Out of Place: Human Skeletal Remains from Non-Funerary Contexts. Northern Italy during the 1st Millennium BC 9781407308838, 9781407338682

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Out of Place Human Skeletal Remains from Non-Funerary Contexts Northern Italy during the 1st Millennium BC

Vera Zanoni

ISBN 978-1-4073-0883-8

B A R

BAR International Series 2306 2011

Out of Place Human Skeletal Remains from Non-Funerary Contexts Northern Italy during the 1st Millennium BC

Vera Zanoni

BAR International Series 2306 2011

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 2306 Out of Place © V Zanoni and the Publisher 2011 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407308838 paperback ISBN 9781407338682 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407308838 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2011. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….… 1. Theme and Methods 1.1.The Archaeological Approach 1.2.The Anthropological Approach 2. Aims 3. Towards an Archaeology of Discoveries and Studies 3.1. Italy 3.2. Germany, Eastern Europe and Great Britain 3.3. France and Switzerland 4. A New Chapter for the Archaeology of Death?

pp.1-8

Premise to the Catalogue ……………………………………………………………… 1. Organisation of the Catalogue 2. Organisation of the Form of the Catalogue 3. Evaluation of the Sources 3.1. Archaeological Sources 3.2. Anthropological Sources

pp. 9-12

Catalogue ……………………………………………………………………………….

pp. 13-48

Chapter 1. Spatial Contexts …………………………………………………………... 1. Macro Level 2. Semi-macro Level 3. Micro Level 4. Spatial Contexts and Class Ages

pp. 49-58

Chapter 2. Post Mortem Treatments and Body Positions …………………………… 1. Inhumed Bones 1.1 Complete Skeletons 1.2 Isolated Skeletal Remains 2. Cremated Bones 2.1. Extended Fire Areas 2.2. Single Cremations 3. Partial Cremated Skeletons

pp. 59-66

Chapter 3. Biological Evidence ……………………………………………………….. 1. Demographic Aspects and Sex Ratio 2. Pathological Conditions 3. Causes of Death: Some Remarks 4. An Example of Anthropological Inquiry: Cremated Bones from Stenico, Calferi (Trento)

pp. 67-78

Chapter 4. Artefacts and Discharge Locations ……………………………………… 1. Artefacts 2. Discharge Locations

pp. 79-86

Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………… 1. Settlements 2. Symbolic Actions Areas 3. Natural Places of Significance 4. Human Skeletal Remains from Non-Funerary Contexts: Final Remarks

pp. 87-106

Appendix I. Ambiguous Evidence ……………………………………………………..

pp. 107-109

Appendix II. Copper Age and Bronze Age in Northern Italy ………………………….

pp. 110-115

Appendix III. Comparanda: Iron Age in Central-Southern Italy and in Europe ………

pp. 116-126

References ………………………………………………………………………………

pp. 127-150

Plates ……………………………………………………………………………………

Figg. 1-137

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the help of those who made possible the realisation of this work. First and foremost these are Professor Maurizio Harari, Professor Lucio Troiani and Professor Clelia Mora (University of Pavia). Special thanks are due to my colleagues from the University of Pavia, Lorenzo Zamboni, Marta Saporiti and Mirella T. Robino, and to those who allowed the consultation of their unpublished works: Fabio L. Cocomazzi, Anna Consonni, Chiara Garattini, Muriel Geroli, Claudia Lambrugo, Sonia Modica, Elisa Perego, Lucio G. Perego, Luca Pisoni and Serena Solano. For the unpublished data, special thanks are due to: Annalisa Conzato (Società di Archeologia Rizzi, Bressanone), Livio Cristofolini (Chief Menager of the Soprintendenza ai Beni Archeologici e Librari della Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Trento), Lorenzo Dal Rì (Ufficio Beni Archeologici della Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano, Bolzano), Alessandro Guidi (Scientific Director of the excavations at Oppeano Veronese, ex Fornace; Roma Tre University), Franco Marzatico (Director of the Castello del Buonconsiglio Museum, Trento), Paolo Michelini (P.ET.R.A. s.c.r.l., Padova), Elisabetta Mottes (Soprintendenza ai Beni Archeologici e Librari della Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Trento), Gianni Rizzi (Società di Archeologia Rizzi, Bressanone), Angela Ruta Serafini (Soprintendenza alle Antichità del Veneto, Padova), Luciano Salzani (Soprintendenza alle Antichità del Veneto, Verona), Sara Santoro Bianchi (University of Parma), Massimo Saracino (University of Verona), Umberto Tecchiati (Ufficio Beni Archeologici della Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano, Bolzano). The anthropological analyses were carried out by LabAnOf (Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, University of Milan): special thanks are due to Professor Cristina Cattaneo, M.D., Alessandra Mazzucchi, Davide Porta and Pasquale Poppa. Giovanni Bianchi, M.D., and Carlo Pezzi, M.D., helped in the comprehension of the medical literature. Scott Burgess and Davide Medaglia reviewed and corrected my English. Last but not least, I have to thank all my family, my friends and my teachers, Carla Besana, Anna Bravi and Maria Bonghi Jovino, who teach me the love for Antiquity. V.Z. 2011

INTRODUCTION

1. Theme and Methods As recently pointed out by Louis Baray,1 it is impossible to define the concept of death in an univocal way: ‘death’ tout-court does not exist but rather there are different forms of death for different kinds of individuals. This being the case we must likewise accept that the dead do not rest in any one singular place, or type of place, but exist in a variety of locations, which means that a critical approach must be employed in order to detect and understand these diverse locations.

layer indicates not only a large number of layers but also a large number of layers which cover a wide chronological range.5 The use of the term anthropic surfaces, on the other hand, refers to the presence of areas of activity, which overlap each other within a specific space-time continuum. This, as has been pointed out by Leroi-Gourhan, is the case with the excavations of the Paleolithic site of Pincevent (France), and, as noted by Cardini, is something that was revealed during the course of the researches at the Arene Candide Cave (Italy). 6

The aim of the following text therefore is to record the presence of human skeletal remains found in spatial and functional contexts which were not usually used as common burial locations. This study focuses on Northern Italy in the 1st millennium BC and, in order to offer a complete picture of the evidence, addresses this topic from both an archaeological and anthropological perspective.

It is then clear that the archeological sites gathered together and referred to in this text and comprised by settlements, symbolic actions areas and natural places of significance, are constituted by open and high frequented strata. This is something which is very different from the close contexts of graves and cemeteries.7 Accordingly it is necessary that we employ new methods of field-inquiry and a methodology which has been referred to by Manacorda as “global Archaeology”.8 This methodology, in fact, includes the systematic integration of the results of horizontal, i.e. extensive, and vertical investigations and in so doing allows for a synchronic and a diachronic reading of the context and enables us to build a coherent picture of the functional development of the site.9 According to this methodology it is, moreover, necessary to collect every kind of evidence, in order to build up a global, and three-dimensional, database of all available information.

1.1. The Archaeological Approach Fabio Cavulli writes that all archaeological deposits are the result of at least two kinds of systemic behaviours, i.e. nature-system and anthropic-system,2 and it is indeed always important to distinguish the action of natural processes, geological, chemical, taphonomical and postdepositional phenomena, from the consequences of human activity.3 Human activity is motivated by different strategies, functional and non-functional, i.e. symbolic: the description and the comprehension of these strategies have to be connected with the description and the comprehension of any single context. According to Ian Hodder, the archaeological context can be defined as a net of nexi among a plurality of points, behaviours and events, which can be understood through the material culture.4

The attempt to employ this approach, however, is very often hindered by the presence of insurmountable obstacles and it is a fact that, within long-frequented sites, it is almost impossible to conduct a complete exploration of archaeological deposits.10 It should also be noted that workers and/or Institutions involved in field-works and excavations are also influenced by non-

Different archaeological contexts imply then that we use different strategies for the excavation, collection, recording and reading of structures and organic and inorganic findings.

5

See: S. Gelichi, Città pluristratificate: la conoscenza e la conservazione dei bacini archeologici, in Archeologia e urbanistica, pp. 61-76. 6 K.E. Lewis, Functional Variation among Settlements on the South Carolina Frontier: An Archaeological Perspective, in The Archaeology of Frontiers, pp. 251-274; pp. 260-261; A. Bietti, Nuovi sviluppi negli scavi del Paleolitico: dai suoli d’abitato ai palinsesti, in Lo scavo archeologico, pp. 353-378. 7 See: A. Bietti Sestieri, L’edizione di uno scavo di una necropoli protostorica: il progetto di Osteria dell’Osa, Archeologia e urbanistica, pp. 503-524. 8 D. Manacorda, Lezioni di archeologia, Bari 2008, pp. 230-232. 9 D. Manacorda, Archeologia urbana a Roma: il progetto della Crypta Balbi, in Biblioteca di Archeologia Medievale, Firenze 1982; A. Carandini, Dallo scavo all’edizione. La documentazione scritta, in A. Carandini (a cura di), Settefinestre. Una villa schiavistica nell’Etruria romana, I, Modena 1985, pp. 23-25. 10 T. Mannoni, Recupero dei significati delle memorie urbane, in Archeologia e urbanistica, pp. 39-58.

The deposits here considered, in particular, can be described as multi-layer anthropic surfaces, where multi1

Baray 2003, p. 33. Cavulli 2008, p. 36. 3 See: J. Ortalli, Proposte metodologiche per lo scavo di necropoli romane, in Archeologia stratigrafica dell’Italia settentrionale 1, 1988, pp. 165-195. 4 On this idea: I. Hodder, Leggere il passato. Tendenze attuali dell’archeologia, Torino 1992, pp. 7-8; p. 40; I. Hodder, The contextual analysis of symbolic meanings, in I. Hodder (ed.), The Archaeology of Contextual Meaning, Cambridge 1987, pp. 1-10; and M. Cipolloni Sampò, Manifestazioni funerarie e struttura sociale, in ScAnt. 1, 1987, pp. 55-119; in part. see p. 57; Shanks-Tilley 1987, pp. 53-57; Buchli 1995. On the concept of material culture: Trigger 1996, pp. 156-219. 2

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scientific factors, such as the availability of time or personnel or sources of funding.

of great development in the 1980s, under the influence of Processual and post-Processual archaeological Theories.17 The success of this approach within the archaeological tradition in Europe is evident in the works of Roberts and Manchester and in Duday’s contributions to the field of “archaeothanathology”.18

Even the publication of data can be a limiting factor, in the sense that the process of both selecting and presenting the data collected necessarily precludes the application of this global approach.11 In a more general sense, it is necessary to recognise that the study of artificial deposits, generated through human agency, is something which always presents us a wide spectrum of interpretative problems.

With regard to the Archaeology of pre-Roman and Roman Italy, the simultaneous analysis of human skeletal remains and artefacts has become increasingly important since the 1990s, thanks to the works of Mallegni, Fornaciari and Canci. The publication of papers with a strong textbook formulation helped to shape critical studies that have underlined the usefulness of anthropological methods for the reconstruction of both historical and archaeological realities.19

This shows how difficult it is for us to talk about an archaeological reality, or rather, a single reality. It is rather the case that there are several archaeological realities. This plurality is also reflected by the heterogeneous nature of the documented evidence.12

Nevertheless, the right interpretation of human bone deposits is always problematic and requires the consideration of many factors. First of all the environmental conditions, above all the geological configuration and/or chemical composition of the ground as well as taphonomical and post-depositional events,20 can significantly alter the state of the original deposits. In these cases the small dimensions of bone samples and their location within high frequented areas necessitates extremely careful study and, for example, the use of flotation instruments, which are very rarely used in non-Prehistoric excavations. Another consideration is that field-work is conducted by archaeologists, who often lack training in anthropological methodology.

It does appear however that it is possible to take a more balanced and scientific approach, which involves reviewing the documented evidence, in the light of new discoveries and scientific developments and the presentation of unpublished material, which could enrich and clarify the current archaeological record. The approach of the present study has been to provide a descriptive and non-interpretative exposition of the data and to maintain a strong distinction between the descriptive section of the text and the critical discussion: it is hoped that this approach may clearly distinguish observations and conclusions on two separate human actions, i.e. the technological and the symbolic. 13 On a final note we may state that it is necessary to pay attention to every single aspect of any particular context, so as to investigate the internal logic of any findings:14 as in this way, it may be possible to find the nexus points that exist among these cultural elements and to explain the operation of such bonds as they exist within individual contexts or cases and across a number of contexts.15

This is something which may lead to the loss of evidence, either through a failure to recognise or to correctly annotate findings: human skeletal remains, for example, are often collected along with, and identified as, animal bones and are only later recognised as being human. Finally, even if the field-work is wellconducted, the publication of data can itself contribute to the creation of an additional series of problems which are due to the sheer volume and the diversity of the different categories of available sources, including observations written by archaeologists during the excavations, notes made by physical anthropologists or personnel with medical training. This situation is not helped by preference among observers to focus on sensational situations and the presence of pathological alterations/lesions, traumas and/or stress markers.21 In some cases it is not possible to gather sample of the original bone deposits, which means that the only

1.2. The Anthropological Approach Although the word “bioarchaeology” was coined by Clark as early as 1972,16 on the basis of Angel’s studies of Ancient Greece, the intersection between humanistic disciplines and physical anthropology underwent a period 11

Muggia 1997, p. 171. L. Calzavara Capuis, Per un’archeologia della morte nel mondo paleoveneto: limiti e prospettive di ricerca, in Aquileia Nostra 1986, pp. 78-79. 13 Binford 1971, p. 16; and: S. Modica, Speranza di vita e rituali nel Lazio antico, in Atti della Accademia Lancisiana XLIX, 2, 2005, pp. 84-89; p. 84. 14 Lotman 1980, p. 14; C. Renfrew, Towards a cognitive archaeology, in C. Renfrew, E.B.W. Zubrow (eds.), The Ancient Mind. Elements of Cognitive Archaeology, Cambridge 1994, pp. 3-12; p. 6. 15 Cavulli 2008, p. 36; A.M.S. Bettencourt, M.J. Sanches, L.B. Alves, R. Fábregas Valcarce, Conceptualising Space and Place. On the role of agency, memory and identity in the construction of space from Upper Paleolithic to the Iron Age in Europe. An Introduction, in Conceptualising, pp. 1-3. 16 J. Clark, Star Carr: A Case Study in Bioarchaeology, Reading (Mass.) 1972. 12

17

Grmek 1989, pp. 47-54; Mackinnon 2007, pp. 475-476. H. Duday, Lezioni di archeotanatologia. Archeologia funeraria e antropologia sul campo, Roma 2005; Roberts-Manchester 2005. 19 See: Mallegni-Rubini 1994; Canci-Minozzi 2005; F. Mallegni (a cura di), Memorie dal sottosuolo e dintorni. Metodologie per un “recupero e trattamenti adeguati” dei resti umani erratici e da sepolture, Pisa 2005. 20 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 93-101; F. Bartoli, Terreni di giacitura (chimica del terreno), in Memorie dal sottosuolo, pp. 32-37. 21 Mackinnon 2007. 18

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INTRODUCTION

available information is that which can be derived from indirect, i.e. archaeological, sources.

this way, it is possible to identify the presence of similar features and recurrent, and therefore significant, associations of similar features.26 In this sense we may note that, according to the parallelism between semiotics and material culture introduced by Lotman,27 although the single sign per se is arbitrary and subjective, a series or a system of signs is held together by a strong internal coherence.28

In the case of Italy exists a particular and significant problem with the documentary dossiers, which is created by the lack of standardised systems of recording skeletal remains, human and non-human alike. The scientific literature contains a number of interesting proposals arguing for the adoption of anthropological forms,22 although these are of course confined exclusively within medical and anthropological parameters. Although Carandini has attempted to create a model of “scheda di unità stratigrafica di deposizione funeraria”, the suggested system is really subject to several shortcoming, in the sense that it is overly dependent or resulted however too linked with the description of structures and artefacts associated with and does not properly address the condition and the positioning of skeletal remains.23

The real challenge then is to generate an objective and interdisciplinary catalogue, in which the single datum, unimportant if considered individually, can be revealed as significant when compared to other data.29 This process could even bring about a general reconsideration of the concept of ‘accidental’ and suggest a more deterministic reading of the evidence. This approach is articulated through the following:30 a) the realisation of a timely reconstruction of any context, in its location within a specific environmental, geographic, topographic and cultural-historic context; b) the correct and conscious comprehension and exposition of anthropological data, in order to combine such sources with the archaeological evidence; 31 c) the use of a diachronic and diatopic documentary approach, in order to identify common and recurrent themes within the archaeological and anthropological evidence, which could suggest the presence of structured behaviour strategies.32 In this way, it may be possible, as Duday hoped, to progress from an archaeology of objects to an archaeology of behaviours.33

It should also been noted, however, that even within the anthropological sphere there is also an absence of synthetical works which are able to overcome the difficulties caused by the fragmentary nature of the evidence and the self-referential nature of single disciplines. Having considered all of the difficulties surrounding the examination and interpretation of human bones, to which we may add the more general issue of the ideological complexity that surrounds the idea of death, the methodological approach that has been chosen for this study includes, as for the archaeological part, a review of the edited sources, which are understood in the light of new scientific methods of inquiry, with the help of specialised personnel (i.e. medical doctors or physical anthropologists) and a direct re-examination, where possible, of the original anthropological notes. The study also includes, however, the direct examination of human skeletal bones, under the control of specialised personnel, in order to combine archaeological and anthropological data.24

3. Towards an Archaeology of Discoveries and Studies 3.1. Italy In 1868 Giovanni Rambotti, supervising the excavations in the Machetto Valley marsh, discovered an isolated human skull.34 Subsequently, from the first half of 19th century to the years after the Second World War, the recovery of human bones in the lake-dwelling settlements and marshes of Northern Italy (carried out by Rambotti, Ghislanzoni, Zorzi, Maviglia and Battaglia) and the excavations of Chierici and Strobel in

2. Aims The aim of the study is then to collect and organise examples of both archaeological and anthropological evidence, which have been considered as exceptional, isolated and/or apparently episodic, and to place them within an interconnected network of information:25 as, in

39; M. Bonghi Jovino, La tomba Lippi 89. Il luogo, il corpo e la cultura che modifica. Qualche appunto, in Ritualità funeraria, pp. 1323; p. 15. 26 Cavulli 2008, p. 36. 27 Lotman 1980, pp. X-XII. 28 d’Agostino 1990, p. 422; Remotti 1993, p. 16. 29 Bonghi Jovino 2007, p. 456. 30 Cavulli 2008, p. 36; M.G. Belcastro, J. Ortalli, Nota dei Curatori, in Sepolture anomale, p. 12. 31 T.W. Jacobsen, T. Cullen, A Consideration of Mortuary Practices in Neolithic Greece: Burials from Franchthi Cave, in Mortality and Immortality, pp. 79-80. 32 Humphreys 1981, p. 12; Lucy 2000, p. 316. 33 Duday 2010, pp. 41-42. 34 de Marinis 2003, p. 30.

22

See in particular: D. Perring, Manuale di archeologia urbana, in Archeologia, uomo, territorio, 3, 1984; see also: Canci-Minozzi 2005; Mallegni 2005. 23 A. Carandini, Storie dalla Terra. Manuale di scavo archeologico, Torino 1991, pp. 95-96. 24 J. Buikstra, A. Lagia, Bioarchaeological Approaches to Aegean Archaeology, in Skeletal Biology, pp. 7-30. 25 E. Leach, Culture and communication, the logic by which the symbols are connected. An introduction to the use of structuralist analysis in social anthropology, Cambridge 1976, p. 33; Lotman 1980, p. 11; Shanks-Tilley 1987, pp. 103-104 and also p. 114; C. Tilley, Introduction: Interpretation and a Poetics of the Past, in Interpretative Archaeology, pp. 1-30; and also T. Yates, Frameworks for an Archaeology of the Body, in Interpretative Archaeology, pp. 31-72; p.

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a particular post mortem treatment was employed in the case of sub-adult subjects.

the Bronze Age settlements of Emilia Romagna, within the so-called terramare, have combined to form corpora of human skeletal remains, almost exclusively skulls and long-bones, which can be dated to the Bronze Age. In these cases, the anthropometrical parameters and the measurements of cranial indexes were the most important means employed by these studies to detect human taxonomy.35

It should be noted, however, that the statistical predominance of these cases may also be attributable to other factors, such as the more systematic fieldinvestigations of domestic contexts and the attention paid to organic findings. Moreover, these so-called “special arrangements”,41 attributed to sub-adults in antiquity, were already well attested within archaeological record and so may be more readily explicable.42 Adult skeletal remains from non-funerary contexts, on the other hand, were almost entirely absent and so were considered exceptional. This belief however was challenged in the 1980s, when discoveries of significant findings in Etruscan and ancient Roman settlements revealed the presence of places for the dead among the places for the living. A discovery which generated a problem which is at the same time archaeological, anthropological and philosophical.43

In addition, the several samples gathered in the 19th century, and then enriched by the works of Marcozzi and Corrain,36 were not always analysed from a critical (and contextual) point of view. We are now in position, with the application of modern techniques of inquiry developed long after the original discovery of these finds, to carry out new interpretations of ancient bone deposits themselves, as well as the human skulls discovered at the Fiavè Carera marsh (Trento), where the use of radiocarbon-dating has obliges us to change the traditional reading of the evidence (catalogue number, nr. 121).

At the beginning of 1990s, the contribution of d’Agostino became particularly important in the sense that he, according to Morris,44 established and for the first time worked on the basis of there being a distinction between the “sepoltura discriminata”, or displaced sepulture (referring to the spatial location), and the “sepoltura differenziata”, or differentiated sepulture (referring to post mortem treatments), stating that “la scelta del modo di trattare il cadavere è sentita come un elemento culturale decisivo per la definizione della persona sociale del defunto”.45

Giacomo Boni’s 1903 excavations of the proto-historic settlement in the Roman Forum and the area of the temple of Antonino and Faustina were marked by fundamental discoveries;37 Boni unearthed a series of sub-adult skeletons in proximity with domestic structures and he referred to these deposit types as suggrundaria, definition that was later adopted by Gjerstad.38 In 1906 Mosso also discovered, again within the Roman Forum, in Equus Domitiani area, three additional skeletons: one of these, an adult female, showed signs of cranial lesions due to cutting-weapons.39 From 1980s onwards the volume of archaeological data concerning sub-adult skeletons found in association with houses has considerably increased, both in Continental and Peninsular Italy, 40 and has also led to the hypothesis that

More recently, from 2000s, the innovative work of de Marinis, Fedele and Cocchi Genick on the Copper and Bronze Age of Italy, has not only drawn a great deal of attention to human skeletal remains found out of funerary contexts, but also the need to carry out simultaneous anthropological and archaeological analyses. 46 The increasing importance of these themes is also indicated by the large number of conferences and publications which have critically and scientifically examined the many questions surrounding the nonnormative post mortem treatment of the body and the

35

Mackinnon 2007, p. 475. 36 C. Corrain, I resti scheletrici umani delle torbiere dell’anfiteatro morenico del Garda e delle Valli Veronesi, in MemMusCivStNatVer. VI, 1957-1958, pp. 263-290. 37 G. Boni, Sepolcreto del Septimontium preromano, in NSc 1903, pp. 123-170. 38 Modica 2007. 39 A. Mosso, Crani preistorici trovati nel Foro Romano, in NSc 1906, pp. 46-54. 40 On sub-adults depositions in Northern Italy: Rizzi 1985; Salzani 1985a; Lora-Ruta Serafini 1992; Giusberti 1992; Giusberti 1994a; Cavada 1994; Panozzo 1999; Gaio 2004. For Central and Southern Italy in the Iron, Roman and post-Roman Ages: M.J. Becker, Children’s burials in Puglia from the Iron Age to the IInd century A.D. Cultural continuities, in StAnt. 4, 1983, pp. 261-284; Soren et al. 1999; G. Shepherd, Dead but not buried? Child disposal in the Greek West, in E. Herring, I. Lemos, F. Lo Schiavo, L. Vagnetti, R. Whitehouse, J. Wilkins (eds.), Across Frontiers. Etruscans, Greeks, Phoenicians and Cypriots. Studies in honour of David Ridgway and Francesca Romana Serra Ridgway, London 2006, pp. 311-325; C. Tassinari, Archeologia funeraria a Colombarone (PU): il suggrundarium tardoantico. Caratteri e problematiche di un rituale funerario, in OCNUS 14, 2006, pp. 303308; Modica 2007; Bonghi Jovino 2007-2008; De Santis et al. 20072008; van Rossenberg 2008. 40 Greco Pontrandolfo 1998, pp. 125-139.

41

B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, New York 2003, p. 343. 42 On mors immatura: Vrugt Lentz 1960; Binford 1971, pp. 25-26; Garland 1985, pp. 80-84; Rizzi 1985; Golden 1988, p. 156; Wiedemann 1989, p. 179; Scott 1999, p. 92; Soren et al. 1999, pp. 470-473; Garattini 2000-2001; Laubenheimer 2004; Becker 2007; Lagia 2007; G. Shepherd, Poor little rich kids? Status and selection in Archaic Western Greek, in G. Shepherd, S. Crawford (eds.), Children, childhood and society, in BAR International Series 1696, Oxford 2007, pp. 93-106. 43 All those sites are mentioned in Bonghi Jovino 2007; Carafa 20072008; Vanzetti 2007-2008. With particular regard to Rome: Fraschetti 1981; Modica 2007; Gallone 2007-2008, pp. 653-666. 44 I. Morris, Burial and Ancient Society. The Rise of the Greek CityState, Cambridge 1987. 45 d’ Agostino 1990, pp. 440-441. 46 de Marinis 2003; Fedele 2004; Cocchi Genick 2004.

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INTRODUCTION

within the archaeological record.52 More discoveries from the 1990s on include, for example, contributions on the non-normative dispositions at Vösendorf necropolis,53 as well as Rind, Peter Röcher and Rittershofer’s work on human sacrifices and violence in Central and Eastern Europe. These papers reflect a common interest in “Sonderbestattungen” and not as isolated pieces of evidence, but rather as parts of recurrent behavioural schemas.54

use of non-normative burial procedures and nonnormative burial locations. Notable examples include Buried among the Living (Rome, 2006),47 The Death Toll (Rome, 2008) and Sepolture anomale (Castelfranco Emilia, 2009).48 The common aim of all these publications and meetings has been to focus on all kinds of post mortem treatment that are quantitatively less recurrent within a certain chronological and geographical range and in treating archaeological and anthropological data as being of equal relevance. Additional examples of this approach are to be found in the various attempts to apply an ethnographic approach in the interpretation of findings in Roman and Medieval Italy, as in Young, Becker, Pittau, Favole and Jonsson’s papers and, in particular, with the work of Adriano Favole, who pointed out how human bodies, or rather parts of them, have a social life even after biological death.49

In terms of the more general work on Celtic Culture in Western and Central Europe, we should note the significance of the presence of chapters titled Toten unten den Lebenden.55 Daniel Sosna’s work on the Copper and Bronze Age in the Czech Republic also takes into account both funerary and non-funerary contexts, distinguishing “mortuary” and non “mortuary data”.56 In Great Britain, human skeletons were recovered from fortification walls by Wheeler during the excavations at Maiden Castle in 1937. In addition we may note that the work of Saxe and Binford on the prone positioning of the dead and the cases of skeletal mutilations in AngloSaxon cemeteries contributed to our understanding of the problem of the “social persona” of subjects.57 The idea of deviancy, seen both from an anthropological and an archaeological perspective, has been well covered by Talia Shay and, in her work on some post mortem treatments in Israel,58 attention is focused not only on the mechanics of the act, but also on the symbolic dimension and the extent to which the skeletal manipulations and the spatial displacements may be employed in the construction of social status.

3.2. Germany, Eastern Europe and Great Britain As early as the 1960s, with regard to the German archaeological tradition, the works of Wilke and Kyll on the prone positioning of the skeletons in some Hallstatt Culture and Roman graves faced the problem of nonnormative depositions.50 Ludwig Pauli later, in 1975, coined the definition “Sonderbestattungen”:51 during his examination of Hallstatt and also Celtic Cultures graves equipped with amulets and apothropaic grave-goods, he attempted to identify the categories of individuals that would have merited these special post mortem arrangements. It was suggested that these subjects were those that had deceased by mors immatura or the categories of dangerous dead, such as suicides, murderers or subjects afflicted by chronic diseases, or that were shamans.

Additional discoveries made in Great Britain include, for example, work on the settlement of Danebury, 59 as well as papers by Wilson, Wait, Brück, Esmond, Philpott and Green, which associate the spatial

Schwidetzky, on the contrary, has approached this issue from an alternative angle and employing methodologies connected with paleo-demographic studies. Since the 1960s, he worked on the question of the extent to which funerary contexts provide an effective demographic representation and has dealt with the possible presence of the so called ‘invisible’, and as such unnumbered, dead

52

I. Schwidetzky, Sonderbestattungen und ihre paläodemographische Bedeutung, in Homo 16, 1965, pp. 230-247; J. Pearce, Burial evidence from Roman Britain. The un-numbered dead, in Pour une archéologie du rite, pp. 29-42; in part. p. 31. In general, see also: E. Scott, Introduction: On the Incompletness of Archaeological Narratives, in Invisible People, pp. 1-12; Becker 2007. 53 In particular see: F. Sauer (Hrsg. Von), Die Archäologischen Grabungen auf der Trasse der S1-Fundstelle Vösendorf, Wien 2007. 54 On this argument: Rind 1996; H. Peter Röcher, Bestattungsitten oder Opferbrauchtum? Anmerkungen zu Menschlichen Skelettresten des älteren Neolithikums, in Χρóνoς. Festschrift für Bernhard Hänsel, Internationale Archäologie, Studia Honoraria, Espelkamp 1997, pp. 59-66; K.-F. Rittershofer (Hrsg. Von), Sonderbestattungen in der Bronzezeit im östlichen Mitteleuropa. Kolloquium der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Bronzezeit, Espelkamp 1997. 55 See: S. Rieckhoff, J. Biel (Hrsg. Von), Die Kelten in Deutschland, Stuttgart 2001; F. Müller, G. Lüscher (Hrsg. Von), Die Kelten in der Schweiz, Stuttgart 2004. 56 Sosna 2009. 57 R.E.M. Wheleer, The Excavation of Maiden Castle, Dorset. Third Interim Report, in AntJ. 17, 3, 1937, pp. 261-282; Saxe 1970; Binford 1971. 58 Shay 1985. 59 B. Cunliffe, Danebury: An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire, London 1984; B. Cunliffe, Before Hillforts, in Oxford Journal of Archaeology 9, 3, 1990, pp. 323-336; Vanzetti 2007-2008.

47

G. Bartoloni, M.G. Benedettini (a cura di), Sepolti tra i vivi. Buried among the Living. Evidenza ed interpretazione di contesti funerari in abitato, Atti del Convegno Internazionale (Roma, 26-29 aprile 2006), in ScAnt. 14/2, I-II, 2007-2008. 48 See: M.G. Belcastro, J. Ortalli (a cura di), Sepolture anomale. Indagini archeologiche e antropologiche dall’epoca classica al Medioevo in Emilia Romagna, Giornata di Studi (Castelfranco Emilia, 19 dicembre 2009), in Quaderni di Archeologia dell’Emilia Romagna 28, Firenze 2010. 49 R.S. Young, Sepulturae intra urbem, in Hesperia 20, 1951, pp. 67134; Becker 1986, pp. 31-56; M. Pittau, Geronticidio, eutanasia e infanticidio nella Sardegna antica, in L’Africa Romana, Atti dell’VIII Convegno di Studio (Cagliari, 14-16 dicembre 1990), II, Sassari 1991, pp. 703-711; Becker 1996, pp. 699-714; Favole 2003; Jonsson 2005, pp. 85-95. 50 Kyll 1964; Aspöck 2008, p. 19. 51 Pauli 1975.

5

OUT OF PLACE

displacement of displacements.60

the

dead

with

possible

post mortem manipulations have been found, beginning in the 1980s, in the war sanctuaries of Gournay-surAronde, Fin d’Ecury, Ribemont-sur-Ancre and AcyRomance. In these cases medical approaches were needed to identify the types of skeletal manipulation and to comment on the possible identity of the subjects. 68

social

These special post mortem treatments are most often observed in the case of sub-adult subjects, as pointed out by Scott and then confirmed by other scholars,61 and/or among individuals considered as outcasts or as dangerous. The human group regarded these subjects as “deviant”, or as “special dead”,62 and therefore the group adopted deviant, or special, post mortem treatments of the body, which included the necrophobic procedures.63

The evidence of the post mortem but also the intra vitam manipulations of the bodies in these cases has been used to support the hypothesis that these are the remains of enemies and/or war prisoners, whose bones were kept as a form of trophy. The same reading was also proposed for the Swiss sites of Windhalta and Basilea-Gasfabrik.69

Finally, the work of Johnson and Green and the volume edited by Eileen Murphy addressed issues surrounding death taboos and the fear of the dead in ancient cultures.64 All of these themes have been recently reassessed by Reynolds, in the context of Anglo-Saxon deviant burials, and by Chapman, who has worked on the origins of the practice of skeletal manipulations in Central and Southern Europe in Prehistory and Protohistory.65

With specific regard to settlements, findings of adults, characterised by pathological alterations,70 and subadult subjects were made in proximity to structures with a high symbolic value, such as floors, walls, thresholds, hearths or craft workshops. The work of Nin, on the functional and symbolic uses of domestic structures, is very significant, as are the papers of Laizot, Laubenheimer and Dedet on sub-adults remains and on their status during the Protohistorical period.71

A number of the lines of argument employed in the text given above, we may add, were first mentioned in an ethnographic context by author working on the post mortem treatment of the bodies of leaders, heroes and ancestors in African and Asiatic pre-Industrial Cultures.66 This relationship between memory and post mortem treatment of the bodies of ancestors or outstanding peoples in an ancient Greek context has been explored in the work of Carla M. Antonaccio.67

The increasing level of interest in this topic is also demonstrated by the research project coordinated by the University of Provence, Aix-Marseille I.72 In addition to sub-adult individuals, most recent scientific contributions have involved work on the specific use of human bones as artefacts, in ceremonial and inhabited areas,73 and the attitudes towards unusual subjects, which were most often characterised by chronic pathological and deforming conditions, in

3.3. France and Switzerland In France, discoveries of human skeletal remains were made for the most part in Celtic ceremonial areas: skeletons which are often characterised by injuries and 60

68

J.-L. Brunaux, P. Méniel, F. Poplin, Gournay I. Les fouilles sur le sanctuaire et l’oppidum (1974-1985), in Revue Archéologique de Picardie, Amiens 1985; A. Villes, Une hypothèse: les sepultures de relegation dans les fosses d’habitat protohistorique en France septentrionale, in Anthropologie physique et Archéologie 1987; Chossenot 1997, pp. 167-255; Brunaux-Méniel 1997; and also: J.-L. Brunaux, Ribemont-sur-Ancre: bilan préliminaire et nouvelles hypotheses, in Gallia 56, 1999, pp. 177-283; Lambot-Méniel 2000; S. Verger (éd.), Rites et espaces en pays celte et méditerranéen. Étude comparée à partire du sanctuaire d’Acy-Romance (Ardennes, France), École Française de Rome 2000. 69 See: B. Kaufmann, Skelettmanipulationen in einem römischen Gräberfeld mit keltischer Bestattungstradition, Tafer-Windhalte FR, in Archeologia Svizzera 15, 1992, pp. 80-82; Langenegger 1996; finally, V.T. Petitpierre, Anthropologische Beobachtungen an isoliert vorliegenden Skelettresten aus der Siedlung Basel-Gasfabrik, in Archeologia Svizzera 19, 1996, pp. 153-155. 70 Lefranc et al. 2008. 71 Nin 1999; F. Laizot, G. Alix, E. Ferber, Le traitement funéraire des enfants décédés avant un an dans l’Antiquité: études de cas, in BMSAP, 15, 1-2, 2003; B. Dedet, Les Enfants Dans La Société Protohistorique- L’Exemple Du Sud De La France, Paris 2008. 72 “Recherches d’Archéologie funéraire dans le monde méditerranéen antique. La mort des enfants”. 73 Ph. Barral, A. Daubigney, C. Dunning, C. Kaenel, M.-J. Roulière Lambert (éds.), L’âge du Fer dans l’arc jurassien et ses marges. Dépôts, lieux sacrés et territorialité à l’âge du Fer, Actes du XXIX Colloque International de l’AFEAF (Bienne, 5-8 mai 2004), II, Besançon 2007.

C.E. Wilson, Burials within settlements in southern Britain during the pre-Roman Iron Age, in BALondon 18, 1981, pp. 127-169; Wait 1985; Philpott 1991; Brück 1995; Green 1998; Esmond Cleary 2000; Green 2001. 61 Scott 1999; Wiedemann 1989; Johnston 2001; A. Cohen, J.B. Rutter (eds.), Constructions of Childhood in Ancient Greece and Italy, Hesperia Supplement 41, Princeton 2007; K. Bacvarov (ed.), Babies Reborn: Infant/Child Burials in Pre- and Protohistory, Proceedings of the XV UISSP World Congress (Lisbon, 4-9 September 2006), in BAR International Series 1832, Oxford 2008. 62 Johnston 1999, pp. 127-150; Martin Kilcher 2000, p. 63; Aspöck 2008, pp. 19-20. 63 Little-Papadopoulos 1998; Johnson 1999; E.M. Murphy (ed.), Deviant Burial in the Archaeological Record, Oxford 2008. On physical handicaps: R. Garland, The Eye of the Beholder. Deformity and Disability in the Graeco-Roman World, London 1995; V.M. Hope, E. Marshall (eds.), Death and Disease in the ancient city, London-New York 2000; C. Atherton (ed.), Monsters and Monstrosity in the Greek and Roman Culture, Bari 2002; Burkert 2003. 64 Green 1998; Johnson 1999; Green 2001; 65 A. Reynolds, Anglo-Saxon Deviant Burial Customs, Oxford 2009; J. Chapman, Deviant Burials in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic of Central and Southern Europe, in K. Rebay Salisbury, M.L.S. Sørensen, J. Hughes (eds.), Body parts and bodies whole, Oxford 2010, pp. 74-89. 66 J. Goody, Death, property and the Ancestors, Stanford 1962; M. Bloch, Placing the dead: tombs, ancestral villages and Kinship organization in Madagscar, London-New York 1971; HuntingtonMetcalf 1985. 67 Antonaccio 1995.

