Palestine under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land 9781463212766

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PALESTINE U N D E R T H E MOSLEMS

GORGIAS THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY

19 General Editor

George Anton Kiraz The Gorgias Theological Library brings back to active circulation carefully selected rare classics which are essentials for the shelves of every theological library. These gems of scholarship remain primary sources of reference in modern research, yet they are inaccessible as not many libraries hold them. The selections include tools for the scholars, but also general theological works of interest to the general reader. Each of the volumes is carefully selected by the Gorgias editorial team based on its relevance to ongoing research and rarity.

Palestine Under the Moslems A Description of Syria and the Holy Land

GUY L E STRANGE

GORGIAS PRESS

2008

First Gorgias Press Edition, 2008

The special contents of this edition are copyright . 1 2 4 0 . S e v e n t h C r u s a d e , R i c h a r d E a r l of C o r n w a l l . ,,

1 2 4 4 . J e r u s a l e m s a c k e d by the K h a r i z m i a n s .

„

1 2 4 5 . E i g h t h C r u s a d e , St. L o u i s I X . takes D a m i e t t a .

,,

1250(648).

E i b e k , M a m l u k S u l t a n of E g y p t .

From

1 2 5 0 to 1 3 9 0 t w e n t y - l i v e M a m l i t k ( B a h r i t e ) sultans of

E g y p t , to w h o m S y r i a was d e p e n d e n t .

,,

1260—1277

(658-676).

Hillagii, g r a n d s o n of J e n g i s

Khan,

the M o n g o l , seizes D a m a s c u s a n d N o r t h e r n Syria.

The

M o n g o l s are beaten at ' A i n J a l u d b y Sultan K u t u z , of E g y p t , w h o regains possession of Syria. ,,

1260(658).

Baibars,

Sultan

of

Egypt;

1265,

captures

Cassarea, 'Athlith, H a i f a a n d A r s u f ; 1 2 6 6 , takes S a f e d ; 1 2 6 8 , takes J a f f a , S h a k i f ( B e a u f o r t ) , a n d A n t i o c h . ,,

1 2 7 9 (678). Sultan

K a l a ' i i n of E g y p t .

C a m p a i g n in S y r i a ,

sack of T r i p o l i . ,,

1 2 9 0 (689). S u l t a n Salah a d Din K h a l i ) captures A c r e , T y r e ,

„

1 3 9 0 (792). Sultan Barkuk.

Bairut and Sidon. From

1 3 9 0 to 1 5 1 6 t w e n t y - f o u r M a m l u k

( B u r j i t e ) sultans of

E g y p t , to w h o m S y r i a w a s n o m i n a l l y d e p e n d e n t .

.,

1 4 0 0 (803) T i m u r - L e n g conquers H a m a h , H i m s and Ba'alb a k k ; 1 4 0 1 , takes D a m a s c u s a n d b u r n s the greater part of the city.

,,

1 5 1 6 ( 9 2 2 ) . S y r i a a n d E g y p t c o n q u e r e d b y S u l t a n S e l i m , of Constantinople.

E R R A T A . Page Page Page Page Page Page Page Page Page to what

27, line 1 6 , f o r " Mitelenc," read " Melitene," 36, line 10, for " A l Karashiyyah," read " A l Kurashîyyah." 37, line $6, for " Armoricum," read " Amorinm." 56, line 9, before " Khumaruwaih," dele " tlie " 81, line 9, for " Jabal al K h a l i / ' read "Jabal al Ivhaît." 92, line 2. See note to this, Appendix, p. 557. 489, line I, for " A l Kutaishiyyah," read'1 A l Kutashiyyah." 499, heading and line S, for " M i t e l e n e , " read " M e l i t e n e . " 544, line 26, the paragraph on T a r t û s (Tortosa) should be added is given on p. 395, under the heading A n t a r t û s .

P A L E S T I N E U N D E R T H E MOSLEMS.

P A R T

I.

INTRODUCTION. THE

ARAB

GEOGRAPHERS.

FOR purposes of reference a list is here given of the Arab geographers and historians whose works are quoted in the following pages. In addition a short biographical summary is prefixed to the indication of the edition of the Arabic text from which the translations have been made. Further information concerning the various authorities and their works will generally be found in the prefaces of the editions quoted in the present work. The earliest extant Arab books on geography and history date from the ninth century A.D., for it will be remembered that the Muslims did not begin to write books until fully two centuries had elapsed after the era of the Flight. From this period, however, that is, from about the middle of the ninth century and down to the end of the fifteenth of the Christian era, the names of authors follow each other at very short intervals, and the list shows over a score of writers, all Muslims, and nearly all writing in Arabic, who describe for us, sometimes in considerable detail, the various provinces of Syria and Palestine. The list is long, but it should be stated that in many cases we have not, in the works here named, exclusively the results of personal observation or information at first hand. Arab authors i

2

PALESTINE

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MOSLEMS.

h a v e plagiarized, each from his predecessor, to a very r e m a r k a b l e degree ; neither is the

debt always duly a c k n o w l e d g e d .

Each

tried to m a k e his work as c o m p l e t e as possible by incorporating therein all he c o u l d gather from previous writers, a d d i n g something from personal observation w h e n the author himself h a p p e n e d to h a v e visited the places described.

T h i s constant

plagiarism,

t h o u g h it tends to decrease the a m o u n t of new information, is, in o n e way, not without its value, since b y a c o m p a r i s o n

of

the

borrowed texts we are e n a b l e d to correct the mistakes of copyists a n d fill in many lacuna;. T h e following is the list of our authorities : 1. I b n K h u r d a d b i h .

T h i s writer was a Persian b y birth, as

his father's name shows, for Khurdad-bih

signifies in old

Good Gift of the Sun (as the G r e e k s w o u l d have said,

Persian

Heliodorus).

I b n K h u r d a d b i h was born about the c o m m e n c e m e n t of the third century of

H i j r a h (corresponding to the ninth of our era) a n d

flourished at the court of the A b b a s i d e K h a l i f A1 M u ' t a m i d , at Baghdad.

I b n K h u r d a d b i h held the office of C h i e f of the

in the province of

doubtless, of instructing his subordinates, c o m p i l e d the " book of Routes

Post

Jibal, the ancient M e d i a , a n d with a view-,

and Countries,''

Hand-

which has c o m e d o w n to us as o n e

of the earliest of M u s l i m g e o g r a p h i c a l treatises. The

translations

here given are m a d e from the

p u b l i s h e d by C . B a r b i e r de M e y n a r d in the foumal

Arabic

text

Asiatique

for

the year 1865. 2. T h e work of Biladhuri is of an entirely different order to the foregoing, and only in a very s e c o n d a r y sense geographical.

His

is the earliest historical a c c o u n t we possess of the C o n q u e s t s the Muslims.

of

H e was born at B a g h d a d , a n d received his e d u c a -

tion there during the days of the great K h a l i f , A1 M a m u n , a n d lived to e n j o y the favour of b o t h A1 M u t a w a k k i l a n d A1 Musta'in, his successors.

Biladhuri

wrote

his " Book

a b o u t the year 869, and died in 892.

of the

Conquests

"

H i s work is unfortunately

almost barren of geographical description, the n a m e s of the p l a c e s only b e i n g given, a n d n o t h i n g m o r e ; all detail is c o n f i n e d to the o r d e r i n g of the battles, a n d the biographical notices of those w h o t o o k part in the actions.

THE

ARAB

GEOGRAPHERS,

3

The translations are from the text called Kitab Futuh al Bui dan, published by M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1866. 3. Kudamah, the author of a work on the revenues of the Muslim Empire, written about the year 880, was of Christian origin, but, like most of his compeers, he had found it to his advantage to embrace Islam. He occupied the post of accountant in the Revenue Department at Baghdad, and we know nothing further of his biography except that he died in 948. A translation, with extracts from the Arabic text, is given by McOx. de Slane, under the title of Kitab al Kharaj, in the Journal Asiatique for 1862, and from this the details of revenues of Syria inserted in Chapter i. are taken. 4. Ya'kubi (also called Ibn Wadhih) was both historian and geographer. In his History, which was written as early as the year 874, he states that the Dome of the Rock was the work of the Khalif 'Abel al Malik, and gives the reason that prompted this prince to construct it. This is the earliest account we possess of the origin of this important building, and it refutes the theory advocated by the late Mr. Fergusson, that the Dome of the Rock was originally a Byzantine church. Ya'kubi's Geography was written many years later than his History, and about the year 891. It unfortunately has not reached us in a perfect state, but the section relating to Syria is tolerably complete. The work is curious, for it gives notes on the settlements made by the various Arab tribes who had migrated into Syria; otherwise the book is little more than a bare list of provinces, with their chief cities, and is only interesting for the information given of what were the great towns in those early days. Of Ya'kubi's biography but little is known. It would appear that he was born in Egypt, passed the earlier part of his life in Khurasan and the further east, and came back to spend his latter years on the banks of the Nile in the land of his birth. The text of the " Geography " was edited by A. W. T. Jnynboll, Leiden, 1861, and it is from this edition the translations are made. The text of the " History," under Ya'kubi's alternative name of Ibn Wadhih, has been edited by M. T. Houtsma, Leiden, 1883. 1—2

4

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5. Ibn al Fakih, the author of a very curious geographical miscellany, was a native of Hamadan, in Western Persia, and flourished during the Khalifate of A l Mu'tadhid at Baghdad. He wrote his work about the year 903, but unfortunately we only possess it in the form of a somewhat arbitrary abridgment made by a certain 'Ali Shaizari, of whom little more is known than his name. Ibn al Fakih gives a careful description of the Haram Area at Jerusalem, and is also the first Arab author to describe the great stones at Baalbek, of which he notes the measurements. T h e text of the epitome of his work forms the fifth volume of the Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, edited by M. J. de (!oeje, Leiden, 1885. 6. T h e next name on tire list is that of a Spanish Arab, Ibn ' A b d Rabbih, born at Cordova in 860, and died in the same city in 940. H e composed an extremely interesting historical work, extending to three volumes in the Cairo printed edition, giving details of the life, and manners and customs, of the pre-Islamic Arabs and others. T h e book is named " The Collar of Unique Pearls," and in it there is a chapter describing in great detail the appearance of the Haram Area at Jerusalem. Whether the author ever visited the Holy City is not k n o w n ; some parts of his description are identical with what is found in Ibn al Fakih's work, just named : but many details again vary from the account there given. T h e Arabic text has been printed at Bulak, Cairo, in A. H. 1293 (1876), under the title Al'Ikd al Farid. 7. Mas'udi is the author of one of the most entertaining historical works to be found in the whole range of Muslim literature. Flis ••Meadows of Gold" begin with the Creation, and recount all the Arabs knew of universal history down to the year 943, when the work was written. Mas'udi was born in Baghdad towards the end of the eighth century of our era. In his youth he travelled far and wide, visiting Multfm and parts of India, and passing through Persia a second time on his way to India and Ceylon, whence he returned to Baghdad via Madagascar. H e travelled through Palestine in 926, and spent some time at Antioch ; then went and settled in Egypt about the year 955, where he died a year later, at

THE

ARAB

GEOGRAPHERS.

5

Fustat, now called Old Cairo. Scattered broadcast among his many volumes of historic lore are a number of geographical notes, which are of considerable value, by reason of the early period at which the author wrote, his acuteness of observation, and his great learning. The Arabic text, with a French translation, of the " Meadows of Gold'' ( M u r u j adh Dhahab) has been published by C. Barbier de Meynard and P. de Courteille in nine vols., Paris, 1861-77 j a n d it is from this text the translations have been made. 8 and 9. The names of Istakhri (who wrote in 951), and Ibn Haukal (who wrote in 978), must be taken together, for the latter, who is the better-known author of the two, only brought out an amended and somewhat enlarged edition of the work of the former, and to which he gave his own name. We have in this double book the first systematic Arab geography. It is not a. mere Road Book, such as is Ibn Kurdadbih's work, nor a Revenue last, like Kudamah's—but a careful description of each province in turn of the Muslim Empire, with the chief cities and notable places. Istakhri, a native of Persepolis, as his name implies, states that he wrote his book to explain the maps which had been drawn up by a certain Balkhi, about the year 921, which maps are unfortunately not extant. Of Istakhri and Ibn Haukal all that we know is that they were both by trade merchants, and that they travelled far and wide in the pursuit of commerce. All biographical details of their lives are wanting. The texts of Istakhri and Ibn Haukal form the first and second volumes of M . J . de Goeje's Bibliotheca- Geographorttm Arabicorum, Leiden, 1870, 1873. The translation is made from whichever has proved to be the fuller narrative of the two, generally but not invariably that found in Ibn Haukal's work. 10. A1 Mukadclasi, "the Hierosolomite," was born at Jerusalem in 946. He had the advantage of an excellent education, and after having made the Pilgrimage to Makkah in his twentieth year, determined to devote himself to the study of geography. For the purpose of acquiring the necessary information he undertook a series of journeys which lasted over a score of years, and carried him in turn through all the countries of Islam. It was only in

6

PALESTINE

UNDER

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MOSLEMS.

985 that he set himself to write his book, which gives us a systematic account of all the places and regions he had visited. His description of Palestine, and especially of Jerusalem, his native city, is one of the best parts of the work. All he wrote is the fruit of his own observation, and his descriptions of the manners and customs of the various nations and the physical features of the various countries, bear the stamp of a shrewd and observant mind, fortified by a profound knowledge of both books and men. The translation of Mukaddasi I have already given in one of the publications of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, and it is made from the Arabic text published as the third volume of M. J . de Croeje's Bibliotheca cited above, to which text the pages given have reference. 1 1 . Rather more than half a century later than Mukaddasi, and about half a century before the first Crusade, the Persian traveller, Nasir-i-Khusrau, passed through Palestine on his way to Makkah. He was in Jerusalem in 1047, and his description of the Holy City and the Haram Area is most minute, and extremely valuable, as being the last we have of the holy places before the coming of the Crusaders. Nasir was born in the neighbourhood of Balkh, in 1003, and during the earlier years of his life travelled in India, where he lived for some time at the court of the celebrated Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. He subsequently undertook the pilgrimage to Makkah, and it was on this occasion that he passed through Palestine and sojourned at Jerusalem. The portion of his Diary having reference to the Holy Land I have translated (from the Persian original) in a recent number of the Palestine Pilgrims' Texts. The Persian text used is that collated from two MSS. in the British Museum {Ad. 18418, and Or. 1991). A French translation of Nasir-i-Khusrau, with the Persian text following, has been given by C. Schefer under the title of Sefer Nameh, Paris, 1881. The British Museum MSS., however, give several new and important readings, and enable us to clear up not a few of the obscurities found in the French translation. 12. Ibn Butlfm's description of Antioch, and of some other of the cities of Syria, is only known to us by the extracts preserved

THE ARAB in Y a k u t ' s great

GEOGRAPHERS.

Geographical

7

D i c t i o n a r y (see below, N o .

16),

a n d n o c o p y , apparently, of the original work is preserved a m o n g t h e Oriental m a n u s c r i p t collections of our E u r o p e a n libraries. Yakut

(juotes t h e text v e r b a t i m from

the E p i s t l e

(Risalah),

w h i c h I b n B u t l a n a d d r e s s e d to his friend, A b u ' l H u s a i n H i l l a l ibn al M u h s i n as Sabi, at B a g h d a d .

T h e Epistle was written " in the

year 440 a n d o d d , " says Y a k u t ; a date, however, m e n t i o n e d incidentally in t h e course of the narrative, shows that I b n B u t l a n must h a v e passed t h r o u g h A n t i o c h

during the year 443 (A.D.

1051).

I b n B u t l a n was a well-known Christian A r a b physician,

and a

native of B a g h d a d .

I n 439 (A.D. 1047) he set out f r o m that city

to visit his E g y p t i a n rival, the p h y s i c i a n I b n R u d h w a n , at C a i r o , and, g o i n g t h e n c e to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , through Antioch.

his return

journey

H e r e , age a n d the vanity of h u m a n

took

wisdom

c a u s e d him to a b a n d o n the world, a n d he b e c a m e a m o n k , d y i n g v e r y s h o r t l y afterwards at A n t i o c h , in the year 4 4 4 ( 1 0 5 2 A.D.). 13. T h e

g e o g r a p h e r Idrisi, is perhaps better k n o w n in the west

than any other A r a b writer on this subject.

A s long a g o as 1592

the text of his b o o k was printed in .Rome.

H i s G e o g r a p h y was

written in 1 1 5 4 at the request of the N o r m a n K i n g , R o g e r I I . , of Sicily, at w h o s e court he resided. S p a n i s h - A r a b parents.

Idrisi was born at C e u t a , but of

H e travelled m u c h , for he relates that he has

seen the E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h coasts, a n d has lived at L i s b o n .

His

description of P a l e s t i n e is excellent, a n d what he says of J e r u s a l e m is particularly interesting, for he wrote of t h e H o l y C i t y as it was during the o c c u p a t i o n of the C r u s a d e r s .

S o m e authorities state

that he visited A s i a M i n o r in the year 1 1 1 6 , but there is no g r o u n d for supposing that h e went south of this, or that h e h a d h i m s e l f visited the H o l y

Land.

H i s information, therefore, m u s t

have

b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a c c o u n t s that he o b t a i n e d at t h e court of R o g e r f r o m b o o k s , a n d from t h o s e w h o had returned f r o m their travels in that c o u n t r y . T h e A r a b i c text from w h i c h the present translations are m a d e is that p u b l i s h e d in the T r a n s a c t i o n s of the G e r m a n Verein,

Palastina-

vol. viii., 1885, by J. Gildemeister.

14. A n o t h e r M u s l i m w h o has left us a description of sites in P a l e s t i n e d u r i n g C r u s a d i n g times is ' A l l of H e r a t , w h o w r o t e in

8

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MOSLEMS.

i t 7 3 a small work on " The Places of Pilgrimage." Its most interesting section is that describing Hebron, wherein he gives an account of a visit to the Cave of Machpclah. 'Ali of Herat, though of Persian origin, wrote in Arabic. The text of his work has not been printed; but the Bodleian Library at Oxford possesses a good MS. of the work (MS. E. D. Clarkii 17, civ., Uri.\ from which the translations given below have been made. 'Ali died at Aleppo, where he had lived and written his book, in the year 1 2 1 5 . 15. In 1 1 8 5 , two years before Saladin re-conquered Jerusalem, the northern part of Palestine was visited by the traveller Ibn Jubair, a Spanish-Arab, born at Valencia in 1 1 4 5 . Ibn Jubair set out on his travels from Granada in 1 1 8 3 ; he came first to Egypt, went up the Nile, and then across the desert to Aidhab, on the Red Sea, whence he reached Makkah, and subsequently A1 Madinah. Thence he crossed Arabia to Kufah and Baghdad (of which he has left a most interesting account); and, travelling up the Tigris bank, crossed from Mosul to Aleppo, came down to Damascus, and thence on to Acre, where he took ship, and ultimately landed again on Spanish soil, at Carthagena, in 1 1 8 5 . Unfortunately for us he did not visit Jerusalem. He made two other voyages to the East subsequent to the one above mentioned, and on his return journey died at Alexandria, in Egypt. His description of the places he saw is lively and full of detail, although from the ornate style in which he wrote, a literal translation of his Diary would be tiresome reading. His description of Damascus is given in Chapter vi. of the present work, and is the fullest we possess of that city during the Middle Ages. The Arabic text of Ibn Jubair's Diary has been published by the late Professor William Wright, Leiden, 1852, and it is to the pages of this work that the references, in the condensed translation given, refer. 16. Eor the immense extent of his labours, and the great bulk of his writings, Yakut may certainly take first rank among Muslim geographers. By birth a Greek and a slave, he was brought up and received a scientific education at Baghdad, in the house of his master, who was a merchant. The details of his biography would

THE ARAB

GEOGRAPHERS.

0

take too long to recount—suffice it to say that, at various periods ot his wandering life, he sojourned at Aleppo, Mosul, Arbela, and Marv; and that he fled from this latter city (in those days renowned for its numerous libraries) in 1220, on the advent of the armies of Jenghis Khan. Travelling across Persia and through Mesopotamia, Yakut ultimately reached Syria, and settled down at Aleppo, in which city he died in 1229. His great Geographical Lexicon, which describes in alphabetical order every town and place of which the author could obtain any information, was completed in the year 1 2 2 5 , It is a storehouse of geographical information, the value of which it would be impossible to over-estimate ; for the book gives a detailed account, as seen in the thirteenth century, of all the countries and towns in Muslim lands, from Spain, in the West, to beyond Transoxiana and India, in the East. Some idea of the mass of information, both geographical and historical, therein contained, may perhaps be gathered from the statement that the Arabic text, as printed at the cost of the German Oriental Society, covers close on 4,000 pages, large 8 v o ; and that an English translation, with the needful notes, would occupy from double to treble that space. Yakut also wrote a useful dictionary of Geographical Homonyms, being a list of different places that have identical names. The great Geographical Dictionary referred to above, called Miijam al Bitldan —-"The Alphabetical (Dictionary) of Geography" - - i s edited by Professor Wiistenfeld in six volumes, Leipsic, 1866. The Dictionary of Homonyms, called Al Mushtarik, is edited by the same Orientalist, and was published at Gottingen in 1846. 17. Three-quarters of a century after Yakut had finished his great Dictionary, his work was epitomized by a certain Safi ad Din. He added some few articles of his own, and cut down all the descriptions of places found in Yakut, giving to each name but a single line of text. The work is entitled Marcisid al Ittila —"The Watch-Tower of Informations." Of the epitomist, Safi ad Din, nothing is known, and even his name is somewhat a matter of doubt; but the year 1300 must have been approximately the date of his work, for he mentions as a recent occurrence the taking of Acre in 1 2 9 1 . The text of the Marasid has been

10

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MOSLEMS.

edited by T. G. J. Juynboll (Leiden, 1859); but since this edition has been brought out, Professor Wiistenfeld has collated a MS. belonging to L o r d Lindsay, which gives some additions to t h e printed text. T h e s e have been a d d e d by Professor Wiistenfeld to vol. v. of his edition of Yakut at pp. 11-32. 18. Dimashki, born in 1256 at D a m a s c u s (as his n a m e implies), wrote, a b o u t t h e year 1300, a j e j u n e description of his native land, which, however, affords, on certain points, m a n y curious details of t h e state, of the country after the departure of t h e Crusaders. He was a contemporary of Sultan Bibars, a n d his work is of value in connection with the C r u s a d i n g Chronicles. H e died at Safed in i327T h e text of Dimashki has been printed in Petersburg, in 1866, by M. A. F. Mehren, a n d it is from this edition that the translations have been made. 19. Abu-1 Fida, some time Prince of H a m a h , a n d a collateral d e s c e n d a n t of t h e great Saladin, is a geographer of far higher merit t h a n Dimashki. H i s chapter on Syria a n d Palestine is, for the most part, not copied from books ; for since he is describing his native country, he writes from personal observation. The work was completed in 1321. Abu-1 F i d a himself was born at D a m a s c u s in 1273. H e lived u n d e r t h e M a m l u k Sultans of E g y p t — K a l a u n , Lajun, a n d Malik an N a s i r — a n d was n a m e d Governor of H a m a h in 1310, in which city he died in 1331. T h e Arabic text of Abu-1 Fida's Geography was published bv R e i n a u d a n d D e Slane (Paris, 1840), a n d this is the edition quoted. 20. I b n Batutah, t h e Berber, may well take rank with t h e Venetian, Marco Polo,* for t h e marvellous extent of his journeyings. H e was born at Tangiers a b o u t t h e year 1300, a n d at t h e age of twenty-five set out on his travels. Of these he has left us a full description, written in the year 1355. H i s route in t h e barest outline is all that can here be indicated. Starting from Morocco, he visited in succession T u n i s , Tripoli, a n d Egypt. Going u p through Palestine a n d Syria, h e a c c o m p a n i e d the H a j j * M a r c o P o l o returned to V e n i c e in c a p t i v i t y at G e n o a a b o u t the y e a r 1 3 0 0 .

1295,

arul

wrote his t r a v e l s w h e n

in

THE

ARAB

GEOGRAPHERS.

to Madinah and Makkah, went thence on through Mesopotamia to Persia, and, returning, spent some months at Baghdad, and subsequently at Mosul. From Mosul he went again to Makkah, and from there travelled through Yemen, and so hack to Egypt. From Egypt he took ship for Asia Minor, and afterwards visited Constantinople, the Crimea, Astrakhan, Kharizim, Tartar), Transoxiana, Afghanistan, and finally reached India, where hespent a considerable time at Delhi. From India he sailed to the Maldive Islands and Ceylon, taking them on his way to China ; and on the return journey visited Sumatra. After long voyaging in the Indian Ocean, he again found himself at Makkah, and from that holy city took his way home to Fez, via the Sudan and Timbuctoo. H e subsequently visited Spain ; and died at Fez, at an advanced age, in the year 1377. Ibn Batûtah's account of what he saw in Palestine is often curious, and his description of Jerusalem gives a few details not found elsewhere ; but his style is verbose and bombastic, and he too often copies from his predecessor, Ibn Jubair, to be of much value as an original authority. Ibn Batûtah's text, with a French translation, has been published by C. Defrémery and B. R. Sanguinetti, at the cost of the Société Asiatique, in four volumes, Paris, 1879 ; and this is the edition quoted in the present work. 21. Muthîr al Ghirâm, or, " T h e Exciter of Desire " (for Visitation of the Holy City and Syria), is by a native of Jerusalem called Jamâl ad Din Ahmad, who wrote a topographical description of the Holy City in the year 1351. Excellent MSS. of this work, which has never yet been printed, are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, and from these the translations given have been made. For a full description of the MSS., and an account of Jamâl ad Din's life, I may refer to my paper on Suyûti (who has copied Jamâl ad Din), in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. x i x , new series, p. 250. 22. T h e second Muthîr is a work with the same name as the above, but written by a certain Abu-1 Fidâ Ishak, of Hebron, who died in 1430. H e describes the Sanctuary of that city, and the Tombs of the Patriarchs. Details of the MSS. from which my

12

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

translation has been made (for the Arabic text of the work has never been printed) will be found in the paper cited above. 23. Shams ad Din Suyuti (not to be confounded with his better-known namesake, who bore the title of Jamal ad Din) visited Jerusalem in 1470, and shortly after wrote a description of the Holy City, entitled lthaf al Akliissa, " A Gift for Intimates" (concerning the merits of the Aksa Mosque). In this work he largely plagiarizes from the two Mutlurs mentioned above (Nos. 21 and 22), as I have shown in the paper in the J . R . A. S. already mentioned. Quotations from Suyuti give references to the pages of the J. R . A. S., vol. xix., new series. 24. Mujir ad Din, the last name on the list, though better known than the three preceding topographers, has done little more than reproduce verbatim the descriptions given by the authors of the two Muihirs and Suyuti. The work of Mujir ad Din, who wrote his Uns al Jalil in 1496, has been translated into French by H. Sauvaire (Histoire de Jerusalem et d* Hebron, Paris, 1876) : the Arabic text also has been printed at Bulak (Cairo), A.H. 1 2 8 3 (1866), and it is to this text that the pages given in the present translations refer. Mujir ad Din, besides what he copies verbatim from his predecessors, gives a full account of the various mosques, colleges, shrines, tombs, and holy places in Jerusalem, and also a description of the quarters and streets of the Holy City as these existed at the close of the fifteenth century. In the present work the purely topographical details of the City given by Mujir ad Din have not been inserted, the translations made from his work being confined to such additional information on the older buildings of the Hararn Area and neighbouring sites as seemed of importance in connection with the statements of previous writers.

Besides the above authorities I have sought to verify dates of historical events by references to the pages of the great Chronicles of Tabari, and of Ibn al Athir. The text of the former Chronicle is now in course of publication at Leiden, under the editorship of

THE ARAB

GEOGRAPHERS.

