Turkish origin. Whenever in doubt I also consulted the New Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary3 since its system of indicating vowels in remarkably consistent. For students who do not know Turkish such fine distinctions might be irrelevant, 'Sir James W. Redhouse, A Turkish and English Lexicon (Constantinople, 1921). E.g. "caddeelescheer" for kafi'l- 'asker, "supreme justice," in Rycaut, p. 45, or "chiachia" for kahya, "steward, deputy," colloquial variant of kelffiida in Rycaut, p. 14. Istanbul, 1968. 2

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but for specialists inexact rendering can be a source of irritation and possible misinterpretation. Entries are often concluded with abbreviated citations in parentheses. Some of the forty-three cited works are encyclopedias, others are reference works, studies on aspects of Ottoman history, published contemporary Ottoman discourses, or collections of archival documents. Accordingly, the citations can indicate quotation of original occurrences, more thorough treatments of the subjects, or list of additional readings. I consulted two of these works with particular frequency; the Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition4, a still unfinished international product of two generations of specialists on all aspects of Islamic cultures, the authoritative work of reference of nearly 10,000 pages, and the handbook of Yilmaz Oztuna 5 , a 1,200-page work on Ottoman institutions throughout the centuries. The two Turkish dictionaires of historical terms, those of Mehmet Zeki Pakahn 6 and of Midhat Sertoglu 7 were always next to my computer. I would not venture to compete with the works of these two venerated scholars except that their dictionaries are of use only for those students who can read Turkish. I have also included some titles, terms and geographic names missing from their compilations. I gratefully acknowledge my debt to the authors of the above cited works, especially to Halil tnalcik, the internationally acclaimed doyen of Ottoman studies and author of a number of insightful entries in EI2. I am particularly grateful to two of my friends and colleagues, Alan W. Fisher and Cornell H. Fleischer. They kindly consented to read the manuscript at various stages of writing and offered numerous improvements as well as encouragement. I am also thankful to Karin Ford, administrative assistant in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University, who proofread the manuscripts and made several corrections. Thanks are also due to the copy editor for the Isis Press who spotted several questionable definitions. He and the helpfulness of the Isis Press made the tedious task of the final preparation of the manuscript a pleasant experience. I would like to dedicate this modest dictionary to the students I have taught at Indiana University for thirty years. Their interest in Ottoman history and their questions on terms and institutions were the inspiration for the published version of the present work.

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8 vols. (London and Leiden, 1960-1995), = El2. Devleller ve hdnedanlar: Turkiye, 1074-1990 [States and Dynasties: Turkey, 1074-1990], Vol. ii (Ankara, 1989). Osmanh tank deyimleri ve lerimleri sezlUjjU [Dictionary of Ottoman Historical Phrases and Technical Terms], 3 vols. (Istanbul. 1946). 7Osmanh tarih lilgati [Ottoman Historical Dictonary], enlarged second edition, (Istanbul, 1986). 5

A

' ABD "Slave", more particularly male slave. Other words of Arabic origin used for slaves were £ulám (pi. gúmán), "slave boy"; esir (pi. lisera), "captive slave"; ffádim (pi. fjuddam), "[slave] eunuch"; cartye, "female slave, concubine"; and Ifala'ik, "female slave." Bende was the Persian term for slave. In addition the Turkish words kul and kdle were also used for male slaves. ABDÁL i. A dervish who believes in the doctrine that faith alone, not adherence to traditional doctrines and rituals, is necessary for salvation. ii. The fifth degree in the hierarchy of süfi saints who participate in the preservation of the universe. iii. In colloquial Turkish abdál assumed a pejorative meaning of "simpleton" or "fool". ABDEST Ritual washing of the face, hands, and feet before praying. 'ABDU 'LLAH "God's slave," popular Islamic name, also used by Muslim converts as surrogate for the name of their non-Muslim fathers as. e.g. Mehmed bin 'Abdu 'Hah. 'ACEM Persia, also any foreign region. ' ACEMIOCAGI The 'aceml corps; the Istanbul ocak was quartered in 31 odas built in the reign of Mehemmed II (1451-1481). Each oda had a bólük-ba§i except the oda of the Istanbul agasi that had nine bdliik-bafis under a ba$ bolttk-baji. The officiers of the 'acemi corps comprised the Istanbul agasi, "the Agha of Istanbul," his kethüdá, the favuf, afgi-bafi, the kethiida a¡$iba¡i, the baf-bólük-bafi, the 39 bdlük-ba¡ts, and the two kapucis (Kavánin: 19b-20b). 'ACEMl OGLAN "Foreign boy", boy of Christian parents conscripted for service in one of the ¡fapu kult units. The boys were selected through the devfirme levy system from rural Balkan communities or from captives. The most suitable of the boys were taken to the Palace schools, the rest

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were sent to Turkish farmsteads to learn Turkish and the tenets of Islam while doing physical labor. After some years they were recalled to serve in the 'acemi corps in Gelibdli, Edirne, and Istanbul. In the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566) 4, 000 'acemi onions worked in Istanbul; by the beginning of the 17th century their number increased to 8,000. After the establishment of the Istanbul ocak the Gelibdli ocak lost its earlier importance and had only 400-500 boys. The corps formed the reserve pool of the Janissary corps and in the meantime were utilized to perform manual labor in public construction works — the torba, "bag", service. In addition to carrying building material the torba included transportation of firewood for the palace and service as crew for 72 cargo boats. Vacancies in the Janissary corps were traditionally filled from the 'acemi reserves. By the late 16th century sons of Janissaries also gained the right to join the corps. Eventually the majority of new recruits came from these kul oghs and after a few generations the devfirme system of recruitment was gradually abandoned (Kavdnin: 19b-20b, R268a ; E12, i: 206-20). ' A D A L E T MEYDANI "Court of Justice, "variant for the Divan meydam of the Topkapi Palace. 'ADALET-NAME "Justice-writ," an edict of the sultan forbidding some specified abuses of Ottoman authorities. Local kadis were held responsible for upholding adalet-names. ADLi

"The Just," epithet for Mahmud II (1808-1839).

AGA "Agha, master, elder", title given to senior officers or officials in the military and in the Topkapi Palace, especially i. The black eunuchs of the harem, and the white eunuchs of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace; ii. The pages of the Privy Ward of the Topkapi Palace; iii. The commanders of the Janissary Corps and the Cavalry Troops of the Porte. iv. In the 19th century the term agha was popularly used for illiterate officers while literate officers were addressed as efendi (Ef1, i: 246-247). AGA BOLUGt

The first boluk of a gdniillii cema 'at in garrisons.

AGA BOLUKLERl The "bolUks of the Agha." i. The 61 boliiks added to the 100 cema'at ortalari of the Janissary Corps by Sultan Selirn I (1512-1520) constituting the 1st to 61st odas of the Janissary Corps with 50 soldiers per boluk. These companies were commanded by the boliik-bafts under the direct supervision of the Agha of the Janissaries. These boliiks were established at the time when the new

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agha was promoted from the palace kuls and the segban-baft lost its right of succession. The Agha needed his own personal troops to counterbalance the 34 segban bdliiks. The sultan himself was nominally enrolled in the 1st btiliik. The rest of the 100 cema'ats were commanded by yaya-bafis (Kavanin: 85b-86b). ii. The 9 'acemi boliiks in the oda of the Agha of Istanbul. The other 30 odas had one boltik per oda (Kavanin: 19b). AGA £IRAGI The "agha's apprentice", non-devfirme Muslim recruits taken directly in the personal retinue of the Agha of the Janissaries without prior service in the 'acemi corps. This practice was first noted in the reign of Murad HI (1574-1595) ('Aziz: 6; Sertoglu : 6). AGA DlVANI The Council of the Agha of the Janissaries was formed by the six ocak aghas: the Agha of the Janissaries, the kul kethiidasi, the segbanba§i, the zagarci-ba}i, the samsunct-bafi, and the furnact-bafi, as well as the beytii'l-malgt, the kethiida yen, the yeniferi kdtibi, the baygavu^, the muhtir aga, and the ta'lim-haneci. AGA IMAMI The imam of the Janissary Corps with the rank of yaya-ba$i (Kavanin : R 267b). AGA KAPUSI The "Agha's Gate". The residence and office of the Agha of the Janissaries mentioned for the first time in the 17th century. It was located in the vicinity of the Siileymaniye complex. After the destruction of the Janissary corps in 1826 the building complex was given to the §eyhu 7iIslam to be his official residence known as the bab-i fetva or bdb-i mefifyat. Presently the building complex houses the offices of the Mufti of Istanbul. AGA PA§A From mid-17th century on the Agha of the Janissaries received the rank of vezir and was known informally as aga pafa (Sertoglu : 366). AGAYAN-I RiKAB-I HUMAYON "Aghas of the imperial stirrup," also known as iizengi agalart, since they accompanied the sultan on public processions marching next to the stirrups of his horse. The aghas of this group were ranked according to seniority as the Agha of the Janissaries, the mir- 'alem, the two mir-ahurs, the kapualar kethiidasi, the favuf-ba$t, the fakirci-bafi, the (agnigir-bafi, and the boliik aghas. All these personally assisted the sultan in mounting his horse ( T K ; El2, viii: 528529). AGHA OF ISTANBUL In Turkish Istanbul agasi, the commander of the 'acemi corps in Istanbul.

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AGHA OF THE JANISSARIES In Turkish yenigerì a&ast, the commander of the Janissary corps, senior of all ilzengi aghas (TK). ' A H D - N À M E "Letter of agreement", treaty of truce and amity between the Ottoman Empire and a non-Muslim state; especially a formal unilateral proclamation of grants of specified privileges to foreign states in order to advance international trade or for political considerations. Bayezid I (13891402) granted the first 'ahd-nàmes to Ragusa and Genoa. In 1454 Venice was granted the right of paying only two percent customs duties and of having a permanent representative in Istanbul. In 1536 France received similar rights for entering into a formal anti-Habsburg alliance with the Ottoman Empire. AHI

"Generous", a member of the quasi-religious urban ahi association of craftsmen and merchants in Anatolian cities based on futuvvet principles in the late Seljuk and early Ottoman periods. At the collapse of Seljuk power after 1243, ahi organizations assumed authority in several Anatolian towns. By the 15th century a f f i organizations faded into obscurity although some ahi traditions survived in the Ottoman guilds (El2, i: 321323).

AK AGA "White agha", also known as ak hadim, "white eunuch", one of the white eunuchs serving in the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace under the general supervision of the Bàbii 's-sa'ade agasi, also known as Kapu agasi, and his three senior aghas, the hass oda-bafi, hazinedar-ba$i, and kilarci-baii. They constituted the permanent staff of Enderun and were responsible for the training and discipline of the pages in the five odas. In Selim I's reign (1512-1520) their number was raised to 40. In the 18th century the silàhdàr became the senior officer of Enderun (EI2, ii: 1088). AK BAYRAK Also beyaz sancak, the "white banner", the great white banner of the Janissary Corps. In processions it was carried in front of the Agha of the Janissaries. A K £ A Also akfe, "whitish", Ottoman monetary unit, the standard Ottoman silver coin known as asper in Europe. Its silver content had gradually fallen from 1.1 gr in 1444 to 0.3 gr in 1622. By that time French écus, Spanish regales, Dutch riksdalers and German thalers invaded the Levant. In the 18th century the akga lost so much of its value that the guruf, "piaster," became the standard Ottoman monatery unit in imitation of the German thaler with 50 percent silver content. In time the guruj too became adulterated (EI2, ii: 118-119). AK-DENlZ "White Sea", the Mediterranean Sea.

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AKINCI "Raider", volunteer cavalry of semi-nomadic Turkoman tribesmen and non-Turkish Muslim and Byzantine adventurers in the era of early Ottoman history who raided enemy territory for booty. The first Ottoman sultans succeeded in melding akinci propensity for looting and plundering with the religious fervor of ghazi ideology. The akinciSgdzi warriors constituted the main striking force in the expansion of the state. With the formation of a feudal sipaki cavalry and a slave Janissary infantry in the late 14th century, professional soldiers took over the role of the akincis who were gradually reduced to fulfilling auxiliary tasks as irregular cavalry. They remained useful in the Balkans where the seriars could count on thousands of volunteers to join the regular forces in campaigns against the Hungarians, Wallachians, or the Habsburgs in the 16th century. Those akmcis who distinguished themselves in battle could gain sipáhi status in the timár army (EI2, i: 340). ' ALÀMET-Ì SERIFE The "Noble Sign", one of the epithets for the tugra. ALAY i. A military unit of varied size from a few hundred to a few thousand men. ii. Public ceremonial procession of the Ottoman court on bayrams, "festivals"; be$ik alayi on the occasion of the birth of a prince; geliti alayi on the occasion of the wedding of a princess; kadir alayi on the occasion of the 27th of the month of Ramatati, when the first àyet of the Koran was revealed ; kihf alayi, the ceremonial girding of the sword of 'Osman I (1300-1324) at the accession of a new sultan; mevlid alayi on the occasion of the Prophet's birth; siinnet alayi on the occasion of the ceremonial transport of the vàlide sultan from the Old Palace to the Topkapi Palace at accessions (EI2, vi: 858-865). iii. A regiment in the 'Asàkir-i niiàmiye-i ¡ahane, "the Regular Imperial Army," organized in 1841. Each regiment under the command of the mir-alay had three battalions. ALAY BEGt Also mir-alay, "troop commander", the deputy officer of the sancak begi responsible for marshaling the sipàhis of a sancak (Sertoglu: 14). ALAY QAVUSI i. One of the messengers who carried the commands of the serdàr in battle. is. One of the marshals who cleared the route for processions in Istanbul. ALAY-IHÜMÁYÜN The sultan's public departure from and return to Istanbul usually in connection with a military campaign.

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ALAY KO§Kl A pavilion in the Topkapi Palace incorporated in the outside wall from which the sultans viewed parades. It was built in the reign of Murad ED (1574-1595). ALAY M E Y D A N I The "Court of Processions", the First Court of the Topkapi Palace between the Bab-1 hiimayun, the "Imperial Gate", and Orta kapu, the "Middle Gate". Because of the proximity of the Hagia Sophia the two gates could not be aligned. This court lodged the Darii 't-tarb-i biruni, the "Outer Mint"; the Cebe-hane-i 'amire, "Armory", in the former Church of St. Irene; the Kulle-i kagid emini, "Tower of the Paper Commissioner", where decrees on petititons were handed out; an 'acemioglan dormitory for 120 boys employed to do menial chores in the Palace, a timar-ffdne, "infirmary" for if oglans; anbar-i hime, a huge wood storehouse for wood; kar-hanes, "workshops"; other anbars and utilitarian buildings; and the notorious cellad ta$i, "executioner's stone", also known as seng-i 'ibret "stone of admonition". The palace waterworks were also located here. A Jurun-i nan-i hass, "imperial bakery", was built next to the waterworks in 1616. On special occasions this court served as assembling point for processions and also as a waiting area. Dignitaries invited to attend a divan meeting in the Second Court, left their horses and attendants here (Necipoglu: 40-50). 'ALEM "Standar, banner", in Arabic, synonymous with Zi'va; in Turkish with bayrak and sancak. The terms 'alem and bayrak maintained their original meanings while liva and sancak eventually signified "under the standard," i.e. a military unit; extending that definition it came to denote an area controlled by a military unit, i.e. an administrative district (El2, i: 394). 'ALEMDAR

"Standard-bearer", synonymous with bayrakdar.

'ALEM MEHTERLERl

Also tabl-hane, or mehter-hane,

"military band".

' A L E V l A "follower of "All", who acknowledged 'All as the successor of Muhammad to the Caliphate. Some of them in Turkoman areas accepted extreme Shi'ism with a political messianism mingled with shamanistic and Christian beliefs. The kmlba§ in 16th-century Anatolia constituted one of the 'Alevi religious-political movements. Many 'Alevi ideas were closely related to Bekta§i doctrines but unlike them the 'Alevis did not organize an established order but rather retained the character of folk religion surviving in villages in eastern Anatolia. Together with the closely related taljtacis their number in modern Turkey is estimated as being several million (§apolyo: 254-287). 'ALÌM, pi. 'ulema

A "scholar", graduate of a medrese.

