Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting: How to identify suitable applicants and attract them to your company 3658369280, 9783658369286

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Christian Bernhardt

Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting How to identify suitable applicants and attract them to your company

Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting

Christian Bernhardt

Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting How to identify suitable applicants and attract them to your company

Christian Bernhardt Lörrach, Germany

ISBN 978-3-658-36928-6 ISBN 978-3-658-36929-3 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3

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The translation was done with the help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content. # The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany

Contents

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Recruiting in the “War for Talents” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Communication in Recruiting 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Why Use Non-Verbal Communication in Recruiting? . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1 1 8 12 21

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Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Bottlenecks in the Development of Non-Verbal Competence . . . . . . 2.2 The Four Phases of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 The Rediscovery of Non-Verbal Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Developing Your Own Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Basic Principles of Non-Verbal Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Developing Your Own Body Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Conclusion: Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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25 26 29 31 31 39 43 45 47

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Sources: How Does Nonverbal Communication Arise? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Biological Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Evolutionary Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Embodiments: Interaction Between External Posture and Internal Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Neurobiological Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Psychological Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Social Psychological Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Cultural Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Conclusion: Sources: How Does Non-Verbal Communication Arise? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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49 49 54

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56 58 66 76 80

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86 87

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Contents

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Appearance of the Applicant and First Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Formation and Influence of the First Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Decisive Factors for the First Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Effect of Clothing, Accessories and Make-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Relationship to Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Degree of Tension of the Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Optimizing Your Own First Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Conclusion: Applicant Appearance and First Impression . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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91 91 93 96 103 104 105 110 110

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Status and Territorial Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Relationship Between Territory and Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Distance Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Territorial Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Expressions of Territory and Territorial Placeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Status Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Own Territorial Behaviour and Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Conclusion: Status and Territorial Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

113 113 115 119 120 128 133 135 141 141

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Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Posture While Standing: Implications and Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Posture in Sitting: Implications and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Head Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Posture of the Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Developing Your Own Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Conclusion: Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145 145 147 148 151 152 154 161 161

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Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Movements During Walking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Movement with Rhythm and Without . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Head Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Trunk Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Own Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Conclusion: Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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163 164 165 171 175 176 178 181 181

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Welcome and Handshake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Greetings and Welcomings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Shaking Hands/Handshake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

183 183 186

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8.3 Farewell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 The Own Handshake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Conclusion: Greeting and Handshake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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192 192 195 195

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Eyes and Eye Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Widened and Narrowed Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Eye Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Gaze Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Blinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Own Gaze Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Conclusion: Eyes and Eye Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

197 197 198 200 208 210 211 218 218

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Facial Expressions and Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Fundamentals of Facial Expressions, Emotions and Micro-Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Signals of Facial Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 The Seven Universal Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Microexpressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Subtle Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Own Facial Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 Conclusion: Facial Expressions and Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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222 225 233 236 249 253 254 256 257

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Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Basics and Functions of Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Planes of Gesture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Active Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 Passive Gestures: Hand Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 Own Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 Conclusion: Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

261 261 265 267 270 272 282 292 302 302

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Breathing and Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 Breathing and Voice Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Own Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Own Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Conclusion: Breathing and Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

305 306 310 313 317 323 323

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Legs and Feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Basics: Legs and Feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 The Own Feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Conclusion: Legs and Feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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325 325 334 336 336

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Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Stumbling Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Counteracting Wrong Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Conclusion: Guideline Condensed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

339 339 349 350 352 355

1

Introduction

Abstract

This chapter describes the changing framework conditions with which companies are currently confronted in the search for personnel. It identifies the requirements that arise for recruiting and the employees involved in the selection process and examines the possibilities for companies to influence various field variables in recruiting. It describes the influence of communication on the quality of decision-making and the role of non-verbal communication in the selection process, in recruiter–applicant communication and in preventing communication breakdowns and misperceptions. From this, it derives the opportunities for developing nonverbal competence in recruiting and links these to communication psychology and operational variables.

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Recruiting in the “War for Talents” Trailer

Daniel Kahneman, a newly graduated psychologist who later won the Nobel Prize, gained his first professional experience in the 1950s as a recruiter for the Israeli army. He assessed the aptitude of future officer candidates with a test that had already proven itself in the British army during the Second World War: eight participants, who were not known to each other, had to climb a 1.80 m high wall with the help of a tree trunk. Neither the cadets nor the tree trunk were allowed to touch the wall. There were several ways to succeed on the test, and as the group wore themselves out on the task and the stress brought out their true natures, the psychologists observed the men and formed judgments about their character.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_1

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Introduction

Various aspects, such as group behavior, assertiveness, or handling rejection and setbacks, were assigned points, and Kahneman and his colleagues quickly discerned who had the potential for a future leadership role and who did not. Convinced and unanimous, they gave a clear prognosis. But there were two problems. Every few months, the recruiters exchanged ideas with the commanders of the officer school in feedback sessions and compared their predictions from the tree trunk test with the assessments of the commanders who had subsequently observed the cadets at the school for some time. The results were invariably sobering: the ambitious psychologists might as well have rolled the dice. Their initial predictions were only slightly better than pure chance results. The striking thing, however, became immediately apparent in the next log test. As the new contenders were observed and judged, the result again seemed as obvious as in the earlier selections. Although Kahneman knew he would be wrong again, it seemed obvious which of the contestants was suitable and which was not. Knowing his own vulnerability to error did not change his current conviction that he was making a competent selection. The decision simply felt right and Kahneman had discovered his first cognitive illusion, the “illusion of validity” [1].

When it came to recruiting, Kahneman and his colleagues were amateurs at the time. The state of Israel had only been founded seven years earlier, and systematic research into body language did not begin until a good decade later. Nevertheless, the most important findings are still valid: As in the detection of lies, where untrained observers might as well roll the dice, but well-trained observers can increase their ability to detect lies up to 90% [2], it is the same in recruiting. Our feeling for whether an applicant is a good fit or not is so seductive that we usually trust him and let ourselves be convinced. Contrary to Kahneman, only very few recruiters receive systematic feedback on the sustainable quality of their selection. Since the result of the selection is delayed and not directly experienced, it is difficult to intuitively develop recruiting competence. Furthermore, since recruiters rarely have the opportunity to become aware of the individual aspects that shape their decision, it has been difficult to specifically improve their own selection competence in this way.

The Challenge of Finding and Sustainably Recruiting Suitable Employees In a study spanning ten man-years [3], former Stanford professor Jim Collins and 100 other scientists examined the most important factors for long-term corporate success. The results were clear and proved that the decisive criterion for a company to be successful in the long term is the quality of its employees and their fit with the position to be filled and the

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Recruiting in the “War for Talents”

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environment in which they work. The findings led to the management principle “First who, then what” [4]. It is a long way until a new employee is successfully integrated into a company. In order to pass the selection process, he or she must not only fit the industry and the company, not only the job and the team, but also the recruiter and his or her, often unconscious, expectations of how the ideal candidate should look, express, dress and behave. But with that, only one side has said yes. In the past, the commitment of the other, the applicant side, rarely posed a problem – today it does so more and more often. If both sides agree, however, this does not mean that the two right people have actually found each other: 20–25% of newly concluded employment contracts are terminated during the probationary period [5]. The costs of a wrong appointment are immense and can be up to 15 months’ salary, in large companies even up to three years’ salary [6]. While the visible costs of recruiters, job advertisements, job boards, and labor are comparatively harmless, the invisible costs of mis-selection undermine the very fabric of businesses. Top talent adds exponential value to their companies. Failure to identify and engage them results in a double whammy: weakening your own company while strengthening your competitors. Wrongly selected employees bring unrest to the team. If the wrong people are repeatedly recruited, the team spirit is lost: the team disintegrates into lone fighters and loses substance, creativity and dynamism due to internal or actual resignations, and performance drops. If the retention time of the newly recruited employees is not sufficient to get them into the productive area, the strain on the remaining employees increases, leading to decreasing job satisfaction and increasing absenteeism. The situation becomes even more acute when the best employees quit and take important knowledge and network partners with them to the competition. What remains is an ailing superstructure that lacks a sustainable basis and the necessary individual class to ensure the company’s competitiveness. Burden and stress among those who remain continue to rise, while the resulting decline in employer attractiveness leads to a drop in the quality of new applications, coupled with increasing pressure to hire new, more suitable employees and finally bring calm to the team. This pressure makes optimal, intuitive decision-making more difficult and fosters the defensive decisions explained later. If another bad decision is then made, the situation worsens and the vicious cycle that has begun goes into the next round. The good news is that companies can directly counteract this cycle by improving the quality of their recruiting and the turnaround can be mastered in the medium term through a consistent realignment of recruiting [7].

Recruiting in Times of Change The reasons for the current worsening situation in recruiting are largely due to changes in the general conditions, which have led to positions that could be filled without major problems just a few years ago now being declared bottlenecks in many companies. Let’s take a look at these changes and their impact on the current situation in recruiting.

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Changes in the Economic and Social Framework Moore’s Law of 1965 roughly expresses the fact that the capacity of processors doubles every 18 months as costs fall [8]. As a result, the influence of IT grew increasingly and led to the fourth industrial revolution in 2011: the former industrial society evolved into the networked information society, Industry 4.0. While the former automated production processes and internationalized markets, the latter lifts them to a new level through the possibilities of virtual space, detaching them from the classic flows of goods and dynamizing them as never before, via cyberphysical systems and disruptive technologies. The entry into this new stage is still fresh, and so serious forces of change are influencing the current situation of businesses and posing challenges to entrepreneurs, managers and employees, where the solutions of the past no longer work. The first companies have already been setting sail for the new wind for years, while others are still trying to hold on to the past and ignore the signs of the times. In the meantime, however, almost everyone is aware that the changes are too lasting to ignore and that the right personnel form an essential factor in successfully facing them. Science as of 2016 suggests that the next eight years will determine the future of most companies [9].

Change in Job Profiles The accelerating networking and increase in global knowledge have led to increasing specialisation on the one hand, but at the same time demand interdisciplinary knowledge due to the increasing number of interfaces, and the process seems to be far from complete. Consequently, the skills of new job and requirement profiles are needed faster than they can be integrated into educational plans. It is becoming increasingly difficult for HR departments to grasp the complex jobs in their entirety in order to be able to match them precisely with the applicant profiles.

Change in Age Structure Parallel to the economic development, the demographic composition of our population changed. The classic population pyramid has become a structure reminiscent of a wobbly man with a hydrocephalus. Where once a broad young base supported society and drove the economy, today fewer and fewer people have to shoulder ever greater burdens. The need for flexible, resilient and dynamic employees to successfully manage the changes described above is growing – while at the same time availability is decreasing.

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Change in the Labour Market In Germany in particular, the social changes of recent years, the fiscal policy framework and successively increasing obligations and burdens on the working population led to more and more high potentials seeking more attractive alternatives abroad. This led to the “brain drain”, the emigration of talent and high potentials. Already in 2008, 83% of the Germans working abroad had an academic degree, which is missing in Germany [10]. Thus, for the majority of companies and for most positions, both the number of applicants and the quality of the profiles have been declining for years, while at the same time vacancy times have been increasing. For many companies and jobs, the job market has changed from employer to employee market. Suddenly, it is the companies that have to compete for the best employees, and those who have a choice as applicants need orientation – rating platforms such as Kununu and Glassdoor have emerged, where current or former employees offer a look behind the scenes and make the working conditions there transparent: Companies are rated like hotels on Booking.com, and businesses that do not treat their employees and applicants in an upto-date manner are avoided by good candidates. As Martin Gaedt describes, the core of the perceived shortage of skilled workers is primarily an outdated communication in recruiting as well as the lack of cooperative recruiting strategies [11].

The Behaviour of the Companies Has Changed The tilt in the job market for many professions, the internationalization of markets, and the difficulty of filling key and bottleneck positions had an impact on companies. Since 1998, when Ed Michaels, then director of McKinsey, saw the “War for Talents” coming, the large, globally active corporations have understood the resource of employees as a strategic factor. They established marketing methods in HR and increased their attractiveness as an employer in order to attract the best candidates. As a result, new topics such as employer branding, candidate experience and systematic talent management have emerged, as well as new recruiting methods such as active sourcing, social media recruiting and crowd sourcing. Staff is being poached from competitors and companies are increasingly competing with each other even for positions at the skilled worker level. Recruiting has become a matter for the boss and the responsibility of every employee. For example, Steve Jobs recruited more than 1000 employees via personal direct contact and Google has been freeing its employees for years to participate in recruiting interviews and awards bonuses for recommendations of potential new employees [9]. The phenomenon is not limited to large global corporations or the IT industry. Demand sets the price: Whereas horrendous handouts from top clubs for player transfers in professional football used to make headlines, in 2016 even the smallest companies in the German skilled trades publicly offered transfer bonuses to entice employees away from the competition [12].

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Introduction

Due to the strong competition between companies for new employees, mistakes in recruiting can no longer be compensated for as easily as in the past. Accordingly, it is important today to reliably identify suitable applicants and to win over those who have been courted many times for one’s own company. The first impression that the applicant gets of the company shapes his attitude and can hardly or only with difficulty be corrected later. As personal representatives of the company, the employees involved in recruiting form an increasingly critical interface to the applicant.

Candidates Have Changed, More Volatile Labour Markets Those wooed in this way are naturally aware of their desirability. The sought-after Generation “Y”, born after 1980, is “as choosy as a diva at a village dance” [13] and has values and demands that differ considerably from those of previous generations. Digital natives are the first generation to have grown up with IT. They are well qualified, highly networked and thus top informed. Desired as they are, the young generation is selfconfident and demanding. This may seem convincing in an interview, but it does not mean that they will be able to meet the enormous demands and expectations that await them. Companies are in danger of being deceived by their self-confident appearance and overlooking competent but shy applicants. At the same time, the media-driven society as well as the shortened feedback loops of digital photography and the broad publication of psychological findings have led to a pronounced awareness of impact. Industrial actors and dazzlers play their parts ever more convincingly in interviews and assessment centres and subsequently fail in practice. Today’s teams are often more heterogeneous than in the past due to internationalization. Shorter working relationships weaken internal cohesion and turn teams into fragile structures that break down more quickly than in the past in difficult times and under the damaging influence of the wrong employees. In extreme cases, entire companies are at risk.

How Can Companies React to the Changes? The individual company has hardly any influence on the global changes. With the exception of a reorientation in order to open up new markets, he must face the framework conditions. Access to the skilled labor market is narrowing, but can be maintained through a paradigm shift in recruiting, increased efforts and cooperative strategies [14]. In times of change, the agility of individual employees, as well as the inner strength and cohesion of teams, represent critical success factors. While management has the task of creating the right environment and developing employees in terms of their agility and communication skills, the error rates of up to 25% described above hold considerable potential for recruiting. Statements such as “Better none than the wrong one” or “Bad employees are

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Recruiting in the “War for Talents”

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like a rotten tooth, they infect the whole department”1 mark the high impact that the quality of applicant selection has on the company’s success. Recruiting has become more demanding and often resembles a tightrope walk: On the one hand, increasingly well-prepared applicants have to be assessed in interviews with regard to their suitability for ever more complex positions and heterogeneous teams. On the other hand, the connection to them must be strengthened in order to prevail against the competition and to win them over for one’s own company. Accordingly, the demands on all employees involved in recruiting are growing. In recent years, software has been developed to support recruiters and screen applicants in a variety of ways: Computer-guided telephone interviews that analyze applicants’ voices and sort them out by algorithms, Big Data analysis, applicant search engines that use semantic correlations like Amazon, parsing softwares that examine application documents for keywords and issue automatic rejections, and service providers that examine applicants’ facial expressions from Skype interviews using a wide variety of methods have become a reality. Technical support seems to increase the security of the selection process, but at the same time it also favours the defensive decisions described by Gerd Gigerenzer in the success-critical task of applicant selection, which damage companies in the medium term and substantially through second-best decisions made systematically [15]. Malcom Gladwell describes the superiority of expert decisions over technical selection procedures [16]. His experiences are supported by António Damasio, who proves that people who use their body as a holistic decision-making organ decide faster and more correctly than those who try to solve a problem merely rationally [17]. Gigerenzer defines this intuitive choice as holistic bodily intelligence [18] and describes that predominantly members of top management work successfully with this type of decision-making, while lower management and skilled workers tend to make defensive decisions with which they safeguard themselves but transfer the associated costs to the organization [19]. Establishing a positive culture of error and the professional development of those involved in recruiting are two critical challenges that companies will have to face in the future if they want to successfully attract good and very good employees. As the entire field undergoes sustained change, recruiters must also evolve. Hans Fenner [20] describes the role of the recruiter 2.0, who acts as a consultant and as a salesperson in addition to his previous job. Internally, he advises the managers of the departments regarding the job market. Externally, he identifies the optimal candidate, inspires him like a good salesman for the position to be filled and wins him for his own company. In the job interview he recognizes the relevant signals in order to make a critical and objective selection and to protect himself from misjudgements. Due to the new tasks, the social-communicative competencies of the recruiter 2.0 become a critical factor and lead to the question of which specific skills need to be developed in order to successfully meet the new challenges. What distinguishes successful communication in recruiting?

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Statements of managing directors and personnel managers in consultation interviews.

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1.2 "

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Introduction

Communication in Recruiting 2.0 “If that’s how it’s going to start, I’ll gladly pass on their offer”. It wasn’t about the money: irritated by the behavior of the company representatives, a top applicant from my circle of acquaintances decided against the offer of a renowned company and a few weeks later switched from his current employment, where he had previously done a good job for eight years, to another company in its group accounting department. The best new hires tend to come from existing employment relationships, have multiple options, and can afford to sanction inappropriate recruiter behavior with rejections. Like disappointed customers, they then share their negative experiences in their network or on social media, influencing other potential candidates’ hiring and willingness to apply.

When the decision comes closer, recruiters and applicants still meet in person sooner or later, even in the age of the digital society. The recruiter gains an impression of the applicant’s personality from his or her behavior, and the applicant uses the atmosphere in the interview as an indicator of the working atmosphere that awaits him or her at the potential new employer. Both sides gain trust in each other or keep their distance. Martin John Yate distinguishes interviewers into professionals and amateurs [21]. Friedemann Schulz von Thun defines professionalism as the ability to behave in a way that is appropriate to the role, the situation and the goal, without allowing oneself to be thrown off balance by one’s own psychological dynamics [22]. Expectations are attached to each role, the fulfilment of which is rewarded by the social environment and the non-fulfilment of which is sanctioned. As the role of the recruiter has evolved, he must be aware of the new expectations placed on him and be prepared to meet them if he is to work professionally and successfully.

Role-Appropriate Communication: Expectations of the Recruiter 2.0 The core expectation of the recruiter remains: The aim is still to find the best possible candidate for a vacant position and to avoid making the wrong decision. After he has determined the professional suitability as far as possible in advance by selecting the application documents, the recruiter compares the personality and motivation of the applicant with the requirements of the position and the field of the team and the company during the interview. He creates an atmosphere of trust in the interview, which opens up the applicant and gets him to communicate honestly, illuminates critical points of the applicant’s CV and recognises his attempts to deceive without him losing face. The ability to recognize attempts at deception depends on the recruiter’s ability to perceive and differentiate the relevant signals. A trained perception of both the external

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Communication in Recruiting 2.0

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and the body’s own signals is a key factor in any communication and also determines the quality of work and decision-making in recruiting. For this reason, Chap. 2 describes various ways to develop one’s own perception. The new activity of consulting changes the status of the recruiter and the associated behaviors in the internal relationship. If the recruiter used to act as a subordinate service provider who fulfilled the personnel wishes of the specialist departments, he now acts at eye level or as an expert for the labour market who advises the management and the specialist departments about what is feasible and what is not and how to behave strategically. In order to fulfil this role competently, an understanding of the status implications associated with the new role should be developed, in addition to aspects of communication and learning psychology. The contents of Chap. 5 provide support in this regard. In his new job as a salesperson, the recruiter is expected to enthuse the applicant for the new challenge and to win him over for the company. From loss aversion it follows that applicants who are to give up their old job and open themselves up to a change must estimate the hoped-for gain that the new position promises to be approximately twice as high as the loss that leaving the old job entails [23]. This assessment is subjective based on the applicant’s personal values and motives. In order to support a change decision, it is necessary to establish the degree of trust that offers the applicant enough security to let go of the old and at the same time increase the attractiveness of the new challenge. To do this, the recruiter should identify those motives that drive the applicant and offer him or her the maximum personal benefit. This is rarely about monetary values. If the recruiter conveys the characteristics of the new position so precisely that they meet the applicant’s motive channel, this offers him the maximum perceived benefit and increases the attractiveness of the new position. As a result, the ratio with which profit and loss are evaluated increases and favors the decision to change. In order to create the right basis for a decision in favour of the company, the recruiter should consciously grasp the quality of the relationship level with the applicant and be able to develop it in a targeted manner. This includes the ability to recognize communication problems at the outset and to counteract them in order to generate a discussion climate on the basis of which the applicant opens up and agrees to a change. In Chap. 3 on the causes of non-verbal communication, the motives relevant to business life are dealt with in greater depth. The recognition of conversation disruptors and the cultivation of the relationship level are described throughout the book in the individual elements of non-verbal communication. Due to the expanded role, the recruiter must adapt his self-image and behavior in order to fit coherently into the new situation and meet the new expectations. For a long time, companies were used to selecting from a wide range of applicants. Sometimes they could even afford not to respond to applications at all. Even today, this is still the most common behavior in candidate experience surveys, which shows that obviously there are often still different views on role-appropriate behavior or at least that people unconsciously cling to old behaviors. But an applicant whose application was ignored a year ago will be wary of

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Introduction

applying for newly advertised positions at the company in the future. As a result, the number of applicants decreases more and more, and thus the company’s own communication is one of the causes for the perceived lack of skilled applicants. The described applies even more to the behavior of the recruiter in the interview. There is a fine line between self-confident and arrogant behaviour. Overconfidence acts directly on the level of the self-concept and happens predominantly on the non-verbal level. But where in the past arrogance was accepted to a certain degree by the applicant, today it is punished: recruiters who cannot separate self-confidence and arrogance put themselves and their company on the sidelines. But how is impact created and how can the recruiter concretely influence it? In addition to the psychological component of the role understanding, the effect depends to a large extent on non-verbal elements such as status, posture, rhythm, gestures, timing and eye contact. These are discussed in more detail in the individual chapters with regard to their relevance for the role of the recruiter.

Situational communication in recruiting 2.0 Schulz von Thun describes two dimensions that determine the truthfulness of a situation. In order to achieve the ideal of coherence in communication, one’s own needs as well as the requirements of the situation must be met [24]. The setting in which the interview takes place has changed in recent years from the employer’s market to the employee’s market, and in the process the requirements of the situation have also changed. Increasingly, companies are applying to the candidate, and when company representatives initially court the candidate but then fall back into the old patterns of behaviour, they cause irritation. They also disappoint the applicant’s implicit expectations when their behaviour differs from that which he is used to in other interviews. Sometimes there are blatant misunderstandings about who is applying to whom and who is more dependent on the other. The aim is to establish contact as partners at eye level, where a common rhythm forms the harmonious basis on which trust can develop. The decisive factor is how things stand in concrete terms in the current job interview in relation to the position to be filled: If the company and the applicant are in agreement, both have the necessary common denominator to find each other. As will be shown later, it is possible to recognise from the rhythm between the interview partners who is currently courting whom, in order to derive from this the requirements of the current situation.

Targeted Communication in Recruiting 2.0 In addition, the goals have expanded. Even if it feels good and right for the recruiter, the quality of selection in most companies offers considerable potential for improvement. In addition, the recruiter 2.0. has to probe the market more and more in order to bring new trends and expectations into the consulting of the departments. In contact with the

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Communication in Recruiting 2.0

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applicant, it is important to strengthen the personal connection and to make the contact more binding and trusting. In order to improve the quality of the selection and to reduce wrong decisions, it is necessary, if not already done, to develop a structured, multi-stage selection process and to deal with the causes of wrong decisions. The quality of the decision depends on the quantity and quality of the information that the recruiter obtains during the interview, as well as on his or her ability to identify relevant information and interpret it in a targetoriented manner. In order to increase the amount of information, perceptual skills should be developed and observed more attentively. In addition, to increase the quality of information, awareness of the different signals of the applicant should be developed. This includes the ability to recognize positive and negative messages equally, to take them into account and to evaluate them appropriately. With increasing interpretational certainty, the error rate in the selection process can then be reduced.

The Three Levels of Communication Communication takes place on three levels and consists of the exchange of signals on the verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal communication. The respective influence of the three levels varies depending on the situation. Albert Mehrabian, in his studies between 1968 and 1971, concluded that our communication is influenced 7% by verbal messages, 38% by paraverbal messages, and 55% by nonverbal messages [25]. Since these results referred to specific settings, they mark extreme values that should not be applied indiscriminately to all communication. Nevertheless, they indicate the high influence of nonverbal communication. Following the iceberg model, an 80/20 split provides a more workable division: 20% of communication occurs at the verbal level: we are aware of the content of what is being said and it is predominantly used to shape the subject level. However, approximately 80% of communication is non-verbal and para-verbal through our body language and intonation and how, when and why we say something [26]. This is where unconscious content is expressed and the relational level is cultivated. Disturbances on the relational level make communication on the factual level more difficult, and the quality of verbal communication depends on non-verbal communication [27]. Since much of all communication takes place in the non-verbal and para-verbal realms, the question arises as to how these areas influence the interview and success in recruiting.

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Introduction

Why Use Non-Verbal Communication in Recruiting?

Nonverbal Communication Decides About Acceptance or Rejection Kahneman’s experience in evaluating officer candidates has since been widely studied and has led to definitive results: Nonverbal communication plays a significant role in recruiters’ decisions. As early as 1967, studies by Robert Carlson showed that there was greater agreement among various interviewers in rejecting than in accepting suitable applicants, basing their decisions on intuition or “common sense.” The cue stimuli that led to the decision were in the nonverbal domain and were beyond the perception of the untrained interviewer [28]. In 1969, Orman Wright cited numerous studies emphasizing the importance of nonverbal communication, David Young and Ernst Beier showed in 1977 that 80% of the judgment variance in job interviews can be attributed to nonverbal behavior [28]. Richard Arvey and James Campion presented a comprehensive collective paper in 1982 that summarized the research findings available up to that time and additionally provided an overview of a large number of collective papers published up to that time. The results again showed that nonverbal communication has a significant effect on the interviewer’s impression and subsequent decision [29]. The listed studies have been regularly confirmed since then, for example in 1999 by Siegfried Frey [30] or in 2017 by Alexander Todorov [31]. In recent years, brain research with its imaging techniques and the measurement of hormones and neurotransmitters in the context of decision-making at the biological level proves what psychology had previously empirically collected: the decision is largely unconscious as well as emotional and thus the decision in the job interview also depends on non- and paraverbal communication of up to 80%. This applies to both sides: The nonverbal behavior of the recruiter also has a significant influence on the decision-making process of the applicant, whose satisfaction forms a critical target variable. Alongside marketing, sales has moved into HR and demands salesoriented communication from the players involved in recruiting. As numerous publications of the most successful salespeople prove, there, too, the focus is placed on non-verbal communication in addition to psychology in order to win and retain new customers. Gossen’s law of diminishing marginal utility means in the field of learning that the first learning units bring the greatest increase in competence. However, because our nonverbal communication by its very nature takes place and operates in the unconscious realm, it has often been neglected in the past. Since it has been proven that non-verbal communication shapes most of our communication, is responsible for most of the impact we leave on others and for the quality of our interpersonal relationships, it offers the greatest leverage for development. For recruiters, developing their nonverbal skills opens up the most effective and efficient ways to increase the quality of selection, appear more competent, and strengthen the relationship with the candidate. According to the Gallup Institute, employees primarily leave their managers rather than the company [32]. If the applicant has applied, it can be

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Why Use Non-Verbal Communication in Recruiting?

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assumed that he can in principle imagine the company as a future employer. For recruiting, this means that applicants decide for or against a company for two reasons besides local preferences and hygiene factors: because of the atmosphere in the interview and because of the relationship that develops between them and the company’s representatives during the application process. Both are significantly determined by non-verbal communication.

Appreciative Communication Strengthens the Relationship Level and Wins over the Applicant A stable relationship level is essential for successful communication. In order to shape this positively, communication should be appreciative and a cooperative discussion atmosphere should be developed. Conflicts put a strain on the relationship level and are largely based in business life on status violations and territorial encroachments. Even before these reach the recruiter’s consciousness, he reacts non-verbally and sends subtle warning signals. If the recruiter learns to perceive these consciously, he can intervene before the candidate becomes aware of his own incipient withdrawal. It is not the good intentions of the recruiter that are decisive for the success of the communication, but how the messages sent by the recruiter are received by the candidate. Communication is effect and not intention [33]. Appreciative communication is guided by the categorical imperative and is characterized by its reversibility: Just as A speaks to B, B may also speak to A [34]. If someone gets too close to us in conversation, asks overly indiscreet questions or treats us down, we withdraw. If the recruiter finds his own behaviour in the direction of the applicant suitable, but refuses to do the same in the opposite direction, the necessary appreciation is lacking, which usually leads to disruptions in communication sooner or later. These disturbances are based on a deeper-lying role-status conflict, which expresses itself, for example, in non-verbal comments on the statements of the interlocutor or in territorial encroachments. Granting the interlocutor territory, on the other hand, gives the interlocutor the freedom to act in a self-determined manner and thus represents appreciation in its highest form. In Chap. 5 on territory and status, the various territorial manifestations are examined in greater depth in order to raise awareness of the associated potential for conflict.

Consider Intentional Movements In order to communicate appreciatively, intentionality should be recognized and taken into account. In the course of our lives, we have all formed a certain picture of the world and thus of how things are connected and what to expect in different situations. Learning psychology refers to this as systematicity [35]. The ability to learn is an essential characteristic to survive in evolution, and accordingly we are constantly striving to incorporate new information into our existing systematics and to expand our picture of the world. If

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contradictions arise in this process, their clarification has priority. Even if the applicant does not openly demand this clarification, he is inwardly irritated and tries to reconcile the discrepancies. As in a web browser, a new tab is opened internally to research the topic separately. As a result, there is no concentration for the conversation with the recruiter. Systematic conflicts open up important fields in the job interview that should be discussed, because here expectations that have been made do not coincide with the perceived reality. When we ask for more information, this shows itself in subtle intentional movements such as a short increased inhalation to enter into readiness for action, the slight opening of the mouth and other signals described in later chapters. If you ignore the intentional movements of your conversation partner, you imply that your own position in the conversation is more important than that of the other person. Nonverbally, such behavior expresses that one knows better what is good for the other person than the other person does. A hierarchical gap develops, the appreciative contact is lost, the interlocutor subordinates himself and gradually withdraws from the conversation. If, on the other hand, the recruiter recognizes and reacts to intentional movements, the applicant feels valued and can add points relevant to him or her to the conversation. This allows important aspects of the decision-making process to be highlighted and keeps the focus in the conversation. The additional information enables the recruiter to make a more differentiated decision. In addition, he can reach the applicant better through a more individual approach and win him over for the company. Counteracting the Endowment Effect In the 1970s, as part of his research into the endowment effect, Jack Knetsch conducted a study to find out how people feel about a decision they have made: While participating in a survey, one comparison group saw a fountain pen, while the other was presented with a bar of chocolate. As a thank you for taking part in the survey, each participant then received a copy of the previously presented exhibit as a gift. Then the actual experiment took place: the participants were shown the other gift and given the opportunity to swap. The result was surprising: regardless of whether they received the chocolate or the fountain pen, only 10% of the participants showed willingness to swap [36]. Even in everyday life and at work, people are often critical and hesitant before making a decision. Once they have decided, however, they defend their decision, sometimes even vehemently.

Once the horse has bolted, it’s too late to lock the stable door. Jack Knetsch’s and similar studies show: Once you have consciously taken a position, it usually takes a lot of effort to get you to change it. Due to the structure of our organism, our body reacts faster than our conscious mind and responds at least with an impulse to received stimuli. Attentive observers register rejecting non-verbal signals of the interlocutor already in the approach. This gives them an information advantage and allows them to intervene before open rejection occurs. The development of fronts can be prevented, energy can be saved and frustration as a result of negative answers can be avoided. In this way, recruiters prevent disappointed expectations on the applicant’s side, keep the interview in a tension-free area and support a positive development of the relationship.

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Deceptive Congruence: Assessing Applicant Signals in a Differentiated Way Intuitively, we look at our interlocutors to see whether their nonverbal, paraverbal, and verbal signals harmonize congruently with each other or are incongruent. The absence or suppression of any of the three levels is given the benefit of the doubt as incongruence, and while congruence is persuasive, incongruence lacks credibility. If someone tells us that he is happy, but shows a sad face, his words do not convince us, we see that “something” is wrong. The more familiar a setting is to us, the more secure we feel. We know the explicit and implicit expectations that are directed at us, as well as the usual communication codes that go along with them. As a result, our ability to act congruently increases. The job interview represents a setting in which the majority of applicants have little experience. Depending on the degree of importance the applicant places on the outcome of the interview, their pressure increases, leading to stress and tension. The applicant gets into a dilemma: his tension makes him look unattractive, when he should be shining! The fact that the interview is taking place in a foreign territory for the applicant creates a further factor of insecurity. Pressure, stress and uncertainty often lead to incongruence, and the danger arises that the recruiter misinterprets the applicant’s statements due to this incongruence. Routine phonies, industrial actors and self-promoters, on the other hand, are used to putting themselves across convincingly. Whether it’s actually true or not, they largely believe what they say, thus appearing more congruent and bowling out more insecure and self-critical applicants regardless of the true fit. If the recruiter expands his or her own frame of reference and avoids drawing indiscriminate conclusions from incongruence to a lack of suitability or insincerity, he or she can, beyond the perceived nervousness, identify and distinguish possible influences in order to improve the quality of his or her selection. It has been proven that we value people who are similar to us more positively than others [37]. This effect starts with significant liking for people with the same last name or birthday and leads to unconscious preferences for people with the same hobbies and similar habitus. These preferences lead to the so-called mirror bias, to the commitment of people who are similar to the decision maker, but often for exactly this reason are not suitable for an advertised position, because this requires completely different strengths and characteristics. Recruiters who are aware of their own non-verbal signals and habits find it easier to recognize that they are in danger of succumbing to the mirror bias. Accordingly, they can consciously counteract it and question themselves in order to improve their selection.

Recognize High and Low Involvement in the Development of Attitude Sooner or later, recruiters and applicants have to show their colors and decide for or against each other. On the way to the decision, they gradually develop their attitude. If our own interest rises, we try to influence the decision of the counterpart in our favor. The social

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Introduction

psychologists Richard Petty and John Cacioppo developed the Elaboration-LikelihoodModel in 1986, which describes how attitudes are formed and how information is processed in the process. Depending on personal interest, one’s own objectives, the degree of possible distractions and the repetition of the central core message, this results in high or low involvement – “high involvement” or “low involvement”. These lead to different types of information processing on the so-called central or peripheral path.

High Involvement: Processing on the Central Route If so-called high involvement is present, information is processed centrally: This involves critical questioning, recalculation and differentiated consideration of content. The decision is reached analytically, rationally and cognitively. The attitude gained in this way is relatively stable against external influences and we hold on to it over a longer period of time. In the job interview, recruiters or applicants take a close look at the documents, question them critically, weigh them up, compare them, research them and finally make a factually well-founded and objectively comprehensible, stable decision.

Low Involvement: Processing on the Peripheral Pathway The situation is different with so-called low involvement. Here, information is processed peripherally and less critically scrutinized. One forms an opinion rather superficially and thereby opens the door to the classic errors of perception, judgement and thinking. The influence of prejudices and stereotypes is also much more pronounced. Recruiters and applicants can be influenced by non-verbal communication as well as the degree of cognitive ease (salience, i.e., the conspicuousness of the signals and information sent or their familiarity). The more recognition effects and familiarity there are, the more likely a positive attitude will be formed. An attractive application photo, a congruent, relaxed appearance, strong brands in the curriculum vitae, common similarities and habits, matching technical terms and social codes – the path to a decision in favour of the applicant is already taken. However, attitudes formed on the peripheral path are less stable in the face of external influences and in terms of temporal duration. In a sense, they have a shorter halflife than attitudes formed on the central path. On the other hand, the peripheral pathway is used more often because it consumes less energy.

Significance for Recruiting The Elaboration-Likelihood Model works both ways in recruiting: If we recognize the way in which our counterpart is currently processing the information, we can infer his involvement and adjust our way of sending information accordingly. If the applicant processes

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Why Use Non-Verbal Communication in Recruiting?

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centrally, data and facts on the verbal level help to convince him. If he processes peripherally, he is more easily infected by the non-verbally expressed conviction and enthusiasm of the recruiter. In addition, recruiters can identify and critique the way in which they themselves or their interviewee are currently forming their mindset: for example, studies with judges were surprising in showing that their decision to accept or reject a parole application depended significantly on the time of day and whether they had full stomachs [38]. In other research, recruiters increasingly chose those applicants from interviews where they had a warm drink in hand [39]. For an objective selection, the professional recruiter 2.0 should create as comparable conditions as possible for all applicants. Knowing the influences and mechanisms of his hiring process should lead to the honest question: How am I deciding right now? Do I allow myself to be dazzled, do I merely skim the CV superficially or do I critically question individual points? Am I only looking for reasons to confirm my first impression? When is my threshold for a concentrated match reached? With what perspective and objective do I approach the applicant? When do I review his or her resume? Where do I stand in my daily performance curve? When do I conduct the interview and does something possibly influence my independent decision-making? Consciously recognizing high involvement and low involvement makes it possible to gain the professional distance to the process and the applicant that is necessary to recognize and avoid spontaneous and predominantly unconscious decisions. Furthermore, it improves the understanding of and the contact with the applicant: If the trained recruiter recognizes that the applicant is just centrally processing and critically examining the contents of the job and the company, he will not interpret this as a rejection of his company or his person, but will classify that the applicant is just showing high involvement and is trying to reach a binding decision, and will not simply be blinded by extrinsic factors, such as money. High and low involvement are distinguished nonverbally by, for example, different pupil size, timing, pauses, degrees of tension in movements, degrees of opening of the lumbar angle, gestures and sitting posture. The ability to recognize and distinguish high or low involvement allows the trained recruiter to confidently adjust to changes in rhythm and the needs of the applicant. This allows him to put his observations into perspective against a broader frame of reference and reduce misjudgments.

Prevent and Better Recognize Deceptions Although we seldom accuse our fellow human beings of deliberately trying to deceive us, up to 83% of job applicants are prepared to do so in a job interview [40]. People find it easier to lie to others the less contact they have with them and the less they feel obliged to them. In contrast, the stronger the connection at the relationship level, the harder it is to tell the untruth and the stronger the sense of wrongdoing. Of course, people still lie to those who are close to them, but a stronger inner pressure builds up, which is expressed in clearer

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signals and is easier for trained observers to recognize and interpret. An open atmosphere in the conversation, which ensures that everything can be discussed in partnership, leads to information gains. At the same time, the relationship becomes more stable and the feeling of being committed to the truth grows. If there are critical questions, the applicant will answer more openly on the one hand and on the other hand show clearer signals in case of attempts to deceive, which make it easier for the recruiter to recognize them and, depending on the interview strategy, to integrate them into the interview. If the recruiter succeeds in simultaneously maintaining the cooperative atmosphere and enabling the applicant to follow up in a face-saving manner, he can obtain information that is critical for his decision and make a more differentiated selection.

Recognize Intrinsic Motivation How does motivation arise? Unfulfilled needs lead to feelings of lack and motivate us to eliminate them through action. Once the goal has been achieved, motivation decreases again. In terms of their motivation in the job interview, applicants can thus be roughly divided into two types. The first group pursues the satisfaction of the lower three levels of Maslow’s pyramid of needs. Work serves them to fulfil basic physiological needs, safety needs and social needs. Put simply, people work in order to have a roof over their heads and enough to eat, as well as security in old age or in the event of illness, a place in society and sufficient opportunities when looking for a partner. In this case, the motivation in the application process is predominantly extrinsic: The goal is to find a secure job in order to earn money. The second group of applicants strives for fulfillment of the upper hierarchical levels and corresponds to the A-employees described by Jörg Knoblauch [41]. For them, work is a means to an end that enables them to succeed, grow, and self-actualize. The right company is a partner in this process to pursue higher goals that could not be achieved alone. The intrinsic motivation of this group leads to sustained commitment and usually to aboveaverage growth of the business. The first group has achieved their main goal after a successful application. If higher needs have not arisen in the meantime, their motivation decreases with each security level achieved, such as passing the probationary period or being offered a permanent contract. The second group, on the other hand, really starts working after a successful application. The critical quality objective in recruiting is therefore to identify and win over intrinsically motivated applicants and to spot those candidates, who are only extrinsically motivated. While intrinsic motivation is oriented towards growth and is based on the middle limbic level [42], which expresses itself non-verbally and eludes conscious access, [43] extrinsic motivation is externally fed and often oriented towards avoiding lack or averting sanctions [44]. There is an action incoherence between the means and ends of the action in extrinsic motivation [44]. This may be evidenced in the job interview by formally correct verbal responses, which are, however, not supported by congruent nonverbal communication. In the case of intrinsic motivation, the means and ends of the action are consistent with the

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deeper parts of our personality and result in congruent verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal communication. In response to the question “Why should we choose you?” the recruiter will either merely hear lip service, sometimes well rehearsed, or see additional bright eyes and similar nonverbal cues, described later, that enable him or her to more confidently identify intrinsically motivated applicants.

Access to Field Dynamic Recruiting In addition to professional qualifications, the composition of employees is a critical factor for the climate in the team and directly influences the creativity and productive potential of the group. If the new employee does not fit into the team in terms of personality and no common intersection can be reconciled with the dynamically developing field of group and operational goals, the recruiting success is short-lived. Eberhard Stahl builds the group field on the Riemann-Thomann model and describes how field dynamics develop, which psychological and group dynamic roles exist in it, and how individual group members settle into free roles in the group field [45]. If disputes arise between individual employees over the occupation of a role, these are played out under the surface of everyday work and affect the entire group in the process. The energy expended is missing from the operational performance process: creative, cooperative and productive collaboration can only be achieved once the overriding issues of the group have been clarified. Schulz von Thun describes eight different communication styles and their psychological implications [46]. An added value for recruiting is the possibility of locating the different styles in the Riemann-Thomann cross and thus integrating them into a field-dynamic recruiting. There are two ways to do this: On the written or verbal level, personality tests can be conducted and applicants can be located in the Riemann-Thomann cross. The non-verbal method presupposes a mastery of the Riemann-Thomann model and the various communication styles and enables the recruiter to locate candidates directly during the communication currently taking place. In this way, recruiting can be extended by an additional dimension without putting coveted applicants before their heads with lengthy tests. This approach is also already practiced in sales. For example, appropriately trained receptionists at the Luxembourg company Coplaning classify their customers and assign them a suitable contact person; the texts of the offers subsequently sent are also adapted to the individual type of customer [47].

Gain Insight into the Personality of the Applicant According to Jürgen Hesse and Hans Christian Schrader, the main task of the job interview is to gain insight into the personality (70%) of the applicant. This is followed by motivation (20%) and confirmation of professional knowledge (10%) [48]. In good times, counterproductive aspects of our personality do not come into play: we have sufficient reserves and

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Introduction

can present our “Sunday face”. However, in stressful situations of everyday working life, in demanding phases of change or when the workload is too high, the process of regression can set in psychologically [49]. In this, the organism “downshifts” and resorts to more stable wiring patterns. In doing so, it activates the lower, more egoistic levels of our personality: self-preservation takes precedence over species preservation, and now a completely different side sometimes emerges. However, in today’s business world, the more complex and dynamic the challenges become, the less they can be overcome by the individual [50]. As challenges grow, the survival of the entire organization depends on the synergistic effects of united collective efforts and the ability to cooperate in an organized manner. So, especially in critical times, it is crucial for the business to have the whole team united on board and not lose energy in selfish egocentric skirmishes. So it is a matter of recognizing and sorting out unsuitable personalities. The difficulty lies in the fact that this takes place in a situation in which the relevant sides of the personality do not show themselves directly and openly. Previous interviews took place mainly on the cognitive-communicative level, which, however, hardly gets to the personality of the applicant [51]. Intelligent applicants who have done their homework are convincing in this way in the interview, it is just that this does not provide any insight into their later behaviour at critical times. This is why resourceful HR managers are constantly coming up with new questions or methods to gain insights into the deeper structures; the recruiting method developed by the Dutch brewery Heinecken in 2013 was probably the most effective in the media: in addition to the holistic approach, it reached 500 million viewers on YouTube and increased the number of applications by 317% the following year [52]. In 2015, Gerhard Roth describes how our personality is neurobiologically composed of four levels, which are discussed in more detail in Chap. 3 [53]. Roth also proves that our personality is predominantly expressed non-verbally and that in extreme cases we can completely detach ourselves from our verbal communication [54]. Recruiters who consciously record the applicant’s non-verbal communication therefore gain much better insights into the applicant’s personality than those who restrict themselves to the verbal level.

Differentiated Analysis and Further Development of the Recruiting Process The listed topics show how complexly the quality of recruiting can be influenced by non-verbal communication. As long as there were enough new applicants, a poor quality of selection was rarely noticed or even questioned. Since the true quality of selection becomes apparent with a time lag, it is only in the case of repeated or serious miscasts or systematic controlling that recruiting errors come to the attention of those involved and the company is given the opportunity to question and develop its own processes. The decline in the number of applicants is usually attributed to the market, the applicants or the strong

References

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competition, although, as shown, there are certainly possibilities to influence this. Successes and failures in the selection process were all too often attributed to luck and bad luck. If one’s own processes are to be analyzed and further developed, this can only happen if one knows what one is doing. It is important to be aware of the relevant factors. Since the level of non-verbal communication by its nature takes place below conscious perception, it has been regularly neglected in the past despite its far-reaching influence. Companies and recruiters who expand their frame of reference to include this dimension of communication open up efficient possibilities for more differentiated analyses and a holistic further development of their own processes, which not only withstand the demands of the changed market situation, but also set new standards and can mean a critical competitive advantage for their own company in the battle for the best talents. This leads to the question of how nonverbal competence can best be developed and thus to the next chapter.

References 1. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 259–262: Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 2. Jack Nasher: Durchschaut; S. 191; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, 2010 3. http://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/wirtschaft/die-sieben-steine-eines-weisen-11128530.html Aufgerufen am 10.08.2018, 06:00 Uhr 4. Jim Collins: Good to great, S. 41; HarperCollins books, New York, 2001 5. http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/probezeit-als-jobtest-bloss-raus-hier-a-1050199.html aufgerufen am 10.08.2018; 06:17 Uhr 6. Jörg Knoblauch: Die Personalfalle: Schwaches Personalmanagement ruiniert Unternehmen; Campus, Frankfurt am Main, 2011; https://www.tempus.de/downloads/281.pdf aufgerufen am 10.08.2018; 6:34 Uhr 7. Jörg Knoblauch: Die besten Mitarbeiter finden und halten, Hörbuch, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2009 8. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mooresches_Gesetz Aufgerufen am 17.08.2018 9. Jörg Knoblauch: Das Geheimnis der Champions: Wie exzellente Unternehmen die besten Mitarbeiter finden und binden; Hörbuch, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 10. Martin Gaedt: Mythos Fachkräftemangel; S. 38–39; Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2014 11. Martin Gaedt: Mythos Fachkräftemangel, S. 161–207; Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2014 12. Erzählung eines Arbeitsmarktmanagers der Agentur für Arbeit Bautzen im Seminar, Meissen, 2017 13. http://www.spiegel.de/karriere/generation-y-die-gewinner-des-arbeitsmarkts-a-766883.html Aufgerufen am 11.08.2018 um 12:39 Uhr 14. Martin Gaedt: Mythos Fachkräftemangel; S. 161–207 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2014 15. Gerd Gigerenzer: Risiko, S. 79; C. Bertelsmann Verlag, München, 2013 16. Malcom Gladwell: Blink; Allen Lane, London, 2005

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17. Maja Storch: Das Geheimnis kluger Entscheidungen, Hörbuch, Argon Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2013 18. Gerd Gigerenzer: Risiko, S. 143; C. Bertelsmann Verlag, München, 2013 19. Gerd Gigerenzer: Risiko, S. 147–150; C. Bertelsmann Verlag, München, 2013 20. Ralph Dannhäuser (Hrsg): Praxishandbuch Social Media Recruiting, S. 485–487; Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden, 2015 21. Martin John Yate: Das erfolgreiche Bewerbungsgespräch, S. 9; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005 22. Friedemann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander reden:3; S. 365; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1998 23. Gesine Heeren: Neuronale Grundlagen der Verlustaversion, S. 7; Dissertation, Uni Bonn, 2018 24. Friedemann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander reden:3; S. 352; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1998 25. Albert Mehrabian: Nonverbal Communication, S. 182; Aldine Transaction, Piscataway, New Jersey, 2007 26. Ferenc Nagy: Lernscript Kommunikationsmodelle im Vergleich, S. 13; Campus Akademie, Lübeck, 2013 27. Vera F. Birkenbihl: Signale des Körpers, S. 19; mvg Verlag, München, 2001 28. Wolfgang Hopp: Das Erkennen von Hochleistungsmotivation im Bewerbungsgespräch, Diplomarbeit, Freiburg, 1992 29. Wolfgang Hopp: Das Erkennen von Hochleistungsmotivation im Bewerbungsgespräch, S. 142; Diplomarbeit, Freiburg, 1992 30. Siegfried Frey: Die Macht des Bildes; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 1999 31. Alexander Todorov: Face Value; Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2017 32. https://www.wiwo.de/erfolg/beruf/gallup-studie-fuehrungskraefte-sind-der-wahreproduktivitaetskiller/19552634.html aufgerufen am 19.08.2018 – 15:05 Uhr 33. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz, S. 24; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2010 34. Friedemann Schulz von Thun; Miteinander reden: 1; S. 187; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1981 35. Uwe Joachim Kemp, Vortrag: Lernen als Prozess zwischen neurowissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen und lernpädagogisch gestalteten Verfahren, Iphofen, 13.01.2016 36. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 365; Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 37. Eskil Burck: Neue Psychologie der Beeinflussung, S. 71; BoD, Norderstedt 2016 38. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 60; Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 39. Thalma Lobel: Du denkst nicht mit dem Kopf allein, S. 15; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2015 40. Jack Nasher: Durchschaut; S. 27; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, 2010 41. Jörg Knoblauch: Die besten Mitarbeiter finden und halten, S. 33; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2013 42. Gerhard Roth, Alicia Ryba: Coaching, Beratung und Gehirn; S. 335; Klett-Cotta; Stuttgart, 2016 43. Gerhard Roth, Alicia Ryba: Coaching, Beratung und Gehirn; S. 131; Klett-Cotta; Stuttgart, 2016 44. http://lexikon.stangl.eu/1951/extrinsische-motivation/, aufgerufen am 29.12.2018 45. Eberhard Stahl: Dynamik in Gruppen, S. 301, Beltz Verlag, Weinheim, 2012 46. Friedemann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander reden 2, S. 65–293; Rowohlt Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2013 47. Jörg Knoblauch: Das Geheimnis der Champions: Wie exzellente Unternehmen die besten Mitarbeiter finden und binden, 122–128; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 48. Jürgen Hesse, Hans Christian Schrader: Das erfolgreiche Vorstellungsgespräch; Hörbuch, Eichborn Lido, Frankfurt am Main, 2002

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49. Floyd Ruch, Philip Zimbardo: Lehrbuch der Psychologie. S. 368; Springer, BerlinHeidelberg, 1974 50. Peter Kruse: next practice: Erfolgreiches Management von Instabilität, S. 59; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2010 51. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 126; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 52. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼IaHU-0WQkBE Aufgerufen am 17.08.2018 53. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 116–122, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 54. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 139; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016

2

Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence

Abstract

This chapter describes different ways to develop one’s own nonverbal competence on the basis of learning psychology. A distinction is made between sending and receiving nonverbal signals and critical influencing factors are taken into account, which regularly occur as a bottleneck during development and make further progress more difficult. Various exercises serve as a basis for developing a more differentiated perception. Basic rules and regularities that non-verbal communication follows are described in more detail. Furthermore, critical factors that influence the classification and interpretation of non-verbal signals are explained. Finally, possibilities are described to develop both the ability to interpret unknown signals and the nonverbal transmission competence and to integrate them into daily practice.

After Chap. 1 dealt with the influence of nonverbal communication on today’s recruiting, this chapter describes ways to increase one’s own nonverbal competence. With the help of learning psychology, this development can be designed systematically, individually and efficiently: Systems always grow to a critical bottleneck; if this is not removed, it prevents further development [1]. First of all, therefore, one’s own position should be determined and the individual bottleneck identified in order to then eliminate it. The first step is often the most difficult: Before the applicability of learning psychology methods, the most critical bottleneck is often the lack of willingness to change. Due to the plasticity of our brain, individual grids are formed from our habits on a neuronal level, which shape our experience and our perception. Daily actions based on these habits shape our character, reinforce these grids and thus lead to a self-reinforcing cycle. The human organism prefers efficiency and loves routines because they require little energy.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_2

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Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence

Accordingly, it is resistant to change, even if it brings long-term benefits after a short-term expenditure of energy. Good trainers manage to make their participants grasp a truth: Work in practice has shown that self-made experiences best help to expand one’s own views, especially if they are accompanied by aha moments and supported by study results. Even if the access in the book comes through written words, the non-verbal competence is developed most sustainably when it is experienced by oneself through practical exercises and anchored in the body. The exercises serve this purpose and thus form the basis for dissolving and expanding old patterns.

2.1

Bottlenecks in the Development of Non-Verbal Competence

The potential bottlenecks that typically impede the development of nonverbal competence are aligned with the updated version of Bloom’s learning goal taxonomy Fig. 2.1, which describes the typical six-step path that qualitative competence development generally follows [2].

Stage 1: Know Possible bottlenecks: professional deficits, lack of knowledge of the elements and possible meanings of non-verbal communication. "

Remedy: In Chaps. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 the non-verbal signals relevant for recruiting are named and explained.

Stage 2: Understanding Possible bottlenecks: Lack of understanding of evolutionary-historical, cultural, biological and socio-psychological contexts and their influences on communication. "

Remedy: Chap. 3 describes the various influences on which non-verbal communication is based. For the individual signals, their causes and backgrounds are described in order to deepen understanding.

2.1

Bottlenecks in the Development of Non-Verbal Competence

27

Fig. 2.1 Learning goal taxonomy according to Benjamin Bloom

Stage 3: Skill Possible bottlenecks: Neglect of the knowledge gained in practice. Exaggeration: Too much is interpreted on the basis of individual signals. Body language is observed too obviously, the non-verbal signals sent are emphasised too much. Thus, these intrude into the conscious realm of the communication taking place, prompting withdrawal behaviors or interactions that lead to more complex higher order communication loops. Lack of ability to perceive very brief, subtle and complex nonverbal signals. "

Remedy: Ways to integrate the elements covered into your own communication and selection process are described at the end of each chapter. In developing nonverbal competence, perception is a critical key skill. In the chapter of the same name, relevant elements of perception are described and exercises are shown to improve them effectively.

Stage 4: Analysis Possible bottlenecks: Lack of ability to interpret new, even unknown signals in a manner appropriate to the situation and role. Lack of ability to shift inwardly to the meta-level and to follow the conversation from a holistic perspective.

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Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence

Remedy: An effective possibility is the exchange with trained colleagues after joint, structured or partially structured recruiting interviews, as well as the joint evaluation of recorded Skype interviews. A rarely used but very effective possibility is to conduct an interview simulation with departing employees in the context of outplacement training. If this is not possible in your own company due to personal interdependencies, the interview simulation could be carried out in cooperation with a partner company. In this case, the recruiter can describe his observations and interpretations to the participant after the interview and, in a joint dialogue, find out which of his observations he interpreted accurately and for which there were other influences that were beyond his knowledge. In this way, one’s own frame of reference is successively expanded. The inner shift to the meta-level and the holistic observation requires practice and awareness as well as the refinement of one’s own ability to perceive. Section 2.4 describes a method for developing an understanding of the meaning of unknown signals.

Stage 5: Evaluation Possible bottlenecks: Lack of feeling for the effect of one’s own communication. Lack of reflection and self-actualisation, lack of sensitivity for the coherent use of non-verbal communication. "

Remedy: Regular feedback sessions, sustained and regular exercises, video analysis, internalization of a deeper understanding of roles, situations, and goals, selfclearance exercises, and an understanding of interdisciplinary influences from adjacent disciplines all help to develop this skill.

Stage 6: Creation Possible bottlenecks: Lack of freedom, willingness or perseverance to change individual behaviour sustainably, relapse into old communication patterns. Lack of willingness to develop individual standards and processes at the organizational level. "

Remedy: This point requires interest and openness to personality and consciousness development, which usually goes hand in hand with the development of non-verbal competence. Dealing with setbacks that arise in the course of change processes and the decision to initiate one’s own research in this area or to develop methods requires, in addition to broad professional experience, in-depth communicative competence

2.2

The Four Phases of Learning

29

and a sufficiently high level of dissatisfaction with the status quo or proactive initiation of development. If time and financial resources are then made available at the organizational level, this bottleneck can also be eliminated. On a personal level, the given framework for action often prevents the development or trying out of new behaviours. Here, for example, theatre workshops or participation in an improvisational theatre group can help.

2.2

The Four Phases of Learning

Independently of Benjamin Bloom’s qualitative development, we go through four phases in the acquisition of competencies, which Albert Bandura first described [3]. In part it happens as if by itself, in other cases we have to travel a long way to acquire a new skill. Bandura distinguishes between two dimensions in which learning takes place. The first, horizontally oriented dimension describes the tension between the poles of incompetence and competence, the second, vertically oriented dimension describes the tension between unawareness and awareness of one’s level of competence. The interweaving of the two fields of tension results in four quadrants and thus four learning phases, which we pass through on the way from the level of unconscious incompetence to that of unconscious competence (Fig. 2.2). The learning path begins at the bottom left, in the quadrant of unconscious incompetence (phase 1): We act incompetently, but are not aware of it. If we now become aware of our incompetence, the learning curve enters the upper, left quadrant, that of conscious incompetence (phase 2): We notice that we make mistakes. This gives us the opportunity to willfully correct our behavior in order to move into the upper right quadrant, where we consciously do things competently (Phase 3). This still feels unfamiliar at the beginning: Old habits have to be discarded and you have to regularly reflect on yourself and push yourself to behave competently, which sometimes requires discipline and perseverance. In addition, it is exhausting to continuously focus concentration and awareness on processes that were otherwise performed automatically and effortlessly. Feedback from a third party and an environment that has already gone this step or is going along together can help here. With increasing routine, the new habits consolidate and finally our actions happen automatically: We have entered the lower right quadrant, the area of unconscious competence (phase 4). Some of you may remember your driving school days. Back then, the instructor helped us with the often laborious transition from phase one to phase 1 and from phase 2 to phase 3. However, we only acquired the unconscious competence of phase 4 afterwards after having driven many kilometres ourselves. If we make a mistake while driving a car, we notice it directly, as well as in spoken language. As described by Watzlawick [4], verbal communication happens in the conscious domain, while nonverbal communication happens in the unconscious domain. Thus, in contrast to the development of other skills,

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Fig. 2.2 The four phases of learning according to Bandura

such as driving, the development of nonverbal communication is made more complex by the different levels at which communication generally takes place. Due to the analogical nature of its elements, nonverbal communication is more difficult to put into words than verbal communication [5]. Therefore, it is due to both the nature of communication and our way of learning that those affected often do not become aware for years of what it is that causes communication-related disruptions and suboptimal results, both at work and in private life. This book is intended to pick up the reader in phase 1, guide him through phase 2 and enable him to enter phase 3. For this purpose, the various non-verbal signals, regularities, causes and implications are described and development possibilities are shown. The process of learning body language leads to the formation of new structures in the brain and triggers a positive spiral: The more pronounced neural connections improve the processing of non-verbal signals and enable a refined perception, increased attention and differentiated mindfulness. As a result, we successively expand our own frame of reference, gradually develop the ability to communicate holistically, increase the quality of our implicitly made predictions and open up expanded possibilities for action. This reduces stress in the interview and enables further improvement in our perception and processing of non-verbal signals, as well as greater control over communication in recruiting. Recruiting results improve and the company operates more successfully in the market through a more suitable workforce. Pressure and turnover decrease, while the internal climate, external perception and, as a result, both the number and quality of new applicants increase. The more productive, more positive field facilitates the further development of one’s own skills and takes the positive spiral to the next level.

2.4

2.3

Developing Your Own Perception

31

The Rediscovery of Non-Verbal Communication

The development of non-verbal competence is a mixture of acquiring new knowledge and skills, becoming aware of previously unconscious behaviour and remembering previous knowledge. Before we began to speak, all our communication was non-verbal and paraverbal. Anyone who observes how children listen to whether their parents are really serious about their “no” or whether there is not still a possibility to follow up recognizes: the nonand paraverbal level provides them with the answer. As physically inferior and equipped with less knowledge and possibilities of action, children are dependent on additional information in order to assert themselves in the best possible way when dealing with adults. Intuitively, they make use of the 80% of communication that matters most. In the course of socialisation, however, they are gradually led to the factual level of verbal content. Skills that we have mastered before are easier to reactivate later than unfamiliar content. “Learning” body language is like getting back on a bike after a few years of driving or picking up the sports equipment or instrument of youth: It feels unfamiliar at first, but as we practice, we gradually tap into our former skills and expand them with our newly acquired knowledge. This is also necessary: Since childhood learning took place on the model, it may well be that in our childhood we adopted one or the other counterproductive behavior from one of our caregivers, which we now want to correct. In infancy, we communicate predominantly through body language, and in this phase also to a large extent with the mother. Accordingly, the female organism has developed in such a way that it can optimally perform this important task of communicating with the offspring. Examples of this are the perceptive faculty and the angle of vision [6]. Females send significantly more and more sophisticated nonverbal signals and their reading accuracy for body language was more than twice that of untrained males in studies [7]. Female recruiters are therefore likely to come across content more often that was already intuitively clear to them, and on average they will find it easier to integrate what is described in the book into their communication portfolio. In return, male recruiters can expect a significantly higher gain for future interviews from the development of their non-verbal communication and are in no way subject to biological limitations. Various studies prove for a wide range of competencies that practice can close the gap to the opposite sex. To this end, various possibilities are described in the following chapters.

2.4

Developing Your Own Perception

The holistic nature of non-verbal communication described later implies that we send meaningful signals to our interlocutors with our whole body. Without knowing where to direct our perception and without practice, we regularly overlook those signals that express the real wishes of our fellow human beings and indicate the quality of the relationship level. In the transition to the second phase of learning, what was previously unconscious is lifted

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into consciousness. The basis for this is the development of the ability to perceive consciously and the knowledge of what this should be directed towards. Unconsciously, we already register the body language of our conversation partners. However, by becoming aware of it, new connections are created and strengthened in the brain, which enables us to process non-verbal signals with increasing precision and differentiation and to trigger the positive spiral described above. Approximately 100 megabytes of data [8] flood our brains per second, as much as the text from 25 Bibles. However, that is 200,000 times as much as we can consciously process (about 0.5 kilobytes, roughly one paragraph). Our brain then began to automatically filter and simplify the incoming flow of information. The selection of what we perceive is influenced by various factors such as our experiences, expectations, attitudes and interests. The ability to read body language actually describes the ability to recognize differences and not to pass over them. Since in everyday life we often tend to neglect or even ignore non-verbal signals in favor of content expression, the first and often greatest challenge is the willingness to consciously perceive body language. Fittingly, Sherlock Holmes’ answer to the question about the secret of his success: “I have learned to perceive what I see.” [9].

Influences on Our Perception: Preventing Perceptual Errors As Gerhard Roth describes, perceptual ability is a central element of human intelligence [10]. Perception is an active process that can be developed with relatively little effort and is a central step in improving nonverbal competence. Perception is divided into the four domains of selection, accentuation, structuring, and organization [11]. From these four domains, various influences can be derived that can stand in the way of or promote goaldirected perception. In addition to the obstacles described in the context of learning taxonomy and various cultural influences described in Chap. 3, four thematic areas emerge. 1. Intuitive errors of perception due to psychological simplification processes A more in-depth treatment of the interesting psychological influences of behavioural economics would go beyond the scope of this paper. The best-known causes of perception and decision errors are, for example, the halo effect, in which an attractive appearance is transferred to character and personal traits, the Pygmalion effect, in which one’s attitude has a highly significant influence on the outcome, or the primacy and recency effects, in which the first and last impression exert a stronger influence on the assessment than the information in the middle of the conversation. In addition, dozens of other heuristics exist that influence our perception and decision [12]. In terms of objective decision making, the goal should be to provide each applicant with as comparable an environment as possible in the interview. The biggest challenge here is often not to succumb to the seduction of first impressions. If this happens, our subsequent selective perception intensifies. We tend to give greater weight to signals that support our first impression and to overlook, relativize or

2.4

Developing Your Own Perception

33

reinterpret information that is contrary to it, or to include it to a lesser extent in the formation of our attitude. In the chapters on first impressions (Chap. 4), territorial behaviour (Chap. 5), posture (Chap. 6) and movement (Chap. 7), the most relevant influences in this respect are discussed in more detail. 2. Stress Stress triggers a protective mechanism that shifts the selection of our perceptions to content that could harm us, causing us to overlook opportunities and potential growth [13]. Our posture, facial expressions, and movements directly interact with our internal milieu, influencing our hormonal setting and thus the orientation of our perception [14]. A contracting, diminishing, inward-looking, closed and tense posture increases cortisol levels and one’s stress level, while opposite movements and postures achieve the opposite effect. Breathing is also an effective way to influence our stress level. All three topics are discussed in more detail in the chapters on posture (Chap. 6), movement (Chap. 7) and breathing (Chap. 12). Our endocrine system is divided into two parts that regulate the excitation of the organism: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system. While the sympathetic nervous system is the activating side that prompts the fight and flight response and activates the stress axis, the parasympathetic nervous system activates the relaxation response and the recovery and digestive response. Figuratively speaking, the sympathetic nervous system can be seen as the accelerator and the parasympathetic nervous system as the brake. Central to this is that only one of the two can be active at a time. The sympathetic nervous system is associated with increased oxygenation and a shallow breathing rhythm focused on inhalation, while the parasympathetic nervous system removes more stale air via a deep breathing rhythm focused on exhalation. When we focus on consciously exhaling, we activate the parasympathetic nervous system and relieve stress. Various anxiety and trauma therapies use such techniques successfully, and the proven positive effects of meditation, yoga, and similar methods are also largely based on conscious regulation of breathing [15]. Of course, the techniques also work in stressful everyday working life and their advantage is that we can use them everywhere and unobtrusively. To reduce stress, you should establish a breathing rhythm that is approximately twice as long for deep exhalation as for inhalation. A breathing rhythm in the 0.1 Hz range is ideal, i.e. ten seconds for one cycle, which is divided into approx. 3.3 s for inhalation and approx. 6.6 s for exhalation [16]. Put simply, when stress threatens to overwhelm you or you want to calm down after a hectic situation, you should focus on a conscious, long exhalation. As a result, the coherence of the heart rate variability also increases, which further improves perception [16]. The recruiter can try to positively regulate his internal stress environment beyond the reciprocal influence of his own body language and thereby improve his chances of better recognizing the potential of the applicant that is of interest to the company. In addition to

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the methods described above, autogenic training and biofeedback training to improve heart rate variability are other effective ways of counteracting stress. 3. Undifferentiated orientation of perception, ignorance of relevant signals, lack of routine in their perception Studies by Harvard psychologist Nancy Etcoff show that people who attach less importance to the verbal channel are significantly better at registering deception than normal interviewers [17]. So what should recruiters look out for in the interview?

The Duty and the Art of Communication Michael Grinder distinguishes the orientation of perception on four levels and describes the first two as the duty and the last two as the art of communication. Levels 1 and 2 form the verbal and non-verbal content, what and how something is said. Levels 3 and 4 form the perception of proper timing and receptivity: when should I say something and to what degree is my counterpart ready to receive which of my messages? [18].

Qualitative Criteria of Systemic Communication Against the background of systemic communication, the conversation can be differentiated according to various qualitative criteria: • Is there a cooperative atmosphere or are the interlocutors in competition with each other? [19] • What is the constellation of rhythms between the communication parties? [20] • What is the connection (rapport) between the interlocutors? [21] Whether a cooperative atmosphere prevails in the conversation can be seen by everyone involved, who consciously looks at the situation from this point of view and asks himself the question: Are we acting together or against each other right now? The common rhythm associated with this is described in Chap. 7. The strength of the connection (rapport) between the interlocutors can be perceived predominantly on the basis of matching postures, reflections of facial expressions, a synchronous breathing rhythm of the interlocutors, and on the basis of common movements and a harmonized rhythm. Their concrete characteristics and implications are discussed in more detail in the chapters on posture (Chap. 6) and movement (Chap. 7). With regard to a holistic view of the interlocutor, the following criteria enable a targeted orientation of perception towards his or her qualitative experience of the conversation:

2.4

• • • • • •

Developing Your Own Perception

35

Well-being: Does the interlocutor feel comfort or discomfort? [22] Involvement: Does he show interest or disinterest? Tension level: Is he relaxed or tense? [23] Degree of opening: Does it open or close? Speed: Are his movements fast or slow? Control: Are the movements spontaneous or controlled?

Three Levels of Nonverbal Communication Johannes Galli [24] distinguishes according to three levels to categorize nonverbal signals according to the degree to which the sender is aware of them: • Head (mostly conscious) • Torso and arms (semi and preconscious) • Legs and feet (mostly unconscious) As distance from the head increases, our awareness and control of both our own sent and perceived nonverbal signals in others decreases. Facial signals (with the exception of micromimics) are the most controlled and most often used to deceive. For example, the statement that one will get in touch after a conversation may be accompanied by a friendly smile, although it is already inwardly certain that there is no further interest. However, such white lies also represent a form of social putty and should therefore not be hastily condemned. With our gestures, on the other hand, we communicate in the preconscious realm and send signals about our attitude that, in case of doubt, reveal more than words uttered at the same time. For example, in the discussion about a planned project, after some back and forth, verbal apparent agreement may finally be expressed for the sake of peace, while the hands disparagingly wipe dust off the sleeve, sweep across the tabletop or carelessly throw the project documents into the corner of the desk, thus communicating the actual attitude towards the topic under discussion. Normally we are completely unaware of those non-verbal signals that take place below the belt. The signals of the legs and feet therefore provide unfiltered and usually very truthful additional information about the inner state of the other person. Joe Navarro even describes them as the most honest part of our body [25]. Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen filmed the different levels of a depressed patient who wanted to be discharged from the hospital and pretended to be cheerful and friendly. Those observers who saw only the woman’s face actually thought she was cheerful and friendly, while those who saw only the body had the impression that she was tense, nervous and mentally disturbed [26].

In conversation, signals from the individual levels can complement or contradict each other. In the case of contradictory signals, the parts of the body further away from the head

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should be given greater significance. Of course, in recruiting we cannot obviously look at the gestures or feet. We register very precisely the gaze behaviour of the counterpart and if the applicant feels observed, a counterproductive effect results: stress increases and the effort to please displaces natural expression. Chapter 6 on posture while sitting describes how different foot positions affect the posture of the upper body and can be seen when the table prevents a direct view of the feet. It is important to create the appropriate setting, to observe discreetly, and, since relevant signals show up in key situations, to pay attention to them precisely then. The following describes which skills are required for this. 4. Lack of perception in terms of visual acuity, peripheral perception and the perception of microexpressions To observe discreetly, the ability to perceive peripherally should be increased. An effective exercise takes only a minute, and those who do it regularly, ideally once or twice a day for the first few weeks, can significantly improve their ability to perceive signals that are at the edge of their field of vision. "

Exercise: Developing Peripheral Perception [27]

Please stand in such a way that there is enough space around you in every direction to stretch out your arms undisturbed. Now stretch both arms straight out in front and point the thumbs upwards so that they are approximately at eye level. Now slowly move both arms sideways apart, wiggling your thumbs as you do so. Keep both thumbs in view while continuing to look forward. When the maximum is reached and the thumbs are barely perceptible, you should move the arms forward and backward a little to adjust your current threshold of peripheral awareness. Now move the arms slightly up and down in a circular motion to train the limits of your peripheral perception in the vertical range as well. "

The mind is willing, but usually we tend to forget such exercises in everyday life. Perhaps you now want to add a daily reminder to your smartphone or Outlook calendar? If you then do the exercise briefly each time, you will benefit in the long run.

Incidentally, male readers can benefit most from this exercise; women, for biological reasons, already have better peripheral perception [28].

Peripheral Perception and Defocused Observation You may have noticed during the exercise that your gaze loses its focus as the distance between your thumbs increases. Even though they are two different skills, peripheral

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Developing Your Own Perception

37

awareness and defocused observation are related. Peripheral and defocused observing differ as follows: Peripheral perception is a skill that, once developed, permanently expands the range of our perception. This improves our ability to detect gross changes at the edge of our field of vision from the corner of our eye, such as a realignment of the tops of our feet. Defocused observation, on the other hand, is a technique we consciously activate to improve our perception of microexpressions. The aim of both is to expand perception in order to detect additional non-verbal signals from the interlocutor. In peripheral vision, however, we do not look directly in the direction in which we perceive the signals of the interviewer. For example, we can sit at a right angle to the applicant, review some documents together, and at the same time perceive their body changes in peripheral vision. The defocused gaze can be used when we stand in front of our interviewee and look him in the face. As we focus more on their eyes, our ability to detect other signals is limited. With the help of defocused observation, we release our gaze without averting it and can thus better grasp the interlocutor in its entirety [29]. When we slightly defocus our gaze, a single aspect is seen less sharply, but we keep the whole picture in mind. This allows us to detect a brief twitching of the corners of the mouth or a tightening of the lips, even though we are looking our conversation partner in the eye. However, defocused observation should be used with a certain amount of tact: If the gaze is defocused for too long or too intensively, the expression of our eyes changes because they move less. If this is noticed by the other person, he may get the impression that we are preoccupied with other thoughts and are no longer following what he is saying. Therefore, we should regularly switch back to direct eye contact in order to give our conversation partner our undivided attention. The defocused gaze belongs to the complex of the parasympathetic nervous system and can therefore also be used to consciously activate it and reduce stress. "

Exercise: Defocused Gaze

To defocus your gaze, fixate on a point in your mind that is slightly in front of or behind the person you are talking to. This will make the person slightly blurrier, but you will be able to see micro-expressions better due to the expanded field of vision.

Improve the Perception of Microexpressions Microexpressions are mimic signals that only occur for a fraction of a second and of which the sender himself is not aware. As a result, they cannot be manipulated and open up a brief but unfiltered insight into the emotions of the interlocutor. Because they only show up briefly, they are usually overlooked by untrained observers. The topic of microexpressions is explored in more depth in Chap. 10. There, a partner exercise is also described to improve their perception. Those who would like to increase their ability to perceive without

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a partner can take online training courses or seminars with various providers such as Paul Ekman, Dirk Eilert or Jan-Christoph Wartmann. In addition, it has been shown that people who meditate regularly are better able to recognize microexpressions [30]. In addition, training our own facial expressiveness improves our ability to perceive and correctly interpret micro facial expressions. When interpreting the facial expressions of others, we unconsciously imitate them for a fraction of a second (about one third of a second) and thus activate the so-called facial feedback in order to gain a better insight into the inner world of the interlocutor through the feelings associated with the facial expression [30]. This imitation process (mimicry) can occur more accurately the more flexible the facial muscles are. Greater flexibility of the facial muscles thus increases empathy and the ability to communicate empathically. One way to train the facial muscles is to consciously tense the muscles most relevant for different expressions and to observe oneself with a hand mirror. "

Exercise: Increasing Your Own Mimic Expressiveness

For the following exercise you should take some time and rest, about 10–15 min. Each facial expression should first be held for about 20–30 s, then feel for a few seconds whether sensations or feelings still arise in other parts of your body (for example, abdomen or neck). Some of the muscles are not easy to activate at the beginning, if you subtly help a little with your fingertips, you will increase the awareness of the corresponding area. Eilert recommends the following facial expression training: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Eyebrow contraction Raising the eyebrows Elevation of the inner sides of the eyebrows Elevation of the upper eyelid Lower eyelid straining Wrinkling one’s nose Elevation of the upper lip Lip squeeze Pursing of the lips like a kissing mouth Advancing the lower lip by lifting the chin Pressing in the two corners of the mouth Pulling down the corners of the mouth Lateral pulling apart of the two corners of the mouth Lifting the corners of the mouth to smile

Don’t be discouraged if an expression doesn’t work right away, with increasing practice your skills will improve. Advanced students can try to combine as many of the listed movements as possible [31].

2.5

Basic Principles of Non-Verbal Communication

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Discovering the Meaning of Unknown Signals The most common signals that appear in the context of recruiting are described in the later chapters, but we still encounter signals whose meaning we do not yet know. The following exercise enables us to develop an understanding of the meaning of previously unknown signals. "

Exercise: Interpret Unknown Signals

An effective way to gradually improve your own nonverbal competence and increase your understanding of even unknown or difficult-to-interpret nonverbal signals is to raise awareness of the unconscious process of mimicry. To do this, you should perform the previously observed facial expression, hand position or gesture yourself and hold it for one to two minutes. It is important to mentally put yourself in the situation again and to remember the context in which the signal was observed. The associated feelings then arise via the facial and physical feedback. These may be vague at first, yet focused mindfulness gradually leads to a deeper understanding of their meaning. Initially, focus attention inward to better concentrate on the feelings that arise. If done repeatedly, a mirror may help to provide an additional external visual impression. Depending on the complexity and strangeness, several repetitions may be necessary, but as a rule, after a gesture or facial expression has been perceived in three different situations and with several interlocutors and then consciously reworked, its meaning opens up and can now be put into words.

2.5

Basic Principles of Non-Verbal Communication

After perception has been improved and targeted, it is necessary to structure and accentuate the processing of what is perceived. If we want to increase the quality of our interpretation of nonverbal signals, we have to observe some rules and basic principles that form the grammar of nonverbal communication, so to speak. 1. Determine baseline: What behavior is normal for this person? Every person is different, our temperament is shaped by a wide variety of genetic and epigenetic factors as well as pre- and postnatal and early childhood experiences [32]. While a phlegmatic type rarely becomes hectic, a choleric type finds it difficult to calm down. Comparable to a scale, which first has to be calibrated in order to provide meaningful weighing results later, it is necessary to first record the normal behavior of the interlocutor in order to be able to accurately classify the significance of individual signals. Without this

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baseline, there is no reference value to which individual signals can be related in order to determine their significance. 2. Observe holism Non-verbal communication takes place holistically. Descartes’ dualistic approach of separating mind and body has had a lasting influence on our Western thinking, but it cannot stand up to the new findings of neurobiology. Thinking, acting and feeling take place holistically and influence each other [33]. Humans have about 650 different muscles. To consciously control these simultaneously and in a coordinated manner to feign expression and achieve an intended effect is impossible or almost impossible. Our body directly expresses the emerging desires of our unconscious personality and is only inhibited by our socialized self, which is connected to the preconscious. This natural expression is too harmonious and fluid not to be disturbed in its wholeness via conscious influence. If the inner setting does not correspond to what is to be expressed on the outside, subtle delays, tensions or expressions that begin too quickly or end too abruptly result. If the impulses for planned behavior triggered by the body are suppressed by our socialized self, tension arises. This tension, insofar as it is not completely suppressed and repressed – which Sigmund Freud described as one of the causes of later neuroses and other illnesses – seeks its way and dissipates elsewhere in the body [34]. Where and how this repressed tension expresses itself depends on context, individual disposition, and personal habits. However, awareness of the holistic nature of communication and refined perception make it possible to register signals that occur more consciously and to take them into account in communication. What applies to the individual also applies to the entire field of communication. As Paul Watzlawick [35] describes, communication is interpoint, i.e., circular, without a conscious beginning and end – the interactions are too complex and dynamic: Words and movements of one interlocutor condition those of the other and vice versa. The result is an interconnectedness that can only be adequately grasped under holistic and systemic aspects if one wants to do justice to the subjectivity of the individual actors and the unconscious dynamics of the interaction. Against this background, the recruiter should see himself as part of a communication field which he both helps to shape, but whose effects he is also exposed to and has perhaps already experienced in other situations in the form of peer pressure. In this field, one’s own inner clarity strengthens one’s resistance to disruptions that occur and one’s own influence on goal achievement. Advanced communication should therefore go beyond the perception of individual signals and signal chains and embrace the character of the entire field. Since he himself is part of the field, his own whole body serves as an organ of perception. Those who increase their perception and awareness of their own body improve their ability to grasp and cultivate the communication that takes place from a holistic point of view. Sensitivity and the ability to differentiate between the signals of one’s own body can be developed through methods such as meditation, yoga, Tai Chi,

2.5

Basic Principles of Non-Verbal Communication

41

Qigong or Pilates. A cognitive possibility to increase the awareness of one’s own body is the neurolanguage developed by Robert Masters [36]. If the communication field is consciously perceived, it can be recorded in a more differentiated way on the basis of various interpersonal criteria. In addition to the criteria described above, perception can be directed towards the following aspects: • • • •

Honesty: Does the interlocutor seem sincere or deceptive? Congruence: Are the nonverbal signals congruent or incongruent with what is said? Effect: Do the signals leave a positive, neutral or negative impression? Intention: Is it a joke or irony?