M. J. de Goeje ; and it is to the various volumes of this edition that the quotations here given refer.

Ibn al Athir's Chronicle

has been edited in Arabic in fourteen volumes, by C. J. Tornberg, I.eiden, 1867-76. T h e various publications of the Palestine Exploration

Fund

(P.E.F.) Survey of Western Palestine, as embodied in the Memoirs (in three volumes), the volume on Jerusalem, Papers, also the numbers of the Quarterly

and the

Special

Statement, will often

be found quoted in the following pages ; as also the publications of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (P.P.T.), which describe the Holy Land

in the days of the Crusaders and

the earl)

Christian Pilgrims. T h e following list gives the initials under which reference is made to the works of the Arab geographers and travellers in the editions named in the foregoing pages : A.I).

I. (I. Kh.) 2. (Bil.) 3- (Kud.)

Ibn Khurdadbih wrote Biladhuri Kudamah

„ ,, .. . ( " History " ,, „ ( Geography

4- (Yb.)

Yakflbij.. „

5- (I.F.)

14. (A.H.) 15- (I-J-) 16. (Yak.)

Ibn al Fakih Ibn 'Abd Rabbih Mas'udi Istakhri Ibn Haukal . Mukaddasi Nasir-i-Khusrau Ibn Butlan (in Yakut) Idrisi . 'Ali of H e r a t . Ibn Jubair Yakut

i7- (Mar.) 18. (Dim.) 19. (A.F.) 20. (T.B.) 21. (Muth. I.) 22. (Muth. II.) 23. (S.) 24. (M.a.D.)

Dimashki Abu-l-Fida . Ibn Batiitah . T h e author of the first Muthir The author of the second JMuttiir Shams ad Din Suyiiti MujiradDin.

6. (I.R.) 7- (Mas.) 8. (Is,) 9- (I.H.) 10. (Muk.) 11. (N. Kh.)

12. !3- (Id.)

The author of the Marasid .

circa 864 869 . circa 880 874 891 903

circa 913 943

951

978 985

1047 1051 "54 1173

1185 1225 1300 . circa 1300 1321 1 355 1351

1430 1470 1496

A.H.

250 255

266 260 278 290 300 33 2 340 367 375 438 443 548

569 581

623 700 700 721 756 752 833 875

901

CHAPTER SYRIA

AND

I. PALESTINE.

T h e name " A s h S h a m . " — P h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s . — C l i m a t e . — P r o d u c t s . — M a n n e r s and customs. — F e s t i v a l s . — T h e W a t c h - s t a t i o n s of the coast. Territorial Divisions: T h e "_|unds," or Military D i s t r i c t s . — J u n d F i l a s t i n . — T h e T i h , or Desert of the W a n d e r i n g s . — T h e J i f a r . — J u n d al U r d u n n . — T h e G h a u r . — J u n d D i m a s h k . — T h e G h u t a h of D a m a s c u s , t h e ' H a u r a n , and l i a t h a n i y y a h , Jaulan, Jaidiir, and H u l a h . — T h e B a l k a . — A s h Sharah.—Al j i b a l . — j u n d Hims.—Jund Kinnasrin.—Jund ' A w a s i m . — T h e T h u g h i i r . — T h e N i n e " K i n g d o m s " of Syria. Tribute ami 1 axes.— JJ\'ights and Measures.

SYRIA—a name first given by the Greeks to the country lying immediately round Sur, or Tyre, and which afterwards came to be applied by them to the whole province—was never adopted by the Arabs as a general term for the lands on the eastern border of the Mediterranean. The whole of the great and fertile tract of mountain-land and plain, generally known to us as Syria and Palestine, extending from the Cilician Passes on the north, to the desert of Egypt on the south, and bounded on the west and east by the sea and the desert of Arabia respectively, the Arabs called Ash Sham, that being an ancient Arabic word for " l e f t , " (or " n o r t h " ) when the speaker faced the rising sun. Another, and more fanciful, etymology of this name is also given by Mukaddasi and others :— " It has been said that Syria is called ' Sham,' " says Mukaddasi, "because it lies on the left of the Ka'abah, and also because those who journey thither (from the Hijjaz) bear to the left or north ; or else it may be because there are in Syria so many Beauty-spots, such as we call Shamal—red. white and black—(which are the fields and gardens held to resemble the moles on a beauty's face)." (Muk., 152.)

i

• -Sb.v . i^t .uia ¿ ¿ A U i. Û Ï S ?

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE..

1.5

T h e same author continues : " Syria

is v e r y pleasantly

situated.

m a y b e d i v i d e d into f o u r zones. b o r d e r of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n

Sea.

The

country,

physically,

T h e first zone is that on the I t is the p l a i n - c o u n t r y ,

the

s a n d y tracts f o l l o w i n g o n e a n o t h e r , and alternating with the cultivated land.

Of t o w n s situated herein are A r R a m l a h , a n d also

all the cities of the sea-coast.

T h e s e c o n d zone is the mountain-

c o u n t r y , well w o o d e d , a n d p o s s e s s i n g m a n y springs, with f r e q u e n t villages, a n d c u l t i v a t e d fields.

Of the cities that are situated in

this part a r e : B a i t J i b r i l , J e r u s a l e m , N a b u l u s , A l - L a j j i i n , K a b u l , K a d a s , the t o w n s of the B i k a ' a n d A n t i o c h .

T h e third zone is

that of the valleys of the ( J o r d a n ) G h a u r , wherein are f o u n d m a n y villages a n d streams, also palm-trees, well c u l t i v a t e d indigo plantations.

Among

the towns

T a b u k , Sughar, Jericho, Baisan, Tiberias, Baniyas. zone is that b o r d e r i n g on the D e s e r t .

fields,

in this part are

and

Wailah,

T h e fourth

T h e m o u n t a i n s h e r e are

high a n d b l e a k , a n d the climate r e s e m b l e s that of the W a s t e ; but it has m a n y villages, with springs of water a n d forest trees.

Of

the t o w n s therein are M a a b , ' A m m a n , A d h r a ' a h , D a m a s c u s , H i m s , Tadmur, and Aleppo."

(Muk., 186.)

" T h e c l i m a t e of S y r i a is t e m p e r a t e , e x c e p t in that portion w h i c h lies in the centre region of the p r o v i n c e , b e t w e e n A s h

Sharah

( M o u n t Scir) a n d A 1 H u l f d r (the waters of M e r o m ) ; a n d this is the hot c o u n t r y w h e r e grow the indigo-tree, the b a n a n a , a n d the palm.

O n e d a y w h e n I ( M u k a d d a s i ) was staying in J e r i c h o , the

p h y s i c i a n G h a s s a n said to m e , ' S e e s t t h o u this v a l l e y ?' (that is, A n d he continued,

'It

e x t e n d s f r o m h e n c e as f a r as the H i j j a z , a n d t h e n c e t h r o u g h

the J o r d a n G h a u r ) .

' Y e s , ' I answered.

A1

Y a m a m a h to ' O m a n a n d H a j a r ; t h e n c e p a s s i n g u p b y B a s r a h a n d B a g h d a d t o w a r d s the left (west) of M o s u l , it r e a c h e s to A r R a k k a h , a n d it is a l w a y s a W a d y of heat a n d of palm-trees.' " " The

coldest

place

in

S y r i a is B a ' a l b a k k

and

the

country

round, for a m o n g the s a y i n g s of the p e o p l e it is related how, w h e n men

asked

of

the

cold, ' W h e r e

shall we

f i n d t h e e ?'

it

was

a n s w e r e d , ' I n the B a l k a ;' a n d w h e n they f u r t h e r said, ' B u t if w e m e e t t h e e not there ?' t h e n t h e c o l d a d d e d , ' V e r i l y in B a ' a l b a k k is m y h o m e . ' "

i6

PALESTINE " N o w Syria

is a l a n d

UNDER of

THE

MOSLEMS.

blessing, a c o u n t r y

a b o u n d i n g in fruits, a n d p e o p l e d by h o l y m e n . v i n c e , w h i c h is near the d o m i n i o n s

of

of

cheapness,

T h e u p p e r pro-

the G r e e k s ,

streams a n d crops, a n d the c l i m a t e of it is cold.

is rich in

A n d the lower

p r o v i n c e is e v e n m o r e excellent, a n d pleasanter, b y r e a s o n of the l u s c i o u s n e s s of its fruits a n d in the great n u m b e r of its palm-trees. B u t in the w h o l e c o u n t r y of S y r i a there is n o river c a r r y i n g boats, e x c e p t only for the f e r r y . "

(Muk., 179.)

" U n e q u a l l e d is this l a n d of S y r i a f o r its d r i e d figs, its c o m m o n olive-oil,

its white bread, a n d the R a m l a h

veils ;

also f o r

the

q u i n c e s , the pine-nuts c a l l e d ' K u r a i s h - b i t e , ' the ' A i n u n i a n d

Duri

raisins, the T h e r i a c k - a n t i d o t e , the h e r b of mint, a n d the rosaries of Jerusalem.

And

further,

know

that

within

the

province

of

Palestine m a y be f o u n d g a t h e r e d together six-ancl-thirty p r o d u c t s that are not f o u n d thus u n i t e d in a n y other land.

Of these the

first seven are f o u n d in P a l e s t i n e a l o n e ; the following seven are very rare in other countries ; a n d the r e m a i n i n g two-and-twenty, though only f o u n d thus g a t h e r e d together in this p r o v i n c e , are, for the most part, f o u n d one a n d another, singly, in other lands. first

N o w the

s e v e n are the pine-nuts, called ' K u r a i s h - b i t e , ' the q u i n c e or

C y d o n i a n - a p p l e , the ' A i n u n i a n d the D u r i raisins, the K a f u r i p l u m , the fig c a l l e d A s

S a b a ' i , a n d the fig of D a m a s c u s .

The

next

s e v e n are the C o l o c a s i a or water lily, the s y c a m o r e , the c a r o b or St. J o h n ' s b r e a d (locust-tree), the lotus-fruit or j u j u b e , the a r t i c h o k e , the sugar-cane, a n d the S y r i a n apple.

A n d the r e m a i n i n g twenty-

two are the fresh dates a n d olives, the s h a d d o c k , the i n d i g o a n d j u n i p e r , the orange, the m a n d r a k e , the N a b k fruit, the nut, the a l m o n d , the asparagus, the b a n a n a , the s u m a c h , the c a b b a g e , the truffle, the lupin, a n d the early p r u n e , c a l l e d A t T a r i ; also snow, buffalo-milk, the h o n e y - c o m b , the ' A s i m i grape, a n d the rI a m r i — o r date-fig.

F u r t h e r , there is the preserve c a l l e d I v u b b a i t ; y o u f i n d ,

in truth, the like of flavour.

it in

n a m e elsewhere,

but

of

a different

T h e lettuce also, w h i c h e v e r y w h e r e else, e x c e p t only at

A h w a z (in P e r s i a ) , is c o u n t e d as a c o m m o n v e g e t a b l e , is h e r e in Palestine

a c h o i c e dish.

However,

at

superior to the m o r e c o m m o n v e g e t a b l e s . "

Basrah,

too, it

(Muk.,

is

held

181.)

S o m e f e w of these items require e x p l a n a t i o n : — T h e

Theriack,

SYRIA called

in

Arabic

AND

Taryak,

@tlf>iccz6v $dpfitaxov,

"a

PALESTINE.

borrows

drug

its

against

name

venomous

17 from

the

bites."

Greek It

was

generally c o m p o u n d e d with treacle a n d other i n g r e d i e n t s of most varied description. " K u r a i s h - b i t e , " a c c o r d i n g to our dictionaries, is the fruit of the Pinus

picea

a n d also of the smaller S n o b u r - p i n e ,

Strobilipini.

T h e S u g a r - c a n e was c u l t i v a t e d d u r i n g the M i d d l e A g e s in m a n y parts of S y r i a a n d P a l e s t i n e , e s p e c i a l l y at T r i p o l i on the sea-coast (see P a r t I I . , Tardbulus),

a n d in the hot J o r d a n G h a u r .

Every-

w h e r e in this district the traveller at the p r e s e n t d a y m e e t s with r u i n e d mills f o r c r u s h i n g the c a n e , n a m e d

Tawahln

as

Sukkar.

T h e cultivation of the c a n e w a s i n t r o d u c e d into western countries f r o m K u z i s t a n in Persia, a n d , t h r o u g h o u t the M i d d l e A g e s , S h u s t e r (the a n c i e n t S u s a ) w a s r e n o w n e d f o r this m a n u f a c t u r e on a large scale.

T h e art of sugar-refining was v e r y e x t e n s i v e l y p r a c t i s e d

by

the A r a b s , a n d u n d e r their d o m i n i o n the g r o w t h of the c a n e and the m a n u f a c t u r e of sugar s p r e a d far a n d w i d e , f r o m I n d i a eastward to M o r o c c o , a n d was i n t r o d u c e d into E u r o p e through the M u s l i m c o n q u e s t s in S p a i n a n d Sicily. I n r e g a r d to the O r a n g e , the r e s e a r c h e s of G a l l e s i o h a v e p r o v e d that I n d i a w a s t h e c o u n t r y f r o m which this fruit s p r e a d W e s t e r n A s i a , a n d eventually to E u r o p e .

first

to

F r o m r e m o t e antiquity

the o r a n g e has b e e n cultivated in H i n d u s t a n , a n d b e f o r e the close of the ninth c e n t u r y the bitter variety s e e m s to h a v e b e e n

well

k n o w n to t h e A r a b s , w h o h a d i n t r o d u c e d it into the countries of South-Western A s i a .

M a s ' u d i , w h o w r o t e in the y e a r 9 4 3 ( 3 3 2 ) ,

h a s the f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t of the acclimatization of o r a n g e

and

citron trees : " The

o r a n g e - t r e e ( S h a j a r an

the r o u n d citron (al

Utrnj

Naranf),

al mudawwar),

a n d the tree b e a r i n g have been brought from

I n d i a since t h e y e a r 3 0 0 A.H. ( 9 1 2 A.D.), a n d were first p l a n t e d in 'Oman.

T h e n c e they were c a r r i e d b y c a r a v a n s f r o m A l B a s r a h into

'Irak and Syria.

T h e trees h a v e n o w b e c o m e v e r y n u m e r o u s in

the h o u s e s of the p e o p l e of T a r s u s a n d o t h e r of the S y r i a n f r o n t i e r towns ;

also in A n t i o c h a n d in all the S y r i a n coast towns, with

those of P a l e s t i n e a n d E g y p t , w h e r e , but a short t i m e a g o , they were u n k n o w n .

T h e fruit, h o w e v e r , has lost its original p e r f u m e 2

PALESTINE

i8

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

a n d flavour, as also the fine colour it s h o w s in India, a n d this is b e c a u s e of the c h a n g e from the peculiar soil a n d climate water of its native l a n d . "

T h e M a n d r a k e , called in A r a b i c Luffah, Mandragorce

and

(Mas., ii. 438.)

of botanists.

Its root

is the Fritctus

is called

Yabruh

atropce by

the

A r a b s , a n d is poisonous, while its fruit is edible. I n his chapter on E g y p t , M u k a d d a s i describes the N a b k as " a fruit of the size of the medlar (Zu'ritr). kernels, and is sweet. To

the

is the

fruit

they a d d

same as

It contains n u m e r o u s

It is the fruit of the Sidr (the (the sweet

tree-lotus).

paste called) N i d a h ,

S a m a n u , only m o r e

finely

which

prepared, a n d

then

spread it out on reed-matting until it dries a n d sticks t o g e t h e r " ( M u k . , 204).

" S a m a n u " is a sweet paste that is well k n o w n at

the present day all over Persia, a n d " N i d a h " is the sweetmeat for which the town of M e n s h i y y e h in E g y p t is famous. T h e preserve called " K u b b a i t , " also called Kubbat is a sweetmeat m a d e with carol>sugar,

vltiA

almonds, a n d

Kubbad, pistachio

nuts. M u k a d d a s i , c o n t i n u i n g his a c c o u n t , gives the following details of the c o m m e r c e of Syria in the tenth century : " T h e trade of Syria is considerable. " F r o m Palestine c o m e

olives, dried

figs,

raisins, the

carob-

fruit, stuffs of m i x e d silk a n d cotton, soap a n d kerchiefs. " From Jerusalem c o m e cheeses, c o t t o n , the c e l e b r a t e d raisins of

the

species

known

as

Ainuni

and

Duri, excellent

apples,

b a n a n a s — w h i c h same is a fruit in the form of a c u c u m b e r , but when the skin is peeled off, the interior is not unlike the watermelon, only liner flavoured a n d m o r e l u s c i o u s — a l s o pine nuts of the k i n d called ' Kuraish-bite,' a n d their equal is not f o u n d elsewhere ; further, mirrors, lamp-jars, a n d needles. " F r o m Jericho is b r o u g h t excellent indigo. " F r o m Sughar a n d Baisan c o m e both indigo a n d dates, also the treacle called

Dibs.

" F r o m ' A m m a n - — g r a i n , lambs, a n d h o n e y . " F r o m T i b e r i a s — c a r p e t i-tuffs, paper, a n d cloth. " From fial'isiyyah,

Kadas—clothes also ropes.

of

the

stuffs called

Munayyir

and

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

¡9

" F r o m T y r e c o m e sugar, glass b e a d s a n d glass vessels

both

cut and blown. " F r o m M a a b — a l m o n d kernels. " F r o m Baisan —rice. " F r o m D a m a s c u s c o m e all these : olive-oil fresh-pressed, t h e BaVisiyyah

cloth, b r o c a d e , oil of violets of an inferior

quality,

brass vessels, paper, nuts, dried iigs, a n d raisins. " F r o m A l e p p o , cotton, clothes, dried figs, dried herbs, a n d the red-chalk c a l l e d Al

Maghrah.

" B a ' a l b a k k p r o d u c e s the sweetmeat of dried figs c a l l e d Malban."'' ( M u k . , 180.) I n the a b o v e lists s o m e items d e m a n d explanation : — T h e treacle is b o i l e d - d o w n fruit-syrup.

Dibs

It is often m a d e f r o m dates

or raisins, s t e e p e d in their o w n weight of water, b o i l e d up

and

then a l l o w e d to simmer ; the mass b e i n g finally set in t h e sun to dry, w h e n a paste-like residue is left behind. The Charta

Paper

here

mentioned

is the

damascena., or Bombycina

cotto«-paper,*

known

as

during the M iddle A g e s , w h i c h

t h e A r a b s h a d learnt the art of m a k i n g after their capture of S a m a r k a n d in A.D. 704. Bombyiinum

A l t h o u g h as early as the tenth century

was u s e d at R o m e , this cotton-paper d i d not

come

into general use t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e m u c h before the m i d d l e the

thirteenth century,

a n d linen-paper

was

first

made

of

in the

f o u r t e e n t h century. T h e cloth called Munayyir

was of d o u b l e woof, a n d

celebrated

for its durability, b e i n g chiefly m a n u f a c t u r e d at Shirilz a n d ( R h a g e s ) , in Persia, where it was k n o w n b y the n a m e of O f the BaVisiyyah

Ray

Daibud.

n o details are given in the dictionaries.

T h e r e d - c h a l k c a l l e d Maghrah

is t h e m i n e r a l Rubrica

Sirwpica,

m u c h u s e d b y the druggists of the M i d d l e A g e s in the c o n c o c t i o n of specifics.

It was especially e m p l o y e d in the clyster, a n d as a

r e m e d y in cases of liver disease ; for which it is r e c o m m e n d e d b y Dioscorides. * T h a t Charta statement,

Bombycina

which, h o w e v e r ,

was made from cotton is the generally received M. C.

At.

Briquet

A c c o r d i n g to this last authority, Bombycina remains of old ropes. Colon,

Geneve, 1SS4.

has recently

controverted.

was made from hemp

See his work La Lcgcnac

Palcographique

and

the

du Papier

de

2— 2

20

PALESTINE The

Mallmri

UNDER

sweetmeat

is

THE

MOSLEMS.

noticed

by

the

Jewish

doctor

Maimonides, who calls it " M a l b e n " (in H e b r e w ) , a n d describes it as m a d e of figs pressed into the form of small bricks. Treating of the mineral products of .Syria, M u k a d d a s i continues : " There

are iron-mines

in

the

mountains

above

Bairut, a n d

near A l e p p o is f o u n d the red-chalk called Maghrah.

It is here of

excellent quality ; at ' A m m a n , where it is also found, it is less good. T h r o u g h o u t Syria there are met with m a n y mountains of a reddish colour, the rocks of which are known as of the Samakah sandstone), which same is easily quarried.

(or red-

A l s o other mountains

of a whitish colour, f o r m e d of what is called Hawwarah

(or white-

chalk) ; this is soft, a n d they use it to whitewash the ceilings, and for the cementing of the terrace-roofs of the houses.

I n Pales-

tine there are quarries of good white building-stone ; a n d near B a i t Jabril, in many places, marble is found.

F r o m the G h a u r

districts they bring sulphur, a n d other such-like minerals ; from the D e a d S e a they get salt in powder. is that from

Jerusalem,

where

T h e Muri

best

and

honey

the bees suck the t h y m e ;

likewise from the J a b a l 'Amilah. called Mitri

The

and

T h e finest quality of the sauce

is that which is m a d e at Jericho/''

(Muk., 184.)

sauce, here mentioned, is a pickle m a d e from certain

fish or meat set in salt water.

It has medicinal properties, duly

noted bv Galen, Dioscorides, a n d others, a n d was known to the R o m a n s under the name

of G a r u m or Muria.

O n e A1

Hafiz

calls it " t h e pearl of condiments." " T h e water in Syria," savs M u k a d d a s i , " i s for the most part excellent.

T h a t found at B a n i y a s , however, acts aperientlv ; a n d

the water of T y r e causes constipation.

A t Baisim the water is

heavy and b a d : while verily we take refuge in A l l a h from that of Sughar !

T h e water of Bait ar R a m is execrable ; but nowhere

d o you find lighter (better) water than at Jericho.

T h e water of

A r R a m l a h is easy of digestion ; but that of N a b u l u s is hard. Damascus

and

Jerusalem

the

water

climate of these towns is less arid."

is

not

In

so hard, for the

(Muk., 1 8 4 . )

Of the general manners and customs of Syria M u k a d d a s i has the following : " I n the Syrian mosques it is the wont to keep the lamps always

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

21

lighted, and they are suspended by chains even as at Makkah. In the chief town of every province, the public treasure is kept in the great mosque, it being placed in a chamber supported upon pillars. And in their mosques, except only in the one at Jericho, it is of usage to have doors shutting off the Main-building from the Court, which latter is flagged with stone. T h e court of the great mosque at Tiberias alone in all this province is paved with pebbles. " T h e minarets are built square, and they set a pitched roof * (called Jamalan, meaning ' camel-backed') over the Main-building of the mosques ; also, at all the mosque gates, and in the marketplaces, are cells for the ablution, " Of Christian feasts that are observed also by the Muslims of Syria, for the division of the seasons of the year, are the following : Easter, at the new year (old style, the vernal equinox); Whitsuntide, at the time of heat ; Christmas, at the time of cold ; the l e a s t of St. Barbara (4th of Kanun I., December), in the rainy season—and the people have a proverb which says : ' When St. Barbara's feast comes round, then the mason may take to his flute,' meaning that he may then sit quiet at home ; the Feast of the Kalends (1st of K a n u n I I . , January)—and, again, one of their proverbs is : ' When the Kalends come, keep warm and stay at home ' ; the Feast of the Cross (13th or 14th of Ilul, September), at the time of grapegathering; and the feast of L y d d a (or the Feast of St. George, 23rd of Nisan, April), at the time of sowing the seed. " T h e months in use in Syria are the solar months of the Greeks ; namely, Tishrin, first and second (October and November) ; Kanun, first and second (December and January) ; Shibat (February) ; Adhar (March) ; Nisan (April) ; Ayyar (May) ; Hazairan (June) ; Tammuz (July) ; A b (August) ; and Ilul (September)." (Muk., 182.) Mukaddasi continues : " It is seldom recorded that any jurisprudist of Syria propounds new doctrines, or that any Muslim here is the writer of aught ; except only at Tiberias, where the scribes have ever been in repute. A n d verily the scribes here in Syria, even as is the case in Egypt, are all Christians, for the Muslims * See Chapter I I I . , Mukaddasi's description of the Aksa Mosque.

PALESTINE

22

abandon

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

to t h e m entirely this business, and, unlike the m e n

of

other nations, do not h o l d letters a profitable s u b j e c t of study. " I n t h i s p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a , also, f o r t h e m o s t part, t h e of coin, the dyers,

b a n k e r s , a n d tanners, are J e w s ,

assayers

while

it is

most usual for the physicians a n d the scribes to b e Christians. " T h e Syrians are a well-dressed folk. w e a r t h e l o n g c l o a k c a l l e d Jiida,

Both learned and simple

a n d they d o not put on lighter

g a r m e n t s in s u m m e r - t i m e , e x c e p t it b e in t h e m a t t e r o f t h e

single-

soled shoe. " T h e Syrians wear the h e a v y rain-cloaks, of wool, called

Mimtar,

t h r o w n open ; a n d their ' T a i l a s a n s ' h a v e not the h o l l o w e d In A r Ramlah

the chief shopkeepers

are w o n t to ride

form.

Egyptian

a s s e s , w i t h f i n e s a d d l e s , a n d it is o n l y A m i r s a n d c h i e f s w h o horses.

keep

T h e villagers and the scribes wear the woollen vest called

Durraah.

The

c l o t h i n g of the peasantry in the villages r o u n d

J e r u s a l e m a n d N a b u l u s c o n s i s t s o f a s i n g l e shirt, c a l l e d t h e a n d t h e y wear n o drawers b e n e a t h it." T h e Tailasan

( M u k . , 182,

here a l l u d e d to was the distinctive head-dress of

t h e K a d i s , or j u d g e s , a n d the m e n of learning. v e i l ( a l s o c a l l e d Tarhah), t o fall b a c k

over

I t c o n s i s t e d of

a

worn a b o v e the ordinary turban, allowed

the shoulders.

m u s l i n o r l i n e n stuff. mitkawwar,

Kisa,

183.)

It was usually m a d e

T h e word I have rendered by

of

white

"hollowed,"

m a v a l s o s i g n i f y " s t a r c h e d , " b u t it is g e n e r a l l y t a k e n

t o d e n o t e t h e " n i c k , ' ' o r c a v i t y , l e f t at t h e t o p o f t h e T h e Durraah

( a l s o c a l l e d Alidra'ah)

head-dress.

was a short vest

generally-

w o r n o p e n in f r o n t , b u t h a v i n g b u t t o n s t o f a s t e n it if d e s i r e d .

It

w a s m a d e o f c o l o u r e d stuffs, a n d in c l o t h o r o t h e r w o o l l e n f a b r i c . T h e Kisa

is t h e l o n g shirt

or s m o c k , r e a c h i n g f r o m t h e

a l m o s t to t h e f e e t ; it w a s o f e i t h e r w h i t e o r c o l o u r e d dress of the

F e l l a h i n o f P a l e s t i n e is, d o w n

exactly what M u k a d d a s i here describes. writers, t h o s e w h o

have

neck

stuff.

The

to t h e p r e s e n t

time,

I n reading the mediaeval

travelled in m o d e r n

Syria will b e

con-

stantly struck b y the fact that most of the c u s t o m s n o t i c e d b y these a u t h o r s a r e still k e p t u p at the p r e s e n t d a y .