6

INTRODUCTION

ancient societies, as is the case with the recent work of Charlier.74

from the starting point of the idea that there was a dialectic and dynamic relationship between the spaces of the living and the spaces of the dead.

In addition, a number of other recent works of a more general nature also contain several interesting notes concerning the non-usual preparation of the body. 75

Such a reconsideration will enable us to talk about new forms of the Archaeology of Death, which is not only connected with common burial-grounds, but is concerned with all human bone deposits, even if they have been recovered from areas which cannot be spatially and formally defined as ‘graves’. It does seem, perhaps, that the current application of the Archaeology of Death is too limited, if we note that neither death itself nor the circumstances in which death takes place do not necessary imply the presence of formalised funerary contexts.

We should also make, at the very least, some mention of the great tradition in France of studying the ethical and aesthetic significance of death, with for example the works of the Année Sociologique School of Gernet and Vernant,76 and the significant studies made of legal aspects of death and burial in ancient Rome, where graves served as loci religiosi.77 4. A New Chapter for the Archaeology of Death?

A more complete Archaeology of Death then must be comprised not only by the study of graves, grave-goods and cemeteries, but by a holistic treatment of all available evidence for the post mortem treatment of the body, wherever this evidence may be located, if we are able to investigate fully the significance that human bones, or some of them, acquire after biological death within differentiated contexts.80

The analysis of human skeletal remains is always associated with the examination of graves and gravegoods and the interpretation of the horizontal and vertical, or in other words topographic and social, organisation of funerary areas.78 Data collection and interpretation is, in such case, carried out following the ideological, and also philosophical, patterns of the Archaeology of Death, which aims to gain an understanding of the ideological, social and symbolic praxes of ancient societies through their codified funerary behaviours.79

As Sosna has noted,81 in order to carry out a full investigate of all the aspects involving the bodies of the living and the dead it is necessary for us to employ new scientific approaches, in order to overcome the traditional divisions between archaeological, bioarchaeological and phenomenological interpretations.

Although studies of funerary contexts have been concerned, above all, with the analysis of structures and artefacts, it must be admitted that graves and grave-goods are accompanied by skeletal remains and further accepted that in many cases human skeletal remains are recovered outside of strictly funerary contexts.

In this sense,82 it is also necessary to reconsider our viewpoint to include other possible ways of seeing the relationship between Archaeology and bodies.

In the light of new discoveries and the development of new scientific approaches, it can be argued that the findings of human bones outside of common burialgrounds areas are too numerous for their presence to be considered as accidental. The link between human bones and non-funerary contexts then has to be re-considered,

One example is the “Archaeology of Death and Burial”, in which Parker Pearson,83 starting from the positions of Bordieu and Giddens, divides the process of death into two distinct phases, the moment of physical death and then the burial. The “Anthropology of Death”, as defined by Favole, 84 is a very interesting concept in the sense that it analysises the attitudes of the living to the dead by observing and commenting upon the manipulation of the skeletons.

74

P. Charlier, Les Monstres humains dans l’Antiquitè, Paris 2008; P. Charlier, Male mort: morts violentes dans l’Antiquitè, Paris 2009. 75 F. Blaizot (éd.), Pratiques funeraires et espaces funéraires de la Gaule Durant l’Antiquité, Supplement à Gallia, Paris 2009. 76 La mort, les morts; Sosna 2009, p. 20. 77 F. de Visscher, Le droit des tombeaux romains; Paris 1963; N. Laubry, Le transfert des corps dans l’Empire romain: problèmes d’épigraphie, de religion et de droit romain, in MEFRA 119, 1, 2007, pp. 149-188. 78 Greco Pontrandolfo 1998, pp. 125-139. 79 On the origins and developments of Archaeology of Death in the European and in the Italian Archaeology: Binford 1971; Archaeology of Death; Mortality and Immortality; Goldstein 1981; Humphreys 1981; La mort, les morts; E.J. Pader, Symbolism, Social Relations and the Interpretations of Mortuary Remains, in BAR International Series 110, Oxford 1982; Huntington-Metcalf 1985; d’ Agostino 1985; d’ Agostino 1990; I. Morris, Death-Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge 1992; D.L. Clarke (ed.), The Sociology of Death: theory, culture, practice, Oxford 1993; J. Brown, On Mortuary Analysis-with special reference to the Saxe-Binford Research Program, in L. Anderson Beck (ed.), Regional Approaches to Mortuary Analysis, New York 1995, pp. 3-26; Buchli 1995; Cuozzo 1996; Trigger 1996; Parker Pearson 1999; Cuozzo 2000; Lucy 2000.

We should also mention the significant case of the “Archaeology of the Body”, a phrase coined by Howard Williams. These new approaches challenge the traditional viewpoints, where the attention is focused on the agency of the living and their treatment of the dead, and, by highlighting the dead body itself, allow us to state that “its social, symbolic and mnemonic significant does not end with the extinguish of the vital signs”.85

80

Goldstein 1981, p. 59. Sosna 2009, p. 16. On the crisis of Funerary Archaeology: Sayer 2010, p. 485. 83 Parker Pearson 1999; on this argument, see also: Buchli 1995; Cuozzo 1996; Cuozzo 2000. 84 Favole 2003; Fedele 2004. 85 Williams 2004, pp. 264-266. 81 82

7

PREMISE TO THE CATALOGUE

1. Organisation of the Catalogue The present catalogue is limited by two fundamental coordinates, time and space.

Sondrio and to the mountainous part of the current province of Brescia;90 c) interface I Eastern Po valley sub-region, characterised by Venetic, Golasecca and Etruscan Cultures features, referring to the current provinces of Cremona and Mantova and to the level part of Brescia current province91; d) Alpine Golasecca Culture area: mountainous parts of the current provinces of Como, Lecco, Novara and Varese;92 e) Golasecca Culture area (current provinces of Biella, Como, Lecco, Lodi, Milano, Monza, Novara, Pavia, Varese and Vercelli);93 f) Emilia Romagna pre-Etruscan and Etruscan Culture area,94 referring to the current provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Forlì-Cesena, Modena, Reggio Emilia and Rimini;95 g) Taurinian Culture area (current provinces of Aosta, Asti and Torino);96 h) interface II Tosco-Emiliano Appennine sub-region, characterised by Etruscan, Ligurian, Celtic and Golasecca Culture features, referring to the current provinces of Parma and Piacenza;97 i) Ligurian Culture area (provinces of Alessandria, Cuneo, Genova, Imperia, La Spezia and Savona).98 Within this general framework, the description of the sites is in chronological order and they are identified by a system of progressive numbering.

With regard to chronological range, all the sites here collected date from the 1st millennium BC and within this range it is possible to recognise four phases: 1) 10th-9th century BC;86 2) 8th-6th century BC: corresponding to the first half of Iron Age; 3) 5th-3rd century BC: corresponding to the second half of Iron Age; 4) 2nd-1st century BC: corresponding to the evidence from Romanised Northern Italy. Although the territory of Northern Italy is divided administratively into a series of regions and provinces and this suggests a natural and logical framework, the catalogue is organised on the basis of: a) areas, i.e. the diffusion zones of homogenous cultural phenomena; b) interfaces, i.e. the contact zones, where different cultural elements interact within the same subregion.87 In order to indicate both geographic and cultural contexts, the following definitions, widely established in the archaeological literature, have been employed: a) Athesian Culture area (current provinces of Bolzano and Trento);88 b) Venetic Culture area (current provinces of Belluno, Padova, Rovigo, Treviso, Venezia, Verona, Vicenza; Gorizia, Pordenone, Udine and Trieste);89 c) interface I, Orobian sub-region, characterised by local Alpine, Golasecca and Athesian Cultures elements, referring to the current provinces of Bergamo and

90

See: R.C. de Marinis, Preistoria e protostoria della Valcamonica, Valtrompia e Valsabbia. Aspetti della cultura materiale dal Neolitico all’età del Ferro, in Valtellina e mondo alpino, pp. 101-119; and R.C. de Marinis, La cultura Breno-Dos dell’Arca e il problema degli Euganei, in Atti Convegno Archeologico Provinciale II, pp. 117-125. 91 See also: R.C. de Marinis, Il confine occidentale del mondo protoveneto/paleoveneto dal Bronzo Finale alle invasioni galliche del 388 a.C., in Venetorum Angulus, pp. 511-564. 92 P. Gleirscher, I Reti, Coira 1991, p. 11; R.C. de Marinis, S. Biaggio Simona (a cura di), Leponti tra mito e realtà. Raccolta di saggi in occasione della Mostra (Locarno, 20 maggio-3 dicembre 2000), I-II, Gruppo Archeologico Ticino 2000. 93 R.C. de Marinis, F.M. Gambari, La cultura di Golasecca dal X agli inizi del VII secolo a.C.: cronologia relativa e correlazioni con altre aree culturali, in Oriente e Occidente, pp. 197-225. 94 Emilia’s pre-Etruscan period is in fact characterised by a convergence of different cultural features, belonging to Sub-Apennine Culture and Terramare Culture (Manfredi-Malnati 1991, pp. 10-14). 95 See, in general: Manfredi-Malnati 1991. 96 Archeologia in Piemonte; F.M. Gambari, L’area taurina e le Alpi Cozie nell’Età del Ferro, in Atti Convegno Archeologico Provinciale II, pp. 107-116; F. Rubat Borel, Il Bronzo Finale nell’estremo Nord-Ovest italiano: il gruppo Pont-Valperga, in RivScPr. LVI, 2006, pp. 429-482. 97 A.M. Carini, M. Miari, Il Piacentino, in Liguri, pp. 243-245; M. Catarsi dall’Aglio, Il Parmense, in Liguri, pp. 241-243; M. Catarsi Dall’Aglio, La seconda età del Ferro nel territorio parmense, in Ligures Celeberrimi, pp. 333-350; G. Colonna, Tra Etruschi e Celti. Le due facce della Liguria preromana, in RStLig. LXX, 2004 (2005), pp. 5-16. 98 In general see: F.M. Gambari, M. Venturino Gambari, Contributi per una definizione archeologica della seconda età del Ferro nella Liguria interna, in RStLig. 53, 1987, pp. 77-150; Liguri; Ligures Celeberrimi.

86

On the end of the Bronze Age (1000-950/925 BC) and the beginning of Iron Age (950/925-900 BC) in Italy: M. Pacciarelli, Nota sulla cronologia della prima età del Ferro in Italia, in OCNUS IV, 1996, pp. 185-189; R.C. de Marinis, Towards a relative and absolute chronology of the Bronze Age in Northern Italy, in NAB 7, 1999, pp. 23-100; R.C. de Marinis, Cronologia relativa, cross-dating e datazioni cronometriche tra bronzo finale e primo ferro, in Oriente e Occidente, pp. 15-52; and M. Pacciarelli, C14 e correlazioni con le dendrodate nord-alpine: elementi per una cronologia assoluta del Bronzo finale 3 e del primo Ferro dell’Italia peninsulare, in Oriente e Occidente, pp. 81-90. 87 F. Cambi, N. Terrenato, Introduzione all’archeologia dei paesaggi, Roma 1994, pp. 195-196; p. 200. On the archaeological concept of hybridization and the dialectic between different cultural elements within the same context, see: C. Cañete, J. Vives-Ferrándiz, ‘Almost the same’: dynamic domination and hybrid contexts in Iron Age Lixus, Larache, Morocco, in P. van Dommelen (ed.), Postcolonial Archaeologies, in World Archaeology 43, 1, 2011, pp. 125-143. 88 See Ciurletti 2007, pp. 19-20; also: S. di Stefano, Siti d’altura di epoca romana nell’area medio-alpina Atesina. Forme e testimonianza archeologiche dell’organizzazione territoriale durante l’età imperiale, in Spazi, forme e infrastrutture, pp. 7-26. 89 A. Aspes (a cura di), Il Veneto nell’antichità. Preistoria e protostoria, I-II, Verona 1984; Protostoria tra Sile e Tagliamento; Paleoveneti; Venetorum Angulus; Veneti antichi.

9

OUT OF PLACE

a medical approach. This was done with the collaboration of medical doctors and physical anthropologists, who have reviewed the terminology used and the data reported in past sources.

2. Organisation of the Form of the Catalogue A standard form was developed to describe each of the single sites covered in the catalogue according to a multidisciplinary approach. This form includes: a) geographic data: site, town and province; b) archaeological data: name and description of the archaeological layer; post mortem treatment (inhumed or cremated bones);99 position of the body; eventual artefacts found in direct association with human bones; chronology; sex indicators; age indicators;100 archaeological context; c) anthropological data: minimum number of individuals (referred to as MNI);101 skeletal age; skeletal sex; parameters used to define age and sex; biological profile;102 d) references and documentary evidence.

Another problem concerns the identification of class ages, where the only sure datum is the skeletal age.104 In this case, the great majority of documentary evidence is of little use, in terms of generating a classification, because in many cases no reference is made, within the text, to the parameters employed in data classification. Additionally, even if such parameters are present, the acquisition of new scientific instruments necessitates a recalibration of earlier data, as can be seen in Table 1. It is difficult to produce a clear system of class ages: different studies have employed different parameters for their system of classification and have used different definitions and different termini post quem and ante quem (see Tables 2, 3 and 4). The general trend has been that a specific terminology is only used for the sub-adult subjects. 105 Having said this, the picture supplied by de Marinis does appear to be more complete,106 even if the same definition of Iuvenis is used for two different class ages and if the interval of 5 years among adult class ages is too short.107 The proposal of Becker and Salvadei, based on their work on the Osteria dell’Osa cemetery (Italy, Iron Age) and on the paleo-demographic studies of Vallois, is perhaps the more balanced.108 The cases considered were marked by a complete absence of foeti deceased in utero, i.e. during the pregnancy.

The aim of this type of data presentation form, which employs objective and specific rather than interpretative terminology, is to provide an analytical and logical, so far as it is possible, resource, which reflects the use of both archaeological and anthropological approaches. 3. Evaluation of the Sources 3.1. Archaeological Sources The qualitative potential of the record here presented is necessarily linked with the quality of the sources used for the reconstruction of historical and archaeological contexts and it is possible to divide these sources into the following three groups: unpublished; partially published and published. The published sources are in fact often problematic in the sense that they cover a wide chronological, typological and qualitative range as a group and, even within reports on single sites, often constitute a heterogeneous source of information.103 As a consequence, this study has adopted a sort of philological approach to the review of all documentary evidence: this included contacting the individuals and/or Institutions involved in the field-excavations in order to calibrate, when necessary, the available data.

It should also be highlighted that there is an apparent absence of puberal age individuals, although it must be acknowledged that a definition of puberty itself, a period marked by physical and psychological changes, is of course somewhat problematic to define.109 Starting from these observations, documentary evidence here cited exhibits two main trends which are comprised by classification of class ages on the basis of bone analysis or on the basis of generic and often ambiguous criteria. The present study makes no use of aprioristic

3.2. Anthropological Sources

104

On the difference between skeletal age and biological age: Antropologia, pp. 315-323; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 162; Mallegni 2005, p. 94. On cultural interpretations of the phenomenon: E. Rega, Age, gender and biological reality in the Early Bronze Age cemetery at Mokri, in Invisible People, pp. 229-247, p. 229; J. Sofaer Derevenski, Material culture shock. Confronting expectations in the material culture of children, in J. Sofaer Derevenski (ed.), Children and material culture, London-New York 2000, pp. 3-16; p. 8. 105 Garattini 2000-2001, p. 72; Lawton 2007, pp. 41-43; Kogălniceanu 2008, pp. 101-102. 106 de Marinis 2003, figg. 14-15. 107 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 151. 108 H.V. Vallois, Vital statistics in prehistoric populations as determined from the archaeological data, in R.F. Hazier, S.F. Cook (eds.), The application of quantitative methods in archaeology, London 1960, pp. 186-204; Becker-Salvadei 1992, pp. 53-191. 109 E. Eyben, Antiquity’s View of Puberty, in Latomus XXXI, 3-4, 1972, pp. 678-697; pp. 695-696; E. Eyben, Was the Roman youth an adult socially?, in L’Antiquitè Classique 50, 1981, pp. 328-350; in part. p. 329; M. Kleijvegt, Ancient Youth. The Ambiguity of Youth and the Absence of Adolescence in Greco-Roman Society, Amsterdam 1991; Recchia 2007-2008, pp. 112-113.

The published sources vary greatly, both in a descriptive sense and from a terminological point of view, in their treatment of anthropological information. In order to address the issue of the fragmentary nature of the available sources, often out-dated and written by non specialised personnel, this study has attempted to employ 99

Mallegni 2005, p. 131. A.M. Bietti Sestieri, A. De Santis, La variabilità sincronica della cultura materiale, in Osteria dell’Osa, pp. 491-513; p. 496. M. Dìaz Andreu, Identità di genere e archeologia: una visione di sintesi, in Archeologia teorica, pp. 361-388. 101 L. Chaix, P. Méniel, Éléments d’Archéozoologie, Genève-Paris 1996, pp. 56-57. 102 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 139. 103 Bergonzi et al. 1981, p. 117; Bonghi Jovino 2007, p. 456; C. Conati Barbaro, Custodire la memoria: le sepolture in abitato nel Neolitico italiano, in Sepolti tra i vivi, I, pp. 49-70; pp. 50-51. 100

10

PREMISE

definitions, but has adopted a class age classification divided into bands, similar to the Becker and Salvadei list. These bands are marked by the following terms in Tables 5 and 6.

Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno 10th-9th BC

These problems demonstrate how difficult is to complete an objective and correct interpretation of all the evidence collected.

Villa Marzana, Campo Michela 10th-9th BC

As consequence, this study, which aims to produce a consolidated record, has accordingly only examined cases where the following were present: a) a complete documentary dossier; b) a certain chronology; c) a clear functional and contextual picture; d) the use of both archaeological and anthropological methods of inquiry; e) the presence of certain human bones, confirmed by macroscopic and microscopic analysis.110

Bologna, via Foscolo 8th-6th BC Oppeano Veronese, ex Fornace 8th-6th BC

A: 2 years old B: 6-8 years old C: 21-25 years old D: 35 years old A: 45-49 years old B: 15-20 years old

1 months old 35 -40 years old

Dental eruption Femur measures Degenerative arthrosic alterations

Drusini 1998

Auricolar surface Pubic bone Dental eruption Bones fusion level /

Mazzucchi 2001

Skull junctions fusion Pubic bone

Catalano et al., forthcoming

Pini 2002

Table 1. Comparative and diachronic list of the anthropological parameters used to define class ages. Site and Chronology Marzabotto, 5th-3rd BC Marzabotto, 5th-3rd BC

Stimated Age 3-4 months old “Old”

Bone measurement

Brasili Gualandi 1980a

About 20 years old

Bone measurement

Gazzarri 1981

“Adult”

Skull junctions fusion Bone measurement

Fusco 1982

“Foeti”

Bone measurement

Giusberti 1992

41-50 years old

“Foeti”

Bone measurement

Giusberti 1994b

51-X years old

40 years old

Dental wear

MainardiPacciani 1994

Rivoli, Rocca 10th-9th BC

A: 18 years old B: 25 years old

Santorso, Monte Summano 5th-3rd BC Castelraimondo, Zuc Schiaramont 5th-3rd BC Castenaso, Scuole MedieStructure 10 8th-6th BC Castenaso, via Gramsci 8th-6th BC

BeckerSalvadei 1992 0-1 years old

Brizio 1889

“Old”

Castenaso, Scuole MedieStructure 6 8th-6th BC Coriano, via Correcchio 10th-9th BC Como, Pianvalle 2nd-1st BC

Dental eruption

Publication Year Gozzadini 1865

Skull junctions fusion Skull junctions fusion Femur measure Dental eruption Bones fusion level Bone measurement

Marzabotto 5th-3rd BC

Bologna, Villa Cassarini 8th-6th BC

Methods

A: 31-35 years old B: 51-60 years old 21-25 years old

“Foeti”

Brizio 1889

2-5 years old 6-10 years old 11-15 years old 16-20 years old

Denston 1976

Brasili Gualandi 1980b

Garattini 2000-2001 0-1 years old, Perinatal Infant 2-6 years old, First infancy 7-14 years old, Second infancy 7-14 years old, Second infancy 14-20 years old, Adolescent

de Marinis 2003, Fig. 14 0-1 years old

de Marinis 2003, Fig. 15 0-4 years old

1-4 years, Infans I 5-9 years old, Infans II 10-14 years old, Iuvenis 15-19 years old, Iuvenis

5-9 years old 10-14 years old

15-19 years old

Table 2. Comparative list of sub-adult class ages and terminology.

BeckerSalvadei 1992 21-30 years old

31-40 years old

Balista et al. 1985

Garattini 2000-2001 20-40 years old, Adult

de Marinis 2003, Fig. 14 20-39 years old, Adult

40-X years old Adult

de Marinis 2003, Fig. 15 20-24 years old 25-29 years old 30-34 years old 35-39 years old 40-44 years old 45-49 years old 50-54 years old 55-59 years old 60-X years old

Table 3. Comparative list of adult class ages and terminology. 110

On the situations which are ambiguous, see Appendix 1.

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Lawton 2007

Kogălniceanu 2008

0 -1 years old, Babies 2-5 years old, Toddlers 6-10 years old, Pre-pubescent

0-7 years old Infans I 7-14 years old Infans II 14-19 years old, Adolescent

15-20 years old, Postpubescent

Table 4. Comparative list of sub-adult class ages in recent papers.

Class Ages Foeti deceased in utero 0-1 years old 2-5 years old 6-10 years old 11-15 years old 16-20 years old 21-30 years old 31-40 years old 41-50 years old 51-X years old

Band 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Table 5. List of the bands used in the text.

Class Ages “Foetus” “New born baby” “Few months baby” “About 1 year old baby” “Sub-adult” “Infant” “Child” “Adolescent” “Youth” “Young adult” “Over 17 years old” “Adult” “Over 20 years old” “Over 40 years old”

Band 0 1

2, 3

4, 5 6 7, 8, 9

Table 6. List of the terms used in the archaeological literature compared with the bands used in the text.

12

CATALOGUE

10th-9th Century BC Athesian Culture Area 1. Site: Castelfelder Town: Montagna (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: niche in a defensive wall Body Disposal: prepared location; urn collocated in a niche and closed by a stone slab MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: “little vessel”; razor; knife; pine Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: razor References: Marzoli 2001; Marzoli 2002; NothdurfterWierer 2003; Marzoli 2004; Alberti et al. 2005 Archaeological Profile: cremated bones, totally isolated, were discovered on the highest point of a hill; the wall was probably used as defensive wall and to regularise the hill side. Biological Profile: the urn, not described, contained 1,7 kg. of human bones, i.e. a complete cremation; gender has been attributed on the basis of archaeological indicators alone.

Biological Profile: 12,5 kg. of human cremated bones were found. 3. Site: Dos de la Forca Town: Salorno (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: black ground with coal and ash Body Disposal: non-prepared location; cremated bones were found together with animal bones, deer horns, vessels and fragments of metal objects MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: different class ages Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: both genders Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Dal Rì-Rizzi 1987-1988; Gleirscher 2002b (n. 144); Alberti et al. 2005 Archaeological Profile: cremated bones were found around a great quadrangular rock with a longitudinal fissure; human bones were found together with vessels, spindle-whorls, metal objects, gold, amber and glasspaste beads and deer horns, all exposed to fire. Biological Profile: only class ages and gender data are available.

2. Site: Leimburg (Fig. 8) Town: Vàdena (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: US 161 US Description: black ground with coal and ash Body Disposal: non-prepared location; cremated bones were found together with animal bones, deer horns, vessels and fragments of metal objects MNI: 8 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: different class ages Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: both genders Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Dal Rì 1996; Gleirscher 2002b (n. 130); Riedel-Tecchiati 2005; Alberti et al. 2005 Archaeological Profile: the cremated bones area was found at the margin of the Vàdena cemetery, together with ceramic and metal fragments and horns and animal burned bones, as pigs, cattle, birds and also ankle-bones.

4. Site: Carera Town: Fiavè (Trento) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: basal marsh layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; inhumed human skeletons, in anatomical order, disposed in a dorsal position with the head turned to E MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: vessels; bronze ring on the finger of one of the subjects Chronology: “Iron Age” Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Battaglia 1948-1949; de Marinis 2003

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Archaeological Profile: during marsh excavations, the inhumed skeletons were found in an area of the basal layer, near a piece of wood that covered two isolated skulls, perhaps from the Bronze Age; the inhumations date to the Iron Age, because they were associated with lathe-made vessels. Biological Profile: /

Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: abandonment layer made of pure sand Body Disposal: prepared location; urn collocated in a niche MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Marchesetti 1903; Moretti 1983b Archaeological Profile: the settlement occupied two hilltops, joined by one defensive wall; in the lower settlement findings were made of vessels and metal artefacts, as well as miniature vessels and animal bones near the inhumed subject. The site is a long-frequented site, as attested by the presence of a Certosa-type fibula. Biological Profile: /

Venetic Culture Area 5. Site: Monte d’Oro Town: Aquilinia (Trieste) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: / Body Disposal: proximal ephyphisis of the femur MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Moretti 1983a Archaeological Profile: archaeological deposit was found within a large wall, delimitating frequentation layers with animal bones and vessels. Biological Profile: /

8. Site: Casali di Flondar Town: Duino-Aurisina (Trieste) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: niche obtained in a defensive wall Body Disposal: “inhumation” MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bronze ring Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Marchesetti 1903 Archaeological Profile: the settlement occupied a hilltop at an altitude of 400 m. and it was inhabited in the Bronze and Iron Age; defensive walls protected only the SouthWest side of the hill. Biological Profile: /

6. Site: Vallarana (Fig. 1) Town: Casale di Scodosia (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: “discharging pit” Body Disposal: fragment of femur within the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Zaffanella 1989-1990; Vanzetti 2007-2008 (note 65) Archaeological Profile: the pit, excavated near the southern defensive wall within the frequentation layers, contained carved deer bones and vessel fragments as well as human bones. Biological Profile: two holes had been made near the ephyphises of the bone, perhaps with a drill; the bone presented signs of also saw cuts.

9. Site: Frattesina (Figg. 2-7) Town: Fratta Polesine (Rovigo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; seven fragments of human femurs together with animal bones MNI: more than 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: /

7. Site: Monte Grisa Town: Contovello (Trieste) 14

CATALOGUE

Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Bellintani-Cassoli 1984; Bietti Sestieri 1984 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in sector 6, characterised by the presence of fired areas and domestic/productive structures, oriented NE-SW. Biological Profile: femurs presented wear traces and holes near the ephyphises. Surfaces features and bone consistency were used to hypothesise that they were fossilised bones.

12. Site: Rivale di Prà Town: Lozzo Atestino (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; four human femurs and skull fragments without anatomical order MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Fogolari 1968-1969; Zerbinati 1982 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in an area characterised by the presence of different structures, described as “a costruzione simile a pavimento o battuto stradale in ciottoli granitici” and a “costruzione di massi irregolari di trachite posti a contatto con la nuda roccia“; human bones were found near the cairn. Biological Profile: /

10. Site: Frattesina (Figg. 2-7) Town: Fratta Polesine (Rovigo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; three fragments of human femurs together with deer and bovine bones MNI: more than 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Bellintani-Cassoli 1984; Bietti Sestieri 1984 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in sector 6, characterised by the presence of fired areas and domestic/productive structures, oriented NE-SW. Biological Profile: femurs presented wear traces and holes near the ephyphises. Surfaces features and bone consistency were used to hypothesise that they were fossilised bones.

13. Site: Rocca (Fig. 9) Town: Rivoli (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: US 5 US Description: large fissure, filled with black ground, stone slabs and Protovillanovian and Villanovian ceramic Body Disposal: non-prepared location; in the deepest section of the fissure, human skull fragments and disarticulated bones without anatomical order were found MNI: 2 (subject A; subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: about 18 years old (A); about 25 years old (B) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female (A); male (B) Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Barfield-Bagolini 1976; Denston 1976 Archaeological Profile: fissure went through sector D, inhabited since the Neolithic period; the stratigraphical relationship between human bones and the artefacts contained in the fissure allows us to say that the bones were contemporaneous with the formation of the deposit. Biological Profile: only skull fragments and long-bones were found. Subject A: skull fragment, ulna and femur. Subject B: skull fragment, ulna and radius. Subject A showed dental hypoplasia and had frontal bone characterised by pitting due to osteoporotic lesions.

11. Site: Frattesina Town: Fratta Polesine (Rovigo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human bones without anatomical order MNI: 2 (subject A; subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: “young” Class Age Parameters: visual examination Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Bellintani-Cassoli 1984; Bietti Sestieri 1984 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in sector 6, characterised by the presence of fired areas and domestic/productive structures, oriented NE-SW. Biological Profile: only skull fragments and long-bones were found. Subject A: femur, tibia, fibula, homerus, all without ephyphises. Subject B: skull fragments, half inferior jaw, half superior jaw. Bones showed no traces of wear or carving and they were not fossilised bones.

14. Site: Castelliere Town: Castions di Strada (Udine) Context: settlement US Name: / 15

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US Description: oval pit, obtained in the frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skull fragment recovered in the oval pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th-9th century BC Class Age: around 10 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Vitri 1985 Archaeological Profile: the oval pit was excavated in a frequentation layer stratigraphically contemporaneous with the most ancient phase of the settlement; the oval pit was interpreted as a discharging area. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: De Min 1984; Bianchin Citton 1998; Drusini 1998; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the area was characterised by several anthropic activities; the floor, where human bones were found, was constituted by black ground and vessel fragments, probably from a domestic and productive structure. Biological Profile: only class age data are available. 17. Site: via Decimetta (Fig. 10) Town: Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: US 307 US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton, disposed N-S in a lateral and flexed position MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: around 6-8 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: De Min 1984; Bianchin Citton 1998; Drusini 1998; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the area was characterised by several anthropic activities; the floor, where human bones were found, was constituted by black ground and vessel fragments, probably from a domestic and productive structure. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

15. Site: Prà Town: Lozzo Atestino (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skull fragments MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th-9th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Lozzo Atestino; Zerbinati 1982 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was constituted by six hut floors, where hearths, vessels and fire-dogs were also found. Two skull fragments were discovered under a hut floor. The documentary dossier of 1800s says that “si rovistò tutta la terra fino alla roccia, ma non si rinvenne altro che i soliti cocci e le solite ossa di bruti, avanzi dei pasti”. Biological Profile: /

18. Site: via Decima (Fig. 12) Town: Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton, disposed NE-SW in a lateral position (on the left side), with hands open and turned up; near the human skeleton a pig bone was found MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: violin-arch fibula, arrow-point, small knife; Murex shell (near the skull) Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: 21-25 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: De Min 1984; Bianchin Citton 1998; Drusini 1998; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the frequentation layer was situated immediately outside a posthole area, belonging to probable domestic structures.

16. Site: via Decimetta (Fig. 11) Town: Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: US 319 US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton, disposed N-S in a lateral and flexed position MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: around 2 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / 16

CATALOGUE

Biological Profile: only class age and gender data are available.

Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton disposed in a lateral flexed position (left side) MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: hair-spiral (?) Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: 35 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: hair-spiral (?) References: De Min 1984; Bianchin Citton 1998; Drusini 1998; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in a sand layer that signalled an interruption in the occupation of the settlement; human skeletal remains were collocated on a precedent palisade structure. Biological Profile: lumbar vertebrae showed arthrosic alterations due to prolonged mechanical stresses; the highly developed muscles and tendons marks on humeri were connected with elevation movements made with the arms.

19. Site: via Decima (Fig. 13) Town: Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton, disposed N-S in a prone position, the right arm turned up and the left arm laying along the side MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: iron Cassibile-type fibula, broken in ancient times (under the ribcage, near the neck’s bones) Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: De Min 1984; Bianchin Citton 1998; de Marinis 2003; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the frequentation layer was situated immediately outside a posthole area, belonging to probable domestic structures. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

22. Site: via Castello (Figg. 16-17) Town: Montereale Valcellina (Pordenone) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit dug in the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeleton was disposed in a lateral and flexed position (left side) in the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: 8-9 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Corazza 1997 Archaeological Profile: the pit containing human bones was excavated in the floor of a domestic structure that also included postholes. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

20. Site: via Decima (Fig. 14) Town: Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton disposed in a dorsal position MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: De Min 1984; Bianchin Citton 1998; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the frequentation layer was situated immediately outside a posthole area, belonging to probable domestic structures; the head and the legs of the skeleton had been cut off during the erection of a wood palisade. Biological Profile: /

23. Site: Campo Michela (Fig. 18) Town: Villa Marzana (Rovigo) Context: settlement US Name: US 18 US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton disposed in a dorsal position with the head to E; arms were flexed on the pelvis; skull and cervical vertebrae were absent MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: 45-49 years old

21. Site: via Chisogno (Fig. 15) Town: Montagnana, Borgo S. Zeno (Padova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: abandonment layer (sand layer) 17

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Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: de Marinis 2003; Salzani-Consonni 2005; Consonni 2008; Mazzucchi-Cattaneo, unpublished Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in an area characterised by postholes and coal; animal bones were found together with the human bones. Biological Profile: cervical vertebrae were afflicted by osteophytes and Shmorl nodules; the same lesions were evident on thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and on the rib heads. Right fibula showed a non recent fracture, set but with traces of bone proliferation and periostitis; also right tibia showed a periostitis due to traumatic events

Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Fasani-Salzani 1984; Salzani 1987 Archaeological Profile: human bones were recovered from the floor of a domestic structure, together with firedogs, vessels and carved animal bones. Biological Profile: /

Interface I, Eastern Po Valley Sub-Region 26. Site: Monte Peladolo Town: Virle (Brescia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skull MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: “child” Class Age Parameters: visual examination Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Marchello 1964-1966; Stella 1990 Archaeological Profile: human skull was found in the so-called western village, inhabited since the Middle Bronze Age; however the presence of vessels, metal objects, an axe with an incised λ sign and some pines dated to the beginning of Iron Age. The skull was recovered in the centre of the village, not far from the floor of a domestic structure. Biological Profile: /

24. Site: Campo Michela (Fig. 19) Town: Villa Marzana (Rovigo) Context: settlement US Name: US 10 US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton disposed in a lateral and flexed position (right side) with head to the W and the face turned to S; right arm laid along the side, left arm flexed on the pelvis; the legs were crossed at the ankles, flexed and turned on the right MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: 16-20 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: de Marinis 2003; Salzani-Consonni 2005; Consonni 2008; Mazzucchi-Cattaneo, unpublished Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in an area characterised by postholes and coal; animal bones were found together with the human bones, i.e. pig, cattle and fish bones. Biological Profile: teeth analysis showed the congenital absence of second inferior right and left premolars and of third inferior and left molar and superior right molar; there were also hypoplasia and hyper-production of jaws bones to compensate the congenital teeth absence.

Golasecca Culture Area 27. Site: S. Spirito Town: Gropello Cairoli (Pavia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skull MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Vannacci Lunazzi 1988; De Caro 1999; De Caro 2002

25. Site: Boaria 13 Town: Villa Marzana (Rovigo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; skull fragments and small human bones were found in non anatomical order MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: / 18

CATALOGUE

Archaeological Profile: human skull was found in a small area which also contained a flint arrow-point, a bronze dagger, an axe, some pines, a bronze ring and two bronze ingots (relic-objects?). Biological Profile: the skull showed cracks on the cranial and facial bones.

and also contained metal and clay artefacts and carved horns and animal bones. Biological Profile: all the bones were exposed to the direct action of fire, they were partially burned but not totally exhausted; one of the male subjects was afflicted by club-foot and all the bones presented arthroisc lesions.

30. Site: Case Pantani Town: Carpineti (Reggio Emilia) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: natural rock fissure, filled with non local sandstone Body Disposal: three urns recovered in the fissure MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: biconical vessels (urns); two bronze fibulae Chronology: 10th-9th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Degani 1960 (n. 2270); Tirabassi 1990 (n. 68); Malnati-Neri 1994 (n. 33); Macellari 2008 Archaeological Profile: the urns were found near the top of Mount Valestra, characterised by the presence of settlements and anthropic activities; the Malavolti Cave was also found here, a fissure filled with spindle-whorls, bronze pins and rings, animal carved bones and glasspaste beads. Biological Profile: /

Emilia Romagna pre-Etruscan Culture Area 28. Site: Ca’ dei Dottori Town: Castell’Arquato (Piacenza) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human superior jaw recovered together with animal bones (i.e. cattle, pigs and dogs) MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Coggi 1971-1974 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was constituted by domestic structures but the abundance of metal waste makes it possible to recognise that metallurgic workshops were probably present. Biological Profile: in the right superior half-jaw a tooth remained, the second molar; the heavy dental wear was due to the use of the teeth as an instrument during life.

Taurinian Culture Area 29. Site: via Correcchio (Fig. 23) Town: Coriano (Forlì) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: oval pit, realised in the frequentation layer Body Disposal: non prepared location; human bones, i.e. ribs, homerus, radius, ulna, femurs, tibiae and feet bones, in non anatomical order MNI: 5 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 10th century BC Class Age: over 20 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male (4 subjects); female (1 subject) Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Prati 1976; Gazzarri 1981 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was 600 m2 (sector II) and included the foundations layers of domestic structures; the oval pit, containing human and animal bones, was near to but separated from the houses

31. Site: Maometto Town: Borgone (Torino) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; generic human bones, found without anatomical order, and a humerus MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Agosti et al. 1971 Archaeological Profile: archaeological deposit included two peaks, one characterised by the presence of a Jupiter Dolichenus aedicule and the other by the presence of a Roman settlement. The proto-historic frequentation was concentrated around an erratic rock decorated by coppelle and partially broken: human bones were found together with metal objects, 19

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Biological Profile: the humerus presented a long fracture; the absence of regeneration traces on the bone suggests that this was a post-mortem traumatic event.

insertion points in the clavicles were very marked, the flattening of tibiae bones and the high development of femurs’ “linea aspra” indicated mechanical stresses on the legs.