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AL-i 'OSMÂN The "House of 'Osman", the Ottoman dynasty. ALP "Hero", title and also a proper name among various Turkic tribal groups since ancient times. In some Turkic dialects it occurs in compound titles such as alp gâzi, alp han, or alp tegin. ALTI BÔLÙK The "six [cavalry] troops [of the Porte]", also known as the kapu-kuh sipâhisi, the troops of the kapu-kuh cavalry in Istanbul: i. The sipâhi troops — in 1573 2,210 sipàhis, in 1609 7,805, in 1631 7,000; ii. The silâhdâr troops — in 1573 2,127 silâhdàrs, in 1609 7,283, in 1631 2,000; iii. The £urebà-i yemin, the "Right Wing of the ùarïb Troops" — in 1573 406 garibs, in 1609 928, in 1631 900 ; iv. The gurebà-i yesàt, the "Left Wing of the Garib troops" — in 1573 407 garibs, in 1609 975, in 1631 905; v. The 'ulufeciyân-i yemin, the "Right Wing of the 'Uliifeci Troops" — in 1573 400 'ulufecis, in 1609 2,055, in 1631 2,000, and ; vi. The 'ulûfeciyàn-i yesâr, the "Left Wing of the 'Ulufeci Troops" — in 1573 407 'ulùfecis, in 1609 1,423, in 1631 1,400. The first two troops were known as yukart bolukler, "the [two] upper troops", the last four as bolukât-i erba'a, "the four troops". In 1527 the alti bôliik numbered 5,088 soldiers, in 1573 5,957 soldiers, in 1609, 20,869 soldiers, in 1631, 14,205 soldiers (Kôçï Beg: 26-27, 41-42; 'Ayn 'All: 91; Barkan: 300). ALTIN YOL The "Golden Path", the covered corridor that connected the sultan's Privy Chamber with the Harem. AMEDl Or amedci, one of the assistants of the re'isii '1-kuttàb; the Chief of the Amedi Bureau, one of the bureaus of the Imperial Council established around 1777 for processing all written transactions of the re'îsii 'l-kiittàb. He was present at the meetings of the re'isii 'l-kiittàb with foreign ambassadors and kept the minutes. The amedi kalemi kept minutes of the Council of Ministers and endorsed the title documents for timàrs and ze'amets for a fee. In the post-Taniimât period, i.e. after 1877, the amedci was one of the five principal officers of the Sublime Porte until the reorganization of the administration in 1908 {EI2, i: 433). 'ÂMÎL, pl. 'ummàl

"Custodian, agent", especially a tax-collector.

ANADOLU Modern Turkish for Anatoli, "Anatolia".

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ANATOLI i. Anatolia, Asia Minor, the Asiatic part of Modern Turkey. ii. Anatoli vilayeti, was made a province in 1393 in western Asia Minor with the seat of the province in Kutahya. In 1609 the province had 7,311 kihf units, 195 of which were ze'amet estates; with 9,700 cebelii retainers it provided for 17,000 soldiers from the following 14 sancaks: Kutahya, Teke, Aydin, Mente§e, Sarufoan, Karasi, Hamid, Kara-hijar-i Sahib. Ankara, Kangiri, Boli, Kastamonl, Sultan-ofii, and $tfdavendig&r. In addititon the province had 26,500 mttsellem subjects who provided for 6,900 ejkinci auxiliaries. According to Kdf i Beg in 1640 the Anatolian province had 7,300 kihf properties, 95 of which were ze 'amet estates providing 15,000 soldiers on campaigns ('Ayn 'Ali: 43-45; Unat: 449; Birken: 115-121). ANATOLIA

Anatoli in English.

ANATOLI BEGLERBEGtSt The Governor General of the province of Anatolia. Unlike the Governor General of the Rumelia, he was not a permanent member of the Imperial Council. For a list of the beglerbegis of Anatolia see Oztuna: 1097-1100. ANATOLI DEFTERDARI The defterdar of Anatolia, established around 1480 as a separate branch of Department of Finance. He was under the general supervision of the ba§-defterdar and was also a member of the divan-i hiimayun. ANATOLI KAZl-'ASKERI The supreme judge in the Province of Anatolia, the junior of the two kazi-'askers, a permanent member of the Imperial Council. ANBARCI Mate on cargo-boats. A kalyon, "galleon", usually had 10 to 20 anbarc is. 'ARAB "Arab", in Ottoman usage it generally signified a Bedouin or a Negro. Ak 'Arab, an Arab who settled in a town or a city. 'ARABACI "Wagon driver", serving in one of the following groups : i. A wagon driver in the Imperial Stables under the supervision of the mar-ahur-i sani; ii. A member of the artillery auxiliary corps whose duty it was to transport the cannons 'ARAB VE 'ACEM DEFTERDARI The defterdar of the eastern regions conquered by Selim I (1512-1520) residing in Aleppo. Toward the end of

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Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) his office was subdivided and was attached to the relevant provinces. 'ARAKQfN Or 'arakiye, a soft skullcap worn under the turban. ARAZI PI. of art, "land, territory". ARNAVUD "Albania, Albanian". ARPA EMINI The intendant of the stable accounts (Unat: 469). ARPALIK "For barley", large dirlik estates granted to high ranking officials who were retired or were temporarily out of office. Occasionally arpalik was also granted as a supplement to salaries. In the 1630s K091 Beg complained that the practice of assigning numerous timar holdings as arpaliks put the military preparedness of the Empire into jeopardy (Murphey: 552). ARZ, pi. arat.i Land, territory. 'ARZ Petititon. Until the mid-16th century senior Ottoman officials, including the vezirs, katl- 'asken, defterdars, the kapu agasi and his four senior aghas, had the privilege of submitting petitions to the sultan in person. Following the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566) sultans became increasingly isolated from the affairs of the state. Even the grand vezir had to contact him in writing by submitting tethifes, "abstracts", on problems that required the personal decision of the sultan. 'ARZ AGALARI Those ak agas who were permitted to present petitions directly to the sultan: the Babtt 's-sa'ade agasi, the kass oda-bafi, the kilarci-ba§ 1, and the saray agasi. The exact number and position of the 'an agas changed numerous times in the post-Suleimanic era. 'ARZ KAPUSI The "Gate of Petitions", a variant for Babu 's-sa'ade beyond which the 'Art odasi was erected. 'ARZ ODASI The "Ward of Petitions", is situated just inside Enderun at the BabU 's-sa'ade. In this building, constructed around 1478, Mehemmed II accepted petitions from the vezirs, the two kdti-'askers, and the defterdars four times a week in the last years of his life. Foreign ambassadors who were given imperial audience were also received in the 'Art odasi. The kiosk, surrounded by a colonnade with broad overhanging eaves, was rebuilt by Suleiman I in 1528. The audience chamber had an ornate fireplace and

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ambassadors described the huge gold throne in the corner surmounted by a canopy. In audiences the sultan sat immobile without uttering a word or even looking at the foreign dignitaries. At the right side low benches were placed for the vezirs who were allowed to sit during deliberations; though after 1650 pashas refused to sit in the sultan's presence. Through a large latticed window the sultan could see gifts of foreign rulers displayed outside, in wartime, spoils of war and cut-off heads of the enemy. Those with whom the sultan was displeased could be executed outside under the vestibule of the Third Gate. On special occasions a special throne was placed in front of the kiosk and the sultan sitting there received homage from the dignitaries of his empire (Necipoglu: 96-110). ARZ-I HARACIYE Agricultural land in the possession of unbelievers at the time of conquest on which harac had to be paid. ARZ-I MEMLEKET Also arz-miri, agricultural land in possession of the state but given to the re'aya for cultivation. On such land, both '6§r and harac (as gift akcasi) had to be paid. Houses, gardens, orchards, and movable property were in private possession but the agricultural land was possessed by the re 'aya as a loan. As long as they cultivated the land no one was to interfere with it and their sons inherited the same right but if they died without sons, the right of use was assigned to someone else. Provinces of Anatolia and Rumelia were all arz-i memleket ($eyhii 'l-islam Ebu' ssu'ud as quoted in Barnes: 36-37). ARZ-I '0§RlYE Agricultural land in the possession of a Muslim. They had to pay 'dfr, "tithe", to the poor and it was not canonically lawful to give arz-i 'o}riye land to a sipahi or someone else. Hicaz and Basra were arazi-i 'dfriye (§eyhii 'l-islam Ebu 's-su'ud as quoted in Bames: 33). 'ASAKIR PI. of 'asker, "soldier". ' ASAKIR-i MANSURE-I MUHAMMEDIYE The "Victorious Army of the Muslims", the name given to the Westernized army Mahmud II organized following the destruction of the Janissary Corps in 1826. 'ASAKIR-i NiZAMIYE-i §AHANE The "Standing Imperial Army," the name for the Ottoman armed forces after its reorganization in 1841. Its five major units were stationed in Istanbul, Uskiidar, Monastir, Sivas, and Damascus each lead by a miifir, field marshal, under the general command of the ser'asker. In 1848 the armed forces were supplemented by a sixth unit based in Baghdad.

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'ASES-BA§I Chief of the night patrols of Istanbul, traditionally the bdlukba$i of the 28th bOlttk of the Janissary Corps. He was also the superintendent of the public prisons of Istanbul (Kavanin: 94a-94b; El2, i:687). ASITANE-i SA'ADET The "Threshold of Felicity", synonymous with Bdb-i 'ali, the Sublime Porte. ASITANE-i SALTANAT-A§IYAN The "Threshold of the Abode of the Sultanate", epithet for the Sublime Porte. 'ASKER, pi. 'asakir

"Soldier".

'ASKERI Or 'askeriye, the military-administrative establishment, including the seyfiye, the kalemiye, and the 'ulema. They all received state stipends and were exempt from taxation. All grants and privileges of the 'askeri were tied to the person of the reigning sovereign and had to be renewed at accession time by the new sultan. ASPER The European name for ak$a, the standard silver coin in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. A§£I "Cook", also an official in a Janissary oda. He was responsible for the provisions of his unit and he also carried out the corporal punishment of delinquent soldiers in his unit (Rycaut: 195). A§£I-BA§I Chief of the boliik-bafis of the 'acemi corps under the kethiida of the Agha of Istanbul (Kavanin: 20a). A§£I DEDE Senior dervish in the Mevleviye order. 'AijIK "Lover", especially in the mystical sense; a wandering poet-minstrel who recites at public gatherings. Their repertoire used to include religious songs, heroic epics, and love poems. They were more numerous in the past but the tradition of 'a$ik recitals is still alive in the Turkish countryside. ' A§URE The 10th of the month of Muharrem. i. A major festival among §Vi Muslims mourning the death of Hiiseyin, son of 'All, who died on Muharrem 10,61 H. in Kerbela. The ta'ziye, "passion play", is often recited on this occasion and violent emotions of atonement are publicly displayed by the believers. ii. A sweet soup prepared with ritual ingredients for this occasion.

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ATABBG A prince's tutor in the Seljuk state. Some Ottoman sources used the term atabeg for its Ottoman equivalent. Ma, interchangeably. 'ATEBE-i 'ALIYE-i 0$MANiYE The "Sublime Ottoman Threshold", or 'Atebe-i seniye, the "Exalted Threshold", also 'Atebe-i 'ulya, the "Loftiest Threshold", were all synonymous with Bab-i 'ali, the Sublime Porte. ATMACACI "Falconer", see doganci. AT MEYDANI The "Hippodrome", the former Byzantine stadium for chariot races situated between the Blue Mosque and the Palace of Ibrahim Pasha. In Ottoman times it was also utilized for sport competitions and spectacles. AV ACJALARI The "aghas of the hunt", the qakira-ba§t, the ¡ahinci-ba}i, the atmacaci-bafi, and the av afcasi (Unat: 461). 'AVARIZ-1 DIVANIYE Levy for extraordinary expenses for campaign. By the 17th century 'avariz became a regular, fixed contribution levied by the state on re'aya households. AVCI

"Huntsman". i. Segban in the 33rd boliik of the segban cema'at of the Janissary corps. They continued to accompany the sultan in his hunts as avcis under the command of their qorbact, the avci-bafi. In campaigns this boliik remained home and for this reason it was a very popular unit (Kavanin • 81b). ii. Epithet for Mehmed IV (1648-1687).

AYAK DlVANI Emergency divan on foot, the gathering of the Divan during military campaigns or in times of discontent by the request of the sultan or the grand vezir to resolve special problems (Sertoglu: 25). A'YAN "Notables", wealthy individuals given semi-official governmental status in the 18th century for serving as intermediaries between the government and the tax-paying subjects. Already in the 16th century miiltezim contractors paid a fixed sum for the right of collecting revenues from hass-i hiimayun domains on behalf of the treasury. By the 18th century a 'yarn leased iltizdm and mukata 'a revenues for life as malikane tax-farms. A 'yans were appointed by the provincial governors upon payment of the a'ydniye fee. In 1807 an assembly of a'yans gained limited quasi-constitutional rights in a contract with the sultan known as sened-i ittifak. Mahmud II (1808-1839) reluctantly ratified it but gradually succeeded in restoring autocratic authority (El2, i: 798). AYET, pi. ayat

Verse in the Koran.

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'AYN "Eye", especially "evil eye". In Islamic lore the harmful effects of an envious glance have been almost universally believed ever since pre-Islamic times. Even today this superstition is prevalent in Turkey. According to this belief blue eyes are especially capable of having evil effects. Old, unmarried, or sterile women are particularly suspected of having "evil eyes". Pregnancy, childbirth, marriage, and other celebrations of all kinds are primarily vulnerable to evil eye. The veiled face is protected, as well as people wearing special amulets. The sign of a spread-out hand can also protect objects (EI2, i: 786). 'AZAB Or 'azeb, "unmarried". i. An auxiliary soldier on garrison duty. The 'azabs were employed as bridge builders, sappers, armorers, and the like. ii. 'Azabs were also employed as marines (Eft, i: 807).

B BAB "Gate, unit, chapter". BABA "Father", honorific for elder men. The head of a bektáfi tekke also had the title baba Masters of some guilds were addressed as babas. BÁB-I 'ÁLÍ Also Asitáne-i saltanat-afiyán, the "Threshold of the Abode of the Sultanate", 'Atebe-i seniye, the "Exalted Threshold", Dergah-i mu'allá, the "Exalted Porte", and Siidde-i sa'ádet, the "Threshold of Felicity" — the Sublime Porte. i. The seat of government; in the Classical Period (1453-1699) the Topkapi Palace where the sultan and the Diván-i hümayün resided. ii. Since important transactions were deliberated more and more in the private residence of the grand vezir's ikindi diván (named so because the council met there after the official diván ended by the time of the early afternoon ikindi prayer) after 1718, the term Báb-i 'all came to designate the grand vezir's residence. It was also known as pafa kapusi or bab-i asafi and it took over all but the ceremonial functions of the imperial council. In 1844 a new Báb-i 'alt was established as the administrative center of the government with basic changes in the traditional system. It also housed Dáhiliye Nezáreti, the "Department of Interior", formerly the office of the kethiida beg, the Háriciye Nezáreti, the "Department of Foreign Affairs", and — after 1867 — the $ürá-yt devlet, the "Council of State", formerly the offices of the re'isü 'i-kiittab.

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iii. In the 16th and 17th centuries the B&btt 's-sa'dde of the Topkapi Palace was occasionally referred to as Bab-t 'ali (El2, i: 836). BAB-I ASAFl The "Gate of Asaph, i.e. the Grand Vezir's Gate (from Asaph, the famed grand vezir of Solomon)", the grand vezir's residence also known as Bab-i 'ali. BAB-I DEFTERI defterdar.