T h e following descrip-

t i o n o f t h e b r e a d - o v e n s , in p a r t i c u l a r , a p p l i e s p r e c i s e l y t o w h a t m a y n o w b e s e e n in e v e r y D r u z e v i l l a g e o f M o u n t C a r m e l . "The

p e o p l e of Syria," writes

Mukaddasi,

"have

ovens,

and

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

the villagers especially m a k e use of the k i n d called Tabun. are

small,

ground. dried

and

used

for

baking

bread,

and

are

These

dug

in

the

T h e y line t h e m with p e b b l e s , a n d k i n d l i n g the fire of

d u n g within a n d a b o v e , they afterwards r e m o v e the

hot

ashes a n d p l a c e the loaves of b r e a d to b a k e u p o n these p e b b l e s , w h e n they h a v e b e c o m e thus red-hot.

T h e r e are also b a k e r s in

Syria of the lentil-bread, a n d of the dish called Baisar c o o k e d in h o n e y a n d milk). olive-oil b e a n s

that h a v e

already sprouted, a n d t h e n fry them,

w h i c h is a dish sold for eating with olives. lupin, a n d use it m u c h for food.

A l s o they salt the

F r o m the carob-bean t h e y m a k e

a species of sweetmeat, w h i c h is called Kubbait; the sugar-cane is k n o w n for distinction as Natif meat).

During

the winter-time

c a k e s called Zitllabiyyah;

(of b e a n s

In this province, too, they b o i l in

that m a d e from (that is, sweet

they b a k e the sugared

butter-

these are of pastry, b u t in Syria t h e y

are not: m a d e , as elsewhere, with cross-bars on t h e t o p a n d confection of fruit.

I n the greater n u m b e r of the a b o v e c u s t o m s the

Syrians r e s e m b l e t h e E g y p t i a n s , but in s o m e few they h a v e the ways of the inhabitants of 'Irak a n d Upper Mesopotamia)."

Akur

(that is L o w e r

and

( M u k . , 183.)

" A l l a l o n g the sea-coast of Filastin are the Watch-stations, called Ribat,

w h e r e t h e levies assemble.

T h e war-ships a n d the galleys

of the G r e e k s also c o m e into these ports, b r i n g i n g a b o a r d of them the captives taken f r o m the M u s l i m s ; these they offer for ransom — t h r e e for the h u n d r e d D i n a r s . *

A n d in each of these ports there

are m e n w h o k n o w t h e G r e e k tongue, for they h a v e missions to the Greeks, a n d trade with t h e m in divers wares.

A t the Stations,

w h e n e v e r a G r e e k vessel appears, t h e y s o u n d the h o r n s ; also, if it b e night, they light a b e a c o n there on t h e t o w e r ; or, if it b e day, they m a k e a great smoke.

F r o m every Watch-station 011 the

coast u p to the capital ( A r R a m l a h ) there are built, at intervals, high towers, in e a c h of w h i c h is stationed a c o m p a n y of men. o c c a s i o n of the arrival of the G r e e k ships the m e n ,

O n the

perceiving

these, k i n d l e the b e a c o n on the tower nearest to t h e coast-station, and

then on that l y i n g next a b o v e -it, a n d onwards, o n e after

* T h a t is, a b o u t £ 1 6 for each captive, e q u i v a l e n t , h o w e v e r , in t h e o f the present d a y , to n e a r l y ^ 5 0 ; see p . 44.

currency

PALESTINE

24

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

a n o t h e r , so t h a t h a r d l y is an h o u r e l a p s e d b e f o r e t h e t r u m p e t s a r e s o u n d i n g in t h e capital, a n d d r u m s a r e b e a t i n g in t h e towers, calling t h e p e o p l e d o w n to t h e W a t c h - s t a t i o n by t h e sea.

And

they h u r r y o u t in force, with their a r m s , a n d t h e y o u n g m e n of t h e village g a t h e r t o g e t h e r . will

be

able

to

ransom

T h e n the ransoming begins. a

prisoner,

while

Some

o t h e r s (less

rich)

will t h r o w d o w n silver D i r h a m s , or signet-rings, or c o n t r i b u t e s o m e o t h e r valuable, until at length all t h e p r i s o n e r s w h o a r e in G r e e k ships h a v e b e e n r a n s o m e d .

the

N o w t h e W a t c h - s t a t i o n s of

this p r o v i n c e of Filastin, w h e r e this r a n s o m i n g of captives t a k e s place, a r e t h e s e : G h a z z a h , M i m a s , ' A s k a l a n , M a h u z - ( t h e p o r t of) Azdiid, M a h u z - ( t h e p o r t o f ; Y u b n a , Y a f a h , a n d A r s u f . "

(M'uk.,

117 •) TERRITORIAL

DIVISIONS.

W h e n , t o w a r d s t h e close of t h e first half of t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y of o u r era, t h e g r e a t wave of A r a b c o n q u e s t swept over Syria, a n d wrested t h a t p r o v i n c e f r o m t h e B y z a n t i n e d o m i n i o n , t h e m a r c h of t h e i n v a d i n g h o r d e s c a m e d o w n a l o n g t h e well-known c a r a v a n r o u t e , l e a d i n g f r o m M a k k a h a n d A1 M a d i n a h to D a m a s c u s , w h i c h lay a l o n g what is n o w t h e r e t u r n P i l g r i m R o a d f r o m t h e H i j j a z t o t h e cities of Syria. H e n c e t h e first territories t h a t c a m e u n d e r t h e p o w e r of I s l a m were t h e c o u n t r i e s east of t h e J o r d a n a n d t h e D e a d S e a ; a n d it was n o t till D a m a s c u s a n d its territory in t h e n o r t h h a d b e e n taken, t h a t Galilee, t h e l o w l a n d s of t h e J o r d a n P r o v i n c e , a n d Palestine, were o v e r r u n by t h e M u s l i m s . The s u b j u g a t i o n of t h e p r o v i n c e s n o r t h of D a m a s c u s , with t h e great cities of A n t i o c h , A l e p p o , a n d E m e s s a , followed a l m o s t i m m e diately on t h e foregoing, a n d t h u s c o m p l e t e d t h e c o n q u e s t of Syria. T h e line t a k e n b y t h e A r a b s on their i n r o a d explains t h e political divisions i n t o w h i c h the c o n q u e r e d territories c a m e to b e p a r c e l l e d o u t w h e n t h e s e c o n d Khalif, t h e great a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' O m a r , settled t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e M u s l i m E m p i r e . Syria was d i v i d e d i n t o p r o v i n c e s , e a c h of w h i c h was t e r m e d a Jund. The word, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e lexicons, m e a n s , primarily, " a t r o o p of soldiers." I n Syria it was a p p l i e d t o t h e " military districts in w h i c h a special b o d y of t r o o p s lay in garrison, a n d h e n c e in particular t h e five great military districts i n t o which Syria was d i v i d e d .

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

25

T h e s e five were the following : T h e J u n d of D a m a s c u s , northwards, the J u n d of H i m s a n d the J u n d of K i n n a s r i n .

and, West

a n d south-west of the D a m a s c u s j u n d was the J o r d a n District, called J u n d al U r d u n n , comprising Galilee, a n d the S e a of Galilee, a n d the lowlands of the J o r d a n , down to the D e a d Sea.

West of

this again lay Palestine proper, the J u n d Filastin, which included all the countries lying to the south of the great plain of A c r e a n d E s d r a e l o n — t o the west of the J o r d a n cleft and the D e a d Sea. T h i s J u n d had the sea for its western boundary, and the Desert of the Wanderings a n d the road to E g y p t closing it on the south. T h e country lying north of the D a m a s c u s Province had, in the first years of the Aral) conquest, f o r m e d but a single J u n d , called, after its chief

town, J u n d H i m s

(Emessa).

When

Mu'awivah

( 6 6 1 — 6 7 9 ) , the first K h a l i f of the house of O m a y y a h , had succ e e d e d in putting down his rival 'Ali (the Prophet's son-in-law), a n d h a d detached

the people of Northern M e s o p o t a m i a

from

their allegiance to the latter, he erected the lands where the)' had

settled

into a separate district, calling it J u n d

Kinnasrin.

T h i s is the account given by Dimashki, a somewhat late authority (1300).

T h e early historian Biladhuri (869) states, on the other

hand, that it was

the

Khalif

Y a z i d , son of

Mu'awiyah

above

mentioned, who instituted the new J u n d of Kinnasrin by separating these territories f r o m those of H i m s . Yak.,

iii.

Kinnasrin, Chalcis.

742.) after

The its

new chief

province

was

town

that

of

(Bil., 132 called name,

; copied by the

Jund

the

of

ancient

It comprised the districts round A l e p p o , Antioc.h, and

Manbij. Syria, thus divided into five J u n d s , so remained during all the days of the D a m a s c e n e

K h a l i f a t e of the O m a y y a d s .

A f t e r the

fall of that dynasty, and the rise of the Abbasides, who m a d e B a g h d a d their capital, on the Tigris, the northern frontiers of Syria were considerably extended by the conquests of the

Khalif

A l M a n s u r a n d his successors ; a n d in the reign of H a r u n ar R a s h i d , about the year 1 7 0 (786), it was f o u n d necessary to subdivide the now7 overgrown J u n d of Kinnasrin.

T h e country, there-

fore, towards the (¡reek frontier, comprising the territories from A n t i o c h westward to the coast, and

astward to A l e p p o a n d M a n b i j ,

26

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

was erected into a new j u n d , called J u n d al ' A w a s i m , the latter w o r d being the plural o f ' A s i m , signifying a " s t r o n g h o l d . "

North

of this again, a n d on the actual frontier, was the district c a l l e d A t h T h u g h u r — t h a t of the " f r o n t i e r fortresses."

These

frontier

fortresses were often d i v i d e d into the T h u g h u r of Syria, to the westward, a n d

the T h u g h u r

of

M e s o p o t a m i a , to the

eastward.

T h e district consisted of the l o n g chain of fortresses that g u a r d e d the northern frontier of Syria, built there for k e e p i n g out the incursions of the Greeks.

T h i s chain of fortresses ran from T a r s u s ,

A d a n a , a n d Mopsuestia, on Mansur,

to

the

line of

the west,

by

Malatiyah and

the upper waters of

S a m o s a t a and Balis, on the east.

(Cf.

the

Hisn

E u p h r a t e s at

D i m . , 192, 2 1 4 . )

T o return, however, to the early division of Syria into five J u n d s . T h e s e c o r r e s p o n d e d very nearly with the old R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e provinces, such as the A r a b s f o u n d in existence at the time of the conquest, a n d which are d e s c r i b e d in the C o d e of T h e o d o s i u s , a work that dates from the fifth century A.D. Paliestina Prima, with Caesarea for its capital, c o m p r i s i n g Judaea a n d Samaria, b e c a m e the A r a b J u n d of Tilastin, with R a m l a h for capital. Paliestina S e c u n d a , with S e y t h o p o l i s ( B e t h Shean, B a i s a n ) for its capital, comprising the two Galilees a n d the western part of Peraea, b e c a m e the J u n d of A l U r d u n n (the Jordan), with T i b e r i a s for the new capital. Paliestina Tertia, or Salutaris, i n c l u d i n g I d u m i e a a n d

Arabia

Petreea, was a b s o r b e d partly into the D a m a s c u s Jund, a n d partly was c o u n t e d in Filastin. Phcenicia Secunda,

Prima,

or A d

with

Tyre

Libanum,

for

its

became,

in

capital, the

and

new

Phoenicia

arrangement

(together with m a n y of the outlying lands east of the J o r d a n ) the great J u n d of D a m a s c u s . Syria S e c u n d a , north of this, with A p a m e i a for its capital, was d i v i d e d by the A r a b s b e t w e e n the J u n d s of H a m a h a n d Lastly, Syria Prima, with

Antioch

for

its

Hims.

capital, b e c a m e

the

J u n d of H a l a b , or K i n n a s r i n ; or, m o r e exactly, that portion of it w h i c h was ultimately m a d e

into

n a m e of the J u n d of the ' A w a s i m .

a

separate district, u n d e r t h e

SYRIA

AND

27

PALESTINE.

T h e Junds, and the two Northern

Provinces, are described by

the A r a b geographers in the following terms : " T h e provinces of Syria," write Istakhri and Ibn H a u k a l in the tenth century, " a r e Jund

Filastin, and Jund al U r d u n n , Jund

Dimashk, J u n d H i m s , and j u n d Kinnasrin.

T h e n the 'Awasim

a n d the Thughur. " T h e frontiers of Syria are the following: O n the west, the Bahr R u m (the Greek or Mediterranean S e a ) ; on the east, the desert from Ailah to the Euphrates ; and along this river to the frontiers of R u m (the Greek country).

T h e northern frontier is

the country of R u m , while the southern is the frontier of E g y p t , and the T i h (the Desert of the Wanderings) of the B a n i Israil. " T h e furthest point south of Syria towards

E g y p t is

Rafh.

North, towards the country of R u m , the furthest limits are the Fortresses (Thughur), which of old times were called the Mesopotamian

Fortresses.

T h e s e are

Malatyah (Malatia,

Mitelene),

A l Hadath, Mar'ash, A l Haruniyvah, A l Kanisah, ' A m Zarbah, A l Massisah, Adhanah, and Tarsus.

W e reckon all these Fortresses

as belonging to Syria, speaking generally; but although some have always been known as the Fortresses of Syria, others are often called the Fortresses of Mesopotamia.

In truth, however, they

are all S y r i a n ; for whatever lies on this side (or west o f ) the Euphrates belongs to Syria.

However, it is to be

noted

that

those named first, from Malatyah to Mar'ash, are generally called the Mesopotamian Fortresses, because they are always garrisoned by the people of

Mesopotamia, who

make

military

incursions

thence into the country of the Greeks ; and they are not so called because they really belong to the

province

of

Mesopotamia."

(Is., 55 ; I. H . , 108.) Writing in the fourteenth century, after the overthrow of the Frank dominion, Abu-1 F i d a remarks : " T h e limits

of

Syria in our days include

Little Armenia, which is called

the Bilacl Sis.

the

kingdom

The

of

northern

frontier, therefore, goes from Balis beside the Euphrates, through Kala'at N a j m , A l Birah, Kala'at ar R u m , Sumaisat, Hisn Mansur, Bahasna, Mar'ash, and thence by the Bilad Sis to Tarsus and the Mediterranean Sea." (A. F., 226.)

PALESTINE

28

UN VER

THE

MOSLEMS.

i . JUND FIXASTIX (Palestine) and its sub-districts.

Subordinate

to this district were those of the T i h (the 1 )esert of the Wanderings of the Children of Israel), and of A 1 Jifar, both lying towards the E g y p t i a n Frontier.

Of the J u n d Filastin, the ancient capital

(says Y a ' k u b i ) was L u d d ( L y d d a ) .

The

Khalif

Sulaiman sub-

sequently f o u n d e d the city of A r R a m l a h , which he m a d e the capital, and L y d d a fell to decay, for its population all r e m o v e d to A r R a m l a h , the new capital.*

T h e same author, who wrote in the

ninth century of our era, continues : " T h e population of Palestine consists

of A r a b s

of the tribes of

K i n d a h , K a i s and K i n a n a h . "

Lakhm,

(Yb., 1 1 6 ,

Judham,

'Amilah,

117.)

" Filastin," write Istakhri and I b n H a u k a l , " is the westernmost of the provinces of Syria.

In its greatest length from R a f h to the

boundary of A1 L a j j u n (Legio), it would take a rider two days to travel o v e r ;

and the like time to cross the province in its

breadth from Y a f a ( J a f f a ) to R i h a (Jericho).

ZAighar (Segor, Zoar)

a n d the country of Lot's people ( D i y i i r Kaum

Litt);

A l J ibid (the

mountains of E d o m ) , a n d A s h Sharah as far as A i l a h — A l J i b a l and A s h Sharah being two separate provinces, but lying contiguous one to the other—are included in Filastin, a n d belong to its government. " F i l a s t i n is watered by the rains a n d the dew.

Its trees and

its ploughed lands do not need artificial irrigation ; a n d it is only in N a b u l u s that you find the running waters applied to this purpose.

Filastin is the most fertile of the Syrian provinces.

Its

capital and largest town is A r R a m l a h , but the H o l y City (of J e r u s a l e m ) comes very near this last in size.

I n the p r o v i n c e of

Filastin, despite its small extent, there are about twenty mosques, with pulpits for the Friday prayer."

(Is., 56, 5 7 ; I . H . ,

111-113;

copied by Id., 3, 4, a n d A . F . , 226.) A m o n g the towns of Filastin mentioned as c o n q u e r e d by the A r a b General "Amr ibn al 'As, at the invasion, are Ghazzah (Gaza), Sabastiyah (Samaria), N a b u l u s (Shechem), K a i s a r i y y a h (Ccesarea), L u d d ( L y d d a ) , Y u b n a , ' A m w a s ( E m m a u s ) , Y a f a ( J o p p a ) , R a f h , and Bait Jibrin.

A t this last he enclosed a domain to which he gave

the n a m e o f ' A j l u n , after one of his freedmen. vi

(Bil. 1 3 S . )

See Chapter V I I I . , " Ar Ramlah."

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

29

" Filastin," writes Yakut, in the thirteenth century, " is the List of the provinces of Syria towards E g y p t . Its capital is Jerusalem. Of the principal towns are 'Askalan, A r Ramlah, Ghazzah, Arsuf, Kaisariyvah, Nabulus, Ariha (Jericho), 'Amman, Y a f a h , and Bait Jibrin. Most part of Filastin is mountainous, and hut little plain country is met with. This Province is referred to in the Kuran ( X X I . 7 1 ) in the words, ' A n d we brought Abraham and L o t in safety to the land which we have blessed for all human beings/ T h e name is from Filastin, son of Sam, son of Aram, son of S a m (Shem) son of N u h (Noah), but there are also other genealogies." ( Y a k . in., 9 1 3 ; M a r . ii., 3 6 J . ) T h e District of the Tih belongs to Filastin. writes :

Of this Istakhri

" A t Tih, the Desert of the Children of Israel is said to be forty leagues long and nearly as much across. It is a country full of sand. Part of it is sterile, though here and there are palmtrees growing, and water in springs. Its limits are the J i f a r district on the one side, and Mount Sinai and its district on the other. T o the north of the T i h lie the outer limits of the H o l v City and other parts of Palestine; and its southern frontier is in the desert beyond the R i f district of Egypt, lying towards the R e d S e a . " (Is. 5 3 ; I . H . 1 0 4 . ) " T h e Tih, or Desert of the Children of Israel," says Mukaddasi, " is a place on the situation of which there is some discussion. T h e most reliable account is that it is the desert country, lying between Syria and Egypt, which same is forty leagues across in every direction ; everywhere are sand tracts, salt marshes, and red sandstone hills, while occasionally palm-trees and springs of water may be met with. T h e limits of this district are, on the one hand, the district of A1 Jifar, and on the other Mount S i n a i ; to the west the desert limit is conterminous with the Egyptian province of A r R i f ; and on the other side the Tih goes up to Syria. Through it lies the pilgrim road to M a k k a h . " (Muk. 1 7 9 ) " A t T i h , " according to Idrisi, " is the land lying between the R e d Sea and the Syrian Sea. It extends for a space of some seven marches, and is called Fahs at Tih ( T h e Region of the Wanderings), for it was here that the children of Israel wandered in the

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

t i m e of M o s e s — p e a c e h e u p o n him !

MOSLEMS.

T h e y wandered here during

fort)' years without entering a n y city, or s o j o u r n i n g in a n y house, a n d no m a n h a d c h a n g e of raiment, neither d i d a n y e x p e r i e n c e g r o w t h in stature.

T h e length of this region of the T i h is a b o u t

six d a y s ' j o u r n e y . "

(Id. i and 2 1 . )

a n d a d d s nothing new.

Y a k u t epitomises the a b o v e ,

( Y a k . i., 9 1 2 ; M a r . i., 1 2 3 . )

" O f the desert districts of the T i h of the c h i l d r e n of I s r a e l , " writes D i m a s h k i , " a r e the Israelitish towns, n a m e l y , K a d a s ( K a d e s h B a r n e a ) , H u w a i rak, A1

K h a l a s a h ( E l u s a ) , A1 K h a l u s ( L y s s a ) , A s

S a b a ' ( B e e r s h e b a ) , a n d A 1 M a d u r a h — a l l these b e l o n g i n g to Tih."

the

(Dim. 213.)

T h e District of Al Jifar,

o f t e n c o u n t e d as b e l o n g i n g to Filastin,

is thus d e s c r i b e d by I s t a k h r i : "The

district c a l l e d A l J i f a r (the W e l l s or W a t e r p i t s ) is the

tract of country e x t e n d i n g f r o m the b o r d e r s of the L a k e of T i n n i s (in E g y p t ) to the frontiers of Filastin.

I t is a c o u n t r y of c o n t i n u o u s

fine a n d c o l o u r e d sand, d o t t e d a b o u t with palm-trees a n d tions, with water h e r e a n d there.

habita-

T h e frontiers of the J i f a r are

the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , the Desert of the T i h , Palestine, a n d the S e a of T i n n i s , with the a d j o i n i n g l a n d s g o i n g f r o m R i f of E g y p t to the b o r d e r of

Kul/.um (the R e d Sea).

T h e r e are f o u n d in this dis-

trict serpents a span long, w h o spring u p f r o m the s a n d into t h e camel-litters

and

bite the riders.

histories that in the d a y s of e v e r y w h e r e with t o w n s . "

The

Pharaoh

E g y p t i a n s say in the J i f a r w a s built

(Is., 52 ; I. H . ,

1 0 3 ; copied by

their over Yak.

ii., g o ; M a r . i., 2 5 8 . ) 2. JUND Af. URDUNN (the J o r d a n P r o v i n c e ) . this is the District of the Ghaur, the country of the D e a d S e a . is T a b a r i y y a h , T i b e r i a s .

Subordinate

to

or cleft of the J o r d a n R i v e r , a n d O f the J o r d a n P r o v i n c e the capital

I b n al F a k i h writes :

" O f its districts ( K u r a h ) are T a b a r i y y a h , A s S a m i r a h ( S a m a r i a ) , w h i c h is N a b u l u s , B a i s a n , F a h l ( P e l l a ) J a r a s h , ' A k k a ( A c r e ) , A l K a d a s ( K a d e s h Naphthali), and Sur (Tyre)."

(I. F . , 1 1 6 ; c o p i e d

b y I d . , 2 1 ; a n d others.) The

Ghaur

(the cleft of

the

Lower

Jordan).

According

Y a ' k i i b i this is : " A n outlying district of the D a m a s c u s Its capital is R i h a ( J e r i c h o ) . ' '

(Yb.,

113.)

to

Province.

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

" T h e G h a u r , " says Istakhri-Ibn-Haukal, " is the country of Lot's people, and of the Stinking L a k e (Dead Sea). All the rest of Filastin is higher than this part, and its waters flow down into it. T h e G h a u r begins at the L a k e of Tiberias, and going by Baisan extends past Zughar and R i h a down to the D e a d Sea. T h e word Ghaur means ' a cleft between mountains,' cutting down into the earth. T h e r e are all along its course palm-trees, meadows, springs and streams. N o snow that falls ever lies here. T h e Ghaur, as far south as Baisan, belongs to the Urdunn province, but below this it belongs to Filastin. This same deep valley extends still further south, and at length reaches A i l a h . " (Is., 56, 5 8 ; I. H., h i , 1 1 3 ; copied by A. F., 226.) Idrisi writes : " A1 G h a u r includes the Diyar K a u m L u t (the country of Lot's people) and the Stinking Sea, being all the land from Zughar up to Baisan and Tabariyyah. T h e Ghaur (cleft) is so called because it is a valley between two ranges of hills. All the waters of Syria descend into it, and are collected there, forming one mighty stream (the Jordan), whose origin is in the L a k e of Tiberias, near the city of T a b a r i y y a h . " T h e other rivers of Syria flow into the Jordan, such as the N a h r al V'armuk (Hieromax), the streams of Baisan, and those which flow from the district of Maab, and the mountains of the H o l y City, and the mountains of Abraham's Sepulchre (Hebron) — r peacc be on him—as also what waters come down from Nabulus. A l l these are collected together into the Ghaur, and flow thence into the Lake of Zughar, the Dead Sea. " A r i h a (Jericho), with 'Anita and Baisan are the finest of the cities of the valley of the Ghaur. T h e principal crop of the Ghaur is indigo. Its inhabitants are brown-skinned, and some of them even are almost black." (Icl, 3.) " There are many Ghaurs," says Yakut, for Ghaur means crevasse.' T h e Ghaur of the J o r d a n lies between Jerusalem and Damascus. It is three days' journey in length, and less than half a day across. In it runs the J o r d a n . T h e I „ike of Tabariyyah lies at its upper end, the D e a d Sea at its lower. Its principal town is Baisan, which is on its edge. It is a low-lving and very 1

PALESTINE hot country.

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

What they grow m o s t h e r e is s u g a r - c a n e . *

t o w n s is A r i h a ( J e r i c h o ) , the city of the giants.

O f its

A t the western

(or southern) e n d of the G h a u r , is the S t i n k i n g S e a , a n d at its eastern (or n o r t h e r n ) e n d

is the S e a of

Tiberias."

(Yak.,

iii.,

8 2 3 ; M a r . ii., 3 2 2 . ) " T o the J o r d a n p r o v i n c e / ' says Y a k u t , " b e l o n g the K u r a h s of Tabariyyah, Baisan, Bait Ras, Jadar, Saffuriyyah (Sepphoris), Sur ( T y r e ) , ' A k k a h , a n d others.

Baisan, Afik, Jarash, Bait Ras, A1

J a u l a n , ' A k k a h , Sur, a n d S a f f u r i y y a h , w e r e all taken d u r i n g first c o n q u e s t of the A r a b a r m i e s . " 3. J u x i )

DIMASHK.

the

( Y a k . , i., 2 0 1 . ) to the D a m a s c u s

Province

were the districts of the great plain of the G h u t a h (or

Subordinate

Ghautah)

r o u n d the city, a n d m o s t of the districts to the south, w h i c h lay east of the J o r d a n C l e f t a n d the D e a d S e a . " O f the D a m a s c u s P r o v i n c e , " writes Y a ' k u b i , " a r e (the eastern l a n d s o f ) the G h a u r , the H a u r a n , a n d outlying

districts are

the

Ghaur, and A1 Jibal."'

the B a t h a n i y y a h .

The

Balka, (the southern p o r t i o n o f )

the

(Yb , 113.)

I b n al F a k i h states that : 'Of

the K u r a h s of the D a m a s c u s P r o v i n c e are Iklirn

Sanir,

K u r a h J u b a i l , the districts of Bairut, S a i d a , B a t h a n i y y a h , H a u r a n , J a u l a n ; also the outlying parts of the B a l k a , a n d the v a r i o u s districts of the G h a u r .

Further, K u r a h Maab, and Jibal ash Sharah,

Busra, 'Amman, A l Jabiyah, and A l Kariyatain. tricts of A l H u l a h a n d A l B i k a ' . a r e S a i d a (Sidon), (Tyre).

A l s o the dis-

T h e c o a s t towns of

Damascus

Bairut, Atrabulus (Tripoli), 'Arkah, and

Sur

O f the last, T y r e , the m o s q u e b e l o n g s to D a m a s c u s , b u t

the K h a r a j (or l a n d tax) to the J o r d a n p r o v i n c e . "

(I. F . ,

105,

writing in the y e a r 9 0 3 . ) " Eastwards

of

the U r d u n n

D a m a s c u s province.

Province

(says

Idrisi)

lies

the

Of its K u r a h s are, the P l a i n of the G h a u t a h

r o u n d D a m a s c u s , the l a n d of B a ' a l b a k k , A l B i k a ' ( C t e l o

Syria),

I k l i m L u b n a n (the L e b a n o n ) , K u r a h J i i n i y y a h , a n d the

Hulah,

the districts of A t r a b u l u s , J u b a i l , B a i r u t , S a i d a ; the district,

the

Hauran,

Balka,

Kurah

Jibrin

the of

Jaulan, the

the

Ghaur,

outlying the

districts

* This was iu the thirteenth century.