3. Tells, clusters and signal chains: It takes more than one swallow to make a summer When interpreting non-verbal signals, there is a danger of evaluating individual signals too strongly or of inferring a direct meaning only on the basis of a single signal. This interpretation of individual signals only succeeds in the context of consciously sent emblems, i.e., signals with an unambiguous message, for example when the index finger is tapped on the forehead. But even emblems only acquire their full meaning through an accompanying charming smile or a contemptuous facial expression. Individual non-verbal signals are called tells and are comparable to words on the verbal level. Words also take on different meanings depending on the context and only several together form a meaningful sentence. Although individual tells may be more meaningful than others, they should, like individual words in a sentence, always be interpreted in conjunction, as a whole cluster. It takes more than one swallow to make a summer and more than one non-verbal signal to make a message. Only several signals of the cluster that point in the same direction form a signal chain and strengthen the expressiveness of the entire nonverbal message. However, the individual signal offers an indication of a possible topic that exists in the background, unspoken and often unconscious to the sender. In this way, it opens up the possibility in the conversation to compare it with the context in which it occurred and to once again illuminate, put into perspective or clarify possible underlying issues. 4. Timing: Consider temporal relevance Once a signal has been registered, the question arises as to which standards should be applied to its interpretation. In addition to the significance of the signal chains described and various contextual factors, the temporal proximity in which a signal occurs forms a yardstick for its authenticity. Horst Rückle describes the stimulus-response time, the length of time that occurs between stimulus and natural nonverbal response, as a maximum of 2.5 s [37]. Due to their high authenticity, signals that occur within this time span in response to a stimulus are of particular interest to the person conducting the dialogue.

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Since these signals are sent unconsciously, they have a high truth content due to their authenticity. It is important to note here that internal triggers such as memories or thoughts on another subject can also trigger a reaction. However, since these are usually accompanied by changes in the direction of gaze, the trained observer has good opportunities to distinguish between them in this respect as well. If the recruiter is aware of the subtle signals of the interlocutor, he can keep the relevant context in mind and react promptly and adequately before the interview climate changes permanently. Individual signals and potential sources of interference are discussed in more detail in the chapters on rhythm (Chap. 7) and territory (Chap. 5). 5. Consider context: How does the behavior fit the setting? In addition to the temporal context, the relationship of nonverbal signals to the situation and context represents a critical variable in their interpretation. In order to grasp the truth of the situation described by Schulz von Thun [38] and to interpret body language reliably, several signals should first be recognized promptly, collected, and then placed in relation to the corresponding frame. Eilert [39], following Ekman, explains seven ways through which context influences nonverbal communication. Contextual Factors of Non-Verbal Communication 1. Nature of the conversation 2. Nature and history of the relationship 3. Transmitter-receiver switch 4. Source of the trigger 5. Congruence 6. Personality 7. Culture The nature of the interview remains relatively constant in recruiting, although variations may occur due to changing labor markets and the varying pressures of filling key or bottleneck positions, for example. In general, through their real-world experience, hiring managers usually have a good sense of which interview behaviors are the norm in which situations. Even with the nature and history of the relationship, however, prior contact can affect communication and thus the objectivity of recruiters. The transmitter–receiver switch differentiates according to whether nonverbal signals show up while the interviewer is speaking or while they are listening. The source of the trigger determines whether signals occur in response to the partner or are triggered by the partner’s own memory and thoughts. The congruence between verbal, para-verbal and non-verbal signals was explained at the beginning of this chapter, but congruence within the non-verbal level also provides additional information about the significance of individual signals. For example, do

2.6

Developing Your Own Body Language

43

opening signals go hand in hand with signals showing interest, do signal chains form and reinforce each other, or do individual nonverbal signals contradict each other, for example a polite smile with a retreating or turning away upper body? As described, the more unconscious a signal is, the more meaningful it becomes, since the probability that it is being sent deliberately with manipulative intent decreases. The influence of culture is discussed in more detail in Chap. 3. As described in the section on normal behaviour, personality is an elementary criterion in the assessment of non-verbal communication. There are, on the one hand, calmer types and, on the other hand, more impulsive types, and, in addition, the pressure on applicants varies according to their personal situation. The first goal in the interview should therefore be to help the applicant to reduce his situational nervousness and to find his normal behaviour.

2.6

Developing Your Own Body Language

In addition to the “background noise” of our personality, four main areas shape our expression: our inner attitude, the situation (how we perceive it and locate ourselves in it), and our thinking and feeling. With regard to the inner attitude, the self-image and role perception of the recruiter 2.0 form critical variables for the body language he or she sends. Although the various ways described to improve perception enable the recruiter to effectively improve his own non-verbal communication, they also bring with them a new challenge: If rejecting signals, such as contemptuous micro-mimics, are perceived in the interview that were previously overlooked, it is important not to withdraw or feel rejected, but to integrate them. If this does not succeed and the recruiter reacts in a disgruntled manner, the psychological dynamics that get in his way lower his professionalism [40]. For one’s own expression, the principle of wholeness described above represents a key quantity: Our thoughts form a real quantity [41] for the body, which directs it. If we imagine something beautiful, this leads to relaxation and, conversely, imagining negative content entails a tightening of the body. A clear motive and a clear positioning to the communication situation determine a clear body language and lead to authenticity in the sense of a correspondence of outer and inner attitude. Against this background, Konstantin Stanislawski instructed his actors to clarify for themselves the why and thus the reasons, motivation and intentions they associated with a role. The guiding questions were: Who am I? What am I doing? What am I doing it for? Why am I doing something? Those who clarify these questions for themselves in relation to the role of the recruiter 2.0 or before important interviews enter into them more consciously and thus form the basis for convincing on a holistic level. "

The questions “Why am I having this conversation?”, “What do I want to achieve with it?”, “What inner attitude do I associate with it?” may seem trivial at first glance, but the conscious confrontation with them and their

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reflected, ideally written answers often open up the necessary insights to recognise and solve one’s own blockages and thus eliminate the source of unconscious conversation disturbances. Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 each contain a sub-chapter dealing with the company’s own options for designing the various communication elements.

Increase Your Own Empathy If we first consciously perceive, only then interpret and then check the correctness of our interpretation, we gradually train and improve our ability to intuitively assess a conversation situation and sharpen our gut feeling. The more empathy a person acquires for his or her own emotional world, the better he or she will be able to empathize with others. It has been proven that not only do feelings cause the corresponding facial and bodily expressions, but that conversely our body posture and facial expressions also trigger corresponding feelings [42]. Thus, if we mirror our counterpart’s facial expressions and body posture, we find it easier to empathize with them. Imitation is an automatic empathic process that arises from the so-called mirror neurons, which fire in our own brains when an action is observed in a person with whom we have related and then trigger, for example, the contagious yawn. The subtle mimicry simultaneously signals to the other person that we are tuning in to resonate with each other. This improves the relationship, and the sympathy that the latter feels for us increases [43]. Men in particular, who usually display fewer facial expressions, can provide some support for this expression. However, it is important to mirror appropriately and adequately to the situation and the feeling of the other person. The subtle reinforcement of natural mimicry should not enter the consciousness of the counterpart and in no case become mockery. The way in which we process new information has a significant influence on our ability to learn. If we only read through new information once, we retain only about 10% of it in the long term, but if we repeat it ourselves or actively apply it, we can increase this rate to up to 90% [44]. If we adopt specific postures ourselves or perform mimic expressions ourselves, we gain a more sustained understanding of the feeling behind the expression and expand our own interpretive possibilities. As described above, this can also be done in conversation follow-up, when specific expressions are remembered, now taken intensively by oneself and focusing on their effect in one’s own body. The more regularly this exercise is repeated, the finer our perception of our own sensations becomes and the better our empathy and ability to interpret the body language of our conversation partners. The appeal at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, over 2500 years old, holds undiminished: “Know thyself.” Our empathy develops as we get to know ourselves better. This leads to the final point: Inhibition and hesitation to develop one’s own body language are partly justified by the fact that it feels unfamiliar and that one fears losing one’s authenticity. Others fear that they could manipulate their fellow human beings by

2.7

Conclusion: Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence

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developing their non-verbal competence. Both can be compared to changing from jeans and a sweater in private to a business suit and tie in the context of an important business event. Whether in business or in private: Before meetings that mean something to us, we intuitively pay special attention to our appearance. In this context, anyone who remembers the feeling he had when he wore his first suit, or the one she had when she first went out of the house in shoes with high heels, will admit that he and she also had to get used to it. Those who reflect further will notice that their own appearance at the time may well have been an attempt to influence the reaction of those around them or a particular person, or simply to meet heightened expectations. Similarly, we make the choice of our words more or less consciously and skilfully in order to influence an interlocutor. Should, therefore, persons more experienced than others in the application of make-up feel guilty, or others who can afford a more elevated wardrobe, or who seek the advice of a stylish person in the selection of the same? Certainly not, and by analogy, the development of one’s own body language represents something that should be considered value-free. On the contrary, it improves contact with our fellow human beings and, as will be shown later, supports the development of our personality and free expression. Why Do Changes Feel Unfamiliar at First? Our brain constantly receives information about the body from the entire visceral system and compares these actual values with the target values stored from the past. The overriding goal is to maintain homeostasis, the inner balance [45]. For this purpose, the body states of the past are stored in the brain as target states in the form of linked circuits or neuronal representations. If a newly adopted posture deviates from the previous behavior, our brain registers this change through the unfamiliar somatic markers and reacts to this difference. Growth takes place outside the comfort zone: Changes of any kind cost the brain more energy than maintaining the status quo. Therefore, it initially reacts to changes with a certain unwillingness until it gets used to them and stores them as a new target representation after about 21 days [46]. Monika Matschnig recommends that during the first 2 days, one should consciously and intensively pay attention to an element of body language that needs to be changed and regularly correct oneself. During the next 19 days, it is then sufficient to focus attention on the desired change from time to time in order to gradually perpetuate it.

2.7

Conclusion: Developing Your Own Non-Verbal Competence

What can be summarised with regard to the development of non-verbal competence? In contrast to the verbally cultivated factual level, the relationship level is mainly cultivated via non-verbal communication. In contrast to the quantitative, digital content of the verbal level, the nonverbal level conveys analog, qualitative content. The key to increasing one’s own non-verbal competence lies in becoming receptive to the signals of the body and learning to put them accurately into words. This requires working on and with one’s own body. As a result, both perception and understanding of the non-verbal communication sent

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and received improve, and with it the ability to shape the quality of the relationship with the other person. The grandmaster of non-verbal communication Samy Molcho has already been on stage for 70 years as a mime and body language trainer and is probably one of the people worldwide who have most consistently followed the described path of working with one’s own body. Where other authors refer to scientific research and study results, Molcho goes into the depth of his wealth of experience and describes the world of non-verbal communication as it has opened up to him in decades of work and as it will also open up to anyone who deals with it in comparable depth. Everyone to whom he has held up a mirror in this way and who has felt understood, seen through and sometimes unmasked in a striking way in it, is usually fascinated and impressed by the deep, also philosophical, insight that Molcho has developed through working on and with his own body. His insights and recommendations therefore certainly offer themselves as a first conclusion and can often be postulated as non-verbal axioms. In principle, strong nonverbal signals should be responded to quickly. Molcho compares these with traffic signals, which indicate whether the counterpart is receptive, evades or retreats [47]. For this, it is necessary to perceive nonverbal signals first and consider them important. A change in the body signals a change in intention. On the one hand, this opens up the possibility of influencing ourselves, but it also leads to the realization that the body shows what the person wants. No physical posture or movement has an exact meaning per se, body language and spoken language are always interdependent. To interpret body language, it helps to ask: What are the options of a movement or what possibilities does it open up? Complicated body language originates in practiced inhibitions. “The inhibition to express our original sensation 1:1 forces the body to find other interpretations for the same statement” [48]. Signals should never be judged individually, but always in context. The focus should be on trying to develop an understanding of the interaction of body language, language, situation, culture, resources, routine and the relationship between the interlocutors involved. With few exceptions, the observed body language should not be addressed, but instead should be observed attentively and discreetly and reacted to with various instruments of active listening in order to confirm or reject assumptions that have arisen. An important step is to develop an understanding of universal behaviors, those signals that occur across cultures and are biologically triggered by the same causes in all people. The causes and characteristics of these basic building blocks of non-verbal communication are described in the following chapters and facilitate the accurate interpretation of the observed body language. In the interview, the normal behaviour of the interlocutor should first be identified. The individually observed behaviour can be put in relation to this in order to develop a deeper understanding of the personality, motives and interests against the background of the situation. Deviations from normal behaviour and sudden changes in behaviour, which indicate changed feelings, thoughts and attitudes, are more significant, just like signal chains are. These are characterised by signals that occur together or in quick succession,

References

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whose basic message and character correspond to each other and point in the same direction. In order to further increase the success of observation, one should learn to recognise false or misleading signals. Our own verbal and non-verbal communication leads to intended or unintended reactions on the part of the interlocutor. In order to continuously develop our communicative competence, we should ask ourselves whether the reaction we received was intended and whether it could bring us closer to our conversational goal. If this was not the case, we usually noticed the developing tension before we finished speaking. If you are aware of your own paraverbal and non-verbal communication in such cases, it is easier to find options to steer the conversation back into cooperative areas. If this is not successful, it is possible to reflect on which of the signals sent prevented success and what can be done better next time in order to successively develop one’s own non-verbal competence.

References 1. https://www.unternehmercoach.com/coach-unternehmer-coaching-brennendstes-problemengpass-positionierung-strategie.htm Aufgerufen am 21.08.2018 um 08:06 2. http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/effective-teaching-practices/revised-blooms-taxonomy Aufgerufen am 05.05.2018-22:35 3. https://www.leadion.de/2013/01/23/vier-phasen-des-lernens/ Aufgerufen am 21.08.2018 um 08: 42 Uhr 4. Paul Watzlawick: Menschliche Kommunikation; S. 53; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2007 5. Paul Watzlawick: Menschliche Kommunikation; S. 61; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2007 6. Allan & Barbara Pease: Warum Männer nicht zuhören und Frauen schlecht einparken, S. 50; Ullstein, Berlin, 2002 7. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 27; Ullstein, Berlin, 2009 8. Manfred Spitzer: Lernen – Gehirnforschung und die Schule des Lebens, S. 53; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg; Berlin, 2002 9. https://eilert-akademie.de/presse_referenzen/PK-02-2016-Eilert.pdf Aufgerufen am 09.05.2018 10. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten; S. 39; Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2015 11. Helena Grabner: Die Beobachtung als wissenschaftliches Messinstrument: Grundlagen, Arten und Beobachtungssysteme, S. 3; Studienarbeit, Universität Augsburg, 2008 12. Daniel Kahneman, Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 13. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich; S. 181; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 14. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich; S. 230; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 15. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich; S. 241; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 16. Gregg Braden, Seminar: Resilienz aus dem Herz, Basel am –16./17.09.2017 17. Nancy Etcoff, et al (2000). Lie detection and language comprehension. Nature, 405, S. 139 18. Michael Grinder: Seminar Nonverbale Kommunikation – Ein Training in differenzierter Wahrnehmung bei TWINN Consulting & Akademie, Region Nürnberg, 14.–17.05.2015 19. Persönliches Gespräch mit J. C. Wartmann, Lörrach, Mai 2017; www.embodied-cooperation. com/ 20. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 139, Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 21. Alexa Mohl: Der große Zauberlehrling Teil 1; S. 131; Junfernmann; Paderborn, 2013

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22. Joe Navarro: Menschen verstehen und lenken; S. 35; mvg Verlag, München, 2013 23. Lutz Herkenrath, Vortrag an der Dualen Hochschule Lörrach, März 2016 24. Johannes Galli: GAME: Im Rahmen der Ausbildung zum Körpersprache- und Persönlichkeitstrainer, Freiburg, 2013 25. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen; S. 70; mvg Verlag, München 2011 26. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache und Kommunikation, S. 248; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 27. Dirk W. Eilert: Mimikresonanz; S. 48; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 28. Allan & Barbara Pease: Warum Männer nicht zuhören und Frauen schlecht einparken; S. 51; Ullstein, Berlin, 2002 29. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz: Weniger ist mehr!; S. 308; Gabal, Offenbach, 2010 30. Dirk W. Eilert: Mimikresonanz; S. 57; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 31. Dirk W. Eilert: Der Liebescode; S. 132 bis 133; Ullstein, Berlin, 2015 32. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten; S. 141; Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2015 33. Antonio R. Damasio: Descartes’ Irrtum; List-Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2006 34. Bernd Senf: Von der Psychoanalyse zur Körperpsychotherapie; Vortrag am 15.11.2011; https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v¼i8-A9d_VbyM Aufgerufen am 22.08.2018 35. Paul Watzlawick: Menschliche Kommunikation; S. 57; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2007 36. Robert Masters: Neurosprache; VAK Verlag, Kirchzarten bei Freiburg, 2011 37. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager; S. 161; mi Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 38. Friedemann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander reden 1; S. 137; Rowohlt Taschenbuchverlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2013 39. Dirk W. Eilert: Mimikresonanz; S. 60; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 40. Friedemann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander reden:3; S. 365; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1998 41. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper; Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg, 2010 42. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 235; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 43. Eskil Burck: Neue Psychologie der Beeinflussung, S. 100–103; BoD; Norderstedt, 2016 44. Hermann Scherer: Jenseits vom Mittelmaß; S. 128; Gabal, Offenbach, 2009 45. Antonio R. Damaso: Descartes’ Irrtum; S. 167; List, Berlin, 2006 46. Monika Matschnig: Durch Körpersprache wirken, (2 CDs) Hörbuch; Campfire Audio, Dargow, 2007 47. Samy Molcho: Mit Körpersprache zum Erfolg Version 3.0; PC-DVD-ROM, USM, München, 2011 48. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache der Kinder; S. 192; Heinrich Hugendubel Verlag, Kreuzligen/ München 2005

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Abstract

This chapter describes interdisciplinary causes of non-verbal communication and their effects on the job interview. In addition to biological influences, evolutionary-historical and neurobiological influences are dealt with. Furthermore, the influences of individualpsychological and social-psychological basic needs are deepened. Finally, cultural backgrounds and their influence on non-verbal communication in the job interview are described.

In order to better understand how our personality, feelings and attitudes are expressed non-verbally, we should examine the various causes on which they are based. In addition to biological, individual and social psychological factors, our body language is shaped by the entire history of development, the last link of which is today’s human being. Likewise, the culture from which we come and the one in which we currently move shape our experience and evaluation of the world and thus our communication. But also the posture we habitually adopt or the facial expressions we show influence our inner hormone level and consequently our perception, sensations, evaluations and thus ultimately the entire subsequent communication.

3.1

Biological Sources

The history of nonverbal communication begins at the cellular level. The legacy of the earliest life forms still affects our communication today in opening and closing movements.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_3

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Opening and Closing At the beginning of the twentieth century, the French physiologist Alexis Carrel developed the thesis that the survival of a cell would be largely determined by the environment surrounding it. To prove his thesis, he placed cell tissue from chicken hearts in a nutrient solution, which he regularly renewed. While a chicken normally has a life expectancy of four to five years, the cells in Carrel’s nutrient solution lived for 27 years and finally died not from old age but because an inattentive assistant had forgotten to renew the nutrient solution [1]. It was thus clear that the survivability of a cell depends to a large extent on the environment surrounding it. Carrel was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1912.

Carrel’s research results show that the exchange with the environment already assumes a vital function at the cellular level. The cell opens its membrane to take in nutrients and closes it to repel threats. It uses the waste products of its metabolism for communication. Even unicellular organisms exchange chemical information with the collective to which they belong by sending and receiving molecules [2]. To do this, too, they must open and close, and by these two modes of movement they shape at the cellular level an elementary mechanism that is the basis of all communication with the environment and is more deeply rooted than any mating or evolutionary-historical influences. What is true for the individual cell is also true for the entire inner cellular network of the biosystem “human being” and finally for its exchange with society [3]. Even today, we open ourselves to content that pleases us and close ourselves to protect ourselves from unpleasantness and overexcitement. Example

To close ourselves, we contract our muscles. This contraction suppresses the transmission of stimuli. You can directly experience the information-inhibiting effect of contraction yourself: First, please stroke the fabric of your left sleeve with your loosely relaxed right hand and consciously notice its properties. Repeat the exercise, but now with a strongly tense, slightly contracted hand and again feel the properties of the sleeve. Relax the hand again and repeat the exercise one last time. You will notice that the relaxed hand can perceive the texture and condition of the surface much more finely. Our general ability to differentiate perception is influenced by the degree of our tension or relaxation. ◄ If the applicant closes himself, this can mean, for example, that he feels threatened or wants to protect his system from being overloaded by too much information. If it is up to him to answer, the closing can show that he in turn wants to prevent the flow of information to the outside in order to withhold content that could harm him. This behavior can be shown, for example, by an involuntary closing and pressing together of the lips. An open system signals existing permission to send, whereas a closed system does not. If sought-after applicants are to be won over, an offer or a message should only be placed when the applicant is open to it. Studies prove the information-inhibiting effect of closed

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body postures. Subjects who followed a lecture in a closed posture remembered 38% less of the content and developed a more negative opinion regarding the speaker [4]. Further studies showed that people with their arms crossed not only experience the world more negatively themselves, but are also perceived more negatively and with more hostility by others. Top salespeople first open up to their customers using body language before making their offers, which can go as far as actually putting something in the other person’s hand to effect a change in their posture. In recruiting, this can be implemented with the help of drinks, brochures, project documents, job descriptions or organizational charts, for example. The interlocutor has only completely removed himself from the conversation when he has closed himself on all three levels described in Chap. 2 (head, torso and legs). Coarse closing processes such as the closing of the eyes, clampingthe lips together or the crossing of the arms can be easily detected, the perception of finer signals provides additional information about the state of the interlocutor. In addition to the tensing of the neck muscles, the implied retraction of the head and the slight raising of the shoulders represent contracting protective movements that can be seen, for example, in the case of a guilty conscience. If there is even one aspect that you want to pay attention to in body language in order to improve the quality of your conversation, then it should be the elementary mechanism of opening and closing. The mouth, eyes, arms and hands are the clearest signal transmitters. Pleasant feelings lead to relaxation and to keeping systems open and receptive. Unpleasant feelings cause tension, closing, and withdrawal from the conversation. Sudden closing movements by the applicant indicate possible overstepping by the recruiter or potential content of the conversation that the applicant wants to leave out. This is usually not in the best interest of the company, and it is also true of interrogations in the criminal field that closed suspects do not provide information. There, too, an attempt is made to create a climate in which the interviewer opens up and finally reveals the information that he or she actually wanted to keep to himself or herself. A pleasant atmosphere enables the applicant to take off his protective mask and show himself as he really is. On this basis, uncertainties and reservations can be brought in and a much better decision can be made than if, behind the facade of the Sunday face, the true interests are hidden and later for one or both sides the rude awakening follows.

Back and Forth Besides reacting to the environment by opening and closing, approaching movements towards interesting content and distancing movements away from harmful content form the second reaction to our environment, which already shapes us on a cellular level. The intentional or unintentional can also be participation in the conversation. Like opening and closing signals, “back and forth” signals still show up at all levels of our nonverbal communication: the hand involuntarily moving to approach what is to be grasped, or – in

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the case of abstract content – grasping a concept. The foot that orients itself towards the exit and prepares to move the body away from an unpleasant situation, the leaning-forward upper-body and the advanced head that lead the sense organs closer to a source of information. In contrast, the lack of motivation to be active is manifested by closing signals, distraction maneuvers, and constriction and withdrawal movements: Eye contact is avoided, the head is lowered, the hands are placed in the lap, the body is made smaller or leaned back. "

“Back and forth” in Sales or the Art of “ripping the customeroff”

An insurance executive who had worked his way up from the bottom to eventually being in charge of over 1000 employees described to me how he had recognized his customers’ willingness to close deals by their body language. At the beginning, his customers usually sat there with a neutral or closed posture. He gave them space, let them talk, explored their needs and created a pleasant climate for conversation in which they eventually opened up. He observed on which topics they remained open and interested and on which they wrinkled their noses, frowned or briefly lowered their eyebrows. Then he communicated their individual benefits to them based on the content to which they responded positively. Gradually, his clients gained confidence and began to open up and approach. Eventually, they leaned forward to get a closer look at what was on offer. He confidently dealt with any last reservations and prevented the customers from backing away again. They were finally leaning far forward and ready to sign: In the course of the conversation, and this is meant in a completely non-judgmental way, he had literally pulled one over on them.

Strong applicants are similarly free to choose their signature, as described above with the insurance customers. If recruiters want to win them over for their company, they have to assert themselves against the competition and can certainly learn something from the classic sales professionals in this respect: If the recruiter sees that the applicant is still undecided or reluctant, he should help him to feel comfortable and secure. Once his interest is piqued, the applicant will begin to open up. Now the recruiter can tune into him and strengthen the mutual connection. If the applicant opens up further and begins to approach, the recruiter can first give him the necessary space to lean forward further. Finally, once the necessary confidentiality has been achieved “to put heads together”, he can lean forward together with the applicant to discuss the job or a project and win his commitment. For the recruiter, it is important to develop a feeling and awareness of the space and the connection between him/herself and the applicant, to trust this feeling and to align his/her actions and reasoning with it. An interlocutor who is closed and withdrawn, perhaps only because he is preoccupied with himself or a thought, can open up again more easily if he is given time and space. Pressure creates counter-pressure and leads to confrontation or

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withdrawal. In a relaxed situation, on the other hand, the applicant gains security and confidence, so that he suddenly tells things in the interview that would never have come to light under pressure.

Male and Female Body Language The elementary types of movement, “open and close” and “back and forth”, form the biological basis of nonverbal communication, and thus the basis on which more complex nonverbal communication is built. In addition, our nonverbal expression depends up to 25% on our gender [5]. As the most important biological function, we communicate our gender affiliation through our body language. While in young children the visual similarity is sometimes still so great that different coloured clothes are needed to distinguish them from each other, they already show gender-specific patterns in their gaze behaviour that correspond to later role behaviour and classic gender stereotypes. From the age of about four years, the adoption of social role models and other non-verbal behaviours gradually takes place. Amy Cuddy describes studies that show a serious jump in gender communication between the ages of four and six [6]. Another biologically driven adaptation occurs due to hormonal changes and the associated remodeling of the brain during puberty. Before puberty, girls and boys still smile with equal frequency. Due to the formation of the rostral cingulate area, which is also responsible for the ability to learn from mistakes [7], during puberty, facial expressions become more sparse and smiling declines in male teenagers [8]. These and other changes contribute to the fact that in adulthood we recognize the gender of our fellow human beings largely by their body language. Gender differences also influence communication in recruiting. For example, it is easier for men to transfer their role behaviour of the biological advertising process to the application process. In the former, the male presents himself from his best side and strives to be selected by the evaluating female, who usually has several offers. This classic biological role behavior influences recruiting in two ways: first, in terms of distinguishing male and female applicant behavior in the interview. In the advertising process and in the application process to date, both the man and the applicant have the provider role, in which they present themselves offensively and show their motivation. Since making a big noise for men is part of their biological business, it falls to them usually also in the application procedure more easily to show themselves intuitively and uninhibitedly from their best side and to apply if necessary even something more strongly. In contrast, women usually have no biological predisposition for this role and find it more difficult to fulfil the implicit expectations placed on the applicant role as intuitively as their male competitors. This may manifest itself, for example, in female applicants being more hesitant or ambiguous about content, less confrontational, tending to qualify past successes or leaving their approach to the recruiter. In such cases, recruiters should be aware of possible biological influences and not jump to conclusions about a lack of motivation or self-confidence.

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Another aspect concerns the behaviour of the recruiter. Whereas in the past the recruiter was in the evaluating role, which is more in line with biological female behaviour in the selection process, now, against the backdrop of changing markets and declining applicant numbers, the recruiter must switch to the advertising role and actively seek to win the applicant’s favour. Various aspects of this courting will be explored in more depth later, but one aspect specifically concerns the gender of the applicant. In an effort to motivate desirable applicants to accept, the company will attempt to increase their interest by offering the prospect of rewards. In addition to the various motives that guide people, it has been shown that women respond more to rewards associated with communal and cooperative values, while men are more attracted to rewards associated with dominance and external status enhancement. The latter are described in Chap. 5. As a result, women respond more strongly to motivators such as work–life balance, experienced appreciation, and the opportunity for intuitive and empathic work. Men are more motivated by goals, clear deadlines, insight into internals, and work where they can take the initiative [9].

3.2

Evolutionary Heritage

When the habitat in the primeval forests of Africa became scarce, that species of our ancestors, which Desmond Morris described as the later “naked ape”, decided to change habitat and leave the protective and nourishing forests to seek their fortune in the savannah [10]. Surviving there was not easy at first – over thousands of years, predatory cats and packs of dogs had conquered this habitat, evolving into “hunting machines” to which the monkey was hopelessly inferior outside the forests in which it specialized. The predators were faster, their claws and teeth sharper, their instincts more pronounced: if a direct fight ensued, the chances of survival for our ancestors were poor. The waist-high grass of the savannah initially limited the field of vision of the apes, who were still moving on all fours. Necessity is the mother of invention and so the monkey straightened up. In doing so, he gained the decisive advantage. Its field of vision expanded and it gained time. For the brain, the new task arose of mentally anticipating the probable events for a larger time window. The first step was taken from the animal living in the moment to the human anticipating the future.

The time advantage gained by standing upright could be used to develop cooperative strategies and increase the chances of survival. The ability to cooperate in an organized manner eventually became the central skill of man, which ultimately established his dominance over the planet [11]. Cooperation requires communication, which was aided by standing upright because at the same time the hands became free and could be used for communication. An upright posture is achieved by what is known as phasic musculature and thus represents the archaic hallmark of an evolutionary winner. Even today we speak of an upright personality and expect stamina and sincerity. Accordingly, we react positively to such an attitude, which, by the way, cannot be trained through classical fitness exercises, but through sports such as tennis and dancing [12]. Recruiters are not only influenced by the posture of the applicant, but also represent their company with their own posture. If they exercise their phasic musculature, it is not only good for their own health, but also conveys

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evolutionary winning characteristics at a deeper level. The influence and implications of an upright posture are explored in more depth in Chaps. 4 and 6. In order to survive, a certain caution has proven itself over the millennia. We are descended from those ancestors who did not trust lightly, did not cooperate hastily, interpreted ambiguous situations more defensively and recognised dangers in good time. As a result of evolutionary history, we still notice negative points and potential dangers much more strongly and shape our attitude more lastingly than positive content. But this is counter-inductive for applicant selection, because success-seekers, as Sprenger calls them, are generally more valuable to the company than failure-avoiders [13]. While the latter must be motivated by extrinsic factors, the former are intrinsically motivated and act out of enjoyment of work and good results [14]. However, in doing so, they are sometimes less adjusted and have rough edges. For the recruiter, the predisposition to give greater weight to negative points harbours the danger of overweighting these rough edges, as a result of evolutionary history, and rejecting applicants who could actually become high potentials for the company. For thousands of years, people lived in hordes of up to 150 members, and even today we only maintain close, lasting ties with about 100–150 people. Exclusion from the community usually meant certain death. The place in the hierarchy of these small communities, in which everyone knew everyone else and strong mutual dependencies prevailed, was much more important than today. Accordingly, archaic programs regarding dominance and submission have a strong effect on us and influence our communication. Social reputation was of fundamental importance: a top place in the hierarchy improved the possibilities of our male ancestors to produce offspring. Thus, we ultimately descend from those dominant males who were able to assert themselves, and so even today, signals that threaten our rank in the community affect deep-seated parts of our personality and influence our communication. In addition to biological imprinting, male applicants are therefore more influenced by their status and dominance behaviors than female applicants by their evolutionary heritage. The associated signals and implications are described in Chap. 5 on status and territorial behaviour. Of the universal emotions described later, contempt is particularly status-relevant; it implies a hierarchical devaluation of the despised person. The vertical distancing associated with it forms one of the psychological bases for legitimizing immoral behavior towards the despised person in times of crisis and for excluding him or her from the group. If we encounter a face marked by contempt, we sense danger at an archaic level of our being. We remain cautious and develop trust only hesitantly. The risk that the person could also speak contemptuously about us and thus harm us or even promote us out of the community is heightened and activates a fear that is deeply anchored in evolutionary history. If those facial muscles associated with contempt have been activated excessively often, they eventually shape our face and make it difficult to build trust in the future. The person comes across as arrogant and overbearing. In an effort to attract applicants to one’s company who will not become troublemakers in times of crisis or begin to ostracize others, attention should be paid to their predisposition to contemptuous behavior. In order not to

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repel potential candidates, the recruiter should also be careful not to show any contemptuous facial expressions during the interview. The head-measurement experiments by which earlier scientists tried to infer the character of a person from the external shape of the head were regularly attacked, and even though some adherents have persisted, the theories of kinesiology could not stand up to scientific scrutiny on many points. However, a serious aspect of nonverbal communication is often messily mixed with kinesiology and thus unfairly neglected. When we exercise muscles, they grow and of course the same is true of the muscles of our face. So muscles that we use regularly make a stronger impression on our face, plus they are easier to activate and move more effortlessly. Through the effect of facial feedback, we feel the associated feelings more frequently and intensely. Accordingly, our perception, thinking, feeling and ultimately our attitude and overall communication are more strongly influenced by these feelings. Our communication and actions ultimately shape our character. If we show a pronounced happy or grim facial musculature, it is therefore quite possible to draw conclusions about the associated personality traits.

3.3

Embodiments: Interaction Between External Posture and Internal Sensation

As several studies demonstrate, our posture itself also influences our feelings and thus subsequent communication, shaping the principle of reciprocity that opens up a deeper understanding of the causes of nonverbal communication. Maja Storch [15] and Amy Cuddy [16] describe dozens of studies demonstrating the interaction between body, brain and emotion, whether in terms of our posture, movements, facial expressions or psychological attitudes. Head Movement Paradigm Gary Wells and Richard Petty developed an experiment in 1980 to study the effects of our movements on our attitude formation. The experimental design was as follows: Under the guise of investigating possible headphone problems, three groups of college students were required to either hold their heads straight, shake them, or nod. During the six-minute experiment, they first listened to music, then to an article about a possible increase in tuition fees from US$587 to US$750, and finally to music again. The three groups were then asked what amount they thought was a reasonable tuition fee (normally students do not think much of tuition fee increases). Those students who had kept their heads still, and thus formed the comparison group, expressed a neutral attitude and on average considered a fee of US$582.36 to be appropriate, thus calling for a modest reduction in the range of 1%. In contrast, the group that had shaken their heads during the contribution strongly rejected an increase and called for a significant reduction, namely by 20% to US$467.77! This result was already promising and was only surpassed by the results of the last group. Their results were surprising, especially in light of the fact that they were students, and proved that external action affects our attitudes. The students who had nodded during the paper argued for a 10% increase, suggesting a mean of US$646.21 as an appropriate tuition fee [17].

3.3

Embodiments: Interaction Between External Posture and Internal Sensation

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Other studies show the same effect for facial expressions. Participants who held a pen in their mouth in such a way that the laughing muscles around the mouth were activated judged a simultaneously viewed comic film to be significantly funnier than those participants who held the pen with the tips of their lips and thus adopted a critical facial expression [18].

Power Poses Amy Cuddy demonstrated in her studies described in 2015 that adopting high status postures causes significant changes in our hormone levels in the brain and body after just two minutes. Participants who extended their arms to the V for two minutes like an Olympic champion and stood wide-legged, or who raised their arms to their sides in a “Wonder Woman” pose, increased the hormone level of the dominance hormone testosterone by 19%, while at the same time the level of the stress hormone cortisol decreased by 25%. The reverse was true when participants took submissive poses: These increased cortisol levels by 17% and decreased testosterone levels by 10% [19]. Thus, depending on the posture, there was an accumulated effect of up to 42% on average on cortisol levels and 29% on testosterone levels. Against the background of the job interview, which is already a stressful setting for the applicant, the additional influences that different postures can have on his stress level are highly significant. Applicants who had adopted power poses before the interview showed more passion, enthusiasm as well as a more engaging appearance. In addition to being more relaxed, the interviewers attested to their higher authenticity and trustworthiness [20]. Many applicants boycott themselves when they adopt submissive postures while operating their smartphones before the interview. The posture adopted in the process has a direct negative impact on their self-confidence [21]. Thus, whether recruiters get an applicant to the interview on time or keep them waiting can affect the applicant’s appearance and thus the recruiting success. While the former may start on time, the latter waits, which, in addition to increasing nervousness, may, for example, cause him to take out his smartphone or other documents, adopt a humble posture while looking at them, and subsequently present himself with less confidence. Another may stop, watch a company presentation on the television hanging below the ceiling, and straighten up. As described, significant differences in central stress and dominance hormones are evident after only two minutes, and these influence communications in the subsequent course of conversation. In addition, they shape the first impression we make on others and thus the attitude they develop toward us at this early and critical stage of the conversation. If the goal of the interview is to compare applicants as objectively as possible, an attempt should be made to counteract obstructive influences as best as possible. If, for example, a view of the waiting

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applicant is taken via the surveillance camera, at least their predisposition can be consciously taken into account. Other studies show that, depending on the posture adopted, the perception of positive or negative content was favoured [22]. The implications of these and similar studies are profound and open up the possibility of both consciously paying attention to the criteria of an objective selection and presenting oneself in the best possible way to the applicant.

3.4

Neurobiological Influences

Our non-verbal communication is controlled by the interaction of different parts of our brain. The principle of wholeness described in Chap. 2 is based on the fact that the brain does not distinguish between fiction and reality. Thus the body reacts directly to our thoughts and feelings. A short thought experiment allows us to experience this for ourselves. Example

Please imagine a beautiful, yellow, fruity, slightly tart lemon. Maybe even the rest of a branch and a green leaf are still attached to it. Now bring the lemon to your nose in your mind’s eye and imagine the fresh, slightly acidic lemon scent. You may be able to perceive it more intensely if you lightly scratch the peel with your fingernails and then smell it. Cut the peel with a knife and remove it carefully with your fingers. Now the peeled, greenish-yellow lemon is in your hand. Split it in half with your fingers, being careful not to damage the thin membranes of the slices. Now separate one slice and bring it to your mouth. Bite into it, start chewing and imagine the tart juice spreading through your mouth as you prepare to swallow the lemon wedge. ◄ Even if no lemon is to be seen far and wide, whoever has carried out the exercise will register at this point how the mouth has actually prepared itself and triggered the production of saliva. Whether the neuronal representations for this originate from our imagination in the cortex or are sent to our brain in reality via our nerves in the mouth, our holistically oriented brain stem cannot distinguish. It is the same with emotional reactions. Perhaps you have been angry at someone because of a misunderstanding before the misunderstanding resolved and it became apparent that there had been no real reason for the anger in the first place. However, your own thoughts and evaluation of the imputed stranger’s behavior had nevertheless led to the emotional reaction and accompanying physical symptoms, as the body reacts in real time to the thoughts and feelings sent from the brain. As will be discussed in more detail later, this mechanism also plays a key role in the development of stress.

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Neurobiological Influences

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Structure of the Brain To speak of the brain as merely an organ in our head is actually not quite correct. Although all parts constantly interact with each other and influence each other, it can be divided into three functional centers that influence us in their own characteristic way: 1. The brain stem with its existential, survival-securing functions, whose elements are already present in reptiles. 2. The limbic system as the seat of emotions, which we have in common with other mammals and which Bauer calls our “center of emotional competence” [23]. 3. The cortex, whose abilities enable us to speak and think more complexly. The actions of the first two parts happen unconsciously and describe the majority of our non-verbal communication. The actions of the cortex happen consciously, with him we maintain our verbal communication. In addition to this classic division, however, there are also brain cells in the heart and gut , to which the vernacular already refers when it recommends listening to the heart or the gut. How these brain cells directly influence body language has been little studied so far. On the other hand, the quality of our decisions can be improved if we make use of their intelligence.

The Intelligence of the Heart The intelligence of the heart has been studied for over 30 years and is scientifically proven [24]. The findings of the intuitive intelligence of the heart go so far that, for example, CIA agents are trained with appropriate methods [25] and all 34,000 employees of the Dutch police [26] have been equipped with “EMwave2” devices that enable them to train the coherence between heart and brain. Regular training increases internal coherence and produces dozens of positive effects that have been demonstrated in over 7500 studies of heart rate variability [27]. Two of these are improved cognition and improved access to the intuitive intelligence of the heart [25, 28]. In addition to the stress-reducing activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, the brain waves in the deepened coherent state dive into the gamma range, which is accompanied by extremely fast oscillations between 38 and 100 Hz and an increased perception and enables flow experiences with effortless intuitively optimal decisions. Monks in deep meditation, as well as tennis pros during challenging rallies, enter this gamma range. The results suggest that recruiters who regularly exercise their heart rate variability can also improve not only their health, but also their perception and intuitive decision-making.

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The Gut: Our Archaic Brain Perhaps you have already experienced in your private life that in critical situations and when making a delicate decision, your gut has warned you and you had to realize afterwards that it would have been more beneficial to listen to it instead of making a decision with a “bad gut feeling”. What is it about the intelligence of the gut? In the human intestine there are about 100 million of those nerve cells that are also present in the brain [29]. The “gut brain” stores memories, records and processes information, and can activate or inhibit muscles [30]. Three things are interesting at this point: 1. The intestinal system itself is independent, but seeks contact with the brain and is directly connected to the medulla oblongata in the brainstem via the vagus nerve. 2. The exchange between the intestine and the brain is relatively one-sided. The intestine sends 80–90% of information to the brain via the afferent nerve fibres. 3. The gastrointestinal tract produces 95% of serotonin, which influences our mood, social behavior and aggressiveness [31]. In the brain, it has a mood-enhancing effect and drives away bad moods or depression. In studies with mice, food that increases the serotonin level in the intestine was able to reduce their anxiety, and a higher activity of the vagus nerve was measured. Even though serotonin cannot directly cross the blood-brain barrier [32], vagus signals cause increased release in the brain. Thus, via consumption of its components and cofactors [33], the amount of serotonin in our brain can be amplified by activity from the gut. Since the organism principally strives for well-being, behaviors that cause an increase in serotonin levels tend to be enhanced. Thus, the gut can influence the brain and, as recent studies show, is by no means inferior to the central nervous system in its influence and importance, but rather precedes it in terms of evolutionary history alone [34]. This explains the decisions of probation judges mentioned in Chap. 1, who were influenced by their gut brains. Another explanation why we like to trust our gut feeling so much is that it is directly connected to the brain stem via the vagus nerve, which we have shared with all other vertebrates for millions of years. Accordingly, its judgment feels familiar and influences us on a deep unconscious level. However, the quality of decisions in recruiting can be endangered, because the gut brain is not or only partially suitable for judging such abstract content as applicant characteristics and the medium- and long-term fit to corporate values, corporate goals and the content of highly complex jobs. It judges significantly based on current sensation and in relation to archaic content, for example whether a person is similar to us and could be helpful or harmful to us in an evolutionary context such as mating or protection. This encourages errors of judgment. Archaic issues do indeed influence results and cooperation in business, but they should not serve as the sole authoritative criteria for decision-making, nor should they tempt us to judge unconsciously and only from our gut when we should actually be making a balanced and differentiated decision. The quick judgment of the gut is tempting

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mainly because of its effortlessness; we should be aware of this temptation when making differentiated decisions. The gut brain is therefore sometimes very subjective and focused on its own survival and well-being. In order to be able to make a differentiated decision in the job interview, recruiters should prevent this subjectivity, conduct the interviews together with several participants and compare the individual impressions afterwards. And they should not do this hungry or overly satiated, or if this is the case, then at least under uniform basic conditions in order to create objective and comparable conditions for all applicants. A hasty positive gut decision should therefore be re-examined. As a warning instance, on the other hand, a strongly reporting belly can represent an important additional decision-making instance of our body, which should be taken into account, especially in the case of experienced recruiters. As studies with experts with more than 10,000 hours of experience in their field of expertise have shown, they can and should rely on their stomach’s veto if it sends out a warning [35].

Neural Building Blocks of Personality In the case of equal qualifications, the decision is usually made in favour of those applicants whose personality best suits the company, the task and the team. Often, even applicants whose personality is convincing are preferred to applicants with stronger technical skills. It is easier to provide the former with missing technical content than to initiate personality development in the latter. Neurobiologically, our personality is based on four different levels [36]. Neural Building Blocks of Personality 1. Vegetative-affective level 2. Level of emotional conditioning 3. Level of the individual-social ego 4. Level of the cognitive-communicative ego As we will see, about 80% of the personality is formed by the vegetative-affective level and the level of emotional conditioning, which we are not conscious of and can therefore only express non-verbally. Only 20% of the personality is based on the mostly preconscious individual-social ego, which inhibits the non-verbal signals of the first two levels and adapts them to the situation in which we find ourselves. The conscious cognitivecommunicative ego, which is predominantly located in the left neucortex and which controls verbal communication via the Broca-Wernicke areas, the two language centres of our brain, has virtually nothing to do with the real personality [37].

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Vegetative-Affective Level The first, lowest level of our personality, the vegetative-affective-behavioural level, is formed mainly by the hypothalamus, the central amygdala, the central cavernous grey and the vegetative brainstem centres [38]. It controls and maintains existential biological processes, such as metabolism, circulation, temperature regulation, digestive and endocrine systems, food and fluid intake, and waking and sleeping rhythms [39]. While basic nervousness in the context of the job interview is normal to a certain extent, stronger reactions that suddenly cause perceptible restrictions on one of the described existential functions in connection with a specific topic in the interview represent clear warning signals. Against the background of a balanced personality, a business topic should not affect the organism at such a deep level that its basic existential functions are shaken. In addition to the existential vegetative functions, the lowest level also regulates our spontaneous affective behaviors such as attack and defense behavior, dominance and mating behavior, flight and freezing, as well as the outburst of aggressiveness, anger and other primary emotions. If affective signals are shown, although this reaction was not intended by the question asked, this is also a warning signal. Unexpected, affective reactions in a business context limit professionalism and represent an increased uncertainty factor with regard to longer-term productive cooperation.

Level of Emotional Conditioning Together with the vegetative-affective level, the level of emotional conditioning forms our “unconscious self” and thus the bulk of our personality. Both levels are shaped by pre- and postnatal as well as early childhood attachment experiences and psychosocial experiences and together determine how we deal with ourselves and our immediate environment. Together, they represent the egoistic-egocentric toddler in us throughout our lives, who is initially always concerned with benefiting from a situation in the best possible way for himself, and who asks himself quite selfishly: What do I get out of it [40]? The level of emotional conditioning significantly regulates motivational and reward behavior and is neurobiologically formed by the basolateral amygdala, the ventral tegmental area, the nucleus accumbens and the basal ganglia, which have a central function in the execution of conscious and unconscious volitional actions. The signals from these centers are not accessible to our conscious mind and therefore cannot be expressed in words [41]. Thus, nonverbal behavior expresses more truthfully than the uttered words what the applicant’s motivation really is in relation to what is being discussed at the same time. As experienced in the thought experiment with the lemon, the brain and body do not separate between imagination and actual experience. If the activities of the job to be performed, upcoming or current challenges, and possible discomforts are described to the applicant in the interview in such a way that the appropriate images can arise in his or her mind and a sensation is formed, a truthful reaction of the body will emerge, showing the attitude of the

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applicant’s unconscious self. A possible tour of the company, which includes a visit to the future workplace and, if appropriate, a conversation with a future colleague, or observation of the nonverbal signals during a trial job and the subsequent interview, will provide additional deeper insights into the applicant’s motivation than mere rounds of questions and answers. Similarly, once a confidential and casual conversational climate has been developed, narrative prompts about past work experiences and descriptions of previous jobs can activate the assessment of the unconscious self, which expresses itself nonverbally during the narrative. This can be done, for example, by asking how the working atmosphere at the previous employer motivated or demotivated the applicant, what the best supervisor the applicant ever had was like, or how he or she resolved previous conflicts with colleagues. Nonverbally, the motivation regulated by this level is shown by approaching, opening, upward and forward movements. A slight tension can convey the state of readiness for action. Inner comprehension of the contents and identification with them are shown in the harmonisation of the movements with those of the recruiter. A sudden acceleration of rhythm signals interest and the motivation to get started immediately. On the other hand, a slowing down of the rhythm as well as distancing, closing or downward or disharmonious postures, movements, gestures and facial expressions signal a rather critical assessment and declining interest. The level of emotional conditioning is also concerned with the experience-dependent linking of negative or novel events with feelings such as fear, anxiety or surprise. Thus, there may be a risk that applicants have been influenced in their behaviour at this level by negative experiences with previous employers or past job interviews. It is therefore all the more important that the recruiter creates a protected framework in the interview and conveys to the applicant the feeling of a fair and objective selection process in which humanity is communicated and the attitude that even any previous mistakes or failures are not the decisive criterion for sorting out an applicant, but that it is about the productive, connecting content on whose common basis the cooperation is to be founded.

Level of the Individual-Social Ego The third level of personality, that of the individual-social ego, is located primarily in the right associative neocortex and includes, in addition to the orbitofrontal cortex, the ventromedial (prefrontal) and anterior cingulate cortex and the insular cortex. The actions of this area enter our consciousness, are subject to some degree of volitional influence, and have an inhibitory effect on behavior initiated by the lower levels. The individual-social ego forms about 20% of our personality [42]. This level is influenced by education and social conditioning and contains the ability, which is often decisive for business success or failure, to restrain the rising impulses of the evolutionary drive via the top-down system. The centers that are decisive for self-control, such as the ventromedial cortex as part of the prefrontal cortex, can be strengthened through training. Carl Naughton recommends,

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among other things, the so-called N-back training. The effect of N-back training has been proven; for example, participants who trained for 20 min daily for six weeks were able to increase their executive cognitive abilities by 14% [43]. Various apps are available on different platforms. Further possibilities are offered by mindfulness exercises, which can be used to capture the moment when one’s own emotional cascade begins and takes on a life of its own, and to maintain control [44].

Level of the Cognitive-Communicative Ego The cognitive-communicative ego comprises the left associative neocortex as well as our language center, the Broca-Wernicke area. The fourth level includes, for example, the problem-solving and reasoning abilities, which concern the mind-guided interaction with oneself and the environment. According to Gerhard Roth, this level is the furthest from personality and action control, “talking is different from feeling and acting” [45]. Neurobiology proves that the influence of level 1 on personality is roughly 40–50%, the influence of level 2 is about 30%, and the influence of level 3 is about 20% [37]. All three together determine the development of the fourth level, yet it can sometimes be used completely independently of the other three levels to purposefully manage a situation. This has been demonstrated by studies with psychopaths: they interact completely normally at level 4, for example when it comes to providing the forensic pathologist with the desired answers, while concealing their actual intentions [46].

How Movements Are Created and Developed The basal ganglia as a complex control circuit of its own, whose elements inhibit and reinforce each other, play the central role in the brain in the execution of conscious and unconscious actions. Here, both the evolutionary driven impulses of the limbic system are introduced into that complex circuit that later gives the execution signal to the motor areas and, through the dopamine production of the substantia nigra, the final decision is made as to which behavior should actually be executed. For this to happen, this behavior must be compatible with one’s emotional identity. Therefore, the substantia nigra as a comparatively small brain center is in turn influenced by various centers of the limbic system, significantly by the hippocampus, the amygdala and the mesolimbic (expectation and reward) system, where the above-described parts of our unconscious self are located. The impulse initiated by the substantia nigra can be inhibited by the orbitofrontal and ventromedial cortex before the motor cortex then commissions the movement and the body executes it [47]. This control loop can lead to a phase of deliberation in movements that are not highly automated, which manifests itself in hesitant body language and changes in timing and rhythm. Thus, the more often a movement has been performed, the more smoothly it is

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re-circuited. Automated non-verbal signals in particular thus open up deeper insights into the ingrained habits and character traits of the interlocutor. If, for example, he regularly shows contemptuous facial expressions or snidely wipes arguments off the table, this behavior suggests that these expressions form such a regular part of his communication and attitude that they have become part of his nature and can no longer be suppressed even in such a formal setting as a job interview. These typical behaviours of an individual are called idiosyncratic behaviours and open up a deeper understanding of the value model and paradigms of his interlocutor to the one who perceives them and recognises the underlying causes. A complex body language or stereotypical non-verbal signals signal the organism’s adaptation to repressed or suppressed issues and show the body’s attempt to integrate and somehow express them after all, or to permanently ward off previously perceived dangers associated with them by means of protective postures. The latter can eventually lead to chronic tension and muscle hardening. Various body-oriented schools of psychotherapy start exactly at this point and treat the consequences of traumas and other complaints by releasing physical blockages. For the recruiter, the involvement of the ventromedial cortex in the execution of volitional acts opens up the possibility of increasing the influence of his social ego on the impulses of his egocentric-egoistic infant ego by means of the aforementioned N-back training, and thus of communicating more socially competently without losing authenticity.

Laterality: Origin and Meanings of the Signals of the Left and Right Half of the Body The nerve tracts of the pyramidal system originating from the motor cortex cross in the brainstem on their way to the muscles: Thus, the neural cause of an observed movement is on the opposite side to it. In order for the motor cortex to initiate a movement, in simple terms, with the involvement of the prefrontal cortex, a readiness potential that is initially present on both sides is eventually amplified for one side. The half of the brain that is more frequently activated habitually or in connection with specific topics has a greater influence on this reinforcement of the readiness potential. Attention to laterality, i.e., to whether voluntary signals are executed on the left or right side and whether postures, the use of the playing leg or individual gestures occur predominantly on one side, thus opens up insights into the dominant brain hemisphere of the interlocutor. Even though the brain works multifunctionally and multicentrically and the different centres on both sides can replace each other, there are certain characteristic focal points of the two hemispheres that can be used to interpret body language. It must, however, be borne in mind whether the interlocutor is a left- or right-handed person; in the case of lefthanded people the result is usually the reverse. Also, the influence of laterality should not be treated as set in stone. It is true in the vast majority of observations, but there are exceptions, which can be quickly recognized with a little practice.

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The right hemisphere of the brain is generally considered to have a holistic, musical, analogue character with an orientation to people. It can be briefly described as the feeling side, while the left hemisphere is associated with reason or ratio, digital thinking, language, and orientation to things, numbers, dates, and facts. We are all regularly tossed between thinking and feeling, and our body signals show which of the two areas we are currently engaged with. Recruiters who recognize the current dominance of one half of the brain in the applicant can communicate in a more addressee-oriented manner. If the applicant is currently struggling with his or her feelings, he or she will react less to hard facts and thoughts, but will respond better to the verbalization of his or her feelings or a more emotional approach. Conversely, an interlocutor who is in the process of making comparative calculations and weighing things up will be less receptive to emotional appeals than to figures, data and facts or concrete improvements to the offer. The spectrum of interpretation can also be expanded in the case of gestural signals in order to determine whether they are more factually or emotionally based. Chapter 11 on gestures describes further implications.

How the Relationship Level Determines the Hormone Level of Our Brain To summarize, the prefrontal cortex is constantly thinking about different courses of action, and brings them into a control loop in which it is decided in the basal ganglia, influenced by the deeper unconscious parts of the limbic system, whether the suggestions made are in accordance with our unconscious self. If so, the dopamine signal is given in the substantia nigra for execution, but may still be inhibited in strength by our social self. The decisive factor here is whether the limbic system is more oriented towards danger defense or reward acquisition. In addition to past experiences, this is determined, among other things, by the current internal hormonal milieu. Which hormones are produced depends on which parts of our DNA are activated by gene expression. The various parts of the DNA serve, as it were, as blueprints for the approximately 35,000 different proteins from which all elements of the organism are built [48]. Which of the genes are activated, in turn, depends strongly on the perceived quality of the relationship level between the interlocutors and on whether deeper desires and needs can be realized in harmony with the situation [49]. Thus, the nonverbal communication of the recruiter, with which he cultivates the relationship level with the applicant, forms a decisive criterion for his inner milieu, since it influences his gene expression and thus his hormonal setting. Another influence is the applicant’s wishes and needs, which leads us to the individual psychological causes of non-verbal communication.

3.5

Psychological Influences

The influence of psychology on nonverbal communication leads us first to the crucial question that critics regularly ask in connection with the significance of nonverbal communication. As neurobiologically proven, it is true that most of our personality is expressed

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through our nonverbal communication. But does that automatically mean that the specific signs regularly listed in the literature have the meaning described, that we can actually interpret specific body language signals from the other person like vocabulary? Does an “ifthen link” exist between body language signals and inner feelings? To give part of the answer directly: Some nonverbal signals are indeed biological and express specific needs and emotions universally, across cultures and classes, in the same way. However, because needs and emotions are something subjective, physical postures or movements cannot be compared to vocabulary: They do not have an exact, unambiguous meaning per se – this, after all, is precisely what distinguishes the nature of the analogue modalities of non-verbal communication described by Watzlawick from that of the digital modalities of verbal communication. The analog character implies that the whole picture and the basic tenor must be grasped in order to recognize what is written between the lines and to determine the quality of the relationship. Individual signals alone are not enough. If we bring together what we have discussed so far with the striving for consistency and the basic needs for self-efficacy and belonging discussed later, we can deepen our understanding of the meaningfulness of nonverbal signals. As Hüther describes, the experiential world of the embryo determines the primal needs of the later human being. The embryo’s experiences consist, on the one hand, in the connection to a larger system, the mother, which surrounds it, and, on the other hand, in the continuous growth and further development in the womb [50]. Both experiences lead to a prenatal imprinting, whose representations are anchored on a neuronal level in the brain stem and serve as a reference value for later experiences. As a result, even as adults we always relate new experiences to these two reference values and judge a situation or a conversation according to the extent to which we can develop and make an impact in it while maintaining affiliation with important reference persons or the group. In recruiting, a cooperative interview atmosphere that allows the applicant to contribute as he or she is fulfills these two primal needs and leads to a body language that expresses comfort. If this is not the case, discomfort and stress appear, the signals of which will be described later.

We thus carry within us the deeper need for self-determined, socially recognized action and strive to achieve an intended reaction with an action and to receive the desired feedback on a sent message. This leads to the crux of the crucial question described above: the integration of these psychological aspects shows that it is relatively irrelevant whether a concrete nonverbal expression actually represents the expression of a specific original thought, with a concrete meaning associated with it, or is only understood in this way by our environment. For in the decoding of nonverbal signals people are predominantly unanimous and interpret specific signals very uniformly [51]. The fact that simplifications, stereotypes, prejudices, heuristics and the whole spectrum of innumerable errors of judgement are intuitively accessed in the process is ultimately irrelevant. Communication is effect, not intention. Its effect results from what the receiver makes of it, i.e., from the fact that specific body language signals are interpreted in largely the same way, whether the sender intended it that way or not and whether the receiver is aware of it or not.

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Its interpretation now prompts the receiver to react, giving expected or unexpected feedback to the sender of the original message. While an intended and expected feedback feels good, proves self-efficacy and encourages the sender to repeat his behaviour in the future, a negative feedback leads to an experience of frustration, more or less stress and, if it occurs repeatedly, to withdrawal or to consciously or unconsciously adjusting one’s own signals until the intended reaction is achieved after all. Social competence can be described as the ability to obtain an intended reaction through one’s own communication in order to realize one’s own goals and wishes. Thus, in the course of life and in the area of tension between self-disclosure and the calculation of effects, that communication gradually develops with which, on the one hand, one expresses oneself and, on the other hand, the intended feedback is achieved in order to exert a targeted influence on the environment and to satisfy one’s own needs. This development can take place via laborious learning through trial and error, via the learning curve described in Chap. 2, or via direct learning from the model. Some of these things we are born with or acquire from our parents at a young age, others we acquire later. In the end, however, whether learned causally or through several social feedback loops, there is the more or less successful conscious and unconscious use of verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal means to pursue personal goals, motives and needs. Whether a non-verbal signal thus contains a concrete original meaning or whether it is merely used as an acquired interaction pattern, i.e., as a non-verbal communication script, in order to convey a specific message and thus to achieve an intended reaction, is therefore ultimately irrelevant, because as described in Sect. 3.3, this external interaction pattern in turn causes an internal sensation associated with it, which like a filter influences further perception as well as our thinking, feeling and acting. Thus, the communicator then actually feels what he shows outwardly, only the cause lies elsewhere, namely in the conditioning by his earlier interlocutors and thus his own accumulated past history. It is precisely because of this that the consideration of non-verbal communication gains its importance for recruiting, as it expresses the essence of the applicant’s accumulated action strategies and interaction patterns, which will also underlie later behaviour in the workplace.

Needs and Wants In order to survive as an individual but also as part of the human community, various needs must be satisfied. Maslow initially divided these needs into five hierarchical levels in the basic version of his pyramid of needs. In the last years of his life, he revised this again and now divided human needs into eight hierarchical levels. These include, building up from the bottom, physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, individual needs, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and finally needs of self-actualization and transcendence. In the revision, the lower four levels of needs remained unchanged, these are also crucial in the context of seeking employment for most people. They look for work to earn money and be

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able to make a living. In the 1950s, Maslow described the proportion of people striving to satisfy needs beyond the fourth level as only 2% [52]. However, due to the higher coverage of the lower levels by our social systems and due to the developments of the last decades, this percentage should be much higher in our culture by now, as evidenced by the increasingly louder call for meaningful activities [53]. Employees who strive to fulfil the upper four levels of need through their work are of particular importance to the company. If they are provided with an appropriate environment, their intrinsic motivation can be expressed and lead to increased performance and considerably higher creativity, which represents a significant competitive advantage for their company. It is of fundamental importance for both employee management, sales and recruiting work that needs actually build on each other hierarchically to the greatest possible extent. Needs of a higher hierarchical level can only be felt and pursued when the needs of the lower hierarchical levels have been satisfied to at least 70% and are saturated [52]. The threat of losing a level of need leads to stress and thus to the mobilization of additional energy to avert the threat of relegation. Thus, if an applicant is to be won over for the company, but the benefits offered by the recruiter miss the applicant’s need level, the former is not reached or only partially reached and can only with difficulty be motivated to cooperate. Unfulfilled needs generate a lack, which with increasing suffering motivates people to act to eliminate it. Depending on the personality and the level of hierarchy already reached, a person’s motives differ. Horst Rückle describes seven main motives that guide our actions in business [54]. Motives Guiding Action in Business Life Convenience, prestige, security, care, well-being, discovery and profit. For each motive there are preserving or dynamic characteristics with which it can be pursued. For example, the motive of profit can be achieved by dynamically increasing income or by conservatively saving in order to reduce costs. These seven motives are taken up again in the following remarks on projection and the bridge is built to their non-verbal expression.

Striving for Consistency The desire to eliminate perceived deficiencies motivates us to act. If we cannot achieve our motives on our own, influencing our environment becomes necessary and leads to the challenge of communicating in a way that supports us. In doing so, we may or may not act in accordance with our inner values. It takes increased energy and decreases performance to behave inconsistently in doing so. As Roth describes, people become mentally ill when their actions are permanently inconsistent with the needs of their unconscious self [55].

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Consistency theory states that our mental system is designed to strive for consistency and avoid inconsistency. Jens Förster and Fritz Strack observed in 1996 that subjects who nodded were able to process positive words better than negative words. In contrast, subjects who shook their heads processed negative words better [56].

Alexander Lowen describes how everyone comes to the threshold at a young age where they try out what happens when they don’t tell the truth. The gain in power that comes from gaining an advantage by telling an untruth is accompanied by a loss of pleasure that we otherwise feel when inner and outer experience are in harmony. As a consequence, at critical junctures in each person’s life, the question arises as to whether the hoped-for gain in utility that could be achieved with a gain in power through inconsistent behavior is greater than the concomitant reduction in utility through loss of pleasure [57]. If the former is repeatedly and regularly chosen over the latter, the communicative-cognitive side of our personality takes control and pursues goals that are increasingly less in line with the actual needs of our being. Accordingly, with increasing duration, existence feels emptied of meaning and leads to the psychological problems described by Roth. From this and from the principle of reciprocity described above, there arises a natural need for consistency between inner and outer experience. If this consistency cannot be achieved, discomfort and stress arise.

Stress The integration of the principles of wholeness, interaction and consistency, combined with a fundamental difference in the nature of body and mind, lead to a critical component in the emergence of stress. The body is tied to the here and now through its physical being. It directly expresses what we feel, think and want. The mind, on the other hand, is unbound; it can remember the past, plan the future, conceive entirely abstract content, and indulge in fantasies. As the thought experiment with the lemon shows, however, the body directly implements the thoughts of the mind: In the case of positive thoughts, the body relaxes and feels a sense of well-being. If, on the other hand, the thoughts are negative, such as fear of future situations, self-reproach because of one’s own inadequacies in the past or resentment towards other people, our body also converts these thoughts. It perceives the feared obstacle or the remembered danger as if they were actually to be overcome here and now, and activates the sympathetic nervous system to confront or flee them. But when there is no real object available to release the activated energy, it throws us off balance. We feel stress because the problems of our mind cannot be solved on the physical level.

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Controllable and Uncontrollable Stress Response Other events can also trigger stress. The correct assessment of a situation and the correct prediction of the immediate future represented an important survival characteristic in evolutionary history [58]. This also includes correctly predicting the reaction of our social environment to our communication. An incorrect prediction triggers stress, we have to update ourselves and find another solution. Stress, in principle, first provides us with extra energy to increase our efforts and successfully manage a situation after all. If this succeeds, we experience a controllable stress reaction, according to Gerald Hüther. As a result, those neuronal wiring patterns are strengthened that were activated to successfully cope with the situation. Our behavioural repertoire and our self-confidence grow. In contrast, if we fail to successfully resolve the situation, we experience an uncontrolled stress response [59]. When a situation is not managed for a prolonged period of time, the associated increased cortisol levels at the neural level gradually dissolve our previous wiring patterns. This is necessary in order to subsequently develop new behaviors that can hopefully be used to more successfully confront the environment. First, however, there is a crisis. Psychologically, stress sets in the process of regression, in which we let go of the patterns of action of the cognitive-communicative and the social ego formed later in our development and fall back on the older, more stable, but also more egoistic patterns of action of the lower levels of personality. As a result, we react more intensely with emotions, attacks, or escape behaviors before finally a breakdown, such as depression, occurs so that a complete rebuilding can take place. During regression, the finer cognitive processes of the cortex can no longer be accessed, or only to a very limited extent [60]. During prolonged stress, the hippocampus, which plays a central role in the transfer of information to long-term memory and is only one of two places in the brain where new neurons are produced, suffers severe damage [61]. As a result, sufferers forget the simplest things during crises and times of severe stress, leading to further blame, self-reproach and additional stress. A vicious circle develops, which in the professional context often continues until the termination of the employment relationship.

Precariously, applicants who apply from a terminated employment relationship or from existing unemployment were increasingly subject to the circumstances described above in their previous employment relationships before the termination of the employment relationship, and thus they appear pre-loaded. However, the subsequent job loss experienced also represents a severe life crisis, which on a psychological level can be compared to the death of a close relative [62]. The subsequent period of unemployment leads with increasing duration to a further, extreme form of stress, even if it may not seem so on the surface. Background Information A study by the biopsychology department of the University of Dresden shows the influence of longterm stress on communication in job interviews. The long-term unemployed were subjected to the TSST, the Trier Social Stress Test. In this test, an applicant applies for his or her personal dream job and presents his or her motivation to a selection committee of several people, who, however, do not give him or her any feedback on his or her presentation and thus subject him or her to a high level of

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stress. Subsequently, under increasing pressure, a frustrating arithmetic problem has to be solved, counting backwards from 2043 in steps of 17 and starting all over again if a mistake is made. In the process, the applicant is regularly asked to hurry up; if he fails, he receives no positive social feedback such as understanding or sympathy. Surprisingly, the long-term unemployed showed fewer visible signs of stress than participants in the control group. Their cortisol levels measured in saliva had also increased much less. In conversation, they thus appeared only moderately motivated, while the comparison group showed strong signs of nervousness and appeared much more motivated. However, the additional examination of the cortisol level in the hair brought resolution. This was six to eight times higher in the long-term unemployed than in the control group and showed the stress suffered over the years. The consequences were serious: similar to an engine that is already revving in the red, the long-term unemployed were no longer able to mobilize extra reserves to make an additional effort in the critical situation [63].

The recruiter may therefore be faced with an applicant who, as a victim of long and high stress, has only limited current powers of persuasion. Recruiters should therefore try to keep in mind that an applicant who is applying from a long period of unemployment can bring a phlegm into the interview at a deeper level, which sometimes makes him appear intuitively less attractive compared to an applicant who is applying from an existing employment relationship. The former’s unconscious stress is significantly higher, but manifests itself differently than expected. The expected nervousness may fail to materialize and the individual may appear unmotivated or even lethargic. Applicants who apply from existing jobs, on the other hand, can appear confident and relaxed on the one hand, since they do not have so much to lose in the event of failure, and at the same time mobilize additional reserves to make the career leap. Both give a snapshot that may lead to a decision that seems right, but says little about how the weaker applicant will develop once he has been trained in the new job and can thus leave his personal crisis behind. Of course, there is more effort involved in induction and the CV should be analysed to identify systematic patterns of failure. However, Peter Kruse derives an interesting, often neglected additional aspect: Neurobiologically and cybernetically proven, the increasing complexity of the outside world can be better managed by employees who have successfully overcome a crisis. Comparable to an inoculation, their brains have prior experience with unstable settings from the times of crisis, which can benefit them and the company in future critical phases. In the interview it is therefore important to ascertain in what form previous crises were actually overcome, what was learned in the process and how the person developed in the process. Against this background, interrupted or unorthodox CVs no longer have to be a knock-out criterion, but can point to applicants who may have a form of crisis competence that applicants with model CVs still lack and which can be a valuable resource for the company in critical times. In addition, the more self-confident appearance of an applicant who is applying from an existing employment relationship may appear more convincing at the moment, but this may be misleading with regard to his long-term loyalty. There is a danger that he will move on to the next company after two or three years, precisely when his continued work would be

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most profitable for his own company. The curriculum vitae often provides very clear evidence of such switching rhythms.

The Model of Comfort and Discomfort In contrast to continuous stress, situational stress at critical points in the interview is a meaningful indicator for qualifying the applicant’s statements. The acute stress axis is mainly controlled by the limbic system and is therefore largely beyond our conscious control. On this basis, Joe Navarro developed the model of comfort and discomfort to assess the state of his interlocutors [64]. In this context, discomfort represents a form of mild or incipient stress. We are principally designed, both neurobiologically and sociallypsychologically, to strive for and to provide comfort. A comfortable atmosphere facilitates effective communication and a convincing performance; discomfort leads to disruption. Both poles thus provide a basic assessment of how the applicant feels about the interview. Comfort is associated with contentment, pleasure and relaxation, while discomfort is associated with displeasure, dissatisfaction, stress, nervousness, anxiety and tension. Comfort radiates self-confidence and is expressed non-verbally through a relaxed posture, calm breathing and voice, normal rate of speech, open gaze, turned head posture, natural, flowing gestures and body language, relaxed facial expressions, smiling, slightly tilted head, normal blinking and stable eye contact. Comfort expresses itself in flowing movements and isopraxisms, i.e., body movements and postures that synchronize with those of the interlocutor or unconsciously mirror them, adapting one’s own rhythm to that of the partner. Comfort radiates serenity, calmness, friendliness and openness [65]. Discomfort, on the other hand, creates a stressed impression and radiates little or no selfconfidence. It is expressed by closing, making oneself smaller or retreating movements, downturned corners of the mouth and compressed lips. If there is an unconscious attempt to self-soothe, the later deepening self-soothing gestures, for example self-touching or fingernail biting, become apparent. Discomfort often leads to stiff and awkward movements, furtive glancing around, frowning, restlessness and nervous tension. Other signs of discomfort may include, for example, irritability, nervousness, caginess, unfriendliness, excessive severity, or impatience [65].

Fight and Flight Response Increasing discomfort leads to the fact that the body begins to actively do something to put an end to the uncomfortable situation. This can be done by removing oneself from the situation or by influencing the source of the discomfort. This leads to the fight and flight reaction described by Walter B. Cannon in 1915. The fight-or-flight response is triggered by the limbic system, the part of our brain that we share with other mammals [66]. When a stressful or threatening situation arises, the first

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intuitive response is to flee. Mammals generally do not move to fight until flight is no longer an option. Prior to flight, there is a brief pause or freeze that manifests itself in its fullest form as shock paralysis, signaling that our limbic system has detected a potential threat. Shock paralysis is based on an elementary principle of our perception, according to which moving things are more easily recognized than immobile ones. In the archaic struggle for survival, those who did not move in dangerous situations became virtually invisible and considerably increased their chances of survival [67]. Even though we have long since left the forests and savannahs, people who are caught bluffing, stealing or lying, or who fear being discovered, still initially react with a subtle numbness. In a job interview, shock paralysis may be manifested by the applicant pausing briefly or remaining motionless in the chair when asked critical questions, their natural, fluid, movement of the eyes freezing, their breathing becoming shallower, or holding their breath for a moment. In connection with the rigidity of shock, protection and support are sought. Thus, the feet may wrap around the chair legs, the hands grip the chair backs tighter, and the interviewee subtly pulls in his head to make himself smaller and reduce the potential attack surface. Detectives regularly recognize shoplifters by their reduced movements and the turtle effect, in which the thief unconsciously tries to protect his head by hunching his shoulders [68]. If a critical situation does not successfully pass us by means of shock paralysis, the next stage of the stress reaction follows and calm is over for the time being. Regardless of whether one flees or fights afterwards, the sympathetic nervous system is activated in order to be able to start directly with the mobilized energy. The cortisol released makes you more alert, noradrenaline reduces the energy supply in the cortex, and clear and logical thinking becomes more difficult. Escape tendencies show themselves, for example, through reactions such as abruptly leaning away, turning away or withdrawing the body or head, and pointing a foot in the direction of the exit. We avoid eye contact, rub or close our eyes, and create blocks with our hands, papers, or other objects. In recruiting, it can sometimes be observed how applicants are literally thrown back against the back of their chair from a previously facing, slightly bent-over posture by a critical question. Escape and fade reactions in the context of salary negotiations can manifest themselves, for example, in the fact that, in response to a salary offer, the eyes are closed somewhat longer than is usual when blinking. The applicant unconsciously tries to blank out the situation and signals that they find the offer unattractive or that they feel cornered in the negotiation. If escape is not possible, we enter fight mode, which involves constricting of the pupils, leaning forward, reducing distance, becoming louder in tone, speeding up rhythm, tensing neck muscles, becoming more confrontational, using more offensive gestures, and making more dominant movements. While flight tendencies may well seep through in the interview, the fight response should not. If fight signals occur without flight signals having previously shown themselves, it signals that the applicant appears to have overridden their biologically anchored program in their personal or professional life and instead implemented the new rule of “offense is the best defense.” Regardless of the exact personal background, this predisposition to attack is a risk factor for future teamwork and contact with the customer.

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Calming Gestures The fight and flight response that could make the difference between life and death 100,000 years ago can quickly put us out of business in a setting like a job interview. Applicants cannot simply run away or attack; even subtle signals like looking away or abruptly turning away push the limits of acceptance. Accordingly, their social ego is particularly on guard in such formal settings and tries to inhibit or suppress impulses in this regard. These only creep in subtly or flash up at key points in the conversation, for example when critical phases in the life course are discussed or specific stress questions are asked. But inhibition costs energy, and the perceived inconsistency between being and shown appearance becomes increasingly unpleasant in the long run. Since the expression of the natural reaction is suppressed, the energy provided cannot be dissipated through movement. It accumulates in the body and builds up tension. Gestures follow to calm oneself and otherwise release the arousal to restore a balanced level of tension. Former FBI agent Joe Navarro, in his many years of work, observed a wide variety of calming gestures exhibited as part of this adaptive response. In addition to covering the jugular – the furrow under the larynx between the two collarbones – interlocutors rubbed their foreheads, touched the back of their necks or massaged them. The number of times they touched their nose, mouth and other parts of their face increased, stroking their faces or rubbing their hands on their thighs to relieve tension. Navarro describes how rubbing the hands on the thighs in particular is a very reliable indicator, which can be readily seen through shoulder and upper arm movements. Others played with their hair or ran their tongue along the inside of their cheeks or lips. A clearer signal is seen when there is an audible exhalation with puffy cheeks or when the interlocutor widens his collar, catching his breath. Likewise, Navarro observed placing the hand over the Adam’s apple and working soft folds of skin on the neck, where the seat of many nerve endings is located: Manual stimulation has a calming effect and causes blood pressure to drop and pulse to slow [69]. This was followed, with increasing intensity, by self-hugging, more intense smoking, faster chewing and increased yawning to moisten the dry mouth area. In general, stressful situations are followed by increased touching of the face, head, neck, shoulders, arms, hands, legs or other objects such as the armrest or table. Men are more likely to touch their faces, while women are more likely to touch their necks, clothing, jewelry, arms, and hair, fan themselves with their hands, or toss their hair back. More subtle signals in the interview may include smoothing out one’s shirt or straightening one’s tie, watch, glasses, or cufflinks [70]. With regard to the significance of calming gestures, the prior determination of normal behavior is particularly important. A nervous basic type who habitually touches himself in the face is more likely to show by suddenly refraining from touching himself that he is trying to conceal something through the unconsciously induced rigidity of shock. Consideration of calming gestures can open up deeper insights in recruiting, but this should be done cautiously and discreetly. Obvious examination can further increase the applicant’s

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stress level and distort the validity of the signals. If a specific calming gesture is perceived during a topic, for example, the gesture and topic can be remembered and the interviewer can first move on to the next topic. Thereupon the applicant should also relax again and his non-verbal expression should normalize. In the further course one can come back then again to the critical topic. If the previously observed gesture is repeated, it corroborates the suspicion that the accompanying topic is preoccupying or stressing the applicant. Its repeated identical expression indicates the symbolic expression of a deeper issue [71].

3.6

Social Psychological Influences

Man is both an individual and a social being and depends directly or indirectly on a community for the fulfillment of most of his needs. In the past, exclusion from the community usually meant certain death in our tribal history, and even today it confronts people with profound psychological problems. Accordingly, it is important for us to belong to the community and to be accepted by our environment, which we recognize, among other things, by the fact that we receive the desired feedback on the communication we initiate. If this does not happen, it leads to insecurity and in the medium term, through the uncontrollable stress reaction described above, to personal crises such as culture shock. Emigrants experience this regularly when the new environment does not react in the usual way to their own communication offers, such as greetings, jokes to share a laugh, questions to deepen a topic, or even suggested topics of conversation. Love Deprivation In an experiment investigating the effects of social exclusion, individual subjects were placed in the MRI scanner and participated in a virtual ball game with two other players via a monitor and joystick. After passing the balls to each other as a threesome for a while, the two teammates suddenly excluded the subject and stopped passing him the virtual ball. The consequences were serious: the brain of the person excluded from the community showed increased activity in the pain centre [72]. However, if the subject was informed in advance that the two players were computer-simulated teammates, the pain center did not react. Incidentally, in order to prevent irregularities, in both cases the players in the experiment were simulated by the computer.

When we feel excluded or rejected from the community, we feel pain. We know the unpleasant sensation that arises when we are ignored or disregarded by another person. Psychology refers to this phenomenon as love deprivation, which severely disturbs the relationship level between the parties involved. In terms of body language, love withdrawal manifests itself in ignoring or ignoring verbal and non-verbal communication signals of our interlocutors. While the obvious ignoring is an affront, the overlooking of so-called intentional movements has a more subtle effect. The interlocutor wants to say something and opens his mouth, but we do not give him the floor, but continue to speak. He withdraws, looks at his watch, shuts himself off or becomes more taciturn, but we do not

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dismiss him from the conversation. If these and other intentional moves, discussed in greater depth in Chaps. 10 and 11, are ignored, the recruiter conveys that his own concerns are more important than those of the applicant. The disregard for the applicant’s interests and the implied hierarchical divide prevent contact at eye level and make it difficult for a cooperative atmosphere to develop. Worse still, if, in the context of filling bottleneck and key positions, the company actually wants to make an effort to find a sought-after applicant, but individual company representatives do not discard their entrenched communication patterns from the past, the applicant will as a rule tend to turn to other companies with which, from his point of view, he has had more positive discussions.

Projection Until about 15,000 years ago, humans lived as nomads, roaming the world in communities of no more than 100–150 members, the classic horde. Once the ability to farm was developed, they could settle in one place and communities became larger. The more people come together, the more different needs and motivations come together, and communication becomes correspondingly complex and multi-layered. In order to ensure the survival of society in the face of this increasing diversity, some basic rules and norms are required, which in Christian culture are described, for example, by the Ten Commandments and the seven capital sins. The seven capital sins, by which the public refers to as the “seven deadly sins”, describe those disordered human passions on which all other evils are rooted and which thus impair both personal development and society as a whole. The evil of the deadly sins lies largely in the excess with which they are expressed – the sins are too much of the good of passions that are actually neutral or positive. Thus, frugality in and of itself is not a negative quality, but when frugality becomes stinginess, the natural flow of casual interaction is lost and relationships with one another suffer. When the calculator has the last word in every decision, this behavior damages community coexistence. Thus, the various passions harbor a positive core that must be cultivated. The extent to which we express the needs and drives underlying the major sins goes hand in hand with the lower two levels of our personality, the selfish-egocentric child in us described above, which is restrained in its unrestrained expression by the level of our socialized ego above it. This develops in the course of our socialization: through feedback from our environment we get a picture of desired and undesired behavior and develop our self-concept. Depending on temperament and socio-cultural environment, sooner or later we come up against the various limitations of these taboo passions and find ourselves forced to adapt, first by dependence on parents and later by the desire to belong to the group and society. A tension arises between should and is, between wanting and doing, between ratio and feeling. We suppress our natural expression and repress parts of our original being, which is shaped by the neural circuitry at the level of the brain stem. An imbalance arises because the drives from the deeper layers of our personality can only be lived out in a restricted, inhibited way or with feelings of guilt.