The offices of finances under the supervision of the bag-

BAB-I FETVA The "Porte for Fetva", also known as Bab-t mefihat-i islamiye after 1826.

mefihat

or

BAB-I HUMAYUN The Imperial Gate", the main gate of the Topkapi Palace completed in 1478. The two-storied building had rooms for the kapuct guards and was also utilized for storing temporary public treasury prior to their transfer to the Second Court, and financial records. Confusingly in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Babii 's-sa'dde was on occasion also referred to as Bab-i humayun (Necipoglu: 32-40, 88-90). BAB-I ME§IHAT Also Bab-i fetva, the Office of the $eyf}u-l'islam. Prior to 1826 feyfyti 'l-islams had no formal office; they issued documents from their private residences. After the destruction of the Janissaries in 1826 the Aga kapusi serving as the residence of the Agha of the Janissaries, was transferred to the ¡eyhit 'l-islam as his permanent residence. Conveniently the building was situated near the Siileymaniye Mosque. In 1924 the Office of the ?eyhu 'l-islam was replaced by the Department of Religious Affairs in Ankara and Bab-i mefityat became the Office of the Mufti of Istanbul (EI2- i: 837-838). BAB-I SER-'ASKER Also Ser-'asker kapusi, the office complex of the general staff of the army after 1826. It was formally transformed to Harbiye neiareti, "Ministry of War", in 1908. BABU 'S-SA'ADE The "Gate of Felicity", the gate that connected Enderun, "the Inner Section", with Birun, the "Outer Section", of Topkapi Palace. At various times this gate was also referred to as Bab-i 'ali, the "Sublime Porte", Bab-i humayun, the "Imperial Gate", and Art. kapusi, the "Gate of Petitions" (Necipoglu: 88-90). BABU 'S-SA'ADE AGASI The "Agha of the Gate of Felicity", also known as kapu agasi. With the rank of vezir, he was the commander of the ak agas, the white eunuchs including those in the personal quarters of the sultan under the oda-hap, in the imperial treasury under the hazinedar-bap, in

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the kitchen under the ktterci-ba§i, and the rest of the white eunuchs in the Enderun wards under the saray-i 'amire agasi. Sitting at the Gate of Felicity he was the sole mediator between the sultan and the outside world. Until 1582, the babii 's-sa'ade a&asi was also the superior officer of the darli 's-sa'ade agasi of the black eunuchs. By that time the Imperial Harem had grown in importance in the affairs of the empire and its senior officer, the Chief of the Black Eunuchs, that is the darii s-sa'ade agasi gained the upper hand and became the supervisor of the kapu agasi. According to Fatih's TK these senior officers, especially the kapu agasi and the oda-basi were privileged to present petitions to the sultan in person. In 1704 most of his powers were transferred to the silahdar (Sertoglu: 10-11; EI2, iv: 570-571). BABU 'S-SELAM The "Gate of Peace", als known as Orta kapu, the "Middle Gate", the second gate of the Topkapi Palace providing entrance to the Divan meydani. BACALU§KA Probably from the European basilisk, a large cannon capable of shooting projectiles up to 200 pounds. BAGDAD VE REVAN KO§Ki The Baghdad and Revan pavilions of the Topkapi Palace, built in the late 1630s to commemorate the victories of Murad IV at Baghdad and Erivan. These two pavilions are located in the fourth court. BAGDAD VILAYETi Suleiman I conquered the region in 1534 and made it a beglerbeglik. The province was not partitioned into sipahi estates but rather paid an annual tax in a lump sum. It was guarded by 8,000 Janissaries in fortresses, 4,000 Bagdad kuli, and 3,000 Pa$a kuti. The Province of Bagdad was restructured several times; a kanun-name from Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) listed the following sancaks: Bagdad, Hilla, Rumahiya, Cevazir, Mendeli-fin, Dakuk, Kerkiik, Ercij, Bargiri, Van, 'Ana, Hit, Musul (became a vilayet after 1580), and Erbil. For a list of the beglerbegis of Bagdad from 1534 to 1831 see Oztuna: 1109-1111. In 1917 the British occupied Bagdad (Unat: 466; Birken: 217-225; Akgundiiz, v: 161-237). BAHRiYE "Navy", though the Ottoman fleet was known as humayun (EI2, i: 947-948).

donanma-i

BAHRiYE AZABLARI A division of the Marine corps of the Ottoman Empire including sailors and dockyard workers in 17 bSlUks under the jurisdiction of re'ises.

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BAILO Or balyos, the resident representative of Venice at the Sublime Porte. BAKLAVA ALAYI The "Baklava Procession". On the 15th of Ramazan the Janissaries were invited to pay respect to the Holy Relics of the Prophet housed in the Topkapi Palace. Afterwards baklava pastry baked in the Imperial Kitchens were distributed to them in front of the Orta kapu, the "Middle Gate". BALTACI Also teberddr, "halberdier". In early times the baltacis were probably employed as vanguards to the Janissaries; in the 15th century, they became the palace guards. Similarly to the Janissary Corps their ranks were filled with soldiers serving in the 'acemi ocagi. Those guarding the Topkapi Palace were called zMttflii baltacis. Some of them were standing behind the sultan on public occasions, others guarded the Prophet's standard and filled other, sometimes menial positions. After a certain length of service they were promoted to the Cavalry of the Porte. BALYEMEZ "Doesn't eat honey", name of a popular large-caliber cannon employed on a large scale by Mehemmed II for the siege of Constantinople in 1453. The technology of casting large cannons evolved in Europe and even the name balyemez came either from the German Faule Metze or from the Italian pallamezza. BALYOS From Italian bailo; the Turkish name for the Venetian ambassador to the Sublime Porte. His permanent residence was in Pera from 1454 to the fall of the Republic in 1797 (£/2, i: 1008). BAR£A From Italian bargia, a small Mediterranean galleon used primarily as a cargo ship (Imber: 278). BARUD-yANE Gunpowder-mill. BASRA VILAYETi This fertile region in southeast Iraq was taken in the 1530s by Suleiman I who made it a vilayet administered by mostly local emirs under the supervision of Bagdad beglerbegisi who oftentimes was also given the position of Basra beglerbegisi. In 1552 Basra had the following sancaks: Basra, Garraf, Zekiye, Kurna, Sereg, Sadr-i Siiveyb, Muharreri, Kap&n, and Katif. In 1914 the British occupied Basra (Birken: 226-230; Akgunduz, v: 241-261). BA§ BOLUK-BA§I 'acemi corps.

The senior bOliik-bafi in the Janissary corps and in the

BA§-BUG "Military commander", especially a leader of rural Turkoman irregulars.

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BA§-CAVU§ The bdlUk-baji of the 330 favufes of the 5th bdlUk of the Janissary Corps with special authority as the provost to the Agha of the Janissaries. He was the eighth most senior officer of the corps and a member of the Yeftigeri divani (Kavanin: 90b-91a). BA§-DEFTERDÀR The "chief comptroller". His department was divided around 1480 to the Rumelian and Anatolian divisions. The baf-defterdàr took over the Rumelian branch as Rum-ìli defterdàrt, the senior officer of finances, and the Anatoli defterdàrt worked under his supervision. From Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566) on, the title jikk-i evvel defterdàrt, "the defterdàr of the first branch", also appears in official documents as a synonym for Rum ili defterdàrt, i.e. for the baf-defterdar. The two other defterdàrt who assisted him were the Anàtòli defterdàrt and the ftkk-t sani defterdàrt, the defterdàr of the second branch", in charge of the revenues and expenditures in and around Istanbul. As the head of the Department of Finance the baf-defterdar authorized all the debits and expenses of the treasury and he had the right of issuing financial "buyuruldt" edicts with tugra, "the sultan's cipher". The bafdefterdàr was also entrusted with the hiring and dismissing of all the scribes at the Bàb-t defteri. For a list of the ba}-defterdàrs from 1453 to 1838 see Òztuna: 1039-1044 (Pakalin, iii: 352) BA§-HÀSEKI The senior of the hàseki aghas of the Janissary corps. When promoted he became the turnact baft. Baf-hàfeki was a title also given to the commander of the bostanct hasekis. (Sertoglu: 36). BA§I BOZUK "Leaderless", irregular auxiliary volunteer in the Crimean War. Due to their lack of discipline the baft-bozuk troops were abolished in 1877. BA§-KADIN "Senior lady", title given to the first kadin of the sultan, usually the mother of his first son. BA§-KAPUCI-BA§I The senior of the nine kapuct-ba$ts supervision of the mir-'alem (Òzcan, 31).

under the

BA§MAKLIK "Slipper-money", ze 'àmet estates assigned to the vàlide sultan, princesses, kadtns, and hasekis of the Harem for providing cash for their personal needs in the 16th and 17th centuries (EI2, i: 1079-1080). BA§-MEHTER The major-domo of the Agha of the Janissaries.

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BA§-MUHASEBE A finance bureau created in the 17th century to control and audit all the expenditures of the Imperial Council. Its chief, the ba§muhasebeci, oversaw the accounts of Rumelia and the cizye accounts (Unat: 461). BA§-ODA

The oda of the yenigeri

kethiidasi.

B A § ODA-BA§I The senior oda-bafi Janissary Corps.

in the bdluks

of the Agha of the

B A § - R U Z N A M f ECi Also biiyiik ruznamgeci or ruznamge-i evvel, "the senior accountant", the director of the register of daily financial transactions at the Hazine-i 'amire, "Imperial Treasury", under the supervision of the baj-defterdar. He was assisted in his work by the ruznamge-i sanl (Akgiindiiz, i: 323). B A§TARDA From Italian bastarda, the basic Ottoman warship; a heavy galley with 26 or more oars at each side. It had 150 oarsmen and 60 marines. Because of the oars it could fire only from the prow while galleons could fire broadsides. Yet galleys were light and maneuverable (Imber: 214). BA§-TERCUMAN

The senior interpreter of the Imperial Council.

BA§~VEKlL "Prime minister", title for the grand vezir in 1838 used intermittently throughout the century but the traditional sadr-o'iam remained the prevailing title till the end of the Empire. BA§-YAZICI Also yehigeri efendisi, or yenigeri katibi, title of the senior scribe of the Janissary Corps. In early times they were appointed from among the Janissaries but by the end of the 16th century they usually came from the personnel of the Finance Bureau. BATTANCI "Felt-maker", especially the Jewish artisans around Salonika who prepared the felt used for making Janissary uniforms. BAYRAK

Banner, military unit. The terms sancak and 'alem were also used.

BAYRAKDAR Also 'alemdar, "standard-bearer". Each military unit of the Ottoman aimed forces had a officially designated bayrakdar. In sipahi units the alay begi was the standard-bearer of the sancak. The sultan's standardbearer was one of the iizengi agas, called the mir-'alem. B AYR AM Religious festival. Muslims celebrate two bay rams: the 'Idii 7Azha, also known a s Kurban Bayrami, the "Festival of Sacrifice", or

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Btiyiik Bay ram, the "Great Festival", is celebrated on the 10th of the month of Zi 'l-hicce; the 'Idii 'l-fitr, the "Festival of Ending Ramazan", also known as §eker Bayrami, "Festival of Sweets", or KUgUk Bayram, the "Lesser Festival", a three-day festival, is celebrated at the beginning days of the month of fevval, marking the end of the month of Ramaian. B AYRAMIYE A sufi dervish order founded by Hacci Bayrfim-i Veli at Ankara in the 14th century as an offspring of the Halvetiye. After HSci Bayram's death the order divided into Bayramiye-i §emsiye under Ak §emsii'd-din and Melamiye-i Bayramiye under 'Omer Dede of Bursa. In the 17th century a third branch emerged, the Cetvetiye under 'Aziz Mahmud Hiida'L They asserted that all acts are the manifestations of God's attributes and that all things are the manifestations of a'yan-i 'ilmiye, "proof of ultimate reality", which exists in God. Therefore they studied the manifestations of God's attributes in order to deduce the essence of God. The disciples believed that their spiritual leader, the kutb, "pole", was cognizant of divine secrets and was entitled to absolute obedience. The Ottoman state was suspicious of the Safavid leanings of Bayramis and periodically persecuted them {EI2- i: 1137). BAZDAR Also fakirci, "falconer". BEG

"Commander, beg", the Turkish equivalent of the Arabic emir, or mirliva. It was pronounced bey by the 17th century. i. In pre-Ottoman times the title was used for the sovereigns of Turkic principalities in the Islamic world. In the young Ottoman state the title denoted tribal leaders and high functionaries. ii. By Mehemmed II's reign (1451-1481) the tide beg was used for the military-administrative heads of sancaks (also known as livas) and their tlmar cavalry, "sipahi", units. iii. Eventually beg became a courtesy title almost like the English "mister" used for officers of the military and, in the 20th century, for practically everyone worthy of respect, as beyefendi.

BEGLERBEGl Also emirii 'l-ttmera or mir-miran, "beg of the begs, emir of the emirs", a governor general. In the 14th century there was only one beglerbegi in the Ottoman state, a title for the commander-in-chief of the Ottoman army. In the 15th century there were two beglerbegis, one for Rumelia and one for Anatolia. All the begs of the sancaks of the realm reported to these two commanders general. In the 16th century, as the Empire expanded, numerous new provinces were created; by the end of that centvry the Empire consisted of about 30 vilayets, "provinces", with a corresponding number of beglerbegis. With the various reorganizations, the number of provinces fluctuated as did the number of sancaks belonging to

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them. The Beglerbegi of Rumelia was the senior governor general who received a seat in the diván in Suleiman I's reign (1520-1566). Beglerbegis were titled pashas and those in senior posts were often granted the rank of vezir. In the 18th century the administrative aspect of the position became predominant and the title váli, "governor", was often preferred to beglerbegi although valí became the official designation only in 1864 (EI2, i: 115960) BEGLERBEGlLlK

Also vilayet, a "province", governed by a beglerbegi.

B E G L t K ^ l Or beylikfi, the "Chief of the Diván Bureau", the central bureau of the Imperial Council maintaining records and preparing all of the edicts, decrees, and international correspondence. He was senior to all the scribes of the diván and worked under the direct supervision of the re'isii 'l-küttáb {El2, ii: 338). BEK£t

i. Night watchman. ii. 19th-century term for a guard of the Sacred Banner. iii. The 19th bolUk of the Janissary Corps was also called bek(i.

BEKTÁ§ÍYE A heterodox Muslim brotherhood with strong fi'i connections, named after Háci Bekta§ Veli who lived in 13th-century Anatolia. Háci Bekta§ was probably a disciple of Baba íshák and the order originated from his disciples. In general they substituted formal Muslim ritual with popular mysticism, absorbing various elements of popular local religions and believing in the miraculous powers of their saints, and in reincarnation. They were tolerant toward other religions, permitted wine drinking, and allowed women to go unveiled in public. In their doctrine 'Ali, Allah, and Muhammad were united in a holy trinity. The order was headed by the qelebi, a monastery by a baba. They wore a white cap with four or twelve folds. In the 15th century the Bektáfi order gained exclusive authority in the Janissary corps; all the Janissaries were also bektáfi lay brothers. Corollary to the destruction of the Janissaries in 1826 the Bektáfi order was also persecuted but had a modest revival at the end of the century only to be abolished with the rest of the orders in 1925. Some of the units converted to a clandestine existence and several monasteries survived in Albania. Óztürk estimates that in Turkey today the Bektafi order has up to three million adherents (El2, i: 1162-1164; Óztürk: 83). BENDE "Slave". The term was also used as a polite expression meaning" a most obedient servant [of yours]."