Bathanivyah

country of

of

Al

Maab,

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

33

'Amman, and Ash Sharah, with the land round Busra and A1 Jabiyyah. " Eastward of the Damascus Province lies the (Syrian) desert, and south of it is the Ard as Samawah (the Great Desert of Arabia), and the Ard 'Ad (the country of the ancient 'Adites). To the north lie the 'Awasim and Kinnasrin Provinces." (Id., 2 1 ; repeated from I. Kh., 72.) Al Ghutah (or AI Ghautah), " t h e Garden Land," is the district immediately surrounding the city of Damascus. In Ya'kubi's time, at the close of the ninth century, it was still peopled by various tribes of the ancient Ghassanide race, whose kings had ruled in these countries before the Arab conquest. (Yb., 1 1 3 . ) " The Ghutah," says Mukaddasi, " is a day's journey (or about thirty miles across each way), and beautiful beyond all description." (Muk., 160.) " T h e Plain of the Ghutah," according to Yakut, writing in the thirteenth century, " is eighteen miles round, and is surrounded on all sides by high mountains, more especially to the north. It is watered by many rivers which irrigate its fields and gardens. The overflow of these goes into a lake (to the east of Damascus) and into the swamps. Water is found everywhere, and 110 place is pleasanter. It is one of the four paradises of the earth." (Yak., iii. 825 ; Mar., ii. 324.) Hauran (Auranitis) and Al Bathaniyyah (Bathanea). Ya'kubi, in 891, states : " T h e Hauran district has for its capital Busra." (Yb., 1 1 3 . ) Istakhri and Ibn Haukal in the tenth century write : " The Hauran and Al Bathaniyyah are two great districts of the Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers of these two districts extend down to Nimrin, which is on the Balka district, and 'Amman. Of this we have it noted in the books of history that Nimra is of the best of the wraters of the Tank called the Haud, which last lay between Busra and Amman." ( I s , 6 5 ; I . H , 124.) There is here doubtless an allusion—derived possibly from a Jewish source—to the " waters of Nimrim " of Isaiah xv. 6, and to the " Nimrah " of Numbers xxxii. 3. The Haud, or " Tank," is that 3

PALESTINE

34

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

mentioned in a Tradition of the Prophet as having existed of old in these parts. Its waters, it is said, were whiter than milk and sweeter than honey. T h e name Nimrin, it should be noted, is of frequent occurrence in the Trans-Jordan district. T h e Hauran is mentioned by Y a k u t (thirteenth century) as a large district full of villages and very fertile, lying south of Damascus. (Yak., ii. 358 ; Mar., i. 3 2 8 . ) From the Hauran and Bathaniyyah into Damascus is two days' march. (Is., I . H . , Y a k . , Muk.) " O f A1 Bathaniyyah, the capital is Adra'ah."

(Yb., 1 1 3 . )

" A1 Bathaniyyah," says Yakut, " o r A1 Bathanah, is a district near Damascus. A1 Bathanah is said to be a village lying between Damascus and Adra'ah, from which J o b came." (Yak., i. 493 : Mar., i. 126). AlJaulan

(Gaulonitis).

Ya'kiibi, in 8 9 1 , writes :

" O f Al Jaulan, the capital is Baniyas." (Yb., 1 1 4 . ) " T h e Jaulan district," writes Mukaddasi, " supplies Damascus with the most part of its provisions." (Muk., 1 6 0 ) " Al J a u l a n , " says Yakut, " i s a district in the Hauran, and of the Damascus Province. A l Jaulan is also said to be the name of a mountain called more exactly Harith al Jaulan ; others say Harith is the name for the summit of the mountain only." (Yak., ii. 1 5 9 : Mar., i. 273.) Al Jaidur states:

(Iturrea).

Yakut,

in

the

thirteenth

century,

" A l Jaidur is a district belonging to the Damascus Province, and lying to the north of the Hauran. It is said the J a i d u r and the Jaulan form but one K u r a h (or district)." (Yak., ii. 1 7 3 ; Mar., i. 277.) Al Hulah.

Mukaddasi writes :

" T h e province of the H u l a h (round the waters of Meron) produces much cotton and rice ; it is low-lying, and has numerous streams." (Muk., 160.) " A l H u l a h , " says Yakut, " i s a district lying between Baniyas and Sur (Tyre), but belonging to Damascus. It has many villages." (Yak., ii. 366 : Alar., i. 330.) Al Balka

(Perasa).

According to Ya'kiibi :

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

35

" A1 Balka is one of the outlying districts of the Damascus Province. Its capital is 'Amman." (Yl>., 1 1 3 . ) It is mentioned by Yakut as possessing many villages, and is noted for its wheat-crops. (Yak., i. 7 2 8 ; Mar., i. 1 7 1 . ) From the Balka into Jerusalem is two days' march. (Is., I . H . , Id.) Ash Sharah. Y'a'kubi says : " O f the district of Ash Sharah (the mountains of Moab) the capital is Adhruh." (Yb., 1 1 4 . ) " T h i s district," says Istakhri in the tenth century, " is extremely fertile and rich, only the Beclawin Arabs have the upper hand here, and so ruin all." (Is., 57 ; I . H . , 1 1 3 . ) " A s h Sharah," writes Idrisi, " i s a fine province, whose capital is Adhruh. Both the Sharah and Jibal districts are extremely fertile, producing quantities of olive-trees, and almonds, figs, grapes, and pomegranates. T h e inhabitants are mostly of the Kaisite tribes." (Id., 5.) Ash Sharah, according to Ydkut, is the mountainous country through which the H a j j road from Damascus passes. (Yak., iii. 270 ; Mar., ii. 100.) From Jabal ash Sharah to Zughar is one day's march. (Is., I . H . ) Down to the limit of Ash Sharah is also one day's march (Is., I.H.), while to Zughar, and thence to the further limit of the Jabal ash Sharah, is two days' march, according to Idrisi. It will be noted that the district of Ash Sharah is sometimes also counted as forming part of the Filastin Province. (See above, p. 28.) Al Jibal (Gebalene). According to Y a ' k i i b i : — " A1 Jibal is one of the outlying districts of the Damascus Province. Its capital is 'Arandal." (Yb., 1 1 4 . ) " J i b a l , " says Idrisi, " i s a fine province, the capital of which is called Darab." (Id., 5.) T h e reading of this last name is uncertain; in the M S S . of Istakhri and Ibn Haukal the name is variously given as Ruuuit, Ruwath,

a n d Ruwdd.

(Is., 5 7 ; I . H . ,

113.)

4. J u n d Hims (the Emessa Province). Mukaddasi writes : " I t s capital bears the same .name. Among its cities are Salamiyyah, Tadmur (Palmyra), A l Khunasirah, Ivafar T a b , Al 3—2

PALESTINE

36

UNDER

Ladhikiyyah (Laodicea),

THE

Jabalah

MOSLEMS.

(Byblos),

B u l u n y a s a n d H i s n al K h a w a b i . "

Antarsiis

(Muk., 154.

(Tortosa),

(riven in m u c h

the s a m e words b y I . H , n o . ) T h e H i m s J u n d , as b e f o r e n o t e d (p. 25), originally c o m p r i s e d all the country to the north of D a m a s c u s , which a f t e r w a r d s w a s s u b d i v i d e d a m o n g the J u n d s of K i n n a s r i n a n d ' A w a s i m , a n d the T h u g h i i r , or F r o n t i e r F o r t r e s s e s . T h e southern b o u n d a r y line of the H i m s P r o v i n c e , a c c o r d i n g to Y a k u t , lay i m m e d i a t e l y to the south of K a r a h , while its northern limit lay b e y o n d the village of

Al Karashiyyah.

H i m s P r o v i n c e i n c l u d e d the village A l

Kariyatain

Fastward

the

and Palmyra

(see P a r t I I . , u n d e r these n a m e s ) . 5. JUND

KINNASRIN.

The

Kinnasrin

J u n d , after H a r u n

ar

R a s h i d ' s time, when the ' A w a s i m h a d b e e n f o r m e d into a s e p a r a t e province, was c i r c u m s c r i b e d to the c o u n t r y r o u n d K i n n a s r i n a n d A l e p p o , with the two M a ' a r r a h s , a n d the S a r m i n territory. 6. JUND AL 'AWASIM {or of the S t r o n g h o l d s ) .

I b n al

Fakih

writes : "In

the clays of the K h a l i f s ' O m a r a n d ' O t h m a n the

frontier

fortresses

lay

round

districts w h i c h later A r 'Awasim.

Antakiyyah

Rashid

(Antioch),

Muslim and

f o r m e d into the J u n d

of

the the

T h e s e are K u r a h K u r u s , A l J u m a h , M a n b i j , A n t a k i y y a h

Tiizin, Balis, and R u s a f a h - H i s h a m .

W h a t l a n d s lay b e y o n d , the

M u s l i m s m a d e their raids into, a n d these the G r e e k s r a i d e d likewise.

B e t w e e n A l I s k a n d a r i y v a h a n d T a r s u s were fortresses a n d

m a g a z i n e s b e l o n g i n g to the G r e e k s . "

( 1 . P\, J I I . )

" T h e K h a l i f ar R a s h i d m a d e M a n b i j the capital of t h e ' A w a s i m J u n d ; w h i c h f u r t h e r c o m p r i s e d the districts of M a n b i j ,

Duluk,

R a ' b a n , K u r u s , A n t a k i y y a h a n d T i z i n (or Tiizin), with the intervening places."

(Bil., 1 3 2 ; Y a k . , iii. 7 4 2 . )

Abu-1 F i d a ( 1 3 2 1 ) , a late authority, m e n t i o n s A n t a k i y y a h as the capital of the ' A w a s i m , a n d says the p r o v i n c e originally i n c l u d e d the districts of Shaizar, A f a m i y y a h a n d a d j a c e n t territories ; a l s o the L e b a n o n region as far as the region of A l K a s t a l , lying betw e e n H i m s and Damascus. Y a k u t , writing

a

(A. F., 233.) century

earlier, after q u o t i n g

Biladhuri

(as

a b o v e ) , adds, the ' A w a s i m were all the S t r o n g h o l d s lying b e t w e e n

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

37

Halab and Antakiyyah.- Some counted AlepjX) as included among these, while others gave it the Kinnasrin Jund. The 'Awasim territory is for the most part mountainous, and both A1 Massissah and Tarsus have often been included in this province. Manbij was its early capital, and afterwards Antakiyyah. (Yak., iii. 742 ; Mar., ii. 2 8 7 . ) 7. ATH THUGHUR (or the Frontier Fortresses). "These," writes Yakut, "lie along the northern frontier between Syria and the Greek country. It was here the Muslims lived in garrison, who volunteered for the guarding of the frontiers ; as likewise some lay encamped on the coast to protect the land from the incursions of the Greeks in their ships. Such ' fortresses ' are Tarsus, Adhanah (Adana), and A1 Massissah (Mopsuestia), also those in the Halab and the 'Awasim territories. This district of the Thughur has no capital, all the towns are of about equal size, and each is the chief town of its own district. Of the Thughur are the following : Bayyas, whence to A1 Iskandariyyah is one march; and from Bayyas to Al Massissah is two marches. 'Ain Zarbah and Adhanah both lie one march from Al Massissah. From Adhanah to Tarsus is one day ; Tarsus to Al jauzat is two days ; Tarsus to Aulas on the sea is two days ; Bayyas to Al Kanisah as Sauda is less than one day; and Bayyas to Al Haruniyyah is the same; Al Hartinivyah to Mar'ash, a fortress of the Mesopotamian district, is less than a day. Antakiyyah and Baghras are celebrated towns of the Thughur. In the days of the Ivhalif 'Omar, and for some time afterwards, the frontier fortresses lay north of Antioch and its towns, and this district came afterwards to be called the 'Awasim. Between Iskandariyyah and Tarsus were many fortresses belonging to the Greeks, similar to those which at the present day belong to the Muslims. The Muslims in those early days blocked the Darb (Pass of) Baghras. This was first accomplished by Maisarah ibn Masruk, of the family of 'Abbas, who was despatched by Abu 'Ubaidah (in the days of the early conquest), as some say : others say this blocking of the pass was done by 'Umair ibn Sa'ad al 'Ansari; others, that it was only completed when the Khalif Mu'awiyah raided against 'Ammuriyyah (Armoricum) in the year 2 5 (646).

PALESTINE

3«

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

" T h e K h a l i f M u ' a w i y a h r a i d e d again in the vear 31 also, setting out from near A1 Massissah a n d penetrating as for as Darawaliyah. On

his return he destroyed all the fortresses b e l o n g i n g to t h e

G r e e k s between this p l a c e a n d A n t a k i y y a h . quest Tarsus,

A f t e r the first con-

A d h a n a h , a n d A1 Massissah, with the o t h e r for-

tresses adjoining, did not cease to remain in M u s l i m h a n d s till they fell to the G r e e k s , after the battle of M a g h a r a t al K u h l , in the year 349 (960), w h e n the G r e e k armies d e f e a t e d Saif a d D a u l a h a n d drove him back on H a l a b .

T h e n in 3 5 1 the G r e e k s c a m e

d o w n against H a l a b also, a n d Saif ad D a u l a h , with the other T u r k A m i r s in Syria, lost all power, a n d retired to Miyafarikin across the Euphrates.

A l Massissah a n d T a r s u s were then refortified b y

the Greeks, as also all the other frontier fortresses in their hands. T h i s was in the year 354 (965), a n d T a r s u s , with the rest, r e m a i n in their h a n d s to the present day (thirteenth century), a n d are governed by

L e o the K i n g of the A r m e n i a n s . "

( Y a k , i. 927 ;

Mar., i. 228 ) " T h e T h u g h i i r , " s a y s D i m a s h k i , " a r e d i v i d e d into two sections : the T h u g h i i r of Syria a n d the T h u g h i i r of M e s o p o t a m i a .

These

are d i v i d e d each from the other by the j a b a l al L u k k a m . " The

Mesopotamian

G r e e k s call

Maltaya, a n d

fortresses it

are

lies a mile

Malatiyyah—which from

the

the

Euphrates;

K a m a k h , to the west o f the E u p h r a t e s ; Shamshat, also west of the E u p h r a t e s ; A l Birah, east of the E u p h r a t e s ; H i s n M a n s u r ; K a l a ' a t ar R u m , west of the E u p h r a t e s ; H a d a t h al H a n t r a ; Mar'ash, first built by K h a l i d ibn al W a l i d , rebuilt by the K h a l i f M a r w a n ibn al H a k i m , a n d afterwards again b y the K h a l i f al Mansur. " T h e Syrian fortresses are T a r s u s , A d h a n a h , A l Massissah, a n d H a r u n i y y a h , built by H a r u n ar R a s h i d , in the early days of his father's K h a l i f a t e .

A l s o Sis, called Sisah ; w h e n the A r m e n i a n s

t o o k it they m a d e it the capital of their k i n g d o m (of Little A r m e nia) ; A y a s , called also A y a g h — t h i s last is the port of Sis on the sea."

(Dim., 214.)

S u c h were the Junds, or military districts, of Syria, d o w n the tenth century of our era.

A l r e a d y , however, a n d

to

apparently

even b e f o r e that e p o c h , the system, b e i n g *no l o n g e r required

for

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

39

the cantonment of troops, had begun to fall into disorganization, Mukaddasi in 985 describes Syria as divided into six districts, which differ in some minor points from the original Junds. The difference, however, is more apparent than real. Further, some of the names in Mukaddasi's lists would appear to have been transposed by the copyists. Mukaddasi's six districts are : " 1. The District of Kinnasrin.—Its capital is Halab (Aleppo), and among its cities are Antakiyyah (Antioch), Balis, As-Suwaidiyyah, Sumaisat (Samasata), Manbij, Bayyas, At-Tinah, Kinnasrin, Mar'ash, Iskanclarunah, *Lajjun, *Rafaniyyah, *Jftsiyah, *Ham&h, *Shaizar, *Wadi-Butnan, Ma'arrah-an-Nu'man, Ma'arrah-Kinnasr!n. " 2. The District of Hints (Emesa).—Its capital bears the same name. Among its cities are : Salamiyyah, Tadmur (Palmyra), Al-Khunasirah, Kafar-Tab, Al-Ladhikiyyah, Jabalah, Antarsus, Bulunyas, Hisn al Khawabi. " 3. The District of Dimashk (Damascus).—Its capital is of the same name. Among its cities are : Baniyas, Darayya, Saicla (Sidon), Bairut, Atrabulus (Tripoli), 'Arkah, and the district of the Bika', of which the chief city is Ba'albakk, and to which appertain the towns of Kamid, 'Arjamush, and Az-Zabadani. " T h e province of Damascus includes six districts, namely, the Ghutah, Hauran, the Bathanivyah, the Jaulan, the Bika', and the Hulah. " 4 . The District of Ai-Urdimn (the Jordan).—Its capital is Tabariyyah (Tiberias). Among its towns are : Tvadas, Sur (Tyre), 'Akka (Acre), Al-Faradhiyyah, A U a j j u n , Kabul, Baisan, and Adhri'ah. " 5. The District of Filastin (Palestine).—Its capital is ArRamlah. Aanong its cities are: Bait-al-Makdis (Jerusalem), Bait Jibril, Ghazzah (Gaza), Maimas, 'Askalan (Ascalon), Yafah (Joppa), Arsuf, Kaisariyyah (Caesarea), Nabulus (Shechem), Ariha (Jericho), and 'Amman. " 6. The District of Ash-Sharah, and for its capital we should put Sughar. Its chief towns are: Maab, 'Ainima, Mu'an, Tabuk, Adhruh, Wailah, and Madyan." (Muk., 156.)

4°

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

In the Kinnasrin district the names marked with an asterisk (*) are in another list given by Mukaddasi (Muk., 54) assigned to the H i m s Province. E v e n thus, however, the lists are a good deal in confusion, as may he seen by a reference to the map ; for while R a f a n i y y a h , and Jftsiyah may very rightly be assigned to the H i m s district, A1 Khunasirah, and K a f a r T a b , given to H i m s in the second (*) list, in reality lie far to the north of the boundary line. Mukaddasi further places Adhri'ah, generally noted as the capital of the Bathaniyyah district (a dependency of the Damascus Province), among the towns of the U r d u n n Province. The boundary line between the Damascus and J o r d a n Provinces appears to have been somewhat ill-defined, and the lands lying immediately to the east of the J o r d a n Cleft were at times counted as of the one province and at times of the other. T h i s system of military J u n d s received its final death-blow in the twelfth century, on the coming of the Crusaders and the institution of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem with the baronies and counties dependent thereon. A f t e r Saladin and his successors had expelled the Christians, and re-established the Muslim dominion, Syria and Palestine nominally belonged to the ruler of Kgypt, but in point of fact was divided up among a number of minor Sultans, the descendants of Saladin and his brothers. Dimashki, writing in 1300, states that since the rise of the Turk power (meaning the house of Saladin), Syria had been divided into nine K i n g d o m s (Mamlakat). T h e exact limits of each are not easy to define, for the accidents of war and of disputed succession among Saladin's descendants rendered these " K i n g d o m s " far from stable. T h e list of the nine kingdoms, however, is as follows, as given by Dimashki : t. The Kingdom of Damascus, the largest 111 point of size and the most influential, since Damascus was still the capital of Syria. " It includes," says Dimashki, " ninety districts (Iklim)." M a n y of them he enumerates. It will be sufficient, however, to state that in the Damascus kingdom were included the lands of the (ihautah Plain in all its length and breadth ; the Lebanon 11101111-

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

tains, with the plain of Coelo-Syria and Ba'albakk : the Wâdî Baradâ, and northward along the Hims Road the country as far as Kârâ ; the districts of Lajâ (Trachonitis), Jaulân, Haurân and Bathaniyyah ; and the Balkâ. Further, to Damascus at one time belonged Jerusalem, and Ar Ramlah with its territories, also Nâbulus, the whole of the Ghaur of the Jordan, upper, middle, and lower ; Hebron ; with all the coast towns, such as 'Askalân, Kaisâriyyah, Yâfâ, 'Akkâ, Saidâ, Sûr, and Bairût. (Dim., Ï98-202.) 2. South of this lay the Kingdom of Ghazzah (Gaza), the capital of which was anciently called Ghazzah Hâshim. " It is a city so rich in trees as to be like a cloth of brocade spread out on the sand. T o the Ghazzah Kingdom at times were counted 'Askalân, which belonged to the Franks, and which the Muslims took and destroyed; Yâfâ (Jaffa), Kaisariyyah, Arsûf, A d Dârûn, and A1 'Arish." " O f towns lying between the coast and the mountains belonging at times to Ghazzah are : Tall Himâr, Tall as Sâfiyah, Karatayyâ, Bait Jibrâil, Madînah Khalil (Hebron), Bait al Mukaddas (Jerusalem). Each of these has a separate governor." (Dim., 213.) 3. The Kingdom of Karak. " Here are Karak and Shaubak. T o it belong Ma'ân, the village of Mûtah, Al Lajjûn, Al Hisâ, Al Azrak, As Sait, Wâdî Mûsâ, the territory of Madyan, Kulzum, Ar Rayyân ; also in the Ghaur, Az Zarka and Al Azrak ; Al Jifar, At Tih (the Desert of the Wanderings), with 'Amman, of which only the ruins remain; and the territory of Al Balkâ. T h e Iklim Al Jibâl is also included in the Karak kingdom : its chief town is Ash Sharâh, and the city of Kâb, which lies twelve miles from it." (Dim., 213.) 4. The Kingdom of Safad. " Its capital is Safad. T o it belong Marj 'Ayyûn (Ijon), A l Lajjûn (Legio, Megiddo), to which belongs Al 'Ashir and Al Hawâ, Jînîn (Giniea), with 'Akkâ, Sûr (Tyre) and Saidâ (Sidon)." (Dim., 210-212.) 5. The Kingdom of Tarâbuhts, where are the castles of the sect of the Assassins. 6. The Kingdom of Hints, anciently the Hims Jund. " Hims is the capital, and the seat of government. It is the smallest of the Turkish Governments of Syria ; but of its dependencies are

42

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

Shamsin, Shumaimis, and the city of Salamiyyah with four districts." (Dim., 202.) 7. The Kingdom of Hamah. " Hamah is the capital; and of its districts are: Barin, a strong fortress ; also Salamiyyah on the border of the desert (or else this belongs to Hims)." (Dim., 206.) 8. The Kingdom of Halab (Aleppo). " Halab is the capital. Besides the 'Awasim district, Halab possesses the following : A1 Khunasirah, on the border of the desert ; and Jabal Bani-1 Iva'ku, which used to be called Kasrain ath Thaniyah ; and Kinnasrin, which was the ancient capital prior to Halab. This last is an ancient Roman city, and its name of old was Surna. " Among other places are Manbij, on the Euphrates, built by one of the Chosroes, and called Manbih, meaning ' most excellent.' In its dependencies is Kala'ah Najm, called also Jisr Manbij. Tall Iiashir, by which runs the river As Sajur, down from 'Ain Tab. Kala'ah ar Rum, where the Khalifah of Armenia and the Patriarch dwell. Also Yaghra, situated on a fresh-water lake formed by the Nahr al 'Aswad, and lying between the lake and Baghras and Antakiyyah. Haruniyyah, built by Harfin ar Rashid, and many other places. In all, there are sixty districts belonging to Aleppo, each with gardens and lands adjoining." (Dim., 202-206.) 9. The Kingdom of Rum. " North of the Kingdom of Aleppo lies the kingdom governed by the Tartars, the Armenians, and the Greeks. This in reality is separate from Syria, and is called the Kingdom of Rum." (Dim., 192.) The author of the Muthlr, writing in the year 1 3 5 1 , gives the following as the political divisions of Syria at his date. He has been copied verbatim by Suyuti, and other later writers : " T h e first town of Syria is Balis, and the last Al Arish, of Egypt. Syria is divided into five districts, namely: — " 1. Filastin, whose capital is llaya (--Klia, Jerusalem), eighteen miles from Ar-Ramlah, which is the Holy City, the metropolis of David and Solomon. Of its towns are Ascalon, Hebron, Sibastiyah, and Nabulus. " 2 . Hauran, whose capital is Tiberias, with its lake, whereof mention occurs in the traditions anent Gog and Magog. It is

SYRiA

AND

PALESTINE.

43

said that at the time of the birth of the Prophet—to whom Aliali give blessing and peace !—the lake overflowed. Of its territories are those of the Ghaur, of the Yarmùk (Hieroniax), and of Baisàn (Bethshean, Scythopolis), which is the town of whose palm-trees the Antichrist (Ad Dajjàl) will inquire. Also Al Urdunn (the Jordan), more often called Ash Shari'ah. " 3 . The Ghùtah. Its capital is Damascus; Tripoli is on its coast. " 4 . Hims (Emessa). T h e name of the province, and of its chief town. Of its dependencies is the city of Salamaniyah (Salaminias). " 5. Kinnasrin. Its chief town is Aleppo, and of its dependencies are Sarmin and Antioch." (Muth. I., in S., vol. six. of J.R.A.S., p. 296.) In the beginning of the fifteenth century the possession of Syria was wrested from the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks of Constantinople. T h e Mamluks were defeated in a great battle, by Sultan Selirn, in the plains to the north of Aleppo (1518), and Syria became a province of the Turkish Empire. TRIBUTE

AND

TAXES.

The Revenues of Syria.—Several statements have come down to us of the revenues of the districts of Ash Sham, during the period immediately preceding the Crusacles, when that province formed an integral portion of the Muslim Empire. The sums are reckoned in Dinars and Dirhams, the standard gold and silver coins instituted by the Omayyad K h a l i f ' A b d al Malik, about the year 72 (691). T h e names Dumr and Dir ham the Arabs borrowed from denarius and drachma, denarius being the name of the silver coin among the Romans, which the Greeks termed the drachma. In passing to the Arabs, however, denarius, or Dìnàr, came to be the name of their gold coin, worth, in the ninth and tenth centuries, something under ten shillings. It weighs rather over 59I grains Troy. The drachma, or Dirham, continued the name of the silver coin with the Muslims, and during the same period was exchanged at the rate of about fifteen Dirhams to the gold Dìnàr. T h e Dirham weighs about 471 grains

44

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

Troy, and, at the ratio of gold and silver of those early days, was worth about eightpence. T o form, however, a just idea of what the sums named in the following lists represent in the currency of the present day, some account must he taken of the depreciation of the purchasing power of gold and silver, since the discovery of the New World in the fifteenth century. Previous to that period, as it is generally estimated, an ounce of gold commanded an amount of food and labour which would be paid by three ounces at the present day. Hence, though a Dinar be the equivalent in gold of about ten shillings sterling, it was equal to at least thirty shillings in purchasing power of the moneys of the present da}'. With regard to the silver coin, the Dirham, a like calculation has to be made, which further has to be modified if we take into account the great depreciation which silver has suffered in modern times. An ounce of gold in Mukaddasi's days bought, approximately speaking, 1 2 ounces of silver, while at the present day (1889) for an ounce of gold we should get some 22^- ounces of silver. Therefore, though the Dirham is worth intrinsically about eightpence, but would, as one fifteenth part of a gold Dinar, purchase goods, at the present day, for the value of three times this amount (i.e. two shillings)—silver itself having now so much fallen in value, the purchasing power of the Dirham's weight of silver is reduced to almost half this latter amount, and in the currency of to-day it may therefore be reckoned at somewhat over the shilling. 1. The earliest date of the Muslim Empire in the " Prolegomena " the fourteenth century

of which we have details of the Revenues is the account preserved by Ibn Khaldun, of his Universal History, a work written in a.d.

