Now We Are Citizens: Indigenous Politics in Postmulticultural Bolivia 9781503626287

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NOW WE ARE CITIZENS

Now We Are Citizens INDIGENOUS POLITICS IN POSTMULTICULTURAL BOLIVIA

Nancy Grey Postero

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS STANFORD, CALIFORNIA

Stanford University Press Stanford, California © 2007 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, mcluding photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Stanford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Postero, Nancy Grey. Now we arc citizens : indigenous politics in postmulticultural Bolivia Nancy Grey Postero. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN- r3: 978-o-8047-5 5 19-r (cloth: alk. paper) ISBN-I 3: 978-o-804 7-5 520-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) L Guarani Indians-Bolivia-Santa Cruz (Dept.)- Politics and government. 2. Guarani Indians-Bolivia-Santa Cruz (Dept.)-Govcrnment relations. 3· Multiculturalism-I'olitical aspects-Bolivia-Santa Cruz (Dept.) 4· Santa Cruz (Bolivia: Dept.)- Ethnic relations-Political aspects. 5· Santa Cruz (Bolivia: Dcpt.)-Politics and government. I. Title. F2230.2.G72P67 2007 .323·II98' 3822084) -dc22 20060I7975 Typeset by BookMattcrs in 10II2.5 Sabon Original Printing 2006 Last figure below indicates year of this printing: I5 I4 I3 I2 II IO 09 08

For Cissie

Contents

Acknowledgments

lX

List of Abbreviations

Xlll

Introduction: Neoliberal Multiculturalism in Bolivia

I

Part One: The Indian Question I.

Regimes of Race and Citizenship

2.

An Indigenous Federation in Boorntown Santa Cruz

J. A Crisis of Leadership in Bella Flor

Part Huo: Citizenship in Neoliberal Bolivia 4· Multiculturalism and the Law of Popular

Participation

123

). Forming Neoliberal Subjects: NGOs and "Responsible" Self-Government 6. Popular Protagonism since

2000

Conclusion: Toward a Postrnulticultural Bolivia

216

Notes

2J3

References

257

Index

285

Acknowledgments

The writing of this book was made possible by funding from the University of California-San Diego (UCSD) Academic Senate Committee on Research, the UCSD Faculty Career Development Program, and the University of California Humanities Research Institute (UCI IRI), where I was a faculty fellow in the fall of 2004. Earlier funding for field research and writing was provided by a Fulbright liE Fellowship, the Inter-American Foundation, the Tinker Foundation, the Lowic/Olson Foundation, and the Simpson Foundation. I am most indebted to the Guaranf people of Zona Cruz, whose openness and generosity made this book possible. I am particularly grateful to the leaders of the Capitanfa Zona Cruz (CZC), who authorized and collaborated in my research. The capitERAL MULTICULTUR!ILISM

IN

llOLIVIA

5

itics. Its protagonists blended indigenous activism with a renewed populist notion of the nation, reflecting the fact that the majority of Bolivians are both indigenous and poor. Since the 1952 revolution, indigenous people and the poor have organized their demands against the state primarily on the basis of class. Even when there was a strong cultural or ethnic component to these demands, such as the Aymara-lcd Katarista movement, they tended to be articulated through class-based corporate organizations, such as workers and peasants unions. Over the past several decades, however, indigenous social movements have characterized their demands more on the basis of ethnic difference and recognition. This process was shaped, in part, by international nongovernmental organization (NGO) funding and a global discourse that made "indigenousness" and indigenous rights central tropes of social movement organizing in the 1990s. The multicultural reforms passed under the Sanchez de Lozada administration reflected this transition, as the Bolivian state specifically recognized ethnic difference. The October uprising showed that social movements have begun to integrate ethnic difference with issues of class. In the process of the contests over gas and neolibcralism, a new Bolivian public was being formed that presented the state with demands based on experiences of race and class discrimination. 5 Yet, as this book shows, this is not just a return to the class-centercd politics of the previous era. Instead, this emerging public is raising its demands in the language of citizenship, rights, and dernocraqr, reflecting both Bolivians' positive experiences and their frustrations with the neoliberal and multicultural reforms of the r990s. I low and why did this transition occur? And why is this important? Most analyses of the October uprising and the social chaos surrounding it point to the terrible costs neoliberal restructuring has imposed on Indians and the poor in Bolivia. Although this is certainly an essential proximate cause of the unrest (as I detail in chapter 7), a critical contribution of this book is to point out that the new social activism is not just a response to increased poverty under ncoliberalism. These costs have been borne by the poor of many countries, including Bolivia, for years without this kind of response. Why is this moment in Bolivia different? I argue that this novel protagonism was formed in relation to the regime of citizenship that I call neoliberal multiculturalism. Under Spcz, Jorge, IT) lowland struggles, neoliberal policies and, 20T-5 Lucero, Jose Antonio, 240-4rnro Mallku, El. See Quispe, felipe Malloy, _lames, 3 7, 3 8 Mamani, Bcatriz, 219 Mamdani, Mahmood, 32 Manifesto of Tiwanaku, 4 3 March for Territory and Dignity (Marcha por Territorio y Dignidad), 7, I25 marches, 20)-6. See also natural gas plan market liberalization rdorm, 192 Marshall, T. H., 222 Martincz Cobo, Jose, 234116 mburuvichas, 92-94, 240115 "good" and "bad," 95-96 McNcish, John, r37, 2491149 Medeiros, Carmen, 155, I 56 Medina, Samuel Doria, 214 Mehta, Uday, 3 5 Melgar, Pablo, 75 Melia, Bartomeu, 9 r, 94, 240114 Mendoza, Alonso, 79-Sl Mesa Gisbcrt, Carlos, 3, 196., 205,2089,213,214,229,231