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When we permanently force ourselves to suppress, repress or split off the impulses of deeper parts of our personality, an increasing tension arises which eventually manifests itself on the physical level and leads to tension in the muscles of our body or to intermittent outbursts. The situation can be compared to a ball that one tries to keep permanently under water. The repression costs energy and requires constant attention to prevent parts of our undesirable personality from showing up somewhere and endangering our belonging to the environment. This energy is lacking elsewhere and reduces our relaxed self-expression in private as well as our creativity and performance at work. But that’s not all: if this repressed behavior is now observed in a fellow human being, our own repressed urges and the inadequacy we felt earlier are illuminated as if with a spotlight. Our painstakingly built self-concept, with which we have come to terms with the fact that a certain behaviour, although it actually represents the expression of one of our natural passions, is not acceptable, is now called into question when another person indulges in this very passion without restraint and lives it out free of any sense of guilt. The earlier negative feelings associated with the work of repression force their way into our consciousness and are projected onto the other person as if through a suddenly opened valve, where they are not infrequently fiercely fought [73]. The major sins described in the Bible have had a strong influence on the moral concepts of people in the Christian cultural sphere. Even if very few of us can name all seven off the top of our heads, they are deeply etched in the collective consciousness and still have a moderating effect on us. As such, they also form the essence of the classic projection themes in our society that films or plays regularly draw upon. When people see these classics in the theatre, they are offered a projection surface on which they can come into contact with their repressed passions and deal with them in a safe setting. From this, John Galli developed a type model for the training of actors based on these major sins, namely sloth, wrath, pride, gluttony, lust, greed, and envy. Since these passions have been repressed into the cellar of the body by the mind in the upper room, Galli refers to the repressed passions as “cellar children” [74]. Not all of us have problems with all of them, on the contrary: as a rule we get along quite well with five of the passions, with one we have a little trouble and with one we have a lot of trouble. We have often brought up one of the cellar children particularly well and it jumps into the breach to compensate for the deficits of the others. Similarities arouse sympathy: The recruiter is more sympathetic to those applicants who have similar inner constellations to him, and he will tend to reject applicants who confront him with his own problem areas more decisively, even though this may make them particularly suitable for a position. A corresponding matching takes place through non-verbal communication: the suppression and adjustment processes have left specific traces in our movements, posture, facial expressions, gestures and the way we speak. The hardened tensions entail specific muscle hardenings, which Reich described as character armor [75]. We thus unconsciously register matches or potential conflicts by hitting sore spots as soon as someone approaches us from a distance. Discovering the seven cellar children in oneself, getting to know them, educating and integrating them is fun and opens

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up personal growth opportunities. In recruiting, they make it possible to reduce the causes of projections and to make more objective decisions. Furthermore, a connection can be made between the seven motifs listed above, which guide us in business life, and the seven deadly sins and the cellar children. Their names can at first seem alienating due to their high imagery and conciseness, but precisely with this they already point to our own projection themes. As indicated above, the reader will find that he finds the names of five of the cellar children quite amusing, but already the names of one or two of them will probably be perceived as somehow encroaching. The inertia of the “Laggard” goes hand in hand with the motive of convenience. The anger of the “Shredder” can be combined with the dynamic aspect of the motif Profit. The (re)greed of the “Scandalmonger” pursues the motive of discovery. The gluttony and arrogance of the “Big Shot” are connected with the motive of prestige, the lust of the “Tart” with the motives of well-being and care, and the stinginess of the “Miser” with the motives of security and the preserving aspect of profit. The envy of the “Binnix” is initially associated with the motives of security and prestige. If access to the inner child is achieved via the “Binnix”, the motives of discovery, well-being and care are revealed. Throughout Germany there are just under a dozen Galli Theatres where workshops can be attended. The workshops are intense and physical, allowing the energies of the seven basement children to be directly experienced, holistically experienced and intuitively internalized. This makes it easier to recognize them in others and to enrich one’s own communication. We recognize which strategy someone prefers to use in order to maneuver out of precarious situations. We see directly which motive channel is currently dominant and can target this in our communication and, for example, present the advantages of a vacant position to an applicant in such a way that he intuitively feels that these fulfil his deeper needs.

Imprint In 1965, Albert Bandura described how people learn from models, i.e., through imitation. While infants and toddlers grow up in the circle of their parents and siblings, those neurons in their own brain are activated that are also currently active in the other person. Bauer describes this mechanism of mirror neurons as one of the foundations of empathy. When the same neurons fire regularly, the associated neural representations, the activation patterns in the brain, are reinforced and a predisposition for the same later behavior is laid [76]. If you compare the posture and movement of children with that of their parents or influential caregivers, you get a good idea of the extent of the imprinting that takes place. A person’s habitus develops, which later subtly indicates origin, class affiliation, and the influences of dominant role models and formative peer groups, and is expressed through signals such as speed of movement, rhythm, posture, spatial behavior, gaze behavior, speech code, gestures, or the way one dresses, right down to the choice of food in a restaurant [77].

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Similar and familiar things are processed more effortlessly in the brain due to their familiarity and thus feel intuitively more familiar. Applicants whose verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal communication signals match those of the recruiter or influential reference persons in the company are therefore unconsciously preferred, even though completely different personalities may be needed for specific positions. Recruiters and HR managers can prevent the danger of these mirror attitudes by becoming aware of their own habitus and that of influential company representatives, as well as the non-verbal signals through which they express themselves. If applicants deviate from this, their signals can be consciously put into perspective and examined with regard to their accuracy of fit. In addition, successful employees of a professional group can be described as prototypes in order to identify comparable types more reliably. In addition, other field-dynamic influences described by Kurt Lewin, such as the cultural, political and economic system in which we grow up, as well as the prevailing zeitgeist and important historical events, shape our sense of values, subjective experience, feelings, actions and our attitude towards, and thus our communication with, the world around us [78]. In addition to these influences, our communication is strongly influenced by the group currently surrounding us and our status there. The group dynamic influences and effects on our nonverbal communication are discussed in more detail in Chap. 5.

3.7

Cultural Influences

Finally, the culture in which we grow up shapes our daily interactions and forms a regular source of misunderstandings, communication breakdowns, prejudices and stereotyping in our contact with members of other cultural groups. Culture forms an implicit system of reference that strongly shapes our perception, feeling, sense of values, thinking and ultimately our actions. We are surrounded by our culture like a fish by water. Since it permeates all levels of our lives, we lack, due to its omnipresent presence, points of contrast to consciously grasp it. Thus, we are not aware of its formative influence and only feel it when it comes to irritations while travelling or communicating with members of foreign cultures. Since it works in the unconscious realm, culture also expresses itself predominantly through non-verbal communication. "

With regard to the cultural influence on our communication, it should be noted in a relative way that the differences between people of different cultures are smaller than the spectrum of differences within a single culture [79]. To put it bluntly, an Indian professor from Delhi usually has more in common with his professor colleague from Berlin in many areas of his life than with a resident of the slums of his own city.

The influence of culture can be divided into different areas in which it affects its members. This gives rise to several cultural dimensions that have been studied by various

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social psychologists and ethnologists in terms of their impact on our lives and actions. In addition to the dimensions described by Geert Hofstede, which he researched on the basis of a long-term study of IBM employees in over 60 cultural groups, those of Edward T. Hall open up further implications for the non-verbal level in recruiting. Cultural identity is significantly shaped in early childhood, in the bosom of the family. Thus cultural influences remain and only fade away over several generations and depending on how early and how often one comes into contact with the new culture. For members of a culture who remain among themselves for several generations, a regressive effect results, as the example of the Amish in the USA shows. The attitudes and values of the earlier southern German ancestors and their original culture are preserved and maintained and, in an effort to preserve their own cultural identity, defended against the influences of the newly surrounding, American culture. This is where the dilemma comes in: the values of both cultures, German and American, continually evolve over time. They update as well as evolve and are shaped by the spirit of the times. Since the Amish, on the one hand, set themselves apart from the new culture, but on the other hand, can no longer move in the field of the old culture and update as well as develop within it, they hold on to an outdated, rigid image and gradually lose contact with the old culture, but at the same time do not seek contact with the new culture. While in today’s Germany as well as in the USA technical devices are part of life, the Amish build a bridge to seventeenth century Germany and use carriages instead of cars. Even though they are now beginning to open up in individual areas such as agriculture and use modern machines, the people concerned are foreign both here and there and do not really belong.

For recruiting, a strong traditional attachment of new employees does not have to be a disadvantage, a high diversity within the workforce brings increased effort and more friction points, but increases the internal complexity of the organization and thus its potential to successfully respond to the ever more complex external world. Recruiters who recognize and take into account the influences of the different cultural dimensions can prevent misinterpretations, communication breakdowns and wrong decisions.

Cultural Dimensions According to Hall Edward T. Hall studied four different dimensions of culture between 1966 and 1990. Cultural Dimensions According to Hall 1. Proxemics (spatial understanding) 2. Context reference 3. Sense of Time 4. Information speed

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Proxemics The cultural dimension “proxemics” describes, among other things, the different understanding of space of people from different cultures and thus their influence on our distance behaviour [80]. Members of dimensions with larger distance zones keep a greater distance from their fellow human beings. Territorial behavior is discussed in more detail in Chap. 5.

Context Reference The culture dimension “High and Low Context” describes the influence of the context, i.e. the environment and thus what is not said, on communication. As a low-context culture, Germany takes less account of the context and prefers explicit formulations of what is being said. But on the other side of the border, in the high-context culture of France, this is quite different: there, communication is more indirect and, under certain circumstances, more is expressed by not saying something. High-context cultures are found, for example, in Japan and China, and increasingly in Latin American and southern European countries such as Spain, France, Italy, Greece and Turkey. Most African countries are also high-context cultures [81]. Members of these cultures use nonverbal communication much more intuitively and to a greater extent than Germans. By calling a spade a spade, these are regularly perceived by members of highcontext cultures as rude or brute; they “walk in the door”, so to speak. Other low-context cultures are found in the Anglo-Saxon region and Scandinavia. This makes it the most fundamental cultural dimension in terms of its influence on non-verbal communication in the job interview, and one should be aware in advance whether there are differences between the applicant and the recruiter in this respect.

Sense of Time The perception of time is another dimension that can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts, especially with regard to punctuality and the perceived lack of or proven appreciation as well as the sometimes simultaneously assumed unreliability. Hall distinguishes between monochronic and polychronic time perception. In the Germanspeaking, monochronic culture, where “time equals money”, this is planned and divided up like a thing. If someone does not keep an appointment or makes us wait, he steals time from us and a debt relationship is created. In polychronic cultures, time simply exists and is available in unlimited supply. Thus, one simply takes it now and to the extent needed to best maintain the current relationship with the other person [82]. Out of sight, out of mind, a promised subsequent meeting can be spontaneously postponed, sometimes even without notification. If the people concerned are members of the same culture, this does not matter,

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as both do not feel any restriction and both are happy to take the necessary time for each other to cultivate their relationship when they meet. So it can happen that the waiting interlocutor of another culture feels their “toes treaded on” , although his interlocutor had no bad intention on the deepest level of his being. Of course, the material perception of time, which has strongly influenced the western and capitalist world, fits better to our economic system. The attitude, however, that an applicant who shows up late for an interview is not interested or is per se unreliable should be put into perspective in the case that he comes from a culture with a pronounced polychronic understanding of time.

Information Speed The perception of time usually correlates with the dimension of information speed, which describes the cultural differences in the processing of information. While monochronic time cultures tend to prefer quickly usable information in the sense of a “picture” headline, other cultures require slowly usable information, for the understanding of which more time must be taken. Accordingly, the explanations of their relatives may appear lengthy in the interview and embarrass the recruiter in terms of time management. Conversely, appropriate applicants feel more quickly treated harshly and superficially if their need for detailed information is not satisfied to the extent that their cultural sensibilities demand.

Cultural Dimensions According to Hofstede Geert Hofstede originally examined four different cultural dimensions and scaled their characteristics on a scale of 1–100. These are listed in brackets in the explanations for the countries Germany, Switzerland, France and Great Britain. He later extended his model to include two further dimensions [83]. Cultural Dimensions According to Hofstede 1. Power distance 2. Individualism and collectivism 3. Masculinity and femininity 4. Uncertainty avoidance 5. Long-term or short-term orientation 6. Compliance and restraint

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Power Distance The dimension of power distance describes the extent to which hierarchical differences in terms of social power, influence and status prevail and are accepted in a culture; think of the caste system in India. While members of cultures in most Western countries prefer flat hierarchies in their professional lives, maintain a more casual relationship with those higher up in the hierarchy, and can sometimes criticize their superiors or the recruiting process, for example, members of Eastern cultures integrate more easily into hierarchies and question the differences and regulations less. The state and strong institutions are given much more respect in these cultures than in Western countries. Accordingly, representatives of these cultures can appear defensive, passive and adapted in conversation. While Germany (35), Switzerland (34) and Great Britain (35) show a low degree of power distance, this is much more pronounced in France (68) and culminates in Russia (93), where the president even has his own lane on the Moscow city highway, which is kept clear while the people are stuck in traffic. In Zurich and Berlin it is rather the other way round, the cars are stuck in traffic while the bus lane is kept free for public transport [84].

Individualism and Collectivism The influence of a collectivist or individualist culture affects conflict behaviour, influences the ability to work in a team and can be seen, for example, in the dedicated commitment when it comes to putting something “greater” such as the interest of the company above one’s own interests. Historically, collectivist cultures, to which 80% of the world’s population still belongs today, have been characterized by extended families with several children and generations under one roof, while individualist cultures are characterized by nuclear families, which live with one or two children sometimes widely dispersed from other family members. While devotion to community and harmony are important values in extended families, nuclear families focus on individual development and assertion over competitors. Perhaps the most striking example of devotion to the greater good are those collectivist Japanese who give their holidays to their company. This is a behavior that is more likely to cause most people from individualistic cultures to shake their heads in disbelief than to seriously consider whether this example should be followed. This cultural dimension can lead to different applicant reactions when, for example, stressful upcoming projects, challenging phases and ambitious operational goals are described and the associated expectations for the new employee’s commitment are expressed. Whereas an individualistic applicant may assure this professionally, but with the attitude that this may be necessary in certain phases, but should also be compensated for by the company, a collectivistic applicant may say yes wholeheartedly and thus convey his commitment and dedication much more convincingly. An individualist, on the other hand, can confront

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more strongly and inquire more critically, where the harmony-oriented collectivist can hardly say no. Of course, even in the West, social conventions entail not confronting everything and everyone and indiscriminately throwing people under the bus. Especially in recruiting, tact is often required, and often a social smile is used to hide unpleasant aspects behind it. Because they focus more on the expressiveness of the hard-to-influence eye-ring muscles when observing smiles, applicants from collectivist cultures are likely to register a courtesy smile better, but not let it show. However, they take the tenor of the real message with them, and thus feel less obliged to the verbal promises and courtesies made by both sides. The same is true in the other direction, of course. Germany (67), Switzerland (68) and France (71) are cultures with comparable elevated levels of individualism, while this dimension is very strong in the UK (89) and the US (91) and weak in Japan (46) and China (20) [85].

Masculinity and Femininity The dimension masculinity describes the extent to which a more traditional distribution of roles and distance between men and women prevails in a culture. In masculine societies, there is a more determined demeanor and more pronounced competitive behavior, which will be discussed in greater depth later in Chap. 5 on status. In feminine societies, on the other hand, values such as caring, modesty and cooperation are more pronounced. Female recruiters from feminine or weakly masculine cultures may be irritated by the behaviour of male applicants from distinctly masculine cultures. However, this dimension in particular should not be generalised in an undifferentiated manner. As described above, the differences within a culture are in principle more pronounced than between different cultures. While Germany (66), Switzerland (70) and Great Britain (66) are moderately masculine cultures, France (43) is a more feminine culture [86]. However, it is worth recalling at this point that cultural imprinting takes place in the womb of the nuclear family. When applying for a Frenchman whose cultural roots lie in the Mahgreb States, their formative influence should be taken into account.

Uncertainty Avoidance The culture dimension uncertainty avoidance shows the degree of security that members of a culture strive for, or the degree of uncertainty they are willing to endure. This affects related values such as reliability, the importance of long-term planning, and the need for security and commitment. Applicants with a lower need for security should tend to be more flexible and open to projects and temporary jobs than applicants from cultures where the ability to endure uncertainty is lower. While Germany (65) and Switzerland (58) tend to be

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in the middle of the scale, France shows a very high need (86), while the UK shows a weak need (35) for uncertainty avoidance [87].

Long-Term or Short-Term Orientation The dimension of long-term orientation describes the degree of attachment to tradition, loyalty and commitment as well as the willingness to pursue long-term goals. Germany (83) and Switzerland (74) are long-term oriented, while cultures such as the USA (26) with a low long-term orientation are very flexible, individualistic and characterized by selfactualization. France (63) and the UK (51), on the other hand, are in the middle range [88].

Compliance and Restraint This dimension describes the need for control over one’s own life and the influence of leisure time and leisure on the feeling of happiness. It influences status and dominance behaviour and has an impact on motivation and willingness to devote oneself to the company. Germany (40) and France (48) are in the middle range, while Switzerland (66), USA (68) and Great Britain (69) show more pronounced values [89]. As a direct preparation for the interview, the recruiter can use Hofstede’s website to compare four different cultures side by side with regard to the six cultural dimensions described and thus prepare for their possible influences on the interview or any surprises. In addition to the cultures of the recruiter and the applicant, the cultures of the headquarters of a global corporation can also be taken into account.

3.8

Conclusion: Sources: How Does Non-Verbal Communication Arise?

Our non-verbal communication is influenced by a wide variety of aspects, the understanding of which opens up additional possibilities for interpretation and reaction in critical and ambiguous situations and can prevent misunderstandings and communication problems. Neurobiologically determined, the majority of our personality expresses itself non-verbally. Basic non-verbal building blocks are opening and closing movements as well as approaching or distancing movements. Evolutionary-historical and psychological reasons are the formative influence of posture as well as the type of movement on the first impression and thus on many perceptual errors. In addition to the influences of gender and culture, we are shaped by acquired or adopted communication and avoidance strategies that we use to satisfy our needs and secure our membership in the group. In formal settings such as the job interview, stress signals are largely suppressed, but self-calming gestures signal

References

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perceived stress. Social psychological causes can influence the status and territorial behavior of male applicants in particular.

References 1. http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41120750.html Aufgerufen am 25.08.2018–10:59 Uhr 2. Yvonne Zilliges, Molekulare Funktionsanalyse von Microcystin in Microcystis aeruginosa PCC 7806 S. 26 https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/18452/16434/zilliges.pdf?sequence¼1& isAllowed¼y Aufgerufen am 25.08.2018; 8:22 Uhr 3. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache; S. 28–33; Goldmann Verlag; München, 1996 4. Allan & Barbara Pease: The definite Book of Body Language, S. 91; Orion Paperback, London, 2004 5. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache und Kommunikation, S. 347; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 6. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 213–215; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 7. https://www.heise.de/tp/features/Wie-soziale-Anpassung-im-Gehirn-funktioniert-3421504.html aufgerufen am 30.12.2018 8. Stefan Verra: Hey, dein Körper flirtet! S. 186; edel Verlag, Hamburg, 2016 9. http://www.hcc-magazin.com/motivation-unterschiede-zwischen-frauen-und-maennern/15211 aufgerufen am 10.04.2018; 8:13 Uhr 10. Desmond Morris: Der nackte Affe; Droemersche Verlagsanstalt Th. Knaur Nachf, München, 1968 11. Yuval Noah Harari: Homo Deus, S. 183; C.H. Beck oHG, München, 2017 12. Stefan Verra: Hey, dein Körper spricht, S. 161; Edel Germany GmbH, Hamburg, 2015 13. Reinhard K. Sprenger: Mythos Motivation, S. 58; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1996 14. http://lexikon.stangl.eu/52/leistungsmotivation/ Aufgerufen am 25.08.2018 um 21:15 Uhr 15. Maja Storch, Benita Cantieni, Gerald Hüther, Wolfgang Tschacher: Embodiment; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2015 16. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 17. Maja Storch, Benita Cantieni, Gerald Hüther, Wolfgang Tschacher: Embodiment, S. 52; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2015 18. Maja Storch, Benita Cantieni, Gerald Hüther, Wolfgang Tschacher: Embodiment, S. 41; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2015 19. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 268; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 20. Amy Cuddy: Ted Talk über Power Posen, 2015: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼Ks-_ Mh1QhMc&t¼292s aufgerufen am 25.08.2018 um 22:25 Uhr 21. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 299; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 22. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 279–280; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 23. Joachim Bauer: Das Gedächtnis des Körpers, S. 38; Piper, Frankfurt am Main, 2014 24. Doc Childre, Howard Martin: Die Herzintelligenz Methode; VAK Verlags GmbH, Kirchzarten bei Freiburg, 2016 25. Gregg Braden: Seminar Resilienz aus dem Herz; Basel, 16.09.–17.09.2017 26. https://www.heartmath.org/resources/downloads/police-resilience/ Aufgerufen am 26.08.2018 um 10:10 Uhr 27. Screenshot: HRV bei Pub Med; Folie 6 der Präsentation http://www.alumni-psychologie.de/ medien/05Veranstaltungen/Kolloquium/2016/hmd_vortrag_25022016_handout.pdf aufgerufen am 26.08.2018 um 10:21 Uhr

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28. Doc Childre, Howard Martin: Die Herzintelligenz Methode, S. 35; VAK Verlags GmbH, Kirchzarten bei Freiburg, 2016 29. https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/ernaehrung/das-enterische-nervensystem/2530 Aufgerufen am 25.08.2018 um 10:46 Uhr 30. http://www.3sat.de/page/?source¼/nano/medizin/159275/index.html Aufgerufen am 26.08.2018 um 10:52 Uhr 31. Antonio R. Damasio: Descartes’ Irrtum, S. 116; List Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2004 32. https://www.zentrum-der-gesundheit.de/serotonin-ia.html Aufgerufen am 26.08.2018 um 11: 49 Uhr 33. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077351/ Aufgerufen am 26.08.2018 um 11:50 Uhr 34. http://www.3sat.de/page/?source¼/nano/medizin/159275/index.html Aufgerufen am 26.08.2018 um 10:57 Uhr 35. Malcom Gladwell: Blink, S. 179; Allen Lane, London, 2005 36. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 116–122, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 37. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 142–143; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 38. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 117, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 39. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 116, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 40. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 119, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 41. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 110, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 42. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 143, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 43. Carl Naughton: Denken lernen, S. 263; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2016 44. Stefan Merath: Dein Wille geschehe, Hörbuch – Kapitel 47; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2017 45. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 126; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 46. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 139; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 47. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 217–221; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart 2016 48. Joachim Bauer: Das Gedächtnis des Körpers – Wie Beziehungen und Lebensstile unsere Gene steuern, S. 223–228; Piper, Frankfurt am Main 2014 49. Joachim Bauer: Das Gedächtnis des Körpers – Wie Beziehungen und Lebensstile unsere Gene steuern, S. 238–240; Piper, Frankfurt am Main 2014 50. Gerald Hüther: Was wir sind und was wir sein könnten, S. 46; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2013 51. Siegfried Frey: Die Macht des Bildes, S. 137; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 1999 52. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslowsche_Bed%C3%BCrfnishierarchie#cite_note-19 Aufgerufen am 01.09.2018 53. https://www.hrtoday.ch/de/article/selbstverwirklichung-arbeitsplatz-checkliste Aufgerufen am 03.09.2018 54. Horst Rückle: Nutzen bieten, Kunden gewinnen, S. 63; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2002

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55. Gerhard Roth: Persönlichkeit, Entscheidung und Verhalten, S. 311; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 2016 56. Maja Storch, Benita Cantieni, Gerald Hüther, Wolfgang Tschacher: Embodiment, S. 53; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2015 57. Alexander Lowen: Bio-Energetik, S. 300; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1982 58. Peter A. Levine: Sprache ohne Worte, S. 292; Kösel-Verlag, München, 2011 59. Gerald Hüther: Biologie der Angst, S. 36–37; Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co.KG, Göttingen, 2009 60. Floyd Ruch, Philip Zimbardo: Lehrbuch der Psychologie. S. 368; Springer, BerlinHeidelberg, 1974 61. Manfred Spitzer: Lernen, S. 171; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg- Berlin, 2002 62. https://www.handelsblatt.com/karriere/nachrichten/interview-der-umgang-mit-der-kuendigungist-erlernbar/3247088-all.html aufgerufen am 02.09.2018 um 12:09 63. MDR: Exakt – So leben wir! Arm gegen reich? Min 46 https://www.youtube.com/watch? v¼vEWDDaqLCKc aufgerufen am 02.09.2018 um 12:15 Uhr 64. Joe Navarro: Menschen verstehen und lenken, S. 35–50; mvg Verlag, München, 2013 65. Joe Navarro: Menschen verstehen und lenken, S. 39; mvg Verlag, München, 2013 66. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 41; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 67. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 43; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 68. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 45; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 69. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 58; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 70. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 53–64; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 71. Bernd Senf: Vortrag: Von der Psychoanalyse zur Körpertherapie am 15.11.2011; https://www. youtube.com/watch?v¼i8-A9d_VbyM aufgerufen am 02.09.2018 um 14:58 72. Joachim Bauer: Warum ich fühle, was du fühlst, S. 108; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, 2006 73. Friedemann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander Reden 1, S. 113–115; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2013 74. Johannes Galli: Die sieben Kellerkinder; Galli Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2008 75. Wilhelm Reich: Charakteranalyse, S. 201; Anaconda Verlag GmbH, Köln, 2010 76. Joachim Bauer: Warum ich fühle, was du fühlst, S. 122–123; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, 2006 77. Pierre Bourdieu: Die feinen Unterschiede; Suhrkamp Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1987 78. Klaus Antons; Monika Stützle-Hebel: Feldkräfte im Hier und Jetzt: Antworten von Lewins Feldtheorie auf aktuelle Fragestellungen in Führung, Beratung und Therapie: Carl-Auer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2015 79. Dagmar Kumbier, Friedemann Schulz von Thun (Hg): Interkulturelle Kommunikation, S. 61; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2013 80. Juliana Roth, Christoph Köck: interkulturelle Kompetenz, S. 83, Bayrischer Hochschulverband, München, 2004 81. http://www.wirtschafts-lehre.de/low-context-und-high-context-kulturen.html Aufgerufen am 02.09.2018 um 18:06 82. Juliana Roth, Christoph Köck: interkulturelle Kompetenz, S. 77–79, Bayrischer Hochschulverband, München, 2004 83. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede Aufgerufen am 02.09.2018 um 18:16 Uhr 84. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/ Aufgerufen am 31.08.2018 um 07:45

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85. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/ 07:47 86. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/ 07:49 87. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/ 07:52 88. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/ 07:55 89. https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/ 07:58

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4

Appearance of the Applicant and First Impression

Abstract

This chapter deals with the appearance of the applicant and the influence of the first impression on the further interview. In doing so, the variables that shape the first influence are examined, the effect of specific accessories and items of clothing are dealt with and those elements of non-verbal communication that help to consciously grasp and analyse the applicant’s appearance are deepened. Finally, techniques and exercises are listed to make one’s appearance more winning. Critical factors that hinder the recruiter’s positive first impression are named and possible solutions are described.

After the basics of non-verbal communication have been described in Chaps. 1, 2 and 3 and their influence on recruiting has been derived, the following explanations close the still open gaps of the various non-verbal topics. The structure is based on the chronological sequence of the interview and begins with the appearance of the applicant and the first impression.

4.1

Formation and Influence of the First Impression

Regardless of all technical pre-selection procedures, no matter how extensive they will be in the future, employers and applicants finally meet for a personal interview. Away from overedited application photos, sued-in references, polished cover letters and optimised CVs, it finally comes to personal contact from person to person. This is so powerful that in most job interviews it leads to a hiring decision within 10 s [1].

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_4

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Trigema boss Wolfgang Grupp makes no secret of the power of first impressions: “I walk into the room, see five people and know immediately that I want one of them and I don’t want the others. But now I have to have a conversation with each of them, steal their time and mine, and then turn down four of them and pick the one I wanted from the start anyway” [2].

Of course, this approach has advantages and disadvantages and can, depending on the position to be filled, lead to more or less good results. In critical situations, a quick reaction can be the difference between life and death. The predisposition to form a quick picture of the situation is deeply ingrained in us. In recruiting, however, the first impression is as seductive as it is dangerous: As described, experts can rely on it for warning, and untrained employees are also predominantly (76%) [3] correct, which nevertheless means an error rate of 24% – as much as the 25% of employment relationships named in Chap. 1 that are terminated again already in the probationary period. In the case of a quick positive decision, the first impression of therefore tempts, especially in the case of differentiated decisions, to make mistakes that can become increasingly expensive in the future. On a neuronal level, the first impression is processed mainly by the amygdala and the posterior cingulate cortex [4] and is formed after 26–39 ms [5]. After 150 ms, we have internally decided whether a person is likeable or unlikeable to us [6]. Depending on the source, the time it takes for the first impression to be formed is between 7 and 10 s. Psychology refers to its formative effects as the primacy effect: what we perceive first leaves a much deeper impression than what follows. What’s more, the first impressions act as priming factors that pave the way for the processing of subsequent information on a neuronal level and act like a filter on our perception. If the following information corresponds to the first impression, it is perceived more quickly and easily and accentuated more strongly. If it does not, we tend to overlook it, suppress it or interpret it as unimportant and discard it, which makes it more difficult to assess the applicant objectively. Once they are in the back of our mind, their chances of getting out of there are slim. Our unconscious is simply not politically correct in this regard. Once it has been formed, it is quite persistent: It takes up to six months to revise a first impression once it has been made [7]. The following therefore applies to job interviews in particular: If we succeed in leaving a positive first impression, this makes further contact much easier. If, on the other hand, we have gained a bad first impression of the interlocutor, it helps to become aware of the reasons and signals to which we have reacted in order to get the chance to question our attitude. When he saw his application photo, the manager of a small company directly sorted out the CV of an applicant. When analysing his decision, it became apparent that the overly raised head in the picture and the somewhat stern facial expression appeared arrogant and repelled the employer, even though the applicant’s qualifications were really good. However, the employer had not even looked at them properly. Whether the applicant was just trying to take the challenge of applying with some seriousness or he was actually an arrogant and difficult guy, we could only guess. After we had discussed the possible influences, the employer reconsidered – and still decided against the applicant: The effect of the first impression was too strong.

4.2

4.2

Decisive Factors for the First Impression

93

Decisive Factors for the First Impression

In his early years at Princeton, Alexander Todorov, then an assistant professor, studied the effect of first impressions. The study participants were asked to decide which of the two portraits appeared more competent to them in a paired comparison. What the subjects did not know was that the faces were those of the candidates in the 2000 and 2002 elections for senator in the various states. The result was surprising: 70% of the faces that had been judged to be more competent matched the winners of the elections [8].

Roughly speaking, the primate in us first clarifies at every meeting whether the other person is a friend or an enemy and whether he or she could also be considered as a potential mating partner. Due to the speed with which first impressions are formed and the effortless way in which concrete visual information is processed by the brain compared to abstract verbal information, first impressions are significantly shaped by non-verbal factors. Within the first milliseconds that a person enters our field of vision, no words have yet been exchanged, no hands have yet been shaken, nor is the person too far away to take a closer look at their facial expressions or gestures, fingernails or other details. We are more influenced by the overall appearance, posture and movement than by individual signals. Exceptions are conspicuous and hostile features that stand out from the overall picture and disturb the harmonious perception. A revealing piece of information is exposed during the very first eye contact. At this very moment, the eyes of the person we are talking to briefly and subtly reflect how they perceive us, and thus the first impression we are making on them. It is therefore worthwhile to look carefully and to be aware of how someone reacts to us in this phase of the contact. Also, don’t make the mistake of going into the interview without a visual aid. Short-sighted recruiters will not, or only with difficulty, recognise the subtle and rapid facial expressions of the applicant at a distance of a few metres without glasses and in addition will sometimes intuitively tense their own eyes briefly in order to recognise the other person better. Thereby the eyes make a hostile, stressed, critical or tense impression just at the wrong time. This has an effect on the applicant’s unconscious and can trigger a reserved, distant or rejecting non-verbal behaviour, which reacts back on the recruiter and triggers a vicious circle. The limbic systems of both interview partners register that this is a contact that activates the stress axis and enter the interview with a latently critical attitude: these are not the best conditions for an objective result. The formative visual influences that affect the formation of early first impressions can be distinguished according to static and dynamic characteristics. Static in this sense are the stature, clothing or accessories. Dynamic, on the other hand, are the posture, the gait, the way of moving and maintaining eye contact.

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Error of Judgement When recruiters and applicants meet for the first time, biases such as the projection described above, the transference effect or the halo effect take effect. With the transference effect, we undifferentiatedly transfer negative past experiences to current contacts. An employee with whom an employment relationship ended in court had red curly hair and a slightly crooked gait? Now we encounter an applicant with the same hairstyle and similar gait, and it’s quite possible that we intuitively decide not to make the “same mistake” again. This is, of course, highly subjective, but human, and is supported by the ease with which we intuitively try to make rules about the world from individual phenomena and infer the general from the particular [9]. In the halo effect, the perception of a beautiful stimulus activates our reward center in the brain [10]. The nucleus accumbens as a central part of the ventral striatum [11] triggers the release of dopamine, which in a way is the mother of all endogenous drugs [12]. Rats given the opportunity to self-stimulate the nucleus accumbens via an electrode installed in the brain instantly lost interest in eating, sex, sleep, and all other things. Instead, they pressed the button that released dopamine every second until they finally collapsed (presumably quite happily) [13]. As a result of the prevailing feeling of happiness, we transfer our evaluation and attribute more positive character and personal qualities to attractive people. However, only to a certain extent: If the attractiveness exceeds a certain level, it rises to our consciousness and we become suspicious: We do not want to be manipulated quite so directly by good looks [14].

After the early first impression has set the direction, we have formed such a firm opinion after 30 s that it hardly differs from that after five minutes [15]. The non-verbal signals have about four times the effect of the verbal signals [16].

Decisive Factors for the First Impression In addition to the negative points and psychological effects, four characteristics significantly influence the formation of the first impression [17]: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Credibility Kindness Attractiveness Strength

Credibility Of these attributes, credibility exerts the greatest influence and is composed of the three attributes trustworthiness, competence and dynamism [18]. The high influence of

4.2

Decisive Factors for the First Impression

95

credibility is based on evolutionary history; even today, trust forms the basis on which we establish business and private relationships. In order to assess the credibility of a person, we are guided by the congruence of his verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal signals against the background of what is common in comparable situations.

Kindness We also intuitively recognize kindness. In addition to open and positive body language, we are significantly influenced by similarities and commonalities [19]. When we meet someone who resembles us, the similarities reinforce our self-concept and trigger a mild form of lust. In addition, we are better able to assess similarity, gain confidence, and experience less frustration or stress in our communication due to incorrect predictions. A cycle is created: Through unconscious preference, we seek more contact with similar fellows, giving them the benefit of the doubt and thus facilitating further positive experiences. These shape us over time, confirming our initial opinion and reinforcing our behavior. In contrast, we approach people with whom this is not the case a touch more inhibited or even distrustful, triggering an opposite cycle. Finally, we are confirmed by our experiences and form a better first impression about people who resemble us externally or in their non-verbal communication or who meet us openly. Extroverts send out more information than introverts. They approach their fellow human beings more openly and thereby give them an implicit leap of faith. This additional information and the fact that their fellow human beings do not have to move out of the defensive themselves in order to make contact satisfy their basic need for security and enable them to communicate in a more risk-free manner. Given the right setting, people who turn towards us and contact us with open body language leave a more positive first impression. Open body language is expressed in friendly and interested eye contact, visible palms, open arms, smiles, mirror movements referring to the partner, relaxed, deep breathing and flowing rhythmic movements.

Attractiveness The effect of attractiveness has been suggested in the halo effect, but overall its influence is less strong than that of credibility [20] and likability. The influence of clothing, accessories and make-up is described below. In addition to dentition, an upright posture, vital radiance, and the condition of the skin, shiny hair conveys information about our health and vitality. Apparently, the symmetry of the halves of the face influences our perception of attractiveness. Strong asymmetry, on the other hand, disturbs our viewing and alerts our central nervous system. If we notice that anything is different, it irritates us and affects us in our natural communication. Self-confidence increases attractiveness [21] and is expressed

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non-verbally by backward-leaning and deep shoulders, a slightly raised chin, slightly angled arms, and open hands and arms – all signs that signal freedom from anxiety.

Strength Like attractiveness, strength represents a mating indicator, but also a protection indicator. Someone who has passed the credibility check and who brings a certain physical strength can be an advantage in times of crisis. This is why credibility and likability are more important: What good is the other person’s strength if it could be turned against us in a critical situation? Strength is expressed through self-confidence as well as the relationship to territory described later and is accompanied by openness, a certain degree of relaxation and fluidity of movement. It is demonstrated by friendly and firm eye contact and proactive actions, such as taking the initiative in shaking hands, which must be done by the host. If the host fails to give a clear directive during the greeting, he makes his guests feel insecure. Signals that are counterproductive for strength are the signals of discomfort and stress described above, as well as displacement actions such as touching one’s own face.

4.3

Effect of Clothing, Accessories and Make-Up

In addition to the factors described, clothing and other externalities influence the first impression. The style of the outfit that fits the situation and position, as well as the color, cut and cleanliness of the clothing play a significant role.

Colour Effect The influence of colours on our mood has been proven; studies with convicts, for example, showed that their readiness for aggression could be reduced by pink cell walls [22]. In other studies, women who wore an impulsive red were increasingly perceived as a threat and competitor by other women and described as pushy and challenging [23]. For female recruiters, this results on the one hand in the danger of not judging red-dressed female applicants in an unbiased way or, if they wear red themselves in some interviews but not in others, of unconsciously introducing provocative elements into the former interviews and thus influencing the female applicants concerned in comparison to their female competitors due to the changed framework conditions. In any case, the objective conduct of the interview can be made more difficult, because in fact the pulse rises measurably and the metabolism is stimulated when we consider the color red [24]. Blue, on the other hand, has a calming effect and is associated with dignity, gentleness and sincerity. A light blue is generally perceived as friendly, while green is very calming. White appears conventional

4.3

Effect of Clothing, Accessories and Make-Up

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and conservative, black is perceived as dominant, while grey is associated with seriousness, reliability and focus on business [25]. In addition to the influence of colours on our perception and thus ultimately on our decision, the contrast of our clothing influences the competence attributed to us [26]. Here, on the one hand, the danger arises of doing injustice to applicants who have combined awkwardly and impute less competence and, on the other hand, of influencing the behavior of different applicants through our own different clothing in different conversations. Besides the colour, the cut of the clothing has an effect and leads us to the advantages of a well-fitting suit.

The Hidden Qualities of the Suit Various archaic causes determine the strong effect that a well-fitting suit can convey. Even primate groups develop hierarchies, so the characteristics indicating power and strength are anchored on a deep level of our being for evolutionary historical reasons. The cut of the suit emphasizes these discreetly but effectively. The sewn-in pads broaden the shoulders and visually reinforce the size and strength of the erect upper body. In addition, they conceal an involuntary shrug of the shoulders, which otherwise appears when we are at a loss and thus undermines a confident and self-assured effect. The suit’s outward-facing lapels enlarge the chest, and a double-breasted suit or vest worn underneath further reinforces this impression, making the wearer appear even more weighty and authoritative. If the suit is worn openly, this signals superiority and unassailability; a tie worn with it simultaneously protects one of the most vulnerable parts of our body, the jugular. This is located at the lower end of the neck between the clavicle bones and can be more or less well protected by the whole claviature of different tie knots. The sensitive neck region is strengthened by the shirt collar and the tie tied around it. The tie knot leads to a more upright posture and makes us look taller. Together with the shirt collar tips, an arrowhead is formed, which draws the eye to the face. David Givens observed almost 20 years ago that specialists are hardly vulnerable to professional attack due to their superior knowledge in a bottleneck area and can therefore afford to openly display their vulnerable jugular. On this basis, he predicted that with increasing differentiation of the areas involved in the performance process, specialists would increase and the number of tie-wearers would decrease, which corresponds to the development since then [27].

About the various possible combinations and variations in tie color and pinstripes can send additional information. For example, a gray suit with light blue pinstripes conveys seriousness and reliability with simultaneous friendliness. The slim waist of the suit emphasizes dynamism and agility. The hem length, which reaches the fingertips, enlarges the upper body and leads to primate-like proportions. The longer sleeves make the arms look more powerful and are further accentuated by the contrast of the slightly longer shirt

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sleeves. But unfortunately, the effect of the best suit can be undermined by an inappropriate pair of shoes.

Men’s Shoes How you dress up is how you want to be, how you dress down is how you are. (Samy Molcho)

Shoes develop a broad spectrum of character via their colour, material, type of lacing, ornamentation, heel shape and height, shaft height, harmonious round, angular or aggressively pointed toes, a dominant broad or discreet slender shape, and open or closed design, which conveys various information about their wearer. This raises not only the question of which shoe someone buys, but also the extent to which they are prepared to experiment in a setting such as a job interview and thus wish to convey conscious or unconscious additional messages on a subtle level.

Oxfords While in the men’s segment the classic Oxford (French Richelieus) Fig. 4.1 conveys its discreet nature in comparison to the Derby Fig. 4.1 through the recessed side panels and the lacing closing to form a V-shape, the choice between Plain Oxford and Captoe Oxford shows the desire for structure and separation through the separating seam between the toe and the rest of the shoe body. Whether the oxford is casually quadruple laced or standard and compact quintuple laced is accompanied by a more open or discreet effect. Sometimes, predominantly in the Derby, almost provocatively open triple laces show up and, more in the Oxford, controlled and reserved-looking six-laces. How confident is the wearer? Does he allow himself embellishments in the form of a half, whole or even almost eccentric brogue pattern extending to the heels, or does he forego any experiments?

Monks Monks and double monks convey a certain degree of openness to new things, plus fashion consciousness and the willingness to break with conventions by closing the shoe with buckles rather than laces. In addition to the fashion aspect, the buckle closes much faster, more securely and at the same time more comfortably than a shoelace, plus the metal adds a decorative status and dominance aspect to the appearance. While the Monk with one buckle is quite common, the Double Monk with its two buckles conveys more dominance and emphasizes the described differences to the classic shoe even more. Accordingly, there are considerably fewer wearers who are willing to leave the secure midfield of subtle signaling

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Fig. 4.1 Oxford, Derby, Loafer, Norwegian

and go to extremes with Double Monks. With Monks, too, the additional signals described above are underlined by patterning, any hole decoration or the cross stitching.

Loafer It is more comfortable to wear a loafer (Fig. 4.1). Due to the rubber support, one is quickly in and also quickly out again: out of the shoe and possibly also out of the companies and everything else the world has to offer. I have observed conservative permanent types, in the sense of the classification of the Riemann-Thomann cross, choosing the loafer at most as part of a fashion experiment or overcompensation in private as a summer and holiday shoe. But open types, self-employed working on their own responsibility and creative types who are entrusted with changing projects in the marketing sector intuitively feel comfortable in this model. If it has not been welted in the English style, it is light and flexible. Thus, it supports a flexible nature in the positive case, but a flighty nature in the negative case.

Norwegian The Norwegian Fig. 4.1 as a former worker’s shoe appears more rustic, durable and resistant, depending on the variant it can be more elegant or more rustic. In principle, it conveys endurance, reliability, down-to-earthness and resilience and, through its closed nature, discretion. Its stable, in the original version goat-stitched, waterproof design underlines the desire for safety and durability.

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Women’s Shoes Women have to walk a tightrope when it comes to shoes in business. Since height is a dominating feature and men are on average a few centimetres taller, women can catch up by means of their heels, but they run the risk of letting sexual signals flow into the contact. Due to the uneven physical growth during puberty, disproportionately long legs signal the onset of sexual maturity in young women. High heels alter proportions in this direction, sending a strong biological signal. The shift in center of gravity that occurs when wearing high heels accentuates the chest and buttocks and stretches the back, resulting in a more upright and graceful posture. At the same time, however, with every centimetre gained, sturdiness and stability decrease. What evokes the protective instinct in men in private can seem fragile in business. Many women describe the feeling of wearing high heels as painful. Women who wear them frequently and for a long time thus show their willingness to leave their own comfort zone in favour of the calculus of effect and, moreover, a strong expression of the motive of prestige. As a result, ambition, discipline, self-control and a certain resilience can certainly be attributed to them. But heel height should not be exaggerated in business. If a single piece of the wardrobe stands out so much that it binds the attention, it distracts from the essential. This can work well in some cases, but in others it can have the opposite effect. Givens recommends a heel height of about six centimetres as a healthy middle ground between high-heeled pumps and flat low shoes [28]. According to business etiquette, women’s feet should also be stockinged and not show any skin. Women’s shoes that show the toes in business also allow sexual signals to enter the conversation. Keeping the feet in closed shoes, on the other hand, conveys a fashionably formal and respectable image with the unspoken appeal to take the wearer seriously and to treat her in a gender-neutral manner in business.

Socks and Stockings In principle, the color of the socks should match that of the shoes. For fashion-conscious men, breaking this relatively weak convention compared to the rest of business etiquette is a subtle, because rarely noticed, way to place a fashionable element and flash a touch of unconventional appearance and rebelliousness. So if blue or green socks are worn instead of black ones, or orange or red ones instead of light brown ones, additional possibilities of interpretation open up in comparison to impeccable and unassailable business etiquette. As described above, conclusions can certainly be drawn from whether someone buys different items of clothing and wears them in everyday life or whether they also choose them in a situation such as a job interview. One doesn’t have to be good and the other doesn’t have to be bad, it just has to fit the character of the position being filled.

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Accessories The previous elements of the business wardrobe are completed by various accessories such as belts, watches, glasses and jewellery.

Belt It is not for nothing that the belt height represents a dividing line in the vernacular. What signals does this dividing line convey between “everything is fine” and “doesn’t go at all”? If one wants to live up to the classic etiquette, then the colour of the belt should correspond to the colour of the shoes and predominate in the case of the material leather, but then the possibilities for variation begin. Is it an untreated, braided, lined, embossed or studded belt, does it have no stitching, a single or double stitched seam, does the colour of the stitching add contrast? The choice of belt buckle also seems like a world apart and has an effect. Faced with their new CEO, one lower management executive commented to me after his first appearance, “When I saw his (disproportionately large) belt buckle, everything was clear to me.” Indeed, the new boss turned out to be an executive who at times rumbled around in cowboy fashion and caused an irritation or two.

In addition to the material and colour of the belt buckle, its size, ostentatious ornamentation and even double belt prongs can draw the gaze of fellow human beings to this region and accordingly convey signals of dominance and status. The individual elements of the belt and other accessories described can be interpreted in terms of the three basic perceptual dimensions of security/balance, stimulus and dominance [29] and placed in relation to the character of the position to be occupied.

Watch In times of smartphones and watches on the PC and the almost constant availability of the exact time, we could actually do without the watch on the wrist. If it is worn nevertheless, the wearer shows that he respects the time and punctuality is important to him. Such an applicant is likely to be granted a higher degree of punctuality than another who wears a leather wristband or festival band in the same place. If the watch and smartphone are linked in the form of an IWatch, the need for connectedness with the network and trend consciousness are evident. However, whether there is also the ability to strictly separate oneself in order to sustainably focus on a single content in critical situations could be questioned. Is an analogue or a digital watch worn, or an extravagant model that shows the time in binary or similar? Whether a leather or metal bracelet is worn and what type of clasp is chosen can also be considered. In the teenage and young adult years, people are often still

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experimenting with materials such as plastic, a digital display and technical gadgets; in the twenties and thirties, the watch becomes larger and sportier and the handle moves to the chronograph. The plastic strap and bright colours are replaced by sturdy metal and the clasp also becomes sturdier and more technical. With increasing maturity, income and status, the wearer becomes more set and with him also his watch: classic is the simple analogue watch with leather strap and plain buckle or the high-quality chronograph. Finally, the type and model of the watch provide information about the sense of values and class affiliation. It becomes interesting when the wearer wears an unorthodox model that does not fit in with his peer group or the customs of the job and industry. This can even serve as an element of address. Whether the watch is worn on the left or right wrist opens up further scope for interpretation. While the clock is carried classically left, one observes particularly with younger humans the habit of trying times something different and of carrying the clock right. However, since most people adapt to the social customs and implicit expectations of society over time, the watch worn on the right can signal a willingness to question conventions or be rooted in a desire for attention and differentiation.

Glasses Various studies showed that people in business with glasses were judged to be more intelligent, better educated, safer, more conservative and more reliable than those without glasses. On average, people who wore glasses were classified to have an IQ 14 points higher than those who did not [30]. The heavier the frame, the more pronounced the characteristics were assessed. While thicker frames tended to be judged as more serious and dominant in business life, frameless glasses appeared more fashion-conscious and friendly. A further effect was seen in female spectacle wearers who also applied make-up. These were judged to be more confident, intelligent, sophisticated and open-minded than women with glasses but no make-up. In turn, they appeared more positive than women without glasses but with make-up. At the bottom of the rating scale were female subjects who wore neither glasses nor makeup. Interestingly, men were 50% unaware of make-up worn, while all female observers registered it and sometimes reacted negatively [31]. Thus, for both male and female recruiters, this field represents a potential source of judgment error to which attention should be paid. Contact lenses, while not strictly speaking an accessory, harbor another source of misjudgment. Because they soften the gaze and make it more sensual [32], men may unconsciously appear less assertive and women may emphasize their femininity more than intended.

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Relationship to Space

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Jewellery A more in-depth look at the subject of jewellery would go beyond the scope of these remarks; an interesting distinction can certainly be made between real jewellery and costume jewellery, between religious insignia and stones, and between jewellery that is suitable for the job and peer group and is inconspicuous and a piece of jewellery that catches the eye and works against a balanced harmonious impression. Three pieces of jewellery for the gentleman are classic: the watch, a ring and a tie pin, cufflinks or a necklace. It becomes interesting with several rings and if they are not worn on the ring finger. As will be described in Chap. 11 on gestures, specific meanings and values are attributed to the individual fingers, which are emphasized by rings.

4.4

Relationship to Space

In addition to the static factors described, dynamic factors shape our first impression as soon as we move. During selection interviews for new roles, the famous French director Jean Pierre Melville, sitting behind a large table, received the applying actors. The clou was the location of the table. It stood at the end of an empty factory building that Melville had rented especially for the auditions. To get to it, the applicants had to walk through the entire room under Melville’s critical gaze. Once there, many an applicant was immediately dismissed, while later world stars such as Jean-Paul Belmondo and Alain Delon passed this test with flying colors [33].

Our relationship to space reflects our inner attitude and leads to characteristic movement patterns. If we change our relationship to space, this has a direct effect on our non-verbal behaviour and changes the impression we leave on others. The following exercise increases awareness of the relationship to space. "

Exercise: Developing a Conscious Relationship to Space

Go into different spaces and consciously notice how they affect you. For example, stand on an empty theater stage, in a broom closet, in the middle of a football field, in a small wooden house, on the battlements of a castle tower, on the roof terrace of a high-rise building, or behind the altar of a large church. As you do so, notice the space around you and the feelings that arise on you in light of the locality. The powerful effect will probably lead you to ask yourself what it would be like to stand there as an actor, footballer, lord of a castle or priest. As a second step, imagine exactly that and feel how your feeling, attitude and then your posture, breathing, charisma and the way you move change.

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The understanding gained helps both in the assessment of the applicant and in relation to the exercise of one’s own role. In Chap. 5 on status, the expressions high status and low status are discussed in detail. However, they should already be introduced at this point, because they significantly determine how we feel and move in space. The guest appears on unknown terrain in low status and moves rather cautiously and reservedly. The host, on the other hand, is familiar with the premises and appears more confident, assertive and demanding in the high status. As a result, the guest will open a door rather cautiously, stop in the doorway and wait for the invitation to enter, while the host will open the door naturally and briskly and enter directly. While the former enters the room with hesitant, small steps, preferring the protection of the walls at the peripheries, the latter also walks through the middle of the room with dynamic, large steps. While the guest in low status keeps a respectful distance from others, the host in high status steps closer to those around him. It is important for a coherent appearance that our relationship to the room fits our role [34]: With increasing life experience, routine in the application process or growing demand for his person in the form of various offers, the appearance of an applicant changes. Recruiters run the risk of perceiving overly confident applicants as too dominant and invasive and thus reacting dismissively, while reserved applicants may fill their guest role more aptly and gain sympathy, but this does not necessarily make them the top performer they had hoped for. Similarly, an applicant who is just contesting his first interview in a long time will come across as weaker than an applicant who has a lot of experience in the relevant setting, with his performance being influenced by positive or negative feedback from recent interviews. It is also informative to compare an applicant’s performance in the first and second rounds when they have become somewhat familiar with the premises in the meantime.

4.5

Degree of Tension of the Movements

The actor and speaker Lutz Herkenrath describes relaxation as a fundamental prerequisite for a winning performance [35]. When we come into contact with an interlocutor who is tense beyond what is expected for the situation, our limbic system reacts. It is possible that a danger is looming which we haven’t yet noticed or which is to be concealed. The state of stress is transmitted, we feel uncomfortable and tend to withdraw. We judge men and women differently in terms of the degree of tension. While men appear more confident when they are slightly relaxed, women appear more positive when they bring a slight tension [36]. Alexander Lowen describes the permeability of the joints as an elementary variable for the flow of energy in the body: blocked joints such as stretched-out knees testify to fear and the attempt to protect oneself through the blockage [37]. However, blockages limit both situational flexibility and empathy. In order to empathize with the interlocutor and comprehend the information conveyed to us by his or her movements, an appropriate receptivity is required. The degree of one’s own mobility forms the limit up to which this

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information can be comprehended: Since contraction impedes the flow of information, a tense body cannot comprehend it or can comprehend it only to a limited extent. Insecure applicants tense up in an attempt not to reveal anything about themselves. Instead of being open to a solution through agility, energy builds up in the body, leading to thought blocks and stereotypical responses. However, this does not allow the candidate to build a deeper relationship with the recruiter and win them over: Pressure, anxiety and tension increase, the recruiter becomes more cautious and a vicious circle is created. If recruiters consciously perceive the tension of insecure applicants, they can support them in entering the interview by consciously relaxing themselves. Focusing on their own calm breathing calms them down, also gives the other person space and helps them gain confidence and relax. In addition to distinguishing between rhythmic and flowing movements on the one hand and choppy and paced movements on the other, the neck area, shallower breathing, and tense hand and finger positions directly show tension and stress. The naturalness of the smile also shows the tension, when the mouth is smiled and the teeth are shown, but the eyes do not smile with it. In order to get into contact with the other person and to reach a common goal, a common rhythm and a common degree of tension are necessary. The more harmonious these turn out to be, the better information can be transmitted in principle. Disagreements about the content can occur on the factual level, but the fundamental agreement on the non-verbal level ensures that information reaches the other person as intended and as unadulterated as possible. If you consciously register where the other person is, you can pick them up and gently lead them on. The topic rhythm is deepened in Chap. 7 to the movement. The British body language expert Marc Bowden distinguishes between eight different states of tension [38]. Of these, the fourth level forms the optimal starting point for perceiving the situation in the best possible way and being able to adjust flexibly to the applicant’s level of tension. Body Tension: States According to Bowden 1. No tension – exhausted, flabby 2. Relaxed – cool, comfortable 3. Neutral – economic, robotic 4. Deliberate – being mindful, managing, just being 5. Alert – awake, curious, inquiring – > “Is there a bomb?” 6. Agitated – evasive, erratic – > “There’s a bomb!!!” 7. Entranced – “In Love with the bomb” 8. Total Tension – Shocked – “The Bomb Has Exploded!”

4.6

Optimizing Your Own First Impression

Communication is effect and not intention. (Dr. Wolfgang Linker)

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For all the advantages of guarding against one’s own perceptual errors and a rash, undifferentiated assessment of the other person, it always takes two to tango. What good is it to try to resist the seductive effects of first impressions yourself if the applicant unconsciously indulges in a wide variety of errors of judgement? Companies and recruiters who optimize the first impression they make can therefore gain a significant advantage over the competition. While a bad first impression can lead communication down the wrong path, the lights are green when this is successful. For a coherent impression, the parameters described above must fit the recruiter, the company and industry, the position to be filled and the situation on the job market. It is the recruiter’s task to combine the details in order to inspire confidence and not scare them away by dominating. However, in order to optimize recruiting in the long term, the framework should be even broader.

Image as an Employer, Media Reputation Today, the first impression develops in a much more complex way compared to the past: If you remember with which preparation you flew on holiday 20 years ago and how you get an idea of the possible hotels in advance on rating platforms today, you will get an idea of how sought-after high potentials of Generation Y proceed in their job search. They are very well connected and take their networks with them from position to position. Before applying, they find out more on employer rating platforms such as Kununu or Glassdoor, but sometimes also from direct or indirect contacts who currently or most recently worked for a potential employer. The appeal to professionalism until the last day of work and not to leave scorched earth behind for departing employees cannot be emphasized strongly enough in this context. In Xing, an advanced search makes it easy to find current and former employees of companies and ask about their experiences. Those who have parted ways in a dispute communicate this on informal channels to other potential applicants. First impressions count, last impressions last. Psychology describes the strong effect of the last impression as the recency effect. Not putting obstacles in the way of employees at the end of their employment and investing in outplacement measures, for example, are comparatively inexpensive investments that companies have been using for years to prevent their image from being tarnished. Another effect has long been known in sales. There, the rule of thumb is that only every seventh dissatisfied customer complains, but each of the dissatisfied customers tells seven people from his environment about a negative experience. So only the tip of the iceberg is visible. It can therefore be assumed that behind every negative feedback that reaches us, there are approximately 50 people who are influenced by it. Of course, there are constellations where it simply doesn’t fit: Conflicts in times of crisis or personal matters that one does not wish on one’s worst competitor are a reality. However, if one has parted on bad terms, this can have serious consequences, especially in the smallest and minor companies, if the negative evaluation of an employee who has left is not balanced out by

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positive opinions of the employees still working in the company. Especially in small companies, where a family atmosphere prevails, the employees are satisfied and do not think about a change, they do not deal with employer rating platforms for this very reason. Thus, one or two negative evaluations can damage the image and discourage potential new candidates from applying, even though 25 employees have been working happily in the company for years, but do not communicate this. "

Improve Your Own Media Reputation

Companies with a positive working atmosphere can discuss the criteria used to rate employers on Kununu (or Glassdoor) with their employees and find out whether there is any feasible potential for improvement. If this has been found and implemented by the entrepreneur, the employer can ask his employees to submit a rating on Kununu and thus create a counterweight to any bad ratings.

The First Impression of the Company: Company Grounds and Company Building As the saying goes, there is no second chance for a first impression. Negatives influence us more than neutral or positive aspects. Over the years, one becomes blind to their owncompany, but an applicant who enters the company premises for the first time automatically feels inside and wonders what it would be like to come here every day from now on. One’s employer contributes to identity formation and influences one’s status in the social environment. A new applicant unconsciously compares the image that opens up to him when he enters a company with the image of the employers in his social environment. Applicants who apply for jobs from existing employment relationships or who have received several offers have thus satisfied the lower four hierarchical levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the fifth level describing the need for aesthetics. If they do not feel comfortable when entering the premises, this influences the motivation and willingness of the applicants to accept the offer: On the way to an optimal first impression, the condition of the company building and premises are therefore critical factors. This also applies to production companies with little public traffic.

Optimize the Recruiter’s First Impression The first impression takes place on several levels, first in the latent unconscious area of the applicant’s imagination. The more positive information he has in advance, the better and stronger the image that forms in his mind and the more relaxed he is when he comes to the interview. It is advantageous if the applicant can get a first impression of the team on the website. In addition to the usual pictures and names on the company website, it can be

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considered to shoot short videos about the new colleagues and the employees involved in recruiting. There, these can not only be optimally staged and thus the first impression of the visual and acoustic level can be permanently optimized, this also appears more open and shows the leap of faith towards new colleagues. The moving image offers fewer opportunities for post-processing than individual portraits. However, in order to make a vital, winning first impression in the video, something can be done in advance to appear fresher and more attractive. For example, you can avoid eating anything from late afternoon onwards the day before the shoot; after twelve hours of fasting, our bodies secrete more of the human growth hormone, which makes us look a little fresher the very next morning [39]. In addition to getting enough sleep, alcohol is discouraged the night before, and in order to look fresh and energetic, a time of day should be chosen for the shoot that supports this, usually in the morning between 9:00 and 11:00 am. Similarly, attention can be paid to the weather: Bad weather dampens the mood. Since the videos will shape the company’s external image for a longer period of time, it is worthwhile to postpone the shoot until a day with good weather. The thought of a video may initially be off-putting when combined with the thought of camera crews and directors. Regardless of the fact that this format is currently becoming state of the art, continues to receive attention in the media overstimulation and effectively creates proximity to the applicant, suitable videos can now be shot and edited on the smartphone itself with apps such as Power Director. In addition to online tutorials, various seminar providers teach how to use the software and the basics of storytelling. The first impression can be influenced by the media as well as by the first personal contact by means of the various factors described above. In addition to an open, upright posture, clothing, cleanliness, punctuality and classic business etiquette aspects play central roles. An open and friendly smile as well as an inclined head posture underline a cooperative attitude. Irenaeus Eibl-Eibesfeldt described the cross-cultural eye greeting, which is discussed in more detail in Chap. 10 on facial expressions: When we greet someone toward whom we have a positive attitude, we raise our eyebrows briefly as we do so, communicating our positive attitude. This signal is missing if the other person is received neutrally or even with narrowed eyebrows. What we have experienced before influences us. If one has discussed critically with colleagues or exchanged overly negative content before the contact, the negative facial expressions resonate like an echo on the face. So before greeting, those involved in the conversation should ideally engage with positive content. This facilitates a natural smile and friendly facial expressions. A natural “Duchenne smile” is characterized by activated eye ring muscles, causing slight crow’s feet to form around the eyes and a slight lowering of the eye crease, the area between the upper eyelid and the eyebrow [40]. This muscle group is difficult to activate voluntarily, unlike those muscles used to elicit a socially polite smile. However, an open and honest smile can be triggered by visualizing internal images in advance: If you are still laughing a bit with your colleagues and remember funny stories or nice situations, it is easier for you to smile authentically. It takes a little more effort to set up an anchor for a positive feeling, but this can be called up effortlessly and directly later.

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Exercise: Set Up Power Anchors for a Positive First Impression

In his classical conditioning experiments, Pavlov rang a little bell while feeding his dogs, which stimulated their saliva production. Later, they also drooled when only the little bell was rung but no food was near. Anchors can also be set in humans [41], for example to optimize first impressions. First, find a song that makes you feel the feelings you want for your first impression, ideally they should be positive, open, cooperative and joyful in nature. Create a setting free of distractions, listen to this song and give yourself over completely to the feeling that arises. When the feeling is strongest, usually during the chorus, forcefully squeeze the thumb and index finger of your left hand together and hold for a few seconds. Of course, other pressure points will also work, but this one can be activated easily and unobtrusively later. This procedure should be repeated two or three times during the song. Listen to the song more often every day for a week and repeat the described procedure. At the end of the week, you will have established a power anchor that you can use in the future before important situations to activate positive feelings and improve your first impression. "

Optimize the First Impression with Power Poses

Those who recall the effects of power poses will find that the qualities attributed to applicants after they held a power pose for two minutes all influence the critical elements of first impressions as well: Trustworthiness, authenticity, relaxation, passion, and enthusiasm serve the four criteria described above, Credibility, Likeability, Attractiveness, and Strength. Striking a power pose yourself before important conversations helps you to adjust the hormone levels in your own body to the important situation ahead and the impression you want to make, improving your own impact. The effect after a two-minute pose is still detectable after 15 min [42]. If you like it less flashy, you can also intensely imagine taking a power pose for two minutes [43]. If you look at photos of faces during a power pose, you radiate more positive social characteristics afterwards.

Other important aspects are the personal mindset and the attitude towards the conversation. Lack of clarity is the cause of most communication breakdowns [44], and this also applies to first impressions. People who do not know where they stand and what is important to them, who do not have a clear idea of their role and the bundles of expectations attached to it, who assess the requirements of the situation unrealistically and do not know what goal is being sought and where they themselves are in this web, will send various conflicting signals and lose congruence. Ambiguous communication due to lack of clarity leads to speculation and errors of judgement on the part of the other person, such as transference and projection, stereotyping and the use of prejudices. So if you don’t know

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exactly what first impression you want to create and leave behind, you shouldn’t be surprised if you “come across” differently than you “actually” wanted to. It is helpful to clarify this for yourself in advance, to formulate a catchy phrase and to hold this in front of your own mind’s eye or to formulate it silently before you go into a situation. In addition, a prototype that embodies trustworthiness can be sought and analysed: Who strikes me as obviously trustworthy – and why? What is his non-verbal behaviour like, which signals stand out positively to me? When we have found our way into the prototype, we can imagine how he would approach the situation. As described, our viewing habits and perceptual abilities have changed due to the influence of the television. Intuitively, we pay attention to congruence and expose, whether consciously or subconsciously, superficial tricks. Those who are more concerned with “wanting to appear” than “being that way” lose their authenticity. Being comfortable in one’s skin provides the foundation for a winning appearance; being uncomfortable undermines it. Chap. 6 on posture describes some guidance for anatomically optimal posture that supports a positive appearance. As here, it is important to distinguish between habit, well-being and discomfort. If one has become accustomed to an unfavorable behavior through a lifetime of habits, it may feel currently familiar, but should not be confused with “feeling comfortable in one’s skin.” The lack of points of comparison prevents us from recognizing harmful influences. The changed feeling that we initially encounter on the way to a more positive attitude should therefore not be confused with discomfort because of its novelty. In order to develop new habits, a phase of instability must first be passed through [45].

4.7

Conclusion: Applicant Appearance and First Impression

The first impression is formed within fractions of a second, still has an effect for half a year and influences our further perception and information processing. In addition to the various errors of judgement, we are significantly influenced by the factors of credibility, likeability, attractiveness and strength. Non-verbally, posture, gait, the way of moving and clothing influence the first impression more than facial expressions and gestures. The first impression takes place on many different levels and can be actively influenced without losing authenticity. In order to optimize the first impression of the company also medially, the frame of reference should be extended by the rating on employer evaluation platforms. Before the interview, there are various techniques and exercises to improve his appearance and thus the first impression that the recruiter makes on the applicant.

References 1. Patti Wood: SNAP, S. 208; New World Library, Novato, 2012 2. Wolfgang Krupp, öffentlicher Vortrag an der DHBW Lörrach, September 2009

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3. Patti Wood: SNAP, S. 11; New World Library, Novato, 2012 4. https://www.uni-muenster.de/Psychodiagnostik/public/P.M.%20Perspektive.pdf Aufgerufen am 06.09.2018 5. Alexander Todorov: Face Value, S. 43; Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2017 6. Monika Matschnig: Körpersprache, S. 11; Gräfe und Unzer Verlag, München, 2010 7. Patti Wood, SNAP, S. 18/19; New World Library, Novato, 2012 8. Alexander Todorov: Face Value, S. 51; Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2017 9. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 112–116; Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 10. https://www.heise.de/tp/features/Schoene-Gesichter-setzen-das-Gehirn-in-Aufruhr-3453000. html Aufgerufen am 07.09.2018, 07:20 Uhr 11. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatum Aufgerufen am 07.09.2018 um 07:23 Uhr 12. Henning Beck: Faszinierendes Gehirn, S. 256; Springer Spektrum, Berlin, 2016 13. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Olds#cite_note-1 Aufgerufen am 07.09.2018 um 07:27 14. Jack Nasher: Überzeugt, S. 124; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2017 15. Jack Nasher: Überzeugt, S. 68; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2017 16. Patti Wood, SNAP, S. 10; New World Library, Novato, 2012 17. Patti Wood, SNAP, S. 25; New World Library, Novato, 2012 18. David K. Berlo and James B. Lemert, „an Empirical Test of a General Construct of Credibility“, paper presented to the Speech Association of America, New York, 1961 19. Eskil Burk: Neue Psychologie der Beeinflussung, S. 71; BoD, Norderstedt, 2016 20. Patti Wood, SNAP, S. 28; New World Library, Novato, 2012 21. Patti Wood, SNAP, S. 50; New World Library, Novato, 2012 22. https://www.tagesspiegel.de/weltspiegel/usa-gefaengnis-in-rose/773158.html aufgerufen am 14.10.2018; 10:32 23. http://www.sowi.uni-mannheim.de/lssozpsych/forschung-erleben-2/node/61 – aufgerufen am 14.10.2018; 10:35 24. Angela Steer-Reeh: Wirkung von farbigem Licht auf die Herzfrequenzvariabilität und den PulsAtem-Quotienten gesunder Probanden, S. 32; Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Medizin der Medizinischen Fakultät der Eberhard Karls Universität zu Tübingen, 2012 25. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 128; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 26. Petra Waldminghaus: 30 Minuten Erfolgsfaktor Erscheinungsbild, S. 45; Gabal, Offenbach, 2017 27. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 140; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 28. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 146; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 29. Hans-Georg Häusel: Think Lymbic, S. 23; Haufe Verlag, Freiburg, 2014 30. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache und Kommunikation, S. 308; Junfermann, Paderborn 2013 31. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 255; Ullstein, Berlin, 2009 32. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 254; Ullstein, Berlin, 2009 33. Tiziana Bruno/ Gregor Adamczyk: Körpersprache, S. 66; Rudolf Haufe Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, Freiburg, 2009 34. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper, S. 45; Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg, 2010 35. Lutz Herkenrath, Vortrag „Ich bin. Also wirke ich“ am 03.03.2016 an der DHBW Lörrach 36. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache und Kommunikation, S. 322; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 37. Alexander Lowen: Bio-Energetik, S. 166; Rowohlt Taschenbuchverlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1982 38. Mark Bowden: Winning Bodylanguage, S. 142–151; McGraw Hill; New York, 2010

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39. https://blog.dahlke.at/fasten-als-genuss-und-weg-aus-krisen/ Aufgerufen am 14.10.2018 um 14: 05 40. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz S. 79; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 41. http://www.lern-psychologie.de/behavior/watson.htm – aufgerufen am 14.10.2018 um 14:34 42. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 268; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 43. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 308; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 44. Friedmann Schulz von Thun: Miteinander Reden 3, S. 143; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 2013 45. Peter Kruse: next practice, S. 54; Gabal Verlag, Offenbach, 2010

5

Status and Territorial Behaviour

Abstract

This chapter describes the causes of territorial behaviour and status, their effects on interpersonal communication and their role in the emergence of resistance and conflict in the interview. Different territorial expressions and their influence on the interview are explored in depth and how boundary crossings lead to communication breakdowns are described. In addition, the topic of status is examined and the importance of the ability to vary it is derived. Finally, possibilities are described to vary one’s own status in the interview in a target-oriented way.

After Chap. 3 described how our understanding of space and distance behavior are shaped by the culture in which we grow up, Chap. 4 showed how our relationship to space influences first impressions. This chapter delves into the topics of territorial behavior and status and describes their influence on communication in recruiting.

5.1 "

Relationship Between Territory and Status The primatologist Frans de Waal observed how free-living male chimpanzees patrolled the outer borders of their territory in small groups. If they came across individual male members of the neighbouring group who had moved too far away from their group, they attacked and killed them. If the neighbouring group finally had no more male members, their territory including the remaining females was taken over [1].

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_5

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Even among chimpanzees, a place in the centre of the territory ensured the protection of the group and represented a survival-critical factor that was reserved for the highest-ranking animals. Members who were expelled from the group altogether, on the other hand, usually faced certain death in the wild. Those who were excluded from human communities in earlier times also fell into “misery” (in German: Elend), whose Old German word origin “elilenti” means “other land” and indicates that the outcast lost his claim to territorial belonging: alone in a foreign land, hardship and poverty came upon him and ultimately led to the modern meaning of the word “misery”. Even today, those who live on the “margins of society” often have limited opportunities for participation and limited access to the various sectors and resources of society. Their lower class social status is demarcated by “class boundaries” from that of the middle and upper classes. Edward T. Hall coined the term territorial imperative in the context of his cross-cultural studies on proxemics. To this end, he investigated the need for space as well as distance behavior and discovered that both primates and humans claim more space with increasing status [2]. Conversely, dominance over a larger territory also increases status.

Beyond spatial territory, we negotiate status with each other in a wide variety of ways. “Negotiating” because status is a relational quantity: without another social being to whom the high or low status refers, status does not exist, since there is no one with whom discrepancies can arise regarding territory, which has also always been access to food and resources. Status is a social quantity and the power closely related to it is the energy that moves social systems [3]. High status empowers, energizes, and vitalizes individuals. In contrast, de Waal describes how dethroned chimpanzees, as well as “ousted” professors, literally collapsed after losing their top position in the hierarchy [4]. The rise or fall causes measurable changes in the hormones testosterone, cortisol [5] and serotonin [6]. At the same time, different hormone levels change the predisposition for characteristic behaviors and for ascending or descending in hierarchies. Molcho describes that each person feels irritated the moment territorial rights are taken away [7]. Faced with a changed individual playing field and reduced available options for action, the status changes and requires one to gatherand realign oneself. If several do so together, a high degree of coordinated cooperation can determine the survival of the entire group in the event of a crisis. A clear hierarchy is a decisive advantage here. It is therefore not surprising that the army, which defends or conquers territories, has developed one of the most pronounced hierarchy systems of all institutions, with the broadest differentiation of status. Like patrolling male chimpanzees, our male ancestors took on the task of securing territory in addition to hunting, while women stayed with the family. This evolutionary historical legacy shapes male behavior from an early age: Already in childhood they are more status-oriented and mark and defend their territory more offensively than women [8]. This imprinting also makes men more prone to conflict in business, the causes of which are rooted in a sense of territory or status. Since, when moving up the hierarchy, men must orient themselves more to those above them and less to their subordinates, empathy and

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Distance Zones

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sympathy normally decrease as status increases [9]. Due to their imprinting, this natural mechanism poses greater challenges to male leaders than female leaders. However, against the backdrop of increasingly volatile labour markets, the ability to communicate in an appreciative, empathetic manner is a essential key-competency for retaining employees, so it should be particularly examined when recruiting male managers. Having your own territory gives you a better position in battle and a higher status. Not only animals are less likely to be defeated in territorial fights on their own territory, but also in sports teams have significantly higher chances of success in home games. At the negotiating table, likewise, those who negotiate from high status and on their own territory and thus have more power have an advantage [10]. In the job interview, therefore, different discussions result depending on the background and inner attitude of the applicant and the company representative: If the pressure to reach an agreement is comparable on both sides, it can be determined on an equal footing whether the company and the applicant are a good match or not. If, however, one of the two parties is more dependent on the commitment of the other than the other way round, the interview becomes more and more of a sales talk, for which the rules of negotiation ultimately apply. At the latest, when both parties agree, there will be a negotiation about the salary anyway. Thus, both parties will intuitively try to raise their own status and gain home advantage in abstract areas. Three aspects come into play here, which will be explored in more depth later: the different manifestations of territories on which home advantage or dominance is contested, the place markers with which we claim these territories, and the personal ways in which we perceive and respond to territorial encroachments by interlocutors. It becomes apparent that a large part of the conflicts in the business world are based on status conflicts and territorial violations. We communicate both predominantly non-verbally and so it opens up deeper insights into the systemic motives, drivers and values of our fellow human beings and opens up additional options in professional and private interaction if we expand our frame of reference to include these dimensions of social communication. The territorial and status behaviour of an applicant in conversation provides a first impression of his social behaviour, his resilience in crisis situations, potential sources of conflict, the character of his conflict behaviour and his ability to integrate in groups.

5.2

Distance Zones

Territory in its original form is spatial: Most of us know the unpleasant feeling that arises when intrusive contemporaries come too close to us. We unconsciously draw five distance zones around us, to which we allow our fellow human beings access depending on the degree of familiarity [11]. These distance zones surround us like circular rings; their exact size is influenced by various individual factors and varies depending on the person and situation in the range of the information given in Fig. 5.1.

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Fig. 5.1 Illustration of distance zones

Inner Intimate Zone and Intimate Zone The innermost intimate zone begins directly on the body and envelops us at a distance of a hand’s length, i.e., about 15 cm. This is followed by the intimate zone with a distance of 15–45 cm. This is reserved for the partner, children or closest confidants. If strangers invade one of these intimate zones, our body gets ready to defend itself: Our heart rate, blood pressure and adrenaline levels rise. If our privacy is violated, we react with blockades such as locked joints and tense muscles. As the intensity of the assault increases, the following escalation cascade develops [12]. Reactions to Injuries of the Intimate Zone • Subtle freezing: Shock freeze in the hope that the danger will pass by itself. • Back away slightly: Attempt to increase distance from intruder. • Restless shifting back and forth: Signals a desire to move away. • Crossing the legs, away from the intruder: Protects the inside of the body. • Turning away the legs and the upper body: preparation for escape. • Drumming fingers: signaling inner turmoil and attempt to relieve tension. (continued)

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• Stand-up support handle on the armrests of the chair: thought of getting up and walking away. • Closing your eyes: trying to block out the other person. • Lowered chin and gaze: Signaling submission and protection of the throat. • Raising the shoulders: attempt to protect the neck against a potential attack. • Grasping for objects, especially pens: Arming oneself to defend oneself. • Get up: Escape or attack. Our hands, bent forearms and elbows represent our most important defensive tools in an emergency and thus influence the size of our intimate zone. The radius in which they can act depends on our arm length and thus indirectly on our body size. The size of the intimate distance zone also influences the size of the other distance zones. Thus a tall person with long arms has in principle another intimate zone and also another personality zone, social and public zone. In addition to defense, we can also use our hands to attack. Here, larger people have an advantage over smaller ones due to their greater reach, whereby the physical strength of those involved plays a relativizing role. As a result, short people react with stress when taller people come close enough to them to get within their reach, but the smaller ones themselves are still too far away to reach the larger ones. In addition, the position we take with respect to our fellow humans affects our need for protection. Strictly speaking, the distance zones are not circular around us, but oval in shape. For example, if someone is standing 30 cm next to us on the bus, we remain more relaxed because we are less sensitive at the sides and already have our elbows in the right place to protect ourselves in an emergency or to make room for ourselves. On the other hand, tension increases when our counterpart faces us head-on and stands directly in front of us. Our most important organs are located in the vulnerable abdominal area, and if a stranger is standing 30 cm away in front of us, a possible attack could no longer be fended off so easily: We react with stress. Eventually, we tune people out altogether by physically turning away. Then we can no longer defend ourselves with our hands, but our insensitive back offers a certain protection and we are already properly aligned to flee. Accordingly, the intimate zone behind us and to the side is less pronounced than to the front and can be compared to a recumbent hardboiled egg: The body represents the yolk, the intimate zone is larger towards the front, towards the pointed side, while there is less distance from the shell at the sides and back.

Personal Zone Following the intimate zone is the personal zone, this extends from 45 cm to 1.2 m around us and can also be called the “Informal-Zone”, access is reserved for friends and other family members. The handshake takes place at the inner boundary of the personal zone. If

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someone enters our intimate or personal zone against our will and this is not due to the situation, as for example in the elevator, we have to protect these zones in order to be able to maintain our own self-confidence. If we do nothing, we can no longer think clearly: The danger prevails and can no longer be blocked out, the body sounds the alarm and activates the stress axis. This reaction also takes place on transferred territories, such as the illumination of critical stages of the life course. These have touched the applicant more personally or intimately and therefore lead to stronger reactions than “normal” professional experiences, which can usually be located in social life.

Social Zone Around the personal zone follows the social zone with a distance of 1.2–3.6 m. This can also be called the “formal-zone”, and we keep this distance from acquaintances, colleagues and other people in social life.

Public Zone The public zone begins at a distance of more than 3.6 m, and under normal circumstances we have no current deeper relationship with people in this environment.