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BERÄT An imperial deed of grant, a writ for an appointment to an office. Timär estates over 3000 akgas and ze '¿¡met estates w o e always granted by beräts (EI2, i: 1170-1171). BERÄTLI A "berat-holder". Although anybody who had a berät in his possession was "berätli" in the 18th century, the term came to signify a Christian or Jewish subject of the sultan in the service of a foreign consulate in the Ottoman Empire. The berät assured a protected status to its holder. By the end of the 18th century foreign embassies issued thousands of beräts to non-Muslim merchants, elevating them to the status of consular agents, in effect granting them the privileged status of a foreign merchants (EI2, i: 1171). BESMELE Casual abbreviation of the invocation Bismi 'llähi 'r-rahmani 'rraftim, "In the name of God, the All-Passionate and All-Merciful", the beginning line of the Koran. BE§lK ALAYI Festivities at the birth of an infant to the sultan, also known as velädet-i hämäyün. BE§LÜ "Pertaining to five", auxiliary soldiers in garrisons. The name stemmed from the method by which they were recruted; originally every five households of a village were obliged to provide for one beflii. BEVVÄB Also kapuci, "guard". BEVVÄBBÄN-I DERGÄH-I ÄU The guards of the Bäb-i hUmäyün and Orta kapu gates of the Topkapi Palace. In 1573 their cemä'at was reported as having 357 men; in 1631 their number rose to 1,832. According to KÖ91 Beg, in 1640, 400 kapucts guarded the Imperial Gate and 2,000 the Middle Gate. In addition to their guard duties they were also employed to deliver messages to beglerbegis ('Ayn 'Ali: 93; K091 Beg: 27-42; Unat: 459). BEY The post-16th-century pronunciation of beg. BEYAZ SANCAK The "White Banner", variant of ak bayrak, the great white banner of the Janissary corps. B E Y L t K 0 KALEMI Or beglikgi kalemi, the central chancery office of the Imperial Divan. See under beglikfi. BEYTÜ 'L-MÄL "Treasury", in Ottoman legal practice beytü 'l-mäl comprised certain revenues belonging to the public treasury: property of missing persons, unclaimed inheritances, runaway slaves, and stray cattle. After

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being held for a period of time the estate became the property of the treasury {El2, i: 1147-1148). BEYTÜ 'L-MÁLCÍ One of the (orbacis in the 'acemt corps responsible for the collection of properties of deceased 'acemis, for the treasury (Kavánin: 32a). BEZtRGAN "Merchant", especially a Christian or Jewish merchant. Bl'AT "Paying homage", the formal acknowledgement of a new sultan at accession time by the high officials of the administration and the 'ulemá. BIQAKLI "With dagger", senior pages in the three higher odas of the Ende run of the Topkapi Palace who were entitled to wear daggers. BlD'AT "Innovation", practice contrary to Muslim tradition, therefore disapproved. In spite of the normally negative implication Muslim legal practice also acknowledged the existence of bid'at-i hasane, "useful innovation" (Pakalin, i: 231-233). BÍÑ-BA§I "Commander of a thousand [men]", a military title given to heads of battalions of Western-style armies from the end of the 18th century on. BtRGENDE From Italian briganlino, a two-masted ship. BÍRÜN The "Outer Section". The state offices at the atay meydani, and the Diván meydani of the Topkapi Palace were collectively called Birün, in contrast to Enderiin, the "Inside section", that housed the private quarters of the sultan. BtRÜN HALKI Officials whose bureaus were located in the Birún section of the Topkapi Palace including the offices of imperial physician, surgeon, astrologer, hoca, imam, the aghas of the stirrup and the standing army, the miiteferrikas, the halberdiers, artists and artisans (Sertoglu: 53). BlSMt 'LLÁHÍ R-RAHMANÍ R-RAHÍM "In the name of God, the AllPassionate and All-Merciful", the beginning line of the Koran. Traditional Muslim texts universally began with this invocation. In less formal writings the formula is sometimes abridged as Hiive (He, i.e. God), or simply H. BlTl In the 14th and 15th centuries bid was used to designate a written decree issued by the sultan.

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BOGDÀN Moldavia, an autonomous principality of the Ottoman Empire from 145S until 1858. The full independence of Rumania, including Wallachia and Moldavia, was granted only at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, albeit without Bessarabia which was ceded to the Russians. BOSNA VÌLÀYETÌ By 1448 Balkan Peninsula was under uncontested Ottoman rule and its vassal states were annexed in an unhurried, deliberate manner. Bosnia was made a province only in 1580 with Sarày-Bòsna (today's Sarajevo) as its seat. In 1609 the province had 389 kilig units; with cebelii retainers, it provided for 3,000 soldiers from the following sancaks: Bósna, Kilis, Hersek, Pojega, Izvornik, Za^ana or Palerai Rahovica, and Kirka. In 1640 the province of Bosna had eight sancaks with 330 sipahis. For a list of the beglerbegis of B6sna from 1436 to 1878 see Òztuna: 1103-1106. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the region was attached to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy ('Ayn 'Ali: 48; Unat: 463-464; Birken: 44-47). BOSTANCI "Gardener", the personnel in the bostanci corps. This corps, recruited from the 'acemis, formed the training pool of the Janissary corps while performing manual labor in the imperial gardens. They formed two ocaks, the gilmàn-i bagge-i hàssa with 20 boliiks for manual duties in the vegetable gardens of the Topkapi Palace and the gilmàn-i bóstàmyàn with 25 btìliik for doing chores in other imperial gardens. In the 18th century bostanci troops were used in campaigns for fighting. In 1826 bostancis were incorporated into the newly formed army of Mahmud II, the asakir-i mansure {EI2, i: 1277-1278). BOSTANCI-BA§I The "commander of the bostanci corps". He was one of those officials who were close to the sultan; whenever the sultan left Topkapi Palace, the bostanci-baf i held his stirrup. He was the only official in the Topkapi Palace who was permitted to grow a beard. He was promoted from one of the bostancis within the ocak (EI2, i: 1278-1279). BOSTÀNCI-yÀSEKI A group of about 500 bostancis who looked after the palace gardens and served as escorts of the imperial caique on the Bosphorus. One of them, known as vezir karakulagi, delivered the correspondance between the sultan and the grand vezir. BO§NÀK "Bosnian". BÒLÙK A military unit varying in size from 20 to 200 men. A Janissary boliik had about 100 soldiers. Among the 'acemi oglans, "trainees of Christian origin", the Gelibolu ocak of 400 men were in 10 boliiks headed by gorbagis.

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i. The six mounted troops of the kapu-kuii cavalry, the Cavalry Troops of the Porte were titled boliiks. These boliiks were commanded by the bdliik agasis. One of these bdlttks could be divided into numerous small b&liiks. ii. In 1451 the segban companies were integrated into the Janissary Corps and formed the 65th cema'at of the Corps making it much larger than any of the other cema'ats. Because of its size this company was partitioned into 34 boliiks each of which was approximately the size of an average cema'at. These boliiks were commanded by the bdliik-ba}is and the 65th cemd 'at by the segban-baft. iii. The 61 companies that were added to the Janissary Corps by Sultan Selim I were also titled boliiks. BOLUKAT-I ERBA'A The "four troops": the two orta bdlUkler, the "middle troops", i.e. the 'ulufeciyan-i yemin and the ulufeciyan-i yesar, and the two a§agi bolUkler, the "two lower troops", i.e. the fcureba'-i yemin and the gureba'-i yesar, of the alti bdliik Cavalry of the Porte. BOLUK-BA§I Also ser-boliik, the commander of a bdliik, especially those in the Cavalry of the Porte, the segban companies, the 61 boliiks of the Agha of the Janissary Corps (actually only 60 bdliik-bafts, because the 1st bdliik was directly commanded by the kethiida beg), and the 39 cema'ats of the 'acemi corps. The rest of the boliiks had yaya-bafts as their commanders. The senior of the boliik-baps carried the title ba} boliik-ba§i. The boliikba§is were mounted and had iron maces (Kavanin: 94b-95a). BOLUK-I DER The "company of the gate", the novice pages in the btiyiik and kiigiik odas of the Enderun whose dormitories flanked the Babii 's-sa'Me. They were supervised by the Kapu agasi. BOLUK HALKI The six cavalry troops of kapu-kuh army, the Cavalry of the Porte. In 1609 they numbered 20,869 soldiers ('Ayn 'All: 90-91). BUCAK Southern Bessarabia. BUDIN Or Budun, the seat of the Ottoman Province of Budin from 1541 until 16B6; the Hungarian Buda, capital of the medieval Hungarian Kingdom, the west side of modern Budapest. BUDIN ViLAYETt The Province of Budin, formed in 1541 when Suleiman I occupied Buda, capital of Hungary, to prevent a Habsburg takeover. West and North Hungary remained under the control of the Habsburgs who, until 1606, paid an annual tax of 30,000 golden florins to the Sublime Porte for the privilege; central Hungary was made the Ottoman province of Budin

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with 18 sancaks; and eastern Hungary, i.e. Transylvania was left to the infant son of King John as a vassal principality known as Erdel. In 1609 the province of Budín had 2,722 tiZrf units. At the end of the 16th century the Province of Budín had 18 sanéales: Budín, Pe^üy, Kanija, Semendire, ístdlni Belgrád, Esternón, Segedin, §imon{5rna, Sirem, Koppan, Filek, Seksár, Mohái;, Sé?en, Novígrád, Sigetvár, and §olnik with 2,700 sipáhis. In 1668 22,100 soldiers were stationed in the province. For a list of the beglerbegis of Budín from 1541 to 1686 see óztuna: 1106-1108. After the disastrous second siege of Vienna in 1683 Habsburg and allied European forces initiated a counterattack and Budín fell in 1686. Aside from the Province of Jimigvar, the Ottoman Empire was compelled to acknowledge Habsburg suzerainty over all of Hungary, in the Treaty of Carlowitz of 1699 ('Ayn 'All: 48; Unat: 464; Rycaut: 180). BÜLÁK PRESS Bülák, originally a town next to Cairo, is now a quarter of greater Cairo. It became famous in 19th-century Ottoman history for its printing houses which published Ottoman Turkish and Arabic works from 1822 on. The works printed in Bülák had powerful effects on the cultural awakening of the Ottoman Empire. BUYURULDI Or buyruldi, an edict of the grand vezir, defterdár, or beglerbegi. Usually the order was authenticated by a penfe, the tugra-like signature of the issuer. BÜYÜK BAYRAM The "Great Festival", or 'Idü 'l-Athá, also known as Kurbán Bayrami, the "Festival of Sacrifice"; celebrated on the 10th of the month of Zi 'l-hicc.e. BÜYÜK MÍR-AHÜR Also mir-ahür-i ewel, also known as istabl-i 'ámire miidiri, "the "First Agha of the Imperial Stable". BÜYÜK ODA One of the dormitories for novice pages of Enderun built in the Third Court of the Palace next to Bábü 's-sa-'ade. In the 17th century pages were selected for the Topkapi Palace from the küfiik oda, and from the preparatory schools of Galata-saráyi and íbráhim Pa§a-saráyi. BÜYÜK RÜZNÁMQECÍ Also ba¡-rüznámfeci or rüznámge-i evvel, "the senior accountant" at the Házine-i 'ámire. BÜYÜK TEZKÍRECi Also te¡kire-i evvel, the "senior secretary", the first secretary of the grand vezir. He attended meetings of the Imperial Divan at the side of the grand vezir to take notes and provide him with pertinent documents. He had a deputy, the küfiik te^kireci.

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CAVALRY OF THE PORTE kapu-kuh sipahisi.

In Turkish the alti bdluk troops, also known as

CAMI' A mosque in which Friday prayers are performed. CAN-BAZ "Daredevil", acrobat. i. Rope-dancers, tumblers and tricksters who provided popular entertainment at festivities. ii. Auxiliary troops from nomadic tribes who served for the duration of a campaign. Their ocak consisted of 10 can-bazati companies. The can-baz. troops were disbanded by the end of the 16th centuiy. CAR!YE "Female slave", concubine. In the Harem they were the household domestics: cariyes performed the menial tasks of the Harem with the lowest status of all the women and with the average daily stipend of six akgas. CEBECl "Armorer", responsible for the manufacture, maintenance and transport of weapons of the kapu kuh for campaigns including armor, swords, guns, bullets, and gunpowder (Unat: 457), CEBECi-B A§I The "head-armorer", commander of the cebeci cema 'an of 86 odas led by gorbacis The cema'at had 625 men in 1573, 5,730 in 1609, grew to 5,978 in 1631. According to Ko$i Beg by 1640 their number was increased to 8,000 men ('Ayn 'All: 90; Kcxji Beg: 27-42; Unat: 457). CEBELU "Armor bearer", an armed retainer equipped by his sipahi with a lance, a bow and arrows, a sword, and a shield. Timor and ze 'amet holders were obliged to equip a set number of cebeliis for campaigns. Most of these cebelus were of slave origin (El2, ii: 528-529). CELALI Rebels in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. A deepening financial crisis forced the government to introduce extraordinary taxes with disastrous results in the countryside. Peasants left their land and escaped to the cities; many others lost their livelihood and turned to brigandage. During the Hungarian campaigns of 1595-1605 the rebellion became widespread. Kara Yazici (d. 1603) a su-baf i of Malatya at that time who had just lost his position, joined the rebels and became one of their leaders in Karaman territory with 20,000 horsemen at his disposal. He defeated several armies sent against him from Istanbul. When he died, his

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brother, Deli Hasan, took his place but the movement tapered off; yet the Ottoman state was not able to completely recover from its weakened position {El2, iv: 594-595). CELEB i. A cattle drover. ii. An 'aceml ofclan, "trainee of Christian origin", who served in the palaces of Edirne, Galata and Ibrahim Pasha. CELLAD TA§I "Executioner's Stone", the stone placed in the Alay meydatu of the Topkapi Palace and used for public beheadings. C E M A ' A T ORTASI Company, the basic military unit of the first 100 companies of the Janissary Corps. They were also known as cema'at, or simply orta. They were commanded by yaya-ba$is. The 65th cema'at consisted of 34 segban bdliiks. CEMAZl'U 'L-AHIR The sixth month of the Muslim year. CEMAZPU 'L-EVVEL The fifth month of the Muslim year. CERAHOR A member of an auxiliary corps chiefly recruited from Christians for engineering works: repair of fortress walls, bridge buildings, road repair and the like. CERRAH-B A§I The "Chief Surgeon" of the Topkapi Palace. CEZA'IR-i BAHR-I SEFID VILAYETt The "Province of the Islands of the Aegean Archipelago". Established in the 16th century this province was under the intendancy of the kapudan pa§a of the Ottoman navy. In 1609 the province had 1,618 /ci/if units, 126 of which were ze 'amet estates; with cebelii retainers it provided for 4,500 soldiers from the following sancaks: GeliboII, Agrib&z, Inebaljti (Lepanto), Karli-Ili, Midilli (Mytilene), Negropont, Koca-ili, Sigla ve Sigacik, Rodos, Biga, and Mesestre. In the 19th and early 20th centuries the islands were lost one after the other but the province was formally dissolved only in 1913. For a list of the beglerbegis of Ceza'ir from 1525 to 1830 see Oztuna: 1137-1140 ('Ayn 'Ali: 49; Birken: 101-108). CEZA'IR-i (jARB Algiers. In 1533 Suleiman I made it a beglerbeglik with Admiral Hayrii 'd-din Pasha as it first governor general. By the end of the 16th century Algiers became increasingly independent from the central government although formally it remained Ottoman until it was conquered by the French in 1830 (EI2, ii: 722-723).

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CÍHÁD Military action for the sake of Islam, cihad is a religious duty for able-bodied male Muslims. It is an act of devotion opening one of the gates to Paradise (EI2, ii: 583-540). C Í Z Y E Islamic head-tax levied on non-Muslims, a material proof of their protected limmi status. The Ottomans often used the term ffarac in place of cizye. In newly conquered territories they even adopted pre-Ottoman local taxes as cizye; e.g. in Hungary they called the head-tax resm-filori equating it with the traditional Hungarian forint add, "florin-tax". The cizye was collected directly for the state treasury as listed in the defter-i cizye-i gebrán, the "cizye account of the unbelievers". An equivalent amount was to b e given to the holders of timárs as ispence (resm-i kapu in conquered

Hungary) as listed in the defter-i mufaffal, "comprehensive account". The basic cizye amounted to 50 akfas annually but due to inflation this amount was raised several times. Certain local officials and the poor were exempt from cizye (EI2, ii: 562-566). C U M ' A DÍVÁNI there.