mestizaje, 1 r m cstizos, 3 7 migration, 91 to Spain, r92-93 Military-Peasant Pact, 40-41, 4 3 Minero, ISO

INDEX

mmmg, 47, 137 mita, 28 mitayos, 28 "model" ("el modelo"), 2 Molina Saucedo, Carlos Hugo, r3o, 146 money management, 182 Montero, Alvaro, 24,93-95,97, II6, 119, 139, J 8I background, 72 as capitan gran de of C:ZC, 71-73, 9395,I09-12,161-62 ETZ and, 73-75 Evo Morales and, 205 on "indigenousness" and ethnic identity, 1 2 as MAS supporter, 200 notion of land as commodity, 162 photograph of, 13 5 on PISET model, 73 Postcro and, 2 3, 76 proyectos and, 75-77 Samuel Tapera and, 73 Montcs, Rosa, 157-58 Moore, Donald S., 239n2 Morales, Evo, 17, 19, 221 on Bolivia, 210 cocaleros and, 198-99 constitutional assembly and, 2 3 I election campaign in 2005, 227, 228 election of, r-3, 190,210, 214, 226, 228,230,232 on ethics, 2 2 7 ETZ leaders and, 205 factors influencing how his government will fare, 229-32 MAS party and, 199,200,219, 230. See also Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) party Mesa and, 2I4 Morales, Jose, 20 5 Moreno, Rosana, 2:1-24, 74, 78, 85, 86, r82, 204-5,228 Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) party, 17,I44, I90, 199-201,20},214, 219 Movimiento de la Izquierda Revoluc10nario (MlR), 170, 203 Movimiento lndigena Pachakuti (MIP), 200, 2I9 Movimiento lndio Tupac Katari (MITKA), 43

Movimicnto Nacional Rcvolucionario (MNR), 37-40, 53, 99, I25, I}O, 200 agrarian reform law, 45-46 platform, n-38, 44 Movimtento Revolucionario Tupac Katari (MRTK), 43 Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Katari de Liberaci6n (MRTKL), 43 Movimiento Sin Ticrra (MST), 2I2 multicultural reforms, 3-5. See also

specific reforms ncoliberal, 5-6,124-32,232. See also neoliberal reforms multiculturalism, 8, See also neoliheral multiculturalism meanings, 13 recognition vs. redistribution, I 3- r 5 "state-led," I24 state-sponsored, 13, 52-54 terminology, I 3 multinational corporations (MNCs), 201-2, 206 "multitude-form" {social movement), 22T

municipal districts. See distrito municipal

indigenas Nandy, Ashish, 247n42 National Revolutionary Party. See Movimiento Nacional Rcvolucionario natural gas, 48 natural gas plan. See also October 2003 upnsing objections to, 209- I 2 public participation in decision making and, 212-13 neighborhood associations. See junta

uecinales ncolibcral citizenship, spaces of, l8}-88 neoliberal economic model. See "model" ncoliberal multicultural reforms and LPP, 12.7-32, 167 neoliberal reforms. See also multicultural reforms, neoliberal; specific topics costs of, I89-90 and lowland struggles, 20 r- 5