Ligurian Culture Area

34. Site: Monte Grange Town: Riva Ligure (Imperia) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: natural cave, modified by anthropic acts Body Disposal: the southern sector of the cave was filled with a compact deposit of ash, coal and six intentionally broken vessels; the northern sector was on the contrary filled with ceramic vessels MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: conic vessel (urn); 7 vessels; shell Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Frediani et al. 1964; Del Lucchese 2004 Archaeological Profile: the fissure was part of a wide archaeological complex on the most important peaks of the Argentina Valley; Mount Settefontane and Mount Rocche were occupied by fortified settlements, at Mount Grange (connected to preceeding mountains by a narrow hill) findings were made of human bones and there were several traces of seasonal settlements dated to 4th-3rd century BC. Biological Profile: /

32. Site: via Muratori (Fig. 20) Town: Fossano (Cuneo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: “rinvenimento di resti scheletrici umani” MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: Chronology: 9th century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Venturino et al. 1996; Fulcheri-Micheletti Cremasco 1998 Archaeological Profile: the settlement area of via Muratori was characterised by the presence of metal and ceramic waste, probably due to handcraft activities. Biological Profile: both individuals presented squatting facets on the feet bones; moreover, the second subject recovered had experienced significant dental alterations, i.e. hypoplasia, tartar and a noteworthy alveolar retraction of the inferior jaw bone.

33. Site: Realdo di Borniga (Figg. 21-22) Town: Triora (Imperia) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: natural rock fissure Body Disposal: “rinvenimento di resti scheletrici umani” MNI: 10 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: 8 bronze bracelets, 1 torques Chronology: 10th-9th century BC Class Age: four adults; four “young”; one “adolescent”; one 8 years old subject Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: 9 males; 1 female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Lamboglia 1972; Lamboglia 1976; Negroni Catacchio et al. 1979; Bareschino et al. 2004 Archaeological Profile: the fissure, known also as “Buco del Diavolo” and located at an altitude of m. 1430, was constituted by two openings separated by m. 30: both openings were intentionally closed by stone slabs and non specified waste material. Biological Profile: all the subjects presented a congenital agenesia of the third molar of the inferior jaw and traces of hypoplasia; another congenital feature was the perforation of the humeral olecranon process; the muscle

8th-6th century BC Athesian Culture Area 35. Site: Calferi (Figg. 24-26) Town: Stenico (Trento) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: sector I, layers C1, B3, B2, B; sector II, layers C2, B4; sector III, layers D1, C5, C6, C4, C1, B6, B5, B; sector IV, layers D3, D2, D1, D, B2, B1, B; sector V, layer B2. Human bones were also recovered near tombs 1, 2 and 3 of the Middle Bronze Age tumulus and in the layers C1, C4, C5, C6, C7, C9, C11 US Description: black ground with coal and ash Body Disposal: non-prepared location; cremated human bones found together with animal burned bones and metal objects and vessels exposed to fire MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 9th-2nd century BC Class Age: 17 ± 8 years old; 11± 4 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / 20

CATALOGUE

Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Perini 1979; Perini 1983; Marzatico 1992; Gleirscher 2002b (n. 162); Marzatico 2002; Mazzucchi 2010 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was constituted by the following: a Middle Bronze Age tumulus in sectors IV and II; a burned offerings area dated to the Iron Age and formed by ash, coal, metal and ceramic objects, human and animal burned bones; a Roman building constructed with the stone slabs of the tumulus; two Medieval inhumations. The area occupied the southern sector of the tumulus, in part dismantled in order to create the sacred area. Biological Profile: human bones deposit was formed by skull bones and long-bones of the arms and legs. From a pathological perspective, one skull fragment presented a pitting area and one femur fragment had a typical stress mark, enthesopaty of the neck of the femur. Two bones presented traces of precedent fractures and lesions due to ancient incidents.

Gender: both genders Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gleirscher 1991-1993; Gleirscher 1994; Nothdurfter 1999; Gleirscher 2002a; Gleirscher 2002b (n. 103); von den Driesch-Schröter 2002; Alberti et al. 2005; Zampieri 2006 Archaeological Profile: the circular-shaped layer, the socalled Bothros, had a diameter of 9 m. and was delimited by two walls and a path that led to a water spring; the archaeological deposit was constituted by ash, coal, human and animal burned bones, metals objects, copper waste and flint points (these last finds were more ancient than the contexts). Biological Profile: 18 kg. of human bones were found in the Bothros, only skull fragments and long-bones of the arms and legs were found. The individuals were between the ages of 21-30 years, sub-adults and older adults were very rare.

38. Site: Noafer Bhül (Fig. 29) Town: Greis (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: black ground with coal and ash Body Disposal: human cremated bones found together with animal bones, metal and ceramic objects MNI: 6 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: “young”, “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: 6 males; 2 females Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Mahlknecht 2002; Renhart 2002 Archaeological Profile: human cremated bones were concentrated in two areas on the N-W and S-E side of the peak, near cairns surrounded by both ceramic and metal objects, animal and human bones and glass-paste beads, all exposed to the action of fire. Biological Profile: the 6 subjects ranged from the age of 19-40 years old at the time of death; only skull fragments and long bones of the arms and legs were found.

36. Site: Cles Town: Mechel, Valemporga (Trento) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: black ground with coal and ash Body Disposal: human cremated bones found together with animal bones, part burned and part unburned MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Lunz 1974; Adam 1991; Gleirscher 2002b (n. 82); Endrizzi et al. 2009 Archaeological Profile: according to Lunz, the site was occupied from Ha A1, even if the archaeological deposit was widely altered: under the Roman layers, black layers with coal and ash were found along with a quadrangular structure covered by coal and ash. Biological Profile: /

39. Site: via Galizia (Figg. 31-32) Town: Leives (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: US 1; US 3; US 4 US Description: black ground with coal and ash Body Disposal: human cremated bones found together with animal burned bones, ceramic and metal objects and glass-paste beads exposed to fire MNI: 4 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: 16-20 years old (subject from US 1); “adult” (subjects form US 3 and US 4)

37. Site: Rungger Egg (Figg. 27-28) Town: Castelruth (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: circular-shaped layer with coal and ash Body Disposal: human cremated bones found together with animal bones and metal objects MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: different class ages Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis 21

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Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Alberti 2002; Alberti et al. 2005; Zanforlin 2008 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit, divided in four sectors (A, B, C and D), was constituted by linear structures parallel to each other and separated by black ground with ash and coal, human cremated bones, ceramic and metal objects, glass-paste beads exposed to fire, ankle-bones of cattle and disarticulated bones of a horse. Biological Profile: only skull fragments and the longbones of arms and legs were found.

younger subject skeleton had been disarticulated and then re-composed to simulate anatomical order. MNI: 18 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: both genders Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Michelini-Ruta Serafini 2005; Facciolo et al. 2006; Facciolo-Tagliacozzo 2006; Ruta SerafiniMichelini, forthcoming Archaeological Profile: the occupation of area begins in the 8th century BC with the realisation of circular firepits containing animal burned and unburned bones, as well as cereals and organic remains of meat. In the second phase of use rectangular fire-pits were present, which contained animal burned bones and cereals. In the third phase there were 13 fire-pits containing human bones and animal bones (horses, dogs, deer, wolves, hares and birds), which were associated with human skeletons. In particular, structure Lambda contained a female skeleton associated with horse bones and a male subject associated with a dog bones. Where animal bones were found together with human bones, none of them had been exposed to the action of fire. The area was subsequently occupied by a funerary tumulus and by a cremation graves cemetery; it was then abandoned until the Roman period, when canals, hydraulic structures and pits were created. The evidence here described belong to the 8th century BC phase. Biological Profile: anthropological analysis is still ongoing but gender and class ages of the subjects have been already identified. Moreover, both the selection of bones and the manipulation of the bodies seem to suggest possible fleshing procedures; this however needs to be confirmed by further microscopic analysis.

Venetic Culture Area 40. Site: Teatro/Quartiere Ovest (Figg. 33-35) Town: Concordia Sagittaria (Venezia) Context: settlement US Name: US 904; US 1017 US Description: pits dug in frequentation layers, which were characterised by the presence of fire-pits, clay deposits, houses floors and hydraulic structures Body Disposal: fragments of human femurs were found in the pits together with animal bones MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Di Filippo Balestrazzi 1996; SainatiSalerno 1996; Tagliacozzo et al. 1996; Bianchin Citton 2001 Archaeological Profile: proto-historic frequentation layers were discovered under the Roman theater; handcraft activities were testified by the presence of discharging areas, probably linked with furnaces. The pits contained, beside human bones, animal bones (cattle, pig and deer bones) with butchers marks, intentionally broken vessels and loom-weights. Biological Profile: human bones had cut marks, carved surfaces and holes.

42. Site: ex Fornace (fig. 43) Town: Oppeano Veronese (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: US 146-147 US Description: simple pit dug in a frequentation layer characterised by the presence of postholes and fire areas Body Disposal: human skeleton disposed in a dorsal position in the pit; legs were absent and were probably cut off under the knees by successive ditches MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: two reels Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: reels References: Ferrari 2008; Guidi 2008; Saracino 2009

41. Site: via S. Eufemia (Figg. 36-39) Town: Padova Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pits dug in frequentation layers Body Disposal: human skeletal remains found in pits; the skeletons, both complete and non-complete, were recovered in prone and disarticulated positions; in particular, an old subject was found without legs, while a 22

CATALOGUE

Archaeological Profile: the deposit, detected in 2002, was found in a marginal area of the hill occupied by the proto-historic settlement; the frequentation layers contained ash, coal, two furnaces and metal waste, the postholes and the simple pits were probably used as discharging areas. The skeleton was found in one of these pits; the findings and the context seem to suggest the presence of handcraft activities. Biological Profile: female gender is hypothesised in Guidi 2008, p. 169, although the medical parameters employed for this diagnosis can be questioned.

Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: unpublished; cited in Ferrari 2008; GuidiSaracino 2008; Saracino 2009; Catalano et al., forthcoming Archaeological Profile: the sub-circular pit (2 m. deep and 6 m. in diameter in a marginal area of the settlement) was first used for the excavation of clay or sand and then re-used as a probable discharging area: it contained animal bones, ash and coal and a few metal artefacts. The bottom of the pit was closed by a large basalt slab: mineralogical analysis showed that the stone was not local and it had been imported from Val d’ Alpone, a distance of 60 km. from the settlement. In the area, a group of metal artefacts, part of a metal-store, was also found. Biological Profile: the skeleton presented pathological signs. Dental hypoplasia is attested by four episodes of non-deposition of teeth varnish and Harris lines were observed on the tibiae; the strong development of legs bones is testified by the bilateral plathymetry of the femurs and by the presence of ostephytes and Schmorl nodules on thoracic and lumbar vertebrae; moreover, sacral vertebrae showed cyphosis marks and the fusion of the 4th and 5th vertebrae, probably due to a NTD syndrome. Traumatic lesions are evident on inferior jaw incisors: the blow was probably inflicted 6-8 months before the subject died and caused the necrosis of surrounding tissues.

43. Site: La Montara (Figg. 40-41) Town: Oppeano Veronese (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: USS 72-73 US Description: simple pit dug in a frequentation layer characterised by the presence of pits Body Disposal: human skeleton disposed in a prone position in the pit; the legs, disarticulated and in nonanatomical order, were flexed towards the skull and the arms were under the ribcage MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Riedel-Rizzi 1999; Ferrari 2008; Salzani et al. 2008; Saracino 2009 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was found in a marginal area of the hill occupied by the proto-historic settlement, characterised by the presence of handcraft activities as is indicated by ash, coal and pits; the human skeleton was laid in one of these pits, from which clay had probably been excavated. Near the skeleton pit bovine bones were found along with the skeletal remains of 4 dogs, 3 adults and a puppy (around 7 months old); two dogs were represented only by cranial bones without jaws, while the others were represented by the complete skeleton. The dogs, characterised by wolflike features, were found with other, unspecified, animal bones. Biological Profile: /

45. Site: Castejon Town: Molina (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: two pits closed by stone slabs Body Disposal: several human skeletons found in pits MNI: around 50 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: “un cerchietto in bronzo” (bracelet?) Chronology: Iron Age Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Zorzi 1960 Archaeological Profile: the finds are described as “fosse comuni”, i.e. mass graves, found at the Castejon settlement under the frequentation layers characterised by the presence of houses floors, dated both to the Iron Age and Roman period. Biological Profile: /

44. Site: ex Fornace (Fig. 42) Town: Oppeano Veronese (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: US 421-130 US Description: simple pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton disposed in a prone position in the pit, with the arms laid along the sides MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: 35-40 years old

46. Site: via S. Eufemia Town: Padova Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pit dug in the frequentation layers 23

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Body Disposal: disarticulated human skeletal remains found in the pit together with dog, pig, horse and deer bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: amber bead Chronology: 6th-5th century BC Class Age: “child” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Michelini 2005; Ruta Serafini-Michelini, forthcoming Archaeological Profile: see nr. 41. Biological Profile: only legs were found.

Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Menotti 2001 Archaeological Profile: the discovered buildings, the socalled “Great Building” and “Poor Building”, presented different occupational phases. Phase 9, oriented S-W, of the so-called “Poor Building” housed the inhumations: the skeletons were collocated after the abandonment of the building. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Alpine Golasecca Culture Area 49. Site: Erbonne, Cimitero (Fig. 71) Town: S. Fedele Intelvi (Como) Context: settlement US Name: US 104-106 US Description: frequentation layer made of limo, with vessel fragments, coal and animal bones Body Disposal: non-prepared location; a human tooth was found together with animal bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Biagi et al. 1993; Maspero-Uboldi 1994; Gioacchini Ravaglia 2000 Archaeological Profile: the excavations explored two archaeological deposits; the superior one (characterised by the presence of domestic structures, vessel fragments and a bronze axe which dated to the Iron Age) and the inferior one which could be dated to the Mesolithic period. The human tooth was found together with bovine and pig bones: the animal bones had cut marks and were probably butchered in loco. Biological Profile: /

Interface I, Orobian Sub-Region 47. Site: Albergo Combolo Town: Teglio (Sondrio) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skull fragment found in a bowl; the bowl was recovered in the basal layer of the floor of a domestic structure MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: first half of the Iron Age Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Mariotti 1995-1997; Mariotti 1999 Archaeological Profile: the basal layer belonged to a domestic structure; ceramic waste and discharging areas were found in the layer containing the floor; the structure also housed probably handcraft activities. Biological Profile: /

Interface I, Eastern Po Valley Sub-Region Golasecca Culture Area 48. Site: Castello (Fig. 70) Town: Castiglione Mantovano (Mantova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeletons found in anatomical order MNI: 5 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: “infants”

50. Site: Monsorino (Fig. 30) Town: Castelletto Ticino (Novara) Context: settlement US Name: “layer C” US Description: pit dug in the floor of a domestic structure, characterised by fire areas, metal waste and fusion moulds Body Disposal: human cremated bones found in the pit together with animal bones MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones 24

CATALOGUE

Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Mira Bonomi 1967-1969; Mira Bonomi 1973-1975; Martignetti-Ruffa 1998 Archaeological Profile: excavations were made in a productive area, characterised by the presence of furnaces and discharging pits; one of them contained three human cremated bones fragments together with carved animal bones and horns and carved shells. Biological Profile: /

stone slabs, probably part of the streets paving. An ovoid vessel and a stone thriedron were found near the skeleton. Biological Profile: /

Etruscan Culture Area

51. Site: S. Spirito Town: Gropello Cairoli (Pavia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton disposed in a dorsal position with the head turned to W MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: two iron fibulae (on the clavicles); a bronze ring, a ring decorated by a quartz stone Chronology: 6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Repetto 1980 Archaeological Profile: the excavations explored a 2-6 m. deep archaeological deposit: it was found to contain houses floors, domestic hearths, discharging pits and stone slabs, probably part of the street paving. Biological Profile: /

53. Site: Villa Cassarini (Figg. 44-46) Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit protected by stone slabs, dug in the frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit in a dorsal position, with the head to N and turned on the humerus; the right arm was flexed on the pelvis; the feet bones were absent MNI: 1 (subject A) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: two bronze fibulae (on the clavicle and on the sternum); a clay pig figurine (near the right forearm) Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: 31-35 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Kruta Poppi 1974; Kruta Poppi 1976a; Kruta Poppi 1976b; Brasili Gualandi 1976; Taglioni 1999 (nr. 89) Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in sector B, outside a house floor with a hearth and near fire areas characterised by the presence of burned pig bones. Biological Profile: the skeleton showed signs of atrophy of the molars and tooth decay; marked insertion points for muscles and tendons were observed on the humeri and ulnae, the coxal bones and the femurs. Both femurs showed traces of wear. Wormian bones were found in the cranial junctions.

52. Site: S. Spirito Town: Gropello Cairoli (Pavia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton disposed in a lateral position with the head turned to E MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Repetto 1980 Archaeological Profile: the excavations explored a 2-6 m. deep archaeological deposit: it was found to contain houses floors, domestic hearths and discharging pits and

54. Site: Villa Cassarini (fig. 47) Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; “frammenti di ossa umane” MNI: 1 (subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: 51-60 years old Class Age Parameters: / Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Kruta Poppi 1976a; Kruta Poppi 1976b; Brasili Gualandi 1976 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found North to the skeleton described in nr. 53. 25

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Biological Profile: the skeleton showed heavy dental wear on the molars; the long bones of the arms and the legs showed signs of being afflicted by plathymetry.

US Description: foundation layer of the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: “cremation grave” located in a small pit closed by a cairn MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: dolium (urn); spindle-whorl; reel and loomweights Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: weaving elements, spindle-whorl, reel and loom-weights References: Vitali 1992 (“tomba A”); Taglioni 1999 (nr. 84) Archaeological Profile: the dolium was found in the floor of an oval domestic structure with two rectangular appendices turned towards E and W. Biological Profile: /

55. Site: Villa Cassarini Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit dug in the frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit in a lateral position (right side), with the head turned to E MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: “Villanovian phase” Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Scarani 1966; Ammirati-Morico 1981-1982 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found between two layers, the lower made of gravel and the upper of sand. At the same level as the skeleton findings were made of foundations walls, house floors and hearths, deer horns and loom-weights; these last finds were located some 3 m. from the skeleton. Biological Profile: /

58. Site: Scuole Medie (Figg. 59-60) Town: Castenaso (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: pit 6 US Description: conical pit dug in the frequentation layer Body Disposal: three human skeletons were found in the pit in a dorsal position, partially overlapping each other, one with the head turned to E and the other turned to W. Of subject C only legs were recovered MNI: 3 (subjects A, B and C) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: 21-25 years old (A); 16-18 years old (B) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male (A and B); female (C) Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Brasili Gualandi 1980a; Brasili Gualandi 1980b; Silvestri 1994; Giusberti 1994b Archaeological Profile: the conical pit was found in the marginal area of the settlement, near a circular-shaped deposit made of coal and ash, which contained the dorsal spine of a horse together with pig and bovine bones. Biological Profile: subject A presented a significant cranial trepanation effectuated in vivo on the occipital bone; the hole (29x32 mm.) was localised in the left cranial pit and was made using the abrasion method. The growth of the diploe confirmed that the subject survived the surgical operation and lived for almost two weeks.

56. Site: Via Oberdan, 22 Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer made of clay and sand, with circular-shaped deposits made of coal and ash Body Disposal: non-prepared location; urn located in the ground within one of the circular-shaped deposits MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: dolium (urn); vessel fragments; two bronze fibulae; three carved and perforated teeth of a wild boar Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Malavolti 1951-1952; Arias 1953 (nr. 2147); Taglioni 1999 (nr. 72) Archaeological Profile: the frequentation layer was found at the same level as the domestic structures; the dolium was associated with a house floor which contained three hearths and a situla-shaped clay vessel. Biological Profile: /

59. Site: Scuole Medie (Figg. 59-60) Town: Castenaso (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: unknown, near pit 6 US Description: fire area (hearth?)

57. Site: Via del Pratello, 96 (Figg. 48-49) Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / 26

CATALOGUE

Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human parietal bone MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: around 10 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Giusberti 1994b Archaeological Profile: fire areas, probably hearths, were found in the area near pit 6, containing a human parietal bone, a dog-fire, a deer horn “zappetta,” a bronze fibula decorated with glass-paste beads, four spindlewhorls (one broken) and two clay handles (broken) belonging to a large vessel. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: “perinatal age” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Giusberti 1994b Archaeological Profile: the conic pit was found in the marginal area of the settlement, filled by coal and ash (perhaps indicating the presence of hearths?). Evidence was found of wood from plane trees, beech trees and nonlocal oak. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

62. Site: Palazzina Olga (Figg. 50-57) Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: furnaces chambers excavated in the frequentation layers Body Disposal: human skeletons were found in the chambers. Subject 760 was found in a dorsal position, with the head resting upon the ribcage of a horse collocated in a flexed position. Subject 761was found in a dorsal position. Subject 770 was found in a dorsal position with the right arm flexed towards the head. Subject 771 was found in a dorsal position, with the right arm flexed towards the head and legs covered by vessel fragments. Subject 772 was found in a dorsal position, with the right arm along the side and the left one flexed on the sternum. Subject 791 was found in a lateral position (right side), the forearms bones rested on the humeri and the femurs on the ribcage; the feet bones, crossed at ankles, were discovered under the pelvis; the skeleton was covered by vessel fragments. Subject 792 was found in a dorsal position with arms flexed on the sternum. Subject 793 was found in a dorsal position; the skull had been crushed under a stone stele MNI: 8 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: 3 clay cylinders were found on the sternum, the right arm and the left hand of subject 791; two bronze fibulae and a bronze ear-ring (subject 792); a bronze wire (subject 793) Chronology: second half of the 8th century BC Class Age: around 40 years old (791) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male (791) Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Benassi Graffi-Facchini 1965; PincelliMorigi Govi 1975; Taglioni 1997 Archaeological Profile: the furnaces were found in the marginal area of the settlement, along the Savena river and near the S. Vitale cemetery. In the first occupational phase there were 17 furnaces (9th century BC), but in the second half of the 8th century BC, 7 were re-employed as containers for human skeletons (1 contained a human and a horse skeletons and 1 contained a horse skeleton). In the

60. Site: Scuole Medie (Figg. 59-63) Town: Castenaso (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: structure 10 US Description: conic pit dug in the frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeletons found in the pit were in a vertical position, 140 cm. under the mouth of the pit. A niche containing a cattle horn had been inserted above the subject located in the Southern sector of the pit; a niche containing a male horse skull close to the subject was located in the Northern sector. The disarticulated bones of dogs, cattle, pig and toads were also found here MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: (near the South located subject) three broken spindle-whorls, three reels; fire-dogs fragments; a bronze fibula decorated with amber and glass-paste beads; amber fragments; a deer horn “zappetta”. Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: 35 weeks old (intra uterine) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male; female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Silvestri 1994; Giusberti 1994b Archaeological Profile: the conic pit was found in the marginal area of the settlement, filled by coal and ash (perhaps indicating the presence of hearths?). Biological Profile: only class age and gender data are available.

61. Site: Scuole Medie (Figg. 59-63) Town: Castenaso (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: compact layer made of coal and ash that covered structure 10 Body Disposal: human right humerus MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation 27

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8th-7th century BC, 14 inhumed skeletons were collocated in the same area (outside the chambers) and all without grave goods except for a sub-adult with a bronze bracelet on one arm. In the 7th century BC, 22 cremation graves were deposited in this area, with rich grave goods and in pits protected and closed by pebbles. Biological Profile: the skeleton of subject 791 presented heavy dental wear and lacked incisors and molars (these probably fell out after death); the insertions points of muscles and tendons on the long-bones of the arms and legs were well marked; the right ulna was also afflicted by osteophytes; the right tibia showed a significant abrasion of both ephyphises.

Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Forte 1994; Mainardi-Pacciani 1994 Archaeological Profile: the pit was found in a marginal zone of the settlement, near structure η; a cattle half-jaw was found together with the skeleton. Biological Profile: the anterior human teeth showed signs of heavy wear, associated with several episodes of decay and hypoplasia; the insertion points of the tendons on the phalanges of both hands were well marked and the right tibia was afflicted by periostitis. The analysis of pubic bones seems to confirm that the subject completed pregnancies.

63. Site: via Foscolo Frassinago (Fig. 58) Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: US 285 US Description: filling layer of USn 284, a sub-circular pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human humeri and femurs found in the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 7th century BC Class Age: 1 month old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Farello 2002; Negrelli 2002; Pini 2002 Archaeological Profile: this probable discharging pit USn 284 was from the third occupational phase, dated to the 7th century BC. Human bones were found together with disarticulated bones of cattle and pigs and the complete skeletons of a dog, a horse and a mallard (Anas Plathyrincos). Vessel fragments, fire-dogs fragments and a whetstone were also found. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

65. Site: Arcoveggio-via della Dozza (Figg. 66-67) Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: US 13 US Description: pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: urn found in the pit, protected by pebbles and covered by a sandstone slab MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: bronze fibula, bronze bracelet, iron fragments (distaff) Chronology: 7th-6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: distaff References: Ortalli 1990; Ortalli 1994; Mengoli 1994 Archaeological Profile: the pit was found in an area characterised by the presence of canals and other hydraulic structures; the area was delimited by a large ditch oriented N-S and the pit was found near the ditch and at the same level. Findings (i.e. domestic vessels, pebbles and animal bones) and context seem to suggest the presence of a rural settlement. Biological Profile: /

64. Site: via Gramsci (Figg. 64-65) Town: Castenaso Context: settlement US Name: structure H US Description: pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit in a prone and discomposed position, the left arm was found under the ribcage and the legs had been laid in non anatomical order. The skeleton was covered by a tightly packed layer of ash MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bronze wire found between the skull and the neck bones (ear-ring?) Chronology: 7th-6th century BC Class Age: around 40 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female

66. Site: Proprietà Lisi Town: Covignano (Rimini) Context: settlement US Name: US 13 US Description: pit protected by pebbles (?) dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human femur found in the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Cartoceti 1998

28

CATALOGUE

Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit included finds from two main phases, the proto-historic (6th-5th century BC) and the Roman (which had partially altered the earlier settlement layers); the probable pit, from which a human femur was recovered, was found near a house floor and a second pit containing a bowl, an olla and a bronze point. Biological Profile: /

Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit here included two Neolithic occupational phases (Early and Middle Neolithic) and Iron Age evidence; the walls and the pits were constructed in the Neolithic phase: the most interesting of these are pit F5 (which contained miniature vessels and stone axes) and pit F1 (which contained disarticulated human bones belonging to a sub-adult). The pit containing human skull fragments was found in the Middle Neolithic layers and contained a sandstone slab, deposited near the skull and the complete fibulae. Biological Profile: /

67. Site: Seminario Diocesano (Figg. 68-69) Town: Covignano (Rimini) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit was in a dorsal position and E-W oriented MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bucchero bowls, amphorae; iron machaira, three bronze spear-heads Chronology: 6th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: machaira, spearheads References: Zuffa 1970; Susini-Tripponi 1980; Graziosi Ripa 1980; Cristofani 1995; Fontemaggi-Piolanti 1995; Curina 2000; Marini Calvani 2000; Miari 2000; Cicala 2008; Malnati 2008 Archaeological Profile: the very long-frequented hill of Covignano represented the ritual focus of proto-historic human groups, because of its geographical position and the presence of thermal water springs. It was an open air sanctuary and aedicules and votive deposits (for example from Villa Ruffi and S. Lorenzo stipes) constituted the main evidence for ceremonial activities. Biological Profile: /

Ligurian Culture Area 69. Site: S. Cassiano Town: Alba (Cuneo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer containing vessel fragments and animal bones Body Disposal: human legs found in the frequentation layer MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 8th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Venturino Gambari et al. 2004 Archaeological Profile: the first occupational phase is dated to Early Bronze Age; the seasonal nature of frequentation is attested by pits and an isolated grave, containing a human skeleton with a bronze dagger near the left femur. In the Iron Age occupation was more stable and was favored by the presence of a Tanaro river paleo-bed. Anthropic surfaces included 13 structures, postholes and pits. Biological Profile: /

Taurinian Culture Area 68. Site: Castel d’Annone Town: Asti Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skull fragments found in the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: two bronze fibulae; isolated fibulae needles Chronology: 8th-6th century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: visual examination Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Fedele 1990; Gambari 1995

5th-3rd century BC Athesian Culture Area 70. Site: Stufles, via Elvas Town: Bressanone (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: US 342 US Description: pit found in the collapse layer of a house floor (room A) Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit was in a lateral position (right side), with head turned to E MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / 29

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Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: 35-38 weeks old (intra uterine) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: probable female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: unpublished (Courtesy of A. Conzato and U. Tecchiati) Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit is constituted by a large and long-frequented settlement, where domestic structures, infra-structures and hydraulic structures were organised in a regular urban framework. Room A was occupied during the 5th century BC: after the collapse of room A, the pit containing the human skeleton was dug and covered by the ruins of the house. Biological Profile: only class age and gender data are available.

72. Site: Stufles, via Elvas Town: Bressanone (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: US 158 US Description: layer made of limo, with traces of fire (US 165) followed by a wall collapse (US 154) at House 2, room B Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human femur MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: “infant” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Feltrin et al. 2009 Archaeological Profile: a human femur was also found at House 2, room B. The bone was found in the abandonment layers, as is indicated by stratigraphical analysis and by the presence of limo layers, fire traces and collapsed walls. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

71. Site: Stufles, via Elvas (Figg. 72-74) Town: Bressanone (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: UUS 323-324 US Description: pit found in the S-W corner of the floor of a domestic structure (House 2, room B) Body Disposal: two human skeletons were found in the pit; they had been placed in a prone position and were overlapping each other: the head of the upper subject had been placed on the feet of lower subject. The upper subject presented both arms lying against the sides with turned up hands; the hand and feet bones of the lower subject had been bound unnaturally close together. Both skeletons were covered by a layer of gravel and by stone slabs MNI: 2 (subject A; subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: over 40 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Feltrin et al. 2009 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit represents a large and long-frequented settlement, where domestic structures, infra-structures and hydraulic structures were organised into a regular urban framework. The human skeletons were found under the floor of a small room (m. 5,80x2,40), in an annex of House 2, which was probably used as duty-room (room B): the inhumations pit was excavated under the S-W corner of room B. Both House 2 and room B were destroyed by fire. Findings from within these structures included 74 loom-weights, fire-dogs and a grind. Biological Profile: the lower subject (B), younger than the other individual (A), showed a lesion on the skull, though it was not, however, the cause of the death.

73. Site: Greifenstein (Fig. 75) Town: S. Genesio (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: natural rock fissure filled by ash, coal, vessels fragments, metal artefacts and glass-paste beads Body Disposal: human bones in partial anatomic order were found in the fissure, together with cattle, pig, dog and deer bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-3rd century BC Class Age: around 25 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Torggler 2002; Riedel et al. 2002 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in a natural rock fissure, that, thanks to its geographical position and the presence of several significant findings, has been interpreted as part of a ceremonial area. Biological Profile: skull fragments, a femur, a clavicle, a rib and some cervical and thoracic vertebrae were found in the fissure. Analysis indicated the presence of cribra orbitalia on the skull bones and pitting on the frontal bone.

74. Site: Fondo Steger, s.s. 49 Town: S. Lorenzo di Sebato (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pits dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human cremated bones found in the pits 30

CATALOGUE

MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-3rd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Baggio 1983; Baggio Bernardoni-Dal Ri 1984; Constantini 2002 Archaeological Profile: this proto-historic settlement included in the centre a circular-shaped area, delimited by stones and pebbles and called an “enclosure”; this included wooden structures and human cremated bones. Vessel fragments and inscribed animal bones were also recovered in the enclosure. Biological Profile: /

Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Nago Torbole; Zanetti 1979; Perini 1980; Corrain 1983; Marzatico 1988 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was recovered in a niche, opening on the bottom of a deep fissure. Biological Profile: the left parietal bone presented a lesion that was inflicted ante mortem and was probably the cause of death. The individual suffered from coxa vara and plana with deformation of the heads of the femur; this caused a bilateral anchylosis, a 40º opening of the hips and problems in walking. Finally, the structure of the skull and the nose have led to hypothesise that the origin of this subject was not local.

77. Site: Doss Zelor Town: Cavalese (Trento) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: walls of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeleton found in a lateral and tightly flexed position MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: a bracelet; glass-paste beads Chronology: 3rd century BC Class Age: “young” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Leonardi 1970 Archaeological Profile: the settlement was occupied from the first half of the Iron Age to the 4th century AD, as testified by a treasure of coins found; the skeleton was found in Sector 5, associated with the articulated buildings called rooms A and B. The skeleton was discovered during the restoration of the room B walls. Biological Profile: /

75. Site: Burgkofel, Campolino (Fig. 79) Town: S. Lorenzo di Sebato (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer with traces of fire Body Disposal: non-prepared location; disarticulated human bones and a complete skull were found MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: / Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-3rd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Lunz 1974; Gleirscher 2002b (nr. 150); Constantini 2002; Dal Rì-Tecchiati 2006 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in anthropic layers characterised by the presence of gravel, metal vessels, carbonised wood and iron and bronze artefacts (of these, the most significant finding was an inscribed belt). Biological Profile: /

78. Site: Gimpele Town: Laion (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well; a flat stone and two layers made of limo and sand that contained a human bone were found at the bottom of the well Body Disposal: human femur found in the well, together with vessel fragments and disarticulated bovine bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 3rd century BC Class Age: “young adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: /

76. Site: Busa Brodeghera (Figg. 77-78) Town: Nago Torbole (Trento) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: natural niche on the bottom of a natural rock fissure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton found in anatomical order MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: a Certosa-type fibula; bronze small rings; iron knife; a belt hook Chronology: 4th century BC Class Age: 19-20 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis 31

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References: Pisoni 2006-2007; Marconi et al. 2007; Pisoni-Tecchiati 2010; Giovannini, unpublished (Courtesy of U. Tecchiati) Archaeological Profile: sectors L-N were occupied from the Copper Age and were originally delimited by a quadrangular structure, maybe an enclosure. The well, enriched by thermal waters, was found near a house build with the Blockbau technique and characterised by the presence of handcraft activities: during this occupational phase (3rd-2nd century BC) a Copper Age decorated stele was deposited here, with its decorated face towards the ground; it was surrounded by fire pits and iron waste. Vessels and inscribed vessels, as well as gold wires and elements of possible brocade were found at the house. An adult buried dog, E-W oriented, was found in a pit under the threshold which can be dated to a period after the abandonment of the house. Biological Profile: the human femur presented archaic characteristics (shape and thickness) and can be dated to the 8th-6th century BC, according to radio-carbon dating. A longitudinal fracture was inflicted post mortem.

Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-4th century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Furlani 1974-1975; Adam 1991; Gleirscher 2002b (nr. 117); Endrizzi et al. 2009 Archaeological Profile: Mount Medea was occupied by a proto-historic settlement from the 8th century BC and the settlement was found on the eastern side of the hill; excavations carried out on the northern side, near the church of S. Antonio, discovered a 10 m2 extended black ground layer, which contained bracelets, fibulae, glasspaste beads, needles, torques and rings (about 700 artefacts). They were all exposed to fire; the ollae were all intentionally broken in ancient times (ollae were the only vessels recovered). Cremated bones (only skulls and teeth) were found together with these artefacts. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

79. Site: Reif Town: Leives (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: US 178 US Description: carved stone found in the N-E corner of a domestic structure (House I) Body Disposal: human skeleton found in a dorsal position on the stone MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 3rd century BC Class Age: “newborn” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: unpublished (Courtesy of L. Dal Rì) Archaeological Profile: House I was part of a complex of domestic structures build with walls and staircases; a large intentionally carved stone was buried in the N-E corner of the floor and on this the skeleton had been deposited. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

81. Site: Palazzo Zabarella (Fig. 80) Town: Padova Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure, near the hearth Body Disposal: “deposizione di neonato” MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bird bone Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: “newborn” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Ruta Serafini-Michelini 1996; Balista et al. 2005 (nr. 60); Gamba et al. 2005; Ruta Serafini et al. 2007 Archaeological Profile: the human skeleton was found in the central-house (i.e. a quadrangular area with domestic and storage functions) which was built after a river flood which afflicted the entire sector. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Venetic Culture Area

82. Site: Palazzo Zabarella (Fig. 80) Town: Padova Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: “due sepolture neonatali” MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bird bone Chronology: 5th-4th century BC Class Age: “newborn”

80. Site: Proprietà Tortul (Fig. 76) Town: Monte di Medea (Gorizia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: layer B US Description: black ground Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human cremated bones and teeth found together with vessel fragments and metal artefacts MNI: / 32

CATALOGUE

Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Ruta Serafini-Michelini 1996; Balista et al. 2005 (nr. 60); Ruta Serafini et al. 2007 Archaeological Profile: the human skeletons were found in the eastern area of the settlement, in a zone occupied by hearths, pits and other types of infra-structural elemnts employed in metallurgic workshops, as testified by the presence of waste material and bronze and iron artefacts. The area also contained a deep structure, probably a well. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

References: Salzani 1985a; Salzani 1985b; Migliavacca 1991-1993 Archaeological Profile: human bones were recovered from two pits excavated under the floor of a domestic structure. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

85. Site: Castejon (Figg. 81-82) Town: Colognola ai Colli (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: US 5 US Description: compact layer made of ash, coal and clay and found under the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; disarticulated human bones MNI: 8 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “newborn” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Salzani 1983; Salzani 1985a; Migliavacca 1991-1993 Archaeological Profile: human bones were recovered from US 5, under US 3 and US 4, in a domestic and productive structure; under the floor, some 2,2 kg. of bronze waste and animal bones, probably from a metallurgic workshop, were found. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

83. Site: Archi di Castelrotto, Cimitero Town: S. Pietro in Cariano (Verona) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: black ground made of coal and ash Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human bones found together with vessel fragments and metal objects MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-4th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Salzani 1978; Gleirscher 1991-1993 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in a layer made of coal and ash and containing artefacts fragments; the ceremonial use of the area seems to be confirmed by the intentionally broken vessels, above all Greek vases, and by the sets of vessels, constituted by open-shaped vases. Metal objects included belts, rings and a silver torques. Coral and glass-paste beads were also found. Biological Profile: /

86. Site: Monte Summano (Fig. 83) Town: Santorso (Vicenza) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: quadrangular structure found under the wall of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human bones found in the structure MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-4th century BC Class Age: “infants” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gerhardinger-Ruta Serafini 1985 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in the semi-subterranean rooms A-A1 of Sector Beta; the bones were found under a separation-wall made of flat stone slabs and within a pebble structure and were signalled by decorated fire-dogs. According to the literature, one of the subjects was accompanied by rich grave goods (not described further). Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

84. Site: Archi di Castelrotto Town: S. Pietro in Cariano (Verona) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: two pits dug under the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: partially disarticulated human bones were found in the pits MNI: 8 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “newborn” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / 33

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87. Site: Monte Summano (Fig. 83) Town: Santorso (Vicenza) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: under a wall of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human bones found partially disarticulated MNI: 3 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “infants” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Balista-Ruta Serafini 1988-1989; Lora-Ruta Serafini 1992 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in the semi-subterranean room B of Sector Beta; the bones were found under a separation-wall; this room B was also characterised by collapsed elements. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Balista et al. 1985; Balista-Ruta Serafini 1988-1989; Lora-Ruta Serafini 1992 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in Sector Beta, room C3; one was found under a separation wall (excavations 1984) and the other along the western side-wall (excavations 1985) where it was found between floor US 107 and the final collapse layer (US 110). Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

90. Site: Monte Summano (Figg. 84-87) Town: Santorso (Vicenza) Context: settlement US Name: US 57 US Description: breccias layer covered by clay and limo, and delimited by fire-dogs, located under the corner of a wall of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human cremated bones and inhumed bones found together with pieces of wood, animal bones, fire-dogs and ceramic and metal artefacts MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumed and cremated bones Artefacts: vessel (cremated bones); necklace made of glass-paste and amber beads; glass-paste bead; bronze button; fire-dogs; whetstone (cremated bones); fire-dog; bracelet, crump and smoother (inhumed bones) Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: 6-10 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: bracelet, button, necklace Gender Archaeological Indicators: whetstone References: Balista-Ruta Serafini 1988-1989; Panozzo 1999 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in Sector Beta, House A2, room B, under the corner of the S-W side-wall and the separation wall of the house; room B contained the hearth and room D a wooden loom. Biological Profile: the skull, arms and legs were exposed to fire, while the axial skeleton was simply inhumed. Tibiae bones revealed the presence of Harris lines.

88. Site: Monte Summano Town: Santorso (Vicenza) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: oval pit realised along a wall Body Disposal: human skeleton was found in the pit in a lateral and flexed position, covered by a layer of clean breccias MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “foetus” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Balista et al. 1985 Archaeological Profile: human skeleton was found in a pit excavated at the base of wall G, in Sector Alpha, probably used both as fortification wall and in order to regularise the hillside. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

91. Site: Zuc Schiaramont (Figg. 88-90) Town: Castelraimondo (Udine) Context: settlement US Name: US 508; US 525B; US 515 B; US 526 US Description: black ground made of ash and coal under the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; disarticulated human bones were found together with animal bones MNI: 11 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC

89. Site: Monte Summano Town: Santorso (Vicenza) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: under a wall of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human bones in anatomical order MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “foetus” 34

CATALOGUE

Class Age: “foetus” (2 subjects); 8 months old (intra uterine; 3 subjects); 7-8 months old (intra uterine; 6 subjects) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: both genders Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Castelraimondo I; Castelraimondo II; Giusberti 1992; Giusberti 1995; Garattini 2000-2001; Santoro Bianchi 2001 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in Building V, characterised by a complex plant and a second floor. This structure went through several occupational phases: in the 4th-2nd century BC phase, human bones (the primary deposition) were collocated near or under the oval hearth of room B; a large carved stone was also found near this hearth. Structure P13 (constituted by two concentric pebbles circles, containing miniature vessels and a cattle bone, which was probably employed as a yinx) was found under the threshold. In the 2nd-1st century BC frequentation phase, during the building restoration, human bones were displaced during the re-paving of room B. The human bones were found with animal bones which had cut-marks and showed signs of having been intentionally broken. The global context of Building B is interesting, because it was surrounded by rock fissures filled by coal, ash, fibulae and coins. Biological Profile: only skull fragments and long-bones of the arms and legs were here recovered. On the articulations of the long-bones, the humeri and femurs, cut-marks and signs of intentional break were observed.

Interface I, Orobian Sub-Region 93. Site: Castello (Figg. 93-94) Town: Parre (Bergamo) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit, protected by pebbles and covered by a small cairn and located in the corner of the walls of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit was in a dorsal position and E-W oriented MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: mug; olla; (within the olla) a miniature vessel with the North-Etruscan alphabet inscription “piuot” Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: “child” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Poggiani Keller 1994; Poggiani Keller 1999; Poggiani Keller 2006 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in a domestic structure that, in terms of building-technique and material culture, can be associated with the Athesian Culture area: human bones were found in room B. Biological Profile: only class age data are available. 94. Site: Dos de l’Arca (Fig. 95) Town: Capo di Ponte (Brescia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: rectangular pit, protected and covered by flat stone slabs, dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human disarticulated skeletons were found in the pit; the skulls had been avulsed and collocated on the perimeter of the pit, while the other bones, without any anatomical order, had been deposited in the centre of the pit MNI: 14 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-3rd century BC Class Age: 11 “adults”; a 16-18 years old subject; a “child”; a “foetus” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: among 11 adults, 7 are male and 4 female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Corrain-Capitanio 1967; Solano 2006-2007; Solano 2010 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was on the highest part of the hill (sector SO-D2) and included wall structures, animal bones, inscribed votive objects and the pit under discussion; after the 5th century BC, a “camminamento” was created around the pit. This addition was ceremonial and non functional. Biological Profile: the pit contained skulls, vertebrae, ribs, sterna, clavicles, scapulae, humeri, radii, ulnae,

92. Site: Fornasotti, Capannone del Latte (Figg. 91-92) Town: Altino (Venezia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: foundation layer (canal) of a wall of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton found in a dorsal position, with the left leg flexed MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 3rd-2nd century BC Class Age: 7 months old (intra uterine) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gambacurta 2003; Bonghi Jovino 2007 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit here included covered structures, N-S oriented, that had three occupational phases: (phase 1) limo and clay layer with traces of fire; (phase 2) postholes surrounded by subfoundations and closed by collapse elements; (phase 3): quadrangular postholes surrounded by sub-foundations. The skeleton was at the same level as these elements. The context is a settlement with domestic and productive structures. Biological Profile: only class age data are available. 35

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hands bones, coxal bones, femurs, tibiae and foot bones. Anthropological analysis showed that there were no pathological lesions, except for the fractured femur and traces of acetabular anchylosis of innominate bone in one case. Squatting facets were observed on the foot bones. A comparison between the Dos de l’Arca anthropological indexes and the contemporaneous and local indexes indicated that the subjects differed from the local human group. The results suggested that the subjects were in fact closer to North-Alpine peoples.

Interface I, Eastern Po Valley Sub-Region 97. Site: via dei Musei, Palazzo Martinengo-Cesaresco Town: Brescia (Fig. 97) Context: settlement US Name: PMC4 US Description: small pit, protected by pebbles, dug under the hearth of a domestic structure Body Disposal: urn collocated within the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: olla (urn); mugs; bronze fibulae; a sandstone mace-head, a serpentine axe, a clay cylinder Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: “child” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Rossi 1990-1991; Frontini-Ongaro 1996; Una tomba golasecchiana Archaeological Profile: the cinerary urn was found closed between two layers belonging to a domestic structure, in a pit under a hearth; on the bottom of the pit iron waste and an ankle-bone, probably part of the deposition, were also found. Interesting finds here include the mace-head, the axe and the cylinder as they are more ancient than the context. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

95. Site: Le Sante (Fig. 96) Town: Capo di Ponte (Brescia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: US IIC US Description: pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human bones found in the pit (“tomba 1”); the pit was closed by a ochre slab MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: vessel; bronze bracelet; iron nails; small iron artefact Chronology: first half of the 2nd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Anati et al. 1977 Archaeological Profile: the so-called “tomba 1” was found in Sector A, along the side of the foundations wall and prior to a large pit containing organic material which had been exposed to fire. Biological Profile: /

98. Site: Castello Town: Castiglione Mantovano (Mantova) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit dug in the floor of an abandoned domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit in a broken down position MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th-4th century BC Class Age: “child” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Menotti 2001; Menotti 2005 Archaeological Profile: excavations of a pit, under the Western corner of Building 3 and datable to after the abandonment of the structure revealed the presence of human bones. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

96. Site: Le Sante (Fig. 96) Town: Capo di Ponte (Brescia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: US IIC US Description: pit dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human bones found in the pit (“tomba 2”); the pit was closed by a ochre slab MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: vessel fragments Chronology: first half of the 2nd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Anati et al. 1977 Archaeological Profile: the so-called “tomba 2” was found in Sector A, along the side of the foundations wall and prior to a large pit containing organic material which had been exposed to fire. Biological Profile: /

Etruscan Culture Area 99. Site: Casa Leoni, Mercato Coperto Town: Reggio Emilia 36

CATALOGUE

Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeletons found with the heads turned to W MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: “pre-roman phase” Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: visual examination Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Siliprandi 1940 Archaeological Profile: human skeletons were found in a settlement area successively covered by via Aemilia. Biological Profile: beside the available class age data, two lesions due to cutting weapons were noticed on the right parietal bone of one of the skeletons; Siliprandi wrote that “si potrebbe pensare che le rotture del cranio avessero prodotto la morte dell’individuo“.

Body Disposal: disarticulated human bones were found at the bottom of the well MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Chierici 1878; Macellari 1995; Macellari 1997; Macellari 2008 Archaeological Profile: the well had been considered a part of a ceremonial area linked with the presence of water. Other findings from the well include the bones of mammals, amphibians and molluscs. According to Chierici, three large stone slabs sealed the deepest chamber of the well, where human bones were found. Biological Profile: / 102. Site: Viottolo dei Tedeschi Town: S. Polo d’Enza (Reggio Emilia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: disarticulated human bones were found at the bottom of the well together with animal bones MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: second half of the Iron Age Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Scarani 1963 Archaeological Profile: the well has been considered as being a part of a settlement area; on the bottom of the well human and animal bones were found along with clay fragments and pebbles. The opening of the well was closed with tiles and architectural elements dated to the Roman period. Biological Profile: /

100. Site: Campo Servirola (Figg. 98-99) Town: S. Polo d’Enza (Reggio Emilia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: well; the so-called “pozzo del margine” was divided into four sections by three wood dividers Body Disposal: human inferior jaws and other small human bones were found in the well; they were found under the mouth of the pit, closed with pebbles MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 5th century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Chierici-Strobel 1876; Chierici 1878; Macellari 1995; Macellari 1997; Miari 2000; Ramo secco (pp. 41-47); Macellari 2008 Archaeological Profile: the well had been considered a part of a ceremonial area linked with the presence of water. Other findings from the well, in the same layer that contained human bones, also included animal bones (pig, cattle and deer) and miniature vessels. The well also contained: an Attic red-figured crater, ollae, reels, loomweights, two millstones, a bronze situla and 7 copper ingots. Biological Profile: /

103. Site: Misano (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the well in a seated position; the head, turned to E, laid against the wall of the well; femurs were found at a 90º angle in comparison with the position of the tibiae MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bronze bracelet (on one arm) Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: /

101. Site: Campo Servirola (Figg. 98-99) Town: S. Polo d’Enza (Reggio Emilia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: well 37

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Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gozzadini 1865; Sassatelli 1989; Sassatelli 1991; Vitali et al. 2001 Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 6 of the Sassatelli catalogue, was found near the current S.S. 64-Porretana and contained one subject; deer horns and the complete skeleton of a pig were found above the human skeleton and the vertebrae, phalanges and skull of a donkey were found underneath. Biological Profile: /

Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: analysis of the cranial junctions Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Brizio 1889; Sassatelli 1991 Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 30 of Brizio Allegato B and nr. 8 of the Sassatelli catalogue, was found near the current S.S. 64-Porretana. The well contained one subject: findings made under the skeleton included a couple of complete vessels and a complete amphora; findings from the bottom of the well included a complete olla, vine wood, unidentified animal bones and a bird skull. Biological Profile: on the basis of the analysis of the cranial junctions, the subject has been defined as “old”.

104. Site: Misano (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human skeletons found in the well; the first one was found in a disarticulated position; the second one was in a partially disarticulated condition and the jaw bone was found in another sector of the well MNI: 3 (subject A; subject B; subject C) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: fibula (A); fibula and bracelet (C) Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: 70 years old (A); 35 years old (B); 55 years old (C) Class Age Parameters: analysis of the cranial junctions Gender: male (A; B); female (C) Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gozzadini 1870; Brizio 1889; Sassatelli 1989; Sassatelli 1991; Vitali et al. 2001 Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 5 of Brizio Allegato B and nr. 7 of the Sassatelli catalogue, was found close to the line of the current S.S. 64-Porretana. Excavations of the well at various depths yielded the following finds: quadrupeds bones and deer horns (at 1,5 m.); cattle bones and a broken down human skeleton were found at 1,90 m.; pebbles and human bones were found at 2,90 m.; the bones of a deer, pig and dog were found at 6,29 m.; a human skeleton with cut-off and displaced jaws (at 8,40 m.); a broken bronze fibula (at 70 cm. from the bottom). Biological Profile: only class age and gender data are available.

106. Site: Misano (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human disarticulated bones were found together with animal bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Brizio 1889 (n. 1, Allegato B) Archaeological Profile: the well was found 23 m. away from the wells described above and near the current S.S. 64-Porretana. The well contained human bones, found at a depth of cm. 69 under the opening, vessel fragments, pieces of wood and unspecified iron artefacts. Sansoni, who worked with Brizio, observed that the human bones were still wet. Biological Profile: / 107. Site: Misanello (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human disarticulated bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: examination of cranial junctions Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Brizio 1889; Sassatelli 1991

105. Site: Misano (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human skull and long-bones; the skull was found in the E sector of the well, the cut off jaws in the W sector MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / 38

CATALOGUE

Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 11 of the Brizio catalogue, was found in Regio V, insula 3 of the Misano settlement. The well contained one subject, together with pieces of wood, a complete oinochoe, inscribed vessels, a bronze handle, an iron scythe, a key, a long wild boar tooth and a white pebble. Biological Profile: on the basis of the examination of the cranial junctions, the subject has been defined as “old”.

110. Site: Misanello (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: partially disarticulated human skeletons MNI: 2 (subject A; subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: 3-4 months old (A); “adult” (B) Class Age Parameters: examination of cranial junctions and dental eruption Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gozzadini 1865 Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 1 of the Sassatelli catalogue, was found in Regio V, insula 4 of the Misano settlement. The well contained two subjects: subjects A was found at m. 4 together with cattle and pig skulls and long-bones, turtle shell fragments and 14 perforated shells; subject B was found at 5,5 m. Other findings from the well included pieces of wood (oak and chestnut), mugs, ollae, spindle-whorls and finally a “frammento di finissima intrecciatura di paglia”. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

108. Site: Misanello (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human skull and long-bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Brizio 1889; Sassatelli 1991 Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 13 of the Brizio catalogue, was found in Regio V, insula 4 of the Misano settlement. The well contained one subject, together with deer horns, a wild boar scapula, a piece of wooden agricultural equipment and also a clay cylinder decorated with a marine motif. Biological Profile: cranial junctions were still open.

111. Site: viale Aldini Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human skeletons in partial anatomical order MNI: 3 (subject A; subject B; subject C) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bracelet (left arm of one of the skeletons) Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Zannoni 1876; Scarani 1963; Vitali 1992; Taglioni 1999 (nr. 139) Archaeological Profile: the well was found in a marginal area of the settlement. Two impasto lebetes and a dolium fragments were found at m. 3,5; the human skeletons were found at m. 8; at m. 10 a sandstone slab was found that covered a layer containing spindle-whorls, a bronze situla and other iron artefacts. A jaw, a femur, a tibia and a metacarpal bone of a horse, together with a dog jaw, were found from the well. Biological Profile: /

109. Site: Misanello (Figg. 100-101) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: well Body Disposal: human skeletons partially disarticulated MNI: 2 (subject A; subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: “cerchio aperto o quasi grande armilla in filo di bronzo”; “tavoletta fittile” (B) Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: examination of cranial junctions Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gozzadini 1865; Sassatelli 1991 Archaeological Profile: the well, nr. 1 of the Sassatelli catalogue, was found in Regio V, insula 5 of the Misano settlement. The well contained two subjects: subject A (skull, radii and femurs) was found at 1,50 m. and subject B (a complete skeleton) at 4,75 m. On the bottom of the well, covered by a layer of tiles fragments, seven complete vessels and an oinochoe were found. Biological Profile: /

112. Site: Porta S. Mamolo Town: Bologna Context: settlement US Name: / 39

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US Description: well Body Disposal: human skeletons in partial anatomical order MNI: 3 (subject A; subject B; subject C) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bracelet (left arm of one of the skeletons) Chronology: “Celtic period” Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gozzadini 1878 Archaeological Profile: the well was found in a marginal area of the settlement and contained, according to Gozzadini, “vessels, urns and bowls” within a large dolium. Human skeletons, carbonised pieces of wood and quadruped bones (cattle?) were also found in the well. Biological Profile: /

Body Disposal: human cremated bones were found in the pits; inhumed skeletons were found in non-prepared locations MNI: 4 (subject A; subject B; subject C; subject D) Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones (subjects A and C); inhumation (subjects B and D) Artefacts: fibula (A); bronze wire (B; sternum); arrowpoint (D) Chronology: 3rd-2nd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Santarelli 1884; Santarelli 1885; Santarelli 1886; Santarelli 1889 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit included several layers. (1) Sterile layer (m. 3,5 deep): the pit here contained many bronze artefacts (over 70 objects: fibulae, bracelets, buttons and glass-paste beads) which may have been enclosed within a bag made of organic material. (2) Black ground layer (m. 3.4 deep) made of ash and coal and containing burned animal bones and metal artefacts exposed to fire. Subject A was found here, subject C was found at a depth of m. 3. (3) Frequentation layer (m. 2,5 deep), containing partially upset travertine slabs: subject D was found here, covered by large stones as was subject B (found in a black ground layer made of ash and coal). (4) Frequentation layer (m. 2,10 deep), containing hut floors. Biological Profile: /

113. Site: “zona A” (Figg. 102-103) Town: Casalecchio di Reno (Bologna) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: structure XVIII US Description: quadrangular pit, N-S oriented, dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: cremated bones were found in the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: ring made of gold and silver; personal ornamental objects; weapons; toilette objects; play objects Chronology: 3rd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: weapons References: Ortalli 1995 Archaeological Profile: structure XVIII is a deep ditch that delimited a quadrangular area and was filled with grey ceramic vessels and burned pig bones. Excavated at the same level, and therefore contemporaneous, was structure X, a quadrangular enclosure, which was astronomically oriented and contained votive deposits (comprised by vessels and pig jaws). The discovery of postholes suggested the presence of a wooden structure. The complex, surrounded by the “great enclosure”, was near to the Casalecchio cemetery which went out of use before the completion of zone A. Biological Profile: /

Taurinian Culture Area 115. Site: La Maddalena (Fig. 104) Town: Chiomonte (Torino) Context: natural place of significance US Name: F 11 US Description: stone cyst protected by pebbles and dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the cyst was in a dorsal position; the legs were cut-off by the excavation of pit F30, dated to the second half of the Iron Age MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: two fibulae; a belt (broken and arranged in ancient times) Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: female Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: belt References: Fozzati-Bertone 1988; Fedele 1988; Gambari 1995; Fulcheri-Micheletti Cremasco 1998 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was found on the N-W margin of a Neolithic cemetery; the area was higher than the rest of the zone because of the presence of a large artificial hill that contained ten human depositions in stone cysts. Neolithic shelters, huts floors,

114. Site: Fornace Malta Town: Forlì Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pits dug in a frequentation layer

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fire pits and a possible megalithic platform (F5, surrounded by deer horns, coal and ash) were also recovered at this location. The inhumed skeleton and a second empty cyst were dated to the second half of the Iron Age. Biological Profile: only class age and gender data are available.

were found in a trench. Water springs with thermal properties were also located near this zone. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Interface II, Tosco-Emiliano Appennine SubRegion

116. Site: Cimitero Town: Valperga (Torino) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit, filled by ash and coal, dug in the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human cremated bones were found in the pit MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: second half of the Iron Age Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Cima 1988; Cima 2001 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit, partially investigated, covered an extended area of 6 m2: the pit and a house floor, made of compact ground, were found in this zone. All of these layers corresponded to the beginning of the occupational phase. Biological Profile: /

118. Site: Ca’ Selvatica (Fig. 106) Town: Berceto (Parma) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: pit protected by stone slabs Body Disposal: human skeletal remains found in the pit; the skull was found turned to W and within a bronze helmet MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bronze helmet, spear-head, knife, sword Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: 25-30 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: weapons References: Mansuelli 1958; Scarani 1971; FacchiniMinelli Telesca 1971-1974; Kruta Poppi 1981; Ghiretti 2003; Malnati 2004; Catarsi Dall’Aglio 2004 Archaeological Profile: the human skeleton, found at an altitude of 800 m., was located at a significant territorial marker, i.e. a large rock dominating the Baganza Valley and the Cisa pass. Another large rock decorated with lines and a series of coppelle was found over the inhumation. Both the inhumation and the carved rock were near to the peak. Moreover, all of the weapons had been broken and de-functionalised in ancient times. The Etruscan helmet was modified thanks to the addition of two horns. Biological Profile: the skeleton was not complete; only skull fragments were found in anatomical order because they were still covered by the bronze helmet. It has been hypothesised that this was an inhumation but it is possible that there was a double ritual (inhumation and cremation), even though there were no traces of fire. The skull, described as atypical in shape, was strongly brachycephalic and may be associated with certain racial features (Negroid?).

117. Site: Plan de Joux (Fig. 105) Town: Gran S. Bernardo (Aosta) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human jaws found in the ground MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: second half of the Iron Age Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: belt References: Castelfranco 1891; Piana Agostinetti 19891990; Vitali 2001; Framarin et al. 2006 Archaeological Profile: the excavations were conducted under and around the Imperial Roman temple of Jupiter Poeninus; findings included vessels and metal artefacts (coins, weapons, fibulae and bronze figurines) which were probably parts of a votive deposit. A “mandibola sdentata di uomo vecchio “ (nr. 46) and “numerose ossa umane, di uomo vecchio, fra i quali mandibola“ (nr. 50)

Ligurian Culture Area 119. Site: Tana dei Carbonai Town: Aquila d’Arroscia (Savona) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: natural rock fissure Body Disposal: human inferior jaw was found MNI: 1 41

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Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: Doppelvogekkopf-type fibula Chronology: 4th-3rd century BC Class Age: “young adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: belt References: Leale Anfossi 1958; Melli 2004 Archaeological Profile: the human jaw was found in a rock fissure at an altitude of 780 m., near the peak that divides Pennavaira Valley and Albenga. The fissure, described as a small cave, was closed by three flat stones. Biological Profile: the jaw had all the teeth; the absence of decay, dental wear or any dental disease confirms that this subject enjoyed a good standard of living.

Body Disposal: non-prepared location; seven human skulls, two inferior jaws and a temporal bone found without anatomical order MNI: 7 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: Celtic period Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Battaglia 1948-1949; Dal Rì-Tecchiati 2002; de Marinis 2003; Mazzucchi et al. 2009 Archaeological Profile: human remains were found in 1977 (close to the area where two complete skeletons were found in 1942 at nr.4). In proximity to the skulls and jaws some metal objects (an iron sword, two knives, three scythes, two spear-heads and a fibula) were found along with two miniature vessels. Biological Profile: skulls 8L and 6D were analysed. Skull 8L presented strong hyper-vascularization of the frontal and parietal bones, due to an infective and/or traumatic lesion. Skull 6D presented small quadrangular pits on frontal bone; a triangular fracture, inflicted peri or post mortem, of the right parietal bone was also noticed.

2nd-1st century BC Athesian Culture Area 120. Site: Col de Flam Town: Ortisei (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: US 14; US 42 US Description: black ground heaps (made of coal and ash, vessels and metal artefacts exposed to fire) were found in the pits Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human cremated bones MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: 17±8 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Prinoth Fornwagner 1993; Tecchiati 20052006; Mazzucchi 2010; Amoretti et al., unpublished Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was occupied from the beginning of the Iron Age (I-VIII phases). The 2nd century BC phase included pits (1-2 m. diameter) which contained coal, ash, cereals (bread?), animal bones (cattle and pig) and organic materials (brocade?). Biological Profile: only skulls and fragments of the long-bones of the arms and legs were present. In US 14 skull fragments, an atlas and a femur fragment were found. In US 42 skull fragments and a tooth were found.

122. Site: Ganglegg Town: Sluderno (Bolzano) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: under the corner of the N-W side walls of a domestic structure (House D1) Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton was found in a lateral position (right side), with the head turned to S; the skeleton was covered by a layer of pure clay MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: “newborn” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Gamper 2006; Steiner 2007 Archaeological Profile: House D1 was part of a complex settlement that occupied the area of an earlier Bronze Age settlement. The human skeleton and a small pit containing bronze fragments were found under the corner of the N-W side walls; nearby a second pit was found with an intentionally carved large stone. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

121. Site: Carera Town: Fiavè (Trento) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: marsh layer

123. Site: Thalerbühel Town: Tires (Bolzano) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: / 42

CATALOGUE

Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skull MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: four fibulae, broken in ancient times Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: 7-8 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: belt References: Marconi-Tecchiati 2006 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit, found at an altitude of 1100 m., included an occupational phase of the Final Bronze Age, followed by a long period of abandonment; a settlement of 9th-7th century BC, with Blockbau structures, destroyed by fire. The 5th century BC phase was characterised by the presence of a large platform, which was covered by burned animal bones, broken fibulae and broken vessels. The 1st century BC occupational phase included a ceremonial deposit: the human skeleton, the four fibulae and cats skeletons (only skull fragments and long bones) were found here. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

US Name: / US Description: layer found under the threshold of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeleton of a foetal or newborn subject found under the threshold MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: foetus/newborn Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: belt References: cited in Tirelli 2004 (note 50) Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found under the threshold of a domestic structure. Biological Profile: /

126. Site: ex Pilsen (Fig. 107) Town: Padova Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: hearth of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: a Certosa-type fibula Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: newborn (“bimbo di pochi mesi”) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Ruta Serafini 1979; Maioli 1980 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found in a tworooms domestic structure, in the area of hearth. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Venetic Culture Area 124. Site: Castellare Town: Caltrano (Vicenza) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: pit, protected by stone slabs, dug in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human skeleton found in the pit MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: twelve silver coins Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: belt References: Carta Archeologica del Veneto (nr. 52) Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit included two significant occupational phases, one dated to the Middle Bronze Age and one to the 2nd century BC; the inhumation was found within this settlement (2nd century BC phase) and the only grave goods were silver coins (imitations of the drachmae of Massalia). A finding was also made of a treasure of coins, which was probably linked with the payment of the passage through an Astico river ford, contemporaneous with the inhumation and minted between 180 and 150 BC. Biological Profile: /

127. Site: via S. Pietro Town: Padova Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: under the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeleton MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: “infant” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Balista-Ruta Serafini 2001 Archaeological Profile: the skeleton was found under the floor of a domestic structure, in correspondence with an earlier votive deposit. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

125. Site: via Vittorio Emanuele II Town: Oderzo (Treviso) Context: settlement 43

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128. Site: ex Pilsen (Fig. 107) Town: Padova Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: simple pit dug under the floor of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeletons were found in the pit MNI: 2 (subject A; subject B) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: newborn (“bimbo di pochi mesi”; A); 1 year old (“un anno circa”; B) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Maioli 1980 Archaeological Profile: the skeletons were found in a pit, excavated under the floor of a domestic structure. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

US Name: US 3125; US 3126 US Description: foundation layer of a floor from a domestic structure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeletons found in a dorsal position and in anatomical order MNI: 2 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: “oggetto fittile” (clay artifact); bird bones Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: younger than 6 months Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Rossignoli-Ruta Serafini 2009 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was constituted by two contemporary domestic structures; in both cases the human skeletons were found under the floor. Biological Profile: only class age data are available. 131. Site: Roman fortification walls (Fig. 109) Town: Oderzo (Treviso) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: five oval pits dug at the base of the Roman fortification walls, near one of the urban doors Body Disposal: human skeletons were found in the pits; in three cases, the pits were covered by tiles fragments MNI: 5 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: foetus/newborn Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Malnati et al. 1998; Tirelli 2004 Archaeological Profile: the five pits were excavated at the base of the Roman fortification walls, along the outer side. Two other pits were found by the corners formed by the walls and these sites, symmetrically excavated intra and extra moenia, contained two dog skeletons. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

129. Site: Collegio Ravenna (Fig. 108) Town: Padova Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: quadrangular pit dug in pure coal layer Body Disposal: urn found in the pit; within the urn human bones were found together with animal bones MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: olla closed by a bowl (urn); large olla; iron fibula Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Rossignoli 2004-2005; Onisto 2004-2005; Cipriano 2004-2005; Ruta Serafini et al. 2007 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit found here included three occupational phases characterised by: (phase 1, 2nd century BC) a large street and ditch delimited by a pure coal layer; (phase 2, 1st century BC) a cemetery; (phase 3, Middle Ages) handcraft workshops. Phase 1 is here the most significant: the street N-S oriented and the ditch divided the area into two parts; the Northern area housed the later cemetery, the Southern one was constituted by a pure coal layer, without traces of exposure to fire, in which the quadrangular pit was excavated. Near the pit containing human bones, a second pit was dug and contained both ceramic and metal artefacts intentionally broken in ancient times, mixed with coal and ash. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

132. Site: S. Giovanni/Sottocolle (Fig. 112) Town: Polcenigo (Pordenone) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer constituted by coal and black ground Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human skeletal remains were found in non anatomical order MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: /

130. Site: via dell’Arco (Figg. 110-111) Town: Padova Context: settlement 44

CATALOGUE

Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Vitri et al. 2004; Vitri et al. 2006 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit covered a settlement area occupied in the Bronze Age (phase 1) and at the beginning of the Iron Age (phase 2); the zone was then covered by a layer of coal, also containing ceramic and metal objects broken in ancient times and exposed to the action of fire. The bones recovered in this phase are probably human but it is not certain. During phase 3 non cremated human bones (“graves” 6, 9, 11 and 12) were deposited in this area. Biological Profile: /.

Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: fibula Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Carta Archeologica della Lombardia II (nr. 183) Archaeological Profile: the hilltop of Castione della Presolana was occupied by a long-frequented settlement from the beginning of the Iron Age to the late Roman Imperial Period. On the side of the hill, at an altitude of 870 m. and in the cave known as the “Grotta della Mandibola” (Jaw Cave), the human inferior jaw was found. Biological Profile: /

133. Site: Monte Sorantri (Fig. 113) Town: Raveo (Udine) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: “saggio 7” US Description: three 15-20 cm. diameter pits dug in a black-ground layer which contained traces of precedent structures Body Disposal: human cremated bones were found in the pits MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Righi 2001; Vitri et al. 2001; CorazzaDonat 2002; Vitri et al. 2003; Petrucci et al. 2005 Archaeological Profile: the archaeological deposit was found N-W of the Mount Sorantri proto-historic settlement; the pits were found within a black ground layer and were surrounded by both ceramic and metal objects (weapons) broken and manipulated in ancient times. In the same layer a larger pit was found (protected by sandstone slabs, which re-employed pieces from earlier structures) which contained glass fragments, ollae fragments, an Arquà-Mokronog-type bronze shield and an incised gem (cornucopy-figure). Biological Profile: /

135. Site: Pescarzo (Fig. 114) Town: Capo di Ponte (Brescia) Context: settlement US Name: US 140; US 141 US Description: foundations layer under the corner of a wall of a domestic structure Body Disposal: human skeletons found on a vegetal fibres mat MNI: 3 (subject A; subject B; subject C) Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd century BC Class Age: 25-30 years old (subject A); 10 years old (subject B); about 6 months old (subject C) Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Rossi 1999; Cattaneo-Ravedoni 1999 Archaeological Profile: the skeletons were found within a quadrangular domestic structure, under the corner of a side wall. The house experienced different occupational phases, ending with a fire that caused the collapse of the structures and partially damaged the skeletons. On the basis of stratigraphical analysis it is possible that subject C was hold in the arms of subject A. Biological Profile: subject A suffered from an arthtrosic condition localised on the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, the skeletons of the other subjects showed no traces of traumas, pathologies or other skeletal lesions.

136. Site: Le Sante Town: Capo di Ponte (Brescia) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pit protected by stone slabs dug in a black ground layer Body Disposal: human bones found in and around the pit MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC

Interface I, Orobian Sub-Region 134. Site: Castello Town: Castione della Presolana (Bergamo) Context: natural place of significance US Name: / US Description: natural rock fissure Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human inferior jaw MNI: 1 45

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Class Age: “adults”; 3-4 years old Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Anati et al. 1977; Solano 2005; Solano 2006-2007; Solano 2010 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found both within and around the pit, mixed with black ground and unburned animal bones with cut-marks. Biological Profile: only skull fragments and the longbones of the arms and legs were found. The fire signs on the bones allow us to confirm that they were cremated when the tissues were still attached.

Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Piccoli 1981; Crosato 2001 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found near a ceremonial building (sacellum) dedicated to the god Hermes/Mercury, as is attested by clay figurines. Finds of several coins dated the occupation phase to between 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, although the presence of drachmae coined in the Po Valley suggests that the frequentation may have begun in the 3rd-2nd century BC. Biological Profile: /

Golasecca Culture Area 139. Site: Pianvalle (Fig. 115) Town: Como Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: stone cyst, covered by a tile and located in the floor of an earlier domestic structure Body Disposal: human bones found in the cyst (“tomba D”) MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: two bowls (outside and over the cyst); an olpe, a bowl, a olla, two mugs; four fibulae, a shear blade Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: the blades from a pair of shears References: Negroni Catacchio 1979a; Negroni Catacchio 1979b; Fusco 1982; Negroni Catacchio 1982a; Negroni Catacchio 1982b; Grassi 1995; Negroni Catacchio 1996 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in a stone cyst dug in the floor of an earlier domestic structure, near Structure H, the so-called Great Rock Hut. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Interface I, Eastern Po Valley Sub-Region 137. Site: Gardoncino Town: Isorella (Brescia) Context: settlement US Name: US 5 US Description: quadrangular (cm. 75x80) pit filled with a grey ground layer Body Disposal: human bones were found in the pit MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: decorated vessels; a bowl (surface layers); eleven blue glass-paste beads; a glass-paste ring Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Carta Archeologica della Lombardia I (nr. 804) Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in a pit (US 5) excavated in a frequentation layer dated to the Bronze Age (US 1). The entire area was occupied by a settlement from the Bronze Age. Biological Profile: /

140. Site: Pianvalle (Figg. 115-116) Town: Como Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: stone cyst, covered by a tile and located in the floor of an earlier domestic structure Body Disposal: urn collocated in the cyst (“tomba Z”) MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: three bowls (outside and on the cyst); small biconic vessel (urn); two bowls, a globular vessel, a set up trottola-shaped vessel, two paterae, a parfume-jar; a shear blade Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: “adult” Class Age Parameters: anthropological analysis Gender: male Class Age Archaeological Indicators: /

138. Site: Galeazzo, Fondo Judes Town: Cavriana (Mantova) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: / Body Disposal: three cremation graves (“tre tombe a incinerazione”) MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: bowl, little urn, olla; fibulae, two knives, a conical bronze element perforated in the centre Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / 46

CATALOGUE

Gender Archaeological Indicators: the blades from a pair of shears References: Negroni Catacchio 1979a; Negroni Catacchio 1979b; Fusco 1982; Negroni Catacchio 1982a; Negroni Catacchio 1982b; Grassi 1995; Negroni Catacchio 1996 Archaeological Profile: human bones were found in a stone cyst dug in the floor of an earlier domestic structure, near Structure H, the so-called Great Rock Hut. Biological Profile: only skull fragments, vertebrae and the long-bones of the arms and legs were found. Human bones were found also outside and around the stone cyst.

Neolithic), a megalithic ceremonial area (Copper Age) and an area with walls and stone structures (Golasecca Culture). In 2nd-1st century BC phase, a large pit was excavated in this zone (found to contain a Copper Age decorated menhir). The stone cyst was found near the pit. Biological Profile: /

Etruscan Culture Area 143. Site: Monte Ricò Town: Montecavolo (Reggio Emilia) Context: settlement US Name: / US Description: frequentation layer Body Disposal: non-prepared location; “mescolati al materiale (laterizi, coppi, frammenti ceramici, elementi metallici, ciottoli) si trovarono moltissimi ossi e denti di maiale e di altri animali domestici, in parte bruciacchiate dal fuoco, residui di carbone e un frammento di mandibola umana con alcuni denti da latte, appartenenti a un bimbo di quattro anni circa“ MNI: 1 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: around 4 years old Class Age Parameters: analysis of dental eruption Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Degani 1956-1957 Archaeological Profile: the area was occupied by an Etruscan settlement, where floors of domestic structures and furnaces were found. Empty pits were found near the organic materials. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

141. Site: Calzaturificio Ferrerio Town: Somma Lombardo (Varese) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: black ground layer with ash, coal, ceramic and metal fragments Body Disposal: non-prepared location; human bones were found in the ground MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: / Chronology: 2nd-1st century BC Class Age: “adults”; a “sub-adult” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Bertolone 1960; Grassi 1995; Banchieri 2003 Archaeological Profile: the black ground layer contained selected metal and ceramic artefacts exposed to fire together with animal and human bones. Biological Profile: only class age data are available. Only skull fragments and the long-bones of the arms and legs were found.