The "Friday Council", also known as huzür muráfa'asi. See

CÜCE "Dwarf', jester who entertained the sultan and other courtiers in the Topkapi Palace. CÜLÜS BAH§Í§Í "Accession bonus", money distributed at the accession of the sultan to the throne. Everyone on state salary was entitled to a set amount: in the 16th century the grand vezir received up to 30,000 akfas, Janissaries 2,000 akfas each, members of the Cavalry of the Porte 1,000 akfas. In the 17th-18th centuries imperial accessions put serious burden on the state treasury which had to use emergency measures to amass the funds. Non-delivery was unthinkable since it would have resulted in public riots. C Ü L Ü S - I H Ü M Á Y Ü N The "imperial accession", the ceremonial accession of the sultan to the throne. First, the new sultan received the bi'at, "oath of fealty", from the dignitaries of the state while sitting in front of the Bábü 's-sa'ádet. In mosques the new sultan's name was included in the hiitbe. The cülüs bah§ifi, the traditional "accession gratuity", was distributed to the soldiers. The diván-i hümayün was assembled for announcing new appointments and ordering the minting of new coinage in the name of the new sultan. A few days later the sultan led a procession to Eyüb to the tiirbe of Ebü Eyyiibii '1-Ansari where, usually by the jeyhü 'l-islám, he was girded with the sword of the Prophet Muhammad or with the sword of 'Osman I (1300-1324) (Inalcik: 61-62).

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£ADIR MEHTERl Also f}ayme-zen, "tent pitcher". They were responsible for pitching the imperial tents for the sultan on campaigns. Between campaigns the tents were kept in storage next to Ibrahim Pafa-sardyt. The tent pitchers, 229 men in 1573, 715 in 1631, were organized in two boliiks with two sets of tents. One of the boliiks marched ahead to pitch tents for the next halting place. According to K091 Beg in 1640 their number reached 2,000 men (Kogi Beg: 27-42; Unat: 458). £AKIRCI "Falconer"; see doganci. CAKIRCI-BA§I "Chief falconer", one of the aghas in the agayan-i rik&b-i humayun, the commander of the three doganci companies of the Birun (Gibb, i: 347; Sertoglu: 69). CAMA§lR-BA§I

See saray kethiidasi.

QARHACI Vanguard force employed during military campaigns. On major offensives the Ottomans had 400-500 farhaci cavalry (Sertoliu: 70). QAR§AMBA DlvANI "Wednesday Council". Every Wednesday the grand vezir held a divan meeting in the presence of the kadis from Istanbul, Galata, Eyiib and Uskiidar to have hearings on petitions (Sertoglu: 70). QA§NIGlR "Butler, [imperial] foodtaster", mentioned already in Fatih's TK as one of the aghas in the afcayan-i rikab-i humayun. At that time there were 12 butlers. According to £09! Beg in 1640 40 (a$nigin were appointed to personally carry and serve the sultan's dishes from the kitchen to his quarters (Unat: 458; EI2, ii: 15). CA§NIGlR USTA The sultan's butler in the Harem. £AVU§ "Marshal, messenger" a military grade of soldiers of diverse duties. i. The (avufes of the divan served as escorts in offical ceremonies as well as personal escorts for ambassadors, as messengers, diplomatic envoys, and, when needed, executioners of high officials condemned to death, f a v u j e s were recruited from the 'acemi corps. The 290 favufes of the divan in 1573 grew to 932 by 1631, but lowered to 600 in 1640 (Koii Beg: 27-42; Unat: 458). ii. The 5th boliik of the Janissary Corps had 33 qavu$e,s who carried the orders of the commanders to the troop officers during battle and

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performed various services as marshals. They were selected from the veterans of the corps. The 'acemi corps had its own gavu§es. iii. After 1826 this army rank corresponded to that of a sergeant in European armies. ?AVU§ÀN-Ì DERGÀH-I 'ÀLÌ The (avufes of the divan. See, favuf i. CAVU§-BA§I The "commander of the favufes of the divan". He was present in divan meetings in readiness and was in charge of the protocol. It was stated in Fàtih's TK that his rank was junior to the aghas of the six cavalry troops of the Porte. He was one of the aghas in the agayàn-i rikàb-i humayun and always carried a silver staff, the symbol of his authority, to render physical punishment. The position was abolished in 1836 (Sertoglu, 71). CELEBl "Cultured, urbane", a title of respect. i. Up to the 15th century qelebi was the title of the sultan's sons. ii. The heads of the Bektàfi and Mevlevi dervish orders were also known as gelebis. iii. From the 17th century on the term designated men of letters, indicating respect. QERl-BA§I "Troop commander", an officer in the sipàhì commanding a subdivision of a provincial sancak company. QERKES

regiment

"Circassian".

CIKMA "Leaving", graduation ceremony for pages in the preparatory schools of Galata-sarayi, Ibrahim Pafa-saràyi and in the Enderun, the best were chosen for a higher grade dormitory, the rest were given positions outside Enderun. See also gilman-i enderuni. Q1LDIR VÌLÀYETÌ Province in northeast Anatolia. The first Ottoman beglerbegi is listed as serving from 1581. In 1609 the province had 656 kilif units, 97 of which were z.e'amet estates; with cebelti retainers it provided for 1,800 soldiers from the following 11 sancaks: £ildir, Olti, partus, Ardanuc, Ardahàn, Bezek, Hacrek, Pòsthò, MàhciI, Care, Penbek, and Benek ('Ayn 'Ali: 58-59; Birken: 154-160). CIPLAK "Naked", auxiliary to the Janissary Corps and the navy named (iplak for being naked from the waist up while performing certain duties. ÇÎFT "Pair [of oxen]", see çiftlik.

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£iFT BOZAN RESMl Tax collected on abandoned farmsteads by the timdr holders from the peasants who had abandoned them. CfiFTLlK i. The basic land-unit of 60 to ISO dffnUms, i.e. 60.000 to 150,000 sq. meters, a unit considered capable of providing the livelihood of a family with a pair of oxen and was made the foundation for the banc agricultural tax, die (ift resmi. This tax was included in the tim&r revenues of the sipdhi holders. ii. Timars were granted as (iftliks to state officials and the military. These (iftliks were personal estates and could incorporate several hamlets. In frontier provinces a percentage of the timars were assigned to garrison troops who received the cash equivalent of the timdr revenues in lump sum in lieu of salary. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, because of overtaxation and inadequate protection from brigandage, a large number of timdr lands were abandoned by the peasants and were taken over as (iftliks by the Janissary and the a 'ydns. Through administrative abuse mukifa 'a lands could also be turned to (iftliks by their tax-farmers. The economic power of the a'yan class in the 18th century rested on the possession of private (iftlik estates. The a'ydns (aghas, derebeys, local officials) were able to hold on to their (iftliks well into the 20th century (El2, ii: 32-33). QlFT RESMl The basic Ottoman tax in former Byzantine lands. It was paid by re'aya who possessed a (ift. In non-Byzantine territories the corresponding tax was called ispence. The (ift resmi was designed as cash substitute for various feudal services. Originally its rate amounted to 22 aspers but in time various higher rates were applied. The tax was included in the tim&r revenue. CflLE Forty days of solitude as a component of the initiation ritual of some dovish orders. glNGENE Also kiptl, "Gypsy". COKADAR Variant of (uffddar. £ORBACI i. The commander of a bdlilk of the 'acemi oglans, also known as bdlttk-ba§i; (orbaci was also the rank of the yaya-baps of the Janissary Corps. ii. In the 19th century this term was also used for village notables, and as a mode of address for Christians. fORBAYI l£MEK "Soap consumption". On the four annual paydays, prior to the distribution of salaries, the kapu kuli corps were served soup prepared

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in the kitchens of the Topkapi Palace. Refusal to eat it by turning the full cauldrons over was the traditional sign of dissatisfaction leading to open defiance and rebellion. Conversely, eating the soup signalled harmonious relations between the corps and the government. The term kazan kaldirmak, "overturning die cauldron", refers to this act of defiance (Sertoglu: 77/. QUHADAR Or (okadar, one of the five zUlUflu agas of the Ha?f oda of the Topkapi Palace in charge of the sultan's outer garments.

D DAHIL "Interior", the 50-akfa medreses for graduates of haric colleges. Graduates of the ibtida-i dahil schools could enter one of the Sahn-i semdn medreses for completion of their studies in jurisprudence, Koranic exegesis, theology, rhetoric, and specialized training. Suleiman I (15201566) created a still higher grade of graduate education in founding the four Siileymaniye 60-akfa medreses. DAMAD "Son-in-law", especially the son-in-law of the sultan. The marriage institution was routinely used by the sultans to strengthen the patron-client relationship between the Ottoman dynasty and the main office-holders of the Empire. The grand vezirs and vezirs were natural choices for this honor, but examples exist for kapudan pashas, aghas of the Janissaries, and others. Those so honored had the sobriquet ddmad attached to their names and they were expected to divorce from their wives married previously (El2, ii: 103). DANl§MEND Advanced student in the medrese often employed as associate instructor. DARB-yANE "Mint", also written as tarb-hane. DARU '1-FUNUN "University", particularly the university in Istanbul that officially opened in 1900, although it already gave lessons in 1846, 1869, 1870-1871, and 1874-1881. In 1933 it took the name Istanbul Oniversitesi, the University of Istanbul (Heper: 189). DARU 'L-HADlS Medrese founded by Murad II (1421-1451) in Edirne to provide education in hadis, "tradition", an account of what Muhammad said or did as handed down by his companions.

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DÀRU 'L-HARB The "abode of war", non-Muslim regions where people did not acknowledge the superiority of Islam by paying tribute to a Muslim ruler. It was considered a region for military actions since cihàd waged against the unbelievers was a test of sincerity for the believers (El2, ii: 126).

DÀRÙ 'L-HÌLÀFE The "Abode of the Caliphate", epithet for Constantinople in the 19th and early 20th centuries. DÀRÙ 'L-ÌSLÀM Territory where the law of Islam prevails. DÀRU 'S-SA'ÀDE The "Abode of Felicity", the Third Court of the Topkapi Palace beyond the Bàbii 's-sa 'òde, the "Gate of Felicity", and Enderim, the "Inner Section", of the sultan's residence. The Third Court was the sultan's private household with his personal servants and their dormitories, his wives, concubines and children in the Harem. It also served as a school for the slave elite eventually promoted to leading administrative posts. Just beyond the gate, 'Art odasi, the "Ward of Petitions", was erected, with the Privy Chamber located at the far left corner and the Treasury-Bath complex at the far right corner of the court. A walled hanging garden supplemented the residence. In Mehemmed II's reign (1451-1481), the Harem, "Women's Quarters", was a minor addition at the left side. It grew to a major complex only under Suleiman I (1520-1566). and his successors; in fact his son, Selim II (1566-1574), preferred to live in the Privy Chamber of the Harem. His successors retreated into even greater seclusion surrounded by women and black eunuchs during most of their lives (Necipoglu: 91-158). In the 17th century, darti 's-sa'àde in the registers referred to the household staff of the Harem, women whose status was above the household domestic càriyes. In a register from 1600 the personnel of dàrii 's-sa'àde were supervised by the kethìidà (fàtua with 150 akfas of stipend and ten other individuals with 40 akfas of daily stipends. By 1640 this group numbered 102 women with stipends ranging from 200 to 15 akfas, indicating a well-defined functional hierarchy of administrative/supervisory officials including the mistresses of the treasury, laundry, bath, coffee, and the like. lkbàh also belonged to this group with 40 akfas of daily stipends. In the lower ranks were wet nurses for the younger princes, càriyes of older princes, and women assigned to the senior black eunuchs. DÀRU 'S-SA'ÀDE ACASI The "Agha of the Abode of Felicity', also known as kizlar agasi, or Harem agasr, the chief of the black eunuchs of the Imperial Harem, the chief assistant of the vàlide sultan. In the 17th century the darti 's-sa'àde agasi became the inspector of the imperial vaktfo in order to end the abuse of the individual nàtin. The effect was

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institutionalized corruption; when a miitevelli office became vacant, the darii 's-sa'ade agasi auctioned the post taking fifty percent of the price as fees for his personal expenses known as fizme bahasi, "boot expense". He also took all increases of the vakif revenue. In 1909 the position was officially abolished, albeit black eunuchs continued to be the supervisors of the Harem till 1922. For a list of the darii 's-sa'ade aghas from 1582 to 1909 see Oztuna: 930-931. DARU 'S-SALTANAT The "Abode of the Sultanate", epithet for Istanbul. DARU 'T-TIBA'ATi 'L-'AMIRE The Imperial Printing House founded by Selim III (1789-1807) in Uskiidar. It moved to Kaptcm-pafa hamami and, in 1863, to a place just behind the Mosque of Ayasofya where the Milli Egitim Matbaasi, the "Printing House of National Education", stands today (Sertoglu: 80). DAVUL-BAZ Drummer. DAYE HATON "Wet nurse", particularly the sultan's wet nurse. Sometimes the young prince continued his association with his former daye even after his accession to the throne. She kept her high status in the Harem and was usually married off a high-ranking state official (Peirce: 531). DEDE

"Grandfather". i. When the term dede follows a personal name it designates a fully initiated member of the Mevleviye order. ii. In popular usage the title also indicated respect for shamans, healers and wise elders in general.

DEFTERDAR "Keeper of the register", the director of finances, member of the divan ranking immediately after the grand vezir and the two kati- 'askers. In Fatih's reign his office was divided into those of Rumelia and Anatolia; Rum-lli defterdan being the senior to Anafoli defterdan. In the 16th century several additional financial bureau chiefs carried the title and Rumili defterdan became known as baydefterdar (Unat: 454; El2, ii: 83). DEFTER EMlNI "Superintendent of the [cadastral] register", the chief of the defter-hane, "Office of Cadastral Registers", where the registers of fyass, ze'amet, and timar assignments were kept (Pakalin, i: 418-9; Akgiinduz, i: 322). DEFTER-I HAkANI "Imperial register", the collection of tahrir registers including the defter-i mufassah, "detailed registers"; defter-i icmals,

35

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S "concise registers"; defter-i derdests, "hand lists": and defter-i "registers of changes in timar assignments".

ruz-namfes,

DEFTER-i ICMAL "Concise register", a listing of the ha?s, ze'amet, and timar holdings of a district. Each entry gives the holder's name and position and an inventory of the settlements under his jurisdiction together with their annual income. DEFTER KETflUDASI The comptroller of the ze'amet supervisor of the timar defterdan.

registers and

DEFTER-i MUFASSAL A detailed survey of all the settlements of a district. The surveys were authenticated by the tugra of the reigning sultan and they usually began with the kanun-name of the district. Following the regulations the scribe listed the towns and villages of the district. Each entry provided the name of the settlement and the names of tax-paying subjects. The concluding part of an entry stated the number of household tax units of the settlement and enumerated the individual taxes, tithes and fees that comprised the expected annual income. Defter-i mufassals were drawn of newly conquered territories immediately after securing their defense in order to allocate their resources and to signify their incorporation to the Empire. Periodically the Sublime Porte ordered the preparation of new district surveys to adjust to demographic changes: also, at times of imperial accessions, new surveys were needed to revalidate possession rights to timar properties. DEFTER-I RUZ-NAM^E A register of changes in timar assignments as original holders moved, died, or were dispossessed. In addition, a summary of the title deed of the new owner was either copied or glued over the original entry in the defter-i icmal. DELl "Mad, brave". i. Light mounted retainers in the service of begs and pashas stationed in the European frontier zone. They wore skins of wild animals and feathers for decoration. In the 16th century they spread to Anatolia in the retinue of vezirs and other dignitaries. They formed bayraks of 50 to 60 men under deli-ba$is. According to Rycaut, Mehmed Koprili had 2,000 Bosnian and Albanian delis as his bodyguard and these delis were the main reason for the failure of mounting conspiracies against him. Unemployed delis terrorized the Anatolian contryside in the 18th century. Mahmud II (1808-1839) finally succeeded in eliminating deli brigandry (Rycaut: 202; El2, ii: 201-202). ii. Epithet for Ibrahim I (1640-1648).