Influences on the Size of the Distance Zones The specifications of the zone sizes are guidelines for normal social situations and are always influenced by the context and the situation. If we are standing in a crowded subway, where touching is quite possible, we accept the circumstances and come to terms with them, even though there is quite a lot of traffic in our intimate distance zone. If, on the other hand, we were lying alone on a sandy beach that is otherwise empty for miles around and someone settled down four meters away from us, we would no longer fade him out as belonging to the public zone. The suddenly doubled “population density” in our immediate surroundings no longer fits in with the rest of the setting. We feel pressured, and if the persona non grata does not resolve the tension by addressing us, we will react. It becomes apparent: as social beings we locate ourselves in the social field and claim a certain space for ourselves. The size of this space depends on various factors: The intercultural differences investigated by Hall showed that in the USA the distance of an arm’s length is considered the ideal distance; anything less than this seems unpleasant and intrusive in business. In France, this distance is somewhat smaller, and in the Netherlands and Germany it is somewhat wider. In contrast, people in the Middle East [13] and Latin America need little space to feel comfortable. Accordingly, we as Germans quickly feel crowded by them and perceive them as intrusive, while they only want to step into a

5.3

Territorial Behaviour

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distance that is comfortable for them in order to come into contact with us. Northern Europeans need more space than Southern Europeans. But it is not only the country and culture, but also the environment in which we grew up that determines the individual size of our zones. Big city dwellers, who are used to a higher population density, already come closer to each other when greeting each other than people from rural regions [14]. Since our need for space increases as our status increases, the social class we come from also exerts an influence on the size of our distance zones. Likewise, these are influenced by our gender: men have larger zones than women [15]. In addition to our basic temperament and the character of our individual personality, our current mental state influences the size of the various zones we draw around ourselves [16]. If we are relaxed or in a positive and exuberant mood, our intimate zone becomes smaller: we reduce inhibitions, are in a good mood, more sociable and more tolerant of potential assaults. If, on the other hand, we are in a bad mood or stressed, our intimate zone increases: we become “thin-skinned” and are meticulous about maintaining our own boundaries: It’s better not to get too close. Extroverts have smaller zones than introverts, which is why they go out of their way more and approach others more in order to make contact. However, if they meet an introvert with a larger zone, they may get too close too quickly. The various influences together determine the size of our individual zones. For example, height may increase it, but an extroverted character will reduce it somewhat. Coming from a sparsely populated region again enlarges it, as does coming from a family of high status. All this works against the cultural background and is stretched or compressed by the current constitution. “WYSIATI – What you see, is all, there is” is how Kahneman describes our predisposition to transfer our own experiences and paradigms to our fellow human beings in the absence of other reference values [17]. As a result, we intuitively assume that the zones of our interlocutors are just as large as our own, and do not even consider that it could be otherwise until it is clearly signaled to us. Thus, unintentional transgressions can quickly occur. Think of the classic movie in which the good-humored farmer comes from the country to the big city and stumbles from one faux pas to another. The examples described make it clear that there is always potential for conflict where it is unclear where the different zones of one interlocutor begin and those of the other end. If both agree with each other, communication synchronizes as if by itself and one vibrates in harmony. If different standards prevail, one seeks contact and thereby unconsciously gets too close to the other, while the latter feels under pressure. In this way, our distance zones form the yardstick for our territorial behavior, so to speak.

5.3

Territorial Behaviour

John B. Calhoun studied overpopulation for 25 years and observed its effects in rats. Above a certain population density, social stress set in and increased their stress level, so that they eventually cared

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less for their offspring, ate less food, reproduced less and died earlier [18]. Comparable observations are also evident in humans: The harsher the circumstances and the permanent social stress suffered, the lower the life expectancy [19].

Evolutionarily, a large territory ensured access to food and increased the chances of survival for one’s own offspring. Besides food, Abraham Maslow describes security and social recognition as our most existential needs. All three are directly or indirectly linked to territory and thus influence our behaviour on an existential level, which is expressed through its deep rootedness in the form of genetically programmed rituals. Signals to assert territory range from impersonation and territory marking to hierarchical signals and the demonstration of status symbols. Non-verbal communication in the visible, spatial territory indicates the attitude and behaviour in abstract, transferred territories. If someone is already quick to grab your hand during the handshake, he always wants to have something right away. Is he an insecure or curious type who wants too much too quickly, even with his questions, and gets too far into the other person’s personal space? This can express itself on other levels in call attempts at borderline unconventionaltimes or in undifferentiated addresses, greetings or disproportionately frequent and long e-mails. The field and signals here are broad, but behaviors exhibited in one area usually indicate an underlying pattern and a predisposition to similar behaviors in other areas. They are put into perspective by the applicant’s personal experiences and values, thus opening up further insights into his or her personality that enable a better match with the position to be filled and the future team. For example, attention to distance behavior, the pauses allowed in the interview, or the display of status symbols can provide information. Does an applicant spread himself out above or below the table? As a speaker, does he occupy half the floor with his voice, does he wear a dominant perfume that cannot be avoided, does he show gestures that are too foreign? Does he overuse his speaking time and thus limit the possibilities of those around him to get involved in communication? These examples point to the various ways in which our territorial behaviour expresses itself.

5.4

Expressions of Territory and Territorial Placeholders

In today’s society, spatial territory has largely lost its importance as a source of food and hunting ground. On the other hand, good education and qualifications provide an income that compensates for the lack of land and its yields. Expert status in one’s own field of expertise secures one’s job in comparison to less qualified competitors. The further the occupied field of knowledge has been explored and the deeper it has been penetrated, the higher the unique selling proposition and thus the earning potential. Thus, the field of expertise has taken on important characteristics of the spatial territory and shows that other types of territories exist beyond the spatial.

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Expressions of Territory and Territorial Placeholders

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Depending on the nature of the territory, we use a wide variety of placeholders to mark it and claim it for ourselves. Knowing one’s own territory creates familiarity and security. To mark their territory, animals use whatever they have and find. Humans also use specific placeholders such as the classic towel on the free lounger at the pool. As with spatial territories, other territories also have boundaries, the unauthorized crossing of which is sanctioned. Whether someone comes too close to us physically, is too loud, annoys us with their exhalations or asks indiscreet questions – they cross a boundary every time. Again, the extent of these boundaries and reactions to transgressions vary and are shaped by culture, personality, current stress, status, power, and gender. Let’s take a look at different territories and how claims are made and status negotiated there. This will show how broad the potential for territorial transgressions is and how different influences lead to different perceptions and understandings of whether one has made good contact or become too close.

Spatial Territory Territorial placeholders, for example the planted flag on newly conquered territory, represent objects that belong to us or are associated with us and that we place to claim a territory for ourselves. In the home, open spaces are a welcome area to leave markers. The markings are not made by flags, of course, but more subtly, for example, by the much-maligned socks, but also by coffee cups left standing or books, hair ties and magazines left lying around. Another member of the family simply turns the tables and claims the tidy, free space as his territorial mark of recognition. Thus, at any given time, everyone can read their influence on and claim to the shared social space and feel more comfortable, more constricted, or motivated to conquer it anew. In the office, the desk represents the territory of the employee, and the uncommented filing of foreign placeholders is consciously or unconsciously registered as territorial encroachment. What one still lets oneself be offered by the boss usually provokes direct resistance if it is done by a colleague of the same rank. If one meets for negotiations at a neutral table in the conference room, proportional claims arise, the middle of the table serves as an imaginary border. Whether above or below the table, crossing the center with one’s gestures, feet, or documents constitutes territorial encroachment. Allan Pease describes how he turned unsuspecting acquaintances into involuntary test subjects when having lunch together. To do this, he used various objects accessible to all, such as the salt shaker, pepper mill, water carafe, menu or bread basket, which normally mark the boundary between the areas of those sitting at the table in the middle of the table at the same time. After using them, he placed these objects back in the half of his interlocutors, shifted by a few centimeters, thus expanding his own territory. The partners reacted immediately with subtle stress signals and, when Pease went to the toilet, took advantage of his absence to quickly restore the original conditions [20].

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In order to promote a contact at eye level, on the one hand the applicant’s natural territory should not be restricted and on the other hand he should be given the opportunity to mark his area with various placeholders such as drinks and documents. In this way, he will feel more comfortable and be able to engage more deeply in the interview. In principle, it is therefore advisable to conduct the interview at a neutral table and not at the crowded desk of the recruiter or future supervisor. However, deliberately deviating from this in a single sequence of the selection process can be a variant in order to gain further insights into the applicant’s territorial behaviour. Our territorial behaviour is also expressed on the road. Depending on the vehicle and the current speed, our distance zones grow, a trespassing or intrusion below the minimum distance represents an attack that goes as far as the offence of coercion. Due to their evolutionary-historical imprint, men are more predestined for strong reactions than women, and as a result, many a mother advises her daughter not to choose a man she has not experienced behind the wheel. A joint car ride provides deeper insights into the driver’s personality than many conversations. As part of a multi-stage selection process, a joint business trip by car during the probationary period could therefore offer another opportunity to get to know the new employee from a different angle when he or she takes over the wheel for a stage. Travellers in first class on the train or occupants of a hotel suite are given more space and thus a higher status. This could also be granted to special applicants when they travel. Compared to the rest of the recruiting costs, this is a relatively small item, but one that can have a positive impact on the first impression the company makes on the applicant.

Specialty Territories The word itself already indicates this: Areas of expertise are also territories whose boundaries we sometimes zealously guard and mark with placeholders. Examples of this are academic titles on business cards, degree certificates on the wall, books, references to our own publications and abbreviations that are incomprehensible to outsiders, as well as specialist terms, sometimes in languages for which there is no other use among the living. The markings range from “know-it-allism” to rephrasing to citing capacities, sources and studies and culminate in inconspicuous or obvious attempts to steer the conversation to one’s own field of expertise in order to be able to show off there. In the interview, the applicant should be able to score points in his field of expertise, so the temptation to withdraw to this and hide his personality behind technical positions is appealing. As a rule, however, depending on the position and the size of the company, only the direct superior will really understand him. The applicant’s ability to make complicated knowledge accessible to the less technically involved participants is a sign of his real communicative competence, his empathic understanding and his networking ability in the organization. Candidates who retreat into their bastion of knowledge and delve into the subject matter with individual interviewees fail to build bridges to the rest of the

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participants in the conversation. It is to be feared that networking with other departments will also be more difficult than with applicants who manage to think outside the box and integrate the entire round into the interview. Creativity is one of the necessary qualities for the future success of companies and is conditioned by diversity, networking and stabilizing values such as trust and transparency. The extent to which employees in cooperative processes such as project work are prepared to make their knowledge selflessly transparent and to contribute it to the common goal is a critical personality trait in order to secure the future performance and competitiveness of the company. The opposite pole is occupied by those who monopolize their own knowledge in order to strengthen their own position. The territorial behaviour of the applicant in the various dimensions, but of course especially in his own field of expertise, indicates his basic attitude already in the job interview. Later, the company field will certainly influence him, but depending on whose brainchild he is, he will also strengthen or weaken it.

Temporal Territory We talk about periods of time, deadlines and set limits with deadlines. In our culture, time equals money, and each of us has the same 24 h per day. Punctuality is the virtue of kings: Those who make others wait uninformed can only do so from unchallenged high status, and even then it is rude. To dispose of another’s time as an ordinary person and waste it by making him wait uniformed puts us in the low status of the debtor. Being late to the conversation suggests disrespect or a lack of professionalism. As described in Chap. 3, our sense of time is subject to strong cultural conditioning. Thus, in the case of applicants from polychronic cultures, a lack of punctuality should not be directly inferred as a lack of reliability or motivation. Those who do not allow their interlocutors to speak and thus occupy most of the territory of the limited speaking time, behave just as dominantly as those who give the indication that only a short time window is available from their own side. In conversation, stress signals from the interlocutor indicate that one’s own speaking time has been exceeded and that one would like to change the subject. The look at the clock serves as a clear indication of encroachments in the temporal territory and that the topic should be changed now or the conversation should be ended soon. So that these signals do not have to be sent by the personnel manager, one should provide transparency to the applicant in the forefront over the planned timeframe. Thus this can orient itself better and supplies for the case that it blows up the framework nevertheless by excessive speech contributions, further views of its personality. Recruiters, on the other hand, who neglect to inform the applicant that only 30 min are planned for the interview, but then become impatient when the applicant presents himself for five minutes, are doing him an injustice: those who do not know the framework lack the necessary points of reference and make it difficult to behave appropriately. As the person responsible for the process, it is up to the recruiter to distribute the time

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territory in a goal-oriented manner. One variant can be to deliberately set no time limit for the interview in order to see where this decision leads. “Free time is the new currency” was a headline of the FAZ [21], referring to the changing values in terms of mobility, time and money. These open up scope for companies to stand out from the competition with flexible working time models. The willingness to be flexible in terms of time in important phases and urgent projects is generally more pronounced among generally flexible types who do not defend the borders of their other territories like militant border guards. Prof. Dr. Jörg Knoblauch recommends checking in telephone calls with former reference employers whether the applicant statements regarding their willingness to work overtime actually match their behavior at the former workplace [22]. In terms of employer branding, Christmas, Whitsun and Easter open up opportunities to grant more territory in the form of larger blocks of time off for favourably reduced overtime. Employers who manage to make the deadlines and organization of task completion flexible enough so that during these three phases of the year, childless colleagues can also take care of unfinished business the following week, prevent later tensions in the team and increase their attractiveness to childless employees as well. Further placeholders and dominance signals on the temporal territory show up in the right to contact. A “We’ll call you” at the end of the interview puts the applicant in the absolute low status – the sovereignty over the process lies with the HR manager, and the more vague the statement, the greater the status differential. Here, with increasing commitment, it is almost possible to establish contact at eye level. More precise statements would be, for example, “We’ll definitely get in touch next week” or “. . .next Wednesday” and culminate in the concrete agreement of a date for a follow-up telephone call. Place markers on the temporal territory can also be set as questions: Afterwards, it is about the interest of the questioner and thus, against the background of a limited time frame for the conversation in advance, about a percentage shift of the contents. Since in the forefront usually the process is made transparent, it is actually clear that to the end the possibility for questions exists. Applicants who do not comply with this show a limited capacity for empathy, restraint and self-control, depending on the relevance of the question to the current topic. Timing often determines success or failure in critical situations. The ability to put aside the satisfaction of short-term rewards in favor of achieving long-term goals represents one of the key competencies for professional success [23]. Those who always want something immediately demonstrate that their top-down regulatory system is not in control of the rising evolutionary impulses. Excessive questioning by the applicant puts pressure on recruiters when it threatens to exceed the time frame set for the interview. Consideration should be given to how close the applicant’s questions are to the topic being discussed, how frequently interventions are made, and how the behavior fits with the character of the position being filled.

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Olfactory Territory The first communication in the cellular area took place on a molecular level, and even today the sense of smell is the only sense whose information is transferred unfiltered via the olfactory brain into long-term memory, while the information of all other sense organs is first pre-filtered by the thalamus. Therefore, we react more intuitively and more refusing to assaults in the olfactory area. A negative judgment made at this level has a more lasting effect than one made through the other sensory channels. Intentional markings can result from intense perfumes, unintentional ones from the consumption of odor-intensive food or stimulants or from a lack of personal hygiene. In a study conducted in 2012, it was investigated whether personality traits can be identified by smell. For this purpose, 60 participants wore (previously freshly washed) T-shirts for three nights. Afterwards, 200 test persons smelled the T-shirts and tried to draw conclusions about personality. The studies showed that the personality traits neuroticism, extraversion and dominance could indeed be identified by smell, whereas this was not possible for openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness [24]. With the first three traits, recruiters can therefore rely on their nose to a certain extent.

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According to the results of a Dutch study from 2014, a room scent with lavender aroma is recommended for the conversation. Under its influence, test persons developed more trust, which could support more open communication during the conversation [25].

While we are attracted to certain scents, conversely, there are people we can’t smell: A mismatch on the biological level makes us shy away from further rapprochement and closer encounters. Ross Ashby formulated the law of required variety as early as 1956, which is still considered a central insight of cybernetics today [26]. It describes that the extent of the internal variety of a system determines its possibilities to compensate for disturbances to which it is exposed by a complex environment. Whereas in our private lives we strive for harmony, in organizations diversity is one of the keys to keeping pace with an ever more complex external world. This may well include hiring applicants you can’t smell.

Acoustic Territory We occupy acoustic territory through the volume of our own voice. Here, a loud rumbling person intuitively acts as a “rough customer”, but at the same time indicates that one does not need to whisper to oneself either, it then becomes somewhat louder overall – only the shy person must dare to do so. If, on the other hand, he falls silent in the face of the loud conversation and only listens in amazement, this does not bother the former in the least; in his opinion there is nothing to be ashamed of. We intuitively have a certain respect for a full and powerful organ and sense the shyness as well as restraint of a quiet voice that only

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timidly claims acoustic territory and signals, for example, through an uncertain answer in salary negotiations, that there is still room for manoeuvre on its part. Other placeholders in the acoustic territory are mobile phone sounds. Are the devices left on “loud” or considerately switched to “silent”? That there should be no alternative to flight mode in the job interview is still a common maxim: for 30–90 min, an adult person should normally be able to be available. If private matters are indeed all too urgent in the job interview, it can be considered whether the applicant can currently get fully involved in the interview at all or whether it would not be advantageous for the outcome of the interview for both sides to arrange an appointment for a new interview, on which both sides can then fully concentrate. The same applies, of course, to the company representatives – if, for whatever reason, an interview is conducted in a stressed manner and with divided attention, while in another interview one can devote oneself entirely to the applicant, the changed framework alone reduces objective comparability. Even more than in other territories, there is a bottleneck in the acoustic territory with regard to placeholders: if everyone speaks at the same time, communication is not possible. It is revealing how the candidate deals with the placeholders of his interlocutors. Does he let others finish or does he interrupt them? In addition to interrupting completely, intentional movements such as opening the mouth, raising the head, straightening the body in the chair, touching the face or raising the index finger provide insights into the applicant’s motivation, impulsiveness and commitment, but also into the degree of his patience and self-control.

Climatic Territory The indoor environment provides further opportunities to mark territory. Beyond personal disposition and any current restrictions, there is one area where lack of tolerance becomes critical. The notoriously cold person or the person constantly craving fresh air must first find a place in the open-plan office with the person who is sensitive to draughts. A good indoor climate can be influenced and improves productivity. The FAZ headlined “The office is going green” in February 2018, describing studies showing that productivity can be increased by 15% through the targeted use of plants, while fatigue fell by 30%, coughs by 37% and skin problems by 23%. [27] Amazon’s new office landscape in Seattle houses 40,000 plants and is more reminiscent of a botanical garden than traditional offices. In recruiting, too, plants offer efficient ways to improve the indoor climate and thus the impression the company leaves on the applicant.

Network Strong network partners can open up access to their resources for us and thus increase our opportunities for development. In this way, we ourselves become a more attractive network

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partner, the more important and impactful our contacts are. We show these through namedropping, membership of exclusive circles or closed societies, associations, clubs, parties or circles and corresponding badges such as rings, badges and membership cards.

Territorial Behaviour Strategies While our own territorial markings increase our perceived security, our security and dominance diminish when we encounter markings that indicate the beginning of someone else’s territory [28]. In sales practice, this explains the latent insecurity of many salespeople who are asked to invade and persuade in unfamiliar territory. The situation of the applicant is in principle comparable to that of the canvasser: He, too, is supposed to sell (himself), and it is archaic reactions that make him nervous and insecure on foreign territory. The degree of uncertainty and how it is dealt with opens up further insights into the personality and expectations of the applicant. Success confers status and changes our relationship to territories [29]. A person accustomed to success will not stop at the threshold when entering a room, but will enter as a matter of course, even if it is not his own territory but that of another. Anyone who only goes as far as the middle of the room or even waits at the threshold is already revealing his insecurity and respect for the high status of the host or is showing that he is not used to entering larger rooms and lacks the courage to aggressively enter foreign territory. While threshold anxiety prevents many an applicant from spontaneously entering, achievers possess the courage to take the step into the unknown or risk, and walk around the room until they encounter the host, greet him, and exchange a few polite phrases [29]. For the recruiter as host, the challenge arises in the interview not to spontaneously react negatively to any offensive appearance. It should neither be categorically rejected if a good applicant whom we have invited moves confidently in our premises, nor if he politely stops at the threshold, but the behavior should be compared with the character of the position to be filled. An applicant who immediately takes the lead to the application table after the greeting may seem too brash to many: However, if someone is needed in sales to aggressively penetrate new markets, this behavior may be appropriate. If both the applicant’s preferences and the potential not yet leveraged in the company are recognized in the various territories, there are broad opportunities within the framework of the various dimensions to increase the implicit status and attractiveness of the advertised position. Further explicit status-enhancing benefits are listed below. The more individually these are adapted to the applicant’s values and motives, the higher the added value for both sides.

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Status In 1968, two American psychologists, Anthony Doob and Alan Gross, studied how status symbols affect social behavior. They simply stopped at a traffic light when it turned green and timed it until the cars behind them started honking. They repeated this in different cars. The reactions spoke a clear language: If they were sitting in a posh car, only half of the cars behind them honked their horns and waited until the traffic light almost turned red again. If, on the other hand, the two were sitting in an older compact car, everyone honked, some even several times, and two of those waiting behind them even hit their bumper. The experiment also revealed cultural differences: While in Italy the horn was honked after an average of five seconds, the Germans were the most patient of the involuntary test participants with 7.5 s [30].

High and Low Status: Making Yourself Big or Small Status is a relationship variable that forms as soon as two people come into each other’s field of reference. The higher we assess the perceived status of the other, the larger the intimacy zone we grant him. In the experiment, people often did not dare to acoustically intrude into the territory of high status cars, while there were even physical assaults towards low status cars. Something similar can be observed in the workplace: If the door to the CEO’s office is made of glass, employees often just knock symbolically, without touching the glass, in order not to invade his area too offensively. Background Information Even in primate groups, there is always one highest-ranking animal. Status-oriented behaviour may therefore appear to be silly, but behind this 30 million year old construct lies a mechanism that provides groups with security and stability. When the primatologist Frans de Waal removed the highest-ranking animal in a chimpanzee group, the fights and scuffles among the other animals promptly increased. When the alpha was present, on the other hand, he began to grumble when the scuffles of the lower-status group members reached a certain level, and eventually intervened when they threatened to go beyond that: The squabbles diminished and the whole group gained security and, on balance, more peaceful behavior [31]. Even great apes bring clarity to their hierarchy via status, and as soon as two animals meet, one takes the high status and the other the low status [32]. Looking at our animal relatives points to our genetic disposition to express status and recognize it intuitively. In human communities, too, everyone shows their classification in the hierarchy of the group through their gestures, facial expressions, posture and distance behavior, the pace of their movements, and the way they react to the other group members. In children, social rankings form spontaneously from the age of five and remain stable for years [33]. The pursuit of status also shapes us in the workplace; in a British study, for example, 70% of respondents were willing to forego a pay rise for a more attractive job title [33].

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Because of its deep social roots, we unconsciously and constantly change our status depending on who we are interacting with: We come out of our office, meet the new intern in the hallway, and encounter him from high status. Three seconds later, we meet the big boss and intuitively switch to low status. Nonverbally, the former is shown, for example, by our body posture and tension: while we meet the intern in a relaxed state, we straighten up a little more and increase our body tension as soon as we come into the boss’s field of vision. By straightening up, we increase our status and come closer to that of the boss in order to support a contact at eye level. At the same time, the boss relaxes and comes a little closer to us, as we did to the trainee before. If the trainee fails to make this adjustment, he appears boorish and rude. If the boss fails to do so, he will appear reserved, arrogant and distant. What is very clear in the case of boss and trainee is expressed in a more subtle and differentiated way the smaller the differences in status between two participants are. If the status is unclear, it is negotiated in the most diverse ways and territories. In this process, the nonverbal and paraverbal signals form the basis, which we also share with our animal relatives. But in contrast to primates, who live in fixed and closed groups of up to 50 members, we live in open groups and considerably larger networks, which often make it difficult to find solutions on a purely non-verbal level. As a result, we use verbal communication as a supplement, which offers countless other difficult possibilities. However, non-verbal communication provides the basis, and those who recognize and understand the signals on this level can recognize the ambitions of the various group members at an early stage and intervene. The accompanying body language expresses the inner status and gives the verbal statements the necessary credibility, which decides whether and how they are accepted by the interlocutor. Regardless of the hierarchical position, we change our status depending on the situation. A supervisor who has forgotten to inform his employee about something important will apologize briefly and switch to the low status. If he did not do this, he would gradually impair the relationship with his employee. Flexibility in status behavior is therefore one of the keys to successful communication and successful relationships.

Internal and External Status Tom Schmitt and Michael Esser derive status according to two dimensions and distinguish between inner and outer status, each of which can manifest itself in a high or low state. Figuratively speaking, the inner status state forms the scaffolding and the outer status the facade of our communication. If the scaffolding is stable, it can support any verbal facade [34]. The prerequisite for the flexible change between external high and low status is a high inner status, which is characterized by clarity about one’s own desires and goals. If we broaden our perspective to include this dimension of the conversation and consciously grasp the status game, we open up broad opportunities to act more confidently and to distinguish between what is relevant and what is irrelevant to the goal of the conversation. If personnel managers record the internal and external status of an applicant, they gain an

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Fig. 5.2 Power and relationship coordinates in the status quadrilateral

impression of the applicant’s preferred strategies and unconscious behavioural patterns, which can indicate possible conflicts during integration and future work. While external status is communicated through external factors such as the verbal level, knowledge, information, function, position, physical strength, or power and wealth signaling status lifters such as the luxury car from the traffic light experiment, we communicate our internal status through our personality and thus at the nonverbal and paraverbal level [35]. In terms of status, our communication can be distinguished according to two coordinates: the power coordinate and the relationship coordinate [36]. The poles of the power coordinate form assertiveness and compliance and are connected indirectly by the content of our sent communication. The poles of the relationship coordinate form sympathy and rejection/respect and in a sense describe the effect we are aiming for at the relationship level. The distinction between whether a high or low status is assumed results from a diagonal subdivision (Fig. 5.2). Both inner and outer status can be high or low. There are four combinations and associated attitudes and effects on our social communication as well as our conflict behaviour (Fig. 5.3).

Double Low Status: The Team Player (1) The team player is characterized by an outwardly and inwardly deep status. He integrates easily into new groups because he subordinates himself, does not attack anyone and avoids conflicts. His double low status generates high sympathy values, but little respect.

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Fig. 5.3 Status combinations

Double High Status: The Doer (2) The outwardly and inwardly high status distinguishes the dominant doer: He knows what he wants and does not subordinate himself. If he meets his peers, conflicts are inevitable, but he confronts them openly and straightforwardly. The double high status reaps little sympathy, but respect is guaranteed. However, if he does not develop the willingness to communicate deeply on the outside, he lacks options for action and becomes predictable.

Deep Inner Status and High Outer Status: The Arrogant (3) It becomes more difficult for the outwardly high but inwardly low status. The outward striving for superiority is not supported by the inner position and thus lacks a stable scaffolding on which to hang the facade of communication. If tested, the facade crumbles, the outer position cannot be maintained and slips away: Communication becomes emotional or disproportionate. Critical situations and conflicts are aggravated by this combination, through the incongruent appearance this type often appears arrogant and only little authentic. Thus he is denied both: he earns neither respect nor sympathy.

High Inner Status and Low Outer Status: The Charismatic (4) The outwardly low but inwardly high status, on the other hand, can take it easy: He succeeds in being respected and at the same time appearing likeable. This charismatic type has nothing to prove to himself and charmingly lets others go first. In this way he easily wins their sympathy and is sought after by his fellow men as a conflict solver in

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critical situations because of his inner strength and flexibility. He can calmly wait for the right situation to solve a problem or to take the reins at the right time. Since he knows what he wants, he pursues his goals skillfully, cleverly and diplomatically. When he encounters high status, he acknowledges it, gives way to it on strategically unimportant points, and remains flexible. He is not concerned with short-term success and winning every round on the outer status field, the goal is broader and he is aware of that. The relationship points he collects over time from those around him strengthen his network and allow him to activate them at the right time.

Recognize Motives Behind One’s Own Status In addition to inner clarity about one’s own goals and desires, status behavior is significantly influenced by self-image and our individual imprint. According to Schmitt, this imprint is based on the question of what we fear more: Closeness or distance? Both entail different needs and cause different behavioral strategies to fulfill them. Fear of closeness leads to an increased desire for respect, fear of distance or loneliness leads to a desire for sympathy. These fears shape our internal status and our behavioral strategy in case of conflict. Fear of distance brings with it the tendency to subordinate ourselves in case of doubt, so as not to endanger the sympathy and thus the closeness of our fellow human beings. The fear of closeness brings with it the tendency to assert oneself in order to maintain respect and independence. From the status behaviour of the applicant, one can infer his underlying motive, and emphasize those advantages of the job which better fit his more dominant basic motive and satisfy the associated need. In addition to the implications of the preferred status, the more or less pronounced ability to flexibly switch between high and low status indicates the mental agility and paradigms of the interlocutor. High flexibility testifies to cooperativeness and empathic compatibility, lack of flexibility testifies to entrenched or very strong role expectations and indicates high power distance as well as reputation orientation.

Recognize Status Generalization and Counteract the Halo Effect A high status has an effect on all areas of life, be it at work, among friends or in society in general [37]. For example, professional status is generalized and transferred to other areas, resulting in the opinions of doctors, for example, carrying more weight in other areas, such as discussions about politics. Higher status leads to greater authority, greater respect, and increased trust. High status and status symbols directly increase assumed competence across cultures [37]. Status generalization thus also favors one of the most common assessment errors in recruiting, the halo effect described above. The psychologist Leslie Zebrowitz has investigated how recruiters infer

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an applicant’s suitability for a vacant position from his or her appearance [38]. In this context, external status-boosters such as good looks, expensive clothes, big cars or expensive watches influence the formation of judgements and cannot be easily separated from internal factors. This mixture [39] between internal and external factors represents one of the causes of the halo effect. With a little practice, however, the external status-raisers – the halo can be identified and filtered out of the actual status issue. As a result, the recruiter who differentiates between inner and outer status is less influenced by the halo and can better focus on the inner status and thus the personality of the applicant, which cannot be influenced by status lifters [39].

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Status Signals Interview: The applicant is asked a question and touches his or her face briefly before answering, biting his or her lower lip or wiping the hair from his or her face. Unconsciously sent deep-state signals like these can indicate embarrassment, the need for sympathy or the desire for harmony – or that a little cheating has just taken place.

To communicate our status based on our personality, we have a rich arsenal of tools: manners, wordiness, voice, gestures and facial expressions. Our status determines how we communicate. In high status, we speak freely or allow ourselves to interrupt others and challenge their opinions. We move loosely, gesture, show animated facial expressions, and end the conversation when we feel the time is right. In the low state, we listen and focus our attention on our partner. Gestures and facial expressions signal uncertainty. Sometimes we nod to statements of which we are not convinced and wait until the higher status person has finished speaking and ends the conversation. This is also one of the reasons why listening has such a positive effect on our fellow human beings: it raises their status, causes them to feel good and consequently evokes sympathy.

High Status Signals vs. Low Status Signals The high status shows itself in spreading, space-occupying body language. The body made large and a secure, wide-shouldered stance, with both legs on the ground, conveys dominance and strength as well as the own claim to territory and to a superior position. He stands with a calm and relaxed posture, showing normal spacing and slow movements. If someone approaches the high status, he does not evade, the straight held head shows determination and a capability to confront. The voice adapts to the relaxed posture and causes a lower pitch due to the relaxed muscular system and speech rhythm. When he speaks, his superiority is expressed by a rather slow pace: The others have to follow him, why should he hurry? Even when seated, the high status takes his time and space,

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occupying the entire seat of the chair. His facial expression appears neutral with sparse facial expressions, conveying a clear, determined expression. His gaze is calm and powerful, he maintains eye contact, blinks little and looks firmly and openly, sometimes slightly from above. Income, power and status correlate with a person’s active vocabulary [40]. The more appropriate vocabulary we master, the less we need to gesture, and the higher our position of power, the less needs to be persuaded but can be delegated. As a result, the number of gestures decreases as status increases, but shows up dynamically when it does. High status decides whether to initiate physical contact and also takes the initiative in the handshake. He leads the conversation and guides it by asking questions. He shows his dominance by occupying the alpha position at the top of the table, from where he can keep an eye on the door, group and window. He also spreads out on the surface of the table, takes possession of this or adjacent chairs by placing his hands on the backrest and creates space for himself by confidently marking the territory with placeholders. He moves the chair a little away from the table and thus creates additional space and freedom of movement. In contrast to the high status, the low status is accompanied by a retracted posture, which in principle takes up little space. The body is made smaller, the shoulders droop, the posture is stooped, the body tension seems powerless in the most extreme form. The stance is wobbly, the legs closed or crossed, sometimes the weight is shifted to one leg with tilted hips or the legs buckle, creating an X posture. In search of orientation, the low status becomes hectic and develops a restless body language with frequent and erratic movements. If he sits down, he avoids occupying the entire seat of the chair. He also shies away from touching the backs of adjacent chairs or the surface of the table, preferring to fold his hands, keep them with him, or place them in his lap. He moves close to the table, protecting himself through the tabletop. Other status reducers are legs that wobble or bob up and down, often accompanied by lack of concentration. To others the low status keeps a respectful distance. The head is slightly tilted, showing the vulnerable side of the neck. In addition to eager and approving nodding, the head is lowered submissively so that the gaze is from the bottom up. The gaze wanders around and is accompanied by frequent blinking as well as gaze avoidance. Further signs of submissiveness are seen in the lowering of the eyes to appease the more dominant interlocutor and to avoid a challenging impression. When swinging the eyes, the gaze wanders quickly back and forth, gaining an impression of the group’s network of relationships or unconsciously looking for escape routes. When opening the eyes wide, the eyelids pull back. The resulting larger eyes convey the image of innocent attention and, if the other person does not see through what is happening, can have a very disarming effect – one can also achieve one’s goals in the low state. Natural gesticulation appears inhibited, but can switch abruptly to wild gesticulation when stress arises, which can extend to the regions above the head and below the hips. Displacement activities attempt to relieve stress and signal low status when the hand repeatedly touches the head, neck, or face. Other adaptors briefly touch objects such as cups or papers and then withdraw. Hands play with pens or soothe each other by holding,

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rubbing, or stroking. On the mimic level, placating permanent smiles, nervous grins, or apologetic laughter show up when something is embarrassing. Nervous giggling also lowers the status. The low status doesn’t dare to expand on the temporal territory. If he does have more to say, he barely pauses and tries to finish quickly: Like the frantic gestures, the rate of speech accelerates while the pitch of the voice increases. Nervousness and tension also affect the voice, which sounds pressed. Status Adjustment Humans and primates adjust their status to each other through vocal pitch: In conversation studies at Kent State University, the frequencies above 500 Hz were filtered out, so that the recording only resembled a hum in which individual words could no longer be identified. Instead, it was found that the low-frequency tones of the two interlocutors matched each other very quickly, and that it was predominantly the interlocutor with the lower status who matched the frequency of his vocal pitch to that of the one with the higher status [41]. The researchers found that we automatically use these undertones to unconsciously regulate hierarchical relationships with our fellow human beings. Those who are aware of their own voice pitch and that of their interlocutor can see directly to what extent one approaches the other and adapts or subordinates oneself.

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In addition to the informative value of territorial and status behavior about the personality, motives and values of the applicant, the personnel manager also has various possibilities to influence the relationship through his own communication on this level. As a host, the recruiter is of a higher status, which entails various rights, obligations, but also expectations of role-appropriate behavior. In principle, we grant the higher status to those who promise us security in return. If the applicant is given the necessary security, he or she feels well taken care of and can open up and engage more deeply in the interview. In this context, size and strength of the recruiter are essential aspects. Size does not refer to body size, but to body language appearance. Those who allow themselves to be as tall as they really are support their natural expression of strength, while a lowered head and drooping shoulders make those who are physically taller seem really small. Those who keep their elbows and hands close to the body, and their hips and legs bent in, appear stocky. Power is all the greater the less it has to be exercised. So it’s not primarily about pure power, but about conveying that you have the situation under control and can act decisively and effectively when it matters. Whoever wants to express the high status convincingly should allow his own voice to express itself well audibly, also the movements should not be inhibited or held back. If the well visible, generous gestures are carried by a relaxed being, we signal readiness for action and inner strength. If, on the other hand, it is accompanied by a tense, small-scale manner of acting, the interlocutor is slow to gain confidence. In contrast to a self-confident stance, a retracted head shows a need for protection and a latent guilty conscience. High-status

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persons should have their eyes on the horizon and not on the ground in front of them. However, a distinction must be made between an arrogant and an authoritarian stance. When looking over the horizon, the former person lifts the chin a little too high and appears arrogant; the latter person, on the other hand, pulls the body up by the mop of hair, looks straight at the horizon, and conveys forward-looking security and down-to-earth authority. The further the host goes to greet the guest on his territory and the further to the borders he accompanies him when he leaves, the greater the esteem conveyed. Eminent state guests are met at the airport and escorted back there as well. Petitioners have to walk alone to the boss’s desk and are left to their own devices again after the interview. The spectrum in the interview lies between the two extremes. Typically, the guest should be picked up at the reception and also returned there after the interview. The applicant should be given space in any expression to open up and engage in the interview. Even if you notice that the applicant is backing away, you should give him or her space: The flinching can be physical, but also verbal through relativizing phrases and shaky answers. Recruiters who register this behavior and do not follow up prevent the applicant from retreating further and closing off. Respecting the applicant’s need for space conveys appreciation and supports the development of a trusting discussion atmosphere in which the applicant will eventually open up and communicate. If withdrawal movements are registered, it can thus be more clever to remember the topic and come back to it later on, when the applicant has become more deeply involved in the conversation. If you want to get to know the applicant, you should give him enough space to present himself. For this, the right framework must be created in the interview and the appropriate territory must be opened up, on the one hand through the right questions that lead to relevant topics, and on the other hand in terms of the time framework and one’s own placeholders. If the recruiter himself marks too offensively, there is less time for the applicant. Recruiters who tend to talk more themselves than the applicant should set the interview frame wider or try to exercise restraint. A clearly visible clock behind the applicant helps to remember the time frame without having to rudely look at one’s own clock. Psychologists Stuart Albert and James Dabbs investigated how much space should be given to the interlocutor so that he or she does not feel crowded, but so that contact is established at the same time. They found that a distance of 30–60 cm elicited clear defensive reactions. In the effort to get into contact with him, one should not approach the applicant too quickly. However, not too much space should be given to him either: A greater distance of two to four meters led to a negative attitude and a hostile mood. The optimal distance to establish a strong connection is in the range of 1.20–1.50 m [42].

As described, the causes of territorial conflicts are not limited to spatial conflicts: The applicant’s area of expertise in particular should be explicitly respected. It is that territory to which he can retreat in critical phases of the interview and which, in addition to security, should offer him the possibility of finding his way back into the interview after a setback.

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Personnel managers who confirm the applicant’s professional territory and competence can prevent misunderstandings and negative emotions at an early stage. In order to establish eye-level contact, status implications regarding seating furniture should be considered. In addition to the flexibility provided by castors, the height of the seat, the presence or absence of armrests and the height of the backrest all affect the status of the person sitting on a chair. First, one should recognize the implications and ask oneself if they are intentional and the same for all applicants. Then, for example, it is possible to vary between the first and second round of interviews in order to gain additional insights.

Of Good Hosts and Zealous Border Guards As a maxim for one’s own territorial behaviour, one can orient oneself on one’s own desires for and expectations of successful relationships in private. Conflicts always arise at the territorial level where boundaries are not clearly defined and territorial claims overlap. Clarifying one’s own territory and its boundaries is therefore an essential basis for successful communication. In this context, one’s own attitude in the event of territorial encroachment by the interlocutor constitutes a critical point that can determine the success or failure of the subsequent communication. When we receive new guests in private, we welcome them as good hosts and show them around, familiarize them with our territory and make them feel secure. We overlook a minor faux pas or unintentional transgression. Conversely, we wish the same, and this tolerance is one of the foundations of successful coexistence. On the other hand, those who zealously draw a cordon around their own territory as zealous border guards and define the slightest trespass by a guest as an attack may receive respect and fear, but rarely sympathy and successful relationships at eye level. Because people define the boundaries of their zones with varying breadths, inadvertent trespasses always result. “Zealous boundary guards” more often define neutral behavior by the “other party” as transgressions and respond to the imputed attacks with defenses or countermeasures. These irritate the interlocutor and disrupt the conversation as well as the relationship building. “Good hosts,” on the other hand, register the infringement but do not initially imply bad intentions. Instead, they take into account factors such as personality, cultural background and other possible influences and welcome the conversation partner in principle. This leap of faith forms an important basis for successful cooperation. In the case of minor transgressions, the mood is not dampened, but the relationship with each other is improved. The only thing that is required for this is the willingness not to regard an intrusion into one’s own territory as an attack and to briefly take a step back with one’s own status. Often the interlocutor becomes aware of his own behaviour, withdraws directly of his own accord and is glad to have saved face. The situation relaxes by itself and the confidence of the interlocutor is won. If, on the other hand, the applicant does not register his transgressions and continues to unconsciously cross boundaries, he shows more and more of himself in the process and provides the personnel manager with deeper insights into his personality,

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which makes the subsequent decision easier for the latter. Of course, even the hospitality described has limits. If we register wanton, repeated transgressions, these should be answered with clear reactions and the limits should be unmistakably shown.

Develop Flexibility in Status The example of the intern and the boss showed how we intuitively vary our status to tune into our conversation partners. By adjusting our status to that of those around us, we pick them up for conversation or make it easier for them to pick us up. Most of the time it is a matter of only a few seconds until the positions are distributed. Once we have found a common rhythm, the result is synchronized communication: the role-status structure is clarified and the intended path can be taken together. Those who grasp this dimension of the situation can consciously decide which alternative they want to pursue: Do I want to be right immediately or do I want to win in the long run? To keep the upper hand at all costs or to win over the other person flexibly and strategically in order to realise one’s own interests charmingly and diplomatically? In principle, the following applies: If competence is to be radiated, this is supported by high-status gestures. If sympathy is the goal, low-status gestures should be used. Through low-status behaviour, the applicant senses that the recruiter is well-disposed towards him and does not represent a threat. This allows him to reduce anxiety and nervousness, relax and find his way into the interview more quickly. Now the recruiter can assess the normal behavior of the applicant, leave him, like a good salesman, the high status over long phases of the interview and only in decisive phases raise his own status to set the course for the further procedure. For the conscious integration of the status concept, one’s own frame of reference should first be expanded to include this deeper dimension of communication. In the next step, status influences can be recognized in the event of disruptions in the conversation and can be newly understood as signs of a game shaped by evolutionary history. If flexibility is then developed in the alternation between high and low status, one can engage more coherently with the situation and the interlocutor and serve their deeper needs. Accordingly, one’s own goals can be realized more easily. Those who develop flexibility in sending and tolerance in receiving can control their effect and improve their connection to the other person. This ability to switch consciously at first, and then with increasing practice more quickly and intuitively between high and low states, is what distinguishes the confident communicator. The keys to high flexibility are a high inner status, the knowledge of the signals with which the communicated status can be increased or reduced, as well as the willingness to also communicate deeply externally in individual situations in order to remain flexible on the way to the goal. Schmitt describes it clearly: “The clearer the inner attitude, the easier it is to adopt a (sustainable external) high status, the more unclear the inner attitude, the more likely it is to fall into a low status.” [43].

5.7

Own Territorial Behaviour and Status

139

Our Body Language also Influences Our Inner Status Through the Principle of Interaction, so that This Can Be Increased (h) or Decreased (d) Through the Following Signals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Saying “no,” confronting openly (h); saying “yes,” nodding in agreement (d). Stance: double-legged, stable stance(h); stance and playing leg (d) Stance width: wide-legged to max. shoulder width (h); narrow stance (d) Palms: turn inward, do not show (h); open outward, show (d) Gestures: accented, sparing, dynamic (h); hectic, agitated (d); Gestures: reduce number (h) or increase (d) Placing or supporting hands on objects to claim them for oneself (h); touching oneself with the hand on the face (d) Direction of gaze: hold gaze (h); dodge with downward gaze (d) Pause before answers (h); increase speaking rate (d), giggle (d). Facial expression: unmoving, sparing (h); smile (d) Blink: reduce frequency (h); increase frequency (d) Head: keep straight (h); tilt sideways (d) Lift head from previously straight posture (h); lower (d) Body tension: ready for action (h); let yourself hang (d) Straight posture (h), stooped posture (d) Shoulders: back and relaxed, dropped low (h); tense, pulled up (d)

In order to increase flexibility in the external, verbal expression of status, this should therefore be supported by the awareness of our deeper lying goal of communication. The more concretely this is grasped and assigned to one of the two poles, sympathy or respect and thus the desire for closeness or distance, the easier and more naturally the change succeeds and the more successful the communication. The less we are aware of this, the greater the danger of losing options for action and falling into the low state. Knowing one’s rank in the current group is another key to acting spontaneously, flexibly and authentically in one’s role. A dedicated agreement among the company representatives involved in recruiting before the interview helps to make expectations and the planned distribution of roles transparent and to provide the group with the necessary inner clarity on which successful interviews are based. If the hierarchy of the group is clear, the applicant can fit in easily and intuitively. In this respect, the best-known example from the world of interrogation professionals is probably the game “Good Cop Bad Cop”. Here, a police officer mimes the bad guy, the Bad Cop, and tries to force the interrogated person to confess from his unyielding high status. The good cop, on the other hand, gains the interrogated person’s sympathy and trust from his low status. If we look at the situation from the perspective of status, we see how the interrogated person is put through the wringer between the two status poles of respect and sympathy and is gradually driven into the middle until he finally has no possibility of retreat and confesses.

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Opportunities to practice playing with status exist in every major city, albeit under a different catchphrase, namely in the context of improvisational theatre: the founder of the impro technique, Keith Johnstone, describes that if everyone only knows their status within the group, they automatically get into spontaneous action and do not need any further instructions [44]. Anyone who experiences this effect for themselves in group training sessions is surprised at how naturally participants act in their roles without having received any instructions worth mentioning. The rapid change between high and low states also becomes more and more intuitive with increasing practice.

Status and Employer Branding The status generalization described above works on different levels and leads to the fact that the reputation of strong brands is transferred to their employees, raises their social status and thus also increases the employer attractiveness of large corporations. But small and medium-sized companies can also increase their attractiveness through various status symbols. Inga Michler examined these and found out the following order [37]. Job Status Symbol 1. Company car 2. Own assistant 3. Title on business card 4. Expense budget 5. Lufthansa Senator Card 6. Corporate credit card 7. Art in the office Other status lifters include a company flat, staff discounts, a company kindergarten, free membership of the fitness centre and a parking space directly in the company yard [37]. In this way, the status of the job offered can be raised in line with the job, position and needs of the target group, and applicants can be made a more attractive offer on an individual basis.

References

5.8

141

Conclusion: Status and Territorial Behaviour

Evolutionarily shaped and genetically anchored, we form hierarchies and integrate ourselves into them. A high status in the hierarchy goes hand in hand with increasing territorial claims and privileges in the group. At the same time as the rights increase, so do the duties to use the high status for the good and safety of the group. We draw various zones of distance around us and react in a stressed manner when trespassers intrude too far into them. Territorial markers give us security and we place them at a variety of levels. Behaviour on one territory shows the disposition that also shapes behaviour on other territories, qualified by the values and beliefs that lie behind our motives. These can be inferred by the choice of territories on which marking is preferred. In relation to the territorial behaviour, the comparison with the position to be filled, group dynamics in the team and the planned strategy should also be decisive and only secondarily the personal preference of the recruiter or the superior – if they themselves have a high territorial claim, they can even be the co-trigger of possible conflicts. The majority of conflicts in business life are based on status violations and territorial transgressions. Misunderstandings and conflicts always arise where two territories overlap and there is a lack of clarity as to who owns it and thus which of the parties involved is entitled to high or low status. Existing ambiguities in the hierarchy have to be clarified; before that, productive work is usually difficult or impossible. The clarification runs mainly on the non-verbal level or indirectly via procedural questions. Suddenly, resistance arises, which sometimes makes you wonder what the real issue is – often it is the unresolved status. In addition to high and low status, this can be divided into inner and outer status. While external status is communicated verbally and through status symbols, internal status is based on our personality and is expressed through our body language. There are four combinations and the types doer, team player, arrogant or charismatic. The art lies in the flexibility to switch between high and low status. The prerequisite for a quick change lies in a high inner status. This is characterized by inner clarity about one’s own desires, goals and role.

References 1. Frans de Waal: Der Affe in uns, S. 184 f.; dtv Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, München, 2017 2. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 81; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 3. Gottfried Koch. Leipzig, „Macht, Management und Verhaltensbiologie -Grundzüge eines verhaltensorientieren Managements“, S. 1 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/ BF03353540 aufgerufen am 14.10.2018 4. Frans de Waal: Der Affe in uns, S. 74; dtv Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, München, 2017 5. https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_cuddy_your_body_language_shapes_who_you_are aufgerufen 14.10.2018

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6. Richard Conniff: Was für ein Affentheater, S. 127; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2006 7. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 214; Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 8. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache der Kinder, S. 120; Hugendubel Verlag, Kreuzlingen/ München, 2005 9. Richard Conniff: Was für ein Affentheater, S. 130; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2006 10. Jack Nasher: Deal, S. 21; Goldmann, München, 2015 11. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache und Kommunikation, S. 214; Junfermann, Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 12. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 347 f.; Verlag moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 13. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 346; Verlag moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 14. Allan und Barbara Pease: die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 194; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2006 15. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeld: Die Biologie des menschlichen Verhaltens, S. 481; R. Piper GmbH & Co. KG, Frankfurt am Main, 1995 16. http://arbeitsblaetter.stangl-taller.at/KOMMUNIKATION/Kommunikation-Distanz.shtml aufgerufen am 14.10.2018 17. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 112–116; Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 18. http://de.wikimannia.org/Rattenexperiment aufgerufen am 02.05.2018 19. Richard Wilkinson und Kate Pickett: Gleichheit, S. 97; Haffmanns & Tolkemitt, Berlin, 2016 20. Allan und Barbara Pease: die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 191; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2006 21. http://www.faz.net/aktuell/beruf-chance/beruf/kommentar-freizeit-ist-die-neue-waehrung15254472.html aufgerufen am 06.04.2018 22. Jörg Knoblauch: Die besten Mitarbeiter finden und halten; Hörbuch, Tempus Verlag, Giengen, 2011 23. Daniel Goleman: Emotionale Intelligenz, S. 110, Carl Hanser Verlag, München-Wien, 1996 24. Eskil Burck, Die Macht der Situation; S. 115; BoD, Norderstedt, 2017 25. Eskil Burck, Die Macht der Situation; S. 110; BoD, Norderstedt, 2017 26. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashbysches_Gesetz Aufgerufen: 2018-04-20 27. http://www.faz.net/aktuell/beruf-chance/beruf/pflanzen-im-buero-schaffen-ein-besseresarbeitsklima-15466409.html aufgerufen am 14.10.2018 28. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 343; Verlag moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 29. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache des Erfolgs, S. 121; Heinrich Hugendubel Verlag, Kreuzlingen/ München, 2005 30. Jack Nasher: Überzeugt, S. 139; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2017 31. Frans de Waal: Der Affe in uns, S. 87; dtv Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, München, 2017 32. Frans de Waal: Der Affe in uns, S. 72; dtv Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, München, 2017 33. Richard Conniff: Was für ein Affentheater, S. 85; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2006 34. Tom Schmitt, Michael Esser: Status-Spiele, S. 16; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 35. Tom Schmitt, Michael Esser: Status-Spiele, S. 31; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 36. Tom Schmitt, Michael Esser: Status-Spiele, S. 22; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 37. Jack Nasher: Überzeugt, S. 140; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2017

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38. Richard Conniff: Was für ein Affentheater, S. 209 ff.; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2006 39. Tom Schmitt, Michael Esser: Status-Spiele, S. 48; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 40. https://www.ifp.bayern.de/imperia/md/content/stmas/ifp/fachkongress/dickinson_sprachen_para dox_ger.pdf 15.10.2018 41. Richard Conniff: Was für ein Affentheater, S. 142; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2006 42. Jack Nasher: Überzeugt, S. 97; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2017 43. Tom Schmitt, Michael Esser: Status-Spiele, S. 51; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 44. Stefan Merath: Dein Wille geschehe, Kapitel 32, Min. 8; Hörbuch, Gabal Verlag, Offenbach, 2017

6

Posture

Abstract

This chapter describes the influence of posture on self-perception and the perception of others in the interview as well as various causes of specific postural expressions and possible implications. In addition to posture while standing, the causes and meanings of various sitting and head postures as well as the shoulders and torso are described and dealt with against the background of the job interview. Finally, key elements of one’s own posture and their possible applications in recruiting are listed and basic exercises are described with which the recruiter can improve his or her own posture.

In addition to the high influence of the posture on the first impression, the influence that the posture exerts on the self-confidence and the following behaviour already became apparent in Chap. 3 on the interaction between outer posture and inner feeling. Furthermore, within the framework of the projection mechanism in Chap. 3, it was indicated how the posture of our fellow human beings activates unconscious judgment mechanisms in us.

6.1

Introduction

Since not only the inner attitude influences the outer one, but also vice versa, revealing insights open up when critical viewpoints are discussed and the applicant’s posture is taken into account. The current degree of his agreement and willingness to cooperate can be deduced from his changes in posture and adjustment processes. If he merely pays lip service after a discussion but does not change his posture, his inner attitude has not yet changed either [1]. If this is perceived by the recruiter, critical points of a project or future # The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_6

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challenges can be taken up again or reformulated and any objections can be questioned in order to come together after all. In addition, our posture has a direct effect on our motivation and stamina and thus openly signals our current attitude. Self-Perception Theory In 1982, John Riskind and Carolin Gotay investigated how posture influences our motivation. To do this, they put two experimental groups in different postures. The seated participants in the first group had their upper bodies pushed forward and down by the experimenters, so that their heads and chests hung down. This resulted in a suppressed and submissive posture. In contrast, participants in the second group had their shoulders lifted, opened, and brought down backward, causing their chest to expand. In addition, the chin was slightly lifted. Both of these represent characteristics of a proud posture that people display after successfully overcoming a major challenge. Subsequently, both groups of participants had to work on a frustrating task in which they had to try to solve an (unsolvable) puzzle. The result was highly significant and showed that the previously adopted posture had an enormous influence on the frustration tolerance and stamina of the participants. While the participants in the first group gave up after an average of 10.78 puzzle pieces, the participants in the second group only gave up after an average of 17.11 pieces. The upright posture thus caused an increase of almost 65% [2].

Even if other influences play a role in future performance, in principle conclusions can be drawn from the applicant’s posture about his or her motivation and expected stamina. In doing so, the recruiter must not be deceived by the first impression. Since the applicant knows what is expected of him, he will try to show special presence. Over a longer interview, however, it is hardly possible to simulate an attitude that does not correspond to our inner self: It is therefore important to develop an eye for the basic posture that becomes apparent once the applicant’s initial tension has subsided. Does this show a discouraged, slumped, hunched posture, with drooping shoulders, or an optimistic attitude ready for action? A look at the applicant’s posture while he or she does not feel observed, for example when entering the company premises or after leaving the interview room, can also provide revealing additional impressions. If we look at the results more closely, it is noticeable that it was not a matter of certain personality types with specific personality traits that were placed in different postures, but of random subjects. Similarly, the meaning of the posture was not verbalized so as not to influence the participants. The study proves that when we adopt a motivated or discouraged posture, it entails the associated attitude. As the following study shows, failures are also expressed in our attitude. In 1982, psychologists Glenn Weisfeld and Jody Beresford studied how success and failure affect our postures. They observed high school graduates as they received their exam results. The graduates with the highest grades adopted a more upright posture, while those with the lowest grades fell into a more hunched posture. Interestingly, years later at the alumni reunion, the former graduates still lapsed into their former posture when they recalled their old results.

6.2

Posture While Standing: Implications and Effects

147

If the applicant remembers negative experiences from previous interviews or is currently in a depressing life situation, this can be expressed in his appearance and also says something about his focus. While some are motivated to look forward and seek opportunities, others are stuck on the past and find it difficult to let go. So if the applicant is asked to explain critical periods in his or her resume, such as short stints, quick changes, dropped out of college or extended interruptions, his or her body language will reflect the feelings and attitudes felt at the time, often conveying more than his or her words. Visual recall can be aided by the nature of the question, for example, a prompt might be to visualise the last day at work, the moment the decision was made to change companies, the time between two jobs or the last day at university. After a short pause during which an inner picture could emerge, the candidate could be asked about the conclusion drawn from this period and how this time has influenced personal development. As the candidate then responds, attention should be paid to their posture.

6.2

Posture While Standing: Implications and Effects

In addition to the study results described above, the posture can be observed in an even more differentiated manner. Here, the centre of gravity, the foundations and grounding as well as the permeability of the knee and hip joints open up further insights. Before making a local change, the feet must first be moved. In order to facilitate a quick first approaching step or to refrain from it as a precaution, we assume a certain basic posture and thus express our readiness to act. From a stance where the weight is more on the heels, it takes longer to move into action. This is regularly seen in types who tend to be reserved, do not like to take risks and tend to withdraw more often and act in a more reserved and wait-and-see manner [3]. If, on the other hand, the centre of gravity is on the balls of the feet, it is possible to react quickly, sometimes corresponding types are already almost in motion and, while still standing, already push themselves slightly forward with their shoulders. They are ready to become active, but can also tend to react impulsively and hastily. In the extreme, this type bobs up and down on the balls of their feet and can react even more quickly. He is open to new things and tends to be a risk taker, his interest can be aroused more easily if these needs are taken into account and the topicality or novelty of a project or task is emphasized [3]. If there is an optimal balance of the centre of gravity and the applicant is well grounded on his feet, this indicates a balanced temperament [3]. The subject of grounding is dealt with in more detail in Chap. 13. In contrast, rocking back and forth from the balls of the feet to the heels signals current uncertainty and expresses indecision about whether to follow the toward or the away-from impulse. If rocked upward, it expresses self-confidence or a decision-making process, as well as the balancing of ratio and emotion. A wide-legged stance, depending on the degree of stance width, shows dominance and a willingness to confront, even aggressiveness. A narrow stance, on the other hand, hardly claims any

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territory and thus signals a willingness to adapt. A wide-legged stance results from shoulder width, while a narrow stance is less than hip width and extends to touching feet. Tightly closed legs indicate passivity and conformity [1]. Interlocutors, on the other hand, who tend to prance and frequently change their stance, like to escape into their dreams and fantasies, according to Molcho [1]. This need not be a disadvantage: Even in the digital world, the boundaries to reality blur, and important impulses for new processes and pattern changes can come from creative types who manage to think outside the box. These can then still be implemented by more balanced people and placed in the market by aggressive colleagues and defended against the competition. The “Door Plane” Mark Bowden looks at the body from the side and draws a vertical line through the middle of the foot, through the vertical center behind the belly button and through the ears to form an imaginary door frame, which he calls the “Door Plane”. With its help, it becomes apparent whether the other person is more extrovert or introvert in orientation. While the introverted type leans back slightly behind the center of the imaginary door frame, neutral and balanced types stand up straight. Extroverted types lean with their center of gravity slightly in front of this vertical line and thus show their pushing nature towards their fellow human beings [4].

Both when standing and walking, the orientation of the hands provides further information about the attitude of the counterpart: the backs of the hands turned forward conceal personal feelings, lead to a closing of the upper body and turn the more robust, insensitive outside to others. Less information can be expected here than in neutral or even open postures, where the palms are visible [5]. Arm posture is also revealing: do they hang down uninvolved and passive, or are they slightly bent and ready for action? Similarly, the dominance of one arm may be evident, which springs into action while the other remains passive. The meaning follows the laterality described in Chap. 3.

6.3

Posture in Sitting: Implications and Effect

After an impression of the standing candidate’s posture has been gained during the greeting and initial small talk, the rest of the conversation takes place sitting down. As one makes his bed, so he must lie and how one sits down is how one conducts the ensuing conversation. Even when seated, our sensation and posture affect each other. Someone who feels powerless adopts a defensive, discouraged posture, folds his arms and makes himself small. Someone who feels influential fills the room and uses expansive gestures. Analogous to the relationship to the room, the relationship to the furniture also conveys the inner attitude of the interlocutor. A first, easily perceivable clue is the distance to the table, which on the one hand represents the employer’s territory, but on the other hand also the common negotiation place. A confident applicant may well initially keep a small distance from the table. This gives him a certain legroom as well as flexibility and still

6.3

Posture in Sitting: Implications and Effect

149

leaves it open for him to come closer if he has been convinced. First, he gives the employer room to make his offer. Molcho describes it figuratively: a deal is agreed on solid ground, this solid ground is represented in the conversation by the table. If the hands are not yet at, on or above the table, the interlocutor is not yet ready to conclude [6]. It is important that the distance to the table does not become too great, this would prevent a binding contact. A greater distance, at which the table can no longer be reached with the hands, suggests a certain mistrust or a pronounced desire for freedom and self-determination, although cultural influences are possible here. In contrast, getting too close to the table takes away any freedom of movement from the person sitting down and gives the contact something driven. The recruiter will almost automatically tend to pull back a little in order to examine the applicant more critically. While the upper part of the torso is protected by our ribs, in the lower part this protection has been abandoned in favour of mobility, and we are correspondingly vulnerable to attack and injury in this area. From this it can be observed how close the applicant moves to the table and thereby protects his lower abdominal region. The extent to which this region is protected is testimony to the perceived vulnerability and insecurity. Additionally, protective blockades can be imposed by briefcases, application folders or laptops. In comparison, a confident applicant keeps some distance from the table and shows his abdominal region openly and unprotected. Depending on the shape of the chair, armrests prevent the applicant from moving too close to the table. Here you can vary between interviews, for example with an immobile chair without armrests in the first interview and a swivel chair with armrests in the second interview. The higher mobility, security and status of the latter gives the applicant greater freedom, which leads to additional non-verbal signals and opens up further insights into their personality. Further information is provided by the applicant’s sitting position on the chair. On the basis of the depth with which he sits on the chair, it can be distinguished whether the chair is filled confidently or whether uncertainty still prevails. While the former sits stably on the chair with the sitting bones and leans the lower back slightly against the backrest, an insecure applicant will tend to sit in front on the edge of the chair and hardly dare to reach the backrest with the lower back. A person who sits so far forward on the chair is inwardly ready to leave right away and may not believe that he is actually welcome. Does he really trust himself in the position? How does he really rate his competence and fit? This sitting posture lacks stability and prevents the applicant’s uncertainty from dissipating. Therefore, you should take the time to gently lead him into the interview. When interpreting the seating position, body size must be taken into consideration. Smaller applicants will tend to sit further forward so as not to lose contact with the ground. If, on the other hand, you sit comfortably, you show your positive attitude. If a candidate manages such a sitting posture even in a job interview, this indicates healthy selfconfidence. An upright sitting posture reveals attentiveness and concentration. In all cases, the extremes are striking: candidates who fully occupy the backrest with their back and still lean back casually obviously feel very comfortable. If they support thereby still another arm at the armrest, the asynchronous attitude conveys a certain coolness,

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should fit however to the discussion atmosphere, to the place which can be occupied and to the attitude of the Recruiters, in order not to seem put on and arrogant. Further information is provided by the degree of relaxation and the flexibility: If the person leans back not casually but tensely, this shows a latent reservation and a certain need for protection, which, however, may well be due to the situation. Leaning back may also be due to the fact that the other person is preoccupied with his or her own thoughts. In any case, no activity is currently planned with regard to the conversation partner. On the other hand, an inclined upper body signals approach, interest and readiness to act. Therefore it should be registered, with which topics the opposite one releases itself from the backrest. These point the way to the motives and interests of the applicant. Horst Rückle describes the implications that different ways of taking a seat express. If the interlocutor sits down only hesitantly, this expresses a lack of courage and security to take possession of the whole seat. The modesty shown indicates that the interlocutor will probably be satisfied with a small piece even in later negotiations, for example with regard to salary. If, on the other hand, the applicant confidently occupies the whole seat, he shows that he wants to take full advantage of the offer and has enough security not to settle for a small piece [7]. While some sitting postures support a purposeful conversation, others distract from results-oriented communication. A stooped posture, ducking as if escaping blows, conveys a guilty impression where one may wonder what lies behind the perceived sense of guilt. An overextended posture, on the other hand, by being overly tense, shows a desire to do everything right at all costs [8]. The applicant feels pressure and is anxious for the job. If he or she is supposedly applying out of un-terminated employment, this should be questioned. The orientation of the body signals the applicant’s ability to confront. If the applicant turns his body towards the recruiter frontally and openly, attention and commitment are expressed. A twisted upper body, on the other hand, would rather walk away than face the situation. In longer interviews, the orientation of the upper body shows where the applicant’s interest is going or which interviewer he or she prefers; his or her nose-navel axis and shoulders gradually orient themselves towards it. Anyone who slides deeper into the seat in an effort to barricade himself in shows his desire to hide. If he makes himself too comfortable, however, he quickly appears disinterested or arrogant. In contrast, a chummy posture lowers status, expressing too much engagement and actionism [9]. On the other hand, the emphasized raising of the upper body can indicate a certain vanity, but here, too, the context is decisive: If the recruiter has just given a laudation on a particular success of the applicant, he may and should of course show a certain pride.

6.4

Head Position

6.4

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Head Position

Regardless of whether one is sitting or standing, the head is always in view during conversation and expresses various attitudes through its posture. The German language even names this when it speaks of affection (Zuneigung), stubbornness (Halsstarrigkeit) or a turncoat (Wendehals), for example. Our head with its most important sense organs must be open and mobile in order to be able to receive new information. At the same time, the sensitive brain must be protected. Thus the posture of the head shows whether the need for stimulation or that for balance and security predominates, the degree of its mobility of the head depends on the neck muscles.

Neck While a mobile head can orient itself in all directions and is accompanied by a relaxed and flexible neck, we have to tense it when we feel pressure and need to push back, confront something or want to concentrate and focus on one thing rather than distract ourselves. The stiffer the neck, the less distracting information can be processed, in the extreme we can only look forward, at the one thing. The neck muscles are connected to the jaw muscles, and it is not uncommon for dogged types to tend to have a tense neck as a result of their nightly grinding. "

Exercise

You can directly experience for yourself how unpleasant a tense neck is and how it affects the mind: please tense your neck and feel inside yourself, as a rule the tension is transferred and you do not feel like laughing.

If the neck loses mobility, the result is a more static posture that regularly leads to jerky head movements. Molcho calls such people track people, but adds that tracks may well form a web [10]. The gaze of these applicants is focused on their goal and they are reluctant to be distracted from it. In the critical period of professional reorientation, the goal may well be to focus on the next job, but at the same time this shows the ability to rigidly set boundaries; others are less focused in this phase. Accordingly, these types can react more easily in an irritated manner when disturbances or deviations arise. In later cooperation, this employee is quite flexible and can be led in any direction, but the goal and roadmap in the form of a concept must be defined beforehand [10]. Planning and transparency are important: Molcho assumes that this type has a high resilience under the premise that he is prepared in time and professionally [11]. A sudden stiffening of the neck in conversation signals that something has been registered that has activated the desire, willingness or need for confrontation. The interlocutor may have felt threatened by a statement or discovered a contradiction or weak point in our argument. If, on the other hand, the tension is released, the neck will tilt and the head

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will turn towards us to make friendly contact and cooperate. The head tilting to the side signals affection, sympathy, and interest in additional information. It takes tension out of contact, conveys trust, attests to attention being paid to us, and dissolves fronts. The positive impact of a tilted head is deeply embedded and a defining component of an approachable communication style. The enormous effect that a tilted head achieves is based in our early childhood imprinting and is explained below in the context of our own head posture. In contrast to stiff-necked interlocutors, people with mobile necks are usually not equally focused and often not as fast in completing their tasks [11]. They simply need a little more time to gather their thoughts and integrate additional information to make their decisions. However, this additional information can also enable them to arrive more frequently at approaches to solutions that allow them to look beyond their own horizons and enable them to leave behind the well-trodden paths of the past that have meanwhile become a wrong track. Corresponding types are characterized by a flexible and open nature, additional information, new things and surprises represent for them, so to speak, the salt in the soup of life. In terms of tension of the neck lies the balance between the extremes. A relaxed and straight held head, which is not restricted in its basic mobility, but also does not follow every impulse, generally testifies to concentrated openness and flexible readiness for action. Also controlled by the neck, pushing the head back indicates an attempt to create distance and avoid closer contact with a subject. On the other hand, a head that is stretched forward signals an effort to obtain additional information. Head posture can also be observed in chin posture: Whereas the extended chin conveys an offensive attitude, the retracted chin expresses a defensive posture. The neck muscles are connected to and influenced by the shoulders. Below we take a look at their signals.

6.5

Posture of the Shoulders

The shoulders perform an important protective function for our head and are a critical region for distinguishing between inhibited and free feelings. When we are frightened, we jolt and make ourselves a shell. In an effort to pull our head in and protect our vulnerable neck and throat, our shoulders involuntarily push up whenever danger threatens. This danger may be imagined or only suspected, but the raised shoulders signal that the body is ready to take cover. As they are pulled upwards, the shoulders simultaneously push forward a little. If this becomes a habit or a chronic posture, the result is a latent slumped posture of the shoulders and chest as well as a latent closed posture of the arms, which only indicate a limited willingness to act, at least with regard to the current topic: The applicant is currently more concerned with himself and the protection of his own affairs and will currently only with difficulty be able to contribute all his energy to the operational performance process. Of

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Posture of the Shoulders

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course, this may also reflect the tension felt by someone who is under a lot of pressure to find a job and who may be afraid of being rejected again. The turtle effect mentioned in Chap. 3 is caused by the retracted head and the raised shoulders, which protect the sensitive head against possible punishment as a precaution. This posture is regularly seen in shoplifters or other people who feel guilty, have a bad conscience, or fear punishment. In an interview, hunched shoulders may show up if the applicant fears that his answer will not be well received or if he is afraid that deception will be discovered. If you extend your awareness to the applicant’s shoulders, it is not uncommon to notice an involuntary, subtle hunch or apologetic shrug during the answer. The alignment of the shoulders flags any tendencies toward flight or evasion on the part of the other person and allows the interviewer to adjust his or her approach accordingly. Developing awareness of shoulder movements in this way, and not just at work, increases our emotional intelligence. Shoulders and larynx are both controlled by the 11th cranial nerve [12]. This leads into the brain stem, and thus in a much older brain center than the Broca and Wernicke areas in the cortex, which control speech. Consequently, if a statement is doubted, an accompanying shrug of the shoulders and a change in voice are more reliable indicators than the spoken word. Through the connection to the larynx, tense and raised shoulders result in a brighter, more pressed and accessible voice, while relaxation and low shoulders result in an accented and credible voice.

"

Exercise

The shrug has its origin in the ancient protective crouch [13] and expresses powerlessness, insecurity, resignation, doubt and the fear of punishment, possibly after a deception. You can experience this origin for yourself by raising your shoulders and holding it for a few seconds. Try it for five seconds and now pull your shoulders up before reading on. You will notice that you have stopped breathing. The link between “making ourselves small” by raising our shoulders and “stopping breathing at the same time”, so that any enemies do not notice us, is still deeply anchored in us today.

The way the shoulders are shrugged opens up further insights: In truthful statements, for example, the statement that someone “doesn’t have a clue right now,” both shoulders twitch simultaneously. If, on the other hand, only one shoulder twitches, if the twitching is slowed down or half done, its asymmetry reveals the influence of our evaluation system. Most likely there is an evasive or deceptive maneuver. The unilateral twitch shown may be accompanied by an indifferent or even slightly contemptuous facial expression that nonverbally conveys the statement: “That it doesn’t work is your business, I can’t help there either.” Where the “can’t” is often a “won’t.” An actual “can’t” is usually accompanied by a helpless and empathetic shrug of both shoulders.

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The shoulder shrug also explains a “no” that is being said to us. A serious and final no is usually accompanied by a harder, lowered voice, where the shoulders drop and remain low. An empathic shoulder shrug that conveys “I’m really sorry for you” is symmetrical and carries a definitive character. In contrast, there may still be opportunities for negotiation if there is an accompanying soft, inhibited, slightly guilty shoulder shrug, along the lines of, “There might actually be another way and I’m sorry too, but I’m going to say no and hope you’ll let me get away with it.” In this case, the “no” is more of a “maybe”, and it can be worthwhile, for example in the case of deadlines, time limits or pain thresholds for the salary, to ask again whether there is still room for discretion or the possibility of readjustment. In the interview, attention can also be paid to this signal in the context of the possible starting date. Is the applicant really unable to start earlier or does he or she shy away from confronting the last employer in order to realize an earlier departure? Perhaps there is still a vacation contemplated between the two employments but not yet booked? A look at the shoulders helps to qualify the statement.

6.6

Developing Your Own Posture

An upright posture not only has a positive and attractive effect on the outside, but also positively influences our perception and mood on the inside. In principle, our organism can either grow or protect itself [14]. While more or less strongly contracted flexors promote a latent fear in the organism, [15] which makes us seek protection and directs our perception to potentially harmful, negative contents, an anxiety-free, tense body can turn towards growth contents. The counterparts to the contracting muscles of tonic musculature are the tensing muscles of phasic musculature [16]. Our organism, which is naturally oriented toward efficiency, maintains those muscles that are used and retrains those that we use little or not at all. In modern industrial society, we regularly adopt sedentary postures, activating our flexor muscles. As a result, their counterparts are usually severely degenerated and action is needed to regain the balance between phasic and tonic muscles for a winning body language. Even if it means changing cherished habits, the positive effects on personal health, psychological well-being and one’s own charisma are actually always worth it. Sports that train the phasic musculature support this process. These are characterised by their unpredictability, are usually really fun and increase alertness. Examples include dancing, life kinetics and all ball sports. Also, working standing at a height adjustable desk supports an upright posture, why wait until after the back pain is there? The downtime costs of an employee already exceed the initial costs of an appropriate desk after a short time.

The Posture While Standing So what can we do to achieve an upright posture of our own? First of all, it takes some patience, perseverance and the willingness to endure the short phase in which a new posture

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feels alienating. As described in Chap. 2 on learning, our brains first have to get used to the new posture. Next, it helps to be aware that an upright posture is largely determined by the position of the pelvis. "

Exercise: The Kangaroo Stand

A nice auxiliary image to achieve a slightly tilted pelvis and a stable stance is provided by the so-called kangaroo stance. Imagine you are a kangaroo and lean backwards on your kangaroo tail. Already your pelvis realigns itself and automatically your spine as well, so that your shoulders drop backwards as if by themselves, freeing your neck and relaxing your neck. The arms and the rest of the muscles cling to the skeleton in their natural posture, and the muscles do not need to be activated unnecessarily to put the body in any unnatural position. "

Exercise: Visualize Thread at the Crown

This technique comes from the world of theatre: imagine a thread pulling you upwards at the crown of your head and lifting you up. When the maximum is reached, let yourself sink back in a little, take your shoulders low and back together and pay attention to your grounding. "

Exercise

Benita Cantieni describes how to achieve an anatomically sound posture that returns our body to its vital tone [17]. Here are the summarized instructions: 1. Place feet hip-width apart in a slight V-shape: Put pressure on the metatarsophalangeal joint of the big toe and the heel. 2. Align knee over ankle and hold loosely. 3. Straighten your pelvis. 4. Stretch the pubic bone, coccyx and ischial tuberosity downwards. 5. Straighten the spine: Stretch vertebra by vertebra into the vertical, pulling the crown point toward the ceiling. (The crown point lies in an extended line of the spine slightly behind and above the crown). 6. Gently align ischial tuberosities towards perineum, pull levator ani (pelvic floor) up towards sacrum (lower end of spine) without tensing sphincter muscles. 7. Consciously hold the resulting external rotation of the thigh muscles. 8. Stretch the navel towards the sternum (middle of the chest) to activate the pyramidalis muscle. 9. Release the ball of the upper arm from the acromion. 10. Relax shoulders outward downward. 11. Twist out the upper arm muscles.

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12. Cheer up. 13. Relax your neck and throat. 14. Smile!

Once an anatomically correct posture has been achieved, however, now comes the far more important part of maintaining it sustainably. Observe the new posture mindfully and translate these perceptions into inner images, which you link to a feeling, visualize and put into words. On this basis, it is easier to adopt this posture repeatedly and to get into the habit of it permanently [18]. Cantieni describes how this posture increases energy levels and charisma in a way that quickly produces very positive feedback. Both when standing and sitting, the posture of the body entails a countermovement of the head to compensate for any bad posture. Depending on the degree of bad posture, our neck and shoulder muscles tense up and cause difficult breathing and a squeezed voice. If our body is tense and stressed by our own blockages, it is more difficult to engage with the person we are talking to and to establish a binding contact. In addition to the health burden, the unconscious stress favors the emergence of misjudgments, because the resources to compensate for disturbing influences are missing. There are several other ways to find a natural and healthy posture, which is regularly accompanied by amazing gains in energy and quality of life, for example the Alexander Technique: therapists trained in it can be found in most major cities. A few hours of practice can help to achieve greater body awareness and regain a natural posture. The first step could also be to see an osteopath. These therapists can sometimes solve deep-seated blockages and complaints in just one session by gently realigning the body. Which method is chosen certainly depends on the current posture and the extent of any limitations. In principle, bad posture costs energy, is favoured by our modern way of life and a remedy improves one’s own charisma and effect in addition to improved health and a higher energy level.

Own Sitting Posture The applicant tells the story, the recruiter listens, asks the next question and pays attention to how the applicant appears to him. The choice of seating furniture can have a lasting influence on posture, perception and effect. If the recruiter sits in office chairs that can be swivelled and tilted, the temptation arises to lean back with a flexible backrest after a placed question, to make oneself comfortable and to wait and see what happens. The distance this creates reduces contact with the applicant, and the reclined posture tempts you to size him up with your chin lifted over your nose. This creates a critical, sometimes even arrogant impression and favours the development of a hierarchical atmosphere, especially if the applicant is also sitting on a chair with a fixed backrest and no possibility of rotation and is

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denied comparable freedom of movement. A fixed backrest in an upright or slightly inclined position can help to prevent the interviewer from leaning back too comfortably. Turning the front of the body towards the applicant creates commitment and promotes an atmosphere of trust. If the interview is conducted alone and in a facing posture, this posture will arise automatically. In this case, it is only necessary to ensure that the chair is not too close to the table. If, however, the personnel manager conducts the interview in a 90-degree sitting position, or if he is one of several company representatives and is not sitting directly opposite the applicant, the connection can be strengthened if he not only turns his head towards the applicant during contact, but also, with his upper body turned slightly in the direction of the applicant, the so-called nose-navel axis. From time to time he should ask himself how his own readiness for action is: Am I as a recruiter sitting comfortably leaning backwards and with my feet stretched out in the chair, am I slightly bent over, but have I still created an ankle lock with my feet that prevents me from getting started directly? Have I built barricades between myself and the applicant that may limit contact between us? And is this what I want, or have the changes crept in unconsciously? Do I want to correct and consciously give myself and the conversation a new direction?

Sitting Posture and Persuasion With regard to our persuasive power, there are gender-specific differences: for men, a slightly relaxed posture has the most beneficial effect by a clear margin, whereas for women, a slightly tense posture – however, the distance to the slightly relaxed posture is not too great [19]. For a positive sitting style, Stefan Spies recommends adopting an attentive posture, leaving it up to each person to cross their legs to the left or right or to remain open. Depending on your type, you can lean or remain sitting upright. Calmer people prefer to lean and take a relaxed posture, dynamic types feel more comfortable in an active posture at the beginning. After some time, an organic change of the different postures should then occur in the conversation, according to the development of the conversation [20]. Sitting frontally opposite the applicant can bring tension and confrontation into the conversation. The language already expresses it, in fact neutral observers in discussions tend to identify with those participants behind whom they stand or sit and whose perspective they thereby take. Accordingly, more cooperative conversations can be had when people sit at 90 degrees to each other [21]. As explained in Chap. 5 on distance zones, we are less sensitive on the side of the body and feel confrontation less strongly. Thus, this positioning may well be a variant for various rounds of conversation. But even in interviews where you are sitting face to face, the confrontation can be resolved if you turn the chair slightly outwards and lean back a little. If the applicant can react accordingly, a right angle to each other and a more open discussion atmosphere will result. This variant is particularly suitable for one-to-one interviews.

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Credible and Accessible Attitude Michael Grinder distinguishes between a credible and an accessible communication style [22]. Communication appears confrontational and authoritarian in the case of the credible style, but cooperative, accepting and accommodating in the case of the accessible style. The believable style communicates in a matter-of-fact, sober, and rational manner; it has a conclusive nature that gets to the point and addresses even unpleasant content. While the credible style sends information and makes statements, the accessible style is oriented towards the other person, seeks information and cultivates the relationship level. While the credible style creates distance, the accessible style develops closeness to the interlocutor. Both styles do not have to be good or bad per se, but should fit the respective situation. Both styles are described in more detail in Chap. 11 on gestures as well as in the context of the voice pattern in Chap. 12 and in their further characteristics. However, they are also expressed through body posture and especially head posture. A credible posture shows itself in a straight held head as well as an upright and symmetrical posture. It is accompanied by a higher body tension than the accessible style and, unlike the latter’s soft, flowing movements, is expressed more through angular and paced movements. While the credible style is associated with a balanced posture in which both feet are placed evenly on the floor, resulting in a straight posture, an accessible posture involves shifting more weight onto one leg and slightly bending the other, resulting in a slightly tilted, undulating posture that is completed by the tilted head. A low shoulder posture promotes a deeper, harder, more credible voice. In contrast, raised shoulders produce a higher, softer, and more approachable voice.