144. Site: Misano (Figg.117-119) Town: Marzabotto (Bologna) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: pits, dug in a frequentation layer, and protected by pebbles and tiles and signalled by cairns Body Disposal: human skeletons were found in the pits MNI: 4 Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: bronze pendant (“su scheletro di bambino”); bracelet Chronology: Celtic-Roman period Class Age: one of the subjects was described as a “child” Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Sassatelli-Goi 2005; Sassatelli 2009 Archaeological Profile: the pits were found in the S-W corner of the temple of Tina, in the Northern sector of the settlement (Regio I, insula 5). The pits contained four subjects: in particular, one of the pits was closed by a

142. Site: Boggia Town: Ello (Lecco) Context: symbolic actions area US Name: / US Description: stone cyst located in a frequentation layer Body Disposal: human bones found in the cyst MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: cremated bones Artefacts: a reel-shaped vessel; two paterae; a small olla; a small olpe; a bronze fibula, an iron fibula Chronology: 1st century BC Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Carta Archeologica della Lombardia IV (nr. 122)

Archaeological Profile: the long-frequented area was occupied by a settlement with huts and furnaces (Middle 47

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travertine slab that also sealed off the trench which was located along the temple side walls. Biological Profile: only class age data are available.

Taurinian Culture Area 145. Site: S. Martin de Corléans (Fig. 120) Town: Aosta Context: symbolic actions area US Name: layers 6-7 US Description: clay layer (6); sand layer with pebbles and stones (7) Body Disposal: / MNI: / Post Mortem Treatment: inhumation Artefacts: torques Chronology: final Celtic period Class Age: / Class Age Parameters: / Gender: / Class Age Archaeological Indicators: / Gender Archaeological Indicators: / References: Mezzena 1975-1976; Cocchi Genick 2004 Archaeological Profile: the ceremonial area, strongly astronomically oriented towards the Swan constellation, was occupied by megalithic structures (Neolithic, Copper Age and Early Bronze Age); during the Middle and Final Bronze Age new structures were added to the megalithic platforms. All of those elements and the canals dug during the Iron Age were submerged by a flood. The Celtic inhumation is in the clay and sand layers deposited by the flood. In the Imperial Roman period the entire area was occupied by a cemetery. Biological Profile: /

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CHAPTER 1 SPATIAL CONTEXTS

The spatial contexts of the findings of human skeletal remains are examined according to two criteria, one dimensional and one functional.111

Moreover, the topographic co-ordinates reveal that much of this evidence is associated with significant territorial markers, such as, above all, peaks, passes, fords, springs or rivers, erratic rocks, often decorated with coppelle,117 and rock fissures.

1. Macro Level From a merely dimensional perspective,112 the most extended context types are functionally distinguishable into: a) settlements; b) symbolic actions areas; c) natural places of significance.

Symbolic actions areas were found to be contiguous and contemporary with funerary contexts at four sites and were either located outside the cemeteries or, in the Venetic Culture area, in a marginal zone between the cemeteries and the settlements. In two cases the ceremonial sites were located in disused funerary contexts.

Of all the four chronological phases considered, the greatest numbers of human remains come from settlements,113 i.e. complexes of structures that host the domestic, productive and symbolic activities of a human group.114 The sites are for the most part located in level zones, apart from 14 sites which are located at altitude of 700 m. and included a lake-dwelling site and a seasonal site.

In the cases of seven of the sites reviewed, the evidence clearly indicates that they were long-frequented deposits and had been occupied since the Neolithic, Copper or Bronze Age periods. In six of these cases certain areas had also taken on ceremonial attributes in Prehistorical and Protohistorical periods.118 In one last case votive artefacts and human skeletal remains had been gathered within a disused settlement.

The second more testified, quantitatively,115 context type is the symbolic actions area, where archaeological deposits contained indications of the performance of intentional symbolic acts of sacrifice or other offerings.116 The artificial elements, often linked with natural elements, that constituted the center of symbolic activities (such as ditches, pits, walls or cairns) were often discovered within the same contexts.

It is also necessary to remember that symbolic actions areas share some features with the third group of macrocontexts, the natural places of significance:119 according to the definition used by Knapp and Ashmore,120 these locations were adopted for this use because of the geographical or the topographical peculiarities and played an important role in ancient imagery.

111

Remotti 1993, p. 31. The terminology here employed derives from Landscape Archaeology and Spatial Archaeology studies: D.L. Clarke, Spatial Information in Archaeology, in Spatial Archaeology, pp. 1-28; pp. 1114; Goldstein 1981; P. Attema, G.J. Burgers, E. van Joolen, M. van Leusen, B. Mater (eds.), New Developments in Italian Landscape Archaeology. Theory and Methodology in Field Survey. Land Evaluation and Landscape Perception. Pottery Production and Distribution, BAR International Series 1091, Oxford 2002. See also: R. Peroni, A. Vanzetti, La sociologia della ritualità funeraria tra età del Bronzo e del Ferro in Italia, in Ritualità funeraria, pp. 25-39; p. 33. 113 10th-9th century BC: 79%; 8th-6th century BC: 77%; 5th-3rd century BC: 68%; 2nd-Ist century BC: 48%. 114 R. Fletcher, Settlement Studies (Micro and Semi-micro), in Spatial Archaeology, pp. 47-162; p. 44; Nin 1999, p. 222. 115 10th-9th century BC: 12%; 8th-6th century BC: 23%; 5th-3rd century BC: 24%, 2nd-1st century BC: 48%. On the phenomenon during the Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age periods in Northern Italy: see Appenidx II. 116 See: Edlund 1987, p. 35; and A. Duval, Monde des morts, monde des vivants, qu’appelle-t-on «sanctuaire» à l’époque de La Tène?, in O. Buchenschutz, L. Olivier (éds.), Les Viereckschanzen et les enceintes quadrilaterales en Europe celtique, Actes du IXe Colloque de l’ A.F.E.A.F. (Chateaudun, 16-19 mai 1985), Paris 1989, pp. 161-164; Dubourdieu-Scheid 2000, pp. 59-80; D. Garcia, Espaces sacrés et genèse urbaine chez les Gaulois du Midi, in M. Bats, B. Dedet, P. Garmy, T. Janin, C. Raynaud, M. Schwaller (éds.), Peuples et territoires en Gaule méterranéen. Hommage à Guy Barruol, Revue Archéologique de Narbonnaise, Supplément 35, Montpellier 2003, pp. 223-232; Fedele 2004, p. 53.

In these contexts the findings examined were completely isolated, without any secondary functional structures, and were characterised by common natural elements which

112

117

R. Peroni, Introduzione alla protostoria italiana, Bari 1994, pp. 2021; pp. 306-308; and also: A. Ghiretti, Testimonianze di culti antichi nelle Valli di Taro e Ceno, in Archivio Storico per le Province Parmensi, quarta serie, LIII (2001), 2002, pp. 199-207. 118 On the re-use of structures which date to Prehistory and Protohistory, see: Antonaccio 1994; H. Steiner, Il Brandopferplatz di St. Valpurga in Val d’Ultimo (Alto Adige) su un livello insediativo della tarda età del Bronzo fino agli inizi dell’età del Ferro, in Atti Convegno Archeologico Provinciale II, pp. 165-190; B. Dedet, Tombes et pratiques funéraires protohistoriques des Grands Causses du Gevaudan (Aveyron, Gard, Lozère), Paris 2001, pp. 22-25; de Marinis 2003, pp. 23-24; Cocchi Genick 2004, p. 101; A. Stiglitz, Il riutilizzo votivo delle strutture megalitiche nuragiche in età tardo punica e romana, in Atti Perugia, pp. 725-737; Cultraro 2005. 119 10th-9th century BC: 9%; 5th-3th BC: 8%; 2nd-1st BC: 4%. 120 A.B. Knapp, W. Ashmore, Archaeological Landscapes: Constructed, Conceptualized, Ideational, in A.B. Knapp, W. Ashmore (eds.), Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives, Malden (Mass.) 1999, pp. 1-32; p. 2. See: P. Attema, Sulla contestualizzazione dei luoghi naturali nella archeologia del paesaggio italiana, in Studi Peroni, pp. 522-527; Ropiot-Mazière 2007, p. 732.

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included caves and rock fissures,121 high altitude, visual links with peaks, mountain passes and also rivers confluences, fords or other means of land or river communication. In some cases there were significant traces of earlier frequentations.

Layers characterised by traces of handcraft activities are well attested in the 10th-9th century and in the 8th-6th century BC phases:128 findings of bronze waste material at Fossano-Muratori indicate the presence of metallurgic workshops and finds of probable discharging pits, furnaces and coal layers at additional sites in La Montara and ex Fornace in Oppeano Veronese and at via Oberdan and Palazzina Olga in Bologna, allow us to hypothesise that ceramic workshops were present.129 Findings made at La Montara, near the inhumation pit, included bovines bones and the skeletons of three adult dogs and a puppy (two were complete, two were represented only by cranial bones without jaws) with strong wolf-like features.130

2. Semi-macro Level This term refers to the specific spatial unities where human skeletal remains were recovered, whether they are natural or artificial in origin, and the dimensions of such spaces. Within settlements, human bones were associated with: a) frequentation layers away from structures;122 b) frequentation layers away from structures, with traces of craft activities; c) domestic structures; d) domestic/productive structures; e) others, including wells, fortification walls, rock fissures and marshes.

The association between human bones and structures which can be defined as domestic structures is well attested in all of the chronological phases studied, but is particularly well represented in the 5th-3rd century BC period.131

Group a) is the most attested semi-macro context in three of the four chronological phases and, in particular, in the 8th-6th century BC phase.123 Of all the examples studies we must mention here the cases of Villa MarzanaMichela (where fires had burned the ground and structures before the depositing of human bones), Bologna-Cassarini (where the skeletal remains were recovered in a narrow strip of land on the left shore of Savena river, between the settlement and the cemeteries) and Forlì-Fornace Malta (where four individuals were discovered out of the settlement, in a zone characterised by the presence of pits, travertine rocks and a storage of bronze objects).124

These types of remains were discovered in association with a number of structural segments and, in these cases,132 bones had been placed in the following locations:133 1) under floors; 2) under walls; 3) under wall corners; 4) under hearths; 5) near walls; 6) near hearths; 7) under thresholds134. Although it is almost impossible to define the real function of all of the rooms where bones were located, it is possible to note, in terms of artefacts and other findings, that the room at Santorso, which contained the skeleton of a sub-adult subject which had been both cremated and inhumed, also contained a loom, as did a

Both at Contovello-Monte Grisa and Montagnana-via Chisogno, inhumations were placed within a pure sand layer that interrupted the human occupation layers. At Contovello this sand layer contained intentionally broken metal artefacts and miniature vessels. 125 Finally, the human bones recovered from Castenaso-Scuole Medie and Bologna-Villa Cassarini were found close to but not in direct contact with animal bones:126 these included the bones of cattle and pigs and the spine of a horse (at Castenaso) and pig (at Bologna).127

Jovino (a cura di), Tarquinia e le civiltà del Mediterraneo, Convegno Internazionale (Milano, 22-24 giugno 2004), Milano 2006, pp. 49-82; G. Bartoloni, La sepoltura al centro del pianoro di Piazza d’Armi-Veio, in Sepolti tra i vivi, II, pp. 821-832. 128 10th-9th century BC: 4%; 8th-6th century BC: 22%. The association between human bones and productive areas is well attested in the Early Bronze Age as, for example, in the metallurgic workshop of La Vela (Trento): see Bietti Sestieri 1996, p. 199, and Tecchiati, forthcoming. 129 Catalogue numbers: 32 (Fossano, via Muratori); 42, 43, 44 (Oppeano Veronese, La Montara and ex Fornace); 56 (Bologna, via Oberdan); 62 (Bologna, Palazzina Olga). 130 Riedel-Rizzi 1999. 131 Nin 1999, p. 24. 132 See: Mishina 2008, pp. 138-139; Gusberti 2007-2008, pp. 640-641. 133 10th-9th century BC: 16% (only floors); 8th-6th century BC: 11%; 5th-3rd century BC: 56% (floors: 27%; walls: 21%; abandoned floors: 6%; hearths: 3%); 2nd-1st century BC: 45% (walls: 18%; floors: 9%; hearths: 9%; thresholds: 9%). For the precedent periods see: Appendix II. 134 We may add two unpublished cases found in Ganglegg: two foeti were discovered in quadrant E-11 and within House H1 (only anthropological analyses are available: see A. Conzato, Antropologia delle sepolture di infanti nel sito di Ganglegg Val Venosta; courtesy of Umberto Tecchiati, Ufficio Beni Archeologici della Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano).

121

Caves were for a long time frequented as ceremonial and funerary contexts: A. Guidi, Alcune osservazioni sulla problematica delle offerte nella protostoria dell’Italia centrale, in Anathema, pp. 27-48; Acque, Grotte e Dei; and Peter 1999, p. 28. See also the evidence gathered in Appendix II. 122 Fenelli 1990-1991, p. 467. 123 10th-9th century BC: 40%; 8th-6th century BC: 70%; 5th-3rd century BC: 6%; 2nd-1st century BC: 46%. 124 Catalogue numbers: 23, 24 (Villa Marzana); 53, 54, 55 (Villa Cassarini); 114 (Forlì, Fornace Malta). 125 Catalogue numbers: 7 (Contovello); 21 (Montagnana). 126 Catalogue numbers: 53 (Bologna, Villa Cassarini); 58 (Castenaso, Scuole Medie). 127 The case of Bologna is similar to the evidence from Veio, Piazza d’Armi (Rome, 9th-8th century BC), where burned animal bones, broken vases, deer horns and a hearth were discovered near the inhumation pit in the centre of the settlement: Bartoloni 2002-2003, p. 69; G. Bartoloni, L’inizio del processo di formazione urbana in Etruria. Analogie e differenze venute in luce nei recenti scavi, in M. Bonghi

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house of Monte Sannace settlement (Bari, 3rd century BC), where sub-adult skeletons were also recovered.135

Ceramic and metallurgic workshops occupied parts of domestic structures at Montagnana-Decimetta, Colognola ai Colli, Padova-Palazzo Zabarella and perhaps also at Santorso (the so-called plurivano).140 As noted by Cima, metal waste and coal deposits were also discovered at Valperga-Cimitero, although the relationship between this discovery and the information recorded in the catalogue is still unknown.141 In the cases of Frattesina, Concordia Sagittaria and Castelletto Ticino, the findings of artefacts also indicate the presence of horn and shell industries.

We should also mention the evidence of CastelraimondoZuc Schiaramont, where the bones of at least eleven foeti were found within Building V. This was a structure which, as is clearly indicated by its dimensions and by the organisation of the internal space, that was most probably not used, or not only used, as a private dwelling but served as a community centre. This centre, in addition, also had ceremonial associations or attributes. The human bones in this case were found mixed with various animal bones (those of cattle, pigs, chickens, deer and bears).

Other interesting cases include the examples of findings of human bones within infrastructures employed to collect and canalise water.

From an archaeological perspective, in groups 1), 2), 3), 4) and 7) there are clear indications that there is a strong stratigraphical association between structures and layers and bones, in these cases, were in fact contained within the foundation strata of floors, walls, thresholds and hearths. In other cases, conversely, bones were only found in proximity to, but without there being any direct connection, with such structures. In addition, at Santorso, Bressanone-Stufles and Castiglione Mantovano-Castello, the location of sub-adults bones corresponded to the collapse phase of domestic structures.136

These structures, all assignable to the 5th-3rd century BC phase,142 include: 1) wells; 2) irrigation canals. With regard to wells, the geological and archaeological analysis indicated that they were really used to collect water, but that they went out of use following the exhaustion of the local water tables. In particular, at Laion, the well was found within an enclosure, that included also a house (perhaps a workshop), and was covered by a Copper Age decorated stele: chemical analysis showed that water here was rich in iron sulphates and, as such, most probably had thermal properties.

At Capo di Ponte- Pescarzo, we may add, this collapse was perhaps due to a fire that also resulted in the partial burning of three skeletons sometime after their initial placement.137 It has, finally, to be remembered that though the presence of bones under floors is well attested within all of the chronological phases, the placing of bones under walls seems to be attested only from the 5th3rd century BC period in the Athesian and Venetic Cultures areas.138

At Bologna-Arcoveggio on the other hand human bones were discovered near and at the same level as a number of irrigation canals, which probably served a rural settlement.143

In three chronological phases we also see the use of structures characterised by handcraft activities,139 where human bones were located: 1) under floors; 2) under walls.

We may now mention the cases of fortification walls which contained both inhumations and cremations: at Duino and Montagna,144 findings were made within wall niches, at Santorso and Oderzo,145 inhumed sub-adult subjects were located alongside or outside the defensive walls and at Oderzo the skeletons of two dogs were positioned symmetrically intra and extra moenia.146 140

Catalogue numbers: 16, 17 (Montagnana); 81, 82 (Padova, Palazzo Zabarella); 85 (Colognola); 87 (Santorso); 116 (Valperga). 141 Cima 2001, p. 161; also in the site of Castelraimondo, within structure IV, characterised by the presence of metal waste (2nd century AD) were found eight foeti under the floors and the side-walls (see Santoro Bianchi 1992, p. 199). 142 5th-3rd century BC: 34%. Neolithic period finds were similar, such as the sub-adult subject found on the bottom of a canal at Piancada di Palazzolo sullo Stella (Udine): Cavulli 2008, pp. 136-137. On the possible comparanda, see Appendices II and III. 143 At Bologna, Zannoni notes the presence of two human skeletons within the canals that skirted the street between the settlement of Felsina and the Arnoaldi necropolis: L. Minarini, I Celti a Bologna, in Storia di Bologna, pp. 341-361; pp. 348-349. 144 Catalogue numbers: 1 (Montagna); 8 (Duino). 145 Catalogue numbers: 88 (Santorso); 130 (Oderzo). 146 On the connection between dogs and fortifications: G. Giusberti, I resti sacrificali delle mura di Ariminum, in Études Celtiques XXVII, 1990, pp. 119-130; R. Robert, Rites de protection et de défense. A propos des ossements d’un chien decouverts au pied de rempart de Paestum, in AnnAStAnt. X, 1993, pp. 119-140; J. Ortalli, Un rito di

135

Catalogue number: 90 (Santorso). On Monte Sannace settlement: B.M. Scarfì, Gioia del Colle (Bari)-L’abitato peucetico di Monte Sannace, in NSc 1962, pp. 1-286. 136 Other human skeletal remains, a tibia, a fragment of parietal bone and a skull, have been found within collapse layers at Treviso, Piazza S. Pio IX (9th century BC); Sluderno, Ganglegg (Bolzano, 6th century BC) and Bolzano, S. Maurizio (3rd-2nd century BC); see: Tecchiati, forthcoming. 137 Catalogue numbers: 70, 72 (Bressanone); 87, 89 (Santorso); 48, 98 (Castiglione); 134 (Capo di Ponte). 138 On Northern Italy: Bassi-Cavada 1999. In Peninsular Italy, the phenomenon can be seen from the 8th century BC period, as in the Domus Regia in Rome: Filippi 2007-2008, pp. 617-638. 139 10th-9th century BC: 23%; 8th-6th century BC: 4%; 5th-3rd century BC: 11%. For Peninsular Italy, see the female 35-40 years old subject inhumed in the workshop for ceramics at Veio, Campetti (Rome, 9th century BC; F. Boitani, S. Neri, F. Biagi, La donna delle fornaci di Veio-Campetti, in Sepolti tra i vivi, II, pp. 833-868) and the sub-adults inhumed at Falerii, Fondo Paolelli (Viterbo, 6th century BC; BaglioneDe Lucia Brolli 2007-2008).

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Finally, natural locations within settlements contexts were also used to deposit human bones: the basal layers of the marsh at the lake-dwelling settlement of Fiavè contained two inhumations;147 the fissure of Rocca di Rivoli, passing through sector D of the settlement, contained the disarticulated bones of two individuals.148

We may add the quadrangular structure of Mechel to this list,154 although the precise nature of the stratigraphical relationship between structures and human bones in this case remains unclear.155 Group c) examples, i.e. the presence of bones in layers characterised by the direct action of fire, are attested between the 8th and 3rd century BC at Padova-via S. Eufemia, S. Lorenzo di Sebato-Burgkofel and PolcenigoS. Giovanni.156

With regard to areas of symbolic actions, the semi-macro contexts are: a) black ground layers, without evidence of direct fire action, formed by coal, ash, broken metal and ceramic artefacts and by selected animal and human bones; b) frequentation layers away from structures; c) frequentation layers away from structures, with traces of direct fire action; d) abandoned structures; e) others, including hydraulic structures, rock fissures, marshes.

In the context of group d) we should mention the sites of Marzabotto, where human skeletal remains were recovered in the south-west corner of the most probably disused Tina town temple,157 and the finds made at Como-Pianvalle,158 where cremated bones were located within abandoned domestic structures which later became the focus of ritual practices.159

Group a) evidence all comes from a narrow geographical range and is the result of research conducted in the Alpine and sub-Alpine area and significantly increases over time, especially during the first half of the Iron Age and the 2nd-1st century BC Romanised phase.149

In terms of examples of hydraulic structures that contained human bones and were within symbolic actions areas we may cite the two wells of S. PoloServirola, where bones were found alongside votive bronze artefacts and enclosed by large rocks.

An interesting find was also made at Padova-Collegio Ravenna, where human burned bones were found in a layer of almost pure coal, in proximity to a pit filled again with ash and intentionally broken vessels and metal (bronze) artefacts.150

We should also recall, as further group e) examples, the rock fissure of Greifenstein and the marsh layers of Fiavè,160 where skulls were placed in the marsh after the abandonment of the lake-dwelling settlement.161 Semi-macro contexts in natural places of significance are represented by: 162 a) caves; b) rock fissures; c) frequentation layers.

The group b) evidence is prevalent and widely dispersed from the 5th to the 1st century BC: 151 examples can be seen at S. Lorenzo di Sebato-Fondo Steger, Gran S. Bernardo, Raveo and Cavriana-Galeazzo. In these cases human bones were recovered from frequentation layers which were external to structures and which were located in an enclosure (at S. Lorenzo) or in sacella (in the other three cases).152 Other kinds of artificial elements include stone platforms, walls and cairns.153

Crostoletto di Lamone, Allumiere and Tolfa (Viterbo): N. Negroni Catacchio, Deposizioni, tombe, necropoli dell’Etruria centrale tirrenica, in Atti PPE 1995, pp. 15-28. 154 Catalogue numbers: 36 (Mechel); 75 (S. Lorenzo); 117 (Gran S. Bernardo); 132 (Raveo); 137 (Cavriana). 155 A quadrangular structure is present (filled with ash, animal bones and ceramic and metallic fragments) in the Iron Age site of Ganglegg, Hahnehütterbödele (Bolzano; Steiner 2007, pp. 278-296). 156 Catalogue numbers: 41 (Padova, S. Eufemia); 74 (S. Lorenzo); 131 (Polcenigo). 157 Edoardo Brizio refers to the presence of other human skeletons within the settlement of Marzabotto, i.e. three skeletons equipped with swords within a “cella”, a woman without the right arm and an isolated skull under a street floor: it is however impossible to collocate and to contextualise this evidence (see Brizio 1887). 158 Catalogue numbers: 138, 139 (Pianvalle); 143 (Marzabotto). 159 The same situation, where human bones were not found, can be observed in the ‘celtic sanctuary’ of Casate: N. Negroni Catacchio, I ritrovamenti di Casate nel quadro del celtismo padano, in Atti Centenario, pp. 169-242; F. Rittatore Vonwiller, M.R. Siani, Scavi di Casate (Como)-1972, in Atti Centenario, pp. 147-168; R.C. de Marinis, L’insediamento preromano nell’area di Como, in Archeologia urbana in Lombardia. Como, Como 1984. At Pianvalle, fused shapes, probably belonging to a metallurgic workshop, were also discovered: Negroni Catacchio 1979b, pp. 177-179. 160 Catalogue numbers: 73 (Greifenstein); 100, 101 (S. Polo); 121 (Fiavè). 161 R. Battaglia, Palafitte di Fiavè (Trentino), in RivScPr. II, 4, 1947, p. 326; Battaglia 1948-1949, pp. 84-104; Dal Rì-Tecchiati 2002, p. 471. 162 10th-9th century BC: 67% caves, 33% rock fissure; 5th-3rd century BC: 50% rock fissures, 50% frequentation layers; 2nd-1st century BC: 100% rock fissures.

fondazione nella colonia di Ariminum, in Rimini divina, pp. 33-38; L. Braccesi, Terra di confine. Archeologia e storia tra Marche, Romagna e S. Marino, Roma 2007, pp. 195-196; De Grossi Mazzorin 2008, pp. 77-78. 147 On the phenomenon: C. Maviglia, I resti umani e le industrie litiche rinvenute in Val de Marca (Fimon), in RivScPr. II, 1947-1948, pp. 7197; Corrain 1957-1958, pp. 263-290; R. Battaglia, Preistoria del Veneto e della Venezia Giulia, in BPI 1958-1959, pp. 332-336. See also Appendix II. 148 Catalogue numbers: 4 (Fiavè); 13 (Rocca di Rivoli). 149 10th-9th century BC: 50%; 8th-6th century BC: 50%; 5th-3rd century BC: 30%; 2nd-1st century BC: 50%. 150 Catalogue number: 128. 151 10th-9th century BC: 25%; 8th-6th century BC: 40%; 5th-3rd century BC: 30%; 2nd-1st century BC: 30%. 152 A clear definition of the term sacellum is in Backe Forsberg 2005, pp. 39-40. 153 The presence of similar structures is attested in the Copper and the Bronze Age of Northern Italy, as at Cles, Campi Neri (Trento; Endrizzi et al. 2009), Trescore Balneario, Canton (Bergamo; see: R. Poggiani Keller Trescore Balneario [Bergamo]. Il sito del Canton fra Neolitico VBQ e Campaniforme, in Simbolo ed Enigma, pp. 32-36) and Velturno, Tanzgasse (Bolzano; U. Tecchiati, Velturno-loc. Tanzgasse: un’area megalitica di età campaniforme in Val d’Isarco [Bolzano], in Simbolo ed Enigma, pp. 69-71); in peninsular Italy see the cases of ‘tumuli dolmenici’ in the Bronze Age sites of Pian di Sultano, Tufarelle,

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In the cases of both caves and rock fissures, these natural locations were then intentionally modified by human activities. The fissure at Case Pantani, we may add, was not an isolated element but was part of a complex of fissures, of which the most important is Malavolti fissure, which had been filled with ceramic vessels, metal artefacts and animal bones.163

within frequentation layers. Group c) is associated with domestic structures, as at Parre and Santorso, where the presence of human bones was signalled by a cairn.170 In addition, earlier and subsequently disused structures were sometimes re-employed as bone containers. Examples of this phenomenon included: the clay extraction pits at Oppeano Veronese (at both La Montara and ex Fornace), the furnaces for ceramics at Bologna-Palazzina Olga and the possible fire pits found at Castenaso-Scuole Medie. 171

The evidence from Chiomonte-La Maddalena was found within Neolithic layers that included huts floors, furnaces for ceramic production and an ancient landslide which was subsequently used as shelter.164 The Ligurian sites, i.e. the rock fissures at Realdo di Borniga and at Monte Grange,165 reveal strong cultural contacts with the Late Bronze Age South-East France. In fact findings were also made, in Provence and the Rôhne Valley, of human skeletal remains which had been deposited within karst fissures (the so-called avens).166

Further prepared locations could also include Teglio’s bowl, which contained skull fragments and was located in the foundation layers of a handcraft workshop,172 and the intentionally modified stone in the corner of a house at Leives-Reif. The bones of sub-adult specimens were recovered near large carved stones at Castelraimondo and Ganglegg.173 With regard to cremated bones, included among the micro-level contexts are urns, such as ollae, biconic vessels and dolii. These were found to have been deposited both simply in the ground and in structured containers, such as simple pits, pits protected by pebbles and niches.

3. Micro Level As micro-level contexts are here defined as the smallest natural or artificial space units which contain human skeletal remains.167 A first distinction has to be made between: - without preparation contexts, quantitatively well represented;168 - intentionally prepared contexts. A second significant distinction may then be made between inhumed and burned bones. Within settlements, inhumed bones found in non-prepared contexts are quantitatively the most well represented samples at both the macro- and the semi-macro levels in all of the chronological phases.

At Valperga-Cimitero and Brescia-Palazzo Martinengo, the pits were primarily used to accommodate domestic hearths.174 With regard to inhumed bones found in symbolic actions areas, it may be noted that, although the non-prepared contexts were the majority, a number of structured containers have also been identified. They include: a) simple pits; b) pits protected by pebbles and/or stone slabs.

The structured containers, i.e. the prepared contexts, have been identified as including: a) simple pits;169 b) pits delimited by pebbles and/or stone slabs; c) pits protected by pebbles and/or stone slabs; d) others (furnaces, vessels, stone).

Group a) evidence includes the fire pits of Padova-via S. Eufemia,175 as well as the simple pits of Capo di PonteLe Sante, which were covered by ochre slabs. A number of other elements present at Le Sante are very interesting from a diachronic perspective, in the sense that a second great pit lined with stone slabs was dug very close to the inhumations and from this pit findings of cremated bones were recovered. A pit was also found at Capo di PonteDos de l’Arca, which contained inhumed and selected

Group a) is attested within both domestic structures and frequentation layers, whereas group b) is only attested 163

Malnati-Neri 1994, pp. 168-169. Fedele 1988; Fozzati-Bertone 1988. 165 Catalogue numbers: 30 (Case Pantani); 33 (Realdo di Borniga); 34 (Monte Grange); 115 (Chiomonte). 166 R.C. de Marinis, Alcuni aspetti dei rapporti culturali tra Italia settentrionale e regioni transalpine durante l’antica età del Bronzo, in Atti CESDIR VII, Milano 1975-1976, pp. 203-215; F. Fedele, Un’ archeologia per la valle Orco, Torino 1981, p. 73; pp. 85-87; Bietti Sestieri 1996, pp. 269-272; A. Del Lucchese, Il Bronzo Finale e l’inizio dell’età del Ferro in Liguria, in Liguri, pp. 143-147, pp. 143-144. 167 On the specific terminology employed, see: Fenelli 1990-1991, pp. 467-468; Bouma 1996, pp. 43-44; Modica 2007, p. 13; pp. 55-57; Geroli, unpublished, pp. 53-54. 168 10th-9th century BC: 88% (settlements), 75% (symbolic actions areas), 67% (natural places of significance); 8th-6th century BC: 40% (settlements); 50% (symbolic actions areas); 5th-3rd century BC: 61% (settlements), 67% (symbolic actions areas), 50% (natural places of significance); 2nd-1st century BC: 46% (settlements); 67% (symbolic actions areas), 100% (natural places of significance). 169 Cunliffe 1992, p. 73; Bouma 1996, p. 43; Geroli, unpublished, pp. 58-59. 164

170

Catalogue numbers: 87 (Santorso); 93 (Parre). Catalogue numbers: 42, 43, 44 (Oppeano); 59, 60, 61 (Castenaso); 62 (Palazzina Olga). 172 On the ‘fields of bowls’ at Entella (Sicily): Becker 1986, pp. 31-56. 173 Catalogue numbers: 47 (Teglio); 79 (Leives); 91 (Castelraimondo); 122 (Ganglegg). Also the sub-adult skeletons of Sanzeno nell’Anaunia, Fondo Paternoster (Trento, 2nd century AD) were discovered near a quadrangular painted rock: F. Marzatico, Sanzeno, in StEtr. LX, 1994, pp. 532-534. 174 Catalogue numbers: 97 (Brescia); 116 (Valperga). 175 Cavulli 2008; A. Facciolo, A. Tagliacozzo, V. Tinè, Le fosse di combustione con resti di animali dai livelli del Neolitico Medio (facies di Serra d’Alto) di Grotte S. Michele di Saracena (CS), Paper at the Meeting Il pieno Neolitico in Italia (Finale Ligure Borgo, 8-10 June 2009); G. Steffè, A. Ferrari, V. Santi, I. Sanavia, E. Sarina, Il sito eneolitico della cava dell’Aeroporto 2, Marzaglia (MO) (Paper at XLV IIPP Congress, Modena, 26-31 October 2010); C. Milantoni, Diegaro (FC), Via Monte Tiglio: una struttura di combustione dell’età del Bronzo (Paper at XLV IIPP Congress, Modena, 26-31 October 2010). 171

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bones and had been monumentalised through the construction of a so-called ‘camminamento’, which had no functional purpose.176

only foetus recovered from a symbolic actions area context comes from Capo di Ponte-Dos de l’Arca, but the bones were in this case mixed with those of fifteen other individuals.

Cremated bones were of course more numerous than inhumed remains in symbolic actions areas and for the most part were recovered directly from the ground.

The same associative trend between sub-adults and settlements is also clearly present in the band 1 findings: here bones were linked with floors and hearths though not with walls structures. This was particularly the case at Padova-Palazzo Zabarella and Colognola ai Colli,180 where domestic rooms were in part also occupied by handcraft workshops.181

The only identifiable structured locations were: a) simple pits; b) stone cysts. In natural places of significance inhumed bones constituted over the 50% of the finds and they came for the most part from non-prepared contexts. The structured containers that were found, on the other hand, included: a) pits protected by pebbles and/or stone slabs; b) stone cysts.

Findings of band 1 individuals outside of domestic structures were made only in Bologna-via Foscolo Frassinago and in one of the wells at Marzabotto.182 The Realdo di Borniga rock fissure is the only natural place of significance where a subject of band 1 was recovered, along with other nine skeletons. There have been no findings of individuals from this band in symbolic actions areas.

Cremated bones were always contained in vessels used as urns and were found within intentionally prepared contexts: in the case of Case Pantani, for example, the fissure was closed by imported or non-local sandstone slabs.177

Band 2 and 3 subjects are in percentage terms somewhat under-represented if compared with bands 0 and 1. Within these bands however remains a strong connection with both domestic and handcraft contexts, as in the case of the ceramic workshop at Montagnana-via Decimetta. Band 2 and 3 subjects were however found in symbolic actions areas, in Padova-S. Eufemia, Zuc Schiaramont, Tires (only sub-adults bones), Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca and Le Sante, and Somma Lombardo (sub-adults and adults bones).

4. Spatial Contexts and Class Ages It is possible to make interesting observations by comparing the spatial contexts of the finds with the class ages, i.e. the skeletal ages, of the subjects found at these sites (Table 6). Human bone findings within band 0 were made inside settlements and in association with domestic structures or with specific elements of domestic structures,178 such as walls, floors, thresholds and hearths. The exception to this general rule are the cases of the foeti from Castenaso, Santorso and Oderzo, which were found in the marginal areas of the settlement, in fire pits or along the fortification walls, according to a praxis which seems to suggest that there was a link between sub-adults and defensive structures as early as the Bronze Age.179 The

Aquileia Nostra 2005, pp. 346-359, pp. 346-353; and also Cassola Guida-Corazza 2006, pp. 297-303); Roca Vecchia and Coppa Nevigata (Bari and Foggia; Recchia 2007-2008, p. 117); Rome (Gallone 20072008; Carafa 2007-2008, pp. 673-674); Ficana (Rome; see Torelli 1996, pp. 59-60). With regard to the European Iron Age: see BuchenshutzRalston 2007. 180 Within Palazzo Zabarella structures at least six sub-adult subjects were found under floors, in a context which date to the 5th-1st century BC: Rossignoli-Ruta Serafini 2009, p. 30. 181 Other European cases are: Oropos (Greece, 8th century BC; A. Mazarakis Ainian, Oropos in Early Iron Age, in M. Bats, B. d’Agostino [a cura di], Euboica. L’Eubea e la presenza euboica in Calcidica e in Occidente, Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Napoli [Napoli, 13-16 novembre 1996], Napoli 1998, pp. 179-225); Puech de Muse-Cousse du Larzac and Lezoux (France, 6th-3rd century BC; Dedet et al. 2001, pp. 149-153; Laubenheimer 2004, pp. 297-315); Peña Negra, Illa de Reixac, Castellet de Bernabè and Els Vilars (Spain, 6th-5th century BC; B. Agustì, N. Alonso, I. Garcés, E. Junyent, A. Lafuente, J.B. López, Una inhumación mùltiple de perinatales en la Fortaleza de Els Vilars [Arbeica, Lleida] y las prácticas de enterramiento en hábitat durante la primera Edad del Hierro en la valle del Segre [Cataluňa], in Archéologie de la Mort, pp. 305-324; Dedet et al. 2001, pp. 149-154): Dedet suggested that there were also a link between sub-adults depositions in productive places and the concepts of production and reproduction (p. 154). See also Carafa 2007-2008. 182 Findings of sub-adults in wells are attested in Italy during the Roman period, i.e. at Covo, Covello, Fondo Pascoli (human bones of an adult and a “child”; Bergamo, Carta Archeologica della Lombardia II, n. 278) and Angera, Fondo Geppi (“a little skull”; Varese; R. Castiglione, Angera, in NSc 1878, pp. 303-304). With regard to the European Iron Age, the well of Bavay contained three skeletons: one of these was a sub-adult and was associated with dog bones (France, 2nd-1st century BC; Green 2001).