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DERBENDCl "Guardian of a pass", who maintained security at mountain passes, fords, and bridges. DERE-BEGl "Lord of the valley", provincial magnate in the 18th and 19th centuries dominating large areas with virtual autonomy. In wartime they served in the Ottoman armed forces as commanders of their armed retainers. The central government tolerated them as an alternative to anarchy. At the beginning of the 19th century they gained considerable political power. Mahmud II understood the dangers of decentralization and replaced them with officials from Istanbul (EI2, ii: 206-208). DERGAH Dervish convent, usually with a tomb of a Muslim saint attached to it. DERGAH-I 'ADALET-PENAH The "Court, Shelter of Justice", epithet for the Sublime Porte. DERGAH-I 'ALl The "Exalted Porte", synonymous with Bab-t 'all, the Sublime Porte. DERGAH-I MU'ALLA The "Exalted Porte", synonymous with Bab-i 'all, the Sublime Porte. DER-SA'ADET From Der i sa'adet, the "Gate of Felicity", epithet for Kostantiniye, the modern Istanbul. DERS VEKILI The lecturer for the ¡eyhii 'l-islam who was ex officio a professor in the Bayezid medrese but spent little time with actual teaching and needed the ders vekili to substitute for him. DERVISH In Turkish dervif, an initiated member of a sufi order. DERYA BEGl "Sea commander", a sancak begi in a vilayet consisting of a group of ports and islands, the Ceza'ir-i bahr-i sefid, the "Islands of the Aegean Archipelago". The administration of this vilayet was entrusted to the kapudan pasha. The derya begis were to provide auxiliary ships to the main fleet (EI2, ii: 165). DEVECt Also sarban, "camel driver", belonging to one of the following two groups: i. One of the keepers of the 1,000 pack camels at the Imperial Stables. ii. The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 46th, and 95th cema'ats of the Janissary Corps. In 1596 their number was increased, adding the 39th and

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

37

87th cema'ats. The devecis were responsible for the camels of the supply train for combat troops on campaigns (Kavanin: lOOa-lOla). DEVLET "Power, dynasty, state, nation". DEVLET-i 'ALIYE-i '0§MANIYE The "Sublime Ottoman State", the selfdesignation of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. In earlier times the term Memalik-i mahruse, the "Protected Realms", was used. DEV§lRME "Collection", periodic levy of Christian boys intended for the Janissary Corps and Palace service. Devgirme began in the reign in Murad I (1362-1389) but in the early years the term referred to the collection of onefifth of the captives for training purposes. Beginning in the 15th century authorized Janissary officers selected suitable, i.e. healthy and illiterate, children from Balkan villages at regular intervals. Care was taken to exclude lads who were married, knew Turkish, or were Muslims. The children of Bosnian converts had special permission to be included in the devfirme if they were otherwise qualified. The boys were taken at first to Edirne and after the conquest to Istanbul for inspection and further selection; the best of them were taken as pages for Palace education and court service as ig oglans ; the rest were sent to Anatolian farms to work and to learn Turkish and the tenets of Islam. After a period of time they were recalled to fill vacancies in the 'acemi oglan corps. They did assorted menial labor while serving reserves for the Janissary Corps. As vacancies occurred they were placed in the ranks of the Janissaries. By the end of the 16th century sons of Janissaries were permitted to join the corps. Within a few decades the sons gained exclusive right to fill vacancies and the need for maintaining the devfirme faded (EI2, ii: 210213). DlL

"Tongue", a prisoner of war captured to provide information concerning the enemy.

DtL OGLANLARI "Jeunes de langues". European pages at the foreign embassies in Constantinople with the mission to learn Ottoman Turkish. After some years they were usually employed as interpreters in their respective countries. DILStZ "Mute", employed in the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace for confidential services. Several of the mutes were the personal entertainers and companions of the sultan as his musahibs, "courtiers". DtRHEM "Drachma", a standard unit of weight, 1/400 of an okka, 3.207 gr.

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DlRLÍK "Subsistence", a stipend or grant of timár considered to be of sufficient size for sustenance. DÍRLÍK $ÁHÍBÍ "Possessor of subsistence", salaried or timar holding officials of the Ottoman armed forces: the Janissaries, müteferrikas, gavufes, za'tms, and sipáhis (Ulufay: 189). DfVÁN i. "Council", especially the Diván-1 httmáyün, the Imperial Council of the sultan; the Afca diváni, the Council of the Janissary Corps; and the Cum'a diváni, the Council of the káti 'askers. ii. the collected works of Muslim poets are also known as divans. DÍVÁN HACELERÍ Also (facegán-t diván-i hümáy&n, the "senior scribes of the imperial chancery ". DlVÁN-HÁNE A building in the second court of the Palace known as Divan meydáni. The meeting chamber of the Diván-ffáne has a kubbe, "domed ceiling", and those vezirs who attended the diván meetings were called kubbe vezirleri to differentiate them from vezirs who resided in the provinces. The office of the grand vezir and those of other vezirs adjoined the Diván-háne. DlVÁN-I AHKÁM-I 'ADLÍYE Council of Judicial Ordinances. In 1867 the Meclis-i válá was divided into a legislative council, the $ürá-yi Devlet, "Council of the State", and a judicial council, the Diván-1 ahlcám-i 'adliye. The council acted as a secular supreme court. DÍVÁN-IHÜMÁYÜN The Ottoman Imperial Council, the advisory cabinet of vezirs of the sultan. Mehemmed I (1413-1421) regularly presided over a council of vezirs. His grandson, Mehemmed II (1451-1481), let the grand vezir chair the diván while he was observing the proceedings unseen behind a latticed window. The diván met four times a week, Saturday, Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, to make decisions concerning incoming requests, petitions and reports. In the diván meetings the two Ifáti'askers and the defterdárs were sitting at the left side of the grand vezir, the vezirs and the ni§anci at his right side in a determined order of seniority. When in 1536 the Beglerbegi of Rumelia joined the diván he was seated next to the vezirs. The Agha of the Janissaries and the kapudan pa¡a participated in the meetings only when they had the rank of vezir. The mir-'alem, kapucibafis, (avuf-bafi, and the kapucilar ketfiüdási were in attendance at diván meetings but they were not seated. The re'isii 'l-kiittab observed the meeting sitting in an adjoining chamber.

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

39

Traditionally the diván meetings ended by the time of the ikindi prayer. In the era of the Kdprilis (1656-1691) the grand vezir began to have a continuation of the regular divan in his own residence after the afternoon prayer. Having greater privacy, questions of substance were decided there in the "ikindi meeting", and the regular divan meeting devolved into discussing the questions of promotions and dismissals and other matters of protocol; After 1720, the three main agents of the grand vezir, the kethuda beg, the (avuf-bafi, and the re'is it 'l-kiittab, achieved vezir status managing matters of interior, justice, and foreign affairs respectively (EI2, ii: 357-359). DlVANI A style of calligraphic script used in penning imperial decrees. DIVÁN MEYDÁNI The "Diván Court", the Second Court of the Topkapi Palace between Orta kapu, "Middle Gate" and Bábii 's-sa'áde, the "Gate of Felicity". This court was also known as 'Adálet meydam, the "Court of Justice", since the primary duty of the diván was to mete out justice. The marble colonnade in front of the Bábii 's-sa'áde dominated the Court. Mehemmed II often appeared there but by the 16th century the sultan appeared there only at the time of accession and on the two religious holidays. The Mafbáh-i 'ámire, "Imperial Kitchen", occupied the whole length at the right side of the Second Court. The ístabl-i hássa, "Imperial Stables", were at the left side of the court housing 25-30 horses and their trappings. Between the Council Hall and the stables there was a small gate leading to the Harem; a small outward spreading wing was added to it in the 1520s to house the dormitory of the 115 ziiliiflii baltacis, "halberdiers with tresses". They were employed as guards and for menial chores. The Diván-háne, "Council Hall", used to be adjacent to the Bábü 'ssa'áde but, in 1528, Suleiman I had a new Hall built next to the new Dárii 'l-hizáne, or Hazine-i birúni, "Public Treasury", adjacent to the Kasr-i 'adálet, "Tower of Justice", and the old Council Hall was turned into a mosque. The porticoed building has three domed chambers: the main chamber was for the meeting of the diván, at the right this chamber opened to the chancery where 50 scribes were taking notes, and the third domed chamber held the records of the diván sealed after meetings. At the end of the year the records were put in sealed leather bags for safekeeping. The re'isii 'l-kiittab sat between the first and the second chamber. Sultans could listen to the deliberations of the diván through a latticed window between the main chamber and the Tower of Justice. The Tower was connected by a narrow corridor with the Third court. From its belvedere the sultan could watch ceremonies in the Second court unseen. On paydays, four times a year, the Court accommodated more than 10,000 soldiers, Janissaries and cavalry and administrative personnel who

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waited motionless in orderly silence for their turn to be paid (Necipoglu: 53-88). DlYAR-I BEKR VlLAYETi The Province of Diyarbekir in northeast Anatolia. Selim I conquered the region in 1517 and made it a vilayet. In 1609 the province had 730 kihg units, 42 of wihch were ze'amet estates; with cebelii retainers it provided for 1,800 soldiers from the followng sancaks: DiySr-i bekr, Amid, Harpurd, Ergani, Siverek, Nusaybin, $isn-i Keyf, £emi$gezek, Si'ird, MagafSrikin, Ak?a-kal'e, Sincdr ve $abur, Sigman, Kulb, Mihrani, Tercil, Atak, Pertek, gapak?ur, Palu, and Cennlk. In 1640 the province of Diyar-i bekr had 19 sancaks and 5 autonomous regions providing for 2,990 sipahts ('Ayn' 'Ali: 56-58; Unat; 465; Birken: 185195). DOGANCI "Falconer", already mentioned in Fatih's TK. Hawking was a favorite sport of the sultans who regularly used trained fakirs, "merlins", sahins, "peregrine falcons", and atmacas, "sparrow hawks". The term dogan was used for any kind of bird of prey. The dogancis of the Enderun were commanded by the dofcanci-ba}t and they accompanied the sultan in hunting. In Mehemmed II's reign (1451-1481) there were 9 dogancis; their number grew to 30 by 1609. Three doganci troops were stationed at the Birun of the Palace; in 1609 they had 271 gakirm, 276 fahincis, and 45 atmacacis. The (ahra-ba}t, also known as mir-i }ikdr, was the senior officer of the three companies, the fahinci-bafi being second in command. Falconers were also stationed in the province where suitable places for hunting and nesting existed. In 1564, 2171 of them were stationed in Anatolia and 1520 in Rumelia. The local doganci-bafts were provided by tlmars and the re 'aya dogancis under them were tax-exempt. They annually delivered young falcons to the Palace. The organization of the provincial dogancis faded in the 17th century. In the Palace the companies were abolished only in 1830 ('Ayn 'AH: 95; EI2, ii: 614-615). DOLAMALI "Wearing dolama jacket"; pages in the BiiyUk and KUfiik odas, lowest-grade if-oglan wards of the Enderun of the Topkapi Palace. See also gdman-i enderuni. DOLMA-BAG^E SARAYi The Dolmabahfe Palace on the Bosphorus, built in 1853 to serve as the imperial residence of 'Abdii '1-mecid. DONANMA-t HUMAYUN The "Imperial Fleet", the Ottoman navy. DRAGOMAN English spelling for tercumdn, "interpreter".

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

41

DU'AGOYAN Pensioners who, for their salaries, performed token services like praying on behalf of the sultan. DU'ALAR Prayers or benedictions, especially the benediction formulae inserted after an esteemed name: for the prophets, padishahs and their households, state dignitaries, Christian dignitaries, and for the deceased. i. Benedictions for the prophets and

saints:

KADDESA 'LLAH0 SIRRAH tl 'L-'AZlZ "May God sanctify his mysteiy", for Haci Bekta§ Veil (Kavanin : 6a). SALLA 'LLAHU 'ALEYHl VE SELLEM "May God commend and salute him", for the Prophet Muhammad (Schaendlinger, I: xix, 1554). ii. Benediction for the

padishah:

EBBEDA 'LLAHO EYYAME SALTANATIHi tLA YEVMt 'L-HA§R VE 'LMiZAN "May God cause his sultanate to endure until the Day of Resurrection and Judgment", for Ahmed I (Kavanin'. lb). HALLADA tflLAFETUHU "May God make his caliphate perpetual", for Selim II in 159 (BA TD, No. 661: 3). HALLADA 'LLAHU TA'ALA gLAFETOHO ¡LA 'NKIRAZ1 'D-DEVERAN "May God — be His Name exalted — perpetuate his caliphate till the end of time", for Selim II in 1570 (BA TD, No. 507:1). UYYiDAT DEVLETUHU "May God strengthen his state", for Selim II in 1579 (BA TD, 661: 3). Hi. Benedictions DAME FAZLOHtf

for

Ottoman

dignitaries:

"May his virtue endure", for the kadi of y6fa, 1483

(Kraelitz: 65) DAME IKBALUHO "May his felicity endure", for 'Ali, Pasha of Budin, 1553 ('Arif: 31; Schaendlinger, 11: xxviii) DAME 'iZZOHU "May his glory endure", for begs (for Mustafa Beg of Segedin, 1549 in Schaendlinger, II: v), and for the nifanci (Ferldun, i: 9).

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DÄME MA'ÄLlHl "May his eminence endure", for Ottoman dignitaries (for defterdärs in 'Arif: 31; for A h m e d , Pasha of R ü m - i l t , 1S66 in Schaendlinger, II:xlv, for retired vezirs in Feridün, i:9) DÄME MECHÜHÜ "May his glory endure", for the agha of the Janissaries, other lizengi aghas, the ¡ehr emini, and the re'isil 'l-kättäb ('Arif: 31) DÄME 'ÜLÜVVÜHÜ "May his acclaim endure", for the beglerbegis (for Arslan, Pasha of Budin, 1564 in Schaendlinger, I: xxix), the defterdärs of the Sublime Porte and the nifdnci (Feridün, i: 9). EDÄME 'LLÄHU FEZÄ'lLEHÜ "May God make his virtues lasting", for the feyhii

'l-isläm, the mu'allim-i

sultan, and the two käti-'askers

in TK

('Arif: 30). EDÄME 'LLÄHU ICLÄLEHÜ "May God make his glory lasting", for Grand Vezir Rüstern Pasha, 1549 ('Arif: 30; Schaendlinger, I:xi) EDÄME 'LLÄHU MA'ÄLlHl "May God make his greatness lasting", for Ahmed Pasha, 1S49 (Schaendlinger, I:xi) EDÄME 'LLÄHU 'UMRAHÜ "May God make his life lasting", for fäh-zädes in FAT Arif: 32) ZlDE FAZÄ 'iLÜHÜ "May his virtues increase", for the kadi of Budin, 1549 ('Arif: 31; Schaendlinger, II:v) ZlDE 'ÜLÜVVÜHÜ "May his acclaim increase", for the nifänci (Celälzäde: 436) ZlDE 'iZZÜHÜ "May his glory increase", for Ahmed, Beg of Sirem, 1549 (Schaendlinger, l:x) ZlDE KADRÜHÜ "May his excellence increase", for Mahmud favuf, envoy to Ferdinand 1, 1549 (Schaendlinger, I:xi) iv.