INDEX

neolibcralism, 15-18, 125,232. See also specific topics aspects of, T 8 Sanchez de Lozada's implementation of, 52, 124, 125, 127-31, 2oo, 217 New Economic Policy (NEP), u5-27, I37,17T nomadic groups, 44 nongovernmcntal organizations (NGOs), 149, 155, 167-68, 170-72. See also specific NGOs conservation, 202 functions of, I 66 funding from, 5, I2, n 1, u2, 166 historical perspective on, 176-77. See also CEADFS indigenous dependence on, I 55 international trends in NGO sector, I6R-70 training indigenous people to exercise rights as citizens, I 40 Nuiiez, Angelina, ro4, I 13, 179

obras, 151 October 2003 gas war, 2-3 October 2003 uprising, 20!!-9, 2T), 222 causes of, 206-8, 217-21 as "Indian revolution," 3-7 message of, 213 Ofensiva Roja de Ayllus Tupakataristas, 44 oil companies, 20r-3 Olivcra, Oscar, 189, 194-95 organizations, traditional fragmentation of, I 56-59 Oriente, 7, 4L See also Confederaci6n Indfgcna del Oriente de Bolivia making of the, 44-48 Ortega, Ricardo Calla, 159 Ortiz, Victor, 145-47 Otherness, 9, I47 oversight committees, 129, 142, 154, 248n48 Oxhorn, Philip, 254n7 Pablo, 9, 140 Padilla, Ram6n, 74, 78 Palcnquc, Carlos, 246n; 2 Paraguay, 45

participation, 124, 142, 174, 2c12-13. See also community organizing; democratic participation; Law of Popular Participation; October 2003 uprismg as responsibility, 178-So patrirnonio (patrimony), 4, 107 Patzi, Felix, 42, I97, 245n29 Paz, Julian CEADES and, 77, I4o, 172-76, 184 economic policies, 126 ETZ and, r8o, I82, 184, 185 neoliberal model and, 126 skills and methods used by, I78-82 Paz Estenssoro, Victor, 125, 171 l'az Zamora, Jaime, 49, ')1, 126 "peasants," 38-4 T. See also campesinos pe6n-p,ltr6n model, 92 Pcrcz Luna, Mamerto, 193, 249n51 Pctras, James, 171-72, 176, 2ciO Pifarrc, Francisco, 26-27 PIS ET model, 7 3 plan anual operativa (l'OA), 142 Plan Dignidad, 198 Plan Trcs Mil (Plan Three Thousand), 57 - 5 s, II6 Platt, Tristan, 27, 33,41 Plaza de San Francisco, 2o8 Polanyi, Karl, I 3 1 political activism. See activism political culture, contest over, 226-28 political parties and candidaks, 1 43-44 Popular Participation laws, 174, 246nn35-36. See also Law of Popular P;uticipation populist programs, 19 I. See also Movimiento Nacional Rcvolucionario Portcs, Alejandro, 192 Postcro, Nancy Grey background, I8-2o gathering history in Bella Flor, 97-98 postmulticultural citizenship, 2, 229 poverty, 3, 5 privatization, 191. See also water war PROCESO, 173-75 proindiviso, 3 3, I oo property tax, 207 protests. See activism; marches; natural gas plan; October 2003 uprising Proyecto de Ley Indfgena (PLI), 51-52

INDEX

proyectos (projects), 76-Sr, rso-p. See also specific proiects public participation. See participation Quiroga, Jorge "Tuto," 2 r 4 Quispc, l'elipe, 196-97, 200, 206, 22), 2}6nL9 race, 9- n, 28, 224, 254-5 5119 racial subalternity, 29, L4 7 racism, 5, 6, 34-35, 22s. See also caste system Radcliffe, Sarah, 24 5n28 Radio Santa Cruz, 68 Rasnake, Roger, 3 I recognition, politics of, 14 Red Offensive of Tupakatarista Ayllus. See Ofensiva Roja de Ay llus Tupakataristas redistribution, politics of, 14 Reformed Constitution of the State, Article T7T of, 52 religion, 44, 62, 67. See also Catholic Church; cvangelicals repartimiento system, 30 republican citizenship, 34-36. See also citizenship republican transitions, 3 I - 34 republics, dual, 27-29 responsables de fJ/anificaci6n y gesti6n indigerza (RPGis), 75 responsibility, participation as, 178-So "responsibilization," L87, 204 ncoliberal discourse of, 1.81 revolution of I952, 4, 36-4r postrcvolutionary legacies, 4 1-44 revolutionary citizenship, 42 Revolutionary Party of the Left. See Movimicnto de la Izquierda Revolucionario right~ 1,5,7.52, I95 international discourse of indigenous,

so necessary for full citizenship, 222 Rio Pirai, 57 Rivera, Lorenzo, rs6, rs7 Rivera Cusicanqui, Silvia, 34, 39, 41, 236n36 Rocha, Manuel, 2 TO Rodrigucz, Eduardo, 2 T4 Roman, Victor, r 1 4