176

Cataolgue numbers: 418 (S. Eufemia); 94, 95, 96 (Le Sante); Dos de l’Arca (135). 177 Urns containing human burned bones, unfortunately not examined with anthropological methods, are attested at Grotta dell’Edera (Savona, 9th century BC; G. Odetti, Val Maremola, in A. Del Lucchese, R. Maggi [a cura di], Dal diaspro al bronzo. L’età del Rame e del Bronzo in Liguria: 26 secoli di storia fra 3600 e 100 avanti Cristo, Soprintendenza Archeologica della Liguria 1998., pp. 80-83) and Montecrestese and Crodo (Novara, 6th century BC: P. Caramella, A. De Giuli, Archeologia dell’alto Novarese, Margozzo 1993). 178 The magical and symbolic link between sub-adult subjects and houses is a well-known theme within cultural anthropology literature: see Vernant 1970, p. 86; Granet 1975, p. 163; Golden 1988, p. 156; Jameson 1990, pp. 105-106; Cavada 1994. Recent discoveries, which date to the Middle Bronze Age, seem to confirm the evidence gathered here: three foeti were found within the terramara of Fraore (Parma), in the basal layer of a hut and in a well: A. Mutti, L. Salvadei, Tre sepolture a inumazione nella terramara di Fraore Oratorio (PR) (Paper at XLV IIPP Congress, Modena, 26-31 October 2010). 179 On the connection between sub-adults and forification/defensive walls: Siusi allo Sciliar (Bolzano; Tecchiati, forthcoming, pp. 245-246); Sedegliano di Gradisca (Udine; P. Cassola Guida, S. Corazza, Dai tumuli ai castellieri: 1500 anni di storia in Friuli [2000-500 a.C.], III, in

54

SPATIAL CONTEXTS

Finally, it is possible to observe that individuals from bands 0, 1, 2 and 3 have been found within specific types of locations and that these locations are almost exclusively linked with settlements contexts.183 When findings, on the other hand, were made away from settlements, they were mixed together with adult and animal bones.184 In some cases the deposits of human bones were made after the abandonment of previously inhabited structures as at Bressanone and at Castiglione Mantovano, in accordance with a behavioural practice that was followed until the time of the Roman period of suggrundaria.185

At Bologna, Palazzina Olga, disused furnace structures were re-employed as bone containers and, although they were no longer used, they remained clearly visible. Other examples of abandoned and then re-used contexts include the abandonment layers at Contovello and Montagnanavia Chisogno and the Laion and Marzabotto wells.189 Adult subjects were found also within symbolic actions areas, often together with sub-adult skeletal remains. Counter examples, however, can be seen at S. GenesioGreifenstein, S. Bernardo-Plan de Joux, Padova-Collegio Ravenna and Como-Pianvalle, where only adults bones were found.

Subjects from bands 4 and 5 were not exclusively linked with settlement contexts, as often occurs with adult subjects, and even on the occasion where they were recovered in settlements contexts, the bones were found in frequentation layers which were external to domestic structures. There is an equal division, we may add, between the number of the findings made in settlements and those made in symbolic actions areas.186 On the contrary, the number of findings areas of natural places is insignificant.

Also with regard to ceremonial contexts, the wells of S. Polo and the abandoned domestic structures of ComoPianvalle should also be recognised as re-used bones containers.

No significant differences in terms of spatial distribution were observed for the cases within the bands 6-9 range. The greater part of the finds were in fact made in settlements and, within settlements, in frequentation layers, apart from the cases of Frattesina, Bressanone and Capo di Ponte-Pescarzo. In Bressanone, two inhumed individuals were found under the floor of a little room that has been recently interpreted as a form of prison.187 Excavations at Capo di Ponte-Pescarzo revealed an adult and two sub-adult subjects under a corner of a wall in a Roman house and in a location which was normally only used for sub-adults.188 183

Alessandro Guidi suggested a link between specific class ages and specific bones locations in the cases of the inhumations at Ardea, within the sanctuary of Colle della Noce (Rome, 8th-7th century BC): Guidi 2007-2008, p. 716. 184 In Bronze Age Northern Italy subjects of bands 0-3 are rare and come from the settlements of Barche di Solferino (3 years old) and Ledro (10 years old), cfr. de Marinis 2003, p. 35, and the caves of S. Croce (9 years old; M. Moretti, Grotta di S. Croce, Catasto V.G. n. 4163, sepoltura in pithos, in Preistoria Caput Adriae, pp. 133-134), Brisighella, Grotta dei Banditi and Croara, Grotta Serafino Calindri (610 years old), Bentini 2002; in symbolic actions areas, sub-adults and adults bones were found at Castiglione delle Stiviere, Prato Nuovo (7-8 years old), A. Piccoli, Deposito dell’età del Bronzo a Castiglione delle Stiviere, in AB XI (1993), 1996, pp. 177-186. The presence of a subadult is probable at Custoza: L. Salzani, Il sito protostorico di Custoza (Sommacampagna-Verona), in Padusa XXXII-XXXIII, 1996-1997, pp. 7-46. 185 Bassi-Cavada 1999; Gaio 2004. 186 Band 4, determined on the basis of anthropological analysis, is almost absent within the archaeological record of Northern and Central Italy: the definition of puberal subjects is applied to the individuals of Rome, Equus Domitiani, and Luni, Tre Erici (Modica 2007, p. 226; Charlier 2008, pp. 58-60; Bartoloni 2002-2003, p. 73). 187 Courtesy of Umberto Tecchiati (Ufficio Beni Archeologici della Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano). 188 The skeleton of a 35-45 years old man (from the Iron Age settlement of Howe on Orkney, in Scotland), with evidence of teeth and scapulae sub-development, was recovered from the abandonment layer together with a foetus, a “infant” and a 10-11 years old individual (see ArmitGinn 2007, pp. 115-117); in the same way, at Poundbury (Dorchester, Great Britain, 1st century BC), a 45 years old man was found near the

foundation strata of a hut, together with sub-adults bones (Tibbets 2008, p. 191). 189 Sassatelli 1991, pp. 190-205; Vitali et al. 2001, p. 88.

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Band 0

0/1 1

2

2/3

Site Castenaso, Scuole Medie Bressanone, Stufles Santorso Santorso

Chronology 8th-6th BC

Macro Settlement

5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC

Settlement Settlement Settlement

Semi-macro Frequentation Layer House, floor Wall House, wall

Castelraimondo

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House, hearth

Altino

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House, wall

Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca Oderzo Oderzo Triora, Realdo

5th-3rd BC

Frequentation layer

2nd-1st BC 2nd-1st BC 10th-9th BC

Symbolic actions area Settlement Settlement Natural place

Bologna, via Foscolo Leives, Reif Padova, Zabarella Padova, Zabarella Padova, via dell’Arco

8th-6th BC 5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC 2nd-1st BC

Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement

Frequentation layer House, floor House, floor House/workshop, floor House, floor

S. Pietro in Cariano

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House, floor

Colognola

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House/workshop, floor

Marzabotto

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

Well

Ganglegg

2nd-1st BC

Settlement

House, floor

Padova, Pilsen

2nd-1st BC

Settlement

House, hearth

Padova, Pilsen Capo di Ponte, Pescarzo

2nd-1st BC 2nd-1st BC

Settlement Settlement

House, floor House, floor

Montagnana

10th-9th BC

Settlement

House/workshop, floor

Capo di Ponte, Le Sante

2nd-1st BC

Burned layer

Montecavolo

2nd-1st BC

Symbolic actions area Settlement

Virle

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Castiglione Mantovano

8th-6th BC

Settlement

Padova, via S. Eufemia

8th-6th BC

Bressanone, Stufles

5th-3rd BC

Symbolic actions area Settlement

House, floor (abandoned)

Bressanone, Stufles

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House, floor (abandoned)

Santorso

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House, wall

Santorso Parre Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca Brescia, Martinengo Castiglione Mantovano Cavalese, Doss Zelor Somma Lombardo

5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC

House, wall House, wall Frequentation layer

5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC 2nd-1st BC

Marzabotto

2nd-1st BC

Settlement Settlement Symbolic actions area Settlement Settlement Settlement Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area

56

House, threshold Wall Fissure

Frequentation Layer Frequentation Layer House, floor (abandoned) Frequentation layer

House, hearth House, floor (abandoned) House, wall Burned layer Frequentation Layer

Micro Fire pit Pit Pit Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Protected pit

Pit Without preparation Pit Stone

Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Pit Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Pit Without preparation Without preparation

Without preparation Pit Protected pit Protected pit Protected pit Pit Without preparation Pit

SPATIAL CONTEXTS

3

Castions di Strada Montagnana

10th-9th BC 10th-9th BC

Settlement Settlement

Frequentation layer House/workshop, floor

Montereale Castenaso, Scuole Medie Santorso

10th-9th BC 8th-6th BC

Settlement Settlement

House, floor House, floor

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

House, wall

Tires

2nd-1st BC

Frequentation layer

Capo di Ponte, Le Sante

2nd-1st BC

4/5

Triora

10th-9th BC

Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Natural place

5

Rivoli, Rocca

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Fissure

Villa Marzana, Michela

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frattesina

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation Layer Frequentation layer

Greis

8th-6th BC

Leives, Galizia

8th-6th BC

Castenaso, Scuole Medie Nago Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca Ortisei, Col de Flam

8th-6th BC

Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Settlement

2nd-1st BC

Rivoli, Rocca

6

Frequentation layer

Pit Without preparation Pit Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Fire pit

Fissure Frequentation layer

Niche Pit

Burned leyer

10th-9th BC

Natural place Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Settlement

Montagnana

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

Montagnana

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

Rungger Egg

8th-6th BC

Burned leyer

Castenaso, Scuole Medie S. Genesio

8th-6th BC

Symbolic actions area Settlement

Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Fire pit

5th-3rd BC

Laion

5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC

Burned layer Fissure

Burned leyer Burned leyer

Fissure

Frequentation layer Fissure

5th-3rd BC

Symbolic actions area Settlement

Berceto Aquila

5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC

Natural place Natural place

Frequentation layer Cave

Capo di Ponte, Pescarzo

2nd-1st BC

Settlement

House, floor

Montagnana

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

Oppeano, ex Fornace Bologna, Cassarini Bologna, Palazzina Olga Castenaso, Gramsci Marzabotto

8th-6th BC 8th-6th BC 8th-6th BC 8th-6th BC 5th-3rd BC

Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement

Frequentation layer Frequentation layer Frequentation layer Frequentation layer Well

8

Villa Marzana, Michela

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

8/9 9

Bressanone, Stufles Rungger Egg

5th-3rd BC 8th-6th BC

House, floor Burned layer

Bologna, Cassarini

8th-6th BC

Settlement Symbolic actions area Settlement

Frequentation layer

Marzabotto

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

Well

7

57

Well

Without preparation Without preparation Protected pit Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Pit Pit Furnace Pit Without preparation Without preparation Pit Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation

OUT OF PLACE

7/8/9

Contovello

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frattesina

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer (abandoned) House/workshop, floor

Corriano

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

Fossano

10th-9th BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

Triora

10th-9th BC

Natural place

Cave

Greis

8th-6th BC

Burned layer

Leives, Galizia

8th-6th BC

Concordia

8th-6th BC

Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Settlement

Padova, Eufemia

8th-6th BC

Annone

8th-6th BC

Medea

5th-3rd BC

Dos de l’Arca

5th-3rd BC

Reggio, Casa Leoni

Burned layer Frequentation layer

Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area

Frequentation layer

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

Frequentation layer

Marzabotto

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

Well

Marzabotto

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

Well

Marzabotto

5th-3rd BC

Settlement

Well

Chiomonte S. Bernardo

5th-3rd BC 5th-3rd BC

Frequentation layer Frequentation layer

Padova, Ravenna

2nd-1st BC

Capo di Ponte, Le Sante

2nd-1st BC

Pianvalle

2nd-1st BC

Somma Lombardo

2nd-1st BC

Natural place Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area Symbolic actions area

Frequentation layer Burned layer Frequentation layer

Burned layer Burned layer House, floor (abandoned) Burned layer

Table 7. List of class ages and spatial contexts of the finds.

58

Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Pit

Without preparation Protected pit

Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Without preparation Cyst Without preparation Pit Without preparation Cyst Without preparation

CHAPTER 2 POST MORTEM TREATMENTS AND BODY POSITIONS

This chapter focuses on the post mortem treatments of human bones, in terms of the different characters of inhumations and cremations and the positioning of the body, the typology of bones represented within the archaeological deposits and, when noticed on the basis of specific analyses, the presence of particular practices which have been used to treat bodies.

The micro-level contexts are for the most part constituted by non-prepared locations. With regard to the conditions of bones findings, it is possible to observe the presence of: a) anatomical order; b) partial anatomical order; c) bones without anatomical order.

1. Inhumed Bones

Group b) includes seventeen subjects from the 8th-6th century BC period and twenty-nine from the 5th-3rd century BC,197 whereas group c) consists of ten subjects from the 5th-3rd century BC.198

Inhumation,190 the depositing of bones under the ground, is the most diffused post mortem practice within all of the chronological phases.191

The anatomical order of the human skeletons of group a) allows us to hypothesise that these are primary depositions.199 The partial or total dislocation of the human remains from groups b) and c) however may have been explained in a different manner: the alteration of the bone deposits could be due to post-depositional events, such as taphonomical, chemical and geological phenomena, or to the intentional secondary positioning of the body. 200 Although it is very difficult to identify these situations in the absence of clear signs of human intervention,201 it has to be remembered that: 1) at Padova S. Eufemia, an old male adult subject was found without legs and other skeletons presented possible signs of scarification;202 2) at Capo di Ponte-Dos de l’Arca, all the skulls were removed and located in a cairn in the centre of the pit.203

It is predominantly practiced within settlements contexts and is less frequent in symbolic actions areas and natural places.192 Inhumation is, moreover, a practice that was in use throughout all of the class ages here considered. The most important aspect to take in account is the conditions of the osteological deposits, i.e. whether they were constituted by complete skeletons or by isolated bones.193 1.1. Complete Skeletons The definition of complete skeleton is applied to the findings where all the parts of the skeleton are present:194 the complete skeletons account for about 50% of the evidence within all of the chronological phases and are of adult and sub-adult subjects of both sexes.195 Inhumed bones have been found above all within settlements (in the first two phases, they were found in frequentation layers and in the last three phases in association with domestic and/or productive structures).196

197

Settlement: 5 subjects at Castenaso, Scuole Medie. Areas of symbolic actions: 12 at Padova, via S. Eufemia (8th-6th century BC). Settlement: 8 subjects at Castelrotto; 6 subjects at Marzabotto. Areas of symbolic actions: 1 subject at Greifenstein; 14 subjects at Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca (5th-3rd century BC). 198 Settlement: 8 subjects at Colognola ai Colli. Areas of symbolic actions: 2 subjects at San Bernardo (5th-3rd century BC). 199 In the primary depositions, the bodies had been deposited right in the locations where they decomposed: Mallegni-Rubini 1994, pp. 97-98; Mallegni 2005, pp. 112-113; A. Dolfini, L’inumazione primaria come sistema simbolico e pratica sociale, in N. Negroni Catacchio (a cura di), Preistoria e Protostoria in Etruria. Pastori e guerrieri nell’Etruria del IV e III millennio a.C. La civiltà di Rinaldone a 100 anni dalle prime scoperte, II, Milano 2006, pp. 461-472. 200 In the secondary depositions the bodies had been placed in locations other than those in which decomposition occurred: P.F. Fabbri, Sepolture primarie, secondarie e ossari: esempi dal cimitero medievale di Roca Vecchia (Lecce), in Rivista di Antropologia 79, 2001, pp. 113136; p. 113; Mallegni-Rubini 1994, pp. 122-123; Mallegni 2005, pp. 138-139. 201 Mallegni 2005, p. 117. 202 Ruta Serafini-Michelini, forthcoming. At Padova, Via Umberto I necropolis (“grave” 306), the finding of a human spine partially cremated testifies to the presence of probable post mortem skeletal manipulation in the Venetic Culture area: Gamba-Tuzzato 2008, p. 66, fig. 7. 203 The definition for this phenomenon is ‘reduction’: Mallegni-Rubini 1994, p. 124; in general, see Barber 1994, p. 97.

190

In general see: M. Tartari (a cura di), La terra e il fuoco. I riti funebri tra conservazione e distruzione, Roma 1996: in particular the papers of M. Tartari (M. Tartari, Metamorfosi del corpo, pp. 21-46) and M. Piantelli (M. Piantelli, Alle origini della cremazione: i riti nell’India vedica, pp. 47-62). 191 10th-9th century BC: 82%; 8th-6th century BC: 78%; 5th-3rd century BC: 82%; 2nd-1st century BC: 58%. 192 10th-9th century BC: settlement, 92%; areas of symbolic actions, 4%; natural places of significance, 4%. 8th-6th century BC: settlement, 86%; areas of symbolic actions, 14%. 5th-3rd century BC: settlement, 74%; areas of symbolic actions, 18%; natural places of significance, 8%. 2nd-1st century BC: settlement, 72%; areas of symbolic actions, 21%; natural places of significance, 7%. 193 M. Schultz, Sonderbestattungen in der Bronzezeit aus der Sicht der Anthropologie, in Sonderbestattungen, pp. 11-13; pp. 11-12; Cazzella 2007-2008, pp. 71-72; Recchia 2007-2008, p. 86. 194 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 26. 195 10th-9th century BC: 45%; 8th-6th century BC: 61%; 5th-3rd century BC: 69%; 2nd-1st century BC: 50%. 196 Settlement: 86 % (10th-9th century BC); 92% (8th-6th century BC); 83% (5th-3rd century BC); 100% (2nd-1st century BC). Areas of symbolic actions: 7% (10th-9th century BC); 8% (8th-6th century BC); 10% (5th-3rd century BC). Natural places of significance: 7% (10th-9th century BC); 7% (5th-3rd century BC).

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In five additional cases, moreover, bodies, which were originally complete, had been altered by subsequent human actions.204

not available, at least fifty bodies were laid within a subterranean building lined with stone slabs.214 The positioning of the body is also significant and we may comment on the several postions.215 a) Dorsal position, with both arms stretched out and resting on the pelvis: this is the most common position in all the phases.

In twenty of these cases more than one individual was present (between a minimum of two and a maximum of fifty subjects) and in these situations it is possible for us to use the term multiple positions, where a single contextcontainer contains bodies which are in direct contact with each other.205

b) The lateral position, both on right and on the left side, with legs bent in a foetal position, is predominant in the 10th-9th century BC phase. At Montagnana-via Decima, for example, the female subject had the hands open and turned up, while at Villa MarzanaMichela the male subject had legs which were crossed at the ankles. Subject 791 at Bologna-Palazzina Olga was in a hyper-flexed lateral position: the radii and ulnae of this adult male were laid on the humeri, the femurs were positioned on the ribcage and the feet bones, probably crossed at the ankles, were curved under the pelvis.

The real problem here is the relative chronology, i.e. the timing of each single deposition.206 This issue can be approached from both an anthropological, i.e. the study of the different stages of the process of decomposition,207 and an archaeological perspective, i.e. the analysis of stratigraphical relationships. In the absence of any anatomical information, the archaeological approach can at least reveal, where the deposit has been closed with a single sealing action, that the bodies in situ were all deposited at the same time.208 An interesting case is Realdo di Borniga, where the longfrequented rock fissure was probably chosen by a homogeneous human group, perhaps one joined together by parental bonds, as a place for dead relatives.209 It should of course be recognised, however, and as pointed out by Canci, that the presence of group depositions in itself does not always indicate cases in which subjects died simultaneously, as occurs in cases of ‘catastrophe death’.210

c) The vertical position, as in the cases of the foeti of Castenaso-Scuole Medie, whose torsi were probably wrapped in a cloth.216 d) The seated position: one example was found in one of the wells from Marzabotto, but this positioning may be due to the structure of the well.217 e) The frontal or prone position is testified in six situations: at Montagnana-via Decima, Padova-via S. Eufemia, Oppeano Veronese, Castenaso-via Gramsci

Anthropological examinations revealed that for the most part the multiple positions contexts were constituted by sub-adults specimens,211 although in six cases adults and sub-adults were grouped together;212 in one case, only adults were included.213 We should also recall here the site of Molina where, although anthropological data are

214

The description of the site in archaeological literature recalls the socalled puticuli, i.e. mass-graves discovered on the Esquilino hill at Rome: see R. Lanciani, Puticoli, in BCAR 2, 1874, pp. 41-56; pp. 41-45; Zannoni 1876, p. 261; Hope 2000, p. 111; Jonsson 2005. We may also add the probable mass-graves of Padova, via S. Massimo necropolis (6th century BC; C. Balista, L. De Vanna, G. Gambacurta, A. Ruta Serafini, Lo scavo della necropoli preromana e romana tra via Tiepolo e via S. Massimo: nota preliminare, in QuadArchVen. VIII, 1992, pp. 1525; Michelini-Ruta Serafini 2005, p. 134) and Minerbio, S. Giovanni in Triario (Bologna, 4th century BC; Scarani 1963, p. 581); to the European Iron Age date the evidence of Breedon Hill, Spetisbury and Maiden Castle (Buchenschutz-Ralston 2007, pp. 769-770). 215 See: M. Bernabò Brea, M. Maffi, P. Mazzieri, L. Salvadei, Testimonianze funerarie delle genti dei Vasi a Bocca Quadrata in Emilia occidentale. Antropologia e archeologia, in RivScPr. LX, 2010, pp. 63126. 216 See: Giusberti 1994b, p. 153. The vertical position is attested within the Copper Age necropolis of Remedello Sotto (grave 1): see R.C. de Marinis, The eneolithic cemetery of Remedello Sotto (BS) and the relative and absolute chronology of the Copper Age in Northern Italy, in NAB 5, 1997, pp. 33-51; p. 44. 217 Catalogue number, 103. In Italy, the seated position was observed in the Bronze Age depositions of Valbrona Mandello and Canzo, Lago (Como; T. Doro Garetto, G. Gianetti, Alcune considerazioni sul materiale scheletrico umano proveniente da Grotta del Maiale a Valbrona Mandello, in RAC 78, 1956, pp. 55-66; G. Gagliardi, Una nuova grotta funeraria del triangolo lariano: la Grotta del Maiale di Valbrona Mandello, in RAC 158, 1976, pp. 39-50). In the European Iron Age we can mention: the seated subjects within the war sanctuary of Acy-Romance (Green 2001, p. 130, fig. 18; p. 132; Lambot 2007-2008) and grave Alpha of Eleusis, which dates to the Geometric Period, where the dead was found in a seated or squatting position; LittlePapadopoulos 1998, p. 330, note 15.

204

Montagnana, via Decima (withou skull and legs); Villa Marzana, Campo Michela (without skull and cervical vertebrae); Oppeano Veronese, ex Fornace (without legs); finally, Alba, S. Cassiano (only the legs remain); Chiomonte, La Maddalena (without legs). 205 Mallegni-Rubini 1994, pp. 125-127; Mallegni 2005, p. 133. 206 Sosna 2009, p. 133. 207 Mallegni 2005, p. 134. 208 8th-6th century BC: Molina; Castenaso, Scuole Medie. 5th-3rd century BC: Bressanone, Stufles; Padova, Palazzo Zabarella; Castelrotto; Colognola ai Colli; Santorso; Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca; Marzabotto; Bologna, viale Aldini. 2nd-1st century BC: Padova, ex Pilsen; Capo di Ponte, Pescarzo. 209 Nicolis 1996, p. 338; B.M. Giannattasio, I Liguri e la Liguria. Storia e archeologia di un territorio prima della conquista romana, Milano 2007, p. 21. 210 Canci-Minozzi 2005, p. 87. 211 Castenaso, Scuole Medie (catalogue number, 60: “foeti”); Padova, Palazzo Zabarella (“newborn babies”); Archi di Castelrotto (“newborn babies”); Colognola ai Colli (“newborn babies”); Santorso, Monte Summano (“infants”; “foeti”); Padova, ex Pilsen (“newborn babies”). 212 Triora, Realdo di Borniga (“baby”; “adolescent”, “young”; “adults”); Castenaso, Scuole Medie (catalogue number, 58: 21-25 years old male; 16-18 years old male); Capo di Ponte, Dos de l’Arca (“adults”; 16-18 years old male; “child”; “foetus”); Marzabotto (catalogue number, 110: “adult”; 3-4 months old subject); Pescarzo, Capo di Ponte (25-30 years old male; 10 years old male; 6 months old subject). 213 Marzabotto (catalogue number, 104: 35 years old subject; 55 years old subject; 70 years old subject).

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and Bressanone218. The subject of via Decima was recovered with the left arm stretched out and the right arm lifted towards the face, while the adult male of Oppeano-ex Fornace, had the left hand bent under the ribcage and the subject of Oppeano-La Montara was positioned with the legs laid in a non-anatomical order and curved under the ribcage. The female adult of via Gramsci, the only female subject in a prone position, was placed with displaced legs and the left arm under the sternum and was covered by a thin layer of ash. Finally, with regard to the two adult males of Bressanone, the superior-positioned subject had the arms stretched out and the open hands and he was covered by a layer of pebbles and stone slabs,219 whereas the inferior-positioned subject, the younger of the two, had wrists and ankle bones which had been placed unnaturally close to each other, as the body had been bent over.220 According to the classification proposed by R. Philpott for the prone dead in Great Britain, the subjects of Bressanone can be included within the prone positions with signs of coercion category.221 We may add that, at Bologna-

Palazzina Olga, subject 791 was crushed under three clay cylinders (which belonged to the furnace equipments) and that the skull of subject 793 was crashed under a rock stele. f) The displaced position, characterised by arms and/or legs placed in a non anatomical position, is attested in Padova-S. Eufemia, Oppeano Veronese-La Montara and in one of the Marzabotto wells. In some cases, on a final note, inhumations dating to the 8th-6th and 5th-3rd century BC periods, contained not only human bones, but also animal bones and both were found in the same container. These included:222 a) a pig bone from the inhumation of 20-25 years old female at Montagnana-via Decima; b) pig, cattle and fish bones found with the young male of Villa Marzana; c) pig, cattle, wolf, bird and deer bones and partial dog and horse skeletons were found in Padova-S. Eufemia;223 d) generic animal skeletal remains were found at Oppeano-ex Fornace; e) the complete skeleton of a horse was found at Bologna-Palazzina Olga;224 f) an ox horn, a horse skull and bones of pigs, cattle, dogs and toads were found within Structure 10 (containing foeti inhumations) at Castenaso-Scuole Medie;225 g) a cattle jaw was found at Castenaso-Via Gramsci; h) skulls and long-bones of cattle and donkeys and complete skeletons of pigs, dogs and deer were found within the wells of Marzabotto;226

218

During the Neolithic period in Northern Italy, the prone position is attested for the seven adults discovered together with a dog skeleton outside of the complex structure at Ponte Taro, Parma; M. Bernabò Brea, D. Castagna, M. Maffei, P. Mazzieri, A. Pedrotti, L. Salvadei, J. Tirabassi, Le necropoli VBQ in area padana e alpina, Paper at the Meeting Il pieno sviluppo del Neolitico in Italia (Finale Ligure Borgo, 8-10 June 2009); in the Bronze Age we may add the adult male of Arquà Petrarca, Fonteghe (Padova; A. Callegari, Arquà Petrarca, in NSc 1948, pp. 8-10; V. Marcozzi, Un cranio preistorico di Arquà Petrarca [Padova], in RivScPr. VII-VIII, 1952-1953, pp. 203-211; C. Corrain, M.A. Capitanio, Dati osteometrici su resti umani antichi del territorio atestino [Padova], in Oblatio. Studi di Antichità ed Arte in onore di Aristide Calderini, Como 1971, pp. 247-286; E. Zerbinati, Edizione archeologica della Carta d’Italia al 100.000. Foglio 64. Rovigo, Firenze 1982, p. 69; and also F. Mallegni, F. Bertoldi, N. Onisto, I Paleoveneti: aspetti paleobiologici e relative problematiche interpretative, in Venetorum Angulus, pp. 159-168) and with regard to the set up skull of Montecovolo, Riparo Cavallino (Brescia, Barfield et al. 1995, p. 145). On the prone position of the dead in the Venetic Culture territory: Saracino 2009; L. Zamboni, V. Zanoni, Giaciture non convenzionali in Italia nord-occidentale durante l’età del Ferro, in Sepolture anomale, pp. 141-154. In general, on the symbolic meaning of the prone position: Kyll 1964, pp. 168-183; Pauli 1975, pp. 175-176; L. Pauli, The Alps: Archaeology and Early History, London 1980, p. 110; J. Scheid, Contraria facere. Renversements et déplacements dans les rites funéraires, in AnnAStAnt VI, 1984, pp. 117-139, p. 120; Frazer 1985, pp. 145-162; Merrifield 1987, p. 76; Barber 1994, pp. 83-84; Parker Pearson 1999, p. 6; Pancaldi 2002, pp. 13-17; Aspöck 2008, pp. 19-20; Bucellato et al. 2008, p. 82. 219 The presence of large rocks that immobilise the dead is attested also in the ceremonial site of Trani, Capo Colonna, where four subjects were found, afflicted by congenital and traumatic pathologies (Bari, 9th-8th century BC; Sublimi Saponetti et al. 2007); beyond Italy, significant cases include Kalyvia (Greece, 8th-5th century BC; Tsaliki 2008, pp. 89), Danebury (Great Britain, 2nd-1st century BC; Green 2001, p. 55), Wandlebury (Great Britain, 2nd-1st century BC; Green 2001, p. 55) and Welwyne (2nd-3rd century AD; Taylor 2008, p. 110). 220 A young adult subject, found with both arms under the spine, was recovered from grave XII of Padova, Piovego necropolis (6th-5th century BC; M. Capitanio, C. Corrain, La necropoli paleoveneta dell’ area Piovego in Padova dei secc. VI-V a.C., in Archivio per l’antropologia e l’etnologia, 126-127, 1996-1997, pp. 65-106). 221 Philpott 1991, pp. 71-76; Barber 1994, p. 236. On the binding of subjects in the Bronze and the Iron Age of Italy, see the male adult of Spineda, Prebenda Parrocchiale (Cremona, Middle Bronze Age; Guerreschi 1980, pp. 39-48); the male adult of Carcer Tullianum (Rome, 8th-6th century BC; M. Torelli, Exterminatio, in Sepolti tra i vivi, II, pp. 805-820; Charlier 2008, p. 60) and Casalecchio di Reno

(Bologna, 4th-3th century BC; P. Pancaldi, N. Raggi, V. Mariotti, M. Milella, M.G. Belcastro, P. Baraldi, La tomba 23 della necropolis celtica [IV-III sec. a.C.] di Casalecchio di Reno [BO], in Sepolture anomale, pp. 69-93). 222 On the co-presence of human and animal bones: A.K. Outram, C.J. Knüselb, S. Knight, A.F. Harding, Understanding Complex Fragmented Assemblages of Human and Animal Remains: a Fully Integrated Approach, in JASc 32, 12, 2005, pp. 1699-1710. 223 Similar animal taxa were also found in the sites of Keston (Kent, Great Britain, 1st century AD) and Folly Lane (Gloucestershire, Great Britain, 1st century AD): human and animal bones were placed within natural shafts (Merrifield 1987, pp. 41-42; Green 2001, pp. 43-45; Taylor 2008, pp. 94-95). 224 One of the furnaces of Bologna contained a horse skeleton without human bones: Pincelli-Morigi Govi 1975, p. 469. The simultaneous presence of humans and horses is a well-attested phenomenon within the Venetic Culture area: see, for example, the case of Padova, Piovego, in G. Leonardi, M. Di Pillo, L’aspetto funerario, in G. Leonardi (a cura di), L’area archeologica del. C.U.S. Piovego: relazione preliminare della campagna di scavo 1989, con note metodologiche, in QuadArchVen. VI, 1990, pp. 26-33. 225 On the amuletic power of toads, above all in association with subadult subjects, see: Fouet 1958, p. 181; Merrifield 1987, p. 36; De Grossi Mazzorin 2008, p. 76. An ox horn was recovered also in the subadult settlement inhumation at Madonna del Petto (Barletta, Bari, 11th10th century BC): I. Muntoni, L’insediamento dell’età del Bronzo di Madonna del Petto. Scavi 1977: la sequenza culturale e gli elementi strutturali, in F. Radina (a cura di), L’età del Bronzo lungo il versante adriatico pugliese, Atti del Seminario di Studi (Bari, 26-28 maggio 1995), in Taras XV, 1995, pp. 175-203. 226 The link between deer bones and water and/or hydraulic structures is also attested at S. Giovenale, Spring Building (Viterbo, 8th-6th century BC; Olinder-Pohl 1981, pp. 80-83) and Padova, via Orsini (deer skeleton near a little lake; La città invisibile, p. 126).

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i) chicken, dog and horse bones were found in the sealing layer of the well at Bologna-viale Aldini; j) cattle bones were found in the well at Bologna-Porta S. Mamolo. In the majority of these cases, human and animal bones were in direct contact with each other. One exception was at Castenaso-Scuole Medie, where the ox horn and the horse skull were found in two niches dug over the heads of the foeti. Archaeozoological analysis pointed out that almost none of the animals were butchered. It is only at Padova-S. Eufemia (structure λ) that one of the dogs was found without the skull.

This practice corresponds with the discovery of skeletons without heads and can be understood in terms of the presence of intentional conservation procedures, which were widely diffused, in both Italy and across Europe,231 as early as the Neolithic period. This practice, furthermore, was probably motivated by a number of factors,232 including the role played by the tradition of collecting trophies from enemies and the various forms of skull-cults, which were linked with the memory of the dead and ancestor veneration and magical practices.233 In the four chronological phases surveyed, the most numerous example are to be found concentrated between the 10th and the 9th century BC234. Skulls and skull fragments finds were found almost exclusively in settlements, where they were associated with house floors. The rare exceptions are the ceremonial sites of Castel d’Annone, Tires and Fievè-Carera. The microlevel contexts are predominantly represented by nonprepared locations. About 35% of the skulls recovered belonged to sub-adult subjects and, where applied, the anthropological analysis revealed that they can be recognised as being in band 0 or in band 3.235 None of the samples showed any evidence of carving marks.

1.2. Isolated Skeletal Remains This term refers to the skeletal remains which were found individually or, in individual pieces, and could not be connected with a complete skeleton.227 Anthropological analysis showed that the majority were from male subjects, except in the case of the subjects of Zuc Schiaramont, where elements from female subjects were present. Taking therefore into account the recurrent and homogeneous natures of bones recovered, it does not seem possible that the bones deposits were disturbed by the action of taphonomical and geological and/or chemical phenomena alone. It is perhaps more probable that these bones were intentionally selected and then placed in secondary positions.

Isolated human jaws have been found in the frequentation layers of settlement contexts at Castell’Arquato and Montecavolo, but they are also attested in the symbolic actions areas of Servirola (wells) and S. Bernardo-Plan de Joux (in frequentation layers).236 On the basis of anthropological examinations, the pieces from Montecavolo belong to a sub-adult subject and those of S. Bernardo to “old” subjects (band 2; band 9).237 The catalogue also includes a human tooth found in the

In fact, in all of the contexts considered, the findings were limited to the following228: a) skulls229; b) jaws; c) skulls and long-bones of arms and legs; d) long-bones of arms and legs; e) femurs. The discovery of isolated skulls in non-funerary contexts is a well-known phenomenon and has been widely discussed in archaeological literature.230

Green 2001, pp. 97-106; Favole 2003, pp. 21-22; de Marinis 2003, pp. 38-39; Fedele 2004, pp. 61-62; Bonardi-Tecchati 2005, p. 5; Cazzella 2007-2008. 231 For Northern Italy: Piancada (A. Pessina, Breve nota sull’ uomo di Piancada, in Quaderni Friulani di Archeologia IV, 1994, pp. 195-196); for Central Italy: Collelongo, Fondjò (van Rossenberg 2008, p. 165). On European most ancient findings: Chossenot 1997, p. 247; Green 2001, pp. 100-104; Ropiot-Mazière 2007, p. 616; Iud 2007. See also Appendices II and III. 232 de Marinis 2003, pp. 38-40. 233 See: Battaglia 1924, pp. 71- 96. This is the case of the Bronze Age “rondelle” skull (N. Provenzano, Produzione in osso e corno delle terramare emiliane, in M. Bernabò Brea, A. Cardarelli, M. Cremaschi [a cura di], Le Terramare. La più antica civiltà padana, Milano 1997, pp. 524-544) and the Bronze Age sub-adult skull of Lucone-Polpenazze (P. Simoni, Seconda campagna di ricerche all’ex-lago Lucone: indagini sul terrapieno, in Annali del Museo di Gavardo, 6, 1967, pp. 5-28; de Marinis 2003, p. 34). 234 10th-9th century BC: 25%; 8th-6th century BC: 12%; 5th-3rd century BC: 5%; 2nd-1st century BC: 11%. 235 Frattesina; Castions di Strada; Virle; Castenaso, Scuole Medie; Tires. 236 10th-9th century BC: 4%; 5th-3rd century BC: 7%; 2nd-1st century BC: 12%. 237 On the phenomenon and the possible symbolic interpretations of human jaws: Zanoni 2010; to the evidence here gathered, we may add the Slovenian necropolis of Ptuj (see E. Gasparini, Ethnologica. Finni e Slavi, Venezia 1958, p. 118), the cases of Castro de la Campa Torres (Spain, 8th-6th century BC; Bettencourt 2010, p. 37), the Bronze Age Italian evidence from Bressanone, S. Andrea and Plabach, and from Terranegra di Legnago (Verona; Tecchiati, forthcoming). See also Appendices II and III.