Own Head Position The tilted head of the accessible posture helps to release tension in conversations where it unintentionally arises. In doing so, we show one of our most vulnerable spots with the carotid artery and trigger deeply anchored inhibitions to attack. The effect occurs spontaneously and cross-culturally and is so powerful that it even works when the other person is made aware of the inclination. When the head is tilted, the gaze and voice also change, giving the communication a new character. It is important that the movement is in harmony with the whole and that one does not overdo it with the inclination, both in terms of number and in terms of expression, an angle of inclination of five to ten degrees is sufficient. The slightly tilted head helps to create an atmosphere in which the applicant can open up more easily and comes across as more approachable, more cooperative and less confrontational. It also increases the charisma of warmth, interest and appreciation. The Secret of the Mona Lisa But where does the strong effect of the tilted head position come from? Siegfried Frey’s studies provide deeper insights into this. Like many before him, he puzzled over the mysterious smile of the

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Mona Lisa until he finally succeeded in uncovering one of her secrets. Her head is minimally, barely perceptibly tilted in the direction of the viewer’s gaze. Frey investigated the effect in his studies by leaving the Mona Lisa’s torso and facial expression unchanged, but adjusting the tilt of her head differently. The results were striking and showed that the effect is significantly influenced by the head position and which direction it is facing. Whether or not your head tilt follows the direction of your gaze causes a completely different charisma, all other things being equal. If you tilt your head against the direction of your gaze, you appear more critical and distant. If, on the other hand, you tilt your head in the direction of your gaze, you appear more approachable and warmer [23]. The cause of our positive feelings lies on the one hand in the congruent alignment of gaze and head tilt: If the gaze goes in one direction, but the body in the other, we unconsciously perceive this contradiction and remain curious about which direction is likely to continue. But if the two correspond and complement each other, the message is clear and we can relax. Another reason for the great effect of this attitude lies in our early childhood imprinting: When the mother holds her child in her arms and looks at it, she normally tilts her head towards the child, following the direction of her gaze. Nature has arranged it in such a way that even newborns can make clear eye contact at this distance in order to increase the bond between mother and child [24]. During breastfeeding, skin contact and eye contact, the love and bonding hormone oxytocin is released and forms the hormonal basis upon which mutual love develops between mother and baby [25]. “Neurons that fire together, wire together”, [26] when two stimuli reach us at the same time, our brain infers high relevance and also links them directly together, we become conditioned like Pavlov’s dogs. Accordingly early we have the feeling of love, which arises in the oxytocin release in the brain, and the bond at the eye contact in the arm of the mother with the tilted head connected and correspondingly strong and disarming its effect is still today. Based on his studies of dummies, Konrad Lorenz found that in the animal kingdom, attraction and bonding are often determined by only a few or even a single characteristic. Building on this, Siegfried Frey also investigated the effect of animated dummies in humans and proved that we react to very specific postural constellations [27]. The reaction is deeper, the earlier the imprinting took place, and so the head tilt in the direction of the gaze with a slight inclination of the upper body is probably even the posture complex that activates our most deeply rooted imprinting. It can act as a valuable wild card to take tension out of situations and create a trusting atmosphere for conversation.

"

Exercise

The context is also important with regard to the tilt of the head. There is a nice test for this: We are not or only latently aware of it, but due to the closeness to the passengers, the external control and the lack of escape possibilities, a ride in an elevator stresses us more than it should. In practice, we take ourselves back, stop talking, for example, and try to block out the other people by avoiding eye contact and concentrating hard on the numbers on the floor display, for example. We remain attentively tense and do not want to show any weakness. Now the test: Next time you are in this situation, when you are in an elevator with strangers, try tilting your head. You’ll be amazed at how difficult it is and how disconcerting it feels.

In the challenge of winning over wooed applicants for one’s own company, there will also be situations in the interview in which they must be convinced by credibility. Here it is

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of little help to submit by tilting one’s head and relying on their approachability. The tension that arises must be endured, with a straight neck and upright posture. Once the applicant responds and begins to release their own tension, this can be followed. However, in critical situations, the recruiter should not try to induce tension release beforehand by head tilting or other submission signals. This brings sympathy, but costs persuasion and both are important to get a commitment or to maintain one’s position in critical salary negotiations. On the other hand, in a deadlocked situation, for example if there is too big a gap between the salary demanded and the salary offered, you can make a new offer with a positive facial expression, raised eyebrows and a slightly tilted head, thus emphasising your own constructive intention. The tilted head is also a positive sign with the applicant, the German language already expresses this clearly through the term “affection”.

The Raised and Lowered Head When we are interested in something or when we listen attentively, we raise our head slightly and expectantly and sometimes push it slightly forward, we “smell” something. Once we have heard enough, the tension is released again. If the head remains raised longer in the effort to receive more information, there is not only the danger of a tense neck. The scenting posture unsettles the applicant, who has difficulty gauging whether or not his words will be received and whether the recruiter will agree or disagree with them. The head pausing in this elevated position nonverbally initiates a pause that challenges and pressures the applicant to justify himself. The raised head can certainly be used to trigger a spiral of justification in the case of questionable statements, but the interview develops an interrogation character as a result. In order to convey to the applicant that his message has been received, the raised head posture should be dissolved with an implied or slight nod after the applicant’s statement, if it is agreed with. With a raised head, HR professionals show more of their vulnerable suprasternal notch and automatically size the other person up a bit over the nose. Both can, especially in conjunction with a sparse, neutral or negative facial expression, seem cold, smug and in the most negative case arrogant. A straight posture or slight attention, on the other hand, comes across as neutral to open and friendly. In contrast, a lowered head can appear insecure and as if one has something to hide. As a result of a lowered head posture, there can be a look from below upwards, which can have a disparaging effect and give the other person the impression of being secretly hostile or rejected.

Own Shoulder Position In addition to the above, hunched shoulders make us appear vulnerable. They convey insecurity and a guilty conscience, which undermines one’s own credibility and the building of trust with the interlocutor. Chronic hunched shoulders should also be

References

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counteracted in terms of one’s own health. If these are opened in a relaxed manner and rolled low and backwards, this also makes it easier for the arms to open in a natural way.

6.7

Conclusion: Posture

Whether sitting or standing, good posture not only significantly influences the impact of our first impression, but also affects us in return and influences our perception, motivation and stamina. We receive often overlooked but very revealing signals from the neck and shoulder region and through the alignment of the torso. In addition to its effect on our communication style, posture conveys our attitude toward the world [28]. The head tilted to one side is one of the strongest signals to create a trusting and cooperative conversational atmosphere.

References 1. Samy Molcho: Seminar: Der Körper spricht immer; Jürgen Höller Academy, Schweinfurt, 2013 2. Maja Storch: Embodiment, S. 44 ff.; Verlag Hans Huber AG; Bern, 2015 3. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 168; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 4. Mark Bowden: Winning Body Language, S. 215; Mc Graw-Hill Books; New York, 2010 5. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 99; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 6. Samy Molcho: Mit Körpersprache zum Erfolg, Version 3.0, DVD United Soft Media Verlag GmbH, München, 2010 7. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 298 ff.; Verlag moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 8. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper, S. 83; Hoffmann und Campe Verlag, Hamburg, 2010 9. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper, S. 84; Hoffmann und Campe Verlag, Hamburg, 2010 10. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 174; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 11. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 175; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 12. https://www.lecturio.de/magazin/die-hirnnerven/?fv¼1#hirnnerv-xi-nervus-accessorius aufgerufen am 15.10.2018 13. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 99; Redline Verlag, 2011 14. Marco Benasso: Evolution und Leid als Herausforderung für den Glauben, S. 269; J.B. Metzler, Wiesbaden, 2018 15. Stefan Verra: Hey, dein Körper spricht, S. 117; edel Germany GmbH, Hamburg, 2015 16. Stefan Verra: Hey, dein Körper spricht, S. 154; edel Germany GmbH, Hamburg, 2015 17. Maja Storch: Embodiment, S. 121; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2015. 18. Maja Storch: Embodiment, S. 122; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 2015. 19. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache & Kommunikation, S. 322; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 20. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper, S. 86; Hoffmann und Campe Verlag, Hamburg, 2010 21. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz: Weniger ist mehr! Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2010

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22. Michael Grinder: Pentimento, S. 53; Twinn Media Verlag, Offenhausen/Nürnberg, 2011 23. Siegfried Frey: Die Macht des Bildes, S. 141; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 1999 24. Bernd Senf über Wilhelm Reich 2. Die Bildung des Charakterpanzers in der Kindheit, https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v¼XHezGGpR9uI&t¼21s aufgerufen am 15.10.2018 25. http://www.mattes.de/buecher/praenatale_psychologie/PP_PDF/PP_21_3-4_Plothe2.pdf aufgerufen am 15.10.2018 26. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbsche_Lernregel aufgerufen am 31.12.2018 27. Siegfried Frey: Die Macht des Bildes, S. 137; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 1999 28. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache der Kinder, S. 175; Hugendubel Verlag, Kreuzlingen/ München, 2005

7

Movements

Abstract

This chapter examines different ways in which humans walk. It describes which movements provide clues about the way applicants process information, enabling the interviewer to better gauge their motivation. Their causes and associated needs, implications and possible interpretations are derived and those signals are deepened on which the recruiter can direct his perception in order to acquire additional information. Basic rhythm patterns that indicate the interviewer’s perception of the interview are covered and ways to counteract them in a way that is appropriate to the situation are described. Finally, techniques are explained for influencing the interview in a targeted manner through one’s own movements.

Beyond the expressiveness of static postures, the way we move opens up insights into our motivation and personality. In this context, movements describe the way in which we move from one posture to the next or how we move towards a goal. Movements convey a great deal of information about the person moving through their dynamics and the various parameters that influence their character. The way of moving lies like a basic pattern among the other non-verbal expressions of gestures, feet and facial expressions and opens up insights into the underlying temperament of the person.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_7

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7.1

7

Movements

Introduction

Our movement portfolio is composed of five basic behaviors that children still express unfiltered [1] and that we still show as adults, but in an inhibited and weakened form as a result of our socialization. Basic Forms of Movement [1] 1. Running forward, attacking movements with an aggressive character. 2. Running away, fleeing movements of a confrontation-avoiding nature. 3. Hiding out of fear, freezing, contracting and making oneself small. 4. Seeking help and protection as socially anchored behaviour, orientation towards status superiors. 5. To subordinate oneself or to submit as a result of resignation and quitting. When we examine the different types of movement, we see that they are distinguished by the inherent dominance and strength aspect, indicating the strong influence that inner status exerts on the way we move. As described in Sect. 5.7, awareness of one’s own status is enough to lead to spontaneous and authentic action. Thus, the applicant’s movements provide information about their personality, self-concept and current rank in the pecking order of his group. As the most basic distinction, movements can be described in terms of their speed and in terms of the direction in which they point. Speed is a critical variable in relation to the common rhythm and will be explored in more depth there. Attention to whether the movement is forward, backward, outward, inward, upward or downward oriented opens up insights into the motivation for action and whether the person moving tends to be an extroverted or introverted character type. Molcho puts it aptly: movements are thoughts translated by the body [2]. While large movements are originally situational and goal-oriented, small, unconscious movements are based on thoughts that are linked to a feeling [3]. Thus, it is the subtle, inconspicuous movements, for example of the hands, fingers, or facial expressions, that open up insights into the emotional and cognitive processes of the applicant. Small movements that lead away from oneself or towards oneself simultaneously express the inner attitude on a symbolic level and can become apparent, for example, when documents or other placeholders are taken or pushed away from oneself during the interview. The implications of large, sweeping or small, accentuated movements are deepened in the context of step length. A further, finer differentiation is made possible by the degrees of tension described in Chap. 4. The body expresses through its movements what the person wants at the moment. In addition to movements that pursue a specific intention, movements that we perform frequently and habitually develop into stereotypes and fads. These are less and less due to the situation, but express more and more ingrained habits and unconsciously rehearsed

7.2

Movements During Walking

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gestures with which one’s own image has been gradually built up. As a result, they open up further insights into the applicant’s character and self-concept. On the way to a possible cooperation, our language already expresses that movement is needed to leave one’s own standpoint and move towards each other in order to eventually find a common ground. This readiness is also shown in the developing changes of movement of the interlocutors. Those who stoically entrench themselves in their own position and behind their own arguments will move less and lose more and more the prospect of reaching an agreement with their partner if the latter is not prepared to give up his position completely and go all the way to agreement on his own. Movements are therefore important components of successful and consensus-oriented communication, and the applicant’s liveliness and agility provide information about his ability to compromise. If blockages arise in the applicant, such as a pausing of the gaze or a blocking, braking foot, these must first be resolved: He is currently not or only partially receptive to information from the outside, but is more preoccupied with his own thoughts and feelings.

7.2

Movements During Walking

In addition to posture, the way we move is also visible from a distance and shapes the first impression we convey. Our walking behavior expresses our current mood and attitude and is so characteristic and individual that, according to Alexander Lowen, no two people have an identical gait [4]. It indicates the intention and purpose of the movement, the physical condition and age of the walker, the intended destination and the value the walker places on getting there, and their orientation to the environment.

Gaits The way we walk can be examined with regard to various criteria. In addition to a rhythmic/ flowing or clocked/choppy walk, the walking speed, the length of the strides and the dynamics, the gait is characterized by the momentum and the degree of tension of the movements. While one person moves haltingly, another comes shuffling towards us, a third with a swinging upper body. Further insights are provided by the movements of the arms, their distance from the upper body, the alignment of the hands and the gaze behaviour. In the lower half of the body, the gait is characterized by the alignment of the feet, the strength with which it is stepped on, and by whether it is a narrow or broad gait. A powerful gait expresses itself in expansive movements with stronger arm movements and larger steps, a powerless gait on the other hand with restrained movements, a predominantly immobile head, weak arm movements and shorter steps. "

For his research, Nikolaus Troje attached 15 points to the body’s most important joints at the Biomotion Lab at Queen’s University in Ontario and

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displayed them on a screen. The results of 10,000 assessments were mathematically analysed and a figure was developed whose walking behaviour can be infinitely varied in terms of the parameters of gender, weight, relaxation and state of mind. On his website https://www.biomotionlab. ca/bml-walker/, people can freely access it and gain a real-time impression of how, for example, relaxedness or nervousness is expressed by happy or sad, heavy or light and male or female people.

Changes of Direction (1): Turning Point and Loop Rhythmic and paced movements are explored in more depth in Sect. 7.3, their fluidity and accentuation are also evident in changes of direction as we walk, and most clearly when we turn around: Molcho distinguishes between turn and loop. While the rhythmic type turns with a loop, expressing its need for continuity and its focus on relationships and feelings, the clocked/choppy type shows its need for a clearly defined conclusion and a subsequent new beginning through a clear turning point and an accentuated turnaround, here factual and formal contents are in the foreground [5]. While the clocked/choppy type is motivated by delimited projects and welcomes change, the rhythmic type can rather be won over for positions with a stronger permanent character and less change, but long-term development.

Changes of Direction (2): Do the Eyes Lead or the Body? Michael Grinder directs the perception to whether the eyes or the body take the lead when changing direction. If the eyes lead the body, the person has a dominant left brain. If, on the other hand, the body is leading, the right hemisphere is more dominant. In addition to the characteristics described in Chap. 4 in the section on laterality, Grinder has observed a stronger predisposition to sequential, linear action in people with a more dominant left hemisphere; moreover, according to Grinder, they show higher risk aversion and safety orientation. People whose right hemisphere is more dominant, on the other hand, are more creative, more spontaneous, make decisions more quickly and are more willing to make mistakes. This is an advantage for creative processes, but they have to recover from setbacks from time to time [6]. In a job interview, for example, a good opportunity to observe the change is when the applicant presents his results on a flipchart as part of a short case study or presentation. Once he has answered the interviewer’s questions and put back the board marker, he will turn away from the flipchart to go back to his chair. At this moment it is easy to see whether the eyes or the body are leading.

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Speed Speed conveys the fundamental dynamic with which the partner will encounter us. If we want to communicate successfully, we need a common denominator. This is demonstrated by a common rhythm of the discussion partners and is deepened in the context of the supplier-customer constellation in Sect. 7.3.

Length of Strides The length of strides indicates “chunk size”, i.e. the individual size of the information bundles we prefer to process. Small steps are associated with a propensity for detail and a need for detailed quotes or reports to gain clarity [7]. Those who take small steps always maintain contact with the safe ground and do not risk losing their balance. The body’s center of gravity follows the gait and so corrections can be made directly if one has ventured too far. People who walk through life with small steps invest more energy in safety. It does not express personal distrust of the recruiter if they check every little thing, they are the more risk-averse type: written overviews that show the way step by step during onboarding, for example, can help to fulfil their need for security. In conversation with them should pay attention to transparency and note agreements. For this type, organization is half the battle, skipping individual points unsettles him. Rough concepts and offers without details seem vague, half-baked or even unserious to him. If he hesitates, it can help to refer to an expert who knows all the details and can explain them if necessary [7]. With all the focus on safety, small steps can also go a long way and cover longer distances in less time with a high pace than long steps striding at normal speed. In contrast, large steps characterize people who are accustomed to skipping over details and inferring the whole from the individual [7]. Those who walk with large steps allow themselves to briefly lift off the ground and, trusting that it will catch them again, show a certain willingness to take risks. On the stairs, he takes two steps at a time, bringing the energy needed to move things forward. His body’s center of gravity is tilted forward, he wants to move quickly and is reluctant to worry about little things [7]. It can happen that a step ends up somewhere where something unexpected is lurking, but you can always deal with that when the time comes. Flexibility and troubleshooting suit him, he is agile and, if need be, has already left a critical situation behind him with the next big step, making him ideal for interim tasks. But he needs detail workers at his side who fill the spaces he has opened up with small, quick steps. For him, order is at best half the battle. Don’t tire him out with details and don’t take it personally to this type if he also goes through carefully prepared company documents or a quotation in big moves. In the course of life, the step length changes: The toddling, small steps of the child are followed by more lively steps during adolescence, before in adulthood an individual walking behavior results that is shaped by motivation and the management of one’s own

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resources. In old age, the steps become smaller again with decreasing dynamics. In addition, the length of the stride must always be placed in relation to the height of the body in order to determine whether it is a matter of (relatively) small or large steps.

Point of Pull When Walking Let’s imagine a thread that pulls the applicant through the room. Where on the body is this attached? Is the room crossed with an impulse from the dominant feet, does the chest push forward ambitiously, the hips contact-seeking, or does the curious head pull the body behind it in its search for information? In contrast to the ambitious, pulling forward chest, the withdrawn chest gives an inhibited impression.

Dynamics, Balance and Tread In contrast to the listless, tensionless, dragging gait, the straightforward goose step shows the ambitious goal orientation. While the former lacks action-ready tension [8] and sees obstacles in many things, is quick to find excuses and often finds it difficult to make decisions, the latter tackles new tasks and challenges head on [9]. An oscillating gait, sometimes reminiscent of a duck with its swings to the left and right, expresses the balancing between feeling and reason and indicates that someone tends to find it difficult to decide. However, a gender-based predisposition must be taken into account. Men tend to swing more with the upper body, whereas women tend to swing more in the hip area [10]. If the emphasis of the tread is on the heels, the ankle cannot compensate for the impact to the same extent as it would when walking on tiptoe. The resulting loud tread marks the acoustic territory and announces the comer from afar. Each of these treads would have left a deep impression in the ground in earlier times, when there were no paved paths, pointing to the weight, dynamism and strength of the walker, all classic dominance traits. This way of walking seeks direct contact with the ground and leaves a lasting impression. At the same time, the increased need for recognition for what has been achieved is expressed non-verbally. This is more important to this type than to a quiet walker, who walks emphatically on the balls of his feet, leaves hardly any traces and enters the office in a barely perceptible manner. "

Exercise: If you listen to yourself walking after something has gone well or when something is weighing on your conscience, you will notice how your gait changes. While you are dynamic and proud with big steps loudly showing that you are “in a good mood” and everything is going well, you will tend to push past the boss’s office with more cautious, quiet or

7.2

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uncertain steps when you would rather not draw attention to yourself at the moment. In contrast to the heel type, which is characterized by the inner image that he does not need to hide, the ball type tries to attract little attention and avoid confrontation. Although he sometimes puts his light under a bushel, he can pursue his goals unnoticed and is often one step ahead of others who underestimate him. The third in the group is the light-footed one. He takes many things lightly, finds solutions easily, and is flexible in his mindset and decision-making. Although he may lack groundedness, he can more easily break away from well-trodden paths and creatively and imaginatively search for solutions that lie outside the normal way of thinking. The low ground contact allows for quick changes of direction and spontaneous flight in the face of imminent danger, but at the same time demonstrates a lower level of commitment. In the Limbic Map [11] by Hans-Georg Häusel, the three types of appearance can be assigned to the needs for dominance, balance and stimulation.

Track Width and Alignment of the Feet While the hip-width walker draws a clear line between left and right and thus remains flexible even in hectic times and on wobbly ground and keeps access to all options open, narrow-gauge types, who in extreme cases even put their feet straight in front of each other, are threatened with danger when the pace picks up [12]. In the conflict between feeling and reason, this type can more easily trip over its own legs. The other extreme runs emphatically wide-leggedly, which makes it stable and resilient, but does sometimes make it difficult to bridge the gap between the two sides and unite them. If the latter is exhibited by an applicant, his ability to change perspective empathically should be tested. In addition to the track width, the orientation of the toes opens up quite unfiltered insights into the interest and nature of the walker. With the toes pointing outwards, progress is more difficult, but one has more time to form a picture of the world and to learn new things. Molcho attributes to this curious type the urge to constantly gather information: He is interested in side info, even if it takes a step away from the topic. He knows his destination, but likes to take a detour in order to be better informed [13]. If the tips of the feet point inwards, they act as a brake. Those who walk in this way may appear completely open in the upper half of the body, but they block themselves as soon as the first step is taken. Molcho describes this type as a cautious procrastinator who cannot make up his mind. If the chest is also closed, introversion, inhibition or renunciation can be inferred [14]. A harmonious walk is indicated by the feet and upper body being in line with the direction in which one is walking. If the feet freeze, this shows the freeze function of the activated stress axis.

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Line of Vision When Walking Further information is provided by the direction of gaze when walking. If the applicant looks directly and purposefully at the recruiter during the first eye contact and holds the contact until shaking hands, this appears ambitious and shows his focus. At the same time, however, it also reveals dominance: once something has been targeted, there is no letting up. By maintaining eye contact, he simultaneously captures the recruiter’s gaze and thus denies him the opportunity to briefly examine him. And the applicant himself also relinquishes the control look, suppressing an intuitive need for security in favor of gaining dominance. When walking, looking at the ground after the first eye contact, possibly several times, expresses the need to play it safe with regard to what is coming. This type is reluctant to take risks and tends to be more past-oriented. The time orientation can also be tested in the interview when asking about the motivation to change. Does the applicant describe this as more of a future-oriented attitude regarding the opportunities the new position will offer him or her, or is he or she oriented toward the past and why the old position was no longer a good fit? Does he see opportunities or obstacles? Again, this is about fit in relation to the position being filled: Is a proactive sales type being sought to develop new markets, or the investigative type to get to the bottom of irregularities in travel expense reports? When we enter a room, a brief glance for orientation is quite normal. But when someone lets their gaze wander, this basically represents a transgression on unfamiliar territory, which can be more or less pronounced depending on the extent and uninhibitedness with which one looks around. If what is observed is even commented on, the high status attributed to oneself becomes apparent. This can certainly meet with sympathy if, for example, a commonality is discovered in the process, but it tempts one to make undifferentiated decisions. If the gaze is directed not at but beyond the imagined horizon line, the confident, forward-looking visionary is revealed. There is little need to worry about their proactivity and imagination, but in relation to the position to be filled, it should be examined how the everyday tasks and ailments of everyday work are managed.

Alignment of Hands and Arms When Walking Molcho directs the observation to the orientation of the backs of the hands when walking. If they are directed forward, the person likes to shovel through, the main thing that the task is heavy, and if it is not, sometimes the person may make it difficult for himself [15]. At the same time, these types tend to reveal less information. This is underlined by the swing behavior: The more immobile the arms hang down and the less they swing, the more passive the person appears. Hands are there for action – if they are not taken along by the body when walking, or if they are taken along only reluctantly or inhibitedly, this does not appear very energetic. If, on the other hand, the swinging hand opens at the end of the

7.3

Movement with Rhythm and Without

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backswing, the person can also let go, check off the past and then devote himself to the next tasks with drive and concentration [15]. The neutral hand hangs relaxed downwards or swings along when walking and is directed with the palm towards the upper body, the edge of the hand points forwards. The open, approachable type subtly turns his palms forward and uses them to show his confidence in principle. It goes without saying that an entering applicant who hides his hands behind his back will alert the recruiter until a glimpse of the hands could be obtained. The need for this is deeply rooted: only when we see that the hands do not pose a danger can we relax and engage in the interview. "

Exercise: The need to take a quick look at the hands of our fellow human beings is deeply anchored in our limbic system and therefore also manifests itself in other mammals. If you want to put it to the test, you can hide your hands behind your back the next time you meet a dog and observe how it reacts immediately.

Further information is provided by the lateral distance of the arms from the torso: if these are placed close together, only little territory is claimed and, similar to the stance with legs drawn close together, adaptation and subordination are expressed. In contrast, bent elbows create space and keep anything uncomfortable at a distance from the body. The growing need for space is accompanied by increased dominance and rising testosterone levels. The influence of the cerebral hemispheres allows for further differentiation. If an arm lies close, there is a corresponding inhibition, if it is bent conspicuously strongly, the special expression and dominant predominance of the opposite brain hemisphere is expressed. If the left arm swings more strongly, we can expect a more emotional person; if, on the other hand, the right arm swings more strongly, we are dealing with a more rational type. If the left arm is pressed against the body, only a sparse exchange of feelings is to be expected; according to Molcho, the pressed-on or fixed right arm can indicate decision-making problems in concrete and factual action [3].

7.3

Movement with Rhythm and Without

Movements are either rhythmic/flowing or clocked/choppyin nature. While the former signals cheerfulness and emotional orientation through their flowing, analogue nature, the latter show willpower and goal orientation with their choppy, digital movements. If we fluctuate between the two, hesitant, indeterminate, stuttering, uncontrolled or frantic movements result and express our current imbalance. The back and forth between urgent, motivated towards-impulses, which are, however, inhibited and throttled by various reasons and away-from-impulses, also shows that the person is not in deeper harmony with himself.

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This imbalance may extend to an inability to act, and is manifested in a mild form in people who, from a nervous constitution, are in constant motion, and seem to thrust every part of their body in a different direction. Such people in their present condition are often also incapable of speaking long sentences. Here, communication succeeds best if we engage with their rhythm and keep the conversation in the form of half-sentences [16]. Recruiters, on the other hand, who try to compensate for an applicant’s volatility with detailed descriptions are behaving contrary to their currently prevailing need and will find it difficult to engage them in the conversation. The recommendation to tune into the rhythm of the conversation partner does not only apply to conversations with the nervous type. In general, a common rhythm plays a critical role in successful communication. In any conversation in which we seek agreement and cooperation, we should be aware that the basis for this is a shared rhythm with the interlocutor [16]. A common rhythm, characterized by a common speed and manner of movement, creates a common mood. We do not have to be in agreement with the interlocutor, but reaching a common ground is a prerequisite for our arguments to reach him in the first place [17]. If, on the other hand, a common rhythm has been established between the recruiter and the applicant, similar movements will occur regularly. If the recruiter changes his posture, the applicant will unconsciously tend to follow him in order to stay in the common rhythm and maintain the cooperative character of the communication. Mirroring movements occur, where a lifting of the arm, for example, is followed by an identical movement, or by crossing the leg, reaching for the glass or straightening the glasses. Even if these movements superficially appear to have nothing to do with one another, on the deeper level of rhythm the connection is thus kept in unison and harmony. However, if the candidate abruptly shifts and changes direction without the recruiter having moved, the uncomfortable chair is certainly not always the reason. Changes in rhythm represent critical points in the interview that can jeopardize the achievement of the interview goal. Those who register these can get to the bottom of the cause of the disruption and prevent any misunderstandings that arise or resolve them at an early stage.

Change of Rhythm Abrupt changes in rhythm indicate disagreements, discrepancies, and conversational disturbances. Something has happened that was so severe that it triggered a positive or negative change of movement in the other person. Rhythm changes are based on the inner change of our attitude, which are directly transferred to the physical level and express themselves through breath, sound and posture changes. Whoever registers this change and understands its message can use it as a valuable signaller. If, on the other hand, changes in rhythm are ignored, the interlocutor becomes increasingly nervous and unfocused. The changed rhythm has also changed the common denominator of communication, and so arguments sent after a change and in response to shown

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impatience signals from the partner often no longer reach the partner and instead create distance. Regardless of how good or correct the arguments may still be, the partner becomes increasingly emotional with growing impatience and enters the refractory phase described in Chap. 10, in which he becomes increasingly difficult to reach for factual speeches as his emotionality increases. Recruiters who are aware of rhythm deviations can work specifically to compensate. To do this, they can first adjust to the applicant’s pace and then, once a connection has been made, subtly speed up or slow down the rhythm to steer the conversation in the desired direction. First, however, you have to find each other: If one lags while the other pulls, both interlocutors lose energy unnecessarily trying to assert their roles. The partner’s nodding forms a highly visible indicator of his or her current rhythm: does it conform or does it impatiently signal that one should get to the essentials? Is it delayed and shows that not every statement is simply accepted without reflection? Does it sink slowly, sometimes slightly annoyed, to the end of our statement and signal that we should please come to the end? Other indicators are the timing and pauses with which statements are made, the speed of gestures and the emotional investment made.

Offerer-Accepter Constellation Whoever differentiates the rhythms of the participants in the conversation can recognize which of them takes the offerer role and which takes the accepter role. This dimension of communication thus represents an excellent opportunity to switch inwardly to the metalevel and to recognize who in the conversation currently has a stronger interest in the commitment of the counterpart. What’s behind it? Those who have a great interest in the commitment of their interview partner are usually willing to invest more in order to convince the other person. In doing so, he gets into the role of the supplier who wants to sell his idea, his product or himself as an applicant or employer to the other person. The pressure, the motivation and the invested energy accelerate the individual rhythm: In the effort to lead the conversation to the desired goal, “the foot is put on the gas pedal”. Ambiguities are explained as soon as a questioning facial expression appears, information is added if the partner hesitates with his answer, and direct and sometimes unreflective reactions are made to the partner’s uncertainties or changes of direction. An attempt is made to adapt one’s own offer to even the smallest objections and concerns and to build a bridge to the solution of the situation even in the case of subordinate details. The described communication elements themselves are not the problem: We also encounter them in normal conversations, but the whole is more than the sum of its parts. It is the timing and rhythm that change and characterize the offerer role. The offerer no longer settles for pauses and reacts hastily to positive or negative signals from the counterpart. As a result, his status is lowered, causing him to not take enough time to place his offer effectively, and instead speeds up to convey as much information as

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possible. This behaviour gives his communication a driven character and implicitly comes across as needy. Why should someone be in a hurry with a good offer? He should actually find enough interested parties. How does the communication partner experience the situation? When we notice that someone wants to impose something on us, we intuitively pull back and take the time to examine the offer more closely. We slow down our rhythm, take the accepter’s position and thus often trigger a cycle. The offerer in turn senses the hesitation of the accepter, but instead of giving them time, the temptation to follow up to convince them increases. However, this is exactly what the accepter does not want: he does not want more information and pressure, but time and distance to let the information sink in and to be able to process it in peace. As a result, the accepter will close his mind, back away, make eye contact more sparingly or look around for documents, brochures or his own notes and try to breathe freely and retain his freedom to make decisions. This further increases the insecurity of the offerer and leads to a vicious circle, when the offerer wants to accelerate even more and push additional information in order to convince the customer on the factual level, although this is no longer the issue. The mechanism of implicit rhythm sometimes leads to the point that, for example, investors in founder pitches for venture capital are less explicitly concerned with the content and subtleties of what is being said, but rather ask themselves on a meta-level whether the speaker is convinced of himself and his business idea [18]. If he is not and only wants to get new funds in a hectic and driven way, his rhythm differs from an enthusiastic and dynamic, confident communication style conveyed by a speaker who is convinced of himself and his idea. Investors test the founder’s self-confidence by asking critical questions and observe the rhythm he falls into. Does he let the question sink in, does he reflect on it or does he reply hastily? In recruiting, for example, you can ask the applicant directly why you should choose him. A little more pressure triggers a stress question like, “What would you say if we told you that other applicants have convinced us more so far?”

As a result of the changes in the labour markets, the classic distribution of roles has changed for many positions, in which the applicant used to act as the offerer of his labour and the company made a critical selection as the accepter. The exact distribution of roles always depends on the position to be filled, the market situation, the situation of the company and the applicant, and leads to varying degrees and a flowing change between supplier and buyer rhythms. If you pay attention to these rhythms in the interview, you can see who is currently taking on which role and what the self-image of the applicant and the company representatives and their relationship to each other is like under the surface. The rhythm also shows whether the applicant is playing poker or has other alternatives. Does he take on the role of offerer and wants to convince the company of his commitment, or does he merely examine the company’s offer as a possible option? Unconsciously, we already react to the rhythm, but recruiters with a traditional understanding of the role risk assuming that a strong applicant, whom they themselves have not yet been able to convince, is less motivated and preferring a more committed but weaker applicant, because

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the latter, with fewer alternatives behind him, shows more interest and appears more motivated. But a rhythm that is too fast also harbours risks of misjudgement. Necessity has an unattractive effect on an intuitive level: it lowers one’s status and sometimes makes applicants, but also companies that appear too ambitious, seem less interesting. If you feel that you have the other person’s commitment for sure, without having to commit or make an effort yourself, there is no risk in looking around to see what else the market has to offer. Just because an applicant has high pressure or sees a disproportionately large opportunity in the position due to a currently weaker self-confidence and appears overambitious, he does not have to be a worse applicant than the one who appears relaxed and confident because he can accept a rejection more easily. In addition, this dimension provides helpful information for the later salary negotiation. An applicant who offensively takes on the role of offerer will be prepared to make greater concessions than another who already has to be courted. "

7.4

The offerer-accepter constellation can also be used following the interview, when the applicant is offered to get in touch himself the following week. The ball is now in his court, and the time that elapses until the response provides further information. The spectrum is broad: If the phone rings early on Monday morning, conscientiousness, high motivation, but also pressure shine through; if the applicant does not get in touch until Friday afternoon, the hoped-for acceptance from another company to which he or she had also applied may not have been received.

Head Movements

The best-known head movements are nodding and shaking the head, which as emblems convey the statements yes and no in almost all cultural circles. Even though it has recently received some competition from the Facebook thumb, nodding still represents the simplest form of recognition that we send and receive largely unconsciously. The nodding speed of the applicant expresses the degree of his patience or impatience: If he nods thoughtfully, it signals his polite interest and encourages him to continue; a faster nod may signal enthusiasm, especially if it matches the sender’s enthusiastic rhythm in the process. A quick, short nod, however, can also indicate impatience and the need to proceed in larger increments. If it even carries a tense, annoyed character, the applicant does not want to hear anything new at first. This eventually leads to single, concluding nods during prolonged listening, at the same time closing the eyes emphatically as soon as the speaker reaches a section of meaning. This conveys as subtly and as politely as possible that no further digressions and explanations are desired and that a conclusion should please be found.

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Gestural Lapses Chapters 2 and 3 described the principles of wholeness and the pursuit of consistency. Against this background, some authors derive the gestural lapse. This occurs when an affirmative statement is accompanied by a shake of the head. This seems to contradict the verbal statement and so the communication appears incongruent at first glance. However, since nodding and shaking as deeply anchored emblems convey both conscious and unconscious statements depending on the situation, they often additionally qualify a verbal yes or no and thereby open up insights into the thinking models and paradigms of the person nodding. For example, if the recruiter is describing the interesting possibilities and great opportunities of a project and the applicant responds, “Hm. . . yeah, that sounds pretty good,” but shakes his or her head while doing so, then a superficial view might urge caution because the nonverbal shake does not correspond to the verbal affirmative. However, if the applicant has weighed any objections and counter-arguments in his mind during the description, his shaking complements the verbal agreement with the non-verbal statement “There’s nothing to complain about” or “Not bad, there’s nothing to say”. If a lapse shows up, other simultaneously occurring signals such as mimic expressions, confirming or depreciating gestures and intonation should therefore also be taken into account. In the example the listener shows himself in the positive case as a reflected interlocutor, who regards the said from several perspectives and considers possible alternatives. In the negative case, he also has the potential to be a critical complainer who always looks for the fly in the ointment. In another case, when asked if the applicant will be able to start the job on a certain date, a shake of the head could accompany his verbal “yes” and at first sight seem like a contradiction. However, this behaviour can also indicate that the applicant is reflecting on whether there could be obstacles and denies this inner question with “No, no problem” and then, shaking his head, gives the answer “Yes, it fits”. Since he has nothing to hide, the shaking of the head also shows itself to be uninhibited. In the case of deception, on the other hand, it often betrays itself by the subtle intensity with which the derailment appears. If the answer is “yes,” but the head is shaken very slightly and hesitantly, this inhibition may indicate an unconscious attempt to conceal a deception.

7.5

Trunk Movements

As described in Chap. 3, approaching and distancing movements represent biologically shaped behaviors that are already evident in single-celled organisms. Our body is designed for efficiency from those times when energy was only available in limited amounts and is reluctant to perform movements that are of no use to it. Moving the trunk, as the heaviest part of the body, requires the highest energy input compared to other parts of the body. It thus takes a strong stimulus or a high promise of benefit for this energy to be invested and for the torso to be brought forward from a relaxed posture in which it was leaning with its

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back against the backrest. So it must be worthwhile, and so approaching movements of the torso testify to the applicant’s interest. In contrast, we withdraw the trunk when we classify something as uninteresting, repulsive, or dangerous. If the applicant feels struck or threatened by a question or statement, he may well jerk himself out of the supposed danger zone, and he may be thrown against the back of the chair by the question as if by a blow to the chest. Such a clear reaction naturally raises directly the question of the trigger for the spontaneous retreat.

The Angle Formed by the Position of the Legs and Torso In order to assess the degree of readiness for action and thus the motivation of the applicant with regard to the current topic, one can basically ask oneself how long it would take and what effort it would take to get into action from the current posture. In addition to the foot posture described in Chap. 13, the angle between the legs and torso is a meaningful gauge of current motivation and readiness. The more open the angle is – the extreme is 180 degrees when lying down – the more energy and effort are required to become active and the less able and willing the applicant is to act. As the angle becomes more acute, the willingness to act increases until, in a bent-forward seated posture at around 30–45 degrees, motivation peaks and makes it easy to get up and get going straight away. An upright posture in which the upper body describes a right angle of 90 degrees to the legs represents a neutral posture in which the state of tension provides more differentiated insights into the readiness to act. "

If the customer leans forward at a certain turn of the conversation, this is a clear sign of his approval. In sales, it is criminally negligent to let this opportunity pass [19]. Similarly, in a job interview, one should reach out and accommodate the applicant, for example, by making a proposal or offer more concrete. If the applicant leans forward abruptly, the natural moment has come to give him or her something shortly afterwards: for example, a job description, an organisational chart, possible induction plans or planned onboarding procedures, trade fair or project concepts and the like.

Other Torso Movements Upward torso movements express an effort to appear taller and more superior, while downward ducking is associated with lack of energy and signals hope that this cup may pass. If the torso turns outward, the applicant may just be distracted. However, in doing so, he also shows that he is allowing himself to be distracted. Depending on the degree of

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distraction, this can be interpreted in a negative sense as flightiness and lack of concentration, in a positive sense as flexibility, attentiveness and openness to new things. Inwardly leading, closing and blocking torso postures and movements signal that the person is currently unable or unwilling to process additional stimuli. An averted upper body shows disinterest and the lack of willingness to deal with the current topic. However, this does not have to mean that there is no willingness in principle – after the applicant has considered it unhurriedly, he may well open up again, but it presents an obstacle initially. If the upper part of the body moves to the left or right to the side, this expresses the desire to avoid the topic as well. Writhing, turning away movements signal inner contradictions and ambiguities and thus clearly the applicant’s discomfort.

7.6

Own Movements

This subchapter is somewhat shorter than others, as the goal should not be to consciously control one’s own movements. Those who are too busy trying to control the body as a whole lose congruence and authenticity. The causes of our gait and the character of our movements lie deeper and that is where we should start if we are dissatisfied. In principle, goals and an integrated understanding of our role help to bring about movements that do not contradict our position. Methods of communication psychology such as the creation of an inner team to create clarity or a values and development square (concept of the German communication-psychologist Friedemann von Schulz von Thun) to expand the frame of reference are helpful here. Furthermore, our temperament and basic personality color the way we move. On this level, it is better to make peace with oneself than to wear oneself out trying to make changes that are usually disproportionate to the effort. A fitting bon mot by Eckart von Hirschhausen is that even seven years of psychotherapy will not turn a penguin into a giraffe [20]. Of course, decisive weaknesses should be worked on, but those who strengthen their strengths will develop much more positively than those who laboriously try to eliminate every weakness. The latter approach is not only associated with displeasure and leads to frustration or average results, the energy used is also lacking to build on one’s strengths. If it is invested there, it falls on fertile ground and leads to disproportionate growth, which is fun and as a result of which one’s own inner status and the way of moving often change as if by themselves. Of course, with the exercises and techniques described in Chap. 4 on first impressions and Chap. 6 on posture, blockages can be reduced and dissolved. Another approach is offered by the Galli workshops described in Chap. 3. Once critical blockages are removed, we move more freely, decisively and powerfully. There are, however, a few individual movements that you can pay attention to during a conversation in order to strengthen the connection to the conversation partner, namely the alignment of the upper body and the movements of the head. If we lean forward and turn our ventral (front) side towards the conversation partner, we signal non-verbally that we

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share their opinion and are thinking about what they have said. In addition to the tilted head postures from Chap. 6, nodding head movements are effective ways of communicating to guide the conversation.

Suggestive Nodding Our nodding not only indicates our rhythm, but is almost as contagious as yawning. The reason for this lies in the mirror neurons discovered by Giacomo Rizzolatti and his team in 1992. Mirror neurons are neurons in our own brain that fire when a conversation partner to whom we feel connected does or expresses something specific. Because the comparable circuits are activated in our own brain as in the interlocutor’s, we actually experience on a neuronal level what the interlocutor is experiencing, relativized by our own reference system [21]. Joachim Bauer therefore refers to mirror neurons as the source of human empathy [22]. If there is a sustainable connection and our conversation partner nods, our “nodding neurons” also fire and as a result there is regularly and without us having seriously reflected on what was said, an approving nodding along. This activates positive feelings anchored from the past that we have felt every time we nodded ourselves or received nods from others, triggering deep-seated conditioning. When we nod at important statements, we not only evoke that our counterpart is also nodding, thus agreeing with us and also saying “yes” to us, but in addition that he also feels good about it. The opposite is true, of course, with the shaking of the head associated with rejection and refusal. The effect of nodding on attitude formation was described in Chap. 3 in the context of the head-movement paradigm. Salespeople have been using this for decades and supplement it with a “yes chain”. Anyone who has said “yes” several times in a row as part of a logical derivation can hardly say “no” when the derivation logically leads to the consequence of completing the purchase, the desire for consistency is too strong. However, the verbal evocation of a “yes” can quickly have a suggestive and manipulative effect. If there is a good connection between the recruiter and the applicant and the former explains the current market situation and, nodding at key points, directs the next planned steps, the applicant will follow, nodding in agreement, and express his “yes” non-verbally. Finally, when it comes to the fact that during the planned project, special flexibility and extra effort are required from the employees involved, it is difficult to disagree. As with the sandwich technique, in which two positive statements take a critical statement in their midst and thus make it more tolerable, the applicant’s non-verbal nodding commitment should be appreciated and countered by something positive, for example by pointing out that the extra effort and flexibility during the challenging phases will of course be rewarded. "

At this point, “yes, but” responses from the applicant convey their possible objections and risk disrupting the interview if the recruiter takes them personally. In sales, objections are understood as a request from the

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customer to help them make a decision to buy. Handling objections with aplomb is necessary to guide the customer along the path to an unconditional decision. Fortunately, there are only about a round dozen objections per product [23]. Once the salesperson has learned about these and gradually developed appropriate responses that demonstrate a simple and quick solution, it is easy to respond confidently and convince the customer. Similarly, recruiters should discuss critical issues they regularly encounter with management and find solutions.

Reinforcing Nod HR managers can also encourage applicants to continue speaking and to elaborate or explain their statements by reinforcing nods. Friendly and interested nodding and the associated non-verbal agreement can lead to the interviewees saying up to three times as much in interviews [24]. The trick here is, on the one hand, not to interrupt the other person and, on the other hand, to nonverbally reinforce him or her in the right places. We identify with our thoughts – if these are confirmed by a nod from the interlocutor, we feel accepted and animated to open up further and tell more. In addition to a nod, a slight tilt of the head, a polite smile and raised eyebrows convey openness and additional interest. Of course, this must not degenerate into a static or exaggerated “grin mask”. A further effect supports the relationship building with the applicant. After an interview in which they were able to communicate, most people feel much better than if they did not get a chance to speak, or only barely. His or her feeling after the interview will influence the applicant’s decision to a high degree, and thus not only politeness but also the calculation of effect dictates not to interrupt him or her. "

Learn Additional Information

Well-prepared applicants have rehearsed standard responses for the most common questions, which, however, sometimes lack a real expressiveness and, above all, the personal component and can thus trigger a stale feeling in which the recruiter senses that something is still missing. In order to loosen the applicant’s tongue after all, the recruiter can subtly and well-dosedly nod along with the applicant’s explanations at meaning-bearing points and thereby adjust to his rhythm. When the applicant has finally finished his answer, there is a pause which allows a certain tension to develop in the following three to five seconds. If the personnel manager now nods in a friendly manner two or three times in the previously perceived rhythm of the applicant and allows this non-verbal request to continue to have an effect, possibly with slightly raised eyebrows and subtly tilted head, it regularly results in the applicant taking up the thread

References

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of the conversation again, continuing to talk, deepening his statements and now sharing information that he actually wanted to withhold. Although the possibilities opened up by conscious nodding are very attractive, care should be taken to use them only subtly and in key situations so that the technique does not penetrate the interlocutor’s consciousness through excessive use.

7.7

Conclusion: Movements

Every person has a characteristic gait and rhythm of his own. The gait and its rhythmic or timed movements give a deeper impression of the applicant’s temperament and personality. Observing the common rhythm enables an inner shift to the meta level and shows who is currently taking the offerer and who the and accepter role in the conversation. In order to resolve deadlocked situations, it can help to first induce the interlocutor to change his or her physical posture – in serious cases by changing location or taking a short break. This creates a prerequisite on the body language level for changing the perspective mentally as well, in order to merge one’s views and attitudes with those of the conversation partner. A progress in the conversation and process can be supported by a physical progression, and the future common path can be started, for example, with a tour of the company.

References 1. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache der Kinder, S. 108; Hugendubel, Kreuzlingen/München, 2005 2. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 17; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 3. Samy Molcho: Seminar: Der Körper spricht immer; Jürgen Höller Academy, Schweinfurt, 2013 4. Alexander Lowen: Bioenergetik, 228; Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1982 5. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 184; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 6. Michael Grinder, Seminar: ein Training in differenzierter Wahrnehmung, Twinn Akademie, Offenhausen, Nürnberg, 14.05.–17.05.2015 7. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 170; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 8. Samy Molcho: alles über Körpersprache, S. 163; Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 9. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 174; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 10. Stefan Verra: Hey, Dein Körper flirtet: S. 168 und 50; edel Germany GmbH, Hamburg, 2016 11. Hans Georg Häusel: Think Limbic!; Haufe, Freiburg, 2014 12. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 103; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 13. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 102; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 14. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 101; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 15. Samy Molcho: alles über Körpersprache, S. 165; Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 16. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 138; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997

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17. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 137; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 18. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 43; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 19. Samy Molcho: Mit Körpersprache zum Erfolg, Version 3.0, DVD United Soft Media Verlag GmbH, München, 2010 20. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼Az7lJfNiSAs aufgerufen am 27.09.2018, 20:34 21. Joachim Bauer: Warum ich fühle, was du fühlst, S. 25; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, 2009 22. Joachim Bauer: Warum ich fühle, was du fühlst, S. 46; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, München, 2009 23. Ingo Rose: Seminar: Vertriebsorientierung bei Spedition Grieshaber, Bad Säckingen, 2003 24. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 215, Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2006

8

Welcome and Handshake

Abstract

This chapter describes various factors that influence the greeting and lead to characteristic handshakes, which are described and differentiated with their implicit relationship messages. The status messages conveyed during the handshake are dealt with in greater depth and possibilities are shown for responding to them and exerting a targeted influence on the further course of the conversation. In addition, implications of the farewell are described and the relevant elements are listed with which the recruiter can design his own handshake in a targeted manner.

After the previous chapters on territorial behaviour, posture and movements have examined those elements of non-verbal communication that are predominantly sent unconsciously, the following chapter on greetings and handshakes focuses on conscious communication and ritualised contact with the interlocutor.

8.1

Greetings and Welcomings

The applicant waits at reception, the recruiter comes to pick him up for the interview. As soon as they come into each other’s field of vision, both approach each other until they reach the personal distance zone of the other. Here, the applicant, as a guest in low status, should greet first, by means of making eye contact, smiling and nodding politely. The recruiter, as the host in high status, returns the greeting and then initiates the address of welcome.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_8

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Knigge distinguishes between greetings and addresses of welcome [1]. The greeting is done without physical contact and is initiated by the guest. The more formal address of welcome by shaking hands, on the other hand, is accompanied by physical contact, and initiating this is the responsibility of the higher status person, that is, the host.

Since this is a well-rehearsed ritual, the corresponding signals and actions are initiated by both partners with a barely perceptible time delay, both when greeting and when being greeted. Nevertheless, misunderstandings at the level of the role-status constellation can creep in here. If the recruiter is under pressure when filling a position, he may tend to speed up his rhythm and initiate the greeting right at the beginning, contrary to the script of his role. In doing so, he assumes the low status and at the same time assigns the high status to the applicant, which disappoints the latter’s unconscious expectations and unsettles him: should he accept the high status offered, contrary to the script of his guest role, and now also initiate the handshake, or should he reject the implicit offer? Of course, this decision is not made consciously, and if the uncertainty does not prevail, he will usually intuitively accept the high status assigned to him and take the initiative in the handshake. But even if the handshake is almost simultaneous, both unconsciously sense who the impulse is coming from and whether this fits the role. If the HR manager is now surprised and suddenly feels that the applicant’s appearance is too brisk, he is rarely aware that it was he who initiated this behavior shortly before. When exactly should the handshake take place, where and why do we actually shake hands, and what is important to consider? The need to shake hands arises when we reach the critical point in our mutual approach where we lose sight of our partner’s feet. Since these are a major source of impetus in potential attacks, it is more difficult to gauge what the other person will do next when we no longer see their feet. A latent uncertainty arises, and before the stress axis is activated, we shake hands to relieve the tension and signal our peaceful intent. In doing so, a tall person will lose sight of their partner’s feet sooner, men, due to their poorer peripheral perceptual abilities, sooner than women. Thus tall men will tend to initiate the handshake earlier, while simultaneously assuming the high status – due to their natural timing and physical superiority, the other person will not deny them this either, the archaic programs work too strongly. "

Natural needs point to disruptions that can occur between tall applicants and short recruiters when the former initiate the handshake when it is the latter’s responsibility. Sovereign hosts receive the guest calmly, give him the necessary time to place his greeting and then initiate the address of welcome. If he encounters an applicant who clearly towers over him, the recruiter can initiate the handshake a little earlier in order to prevent misunderstandings and uncertainty due to unclear role-status constellations.

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185

Welcoming Variants Depending on how one welcomes them, six different relationship messages are conveyed: politeness, cordiality, routine, reservedness, seizure, and domination [2].

Politeness The politely extended hand is characterized by a good contact and shakes briskly. The look is friendly, interested, is accompanied by a courteous smile and meets the partner’s gaze on one level. The body is turned towards, but keeps a respectful distance [2].

Cordiality Like the politely extended hand, the warmly extended hand is characterized by good contact and lively shaking. Eye contact also takes place on one level, but lasts longer, is more warm-hearted and is accompanied by a heartfelt smile or a hearty laugh. The body is also turned towards, but the distance is reduced, one comes closer [2].

Routine In the routine greeting, you shake hands briefly, eye contact is also shorter, but also meets the other person on the same level. The smile is polite, but meaningless. The body keeps a respectful distance and is sometimes turned slightly obliquely to the interlocutor [2].

Reservedness The reservedly extended hand lies weakly in the other and can be passively shaken. The slightly lowered head leads to a shy look, directed upwards from below, which often slips away briefly, but then returns immediately. If an accompanying smile shows, it is usually somewhat tentative. The facing body keeps a respectful distance [2].

Seizure The possessive hand squeezes for a long time, sometimes pulling the other person’s hand towards it or adding the second hand to enclose the interlocutor’s hand. The fixating eyes hardly let go of the latter and are accompanied by a radiant smile, which, however, occasionally seems put on. The body comes close and turns to face frontally [2].

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Domination The dominating hand presses firmly. The slightly raised head leads to a fixed gaze, directed from top to bottom, which appears confrontational to fixating and is accompanied by a stern or falsely smiling mouth. The body keeps its distance, but turns to face frontally [2].

8.2

Shaking Hands/Handshake

During a handshake, we gain information about the partner on a biochemical level via the receptors in our palms and scan the partner with regard to a biological match [3]. In this way, a handshake creates a commitment comparable to that of three hours of social conversation without physical contact [4]. "

During the “scan” we intuitively shake hands until we have gained enough information to form a picture of the partner. This results in an interesting effect, which one or the other has surely experienced himself in his childhood: As many people’s senses become less acute over the years, they need more time during the handshake to gain the necessary information. So while grandpa shakes extensively, it takes far too long for the grandchild, who wants his hand back. Fortunately, the spectrum in recruiting isn’t that broad, but younger recruiters can let older applicants shake a little longer and older recruiters can give younger applicants some consideration for their needs.

In addition, when we shake hands, we regulate the status and convey our motivation for the conversation. A wide variety of factors contribute their share to the mosaic of the relationship message sent: Let us examine these in terms of their significance and influence on the quality of the greeting and the subsequent contact.

Initiative, Angle Between Forearm and Upper Arm, Wrist Angle As described, the decision as to whether physical contact, and thus the handshake, should take place or not lies with the high status. If both partners are at eye level, the one who initiates the handshake signals his current claim to leadership. If there are large differences in status and the low status takes the initiative, this shows their desire to intensify the contact, which, however, means clearly exceeding their own competencies. The elbow angle between the forearm and the upper arm is extended by the hand and requires an opposite angle in the wrist of the counterpart for the handshake to succeed. If the forearm is held horizontally, the partner can shake the offered hand without having to bend his wrist. In cases where the forearm is not held horizontally, but at an angle greater

8.2

Shaking Hands/Handshake

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Fig. 8.1 Angle forearm, upper arm, wrist

than 90 degrees, there is pressure for the partner to confront the oppression or to conform with a bent wrist. Here, a flexible wrist has a balancing effect, while an unyielding wrist forces the other to adapt. Thus, while the former indicates flexibility and willingness to adapt, the latter suggests authority, confrontation, and rigidity Fig. 8.1.

Speed with Which the Hand Is Extended While some need to be told twice, which seems hesitant and expresses insecurity, but can also mean an unconscious, subtle test of the partner’s self-confidence and status, others grab very quickly. This results in a snap grab, where the hands only partially come to grips and the quality of the handshake takes on an unsatisfactory character due to the incompleteness. Molcho describes that snap-grabbing people always get something, but often only less than was actually up for grabs [5]. The rash hand can seem demanding and like an ambush: instead of devoting oneself fully to a process and engaging unconditionally in the current encounter, the snapper is already further along with his thoughts and plans. In order not to miss anything, they snap at it in a hurry, which can sometimes seem greedy and even driven. The greeting gets a stale taste and conveys only little interest let alone appreciation. In the context of the routine greeting described above, the brief and hasty handshake shows that there are no plans to linger long with the other person. In order to prevent a false impression, the recruiter should plan an appropriate time frame for the interview and enter the conversation in a relaxed manner.

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Distance of the Arm to the Upper Body As described in Chap. 7 on movement, the lateral angle of distance between the arm and the torso signals our willingness to adapt. An arm that is close to the body takes up little territory and gives others both space and room to express their opinions. In contrast, spread arms indicate a lack of willingness to adapt. This type of behavior is associated, for example, with frequent changes in the life course; accordingly, the sustained integration of the employee is likely to be more challenging than with more adaptable types. This is where finding common values can help: The more common ground there is, the less need there is to adapt in the end.

Alignment of the Elbows, Meeting Point of the Hands Further information is provided by the alignment of the elbow on a horizontal line. It determines where you will ultimately shake hands. If the offered hand remains close to one’s own body and does not reach the middle between the interlocutors, it characterizes the reserved, reserved, introverted type. Even during the handshake, he or she does not approach others very much and thus shifts the responsibility and the effort for the success of the contact onto them. It is also interesting how it then continues: Is it shaken neutrally in the middle or is the hand of the interlocutor pulled towards him in an appropriate manner? The latter violates their personal sphere and seems undistanced and too confidential. On the other hand, an outstretched arm keeps the other person at a distance, protects one’s own space and has a rejecting effect. If one’s own hand is pushed into the intimate distance zone of the interlocutor, this also represents a transgression that causes stress. As Molcho points out, all the different forms of handshakes are based on principled concepts of behavior that have nothing to do with the interlocutor whose hands are being shaken or with the matter at hand. If one pushes here, he pushes in other areas of life and he will always push on and push those who do not resist where he wants them [6]. People, on the other hand, who pull others toward them in greeting, expect concession and would rather take than give [6].

Height of the Handshake Monika Matschnig describes how the height at which the handshake takes place can indicate the seriousness of the shaker [7]. A handshake at normal height, where both partners join hands with a forearm angle of about 90 degrees, takes place at or slightly above the beltline. It becomes suspicious when the handshake is performed below the belt: The agreement moves out of sight, attracts less attention, and now “under-the-counter”

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189

deals tend to be possible [7]. In contrast, ostentatious correctness is signaled when shaking is performed well above the natural level.

Alignment of the Palms, Upper Hand The alignment of the palms during the handshake is a classic dominance factor. If one’s own palm is aligned downwards and handed to the other person, the latter must align his palm upwards. This posture has more than just a symbolic effect. The inwardly turned torsional moment, which occurs when the palms are turned inwardly downward, is supported by stronger muscles than that of the outwardly turned palms upward. This allows for a more effective transmission of force that can dominate and move the interlocutor’s hand almost at will. However, it is not only in job interviews that both sides should refrain from playing power games during the handshake. "

Mark Bowden describes how he thought ahead and used the inherent implications of this constellation when greeting a client [8]. He had already perceived the client’s claim to dominance when he made his entrance, and instead of initiating a power struggle at the outset, he allowed the client to have the upper hand by slightly opening his own palm. Bowden thus subtly subordinated himself and automatically put the client in the dominant role. At the same time, however, he pulled the client’s hand toward him a little and brought his belly forward a little. This showed his confidence that the partner would not attack him despite his superior position and Bowden’s exposed vulnerable abdominal region. The client felt accepted and relaxed into Bowden’s coaching.

Handshake Intensity A weak handshake, lacking in energy and lax pressure, leaves an unpleasant impression. The limp handshake appears powerless, indecisive, [9] not very self-confident and conveys a laissez-faire attitude. On the one hand, this signals the applicant’s willingness to be led without any problems, but on the other hand, it does not seem particularly motivated. Intuitively, we do not trust someone who cannot even grip during the handshake with too much drive. However, we should not judge too hastily, because the weak handshake may well be due to health reasons, such as rheumatism. Also the cultural background and the exercised occupation influence the pressure strength. A carpenter develops a different handshake than a surgeon or a pianist. Germans press harder than US-Americans, who in turn press harder than British people [10]. In general, Asian people shake more loosely than Westerners.

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In principle, a strong handshake has a positive and motivating effect, but here too there are limits. If the handgrip is too strong, it can testify to excessive power consciousness or unconsciously tries to conceal one’s own insecurity. If it even degenerates into finger squeezing, the demonstration of power crosses another boundary and indicates a lack of empathy and an engaging nature [11]. If the “partner” defends himself, the fight for the pressure point shows that both sides do not put up with anything.

Intensity of Contact During Handshake The height at which one’s own hand reaches into the other, the willingness of the palms to make contact and the duration of the contact show the degree of openness, willingness and trust that the applicant has in the recruiter. If he quickly withdraws his hand, contact is desired, but he does not yet want to commit. Full contact is achieved by touching the skin between the thumb and index finger and the extent to which the palms touch. While a flat palm allows the greatest possible skin contact with the counterpart, the curved palm prevents full contact of the palms. As the distance increases, the desire for little contact can extend to a fear of touch. Shaking hands in this way can tend to hold their thoughts back in other ways as well [11]. The same is true if only half the hand is shaken. The person seems insecure and as if he or she is not ready to give his or her full effort. If only the tips of the fingers are held out, this appears affected and, according to Irena Bischoff, as if the person opposite does not like to work too much [11]. Clasping the fingers, on the other hand, seems dependent and arouses the fear that the other person wants to hold on to us in other ways as well. A special feature arises when, during a handshake, the index finger is exposed and extends from the other fingers to the wrist of the shaken hand. Such a “pulse feeler” penetrates further into the personality area of the interlocutor and, through the pointing character of the index finger, indicates a potential know-it-all and dominant counterpart.

Shaking Frequency Matschnig describes the importance of shaking frequency: according to the motto “a promise is a promise “, she distinguishes the one-time shaker from those who shake several times. However, one-time shaking can also convey shyness, when one is true to one’s word but lacks the self-confidence to bring one’s demands to the table [7]. This shyness and insecurity are most evident when attempting to withdraw one’s hand between shakers. Shaking hands two or three times has a confident and convincing effect; anything can be talked about: You meet at eye level and are open. With three to four shakers, there is a desire for more contact and a predisposition to renegotiate things – why is this necessary when there is inner clarity and you have the self-confidence to address ambiguities directly?

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Shaking Hands/Handshake

191

It can become unpleasant if the interlocutor does not want to let us out of the obligation and shakes four to five times or even more frequently already at the beginning. Allan Pease calls this type the “pump” [12]. Like a water pump, the shaking continues until everything is pumped out. Once the pumper has a grip, the gripped other is held down while the pumper’s demands are pushed in. With this type, there can be a tendency to relativize what has been said before and to demand additional demands and additions after an agreement has been reached on a supposedly fair offer. Undetermined and flexible parts of the agreement can be extended beyond what is normally customary until they represent an imposition for the business partner, turning what was once a tempting offer into an onerous deal that he would rather not have agreed to. Here, interlocutors who intuitively only want to shake two or three times should be careful to make clear agreements and put them in writing so as not to have the hassle or additional unpaid work after the fact. An extreme example of the pump was shown by US President Trump when he did not let go of French Prime Minister Macron’s hand for an almost endless 28 s during his visit to France [13].

Accompanying Contact Through the Left Hand If there is accompanying contact by the left hand during the handshake, the height at which it touches the arm of the interlocutor shows the degree of dominance exercised. The higher the hand travels, the more dominant its effect, culminating in the left hand placed on the shoulder, which has the potential to really push the other person down. At this point, it is important to distinguish the type of touch. The distinction between touching, grabbing and holding is made by the different quality of tension that goes up the arm during contact. If the touch turns into a hold, the interlocutor’s room for manoeuvre is more restricted; now his hand can be guided with both hands, against his will, and the further course of action can be determined. If the latter resists and also uses his left hand, a clinch develops in which both struggle for the lead. Should this actually show itself in an interview, such a dominant behavior should cause visible irritation.

Distance After the Handshake For the handshake, one usually leans slightly forward or takes half a step towards each other. If the hands were shaken, this posture is dissolved again. Less distant types instead remain standing or even move forward when the interlocutor moves back again. If, on the other hand, the interlocutor continues to withdraw after the handshake, a hesitant, shy or reserved attitude is exposed. He or she should be given time and space to get closer, free from external pressure.

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Accompanying Eye Contact If you want to understand the handshake in a more differentiated way, you should consider the accompanying eye contact. This varies depending on the constellation of the sexes involved [14]. When shaking hands between two men, eye contact should be maintained for at least 3 s; anything less than this conveys weakness. Between the sexes, on the other hand, three seconds of uninterrupted eye contact signals sexual interest [14]. Therefore, after 2 s, you should briefly look away and resume eye contact to show that no such interest is being pursued, but that you are ready to work together intensively on business. More on eye contact in Chap. 9.

8.3

Farewell

The first impression counts, the last impression remains. While the power of the first impression is evidenced by the primacy effect, it is the impact of the last impression that is evidenced by the recency effect [15]. The farewell is as important as the greeting, and where one sets the course for the conversation at the beginning, the other colors the assessment of the encounter after it is over. This can sometimes go so far that a positive impression made in the meantime is questioned or discarded after a disinterested goodbye. "

8.4

Further information is provided by the difference between the handshake during the greeting and the farewell. Their differentiation shows the first conclusion of the applicant and thus how he felt the interview went and estimates his further prospects. If one was started with a strong handshake into the interview, but at the end one gave the hand away powerlessly, one’s own hopes in the interview have not been fulfilled. If, on the other hand, the hand is shaken confidently, the applicant is optimistic about the way forward. This may be more or less in line with the recruiter’s impression, but it opens up insights into the applicant’s self-perception. An only fleeting or half-shaken hand at the end with omitted, introverted eye contact should give little hope for a later acceptance.

The Own Handshake

The handshake is not about a trial of strength, but about making a positive impression. A successful handshake communicates that you are approaching the other person openly and are striving for a constructive conversation. It makes a difference who shakes hands with whom, where, for what occasion and with what goal. Awareness of these factors makes subtle changes that support a professional, positive greeting. The distance in the handshake

8.4

The Own Handshake

193

and the way it is performed indicate to the candidate the recruiter’s desire for closeness or distance and can thereby lead them into the interview with confidence or make them uncomfortable. During the handshake, the interlocutors negotiate their status. Problems only arise when there is disagreement about which of the two has the high status. In principle, all the different parameters are about the fit of the interlocutors. Here, too, there is no fundamental right or wrong: if complementary needs and handshakes meet, then both feel it and the foundation for a productive conversation and often also a constructive cooperation is laid. Of course, certain individual characteristics of the criteria described above increase the chances of a fit with a wide range of partners, while others reduce them. In the pursuit of authentic expression, however, there is no reason to pretend in the handshake. Rough transgressions should be prevented, however, and honest feedback should be sought from the social environment, ideally from people of different gender, status and stature. According to Molcho, 95% of all rejections occur when the interviewers meet across the desk [16]. As a matter of principle, one should not shake hands across the desk, but should stand up to greet the applicant and walk around it towards the applicant. A frontal, facing posture during the handshake has an authoritative effect: If the ventral side is vis-à-vis to that of the interlocutor, both turn their bellies unprotected towards each other, show themselves vulnerable and express their confidence that their openness will not be exploited – contact at eye level is created [14]. In contrast, an averted upper body conveys disinterest, insecurity and rejection. The handshake should ideally be accompanied by a natural smile and friendly eye contact. The hand should be clean and dry and should be held out in a straight line with a flexible wrist. The arm should be held rather close to the body and its direction should follow the outstretched hand, which should be held flat to allow the palms to make better contact [17]. In applying pressure, it should be adapted to the strength of the pressure of the other person, but not exceed it, and then allow him to shake as long as he likes. Also, pay attention to the mutual distance: intruding into the intimate distance zone of the interlocutor triggers stress and is only allowed to familiar people. "

"

If we only concentrate on the hand during the handshake, the pressure increases and can be perceived as too strong and unpleasant. For an appropriate handshake, the arm and hand should be understood as a unit that is led forward together [17]. How to Neutralize “Vices” Effect

If a candidate already wants to convey his motivation during the handshake, it can become painful. To avoid an open showdown and maintain civility, some recruiters prefer to suffer in silence. A more elegant and energy-saving solution to avoid the vise of over-motivated applicants is to extend your own index finger, angle it slightly, and tense it while the other tries to squeeze it tightly. As a result, our entire palm receives a much higher tension than would be possible

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with bent fingers, and thus even physically and motivationally superior shakers can be effortlessly stood up to.

Accompanying Touches Various studies prove the positive influence of touch on the quality of our relationships. The “cuddle hormone” oxytocin released in the process triggers good feelings and strengthens mutual bonds. This can also have an effect in business life: Female service staff who touched their guests on the elbow while serving them increased their tips by 36%. For male service staff, the effect was slightly smaller at 22% [18]. Supermarket customers who were inconspicuously touched when approached were more likely to engage in tastings and three times more likely to buy the products on offer [18]. In a study at the University of Minnesota, honesty increased threefold after a touch: while subjects who had previously found a 25-cent coin in a phone booth returned it without touching it only 23% of the time, willingness increased to 68% when they were also given a hand and lightly touched on the elbow [19].

"

Due to the mobility of the arms, the elbow stands furthest away from the body, is jostled most often and regularly comes into contact with the environment. It is hard and relatively insensitive, and so we react to touches there less strongly than in other places. Thus, along with the upper arm, it is the point through which physical contact can be initiated most inconspicuously, without giving others the feeling that one wants to get too close to them, although here too, of course, sensitivities of varying degrees prevail.

Physical or skin contact is a delicate matter, especially in formal settings such as job interviews, and depends on who initiates it. As the service staff study shows, we react less positively to touch from men than from women. According to etiquette, the right to touch is incumbent on the person of higher status and can be perceived subtly if, for example, the applicant is also touched on the elbow with the left hand during the greeting and farewell handshake. Another opportunity for light contact can be provided by guiding the applicant through the business and preventing them from bumping into each other as they pass through doors or corridors. As with other non-verbal elements, this should only be used subtly to prevent it from penetrating the applicant’s consciousness. If an applicant is additionally touched on the elbow by all three company representatives, it will quickly dawn on him that there is a system to the approach. But if, for example, only the cordial division manager or his future

References

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supervisor touches him, this can effectively strengthen the relationship. The important thing is that it also feels authentic and natural for the company representative. A variation can also be to reserve an accompanying touch for the farewell to express one’s commitment if one finds that the interview went well. Alternatively, you can reserve the touch for follow-up interviews and thus for candidates to whom you want to signal that they have already moved closer to the organization’s inner circle. This technique in particular must always suit the industry, the job, the type and the nature of the contact. A basically introverted and aloof type is likely to find it naturally more difficult to integrate this into their communication repertoire than their already touchy-feely colleague. As with other techniques, it is advisable to practice first in the protected setting of a seminar or in private. How strongly we react to touch is also influenced by our culture. The less normally touched in this, the more obligingly contact was responded to in the telephone booth study. While during observations the aloof Brits did not even touch each other in an hour’s conversation, the touch-happy Italians made physical contact 220 times. Accordingly, the coin return rate was 70% in Britain and only 22% in Italy. Only the Germans were more influenced than the British: Their return rate was 85%. For the latter, touching opens up the greatest possibilities for increasing the commitment they feel and thus also their willingness to communicate openly and honestly. This was followed by Australia (72%), Great Britain (70%), the USA (68%), France (50%) and finally Italy (22%) [19].

8.5

Conclusion: Greeting and Handshake

As with most other nonverbal signals, handshakes depend on the fit with the job, team, and company. If a tough and hard employee is sought to survive a current lean period in the market, an applicant with a dry, hard handshake will appear more authentic and inspire the hopes of the hiring manager just as much as, in the opposite case, a sensitive, empathetic employee who, with his soft hands and yielding pressure, seems more suitable to look after sensitive customers. To consciously perceive the dimension and facets of the handshake requires some practice due to the complexity, the variety of interacting factors and the distraction of the greeting, but it allows a direct impression of how the partner starts the conversation. At the end of the conversation, it indicates his conclusion and his first résumé.

References 1. http://www.knigge2day.at/allgemeine-umgangsformen/gruessen-und-begruessen Aufgerufen am 15.10.2018 2. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper, S. 49; Hoffmann und Campe Verlag, Hamburg, 2010

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3. Patti Wood: SNAP, S. 63; New World Library, Novato, 2012 4. Patti Wood: SNAP, S. 60; New World Library, Novato, 2012 5. Samy Molcho: Alles über Körpersprache, S. 210, Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 6. Samy Molcho: Alles über Körpersprache, S. 217, Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 7. Monika Matschnig: Durch Körpersprache wirken, Audiobook, Campfire Audio, Dargow; 2007 8. Mark Bowden: Winning Body Language, S. 165; McGraw-Hill, New York, 2010 9. Stefan Spies: Der Gedanke lenkt den Körper, S. 133; Hoffmann und Campe Verlag, Hamburg, 2010 10. Martin John Yate: Das erfolgreiche Bewerbungsgespräch, S. 87; Campus, Frankfurt am Main, 2005 11. Irena Bischoff: Körpersprache und Gestik trainieren, S. 26; Beltz Verlag, Weinheim und Basel, 2007 12. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 68; Ullstein Taschenbuch; Berlin, 2006 13. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼1DwijJfVbBg aufgerufen am 15.10.2018 14. Patti Wood: SNAP, S. 69; New World Library, Novato, 2012 15. Jack Nasher: Überzeugt, S. 70; Campus, Frankfurt am Main, 2017 16. Samy Molcho: Seminar: Der Körper spricht immer; Jürgen Höller Academy, Schweinfurt, 2013 17. Irena Bischoff: Körpersprache und Gestik trainieren, S. 27; Beltz Verlag, Weinheim und Basel, 2007 18. Allan & Barbara Pease: The definite Book of Body Language, S. 106; Orion Paperpack, London, 2006 19. Allan & Barbara Pease: The definite Book of Body Language, S. 105; Orion Paperpack, London, 2006

9

Eyes and Eye Contact

Abstract

This chapter describes social norms that our eye contact follows and implicit relationship messages that accompany different types of gaze. It delves into the importance of the applicant’s gaze direction, as well as changes in their blink rate and pupil size. Finally, techniques are described with which the recruiter can control his effect in the interview, and it is explained how specific gaze behaviour can be used to cultivate the relationship level according to purpose.

Eye movements and established eye contact are central elements of successful communication. Intuitively, a slight irritation arises in us that warns us to be cautious when our fellow human beings deviate from the usual patterns and, for example, they completely fail to make eye contact or their timing differs significantly from what we would otherwise expect.

9.1

Widened and Narrowed Eyes

The eyes are directly connected to the brainstem via cranial nerves III, IV and VI [1] and react directly and involuntarily in many situations before the conscious mind intervenes in a controlling manner and controls the gaze. As a result, the eyes open up unfiltered insights into the applicant’s needs and interests. If they see something pleasant and desirable, they widen: the wider, the stronger the interest. This already happens with three-day-old babies, whose eyes widen when their mother enters the room [2].

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_9

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In contrast, contracting and narrowing eyes signal focus and concentration. The constriction screens out distracting light and other visual influences, which helped early hunters target their prey more accurately from a greater distance. Even though targets have changed since then: The focused gaze has remained and shows up when we are faced with a particular challenge and need to “look closely” to find weak points to target. Men are significantly more hierarchical than women [3], and in this context, identifying weaknesses and points of attack in the opponent is a critical core competency. As a result, men are more likely to exhibit the focusing gaze, which simultaneously activates the sympathetic nervous system and prepares the organism for a possible fight-or-flight response [4]. Even if their full execution is suppressed in business life, narrowed eyes signal that the stress reaction has been triggered internally. The interlocutor senses this: his limbic system perceives the subtle signals, reacts intuitively and also switches from relaxed to alert mode. Without realizing why, he feels less comfortable and gets ready to defend himself against a possible attack. To prevent this, recruiters can watch for possible narrowing of the eyes, especially in male applicants, and if they notice it, consciously counteract it to de-escalate the situation. "

9.2 "

While wide-open eyes widen the field of vision to take in more information, squinted eyes and constricted pupils can better focus on specific points. If the recruiter observes that the applicant’s eyes are widening during the interview, he or she can serve the applicant’s need for more information in the form of additions and expansions and go into greater breadth to explain the connections to the topic being discussed and to facilitate orientation. If, on the other hand, the applicant’s eyes narrow, there is also a desire for additional information, but this time for a more in-depth discussion of the topic and for more concrete details on the point just discussed.

Pupils As part of a study, Revlon enlarged the pupils of the eyes depicted in some pictures. The effect was highly significant: sales of the affected products increased by 45% [5].

In addition to the eyes, whose widening and narrowing can be easily seen through the orbicularis oculi muscle and the change in the eyebrows, the pupils also react to emotional involvement and signal interest or rejection. They do this involuntarily, and even though we look the other person in the eye most of the time in conversation, we often miss these signals completely. One of the reasons is the measurable physiological excitation of the

9.2

Pupils

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nervous system that occurs during eye contact [6]. This increases heart rate, blood pressure, alters brain wave activity, and distracts us from focusing on details such as pupil size. "

Recruiters who are aware of applicants’ pupil size will gain insights into their thought processes. To get started, focus on the applicant’s eye color first. Focusing on eye color makes it easier to look into the eyes, as the usual excitation that occurs when making eye contact is lessened. Once you have become accustomed to this, you can then consciously notice the pupils and pay attention to changes. Especially in critical phases of the conversation, this opens up additional communication options.

Just as wide opened eyes, dilated pupils are a positive sign indicating interest and openness. Unconsciously, we already perceive these signals. Poker players who did not know about these mechanisms played significantly better against players whose pupils they could see than against those who wore sunglasses [7]. Chinese gemstone dealers pay attention to the pupils of their customers while presenting them with their stones. A spontaneous dilation when looking at a specific stone shows the emotional involvement of the customer and thus his willingness to pay a higher price. The attentive dealer then also applies this price and increases his profit [8].

If the applicant’s pupils dilate in response to specific topics, such as special tasks, project content, benefits or similar, this is a reliable indication of their interests, which can be built upon later. Widening pupils signal relaxation: something interesting or desirable has been registered, has a positive effect, and so the counterpart is ready to take in more of it and is open to additional information. The need for additional information also occurs with emotional arousal. As described later, emotions are biological emergency programs, and so some of them bring with them the urgent need to gather additional information in order to better assess the situation. Significant pupil dilation and greatly dilated pupils occur in the context of excitement, fear, joy, and also emotional attention. In Chap. 10 on emotions, the other non-verbal components of these emotions are discussed in more detail.

A strong pupil constriction, on the other hand, signals an unconscious defensive behavior and can indicate fatigue, disinterest or overburdening [9]. Pupils that become smaller show that something is being targeted for closer analysis and that there is a tendency to adopt a critical attitude. For issues that entail pupil constriction, details should be made transparent and, if necessary, individual details should be followed up on, renegotiated, or readjusted. Medium to small pupils indicate relaxation. Pupil reactions can also be paid attention to during salary negotiations. The advantage of this is that these reactions can only be controlled by very well-trained people and therefore have a high truth content. When interpreting the pupils, the influences of the lighting conditions and the normal behaviour of the applicant must be taken into account. If it is

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very bright or dark in the room, the pupils constrict or dilate to take in less light in the bright or more light in the dark. "

Interest creates interest and because they signal it, for example, in the dim lighting of a candlelit dinner, pupils that are dilated wider than usual support increased attraction and relationship building. Of course, the job interview should not be conducted by candlelight, but overly bright lighting will result in contracted pupils and a tendency for more critical conversations, while moderate lighting will allow both conversation partners to relax and engage with each other better.

The recruiter should first be aware of whether the applicant normally has narrow, normal or dilated pupils. This awareness can provide additional information gains in the event of changes over several rounds of interviews. Since drugs, alcohol, or other substances influence pupil dilation, extreme pupil characteristics can provide additional clues in the event of unexpected differences in the applicant’s behavior in different interview rounds and can corroborate already existing suspicions.

9.3

Eye Contact

Sometimes I went to players’ meetings and didn’t even know who was going to play on Saturday. Then I looked at the faces and said: “You’re playing” if someone just looked at me, and: “You’re not playing” if someone was hiding. (Udo Lattek)

The legendary championship manager Udo Lattek was able to recognise his players’ current form and self-confidence just by looking into their eyes. The looks his players gave Lattek clearly signalled: “I’m ready” or “Better not let me play today”. Held eye contact expresses confrontational ability, which one brings along when one is sure of oneself. "

Establishing Relationships

In 2016, Amnesty International brought refugees together with locals, put them face to face and had them look into each other’s eyes for four minutes. At the end, some of the test subjects were crying in each other’s arms, had fallen in love with each other, or had simply developed a deep compassion for the other. The background for the action of Amnesty was the research results of the psychologist Arthur Aron. He had found out in 1997 that deeper feelings develop when two people look intensively into each other’s eyes for a longer period of time. The oxytocin released during this process strengthens the bond and eventually leads to an emotional spark [10].