Ibn Khaldun says he copied the account from a work called Jirah ad Daulah ("'The Provision-Sack of the State"), and that it represents the tribute paid during the reign of the Khalif al Mamun. Internal evidence, however, makes it certain that the statement refers to a date about half a century before the days of Al Mamun; namely, to the Khalifate of his grandfather, Al Mahdi—that is, between 158 and 1 7 0 a.h., or about 780 a . d The original Arabic will be found in the first volume of the Cairo

SYRIA

AND

PALESTISU.

45

e d i t i o n of t h e text of I b n K h a l d u n , at p a g e 1 5 0 . brackets are readings from other M S S .

The

figures

g i v e n b y D e S l a n e in

in his

t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e " P r o l e g o m e n a " (vol. i. 3 6 4 ) : Dinars. Kinnasrin Province Hims Province Damascus Province Jordan Province , _ . f jlastin Province

. . . .

400,000 (420,000), plus a thousand loads of olive-oil. Wanting. 420,000. 97,000 (96,000). ( 310.000, 1 plus J 300,000 Ratls (Svrian 1 pounds) of olive. J :, " ( on.

Total : 1.227,000 (1,246,000) Dinars, about ,£620,000 sterling intrinsically, or something short of two millions sterling of our money. 2. D u r i n g

t h e r e i g n of

H a r u n ar R a s h i d ( a . h .

170

to

193)

a b o u t t h e y e a r 8 0 0 a . d . , a s u m m a r y o f the r e v e n u e s o f the M u s l i m E m p i r e w a s p r e p a r e d f o r the u s e of t h e W a z i r Y a h y a , t h e B a r m e cide.

T h i s s u m m a r y is p r e s e r v e d in t h e Kitab

al

IVusdrd,

" The

B o o k o f t h e W a z i r s , " written b y A l J a h s h i y a r i : it w a s b r o u g h t t o the n o t i c e o f t h e S e v e n t h O r i e n t a l i s t C o n g r e s s at V i e n n a b y A . v o n K r e m e r , a n d p a r t s o f t h e t e x t w e r e p u b l i s h e d b y h i m in t h e T r a n s a c t i o n s ( Verhandlungen,

Semitische

Section.

Wien,

1888).

A c c o r d i n g to this w o r k t h e f o l l o w i n g w e r e the s u m s r e c e i v e d b y the

treasury

during

the

r e i g n of

the

great

Khalif.

They

are

i d e n t i c a l in m o s t c a s e s with I b n K h a l d u n ' s list a l r e a d y g i v e n : ]Diluirs. Kinnasrin and A l 'Awasim Provinces . Hims Province, Damascus Province . . . Jordan Province . . . Kilastin Province . . . And in addition, from all the (Syrian pounds) of raisins.

470,000. j 320,000, plus 1,000 camel-loads of ( raisins.* 420,000. 96,000. 310,000. Syrian Junds together, 300,000 Ratls

T o t a l : 1,616,000 Dinars, or about £808,000 sterling, equivalent to nearly two and a half millions of our present currency. 3 . T h e n e x t s t a t e m e n t of t h e R e v e n u e s d a t e s f r o m a p e r i o d h a l f * As ZaMb, probably a mistake in the MS. for Az Zait, " olive-oil."

46

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

a century later than the foregoing. It is given by Kudamah in his work called Kita'o al Kharaj ( " T h e Book of the Land I a\";. written about the year 880 A.D., and purports to have been copied from official lists of the year 204 A.H. (820). He gives the sums in both Dinars and their equivalent Dirhams. Extracts from Kudamah"s text will be found in DeSlane's paper in the Journal Asiatiquc for the year 1862, from which the following is copied : Dinars,

or in

360,000

Kinnasrin and ' A w â s i m Provinces H i m s Province Damascus Province . Jordan Province Filastin Province

Dirham*. 5,400,000

118,000

i,770,000

120,000

1,800,0^0

109,000

i,635,oro

195,000

2,925,000

T h i s m a k e s a total of 902,000 Dinars, equivalent to ¿ 4 5 1 , 0 0 0 intrinsically, close on a million and a half in our present currency.

4. Ibn Khurdadbih, in his Book of the Roads and the Provinces, gives the following sums. The text will be found on pages 71 and 73 of the extracts given by Barbier de Meynard in the Journal Asiatique for the year 1865. Ibn Khurdadbih's figures are also identical with those given by Ibn al Fakih, who wrote in 903, (I. F., 103, 105, 110, i n , and 116.) Ibn Khurdadbih drew his account from the official lists giving the revenues of the years immediately preceding the writing of his book—that is, about A.I>. 864: Dinars, Kinnasrin and ' A w â s i m Provinces

.

I l i m s Province D a m a s c u s Province

.

400,000

or in

Dirhams. 6,000,000

340,000

5,100,000

400,000

6,000,000

Jordan Province

350,000

3,250,000

Filastin Province

500,000

7,500,000

T h e total is 1,990,000 Dinars, or about a million sterling, equivalent, however, to three millions of the present currency.

5. Ibn Khurdadbih, besides the figures just given, cites the following on the authority of Al Isfahâni, who flourished in the earlier part of the ninth century A.D. :

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

47

Dînâi's. Hims Province Damascus Province Jordan Province . Filastin Province .

. umìer lSo,ooo 140,000 175,000 175,000

This makes a total of only 670,000 Din&rs, or ^335,000, equivalent to about a million sterling of the present currency.

6. Yakubi, who wrote his Geography in 891, gives the following list: Diihhs. 220,000 300,000 100,000 300,000

Hims Province, not including state farms Damascus Province, including state farms Jordan Province, without the farms Filastin Province, including farms

Making a total of 920,000 Dinars, that is^"460,000 equivalent to rather under a million and a half of our currency. (Yb, 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 116, and 1 1 7 . )

7. According to Ibn Haukal (I. H., 128), the revenue of Syria in a.h. 296 (908), and in a.h. 306 (918), after deduction of the pay of the officers, was 39,000,000 Dirhams ; that is ^ 1 , 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 , equivalent to almost four millions of the present day. 8. Ibn al T'akih, and Ibn Khurdadbih's figures, are copied by Mukaddasi, who, however, gives the following as the revenue in his own days, a.d. 985. (Muk., 189.) Kirmasrin nnd Al 'Awasim Damascus Province . Jordan Province Filastin Province

.

Dîliârs. 360,000 400,000 170,000 259,000

This gives a total of 1,189,003 Dinars, or about ;£6oo,ooo, equivalent to ^1,800,000 of the present currency.

After Mukaddasi's days, apparently there is no known record of the revenues of Syria. A century later came the Crusaders ; and when, after another century, the country had reverted again to the Muslims, what Saladin and his successors in Egypt drew from the Syrian revenues is not recorded. The following table gives a summary of the total revenues of the Syrian Provinces at the various epochs indicated in the foregoing paragraphs :

48

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS. Equivalent in £.*

Dinars. I. R e v e n u e s of a b o u t t h e y e a r 7S0 A. I). 2. R e v e n u e s of H à r û n ar Rash'M's clays ( a b o u t 800) . . . . . 3- R e v e n u e s in t h e year 820 4- R e v e n u e s a b o u t the year 864 5- R e v e n u e s in t h e early p a î t of t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . 6. R e v e n u e s in 891 7- R e v e n u t s in 908 a n d 9 1 8 , 39,000,000 "Dirhams equal to . . . . . . 8. R e v e n u e s in 985 W E I G H T S AND M E A S U R E S

USEI) IN

1,227,000 1,616,000 902,000 1,990,000 670,000 920,000

620,000 808,000 451,000 995,000

2,600,000 1,189,000

1,300,000

335.000 460,000

594,50°

SYRIA.

The names of the Arab weights and measures are, man}? of them, taken from the Greek or Latin, being those that were in use in the Syrian provinces of the Byzantine Empire at the time of the Muslim invasion. Thus the Mudi is the Roman Acorn-measure, the Modius, generally rendered by bushel. T h e Ukiyyah is the Greek Ouyyia, or ounce ; and the Rati (pronounced also Ritl and Rati) is, bv inversion of the " 1 " and " r," the Greek A o r litre. T h e Arabic Kirat, which we have borrowed, and spell " carat," was, in the first instance, an Arab corruption of the Greek word Kiparm, the fruit of the keratea, carob or locust tree, better known as the St. John's bread. T h e n a m e s of t h e Kafiz,

Waibah,

Sa\

Kailajah,

a n d Habb

(or

weight of a grain) are all of native Arab origin. T h e Kabb is etymologically identical with the Hebrew word " cab," a measure containing a quart and a third. In Greek, too, we find Kufic: for the name of a corn-measure ; and the Greeks are said to have received the name from the East. T h e MakMk is said to have been adopted from the Persians, with whom it was the royal drinking-cup, in shape resembling a boat ; and " M a k k u k " is even at the present day in Persia the name given to the weaver's shuttle, which has a boat-like form. T h e Danik, which was the sixth part of either Dirham or Dinar, is also a Persian word ; and Ddnak in that language signifies " a grain." * Intrinsically; present day.

to b e m u l t i p l i e d by three to obtain t h e value in coin of t h e

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

49

T h e basis of the Aral) measures of capacity is the Sir', the cornmeasure of the days of the Prophet, which was ruled to contain the equivalent of " f o u r times the quantity of corn that fills the two hands, that are neither large nor small, of a m a n . " * Roughly speaking, it may be taken as rather more than 5 pints ; and on this estimate the following equivalents, in English measures, are calculated. T h e Kist, which was half a Sa', came from the Greek S i s r n i , which represents the R o m a n sextarius. A s regards the system of weights, the unit is the silver Dirham weight, equivalent to about 475 English grains. It must, however, be remembered that the R a t i (or pound-weight) is not only a standard of weight, but also a measure of capacity ; for the Arabs, like the R o m a n s , calculated cubic measure by the weight of a specific quantity of oil or wine. I n the same double capacity, the K a f i z is not only the corn-measure, but also the land-measure, being the land that may be sown with that quantity of corn, and, as such, counted as the tenth part of the Jarib, the normal square measure for cultivated lands. T h e unit of length was the Dhira\ or ell, which, however, varied at different epochs. T h e R o y a l E l l ( D h i r a ' Mal'iki) of the tenth century measured about 1 8 inches in length ; while the Workman's E l l , in use at a later date (fourteenth and fifteenth centuries), measured about 2 { feet. T h e Persian traveller Nasir-i-Khusrau, whose measurements are, archasologically, of great importance, makes use of two Persian units of length—namely, Gez and Arsh. T h e latter is given as the equivalent of the Arabic Dhira', ell or c u b i t ; while the Gez is generally reckoned to be longer than the cubit, and is given in the dictionaries as roughly equivalent to the English yard. A careful comparison of the passages in which Nasir-i-Khusrau employs these measures leads, however, to the conclusion that he used the terms as synonymous,! and that both the Gez (ell) and the Arsh (cubit) may be taken as measuring somewhat under two English feet. The

Aral)

Mil,

or

mile,

was directly

borrowed

from

the

* Vide Lane's Arabic Dictionary, s. v. S&\ f See Chapter I I I . , description by N&sir-i-Khusrau of the Dome of the Rock.

4

PA LESTIXE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

Byzantines ; it contained 4,000 Dhira', or ells, and may, therefore, be reckoned at somewhat over 2,000 yards. Roughly speaking, it is the geographical mile, or knot. T h r e e A r a b miles commonly went to the Farsakh, a word borrowed by the Arabs from the Persians, who wrote Farsaag, from the Greek Kaf-anáyyac. Throughout Syria, as in all other parts of the Muslim Empire, there was a network of post-roads, with post-houses, where horses were kept at the Government expense. T h e post-stage was called by the Arabs Al jlctríd. T h e institution is of very ancient date, and the word used by the Arabs is probably a corruption of the Latin Veredas—'* a post-horse." T h e length of the stage naturally varied with the nature of the country to be traversed, Mukaddasi writes as follows on the Measures and Weights of Syria during his days—-namely, at the close of the tenth century A.JD. : " Measures of Capacity.—The people of A r R a m l a h (the capital of Palestine) make use of the K a f i z , the Waibah, the Makkulc, and the Kailajah. " T h e Kailajah (or gallon) contains about i i Sa's. " " " "

T h e Makkük (3 gallons) equals 3 Kailajahs. T h e Waibah (6 gallons) is 2 Makküks. T h e K a f i z (3 bushels) is 4 Waibalis. T h e people of Jerusalem are wont to make use of the M u d i (2 bushels), which contains two-thirds of a K a f i z ; and of the K a b b , which equals a quarter of the M u d i ; and they do not use the M a k k ú k at all, except in the Government measurements. " In 'Ammán, the M u d i equals 6 Kailajahs (three-quarters of a bushel)-—their K a f i z is the half of the Kailajah (or gallon)—and by this measure they sell their olives and dried figs. " I n Tyre, the K a f i z is the same as the Mudi of Jerusalem, and the Kailajah here equals the Sá'. " At Damascus, the Ghirárah contains (equivalent, therefore, to 4}- bushels).

ii

Palestine

Kafiz

" Measures of Weight.—In Syria, from H i m s ( E m e s s a ) even to (the country lying between Palestine and E g y p t known as) A l J i f á r , the Ratls average 600 (Dirhams weight e a c h ) ; but some more, some less. Of these the heaviest is the R a t i of Acre, and the lightest that of Damascus.

SYRIA

"The

AND

51

PALESTINE.

l.'kiyyah (ounce) contains from 40 and odd up to 50

(Dirhams of weight), and every Rati contains

12

I'kiyyah, or

ounces (and is equivalent, therefore, to 6 lbs.), except only at Kinnasrin, where the Rati is two-thirds of this (and contains only 4 lbs.), " T h e standard weight of the coin in Syria is very nearly everywhere the IJirham weight: of 60 grains, and their grain ( H a b b ) is the grain of barley-corn. " The

Danik

(which

is the

sixth

of

the

Dirham)

weighs

10 grains. " T h e Dinar contains 24 K i r a t s ; and their Kirat is equivalent to 3J barley-corns (each barley-corn weighing about seven-tenths of a grain, English). " T h e distance between the post-stations (the Barid) in Syria is generally 6 miles." Nasir-i-Khusrau

(Muk., 181, 182.) notes—1047

A.JJ.—that

in

the

bazaars

of

A l e p p o the weight in use was the Dhahiri Rati, which contains 480 Dirhams weight.

(N. K h . , 2.)

T h i s was named after the

Egyptian Fatimite Khalif, Dhahir li Izazi Din Illah, and at this rate was equivalent to about 3-J lbs.

4—2

CHAPTER SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE

II. (continued).

Rivers: T h e Jordan and its tributaries—The rivers of the coast—The rivers of Damascus—The Orontes.—Rivers of the northern provinces. Lakes: The Dead Sea—The Lake of Tiberias—The Hiilah—Damascus Lakes—Lake of Hims and of Afamiyyah—Lakes of Aritioch. Mountains: Sinai—Mount Hor—The Mount of Olives—Mountainchains of Palestine : Ebal and Gerizim, Jabal 'Amilah—The Jaulitn hills —Lebanon mountains—Mountains round Damascus—Ilermon—Tabal al Lukkam. RIVERS.

Nahr al Urdunn.—The J o r d a n , in t h e earlier A r a b chronicles, is invariably given t h e n a m e of Al U r d u n n , a word c o r r e s p o n d i n g with t h e H e b r e w H a - Y a r d e n (almost always written with t h e article), m e a n i n g " t h e D e s c e n d e r . " Al U r d u n n f u r t h e r gave t h e n a m e to t h e Military P r o v i n c e ( J u n d ) of t h e J o r d a n . A f t e r t h e t i m e of t h e C r u s a d e s t h e Jordan, in t h e A r a b histories, begins to b e called Ash Shari'ah, " t h e Watering-Place," t h e n a m e by which it is k n o w n to t h e B e d a w i n of t h e p r e s e n t day. " N a h r al U r d u n n , " says M u k a d d a s i , " rises a b o v e Baniyas, a n d d e s c e n d i n g , forms a L a k e over against Ivadas (called t h e Hiilah L a k e ) ; t h e n c e again d e s c e n d i n g to Tiberias, its waters s p r e a d o u t a n d form t h e L a k e b e a r i n g t h a t n a m e ; a n d hence, f u r t h e r d e s c e n d i n g from t h e valley of t h e Ghaur, it falls into t h e Overw h e l m i n g Lake (which is t h e Mead Sea). T h e river J o r d a n is not navigable for boats." M u k a d d a s i also speaks of t h e b r i d g e over t h e J o r d a n s o u t h of t h e lower e n d of the I . a k e of Tiberias, across which lies the r o a d to

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

53

Damascus, known at the present day as the Jisr a] Majami'ah. (Muk., 184, 1 6 1 . ) Yakut, quoting from Ahmed Ibn at Tib as Sarakhsi (died 899 a.d.), says the Jordan is divided into the Greater (Urdunn al Kabir), which is the Jordan above Tiberias; and the Lesser (Urdunn as Sagkir), which is the Jordan below the Sea of Galilee. " T h e Jordan waters all the country of the Ghaur where the sugar-canes are grown in the lands round Baisan, Karawa, Ariha (Jericho), and Al 'Auja." Yakut refers also to the bridge below the Lake of Tiberias, which he says " is finely built, and has more than twenty arches. The Nahr Yarmuk (Hieromax) joins the Jordan near here, coming down from the Bathaniyyah Province." (Yak., i. 200.) " N a h r al Urdunn (says Abu-1 Fida, writing in 1 3 2 1 ) is the river of the Ghaur called also Ash Shari'ah (the Watering-place). Its source is in the streams that flow down from the Mount of Snow (Hermon) into the Lake of Baniyas (Hulah). From this lake the Shari'ah flows out, and passing, falls into the Lake of Tiberias. From the Lake of Tiberias it passes onward going south. The river Yarmuk joins the Shari'ah after it has left the Lake of Tiberias, and at a point between that lake and Al Kusair. The Shari'ah, which is the Nahr Urdunn aforesaid, flows thence southward in the midst of the Ghaur, passing by Baisan, and on, south again, past Riha (Jericho); and again southward, till it falls into the Stinking Lake, which is the Lake of Zughar (or the Dead Sea)." (A. F., 48.) " N a h r al Urdunn, or the Shari'ah," writes Dimashki, " i s a river with abundant water. It rises at Baniyas, and flows down to the Hulah district, and forms the Lake of Kadas— so called after the Hebrew city (of Kadesh Napbthali), the remains of which are on the hill above—and Kadas was the name of the Hebrew king of that country. Irno this lake there fall many streams and waters. Passing out thence, the Jordan traverses the district of Al Khaitah, and comes to the Jisr Ya'kub, under the Kasr Ya'kub, and reaching the Sea of Tiberias, falls into it. Leaving this, it passes to the Ghaur. At the hot springs of Tabariyyah, there flows out, very marvellous to see, hot salt-water."

54

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

" F r o m the hot springs, too, that rise at a village called J a d a r (Gadara (?), at present U m m K e i s ) — a n d where there are waters for healing every sort of disease that men suffer from—there comes down a great river (the Y a r m u k ) that joins the Jordan, after it has left the L a k e of Tiberias, at a place called A1 Majami' in the Ghaur. T h e two rivers then become one, and as they flow on, their waters become even more abundant, for near Baisan many springs join the J o r d a n : and below this again other springs come in, till at last the J o r d a n flows into the L a k e of Zughar, which is salt and stinking, and is called the L a k e of Lot. T h e river flows into it but does not flow out. T h e lake does not increase in volume in winter for all the water that flows down to i t ; neither does the quantity of its waters decrease in summer. But the J o r d a n flows into it night and day." (Dim., 1 0 7 . ) Nahr al Yarmuk (the ancient H i e r o m a x ) . — " T h e river Y a r m u k , " says Y a k u t , " is a Wadi in Syria, running into the Ghaur. T h e waters fall into the river Jordan, and thence flow down to the Stinking L a k e (or D e a d Sea). Here, on the Y a r m u k , was fought the great battle between the Muslims and the Greeks, in the Khalif A b u Bakr's days. T h e field of battle was a Wadi called A l Wakusah (the Place of Breaking-up). It lies in the Hauran Province of Syria. T h e Muslims, in the days of A b u Bakr, lay encamped on the Y a r m u k when they marched to make their raid against the Greeks. T h e y fell on the idolaters, and tvhalid hastened on the people to the slaughter. A n d certain of them pursued the enemy till they came to a high place that overhung a ravine ; down into this the enemy fell, for they did not see it, the day being misty, or, as some say, because it was night-time. T h o s e of the Greeks who fled and came up later did not know what was happening to those in f r o n t ; and they fell into the ravine also. It was impossible to count those of the enemy ,who were slain, but by estimate 80,000 of the Greeks perished. This ravine has been called Al Wakusah from that day till now, because the Greek army was 'broken-up there.' W h e n the morning dawned, and no infidels were to be seen, the Muslims imagined they had put themselves in a m b u s h ; till at length they gained knowledge of their state. Such as were left fled, the

SYRIA

ANI)

PALESTINE.

55

Muslims following them and slaying them, until the Greek army was completely routed." (Yak., iv. 893, 1 0 1 5 : Mar., iii. 272, 339.) " Nahral Yarmtik (the river Hieromax)," says Dimashki, " flows down from the Jabal Ar Ravyan." (Dim., n o . ) Nahr az Zarka (the river Jabbok),— " Nahr az Zarka (the Blue River) flows down from the country of Hisban (Heshbon), and joins the Jordan." (Dim , n o . ) " I t is a large river," says Yakut, " a n d it falls into the Ghaur. It runs through green-clad places and many gorges, and it was the land of the ancient Himyarite Tubba kings. In this country are many wild animals and carnivorous beasts." (Yak., ii. 924.) Nahr al Maujib (the river Aruon). — " This," says Idrisi, " is the name of the great river, with a deep bed, shut in by two cliffs of the mountain sides, which you pass through going from the district of Ash Sharah to 'Amman. The road goes between these two cliffs, which are not far apart, being distant so little space that a man may talk to another across them. The cliffs overhang the banks of the river, and though, as just said, you may hear a man speak across from one to the other, you must descend six miles and ascend six if you would get from the one cliff to that opposite." (Id-, S-) " Al Mujib, or Al Maujib," says Yakut, " is a place in Syria, lying between Jerusalem and the Balka Province." (Yak., iv. 678 ; Mar., iii. 1 7 1 . ) Nahr al 'Anja ("the Crooked River"), or Nahr Abi Fuirus ( " t h e River of Peter's F a t h e r " ) . — " T h i s is a river," writes Yakut, " running some twelve miles from Ar Ramlah towards the north. It rises from springs in the mountains in the neighbourhood of Nabulus, and falls into the sea between Arsuf and Yafa. Many great battles have been fought on its banks, and when two armies meet beside the Nahr Abi Futrus, it is always the army on the eastern bank that is routed. Thus it was at the battle between the Abbasides and Omayyads, in 1 3 2 (750), and at the battle between the Tillunids and the Khalif al Mu'tadid, at the place called At Tawahin (the Mills), on its banks." (Yak., iv. 1 3 1 ; Mar., iii. 243.) " Al 'Auja is the name of a river running between Arsiif and

56

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

A r R a m l a h (and is the same as the Nahr Abi Futrus)." iii. 744.)

(Yak.,

" T h e Nahr Abi Futrus," says Abu-1 Fida, " i s the river that runs near A r R a m l a h in Filastin. In Muhallabi's work called the 'Aztei, it is said to be the same as the N a h r al ' A u j a (the Crooked). It runs about twelve miles north of A r Ramlah. They say that when two armies meet on its banks, it is always the western host that wins, while the eastern is put to the rout. Thus the Khalif al Mu'tadid fled (884 A.D.) from the Khumaruwaih ibn A h m a d ibn Tulun ; and the Fatimite Khalif of E g y p t A l 'Aziz conquered and took prisoner H a f t a k i n the T u r k (975 A . D . ) , the latter being with his armv on the eastern bank. T h e source of the river is under J a b a l al Khalil, opposite the ruined castle of Majdaliyabah. Its course is from east to west, and it falls into the Greek Sea to the south of the lowlands of Arsuf. From its source to its mouth it is less than a day's journey in length." (A. F . , 4 8 . ) Nahr Laitah (the Litany River), miscalled the Leontes, is at the present day known as A l K a s i m i y y a h . It is mentioned by Idrisi in the twelfth century. " T h e Nahr Laitah falls into the sea between Sur ( T y r e ) and Sarafand. It rises in the mountains, and comes down here to the sea." (Id., 1 2 . ) " Nahr Laita," says Dimashki, " has its source in the lands of K a r a k N u h (Noah's Stronghold). There, many springs and streams come together, and the river flows along the base of the J a b a l L u b n a n (Lebanon), passing J a b a l Mashghara, and into the same there flow many springs. T h e n c e it passes Al J a r m a k , and afterwards Ash Shakif, a great and strong castle. Below this it becomes a large river, and falls into the Mediterranean not far from T y r e . " (Dim., 1 0 7 . ) Nahr al Kalh (the D o g River), the ancient Lycus, is mentioned by Yakut, who states that " it flows between Bairut and Sidon, and is of the Frontier Strongholds, called A l ' A w a s i m . " (Yak., iv. 298, 843 ; M a r , ii. 250, 508.) This is, however, a mistake, as the Dog R i v e r flows into the sea north of Bairut.

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

57

Nahr Ibr&him.—" A river of the Syrian coast, with but a short course. Its waters come down from the Lebanon mountains and Kasrmvan, and running down to the coast, fall into the Mediterranean." (Dim., 107.) Nahr al Abtar ( " the Curtailed " ) • — " A river," writes Dimashki, " which flows into the sea between Bulunyas and Jabalah. It is so called on account of its short course, and because its waters are not used (for irrigation), and that, despite their abundance and rapidity, there are no canals taken from this river. On an island in it are the remains of a fortress called Buldah. It was one of the strongest of places, but was dismantled by its garrison, and this by reason of their quarrelling each with the other, which led to their dispersion. This island is one of the most beautiful places to be seen in this country ; one half of it is washed by the sea, and the part, that is toward the mainland is surrounded by the waters of the river. Thus half is on salt water, half on fresh, but to the sight they both appear but one water, which surrounds the island on all sides.'' (Dim., 209.) The Sabbatical River.—The source of this stream was visited by Nasir-i-Khusrau in 1047. H e writes : " We went by the coast road from Hama southwards, and in the mountains saw a spring which, they say, flows with water but once a year, when the middle-day of the (lunar) month of Sha'aban is past It continues running for three days, after which it gives out not a single drop of water more, until the next year. A great many people visit this place in pilgrimage, seeking propitiation whereby to approach God—may H e be praised and glorified !— and they have constructed here a building and a water-tank." (N. Kh., 5.) This account doubtless refers to the source of the Sabbatical River of antiquity, visited by Titus (Josephus, Wars, vii., 5, J5 1). It is at the present day called Fawwcirah ad Dair, " The Fountain of the Convent," that is, of Mar Jirjis (St. George), the building spoken of by Nasir. Josephus asserts that the spring ceases to flow on Saturdays. T h e Muslims of the present day say Fridays. Nahr Barada.—Barada,

the ancient Abana, is the chief river

PALESTINE

58 of

Damascus.

Some

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

description of

the

network

of

streams

which water the plain of D a m a s c u s will he given in Chapter V I . " Rivers occur in some numbers," writes M u k a d d a s i , " t h r o u g h out the province of Syria, a n d they flow for the most part into the Mediterranean S e a — a l l except the Barada, which, dividing below the city of Damascus, waters the district.

I n its upper course, an

arm branching from the main stream encircles the northern part of the city, a n d divides below into two branches, one of which runs towards the desert and forms there a lake, while the other descends till it joins the J o r d a n . "

(Muk., 184.)

" T h e Barada, also called B a r a d a y a , " according to Y a k u t , " i s the chief river of D a m a s c u s .

T h e r e is another river, also, called

Banas, but the B a r a d a is the main stream.

It takes its rise in a

valley near a village called K a n w a of the district of A z Z a b a d a n i , five leagues from I )amascus a n d near Ba'albakk.