Romero Moreno, 1-'ernando, 1 6 Rose, Nikolas, 166-67 Roscbcrry, William, 223 Rotonda, sS royal officials. See corregidores Rus, Jan, 24 7-48n46 Sachs, J effrcy, 12 5 - 2 6 Saignes, Thicrry, 94 Samuel, 24 Sanchez de Lozada, Gonzalo ("Goni"), I24, I 25, 200, 2 T7 2002 election and, 2 15 campaign platform, 128 CIDOB and, 21 1-12 co-participaci6n funds, OTBs, and, 129 economic and political strategies, 1}0-31 election in r993, 52, 127 government/administration of, 4, _'), 191, 193, 200, 201, 203, 205, 207 implementation of ncolihcralism, 52, 124, 125, 127-)1, 200,217 indigenous groups, indigenous rights, and, 52 natural gas and, 2, 212 reforms of, 4-6 on reforms of 1990s, I resignation, 2 United States and, 2 I o Sanjincs, Javier C., 43, 236n19 Santa Cruz. See also specific topics boomtown life, 56- s8 community village life, 61 -64 family and language, 64-67 old, ss-s6 Santa Cruz city officials, attitude toward Guarani communities, 149 Santos, Fernando, 88 "savages," Indians as, 31-_32, 34-35, 44 Sawyer, Suzana, 17

self Guarani sense of, I79 "techniques of the self," r78-8o, r85 "self-help" training, 179-80 Shell, 202 Shepherd, Chris J., 2 5 m I 2 silver, 25 sindicato model, 99, IOo

INDEX

sindicatos (peasant unions/leagues), 384 T, 68, r 3 2. See also unions sistema de castas. See caste system social alliances across sectors, 220-21 soci a I class. See class Social Emergency Fund. See FonJo Social de Emergencia Sol6rzano, Marco, 14 5 sovereignty, 166 Spaniards, 27-28 Guaranflndians and, 25-27 Spanish extraction systems, 30 Spanish language, 65-67 Stand a rJ Oil, 4 5 "State of '52," Jeath of, 216-17 Stern, Steve, 29 subaltern classes, 29 Subsecrctariat of Ethnic Affairs (SAE), 5 2 , 75 suffrage, universal, 39, 42 Tapera,Jcsus, 62, 63, 97, ro4, 117, r 1il,

2

93

territorial grassroots organizations (OTBs), 129, 145-46. See also grassroots organizations capitanias and, r 18 defined, 244m4 LPP and, 129, I4I-42, 152, 156-59, 219 monitoring execution of ammal budgets, I 5 3 obras and, 152 territorio, 4 9

territorios comunit,lrios de origen (TCOs), 159 Thomson, Sinclair, 30 Tito, Henry, 202 titularios, 10 r transnational corporations. See multination:Jl corporations tributary citizenship, 3 3 tributary pact, 2 7, 3 3 Tumpa Hapiaoeki. See Hapiaoeki, Tumpa Turner, Terence, 24Rn46

r85

background, 59 Jaime FemanJcz and, I14-17 overview of, 59-60 photograph of, IB Postcro and, 59, 6o, 92, 97, 1I), J 18 Rafael Vaca and, II3-T5 Tapera, Migud, TT?, 133 Tapera, Samuel, 65, 68-69, 78, 1 I8, 2)2 on aspects of Guarani identity, 85-86 background, 6o- 6 1 as capitanfa's secretary of acts, I 52-53 constitutional assembly oversecn by, 231 difficulty enacting CEADES values, 18 5 in Geneva, 231-32 Alvaro Montero and, 73 Evo Morales and, 2 30- _3 T overview of, 59, 6o photogr:1phs of, 133, 134 on I'ISET model, Tl Postero and, 59-61,63, 8I, 85, 97, I17, 149, 230 protests and, 211 "techniques of the self" and, 18