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Eye Contact

201

The described effect also has an impact on recruiting: Applicants who sought eye contact with interviewers were able to significantly increase their chances of being hired and were perceived as more attentive, confident, reliable, trustworthy and responsible [11]. But not all eye contact is the same; timing makes all the difference. Not those applicants who sought eye contact while answering themselves, but only those who looked the interviewer in the eye while the interviewer was talking maintained the connection with him and appeared more present. Comprehension is also expressed through eye contact: If we don’t fully understand the content of what is being said, our gaze becomes uncertain and fleeting. Thus, applicants who seek and maintain eye contact improve their appearance on several levels. The emotional component increases the risk of an undifferentiated decision for the recruiter, but opens up the opportunity for him to deepen the connection and contact with the applicant. In this context, cultural influences must be taken into account; other cultures sometimes have a completely different way of looking at things. "

Another danger to misjudge lies in the effect of eye color, Karel Kleisner of Charles University in Prague found that men with brown eyes appear more trustworthy than those with blue eyes [12]. Due to the stronger contrast that occurs between the blue iris and the black pupil, both positive and negative involuntary pupillary responses are more visible than in people with dark eye color. Since negative signals influence us more than positive ones, they have a stronger effect on blue-eyed people and can fuel our unconscious distrust as well as inhibit trust building.

Implications of Different Types of Gazes The vernacular expresses through phrases such as “If looks could kill” or “Devour something with your eyes” that the way we look at others indicates the relationship we have with each other. Let us examine below the messages that different looks convey.

The Straight, Facing Gaze The straight, facing gaze appears well-mannered and polite with simultaneous alignment of the face and expresses respect for the interlocutor. With full mutual attention with the latter, the eye contact takes place on the same level and shows the desire for an open exchange. The straight look from the fully opened eyes into the face of the other person shows the readiness to deal openly and directly, and signals the decent, self-confident and straight character, which communicates without secrecy and detours.

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Concealed Boredom A differentiation of the held eye contact allows insights into the deeper interest. If we are only moderately interested in a topic, but do not want to offend our conversation partner, we overcompensate for our actual need and hold eye contact longer than usual so as not to betray our disinterest by averting our gaze. What is beyond our control in the process is the mobility of the gaze: it becomes less agile and loses its liveliness. In contrast, we deal more actively with topics that interest us. They move us and thus also lead to a more lively movement of the eyes. If, on the other hand, the other person stares at our lips motionlessly or almost motionlessly, the suspicion arises that not much is happening with our message after it has been received. The lack of eye movement also makes it more difficult to process information – the longer the uninterrupted and immobile eye contact lasts, the harder it is to concentrate, follow the conversation and reflect on what is being said. As a rule, we therefore intuitively avert our gaze briefly after a few seconds, process what we have heard and then face our conversation partner for the next unit of information. "

Perhaps some of you remember your schooldays when the teacher called on those pupils whose motionless gaze made him realise that they had just lost touch with the lesson. What led to many a laugh back then should not be the goal in the interview: the point is not to reprimand or expose the applicant. Instead, the current sentence can be ended and what was just said can be briefly summarized or repeated in other words. Perhaps the recruiter pours water briefly beforehand or opens the window and thus gives the applicant the opportunity to find his way back into the conversation through the associated change of rhythm. If such interruptions occur more often, they are a warning signal regarding the applicant’s ability to concentrate. If they occur with several applicants, this may be due to the way the recruiter conducts the interview. In this case, he can check whether his sentences may be too elaborate or worded too lengthily. Similarly, using too many commas while running through a list of points not only overloads the listener’s attention, but also reduces the persuasiveness of the sender. If, on the other hand, full stops are used frequently and consciously, what is said can better settle with the interlocutor and thus achieve a significantly stronger effect of one’s own communication.

Wry Look with a Tilted Head A wry look [13] with a tilted head signals suspicion and scepticism; on the one hand, the head can be tilted back and away from the counterpart, so that a stuck-up, taxing

9.3

Eye Contact

203

gazeresults. On the other hand, similar to dogs scenting something, a short pause can show concentration on a piece of information and lurking for the decisive statement. While the eyes focus on the speaker, however, no additional signals deepening the subject and increasing understanding are sought, but signals of uncertainty or deception confirming the doubt previously created. The gaze is focused and the mouth is closed or only slightly opened.

Calm, Firm Gaze and Stare A calm and firm gaze expresses self-confidence and does not appear aggressive. If it becomes more direct and firm, it expresses confrontation and demands that one and one’s needs are dealt with. There is a difference between looking and staring. When looking at, the cooperative character is in the foreground, it is about making contact and getting one’s message across. The calm and firm gaze withstands probing pauses and hesitations on the part of the interlocutor and, through its openness, conveys the willingness to discuss and resolve ambiguities with the same calm and firmness. The staring gaze, on the other hand, is characterized by its immobility. As described in Chap. 7 about movements, it requires the basic willingness to move in order to approach each other. This readiness is missing in the staring gaze. It is maintained until the desired result is achieved or at some point the realization sets in that there is really no point in pursuing the matter any further. The implicit aim of the staring gaze is to subjugate the other person and to impose one’s own will. The gaze of the staring person seems alienating and unsettling and can lead the stared at person to secretly ask what is actually intended or what is going on inside the staring person: it often doesn’t seem to be much, except the goal to dominate and intimidate. The implicit aggression of the staring gaze leads to insecurity and stress and makes it difficult to build a relationship.

Lateral and Fleeing Glance If the head and gaze were previously averted in order to think about a controversial point or certain topic, the sideways glance signals a first approach. He is already testing the waters by glancing, yet without facing his head towards him. He is still hesitating, but is basically ready to listen and to get involved in the conversation again. In contrast to the sideways glance, which seeks initial contact with the interlocutor after the head has been turned away, the fleeing glance communicates an attempt to distance oneself from the conversation. If it is accompanied by a closing posture and contracting muscles, the displeasure becomes even clearer. If one has to stay put, at least the gaze looks for escape possibilities or more pleasant content. At the same time, it fades out the current events and the associated interlocutors.

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Eyes Looking Up and Down If the eyes look upwards, they signal benevolence and pleasure, but at the same time still a certain uncertainty and hesitation as to whether an offer should be taken up or a potential opportunity exploited. Depending on the accompanying facial expression, something is accepted with pleasure or, almost helplessly, assistance is requested from a higher authority [14]. If, on the other hand, the recipient’s gaze wanders downwards, he feels inside himself, allows what has just been said to have an effect and registers what it does in him. He does not want to deceive the partner, but is busy with himself. It is also important to remember that eye movements are a puzzle piece of the whole expression. If the accompanying facial expression is annoyed, impatient or positive and relaxed, different meanings result. If the eyelids lower slightly when eye contact is established, they signal high attention [15]. The moment of tension and hesitation that occurs shortly before we decide to accept a piece of information, a topic or the interlocutor has been overcome. On the other hand, if the decision is still pending, the eyelids are tense and open a little wider. This tightening of the upper eyelids is the more subtle version of the tilted-back, scenting head posture described above. Once the decision has been made, the tension eases to open up and turn to the interesting content.

Lateral Roaming Eye Movements The unconscious roaming of the gaze to the left and right is described by David Givens as “CLEM”: Conjugate Lateral Eye Movement [16]. The conjugate lateral eye movement shows that information is being actively processed and the topic is being reflected upon. As a rule, the contents just discussed are being thought about; theoretically, another thought can also be followed inwardly. In this case, eye movements in other directions occur shortly before. The implications of these directions are described in the section on NLP.

Wide Eyes and Rolling Eyes As described, wide open eyes indicate strong emotions. Whether these occur in connection with surprise, joy or fear is shown by the accompanying facial expressions. If attractive contents of the job are presented in the interview in order to attract the applicant, the direction of his or her gaze opens up insights into how he or she feels. As Molcho describes, any pleasure, even an imagined one, spurs our feelings, and so we let our eyes roll upward – away from the ground of reality – as if of their own accord when something appeals to us or pleases us very much [15]. If necessary, even the tongue can taste and run lightly over the lips. During this eye movement, the eyebrows and facial expressions provide important additional information: If the eyebrows remain calm, the decision has not yet been fully

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Eye Contact

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made [15]. If the facial expressions are tense or annoyed and the eyes roll more from top to bottom, they convey a negative, almost insulting message.

Implications of NLP The discipline of neurolinguistic programming (NLP) emerged when linguist John Grinder and psychologist Richard Bandler studied what made the special class of exceptionally successful psychotherapists. It was their way of communicating. Grinder and Bandler examined the methods and techniques and prepared them systematically, so that a construction kit and set of rules resulted, with which the communication of the interlocutor can be grasped in a more differentiated way and one’s own communication can be controlled in a more targeted way.

Among other things, NLP describes connections between the direction of gaze and cognitive processes and can be used to determine the reference system of the interlocutor. The reference system (auditory, visual, kinaesthetic) shows how information is processed. If it is recognize which is the preferred processing channel and which processing pathways are dominant for which content, the conversation can be conducted in a more addressee-oriented and empathetic manner. As with the priming effect, the neuronal circuits in the brain “glow” at the various levels and pave the way for a spontaneous answer when the appropriate question triggers the currently active level. Since the question hits the processing channel of the applicant that has already been triggered internally, the applicant feels understood on a deeper level, opens up more easily and moves the dialogue forward.

In this chapter, the directions are always described from the recruiter’s perspective and refer to right-handed people. As with laterality, it should be noted that the meanings described do not apply to a small proportion of people, but are expressed in the opposite way to their handedness. However, if you observe the behaviour of the other person carefully and relate it to the situation and the subject, with a little practice you will be quite sure to recognize unorthodox transmitters. Here, too, it is important not to determine the applicant’s entire communication on the basis of a single signal, but to always place it in relation to his or her overall expression.

Importance of Horizontal and Vertical Eye Movements The horizontal direction of gaze differentiates between memory and construction. If the applicant’s eyes move to the right from the recruiter’s point of view, the applicant is recalling memories. The vertical direction of gaze can be used to identify the processing channel on which the information is retrieved from the memory. Visual memories are associated with eyes looking upwards to the right, auditory memories with eyes looking to the centre right. Kinesthetic, emotional memories are indicated by eyes looking downwards and to the right (Fig. 9.1).

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Fig. 9.1 Viewing directions in neurolinguistic programming

In contrast, the applicant’s eyes (from the recruiter’s point of view) move to the left side when constructing content in the mind. The implications in relation to central and upward movements are analogous to remembering: if the eyes move straight towards the ear, the construction takes place on the acoustic level; if the eyes move upwards to the left, the construction takes place on the visual, pictorial level. When asking about a specific or doubtful event, it can thus be observed on the basis of the eye movement whether this event is remembered or constructed. Looking down to the left shows that the interlocutor has just formed a value judgment, for example in the context of a discussion about a controversial topic [17]. He is currently unable to comprehend the values and drivers of the other person and will probably confront him with his judgement straight away. Those who recognize a judgmental look in the interlocutor can prepare themselves inwardly and are thus less likely to be surprised by the critical reaction. Horst Rückle recommends for such situations not to try to look for new solutions together, but to discuss with the interlocutor his assessment of the problem [18]. "

If the look into “the judgment” is spotted, an alternative may be to react proactively and ask the applicant directly how he assesses the topic or what he thinks about it. The direct approach usually disarms him, and so he usually tends intuitively to initially reject the request for a dialogue and claims that he does not have any questions. Since he was inwardly pursuing a thought of his own, he is initially surprised and spontaneously tends to refuse. If however now the recruiter leaves the statement of the applicant stand for two to three seconds, during this pause the latter realizes the fact that the conversation turns to the topiche is currently thinking about and that his thoughts and judgment are important in order to reach a conclusion. The subtle pressure of the developing pause further adds to this circumstance. If the applicant is signaled non-verbally, for example by a slightly tilted head, friendly smile, raised eyebrows and an encouraging subtle nod, that it is expressly desired that he share his thoughts, opens up and communicates, which in turn promotes a cooperative atmosphere in

9.3

Eye Contact

the discussion as well as an exchange at eye level, preventing misunderstandings. "

Tip

Practice: Before interpreting, determine the applicant’s reference system and relate the answers to right- or left-handedness. A suitable question to practise in private is to ask your interviewee to remember his first day at school and tell you about it. Now you can read from the eye movements whether the important event at that time is remembered emotionally or whether sounds or visual influences have left a stronger impression. In the interview, questions and prompts to imagine an ideal workplace or to describe a successful previous day at work, to describe a conflict with a previous supervisor or colleague, or to recall a successful project or similar, provide an opportunity to activate the applicant’s thoughts and memories and to observe where they lead him or her. "

Tip

In order to interpret eye movements reliably, a well-trained perception is needed. It may well be that, in response to a question, within a very short time, the applicant’s eyes go briefly downwards, for example, to feel inside themselves in relation to their own positioning to the question, before looking upwards to the right to recall the setting, and then quickly to the right to the side to recall what was said, before looking to the left to the side, while intuitively constructing what would probably be best to say. Beginners should proceed with a certain caution here: If you perceive only one or two of the five to seven eye movements associated with a topic and use the first, the longest or the last visible one for interpretation, you may get a few hits, but you risk misjudging or wrongly suspecting other interlocutors. In addition, it is not possible to draw deterministic conclusions about the underlying content from the processing channel and the recognized program. Of course, the interpretation of eye movements becomes easier with increasing practice and experience as well as knowledge of the interlocutor and his or her CV, but the recruiter should still beware of making hasty statements. However, in order to find clues and to tune into the applicant’s reference system, the direction of the gaze is a valuable possibility and opens up additional options in the interview.

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Gaze Avoidance

Just as spontaneously as our eyes widen in response to positive stimuli, they close when information is rejected. This reaction is not limited to visual content, but is also evident with abstract information. The tendency to do this appears to be innate, as even infants born blind exhibit this behavior, turning away, closing their eyes, or covering them to block out everything else when faced with negative news [19]. The extreme manifestation of gaze avoidance is seen in squinted eyes or frequent and prolonged glances at the ceiling or out the window, which signal mental absence and the search for an escape route. In a setting like the job interview, gaze avoidance is usually more subtle, such as touching the eyes to signal that what was just heard is not liked. If the eyelids are closed after a short delay or kept closed for a little longer, they also express possible negative feelings or discomfort. Eyes that close longer than usual or are demonstratively kept closed show a feeling of powerlessness, resignation and a lack of interest in investing additional energy in the contact or the current topic. Eyes are closed longer or completely in discouragement, frustration or annoyance. In extreme cases, they are covered with one or both hands and the discouraged head is supported by the hand of the forearm placed on the table. The person avoiding the gaze in this way has actually gone into the conversation with good intentions and in this case feels that his own ideas and approaches are more practicable or superior to the ideas of his conversation partner. But now he is at a loss and signals that the other person should do what he wants and will see what he gets out of it. Why We Don’t Like to Look Others in the Eye When Lying As described in Chap. 3, the gain in power that is achieved with a lie reduces the sense of pleasure. Whether it is a short-term rejection without an important reason or another message that could disappoint the other person and affect the relationship with each other, we always intuitively try to keep personal contact as low as possible. Since eye contact is, next to physical contact, the most intensive way to deepen the contact with our fellow human beings, we intuitively try to avoid it. If we want to cancel an appointment or a request without an important reason, we prefer to cancel in writing, and it takes some effort to deliver the unpleasant message in person after all. Young children show this discomfort even more openly when they fail to make or maintain eye contact in emotionally stressful situations.

Discomfort and a lack of self-confidence can also show up in the interview. If a relatively concise standard response is given to a critical question from the recruiter, in which eye contact is initially established but then can barely be maintained and is lowered shortly after the answer, this shows the applicant’s lack of self-confidence, which is often based on deception or an inner conflict. The applicant cannot withstand the scrutinizing gaze of the recruiter and both know that something is wrong. What is important here, in addition to the duration, is the direction in which the gaze is averted. While a convinced

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applicant averts his or her gaze from the recruiter, but continues with the next section of meaning and thereby directs his or her gaze to the next interview partner, the lowering of the gaze is a status-reducing and thus sympathy-seeking signal of subordination that conveys the implicit request for leniency for the untruth or uncertainty just presented. In principle, looking away conveys a desire to remove oneself from the situation. However, it is not always a sign of aversion: If we can afford to look away in familiar surroundings, we express our well-being by doing so. So again, the setting must be considered. If an applicant is invited to the second or even third round of interviews, he or she may become increasingly comfortable and develop a more casual gaze behavior. Even if it is difficult for us to maintain eye contact when we are telling the untruth, this unfortunately does not mean that maintaining eye contact is a safe signal for honesty. On the contrary, practiced liars use precisely this intuitive judgment and hold eye contact knowing its effect. In doing so, the liar observes the reaction of the interlocutor and whether his lie was convincing or if adjustments need to be made. Thus the danger of the emotional and unobjective evaluation of the applicant exists here all the more. "

What to Do if Deception Is Suspected?

If the recruiter doubts the truthfulness of the applicant’s answer, he or she should react situationally. As described earlier, it can be awkward at this point to corner the applicant by asking for more: If he closes himself off in response, it will be more difficult to learn the real reasons behind his uncertainty or misstatement. If the recruiter instead notes the critical point, he can first try to improve the relationship and come back to the topic at a later time. In another situation it can be more effective to show the applicant non-verbally, by a held, serious look and raised eyebrows, that one doubts his statement, to let the pressure of the arising pause have an effect and to initiate a further talking. Another variant can be not to show the resulting distrust, but to remember the behavioral strategy of the interlocutor. Especially the timing, pauses that arise, speech errors as well as changes in body tension and speed of movement represent characteristic features in this context that can indicate further deceptions later in the conversation. Further signals are the direction in which the person looks away and changes in facial expressions or gestures after eye contact has been broken. Since the situation is internally ticked off at this point, the facial expressions regularly derail shortly afterwards, when the previously held back tension makes its way.

If the candidate avoids looking the recruiter in the eye when discussing specific future challenges, he avoids confrontation and at the same time refuses to take responsibility. In the current phase, the great responsibility and the lack of leeway make him feel insecure. It is to be expected that the applicant will later find obstacles with scheduled assignments, while he will have less difficulty with open assignments that give him more freedom [20]. In this regard, a more open approach may relieve him and allow him to engage in the

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challenge if it is made clear that the responsibility for success will not immediately rest entirely on his shoulders. In view of the avoidance of eye contact, the fear of failure becomes apparent, which can also be based on a lack of clarity about the entire scope of the task and the planned procedure. Here one should offer help, create transparency or open the possibility to deepen the topic with a counter question.

9.5

Blinking

When we have a relaxed conversation, we blink on average ten to 15 times per minute, moistening our eyes [21]. The sensitive eyelids show a direct involuntary reaction when we are tense and nervous, and so eye blinking and eyelid fluttering suggest internal conflict or discord, as can occur when we lie. For example, Bill Clinton’s blinking frequency during his impeachment trial increased to five times his normal frequency during critical periods [13]. "

Multiple Double Blink

A briefly increased blink frequency in the form of multiple double blinks or fluttering of the eyelids is evident when the interlocutor is currently perplexed, confused, disenchanted, or briefly irritated [22]. If the double blink is accompanied by self-calming gestures or object-touching gestures, it signals decision-making difficulty and associated stress. This may be positively or negatively based, but the next step must be taken. In which direction this will lead, shows the following behavior and thus also how the decision has turned out.

Normally, the speaker blinks more often than the listener. According to Molcho, if the reverse occurs, it can be assumed that the listener is bored [15]. Continuously increased blinking indicates discomfort in the current situation, the person is under stress and intuitively tries to block out reality by brief blackouts. A single blink lasts about a quarter of a second; if two or even three show up per second, the blackout reaches its maximum. If one observes an increase in the frequency of blinking during a conversation on a specific topic, one can register this, change the topic for the time being and come back to it later, paying attention to whether the blinking accelerates again. The repeated signal in the same context confirms the suspicion. Example

Even when blinking, normal behavior must first be determined: While Oscar winner Michael Caine, for example, has trained himself for years to suppress blinking in order to increase his theatrical expression in close-ups, Ursula von der Leyen, while showing body language control and discipline in interviews, blinks up to 50 times or more per minute and seems to release all tension through her eyelids. An interview on Youtube on

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the deployment of the Bundeswehr in the interior, for example, vividly shows the differences in von der Leyen, depending on the topic, even at this high basic frequency. While in phases in which she makes statements, her gaze is fixed and emphatically directed at the interviewer for several seconds, the blink frequency increases to two to three times per second in emotionally highly charged situations and signals the high emotional tension with the accompanying stroking of the tongue over the lips [23]. The over-the-lip stroking of the tongue once again indicates that further mimic and body language signals can reinforce or relativize the expression. ◄ Decreasing blink frequency [24] signals cognitive effort, while increasing blink frequency is associated with emotional arousal [24]. Although accelerated blink frequency often indicates negative emotions and stress, it is in principle evidence of excitement, which can also be positive, due to increased interest, and can, for example, express the anticipation of an exciting project or an expected promise. Anticipation will show other signals of interest, while physical withdrawal and more sparing, inhibited gestures indicate negative stress.

9.6

Own Gaze Behaviour

The implications described and the strong effect of eye contact also open up various possibilities for controlling the conversation in recruiting. Since eye contact is very intuitive and the messages have a subtle and multi-layered effect on the conversation and the role-status structure between the participants, you should first practice using it consciously in a private environment or in a protected setting and then reserve it for key situations. With increasing practice and habit, it will then automatically show itself in critical moments, make the recruiter appear more convincing and enable him to conduct the interview more efficiently and develop the relationship with the applicant in a targeted manner. "

Duration of Eye Contact

As part of a study on eye contact, psychologists told unknowing participants before their blind dates that the interlocutor they were about to meet had had an eye injury in childhood and that it could therefore happen that one eye reacted slightly slower than the other. Unfortunately, the psychologists no longer knew whether it was the left or right eye, but said that it had no influence whatsoever on the personality or intelligence of the counterpart and should simply be disregarded. They told their freely invented story to both partners of the blind date, who of course did not try to ignore the supposed handicap. Instead, they looked intensively into each other’s eyes to find out which eye was affected. Since they both did the same, they ended up in the range of over 80% eye contact, with

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which otherwise only lovers look at each other. Once again, the behavior influenced the feelings, and the participants developed a significantly deeper affection, so that the interest in a follow-up meeting was significantly above the usual figures [25].

Typically, normal eye contact in Western culture lasts two to three seconds. Beyond that, a tension builds up that triggers status assessments amongst men and introduces a sexual element between men and women. The percentage with which the gaze of the other is sought and held is a reliable indicator of the quality of the mutual relationship; intense eye contact creates a strong connection. The average eye contact in conversation in Western European culture is 40–75% [6]. However, the exact duration and frequency with which the gaze of the other is sought depends on the current role in the conversation. While the speaker lets his gaze roam freely while developing his thoughts, the listener focuses his gaze on the speaker for most of the time. This not only facilitates the absorption of additional visual information and increases comprehension, but also gives the speaker the assurance that what he is saying is being followed. As described in Chap. 5 on territorial behaviour, people have different distance zones and different territorial sensibilities, which also become apparent during eye contact. It can happen that one interlocutor feels uncomfortable with eye contact after just one or two seconds and feels attacked, while another remains friendly and relaxed even after several seconds. In key situations, after natural changes in topic and important messages, mutual eye contact is sought in order to match understanding. How subtly this alignment takes place is probably remembered by most from the awkward moment that can occur after a joke whose punchline has not been revealed to the listener. The teller of the joke expects a reaction after the punchline; the listener wants to show that they understood the punchline. Faking this usually rarely succeeds convincingly and doesn’t feel good. Admitting that the joke was not understood is equally awkward. If one is affected oneself, the time in which the joke teller waits for the punchline to perhaps be recognized after all seems agonizingly long. If the tension becomes too high, it must finally be resolved with a verbal statement.

Social Rules for Eye Contact As a general rule, the person who establishes eye contact must also end it again if they do not then move on to active communication. Otherwise he forces the other person to submit and thus increasingly disturbs the contact. The duration of the gaze should only last until a tension arises, which can then be used for verbal transition or reduced by breaking off the eye contact. In addition, gaze behaviour provides information both about the inner status of a person and about the role-status constellation prevailing between two people. "

When we meet a conversation partner, we unconsciously feel the need to examine him or her briefly from head to toe before we enter into the

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conversation. Conversations in which this patterning could take place are less tense and more productive. Eye contact is important in principle, but you should allow your conversation partner to get a brief, undisturbed impression of you. This can happen, for example, when you walk together to the interview table or take the applicant’s jacket to hang it up on the coat rack. The second you take care of it and turn away in the process is enough for him to take a quick look and helps him to relax. As a general rule, you should keep your eyes on your interview partner; this makes you appear attentive and sincere. Eye contact should not be interrupted abruptly and should not be allowed to wander. A cursory glance at the entire person from top to bottom shows disdain and has a depreciating effect. Personnel managers with reading glasses should take care not to look at the applicant over the glasses when exchanging glances between the documents and the applicant. On the one hand, this shows that the documents are more important, on the other hand, the head posture is thereby led into an offensive and confrontational posture, which affects the way the interview is conducted. In addition, the applicant feels targeted by the view over the glasses and gets into a defensive position.

Firm Gaze A firm gaze looks self-confident and principally convincing. A long, friendly eye contact supports the establishment of a good relationship with the counterpart. With increasing sensitivity, you notice when the connection has been made and a slight tension arises. Often at this moment or shortly thereafter, a subtle reaction becomes apparent in the other person. This is the right moment to break eye contact again, whether by a brief blink followed by a smile, a transition to the topic, a brief acknowledgement in the form of a nod or by verbally addressing the applicant. To prevent the gaze from losing its liveliness and becoming an unpleasant stare, you can let it wander between eyes, which makes it seem more accessible and social.

Eye Duels As a result of prolonged eye contact, a tension arises that must be endured at critical points in order to confirm one’s own position and strength and to trigger additional explanations or reactions from the applicant, especially in the case of doubtful answers. Should the tension become too high during a gaze duel, for example in the context of salary negotiations, the root of the applicant’s nose offers a resting place for one’s own gaze. There, the force of the applicant’s gaze is less likely to hit the recruiter, while he or she does not realize that he or she is no longer being looked directly in the eye. Although this

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increases the probing character and the strength in the gaze duel in order to lend emphasis to one’s own point of view, the direct gaze should not linger too long on the root of the nose, since the lack of movement makes it seem somewhat unrelated as the duration increases. In addition, the recruiter receives less information from the applicant’s pupils when he looks at the root of the nose and not directly into the eyes. Instead, he can concentrate on other things and slightly defocus his gaze while looking at the root of the nose. This has two advantages: On the one hand, the field of vision is widened, so that microexpressions and subtle changes in the entire face are better perceived. In addition, the parasympathetic nervous system is activated and one thus counteracts one’s own stress reaction, which makes it easier to remain empathetic and confident despite the tense situation. In order to communicate cooperatively, the principle is that as soon as tension becomes palpable in conversation, the next thing to arise is status problems, which should be avoided if the situation does not require it. The one who is looked at and fixed until he looks away subordinates himself by looking away. In doing so, he collects a psychological discount coupon. If this happens frequently, the discount card will eventually be full and will be redeemed in the form of conversation disruptors [26]. To prevent this, the recruiter should develop a feeling for whether he is dominating the applicant through his gaze or whether he is meeting him at eye level. A gaze duel that must be withstood can also occur, for example, when the applicant looks at the recruiter after his question or statement. Here it is important to consciously endure the pause and not let yourself become unsettled. In addition to maintaining eye contact, controlling the breath is another way of compensating for the tension that arises by shifting attention inward and remaining calmer and more steadfast (see section “Consciously Created Pauses” in Chap. 12).

Breaking of Eye Contact As described, eye contact should be broken when tension develops and it eventually becomes challenging. If you have initiated it yourself, you can blink with both eyes, look again briefly and then verbally switch to the next point. It can be accompanied with a slight smile. Even if it is only a courtesy smile, the interlocutor will usually react positively and honor the friendly intention. How can we proceed if the initiative came from the interlocutor, i.e., one is being looked at and is now looking for a way to interrupt the eye contact without obviously subordinating oneself? One way to interrupt eye contact in a socially acceptable and status-neutral way is to think. In this case, it is generally accepted to block out other information, and thus we automatically receive the authorization to avert our gaze. In the “Intelligent Gesture”, we clasp our chin with our index finger and thumb to show that we are thinking. Now the gaze can be safely averted without making the other person feel rejected or making us feel submissive. The Intelligent Gesture will be discussed in more detail in Chap. 11. Another possibility is when we make a note, also then the character of

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the new action prevails and justifies the breaking of the eye contact. Eye contact should not be broken up with rolling eyes, which has a disdainful effect, the expression being additionally characterized by the rolling speed and the accompanying facial expressions.

Power, Social and Intimate Gaze Depending on the region of the face to which we direct our gaze, we achieve a different effect [27]. Three variants can be distinguished: the “power gaze”, the “social gaze” and the “intimate gaze”. The region in which we look forms a triangle, which in the case of the “power gaze” is placed upwards around the eyes and the middle of the forehead. The resulting eye contact has an impersonal effect and is suitable for consciously keeping conversations on a business level when dealing with serious topics. If we consistently hold our own gaze in the described triangle and let it wander between the corners, we make it clear that no distractions are currently desired. If, on the other hand, the triangle is stretched around the eyes and nose with the tip down, the look gains warmth, becomes more personal and cultivates the relationship level. This is less sober than the one described above, but more approachable and sympathetic. Depending on the situation and intention, both types of gaze can be used in the job interview; intuitively, we already do this anyway. If we create a triangle around the eyes and nose in our mind, the gaze will move between these three points all by itself. In order to build a strong connection with the other person, we should keep the direction of our gaze in this area for about three quarters of the conversation; the rest of the time we should pay attention to our hands and the rest of our body language. The third type of gaze, the intimate gaze, should not appear in the interview. This involves stretching a triangle between the eyes and a third point located under the nose, which makes the gaze more intimate the deeper it goes. Looking deeper is out of place in a professional context; looking at the body zone below the head and shoulders is considered a sign of inappropriate confidentiality (Fig. 9.2).

Three-Point Communication If you communicate with the other person without eye contact, this avoidance of the gaze and the associated love deprivation usually causes irritation and disturbs the relationship level. In principle, a direct address should be accompanied by eye contact. At certain points in the conversation, however, it can be advantageous to look the interlocutor in the eye in a non-confrontational manner and thus not force him or her to make a statement. If eye contact is broken at such a moment, this frees the interlocutor from any compulsion to justify himself and allows him to save face. Such an approach conveys appreciation and, in the case of topics that are not a top priority for the company and where there is a certain amount of leeway, can strengthen the relationship with the applicant, so that the HR

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Fig. 9.2 Powerful, social and intimate gaze

manager subsequently has to deal with a more relaxed interviewee who communicates more openly. Contextualized Memory A neurobiological principle is “Neurons that fire together, wire together”. Our brain draws the conclusion from the fact that an event activates different neurons or areas at the same time that they belong together and links them. Accordingly, we remember things and events contextually, as evidenced, for example, when we happen to smell on the street the perfume that a previous (or current) reference person, such as a parent, partner or supervisor, wore regularly. It often happens that we promptly have to think of this person or common experiences again. The capacity of visual receptors in the brain is about 90% of the receptors of all sensory organs, making the eyes our most dominant information channel [28]. Due to the physiological arousal during eye contact, neuronal connections are formed more intensively. It forms a central memory support that the receiver automatically associates with the sender of the message for both positive and negative content, and the more intense the eye contact and the more emotional the situation, the more lasting the connection. This can strengthen our connection with positive content, but with negative topics it creates distance.

In order to use these connections to shape the relationship, Michael Grinder recommends the so-called three-point communication [29]. In contrast to two-point communication, in which the two interlocutors form the two poles of communication, threepoint communication involves a third point in the communication. In recruiting, for example, this can be a company brochure, the applicant’s CV, an industry analysis or a project outline; alternatively, virtual placeholders or space anchors can also be set using our gestures. If negative or critical content comes up in the interview, we can look at the third point, the placeholder, together with the applicant in these phases and thus direct the negative feelings to this third point and connect with the applicant at the same time. In this way, the relationship level between the interlocutors remains free of disturbances; it is not the future manager or the HR manager who demands additional commitment from the applicant in view of a project, but the dossier on the table about an industry analysis that reveals that a challenging time lies ahead. Now both of them are facing the challenge

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together, which is the third point on the table in the communication, and the shared attention increases the connection to each other [30]. If the conversation then returns to more pleasant content, it is possible to return to direct eye contact and thus strengthen the relationship level and the collaborative character of the conversation. Three-point communication is thus an efficient technique for separating the factual and relationship levels by means of an additional placeholder and targeted eye contact, and for placing negative content on the factual level while using positive topics to strengthen the relationship with each other. "

Directing Attention and Increasing the Impact of Your Message

Dogs already follow the direction of people’s gaze and intuitively know that our gazes follow our interest [31]. If we look at our hand while we talk and gesticulate, the gaze of the interlocutor will follow. In this way his attention can be drawn to our gestures and with their support the effect of our statement can be increased. If the gesture is then passed upwards between our own eyes and those of our partner, his gaze will jump back to our eyes. Now we have eye contact again, thus his full attention and can change to the next topic. In this context, timing is important. If we are delivering important content, we show our confidence by making eye contact at the same time and thus strengthen the impact of our message. At the same time, we can see whether the message has reached the other person or whether there are still questions that we should explain. With key statements, which we want to strengthen purposefully, we can lead the look of the interlocutor on our gesture over our own look behavior and strengthen our message with the frozen gesture described later, in order to bring it back afterwards. If we maintain eye contact without blinking, the effect can be intensified even further.

Blink As described in Chap. 5 on status, as hierarchical beings we always first unconsciously negotiate the status among ourselves, and in the case of new contacts directly at the first eye contact. Whoever looks away first is subordinate. Even in later critical matters, eye duels arise, establishing who has the stronger nerves and who submits. A steady gaze, held without blinking, is evidence of strength and charisma. "

Michael Grinder told a seminar on group dynamics that he has largely stopped blinking in order to increase his persuasiveness and presence and to center his energy while speaking to the group [32]. If Grinder does want to blink briefly, he does so while turning to the flipchart to write something down. If you consider the captivating gazes of hypnotists and their

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suggestive effect on their interlocutors, you will get the full extent of the possibilities of communication. Nikolaus Enkelmann describes that in this way our power of persuasion increases by up to 25% through the skilful use of the gaze [33].

9.7

Conclusion: Eyes and Eye Contact

The eyes are extraordinarily strong non-verbal communication elements due to the complex interplay of pupil changes, tightening and relaxing of the eye ring muscles with eyebrows and the remaining facial expressions. The effect of eye contact is physiologically measurable and its influence on relationship building is proven. Through the timing and subtle interplay of initiating, holding or avoiding the gaze, we unconsciously communicate status and regulate our relationship with each other. The direction of gaze during speech and thought reveals whether content is processed on the visual, auditory or kinaesthetic level and whether it is remembered or constructed. Further information can be obtained by observing changes in the frequency of blinking. By influencing our own gaze behaviour, we can increase our own persuasiveness or consciously emphasise the factual or relational level in conversation. The knowledge of the described implications increases the understanding and the communication options in critical phases in the conversation. Overall, the interplay between eye movements and eye contact in our communication is very intuitive and we have a sense of coherent behaviour from an early age. Therefore, we should first practice changes in our own eye behavior in a protected setting. With increasing practice and habit, they will then gradually enrich business communication and appear natural and authentic.

References 1. https://www.kenhub.com/de/library/anatomie/die-hirnnerven Aufgerufen 16.10.2018 2. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 193; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 3. Fran de Waal: Der Affe in uns, S. 70; dtv, München, 2017 4. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 182; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 5. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 160; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2009 6. Michael Argyle: Körpersprache und Kommunikation, S. 201; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 7. Allan & Barbara Pease: Der tote Fisch in der Hand, S. 163; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2003 8. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 190; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 9. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, S. 114; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 10. http://lexikon.stangl.eu/892/oxytocin/ aufgerufen am 17.10.2018 11. https://news.efinancialcareers.com/de-de/128433/wie-eine-gekonnte-korpersprache-ihreeinstellungschancen-erhoht/ Aufgerufen am 21.03.2018, 20:16 Uhr

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12. https://karrierebibel.de/blickkontakt/ Aufgerufen: 22.03.2018; 07:39 Uhr 13. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 198; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 14. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 141; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 15. Samy Molcho: Seminar: Der Körper spricht immer; Jürgen Höller Academy, Schweinfurt, 2013 16. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 63; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 17. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager: S. 207; Mi Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 18. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager: S. 208; Mi Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 19. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 190; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 20. Samy Molcho: ABC der Körpersprache, S. 34; Heinrich Hugendubel, Kreuzlingen/ München, 2006 21. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, S. 151; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 22. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 197; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 23. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼r0eVo3TplzM aufgerufen am 16.10.2018 24. Dirk Eilert: Der Liebes-Code, S. 176; Ullstein Buchverlag GmbH, Berlin, 2015 25. Monika Matschnig: Körpersprache der Liebe, S. 24; Gräfe und Unzer Verlag GmbH, München, 2010 26. http://arbeitsblaetter.stangl-taller.at/KOMMUNIKATION/Transaktionsanalyse-Strokes.shtml 30.09.2018 27. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die tote Fisch in der Hand, S. 165; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2003 28. Stefan Verra: Hey, dein Körper spricht! S. 56; edel Germany GmbH, Hamburg, 2015 29. Michael Grinder: Einflussreich führen; Seminar bei Twinn Consulting, Offenhausen/ Nürnberg, 2010 30. Gerald Hüther: Was wir sind und was wir sein könnten, S. 170; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2011 31. http://www.scinexx.de/wissen-aktuell-18965-2015-06-15.html aufgerufen am 16.10.2018 32. Michael Grinder: Stilles Wissen: Gruppenprozesse über Körpersprache lenken. Seminar bei Twinn Consulting, Offenhausen/Nürnberg, 2014 33. Nikolaus B. Enkelmann: Mehr als überzeugen, S. 74; Linde Verlag, Wien, 2006

Facial Expressions and Emotions

10

Abstract

This chapter describes the different parts of our face and their influence on communication in job interviews. For this purpose, the various mimic expressions as well as the origin and functions of emotions with their causes and meanings are dealt with. Subsequently, the seven universal emotions, micro-expressions as well as subtle expressions are described and ways to improve their perception and integrate their implications into recruiting are shown. Finally, ways are described to purposefully influence the conversation through one’s own facial expressions. Do not judge a man by his Sunday face, or you will miss six sevenths (Hermann Lahm).

Even though the eyes described in the previous chapter are the proverbial window to the soul and eye contact triggers measurable physiological excitement, the eyes themselves, with the exception of the dilation of the pupils and the degree of moisture of the retina, are largely expressionless and only gain their strong expression through the interaction of the facial musculature surrounding them. Thus, in direct contact with our fellow human beings, facial expressions form a central element of successful communication, mutual empathy and the cultivation of the relationship level.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_10

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Facial Expressions and Emotions

Fundamentals of Facial Expressions, Emotions and Micro-Expressions

While posture and movements shape the first impression and our appearance, in direct conversation it is mainly facial expressions that determine whether we believe or doubt a verbal statement [1]. Our facial expressions are expressed in 49 [2] different movement dimensions and show more than 10,000 different forms of expression [3]. In seven years of meticulous scientific work, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen developed the Face Action Coding System (FACS), an atlas of the human face, in which they first defined 44 action units (AU) and later even 3000 finer combinations of these action units and described them with their associated emotions [4]. After the FACS was completed in 1978, today police officers, security guards at US airports, but also ambitious poker players are trained in it. It forms the basis for the representation of emotions in animated films such as “Ice Age” and is used in modern software that uses cameras in supermarkets or smartphones to detect in real time what the consumer’s current emotional state is and then adapts the emotional content of their advertising messages accordingly [5].

Marketers, film producers and security guards take advantage of the fact that our facial expressions are directly linked to the limbic system [6]. This is where our emotions and feelings reside, and so emotions express themselves faster than our words, which are formed via the conscious and slow language centers in the cortex. The mimic expression of our emotions is biologically anchored and can also be seen in blind-born babies [7]. The principle of reciprocity described in Chap. 3 also applies in relation to mimic expressions [8]. Through the direct connection, our emotions are therefore not only expressed mimically, but mimic changes also directly activate the limbic system. Facial Feedback Theory When Paul Ekman reenacted the different emotions with his co-worker as part of his dissertation, he noticed how at the end of the work day the facial expressions he had taken had affected his actual mood. At the end of the joy day he was joyful, when he had been adopting a sadness facial expression all day he was sad and the same was true in relation to the other emotions. On this basis, Ekman experienced on his own body the effect of the facial feedback theory, which was originally founded and deepened by the work of Charles Darwin (1872) and William James (1890) [9].

The link to the limbic system leads to a critical distinction between micro- and macroexpressions. While the former show up for a fraction of a second (40–500 ms) and are directly controlled by the limbic system past consciousness, macroexpressions (500 ms to 4 s) show up longer and are controlled by the volitionally influenceable pyramidal system in the brain [10]. The difference between the two systems that determine our mimic expression is impressively demonstrated in patients whose pyramidal system is damaged. If they are asked to smile, they do not succeed. If, on the other hand, they are amused by a joke, the limbic system takes control and conjures up a smile on their face [10].

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Fundamentals of Facial Expressions, Emotions and Micro-Expressions

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During communication, we always have our interlocutor’s facial expressions in view and, at the same time, are constantly in their field of vision. As a result, we perceive mimic expressions more consciously than other nonverbal expressions, but we have also developed greater control over their signals and use them more intuitively when deceiving, for example, to hide our opinion behind a practiced social smile. According to the pure content of spoken words, the volitionally produced, slower macromimic expressions are therefore, on the one hand, the least suitable for unmasking deception. On the other hand, however, we know that our face can betray us, and so in such situations we try to stop its telltale expressions, which, however, results in a highly strained facial expression. This loses its natural flexibility due to the high degree of consciously exercised control and thus betrays the intention of not letting on anything. As Ekman describes, even in the case of wellsuppressed emotions, clues to the suppressed emotions can be obtained by close observation and the inclusion of further gestures [11]. However, some tensions are then so strong that they can no longer be suppressed. They are discharged in involuntary micro-expressions or, as physiological, autonomic changes such as blushing and paling, convey direct insights into the strong reactions of the limbic system. Whereas blushing indicates excitement, pleasure but also anger, embarrassment, shame, abashment and the feeling of being harassed, paleness testifies to withdrawal, isolation and shock. Both of these expressions really shouldn’t come up in an interview, or only in the context of calculated stress questions. They are clear conversation disruptors and should be handled gently, for example by verbalizing them as described later, in order to eliminate misunderstandings and enable a constructive further conversation.

Functions of Facial Expressions In addition to knowledge of the various emotions, the correct classification in terms of the function in which an observed signal occurs is an essential criterion for interpreting it accurately. On the basis of whether a signal is used as an emblem or a regulator, for example, different meanings result. In the classification of facial expressions, five functions can be distinguished [12]. 1. Expressions of emotion These are described below in Sect. 10.3. 2. Emblems Emblems are body language expressions for which there is a clear meaning, for example the index finger tapping the forehead, head shaking, nodding or shoulder shrugging. Unlike expressions of emotion, emblems are subject to cultural influences and can therefore lead to misunderstandings. Since they can substitute for the spoken word, it is revealing when they

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contradict the verbal statement. However, as described in Chap. 7, it is important to develop a certain sensitivity here. 3. Illustrators Illustrators are speech-accompanying nonverbal expressions that emphasize, reinforce, or qualify what is being said. McNeill distinguishes four types of illustrators [13]: 1. Rhythm gestures that emphasize what we are saying with our hands or facial expressions, such as raised eyebrows, in time with what we are saying. 2. Figurative gestures explain what is being told, for example when a spiral staircase is explained. In the case of figurative gestures, the timing shows whether they are performed consciously or unconsciously. While unconscious gestures begin shortly before the statement and introduce it, so to speak, consciously placed gestures or illustrative mimic expressions occur somewhat delayed and thus betray their calculus of effect. 3. Metaphorical gestures, on the other hand, illustrate abstract concepts, such as the statement “I’ve cleared that”, while the two hands sweep from the center to the outsides of the table, making it clear that “the slate has been wiped clean”. 4. Finally, pointing gestures are used to point to something with the index finger, thumb, or even the nose or the whole face. Related to their significance in terms of content, the underlining function of illustrators in the job interview is of little relevance. On the other hand, the recruiter can gain additional information by first developing a feeling for the normal frequency with which the applicant uses illustrators and then paying attention to changes. Increasing illustrators indicate increasing excitement and emotional involvement, while decreasing illustrators indicate boredom, increased concentration, sadness, or anxiety [14]. 4. Adaptors (calming gestures) Adaptors show that the interlocutor’s stress level is rising. As stress and discomfort increase, the number of self, other, and object adaptors increases, in which we touch ourselves or other people or objects to relieve tension. The positive touches calm us down and cause endorphin release in the brain [15]. The various adaptors of the hands are explored in more depth in Chap. 11 on gesture; at the mimic level, licking, biting or sucking the lip indicate an attempt to soothe oneself, as does sliding the tongue along the inside of the mouth or puffing out the cheeks.

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5. Regulators Regulators control the conversation via accompanying gestures such as nodding or interruptions of eye contact. They are only secondarily relevant for the concrete interpretation, but since nonverbal signals can often be assigned to several categories, regulators must also be taken into account. A nod, for example, can show itself as an emblem or as a regulator [16].

10.2

Signals of Facial Expression

Within the framework of their different functions, mimic expressions show up in different areas of our face. The division into the three areas forehead to eyebrows, eyes and nose as well as mouth and chin offers a practicable subdivision [17]. Since we train the lower range of facial expressions better than the upper ranges when speaking and eating, we can control their expressions better than the movements of forehead, eyebrows, nose and eyes. For example, only 10–15% of untrained people are able to raise the inner eyebrows voluntarily [18]. As a result, the signals from the upper areas are less likely to be used for manipulation purposes and provide more reliable information, but the other areas also open up revealing insights into the emotional life of the applicant.

The Upper Area: Forehead and Eyebrows Forehead Although directly in front of the eyes, the signals of the forehead are often overlooked. Like blowing sand dunes, these often disappear only slowly after an emotion and thereby express, as it were, the prevailing basic mood of the interlocutor [19]. With fear and sadness, horizontal wrinkles form in the center of the forehead. Those who frown show that they are currently in an unpleasant situation from which they presently see no way out. Frowning is even recognized by dogs [20]. Vertical wrinkles above the root of the nose and/or a tense brow denote a critical facial expression associated with displeasure and physical or mental activity beyond normal. The listener may have comprehension problems. These need not be cognitive in nature, but may be due to the sender’s slurred pronunciation. If the applicant shows these wrinkles, it is possible to formulate more comprehensibly, to articulate more clearly or to reduce the speed of speech in order to give him more time to process. Eyebrows Eyebrows are much more important than we usually realize. For example, study participants who only saw the eyebrows, but not the eyes, recognized people’s emotions

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and identity better than in the reverse case. Thus, we recognize our fellow human beings more by their eyebrows than by their eyes [21]. As soon as something interests us, we intuitively try to enlarge our field of vision by widening our eye ring muscles. We raise our eyebrows and thus signal that we want to know more. In this context, the movement of the questioner’s eyebrows is very revealing. The described, interested lifting occurs predominantly, if a positive interest or already an idea or concrete conception about the inquired contents is present. If, on the other hand, we are in the dark and have no idea how things are connected, the strained search is expressed in lowered eyebrows [22]. Eyebrow Flash The eyebrow flash is shown to be culture-independent and involuntary, and occurs even in infants as soon as something attention-getting, to which they want to show their willingness to make social contact, comes into their field of vision [23]. The involuntary eyebrow response directly shows how we are disposed towards people: While we raise our eyebrows when people we sympathize with enter the room, we subtly lower and pinch our eyebrows together when people we dislike enter the room. The eyebrow flashas a “yes” to social contact is biologically ingrained, but it is inhibited or reinforced by the nature of the relationship with each other and by cultural influences. In recruiting, applicants and recruiters use the eyebrow flash to express their benevolent willingness for a successful interaction. A lack of an eye salute can indicate that the applicant is tense. If the eyebrows are even lowered, one must ask oneself what has caused the spontaneous disgruntlement.

The brief upward flick of the eyebrows is part of the more complex figure of the shrug and expresses to some degree its inherent cluelessness, helplessness, and emotional indifference [24]. Raised eyebrows testify to joy and self-confidence: The world is encountered openly. If the eyebrows suddenly lower, they signal dwindling interest and a loss of reference to what is being said. If the corners of the mouth continue to smile or even nod in agreement, the contradictory signal of the lowered eyebrows suggests a lack of sincerity to a certain extent. Longer lowered eyebrows indicate negative feelings and low self-confidence. Constricted eyebrows signal perceived stress and limited current resilience. They lead to vertical wrinkles on the forehead, which show that one is focused and no disturbance is desired. If the applicant shows these signals, the recruiter should be considerate and allow the applicant to complete the mental process. In Sect. 10.3 on emotions, the raised eyebrows in the middle are deepened as a compelling component of the representation of grief. If no other mimic components of grief are evident, the raised inner eyebrows represent a subtle expression expressing mild to moderate or just beginning grief, for example when sympathy is felt. In addition, they may convey guilt and shame, in which cases they are often accompanied by signals such as facial touching, sideways downward evasive glances, or a slightly lowered head [18].

10.2

Signals of Facial Expression

"

Several professional footballers describe how, in the case of the otherwise very calm football coach Carlo Ancelotti, his unilaterally raised eyebrow was a clear warning signal of an impending outburst of anger [25]. If it showed, Ancelotti’s emotional charge was so high that all it took was a spark in the form of a contradiction, hesitation or provocative remark to make it explode.

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While slightly raised eyebrows show that the counterpart wants to know more, a one-sided raised eyebrow shows skepticism, distrust or even sarcasm. It usually shows up in conjunction with a crooked mouth. If this sceptical and usually involuntary signal is observed in the applicant while he is listening, it is like a small affront, and it may be asked what has triggered this degree of emotional arousal and in which role he actually sees himself in relation to the company representatives. One possible reaction of the recruiter could be to make a note of the context and observe at a later date whether the signal can be generated again. Alternatively, the recruiter can politely ask what ambiguities there are in relation to what was said or what expectations or assumptions the applicant had so that these can be clarified.

The Middle Area: Eyes and Nose Eyelids The implications of the eye region are described in Chap. 9. Their part in the expression of the various emotions will be dealt with below. The perception of the eyelids requires some practice, but they give valuable clues to the condition of the applicant. If the upper eyelids are raised slightly, they show interest or attention, if they are raised more strongly but for less than a second, they signal surprise. If, on the other hand, they are raised for longer, they signal incipient or controlled fear. If the eyebrows are also drawn together, this expresses perceived anger [26]. If the upper eyelids relax so much that they lower slightly, this may be due to the onset of boredom, sadness or fatigue. However, while the pupils dilate in sadness, they constrict in fatigue and boredom [27]. According to Dirk Eilert, the tightening of the lower eyelids usually indicates controlled or mild anger or is evidence of cognitive effort and increased concentration [28]. If both the upper and lower eyelids are tensed, neutral eyebrows are a sure sign of anxiety [28]. Nose Unfortunately, or fortunately, not all applicants have a nose like Pinocchio. Nevertheless, the story has a kernel of truth, because in fact the nose is better supplied with blood when nervous and is more likely to itch than in a normal state [29]. An unconscious grasping of the nose or a brief rubbing to relieve the itching can therefore signal a possible indication of

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a lie and the nervousness and tension associated with it, even if the nose does not change as clearly as it did in Pinocchio. Status-lowering touches to the nose, which signal one’s insecurity, usually occur more frequently before someone speaks up. Tom Schmitt describes that this may also be due to an intention to deceive [30]. Another possible cause is described by Allan Pease [31]. Children sometimes still put their whole hand in front of their mouth when a forbidden word or lie has slipped out. Adults conceal this obvious movement and unconsciously deflect it, for example to the earlobe or nose. Alternatively, the glasses or the tie knot are adjusted. However, a lie as a background to the nose touching should only be considered as one possible cause. The nose also reacts earlier than other regions of the face during paling and flushing. Bloated or quivering nostrils signal rising arousal, the organism needs more oxygen to get into action and breathes in more deeply. The wrinkled nose is a strong indicator of disgust; a slight wrinkling occurs in the form of a crinkle and signals censure, displeasure, or a mild dislike as a mild form of disgust. If these signals are heeded, they can provide the recruiter with the important feedback that their behavior is just perceived as inappropriate or rude and, in the next step, allow them to address the applicant’s unspoken expectations. When the head is lifted, the nose is also lifted. The raised nose expresses selfconfidence, but if it is held too high, the question arises whether there is enough groundedness and how self-confidence is expressed in contact with others.

The Lower Region: Mouth and Chin Mouth Next to communication, food intake is the even more important task of our mouth. Due to the close connection of its dual function, we often react to mental food that reaches us in the form of information with the same signals with which we react to normal food. An example is the unintentional opening of the mouth, which is part of the surprise complex and with which one gets ready to take in more information through the mouth in addition to the open eyes. But as long as it is attuned to gathering information, the organism reluctantly switches into processing mode. Molcho describes how in children who remain mute with their mouths open, their mental capacity is overtaxed and recommends that in business, too, one should react considerately if, during a lengthy enumeration or detailed instruction, the counterpart’s mouth remains open [32]. In this case, anyone who reduces the size and scope of the information and portions it better by conveying the content in a more structured manner and with the pauses, illustrative gestures or visualization aids necessary for processing can counteract the otherwise inevitable standstill of information transport in the recipient. The longer the mouth remains open, the more information is sent fruitlessly, wasting the time and energy of both conversation partners. A sign of appreciative and cooperative

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communication is expressed in the appreciation of the intentional movements of our conversation partner. These show, for example, by a spontaneous first opening of the mouth that an ambiguity or question has arisen. Normally we notice this opening of the mouth very well, who pays attention to it, hears it even on the telephone. The key to successful conversations is to take such signs seriously and to give the floor so that the conversation partner can stay in the conversation. A sender, on the other hand, who ignores the intention move shows that he believes he knows better than the receiver what the receiver needs right now. In view of the clear opposing signal, this not only seems presumptuous, but also installs a hierarchical communication differential at the expense of the relationship level. In contrast to the wide-open mouth, pressed-together lips show that nothing is currently supposed to happen via this communication channel. The applicant wants to prevent something disastrous from slipping out during a critical question and presses his lips together after his answer. If this happens, for example, in the context of the discussed readiness to work overtime, it can be clarified in the conversation with references how it was in the past. If, on the other hand, lips are pressed together while listening, either an answer is deliberately withheld or a lack of receptiveness is expressed. Currently and on this topic there is only little interest in further information. On the emotional level, compressed lips are evidence of stress, aggression, anger or fear. The greater the perceived stress, the more the lips are pressed together until they finally seem to disappear completely, thus serving as a good indicator of the applicant’s stress level. If the lips are not pressed together, but merely closed tightly, they express rejection and the associated lack of willingness to communicate. Tense lips and jaw, on the other hand, come from anxiety, nervousness and emotional stress. The sudden tightening marks the exact moment when the mood tips and a new thought, contradiction or change of mind arises. Tense lips are a reliable sign of anger and, unlike compressed lips, remain slightly open and can thus be distinguished from them. At the same time, they curl inwards, become narrower and disappear more and more as the tension increases [33]. When pursing the lips, the front lips are turned forward in order to first make contact with the subject using the taste buds of the front of the mouth, as in a wine tasting, before we decide to accept or reject it. If we decide to accept, we relax and comment on our decision with a positive facial expression. On the other hand, if we decide against it, the tension of the lips increases and puckered lips result, comparable to the posture when sucking on a straw. This movement shows that the interlocutor still has problems with our statement and does not (yet) agree: An alternative idea or objection has just formed in his Broca area [34]. The recruiter could now either rephrase his statement, anticipating the possible objection, or take a short break. In this, the applicant can finish his train of thought and either make clear his objection or discard it again. Since our brain is not capable of multitasking, the applicant can only partially follow the conversation anyway. The pause

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makes it clear that everyone is aware that the applicant is distracted, so a subsequent question can clear up any doubts. A pictorial, catchy distinction distinguishes in this context between connoisseur and protest snout. While in the case of the connoisseur snout one purses one’s lips benevolently and enjoyably, which is associated with a mild, playful facial expression and positively raised head posture, the protest snout expresses itself with a hard facial expression, more pointed lips, a firm gaze and a more confrontational head posture. While with the former the counterpart enjoys imagining the possible options in his mind’s eye, tasting them and weighing up which of them he likes best, with the latter he signals that he is not yet satisfied with the emerging outcome of the conversation and is getting ready to fight back. If, on the other hand, the interlocutor bites his lips, he expresses his dissatisfaction that his own expectations have not been met. At the same time, he sees the cause in himself. The bite on the lower lip in this case signals to a certain extent the self-punishment, but also the release of tension that has arisen during the disappointment. The anger energy that was mobilized to remove obstacles has to look for another channel and is dissipated through the biting movements, which can lead to nervous lip biting or self-injury.

Sweet, Sour and Bitter Reactions The brain consumes the most energy in the body and accordingly it is happy about highcalorie food such as fat or sugar. When we have eaten something sweet, we close our mouth and pull the corners of our mouth slightly upwards to make sure that nothing is lost: this results in the sweet reaction in the form of a smile. We react analogously to abstract content: If we like what we see or hear, we show it by smiling. If this manifests only in a shy way, we don’t quite trust ourselves yet and still need some support. We react quite differently to sour things. The example of the lemon makes it clear: Something sour brings a concentrated overstimulation with it, which requires an increased digestive effort, this is more or less unpleasant depending on the degree of acidity. Anyone who remembers the lemon exercise from Chap. 3 or does it again will notice how everything in the mouth begins to contract. Saliva production is increased to dilute the acidity, the throat area tightens to be able to pass the sensitive food to the stomach in a more controlled way. In conversation we react with the acid reaction, tense throat muscles and stronger swallowing to information that we only want to consume in small doses. If these signals show up in the context of the job description, one should ask what is too much for the applicant right now and whether the dosage of information can be adjusted. If necessary, it can be asked which points deviate from his expectations [35]. The right dosage turns a toxic substance into medicine that sometimes has to be swallowed, even if it doesn’t taste good. The body nevertheless goes on the alert to respond with a rejection reaction in the event of an overdose. If the sour reaction is still centered around the sensory overload with a certain moment of surprise, the fun stops with the bitter reaction. It shows up when we don’t like something, but we have to put a good face on it, usually because of social conventions. The bitter reaction is accompanied by the corners of the mouth pulled back and lips pressed together: The organism withdraws – he is not

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allowed to signal about what he does not like. Inwardly, however, the way is paved for the repulsion reaction and disgust – they are activated and interfere with communication as soon as a critical threshold is crossed. The bitter reaction can also conceal prejudices, serious value differences or limited possibilities for action on the part of the interlocutor, triggered by the social conventions described above or a predicament. It signals that someone is tired of a subject, for example Bill Clinton, who showed a pronounced bitter reaction after the Lewinksy trial. It shows up regularly when someone has been convicted and realizes they made a mistake for which they must now take responsibility. It’s bitter and unpleasant; you’ve actually had enough, but you have to swallow the bitter pill. In recruiting, this reaction can be revealing when asked questions about a resume, commenting on previous changes. An intensification of the bitter reaction is shown when the corners of the mouth are pulled in and down as if to form a downturned U. This expression is also controlled by the limbic system and is a strong indicator of stress and worry [36]. If what has to be accepted becomes something to be endured, the bitter reaction develops further and the teeth are clenched. Loss, which includes disappointed expectations, triggers emotional pain and is processed in the brain in the same way as physical pain [37]. Contraction reduces signal transmission and the spread of pain. However, tightening the jaw muscles and clenching the teeth stresses, and complete contraction eventually halts communication as well. As the reaction progresses, it becomes clear that it is a tough chunk that must be laboriously prepared in order to be digested. The mouth, as the first station of the digestive system, grudgingly sets to work. The tension results in a pressed and stressed voice after a hesitant beginning. If the stress breaks through, the speech tempo increases and causes a faster speech rhythm. Intentional movements that occur in the context of teeth grinding, such as a slight opening of the mouth, twitching of the index finger, halting of the breath or deeper inhalation, should not be ignored. Recruiters should pause their execution at this point and turn the floor over to the applicant. When they notice these reactions, recruiters should be prepared for contradiction, contra, and critical questioning. According to Molcho, the pinched mouth is a mark of stubbornness, obstinacy, and distrust [38]. This is followed by the swallowing reflex: if we are in danger of choking on a chunk that is too big for us to swallow, saliva shoots into our mouths to break down the heavy food and make it more digestible. This reaction is also seen with abstract chunks that are difficult to digest. Here, too, swallowing takes place and the larynx is clearly seen to move up and down; if necessary, the head nods slightly forward to widen the throat. The speed of the swallowing, the abruptness of the swallowing and the extent of the movement serve as a measure of the extent of the overcoming and integration work that the interlocutor is doing. If he overdoes it and chokes, a cough reflex sets in, which has the task of getting rid of the disturbing substance in a complex defensive reaction. After that, the organism is perplexed for the time being and has to regroup himself: The applicant had not expected this question in this way. A similar defensive reaction can show itself in inflated cheeks.

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Inflated cheeks get ready to expel the collected air and with it the topic at hand. The applicant wants to be left alone with this, the question naturally arises as to why.

The tongue Comparable to a bouncer, the tongue with its sensitive taste receptors receives newly arriving food and decides whether it is desired or not. Anything that doesn’t fit is immediately expelled. If you observe a baby defending itself against being fed an unloved food, you can see how the food pushed into the mouth by mummy via spoon is pushed straight back out again with the tongue. Even in adulthood, the unconsciously briefly flashing tongue pushes away abstract content that we do not want to accept. In this process, the duration and width of the pushed-out tongue signal the degree of aversion. If this signal is observed, Molcho recommends not pursuing the current topic unnecessarily [39]. Since the interlocutor has already taken a position on the topic, it is unnecessary to expend further energy. Instead, alternatives should be discussed or attempts should be made to learn his expectations in order to engage him more fully in the conversation. The way in which the tongue is retracted provides further information. Briefly and unconsciously or carefully and slowly, with intense contact with the underside of the upper lip? While in the first case the rejection is more unconscious and intuitive, in the second case both the self-soothing and the cleansing effect are stronger and the rejection may already be preconscious or consciously evaluative: Careful attention is paid to leaving all possible remnants of what has just been pushed away outside. The licking of the lips is to be distinguished from the brief pushing and shoving away. If this is done with pleasure and with the tip of the tongue from one side to the other, at the upper outer edge of the upper lip to the corners of the mouth, it is a feel-good signal: the tongue is trying to extract even the last molecules of the desired food for the organism. If the lips are licked in this way after an offer, this represents a clear buy signal [40]. On the other hand, a calming signal to relieve stress is shown by those who do not run the tip of the tongue, but the part of the front third of the tongue behind it and rather tensely over the underside of the slightly curled upper lip. The attempt to gain more information is regularly shown when something has slightly unsettled or slightly irritated us. Through the tactile stimulus, the organism calms down again and at the same time unconsciously tries to make sense of the situation. To be distinguished from this is the moistening of the lips of a speaker, who briefly runs his tongue over his relaxed lips, after which they close quickly and distribute the moisture evenly. However, this signal is also stress-related, as stress has caused the dry mouth [41]. The hesitant tongue that moves slowly over the lower lip, on the other hand, is regularly seen when we are contemplating, pondering or examining a subject. Likewise, the tongue placed against the upper lip suggests strong concentration. If, on the other hand, the tongue remains in the mouth and runs over the inside of the cheeks, this has a calming effect and the other person feels unease, which he or she tries to alleviate [42]. The flashing tip of the tongue, which is held between the teeth, regularly shows when the interlocutor is glad that a critical situation has gone well again, although the chances

10.3

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were bad. It may also mean that he is glad to have got away with a fib or lie [43]. It indicates in a playful way that he has been lucky once again and that he had better bite his tongue now to prevent it from clearing up what all might have happened or how he should have behaved correctly. This signal usually accompanies minor incidents and is accompanied by a flirtatious smile that attempts to gain understanding and acceptance for the immoral behavior via confession on the nonverbal level. It usually shows up when a past situation has been told about and the person who was overcharged is not present. A setting suitable for this signal can be created, for example, by asking the applicant to recount special experiences and past successes. The flashing, held tongue often accompanies and comments on the conclusion of a deal: if it shows up in the context of salary negotiations, the applicant is more than satisfied with the result and prefers to bite his tongue so as not to jeopardize it. If necessary, it can be checked whether the statement of the last salary really corresponded to the truth.

Chin If the chin is raised, the typical pout results, with which even small children playfully transform any prohibitions of their parents into concessions. It has its origin in the chin pushed upwards, which signals sadness and loss. Our reflex to want to help is correspondingly deeply anchored. Sadness can also arise because an aspired goal has to be written off or a hope has to be buried. Depending on the accompanying facial expressions, the pout can also indicate that the counterpart is offended or thoughtful. If the corners of the mouth are pulled down more, on the other hand, the raised chin is not a sign of sadness, but an emblem that corresponds to the mimic equivalent of the shoulder shrug [44]. If it shows in the listener, it signals incredulity and rejection.

10.3

Emotions

It is more difficult to hide feelings one has than to feign those one does not have. (François de la Rochefoucauld)

Sensations, Feelings, Emotions and Moods The terms sensation, feeling, emotion and mood are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, but differ in the degree of their awareness, intensity and effect on conversation. We are sentient beings, but fortunately rarely emotional. The visceral system of our body constantly sends its sensations about the current actual state via the afferent nerve pathways to the brain, which compares them with the target state and makes adjustments if necessary to keep the organism in balance [45]. Interestingly,

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these unconscious sensations, which Antonio Damasio calls somatic markers, also form the basis of our decisions [46]. While sensations remain below the threshold of perception as long as the organism successfully self-organizes and keeps itself in balance with their help, they rise into consciousness as soon as this no longer succeeds. The collected sensations become a feeling. Feelings are inseparable, holistic expressions that the feeler consciously perceives [47]. This makes them real; their existence is manifested by the mere fact that the feeler feels them. Accordingly, it is pointless to argue with someone about whether their feeling is justified or not. On the contrary, we are feeling beings, the quality of our individual feelings is conditioned by our genetic roots, personality, history and current condition, in addition to our current environment. So it can happen that we cannot understand or comprehend the feeling of a fellow human being. But we have to respect it and accept it anyway. If a specific environment and the behavioural possibilities associated with it cause a feeling to solidify over a longer period of time, it finally becomes a mood. This can happen positively or negatively, the field has an effect on the individual element: If the parameters prevailing there in relation to the dimensions of balance, stimulation and dominance [48] correspond to our deeper needs, they have an inspiring effect. If they do not, they alienate us from our unconscious selves and break our harmony . A mood aligns our perception and predisposition to specific behavior with the family of emotions associated with it. In an irritable mood, we react much more quickly with the emotion anger, while in an anxious mood we are attuned to fear. If urgent feelings are not perceived, the organism mobilizes additional energy to give them validity and to satisfy the associated need. Stress results and eventually a biological emergency program in the form of an emotion is triggered to cope with the situation [49]. While emotions occur briefly, in the range of milliseconds to a few seconds, moods can prevail for hours or even days. Acute emotions tend to take on a life of their own and stand in the way of a factual exchange and straightforward achievement of the conversational goal. An emotion whose need is recognized may subside within seconds, but still resonates for a few moments in the refractory phase. During the interview, the recruiter can recognise the applicant’s feelings through the small corrections that his body makes unconsciously and automatically in order to remain in balance. If these are reacted to before they become stronger, the emergence of disturbances is prevented and an interview climate is created which, at the level of somatic markers, influences the applicant’s decision in favour of the company.

Refractory Phase Emotions therefore arise when no behavioural options or resources are available to cope successfully with a situation. When the emotion comes, the mind goes: The brain, currently at its wit’s end, reacts with the regression described in Chap. 3. It reduces the supply to the prefrontal cortex, with which we otherwise think as well as control our verbal

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communication, and falls back on the older, more stable circuitry and representations of the limbic system. One of the seven primary emotions is now supposed to provide the hopedfor solution as a biological emergency program. Meanwhile, we enter the so-called refractory phase [50]. This can be described as an emotional communication channel or filter that can only resonate with those communication patterns that correspond to its emotional quality. Basically, there is no such thing as an unjustified emotion; it has its right to exist solely because of its subjective character and the dignity of the individual. It may well seem out of place in the context of the prevailing social constellation or be unpleasant for the interlocutors, but in doing so it expresses a deeper lying disturbance on a systemic level: The emotional person in his role as symptom bearer shows that something fundamental is just not right. An emotion initially and fundamentally demands recognition: an appropriate emotional statement accepts this need and in doing so attempts to match both the emotion family and the degree of its severity. If it succeeds in doing so, it reaches the emotional centers of the interlocutor and, like a matching key, resonates with them. The interlocutor senses that his program is successful, can step out of the emotion and access the resources of the neo-cortex again. The communication reaches calmer regions again. According to Ekman [51], Six Factors Influence the Triggering of an Emotion and the Length of the Refractory Period 1. The proximity to the theme developed in evolution. 2. The similarity of the characteristics of the current event to those of the original situation in which the trigger was learned. 3. The time in life when the trigger was learned: the earlier, the more serious the effect. 4. The original emotional content: the stronger the emotions experienced when learning the trigger, the harder it is to weaken its influence. 5. The density of experiences through their repeated occurrence. 6. The affective type of the person concerned.

These six factors give rise to four distinct varieties of emotional reaction, characterized by the spontaneity with which it occurs, the strength and duration with which it manifests itself, and the length of time before it subsides. Emotions do not escalate when they are noticed and acknowledged. Taking them seriously is the first step towards resolving tensions. The art of successful de-escalation lies in precisely hitting the prevailing emotion. The basic emotion must be hit and an expression found that reflects the intensity of its occurrence. Various therapists, coaches and NLP providers have developed emotion wheels to practice and support empathic communication, in which the individual emotions and emotional states are displayed in gradual gradations and intensities. Practicing with these or having them at hand during conflict discussions not only facilitates understanding of the interlocutor and the development of empathy, but at the same time sensitizes awareness of

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Table 10.1 The seven universal emotions in five ascending degrees of intensity Basic Emotion Disgust Contempt Surprise Fear Rage Sadness

Low intensity Supersaturated Superior Amazed Unsure Frustrated Depressed

Mild intensity Reluctantly Supercilious Stunned Concerned Acid Affected

Medium intensity Repulsive Quizzical Flabbergasted Anxious Indignant Disappointed

Severe intensity Disgusted Condescending Perplexed Scared upset Resigned

Very severe intensity Nauseated Scornful Speechless Panic Angry Desperately

one’s own emotions. Table 10.1 shows an excerpt from Eilert’s [52] emotion wheel for the seven basic emotions in five ascending degrees of intensity.

10.4

The Seven Universal Emotions

The seven basic emotions found by Paul Ekman [53] – surprise, fear, joy, disgust, contempt, sadness, and anger – are universal, biological emotions, meaning that they are innate, express themselves in the same way in all people regardless of our cultural background, and are associated with a subjective experience common to all humans. They reliably signal the triggers that set them off, the biological drivers that underlie them, and the strategy that the organism pursues through their expression. These characteristics allow for unambiguous attribution and interpretation. Consciously recognizing them improves the understanding of the subjective experience of our interlocutors and our own communicative competence. As described in Chap. 3, our competence to perceive facial expressions in others improves when we increase the mobility of our own facial expressions. The reverse is also true: Facial feedback causes us to lose the ability to perceive sensations and feelings to the extent that we lose the mobility of our facial expressions. This goes so far that depressed people are injected with Botox, and blocking those muscles that trigger the sadness facial expressions associated with depression alleviates their depressive suffering [54]. Regardless of the mobility of our own facial expressions, we recognize familiar things more easily and quickly: the more intensively we have expressed and experienced the facial expressions of the individual emotions ourselves, the better we are able to grasp them in others. The seven universal emotions can be divided into simple and complex emotional expressions. The distinguishing criterion is whether the signals necessary to identify them appear in one or more of the facial areas described in Sect. 10.2. In the case of the group of simple expressions of emotion, joy, disgust and contempt, clear signals of the emotion occur in only one facial area. The example of joy shows that it is about facial expressions that cannot be manipulated at will, or about those signals that reliably

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accompany the emotion. Although a smile is also indicated by raised cheeks, the movement of the eye corner crease, which cannot be manipulated voluntarily, indicates whether the emotion is natural or feigned. Conversely, someone may well try to stifle a smile by tightening the jaw, but anyone who takes a close look at the eyes will recognize the suppressed emotion. Complex expressions of emotion are shown in the emotions of fear, surprise, anger and sadness. Their reliable signals occur in several areas of the face and require a higher level of perceptual competence. If we focus too much on a single area of the face, we may miss signals from the other two areas. Thus, in extreme cases, an emotion or microexpression may be completely missed if, for example, attention is paid to the mouth, thereby missing a reliable eyebrow movement. The defocused observation described in Chap. 2 makes it easier to keep a better eye on the entire face of the interlocutor and to perceive the movements from the different facial areas. Let us first delve into the simple emotions and consider what universal psychological theme underlies them, what function they assume and how they are expressed. Here the full expressions are always described, which appear when the emotional expression is shown uninhibitedly and in its full expression. In the case of less pronounced feelings, it is quite possible that only particular elements of the expression are shown.

Joy We feel joy when we have achieved a goal, our expectations or wishes have been fulfilled or a need has been satisfied. In doing so, we show our satisfaction as well as gratitude and encourage our fellow human beings to repeat their behavior, which has led to our joy, in the future. Joy is shown by upturned corners of the mouth and strongly raised cheeks, but these signals can also be produced voluntarily, in the context of a social smile. In contrast, only 10% of people can voluntarily activate the eye ring muscle in such a way that the eyes smile and the typical laugh lines appear [55]. However, these can also be activated by strong activation of the zygomatic muscle [56]. The only really reliable mimic feature for perceived joy is therefore seen in the lowering of the eye corner crease and, in individual cases, additionally in the lowering of the outer sides of the eyebrows [56] (Fig. 10.1). On the physical level, when we feel joy, our breath speeds up, the gestural illustrators and towards movements increase. The movements become more lively, we relax and open up, wrinkles on the forehead disappear and the lips gain volume. The positive excitement sets the vocal cords vibrating, paraverbally joy is manifested by a louder voice, a higher pitch and an accelerated rate of speech. In a job interview, the applicant’s subtle or overtly expressed happiness is, of course, a positive signal showing that he or she is relaxed, open, and gaining confidence.

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Fig. 10.1 Joy

Disgust The biological primal theme underlying disgust is contamination, contact with something perceived as repulsive or impure, or the idea of having to ingest it orally. At the same time, what we perceive as disgusting is largely subjective. Paul Rozin [57] distinguishes disgust into four categories, which we learn during our socialization: in addition to the foreign, the sick, the unfortunate, and the morally reprehensible are variants of the primal theme that evoke disgust. John Gottmann, Erica Woodin and Robert Levenson describe weariness as a further trigger [58]. The disgust response aims to repel or destroy the disgusting object, thereby ensuring that it no longer poses a threat to us in the future [59]. This may sound radical, but it illustrates the high level of perceived threat required for us to become disgusted. When disgust is manifested in the applicant, he is strongly repelled by what he has just heard, seen, thought or remembered. Disgust is accompanied by a gag reflex of the throat and an increase in the sensitivity of the upper lip and nose. Through both biological and culturally learned possible triggers, disgust is expressed in two ways: on the one hand, by wrinkling the nose to reduce stimulus transmission through contraction. This causes the eyebrows and upper eyelid to lower, while wrinkles form under the eye and crow’s feet may form in the corners of the eye. The upper lip is raised, sometimes followed by the lower lip, and in addition a wrinkle forms between the distended nostrils and the corners of the mouth. This expression of disgust is usually clearly visible through the wrinkled nose and is predominantly seen in physically triggered disgust, which forms when we eat something spoiled or smell something disgusting [59] (Fig. 10.2). If, on the other hand, the disgust was triggered by a social trigger such as the repulsive behavior of another person, we as social beings inhibit the full expression and show it only

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Fig. 10.2 Disgust

by lifting the upper lip, if necessary, but not mandatory, we also lift the lower lip, also the cheeks lift slightly. In recruiting, this expression of disgust may show up in the applicant in the context of stress questions or illicit questions that the applicant finds repulsive or unfair. Of course, if disgust shows up when describing individual contents of the position to be filled or during a joint tour of the company, it represents a clear disruption that should be clarified. Disgust is also informative with regard to the motivation to change or the question about critical experiences at the previous workplace. In body language disgust is accompanied by away-from and closing behavior. If tension and aversion increase, stress increases with them: self-touching, adaptors and illustrators increase, finally we shake as a result of the strong rejection. On the paraverbal level, disgust can manifest itself in lower voice pitch, lower volume, slower speech rate, and be accompanied by sounds of disgust. "

In couple studies, surprisingly accurate predictions could be made about the amount of time both partners spent apart over the next four years, and if the wives reacted to their husbands with signals of disgust or weariness [60]. If we apply the observations to professional life, those applicants who are more prone to become weary of something and react with disgust may be more prone to internal resignations and look for a new job more quickly if things do not progress as desired and their manager lacks empathy or the necessary attention at critical times. Women’s reactions were evident when they felt emotionally neglected. In the interview, a situation could be described to the candidate in which a manager repeatedly failed to acknowledge their performance or take their needs into account. The fact that the behaviour of managers significantly influences the reaction of

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employees presents a different challenge in their recruitment, which is explored in more depth below when describing contempt. "

Tip

Our brain processes price information in the pain/disgust center [61]. Since salary represents the price of our lost leisure time, the distinction between disgust and pain signals in salary negotiation provides insights into the applicant’s negotiating leverage. While disgust indicates that the offer is perceived as repulsive and will be rejected, pain principally represents an interest signal: The emerging agreement is not pleasant, but the interest in an agreement exists – but it should not go further, the pain threshold has been reached and beyond that it can then become disgusting. Since the perceived disgust in the context of salary negotiation is not triggered by physical stimuli, it is expressed more strongly by the second disgust signal, the lifted upper lip. In contrast, pain is manifested by contracted eyebrows, closed eyes, and blinking; we block out the undesirable. In the middle facial region, we wrinkle our nose and tense the lower eyelids; the tension of the outer eye ring muscle causes the cheeks to lift. In the lower facial area, pain is shown by a raised upper lip and corners of the mouth pulled apart at the sides. The latter show the influence of the fear facial expression, which, as described later, appears when pain is imminent. Stretched out corners of the mouth do not occur in a normal disgust reaction, and the wrinkled nose hardly shows up in perceived disgust, which we feel toward abstract disgust triggers. Therefore, these two signals (Action Unit 9 and 20) allow a reliable distinction between pain and disgust [62].

Contempt Contempt is closely related to disgust, but in contrast to disgust, where one distances oneself horizontally, contempt involves a vertical distancing through a pejorative comparison. While disgust is also felt towards tastes, smells or touches, contempt is directed exclusively towards the behaviour of our fellow human beings [63]. We express contempt to maintain our own superiority over other group members and to make judgmental comments about their actions or achievements. The cause of contempt is an immoral action or poor performance [64], and as with disgust, what we despise is socioculturally shaped. Contempt is the only emotion that shows on one side only and is expressed by a tense and slightly raised or inwardly pressed corner of the mouth. The eyes remain neutral and the look can appear impersonal, cold and distant. In the case of the second disgust signal described above (lifting of the upper lip), an asymmetrical, unilateral lifting of the upper lip indicates possible contempt as an additional underlying emotion (Fig. 10.3).

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Fig. 10.3 Contempt

"

Tip

Recognizing and distinguishing contempt from other emotions could become particularly significant for sustainable organizational development. In couples therapy, it was found that women whose husbands openly displayed contempt felt that their problems were severe and could not be solved. They felt overwhelmed and frequently fell ill over the next four years [65]. If a manager is recruited who is prone to contemptuous behavior, comparable effects could result in their employees. Since disgust, anger, or provoked wrath did not result in these consequences, the response and reaction of a manager to be hired to a question questioning her handling of poor performance and unethical actions by her employees becomes critically important. If she responds contemptuously, there is a higher risk than other responses that her future employees will react in a demotivated manner, with higher levels of sick leave and internal or actual resignations. Unlike disgust, which is an unambiguously negative emotion that can be felt with a very wide spectrum of intensity, Ekman does not certainly rate contempt as a negative emotion, but believes that most people are even comfortable feeling contempt, even though they may later feel ashamed of it [66]. Accordingly, it should be easy to integrate a corresponding sequence into the interview in order to sound out the applicant’s disposition in this regard.

In terms of body language, a contemptuous facial expression can be accompanied by a lifted chin, while the cheeks are also raised and the eyes look down at the other person; in addition, distended nostrils can appear and the head can be subtly tilted.

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Now it gets more complex: After the simple emotion expressions, the reliable signals of the four remaining universal emotions surprise, fear, sadness and anger show up in several areas of the face.