Benedictions

for

Christian

dignitaries:

ER§EDEHÜ 'LLÄHU TA'ÄLÄ "May God — be His Name exalted — guide him [to the right path]", for Ferdinand 1 in 1550 (Schaendlinger, I:xii) ER§EDEHÜ 'L-MELiKÜ 'L-MÜTE'ÄL "May the Supreme Lord guide him [to the right path]", for Ferdinand I in 1553 (Schaendlinger, I:xvi)

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43

yUTiMET 'AVAKiBUHU Bi L-tfAYR "May he end his days propitiously [on the right path]", for Ferdinand I 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii) v. Benediction for the deceased: 'ALEYHl 'R-RAHMETi VE 'L-GUFRAN "May God's mercy and forgiveness be upon him." 'ALEYHl 'R-RAHMETt VE 'R-RIZVAN "May God's grace and forgiveness be upon him", for Mehemmed II (Kavanin: 2a) CA'ALE 'L-CENNETE MESVAHO "May he dwell in Paradise", for Murad I (Feridun, i: 116). ESKENEHU 'L-LAHU Fl GUREFl 'L-CINAN "May God let him dwell in the mansions of Paradise". NEVVERE 'L-LAHU MERKADEHU "May God glorify his grave", for Hasan Pa$a (Akgiindiiz, v: 154). RAHMETU 'L-LAHI ALEYHl RAHMETEN VASi'ATEN "May God, the Forgiving and All-Comprehending, bless his soul", for Murad I (Feridun, i: 116). TABE SERRAHU "May he rest in peace", for Murad I (Feridun, i: 116). D0YUN-I 'UMUMIYE The "Public Debts", the Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt established in 1881. A council, consisting of si* delegates representing British, French, German, Italian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman bond-holders, became a powerful political body influencing the economic life of the Ottoman Empire till its dissolution in 1923. The debt was officially liquidated only in 1944. DULBEND See "Turban". DULBEND AGASI Also diilbend oglant, the "agha of the wardrobe", one of the zUltiflii agas of the Hass oda of the Topkapi Palace, the keeper of the sultan's turban and underwear. DULBEND OGLANI The "agha of the wardrobe", see diilbend agasi. DUNDAR Rear guard in military campaigns.

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E EBCED HESABI The numerical value of the letters of the Arabic script used in esoteric works and occasionally in poetry to date special events. EBNA-YI StPAHtYAN Members of the sipdhi troop of the kapu-kuh cavalry. EBU 'L-FETH Also Fatih, "The Conqueror", epithet for Mehemmed II (14511481), the conqueror of Constantinople. ECNEBl "Foreigner", in the 17th century specifically a fimar-holder whose ancestors came from the re'ayd and as such were considered as an usurping "alien [class]" among the caste-conscious sipdhis. In a similar vein, those recruits to the Janissary Corps who were not eligible according to the tradition, yet accepted were also called ecnebis by 17th-century critics ('Aziz: 7). EDIRNE AGASI The commander of the 'acemi corps in Edirne under the supervision of the Agha of Istanbul (Kavanin: 30a). EDlRNE SARAYI The Imperial Palace in Edirne, the seat of the sultanate prior to the conquest in Constantinople (1453). It was a popular winter residence for the 16th-century sultans and some 17th and 18th-century sultans chose the Edirne Palace as their preferred abode. EFENDt "Master", a title for educated people, especially for scribes. Servants of a home also called their master efendimiz, "our master". Particularly, it signified traditional medrese education, whereas beg indicated military ranks. In the 19th century efendi was also utilized for princes of the Ottoman dynasty. In addition beg and efendi were put together as beyefendi and have been used as the equivalent of the English "Sir". Efendi was officially abolished as a title in 1934 but still used in polite speech today {El2, ii:687). EFENDl KAPUSI The office of the secretary of the Janissary Corps. EFLAK

i. Vlachs, pastoral nomads in Wallachia. ii. Wallachia, an autonomous principality of the Ottoman Empire from the 1480s until 1858. The full independence of Rumania, including Wallachia and Moldavia, was granted at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 albeit without Bessarabia; that province was ceded to the Russians.

EFRENC Or firenk, "French, European".

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

45

EGRl VÎLÀYETÎ Prior to Che conquest of its fortress in 1596 the region of Egri, the Modern Eger in northeast Hungary, formed a nâhiye, "subdistrict", of the sancak of iîatvàn. In 1596 the sancaks of Filek, Segedin, §ôlmk and Hatv&n were detached from the Province of Budin and were reorganized into the newly created Egri vilàyeti with thé expectation that eventually further conquests would increase its size. These expectations did not materialize; nevertheless Egri kept its province status — albeit its beglerbegi was subordinate to the Pasha of Budin — till its eventual reconquest by Habsburg forces in 1687. EHL-1 ClHET People of the religious establishment: imàms, "prayer leaders"; fjatibs "preachers"; mu'e&ins, "callers for worship", and the like (Unat: 461). EHL-1 DÎVÀN "People of the [Imperial] Divân". In Fâtih's TK this term included the grand vezir, vezirs, kâti- 'askera, the Agha of the Janissaries, the iizengi aghas, the mir- 'alem,, kapuci-bafts, and the mïr-ahûr. This listing was indicative of the seniority and career path of the individual posts (Akgunduz, i: 319, 321). EHL-i HÎREF "Craftsmen", salaried artisans of a variety of professions working for the Ottoman Court. They were organized in tighly controlled guilds. EHL-i 'ÎLM Or 'ilmiye, "men of learning". EHL-Î KALEM Or kalemiye, "men of the pen", bureaucratic specialists. EHL-i SEYF Or seyfiye, "men of the sword", the military-administrative establishment. EHLÛ 'L-KÎTÀB "People of the Scripture", Jews and Christians who made covenants with God, but refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Muhammad, as Allah's "Seal of the Prophets". The ehlii 'l-kitàb were beneficiaries of limma, the Muslim accord of hospitality and protection if they acknowledged the domination of the Islamic state {El2, i: 264-266). EKRÂD PI. of kUrd, "Kurdish". ELCÏ "Envoy", representative of a foreign ruler or a state. The Ottomans considered their presence at the Sublime Porte as homage to the sultan and the Ottoman government; they were expected to present sizeable largesses at the time of their arrival. In turn the foreign envoys were the guests of the state, under protection, and with specified stipends. Foreign representation

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was not reciprocated since the sultan was held superior to other rulers and as such not subject to paying homage to them. £avu;es and mtiteferrikas were entrusted to carry specific diplomatic correspondence to foreign states but they had not special powers for negotiating and w o e instructed to return immediately after delivery. Although the Sublime Porte began to send ambassadors with specific missions to Europe after the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) the Ottoman Empire did not have permanent residents in European countries till 1789. For a list of ambassadors to London (1797-1914), Paris (1796-1914), Berlin (1797-1918), Vienna (1797-1918), St. Petersburg (1857-1914), Rome (1856-1915), Tehran (1806-1918), Washington (18671917), Madrid (1858-1922), and Athens (1840-1916), see Oztuna: 10101016. Ambassadors of Western countries to Istanbul are listed in Oztuna: 1021-1032. EL-HAMDU Ll'LLAHI "Praise be to God", the beginning words of the First sure of the Koran; common pious exclamation in Muslim conversation. ELKAB PI. of lakab "title". Individuals who had official positions in society with specified ranks were entitled to be addressed with traditional/honorary titles. Manuals on protocol listed a number of titles suitable for officials of the state. In 1863 these honorary titles were reorganized and were made official by law. They were abolished only at the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The following is a list of some of the better known titles used by scribes in Ottoman documents of the Classical period (1453-1699). i. Titles for the padishah: AK-DENlZON, VE KARA-DEN1Z0N, VE KA'BE-i MU'AZZAME VC MEDlNE-1MONEVERRENON, VE KUDS-I §ERlF0N, VE TAtfT-I MISR-I NADtRE-1 AS RUN, VE VILAYET-I YEMEN 0 'ADEN 0 SAN'ANUN, VE DARO 'S-SELAM-I BAGDAD U BA$RA VU LAHSANUN, VEMEDAlN-1 ANO§lN-REVANUN, VE DlYAR-I CEZAYlR 0 AZERBAYCANUN, VE DE§T-t K1PQAK U DIYAR-1 TATARUN, VE DiYAR-I BEKR 0 KORDlSTAN U LORlSTANUN, VE KOLLiYEN R0M-ILI VE ANATOLI VE KARAMAN VE EFLAK VE BCXJDAN VE UNGURUS MEMLEKETLER1N0N, VE BUNLARDAN GAYRI NICE MEMALiK U DlYAR-I AZlMO L-t'TiBARUN PAD1§AH1 VE SULTANI "The Padishah and Sultan of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, of Ka'ba the Esteemed, and Medina the Illuminated, of Jerusalem the Sacred, of the Throne of Egypt the most precious jewel of our era, of the provinces of Yemen and Aden and San'a, of Baghdad the Abode of Peace, and Basra, and Lahsa, of the cities of Anushirwan (i.e. the Sasanid Ctesiphon in Iraq), of the lands of Algiers and Azerbaijan, of the land of the Golden Horde and the land of Tartary, of Diyarbekir and Kurdistan and

PASHAS,

BEGS,

AND

EFENDIS

47

Luristan, and all of Rumelia and Anatolia and Karamahia and Wallachia and Moldavia and Hungary, and apart from these, of many other great and esteemed countries and lands", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I: xxv). BA'lS-t EMN 0 EMAN "The creator of peace and security", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger I: xxiii). BURHANO 'L-HAVAKlN

"The affirmation of khans", for Suleiman I in 1534

(Schaendlinger, I:i). BURHANO 'L-tfAVAKlN-t DEVRAN "The affirmation of khans of all epochs", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger, Irxxiii). y A D l M O 'L-HAREMEYNl '§-§ERlFEYN

"The protector of the two holy

cities (i.e. Mecca and Medina)", for Ahmed I in 1608 (Feridun, ii: 320) HALlFETO 'R-RAHMAN "The caliph of the All-Compassionate", for Selim II in 1570 (BA TD, 507:1). KAHRAMAN-I KEVN U MEKAN "The hero of the universe", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). NERrMAN-I MEYDAN-I ZEMIN 0 ZAMAN "Neriman (mytical hero in Ferdowsi's Shah-name) of the epoch", for Suleiman 1 in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). SAHiB-KlRAN-I MEMALlK-i RUM U 'ACEM U 'ARAB "The auspicious lord of the dominions of Byzantium, Persia, and Arabia", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). SAHiBO 'Z-ZAMAN 507:1).

"The lord of the epoch", for Selim II in 1570 (BA TD,

S U L T A N 0 'S-SELATlN (Schaendlinger, I:i).

"The sultan of sultans", for Suleiman I in 1534

SULTAN-I SELATIN-1 ClHAN "The sultan of the sultans of the world", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger, I:xxiii). SULTAN-I SELAriN-I §ARK U 6 A R B "The sultan of the sultans of Orient and Occident", for Suleiman I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I: xxv).

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TAC-BAtfS-I flUSREVAN-I RO-YI ZEMIN "Khosrow-like (imperial; allusion to Khosrow II of Persia in Ferdowsi's Shah-name) dispenser of crowns of the world", for Suleiman I in 1554 (Schaendlinger, I: xix). TAC-BAyS-I yUSREVAN-I ZEMIN 0 ZAMAN "Khosrow-like dispenser of crowns of the epoch", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendlinger, I:xxiii). TAC-BAtfS-1 RO-YI ZEMIN "Dispenser of crowns of the world", for Suleiman I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). ZILLO 'LLAHl Fl 'L-ARAZlN "Shadow of God on Eaith", for Suleiman I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). ZlLLO 'LLAHI 'L-MELlKi 'L-MENNAN "Shadow of God, the All-Bounteous King", for Suleiman I in 1559 (Schaendling, I: xxiii). ii. Titles

of Christian

sovereigns and dignitaries

:

FAtflRO 'S-SELATlN! 'L-'tZAMi 'L-KlRAMi 'L-MlLLETt 'L-'ISEVlYE "Pride of the great, noble sultans of Christendom", for Ferdinand I by Tuygun, Pasha of Budin in 1554 (Fekete: vii). iFTitfARO 'L-MUtfADDERATi 'L-'ISEVlYE "Laudable pride of ladies of Christendom", for Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 (Skilliter. 252). iFTlyARO 'L-UMERA'i 'L-MILLETi 'L-MESlHlYE' "Uudable pride of the commanders of the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, 1:1). tFTitfARU UMERA'i L-lZAMI 'L-'ISEVlYE "Uudable pride of the great commanders of Christendom", for Ferdinand I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). iFTiyARti KUBERA'i 'L'FlyAMl Fl MILLETI 'L-MESlHlYE "Choice of illustrious magnates in the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). KIDVETO A'YANi 'L-MiLLETt 'L-MESlHlYE "Paragon of the nobles of the community of the Messiah", for the mayor of Sebin, Transylvania in 1552 (Schaendlinger, II:xv). KIDVETO O M E R A i

'L-'lZAMl

'L-'ISEVlYE "Paragon of the great

commanders of Christendom", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii).

PASHAS,

BEGS, AND E F E N D I S

49

KIDVETO OMERA'I 'L-'lZAMt 'L-MESlHlYE "Paragon of the great commanders of the followers of the Messiah", for Johann Maria Malvezzi, imperial envoy to Istanbul in 1549 (Schaendlinger, I:ix). KIDVETO OMERA'I T-TA'iFETi 'L'lSEVlYE "Paragon of the commanders of Christendom", for Ferenc Kendi of Transylvania in 1552 (Schaendlinger, II:xi). MEFAfliRO 'L-OMERA'i 'L-MILLETl 'L-MESlHlYE "Laudable pride of the commanders of the community of the Messiah", for Hungarian nobles in 1566 (Schaendlinger, II: xlvi). MERACi'O KOBERA'i T-TA'iFETi 'L-'ISEVlYE "Authority of the magnates of Christendom", for Hungarian nobles in 1566 (Schaendlinger, II:xlvi). MUHTARO KOBERA'i 'L-FiyAMI Fl MILLETt 'L-MESlHlYE "The elite of illustrious magnates in the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). MUHTARO KOBERA'I 'T-TA'iFETi 'L-'ISEVlYE "The elite of the magnates of Christendon", for Ferdinand I in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). MOFAyyARO 'L-OMERA'i 'T-TEMYiZ "Exalted among the distinguished commander", for Peter, voyvoda of Bogdan in 1456 (Kraelitz: 44). MUHTARO 'L-MUVAKKARATI Fl 'L-MiLLETl 'L-MESlHlYE "The elite of ladies honored in the community of the Messiah", for Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 (Skilliter: 252). MUSLtHETU 'L-MASALiHi T-TA'iFETi 'N-NASRANlYE "Arbitress of the affairs of the community of Nazarene", for Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 (Skilliter: 252). MOSLIH0 MASALIHI CEMAHlRI 'T-TA'iFETi 'N-NASRANlYE "Arbiter of the universal affairs of the community of Nazarene", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). RlM yALKINUS GOZiDE VE HORMETLOSi "Chosen and revered of the people of Rome", for Ferdinand I in 1562 (Schaendlinger, I:xxv). SAHiBO DELA'iLi 'L-MECDi VE 'L-tFTiljAR "Possessor of manifestation of splendor and laudable pride", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii).

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SAHiBO EZYALi L-HAJMETt VE 'L-VAKAR "Possessor of the trains of majesty and glory", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). UMDETO 'L-KtJBERA'I T-TA iFETl 'L'lSEVlYE "Pillar among Ulustrious greats of Christendom", for Frater George Martinuzzi of Transylvania in 1550 (Schaendlinger, II:ix). OSVETt) KOBERA'l L-FlyAMt Fl MlLLETl 'L-MESlHlYE "Model of the illustrious magnates in the community of the Messiah", for Ferdinand I in 1541 (Schaendlinger, I:ii). iii. Titles f o r Ottoman

dignitaries:

AKZA KUDATi 'L-Ml)SLlMlN "The most authoritative of Muslim kadis", for kadis with five-hundred-ofca stipends ('Arif: 31; for the judge of Sofya in 1546 in Schaendlinger, II:ii). A'LEMO 'L-'ULEMA'i L-MOTEBAHHiRlN "The most learned of erudite scholars", for the ¡eyhti 'l-islam, the mu'allim-i sultan, and the two kati-'asken ('Arif; 30, Feridun, i:ll). 'AM1L0 'L-yAZAYtN BI-AHSENi 'L-A'MAL "Custodian of the treasuries with the finest conduct", for defterdars (GOkbilgin: 60). ASAFO 'Z-ZAMAN "Asaph (vezir of King Solomon) of his epoch", for Grand Vezir Rilstem Pasha in 1549 (Schaendlinger, I:xi). BEDR-i KUBERA'l L-FIHAM "The moon of the illustrious greats", for Grand Vezir Ibrahim Pasha (Celal-zSde: 433). CAMi'O VOCOHi 'L-EMVAL "Holder of the means of wealth", for defterdars ('Arif: 31). CAMl'U 'L-MA'ALl VE 'L-MEFAHiR "Assembler of eminence and laudable pride", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1486 (Kraelitz: 71). CAMf'O 'L-MAHAMiDt VE 'L-MEKARlM "Assembler of excellence and generosity", for the agha of the Janissaries and other iizengi aghas, and for the re'isit 'l-kiittab and emin-i deften ('Arif: 31; Feridun, i: 10). CELlSO 'S-SALTANATi Z-ZAHtRE "Companion of the flourishing sultanate", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30).