227

10th-9th century BC: 55%; 8th-6th century BC: 39%; 5th-3rd century BC: 31%; 2nd-1st century BC: 50%. 228 The same datum is attested from the Neolithic period: Wait 1985, p. 286; Chapman 2000, pp. 134-146. 229 Isolated skulls, found within settlements but out of a clear contextualisation, were discovered in 1887 at Marzabotto (Brizio 1887, p. 508) and in 1878-1879 at Este, Lachini-Morlungo and CapodaglioMorlungo (V. Marcozzi, Crani atesini. Contributo allo studio degli Euganei, in RivScPr. III, 3-4, 1948, pp. 169-220; pp. 169-170). An isolated skull fragment was also found within a posthole at Oppeano Veronese, ex Fornace (US 377): Saracino 2009, p. 66, note 2; a young adult skull, placed within a posthole, was found also in Lovere settlement (Bergamo): R. Poggiani Keller, Lovere (Bg), via Decio Celeri-Lazzaretto. Resti di insediamento pluristratificato dal Neolitico Antico al Bronzo Finale e tomba del tardo Neolitico/primo Eneolitico, in NSAL 1999-2000, pp. 21-24. 230 I. Richter, Das Kopfgefass. Zur Typologie einer Gefassform, Köln 1967; Pauli 1975, pp. 163-180; Merrifield 1987, pp. 47-50; B. Bagolini, R. Carli, A. Ferrari, A. Messori, T. Pasquali, A. Pessina, Il sepolcreto eneolitico del Dos de La Forca (Mezzocorona, Trento), in Preistoria Alpina 25, 1989, pp. 121-164; Nicolis 1996, pp. 340-342; D. Cocchi Genick, L’antica età del bronzo nell’Italia centrale. Profilo di un’epoca e di un’appropriata strategia metodologica, Firenze 1998, pp. 363-365;

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frequentation layers of the settlement at S. Fedele Intelvi.238

carved into a spindle shape and at Frattesina and Casale the femurs had been smoothed out and pierced with drilled holes.245 The examples from Frattesina are in all likelihood fossil bones:246 the bones from Coriano are further examples of fossil bones. Traces of the application of manipulation procedures can also be observed on the bones from Concordia.

Skull fragments were often found with the long-bones of the arms and the legs.239 This grouping of pieces, attested in Northern Italy from the Early Bronze Age,240 is most diffused between the 5th and the 1st century BC. Within settlements, bones were recovered from domestic hearths, frequentation layers and wells. In the case of ceremonial sites, finds were made within black ground and coal strata and in fissures and are always characterised by the absence of any kind of preparation. In only three cases did the bones belong to sub-adult subjects (band 0; band 4/5).

With regard to the four cases gathered from Frattesina, Lozzo Atestino, Rocca di Rivoli and Coriano, the bones belonged to more than one subject: the human bones from Coriano were part burned, but it is not possible to determine if the burning was intentional or otherwise. The bones from Polcenigo, on the other hand, were not burned at all, even though they were recovered from a coal stratum.

In all of the chronological phases surveyed, significant findings were made of isolated long-bones of the arms and the legs.241 Of the bone samples collected, four belonged to sub-adult individuals (band 0; band 2/3; band 4/5) and they were located together within settlements, in association with domestic and productive structures or with wells.242 Non-prepared locations have been found. Finally, at the ceremonial site of Padova-S. Eufemia findings also included a sub-adult subject, where the only remaining elements were the legs.243 We should mention here the findings (datable to the 10th-9th century BC period) of adult femurs from Aquilinia, Frattesina and Casale di Scodosia. At Aquilinia,244 the bone had been

In the cases mentioned above the majority of the finds of bone material belonged to adult subjects. Exceptions were found at Bologna-via Foscolo, where findings included material from a sub-adult of band 1, and at Bressanone-Stufles, where remains were found to belong to sub-adult subjects of band 0. We should also recall, on a final note, that animal bones were found in association with isolated human bones. These include: a) deer radii (Casale di Scodosia); b) generic animal bones (Frattesina, Villa MarzanaBoaria 13, Castell’Arquato); c) pig and cattle bones (S. Fedele Intelvi); d) bovine, other cattle, deer, pig and horse bones (Concordia); e) bovine and pig bones, in addition to the complete skeletons of a horse, a dog and a mallard (Bologna-via Foscolo);247

238

Isolated human teeth were also found in the Middle Bronze Age settlement of S. Rosa di Poviglio (Parma; Tecchiati, forthcoming) and within the settlement of Parre, Castello (Bergamo, superficial ground): see V. Fusco, I resti faunistici dell’insediamento di Parre (Bg), in R. Poggiani Keller (a cura di), Parre (Bg). Località Castello. Scavo di un insediamento protostorico e romano in ambiente alpino, Clusone 1985, p. 35. 239 10th-9th century BC: 8%; 8th-6th century BC: 9%; 5th-3rd century BC: 12%; 2nd-1st century BC: 22%. 240 Early Bronze Age: Valli di Fimòn (Trento; de Marinis 2003, p. 30); Santuario del Riparo di Lasino (Bolzano; Bonardi-Tecchiati 2005, pp. 5-6); Nogarole di Mezzolombardo (Trento; Nicolis 1996, p. 340); Colli Berici and Trentino (R. Battaglia, Teschi umani dell’età dei metalli trovati nelle torbiere dei Colli Berici [Vicenza] e nella palafitta di Fiavè [Trentino], in MemMusCivStNatVer. I, 1947-1948, pp. 297-310); Arena Po (Pavia; O. Cornaggia Castiglioni, Arena Po [Pavia], in RivScPr. XVII, 1962, pp. 285-286). Middle Bronze Age: Romagnano Loc (Trento; R. Perini, I depositi preistorici di Romagnano Loc, Trento, in Preistoria Alpina 7, 1971, pp. 7-106). 241 10th-9th century BC: 15% (2 femurs; 2 humeri; tibia and fibula; 2 femurs; a humerus; generic long-bones); 8th-6th century BC: 18% (4 femurs; a humerus; generic long-bones of legs); 5th-3rd century BC: 7% (a femur); 2nd-1st century BC: 6% (generic long-bones). 242 In the settlement of Sluderno, Ganglegg, a newborn femur was discovered in areas G1-G3-G5 (Bolzano; 2nd-1st century BC; Schmitzberger 2007, p. 666): however, the difficult contextualisation excluded the evidence from the catalogue. From the Middle Bronze Age stratum of House 4 comes also a skull fragment (Tecchiati, forthcoming). 243 Catalogue number, 46. In the same context, but in relation with the cairn that covers a 5th-4th century BC necropolis, a sub-adult inhumation was found: the legs were amputated over the knees and the skull was re-deposited in the place of the feet (Michelini 2005, p. 158). A similar case of amputation in a child is attested by the inhumation under a house floor in the Iron Age settlement of Wandlebury (Great Britain; Green 1998, p. 185). 244 For a possible comparison, see the so-called spindle-whorl of S. Michele di Bagnoli (Udine, Final Bronze Age; see F. Maselli Scotti, Il Castelliere di S. Michele presso Bagnoli, in Aquileia Nostra 1986, pp.

337-352); a similar object considered as a kind of jewel comes from Sas dei Bragadi dei Messerei (Trento; Early Bronze Age; Battaglia 1924, p. 77). A pierced human phalanx used as jewel was found in a female grave at Romagnano Loc (Trento; Early Bronze Age; M.A. Borrello, G. Dalmeri, Gli ornamenti preistorici lavorati in conchiglie conservati presso il Museo Tridentino di Scienze naturali [Trento], in Preistoria Alpina, Suppl. I, vol. 40, 2004, pp. 43-52) and three newborn phalanges were discovered as parts of a necklace at Riparo Cavallino (Brescia, Middle Bronze Age; Barfield et al. 1995, p. 14). 245 On the use of human bones as probable instruments: P. Strobel, Istrumento d’osso umano d’una terramara, in BPI VI, 1880, pp. 179-182 (human fibula from Castiglione dei Marchesi, Parma, Bronze Age); Battaglia 1924, pp. 71-96; F. Bellato, G.F. Bellintani, Dati per uno studio della tecnologia e tipologia dei manufatti in corno ed osso nell’abitato protostorico di Frattesina di Fratta Polesine, in Padusa XX, 1984, pp. 55-72; Bellintani-Cassoli 1984, pp. 103-108; de Marinis 2003, pp. 32-35; Vanzetti 2007-2008, p. 757, note 65. On a symbolic interpretation of the evidence as possible musical instruments (yinx) see: R. Pettazzoni, Un rombo australiano, in Archivio per l’Antropologia e la Etnologia 41, 1911, pp. 257-270; Gow 1934, pp. 1-13; Nelson 1940, pp. 443-456; Zaffanella 1989-1990, p. 133; Giusberti 1994a, pp. 350-361; Giusberti 1995, pp. 255-294; Tecchiati, forthcoming (human femur from Riparo Gaban). 246 At Frattesina, the fossil origin of the bones is noted in archaeological literature: at Laion the radio-carbon dating revealed that the bone dates to the 8th-7th century BC and the finding context, on the contrary, dates to the 3rd-2nd century BC (Tecchiati, forthcoming). 247 The mallard (Anas platyrinchus) is attested in both funerary contexts (i.e. Padova, via Tiepolo; Este, Casa di Ricovero; Este, Villa Benvenuti: Fiore-Tagliacozzo 2002, p. 193; double grave 44 at Este, CanevedoStazione Ferroviaria, 7th century BC; Zanforlin 2006, p. 133) and

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f) pig and cattle bones, together with deer horns, turtle shell fragments and the long-bones of toads, wild boars and chicken (Marzabotto); 248 g) skulls and long-bones of cats (Tires);249 h) pig bones and other generic animal bones (Montecavolo). The archaeozoological analysis indicated that the animal bones from Castell’Arquato, S. Fedele and Concordia showed traces of having been butchered and that the animal bones from Castelraimondo bore also cut-marks and signs of having been intentionally broken. The pig bones from Montecavolo were found partially burned.250

These findings are attested in every single chronological phase and are characterised by the following common features:254 a) location of bones within the strata composed by coal and ash: this was most probably a second positioning because there was no evidence of direct exposure to fire; b) the absence of any prepared location; c) the recovery of burned and broken vessels and metal objects: both the vessels and the metal objects belong to selected artefacts category. The vessels included ollae, glasses mugs and bowls, the metal objects jewels, instruments and weapons; d) the co-presence of selected human and animal burned bones, represented by skulls bones and by the longbones of the arms and the legs; e) the presence of the same faunal taxa within the samples examined, i.e. pig and cattle bones and, at Vàdena and Dos de la Forca, deer horns and, at Leives-via Galizia, horse bones.

2. Cremated Bones Findings of burned bones were, quantitatively, 251 less numerous than those of inhumed bones within all of the chronological phases.252 These findings, which were concentrated within symbolic actions areas, increased in the 5th-3rd and in the 2nd-1st century BC periods.253 2.1. Extended Fire Areas

In addition to these common elements, we should also recall the presence of particular elements at single sites. At Rungger Egg, for example, the archaeological deposit contained a large amount of copper waste and evidence of stone industries that were clearly in operation prior to the creation of the extended fire area.255 The coal and ash strata at this site, as was the case at Vàdena and via Galizia, also contained ovine and bovine ankle bones.256 At Ortisei-Col de Flam, on the other hand, the analysis of coal revealed the presence of cereals, perhaps associated with bread production, and vegetal fibres, which may indicate the presence of a basket or a head-covering. The evidence of Capo di Ponte-Le Sante is unusual: although animal bones were found within coal and ash layers and had cut-marks corresponding to the joints, it was found that they had not been burned.

This term is used to signify human skeletal remains which were found within extended areas that are characterised by ceremonial and ritual aspects and, above all, by the use of fire.

settlement contexts (U. Tecchiati, La fauna della casa del II-I secolo a.C. di S. Giorgio di Valpolicella-via Conca d’Oro [Vr], in Archaeozoological Studies in Honour of Alfredo Riedel, Bolzano 2006, pp. 181-216; pp. 196-197). Mallard bones come also from the so-called favisa within the ceremonial sites of Este, Meggiaro (Padova, Iron Age; Fiore-Tagliacozzo 2002, p. 193; Ruta Serafini 2005) and Orvieto, Cannicella (Perugia, 8th-6th century BC; Stopponi 2008, pp. 563-580). 248 On chicken and bird archaeological evidence: natural well of Podere Ortaglia sanctuary at Peccioli (Pisa, 5th-3rd century BC; Betetto 2005, pp. 301-305); Bothros I in the ceremonial area of Piazza Dante at Vaste (Lecce, 4th-3rd century BC; Coppola 2005, pp. 307-314); piaculum of Pleistia (Napoli, 1st century BC; S. Occhilupo, “Il superamento della crisi”. Resti di un sacrificio purificatorio nel municipio romano di Pleistia, in AnnAStAnt. 11-12, 2004-2005, pp.69-81). In Europe, see the raven bones within a shaft at Danebury (Hampshire, Great Britain, 4th2nd century BC) and within the ceremonial well of Jordan Hill (Somerset, Great Britain, 1st century AD): Merrifield 1987, p. 31 and p. 41. On the interpretation of turtle shells, see above all: M. Bonghi Jovino, Animali, uomini e dei nel complesso monumentale di Tarquinia. Dallo scavo all’interpretazione, in M. Bonghi Jovino, F. Chiesa (a cura di), Offerte dal regno vegetale e dal regno animale nelle manifestazioni del sacro, Atti dell’Incontro di Studio (Milano, 26-27 giugno 2003), Roma 2005, pp. 73-91. 249 Other cat bones come from the ceremonial area of Orvieto, Cannicella (Stopponi 2008, pp. 565-571) and from two bothroi of Hera’s sanctuary along Sele river (dog, cattle, bird and cat bones): De Grossi Mazzorin 2008, p. 75. 250 Giusberti 1994a, pp. 347-445; Giusberti 1995, pp. 255-294. 251 From a strictly technical point of view, cremated bones are secondary positions, because the body had been cremated in a place which was different from the place where it was definitely located: Canci-Minozzi 2005, pp. 73-74. There is no evidence of busta, i.e. direct cremations. 252 10th-9th century BC: 18%; 8th-6th century BC: 22%; 5th-3rd century BC: 18%; 2nd-1st century BC: 42%. 253 10th-9th century BC: settlements, 17%; symbolic actions areas, 50%; natural places of significance, 33%. 8th-6th century BC: settlements, 50%; symbolic actions areas, 50%. 5th-3rd century BC.: settlements, 33%; symbolic actions areas, 67%. 2nd-1st century BC: settlements, 10%; symbolic actions areas, 90%.

The following observation may be made about the human bones found: a) the bones were burned at a temperature of between 800º and 1000º centigrade, resulting in the bones being calcinated but not fully cremated. b) Anthropological examinations revealed that the osteological deposits included only skull bones and 254

10th-9th century BC: two cases; 8th-6th century BC: four cases; 5th3rd century BC: three cases; 2nd-1st century BC: three cases. 255 Zampieri 2006, pp. 129-131. A large number of stone industries, together with broken vessels, jewels and coins, was found in the area of burned elements (area B) near the necropolis of S. Marco di Fiesse (Brescia; Iron Age): see G. Vannacci Lunazzi, Le necropoli preromane di Remedello Sotto e Ca’ di Marco a Fiesse, Reggio Emilia 1977, pp. 33-34. 256 On the role of ankle bones in antiquity: B. Wilkens, La fauna del villaggio del Colle dei Cappuccini, in RassA. VIII, 1989, pp. 63-96; M. De Nardi, Gli astragali: contributo alla conoscenza di un aspetto della vita quotidiana antica, in Quaderni Friulani di Archeologia I, 1991, pp. 75-88; F. Marzatico, Sanzeno, scavo nel Fondo Gremes. Con note topografiche preliminari sull’assetto dell’abitato retico, in Archeologia delle Alpi I, 1, 1993, pp. 7-73; C. Sebesta, Nota sugli astragali di capride, in Archeologia delle Alpi I, 2, 1993, pp. 5-29; B. Carè, Alcune osservazioni sulle sepolture di defunti in età pre-adulta nelle necropoli greche d’occidente: la diffusione dell’astragalo, in Orizzonti VII, 2007, pp. 143-151.

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single container, such as cysts or urns.262 Although these finds for the most part come from settlements, this type is also attested within symbolic actions areas and natural places of significance.263

the long-bones of the arms and the legs. This was in all probability the result of a process of intentional selection of skeleton sections, as was seen in the case of animal bones.257 The case of Stenico-Calferi is an exception as this find included, in addition to the skull and long-bones, small samples of vertebrae and ribs and hand and feet bones and pieces of spongebone.258 c) The bones belonged to more than one subject. Although it was not always possible to determine the exact number of individuals, the minimum number could be determined through anthropological methods. These numbers are two at Stenico, six at via Galizia and Noafer Bühl and eight at Vàdena. At Rungger Egg, the MNI could not be defined on the basis of anthropological analysis, but the volume of 18 kg. of selected and burned human bones suggests the presence of high number of individuals (more than 200). d) The bones belonged to both males and females, except at via Galizia, where only female subjects were found.259 e) The anthropologically determined class ages show a predominance of young adults (from band 5 and band 6 or, in other words, from 16-20 years old and then from 21-30 years old). Old adults remains were only found at Rungger Egg, whereas the remains of subadult subjects were discovered at Stenico (an 11±4 year old subject), Capo di Ponte-Le Sante (a 3-4 year old subject) and Somma Lombardo (simply a “nonadult subject”).

The semi-macro contexts identified include settlement frequentation layers and domestic structures (walls and hearths), coal strata within symbolic actions areas and rock fissures in natural places of significance. Where applied, the anthropological analysis revealed that the bones were from adult subjects: the exception to this pattern is represented by the sub-adult cremation in Brescia-Palazzo Martinengo.264 Anthropological examinations revealed that the urns contained the remains of single human cremations.265 It should be noted, however, that in the case of the urns from Case Pantani and Padova-Collegio Ravenna human burned bones had been mixed with the bones of unspecified animals.266 262

On the symbolic relationship between containers and bones: Becker 2009, pp. 232-233. 263 Single cremations associated with natural places of significance are attested already in the Bronze Age of Northern Italy, for example in the rock fissure of Bus de La Scabla and in the cave of Vigano S. Martino, Buco del Corno (R.C. de Marinis, Il territorio prealpino e alpino tra i Laghi di Como e di Garda dal Bronzo recente alla fine dell’età del Ferro, in Die Räter, pp. 145-174; pp. 145-148); in settlements, we may mention the cremation on the bottom of a water canal at Casalmoro (Mantova, 9th century BC), see R.C. de Marinis, Casalmoro (Mn). Scavo di un abitato del Bronzo Finale, in NSAL 1981, pp. 31-33. In Southern Italy, see the case of the Middle Bronze Age settlement of Bagnara Calabra (Reggio Calabria), in R. Agostino, V. Tinè, Tracce di una cultura marinara, in Archeo 10 (284), October 2008, p. 13. 264 In antiquity, cremation was considered an unusual post mortem treatment for sub-adult subjects (Cic. Leg. II, 58; Giov., Sat. XV, 139140; and Plin., N.H. VII, 16, 72); see also: Langenegger 1996; Laubenheimer 2004; N. Baills Talbi, V. Dasen, Rites funéraires et pratiques magiques, in F. Gusi, S. Muriel, C. Olària (eds.), Nasciturus, Infans, Puerulus Vobis Mater Terra. La muerte en la Infancia, in SIAP 2008, pp. 595-618; I. Séguy, La muerte de los pequeñitos: entre el dogma y la creencias populares. Francia, de finales de la Antigüedad a la Época Moderna, in Tracia 58, Diciembre 2010, pp. 29-39. Another probable case of infant cremation was found within the inhabited area of Servasa-Brentino (Belluno, 3rd-2nd century BC): the cremated bones were found near the walls of a Roman house. The interpretation of the context is however still ambiguous (A. Zaccaria Ruggiu, F. Bertoldi, Il complesso rustico di Brentino Belluno nella Valdadige, in QuadArchVen. XXVI, 2010, pp. 87-95). 265 See C. Balista, A. Ruta Serafini, I resti umani cremati della necropoli Ricovero di Este: metodi di studio e prospettive, in QuadArchVen. IV, 1988, pp. 267-286; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 96-97. On the disposition of human bones within urns, placing that sometimes reproduces the anatomical disposition, see the terramare examples dating to the Middle Bronze Age in A. Cardarelli, C. Cavazzuti, S. Mantini, G. Pellacani, L. Salvadei, J.Tirabassi, From the pyre to the urn. Ritual aspects in the Terramare cemeteries of Casinalbo (Modena) and Montata (Reggio Emilia), Paper at the International Congress The Death Toll. Violence, warfare, sacrality and power in the European Bronze Age (Rome, 8 may 2009). 266 The co-presence of animals and humans within the same urn is attested in Northern Italy during the Neolithic period, as at Ponte Ghiara (Piacenza): a 20-30 years old female subject was found together with dog bones; P. Mazzieri, R. Micheli, Tradizioni funerarie e ornamenti personali: alcune osservazioni dalla sfera VBQ emiliana alla luce delle ultime scoperte, Paper at the Meeting Il pieno sviluppo del Neolitico in Italia (Finale Ligure Borgo, June, 8-10, 2009). Similar findings were made in the Celtic Culture area, as with the well of Vieille (France, 6th century BC), where a bronze situla, containing a human cremated sphenoid bone, was associated with a fox radium and femur (Fouet 1958, p. 117).

The cases of Stenico and S. Lorenzo-Burgkofel are also interesting in the sense that both burned and unburned bones were found within the same coal and ash layers. The findings at Burgkofel, we may add, also included a complete skull.260 2.2. Single Cremations Cremated bone examples include not only bones belonging to more than one subject, but examples of the burned bones of single subjects,261 contained within a

257

Steiner 2007, pp. 317-331; E. Bedini, I resti scheletrici umani, in M. Venturino Gambari (a cura di), Ai piedi delle montagne. La necropoli protostorica di Valdieri, Comune di Valdieri 2008, pp. 117-128. 258 Similar evidence comes from the Neolithic site of La Vela IX, where pits containing human bones were found just out of the settlement, near stone cobbles (Trento; Mazzucchi 2010, p. 144). 259 Another case of female predominance can observed within the sanctuary of Ardea, Colle della Noce: here only female inhumations were recovered, referable to 17-40 years old subjects; Guidi 2007-2008, p. 716. 260 The same aspect can be observed in the Neolithic ceremonial sites of La Vela and Riva del Garda, via Brione (Trento; Mazzucchi 2010) and in the Copper Age ceremonial sites of Pigloner Kopf (Bolzano, Tecchiati 2007, pp. 15-30) and Cles, Campi Neri (Trento; Mazzucchi 2010). 261 10th-9th century BC: four case (one in settlement; one in symbolic actions area; two in natural places of significance); 8th-6th century BC: four cases (settlements); 5th-3rd century BC: five cases (four in settlements; one in symbolic actions area); 2nd-1st century BC: seven cases (symbolic actions areas).

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In the symbolic actions areas of Ello-Boggia and ComoPianvalle, it can be seen that a process of selection was applied in the gathering of bones to be deposited:267 the urns contained only the burned fragments of skulls and long-bones, which in the case of Pianvalle, had also been distributed outside of and around the stone slab cysts which were used as a container. 3. Partial Cremated Skeletons This definition, which is analogous to German term Teilverbrennung, refers to the cases where we can observe the presence of a differentiated post mortem treatment, in the sense that some sections of the same skeleton were burned and others, on the contrary, were inhumed268. Our catalogue includes, until now, only one case (catalogue number, nr. 90) of a sub-adult subject. In this case, found in Santorso-Monte Summano (House A2, room B), the skull and the long-bones of a 6-10 year old female individual had been burned, but bones from other parts of the skeleton had been inhumed under the floor and in correspondence with the corner of the walls.269 In this case animal bones, including bovine remains and those of “little mammals” (this term is not further defined) were found together with human bones. The male subject from Berceto-Ca’ Selvatica may also be an occasion on which it is possible to observe that different sections of the same skeleton were treated differently.270 The significant element, in these cases, seems to be the chronological factor: both cases date to the 5th-3rd century BC phase. This, we should note, is something that is also true for Central and Southern Italy: this particular practice was here associated with local social élites.271

267

On the so-called ossilegium procedure: Becker 2009, pp. 231-232. On the biological aspects of semi-combustion and the different degrees of semi-combustion, see S.A. Symes, C.W. Rainwater, E.N. Chapman, D.R. Gipson, A.L. Piper, Patterned thermal destruction of human remains in a forensic setting, in C.W. Schmidt, S.A. Symes (eds.), The analysis of burned human remains, London 2008, pp. 15-54. 269 Grave 4 of Vàdena (Bolzano, 4th century BC) has similar elements: the 18-20 years old female subject skull was cremated and the other bones were simply inhumed; however, the absence of the left forearm and the substitution of right forearm with a carbonised wood fragment, probably used as a prosthesis are significant (see L. Dal Rì, Note sull’ insediamento e sulla necropoli di Vàdena [Alto Adige], in Die Räter, pp. 475-525; pp. 475-477). 270 Kruta Poppi 1981. 271 Other partial cremated skeletons in Northern Italy: Bostel di Rotzo (Vicenza, Iron Age; A. Dal Pozzo, Memorie istoriche dei Sette Comuni Vicentini, 1820); on Central and Southern Italy see: Bottini 1992, pp. 48-54. 268

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CHAPTER 3 BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

1. Demographic Aspects and Sex Ratio Of the cases covered in the catalogue approximately 50% of the evidence (64 on 145 samples) were subjected to anthropological micro- and macroscopic analysis.272

It is however impossible to state if the individuals were born alive and had died just after birth or if they were stillborn.279

These analyses enabled us, in some cases, to identify the class ages and also, sometimes, to identify both the sex and class ages to which the bones samples belonged.273

The case of the subjects found at Castenaso-Scuole Medie is most interesting:280 the foeti found in Structure 10 showed any difference in the intra uterine development of the subjects; this is usually linked with the presence of twins. Some small differences in pubic bone shapes suggest a probable gender distinction.281

In the 10th-9th and the 8th-6th century BC phases, the majority of skeletal remains were assignable to adult individuals: these subjects belonged above all to band 7 (31-40 years old subjects) and band 8 (41-50 years old subjects). Old adults (band 9, 51-x years old subjects) and young adults (21-30 years old subjects), on the other hand, were less recorded.274 In the cases of sub-adult subjects, all age bands were equally represented (bands 0-5).275

Within the 8th-6th century BC phase, the percentage difference between sub-adults and adults finds increases with the numbers of adults finds becoming almost exactly the double of those of sub-adults. The number of findings of adult subjects previously predominant declines in the 5th-3rd century and in the 2nd-1st century BC phases, were finds of skeletal remains belonged for the most part to sub-adults:282 there is, in addition, a noted increase of the numbers of band 0 (foeti) and band 1 (1 year old subjects). The above mentioned numerical predominance of foeti occurse in the 2nd-1st century BC phase, while in the 5th-3rd century BC phase newborn subjects are more numerous. A decrease in the numbers of band 2 and band 3 individuals can be observed in the same period.283

In the 10th-9th century BC chronological phase, there was a little difference between the number of adult and sub-adult subjects, thanks to the high numbers of band 2 (2-5 years old subjects), 3 (6-10 years old subjects), and 4/5 (11-15 years old and 16-20 years old subjects). 276 The percentage of the individuals belonging to these class ages decreases in the 8th-6th century BC phase. The first discoveries of age band 0 specimens, made in the 8th-6th century BC period, corresponds with the decrease mentioned above:277 when applied, medical examinations of these band 0 cases indicated that the majority of these subjects had reached the eighth month of pregnancy and that none were younger than 35 weeks. 278

The absence of band 4 individuals, i.e. the subjects that belong to puberal age (11-15 years old),284 should be 1987, pp. 589-602; p. 590: “The seven months’ child had the chance at survival by virtue of the number, while the eight months’ child, lacking luck in its numbering, did not”. 279 Comparisons with modern demographic samples indicate that the number of individuals born alive and death just after birth increases around the 38-40 weeks, so it can be observed that also the subjects here gathered were born alive and died during perinatal period (see De Santis et al. 2007-2008, p. 735). 280 Catalogue number, 60. 281 Giusberti 1994b, p. 152. On the consideration of twins in antiquity: M. Delcourt, Stérilités mysterieuses et naissances malefiques dans l’antiquité classique, Liège-Paris 1938, pp. 103-105. On the discovery of twins skeletons within a silos of the Danebury Iron Age settlement (Great Britain, 4th-2nd century BC), see Tibbets 2008, p. 192. 282 5th-3rd century BC: 63% (bands 0, 1, 2 e 3); 3% (band 5); 2nd-1st century BC: 76% (bands 0, 1, 2 e 3). 283 5th-3rd century BC: 51% (bands 0, 1); 12% (bands 2, 3); 2nd-1st century BC.: 41% (bands 0, 1); 25% (bands 2, 3). M.J. Becker defines these periods as “infant and child mortality” periods (Becker 2007, p. 282). Also in the Bronze Age of Northern Italy is attested only one case of band 2 subject, i.e. the 3 years old individual found within the lakedwelling settlement of Barche di Solferino (de Marinis 2003, p. 34). 284 In the Early Bronze Age of Northern Italy, puberal age subjects come from: Pertuso Cave (Liguria; A. Del Lucchese, M. Ricci, Il Pertuso, in Archeologia in Liguria III. Scavi e scoperte 1982-1986, pp. 169-174); Tanaccia Cave (Emilia Romagna; Massi Pasi-Morico 1997, pp. 20-28); Re Tiberio Cave (Emilia Romagna; Pacciarelli-Teegen 1997, pp. 2935). On the Iron Age of Central and Southern Italy see: the 10-12 years old female subject found under the floor of House III at S. Giovenale,

272

10th-9th century BC: 18 cases; 8th-6th century BC: 13 cases; 5th-3rd century BC: 18 cases; 2nd-1st century BC: 13 cases. 273 Only class ages: 28 cases; both sex and class ages: 11 cases. 274 10th-9th century BC: 55% (bands 6, 7, 8 e 9); 8th-6th century BC: 67% (bands 6, 7, 8 e 9). 275 10th-9th century BC: 45% (bands 1, 2, 3, 4 e 5); 8th-6th century BC: 33% (bands 0, 1, 2, 3 e 4). 276 10th-9th century BC: 13% (bands 2, 3); 26% (bands 4, 5); 8th-6th century BC: 15% (bands 2, 3); 9% (band 4). 277 10th-6th century BC: 9% (band 0). The absence of foeti skeletal remains is evident in the Bronze Age of Northern Italy (see also Appendix II); the exceptions are the 38-40 foeti discovered in the terramara of Fraore (Parma; Middle Bronze Age), in A. Mutti, L. Salvadei, Tre sepolture a inumazione nella terramara di Fraore Oratorio (PR) (Paper at XLV IIPP Congress, Modena, 26-31 October 2010). In the Bronze Age of Central Italy, we may mention the cases of Nola, Croce di Papa and Frattaminore (Campania, Early Bronze Age), where foeti were discovered within vessels in the settlements frequentation strata: Recchia 2007-2008, p. 112. 278 Perinatal mortality, according to the definition of M.J. Becker (Becker 2007, p. 281). On the post mortem treatment reserved to the individuals died between 35 and 40 weeks and about the symbolic significance of the eighth months’ child and the magic valence of number eight: A.E. Hanson, The eight months’ child and the etiquette of birth: absit omen!, in Bullettin of the History of Medecine 61, 4,

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considered as significant. Band 5 individuals (16-20 years old), on the other hand, are well attested between the 10th and the 3rd century BC.

century BC, findings of female specimens actually outnumber those of male.292 2. Pathological Conditions

Finds of subjects from the adult class ages include both young adults (band 6, 21-30 years old) and old adults (band 9, 51-x years old), although these groups account for only between 3% and 5% of finds. The largest number of finds belong to band 7 (31-40 years old) and band 8 (41-50 years old).285 A similar trend, we may note, can be observed in studies of the demographics of pre-industrial societies, where the average life is given as 40 years.286

Some cases also presented signs of skeletal lesions and alterations due to pathological and/or traumatic events.293 Anthropological analysis in this area, however, is limited by a number of objective considerations. Diseases which do not directly affect the skeleton leave no traces of skeletal alterations. In addition it is always possible that afflicted individuals showed no significant signs of pathological conditions during their life. The medical examinations on the cremated bones from Leives-via Galizia and on the inhumed bones of Bologna-Villa Cassarini, Castenaso, via Gramsci and Scuole Medie, Bressanone-Stufles, Castelraimondo, Tana dei Carbonai and Capo di Ponte-Pescarzo,294 did not reveal any traces of diseases or any pathological elements.

As seen before, there is an uneven relationship between the numbers of finds of adult and sub-adult subjects in the 5th-3rd century and 2nd-1st century BC phases: in the 5th-3rd century BC period, sub-adults outnumber adult subjects only by a few individuals, but by the 2nd1st century BC adult subjects only account for a the third of the total.

As a result we have only the bones samples that showed signs of skeletal lesions and these may be divided into six groups:295 a) congenital diseases; b) infective diseases; c) degenerative diseases; d) dental diseases; e) metabolic diseases; f) cancer; g) traumatic lesions.

With regard to diagnosis of sex, the gender of subjects was defined in 68 of the cases here studied but, in four of these cases, the attribution had been made not on the basis of anthropological examinations, but on the evidence of objects found in association with human bones, which could be read as gender indicators.287 It is difficult to determine the relationship between gender and class ages, because it is easier to diagnose gender in adult subjects than in sub-adults:288 it is perhaps unsurprising that the 6-10 years old individual from Santorso is the only case that has been definitively diagnosed as female. Although there are indications that one of the foeti discovered at Bressanone, Stufles/via Elvas,289 and two of the foeti skeletons found at Castelraimondo are female, this determination must remain as only probable. In general, in all chronological phases, the male gender is more represented than the female gender.290 There are interesting variations within specific phases: in the 10th-9th century and in the 5th-3rd century BC phases, the male gender is the majority,291 but, on the contrary, in 8th-6th century BC and 2nd-1st

With regard to group a), we should note that is only in the most severe and invasive cases that these kinds of diseases, present from the birth, leave skeletal markers. One of the subjects from Coriano, however, showed signs of having an orthopedic syndrome (the so-called clawfoot) characterised by strong difficulties in walking. The 40 years old male individual from Oppeano Veronese, ex Fornace,296 was severely afflicted by vertebral kyphosis and by the fusion of two sacral vertebrae,297 which was probably due to an occult neural tube defect known also as NTD syndrome. Although this syndrome is not strictly symptomatic, this condition may have caused marks of the skin corresponding with the bone fusion which may have presented as moles or lipomata. We should also note that this condition may have caused vesical disorders and neurological deficits as they are associated with the incomplete development of the spinal cord.

Tre Erici (Viterbo, 9th-8th century BC; Bartoloni 2002-2003, p. 73, note 63); the 12-14 years old female subject, afflicted by Down syndrome, at Rome, Equus Domitiani (8th-7th century BC; Modica 2007, p. 226; Charlier 2008, pp. 58-60); the 9-12 years old male subject at Rome, Carcer Tullianum (Modica 2007, p. 192; Carafa 2007-2008, p. 673); the 9-14 years old male subject found under a house on the acropolis of Ardea (7th century BC; Guidi 2007-2008, p. 715). In Iron Age Europe, pubescent teenagers come from the marshes of Windeby (Germany, 12-14 years old subject) and Yde (Holland, about 16 years old subject; Green 2001, pp. 155-157). 285 10th-9th century BC: 46%; 8th-6th century BC: 48%; 5th-3rd century BC: 26%; 2nd-1st century BC: 19%. 286 See also F. Mallegni, F. Bertoldi, N. Onisto, I Paleoveneti: aspetti paleo biologici e relative problematiche interpretative, in Venetorum Angulus, pp. 159-168. 287 Montagna; Bologna Arcoveggio; Covignano, Seminario Diocesano; Casalecchio di Reno. 288 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 150. 289 Catalogue numbers: 70 (Bressanone); 90 (Santorso). 290 40 male individuals; 28 female individuals. 291 10th-9th century BC: 75% males; 25% females; 5th-3rd century BC: 62% males; 28% females.

292

8th-6th century BC: 45% males; 55% females; 2nd-1st century BC: 100%. 293 23 cases. 294 An interesting case is attested at Linz-Leonding Brandopferplatz (Austria, 3rd century BC), where animal and human bones were discovered. Human bones belonged to at least 12 female and sub-adult individuals, all afflicted by the same congenital deformation of the jaws, which causes difficulties in masticating and spelling; the subjects had also cut-marks on the skull and the cervical vertebrae (Green 2001, pp. 67-69). 295 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 212. 296 Catalogue number, 44. 297 The same phenomenon can be observed on the skeleton 58 from Mycenae Acropolis (Myc. 58), a probable 35 years old aristocratic man (Grmeck 1989, p. 69).

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It can be hypothesised that the deformation of the femurs and the bilateral 40º dislocation of the hips observable on the 19-20 years old male subject from Nago Torbole was due to a congenital condition, one which would have severely inhibited the ability of this subject to walk.298

A significant level of bone wear was present in almost all of the adult individuals, with the exception of the adult of Pescarzo, where symptoms of arthrosis were light and where osteophytes were not present. Analysis also revealed the presence of Schmorl nodules located on the cervical, lumbar and thoracic vertebrae and on the rib heads on the female adult skeleton from Villa Marzana and on the Oppeano Veronese-ex Fornace subject.304 All these kinds of lesions are due to continuous placing of mechanical stress on the arms and legs and on the spine, used as support in lifting activities.