Surprise Surprise occurs when we suddenly encounter something unexpected [67]. The unexpected can be a concrete thing or person, but also an abstract piece of information or an insight. In the surprised state, the organism tries to regain orientation and obtain more information to better assess the situation and potential possibilities. Surprise demarcates itself from other emotions by its brevity, it lasts a few seconds at most according to Ekman [68], a maximum of one second according to Eilert [69], and stops as soon as we are able to assess the situation a little more accurately. Surprise represents a neutral transitional emotion, which is usually followed by fear, anger or joy, but which can also entail other emotions, or no reaction at all, if we conclude that the surprising event remains inconsequential [68]. When surprised, we open our receptive channels to gain additional information: The eyebrows lift, the eyes become larger and dilate, as do the pupils. Raising the eyebrows causes transverse wrinkles to form on the forehead. In the lower part of the face, the mouth opens and the chin drops down (Fig. 10.4). Since each of their muscle movements can be triggered voluntarily, there is no reliable involuntary expression in the case of surprise, but interlocutors who feign surprise often give themselves away by the duration with which they try to appear surprised. If this lasts longer than a second, it betrays the feigned emotion. In body language surprise is accompanied by short and intense inhalation, paraverbally there are hardly any clear results. When we are surprised, we tend to gather information in Fig. 10.4 Surprise

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this short time rather than send it. However, there is a tendency afterwards for the voice to become higher pitched and the rate of speech may accelerate. Since surprise is a very brief and neutral emotion, it is enough to notice it and pay attention to what emotion follows it. If necessary, it can be questioned or the applicant can be helped with orientation. Surprise becomes critical in recruiting when it occurs in situations in which the applicant should not actually be surprised.

Fear The basic theme of anxiety is the threat of harm. This can be of a physical nature, but also consist of a threat to the ego or psychological integrity. In essence, it is not the harm itself that triggers anxiety, but the threat of pain associated with it. The goal of fear is to activate our social environment by expressing the perceived threat in order to collectively avert it, or to minimize pain in the event of unpreventable harm by contracting muscles. In fear, our body prepares to hide or flee. Initial recognition of the situation is followed by a brief freeze. The paralyzing aspect of fear disappears with action and our opportunities to actively influence [70]. If freezing does not help to let the danger pass us by, flight is the next option. If this is also not possible, fear turns into anger and is followed by the preparation to fight in order to avert the threat, if necessary by force. Anxiety is expressed by wide-open eyes with eyelids pulled far upwards and tense lower eyelids, the gaze is directed straight ahead. The eyebrows also rise and additionally contract. The contraction of the brows causes wrinkles to form, mainly in the centre of the forehead. The jaw is dropped, the mouth is open and the lips tense horizontally in the direction of the ears (Fig. 10.5). Fig. 10.5 Fear

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Nonverbally we react with deeper and faster breathing, if necessary we start to sweat. The heart begins to beat violently, which can be seen in the pulsating carotid artery. By a spontaneous shying away of the head or body, we intuitively try to create distance to the source of danger. A brief freezing is accompanied by an increased tension of the muscles. Paling and whitening of the hands may appear, as blood is drawn from the periphery of the body in order not to lose too much of it in case of damage and to be able to supply and protect the centre of the body. In addition, contractile movements of the flexor muscles are evident [71]. Paraverbally, anxiety is expressed by a higher pitch of the voice and an acceleration of the rate of speech. "

Distinguish Fear from Surprise

Surprise and fear express themselves very similarly, Ekman describes in the Microexpression Training Tool (METT) that subjects who could only see the two emotions briefly often had difficulty distinguishing them. In fear, the eyebrows remain straight and contract slightly, while in surprise they remain arched. As a result, in fear the horizontal wrinkles form more in the center of the forehead, while in surprise they are spread over the whole forehead by the mere raising of the eyebrows. In fear, the upper eyelid is raised more and stays up longer than in surprise. The lower eyelid is more tense with fear and gives the look a piercing character, whereas it remains more relaxed with surprise. The same applies to the open mouth: this also remains more relaxed with surprise, while the lips are additionally stretched outwards with fear [72].

Fear can show itself, for example, when critical stations of the vita are addressed. The fear in this case is of failure in conversation and thus of social rejection, which likewise activates the pain center. After it is recognized, especially when it occurs only briefly, as a micro-expression, it takes conscious compassion to respect another’s fear when we ourselves do not feel fear of the same thing. Many people simply dismiss such fears. In a job interview, after many rejections or unanswered applications, the applicant is close to the finish line and has often already identified with the hoped-for acceptance or raised expectations in the environment. Those who hold a secure position themselves often find it difficult to put themselves in the existential threat that the applicant feels. However, if this is successful and if, after a fear reaction has been perceived, it is explained why the question was asked, the applicant can find his way back into the interview and overcome his fear. If the applicant does not know what is behind the question or whether the true reason for a critical station in the CV would be his undoing, he is fishing in troubled waters and can get into a spiral of justification in which he makes himself unattractive or risks his neck with careless talk and over-explaining.

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Anger and Rage The basic theme of anger is interference of any kind that prevents us from doing or achieving what we intend. Depending on the intention and individual goal, physical and psychological assaults trigger anger, but also the disappointment of another person who is important to us and who behaves differently than expected. Anger also arises when we are forced to interrupt something we like: another trigger is perceived injustice or the failure of another person to respect one’s values. When anger arises, the necessary energy is mobilized to remove the obstacle, and at the same time the environment is warned not to come between us and our goal or to try to prevent us from achieving it. Anger and rage show up in downward and contracted eyebrows accompanied by raised upper eyelids while the lower eyelids are tense: The classic “piercing glare” results. Vertical wrinkles form between the eyebrows on the furrowed brow, and the lips are pressed together or tense in a narrow rectangular shape. Most of these signals can also be produced voluntarily; the tense mouth is that signal which alone most reliably signals anger. The first sign of developing anger is usually expressed by the narrowing of the lips, which makes the red of the lips paler (Fig. 10.6). Nonverbally, anger is expressed through chin thrusts and forward movements that are meant to intimidate and approach the object or subject to be removed. The body tenses, clearly visible, for example, in the neck muscles, the clenched jaw or clenched fists. The released energy develops heat, reddens the face and causes increased gestural adaptors and illustrators. The increased heart rate causes the carotid artery to pulse faster and more intensely. Paraverbally, anger is accompanied by a louder voice, a higher pitch of voice, and increased rate of speaking and a sharper tone of voice. Anger can occur in different variants: in the form of indignation, which can extend to self-righteous anger, through irritability, which can lead to revenge, and in its passive Fig. 10.6 Anger

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variant as being offended. Ekman describes that in people in whose personality traits anger and rage play a central role, hostility develops as an underlying mood and can shape their communication [73]. Anger and rage take on pathological features when they become violent. Ekman distinguishes merely verbal violence from aggressive behaviour and physical violence [74]. Background Information In a 15-year study of 3500 men and women, US researchers Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman investigated the relationship between psychological predisposition and heart attack risk and formed two character types: Type A was characterized by ambitious, aggressive, and restless behavior and suffered 90% of all heart attacks, in contrast to the calmer and more sustained Type B [75]. Both differ in their predisposition to anger and rage, this is expressed more often in Type A than Type B [76]. In formal settings such as job interviews, they are largely suppressed, but show themselves through the piercing glare, which is a partial expression of anger [76]. Brian Tracy [77] describes that many companies prefer A-types for lower and middle management because they achieve good results in the operational area forcing their employees to work hard. However, they are often denied access to the upper management because, once there, they regard the new partners as competition, cause too much unrest and are hardly capable of sustainable cooperation. Tracy’s observations date back to times before the tipping of the labour markets. In the meantime, A-types increasingly pose a risk at lower levels of the hierarchy as well, when their ruthless behavior demotivates employees and drives them to the competitors. Certainly, the industry, the team, the character of the other managers and the corporate culture in general must be taken into account here in a relative way.

Sadness The underlying theme of grief is loss. This can arise from the loss of health or a cherished object, but also from the loss of a loved one through their rejection. The failure to achieve a goal also represents a loss. In the same way the mental anticipation of a possible loss can trigger sadness. By expressing grief, we signal our suffering to those around us and send a cry for help in recovering the things or people we have lost, or to comfort us. Grief is expressed by the raising of the inner eyebrows, which is at the same time the most reliable recognition sign of grief, since only a few people can consciously bring it about. The resulting transverse wrinkles in the center of the forehead, together with the lowered outer eyebrows and the downturned corners of the mouth, form a downward U-shape. While the outer edge of the skin fold under the eyebrow lowers, the inner edge pulls up at an angle, creating an implied triangular shape. The eyelids lose their interest and vitality and droop, the chin may lift, giving the chin a wizened shape, and the lower lip may become tremulous. If the chin then begins to tremble, a discharge of grief through weeping is imminent. The cheeks also lift during mourning, but in contrast to smiling, more in the inner area of the face. The lifting of the chin, combined with an advancement of the lower

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Fig. 10.7 Sadness

lip, becomes a pout, which conveys grief even without or with only subtly raised eyebrows (Fig. 10.7). Nonverbally, sadness can appear with a lowered head and a downward gaze. The body loses its strength and tension: it collapses, the muscles slacken, movements become slower, the soothing touches of their own face or other objects increase. Paraverbally, grief is expressed by a lower pitch of voice, quieter voice, slower speech rate, and decreased interest in conversation; attempts at encouragement are commented on with a sigh or discouraged exhalation. Loss can be dealt with in a passive or active way. In the passive form, we accept the loss, resign ourselves and show our grief through hopelessness. The active way, on the other hand, releases energy of despair to rebel against the loss. In the job interview, grief in the context of the description of previous employment can show that something about the previous job is felt to have been lost. In this context, the recruiter could ask what the applicant particularly liked or what was important at that time, perhaps this can be integrated in the new position. "

Distinguish Real from False Emotions

Ekman describes three key cues for detecting fake emotions [78]: 1. Real emotions, with the exception of contempt, show up predominantly symmetrically or only weakly asymmetrically, while feigned emotions show up more asymmetrically. 2. For every emotion, there is at least one reliable movement (action unit) or property that is necessarily associated with its occurrence. If this is missing, the emotion is most likely faked.

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3. The third criterion is timing: while genuine emotions (with the exception of microexpressions) arise naturally and appropriately to the situation and then fade away smoothly, it is hardly possible to let feigned emotions fade away smoothly. They start abruptly and end abruptly as well, thus showing that they are only feigned. "

Exercise: Practicing Expressions of Emotions, Increasing Your Own Empathy

The better we are able to grasp and empathize with the emotions of our conversation partner, the higher the empathic quality of the conversation and the stronger the connection to our conversation partner. The better we know an emotion and have already felt it ourselves, the easier it is for us to recognize and empathize with it in the other person. In the chapters on the individual basic emotions, the full expressions are described in each case. If you try to take these expressions for about two minutes and hold them consciously, you will notice that your mood begins to change. Feel inside yourself and register the sensations that the various emotions trigger in your body. You can control your own facial expressions with a hand mirror, and additionally support the expression with the described body language. As described, some muscles are difficult or impossible to activate voluntarily. Here, a mental journey offers itself, in which you remember a situation in which you felt the emotions strongly. In this one you should engage deeply with the emotion and allow it to express itself, a little exaggeration does no harm in this context. To access the different facets of emotions, Table 10.1 will help you. To monitor your success, you can use the free app AffdexMe on both Android and IOS. This interprets emotions in real time via the smartphone camera. "

Social Display Rules

Ekman showed Japanese and North American subjects films with negative content. While the American subjects showed their emotions freely, the Japanese subjects did not move a muscle. However, as hidden camera footage proved, they showed the same facial expressions as soon as they were alone. It was their deeply embedded social display rules that had prevented them from showing their negative emotions in the presence of others [79].

Social display rules lead us to show, modify or suppress our emotions depending on the setting. In a job interview, both sides will tend to suppress emotions as they arise, depending on the situation. Therefore, they will only be shown briefly or in a weakened, inhibited form. Reason enough to conclude by taking a closer look at the topics of microexpressions and subtle expressions and their significance for recruiting.

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Microexpressions When Ekman [80], in the course of his research, observed a depressed patient in conversation with her physiciatrist regarding a planned weekend vacation, neither saw any emotion that could have stood in the way of the request. When the patient admitted a few days later that she had planned to take her own life during the requested leave prior to the conversation at that time, Ekman was dismayed: although the decision had been made and the patient’s feelings had been addressed, neither he nor the attending physician had noticed anything. In weeks of detailed work, he and Friesen finally examined the videotape of the conversation frame by frame and found what they were looking for: Not apparent to the normal observer, this revealed for a fraction of a second a fully developed fearful facial expression, masked in the next instant by a smile. Ekman had discovered the micro-expressions. Although not the first, because what he did not know at that time: independently of him, the psychologists Ernest Haggard and Kenneth Isaacs had already made this discovery three years earlier [81]. Instead, it was up to him to develop the appropriate methods with which we can improve our ability to recognize microexpressions and subtle expressions.

Emotional expressions can be categorized into three types, which are distinguished from each other by the duration and intensity of their occurrence. Macro expressions are clearly visible in the context of a full emotional expression for a period of at least half a second to several seconds. These have been described above. To recognize them with certainty is the basic requirement for recognizing micro-expressions as well. These also show full expression, but only for an extremely short period of time, Ekman [81] describing the time window in which microexpressions show up as one-twelfth to one-fifth of a second, Eilert sizes the time period somewhat more broadly at 40–500 ms [82]. Microexpressions conceal both feelings that the sender consciously does not want to show and those that he is not aware of and has repressed [83]. The expression of the true emotion flashes briefly and is then directly overplayed. This happens unconsciously, cannot be controlled or manipulated, and causes its high truthfulness. Microexpressions show up more easily the more emotionally involved someone is and the higher the importance they attach to the current topic. In addition, the subjective expectation of gain or loss and the associated possible consequences in the personal, professional or financial sphere influence the intensity of their expression [84]. Those who correctly recognize microexpressions see what their counterpart really feels. Lies can also be better recognized and, in addition, one’s own blind spots can be reduced if the brief and honest emotional feedback of the interlocutor on one’s own behavior is recognized. Reading microexpressions is facilitated by the fact that, due to their biological

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and universal nature, only the seven basic emotions show up as microexpressions, while mixed emotions and secondary emotions express themselves in a longer or more subtle way. The ability to recognize microexpressions can be developed with just one hour of intensive practice, if this is sustained with subsequent daily training sessions of approximately ten minutes over a period of six weeks [84]. As described, regular meditation also improves the ability to recognize microexpressions. "

Exercise: Training in pairs offers an entertaining possibility: While A keeps his eyes closed, B forms one of the seven emotions and gives A a sign by tapping his upper arm. The latter now blinks as briefly as he can and, with eyes closed, names the perceived emotion. If this is not successful at first go, the blink can be a little longer in order to adjust the difficulty level to one’s own abilities. B holds the expression until A has opened his eyes. This exercise should be repeated ten times, then change.

Furthermore, how can we improve our ability to recognize micro-expressions? First, we need to develop basic perceptual skills and then really look the applicant in the face during the interview. This may sound trivial, but currently this habit is declining in many people [84]. The second step is to not get distracted. All too often we discard nonverbal expressions and prefer to believe the nice words, even if they disappoint us later. The gestures of the interlocutor, but also our own thoughts about what we ourselves could contribute to the conversation and what we could say next, distract us, reduce our concentration on the interlocutor and make us overlook their microexpressions. The willingness and discipline to listen more attentively and to develop a higher level of interest in the applicant allow the attention to be increased and the connection to be strengthened. In addition to the more positive impact this leaves, the better the connection, the faster and more accurately the recruiter can assess the applicant. To increase this, there are three guiding questions that the recruiter can ask himself during the interview: 1. How is the applicant feeling right now? 2. What emotional impact do I achieve through my way of communicating? 3. How do the relationship and emotional dynamics develop between the applicant and the recruiter? As a result of often well-prepared applicants and stereotypical standard responses, it can be difficult to muster the interest for the next interview to the extent necessary to avoid being distracted. But therein lies the key to success: if one asks over and over again the same questions, to which everyone in the application process has worked out the best answers within a short time, the interview will primarily test whether the new employee has prepared well and can present a well-fitting mask. In contrast, narrative prompts, individual questions as well as a conversational approach and description of the future position, which are formulated in such a way that inner images arise in the applicant, trigger non-verbal

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reactions and micro-expressions that convey more to the personnel manager about the personality, motivation and sustainable integration potential than rehearsed sample answers. Recognising micro-expressions at critical points in the interview as an indication of underlying topics makes it possible to either follow up at this point and lead the interview directly into the applicant’s latently emotional field with an open question or a narrative prompt and to look for additional information during the applicant’s free narrative. Alternatively, remember the context and return to the topic elsewhere. This has the advantage of keeping the applicant’s mind open and prevents an atmosphere of interrogation from developing. Here too, of course, it depends on the setting, the position to be filled, the players involved and the individual objectives for the interview. Another influencing factor is the time frame: High time pressure makes us blind to the feelings of our fellow human beings [85]. Therefore, it is up to the recruiter to provide a suitable framework and sufficient buffers and not to put himself under pressure or allow himself to be put under pressure.

Danger of Confusion When observing micro-expressions, the eye region represents the most reliable area of the face for identifying how the applicant feels. In this context, the perception of the movements of the eyebrows in particular supports a reliable assessment. Since these are involved in fear, anger, sadness as well as pain, some microexpressions are more difficult to delineate because some of their elements overlap with those of the other emotions. Fear and surprise have already been delineated above. In the following, let us take a look at the most important differences of the remaining emotions where there is a risk of confusion.

Fear and Sadness In both emotions the eyebrows are raised, but in sadness especially the inner side of the eyebrows is raised, while in fear they are raised straight. In sadness, the lower lip rises with the chin hump, while in fear the lips are tense and stretched apart horizontally toward the ears [86].

Anger and Disgust In anger, the gaze remains clear and piercing, while in disgust, the eyes are narrowed. While the lips are pressed together in anger, they remain relaxed in disgust. The typical wrinkling of the nose in disgust is absent in anger [86].

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Contempt and Joy Contempt is sometimes confused with joy, but in the former the slightly angled corner of the mouth occurs only unilaterally [86].

Microexpressions and Lies Whereas we can arrange our words, we usually cannot do so with the holistically coherent expression of our body, and micro-expressions cannot be manipulated at will either. Due to the emotional impact of lying, three micro-expressions in particular occur in connection with attempts to deceive: • Fear: from the fear of being discovered in the lie. • Guilt: due to bad conscience. Guilt is expressed mimically like grief. • Joy: out of the joy that we have succeeded in the deception. "

"

It must be emphasized that not everyone who lies or withholds an emotion automatically exhibits microexpressions. Nor is there a universal signal that someone is lying. Touching the earlobe, lowering the gaze, or other nonverbal expressions should always be taken as clues. However, the ability to detect lies can be improved, and the recognition of microexpressions is an essential part of this. In principle, it is true that micro-expressions are always the result of a concealment. Whether this was consciously initiated or is the result of unconscious repression cannot, however, be deduced from their occurrence. Since the applicant does not willingly communicate microexpressions to the recruiter, they should be used discreetly and with caution. The most important question in this context is to whom or what the emotion shown applies. And even if we know what biological primal themes underlie the emotions, statements beyond that should always be considered hypotheses. Someone shows sadness, the cause is loss. What he has lost can only be speculated about at first, but it enables a more targeted and empathetic conduct of the interview, as a result of which the interview climate often develops so positively that the applicant opens up and shares things that he would otherwise have kept to himself.

10.6

Subtle Expressions

253

Microexpressions in Salary Negotiation In addition to the distinction between disgust and pain, other emotions can occur during salary negotiations that signal the applicant’s satisfaction with the current outcome. Since surprise expresses a short and neutral emotion, it should also be observed in the negotiation which emotion follows it. Brief flashes of anger indicate the applicant’s high emotional involvement and thus his principal interest in a deal. However, as with disgust, he rejects the salary level and mobilizes energy to eliminate the problem of too low a salary. With sadness, on the other hand, the applicant had already identified inwardly with the job or a higher salary and is now saddened by the loss; they are unlikely to come together at this salary level. If necessary, one could communicate additional benefits of the position and place fringe benefits and, if possible, go one or two steps further towards the applicant or ask him about his pain threshold. Disdain, on the other hand, signals that the applicant is currently as good as lost; he or she perceives the offer as immoral wage dumping. Genuine joy clearly shows that nothing currently stands in the way of an agreement on the part of the applicant [87].

10.6

Subtle Expressions

In addition to macro- and micro-expressions, emotions are expressed through subtle expressions. Since the emotion is weaker expressed, it shows only a part or a weaker expression of the full expression, but it shows longer than micro expressions. Subtle emotions are usually more difficult to detect than microexpressions because of their weak expression. Like microexpressions, they are easier to detect in younger people than in older people because of their smoother facial features. Most of the meanings of the various facial expressions were described in Sect. 10.2, but this chapter also identifies the reliable action units for the seven basic emotions.

Sadness A reliable sign of sadness is the raised inner sides of the eyebrows [88]. Controlled or slight sadness is expressed by the corners of the mouth being pulled down, with the chin hump unmoving at the same time [89].

Surprise The upwardly drawn eyebrows show interest when slightly pronounced, and surprise when strongly pronounced. However, this signal is only a reliable expression of surprise in conjunction with upwardly drawn upper eyelids and an open mouth [90].

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Fear The upward and contracted eyebrows reliably signal worry as a mild form of anxiety [91]. The pulling up of the upper eyelids and simultaneous tightening of the lower eyelids represent the absolutely certain signal for fear. The more the upper eyelid is raised, the greater the perceived fear [92].

Anger The contracted, lowered eyebrows show slight or controlled anger, but can also express concentration and interest in a slight form. If the upper eyelids are also raised, this facial expression reliably expresses anger [93]. Tense lips are another very reliable sign of anger.

Disgust The wrinkled nose signals disgust, but it is not an absolutely sure sign, since it can easily be produced willfully. If it occurs only subtly while our interlocutor is listening to us, it signals doubt or skepticism [94].

Contempt The one-sided pressing of the corner of the mouth signals contempt, but can equally occur when the counterpart is thinking or doubting [95]. There are seminars and online training tools for the recognition of both micromimics and subtle expressions. Besides the METT, the Micro Expression Training Tool, Paul Ekman developed the SETT, the Subtle Expression Training Tool. German speaking online providers are for example Dirk Eilert [96] and Jan Christoph Wartmann [97]. Both also offer seminars in Germany (Eilert) and Switzerland (Wartmann).

10.7

Own Facial Expression

If you influence the natural expression of your facial expressions too much, you risk creating an unnatural and inauthentic effect, which is why their free expression should not be manipulated excessively. What one’s own facial expressions can be excellently used for, however, can best be described as non-verbalising in distinction to the conversational technique of verbalising described in the context of the refractory phase. As described, we perceive intuitively and unconsciously anyway already the mimic expressions of our fellow men and express these briefly ourselves, in order to put ourselves in their position. If we

10.7

Own Facial Expression

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now notice in conversation that an emotion has captured our counterpart, this can be easily and briefly mirrored with the intention of conveying our understanding and empathy. As opposed to verbalizing or resonating, we show the other person that we can feel what they are feeling. This expression is to be used with some tact, but can be a viable alternative when verbalizing has already been done and this rhetorical device does not want to be overused. "

In a gender comparison, women are the more empathic beings. While facial expression in children is still independent of gender, the development of the rostral cingulate zone in adolescence causes a decrease in the mobility of facial expressions in the male gender [98]. As a result of the different biological starting point, women unconsciously change their facial expressions up to six times in ten seconds even in adulthood, thereby conveying their empathy and emotional connection to their fellow men [99]. This rapid and unconscious mirroring increases the connection to the interlocutor and mutual trust. Untrained men manage this change at most twice in ten seconds [99]. This makes it harder for them to empathize with their counterpart and build trust. Men can improve their ability to establish an empathic connection with the applicant by increasing their facial expression skills. This can be helped, for example, by the mimic gymnastics from Chap. 2, which trains the suppleness of facial expressions and enables those movements to be expressed more intuitively which correspond to the emotional content of the situation. Women, on the other hand, can achieve a more distanced and objective effect by using their facial expressions more sparingly.

Eyebrows One element of our facial expressions that we can consciously manipulate to a certain extent without disrupting the conversation is our eyebrows. If we raise them in a positive context, this movement helps to inspire and activate our conversation partners. For example, if the applicant is asked to tell something about themselves with a narrative prompt, this can be done with a friendly smile, an encouraging nod, and friendly raised eyebrows to indicate positive intent. With the eyebrow flash, the recruiter signals to the applicant that he recognizes him and is looking forward to the interview by raising his eyebrows during the first eye contact. The timing is different when it is a real recognition: Consciously memorizing the photo in the documents makes it easier to remember and thus improves the entry into the interview.

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Neutral into the New Conversation We often overlook the signals on the forehead of our interlocutor, but unconsciously we perceive them and allow ourselves to be influenced by them. If we have been using specific facial expressions for a longer period of time, for example because we have been critically poring over documents, intensively researching or getting angry about something or someone, the associated tension leaves clearly visible signals on our forehead. Consciously smoothing these out does more than just correct the appearance: if you take a minute before important conversations to treat any wrinkles with your fingertips by lightly stroking them apart, starting from the middle of the forehead, you will enjoy the relaxation that comes with it, be more relaxed in the conversation and at the same time prevent negative previous experiences from burdening the new conversation. Another key signal to which we react intuitively is tense lips. These should also be briefly checked before important conversations. Unpleasant enough that we previously experienced an annoying situation, but there is no reason to take this mood into the next conversation. Who is short-sighted, should reach for glasses, the otherwise regular narrowing of the eyes also leads to a dismissive facial expression. In principle, it is recommended to train those muscles that are conducive to cooperative communication and, for example, to smile at yourself consciously for two to three minutes in front of the bathroom mirror in the morning. Not only do you feel better afterwards, your own facial expression will become more friendly over time due to the better trained muscles, the spontaneous smile is easier on the first day and appears as if by itself.

10.8

Conclusion: Facial Expressions and Emotions

Facial expressions are directly linked to the limbic system, the source of our emotions. As a result, emotions escape the control of the conscious mind and open up unfiltered insights into feelings that the candidate is often not (yet) aware of himself. Emotions can be understood as holistic biological emergency programs that are triggered by the organism in order to cope with a situation that cannot be successfully managed with the other available action routines. For the person who is currently feeling them, emotions constitute a real entity that does not need to be justified and is not open to discussion. Emotions erect filters that influence the perception and processing of the following signals. In order to lead an emotional interlocutor back into the conversation, one must tune into the emotional content of his or her mood, for example by making a resonance statement. If this does not succeed, the emotion intensifies. Across cultures, there are seven universal basic emotions. These are each characterized by a specific biological triggering theme, an intended motive and a clear mimic expression. They can also only show themselves for a fraction of a second as micro-expressions and as such cannot be manipulated at will.

References

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When lying, the micro-expressions of joy, sadness (guilt) and fear predominate. Untrained people usually overlook these, but the ability to recognize them can be developed with little effort. First of all, one should again look more closely into the face of the interlocutor in order to recognize his non-verbal changes more consciously. As soon as this succeeds, one can begin to master the perception of faster signals.

References 1. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 42; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 2. Siegfried Frey: The Power of the Image, p. 66; Verlag Hans Huber, Bern, 1999 3. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 19; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 4. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 215; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 5. https://www.zeit.de/2017/08/unternehmen-software-gefuehle-analyse accessed 10/17/2018 6. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 29; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 7. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeld: The Biology of Human Behaviour, p. 59; Piper GmbH & Co. KG, Munich, 1995 8. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 51 f; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 9. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial-Feedback-Hypothese accessed 10/17/2018 10. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 53; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 11. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, pp. 302–306; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 12. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 136; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 13. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 144 ff; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 14. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 147; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 15. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 148; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 16. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 137; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 17. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 45; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 18. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 96; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 19. Jan Christoph Wartmann- personal interview in August 2017 20. Joe Navarro: Reading People, p. 210; mvg Verlag, Munich, 2011 21. Alexander Todorov: Face Value, p. 75; Princeton University Press; Princeton, 2017 22. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 98; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 23. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeld: The Biology of Human Behaviour, p. 633; Piper GmbH & Co. KG, Munich, 1995 24. Charles Darwin: The Expression of the Movements of Mind in Man and Animals, p. 242; Salzwassser Verlag. Bremen, 2010 25. Carlo Ancelotti: Quiet Leadership, p. 99; Albrecht Knaus Verlag, Munich, 2016 26. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 100; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 27. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 104; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 28. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 102; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 29. Allan and Barbara Pease: The Cold Shoulder and the Warm Handshake, p. 146; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2009 30. Tom Schmitt, Michael Esser: Status Games, p. 111; Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main, 2016 31. Allan and Barbara Pease: The dead fish in the hand, p. 91; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2003

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32. Samy Molcho: Body Language as Dialogue, p. 24 f; Mosaik Verlag, Munich, 1988 33. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 110; Junfermann, Paderborn, 2013 34. David Givens: The Power of Body Language, p. 31, Redline Verlag, Munich, 2011 35. Samy Molcho: Body Language, p. 147; Der Goldmann Verlag, Munich, 1996 36. Joe Navarro: Reading People, p. 204; mvg Verlag, Munich, 2011 37. http://psychologie-news.stangl.eu/56/geldverlust-wirkt-wie-koerperlicher-schmerz accessed 10/18/2018 38. Samy Molcho: ABC of Body Language, p. 76; Ariston Verlag, Munich, 2009 39. Samy Molcho: Seminar: The body always speaks; Jürgen Höller Academy, Schweinfurt, 2013 40. Horst Rückle: Body language in sales, p. 179; Redline Wirtschaft, Munich, 2003 41. Desmond Morris: The Man We Live With, p. 167; Droemersche Verlagsanstalt, Munich, Zurich, 1978 42. Joe Navarro: The little lie detector, p. 58; mvg Verlag, Munich, 2015 43. Joe Navarro: Reading People, p. 208; mvg Verlag, Munich, 2011 44. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 108; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 45. Antonio Damasio: Descartes Irrtum, p. 164; List Taschenbuch Verlag; Berlin, 2006 46. Antonio Damasio: Descartes Irrtum, p. 262; List Taschenbuch Verlag; Berlin, 2006 47. Samy Molcho: all about body language, p. 134; Mosaik by Goldmann, Munich, 2001 48. Hans-Georg Häusel: Think Limbic, p. 23; Haufe Verlag, Freiburg, 2014 49. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 26; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 50. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, pp. 56–59; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 51. Paul Ekman: Reading Feelings, p. 65 ff; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 52. https://mimikresonanz.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/PK-02-2016-Eilert.pdf accessed 07/10/ 2018 53. Paul Ekman: Reading Feelings; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 54. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 32; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 55. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 285; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 56. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 78; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 57. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 242; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 58. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 244; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 59. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 72; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 60. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 244; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg,2011 61. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 88; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 62. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 89; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 63. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 250; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 64. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 74; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 65. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 251; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 66. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 252; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011

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67. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 207; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 68. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 206; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 69. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 68; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 70. Paul Ekman: Reading Feelings, p. 216; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 71. Stefan Verra: Hey, your body is talking! p. 112; edel Germany GmbH, Hamburg, 2015 72. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 69; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 73. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 177; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 74. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 183; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 75. http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41784672.html accessed 5/28/2018; 5:57pm 76. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 178; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 77. Brian Tracy: Phoenix Seminar Performance Psychology, Tracy College AG, Baden, 1993 78. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, pp. 304–306; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 79. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 5; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 80. Paul Ekman: Reading Feelings, p. 295; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 81. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, p. 296; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 82. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 55; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 83. Paul Ekman: Reading Emotions, pp. 296–297; Spektrum Akademischer Verlag Heidelberg, Heidelberg, 2011 84. https://www.mimikresonanz24.com/de/course/1/seminar/chapter/1 accessed 10/17/2018 85. https://www.touchmore.de/blog/neuromarketing/item/stress-killt-empathie accessed 10/18/2018 86. Paul Ekman: Software Microexpression Training Tool, 2006 87. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 91; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 88. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 96; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 89. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 106; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 90. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 98; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 91. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 97; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 92. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 102; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 93. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 99; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 94. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 103; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 95. Dirk Eilert: Mimikresonanz, p. 105; Junfermann Verlag, Paderborn, 2013 96. http://www.mikroexpressionen.de/loginpage.php accessed 03 Jan. 2019 97. http://www.embodied-cooperation.com/home accessed 03 Jan. 2019 98. Stefan Verra: Hey, your body is flirting, p. 186; edel Germany GmbH; Hamburg, 2016 99. Allan and Barbara Pease: The Cold Shoulder and the Warm Handshake, p. 235; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2009

Gestures

11

Abstract

This chapter describes the basic principles of gestural communication and various dimensions in which it is expressed. It describes the mode of action of active gestures and the meanings of various passive gestures and exposed fingers, as well as the function and causes of displacement activities and adjustment gestures. Finally, it discusses the influences of palms and specific gestural signals on the effect in the interview, describes relationship messages conveyed by different gestures, and suggests techniques with which the recruiter can optimize his or her own effect.

Next to facial expressions, the way we communicate with our hands forms the largest part of non-verbal communication. Although this is less in direct focus during communication than the expressions of the face, we are still latently aware of the expressions of the hands of our interlocutors that relativize or reinforce their verbal statements. More than we are often aware, they shape the quality of the relationship between us and our interlocutors.

11.1

Basics and Functions of Gestures

Gestures are a natural part of our communication and are biologically based in their natural expression. Even if we can easily influence the movements of our hands, they are still expressed largely unconsciously and preconsciously while we speak. This is proven, for example, by the gestures of babies born blind: They also gesticulate intuitively while they speak [1].

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_11

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Our animal relatives still move on all fours: In this posture, the back, arms and legs protect the sensitive organs in the abdominal region. When the naked ape stood up, its vulnerable organs were suddenly exposed and unprotected on the front of the body. But now that the hands were free, they acquired, as a second main archaic function, the protection of the front of the body and the abdominal area, in addition to grasping food. In addition, they were used to make and use tools. The effects of these archaic functions can still be seen today in relation to abstract contents that want to be grasped, or in verbal attacks and threats, against which the hands are raised or the arms are folded appeasingly. In this way, our hands often describe transferred or symbolic statements, which will be deepened in the following on active and passive gestures.

Even though our hands only account for a very small proportion of our body mass compared to other parts of the body, their connections nevertheless occupy a third of our cortex. No other part of the body has as many neural pathways to the brain as the fingers. Allan Braun of the National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders found out that gestures address the corresponding language region in the brain [2]. Through the mirror neurons, this also happens in the conversation partner and thus gestures strengthen our persuasive power, increase understanding, support verbal memory and promote cognitive thinking in both parties of the conversation. With gestures we trigger associations in the other person and thus open up the possibility of influencing the flow of his or her thoughts. They enable us to argue indirectly and unobtrusively and to complete or emphasize incomplete verbal information. Furthermore, we can use gestures to generate various placeholders in the room and anchor discussed content there.

Movements of the Hands The basic expressiveness of movements was described and characterized in Chap. 7. The basic principles described there also apply to the movements of the hands and form the basis on which this chapter is built. First of all, normal behaviour should also be determined for gestures, and then deviations in qualitative expression, spatial extent or quantitative frequency can be interpreted. Like a seismograph, hands and fingers, by their exposed position at the end of the arms, indicate arousal signals more clearly than our large limbs close to the body. Hand trembling suggests strong emotion: an abrupt onset of applicant hand trembling should be investigated with an eye to the current context. Reduced gestures or hidden hands are another characteristic. Frozen or hidden hands are particularly revealing if the normal behavior previously showed no abnormalities. Suddenly frozen hands suggest insincerity: Those who lie or have a guilty conscience instinctively try not to attract attention. Our gestures can be distinguished according to whether they are expressed more roundly or angularly, rhythmically or clocked. While angular, clocked gestures involve the mind more, round, rhythmic movements suggest a higher involvement of emotions. Thus, in the interview, the applicant’s responses can be distinguished into two categories and the drivers underlying them can be integrated into one’s reasoning.

11.1

Basics and Functions of Gestures

263

The type of expression of gesture differs into wide, large, small and narrow movements. As with step size, small and accentuated movements indicate the detail worker, while large and sweeping movements are associated with a large chunk processing and corresponding attitude to systems. In negotiations, if the movements of both hands are shown in a narrow frame (less than a shoulder’s-width), they signal that there is little room for manoeuvre and a low willingness to accommodate the counterpart [3]. Wide gestures claim an excessively large territory and thus express the attitude underlying them, which often classifies one’s own ideas as more important than those of the interlocutor. Thus they signal great selfconfidence, but also dominance, both of which must be matched with the vacant position and the environment into which the applicant is to integrate. As described in Chap. 5 on status, the frequency of gestures decreases with increasing status: The high status person gestures less than the low status because his word carries more weight, his instructions are implemented with less resistance, and he has to invest less to get his way. Accordingly, his gestures become more subtle. If applicants who are supposed to be high status show inappropriate gestural expressions, such as erratic, frantic or clustered gestures, this incongruity indicates an imbalance. However, this may to some extent be due to the situation, as well as the basic temperament of the applicant must be taken into account. The speed of the gestural movements can be calm, lively and fast and indicates the underlying basic attitude, which can be calmer, more moderate, more controlled, livelier, more rapid or more restless. It is revealing in this context how abruptly the switch is made, what intensity it takes to trigger an excitement, and how violent the reaction is. On the one hand, these observations indicate the applicant’s capacity for enthusiasm, but on the other hand, they also indicate the applicant’s sensitivity. Attention should be paid to whether placed stimuli are responded to as intended or whether reactions cannot be predicted. While the former gives the recruiter the intended interpretation, the latter will surprise and unsettle him. At the same time, it gives him valuable feedback on his own interviewing skills and, if evident in several applicants, may indicate a diminishing understanding of the role that should be updated to remain competitive. Molcho infers various personality traits from the way arms move and gesture. Thus, bent and loose arm movements show self-confidence and nonchalance, wide arm movements suggest generosity [4]. Predominantly upturned palms are both ready to give and receive, open and loose arm posture expresses confidence, the person has no reason to protect himself tensely.

Timing With regard to the timing with which our gestures appear, a distinction must be made as to whether they occur in their active form, accompanying our own speech, or as a reaction to the utterances of the interlocutor. Natural active gestures occur shortly before the spoken word. Natural passive gestures, on the other hand, which follow as a reaction to an

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utterance of our interlocutor, show up in a time window of at most 2.5 s; a longer delay here betrays conscious influence. The more reflexive and short-lived a reaction shows itself to be, the more honest and unadulterated it usually is. For example, hands that are jerkily withdrawn indicate a spontaneous form of escape, while hands that slowly withdraw signal that one is creeping and hesitating, and thus often calculating, to remove oneself from the conversation.

Tension Level The degrees of tension and movements described in Chaps. 4 and 7 are also expressed in our gestures and convey additional information on the basis of which the expressiveness of what is said can be checked and, if necessary, should be put into perspective. If a quotable lip service is given with the mouth, while the limp hands inactively convey the opposite, the credibility of the standard response may be questioned. "

Exercise: You can easily experience for yourself the feedback effect of the tension of the hands on your own breathing and thus indirectly on our oxygen supply, willingness to perform, but also on our emotional state: Breathe in with relaxed hands and notice how effortlessly you do this and how easy or difficult it is to breathe in deeply. Now spread your fingers wide apart, stretch them and repeat the exercise. Normally it is now much more difficult to take a relaxed, deep breath and thus to supply the whole body with sufficient oxygen. If you now let your hands go limp and inhale again, you will notice how a short inhibition delays the spontaneous inhalation, you first have to give yourself a jerk to get out of the limp state into action.

Limp wrists also indicate a lack of energy and little motivation to continue dealing with a subject. Tense wrists, on the other hand, are an indicator of vitality, presence, strength and dynamism. Observing laterality is also informative here. In right-handers, a slack left wrist may indicate low resilience in the emotional domain, while a slack right wrist suggests low rational stamina [4].

Alignment of the Palms The orientation of the palms when speaking strongly influences one’s own effect. Downward facing palms reveal little of one’s inner self, they emphasize the factual level. With this movement and hand position, the tension of the hands opens up further insights. If it is performed with little tension, it is intended to convey a hortatory and prudent character, as well as to dampen the mood and bring it under control. If the tension of the hand increases and the fingers are spread more apart, the surface effect of the hand increases and intensifies

11.2

Planes of Gesture

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the controlling effect towards a dominating one [5]. In contrast, upturned palms have a calming, comforting and conciliatory effect and promote the relationship with the interlocutor. Molcho [6] describes two possible interpretations for hands that are turned inward while gesturing. In the first interpretation, responsibility is taken upon oneself. In a positive case, this can indicate a mature personality that does not shift blame onto others but also critically examines its own share in an unpleasant situation. If this attitude is exaggerated, it results in a character who takes everything very personally and, if necessary, belittles himself and often risks becoming a scapegoat for those around him. The opposite is expressed by the hand gesticulating outwardly, offensively pointing away from oneself. The poles on the axis of these two movements are, on the one hand, the palms placed on one’s own chest and, on the other extreme, the stop gesture performed at head level and with outstretched arms. This rigorously protects one’s own area and rejects any responsibility of one’s own. Between the poles there is a fluid field of tension: depending on where the gestures lead in this field of tension, for example when asked about critical past experiences and projects, they indicate one’s own attitude and qualify the answer. Spread fingers of the palms pointing away from themselves indicate defense through the high surface effect: They are able to push away, grasp, shift or catch things that can become dangerous to us over a wide area. The higher the hands are taken in the process and the more directly they are directed against the interlocutor, the higher the degree of rejection. The spreading of the fingers increases the emotional content of the gesture, while fingers placed together express control, discipline and severity. Furthermore, the one- or two-handed use of gestures signals the degree of urgency and emotional involvement of their expression. Where one hand is no longer enough to achieve a result or conversational goal, the use of the second hand doubles our chances of success. Vertically aligned hands with the edges pointing downwards divide contents into different classes and separate thoughts and constructs from each other. Problems, but also social relationships, can be effectively severed in this way. The synchronous downward movement of both hands reinforces the transmitted expression or acts as a delimiting instrument [7]. To distinguish this from its use as a percussive instrument, attention must be paid to the dynamics with which the movement is executed. The fingers provide further information: if they are closed during the movement, the focus is on precise, consistent execution; if the fingers are spread, the engagement and emotional involvement gain in importance.

11.2

Planes of Gesture

Mark Bowden distinguishes between six different planes in which our gestures are expressed [8]. Each plane gives the statement a different tenor, which can be related to what is said in order to assess its congruence and expressiveness (Fig. 11.1):

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Fig. 11.1 Planes of gesture

• • • • • •

Above the crown – the ecstatic plane Between the eyes and the crown – the plane of mental conviction Between the larynx and the eyes – the revelatory plane Between the solar plexus and the larynx – the passionate plane Before the navel – the truth plane Below the belt – the grotesque plane

Signals of the grotesque plane should be the exception in the job interview or not occur at all, they seem negative and out of place. If the hands move in the trust plane above, they simultaneously protect their own vulnerable stomach region. This is reassuring and shows that communication is calm, trusting and in the neutral emotional area. Typically, we move our gestures during most of our communication in this area around the belly button, between the belt line and solar plexus. As passion increases, so does the level of gesture. If it moves in the area between the solar plexus and the larynx, it expresses increasing commitment and emotional involvement. "

Exercise: The level at which we gesticulate also has an effect on us. You can experience this for yourself with a simple test: Describe your hobby or reasons why a trip to your favorite city is absolutely worth it. The hands will almost automatically move in the upper range. Now tell the same thing again, but this time try to keep your hands in the area around or below your belly button. Suddenly it feels strange and also the right enthusiasm for the topic doesn’t arise as it did shortly before.

Finally, if the hands are brought to the level of the mouth, in the area between the larynx and the eyes, when communicating, it gets down to the nitty-gritty, the hands simultaneously shield the words from uninvited listeners while internal information is communicated. This shouldn’t happen too often in a job interview, and if it does, it’s only for a short duration; there shouldn’t normally be too much strictly confidential

11.3

Arms

267

information to share in this setting. If the gesture rises to the level of mental conviction between the eyes and the crown of the head, it reaches a strongly value-laden point or thought. For example, if the applicant presents proposed solutions to a case and accompanies them with gestures at the level of mental conviction, he or she is demonstrating intrinsic motivation and passion for the topic at hand. Gestures should not normally go beyond this in an interview. Bowden’s six planes describe natural gestures and their implications when standing. In a conversation at the table, the height of the chairs and the table creates a distortion for the lower two levels. Depending on how close the candidate sits to the table, their vulnerable abdominal area is more or less protected. The tabletop becomes the new beltline, where it looks suspect if the hands disappear underneath. If the hands are permanently left under the tabletop, this suggests inner distance or insecurity and a certain inhibition to engage in the conversation. Other triggers may be a lack of interest and withdrawal from the conversation. Normally, gestures should be made at or above the level of the tabletop, which is at the level between the navel and solar plexus when seated. "

If there are armrests on the chair, these favour gestural expression above this threshold and thus, in principle, a motivating and cooperative conversation. An applicant’s chair without armrests can therefore allow deeper insights into any lack of motivation than a chair with armrests, which prevents the hands from sinking. On the other hand, a chair with armrests protects the applicant’s sides better and makes it easier for him to relax and reduce nervousness. As described in Chap. 6, the applicant’s chair can be varied between the first and second round of interviews, depending on the objectives.

In the development of gestures through the different planes, movements set against gravity expresse positive feelings, while movements and gestures that surrender to gravity and are directed downwards have negative connotations. While gestures from the bottom up raise the energy level and bring momentum into the conversation, movements from the top down have a moderating effect and bring calm into the conversation. Further interpretation possibilities open up if one hand gestures above the table and the other withdraws below the table surface or remains on the armrest. In the case of righthanded people, the exposed left hand signals that the personal relationship is being sought; if, on the other hand, the right hand is above, the factual aspect is in the foreground [4].

11.3

Arms

Our arm movements are also an authentic expression of our feelings and attitudes and respond directly to a triggering event [9]. For example, shoplifters perform fewer arm movements than other customers when trying not to attract attention [10]. Our arms can

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provide information about perceived comfort and discomfort, but also about our level of confidence and other emotional states. For example, the height to which a person is inwardly willing to raise their arms indicates their self-confidence. In the extreme, this posture becomes a jubilant pose: the victor, in his current high-status position, finds it easy to put his arms up and forgo their protective function. The opposite behavior is shown by the discouraged and dejected loser, who drops both his head and his arms and shows little current willingness to act. In addition to the characteristics of arm movements during walking described in Chap. 7, further characteristics open up additional insights. Arms pressed close to the body can indicate subordination or fear. How far the arms and hands are brought in front of the body provides information about the interlocutor’s readiness for action and openness. The opposite is true if the hands are held back or even behind the back, indicating distance and a current lack of willingness to act. The way in which this happens opens up further possibilities for interpretation: Are the two palms only loosely interlocked or is one hand holding the other by the wrist or even higher up? The higher the dominant hand is held, the stronger the control to restrain oneself from acting and opening. If this is done out of emotional insecurity, the left hand slows down the right. If one holds back out of principle or tactical calculation, it will tend to be the right hand that exerts a controlling influence on the left. These movements can be observed, for example, when walking together through the company, when one stops from time to time to present a workplace or a planned project. In contrast to expansive, dominant movements, the desire to make an impact diminishes the closer the movements are executed to the body. Small, fine movements thus indicate modesty and objectivity. Restrained movements of the arms, which remain close to the body, are usually accompanied by small steps and indicate a predisposition for precise and accurate work as well as a tendency to pay attention to details.

Folded Arms Folded arms are probably the classic example of body language. They are also the first thing that is usually mentioned in conversations about the topic and provide a topic for discussion, whether the posture is merely comfortable or actually has an effect. The clear answer: it depends, but in case of doubt, it’s more likely the latter. Their influence on our perception has already been described in Chap. 3 in the context of opening and closing and will be dealt with in more detail below. As Molcho describes, the closed arms serve as a filter that filters out unwanted content [4]. In this way, however, only what we already know can be absorbed, i.e. the interlocutor sitting cross-armed is only open to new things to a limited extent. Regardless of the topic being discussed, it is advisable to pick up the interlocutor where he or she stands. The best way to do this is to take a step back and concentrate on the partner’s perspective and those aspects of the topic that are already familiar to him or her. If this succeeds, the conversation partner often regains the necessary security to open up again.

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Arms

269

Retreating and folding arms can be the result of upset, fearful or hurt feelings. The interlocutor feels mistreated or that his or her values or worldview are threatened. Arms crossed in front of the chest signal withdrawal behavior and entail inactivity, often making one more statement before retreating. The closed arms give protection against an unwanted opinion, too much information, but also against coldness or principle disturbances from the outside. Crossed arms alone say nothing, except that the person is only conditionally receptive at the moment. This does not imply anything negative: there are characters who could confidently embrace the whole world, while others are more critical and first get a clearer picture of the situation before getting involved. However, whether the critical type is the ideal salesperson can be questioned. Crossing one’s arms directly in response to a statement, on the other hand, is more revealing: here the question arises as to what led to the withdrawal. In the interview, a distinction can be made between whether the withdrawal occurs gradually while the recruiter is describing the job, interdepartmental partners and upcoming responsibilities, or whether a statement is made and the applicant withdraws as a result. Example

Incongruence can also indicate an intent to deceive when arms are folded. When we make a verbal statement that we do not stand behind, the body distances itself from what is being said: In the Nixon trial, this withdrawal was regularly evident when Nixon took a step back, leaned back, and crossed his arms after making a false statement [11]. ◄ The arms can also close when the memory is first full: If the interlocutor has heard enough after a long monologue or lecture, what has been said, especially if it is new, complex or unexpected information, must first be processed and integrated. Additional information would now only disturb, one closes oneself. Another interpretation is that a person folding his or her arms, who is in a public space with his or her interlocutor, wants to separate himself or herself from outside disturbances: In this case, the closing is not meant for the other person, but for the protection of the conversation. In this case, complementary signals such as distance, facial expressions and body posture as well as verbal signals must be included in the assessment. Background Information Crossed arms can show up in different forms. If the hands and arms are merely comfortably intertwined, this posture supports itself, one chats in a relaxed manner, does not want to be disturbed and is ready to start gesticulating oneself as soon as one has the floor again. If both hands rest on the arms, the posture develops into a self-hug with a warming character. If temperature is indeed the problem, this posture is accompanied by warming movements and discomfort signals such as hunched shoulders and other postural changes that reduce the body’s surface area. Further information can be obtained from the tension in the arms. If this increases and the hands are clasped in the upper arms, the posture becomes more defensive and the ostentatious restraint becomes visible.

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If the hands move inwards and end up in the armpits, they form a protective posture, which can be based to some degree in insecurity or anxiety. In this case, the thumbs provide clues to the inner status. If they are hidden, the person is withdrawing, if they are exposed, they connote the posture in a positive way: The person is inwardly clarified, knows his attitude to the subject, is ready to send his own message, and thereby shows the inner high status. At the same time, they protect themselves from resistance, but are ready to accept feedback and additions that fit the concept. In sales, crossed arms, with thumbs raised in conjunction with other positive tells represent a go signal where a deal can be asked for. If, on the other hand, the thumbs are hidden and negative tells are shown, the closure should not yet be initiated, but further questions should be asked in order to find the core of the rejection and uncertainty and to open up the person [12].

If both hands are resting on the arms, it can sometimes be observed how one hand lifts up and opens the position. Here the arm can be seen as a barrier that slowly opens until the hand finally reaches the chin and evaluatively engages with the subject. If the identification with the subject increases, the position develops further: the thumb supports the chin from below, the upper body is straightened, the mouth, and often at the same time the second arm, opens slightly to place one’s own contribution, while an index finger exposes itself to reinforce the claim to the contribution. Eyebrows raise, the upper body leans forward, the willingness to participate in the conversation increases.

11.4

Fingers

Various authors such as Horst Rückle, Samy Molcho and Monika Matschnig assign specific characteristics to the individual fingers. In addition to their practical experiences, research findings by Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt substantiate the meanings attributed to the various fingers [13]. Since some finger gestures, such as the pointing and threatening waving of the index finger, are evident across cultures, a universal meaning suggests itself. Which of the fingers is exposed consciously or, more often than not, unconsciously can therefore convey information about the intention and motives of the applicant. If one observes the fingers of the hand in a relaxed basic posture, it can often be seen that one finger sticks out a little more, thereby expressing the unconscious predisposition to its subject [4].

Thumbs The thumb stands for power, strength and dominance. With it we can exert the strongest pressure and pass on more centered than with all other fingers. The dominant thumbs betray assertiveness and self-confidence. If they are stretched up, they communicate a positive message, as do all movements made against the force of gravity, but if this is done too demonstratively, the posture develops into a display. The symbolism of the thumb is also

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related to the fact that it is particularly vulnerable as a finger that protrudes from the hand. If no danger is expected, it can be freely exposed. If, on the other hand, we enclose it with the other fingers, we unconsciously withdraw and render ourselves incapable of action. The symbolism of this posture becomes clear when we ask ourselves what would happen if someone were to strike with a fist encircling their own thumb. The person would break his own thumb in the process and be incapacitated. If the thumb is enclosed by the other fingers, adults can be inferred to have temporarily lost the ability to make a (difficult) decision [14]. The hidden thumbs signal a certain need for protection and indicate that the person would like to withdraw.

Index Finger The index finger shows willingness and readiness to act. As an instruction finger, its twitching can often be observed in discussions when the other side presents an argument that one would like to contradict or which one can refute or even refute in a relativizing way. The laterality of the movement indicates whether it is more a moral, emotional instruction or a rebuke (left hand) or whether it is a matter of technical and factual correction, which is emphasized with the right index finger. In addition, the index finger acts as a finger of instruction, but also as a threatening finger [15]. If it is overly active, it indicates an opinionated person.

Middle Finger The middle finger as a “autonomous” finger conveys self-esteem, importance, status and pride. If it is exposed and placed on something or tapped with it, a special importance is attached to what is being discussed that goes beyond merely pointing with the index finger [16]. If it is touched, rubbed or stroked itself, the need for self-fashioning and recognition is expressed [17].

Ring Finger The ring finger, on the other hand, as an emotional finger, is often rubbed, enclosed or held when people want to soothe themselves in emotional situations [16]. If the emphasized ring finger is touched, the person wishes for a few strokes and nonverbally and unconsciously expresses the desire for some conciliatory encouragement.

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Little Finger The little finger is also called the social finger by Samy Molcho [18] and is often exposed a little further by people to whom their social standing is particularly important, in earlier times by the demonstratively shown spreading of the little finger when holding a glass. A splayed little finger, however, also indicates devotion to a cause or high enjoyment. If, on the other hand, it is bent and pushed under the palm, the opposite is the case. It also gives information about the nature of a relationship or the feelings of a person in a certain situation. A conspicuously exposed little finger can indicate the motive of recognition and possible expected perks of the applicant. Hormones and Finger Length [19] Biologists Martin Cohn and Zhengui Zheng from the University of Florida studied the factors that influence the growth of our fingers. The activity of our sex hormone receptors in the womb not only influences whether we develop a male or female brain, but also the length of the index and ring finger. The length ratio between the two can thus be used to determine whether we have a more masculine or a more feminine brain and what associated personality traits to expect. In men, the ring finger usually overhangs the index finger, while in women, both are the same length or the index finger is longer than their ring finger. As John Manning of Swansea University describes, there are strong correlations between the ratio of index to ring finger and various types of behavior, fertility, diseases, athleticism and sexual orientation. According to Manning, women with a longer ring finger, i.e., who have a finger length ratio that is atypical for women, are more assertive, less communicative and less prone to neurosis. The longer the ring finger, the more pronounced these characteristics are. In men, a conspicuously long ring finger represents potency and athleticism. According to Manning, the high dose of testosterone in the womb can also promote the predisposition to diseases such as autism, migraine, stuttering, schizophrenia and depression [19].

11.5

Active Gestures

While our words cultivate communication on the rational factual level, our gestures work on the emotional relational level and thus represent a natural and ideal complement to the spoken word. Depending on their function, they express themselves consciously or unconsciously. The smaller and more casual our gestures are, the less we are usually aware of them and the more reliably they provide information about our inner life through their genuineness and shape the image that we unconsciously convey of ourselves to others. The conscious use of gestures takes the form of emblems such as the “Facebook thumb”. Since emblems are subject to cultural influences, knowing them in recruiting prevents interculturally based misunderstandings. When preparing for interviews with applicants from foreign cultures, possible emblems should therefore be researched. Furthermore, these emblems convey the habitus and allow assessments of class affiliation.

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Active Gestures

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Most of the other functions of our gestures, on the other hand, are expressed unconsciously and preconsciously, for example in the context of self-regulation, to reduce stress, to conceal telltale expressions and habits and to perform redirection actionsor to express symbolic actions and attitudes. The distinction of nonverbal signals according to their function described in Sect. 10.1 also applies to our gestures. In the following sections, different types of gestures are assigned to the functions of emotion expression, emblem, illustrator, adaptor or regulator. These have been collected by trainers, coaches, salespeople, personnel managers, directors and actors, but also by therapists, psychologists and agents of various secret services, and their possible intentions and meanings have been interpreted in a wide variety of situations. "

Symbolic Representations

The pioneer of developmental psychology, Jean Piaget, observed how his daughter, after not yet responding to the opening of a matchbox at the age of one, began to open and close her own hand when he opened and closed the box at the age of 1.5. When comparable actions were repeated with the hands, but also with other parts of the body such as the mouth or the eyes, Piaget inferred possible symbolic expressions behind our actions [20].

Psychological symbolic representations in Piaget’s sense (as distinct from biological symbolic representations in Konrad Lorenz’s sense) belong to the group of metaphorical gestures that are assigned to illustrators and, when they appear in the listener, reflect the listener’s perception of the speaker’s actions or statements. When they appear in the speaker, they express on a physical level contents for which the speaker has pictorial, abstract or transferred ideas on a mental level. Due to their highly symbolic character, many of these non-verbal expressions have entered into linguistic usage, where they are used and understood so intuitively and as a matter of course that, paradoxically, awareness of their origin in non-verbal communication and the associated expressiveness of the non-verbal expression has declined. If we read in an article that someone is putting his hands relaxed in his lap, it is immediately clear to us that this person is not thinking of taking action. However, if an applicant is sitting in front of us with his or her hands just as relaxed in his or her lap, we all too often overlook the expressiveness of this picture, even though a (good) picture should actually say more than a thousand words.

"

Through the above connections, one’s own understanding of nonverbal communication can be gradually increased if, in everyday life, one’s awareness of such self-evident phrases expressing a body-language posture or gesture is sharpened and one is made aware of their original meaning. Accordingly, we notice them more clearly in future conversations and increase our understanding of their implicit statements.

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It is also possible to observe how symbolic gestures are used to grasp thoughts or to try to get a grip on contexts or to find a foothold. If the applicant shows contemptuous and throwaway gestures while talking about previous employment relationships or commenting on the new job presented to him, his negative attitude is expressed, even if on the verbal level the answer may be formal and politically correct. It is well known that one must not make disparaging remarks about old employers in the job interview, and often the hands take over this task from there. Other signals in which our gestures convey relational contents that do not want to be expressed on the verbal level can be seen, for example, in the plucking or removal of imaginary or actually existing lint or dust from one’s own clothing. The person plucking or wiping with the back of his fingers in this way usually does not think much of the current topic or has reservations about individual points, but cannot or does not want to name them at the moment. As a result, his inner tension seeks another path and is directed at deficient points such as lint or dust on clothing. The target of the transferring action does not have to be the clothing; the dust can also be used to sweep the argument of the interlocutor off the table with the edge of the hand or to scare away uncomfortable thoughts and interjections like annoying insects. Symbolic gestures often represent the threshold to hurtful behaviour: If offers are rejected, in the worst case accompanied by a contemptuous facial expression, with the edges of the hand wiping across the table, it is usually no longer just about the matter in hand, but also about not hiding one’s displeasure from the interlocutor or letting him or her feel it, not infrequently devaluing him or her and placing oneself above him or her. As in relation to the spoken word, it is also true of gestures that the way in which a person speaks about others often says more about him or herself than about those about whom he or she is speaking. Disparaging gestures of the kind described must be distinguished from cleaning gestures, which, from the sober wording, pluck lint from a jacket in exactly the same way as the disparaging plucking described above. Formally, this seems to describe the same activity, but it is the way in which it is performed that makes the difference. Preening gestures show up when someone comes into view or is expected whose opinion means a lot to us. Briefly, one preens oneself out once again to make the best impression possible. The difference can usually be readily seen in the accompanying facial expressions and in the way one turns toward the fluff. Gestures with transferring content can also show up positively in other contexts, such as taking notes written down on the subject and carefully placing them in a folder, or conscientiously opening a new page in the notebook and carefully smoothing it out to make notes on a new subject. The wiping gesture, subtly implied here, applies to other topics that are eliminated in order to concentrate entirely on the new matter, as already indicated by the newly opened page. Among the different types of gestures, symbolic gestures especially lend themselves to consideration in respect to the laterality described in Chap. 3. The use or emphasis of a hand suggests that the gesture performed is more likely to be influenced by the left brain and expressed “logically” with the right hand, or influenced by the right brain and connoted

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“holistically” with the left hand. For example, a distinction can be made between whether a question or argument is pushed away with the left feeling hand or right ratio hand. In the first case, the answer makes the candidate uncomfortable, while in the second case, it is rational and not easy to answer in terms of content. As described, the interpretation always refers to right-handers and should be used for guidance only. The change in the number with which illustrators and thus symbolic actions are shown, simultaneously indicates a change in the emotional state. Thus, also in relation to gestures, normal behavior should first be determined. An increase in illustrators indicates possible excitement, joy, anger or arousal, while decreasing illustrators may be due to boredom, concentration, sadness and anxiety.

Adaptors/Displacement Activities Some symbolic gestures, while equally illustrative metaphorically, have to a greater extent the character of an adaptor, since they express more about the stress level of the applicant than about his relationship with the counterpart: For example, if he ventilates by tugging at his collar, the applicant is signaling his discomfort in relation to what has just been discussed. Navarro observed the tugging and widening of the collar regularly in interrogation when suspects were trying to hide something [21]. Ekman describes adaptors as reassurance gestures; other authors refer to them as displacement activities. Adaptors arise when conflicting impulses, experiences of frustration or conflicts put us under tension and the need arises to relieve it. This results in nervous evasive actions that do not pursue a primary purpose, but enable us as a secondary benefit to dissipate excess energy. They serve to regulate the energy level (adaptation). In German, their second name, “Übersprungshandlungen” (displacement activities), comes from the fact that, in addition to the expended kinetic energy, they metaphorically allow excess energy to spark over when touching other parts of the body, people or objects. Whether or not this actually results in a measurable flow of energy remains to be seen; in fact, their calming effect is based on the fact that touch releases stress-reducing endorphins in the brain, which help us to cope better with negative feelings. As a result, adaptors increase as stress and discomfort increase. They can be divided into self, other and object adaptors, in which one’s own body, other people or objects are touched.

Adaptors provide less content-related or symbolic information in the interview, but they make it easier to recognize emotionally charged topics. For this purpose, the simple distinction between well-being and discomfort represents a central criterion. The causes of the tensions are wide-ranging, for example, displacement activities can indicate reassurance, distancing or self-punishment. They are expressed, for example, by touching the face, scratching the head, pulling the earlobe, yawning, tapping lint from the suit, smoothing hair, brushing strands of hair from the face, rubbing hands, smoothing dress, adjusting or cleaning glasses, biting nails, arranging papers, looking at fingers, or playing with writing implements [22]. Other actions may be manifested in stroking the chin or beard, covering

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the mouth with the hand, touching the nose, rubbing the cheek, and in scratching or rubbing the eyebrows. Similarly, fingers placed against the cheek, scratching the corner of the mouth, nose, or temple can constitute self-soothing gestures. Navarro describes that simultaneously wiping the hands on the thighs, from the lap to the knees, is a strongly self-soothing gesture that interrogators used to try to gain relief under pressure [23]. Although the hands perform this gesture under the table, it can be easily seen by paying attention to the shoulders and arms of the applicant. If the hand is brought behind the head and the neck or the back of the head is rubbed, scratched, touched or held, the hands and forearms simultaneously protect our neck and the sensitive main arteries in the neck. The grip on the neck thus signals insecurity, inner conflict or frustration, depending on the intensity. If the applicant shows this gesture, one should better explain the point just discussed and try to determine and resolve any fears and insecurities. "

An interesting insight is offered by the applicant’s reaction to a reprimand or failure. Here a distinction can be made between rubbing the neck and slapping the hand on the forehead. While the former movement is associated with a negative, critical type who reproaches himself, the latter movement signals an open type who shows an easy-going attitude along the lines of “Oops, I should have known better, but what the heck, we’ll do better next time, on with the show!”. In a job interview, for example, such a reaction could be triggered by a challenging question that requires thinking outside the box, thinking around the corner or a disruptive approach to thinking in order to arrive at the ideal solution. If the applicant fails in the attempt to solve the problem and is subsequently told the solution, it can be observed whether one of the two reactions described above appears, even if only in the beginning.

Also, touching the neck or jugular indicates insecurity and is a self-soothing touch to relieve stress. So does adjusting your tie, which is a way of getting yourself back into shape after an awkward situation or botched action to maintain poise. Slight insecurities can also be seen in adjusting the watch or the cufflinks, both actions at the same time erecting a subtle barrier to the partner. As described, the assignment of our gestures to a certain functional category is important in order to interpret them accurately. Thus, finger drumming in its function as an adaptor can indeed signal one’s own restlessness. But if it shows itself as an illustrator, it clearly sends the request to finally get to the essential. Illustrative finger drumming should not normally show up in a job interview: It comes across as rude and snubbing. In its function as an adaptor, however, it occurs again and again. The distinction is shown by the intensity and degree of awareness of the drumming. As an adaptor, it occurs subtly and only at the onset before the person beginning to drum becomes aware of it and its rude effect and quickly stops it. In this function it has not a superficial appeal but a stronger self-

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disclosure effect and expresses the perceived boredom and the currently unrealizable need to get up and leave the situation. It is not always necessary to tap on the table, more inconspicuous places where the urge to drum can be let out are also the thighs or the armrest. Meaning of the Parts of the Body Where One Touches Oneself Various authors describe that in displacement activities, one’s hands often touch those parts of the body where we feel deficient. This observation is scientifically confirmed by studies described by Kahneman: Subjects were made to lie either by phone or by email. In a subsequent test with different products, the group that lied on the phone, by mouth, preferred mouthwash. Those who lied by e-mail, with their hands, preferred soap [24]. Both groups were thus unconsciously trying to cleanse their blemished body parts again. Another form of emphasis, of unconscious compensation or turning to the blemish, can be seen in the form of worn rings that emphasize those fingers whose values are important to the wearer.

In the examples described above, it can be seen that many displacement activities involve touching the face. The touched area allows for further insight: For example, when confronted with conflicting information or confusing stimuli, we additionally consult our oldest sense, the sense of taste, in search of more information. Just as we bring food to our nose when we are unsure whether it is still edible, we do the same when we reach for our nose in a probing way if we are critical of the topic currently being discussed. We have to think about it again before we make a final judgement and take in or reject the content. Other reasons for putting the hand to the nose can be consternation, being caught or the fear of being caught. In stressful situations, familiar stimuli help to gain security and calm us down: If the hand is brought to the nose, it brings us into contact with our own body odor, which is deeply familiar to us and gives us security. In contrast, fingers placed at or in the mouth indicate surprise, confusion or amazement. If this gesture appears more often, the interpretation can range from at least a current obtuseness to a basically naive mind, which brings along the disposition to indulge diffusely in external stimuli or imaginative ideas [25]. Less critical is the hand that brings the joined fingers to the pursed mouth. Joined fingers enable us to handle delicate things carefully, as we might otherwise do with tweezers. If this gesture is shown, we feel into ourselves and are ready to give thoughts the space they need to develop [4]. Pressing the thumb and index finger together the inner sides of the root of the nose shows an intuitive, self-regulating action of the body that stimulates an acupressure point activating the organism and improves vision. If this grip is shown, we are usually annoyed or find a situation very tiring. The gesture is therefore based on an effort to dispel fatigue and regain a clear vision [26]. As described in Chap. 9 on avoidant eye contact, we block out unwanted visual information. If the hand is brought to the eyes, the intake of unpleasant stimuli is to be prevented. If the eyes are rubbed, the cause may be based in displeasure or various forms of

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pain. If a single finger rubs the eye, laterality and the finger symbolism described above can be used for interpretation. The grip on the earlobe can be interpreted in different ways, on the one hand the general atmosphere of the conversation should be taken into account and a distinction made as to whether the person concerned is speaking or listening. On the one hand, the grip on the earlobe stimulates the acupuncture point for the eyes [27]: if the person is listening and there is a cooperative atmosphere, he wants to look more closely, briefly stimulates the point on the ear in search of more information and shows that the topic interests him. Likewise, reaching for the ear can convey that she has not exactly understood what she has just heard, in which case the earlobe may be pulled down a little or the ear pulled out a little at the conch. The latter conveys the request for clearer and louder pronunciation or the elimination of disturbing noises. If the atmosphere is more critical, the point on the ear is rubbed longer, if necessary, so that the gesture takes on a probing character. If the interlocutor begins to speak, the hand to the face or the gesture reaching for the earlobe are status-lowering gestures that can indicate an attempt at deception. Depending on the timing, these gestures can be interpreted in different ways: Grasping at the earlobe, as described in Chap. 10, may represent the result of a gesture modified in the course of our socialization. Small children still slap their hand in front of their mouth after telling a lie; adults redirect the impulse and bring their hand to their nose, ear, glasses, or jewelry [28]. If this happens after the statement, the applicant is latently aware that he has just said something detrimental unintentionally. If the gesture appears before he speaks, his moral dilemma is expressed: Actually, he should tell the truth, but he decides for the “alternative”, from which he expects more success.

Manipulators Manipulators are also assigned to the adaptors and are gestures and actions with which other body parts or objects are not only touched but intensively worked on. Examples can be seen in rubbing or wringing the hands or playing with a pen.

Hand Rubbing After the applicant has made his (salary) offer or expressed a statement about it, the recruiter has to accept it and so the applicant gets into the waiting position until he receives a signal indicating the result of the decision-making process. Currently his hands are tied and so the palms are interlocked. This can be done by placing the palms of the hands on top of each other and the fingers of one hand protectively clasping the other. In doing so, they hold each other tightly and prevent each other from acting. A washing motion may result, expressing well-being and signaling readiness as well as preparation for action. If the pressure increases, the movement develops into rubbing of the hands, which usually occurs

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at the relaxed plane between the girdle and the solar plexus. If the height moves above the solar plexus to chest level, the head occasionally lowers and the rubbing movement takes on an insidious character: the height of the gesture in this passionate area attaches a disproportionate importance to the result and protecting the head with raised shoulders can signal the fear that something could still go wrong. Someone who has made a fair and sincere offer should not feel guilty or afraid that the deal might not go through. Further information is provided by the speed with which the hands are rubbed. If we have a good idea with which we can honestly help our conversation partner, we intuitively prepare our hands by rubbing them quickly and briefly in order to go straight into action. In sales, the quickly rubbing salesperson has just come up with which product or service would best benefit the customer. The slow hand rub, on the other hand, signals that the salesperson is excited about the very good deal he is about to make. If the candidate is asked a question about a hypothetical solution to a real-world problem, they may start by hand-wringing. If the eureka effect then occurs, the quick rubbing hand motion signals that the applicant is sure he has found a good solution. A slow rubbing movement in the same situation could express the hope that it will work out and that the company representative will accept a vague answer or can be impressed. During the salary negotiation, attention can be paid to how the applicant behaves after he has made his demand and the company representatives try to meet it. Does he distance himself from his salary request, does he retreat and close himself off, or does he remain willing to talk? In principle, relaxed rubbing hands show that you want something. You try to concentrate and think you’ve done everything so well so far that nothing should stand in the way of a deal. If the tension increases, the rubbing hands become wringing hands and signal increasing doubt or stress. If the hands are even rubbed with interlocked fingers, this is an indicator of great stress. If the hands cling to each other, there is a lack of options for action: The applicant does not know what to do at the moment and feels unable to act. Example

The way in which one hand treats the other, in connection with the topic currently in the room, the symbolism of the fingers and the meaning of laterality, enables complementary insights into the attitude to what is being said. During an interview training session, we questioned the applicant’s attitude towards cold calling. He did argue for cold calling, dynamically placing his right hand on the table in front of him with the edge of the hand and fingertips facing forward, pointing at the interviewers. On a factual level, the applicant knew that “door-knocking” was part of sales and that he had to show assertiveness and dynamism. At the same time, however, his left emotional hand lay protectively over his right, signaling that he was not quite convinced after all. He was then successful in the following interview, but the position he attained was only a brief stop before he moved on to the next employer, where he was able to act more passively. As part of the internal development, he finally turned his back on operational sales altogether in the following step. When I asked him later whether he still looked after customers, he informed me that he no longer did “that sort of thing”.

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Good for his real career aspirations, bad for the first company that had hired him to advance its own customer expansion: After just one year, the company had to start looking for a successor. ◄ If the tensions become too great, some people reduce them by cracking their fingers. This also has a self-regulating function: since more information is transferred from the body to the brain when pulling and cracking, i.e., from the peripheral to the central nervous system, the reverse flow of information is inhibited and nervousness subsides [29]. In addition to the acoustic evidence of self-efficacy, which is also reassuring, the cracking person takes care of his instruments of action on the symbolic level and demonstrates their ability to act via the cracking sound. The tension is often based on stress: someone wants to act, but is unable to do so at the moment. The hands are nevertheless ready for action and under tension, through manipulation and mutual kneading, stretching, compressing, they are kept busy, even if the whim seems nervous and latently aggressive. The latent aggressive and annoying effect is based on the fact that here outwardly urgent energy is discharged and at the same time one penetrates into the acoustic and emotional territory of one’s fellow men. Regular cracking cannot be ignored. As a rule, very few people in the environment are interested in the communication of the associated nervousness, especially if it is not obvious to them whether the ability to act is really objectively non-existent or only subjectively imagined. By cracking the applicant shows a bare nervous-system and a strongly limited self-control. If it is a habit, one may ask oneself what stresses the cracking person has already been exposed to, as a result of which he has become accustomed to cracking, and to what degree these continue to influence him or prevent him from performing. One thing is certain: while cracking is going on, nothing else can be done, the associated stressed, resigned or disgruntled mood influences the way of thinking and thus indirectly also the work result. In addition, there is a risk of emotional contagion, where negative feelings are transferred from one person to his environment, to future colleagues [30]. However, cracking must be differentiated according to whether it is discouraged or preparatory cracking, which, similar to a quick hand rub, is performed briefly to make the hands ready for action.

Intentional Gestures Due to the close connection between gestures and language, intentional movements also occur in the gestural area before we take or want to take the floor: an index finger that is slightly exposed while the hand is still on the table, the forearm that lifts the still closed or slightly opened hand, the rubbing fingertips that try to make a thought tangible. Whoever recognizes these gestures of intention, which belong to the gestural category of regulators, in the interlocutor, can pause, recollect what has just been said and read off from the whole expression of the interlocutor whether he wants to add to what has been said or wants to counter it with something. Thereupon, the current statement can be adjusted and an attempt

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can be made to integrate both or the conversation partner can be given the floor to continue the conversation in a cooperative dialogue. A positive intention gesture takes the hands apart in preparation for clapping hands. The next step might be to clap them together with a “Let’s do it” to get started in a motivated way. In a more subtle execution, the applicant, often slightly bent over, places his hands noiselessly one inside the other as in an inhibited clap. He is ready for action and is merely waiting for the company to get down to business so that words and, for example, a project description can be followed by action. In the context of a dynamic dialogue about an exciting challenge, the clapping may really take place and the hands are then brought together in a rubbing attitude because a promising solution has been found.

Evaluation Gestures As we form a picture of the situation or let information sink in before making a decision, our hands express the inner deliberation in the form of various evaluative gestures. The classic form is shown in the thoughtful stroking of the chin, when the thumb from one side and one to four fingers from the other side stroke forward from the cheeks. Just before they would meet at the chin, the gesture is performed again. It may be observed which hand is evaluating and which fingers are involved in the inward weighing. Is it a fine evaluating between the index finger and the thumb, or do the middle finger, ring finger, or even the little finger come in addition and counterbalance the thumb on the other side? The number of fingers, the height at which they start, and the speed with which they stroke to the chin determine the character of the gesture. If several fingers sweep forward, forming the mouth into a connoisseur’s snout, the result would already taste good to us and has almost seduced us. If only the index finger and thumb evaluate, while the middle finger slightly strokes the chin from below, the gesture gains a more critical character, it turns out shorter and seems more suspicious. If the movement falls slightly when stroking forward and at the same time a bitter facial expression appears, the anxious search for ways out of the awkward situation becomes apparent. The more exact differentiation must always take place before the subject and frame, in principle a decision is made here: The movements following it indicate whether this has turned out positively or negatively. If the former is the case and the partner’s statement or offer is accepted, the head normally rises and eye contact is made – in the negative case, eye contact is often not resumed directly after the gesture, but only after briefly looking somewhere else. A possible further development of the gesture can be seen, for example, when after evaluating the thumb is placed under the chin and the index finger is placed upwards on the cheek. Molcho refers to this posture as the pistol, where one gets ready to point out possible weak points of the other party with the pointing index finger. As described in the context of planes of gesture, the rising height of the hands signals increasing interest. When they finally reach the face and the hand is placed on the cheek on the same side, we clearly signal our concern, sympathy or even our interest. However, if this is disappointed, this posture

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also develops further, we support our cheek with the hand, and finally, bored, the whole head. An indecisive evaluation between two possibilities is shown when the head is weighed from side to side in an attempt to take different perspectives. Here it is advisable to wait, to keep one’s own rhythm calm and gestures in the trust plane. Inwardly, one can prepare oneself for follow-up questions and objections and for providing one or two more arguments for the benefits of one’s preferred option in order to help the applicant gain the necessary certainty for his/her decision. Spectacle wearers sometimes take the opportunity to clean their visual aids as part of their decision-making process. Cleaned glasses allow you to see more precisely and figuratively hope for a better view in relation to the matter to be evaluated. If the interlocutor cleans his glasses, it should be waited. If one continues to argue in this context, one unnecessarily speeds up one’s rhythm and risks losing the counterpart who has just slowed down. Here, too, the behavior after cleaning indicates how the decision was made: If the interlocutor puts his glasses back on, he can move on: He wants to see more. If he folds them up accurately and puts them in the case, he has usually seen enough, in a positive sense, and tends to make a positive decision [31]. If he puts the glasses on the table, this action regularly has a discouraged character and shows that he refrains from a possible agreement. Evaluative gestures are predominantly assigned to the regulators, but depending on the context they can also occur in the function of an illustrator. If, following an evaluative gesture or independently of it, a nose flick follows, in which the outside of the index finger pushes the tip of the nose from the bottom to the top one or more times, the interlocutor rejects the statement we have made and signals that it does not fit in with his view of the world or that he finds it inappropriate, impertinent or even barefaced – the number of nose flicks and the intensity with which they are performed show just how much. A direct address in this context would be snubbing as a reaction, but a verbalization or an open question tangential to the disgruntlement can help to open up the interlocutor. Alternatively, one’s own statement can be put into perspective and possible backgrounds to the nose-flicking comment can be integrated.

11.6

Passive Gestures: Hand Positions

In addition to their active form, in which the moving hands sometimes tell more than the mouth when speaking, they have a passive role when listening. When the active expression of our hands ends, it leads to various hand positions that echo what has just been said or, in the course of a longer monologue by the interlocutor, give him non-verbal feedback and show what effect his words leave on the recipient. The interpretation of hand positions also contains a high proportion of symbolism, so the context and the role structure must always be taken into account. Even if meanings are described for the various hand positions, these are not digital but analogue modalities, so that individual postures should always be

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observed in the context of other non-verbal signals and there, as part of a signal chain, form the basic tenor of the statement of the overall expression. The effectiveness of yoga, which is over 3000 years old, has been proven in hundreds of studies [32]. Yoga uses the meridian system of traditional Chinese medicine and has researched and described a whole catalogue of hand positions called mudras. These mudras allow one to influence and harmonize the energy flows in the body. Within the framework of self-regulation, we tend to unconsciously perform those mudras that help our organism to find balance, and thus also communicate our state of health and our needs as listeners through our hand positions. In this context, the Hakini mudra is probably the most well-known hand position at the moment, as it was made famous on a global level as the “Merkel rhombus” by the German Chancellor.

Hakini Mudra: “Merkel rhombus” The high familiarity of the Merkel rhombus facilitates the description at this point: In the Hakini mudra, the tips of the stretched and spread fingers are placed on top of each other so that the thumbs form the familiar rhombus in conjunction with the index fingers. The Hakini Mudra brings both halves of the body and brain together and, in addition to its inward calming and gathering effect, allows for the building of greater tension in the upper body and a more upright posture. It forms a closed posture that seals us off and at the same time allows us to remain ready for action by lightly placing our fingertips together. Building on the basic posture, four characteristics cause further differentiations: the height with which the Hakini Mudra is performed, the tilt angle of the hands and thus the orientation of the rhombus, the degree of tension of the touching fingertips and the degree of spreading of the fingers. If, as in the classic Merkel rhombus, the pose is tilted forward and held at waist level, it develops the character of an obscure and powerful gesture due to the depth and the orientation of the fingers towards the floor. It forms a compact defensive posture, yet does not retreat; on the contrary, the dominant thumbs are clearly exposed and, depending on the angle, directed at the head of the opponent. The rhombus symbol is directed at his torso and protects his own vulnerable abdominal region; at the same time, the upper body remains open and thus signals strength and self-confidence (Fig. 11.2).