P A S H A S , BEGS, AND EFENDIS

51

CENÄB-I EMÄRET-ME'ÄB-I tYÄLET-NISÄB "The charismatic excellency of proper governing", for the Khan of Crimea (Celal-zfide: 433). DESTUR-I EKREM "Most noble vezir", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30, Feridün, i:9). DESTUR-I MÜKERREM (Schaendlinger, I:xi).

"Honored vezir", for Ahmed Pasha in 1549

DEVLET-iNTfSÄB-I SA'ÄDET-lKTtSÄB "Prosperous and auspicious", for the Khan of Crimea (Celäl-zäde: 433). DEVLETLU

"IUustrious", for vezirs (Sertoglu: 84).

DEVLETLU ' A T I F E T L U (Sertoglu: 84).

"Illustrious and benevolent", for

DEVLETLU FAHÄMETLU (Sertoglu: 84). DEVLETLU 'INÄYETLU agasi (Sertoglu: 84).

ser-'askers

"Illustrious and excellent", for grand vezirs

"Illustrious and gracious", for the därü

's-sa'äde

DEVLETLU NECÄBETLU "Illustrious and noble", for princes of the Ottoman dynasty (Sertoglu: 84). DEVLETLU SEMÄHATLU "Illustrious and munificent", for the ¡eyhü 'l-isläm (Sertoglu: 84). DEVLETLU SEYÄDETLU "Illustrious and of noble descent", for the Grand Sherif of Mecca (Sertoglu: 84). EFDÄLÜ 'L-FUZALÄ'i 'L-MÜTEVERRi'lN "Eminent among the scrupulously virtuous", for the feyhü

'l-isläm, the mu'allim-i

sultan, and the käii-

'askers ('Arif: 30, Feridün, i: 11). EL-ÖÄZl Fl SEBlLl 'LLÄH "Ghazi on the path of God", for Grand Vezir ibrähim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). EL-MAHFOFU Bi-SUNOFt 'L-AVÄTIFt L-MELtKl 'L-A'LA "Invested by arrays of favors of the Supreme Lord", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30, Feridün, i:9).

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EL-MAIJFÜFU BÍ-SUNÜFÍ LETÁYIFÍ 'L-AVÁTIFÍ 'L-MELÍKl

L-A'LA

"Invested by the imperceptible of favors of the Supreme Lord", for vezirs (Celàl-zâde: 433). EL-MAtfSOSU BÍ-'ÍNÁYETÍ L-MELÍKÍ 'L-KÁDÍR "Chosen by the favor of the AUmighty God", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1486 (Kraelitz: 70). EL-MANZÜRU BÍ-ENZÁR-Í tNÀYÀTÎ 'L-MELlKl 'S-SAMED "Admired because of the many favors granted to him by the Sublime Lord", for the nifànci (Celàl-zâde: 436). EL-MUtfTASSU Bt-MEZlDt 'ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKl 'L-ALLÀM "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Lord, the All-Knowing", for beglerbegis ('Arif: 31; for Tuygun, Pasha of Budin in 1553 in Schaendlinger, II:xxxi) and begs ('Arif: 31; for Arslan, Beg of Semendire in 1564 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxviii). EL-MUfJTASSU Bt-MEZÍDt ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'L-BÀRÏ "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Lord, the Creator", for defterdárs ('Arif: 31). EL-MUyTASSU BÍ-MEZÍDÍ ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'L-DÁÍM "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Eternal Lord", for the agha of the Janissaries, other ttzengi aghas, t h e f e h r emini, and the re isü 'l-kultàb ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i:10). EL-MUtfTASSU BÍ-MEZlDÍ 'ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'L-MÜ'ÍN "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Lord, the Helper", for káefis with five-hundredakca stipends, the faculty of the sahn-i semàn and dáhil colleges and the faculty of the semániye colleges ('Arif: 31; Ózcan: 50; Celàl-zâde: 436). EL-MUtfTASSU BÍ-MEZlDÍ 'ÍNÁYETÍ 'L-MELÍKÍ 'S-SAMED "Chosen by the boundless favor of the Sublime Lord", for retired vezirs (Feridün, i:9) and for the defterdàr of the Sublime Porte and the nifánct (Feridün, i:9). EL-MÜCÁHÍDÜ LÍ-VECHÍ 'LLÀH "Champion for the sake of God", for Grand Vezir Ibràhïm Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). EL-MÜSTAÚNÍ 'ANÍ 'T-TAVSlFÍ VE 'T-TCBYlN "Immune to praise and exempt from explanation", for the feyhli l-islâm, the mu'allim-i sultán, and the two káií-'askers ('Arif: 30). EL-MÜ'EYYEDÜ BÍ-TE'EYYÜDÍ 'LLÁHÍ 'L-'ALLÀM "Supported by the assistance of God the All-Knowing", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1489 (Kraelitz: 80).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

53

EMÁCtDÜ VÜLÁTi 'L-MUVAHHÍDlN "Most illustrious of the Muslim vális", for the fajáis of Rüm-ili in 1493 (Kraelitz: 95). EMIRO 'L-ÜMERÁ't 'L-KlRÁM "Commander of the noble commanders", for beglerbegis ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i:9, for Tuygun, Pasha of Budín in 1553 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxi). ENlSÜ 'D-DEVLETt 'L-KÀHlRE "Companion of the Conquering Dynasty", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30). ES-SÀRIMU 'S-SAMSÀM "The edge of the saber", for Grand Vezir Ibràhim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). EVLA VÜLÁTt 'L-MÜVAHHÍDlN "The most suitable of Muslim governors", for kadis with five-hundred-afcfa stipends ('Arif: 31; for the judge of Sofya in 1546 in Schaendlinger, II:ii). HALLÁLÜ 'L-MU DÌLÀTÌ 'D-DlNÍYE "One who solves religious complexities", for the mu'allim-i sultán (Celàl-zàde: 436). HALLALÜ 'MܧKlLÁTÍ 'L-HAKÀY1K "One who solves the difficulties of existence", for the feyhii '¡-isiàm, the mu'allim-i sultán, and the two káti 'askers ('Arif: 30). HÜCCETÜ 'R-RAHMÀN ALÉ 'L-ÌNSÀN "Warrant of the AU-Compassionate for mankind", for Grand Vezir ibràhim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). HÜCCETÜ 'L-HAKK ALÉ L-HALKÍ ECMÀ'lN

"Warrant of God for

mankind", for kafis with five-hundred-aifa stipends ('Arif: 31). ÍFT10ÁRÜ 'L-E'ÀLl VE 'L-E'ÀZlM "Laudable pride of the best and the greatest", for the ¡ehr emini, the re'lsii 'I-küitáb, and retired vezirs ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i:9). tFTÍyÁRÜ 'L-EMÀCiDÌ VE "L-EKÀRÌM "Laudable pride of the most illustrious and noble", for the agha of the Janissaries and other iizengi aghas, the re'isü 'l-kiittàb, and atún-i defters ('Arif: 31; Feridün, i: 10). ÍFTiyARÜ 'L-KUDÀTÌ VE 'L-HÜKKÁM "Laudable pride of kájis and magistrates", for kadi of F&ja in 1491 (Kraelitz: 89).

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IFTÍyARÜ 'L-ULEMÄ't I^MUHAKKIKlN "Laudable pride of professors", for the faculty of the fahn-i semán and dá¡fi¡ colleges, and the faculty of the semániye colleges (özcan: SO; CeUl-zide: 436). lFTtHÄRÜ 'L-ÜMERÄ'l L-KlRÄM "Laudable pride of noble commanders", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1491 (Kraelitz: 89) and for Arslan, Pasha of Budin in 1564 (Schaendlinger, I:xxix). IFriyÄRÜ 'L-ÜMERÄ'i VE 'L-EKÄBlR "Laudable pride of commanders and greats", for defterdárs, the nifánci ('Arif: 31, Feridün, i:9; Celäl-zäde: 436), and begs (for Hamza, Beg of Hersek-ili in 1472 in Kraelitz: 55). ÍHTÍYARÜ 'L-KÜBERÄ'l 'L-FltfÄM "Select of the iUustrious greats", for the Beg of Hersek-ili in 1496 (Kraelitz: 96). iFTiYÄRÜ 'L-FUZALÄ'i 'L-MÜDEKKlKlN "Select of the conscientious of scholars", for the faculty of the semániye colleges (Celäl-zäde: 436). KÄ'iDÜ CÜYÜ§Í 'L-iSLÄM "Commander of the army of Islam", for Grand Vezir Ibrahim Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger, I:i). KEBÍRÜ 'L-KÜBERÄ'i L-FitfÄM "Great of the illustrious greats", for beglerbegis ('Arif: 31, Feridün, i: 9). KE§§ÄFÜ L-MܧKiLÄTi D-DlNÍYE VE SAHHÄHU MÜTE'ALLIKATÍ 'TTA'YlNlYE "Explorer of religious problems and corrector of designated relationships", for the geyhii 'l-islám, the mu 'altim-i sultan, and the two kali 'askers ('Arif: 30). KE55ÄFÜ RUMÜZÍ 'D-DEKÄYIK "Explorer of the signs of subtle points", for the feyhii 'l-islám, the mu'allim-i sultán, and the two kázi-'askers ('Arif: 30). KIDVETÜ ERBAbI 'L-lZZi VE 'L-lKBÄL "Paragon among men of glory and felicity", for defterdárs ('Arif: 31). KIDVETÜ ERBÁBÍ T-TAHRlR VE 'L-BEYÄN "Paragon among masters of writing and style", for scribes of the diván and the treasury (Celäl-zäde: 438). KIDVETÜ 'L-EFÄZILi VE L-EKÄBlR "Paragon of the superiors and greats", for defterdárs of ulemá origin (Celäl-zäde: 435).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND

EFENDIS

55

KIDVETO 'L-EMÀCiDi VE 'L-EKÀRÎM "Paragon of the most illustrious and nobles", for the mi-r- alem, kapuci-bafi, and (âfnigir-ba}i (Celâl-zàde: 435). KID VETO "L-EMÀStLt VE 'L-AKRÀN "Paragon among the most eminent and peers", for fovujes ('Arif: 31; for Mahmud, envoy to Ferdinand I in 1549 in Schaendlinger, I;xi) and interpreters (for tbràhîm in 1561 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxvi). KIDVETO 'L-ERBÀBI 'T-TAHRIR VE 'L-KALEM "Paragon among the master of composition and pen", for scribes and the divân kàtibi (Ûzcan: 50; Feridûn, i:10). KIDVETO 'L-KUDÂTÎ VE 'L-HUKKÀM "Paragon among kadis and magistrates", for kàflis with one-hundred-fifty-aJcfa stipends (Ozcan:50). KIDVETO 'L-OMERÂ'Î 'L-KlRÀM "Paragon of noble commanders", for Arslan, Beg of Semendire in 1564 in Schaendlinger, II: xxxviii). KEBlRÛ 'L-KUBERÂ'i 'L-FiyÀM "Great among illustrious greats", for Tuygun, Pasha of Budin in 1553 (Schaendlinger, II: xxxi). MA'DENO 'L-FAZLI VE 'L-KELÂM "Mine of virtue and words", for kadis with one-hundred-fifth-atfa stipends (Ozcan: 50). MA'DENO 'L-FAZLI VE 'L-YAKlN "Mine of virture and certitude", for kadis with five-hundred-atpa stipends ('Arif: 31; for the judge of Sofya in 1546 in Schaendlinger, II:ii). MÂLÎK-t MEMÀLIK-i RE'Y 0 TEDBlR-t UMORl 'S-SALTANATi 'L-'ÂLIYE "Lord of the domains of judgment and management of the affairs of the Sublime Sultanate", for Grand Vezir ibrâhlm Pasha (Celàl-zâde: 433). MAZHARO 'AVÂTlFi 'LLAHl TA'ÀLA "Object of favors of God—be His Name exalted" for Grand Vezir Îbràhïm Pasha in 1534 (Schaendlinger,

1:0. MEF1JARÛ 'L-EMÂCiDi VE 'L-EKÀB1R "Glory of the most illustrious and greats", for defterdàrs (Celâl-zâde: 435). MELÂZ-I EHL-Î SMÀN "Shelter for the religious community", for Grand Vezir Riistem Pasha in 1549 (Schaendlinger, i:xi).

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MERCt'O 'L-KtlBERA'l L-FlyAM "Authority among the illustrious greats", for the Beg of Hersek-ili ill 1489 (Kraelitz: 80). MERCi'O

VOLATI

'L-MO'MlNlN

"Authority among the valis of the

believers", for the k a j l of tfe$a in 1483 (Kraelitz: 65). MIFTAHU RUMUZi L-HAKAYIK "Key to the symbols of truth", for the mu'allim-i sultan and the two kaii-'asken (Cel&l-z&de: 437). MUyASSiSU ERKANt 'S-SALTANATt VE 'L-ICLAL "One who appropriates the pillars of the magnificence and glory", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30). MUHTARU 'L-EHALl VE L-EKARlM "The elite among the masses and the most noble", for the fehr emini and the re'isti 't-kiittab ('Arif: 31). MUHTARO 'L-FUZALA'l L-MODEKKlKlN "The elite of the conscientious of research scholars", for the faculty of the sahn-i seman and

dahil

colleges (Ozcan: 50). MUHTARO'L-KUBERA'i V E ' L - E F A y l R righteous", for defterdan ('Arif: 31).

"The elite of the prominent and

MOBEYYlNU '§-§ERAYI'l VE 'L-AHKAM "Declarer of the canonical law and requirements", for the kadi of Fo?a in 1491 (Kraelitz: 89). MODEBBlRtJ UMURl 'L-CUMHOR Bt-'L-FtKRt 'S-SAKIBI R-RAZIN "Prudent manager of the affairs of the community with secret, decisive reasoning", for grand vezirs (Celal-zSde: 433). MUDEBBiRO UMURl 'L-CUMHOR Bi-'R-RE'Yi 'S-SA'tB "Prudent manager of the affairs of the community with proper judgment", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30). MODEBBiRO MASALlHi 'L-OMEN Bi-'R-RE'Yi 'S-SA'iBl 'L-MET1N "Prudent manager of the affairs of the community with trustworthy, proper judgment", for vezirs (Celal-zade: 433). MC'ESSISO BUNYANt 'L-'iZZI VE 'L-iCLAL "Architect of the building of glory and magnificence", for vezirs (CelSl-zade: 433). MO'ESSiSU CENABi D-DEVLETi VE 'L-iKBAL "Architect of the place of prosperity and felicity", for grand vezirs ('Arif: 30).

P A S H A S , B E G S , AND E F E N D I S

57

MO'ESSlSU KAVA'iDJ 'D-DONYA VE 'D-DlN "Establisher of rules and precepts for the populace and religion", for grand vezirs (CelSl-z&de: 433). MUFAIJHARO 'L-KUDAH 'L-MOSLIMlN "Exalted among Muslim fatfis", for the kadi of Ho?a in 1483 (Kraelitz: 65). MUFAHyARU 'L-KUDATI VE 'L-HOKKAM "Exalted among ka(lis\ and magistrates", for thefaj