F r o m the springs

there, it flows down to Fijah, which is a village two leagues from Damascus.

H e r e another spring joins it, and their united waters

flow on to a village called j u m r a y a ,

W h e n the stream of the

B a r a d a approaches D a m a s c u s , m a n y canals are led off it, for they have built weirs which turn the water a s i d e ; to the north are two canals under J a b a l K a s i y u n , the upper called N a h r Y a z i d , a n d the lower Thaura. Mu'awiyah."'

T h e former was dug by the

Khalif

Y a z i d ibn

( Y a k . , iv. 8 4 6 ; Mar., iii. 2 5 3 . )

" T h e latter name is often incorrectly spelt T h a u r a h . "

(Yak.,

i. 9 3 8 ; Mar., i. 1 3 1 . ) " T h e N a h r Y a z i d , going off at the village of j u m r a y a , takes a moiety of the waters a n d flows under the foot of j a b a l

Kasiyun,

T h e T h a u r a bifurcates at the village of D u m m a r , a n d below this again, to the south, there are led away the waters of the B a n a s . A f t e r this the main stream of the B a r a d a flows on towards the city, a n d there is taken from it the canal called N a h r al K a n a w a t , which is but a small stream.

On reaching the city, the N a h r al

K a n a w a t divides into numerous water-channels ( K a i i a w t i t ) towards the south, and flows through all the houses of the town.

A great

canal, that already mentioned, the B a n a s , flows through the C a s t l e and the neighbouring houses in D a m a s c u s , a n d after dividing into various water-channels, proceeds through the Ghautah, irrigating all

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

y*

the fields beyond the gates called Bab as Saghir, and Bab ash Sharkf. The main stream of the Barada, after passing through the city, flows also through the Ghautah, and loses itself in the lake to the east. Coming down from the north, the waters of the Thaura likewise fall into this lake, as also the Nahr al Yazicl, which waters all the gardens on the north of Damascus." (Yak., i. 5 5 6 ; Mar., i. T 4 1 . ) The Orontes. — This river was called by the Greeks •-ora/Mc, from the old Syrian name of " Atzoio." meaning " The Rapid." The Arabs corrupted this name into Al'Asi, or " T h e Rebel River," calling it also Al Makhib, " The Overturned," because it flowed in a contrary direction to most other rivers, that is, from the south to the north. The Crusaders, with their usual haphazard method of identification, considered the Orontes to represent the Biblical Pharphar, and refer to it in their Chronicles under that name. " Antakiyyah," says Idrisi, " lies on the river Al Maklub, which is called also Al Urunt (Orontes), This river rises in the territory of Damascus, at: a place near where the desert road bifurcates. From thence the stream flows down and passes Hims ; then traverses the two cities of Hamah and Shaizar and reaches Antioch, where it flows round the northern side of the city, and, turning south, falls into the sea to the south of As Siiwaidiyvah." (Id., 2 3 . ) According to YaMt, when the Orontes leaves the Lake of Kadas, it is known as Al Mimas, or Al Maimas ; at Hamah and Hims, it is called Al \4si, and near Antakiyyah it goes by the name of Al Urunt or Al Urund. (Yak., i. 2 3 3 , iii. 5 8 8 ; Mar., i. 51, ii. 2 2 6 . ) " T h e river of Hamah," says Abu-1 Fida, "is also called Al Urunt, or the Nahr al Maklub (The Overturned), on account of its course from south to north; or, again, it is called Al 'Asi (The Rebel), for the reason that though most: rivers water the lands on their borders without the aid of the water-wheels, called Dtilab and Nd'urah—that is, merely by the flowing of the water— the river of Hamah will not irrigate the lands except by the aid of these machines for raising its waters. The river runs in its entire

6o

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

length from south to north. A t its origin it is a small stream, rising near a domain, about a day's journey to the north of Ba'albakk, at a place called A r R a s . It runs north from A r R a s till it reaches a place called K a i m (Station of) al Hirmil, lying between J u s i y a h and A r R a s . Here, where it passes through a valley, is the main source of the river at a place called Magharat ar R a h i b ( ' T h e Monk's C a v e ' ) ; thence flowing northwards and passing Jusiyah, it falls into the L a k e of K a d a s to the west of Hirns. From this lake the river flows out, passing H i m s and on by A r Rastan to Harnah, thence by Shaizar to the L a k e of A f a m i y y a h . F r o m the Lake of A f a m i y y a h it goes by Darkftsh to the Iron B r i d g e (Al Jisr al Hadid). Bounding the river to the east hitherto, there has been the J a b a l L u k k a m , but when it reaches the Iron B r i d g e the mountains sink, and the river turns here and goes south and westward, passing by the walls of Antakiyyah, after which it falls into the Greek Sea at A s Suwaidiyyah. " T h e r e flow into the Orontes a number of streams, ist. A river which rises under the city of A f a m i y y a h , and, flowing westwards, falls into the L a k e of A f a m i y y a h , where its waters join those of the Orontes. " 2nd. A river rising about two miles to the north of A f a m i y y a h , called A n Nahr al K a b i r ( ' T h e Great R i v e r ' ) . It runs a short distance, and then falls likewise into the L a k e of A f a m i y y a h ; the waters of these two leave the lake as the Orontes. " 3 r d . An N a h r al Aswad, or (in Turkish) K a r a Sou ( ' T h e Black R i v e r ' ) , which flows from the north, and passes under Darbassak. " 4th. N a h r Yaghra. T h i s rises near the town of Y a g h r a , and, after passing the same, falls into the Black River mentioned above, and they together flow into the L a k e of Antakiyyah. " 5th. N a h r Ifrin, which comes from the country of the Greeks, and flows by A r R a w a n d a n to the district of A l J u m a h . After passing Al Jvimah, it flows on to the district called A l 'TJmk ( ' T h e B o t t o m ' ) , and there joins the Black R i v e r ; these three, namely, the B l a c k R i v e r , the N a h r Y a g h r a , and the N a h r Ifrin, become a single stream and fall into the Buhairah (or L a k e o f ) Antakiyyah, flowing out from which their waters become the ' Asi (or

SYRIA AND

PALESTINE,

61

Orontes) which comes down from Hamah above Antakiyyah and to the east* of the city." (A. F., 49.) " T h e Nahr 'Asi," says Dimashki, "which between Hamah and Ar Rastan is called the Nahr Urunt, has its source at the villages called A1 Libwah and Ar Ras, near Ba'albakk, and thence flows down to Hims. A great spring of water comes down and joins it, called 'Ain al Hirmil, above which is an Observatory of the ancient Sabteans, which resembles the two Observatories to be seen at Hims, called Al Maghzal&ni. The 'Asi flows 011 from here past the walls of Hisn al Akrad, and its waters are quite clear, even like tears, till they enter the Lake of Hims ; but on leaving this they are troubled, like the waters of the Nile, and do not become clear again till the river reaches the district called Ard ar Ritj. Ultimately the river flows down past As Suwaidiyyah and out into the sea." (Dim., 107, 207, 259.) Nahr Kuwaik.—The ancient Chalus, and the river of Aleppo. " It rises," says Idrisi, " at a village called Sinab, sixteen miles from Dabik. Thence to Halab is eighteen miles, after which it passes to Ivinnasrin in twenty miles, and on to Marj al Ahmar (' the Red Meadow '), and below this is swallowed up after a twelve miles' course in the marshes. From its source to its disappearance in the marshes it is 42 miles in length." (Id. 25.) Yakut gives much the same information, only that he writes the name of the village, where the Kuwaik rises, Sabtat or Sabtar, adding that some place the source at Sabadir, six miles from Dabik. He states the total length of the Kuwaik to be 48 miles. "Thewaters are sweet, but in the summer-time it almost dries up. After the winter rains, however, it becomes a fine stream, and the poets of Aleppo compare it to Al Kauthar, the river of Paradise,' (Yak.., iv. 206 ; Mar., ii. 462.) " The Kawaik River, opposite Jabal jaushan, near Halab, is called Al 'Aujan." (Yak., iii. 744 ; Mar., ii. 288.) Dimashki describes the Kuwaik in much the same terms. He says : " The libertines of Halab surname the river Abu-1 Hasan, ' Father of the Beautiful.' It ultimately flows through the Marj al Ahmar into the swamp called Buhairah al Matkh (the Lake of Mud)." (Dim., 202 ) * The M S S . read " west," in error.

62

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

Nahr al Azrak ( " t h e B l u e R i v e r " ) . — " T h i s , " says Y a k u t , " i s a river of the T h u g h u r (Frontier Fortresses) between Bahasna and Hisn Mansur, towards H a l a b / ' (Yak,, iv. 8 3 4 ; Mar., iii. 243.) Nahr al Aswad ( " the Black R i v e r " ) . — " A river flowing near the Nahr al Azrak, and in the territories of A l Massissah and Tarsus.'' (Yak., iv. 834 ; Mar., iii. 243 ; see above, p. 60.) Nahr ' I j r h i ' * T h e name of a river in the territories of A l Massissah, which runs in the H a l a b territory." (Yak., iii. 689 ; Mar., ii. 264 ; see above, p. 60.) Nahr adh Dkahab ( " t h e R i v e r of G o l d " ) . — " T h e people of Aleppo call the Wadi Butnan, which passes Buza'ah, by this name. T h i s valley is one of the wonders of the world for beauty. The river flows down into a large swamp some two leagues long and broad, where its waters dry up, and leave salt. T h i s swamp they call Al Jabbiil, and the salt gathered here is exported to all parts of Syria." (Yak., iv. 839 ; Mar., iii. 246.) Nahr Ilihith.—" A river flowing out from the lake called Buhairah al Hadath, near Mar'ash, and falling into the river Jaihan." ( Y a k . , iv. 838 ; Mar., iii. 246.) Nahr Jaihan (the P y r a m u s ) . — " T h e J a i h a n is a river which rises in the country of the Greeks. After passing down through the city of Al Massissah, it runs by certain villages known by the name of A l Mallun,* and then falls into the sea. It has on its banks many hamlets with numerous water-courses." (Is., 6 3 ; I.H., 122.) " T h e Nahr J a i h a n , " says Abu-1 Fida, " i s a river almost of the size of the Euphrates. It passes through the land of Sis (Cilicia, or Little Armenia), and the vulgar name it J a h a n . It flows from north to south between mountains in the Greek territories, till it passes to the north of A l Massissah, and then turning, goes from the east westward, and falls into the Greek Sea not far from the above-named city." ( A . F . , 50.) " T h e beginning of its course," says Dimashki, " i s near Zabatrah. It runs under a huge rock. A t its source is a church, like the church on the Saihan, and its length is nearly equal to that of the Saihan." (Dim., 1 0 7 ; also Y a k . , ii. 1 7 0 , and Mar., i. 267, who add nothing to the above.) T h e a n c i e n t M a l l u s , c a l l e d in the M i d d l e A g e s JSIalo,

SYRIA

ANI)

PALESTINE.

63

Nahr Saihan (the Saras).—" The river Saihan is of Jess size than the Jaihan. There is across it a most wonderful stone bridge of extraordinary length. This river, too, rises in the land of the Greeks." (Is., 64 ; I.H., 122 ; copied by A.F., 249.) " T h e Saih&n," writes Mas'udi, "according to tradition, is one of the rivers whose source is in Paradise. It is the river of Adanah, one of the Syrian Fortresses, and it flows into the Mediterranean It rises three days' journey beyond Malatyah, and Adanah is the only town on it belonging to the Muslims. It flows between Tarsus and A1 Massissah. Its sister river, the Jaihan, has its sources at the 'Uyun Jaihan, three miles from the town of Mar'ash, and flows likewise into the Mediterranean. The only Muslim cities on its banks are A1 Massissah and Kafarbayya." (Mas., ii. 359.) " The Nahr Saihan," says Dimashki, " has the commencement of its course in the country of Malatyah, at a place where there is a fortress. There is here a church in which is a picture of Paradise and its inhabitants. The river runs down from thence, and its course to where it flows into the Mediterranean is 730 (?) miles in length." (Dim., 107.) Abu-1 Fida describes the Saihan in much the same terms, and adds : " It passes through the country of the Armenians—called in our day Bilad Sis—flowing beside the walls of Adanah, and to the west of the same After passing Adanah—which lies less than a day's march from A1 Massissah—the Saihan joins the Jaihan below A1 Massissah, and the two become one stream, which debouches into the Greek Sea between Avas and Tarsus." ( A . F , 50.) The Saihan and Jaihan do not, at the present day, join their waters, but flow into the Mediterranean by separate mouths. The names of Jaihan and Saihan were given to these frontier rivers by the early Muslims, on the analogy of the Jaihan, and Sihun, the •Oxus and Jaxartes, the frontier rivers of Central Asia. Nahr al Baradan (the Cydnus).—"This," says Mas'fidi " i s the river of Tarsus, which flows into the sea on the coasts of Tarsus." (Mas., i. 264.) l b n a l Fakih says this river is also called Al Ghadban. (I.F., 116.)

64

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

" A 1 Baradan," says Yakut, " i s a river of the Thughur (or Frontier Fortresses). It rises in the Greek country, and flows into the sea six miles from Tarsfts. It waters the gardens of Mar'ash, after rising at the foot of a mountain near there called A1 'Akra" (the Bald)." (Yak., i. 553 ; Mar., i. 140.) LAKES.

The Dead Sea.—The Dead Sea, at the present day, is generally known as the Bahr Lut, or " Lake of Lot." In earlier days it is spoken of as AI Buhairah al Miyyatah, the " Dead Lake," Al Buhairah al Muntinah, the " Stinking Lake," or Al Maklub, the " Overwhelmed,1' from the cities of Lot that were overwhelmed in its depths. It is also referred to under the name of the Sea of Zughar or Sughar, from the celebrated town of that name on its banks. It is to be noted that nowhere in the Bible is this lake called the Dead Sea, this denomination first occurring in Justin (xxxvi. 3, .§ 6), who speaks of the " Mare mortuum ;" Pausanias also writes (v. 7, § 4) of 0d/.aaea % vzr.pu. " T h e Dead Sea, Al Buhairah al Miyyatah," says Ya'kubi, "lies in the district of Bait Jibrin. It is from hence that the asphalt (ffumrah) comes, which is also called Mumiya." (Yb., 1 1 7 . ) " T h e Dead Sea," according to Istakhri and Ibn Haukal, "lies in the fore (or southern) part of Syria, near Zughar, and in the Ghaur. It is called the Dead Sea because there is in it no living creature nor fish. The waters throw up a substance called hummar (asphalt), which is used by the people of Zughar for the fertilization of their vines. The vines are so treated all over Palestine ; after the same manner the palm also is fertilized, by applying the male spathe: and so, too, the people of Al Maghrib (the West) fertilize their fig-trees with the flower of the male plant. According to Istakhri, the Dead Sea is called Al Buhairah al Muntinah (the Stinking Lake)." (Is., 64 ; I. H., 1 2 3 ; copied by A. F., 228.) The account of the fertilization of the vines with the bitumen is, of course, a vulgar error. The natives anoint the vine plants with bitumen to keep off the worms and grubs, as is mentioned below in Nasir's account. The artificial fertilization of the palm and other fruit-bearing trees, is a subject very fully discussed by the Arab writers on horticulture.

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE.

65

Mukaddasi writes : " The Lake of Sughar (the Dead Sea) is a marvellous place, for the river Jordan and the river of the Sharah both pour into it, and yet they change the level not at all. It is said that a man does not sink easily in its waters, and that (during storms) waves do not rise on its surface. With its waters, if a clyster be administered, the same is a cure for many disorders. They have a feast-day for the purpose of thus taking the waters, and it occurs in the middle of the month of Ab (August), when the people with those who are afflicted with sickness assemble thereto." (Muk., 186.) " Now the river Jordan, descending through the valleys of the Ghaur, falls into the Overwhelming Lake (which is the Dead Sea). This lake is completely salt, wild, all-swallowing, and stinking. The mountains tower above it, but its waves never rise in the storm." (Muk., 184.) The Persian traveller, Nasir-i-Khusrau, writing in 1047, speaks in the following terms of the Dead Sea : " South of Tiberias lies the Buhairah Lut (the Lake of Lot). The waters of this lake are salt, although the (fresh) waters of the Lake of Tiberias flow down into it. The cities of Lot were along its borders, but no trace of them remains. A certain person related to me that in the salt waters of this lake there is a substance which gathers itself together from the foam of the lake, and is black, with the likeness in form to a bull's (carcase floating). This stuff (which is asphalt) resembles stone, but is not so hard. The people of the country gather it and break it in pieces, sending it to all the cities and countries round. When the lower part of a tree is covered with some of this (asphalt), no worm will ever do the tree a harm. In all these parts they preserve the roots of the trees by this means, and thus guard against the damage to the gardens that would arise from worms and things that creep below the soil. The truth, however, of all this rests on the credibility of the word of him who related it to me, for I have not seen it. They say, too, that the druggists also will buy this substance, for they hold that a worm, which they call the Nuktah, attacks their drugs, and that this asphalt preserves therefrom." (N. Kh., 17, 18.) It is worthy of note that as regards the appearance of the asphalt

5

66

PALESTINE

floating

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

o n the waters of the D e a d Sea, J o s e p h u s uses m u c h the

same expressions.

H e w r i t e s ( B . J., iv. 8, § 4 ) :

" T h e l a k e a l s o e m i t s in v a r i o u s p l a c e s b l a c k m a s s e s o f b i t u m e n , w h i c h float o n t h e s u r f a c e , s o m e w h a t r e s e m b l i n g h e a d l e s s b u l l s in a p p e a r a n c e a n d size." A s regards the stinking properties of the waters, Lieut. L y n c h , w h i l e e n c a m p e d at E n g e d i , n o t i c e d " a s t r o n g s m e l l o f s u l p h u r e t t e d hydrogen," also

" a fetid sulphureous

o d o u r in t h e n i g h t . "

He,

however, adds elsewhere : " A l t h o u g h the water was greasy, acrid, and

disagreeable,

it

was

perfectly

inodorous."

d o u b t l e s s arises f r o m the gases g i v e n

The

o u t at t h e

malodour

springs

which

lie a l o n g t h e s h o r e . "Buhairjh

Zughar,"

writes

Iclrisi,

"is

also

called

Buhairah

S a d i t m a n d G h a m u r , a n d these last were two of the cities o f

Lut,

w h i c h A l l a h o v e r w h e l m e d , so that the place of t h e m b e c a m e the Stinking Lake.

I t is a l s o k n o w n a s t h e D e a d S e a , b e c a u s e t h e r e

is n o t h i n g in it t h a t h a s t h e b r e a t h o f life, n e i t h e r fish n o r b e a s t , n o r a n y o t h e r c r e a t u r e , o f t h e k i n d s f o u n d in o t h e r s t a g n a n t a n d m o v i n g waters.

The

a disagreeable odour.

waters

(of t h e D e a d S e a ) are w a r m , a n d of

T h e r e ply on the lake small ships

which

m a k e the v o y a g e of these parts, a n d carry over corn a n d various sorts o f dates f r o m Z u g h a r a n d A d D a r a h to A r i h a ( l e r i c h o ) , a n d the other p r o v i n c e s of the G h a u r .

The Dead

m i l e s in l e n g t h b y 1 2 m i l e s in t h e b r e a d t h . "

Sea measures

60

(Id., 3.)

" T h e f o u l o d o u r o f t h e l a k e , " s a y s Y a k u t , " is e x t r e m e l y n o x i o u s , a n d in c e r t a i n

years the m i a s m a

is b l o w n a c r o s s t h e l a n d , a n d

c a u s e s d e s t r u c t i o n t o all l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s , h u m a n a n d o t h e r s .

By

t h i s all t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s a r e d e p o p u l a t e d f o r a t i m e ; t h e n other people c o m e there w h o d o not h a v e a care for their lives, a n d t h e s e s e t t l e in t h e l a n d s o n c e m o r e . for n o t h i n g g r o w s there. becomes

useless.

Thus

When

I t is a n a c c u r s e d l a k e ,

a n y t h i n g falls i n t o its w a t e r s

l i r e - w o o d is s p o i l t , a n d s u c h

a s is t h r o w n

u p 011 t h e s h o r e will n o t k i n d l e .

that anyone

who

I b n al L a k i h s a y s

falls i n t o its w a t e r s c a n n o t s i n k , b u t

f l o a t i n g a b o u t till h e d i e s . "

it

drift-wood remains

( Y a k . , i. 5 1 6 ; iii. 8 2 2 ; M a r . , i. 1 3 2 . )

D i m a s h k i writes : " T h e p e o p l e h a v e m a n y o p i n i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e waters (of the D e a d Sea).

S o m e say that

its w a t e r s h a v e a n e x i t i n t o a c o u n t r y a f a r off, w h o s e l a n d s

the}'

SYRIA

AND

PALESTINE

67

irrigate and fertilize, and here the waters may be drunk. This country, they report, lies at a distance of two months' journey. Others say that the soil all round the lake being extremely hot, and having beds of flaming sulphur beneath, there never cease to rise vapours, and these, causing the water to evaporate, keep it to a certain level. Others, again, say there is an exit through the earth whereby its waters join those of the Red Sea ; and others again affirm it has no bottom, but that there is a passage leading down to the Behemoth (who supports the earth). But Allah knows best the truth of all this ! It is from this lake that they get the asphalt. No living creature inhabits it, and no plant grows on its border." (Dim., 108.) Buhairah Tabariyyah (the Lake of Tiberias).—In Mukaddasi's days, as will be mentioned below (Chapter VIII., Tabariyyah), the lake was covered with boats carrying the trade and products of the villages along its shores. " T h e Lake of Tabariyyah," writes Yakut, " i s about 12 miles long by 6 broad. It is like an immense pool, surrounded by the mountains. Many streams pour into it, and the city of Tabariyyah stands on its (western) shore. It lies about 50 miles distant from Jerusalem. The Greater (or Upper) Jordan flows into it, as also the streams coming down from the Nabulus district. Out of the lake flows a great stream, called the Lesser (or Lower) Jordan, which, after watering the Ghaur, pours into the Stinking Sea by Jericho. In the middle of the Lake of Tiberias is a projecting rock, which they say is the tomb of Solomon, the son of David. Now, the sinking together of the waters of the Lake of Tiberias will be a sign of the coming of the Antichrist, called Ad Dajjal. It is related further that, when its waters have disappeared, one of the people of Yajuj and Majuj (Gog and Magog) will say, ' Verily, there is water there beyond,' and then they will all march on towards Jerusalem. Afterwards Jesus will appear, standing on the Rock, called As Sakhrah, being surrounded by all true believers, and to them He will preach. Then a man of the Jurhum tribe—or of Ghassan, as some say- will go out against the people of Yajuj and Majuj, and they will be routed and utterly dispersed." (Yak., i. 5 1 5 ; Mar., i. 1 3 1 . ) 5—2

68

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

"Buhairah Tabarivvah," says Abu-1 Fida in 1 3 2 1, ''lies at the upper end of the Ghaur. Into it flows the Jordan, called Nahr ash Shari'ah, coming down from the Buhairah Bariiyas. The lake is called after Tabariyyah, which is a town now in ruins, on the south-western shore thereof. The circumference of the lake is two days' march, and its surface is quite bare of reeds." (A. F „ 39.) Buhairah Kadas, or Buhairah Baniyas.—The Hulah Lake, called in the Bible the Waters of Merom, is referred to in the early Arab geographers either as the Lake of Kadas, from Kadas (Kadesh Naphthali), on the height west of it; or as the Lake of Baniyas (Paneas, Coesarea Philippi), the city lying some distance to the north. Mukaddasi, in 985, speaks of it as " a small lake, lying about an hour distant from Kadas, the waters of which flow into the Lake of Tiberias. In order to form the lake, they have built a wonderful embankment of masonry along the river, confining the water to its bed. Along the shore are thickets cf the Halfa-reed, which gives the people their livelihood, for they weave mats and twist ropes therefrom. In this lake are numerous kinds of fish, especially that called the Bunni, which was brought here from Wasit (in Mesopotamia), that town of numerous clients." (Muk., 1 6 1 . ) It is to be noted that the Halfa-reed here mentioned is, without doubt, the Papyrus Antiquorum, called, by the Fallahtn of the present day, Babur. (Cf. Canon Tristram Fauna and Flora of Palestine, P. E. F., p. 438.) Lane, however, in his Dictionary (s. v. Haifa), states that the botanical name of this reed is Foa Multiflora, or P. Cynosuroides. The " Bunni," according to Bcrggren (Guide Arabe Vulgaire), is at the present day the name for the carp, which fish, he says, abounds in the Sea of Galilee and in the Euphrates. Sir R . Burton, however, in a note to vol. viii., p. 187, of his translation of the Thousand and One Nights, says the " B u n n i " is the Cyprinas Binni (Forsk), a fish somewhat larger than a barbel, with lustrous, silvery scales and delicate flesh. "Buhairah Baniyas," says Abu-1 Fida, " l i e s near the town of

SYRIA

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PALESTINE,

69

Baniyas, which is in the Damascus Province. It is a lake, surrounded by lowlands, and covered with reeds. Into it flow a number of streams from the mountains round. The river Jordan, called Ash Shari'ah, flows out of it, and falls into the Lake of Tabariyyah." (A. F., 40.) Buhairah al Marj.—The Damascus Lakes are called by Yakut Buhairah al Marj, " the Meadow Lakes." " They lie to the east of Damascus, and five leagues distant, across the Ghautah, near the plain called Marj Rahit. The overflow of the Damascus rivers (the Barada and others) goes into them."'" (Yak., i. 516 : Mar., i. 132.) Buhairah al Bika.—The lake in the plain of Ccelo Syria is called Buhairah al Bika by Abu-1 Fida. " It is a sheet of stagnant water, full of thickets and reeds, lying, at the distance of a day's journey, to the west of Ba'albakk." (A. F., 40.) It is to be noted that this lake does not now exist, its waters having been drained off. On the margin of the Paris MS. of Abu-1 Fida is the following curious note : " The Lake of the Bika was a lowland, covered with reeds and osiers, which they used for making mats. It lay in the middle of the Bika' Plain of Ba'albakk, between Karak Nuh and 'Ain al Jarr. The Amir Saif ad Din Dunkuz bought it for himself from the public treasury, and cleared the land of water by digging a number of channels, which drew off its waters into the Litany River. H e then established here over twenty villages. Their crops were more rich than can be estimated or described, of such products as melons and cucumbers. The people gained great sums, and a rich livelihood. They planted here trees to produce timber, and built mills. The person who had urged Dunkuz to do all this was 'Ala ad Din ibn Salj, a native of those parts. When Al Malik an Nasir (Sultan of Egypt) laid hands on Dunkuz, he took most of these villages from him, and gave them in fief to the Syrian Amirs, and but little remained to Dunkuz or his heirs." This Dunkuz was Governor of Syria from A.D. 1320 (See Abu-1 Fida's Chronicle, under the year 740 A.H.) Buhairah Kadas, or Buhairah Hims.—The Lake of also called Buhairah Kadas, after the Northern Kadesh. says Yakut, south-west of, but near, Hims, and towards

to 1339. Hims is " It lies," the Jabal

7°

PALESTINE

UNDER THE MOSLEMS.