A diagnosis of mucopolysacharidosis or Hurler syndrome (MPS I) has been proposed in this case, where the main symptoms are multiple dysostosis associated with mental and physical handicaps.299 Finally, all the subjects recovered from the Realdo fissure had the same congenital defects (the congenital absence, or agenesia, of the third inferior molar and the perforation of the olecranon processes of the humeri). These phenomena may well be due to a possible genetic link between these individuals.300

We should also note the development of the muscle and tendon insertion points on the humeri and femurs and the fletness of the femurs.305 These features can be observed on the human skeletons from Villa Marzana-Michela, Montagnana, Bologna-Cassarini and Palazzina Olga and Oppeano Veronese-ex Fornace. The adult subject from Villa Marzana showed signs of heavy arthrosis on ribs and on the vertebrae and this is something which may have been caused by frequent movements in which the spine was used as a support.306

The only traces of infective diseases, although the particular condition must remain as unspecified and therefore not explainable with a particular etiology, recorded are in the case of the female subject from Castenaso-via Gramsci, where there were indications of a strong periostitis on the right tibia.301

The presence of degenerative diseases is indicated by the squatting facets observed on the feet of the individuals from Fossano and Capo di Ponte-Dos de l’Arca: the abnormal growth of the trochlea was probably due to the subjects being in a squatting position for a considerable period of their lives.307 In the case of the adult female of Castenaso-via Gramsci, there were analogous lesions on the bones of the hand, particularly regard at the insertion points of the flexor tendons on the phalanges: this is something that may have been caused by a repeated practice of grasping something, perhaps an instrument of some kind, strongly with both hands.308 Degenerative lesions, unlike congenital diseases, can be attributed to occupational and postural causes and, as such, they relate to individual lifestyles.309

The most widely attested examples of group b) are degenerative lesions and cases of arthrosis which afflicted the lumbar and the thoracic vertebrae and were recognised in the adult subjects recovered from Villa Marzana-Michela, Montagnana-via Chisogno and Capo di Ponte-Pescarzo. Additional cases were recognised in arms and legs joints of the adult individuals found at Coriano-via Corecchio, Triora, Oppeano-ex Fornace,302 Bologna-Palazzina Olga and Castenaso-via Gramsci.303 298

Similar pathological conditions can be observed on the 20-30 years old female subject inhumed within the settlement frequentation layers of Pedàvena, Riparo Tomass B (Belluno, Bronze Age): the individual was afflicted by a valgus condition of the knees; see Belcastro-Mariotti 2000, p. 20; Fasani et al. 2000, pp. 15-20. The same congenital disease can be noticed on the female subject of Bande di Cavriana (Mantova, Bronze Age): she was afflicted by cranial anomalies: see G. Manfrin Guernieri, Lo scheletro umano di Cavriana, in MemMusCivStNatVer. V, 1955-1956, pp. 125-177; de Marinis 2003, pp. 20-21. 299 Dizionario medico Recordati-Larousse, II, Reggio Emilia 2005, s.v. Mucopolisaccaridosi; s.v., Hurler, sindrome di. Individuals considered abnormal because of neurologic anomalies are the epileptic child of Tarquinia (Viterbo, 9th-8th century BC; Bonghi Jovino 2007-2008) and the epileptic and aphasic subject found in a well of the Athenian Agora (7th-6th century BC; Little-Papadopoulos 1998, pp. 375-376). Finally we may here mention the case of the Collatina necropolis in Rome (Bucellato et al. 2008), in particular M2, graves 2, 4 and 5 (1st century BC-2nd century AD). 300 Bareschino et al. 2004, p. 150. 301 Infective lesions due to poliomyielitis were noticed on the male skeleton of Roncoferraro, Due Madonne: the right arm was shorter than the left and the man suffered from severe difficulties in walk (Mantova, Middle Bronze Age): C. Corrain, Lo scheletro umano di Roncoferraro (Mantova), in RivScPr XIV, 1961, pp. 95-123. Recently, traces of multifocal tuberculosis were observed on the 20 years old female discovered within a silos in the Neolithic settlement of Parma, via Guidorossi: the subject, afflicted by dactylitis and spine lesions, was found under a hearth filled by cattle and pig bones; L. Salvadei, A. Spina, P. Mazzieri, Un caso di tubercolosi ossea multipla nel Neolitico padano (Paper at XLV IIPP Congress, Modena, 26-31 October 2010). 302 Catalogue number, 44. 303 Similar degenerative lesions afflicted the 25-35 years old female individual discovered within a natural cistern in the settlement of Vaste,

Dental diseases were rare within group d) samples and tooth damage has largely been assigned to simple wear and problems associated with nutritional habits. Evidence of significant wearing of the teeth was observed on the inferior molar of a sample from Castell’Arquato and in this case the tooth wear may have been due to work activities in which the subject used the teeth as tools. In a similar vein the teeth of the subjects from Fossano, Villa Marzana, Bologna, Villa Cassarini and Palazzina Olga, Fondo S. Antonio (Lecce, 2nd century BC): arms and legs showed mechanic stress markers and a great development of tendons insertions; moreover, the skeleton, found partially dislocated, was characterised by the absence of spine, scapulae, ribcage and pelvis: Nonnis MarzanoSublimi Saponetti 1995, pp. 305-312. 304 Capasso et al.1999, p. 38: these lesions are due to continuous flexion movements of the spine; in particular, lumbar vertebrae alterations are linked with physical stresses made in a flexed position. 305 Capasso et al. 1999, pp. 114-115. 306 Mazzucchi-Cattaneo, unpublished, p. 8. 307 K.A.R. Kennedy, Skeletal Markers of Occupational Stresses, in M.Y. Işcan, K.A.R. Kennedy (eds.), Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton, New York 1989, pp. 129-160, p. 151; Capasso et al. 1999, p. 137; Canci-Minozzi 2005, p. 194. 308 Capasso et al. 1999, p. 94. 309 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 209-210.

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and Castenaso-via Gramsci, teeth were so worn out that they caused the alveolar retraction of the anterior masticatory apparatus. In another case, on the male young individual from Villa Marzana, there were signs of an excessive growth of the bone tissue to compensate for the congenital absence, or agenesia, of two pre-molars and three molars.

None of the evidence collected has revealed skeletal markers of the cancer pathologies of group f). The traumatic lesions of group g) could be classified on the basis of the period in which the traumas were inflicted and divided into the following groups:313 a) ante mortem lesions (the trauma was inflicted during life and it is possible to recognise evidence of bone regeneration); b) post mortem lesions (the trauma was inflicted after death and the bones show no signs of regeneration); c) peri mortem lesions (the trauma was inflicted either just before or just after death, where there are no signs of regeneration within the bone tissue but where the elastic matrix is still present).

In terms of what these teeth samples reveal about the dietary habits and nutrition of subjects, the analysis of the individuals from Rivoli-Rocca, Fossano, Villa Marzana, Oppeano Veronese and Castenaso-via Gramsci revealed the presence of tooth decay, tartar and dental hypoplasia, a pathological condition that occurs during the growth phase of an individual as a result of metabolic stresses or as a result of severe nutritional deprivation.310 The good diet, conversely, of the Realdo di Borniga subjects is testified by the findings of the complete teeth arcs and by the absence of episodes of hypoplasia.

The female from Villa Marzana had suffered a diagonal fracture of the right fibula. The lesion, recomposed but with evident traces of bone proliferation and periostitis, was probably caused by a torsion movement due to a fall. The traces of periostitis which were observed on the right tibia may also be connected with a contusion trauma.

The metabolic diseases within group e) were recognised through the presence of Harris lines (diagonal lines visible through radiographic analysis of the long-bones of the legs, above all the tibiae). These lines are caused by the non deposition of bone tissue during the growth phase of an individual, which may be due to long terms diseases and/or a nutritional lack.311

The adult male from Oppeano-ex Fornace presents a heavy contusion trauma, inflicted ante mortem on the inferior incisors by a pointed object which caused multiple fractures on the face bones: the subject survived 7-8 months after this trauma infliction.314

This pathological condition is, in particular, often linked to the absence of D vitamin (the condition known as rickets) and has been observed on the adult male specimen of Oppeano-ex Fornace and on the tibia of the 6-10 years old female from Santorso, although in neither of the cases is there any other skeletal indication of rickets.

A traumatic lesion was observed on the skull of subject B skeleton from Bressanone-Stufles/via Elvas,315 although this trauma should not be considered as being the cause of death. Fractures were also present on one of the Dos de l’Arca subjects: in this case the fracture of the femur caused the ankylosis of the acetabulum.

Examination of subject A from Rivoli and the adult skeleton from Greifenstein revealed the presence of many cranial lesions, the so-called pitting effect, which were characterised by the great proliferation of sponge-bone on the frontal bones and in the eye-sockets bones and which was caused by the condition known as cribra orbitalia. These cases are included within the metabolic diseases group because they are often caused by acute anemia, although in these cases it could be due to a lack of iron in the blood, avitaminosi or genetic diseases, such as thalassaemia or any combination of these conditions.312

Surgical lesions should also be considered as traumatic lesions. One such example is the skull of subject A found at Castenaso-Scuole Medie (Structure 6) which has a small hole on the occipital bone, which was caused by an in vivo bone trepanation effected by use of the abrasion and or chisel/technique (diploe regeneration testifies that the individual survived for some weeks after the surgical operation).316 century A.D. farm near Rome, in Rivista di Antropologia 75, 1997, pp. 117-128; F. Giovannini, Studi di resti scheletrici umani d’età tardoantica rinvenuti in Alto Adige: malattie, alimentazione, aspetti demografici, in L. Dal Rì, S. di Stefano (a cura di), Archeologia Romana in Alto Adige-Studi e contributi, in Forschungen zur Denkmalpflege in Südtirol-Band 1, Bolzano 2002, pp. 1090-1105. Cribra orbitalia lesions, associated to rickets, were discovered on the skeletons found in the Early Bronze Age cave of Re Tiberio (10-12, 1316 and 16-20 years old subjects): Pacciarelli-Teegen 1997, pp. 29-35. 313 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 254-259. 314 Saracino 2009, p. 66. 315 Catalogue number, 71. 316 On trepanations in antiquity: P. Messeri, Lesioni sincipitali in crani enei italiani, in RivScPr. 12, 1957, pp. 38-53; Živanovic 1982, pp. 185191; L. Sterpellone, La medicina etrusca. Demoiatria di un’antica civiltà, l.n.d. 1990, pp. 154-155; and F. Germanà, G. Fornaciari, Trapanazioni, craniotomie e traumi cranici in Italia dalla Preistoria all’età moderna, Pisa 1992, pp. 55-60; A. Canci, Lesioni del cranio in resti scheletrici umani di epoca neolitica rinvenuti presso l’Arma dell’Aquila (Finale Ligure, Savona), in BPI 89, 1998, pp. 181-190, p. 90; Antoniotti-Merli 2000, p. 37; P. Catalano, L. Capasso, L. Ottini, F.

310

Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 210. The individual A from Rivoli and the subject from Oppeano Veronese-ex Fornace were afflicted by four episodes of nutritional stresses, which occurred when the subjects were 2-5 years old: Denston 1976, p. 96; Catalano et al., forthcoming. 311 Živanovic 1982, pp. 81-83; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 212; RobertsManchester 2005, pp. 240-242. 312 G. Fornaciari, F. Mallegni, Iperostosi porotica verosimilmente talassemica in due scheletri rinvenuti in un gruppo di tombe del III secolo a.C. di S. Giovenale (Viterbo), in Quaderni di Scienze Antropologiche 4, 1980, pp. 21-50; G. Fornaciari, F. Mallegni, D. Bertini, V. Nuti, Cribra orbitalia and elementar bone iron in the Punic of Carthage, in Ossa 8, 1982, pp. 63-75, p. 63; Enciclopedia Medica, s.v. Iperostosi, vol. IX, Roma 1983, pp. 1095-1096; G. Gruppioni, I polimorfismi enzimatici, in Antropologia, pp. 459-463; A. Ricci, D. Mancinelli, R. Vargiu, A. Cucina, E. Santandrea, A. Capelli, P. Catalano, Pattern of porotic hyperostosis and quality of life in a II

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Post mortem and peri mortem lesions are, with certainty, attested in only three cases. The femur recovered from Laion-Gimpele and the humerus found at Borgone showed signs of diagonal fractures having developed when the bone was already dry (the epiphisis detachment in these cases was due both to post-depositional and diagenetic phenomena).

The position of the skull from Gropello Cairoli-S. Spirito is somewhat unclear and all that can be said is that it suffered unidentified trauma of the face bones321. In examples from Reggio Emilia-Casa Leoni and Nago Torbole cranial lesions were also observed. In addition to pathological and traumatic conditions we should also recognise the presence of some particular morphological features: wormian bones, or in other words extra-sutural cranial bones,322 have been identified on the skeletons from Bologna-Villa Cassarini and Castenaso-Scuole Medie, subject A,323 and bone markers on the pelvis of the female subject from Castenaso-via Gramsci suggest that this subject had completed an undefined number of pregnancies.

Whereas the cut-marks which can be observed on the foeti from Castelraimondo were inflicted when the bones were still fresh. Interpretation of this evidence is problematic: this is largely due to the absence of comparable examples and means that it is not possible to determine if cut-marks concentrated on humeri and femurs were inflicted before or after death. The unusual position of the cut-marks on the acromion can be associated with intentional actions (perhaps connected with the performance of embryotomies).317 Similar cutmarks were noticed on sub-adult bones from the Children Bones Room at Knossos, but in these cases lesions were interpreted as a part of the special process of preparing the bodies for secondary depositions.318

Biological profiles include also the markers which enable us to divide finds into racial categories, now referred to as Anthropological Forms. As a simple working hypothesis, our examination is based on anthropometric measurements, i.e. cephalic and nasal indexes.324 According to this kind of approach, some subjects were considered to have been outside the human group that inhabited a certain geographic area during a certain chronological range.325 The skull shape and the tight nasal cavity of the subject from Nago Torbole could suggest a probable transalpine provenance. It was also possible to note that the cranial and other bone characteristics of the Dos de l’Arca skeletons were not compatible with those of the contemporaneous local populations (they were in fact more similar to alpine and transalpine Iron Age demographic samples). The strong brachycephalic aspect of the skull in the case of the Berceto subject suggests a Negroid origin.326

Traumatic lesions caused by sharp instruments can be seen on the Iron Age skulls of Fiavè: in these cases, the shape and distribution of the lesions could suggest the possible avulsion of the scalp either just before or just after death.319 It is possible that the skeletons from Padova-S. Eufemia were subjected to a procedure which caused scarification.320 Di Gennaro, L.R. Angeletti, R. Mariani Costantini, The evidence of cranial surgery from the necropolis of Fidene and its relevance for the history of classical medicine, in Culto dei morti e costumi funerari romani. Roma, Italia settentrionale e province nord-occidentali dalla tarda Repubblica all’età imperiale, Internationales Kolloquium (Rom, 1-3 April 1998), in Palilla 8, Wiesbaden 2001, pp. 67-75; R. Arnott, S. Finger, C. Murray Smith, Trepanation. History, discovery, theory, London 2002; Roberts-Manchester 2005, pp. 124-127; A. Canci, Traces of conflict: weapon blessings, combat practices and élite in the cemetery of Nogara-Olmo), Paper at the International Congress The Death Toll. Violence, warfare, sacrality and power in the European Bronze Age (Rome, 8 may 2009). With regard to the different etiologies which caused in vivo trepanations: M.A. Liston, L. Preston Day, It does take a Brain Surgeon: a Successfull Trepanation from Kavousi, Crete, in Skeletal Biology, pp. 57-76: a significant datum here presented reveals that the 69% of trepanations had not physical reasons. Other cases of trepanations in Northern Italy are the skulls of Montata and Montecchio terramare settlements (Emilia Romagna, Bronze Age; cited in Basili Gualandi 1980b, p. 303) and the skull of subject 23 found within the Celtic necropolis of Casalecchio di Reno (Bologna, 4th-3th century BC; J. Ortalli, La tomba 23 della necropoli celtica [IV-III secolo a.C.] di Casalecchio di Reno [BO], in Sepolture anomale, pp. 69-75). 317 Giusberti 1992, pp. 265-281; Ghetti 1999. 318 D.D. Hughes, I sacrifici umani nell’antica Grecia, Roma 1999, pp. 454-459. 319 A. Mazzucchi, D. Gaudio, A. Galassi, C. Cattaneo, The study of cranial trauma in ancient populations: from trepanation to therapy in four cases for Northern Italy, Paper at XXI IALM Congress (Lisbon, 2830 May 2009) (Courtesy of the Authors). Similar traces of avulsion of the scalp were noticed in the Iron Age skull recovered in a Charny settlement silos (France); another skull, found always within a silos at Roissy-en-France, showed intentional widening of the foramen magnum (Delattre-Seguier 2007, p. 616). 320 Michelini-Ruta Serafini 2005, p. 133. On scarification procedures in Italy, see: Sasso di Malerba, Riparo Valtenesi (Copper Age, Brescia; P. Biagi, I primi abitatori, in Atlante del Garda. Uomini, vicende, paesi, I, Brescia 1991, pp. 133-141); in the European Bronze and Iron Age:

disarticulated bones from Knossos North House, Room of the Children Bones (Greece, LTI; S.M. Wall, J.H. Musgrave, P.M. Warren, Bones from a Late Minoan IB House at Knossos, in BSA 81, 1986, pp. 333388); bones with signs of scarification come from water sanctuaries at La Tene, Port and Cornaux (Iron Age, Switzerland; Iud 2007, pp. 391398). 321 Catalogue number, 27. 322 In general: Živanovic 1982, pp. 89-93; M. Capitanio, Un calvario attribuito al Bronzo Antico rinvenuto presso S. Pietro Polesine nel 1985, in Padusa XX, 1984, pp. 539-541; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, p. 31. In particular, on the cases here mentioned see: Brasili Gualandi 1980a, p. 165; Brasili Gualandi 1980b, pp. 371-372. The presence of this kind of non-ordinary bones was often considered as a evidence of non-ordinary individuals: C. Corradi Mussi, Aspetti culturali del vampirimo in Eurasia e il rito della seconda sepoltura, in Sepolture anomale, pp. 4354. 323 Catalogue numbers: 53; 58. 324 In general see: Cattaneo 1999, p. 199; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 176-178. In particular, on the cephalic and nasal indexes: P. Messeri, Tentativo di sintesi antropologica per la recente preistoria e protostoria italiana, in Archivio per l’Antropologia e l’Etnologia XCIX, 3, 1969, pp. 191-200; Antropologia, pp. 229-236; pp. 246-247; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 195-196. 325 On the skeletons of strangers found at Tarquinia, Civita (Viterbo, 8th-7th century BC) and Otranto, Roca Vecchia (Lecce, Bronze Age) see: Bonghi Jovino 2007-2008; Recchia 2007-2008, p. 117. 326 Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 180-181. On the presence of Negroid subjects in Northern Italy during the Iron Age: A. Scaglioni, Caratteri negroidi in due individui dell’età del Ferro trovati a Remedello Sotto nel Bresciano, in RivScPr. XXI, 2, 1966, pp. 379-396.

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were thrown into pits,331 although it is not possible to say, on the basis of anthropological examinations, if this happened before or after death;332 c) the two prone subjects recovered under the floor of a house at Bressanone: it has been hypothesised that the find represents a type of execution, although the anthropological examinations have not (until now) supported this reading.333

Within the record collected, some subjects present a number of pathological conditions higher than the others: in the cases of Montagnana-via Chisogno, Fossano, Bologna, Villa Cassarini and Palazzina Olga, OppeanoFornace and Castenaso-via Gramsci individuals, the presence of congenital diseases are associated with significant degenerative, metabolic and/or traumatic pathologies, due both to occupational and metabolic stresses suffered during the life time.327

4. An Example of Anthropological Inquiry: Cremated Bones from Stenico, Calferi (Trento)

3. Causes of Death: Some Remarks With regard to the causes of death, a preliminary distinction has to be made between natural and unnatural, including violent, causes.328

The bones of Stenico were discovered and collected by Renato Perini during the 1978-1981 excavations and then they were recorded and conserved by the Soprintendenza ai Beni Archeologici e Librari of Trento Province: the archaeological researches were conducted in a large area, divided into sectors (from I to VII), quadrants (marked by an Arabian cipher and a alphabet small letter) and layers (marked by a capital alphabet letter and an Arabian cipher). Only on the basis of the published data,334 the stratigraphical and the diachronic reading of the layers proceeds from letter D (the deepest and most ancient layer) to letter A (the most superficial and most recent layer). According to this spatial organisation, the labels which marked bones containers include the name of the place, the excavations date (day, month and year), sector, quadrant and layer.

No cases of natural deaths were identified in the cases here presented, in the sense that none of the pathologies described above were serious enough to have caused death. In at least two following cases however death was probably due to unnatural/violent causes: a) the Nago Torbole subject (left parietal bone lesion); b) the Reggio Emilia-Casa Leoni subject (right parietal bone lesion). These kinds of traumas are often linked with intentional killing actions, as attested in medico-clinical literature,329 and were probably caused by bladed or blunt weapons. An unnatural death has been hypothesised in other cases, although anthropological and skeletal confirmations are not possible. These include: a) the subjects from Capo di Ponte-Pescarzo, who died of exposure or poisoning, of which there is no trace on the skeletal remains;330 b) the subjects from Oppeano Veronese-La Montara and Castenaso-via Gramsci: the displaced position of the bodies in these cases allow us to hypothesise that they

The classification and the study of the bones from Stenico were operated on the premises of the Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense (University of Milan): bones containers were disposed according to the diachronic order, from layer D to layer B (vertical order), however the impossibility to exactly collocate the quadrants in a spatial order produces the impossibility to clarify the spatial distribution (horizontal order). Bones, mixed to coal, bronze and ceramic elements, were finally washed in cold water by means of a sieve and a toothbrush.

327

The same consideration can be made on the Bronze Age skeleton of Grotta Maiale (Como, Early Bronze Age: dental wear; ribs 3 and 4 fractures; Schmorl nodules; see G. Gagliardi, Una nuova grotta funeraria del triangolo lariano: la Grotta del Maiale di Valbrona Mandello, in RAC 158, 1976, pp. 39-50) and on the Iron Age skeletons of Trani, Capo Colonna (Bari, 9th-8th century BC; Sublimi Saponetti et al. 2007) and Vaste S. Antonio (Lecce, 2nd century BC; Nonnis Marzano-Sublimi Saponetti 1995, pp. 305-308). On the contrary, on the adult male found within the Athenian Agora within a well (“grave” UV:19; Greece, 8th-6th century BC), see Little-Papadopoulos 1998; for the hunchback subject from Le Sept Arpents settlement (France, 5th century BC), see Lefranc et al. 2008. 328 Bonghi Jovino 2007-2008, pp. 776-780. 329 Antoniotti-Merli 2000, p. 50; Cattaneo-Grandi 2004, pp. 259-260. Cases of intentional murders are the killing of the 19-20 years old male individual from Otranto, Roca Vecchia (Lecce, Bronze Age; C. Pagliara, Il sito di Roca Vecchia nell’età del Bronzo, in F. Lenzi [a cura di], L’Archeologia dell’Adriatico dalla Preistoria al Medioevo, Atti del Convegno Internazionale [Ravenna, 7-8-9 giugno 2001], Bologna 2003, pp. 74-90) and of the so-called “Euboic sailor” and of the 10 years old subject from Tarquinia, Civita (Viterbo, 9th-7th century BC; subjects 9 and 10; Bonghi Jovino 2007-2008, pp. 780-784); in Rome, see the cut-marks on the trisomic girl from Equus Domitiani (Charlier 2008, pp. 58-62) and on the hunchback subject found at Carcer Tullianum (see Carafa 2007-2008, p. 670). On the European Iron Age see: Acy Romance, Ribemont-sur-Ancre (France, 4th-3rd century BC; Lejars 2001; Lambot 2007-2008) and Nanterre, Avenue Jules Quintin (Delattre-Seguier 2007, p. 609). 330 Cattaneo-Ravedoni 1998.

331

Salzani et al. 2008, pp. 22-25. Death caused by asphyxia has been hypothesised for the individuals found within Northern and Central Europe marshes: they died probably because of the marsh and, sometimes, because of the application of asphyxia instruments (garrottting instruments?): see Green 2001, pp. 177-181; a case of drowning death can be identified in the case of the female prone subject from Lattes (France, 6th century BC; MallegniRubini 1994, p. 107, figg. 5-6). 333 Catalogue number, 71; Feltrin et al. 2009. A form of execution could have been applied on the individual from Oppeano Veronese-ex Fornace (Saracino 2009); in Roman Italy, see the cut-off head individuals from Modena, Parco Novi Sad (1st century AD; M.G. Belcastro, D. Labate, S. Marchi, V. Mariotti, M. Milella, Modena. Parco Novi Sad. Ritrovamenti di crani umani in una vasca romana, in Pagani e Cristiani. Forme e attestazioni di religiosità del mondo antico in Emilia IX, 2010, pp. 211-212) and from Casteggio (Pavia), with particular regard to a female subject (XII/2: cut-marks on the occipital bone suggested that the woman was decapitated): see C. Cattaneo, F. Sassi, D. Gibelli, Le ossa umane: risultati delle analisi antropologiche, patologiche e biomolecolari, in R. Invernizzi (a cura di), … et in memoriam eorum. La necropoli romana dell’area Pleba di Casteggio, Comune di Casteggio 2011, pp. 299-312. Another case is attested by the cut-off head individuals discovered in the House of Fourni at Delos (Greece, 1st century BC; Charlier 2008, pp. 62-65). 334 Marzatico 1992. 332

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4.1. Macroscopic Analysis: Results

4.1.3. Weight

The macroscopic analysis concerned the morphological identification of the fragments by means of Atlantes and direct confronts with unburned and integral material: length, width and thickness of every single fragment were measured; weight and volume of the bones were calculated thanks to a digital scale. In addition colourations, fractures and other deformations of the bones, which were caused by the action of the fire, and eventual signs of non-taphonomical origin were also considered.

Weight of human bones is around 5.609 gr. From a spatial point of view, the distribution of the weight of the bones can be analysed on the basis of sectors, quadrants and layers. The largest part of cremated bones comes from sectors I and IV, which were spatially not contiguous: with regard to quadrants, the majority of cremated bones was discovered in the quadrants 1a and 2a of sector I and in 8b of sector IV. In a diachronic, i.e. stratigraphical and chronological perspective, the largest part of cremated bones comes from layer C1 and B2 (sector I) and from D and D1 (sector IV): once more, these layers represent the deepest, and most ancient, stratigraphical contexts of the sectors.

4.1.1. Spatial Distribution The study analysed a Minimum Number (MN) of 4024 fragments, recovered from five of the seven sectors; they include: Sector

MN of fragments

I II III IV V Without sector indication

802 13 35 1503 45 1246

The lowest percentage of presence was discovered in sector II (Table 10). Skull bones represent the highest percentage of bones which were morphologically recognised: the difference between the first and the second district (legs) is about 400 gr. Appendicular skeleton (including scapulae, arms, legs, hands and feet) is about 182,2 gr., on the contrary, axial skeleton (including spine, ribcage and pelvis) is about 15,3 gr. In the specific literature,337 it is wellknown that a human body exposed to the action of fire leaves behind the 18,2 % of the skull bones, the 23,1% of the axial skeleton and the 58,7% of the appendicular skeleton (Table 11).

Table 8. Distribution of the fragments. Sectors I and IV together include the 52% of the fragments: sector IV is the largest sector of Stenico and this fact could give reason of the high concentration of the samples and, in addition, it occupies the southern part of the Bronze Age tumulus, where, on the basis of the available data, the coal layers were more extended.335 The researches revealed a high concentration of the bones also in sector I, which is the smallest sector of Stenico. Sector III was altered in the Roman and postRoman period: the construction of a 2nd century AD building, probably linked with the ceremonial area, caused the leveling and the moves of the ground.336

In the case of Stenico, the calculation was effectuated observing the comparison between the total weight and the weights of the single districts. The comparison between Calferi data and the percentage data presented in the scientific literature shows a sub-representation of cranial district, a sub-representation of axial skeleton and a super-representation of bones belonging to superior and inferior limbs (Table 9).

4.1.2. Fragments Dimensions

With regard to the determination of MNI, it is possible to observe a strong sub-estimation of the number of individuals, if we consider only the percentage of cranial and axial skeleton. They are inferior to the percentages normally calculated for one subject: on the contrary, a strong MNI super-estimation is relievable if we consider superior and inferior limbs.

The dimensions (length, width and thickness) of the fragments were measured by means of a caliber. The most frequent categories are those of 21-31 mm., 11-21 mm. and 31-41 mm.: the highest degree of fragmentation is attested in sector IV, with particular regard to layer D; this one is the deepest, and therefore the more ancient, layer of sector IV and, in general, of the layers analysed within all the other sectors. It is impossible to define if the degree of fragmentation was caused by natural and post-depositional processes or by anthropic actions, such as the intentional pounding or trampling.

The percentage of 88% could be closer to the percentage calculated for at least two subjects. Therefore, at Calferi appears clear the absence of complete human skeletons, probably caused by postdepositional events or to the intentional selection and manipulation of human bones: this datum seems to be 337

335 336

J.I. Mckinley, Cremations: expectations, methodologies and realities, in C.A. Roberts, F. Lee, J. Bintliff (eds.), Burial Archaeology. Current research, methods and developments, in BAR British Series 211, Oxford 1989, pp. 65-76.

Perini 1979, p. 41. Marzatico 1992.

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confirmed by the predominance of cranial and limbs bones, in addition to the strong sub-representation of axial skeleton. Total weight 5.609 gr.

The percentages of the weights were considered also from a spatial perspective, i.e. on the basis of sectors, quadrants and layers. It is possible to observe that cranial district, sub-represented in the other sectors, is superrepresented in sector III and also the percentages of sectors I and IV are closer to the percentages which are present in the literature; limbs bones are, on the contrary, super-represented in all of the analysed sectors, as well as the axial skeleton is sub-represented in all of the analysed sectors.

Skeletal districts Skull: 10% Legs: 3% Arms: 2% Sponge-bone: 0,35% Spine and ribcage: 0,25% Pelvis: 0,03% Diaphyses: 83% N.d.: 5%

It is noteworthy the presence of sponge-bone samples, usually not found in other ceremonial contexts similar to Calferi.

Table 9. Comparison between the total weight and the weight of the single skeletal districts.

Sector I

Weight 920,29 gr.

II III

29 gr. 195,9 gr.

IV

1438,9 gr.

V

58,4 gr.

Near MBA graves

280,5 gr.

Without sector indication

2768,9 gr.

4.1.4. Morphological Identification The macroscopic morphological analysis revealed that a MN of 4016 fragments belonged to human bones: these fragments can be divided into three groups, i.e. the morphologically identified and sometimes lateralised bones (MN 665), morphologically identified bones, which can be only described as fragments of long-bones or skull fragments (MN 3010) and finally non determined bones (n.d. bones, MN 341): the too small dimensions of these bones do not allow us to make a certain morphological attribution and this could bring to a false assignation and to possible confusion between human and animal bones.

Weight percentages Skull: 8,8% Appendicular skeleton: 2,18% Axial skeleton: 1,21% Diaphyses: 87,26% Diaphyses: 100% Skull: 43,75% Appendicular skeleton: 6,02% Diaphyses: 50,23% Skull: 14,21% Appendicular skeleton: 2,62% Axial skeleton: 1,57% Sponge-bone: 0,84% Diaphyses: 63,07% N.d.: 16,17% Skull: 13,9% Axial skeleton: 4,45% Diaphyses: 81,68% Skull: 4,5% Appendicular skeleton: 4,6% Axial skeleton: 0,57% Sponge-bone: 0,25% Diaphyses: 98,12% Skull: 5% Appendicular skeleton: 3,23% Axial skeleton: 0,018% Sponge-bone: 0,17% Diaphyses: 91,12%

The comparison between identified and undetermined bones shows that undetermined bones and generic fragments of long-bones are predominant in all the considered US. With regard to only morphologically identified bones, it is really noteworthy that the most represented skeletal districts are (in percentage) cranial district, inferior limbs and superior limbs and, on the contrary, the less represented bones types are vertebrae fragments (MN 10) and scapulae fragments (MN 1): sternum bones and pelvis bones were not found, with the exception of two fragments, which probably belonged to the iliac crest. Sector IV contained the largest part of human bones: these ones, all things being equal with regard to the dimensions average, are however more identifiable and therefore assignable to certain skeletal districts.

Table 10. Percentages of the skeletal districts according to the division in sectors.

Skeletal districts

Calferi

Skull Appendicular skeleton Axial skeleton

10% 88%

One individual percentage 18,2% 58,7%

0,28%

23,1%

4.1.5. Minimum Number of Individuals With regard to the examined samples, the extra-numbered bones not compatible with a unique subject are the two right kneecaps recovered from different layers and quadrants, i.e. from US C11, 2a and IIIC1: this datum could confirm the presence of at least two individuals. On the other hand, the MNI determination could be effectuated also by means of a strictly archaeological approach: the most important criterium is the spatial distribution. From a spatial point of view, extra-numbered bones, certainly identifiable and assignable to skeletal

Table 11. Comparison between the skeletal percentages of Calferi and those of one subject. 74

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

districts, were collected but they are however too small and too broken to define the right lateralisation and the pertinence to the same bone.

Finally, MNI evaluation was carried out also through a spatial approach, examining spatial distribution of morphologically recognized bones.

In addition, the study considered only the bones which come from different and not contiguous sectors, quadrants and layers. With regard to cranial district, the study considered:

Although the topographic data now available do not allow the right positioning of the quadrants and the sectors within the excavations perimeter, it is however possible to hypothesise that the bones fragments recovered from different and not contiguous sectors, quadrants and layers belong to different subjects. Morphologically identified bones were gathered in order to rebuild the anatomical succession of skeletal districts: MNI could in this case touch the 9 unities, considering that C1 and C1, 2a-2b, could be assimilate in occasion of the documentation review, as well as C10,9,5,4, 1a-2a e C11, 2a; in addition, quadrants 7b and 8b of sector IVD could be contiguous. Finally, sector IV shows the highest density of morphologically identified bones and the highest samples differentiation, representing almost all skeletal districts: in this case, every examined layer could in effect contain bones belonging to a single subject.

Bone type Zygomatic bone

MN of fragments 9 frr.

Pars petrosa

9 frr.

Inferior jaw (monoradical alveoli)

8 frr.

Provenance

MNI

C10,9,5,4, 1a2a: 1 fr. IIIC3, 1e: 1 fr. IVD: 6 frr. Near MBA graves 2 e 3: 1 fr. C11, 2a: 1r. C1: 2 fr. IVD1, 8b: 1 fr. IVD, 7b-8b: 5frr. C10,9,5,4,1a2a: 1 fr. IVB2: 1 fr. IVD1, 8b: 4 frr. IVB, 6b: 2 frr.

4

4

4

4.1.6. Fragments Colouration Bones samples present chromatic variations due to different factors, i.e. the action of the fire, the timing of the exposition to fire and the temperature of combustion: other factors which act on colouration are environmental elements, as the presence of metals, mushrooms and plants in association to bones. The chromatic sequences, which were identified on the bones of Calferi, are the following: brown-blue-black; black-gray; gray-white; calcinated white; green-yellow (presence of bronze and zinc); pink-red (mushrooms).338

On the other hand, with regard to appendicular skeleton, the study considered: Bone type Homerus

MN of fragments 5 frr.

Ulna

4 frr.

Radius

3 frr.

Femur

10 frr.

Tibia

4 frr.

Fibula

6 frr.

Provenance

MNI

IC1: 1 fr. IB3, 1c: 1 fr. IVD, 8b: 1 fr. IVB2: 2 frr. C11, 2a: 1 fr. C10, 9, 5, 4, 1a2a: 1 fr. IVD1, 8b: 1 fr. IVB: 1 fr. IB2, 1a: 1 fr. IVD2, 9b: 1 fr. IVD, 8b: 1 fr. Near MBA graves 2 e 3: 1 fr. C11, 2a: 3 frr. C7, 2a: 2 frr. C1, 2a-2b: 2 frr. IVD, 8b: 2 frr. C11, 2a: 2 fr.. C7, 2a: 1 fr. C1: 1 fr. Near MBA graves 2 e 3: 1 fr. C6, 5, 1, 2a: 3 frr. B6(?), 1a: 1 fr. IB3, 1c: 1 fr.

4

White is the predominant colour within the bones sample and also with regard to all skeletal districts; black-browngray-red sequence is the second more attested colouration sequence and it resulted predominant with regard to limbs diaphyses. Only a black cranial fragment presents a green area, probably caused by bronze elements near the bones. The less represented colours are red and calcinated white (one fragment).

4

3

5 Colouration

MN of fragments

White

3671

3

4

Extra-numbered axial skeleton bones, which are clearly assignable to more than a subject, were not found: on the basis of this approach, MNI is at least of 4 subjects.

338

Most represented skeletal districts Diaphyses Skull Inferior limbs Superior limbs Ribs Sponge bones Pelvis

MN of fragments

3181 384 42 19 17 5 3

P.M. Mayne Correira, Fire modification of bones: a review of the literature, in Forensic Taphonomy: the post-mortem fate of human remains, New York 1997, pp. 276-283.

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Blackbrown-grayred

Calcinated white White Blackbrown-grayred

367

1

Diaphyses Skull Sponge bone Inferior limbs Superior limbs Ribs Diaphyses

161 132 21

Provenance

Fragment

C11, 2a IB, 1a

1 fr. of ulna 1 fr. of skull 3 fr. of diaphysis 1 fr. of rib 1 fr. of diaphysis 1 hand phalanx 4 fr. of diaphysis 1 fr. of rib 1 fr. of diaphysis 1 fr. of diaphysis

13 6 IIB4 3 1 IIID1, 3e

N.d. fragments 100 56

IIIC1, 1-2i

IIIB6,1d Sector

White

Near MBA grave To1To3 Near MBA graves To2To3 Without sector indication, layer C Without sector indication, layer B I II III IV V

2

Blackbrowngray-red

153

Calcinated white IIIB5, 1 g-h-i IIIB5, 2 c

4 IIIB5, 2h IVD2, 9b

1269

126

20

2

550 10 69 1429 51

69

1

2 fr. of rib 1 right metatarsus 1 fr. of diaphysis 2 fr. of rib 1 fr. of diaphysis

Fragments measures 60x11x8 33x19x4 10< 16x13x3