Lubnan (Lebanon mountains). It is 12 miles long and 4 miles broad. The streams of the surrounding hills pour down into it, and their waters go to swell the river 'Asi (Orontes), which flows out of it. On this river lie Hamah and Shaizar." (Yak., i. 516 ; Mar., i. 132.) " Buhairah Kadas,'' says Abu-1 Fida, " is also called the Lake of Hims. Its length from north to south is about a third of a march, and its breadth is the length of the dyke, which we shall now describe. This dyke has been thrown across the river Orontes, and forms the northern border of the lake. It is built of stone, of the construction of ancient times, being attributed to Alexander the Great. In the middle of the dyke, and on it, are two towers of black stone. The length of the dyke, from east to west, is 1,287 ells, and its breadth is i 8 | ells. The dyke hems in this great mass of water, and were it to go to ruin, the waters would rush out, and the lake would become a river, and no longer exist. This lake lies in a plain-country, about a day's journey to the west of Hims. They catch much fish there.'' (A. F., 40.) Buhairah a! Afamiyyah (the lakes of Apamea).—" These," writes Abu-1 Fida, in 1321, "consist of a number of lagoons (BatUtah) divided one from another by beds of rushes, with lowlands covered by reeds, The largest of these lagoons forms two lakes—one to the south, the other to the north. The waters thereof are derived from the river Orontes, which flows into the swamp on the south side, forming the lagoons. The river afterwards flows out again from the northern border of the swamps and lowlands. It is the southern of these two lakes which is more properly called the Lake of Afamiyyah. Its width is of about half a league, its depth is less than the height of a man, but its bottom is so miry that a man cannot stand up in it. On all sides and all over its surface are reeds and willows, and in the middle there is a thicket of reeds and papyrus (baradiy), which prevents the eye from seeing the whole of it at once, for a great part of it is masked thereby. On these lagoons there live all kinds of birds, such as swans ( T i m m a h t ) and the species called Al Ghurairah (?) and Sangh, and pelicans (AI Bajffah) and cranes (AI Iwazz). Also birds that feed on fish, such as the species

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called Al Jalth (?) and Al Ahyadaniyat (or white-feathered fowls), and other such aquatic birds. In no other lagoons of which I have knowledge are there so many kinds of birds as here. In spring-time these lagoons are so crowded with yellow water-lilies (Niliifar) that the whole surface is hidden thereby, and the water is as though covered by a veil from end to end. formed of their leaves and flowers. T h e boats thread their way through them. " T h e second great lagoon, which is to the north of the first, is separated from it by the marshy land covered with reeds, through which runs a waterway, whereby boats go from the southern to the northern lagoon. This northern lagoon forms part of the district of Hisn Barziyah. It is known as the L a k e of the Christians ( B u h a i r a h an Nasdra); for there are Christian fishermen who live here in huts built on piles, in the northern part of the lagoon. This lake is four times larger than the Afamiyyah 1 .ake. In the middle of the Lake of the Christians the dry land appears. Water-lilies grow all along its northern and southern banks ; and there are here also water-birds like what has been described above. There is here the eel called AI Ankalis. These lagoons lie to the west, bearing somewhat to the north of the town of Afamiyyah, and at no great distance therefrom." (A. F., 40.) Buhairah Antakiyyah (the L a k e of A n t i o c h ) . * — " T h i s lake," says Yakut, " lies at a distance of three days' journey from Antioch. It is of sweet: water, and in length about 20 miles, while its breadth is 7 miles. T h e lake lies in the territory known as Al 'Amk, 'the lowland.'" (Yak., i. 5 1 4 ; Mar., i. 1 3 1 . ) " Buhairah Antakiyyah,'' says Abu-1 Fida, " lies between Antakiyyah, Baghrds and Harim, and occupies the plain country called Al 'Amk. It belongs to the district of Halab (Aleppo), and is situated about twelve clays' journey to the west thereof. Into this lake flow three rivers coming from the north. T h e easternmost of these is called the Nahr 'Ifrin ; the westernmost, which runs under Darbassak, is called An Nahr al Aswad, ' the Black River ;' and the third, which flows between the first two, is called the Nahr Yaghra. Yaghra is the name of a village on its banks, the population of which is Christian. T h e circumference * Known at the present day as Ak Deniz.

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of the lake is about a day's journey. It is covered with reeds, and there are fish and birds here the like to which we have mentioned in describing the Lake of Afamiyyah. The three rivers aforesaid —namely, the Nahr al Aswad, the Yaghra, and the :Ifrin-—cometogether * to form a single stream before they fall into the lake on its northern shore. And from the southern end a river flows out which joins the Orontes below the Jisr al Hadid (the Iron Bridge), which lies about a mile above Antakiyyah. The lake lies to the north of Antakiyyah." (A. F., 4 1 . ) Buhairah al Yaghra.—A lake mentioned by Yakut, probably one of the small lakes found to the north-east of the Lake of Antioch. t " It l> es ," says Yakut, " between Antioch and the Thughur (or Frontier Fortresses), and collects into it the waters of the river 'Asi (the Orontes), of the Nahr 'Ifrin and the Nahr al Aswad. These two last come clown from the neighbourhood of Mar'ash. It is called also Buhairah as Sallur—which last is the Eel, called also Al Jirri—by reason of the number of these fishes found in its water." (Yak., i. 5 1 6 ; Mar., i. 1 3 2 . ) Buhairah al Hadath.—"This," says Yakut, " i s a lake near Mar'ash, lying towards the Greek country. Its beginning is near the village of Ibn Ash Shi'i, 1 2 miles from Al Hadath in the direction of Malatyah. The lake extends thence to Al Hadath, which is a strongly fortified castle of those parts." (Yak., i. 5 1 4 ; Mar., i. 1 3 1 . ) MOUNTAINS.

At T(ir.~Tur," says Abu-1 Fida, " i n the Hebrew language means ' mountain ' in general, but the name has passed to designate certain mountains in particular. Thus TYir Zaita (the Mount of Olives) is the hill near Jerusalem, where, according to tradition, 70,000 prophets died of hunger. Tur is also the special name of the mountain above Tiberias (Mount Tabor). T h e position of * This is no longer the case, according to the present maps. T h e N a h r al A s w a d , called at the present day in Turkish, K a r a Sou, meaning likewise " Black R i v e r , " flows into the L a k e of A k Deniz on the north, while the ' I f r i n , or ' A f r i n , flows in by a separate mouth from the east. See above, pp. 60 and 62, + Presumably not identical with the " L a k e of A n t i o c h , " the description of which is given in the A r a b i c text two pages previously.

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Tur Sina (Mount Sinai) is the subject of discussion. Some say it is the mountain near Ailah, and others that it is a mountain in Syria ; and they say that it is called Sina on account of its stones, or else on account of the trees that grow there.* Tur Harun (Mount Hor) is the name of a high mountain which rises int he country south of Jerusalem. The tomb of Aaron is on its summit." (A. F , 69.') Tur Sina {Mount Sinai).—" Tur Sina,'' writes Mukaddasi, " lies not far from the Bahr al Kulziun (the Red Sea). One goes up to it from a certain village called Al Amn,f which same is the place where Moses and the children of Israel encamped. There are here twelve springs of fairly sweet water, and thence up to Sinai is two days' march. The Christians have a monastery (Dair) in Mount Sinai, and round it are some well cultivated fields, and there grow here olive-trees, said to be those mentioned by Allah in the Kuran (chap, xxiv., ver. 35), where it is written concerning that ' blessed tree, an olive neither of the east nor of the west.' And the olives from these trees are sent as presents to kings." (Muk., 179.) " Jabal at Tur," says Idrisi, " is reached from Faran (Paran). It lies close to the (Red) Sea, and the mountain-chain stretches parallel thereto, and between it and the sea is a road that is much traversed. It is a high mountain into which you go up by steps, and at its summit is a mosque where there is a well of stagnant water, from which those who come and go may drink." (Id., 2.) " A t TOtr, or TOr Sina," says Yakut, " i s a mountain near Madyan (Midian), where God spake with Moses the second time, after he had come out of Egypt with the Children of Israel. The name ' T u r Sina' is of the language of the Nabatheans. It is a mountain covered with plants and trees, and is an extension of the range above Ailah." (Yak., iii. 557 ; Mar., ii. 214.) Tur Harfm (Mount Hor).—" A high and sacred mountain," * Stanley, Sinai and Palestine, p. 17 (ed. of 1877), states that " the most probable origin even of the ancient ' S i n a i ' is the Seneh or acacia, with which, as we know, it then abounded "—that is, in Biblical times. f Possibly an Arab corruption of the name of Elim, where the Israelites encamped before coming " into the wilderness of Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai," Exod. xv. 27.

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says Yakut, "lying to the south of Jerusalem. Hariin (Aaron) went up into it with his brother Musa (Moses), but did not return. Then the children of Israel accused Moses of having slain him, but he showed them a bier on a plateau in the mountain-top, with the body of Harun upon it. The place was called after him."* (Yak., iii. 5 5 9 ; Mar., ii. 2 1 5 . ) The historian Mas'udi, as early as 943 A.D., writes: " A a r o n died and was buried in Jabal Maab (Moab) among the mountains of the Sharah district, that lie in the direction of Sinai. His tomb is celebrated. It stands in an 'Adite (antique) cavern, in which on certain nights is heard a mighty sound, terrifying to all living creatures. Others say Aaron was not buried underground, but was merely laid in this cavern. There are many strange accounts given by those who have visited this place, and who describe it." (Mas., i. 94.) liir Zaita, or Jabal Zaita (the Mount of Olives).—" A holy mountain,' 1 says Yakut, " overhanging Jerusalem and to the east. The Wadi Jahannum divides it from the city. In this wadi is the 'Ain Sulwan (Siloam), and across the wadi the Bridge as Sirat shall be stretched. On the mount Omar prayed. The tombs of 70,000 prophets who died here are to be seen in this mount, and from it Jesus ascended into heaven." (Yak., iii. 558 ; Mar , ii. 2 1 5 . ) Jabal ash Sharah.—" This district lies to the south of the Balka. Behind it is the desert, which is now inhabited by the settled Fellahm." (A. F., 228.) Jabal al Khamr.—" These mountains," writes Yakut, " a r e mentioned in the Traditions of the Prophet, and are said to be the mountains of Jerusalem, so-called from the quantity of wine (khamr) that is grown here." (Yak., ii. 21 ; Mar., i. 238.) At Tfir (Ebal mid Gerizim).—"This," says Y'akut, " i s the holy mountain above Nabulus, to which the Samaritans go in pilgrimage. T h e Jews hold it also in high respect, for they say Abraham was here commanded to sacrifice Isaac. T h e name is mentioned in the Pentateuch." (Yak., iii. 557 ; Mar., ii. 214.) Jabal

at Tur (Tabor).—This

name is mentioned incidentally

* This legend is given in full in G. Weil's Biblische mdiiner,

p. 1 8 5 .

It is d e r i v e d f r o m the M i d r a s h .

Legendcn

tier Musel-

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by I b n J u b a i r in 1 1 8 5 as that of the mount situated not far from Tiberias ; he, however, did not visit it. (I. J . , 3 1 3 ) " A t Titr T a b o r , " says Y a k u t , " is a mountain above Tabariyyah in the J o r d a n Province. It lies four leagues from Tabariyyah. On its summit is a spacious and strongly built church. A fair is held there every year. A 1 Malik al Mu'atham 'Isa, the son of (Saladin's brother) Al Malik al 'Adil Abu Bakr, built there a strong castle, and kept his treasures in this place. But when in 6 1 5 ( 1 2 1 8 ) the Franks came from beyond the sea to try and retake Jerusalem, he ordered this castle to be dismantled, and so it remains n o w . " ( Y a k . , iii. 557 ; Mar., ii. 2 1 5 . ) A t Tftr (Tabor) Aii of H e r a t confounds with Sinai, for he says Moses received the law in this mountain, which is near T i b e r i a s . " (A. H . , Oxf. M S . , f. 3 1 . ) Jahal 'Amilah.—The J a b a l 'Amilah in U p p e r Galilee is the one referred to in the following notices. A second mountainous region, also called J a b a l 'Amilah, but lying north of Damascus, is that of which Y a k u t (A.D. 1 2 2 5 ) speaks under the heading of Kafar Latha (see below, Part II.). " J a b a l 'Amilah," says Mukaddasi in 985, " i s a mountainous district where are many fine villages, and here are grown grapes and other fruits, and olives. T h e r e are also many springs. The rain waters its fields. T h e district overhangs the sea, and adjoins the Lebanon mountains." (Muk., 1 6 2 . ) T h i s district is called after the tribe of the B a n i 'Amilah, who were settled here in the early days of the Muslim conquest. The district corresponds roughly with U p p e r Galilee. During the period of the Crusades the tribe migrated north, and the region between Damascus and H i m s then took the name of J a b a l 'Amilah, as is mentioned by Yakut, and further described in the following a c c o u n t : " I n the S a f a d Province," says Dimashki in 1 3 0 0 , " i s the district of the J a b a l 'Amilah, full of vineyards, olives, carob, and terebinth trees. Its population are of the Rafidite and Imamite sects. Also in this province is Jabal J a b a ' * with a The name is identical with the Biblical Gibeah, meaning "humped," a common name for hills. See Stanley, Sinai and Palestine, Appendix, § 25.

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like population. It is a high mountain tract full of springs, and vineyards, and fruits. Near it is Jabal Jazin, with springs and fruit-lands in plenty; also Jabal Tibnin, which has a castle and districts, and lands round it. This district is also inhabited by Rafidites and Imamites. Jabal Baki'ah is named after the village called A1 Baki'ah, where are running waters and excellent quinces. In this district are also many other villages with olivegrounds in plenty, and fruits and vineyards. Jabal az Z a b M overhangs Salad. Az Zabiid is a village, and there are many other villages in the country round. The people of these villages are of the Druze, Hakimite, and Amrite sects." (Dim., 2 1 1 . ) " The Jabal 'Amilah," writes Abu-1 Fida, " runs down east of the coast as far south as Tyre. The fortress of Ash Shaktf (Arnon) is here, which Baibars took from the Franks, under whom its people formerly lived." (A.F., 228.) Jabai'Auf.—"This," says Abu-1 Fida in 1 3 2 1 , " i s the district lying south-east of Jabal 'Amilah. The populations of both were rebellious until Usamah (one of Saladin's Amirs) built the fortress of 'Ajltin to curb and bring them into subjection. This last is a very strong fortress, dominating the Ghaur (of the Jordan). All its territory is very fertile, and it is covered with trees, and wellwatered by streams." (A. F., 228. See also under 'Ajlun.) Jabal Siddika.—"These mountains," writes Mukaddasi in 985, " l i e between Tyre, Kadas, and Sidon. Here may be seen the tomb of Siddika. On the middle day of the (lunar) month of Sha'ban, it is the custom for great numbers of the people of the towns round here to make a pilgrimage to this tomb, and the Lieutenant of the Sultan also is present. It so happened that once when I was sojourning in this part of the country, upon the Friday in the middle of Sha'ban, the Kadi Abu'l Kasim ibn A1 'Abbas called upon me to preach before the congregation. In my sermon I urged them to the restoration of this mosque, and with success, for afterwards this was accomplished, a pulpit being also erected therein. I have heard it related that when a dog in pursuit of any wild animal comes to the boundaries of this sanctuary, he there and then stops short; and there are other stories told of a like kind." (Muk., 188.)

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Jabal al Jaulan (the Hills of the Jaulan). " T h e s e , " savs Mukaddasi, " l i e on the opposite hand to the Lebanon mountains (across the Jordan), over towards Damascus. Here it was that I met Abu Ishak al Balluti (him of the oak-tree), who was accompanied by forty men, his disciples, all of them dressed in woollen garments (after the manner of the ascetics). These people have a mosque, in which they assemble for prayer. I found Abu Ishak to be a very learned and pious jurisconsult of the sect of Sufvan ath Thuri. These people feed themselves with acorns—the fruit being of the size of the date, but bitter. They split it in half, and make it sweeter by allowing it to soak in water. It is then dried and ground in a mill. In this country (of Jaulan) also grows desert-barley, which the people mix with the acorn-meal, and therewith make their bread." (Muk., 188.) Jabal al Jalil.—"The inhabitants of these mountains," says Va'kubi in 891, " a r e Arabs of the 'Amilah tribe." (Yb., 1 1 4 . ) " The Jabal al Jalil," says Yakut, " lie on the coast of Syria, extending up towards Hims. The dwelling-place of Nuh (Noah) was in Jabal al Jalil, near Hims, at a village called Sahr, and it is said the Flood began to pour out here. The Jabal al Jalil extend to near Damascus also, and 'Isa (Jesus) preached here, promising that this district should never suffer famine." (Yak., ii. n o ; Mar., i. 263.) Jabal Bani Hilal.—"These,"' writes Yakut, " a r e the mountains of the Hauran Province of Damascus. There are in this district many villages ; among them is the village of Al Malikiyyah, where is shown a wooden platter said to have belonged to the Prophet." (Yak., ii. 2 2 ; Mar., i. 239.) Jabal Lubnan (the Lebanon mountains).---" These," says Mukaddasi, " lie contiguous to (and to the north of) the Jabal Siddika, running all along and parallel to the coast, from Sidon up to Tripolis. Their slopes are covered with trees, and fruits fit for eating abound. Everywhere among the Lebanon mountains occur little springs of water, where people who come here to pray have made for themselves houses of reeds or rushes. They live on the edible fruits, and also gain money by cutting what is known as the ' Persian reeds,' and the myrtles, and other like shrubs, which they

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carry into the towns for sale. But they do not obtain much profit thereby.*' (Muk., 160, 188.) " T h e Lebanon mountains," says Ibn al Fakih, " b e l o n g to Damascus, and they are inhabited by hermits and anchorites. There grow here all kinds of fruits and vegetables, and everywhere are springs of fresh water. These mountains extend as far as the Greek countrv. T h e apples of the Lebanon are very wonderful, in that when they first come from the Lebanon district the}- are sweet mountain apples without any flavour or savour, hut after having been set in the water of the Nahr al Balikh, they immediately acquire a fine flavour." (I. F., 1 1 2 , 117.) " T h e Lebanon mountains," writes Ibn Jubair in 1 1 8 5 , " a r e full of the castles of Ismailians (Assassins). This range is the boundary between the Muslims and the Franks, for beyond them to the north lie Antakiyyah and Al Laclhikiyyah, and other towns, which are in the hands of the Christians. May Allah return these into the hands of the Muslims !'' (I. J . , 257.) " T h e mountains of the Lebanon overhang Hims," says Yakut. " T h i s range has its origin at A l ' A r j , between Makkah and Al Madinah, and extends thence till it reaches Syria. That part which is in Filastin is called Jabal al H a m a l ; in the Jordan Province the range is called Jabal al J a l i l ; at Damascus, the Sanir mountains ; near Halab, Hamah, and Hims, it is the J a b a l Lubnan. This same range extends to Antakiyyah and Al Massissah, and there it is called J a b a l al Lukkam, Further north again they go by Malatyah Sumaisat and Kalikala, even as far as the Bahr al Khazar (the Caspian), and there they are called Al Kaik. I11 the Jabal Lubnan is a most beautiful district belonging to Hims, and here are grown fruits in quantities, and arable fields are seen such as are found nowhere else. T h e y say that in the Lebanon district there are spoken seventy dialects, and no one people understands the language of the other, except through an interpreter.'' (Yak., ii. 11 o, iv. 347 ; Mar., i. 263, ill. 5.) " O n the slopes of the Lebanon mountains," according to Dimashki, ! ! there grow more than ninety kinds of plants and herbs that spring up here naturally without cultivation, flowering all the

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year round, to the profit of those who gather them. Also many fruit and other trees." (Dim., 199.) " T h e Lebanon mountains," Ibn Batiitah notes in his Diary, " are some of the greenest in the world. There are all sorts of fruits grown here, and springs of water occur frequently, and shade is found in summer. This region is celebrated for the anchorites and holy men who dwell here." (I. B., i. 184.) Jabal an Nicsairiyyah.—"These," writes Abu-1 Fida, " a r e celebrated mountains lying near Halab. The Nusairiyyah are a sect called after Nusair, the freedman of 'Ali ibn Abu Talib.* They hold that 'Ali stopped the sun 011 its course, as did Joshua, the son of Nun ; and that a crane spoke to him, as did one to Jesus. They most of them hold 'Ali for the divinity." (A. F., 232, from Ibn Sa'id.) Jabal Sanir.—"This," says Yakut, "is the name for the mountains lying between Hims and Ra'albakk, along the high road. On their summit is the Castle of Kala'ah Sanir. The range extends west, and east to A1 Kariyatain and Salamiyyah. It lies east of Hamah. Jabal al Jalil is opposite to it, lying along the coast. Between the two stretches the wide plain in which lie Hims and Hamah, and many other towns. This mountain tract of Sanir forms a Kfirah (or district), and its capital is Huwwarin, which is Kariyatain. The range is co-terminous with the Lebanon on the right, and stretches thence northwards, even as far as the Bilad al Khazar (the region of the Caspian). On the left (southwards and to the east), the range travels on and extends even as far as Al Madinah. Jabal Sanir is only the name of this mountain tract between Hims and Ba'albakk, and is thus but a small portion of this long range of mountains." (Yak., iii. 1 7 0 ; Mar., ii. 61.) " J a b a l ath Thalj ('the Mountain of Snow,' Hermon), Jabal Lubr.an, and Jabal Lukkam, all these mountains," says Abu-1 Fida, " a r e continuous, and run one into the other, forming but a single range going from south to north. The southern point of the chain is near Safid. Jabal ath Thalj (Hermon) runs up north and passes * This is a mistake. They take their name from Muhammad ibn Nusair, who flourished at the end of the ninth century A.D. See Haarbrucker's translation of Shahrastani, i. 2 1 6 .

So

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Damascus. T o the north of this the mountain takes the name of Jabal Sanir. T h e spur of the chain which overhangs Damascus is called Jabal Kasiyiin. After passing Damascus the chain goes west of Ba'albakk, and the range over against Ba'albakk is called the Lebanon. After passing Ba'albakk it has to the east of it I arabulus of Syria, and goes now by the name of Jabal 'Akkar 'Akkiir being the name of a fortress in the above-mentioned mountains. T h e chain then passes on north, and after Tarabulus reaches Hisn al A k r a d (the Kurd's Castle). Here, in the same parallel, l.es Hims, at a distance of a day's journey to the west Hence the range continues on northward, and passes the line of Hamah, then Shaizar, then Afamiyyah ; and the range, when it comes to be opposite these cities, goes by the name of fabal al Lukkam. When the parallel of Afamiyyah is r e a c h e d - the Jabal ill Lukkam lying to the west of that city—there begins another chain opposite the Jabal al Lukkam, and running parallel with it northwards. Near Afamiyyah this second range goes by the name of Jabal Shahshabu. being called after a village of the name of Shahshabu, lying on the southern flank of the mountains. Jabal •Shahshabu runs from south to north, passing to the west of -\1 Ma'arrah, Sarmin, and Halab ; after this it bears to the west, and joins the mountains of the country of the Greeks. " A s to the Jabal al Lukkam, however, this continues northwards, and there is between it and the Jabal Shahshabii a broad valley about half a day's march across, in which lie the lakes of Afamiyyah. T h e J abal al Lukkam extends on northwards, passing by Sihyun, Ash Shughr and Bikas, and A l Ivusair, till it reaches Antakiyyah. H e r e the mountain chain is cut through, and opposite, beyond the valley, rise the mountains of Armenia. In (the valley) cutting across the chain runs the river 'Asi (Orontes), which falls into the sea at A s Suwaidiyyah." (A. F., 68.) Jabal

ad Barziyyah

(the Druze M o u n t a i n ) . — " A continuation

o f the Lebanon chain," says Abu-1 Fida, " i n the direction of the valley, called Wadi at Taim. the Jabal Kasruwan.

T h e chain goes also by the name of

T h e people are of the Ibahite sect as are

also the people of the Lebanon." Jabal Sikkin.

li

(A. F., 229, quoting Ibn Sa'id )

This," says Abu-1 Fida, in 1321, " is the moun-

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tain chain where the Ismailians have their chief quarters and their fortresses, such as Masjaf, A1 Kahf, and A1 Khawabi. These fortresses lie in the mountains that run down along the coast over against the country between Hims and Hamah. Masyaf makes a triangle with Hims and Hamdh . the cast point is Hamah, the north-west is Masyaf, and the south-west is Hims, they being each about a day's journey the one from the other." (A. F., 229 ; from Ibn Sa'id.) Jabal al Khalt.—" A district," says Abu-1 Fida, "lying between Hims and the sea. There are here a great number of the Ibahite sect (who believe everything to be licit). When they can they sell the Muslims as slaves to the Franks." (A. F., 229.) Jabal as Summak.—"This," says Yakfit, " i s a great mountain region in the district of Western Halab. It is covered with towns, villages, and castles, all inhabited by people of the Ismailian sect. T h e district lies for the most part in the government of Halab. Jabal as Summak is so called from the Summak (Sumac) tree, which abounds here. Sesame, cotton, and apricots are grown here, and there is running water; also gardens in plenty and all kinds of trees and fruits." (Yak., ii. 21 ; Mar., i. 238.) Jabal al Akra' (" the Bald M o u n t a i n " ) . — " T h e name of the mountains," says Yakiit, " in Syria that are seen from the sea, overhanging the districts round Antakiyyah, Al Ladhikiyyah, and Tarabulus. T h e range is of unknown height." (Yak., i. 336 ; Mar., i. 195.) Jabal Akra' is the Mons Casius of the Romans, south of Antioch. Ibn Batiltah writes that it is " o n e of the highest mountains of Syria. You see it first of all others coming from the sea. The Turkomans dwell on its slopes (A.D. 1355), A N ( I there are many streams and springs that flow down from it." (I. B., i. 183.) Jabal Zw&Mw.--These are more particularly the eastern and northern parts of what was anciently known as Mount Amanus. All the Syrian mountains north of the Lebanon, however, are apparently included under this general name. (See the preceding page.) T h e Jabal Lukkam are often identical with the Jabal Sikkin of the later Arab geographers. " J a b a l al Lukkam," says Mukaddasi, " i s the most populous

6

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82 mountain

region

r i c h in fruit-trees.

of

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

S y r i a , a l s o t h e l a r g e s t in a r e a a n d t h e m o s t A t t h e p r e s e n t d a y , h o w e v e r (AJ). 9 8 5 ) , all t h i s

c o u n t r y is in t h e h a n d s o f t h e A r m e n i a n s . these mountains, and A n t i o c h

T a r s u s lies

is o n o u r s i d e o f t h e m . "

beyond (Muk.,

188.) I s t a k h r i a n d I b n H a u k a l , w r i t i n g in t h e e a r l i e r p a r t o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , g i v e t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t o f this r a n g e : " T h e J a b a l a l L u k k a m divide the Syrian from the M e s o p o t a m i a n

Frontier

For-

t r e s s e s , a n d t h e r a n g e e x t e n d s n o r t h , far i n t o t h e c o u n t r y o f

the

Greeks—for

first

200

leagues

even,

as

it is

said.

The

range

a p p e a r s in t h e l a n d s o f I s l a m , r u n n i n g d o w n b e t w e e n M a r ' a s h ,

Al

Haruniyyah, and

of

'Ain Zarbah.

The

| a b a l al L u k k a m a s far s o u t h a s A l

chain goes by the n a m e

Laclhikiyyah.

B e l o w this the

m o u n t a i n s h a v e , as far a s H i m s , t h e n a m e o f J a b a l ( t h e m o u n t a i n of the tribes of) B a h r a a n d T a n u k h . called spread

the

S o u t h o f H i m s t h e r a n g e is

L e b a n o n (Jabal L u b n a n ) , a n d to the south again they

out all o v e r Syria, until on t h e o n e h a n d they e n d o n t h e

shore of the B a h r Kul/.um (the R e d Sea), and on the other reach t h e C a i r o hills c a l l e d A l M u k a t t a m . "

( I s . , 5 6 ; I. H . ,

108.)

" T h e J a b a l al L u k k a m , " says Y a k u t , " are the m o u n t a i n s overhanging A n t a k i y y a h , A l Massissah, Tarsus, and the other cities of t h e T h u g h v i r (or F r o n t i e r

Fortresses).

into the country to the L e o kings M a r . , iii. 1 7 . )

T h e range extends north

of A r m e n i a . "

( Y a k . , iv.

364;

CHAPTER

III.

JERUSALEM. Names of the H o l y C i t y — A d v a n t a g e s of J e r u s a l e m — F e r t i l i t y — P o s i t i o n — Territory of the Holy City. The Mosque al Aksâ : T h e Prophet's Night J o u r n e y — T h e origin of the Mosque al A k s â — ' O m a r ' s early building and that of ' A b d al M a l i k — Earthquake of the year 130 (746), and restoration of the mosque by A l Mansûr and A l M a h d i — T h e technical meaning of the term Masjid, or Mosque—Mukaddasi's description of the A k s â in 9 8 5 — T h e Talisman a:«1 the Maksûrahs—Earthquakes of 1016 and 1034—Inscriptions relating to repairs—Description of the A k s â by Nâsir i-Khusrau in 1047—Dimensions of the m o s q u e — T h e C r u s a d e s — T h e mosque given over to the Templars —Description by Idrisi and A l i of Herat—Saladin's reconquest of Jerusalem and restoration of the A k s â in 1187—Description by Mujir ad Din in 1496—Modern mosque. The Dome of the Rock : T h e R o c k — T h e dome built over it by ' A b d al Malik in 6 9 1 — M r . Fergusson's theory disproved—'Abd al Malik's great inscription—Al Mâniûii's inscription on the doors—Description of the Dome by Ibn al F a k î h in 903—Arrangement of the piers and pillars— Istakhri and Ibn Haukal's description—That of Mukaddasi, 9 8 5 — T h e earthquake of 1016 and the inscriptions recording repairs—Nâsir-i-Khusrau's visit in 1 0 4 7 — T h e fall of the great lantern in 1060—The Crusaders and the Templum Domini—Temple-churches and Rafael's picture of the Sposalizio—Idrisi's account in 1 1 5 4 — ' A l i of Herat's in 1 1 7 3 — T h e iron railing round the R o c k , and other details—Pieces of the R o c k taken by the Crusaders as relics—Saladin's restoration—His great inscription in the D o m e — I b n Batûtah's visit in 1355—Destruction of the Cupola by fire in 1448—Suyûti's description of the Footprint of the Prophet, the C a v e , and other niaive's—Mujir ad Din's measurements.

JERUSALEM is known to the Muslims by the names of Bait Mukaddas

or Bait

al Makdis,

at

signifying " T h e H o l y H o u s e " ; or

else simply as Al Kuds, " T h e Holy " ; the latter being the more common name at the present day. T h e ancient Hebrew name, " Yerushalaim," was, however, well known to the Arabs, though not used, and Yâkût mentions the forms Urtshallum, Urîshalum, also Ska/Jam, as the various names of the Holy City in the days of the Jews. (Yak., I 402 ; iii. 315 ; iv. 590.) 6—2

84

PALESTINE

UNDER THE

MOSLEMS.

The Emperor Hadrian, after removing all the Jews from Jerusalem (A.D. 130), gave the town the name of . Flia Capitolina the first part of this name was preserved in the Arabic as Iliya, a name which, having no signification for the Arabs, gave rise to numerous legends. Yakftt writes : " I t is reported on the authority of Ka'ab that the Holy City was called Iliya because Iliya was the name of a woman who built the city." (Yak., iv. 5.92.) Further, Iliya is said to mean Bait Allah (the House of God). And, again, iliya is said to have been so called " after the name of its builder, who was Iliya, son of Aram, son of Sam (Shem), son of Nuh (Noah), and he was the brother of Dimishk (Damascus), Hims (Emessa), Urdunn (Jordan), and Filastin (Palestine)." (Yak., i. 423, 424.) Jerusalem also was occasionally referred to in poetry as Al Baliit, meaning " t h e court," or "royal residence," a word the Arabs had borrowed from the Latin palatium. Politically, Jerusalem was never the Muslim capital of the province (Jutid) of Palestine, this being at Ar Ramlah. But the Holy City, containing within its precincts The Further Mosque, The Rock, and other Holy Places, was only held second in point of sanctity to the twin Holy Cities of the Hijjaz, Makkah, and Al Madinah, in the eyes of all true believers ; and Jerusalem, further, was to be the scene of the great gathering on the Last Judgment Day. Even in the days of its splendour, when Ar Ramlah was the capital of the south province, as Damascus was of the north, Istakhri and Ibn Haukal (tenth century) write : " T h e Holy City is nearly as large as Ar Ramlah. It is a city perched high on the hills : and you have to go up to it from all sides. In all Jerusalem there is no running water, excepting what comes from springs, that can be used to irrigate the fields, and yet it is the most fertile portion of Filastin." (Is., 5 6 ; I.H., 1 1 1 . ) Mukaddasi (A.D. 985), as his name implies, himself a native of the Holy City, is loud in praises of the manifold advantages of Jerusalem. H e writes : " T h e Holy City, Bait-al-Makdis, is also known as Iliya and Al Balat. Among provincial towns none is larger than Jerusalem, and many capitals are, in fact, smaller. Neither the cold nor the heat is excessive here, and snow falls but rarely. T h e K a d i Abu-]

JERUSALEM. Kasim, son of the Ivadi of the two Holy Cities of M a k k a h a n d A1 Madinah, inquired of me once concerning the climate of Jerusalem. I answered : 1 It is betwixt a n d between—neither very hot nor very cold.' Said he in reply : ' Just as is that of Paradise.' T h e buildings of the H o l y City are of stone, and you will find nowhere finer or more solid construction. In no place will you meet with people more chaste. Provisions are most excellent here ; the markets are clean, the Mosque is of the largest, and nowhere arc Holy Places more numerous. T h e grapes are enormous, and there are no quinces to equal those of the H o l y City. In Jerusalem are all manner of learned men a n d doctors, a n d for this reason the heart of every man of intelligence yearns towards her. All the year round, never are her streets empty of strangers. As to the saying that Jerusalem is the most illustrious of cities—is she not the one that unites the advantages of This World a n d those of the N e x t ? H e who is of the sons of This World, and yet is ardent in the matters of the Next, may find there a market for his wares ; while he who would be of the men of the Next World, though his soul clings to the good things of This, he, too, may find t h e m here ! Further, Jerusalem is the pleasantest of places in the matter of climate, for the cold there does not injure, and the heat is not noxious. A n d as to her being the finest city, why, has any seen elsewhere buildings finer or cleaner, or a Mosque that is more beautiful ? And as for the Holy City being the most productive of all places in good things, why, Allah—may H e be exalted !— has gathered together here all the fruits of the lowlands, and of the plains, a n d of the hill country, even all those of the most opposite kinds : such as the orange a n d the almond, the date and the nut, the fig a n d the banana, besides milk in plenty, a n d honey a n d sugar. A n d as to the excellence of the City ! why, is not this to be the place of marshalling on the Day of J u d g m e n t ; where the gathering together and the appointment will take place ? Verily M a k k a h a n d A1 Madinah have their superiority by reason of the K a ' a b a h a n d the Prophet—the blessing of Allah be upon him a n d his family !—but, in truth, on the Day of J u d g m e n t both cities will come to Jerusalem, and the excellencies of them all will then be united. A n d as to Jerusalem being the most spacious

86

PALESTINE

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

of cities ; why, since all created things are to assemble there, what place 011 the earth can he more extensive than this ? " Still, Jerusalem has some disadvantages. T h u s it is reported, as found written in the T o r a h (or B o o k s ) of Moses, that ' Jerusalem is as a golden basin filled with scorpions.' T h e n you will not find anywhere baths more filthy than those of the Holy C i t y ; nor anywhere the fees for the same heavier. Learned men are few, and the Christians numerous, and the same are unmannerly in the public places. I n the hostelries the taxes are heavy on all that is sold ; there are guards at every gate, and no one is allowed to sell of the necessities of life except in the appointed places. I n this city the oppressed have no succour ; the meek are molested, and the rich envied. Jurisconsults remain unvisited, and erudite men have no renown ; also the schools are unattended, for there are no lectures. Everywhere the Christians and the J e w s have the upper hand : and the mosque is void of either congregation or assembly of learned m e n . " (Muk., 166, 1 6 7 . T h e translation is somewhat condensed.) T h a t the Christians and J e w s had the upper hand in Jerusalem in the century preceding the first Crusade is certainly a curious and noteworthy fact. In his introductory chapter Mukaddasi states that " i n Jerusalem no one can find either defect or deficiency. Wine is not publicly consumed, and there is no drunkenness. T h e city is devoid of houses of ill-fame, whether public or private. The people, too, are noted for piety and sincerity. A t one time, when it became known that the Governor drank wine, they built up round his house a wall, and thus prevented from getting to him those who were invited to his banquets." (Muk., 7.) Mukaddasi further continues: " T h e territory of the H o l y City is counted as all the country that lies within a radius of forty miles from J e r u s a l e m , and includes many villages. For twelve miles the frontier follows the shore (of the Dead Sea) over against Sughar and M a a b ; then for five miles it lies through the desert, and is in the district towards the south, even unto the country that lies beyond A1 K u s a i f a h and the land that is over against it. A n d on the north the frontier reaches to the limits of Nabulus. T h i s , then, is the land which

JERUSALEM.

87

Allah—may He be exalted ! has called blessed (Kuran, xxi. 7 1 ) : it is a country where, on the hills are trees, and in the plains fields that need neither irrigation nor the watering of rivers, even as the two men (Caleb and Joshua) reported to Moses, the son of 'Amran, saying : ' We came 011 a land flowing with milk and honey.' I myself at times in Jerusalem have seen cheese selling at a sixth of a Dirham for the Rati, and sugar at a Dirham the Rati ; and for that same sum you could obtain either a Rati and a half of olive-oil, or four Ratls of raisins." (Muk:., 173.) Taking the Dirham at tenpence, and the Syrian Rati at 6 lbs., we have cheese at about a farthing a pound, sugar at a penny three farthings a pound, olive-oil at about a shilling the gallon, and raisins at the rate of 2-J lb. for a penny. T h e great natural fertility of all the country round Jerusalem is constantly referred to by the Arab writers. Mukaddasi notes that " in Palestine, during the summer-time, every night, when the south wind is blowing, dew fells, and in such quantities that the gutters of the Aksa Mosque are set to run." (Muk., 186.)* T h e position of Jerusalem crowning a hill-spur, and surrounded on three sides by deep gorges, seems to have struck alike both Eastern and Western pilgrims. T h e Arabs were accustomed to build their great cities in the valleys, or else in the plain-country, for the sake of the streams. The Persian traveller Niisir-i-Ivhusrau, who reached Jerusalem on March 5, 1047, approached the Holy City by the northern road. He writes : " After we had continued our upward road some way from Kariyat-al-'Anab, a great plain opened out in front of us, part of which was stony, and part of it good soil; and here, as it were, on the summit of the mountain, lay before our view Bait-alMukaddas (the Holy City). Now, the men of Syria, and of the * T h e following passage from The Holy Land and /.In: Bible, by Cunningham Geikie, D . D . , may illustrate the exactness of Mukaddasi's observations : " In Palestine," Dr. Geikie writes, " the bright skies cause the heat of the day to radiate very quickly into space, so that the nights are as coid as the day is the reverse. T o this coldness of the night-air, the indispensable watering of all plant-life is due. The winds, loaded with moisture, are robbed of it as they pass over the land, the cold air condensing it into drops of water, which fall in a gracious rain of mist on every thirsty blade."

PALESTINE

88

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

neighbouring parts, call the H o l y City by the name of K u d s (the H o l y ) ; a n d the people of these provinces, if they are unable to m a k e the pilgrimage (to M a k k a h ) , will go up at the appointed season to J e r u s a l e m , and there perform their rites, a n d upon the feast-day slay the sacrifice, as is customary to do (at M a k k a h ) on the same day.

T h e r e are years when as many as twenty thousand

people will be present at J e r u s a l e m during the first days of the (pilgrimage) month of Dhu-l H i j j a h ; for they bring their children also with them, in order to celebrate their circumcision.

From

all the countries of the ( k e e k s , too, a n d from other lands, the Christians and the J e w s c o m e up to J e r u s a l e m in great numbers, in order to m a k e their visitation of the C h u r c h (of the Resurrection) and the synagogue that is there ; and this great C h u r c h (of the Resurrection) at J e r u s a l e m we shall describe further on in its proper place.

(See Chapter V.)

" T h e lands a n d villages round the H o l y City are situate upon the hillsides ; the land is well cultivated, and they grow corn, olives, and figs ; there are also many kinds of trees here.

I n all the

country round there is no (spring) water for irrigation, and yet the produce is very abundant, and the prices are moderate.

M a n y of

the chief men harvest as much as 50,000 M a n n s weight (or about 1 6 , 8 0 0 gallons) of olive-oil.

T h i s is kept in tanks and cisterns,

and they export thereof to other countries. never visits the soil of Syria.

It is said that drought

J e r u s a l e m is a city set on a hill,

a n d there is no water therein, except what falls in rain.

The

villages round have springs of water, but the H o l y City has no springs.

T h e city is enclosed by strong walls of stone, mortared,

and there are iron gates.

R o u n d about the city there are no

trees, for it is all built on the rock.

J e r u s a l e m is a very great

city, a n d at the time of my visit it contained a population of some twenty thousand men.

I t has high, well built, a n d clean

bazaars.

paved with slabs of

All

the

streets are

stone;

and

wheresoever there was a hill or a height, they have cut it d o w n and m a d e it level, so that as soon as the rain falls (the water runs off), and the whole place is washed clean.

T h e r e are in

the

city numerous artificers, and each craft has a separate b a z a a r . " (N. K h . , 23, 24.)

JURHS.-ILEil.

THE

AKSA

MOSQUE.

T h e great mosque of Jerusalem, A1 Masjid al Aksa, the " Further Mosque," derives its name from the traditional Night Journey of Muhammad, to which allusion is made in the words of the Kuran (xvii. i ) : " I declare the glory of Him who transported His servant by night from the Masjid al Haram (the Mosque at Makkah) to the Masjid al Aksa (the Further Mosque) at Jerusalem " — t h e term " Mosque " being here taken to denote the whole area of the Noble Sanctuary, and not the Main-building of the Aksa only, which, in the Prophet's days, did not exist. According to the received account, Muhammad was on this occasion mounted on the winged steed called Al B u r a k — " t h e Lightning "-—and, with the angel Gabriel for escort, was carried from Makkah, first to Sinai, and then to Bethlehem, after which they came to Jerusalem. " And when we reached Bait al Makdis, the Holy City," so runs the tradition, " w e came to the gate of the mosque (which is the Haram Area), and here Jibrail caused me to dismount. And he tied up Al Burak to a ring, to which the prophets of old had also tied their steeds." (Ibn al Athir's Chronicle, ii. 37.) Entering the Haram Area by the gateway, afterwards known as the Gate of the Prophet, Muhammad and Gabriel went up to the Sacred Rock, which of old times had stood in the centre of Solomon's Temple ; and in its neighbourhood meeting the company of the prophets, Muhammad proceeded to perform his prayer-prostrations in the assembly of his predecessors in the prophetic office- Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others of God's ancient apostles. From the Sacred Rock Muhammad, accompanied by Gabriel, next ascended, by a ladder of light, up into heaven ; and, in anticipation, was vouchsafed the sight of the delights of Paradise. Passing through the seven heavens, Muhammad ultimately stood in the presence of Allah, from whom he received injunctions as to the prayers his followers were to perform. Thence, after a while, he descended again to earth; and, alighting at the foot of the ladder of light, stood again on the Sacred Rock at Jerusalem. The return journey homeward was made after the same fashion -on the back of the

PALESTINE

9°

UNDER

THE

MOSLEMS.

steed A1 B u r a k — a n d the Prophet reached M a k k a h again before the night had waned.*

Such, in outline, is the tradition of the

Prophet's Night Journey, which especially sanctifies the R o c k and the Haram Area in the sight of all true believers. A f t e r the capitulation of Jerusalem to 'Omar in 635 ( a . h 14), that K b a l i f caused a mosque to be built on what was considered to be the ancient The

traditional

site of the T e m p l e

position of

this site,

of

David.

'Omar (as it is

(or

Masjid)

stated)

verified, by the re-discovery of the R o c k — c o n c e a l e d under a dungh i l l — f r o m the description that had been given to him, 'Omar, by the Prophet, of

the place where he had made his prayer-

prostrations in Jerusalem on the occasion of his Night-Journey. T h e traditional accounts of 'Omar's discovery of the R o c k will be given later on.

It should, however, be here noted that none

of the earlier A r a b annalists (such as Biladhuri, or T a b a r i ) record any details of the building, by 'Omar, of the A k s a M o s q u e .

In

the early days of I s l a m — n a m e l y , under 'Omar and his successors, down to the settlement of the Khalifate, in the family of the Omayyads, at D a m a s c u s — m o s q u e s

were, without

doubt, con-

structed of wood and sun-dried bricks, and other such perishable materials.

H e n c e , of the buildings erected in 'Omar's days, pro-

bably but little remained, half a century later, to be incorporated in the magnificent stone mosque erected by the orders of the Omavyad Khalif, ' A b d al Malik, about the year 690 (a.h. 72). It seems probable, also, that this latter Khalif, when he began to rebuild the Aksa, made use of the materials which lay to hand in the ruins of the great St. Mary C h u r c h of Justinian, which must originally have stood on the site, approximately, on which the A k s a M o s q u e was afterwards raised.

Possibly, in the substructures still

to be seen at the south-east corner of the Aksa, we have the remains of Justinian's church, described by Procopiusf as erected * Further details of the traditional account of this celebrated Night Journey may be read in chapter xii. of Washington Irving's Life of Mahomet. In the commentaries on the Kuran, the account found in the Ibn al Athir and the other chroniclers is considerably amplified. f See Palestine Pilgrim's T e x t Society, Procopitis. p. 138. T h e subject is ably discussed in Professor Hayter-Lewis' recent work, The Holy Places of Jerusalem, chapter iv., where all the authorities are cited.

JERUSALEM.

91

in 560 A.D.j and burnt clown in 6 1 4 by Chosroes I f . during the great Persian raid through Syria, which laid most of the Christian buildings of the Holy Land in ruins. Perhaps also the remarkable silence of all the Arab writers in regard to the date of 'Abel al Malik's rebuilding of the Aksá may be taken as an indirect proof that that Khalif did not erect the edifice from its foundations, but that he made use of the remains of the St. Mary Church (where 'Omar had raised his primitive mosque), incorporating these into the new Aksá, which thus rose on the ruins of the Christian edifice. However this may be, the Chronicles make ¡10 mention of the date or fact of 'Al)d al Malik's rebuilding of the Aksá Mosque, and the earliest detailed description of the same is that given by Mukaddasi in 985, some three centuries after 'Abd al Malik's days. Of the Dome of the Rock, on the other hand, we possess detailed accounts in the older authorities, describing both the foundation in A.H. 72 (691), and the general appearance the Dome presented as early as the third century of the Hijrah. It would appear as though the Aral) chroniclers and the travellers who visited the Haram Area at this period were more impressed by the magnificence of the Dome of the Rock than by the Mainbuilding of the Aksá Mosque, of which the Dome of the Rock, in fact, was but an adjunct. Previous to Mukaddasi's account, what we know of the history of the Aksá Mosque may be sum marized as follows: According to tradition, in or about the year 635 (A.H. 14), 'Omar erected a mosque (probably of wood) at Jerusalem.* Presumably about the year 691 (A.H. 72), the * In so far as I have been able to discover, the earliest mention of 'Omar's building a mosque in Jerusalem is the account found in the Chronicle of the Byzantine historian Theoplianes. T h e following is a translation from the Greek which will be found on p. 524, vol. i., of the Chronographia (IJonn, 1839) : " Anno Mundi 6 1 3 5 , Anno Domini 635. In this year Omar began to restore the Temple at Jerusalem, for the building, in truth, no longer then stood firmly founded, but had fallen to ruin. Now when Omar inquired the cause, the J e w s answered saying: ' Unless thou throw down the Cross, which stands on the Mount of Olives, the building of the Temple will never be firmly founded.' Thereupon Omar threw down the Cross at that place, in order that the building (of the Temple) might be made firm; and for the s a n e cause innumerable crosses in other quarters these enemies of Christ did likewise

PALESTINE

92

UNDER

O m a y y a d K h a l i f 'Abel al Malik M u k a d d a s i a n d Suyûti).

In

earthquake,

detailed account given

by the

authority, and

of

and I

the A k s â M o s q u e ( vide

rebuilt

1 3 0 ) , an earthquake is

greater part of

damage

caused

have been able to

author of

namely, a.i>.

Ibn

the

MOSLEMS.

746 ( a . h .

said to have thrown down the this

THE

the 1351.

the A k s â .

by

it,

the

Of

earliest

find is that (see below)

Muthir, who is,

however, a

T h e early Chronicles of

al Athir m a k e 110 mention of this

late

Tabari

earthquake

of

a . d . 746, though M u k a d d a s i (985) alludes in general terms to the earthquake which had thrown down the A k s â in the days of the Abbasides.

If the date of the earthquake, a h .

1 3 0 (746), be

correct, it should be noted in passing that this was two years before the overthrow of the D a m a s c u s K h a l i f a t e : since it was only in a . h .

1 3 2 that As S a f f â h conquered his O m a y y a d rival, and

f o u n d e d the dynasty of the A b b a s i d e s ,

who shortly after this

transferred their seat of government from D a m a s c u s in Syria to B a g h d a d on the Tigris. T h e account referred to above, as given by the author of the Muthir, of the earthquakes is as follows : * "On

the authority of ' A b d ar R a h m a n

ibn M u h a m m a d ibn

M a n s û r ibn T h a b i t , from his father, who had it from his father a n d grandfather.

In the days of ' A b d al Malik, all the gates of the

m o s q u e were covered with plates of gold a n d of silver.

B u t in the

reign of the Khalif Al Mansûr, both the eastern and the western portions of the mosque had fallen down.

T h e n it was reported to

the K h a l i f , saying, ' O c o m m a n d e r of the faithful, verily the earthq u a k e in the year 1 3 0 ( a . d . 746) did throw down the eastern part of the mosque and the western part also ; now, therefore, d o thou give orders to rebuild the same a n d raise it again.' overthrow." Theophanes was born in 7 5 1 , and the close of the eighth century a . d . (he died in therefore prior by more than half a century to His youth is separated by considerably under a date of Omar's conquest of Jerusalem.

And

the

wrote his Chronicle towards 8 1 8 a . d . , 203 A.H.), and he is# the earliest A r a b authorities. century and a half from the

T h e Arabic text of this passage, collated from several M S S . in the Bibliothèque Nationale, is printed in my paper in the J . k , A . S., new series, xix., p. 304. T h e passage is copied verbatim by Suyûti (in 1470), and again by Mujir ad Din (in 1496) ; see p. 250 of the Cairo text of the latter author.

JERUSALEM.

93

K h a l i f replied that as there were n o m o n e y s in his treasury, (to supply the l a c k of c o i n ) they s h o u l d strip o i l the plates of g o ! d a n d of silver that overlaid the gates.

S o they stripped these off

and coined therefrom Dinars a n d Dirhams, which moneys were e x p e n d e d on the rebuilding of the m o s q u e until it w a s c o m p l e t e d . T h e n o c c u r r e d a s e c o n d e a r t h q u a k e , a n d the b u i l d i n g that

A1

M a n s u r h a d c o m m a n d e d to b e built fell to the g r o u n d .

I n the

d a y s of the K h a l i f A 1 M a h d i , w h o s u c c e e d e d him, the

mosque

w a s still lying in ruins, which, b e i n g r e p o r t e d to h i m , h e m a n d e d t h e m to r e b u i l d the s a m e .

com-

A n d the K h a l i f s a i d that the

m o s q u e h a d b e e n (of old) too narrow, a n d of too great l e n g t h — a n d (for this reason) it h a d not b e e n m u c h u s e d b y the p e o p l e — so n o w (in r e b u i l d i n g it) they s h o u l d curtail the length a n d increase the b r e a d t h .

Now

the restoration

of

the

mosque

was

c o m p l e t e d on the new plan during the d a y s of his K h a l i f a t e . " F r o m this a c c o u n t w e learn that in a.h. 1,30 the A k s a was thrown d o w n by e a r t h q u a k e a n d rebuilt b y the K h a l i f A 1 M a n s f t r .

This

restoration b y A1 M a n s i l r p r o b a b l y took p l a c e a b o u t the y e a r a.h. 1 5 4 ( 7 7 1 ) , f o r in that y e a r the C h r o n i c l e s of T a b a r i a n d of I b n al A t h i r i n f o r m us that A l M a n s u r visited J e r u s a l e m , a n d p r a y e d in the mosque.*

T h e C h r o n i c l e s , h o w e v e r , b e it noted, m a k e n o m e n t i o n

of A l M a n s i l r ' s restoration of t h e b u i l d i n g : this we o n l y r e a d in the a c c o u n t g i v e n b y the a u t h o r of the Muthir.

A c c o r d i n g to this

latter author a s e c o n d e a r t h q u a k e (of w r hich, h o w e v e r , a p p a r e n t l y n o m e n t i o n is m a d e in a n y of the C h r o n i c l e s ) l a i d A l M a n s u r ' s building in ruins ; a n d afterwards the K h a l i f A l M a h d i , his successor, rebuilt the A k s a a s e c o n d time, m a k i n g it on this o c c a s i o n b r o a d e r a n d shorter.

O f A l M a h d i ' s restoration, as in t h e f o r m e r c a s e ,

n o m e n t i o n is f o u n d in the C h r o n i c l e s .

I f , h o w e v e r , the a u t h o r i t y

of the M u t h i r is to b e a c c e p t e d f o r the fact, w e s h o u l d p l a c e this s e c o n d restoration in or a b o u t the y e a r 7 8 0 (a.ii. 1 6 3 ) , f o r in that year, a c c o r d i n g to T a b a r i , f the K h a l i f A l M a h d i went to J e r u s a l e m a n d m a d e his p r a y e r s in the A k s a M o s q u e , a n d h e w o u l d then d o u b t l e s s h a v e h a d the ruined c o n d i t i o n of the b u i l d i n g u n d e r his notice. * Tabari, Series I I I . , p. 372 ; Ibn al Athir, vol. v., p. 467. f Tabari, Scries I I I . , p. 500.

brought

94

PALESTINE

UNDER THE

MOSLEMS.

From about the year A.r>. 780, when the Aksa was restored in A1 Mahdi's reign, down to 985 when Mukaddasi describes it, as far as is known from the historians, no accident befell the mosque. Shortly before this, however, " a colonnade supported on marble pillars," as we learn from Mukaddasi, had been erected by the celebrated 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir, for many years independent Governor of Khurasan and the East. Of the appearance of the Aksa. previous to Mukacldasi's date, the early geographers tell us next to nothing. What little is noted by them will be given on a subsequent page, where the accounts are translated in extenso. Before, however, these passages are laid before the reader, and in order that he may rightly understand the descriptions which the early Muslim writers have left of the Noble Sanctuary, with the buildings of the Aksa and the Dome of the Rock, it will be necessary to enter into ; ome explanations of the Arab and technical usage of the word " mosque." The main characteristics of the primitive Arab mosque are well exemplified in the accompanying plan representing the Jami' of Ibn Tillun. This is the oldest mosque in Cairo, having been erected by Ahmad ibn Ttilfin about the year 879 (265 A.H.) As here seen in its simplest form, the mosque primarily consisted of an open courtyard, within which, and round its four walls, ran colonnades or cloisters, to give shelter to the worshippers. On the side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Makkah), and facing which the worshipper must stand and kneel during prayers, the colonnade, instead of being single, is, for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened out to form the Jami', or "place of assembly." In the case of Ibn Trillin's Mosque, five rows of columns, with the boundary-wall, form the five transverse aisles (A to a). In the centre of the boundary-wall on the Makkah side is set the great Mihrab of the mosque (