The Plough If the rhombus is tilted slightly upwards, the outstretched fingertips are thereby directed towards the interlocutor, while the thumbs point upwards. The posture now develops a defensive or offensive character depending on the spread and degree of tension of the fingers. If the fingers are spread open and the palms are away from each other, attacks can be dispersed and directed around one’s own body. If the fingers close and the palms come slightly towards each other, some authors refer to this posture as the plough. This is still

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Fig. 11.2 Hakini mudra, plough, icebreaker

compactly closed, but now more offensive and oriented to counterattack and ready to cut a swath into the opponent’s position with the centered fingertips and then rip it up, like the plough rips up the earth, to plant one’s own thought seed (Fig. 11.2). Example

Christian Schmid-Egger and Caroline Krüll describe an interesting partner exercise in this context. In this, the plough is first directed at the chest and stomach area of the conversation partner from a distance of about one metre. The latter feels inside himself and determines the effect of the gesture on him. Then the hands are placed loosely one inside the other with the palms facing upwards and the practice partner is questioned again. As a rule, he feels much more comfortable with the second position. SchmidEgger and Krüll have even made the experience with sensitive persons that they could determine even with closed eyes which posture the exercise partner just took [33]. ◄

The Icebreaker In the icebreaker, the folded hands are directed forward, similar to the plough (Fig. 11.2). A distinction results from the positioning, the hands rest on the table in the icebreaker, and from the degree of tension of the hand position. The hands pressed resolutely together results in a compact stance that deflects any counterattacks past the interlocutor. Like the plough, he makes his way forward and gives direction. However, he is more rigorous: the hands pressed together can exert a stronger force on a single point and, because of the supporting tabletop from below, concentrate it even more effectively. In this posture, the candidate is only partially receptive; the focus is on paving one’s own way, on reaching one’s goal. What is important is where the icebreaker is at the moment, is it close to the body or has it already started to move and open up territory? The key here is to release the tension and find ways to open up the interlocutor. This can be done, for example, by integrating both views. If the way of the icebreaker can be connected with that of the operation, his determination and goal orientation can be beneficial for both sides. On the other hand, the strength of goal orientation and tenacity

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bring the weakness of lack of situational flexibility. To check what personality is behind the gesture, one can ask whether the behavior is due to the situation or whether it is generally a dogged type. Further information can be gained from the situation and the frequency with which the gesture is shown and the readiness with which one is open to release it again. The question arises as to what triggers the rigidity of the position: Does the applicant have pressure elsewhere or no leeway? If an agreement is to be reached, the flexibility and willingness to compromise must currently come from the company.

The Roof: “Obama mudra” If the position is turned further upwards from the plough, it develops into a roof (Fig. 11.3). Now the fingertips point upwards and the thumbs point towards ourselves. Since former U.S. President Barak Obama performed this gesture regularly, it is also occasionally referred to as the Obama mudra. It has an inherent aplomb, and is often performed after a statement of our own has been made, or when the conversation turns to a topic in which we feel at home and superior to the other person. It expresses self-assurance, comes across as sincere, authoritative and confident, and signals that one is currently fully convinced of one’s thoughts. The roof tends to show up at waist level in women, and more at chest level in men. The spread of the fingers signals the degree of security: the wider they are spread, the more secure the counterpart feels, while fingers held tightly together signal rejection and a certain need for protection. The roof often shows up in conjunction with a leaning back, relaxed posture that signals little or no willingness to take action. Let the others deliver and we’ll see what can be made of it. With this posture, too, an openly presented suprasternal notch increases the superiority shown, appears challenging through the raised chin and shows that one does not really feel vulnerable right now. When the roof is used intuitively in a relaxed setting among peers, it shows a natural claim to situational authority and current high status. As a result, in situations with a high status difference, there can be a danger of appearing smug or arrogant through the roof. Because the dominant relationship aspect is the focus and the roof is associated with convincing self-disclosure, it should not be used when the recruiter is trying to persuade the applicant or gain the applicant’s trust. The dominant high status lacks the flexibility to subordinate and also lacks the flexibility to woo the candidate. If, on the other hand, an applicant shows the roof in the interview, one may wonder how he actually assesses the role-status structure in the interview, obviously he thinks very highly of himself. Presumably he has attractive alternatives in relation to the topic currently in the room. As with evaluative gestures, the behavior that follows the roof provides information about how to proceed. Positive, open, cooperative signals indicate approval, while negative, closing, withdrawing, and confrontational signals convey rejection. A dynamic variation that can follow the roof and foreshadow the speech to come is seen when the fingertips subtly separate and rejoin each other in a tapping motion. The shape of

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Fig. 11.3 Roof, hands loosely interlocked, praying hands (Catholic)

the roof remains, but the tapping fingertips probe possible points of contact between different aspects. Between the expectations of the interviewer and the means available to meet them, or between the applicant’s own expectations and what the interviewer has to offer. If the applicant shows this tapping attitude, one should not repeat an offer made, but ask oneself where the offer deviates from one’s expectations, and then try to adjust it accordingly. If the typing speed changes, it shows growing impatience, one’s statement should be condensed to the essentials and an end point found. If, on the other hand, the fingertips lie on each other with pressure, the interlocutor waits tensely and concentrated, here should be answered precisely, concisely and thoughtfully.

Loose Interlocking Palms The hands, loosely placed one inside the other, form a neutral starting position. It is slightly closed, but with a low degree of tension and ready to open at any time. If the candidate is listening and otherwise does not know where to put his hands, it is reassuring to have them loosely interlocked: So they are taken care of and give him all the freedom he needs (Fig. 11.3). From the basic position, the hand positions develop into the most varied postures depending on the course of the conversation. A measure of the emotionality of the various postures is the effort required to return to the neutral posture. This is most easily achieved from the next posture, the (Catholic) praying hands.

The (Catholic) Praying Hands If the palms lie rather loosely on top of each other, so that the hands are formed as in prayer, but in contrast to this are directed forward, this implies, in addition to the need for protection which this closed posture fulfils, the gentle request and the wish for acceptance of the thoughts put forward. A further differentiation can be made on the basis of the thumbs. If they lie on top of each other, the interlocutor tends to withdraw; if they are erected, he signals a certain claim to dominance. If the pressure increases, the posture quickly develops into an icebreaker.

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If, on the other hand, the position turns upwards and becomes the classical (Catholic) praying posture, this rises with the turn into the field of vision and thus into the consciousness of the interlocutors and reinforces the asking but also subordinating character (Fig. 11.3). The palms of the hands rest on each other and support each other, the disciplined fingers placed together show concentration and seriousness. At the same time, the hand position remains flexible and, if it tips forward, can become a plough or icebreaker again, directing the attacks around itself and focusing its own energy on the pursuit of its own goals and against the interlocutor.

The Porcupine/Hedgehog If the hands are in the plough or praying posture and the pressure of the opposing party increases, the posture can quickly develop into a porcupine, other authors call it a hedgehog or barbed wire fence. For this, one merely lets the outstretched fingers slide into each other so that they intertwine and form a defensive formation at a 90-degree angle, reminiscent of a tank barrier (Fig. 11.4). The porcupine is a defensive posture, which indicates that the reproaches or attacks of the interlocutor are rejected. Through the extended fingers it develops an aggressively defensive character, whoever comes too close to the interlocutor or wants to overcome him, can meet with active resistance. The height of the posture gives information about the degree of defense.

Folded Hands If the willingness to fight decreases and the porcupine loses tension, the hands interlock or cling together as if in (evangelical) prayer (Fig. 11.4). Defensiveness increases: clasped hands are more difficult to disengage than in the porcupine’s posture, which is tense but more open because of the extended fingers. Folded hands can act only with difficulty. Those who speak up and make a concession from this posture usually still have something that is held back behind what is said [34]. Behind the interlocked fingers one usually feels well balanced, however the posture makes it difficult to open up again easily. Pressure would be the wrong approach here: this would cause further withdrawal and result in knotted fingers that caused the knuckles to whiten when they eventually do open up again. Here, too, the applicant will find it easier to enter into the conversation if he or she is given time and space and a cooperative discussion atmosphere is generated. The height of the folded hands provides information about the emotional intensity and the degree of awareness of the underlying feelings: If the hands are placed loosely and folded into each other on the table, the applicant continues to face the interviewer and remain in the conversation; if, on the other hand, they are pulled away from the table and

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Fig. 11.4 Hedgehog, folded hands, double gun

brought closer to the body, their protective character increases. If they move in front of the chest, the posture becomes more compact and the hands erect a stronger blockade. If, in addition, the head is tilted a little, the result is a praying posture with a humble and reflective character. A little higher still, at the level of the chin or in front of the mouth, they prevent a wrong word from slipping out. If the chin is supported on the interlocking thumbs, the result is a waiting and thoughtful character (Fig. 11.5); if it is supported on the exposed thumbs pointing toward oneself, the posture becomes more challenging. If the nose and mouth are hidden behind the two thumbs placed parallel to each other, the posture takes on a probing and self-assuring character due to the nose smelling directly into the hollow space between the hands.

The Wall If the tight clasping of the hands is abandoned and they develop into clasped hands, which are placed on the table in front of oneself with the palms directed to oneself, a wall is formed. Behind this wall, territory is demarcated and with the space gained, one also regains the ability to act: a counter-strategy can be developed. How their chances of success are judged is shown by the thumbs. If they are exposed, confidence is shown, but if they are

Fig. 11.5 Simple pistol, clenched fist, folded hands (high)

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put down, they reinforce the wall and increase the passive and defensive character of the posture. If they are tipped, they develop a deliberative, waiting character. If the wall is dismantled and the hands remain together, so that they are placed on the table with fingers interlocked and palms facing downwards, this signals that something is still being held in the back of the hand, hidden and held back from the interlocutor.

Single and Double Pistol Another development of the folded hands is that of the double pistol. The hands remain clasped, with the exception of the extended index fingers and the two exposed thumbs. These symbolize the trigger of the pistol and often support the chin, and thus loaded, the know-it-all index fingers are ready to fire as the barrels of the gun as soon as a weak point appears in the opponent’s concept (Fig. 11.4). Both the pistol and the double pistol indicate aggressiveness, and arguments which have hitherto been withheld, but are ready for firing, or are being made ready for it. The double pistol and the single pistol differ in the degree of opening and thus in the extent of defense. The double pistol, as a closed stance, is more defensive, already more cornered and thus more irritable: its counter-defense can be more aggressive and represent a principled defense against anything that moves. A further charging of the gun can be prevented by interrupting one’s own chain of argumentation and addressing a (cooperative) question to the recipient instead of another statement (often perceived as provocative by the recipient). The question contains the chance to open up the interlocutor again and to enter into dialogue together with him. The first step on the relationship level was already taken when the pressure was interrupted and the emotional reaction of the counterpart was addressed by changing the way the conversation was conducted. In contrast to the double-action pistol, its single-action version has a looser character; while it is held just as critically loaded, it is more likely to wait for specific, single errors to aim at in order to land a hit (Fig. 11.5). Again, there is a desire to pull the trigger. This desire can be exploited and one can provide a strategic argument or negotiating point for the other party to shoot at. This should be chosen so that it can be easily given up and conceded to the other party. This shows one’s good will, activates the law of reciprocity, and makes it difficult for the other party to attack the next point in the same way without seeming impertinent.

Clenched Fists If out of the roof one of the hands clenches into a fist and is enclosed by the other, it expresses the mastery of one’s own emotion. In this case, you must always pay attention to the whole posture and body tension: If both elbows are placed on the table and one hand is

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holding the clenched other fist, a weak degree of tension with which this is done shows that it is a relaxed exchange in which the interlocutor clenching his fist is simply taking something out of the conversation. This may result in the chin being propped up on the formation and the posture developing a presenting character: The conversation is attended, one is interested in what is new, but does not want to put oneself too much in the centre (Fig. 11.5). If the tension of the hands and arms increases, the character of the gesture changes: the tense muscles show the rising action potential, which is, however, held in check voluntarily. If at the same time the gaze becomes more piercing and the jaw muscles more tense, restrained, suppressed aggression is revealed: Now it is imperative to gently leadthe fistclenching person back into the conversation. The height of the gesture signals the frustration of the sender. The higher the position, the more problematic it becomes (Fig. 11.5). If one or both fists are clenched without holding them, the rising anger is openly shown. Here, too, the higher the clenched fist wanders, the clearer and more conscious the signal sent. So in the job interview it should show itself at most unconsciously and under the table. The applicant feels, as with the German proverbial “clenched fist in the pocket”, angry, but to a certain extent helpless and therefore avoids open confrontation. Clenching the fist under the table also disrupts the flow of blood in the hand, and so the blood subsequently flowing back into the hand and reddening the skin betrays the previously clenched fist. If clenched fists accompany diplomatic verbal statements about the old company, they show that not everything was as harmless as portrayed after all.

Restrained Hand Positions Besides the held fist, other gestures indicate our restraint. If action is not possible, we put the restraints on ourselves. For example, the armrests are gripped to relieve tension and prevent us from jumping up and becoming active. If this restraint is registered, the action potential it contains can be positively integrated into the conversation, if necessary; at least the energy is there. The challenge is to raise and direct it in a targeted way. What appears like with a “footballer standing in the wall for a free kick”, something similar occurs at the table when both hands are placed inside each other and appear as a good girl or boy gesture (Fig. 11.6). The lack of tension and the innocuously parked hands, combined with the loosely closed stance, express that no contra is expected. Etiquette is maintained and one’s own opinion is withheld. If this hand position represents the basic initial gesture or if it is persisted in, the applicant shows to a certain degree his ability to adapt and to submit. However, it will be difficult to infect him with our excitement; the effect on the relationship level is too reserved and impersonal. Depending on what kind of employee is being sought, this does not necessarily have to be a disadvantage, but since the applicant’s essence is not tangible and he or she hardly seems activatable and inwardly too distant, the recruiter has difficulty gaining trust and fails to build a personal bridge.

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Fig. 11.6 Bübchen gesture, braking hands

Similarly, it can regularly be observed that one hand slows the other down or keeps it down by either covering it or holding it above the wrist, for example, the rational right hand wants to act and argue on the issue level, but the emotional left hand slows it down and expresses any reservations on the moral, self-concept and emotional levels. Or, conversely, while the left hand is formulating an emotional comment on a subject, the rational right hand is preventing it from expressing itself and admonishing it to stay on topic (Fig. 11.6). Whoever sits down on his own hands withdraws completely from the conversation: Whoever does not freeze and thereby wants to warm the handsprevents them from acting with his own body weight, has decided to stay out of it completely with regard to the current topic. This posture is accompanied by a slightly sunken chest, which further illustrates the lack of action potential, much less activating oxygen can be breathed into a bent chest than in an upright posture. The shoulders hanging forward and the resulting bottom-up begging look show that one has said goodbye internally and is only willing to contribute to a limited extent. The applicant appears unmotivated or reactive, as if he is forcing himself to hold back. Further information is provided by whether the palms on which the applicant sits are directed upwards or downwards. If the palms are facing down, the elbows move slightly more outward and forward due to the different angle, bringing a dominant and defiant character to the gesture. If the palms are facing up, the elbows move back and lower a little more, opening up the torso region and bringing a more receptive character than with the palms facing down. While not wanting to broadcast right now, the applicant is still open to a speech or offers that will bring him back into the conversation or to the negotiating table.

The Scissors If you try to represent a pair of scissors without words, you will intuitively use your index and middle fingers to symbolize them. In conversation, one can regularly observe how these scissors tamper with individual fingers of the other hand, usually the index finger. On the symbolic level, its know-it-all or pointing impulse is cut off and prevented from expression. According to the unconscious or conscious view of the sender, his comment

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would not fit into the setting or role-status structure: The applicant’s hands are tied, but he cannot or does not want to express this. "

11.7

Impulses of this kind become more meaningful when they are collected in various situations during the interview and reveal a pattern or tenor that emerges in connection with certain topics. The recruiter then has various options depending on the goal, the atmosphere of the interview and the degree of familiarity already established. Once a topic has emerged from the collected signals, he can decide whether to name it in order to bring up possible reservations or emotionally charged points and clarify them. An alternative can be to help the individual impulse, which is present in the context of a reserved gesture and is often unconsciously suppressed, to find expression with a resonance statement or other techniques of active listening, so that it can cross the threshold to consciousness and flow into the conversation.

Own Gestures

In addition to the statements the recruiter gains from the applicant’s gestures, the recruiter’s own gestures open up various possibilities for communicating more effectively. Psychology and neuroscience prove that we make the majority of our decisions emotionally, which also includes the decision of what of the communication of our counterpart we remember. How well we remember information also depends on the channels through which it reaches us. While we remember only 20% of what we hear and only 30% of what we see, these numbers accumulate to 50% for content that we both see and hear [35]. As a result, we can more than double the effectiveness of our communication by supporting what we say nonverbally and making it visible through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and placeholders.

In this context, non-verbal communication always pursues a qualitative aspect that increases comprehensibility and makes complex content more tangible. It is therefore not a matter of additionally presenting self-evident facts or banalities gesturally; that would astonish the interlocutor or offend him. The aim of convincing gestures should be to create an intellectual link between gesture and feeling. The link increases the relevance for the interlocutor and increases his receptiveness for our message as well as the sustainability of its impression. In addition, both hemispheres of the brain are addressed by simultaneous speaking and gesticulating, so that the effect of one’s own statement is strengthened and its persuasiveness is increased [36]. A fundamental law of perception comes into play here, the effect of which we have already become familiar with in the context of shock induced paralysis. Movement attracts attention. So if you want more attention, you can achieve this by

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increasing the use of gestures. But here, too, the dose makes the poison: if a critical level of movement is exceeded, the positive effect of attention turns into the opposite – the sender is categorized as a fidget, and the excess of arousal caused by the excessive movement triggers rejection. The threshold at which the mixing ratio tips over always depends on the setting, the interlocutor and his or her current state of mind. Depending on the recruiter’s individual temperament and the goal of the interview, gestures thus offer various possibilities for slowing down one’s own expression somewhat and giving the counterpart space or activating it and thus drawing attention to one’s own message. In this context, attention should always be paid to signals from the applicant expressing discomfort and to the fact that the extent and scope of gestures should only be dosed subtly and deliberately in key situations. Otherwise, the free expression of one’s own gestures should be allowed in order not to impair an authentic expression. "

Since our communication must always be measured against the desired effect that we want to convey, our gestures must also fit the framework of the situation and the expectations placed on us. In doing so, it conveys general relationship and status information. So if you want to convey trustworthiness, integrity and seriousness as a recruiter, you should not counteract this with erratic, nervous and incalculable movements.

Groomed Hands How effectively we can use our gestures is determined by the condition of our hands. In principle, well-groomed hands have a positive effect. A Unilever study, which collected a total of 4025 descriptions, revealed that the less attractive a hand is, the less likely it is that its gestures will be noticed [37]. In general, it is rude and encroaching to pay special attention to the blemishes of our fellow human beings. We try to overlook them so as not to snub our interlocutors. If we do look, unsightly features take up more of our visual attention and, accordingly, unkempt hands have a counterproductive effect on the impact of one’s gestures. Participants in the Unilever study were less able to read, interpret and decode the gestures of unkempt hands. Wrinkled, rough, dry or blotchy skin, scars, marks, calluses, dirt, dry cuticles and brittle nails had a negative effect. Conversely, making our hands more attractive increases the likelihood that they will be noticed and their signals decoded. In the study, clean, well-groomed, manicured, strong, soft, and non-dry hands appeared attractive [38]. "

Visibility of the Hands

Navarro describes how in several of his seminars he divided the participants into two groups. While one of the groups kept their hands hidden under the table for the duration of a 15-min conversation, the participants in the other group kept their hands clearly visible above the table. Afterwards, the

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participants were asked about the effect that the different conversation partners had left on them. The first group, with their hands hidden, basically created a tense, closed-lipped to devious impression, and they were even accused of lying. In contrast, the second group produced the opposite impression: those participants who had kept their hands clearly visible during the conversation were without exception attributed positive characteristics, they were perceived as more sociable, and none of them was accused of having lied [39].

An applicant who is to decide to leave his existing employment will only do so if he has been able to develop the necessary confidence in the new employment during the interview. To gain this, the visible or hidden hands of the recruiter represent a critical non-verbal success feature. Unshown or hidden hands appear suspect; they detract from the effectiveness and credibility of the rest of our communication. The interlocutor always has a biological extra task running in his head, trying to find out what the hidden hands could be hiding. In direct conversation, therefore, care should be taken as a matter of principle to keep the hands visible so that the impression is not unconsciously created that one has something to hide or conceal. Of course, this recommendation should not be implemented dogmatically: If, as part of an authentic expression, the hands wander once under the table and are placed there on the thighs, this poses no problem. However, if it is a habit and they are out of the interlocutor’s field of vision for the majority of the time, the negative effects will come into play and you should make an effort to counteract them. Chairs with armrests can be helpful for this purpose. But unfortunately, showing the hands alone is not enough, especially in this context there are significant qualitative differences in terms of the effect that we leave with our fellow men. Palms of the Hands In one experiment, eight speakers gave talks to different groups, changing only the orientation of their palms. After the lectures, they were evaluated and the results were highly significant. While 84% of the lecturers who showed their palms received positive feedback, only 52% of the lecturers who did not show their palms achieved this result. Lecturers in the last group received scathing feedback, with only 28% of the audience rating them positively, and some audience members had even left the room during the lecture. But the lecturers had learned one thing in the process: Anyone who gestures with their index finger does anything but endear themselves to the audience [40].

If we turn our arms so that our palms are visible, this conveys security to the limbic system of the person we are talking to [41]. At the same time, we open up and take tension out of the situation. Our visible palms support cooperative communication and express affection. The contents are presented openly, so that our conversation partner can figuratively access them freely and without constraint, which is what 84% felt animated to do in the lecture described above.

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Concealed palms appear more reserved, determined and dominant. They create distance and trigger insecurity and defensiveness in the interlocutor. When the listeners were denied a view of the insides of the hands, they intuitively wondered what the speaker might be up to or hiding from them. The saying that someone still has something up their sleeve expresses it aptly. As long as it is not clear whether this something could benefit or harm us, we remain tense, meet statements skeptically and reject them in case of doubt. If an interlocutor predominantly shows the back of his hand, we can’t shake the feeling that he is covering something up and trying to hide it from us. Anatomically, push-ups use the muscles of the shoulder girdle, upper arm, wrists and fingers. The same plexus (of nerves) of the plexus cervicalis (neck plexus) and the plexus brachialis (arm plexus) also coordinates the gestures of the hand turned downwards. We push something away or apply pressure. As David Givens describes, downward palm gestures date back to reptilian times. The downward gesture associated with it thus has a cross-cultural suppressive, dominant and aggressive effect: it should only be used carefully and with caution [42], as it risks directly triggering feelings of confrontation, contradiction and aggression as a result of a genetically embedded response.

The tone becomes sharper when the index finger comes into play. Normally, we use it when we want to point precisely and explicitly to a goal. In contrast, the flat hand is increasingly used for imprecise target specifications, which makes our gesture more open and non-committal than the clear and direct index finger. Gesturing with the flat hand therefore gives the interlocutor more freedom and thus conveys trust and appreciation. The effect of pointing gestures on the relational level is far-reaching. If someone is decidedly told what to do and what not to do, the degree of self-control and autonomy is reduced to a minimum and, on the psychological level, the possibility of experiencing an originator experience for the prescribed action is taken away. He feels externally controlled and automatically reactance develops as well as the so-called negative appeal pressure, in which the mere fact that something is prescribed diminishes the desire to do it. Perhaps some of you have already experienced this in your private life. You plan to get right to work on a task, and suddenly your partner comes along and tells you to do it now. The mood immediately drops: We had planned it anyway, but now we are supposed to and suddenly we don’t want to anymore – intrinsic motivation is no longer present.

"

Tip: Instead of pointing the lecturing index finger upwards or at an interlocutor during critical phases of a conversation, it can be led to the thumb and thus form an O.K. sign. In this way the pointing energy is controlled and we appear authoritarian but not aggressive. The fact that this posture is a taboo gesture in some cultures does not come into play here, as it is not used as an emblem but as an illustrator. Tip: Pens and similar extensions of the index finger increase its effect, and those who gesticulate wildly in the air with them, as with a dagger, certainly do not make friends. Those who tend to gesticulate more expansively should put pens down after writing or take them in their non-dominant hand. We often

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gesture less impulsively with this hand and so the reinforcing effect of the extension is less noticeable.

The posture of the palms thus forms a critical point in the building of trust and thus the basis for any form of relationship and cooperation. The system associated with upward or downward facing palms can be varied depending on the phase and goal of the conversation. If cooperative and nondirective aspects are to be emphasized in the conversation, the outstretched, open hand in conjunction with a loosened elbow offers the interlocutor good cooperation. Palm pointing downwards, on the other hand, signal authority, assertiveness and underpin the claim to high status from which important decisions are made. Crossed or folded arms also hide our palms and compromise our credibility. As an alternative, the fingertips can be placed lightly together instead. The touch also closes one’s position, but allows for greater flexibility, opens up greater decision-making space, and enables one to open up again more quickly.

Thigh Slapper and Frozen Gesture The movement accompanying the end of a statement conclusively qualifies it non-verbally and thus represents a critical point with regard to the effect of our communication. If we make an offer to the interlocutor with openly presented palms, he is free to decide whether he wants to accept it or decide against it. Depending on the other person and the offer, this decision may take more or less time and perhaps a little nudge if our conversation partner is unsure whether to accept or decline. The timing and duration with which we gesture are decisive for the effect and our persuasiveness in this situation: If we show the palm of our hand a little longer after our offer has been made, the resulting pause unfolds its effect and gives the counterpart time to decide. At the same time, it develops a slight pressure. We do insist, but it still remains a non-binding offer that does not force the other person to do anything [43]. Of course, this should not happen after every statement, but in key situations in which the agreement and acceptance of the interlocutor are important in order to be able to proceed together on the further path. If a serious offer is made, the hand may therefore remain in its position for two to three seconds. Conversely, the mistake often shows up that the offer is not offered gesturally long enough. The term offer here goes far beyond the economic; it also means, in the broadest sense, every thought that we bring into the communication. Every statement in conversation represents an offer to the interlocutor to accept and develop it, to reject it or to question it. If we ourselves do not believe that someone will take something from us or that it is really to the benefit of both sides, our ability to endure ambiguous situations, such as the pause before the decision of the interlocutor, dwindles. Our own insecurity leads to the offer being shown too briefly and the gesture being resolved prematurely. As a result, the counterpart senses that something might not be quite right with it after all. Unfortunately, the premature dissolution of the gesture can also have other causes, not related to the offer,

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but to high pressure, the self-concept of the sender, or simply a bad habit and a lack of awareness of one’s own effect. However, the applicant only sees the result, and so even the beginning of the interview can be negatively affected if the applicant is offered a chair and the hand is immediately withdrawn, creating a small but unnecessary insecurity. Showing the offering palm briefly and immediately withdrawing it again should therefore be avoided. Another gesture that negatively connotes or even devalues what was previously said is the thigh slapper described by Michael Grinder [44]. In this case, the gesture accompanies what is said, but after a statement has been made, the standing speaker drops his hands powerlessly onto his thighs. Sitting speakers drop them on the table or armrest, and thus appear discouraged, negative, and lacking in self-confidence. If you want to put it to the test, you can turn off the sound in your mind and watch a speaker as he drops his hands despondently on his thighs, picks them up again, continues speaking, and then drops them again. The nonverbal message conveys a helpless victim attitude at the level of selfdisclosure, which, put into words, is something like, “Oh dear, I can’t do anything anyway, what can you do?” If the hands are dropped at the end of the statement, the resigned expression sticks with the viewer much more strongly than the gestures before, due to the recency effect. If this process is repeated, the discouraged attitude of the speaker is transmitted. In the downward movement there is no groundbreaking statement, no direction, no goal, except the message that one must always return to the beginning as well as start anew and that it is an unattractive and grueling Sisyphus task. As with the offer made above, it is more effective to freeze the hand for two to three seconds after key statements in the last position to which it has automatically reached during speaking, in order to centre the attention on the message of the statement or on the offer made. If the recruiter continues to speak calmly and the movement of the hands is just as calmly reintroduced, he provides the necessary accents through the change to bring the applicant along and move them. If the next impulse is then on the agenda, its conveyance is supported by dynamic gestures and finally reinforced with the frozen gesture.

Strengthening the Effect of Your Own Gestures In addition, we can reinforce our gestures with other non-verbal means. As described in Chap. 9 on eye contact, the applicant’s gaze can be directed to our own gestures, thereby emphasizing them and strengthening the effect of our communication. In this way, we can generate virtual space anchors, emphasize our statements and move their message to the center of the communication. In addition to the effect of the held or dropped gesture at the end of the movement, the intended and achieved expressiveness of a gesture depends essentially on the degree of tension with which it is performed and how wide our fingers are opened in the process. With slightly opened fingers, with which we otherwise treat something vulnerable with care, we can represent and underline something delicate or intangible, for example a new

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department or a newly created position, which, like a tender plantlet, still has to grow and needs support in the process. On the other hand, a fully extended hand with fingers spread wide and palm openly presented makes a clear, open offer, but at the same time exerts a certain pressure to please accept this offer now. If, on the other hand, the fingers are stretched out without tension, the gesture has a binding yet reserved effect and accentuation. Closed fingers form the more or less strongly clenched fists described above.

Height of the Own Gestures The six planes described above on which gestures are expressed characterize the statements that accompany them. With regard to the basic relationship messages and values to be conveyed in recruiting, such as discretion, care and trust, the trust plane in the navel area between the girdle and solar plexus takes on a high significance. If the recruiter’s gestures unfold outward from the belly button, it supports the recruiter’s own sense of security, well-being and relaxation. It calms the organism when one’s own hands are in the center around the belly button to be able to directly protect the organs below in case of emergency. This stability is transmitted and helps the candidate to gain confidence and security for a possible change. In the next higher plane, between the solar plexus and the larynx, our gestures take on a more passionate character and from there can convince and carry away the applicant. The center of this level is our heart, and so gestures unfolded from there can credibly convey enthusiasm and passion for a subject. However, the dose and the relationship to the gestures used on the other levels have a strong effect on the impact and credibility of our communication. Those who constantly argue with superlatives and absolutisms as well as continually gesticulate in the passionate area, quickly appear lurid and forfeit their own resulting possibilities, if gesticulation is targeted, well-dosed and appropriate to the character of the statement and the paraverbal communication in the associated level. The underlying level of trust forms a good basis to which one can return after an impulse has been set. The planes above this, from the larynx upwards, are described above, and the further up it goes, the more the gestures penetrate the consciousness and the stronger becomes their influence on the communication taking place. One should certainly allow oneself to penetrate into this area according to the situation and the subject, but one should not try to set accents there deliberately. Many people have a natural inhibition about making gestures at head level and feel alienated if they are asked to place them there intentionally. Deliberately gesturing at this level carries the risk that these inhibitions will negatively impact timing, congruency, and therefore the recruiter’s authenticity and credibility. "

As described, a key feature of nonverbal communication is that it is expressed in the unconscious realm of communication. This must be taken into account: Whoever, out of the thousands of signals, overemphasizes them by selecting a few individual elements and thereby

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raises them to the consciousness of communication, brings imbalance into the whole structure and loses its natural expression, timing and congruence between the different levels of communication. This danger exists especially in relation to gestures, since it is our hands that we can most easily influence at will. The aim should be to gradually develop the different areas so that, over time, an unconscious competence emerges which then makes use of the various positive ways of acting and, because they take place unconsciously, are convincing, authentic and confidence-building. The first thing to do is to reduce those expressions that are clear no-goes and communication disruptors, which include gestures below the belt. In principle, gestures should be performed in full. However, predictable gestures that faithfully reproduce things are generally perceived as superfluous; here, a hint is enough. The plane below the belt is described by Bowden as the grotesque plane and has a predominantly negative connotation. Recruiters who notice that they regularly gesture in this area, or below the tabletop while seated, should work on bringing their gestures up a bit. To do this, a holistic approach can help to reframe one’s attitude to the discussed content and toconsciously pay attention to positive aspects as well as to content that harmonizes with one’s values and goals "

In general, synchronously executed gestures appear more convincing than non-synchronous ones. This is true for both the horizontal and the vertical axis. Of course, as described in Chap. 3 on laterality, it represents a natural expression of our underlying values when a hand becomes more active, which should not be artificially suppressed. If one hand is parked on the table, the armrest, or even once temporarily in the pocket of one’s trousers while standing, or is tucked into one’s side while the other gestures, this does not present a problem. However, if both hands are in motion, care should be taken with regard to the different levels that this is done in the same area. Otherwise, the communicated discrepancy between left and right as well as above and below appears too disparate and quickly acquires a clownish character. The more levels there are between the two hands, the stronger this clownish effect becomes.

The way we gesture affects our inner being. Round and sweeping gestures go hand in hand with longer and, in the extreme, rambling paraphrases that bore the listener, while paced, terse and jagged gestures communicate in a more structured way, but in their extreme can lead to too much piecemealing, where the parts of a sentence come out bit by bit and have to be laboriously put together by the listener. Often these are accompanied by monotonous intonation, making concentration difficult. Loose gestures become, in the extreme, flinging-away gestures that seem disdainful and negative and, when flung in the

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direction of the interlocutor, can be insulting and devaluing to him. This often leaves the end of the sentence toneless, so that much of the message is lost, leaving a puzzled listener wondering what the speaker was actually trying to communicate. The opposite is expressed by the aforementioned pointing finger style, in which everything is important in a know-itall extreme and permanent attention is demanded from the listener. Depending on our personality and current condition, we have tendencies towards and preferences for one style or another. This is not a problem as long as their gestures are expressed in a range that supports our communication intentions or at least does not hinder or thwart them. A first step in this regard can be to identify what one’s gestural predisposition is and then, through developing one’s own awareness, feedback or video analysis, determine if it is anywhere hindering the desired effect of one’s communication. Now obstructive habits can either be consciously reduced or the opposite pole strengthened: If, for example, we notice that we ourselves regularly overuse the time frame of a conversation, there is a suspicion that the gestures are also dissipated. Accordingly, we can discipline ourselves with increasingly timed gestures. If we notice that our conversation partners react excessively often with reactance or attacks or withdraw and inwardly leave the conversation, it may be because we gesture very dominantly with downward pointing palms or index finger gestures. Here, more cooperative gestures can have a balancing effect.

Central Gestures, Left and Right Side Gestures that we perform frontally in front of our own body are more strongly associated with us than those on the periphery [45]. In this context, calm and accentuated gestures appear competent, whereas erratic, hectic and sloppy gestures, by their unpredictable and uncontrolled nature, trigger unease, restraint and caution. In most societies, intuitively or culturally conditioned, right is associated with good and left with bad. Furthermore, depending on our culture’s direction of writing and reading, we locate the future in the direction of writing, i.e., in the Western world also on the right, while the past is on the left. It takes a little practice, but in interviews in which the applicant is sitting face to face with them, personnel managers can express their gestures more clearly and intuitively for the applicant if they place the positive content and future prospects of a position or the company on their own left-hand side, so that the applicant takes them in on his righthand side and the associated values fit together more coherently for him. Using the same system, negative or past content can be placed on the right and neutral and current content in the middle from the recruiter’s point of view.

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The Intelligent Gesture As described in Chap. 9, eye contact during conversation has a strong effect on the quality of the relationship we develop with our fellow human beings. A basic social rule of interpersonal communication requires that the receiver keeps his gaze predominantly directed at the sender, while the latter is free in his gaze behaviour, for example to sort out wandering thoughts with just such glances. If the recruiter wants to avert his gaze without straining the relationship with the applicant, the “intelligent gesture” described by Wolfgang Linker [46], which is similar to the evaluating gesture and can be formed in various ways, is a suitable solution. Variants of the “intelligent gesture” 1. Thumb and forefinger clasp the chin. 2. The extended index finger is at the lips and the thumb under the chin. 3. The only slightly bent index finger rests with its tip on the lower lip or chin. 4. The curved index finger is on top and the thumb under the chin. 5. The temple of the glasses is placed lightly in the mouth or a ballpoint pen is placed against the lower lip or chin. The intelligent gesture signals that we are both listening and thinking about what is being discussed. In this context, it is socially accepted and permitted to avert our gaze at the same time. This permission provides a break to relax or reflect, prevents questions, and also includes permission to move: Movements provide us and our brains with more oxygen. They make it easier for us to dissolve blockages, adopt new viewpoints and thereby gain new perspectives in conversation.

Non-Verbal Communication on the Meta-Level: Credible and Accessible Gestures The model of accessible and credible communication presented in Chap. 6 also enables us to evoke various effects via our gestures, which at the same time interact with our intonation. Believable gestures and posture produce a credible speech pattern, and conversely, a consciously intoned accessible speechpattern is followed by accessible movements and postures. Credible gestures appear more authoritative and emphasize impersonal communication on the factual level. They are characterized by hard, relatively immobile to rigid and tense gestures with palms facing down. They tend to be quick and short, with angular angles and straight fingers. Accessible gestures, on the other hand, cultivate the relational level and the cooperative tenor of a statement. Accessible gestures are characterized by soft, flowing, open, and relaxed movements, as well as upward palms

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and open angles of fingers and movements. To avoid misunderstanding: No style is better or worse; the challenge is to situationally alternate between the two styles appropriately.

11.8

Conclusion: Gestures

If someone does not want to act, the hands are also passive. (Samy Molcho)

As accompanying elements of our communication, gestures qualify what is said and supplement the factual information of the verbal level with relational aspects. In the process, gestures take on various functions, of which illustrators and adaptors play a predominant role in the job interview. While illustrators often symbolically express attitudes and statements that have not been made on the non-verbal level, adaptors help to relieve stress and appear in a wide variety of displacement activities to calm themselves down. Touching of the hand or face may arise from a desire to conceal something, and often show up in nervousness, which increases when lying. In contrast, the frequency of general gestures usually decreases in a lying speaker [47]. The level at which gestures are expressed, timing, direction of movement, and exposed fingers and palm orientation have the greatest impact on the character a gesture leaves. Gestures, just like words, can be ambiguous so the whole body expression and context must be consulted to qualify or confirm the observation, likewise the dynamics of change should be considered. In addition to active gestures, which accompany our verbal expression, passive gestures are expressed in various hand positions, which usually concern the level of self-disclosure or send defensive and evaluative signals. With regard to the development of one’s own gestures, one should first recognise and refrain from conversation disruptors such as excessive, incomplete, derogatory gestures, gestures that are too short or those below the belt, and then replace them with gestures that strengthen one’s own expression and effect. These include, for example, the frozen gesture or synchronously executed gestures with visible palms.

References 1. Hans-Arved Willberg: Grundlagen der seelsorgerlichen Gesprächsführung, S. 185; BoD, Norderstedt, 2010 2. https://www.dasgehirn.info/handeln/mimik-koerpersprache/die-sprache-der-haende aufgerufen am 19.10.2018 3. Samy Molcho: alles über Körpersprache, S. 17; Mosaik bei Goldmann; München, 2001 4. Samy Molcho: Seminar: der Körper spricht immer; Jürgen Höller Akademie, Schweinfurt, 2013 5. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache im Verkauf, S. 205; Redline Wirtschaft, München, 2003 6. Samy Molcho: Die Körpersprache der Promis, S. 162; Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2003 7. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache im Verkauf, S. 204; Redline Wirtschaft, München, 2003 8. Mark Bowden: Winning Body Language, S. 215; McGraw Hill, New York, 2010

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9. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 125, mvg Verlag, München, 2011 10. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 45; mvg Verlag. München, 2011 11. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼sh163n1lJ4M aufgerufen am 19.10.2018 12. Allan & Barbara Pease: Der tote Fisch in der Hand, S. 117 f; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2003 13. Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt: Die Biologie des menschlichen Verhaltens, S. 666; Piper GmbH &Co. KG, München, Zürich, 1995 14. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 263; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 15. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 265; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 16. Monika Matschnig: Körpersprache, S. 121; Gräfe und Unzer Verlag GmbH, München, 2010 17. Samy Molcho: Alles über Körpersprache, S. 208; Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 18. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 197; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 19. https://www.welt.de/wissenschaft/article13613930/Was-die-Laenge-von-Zeige-und-Ringfingerverraet.html Aufgerufen am 04.06.2018 – 13:10 Uhr 20. http://cognitieveontwikkeling.blogspot.com/p/httpwww.html Aufgerufen am 08.06.2018, 14:46 21. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 63; mvg Verlag. München, 2011 22. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 135; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 23. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 61 f; mvg Verlag. München, 2011 24. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 77; Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 25. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 276; Verlag Moderne Industrie, München, 1992 26. http://yume-massagen.de/artikel/akupressurpunkte aufgerufen am 19.06.2018 27. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 189; Der Goldmann Verlag; München, 1996 28. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 38; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2009 29. https://www.welt.de/gesundheit/psychologie/article135375029/Wenn-man-das-Fingerknackennicht-sein-lassen-kann.html Aufgerufen am 14.06.2018 30. Manfred Spitzer: Einsamkeit, Hörbuch, Kap. 16; Abod Verlag, München, 2018 31. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 253; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2009 32. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für dich, S. 242; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 33. Schmid Eger & Krüll: Körpersprache – das Trainingsbuch, S. 128; Verlag C.H. Beck oHG, München, 2012 34. Samy Molcho: Alles über Körpersprache, S. 199; Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 35. Hermann Scherer: Jenseits vom Mittelmaß, S. 128; Gabal, Offenbach, 2009 36. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 82; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 37. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 20 f; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 38. White, Renee, 2002 „Hands speak a thousand words“ amsterdam News, 4. September 2002 http:// www.amsterdamnews.com (November 2007) 39. Joe Navarro Menschen lesen, S. 150, mvg Verlag, München, 2011 40. Allan & Barbara Pease: The definitive Book of body Language, S. 139; Orion Books Ltd., London, 2006 41. Joe Navarro Menschen lesen, S. 144, mvg Verlag, München, 2011 42. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 85; Redline Verlag, München, 2011 43. Samy Molcho: alles über Körpersprache, S. 205; Mosaik bei Goldmann, München, 2001 44. Michael Grinder: Seminar: The Power of Infuence, Twinn Akademie, Offenhausen/Nürnberg, 18.–19. Mai 2010

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45. Irena Bischoff: Körpersprache und Gestik trainieren, S. 69; Beltz Verlag, Weinheim und Basel, 2007 46. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz, 257; Gabal, Offenbach, 2010 47. David Givens: Die Macht der Körpersprache, S. 90; Redline Verlag, München, 2011

Breathing and Voice

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Abstract

This chapter describes the influences of breathing and voice on our communication, perception and effect and explains the connections between breathing and the communicative permission to transmit as well as between breathing and emotions. In addition, various possibilities are described for controlling one’s own effect in conversation through different breathing techniques. Finally, implicit relationship messages of different voice patterns are explained and techniques are described with which one’s own voice pattern can be controlled and the conversation can also be shaped purposefully on this level.

At first glance, breathing in particular seems to have little influence on communication and yet it represents a central non-verbal element with which professional actors and speakers have always supported their performance in order to lead the audience. The effect of different breathing patterns has also been proven in the medical field and is used in various forms of therapy. Closely connected with breathing is our voice, which in a way represents an intoned exhalation and is thus the sonorous basis of our verbal communication. Since it originates in the body, but transports verbal content, the voice or paraverbal communication is, so to speak, the bridge between non-verbal and verbal communication.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_12

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Breathing and Voice Basics In an experiment by neuroscientist Pierre Philippot, he formed two groups and initially separated them. Each participant in the first group chose an emotion such as joy, fear or anger and evoked it by changing their own breathing. He then documented the way in which he breathed to trigger the emotion. After this, the participants of the second group were brought into the room and told by the participants of the first group in which way they should breathe. When they did this and then named what emotion had developed as a result of the way they breathed, it was the one that their partners in the first group had previously developed. The emotion had been conveyed to the unknowing participants in the second group only through the instruction of breathing [1].

Studies with anxiety patients show that anxiety can be influenced by the way people breathe [2]. If patients breathed in and out more slowly and more deeply, their anxiety was reduced. An important finding here was also the interaction: not only does anxiety make people breathe faster and shallower, but conversely, the way people breathe determines their emotions. A slight change in emotional state is always accompanied by a change in breathing, and so this is often the first of all body signals to indicate that a change in rhythm is taking place or that a gradual change is beginning.

Breathing Rhythm and Depth, Inhalation and Exhalation As long as it is within a certain tolerance spectrum, we are usually not even aware of our breathing. However, if the recruiter is consciously aware of the applicant’s breathing and changes in breathing rhythm, he or she can directly recognize the applicant’s emotional state and when a change in rhythm sets in. Breathing rhythm and depth are indicated by various signals such as the widening of the chest and the lifting of the shoulders, neck and arms when inhaling and their lowering when exhaling. On the inhale, the shirt tightens and smooths slightly, the head straightens a little and moves back slightly. The exhalation is accompanied by a subtle slumping and throws slight wrinkles on the fabric of the shirt or blouse. When we inhale, we activate the sympathetic nervous system and put our organism into a state of readiness for action with new energy and oxygen. Breathing in is therefore associated with increasing strength, vitality, joy, activity, but also with the activation of the fight and flight mode and the release of activating stress hormones [3]. Increasing physical or mental stress requires more oxygen and causes deeper breathing. We also spontaneously take a deep breath when we have a new thought, providing us with additional resources to pursue it. In a job interview, a critical question that hits a sensitive point may cause us to take a deep breath first. The associated jerky, sudden inhalation causes the upper body to

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straighten and sometimes be thrown back against the back of the chair: The question has caught the applicant off guard. Exhaling, on the other hand, activates the parasympathetic nervous system and initiates the associated relaxation of the organism. Exhaling is therefore associated with diminishing strength, loss of vitality, passivity, release, rest, but also with the activation of the feed-orbreed mechanism through the release of relaxation hormones [3]. Depending on how one exhales, this qualifies or symbolically comments on the statement or action of the interlocutor. Comparable to the tip of the tongue pushing away, we also blow away an unpleasant thought or an onerous duty that we do not want to accept. This exhalation occurs intermittently and can seem dismissive, and in some cases discouraged. If the cheeks are distended beforehand and, in extreme cases, the lips are bubbled as we exhale, stress and pressure are visibly relieved. If sounds, such as an annoyed, snorting “pfh,” accompany the exhalation through the mouth or an “nnh” through the nose, the unpleasantness is ostentatiously blown away and no secret is made of the rejection, annoyance, or contempt. Similarly, a discouraged or slightly sad, slumping exhalation may signal the letting go or abandonment of something previously looked forward to or already identified with. Closure with the subject is not easy for the person exhaling in this way, but at the same time it can lift a weight off their shoulders.

Change of Rhythm While applicants who increase inhalation during the interview gradually activate their stress axis, applicants who emphasize exhalation calm down and relax. If the calming exhalation happens suddenly, this change in breathing rhythm can signal that, from the applicant’s point of view, a delicate phase in the interview has just been overcome. The situation has been overcome in one piece, the stress is over, and now it is possible to exhale with relief. Sometimes the breath was unconsciously controlled beforehand in the critical situation so as not to send any telltale signals. In this case, only the exhalation signals the stress that was previously felt and largely suppressed in its expression. Navarro counts the intermittent exhalation with distended cheeks among the self-calming gestures that clearly indicate previously felt stress [4]. In tranquility lies the key to strength: A calm and deep breathing rhythm signals steadiness and relaxation, which at the same time is ready to change into the actionready state. If the rhythm accelerates, the breathing changes: the breaths become shorter and shallower. Short breathing signals stress and volatility. The short-breathing interlocutor is predominantly preoccupied with himself and is difficult to reach for outside arguments. As long as a short-breathing applicant does not break up his rhythm, he can hardly engage with the intentions and wishes of the company representatives and thus with the challenges of the position to be filled. Behind the breathlessness is a rushed nature that is currently unable to look either to the left or to the right and tries to move forward by leaps and bounds: In doing so, however, one can quickly get tripped up [5]. Therefore, it should

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be examined to what extent the applicant’s tendency to be breathless fits the requirements of the position to be filled. A position with a continuous, sustainable, permanent character may not fit, but a spontaneous and flexible change position within the framework of various projects might. Thoughts need movement, this becomes apparent in meditation, for example, when the desired thoughtlessness is first experienced in the pauses between inhaling and exhaling [6]. If this pause is extended, thinking also takes a break, with flowing breath it then quickly resumes. In everyday life, we hold our breath and interrupt our natural breathing rhythm when something startles us, unsettles us, or confronts us with a decision. If, on the other hand, the applicant continues to breathe unchanged while the recruiter describes an exciting project or a demanding challenge, he is not yet emotionally involved. If, on the other hand, his breath falters briefly or is held for a split second, the brief pause signals concentration on a sensitive or interesting point. It is in this pause for breath that the decision is made as to whether the applicant will accept the recruiter’s thought or reject it. To get his bearings, he pauses and lets what is said sink in. This can express a doubt, but also a final hesitation that appears before he crosses a threshold and gets more deeply involved in the interview or the project described. If this subtle break in rhythm appears before a question is answered, it may also indicate the limited truth of the following statement. If there is hesitation, hesitation or a hasty answer, the applicant is leaving the common rhythm. This otherwise arises automatically in the conversation if a stable connection has previously been established. In the common rhythm, the applicant breathes in the recruiter’s question, so to speak, processes it briefly, and then brings his or her own contribution to the conversation when exhaling. If the timing of the answer matches the current rhythm and is expressed in the expected tone of voice, it often comes across as persuasive on that basis alone. If, however, there is hesitation or a direct and too quickly parried answer with a standard response, the first case shows an inner conflict and the second case shows the prepared answer, which is called up as if at the push of a button.

Communicative Permission In communication, the receiver’s filters determine how what is sent is received: The recipient shapes the message. If the applicant is not receptive, floodgates are opened to misunderstandings and disappointed expectations, but the recruiter also loses unnecessary energy trying to make a difference. Anyone who has ever wanted to end a conversation knows the feeling and the slowly but surely emerging nonverbal signals of trying to convey to the other person, as politely as possible, that you no longer feel like having the conversation. On the lookout for the gap to diplomatically exit the conversation, even the content quickly loses relevance. Thus, the applicant’s willingness to receive limits the recruiter’s permission to send. Before the desire to change the subject enters the candidate’s consciousness, his breathing

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signals his decreasing readiness to receive. If the recruiter understands this as a rejected permission to send, he can not only conduct the interview more efficiently, but also prevent the applicant from withdrawing further. The reasons for this do not have to be based exclusively on the content level and thus indicate a lack of motivation, but can also be due to lengthy explanations and repetitions by the interviewer and thus serve as feedback on the interviewer’s own conduct of the interview. With regard to granted or denied transmission permission, the breathing pattern thus represents a reliable criterion that signals the presence or absence of permission. The breathing pattern is formed by the breathing frequency and the depth of breathing. The faster the breathing rate, the less permission is present; the slower the breathing rate, the more permission is given. A change in breathing rate is usually accompanied by changes in movement or posture. Associated with it is the depth of breathing, which indicates the applicant’s receptivity. Deep breathing gives high permission to transmit, shallow or high breathing gives low permission to transmit. In relation to the depth of breathing, the shoulders provide clear signals: if the interlocutor is relaxed, they drop significantly lower than in a strained or tensed up state. Besides breathing, the way of speaking, the way of moving and the posture express permission given or lacking [7]. Deep breathing is accompanied by relaxed and fluid movements, which also signal high permission. Shallow and stressed breathing is accompanied by tension and halting movements: the organism is predominantly preoccupied with itself and only partially receptive. In extreme cases, the breath is held and this signals that the organism is not at all receptive at the moment. With vague, undifferentiated statements or a complex or lengthy derivation, everyone has probably lost the thread at some point and tried to dissemble. At this point, you realize directly how difficult it is to respond with the right facial expressions, gaze behavior, or timing. While we become aware of our gaze behavior and timing, the changed breathing rhythm remains in the unconscious realm and thus cannot be overplayed, but provides an unadulterated picture of our receptivity and of our actual understanding. However, the permission given by the candidate to broadcast does not only influence the quality of the interview. His ability to remain present, concentrated and focused also indicates the ability to engage later with the concerns of his manager, colleagues or customers. Especially with complex issues or long-winded explanations, the wheat is separated from the chaff. Context is also a significant factor in the interpretation of non-granted permission to broadcast. If an applicant withdraws permission to broadcast a trivial or repeatedly mentioned statement, he signals his boredom: As a quick thinker or creative mind, he has already grasped the essence of the statement and needs new input as well as further stimuli. In this case, the recruiter could increase the intensity of the information transfer. If, on the other hand, the applicant drops out of a complex derivation, this may have overwhelmed him, and so should be communicated in more easily digestible units.

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Voice

With the topics of voice and intonation, we take a look beyond non-verbal communication into the field of paraverbal communication. This also provides broad and deep insights into the personality of the applicant. The speech analysis software Precire uses the implications of intonation, voice as well as word choice and derives 42 personality dimensions from a ten-minute free narrative. The personnel service provider Randstad already used Precire in 2016, and banks, insurance companies and other institutions also use this software in recruiting or personnel development [8].

Voice and gestures also influence each other: for example, a dominant vocal sound can be produced much more effortlessly with the palms turned down than with the palms turned up. Posture also has a direct effect on the voice: A slumped upper body makes breathing more difficult, whereas an open and upright posture allows for easy breathing and speaking. The boundaries between non-verbal and para-verbal communication are thus fluid, and the breath forms the direct link between the two: If it is missing, the voice also becomes weak and brittle, the words uttered lose their credibility and persuasiveness. There is a saying that you can say almost anything in the right tone, but almost nothing at all in the wrong tone. As Albert Mehrabian [9] researched, voice and tone of voice contribute up to 38% to a successful communication. Only when verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal communication are in harmony, authenticity and credibility are established through the congruence of the three levels. The tone of voice sets the mood: The fine muscles of the larynx react directly to subtle tensions, nervousness and insecurities and amplify them when speaking. Practice sharpens conscious awareness of the interviewee’s vocal expression. Recruiters who let the applicant’s voice affect their own feelings will gradually register many subtleties that can give them additional information about the applicant’s inner state. Thus it can be heard out whether there are blockades and where these lie or whether there is a preference to a certain way of speaking or an area in the body, from which the applicant speaks preferentially. While one voice in the laryngeal area is knotty, another is doggedly pressed out between the teeth, a third comes ready for action from the chest area or sluggishly to lasciviously from the belly. The voice originates principally at the diaphragm and can then flow freely or be inhibited or amplified in its natural expression at various points. Unusual inhibitions and bottlenecks in vocal expression, as well as the areas associated with them, can indicate possible bottlenecks in performance. The sluggish and lascivious underbelly voice coming from the depths does not seem to get into the action-ready vocal range necessary for business at all; it must always be guided by other issues to the demands of business and risks being quickly distracted. The “knotty” interlocutor that squeezes the voice in the throat at the last moment, undoing the preparatory effort of the chest, can be understood as an issue for an applicant who also tends to make it difficult in other ways, or sees problems

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and obstacles that would not be intuitively relevant to others. Both can have advantages and disadvantages. If the flowing dosage of the voice is difficult or if it jumps from one voice pitch to the next, this behaviour can also indicate a basic predisposition for other behaviour patterns. When changes occur, the person initially represses, refrains, hesitates or blocks until the pent-up tension becomes so great that the change can no longer be prevented. The predisposition to resistance and reactance before the abrupt change occurs can cost productivity and unduly delay innovation or necessary steps in change processes. The jolt to abrupt change entails a brief phase of instability that must first be rebalanced and can thus bring with it a predisposition to more emotional behavior. A pronounced chest sound of the voice expresses a high degree of self-assertion. The whole upper body is used as a resonating body with full breath, the sonorous sounding chest voice communicates readiness for action and self-assurance. If, however, it lacks the leeway or permission to hesitate or hesitate once in a while, one may wonder to what extent the sensitivity for differentiation and the ability to row back and give in once in a while are present. A throaty voice with an inhibited timbre is often accompanied and triggered by hunched shoulders and tense neck muscles, indicating an anxious and inhibited mood. In addition to the baseline habit of the applicant, the situational change of the voice indicates emotional changes. Here, too, the characterization of individual voice pitches and parameters is not about good or bad, but about fitting or not fitting to the character of the position to be filled, to the current situation in the interview, to the topic dealt with and to the previously observed normal behavior of the applicant.

Voice Modulation Modulation describes the ability to vary the voice or the tempo of speech. This expresses the applicant’s inner state of mind and can indicate ingrained habits and behavioural predispositions. Recruiters who develop their listening skills so that they consciously notice changes in modulation or clarity of the applicant’s expression can refine their sense for possible topics and aspects that make the applicant difficult or uncomfortable. A calm and clear pronunciation conveys inner clarity and shows competence, sophistication and respect. In general, the more confident a person is about a subject, the clearer the pronunciation of individual words, and the fewer negative feelings that hinder their natural expression. Clear pronunciation also conveys the need for clarity in the transmission and reception of information. If this attitude is transferred to work and communication behaviour, the person is likely to tend to get a clear picture of facts before committing himself. At the same time, the clear pronunciation indicates a pronounced sense of selfdiscipline and responsibility as well as a success orientation [10]. Careful and distinct pronunciation signals a conscious and disciplined attitude, but it should be observed how naturally it is achieved and what energy must be expended for it. If

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the clear pronunciation succeeds effortlessly and authentically, it suggests a similar disposition. If, on the other hand, it has to be controlled and deliberate, it may conceal other underlying movements and impulses, but it is evidence of the applicant’s awareness of his or her own effect and of his or her effort to respond to the interviewer. If the pronunciation is too careful or over-accented, developing a choppy and emotionless style that impedes fluent speech expression, it may signal a limited ability to enter the flow state, doggedness, as well as a lack of vitality. The latter may also be expressed by irregular fluctuations in vocal strength with low vocal fullness [11]. A less distinctive pronunciation shows naturalness and a certain nonchalance [11]. As long as this is expressed to an extent appropriate for the job, it can be concluded that the employee is pleasant. If the less distinctive pronunciation develops further into unclear or mumbled speech, it comes across as rude. It conveys little respect and results if contents were considered only superficially or want to be concealed. One or the other has perhaps already observed it with itself: After having put one’s foot in one’s mouth or when one wants to talk one’s way out of an unpleasant situation, a clear accentuation is difficult and one easily hums and haws, mumbles, mutters sth. under one’s breath or speaks faster. Fast talkers also tend to think quickly, while noticeable slow talkers tend to take longer. The latter allows himself the time to think things through calmly and not to produce hasty reactions. In the creative process both are required: The strength of the quick thinker to produce many ideas spontaneously, and the ability of the slower thinker to limit again the results found, so that the creative process does not get out of hand and the reference to the subject is kept. Fluctuations in the tempo of speech suggest inner agitation and may be based in a lack of self-confidence [11]. This inhibits natural, flowing self-expression, so that erratic changes or corrections in speed occur, indicating inner imbalance. An overemphasized or choppy rhythm, on the other hand, indicates an effort to control deeper, uncontrolled impulses. A quiet voice expresses inner calm and balance, which is usually accompanied by respect for and interest in exchanges with our fellow human beings [12]. Thus, the person brings good conditions for successful work in a team. Soft-spoken people can be expected to stay on top of stressful situations and have a balancing effect on those around them. However, a voice that is too soft can signal a lack of conviction or the limited permission given to oneself to express oneself freely. A strong, loud voice documents physical strength and also psychological robustness. Depending on the environment, however, it irritates the interlocutor and appears dominant. If you speak loudly yourself, you occupy the acoustic territory and thus give others and your environment less space. In a job interview, a loud applicant’s voice can express the desire to demonstrate one’s own readiness for action. Since volitional changes in voice can usually only be sustained over a short period of time, it should be observed whether the applicant is only trying to impress briefly or whether the loud voice is his basic expression. If the latter is the case, the extent to which loudly speaking applicants respect the opinions of others and their ability to work in a team can be examined. In addition, attention should be paid to whether or to what extent an attempt is being made to drown out a lack of

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substance through the increased volume. If the voice finally becomes too loud and threatens to cross the threshold to emotionality, it expresses inner tension. In addition to the volume, the sound of the voice provides information about the emotional state of a person. The timbre of the voice can be used to infer corresponding character traits to a certain extent [13]. A warm voice conveys emotional involvement and balance, while a cold voice focuses on the factual level of communication. While a lower voice appears dignified and calm, a high voice is often based on fear, excitement or uncertainty [13]. A strong change in voice strength signals an emotional tenor, whereas a small change indicates only a low level of emotional involvement or strong self-discipline. In the negative case, the low variation can develop into a monotone voice. If there is no interest in the subject or if we are indifferent to it, it does not motivate us to move, and the voice often remains correspondingly monotonous. A slight raising and lowering of the volume or a slack and unstructured way of speaking convey a certain sluggishness and seem disinterested. In addition to a lack of interest, monotony can also be caused by grief: The loss to be dealt with weighs so heavily that no enthusiasm for other topics can currently be developed. The shaky monotone voice comes across as insecure and anxious.

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Own Breathing

Often it is completely overlooked, yet one’s own breathing is one of the most important elements of successful communication: Correct breathing helps to stay balanced, stimulate thinking and release blockages. When we breathe in, we supply our body with oxygen; when we breathe out, we expel carbon dioxide. In simple terms, during respiration, energy previously bound to food is converted by oxidation into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the universal and immediately available energy carrier for our cells and drives all biological processes in our body [14]. We need oxygen for the oxidation process that takes place during this process. The by-product is carbon dioxide, which we expel when we breathe out. Breathing in deeply and calmly therefore supplies the organism with sufficient oxygen to release the energy bound in the ingested food, breathing out deeply and calmly expels the by-products produced. Deep breathing supplies our brain with sufficient oxygen, gives us security and serves as a bellows for the voice.

People in Western society breathe in and out an average of eight to twelve times per minute [2]. Depending on the rhythm and where in the body one breathes, different effects result. Counterproductive to this is the Western beauty ideal of the flat stomach, so that many people habitually breathe into the chest and lose much of their original security through this shallow breathing, as shallow gasping supports the development of anxiety. Those who unconsciously breathe too fast and too shallowly into the upper chest area trigger the first stage of hyperventilation and thus hinder their own ability to think clearly.

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The key to preventing this mechanism and getting a clear head lies in conscious exhalation. If we exhale deeply, calmly and widely, the deep inhalation afterwards happens effortlessly and as if by itself. If, on the other hand, we merely try to breathe in deeply without fully exhaling the air we have previously inhaled, there is no room in the lower part of the lungs for the fresh air and we are deprived of the many positive effects of deep breathing.

If we allow ourselves to breathe into the belly, we additionally prevent the chest from pulling upwards when we inhale, which is already part of the complex of puffing up, so that it can be unconsciously understood as incipient threatening behaviour and bring disturbances into the conversation. Natural, vitalizing breathing is enhanced by the basic natural posture described in Chap. 6. As the exercise in Chap. 11 has shown, tensions in the body are transferred to our breathing. "

Breathing is on the one hand a reliable indicator of stress or calm, but on the other hand it has a direct effect on our emotional state. Since we have the possibility to consciously influence it, we can regulate the adjusting screws of our emotional condition and thus our entire communication on a deeper level through the control of breathing. Because it forms the foundation on which our non-verbal and paraverbal communication is built and shapes the basic character of our movements, control of breathing has a more substantial effect than control of other elements of body language. Accordingly, we no longer have to try to act explicitly on other, individual elements, but can regulate ourselves, especially in key situations, by accessing them on a holistic level without risking losing our natural expression and authenticity.

Controlling the Atmosphere of the Conversation Through Breathing As social beings, we resonate with our conversation partner and intuitively try to get into a common rhythm as we communicate with each other. When a bond develops between two interlocutors in conversation, their mirror neurons fire and with it their breathing rhythms adjust to each other, signaling the deeper resonance one has entered. Most will perhaps recall how they have been infected by a breathless, frantic and unstructured breathing and speaking interlocutor and become agitated or stressed themselves. Company representatives who bring shallow breathing also make the applicant breathless and nervous. In doing so, they work against a constructive interview. If the applicant feels stressed or uncomfortable after the interview, this feeling will influence their decision.

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"

Breathing can also be used in a positive sense to motivate interlocutors and arouse their enthusiasm. If one’s own breathing rhythm is first adapted to that of the interlocutor, it makes it possible to tune in to the interlocutor on a level that is not usually consciously registered. After resonating with each other through the breathing rhythm, a sustainable connection is gradually formed, which leads to the applicant beginning to unconsciously mirror the recruiter’s changes in movement. This can occur on a variety of nonverbal levels, such as the rhythm of movement or breathing, leg or arm position, gestures, or opening and closing. Once the connection is stable, the recruiter can determine in which direction to take the conversation by controlling their own breathing. While emphasizing inhalation activates the sympathetic nervous system and thus brings energy into the conversation, emphasizing exhalation activates the parasympathetic nervous system and has a relaxing effect. In this way, the recruiter can lead the applicant into a state of readiness for action by subtly speeding up his own breathing rhythm. If, on the other hand, he wants to calm him down, he should emphasize his own exhalation and slow down his rhythm.

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The findings of the anxiety study mentioned at the beginning of the chapter enable the recruiter to first bring calm and a more trusting atmosphere into the interview. Those who consciously breathe more slowly and deeply provide the body with more oxygen, experience less stress and anxiety, can think clearer thoughts and feel more calm and well-being. In addition to creating a more cooperative and productive conversational atmosphere, this type of breathing also has a positive effect on the recruiter’s own health, as full breathing provides sufficient oxygen to the entire body. If the recruiter consciously breathes a little deeper and slower at the beginning of the interview or after critical phases, he becomes calmer and thus infects the applicant. In this way, the latter can reduce any nervousness and stress, find his normal behaviour and increase his ability to receive the recruiter’s messages. Thus, initiated only by conscious breathing, a much more cooperative conversation can be initiated. If, on the other hand, the recruiter notices that he himself is breathing high and shallow, it is advisable to take a short break while talking. Because in the current state, one’s own communication is only suboptimal, one’s own nervousness threatens to be transferred to the applicant and thus undermine the confidence building. "

Exercise: In Breath

Mark Bowden [15] describes the “in-breath” technique that actors and speakers have used for millennia to increase their own oxygen levels in order to make their expression on stage more inspiring and enthusiastic, and to have it spill over to the audience. Visualization can be done while sitting or standing. To do this, imagine a thin string pulling your head upwards at the back of your head and straightening it, while keeping your feet firmly rooted to the floor or your sitting bones rooted to the chair. As you stretch your spine at the top and allow

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yourself to be pulled upward, you must be careful to stay well connected to the floor or chair at the bottom (keeping heels on the floor and sitting bones well in contact with the chair). Once you have achieved this posture and held it for a few breaths, you will notice how the upward focus has shifted to the inhalation without it becoming shallow or rapid. The deep, slow, upward breaths provide more oxygen to the brain, which is usually accompanied by a slight smile and, after a while, leads to a more open perception, which may be expressed as an improvement in peripheral awareness or better perception of colors, sharpness, or details [16]. The quality of hearing may also improve. The increased oxygen allows the brain to process additional information. While it takes willpower to get up in the way described, you get it back immediately through better breathing. Bowden describes the state as a state of readiness, you are open and can jump directly into action [16].

The opposite is conveyed by the out-breath: if you let yourself slump down and imagine yourself being pulled down inside, you will produce discouraged breathing. This is followed by downwardly drawn corners of the mouth and a powerless mood. "

Nasal Breathing

Another effective possibility comes from the world of theatre and consists of consciously breathing in through the nose. Through nasal breathing, the breath is automatically more finely filtered, we become more present, get better access to ourselves and can better dose our energy. In addition, nasal breathing improves body tension: the body straightens slightly and we achieve a more upright posture. Of course, nose breathing cannot be used permanently. While we speak ourselves, we will automatically take a breath with our mouth. But in short pauses or when the person we are talking to is speaking, it helps to centre ourselves, to regroup and to recharge our batteries. "

Exercise: Visualize Breathing Column

Another technique is the visualization of a column of breath that energizes and grounds us at the same time. On the inhale, imagine the breath being sent through the crown of the head to the sky and pulling you upwards. As you exhale, direct the breath through the body to the earth’s core. A column of breath is formed in which you can stand or sit safely and stably while being vital, inspiring, stable and grounded.

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Own Voice

It is good news for all those who are not satisfied with their voice pitch that it is not the pitch of the voice but the melody and modulation that determine whether or not we arouse sympathy with our voice [17]. Changes in tempo can achieve greater liveliness and avoid monotony. While inner composure and tolerance towards the interlocutor and his situation relax us and make the voice a little deeper, pressure produces a higher voice frequency. This has a less pleasant effect, the inner tension is transmitted and can lead to a desire on the part of the applicant to withdraw. If the pressure increases, which can be triggered by the superior, too short time frames or too high expectations of oneself, the voice tends to become sharper or shriller. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult to convey to the candidate the attractiveness of the position being filled. Calm breathing, on the other hand, relaxes and lowers the pitch of the voice, but still allows it to express itself dynamically and loudly, since the lack of pressure prevents the phonation from constricting in the larynx. In addition to breathing and the muscles of the throat and neck, head posture is a critical factor for the sound of the voice in this range [18]. Anyone who speaks a lot in their job and also speaks in front of groups can work on their voice with a speech therapist in order to develop its full potential.

Linguistic Style and Linguistic Hygiene In addition to emphasis and modulation, speech hygiene influences our impact. Recruiters who become aware of their own linguistic quirks and counterproductive speech patterns and avoid them in the future can thereby positively influence their impact and awareness of the communication taking place. Speech hygiene and a well-groomed pronunciation have a positive effect in many respects. Accurate speaking has a reliable effect: the more accurately the recruiter speaks, the faster the applicant gains trust and the smoother the interview can run. Accuracy has a transparent effect, it conveys on the paraverbal level that there are no niches hiding unpleasant surprises. Accordingly, the applicant will tend to unconsciously transfer this transparency and reliability to the advertised position and the company. Accuracy here refers not only to the pronunciation but also to the modulation and the terminology used, but reaches its limit when over-precision is emphasised, causing the flow of speech to falter, or when only technical terms and foreign words are used which, although they capture what is meant, are no longer comprehensible to the interlocutor. "

Exercise: One of the most effective exercises for improving your pronunciation is the cork exercise: take a cork between your incisors and speak a poem or read a text aloud. Try to be as intelligible as possible. The cork will force you to use your mouth muscles in a more disciplined way to make

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yourself understood. Recite the poem or text again without the cork. You will notice an immediate improvement in your pronunciation. This exercise only takes a few minutes and, if done regularly, will lead to clear and accentuated pronunciation after a short time. With increasing routine, the awareness of executed processes decreases, and so we tend to pronounce words faster the more often we use them and the more familiar they are to us. Conversely, the more unfamiliar a term is to us, the more difficulty we have in understanding it. A prime example of this is our own name: Who hasn’t experienced it when a new contact pronounces it so quickly that we can hardly understand it, let alone remember it? Especially when the next contact follows and introduces himself just as quickly and unaccentedly. We should pay attention to this, because it is possible that the applicant is not only hearing our name for the first time, but also other specific companyinternal expressions and abbreviations. The less familiar the information is to the applicant, the slower it should be presented to them. However, slower does not necessarily mean just speaking more slowly, it is about conveying the amount of information more clearly and structuring it into more digestible units. For example, the speaking speed could even be maintained, but a sufficient pause could be placed after sections of meaning to give the brain time to catch up, harmonize the new information with the existing and integrate it into its neural network. If you have the impression that this has not worked, you can ask a short control question or include an explanation or example to make the information more understandable. "

Exercise: The following tip from the world of speakers can also be used in recruiting: To support your own expressiveness, you can visualize the key words of your own statement in your mind’s eye while speaking and let them light up. The awareness of the key statements and the luminous inner visualization allow more enthusiasm to resonate in your voice, improve the accentuation and emphasize the most important statements.

One’s Own Voice Pattern: Credible or Accessible The credible and accessible communication styles described in Chaps. 6 and 11 go hand in hand with specific voice patterns, which can be used to control one’s own effect at the paraverbal level. The credible style is sent with relatively few fluctuations in the voice and lowers to the end of the statement with a clear point (Fig. 12.1). At the paraverbal level, the interlocutor is set a date clearly and without frills. The sender takes the implicit high status, broadcasting and not asking permission. The accessible style, on the other hand, has a wider pitch range and lifts to the end of the statement (Fig. 12.1). This gives the statement a questioning

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Fig. 12.1 Credible and accessible voice pattern

character at the paraverbal level, which depends on the interlocutor’s permission from the implicit low status. The credible voice pattern conveys determination, expertise, seriousness and rationality. It supports the expression of decision-making ability, assertiveness, formality, unambiguity and commitment. It is suggested when information is sent, when closed and compact answers are given or orders are communicated. In contrast, the accessible voice pattern conveys social competence, emotionality, friendliness and flexibility. It supports the expression of mediation, adaptability, informality, ambiguity and open possibilities and is suitable when information is sought and asked for or requests are made. While with the credible style the factual level and the content are communicated, but with the accessible style we cultivate the relationship level and influence the process on a holistic level. Here, too, coherence and flexibility to change are always important: our role and the task at hand influence our voice pattern; only rarely do we find ourselves in a rolestatus constellation in which we can permanently commit to one style. The believable style corresponds to the double high status, which in its own way is just as inflexible and predictable as the double low status. Again, the secret to success lies in the ability to change in ways that are appropriate to the situation. Recruiters who consciously use the voice pattern that suits the message they are sending support this paraverbally and thereby increase their own congruent expression and credibility. Example

The behavior of many parents in the supermarket offers a nice example. The child asks for a candy and the father says in an accessible tone, “No, you know, honey, we still have chocolate at home.” In doing so, the voice rises toward the end of the sentence, implicitly soliciting the child’s agreement to the communicated refusal. At the same time, however, this way of speaking conveys the still open possibility of still being able

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to change the parents’ minds. Promptly, the next rounds begin, until finally it is communicated clearly, congruently and bindingly in a credible tone of voice with a: “No, and now it’s over!” that there is no giving in. It is not the choice of words that makes the difference. With the credible tone of voice, the first answer would have already made it clear and binding that there will be nothing today. ◄ In the example, the contradictory statement between verbal and paraverbal level led to discussion. In order to prevent this effect in the job interview, a credible tone of voice should be used in the salary negotiation or for content where there is no room for manoeuvre. At the same time, attention can be paid to the tone in which the applicant presents his or her own demands in order to derive the leeway still contained therein.

Voice Patterns in Three-Point Communication Both voice patterns can be used excellently in the context of three-point communication. In a credible style, information is sent convincingly and the gaze is averted from the partner in order to focus on a third point and thus on the matter at hand. This can be an outline of a project, but also a brochure, a disputed paragraph in the employment contract or a self-set anchor. If, on the other hand, the focus is on the person you are talking to, you can speak with eye contact in an accessible voice pattern, thus strengthening the relationship level. This is also about situational flexibility. Both voice patterns should be mastered in order to be able to switch between them according to the situation. The main advantage of the two voice patterns is that negative information such as accusations or counterproductive points on the factual level can be effectively separated from the relationship level. If the HR manager speaks credibly in the direction of the third point and locates criticism or unpleasant content there, he can prevent negative communication content from disturbing the relationship level. In return, the relationship level is strengthened when pleasant content is spoken in the direction of the applicant and eye contact is made.

Patterns and Pattern Interruptions Those who have mastered both voice patterns can use them appropriately for the respective situation, increase the power of their statements and strengthen the connection to the conversation partner. Through the inconspicuous change to the other voice pattern, the interlocutor senses on an unconscious level that something has changed. Each pattern carries its own character that leads to a specific expectation in the interlocutor and to associated predictions about how the conversation will develop [19]. Now, if the pattern is interrupted or changed, the change briefly startles the interlocutor: Since his prediction did

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not come to pass, he has to reorient himself. This keeps attention high and the interlocutor receptive. The advantage of a moderate pattern interruption is that the interlocutor unconsciously senses that the situation has changed for him. If the change enters his consciousness, he usually cannot determine what the reason is. If this also succeeds and the changed behavior is recognized, its significance is not questioned, since the new behavior seems perfectly plausible and appropriate to the subject matter under discussion [20].

"

Change of Pattern

If we want to switch from the credible to the accessible pattern while speaking, this can be initiated by increasing the movements of the hands and head, taking care to consciously relax. Conversely, we can switch from the accessible to the believable pattern by limiting movements, especially those of the head during speech, and increasing tension. As Linker [21] points out, this is about changes in momentum. It is not about achieving an absolute impression. Aim for small, relative changes that strengthen communication. If individual elements of communication are overemphasized in such a way that they enter the consciousness of the interlocutor, there is a danger that they will disrupt communication and have a counterproductive effect.

Consciously Created Pauses Even if nothing is said during a pause, it is one of the most effective rhetorical devices for increasing the impact of what has been said before. They often unfold far more information than words could have contained: Pauses convey implicit appeals, carry status information into the conversation, and check the interviewee. Recruiters who have mastered the use of pauses gain effective opportunities to save questions and to put the unsaid in the room. In sales, after a closing question, the rule is: if you break the pause, you lose. If the salesperson cannot stand the customer’s hesitation and takes the floor again, he thereby accelerates his own rhythm. He gets into the offerer rhythm and almost automatically begins to make concessions in order not to lose the customer. Conversely, the customer who breaks the pause brings himself deeper into the conversation and often leads it further to a conclusion.

Many people can’t stand the tension built up by a pause for long. The salesperson’s rule can also come into play during critical phases in recruiting or salary negotiations. If the recruiter interrupts the resulting pause, he relieves the applicant of the pressure to react and deprives himself of meaningful insights. In terms of keeping the pause, focusing on the

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partner’s breathing helps. If you want to speak, you have to breathe. In the pause, there is often a brief pause in breathing before the body begins to open with a slight exhale. The exhalation is followed by the words that end the pause. If the recruiter directs his attention inwards to his own breath during this phase, he can consciously improve his position in the tension battle by holding his breath slightly. If he also pays attention to the applicant’s breath, he can easily recognize when the applicant begins to break the pause. Of course, you don’t want to put the applicant under unnecessary pressure in the interview, but it stands to reason that smart applicants will notice fairly quickly that the company reps will take the work out of their hands as soon as they let a pause develop themselves. A managing director who is enthusiastic about his company and who repeatedly breaks the pause by adding a supplement, qualifying a question or adding an explanation may feel that the interview is quite successful due to his own high level of speech, but he only learns little about the applicant. In key situations it should be paid attention from therefore to recognize and use the developing strength of the pause. If the applicant does not react immediately to an offer, a statement or a question, one should endure the pressure and resist the temptation to break the pause by explanations, concessions or relativizations. Likewise, the recruiter can let a statement of the applicant sink in, register the resulting pause and wait to see whether the applicant is committed to his words. Pauses have various functions in communication: As pauses for modulation, they emphasize what has been said; as pauses for attention, they direct distracted listeners back to the topic; as pauses for waiting, they simultaneously build up pressure. This pressure is not always pleasant, but it is quite legitimate: If a question or statement has been placed on the verbal level and the ball has been passed to the applicant, the latter, as a partner at eye level, may now also be expected to bear his or her share of the responsibility for a successful conversation. Pauses create information and give the brain of the interlocutor time to process what has been said, in order to classify the received message in its own neuronal network. Without pauses, therefore, a sustainable communicative effect is hardly possible: If the applicant is overwhelmed with information without giving him the opportunity to process it, not only the common rhythm gets out of balance: The flood of information stresses his system in the long run and leads to withdrawal. Sufficient breaks, on the other hand, ensure relaxation and enable the absorption and sustainable anchoring of new information. To set modulation pauses, it helps to simply yield to the already natural impulse to delay. As described in Chap. 11 on gestures, the effect of small pauses can be effectively increased by the frozen gesture. Simultaneous eye contact builds up successively increasing pressure on the interlocutor with increasing duration and should be deliberately dosed. During a waiting pause, we should prevent our own non-verbal communication from giving rise to questions or disturbing considerations. For example, scratching our head during the break tends to lead to our person and statement being underestimated.

References

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Conclusion: Breathing and Voice

Our breathing directly influences our emotions and shapes the fundamental character of our communication. Conscious, deep breathing increases the oxygen supply to the brain so that it can handle more processes and enables improved perception. At the same time, energy is brought into the conversation, resulting in a more positive mood, which is transmitted and makes it possible to activate the conversation partner. If, on the other hand, the exhalation is emphasized, this takes energy out of the conversation and has a calming effect. The applicant’s breathing indicates his receptiveness; if his breathing is deep and calm, he is receptive, whereas if his breathing is shallow and high, he is only able to do so to a limited extent. The recruiter can let his perception of the applicant’s voice and breathing be guided by various questions. How deep is the applicant’s breathing? Is the voice clear or pressed? Does the flow of speech seem inhibited or uninhibited? Where in the body is the voice rooted? What is the rate and volume of speech? On what topics does the tone of voice change? The implicit effect of the recruiter’s voice should match the image he wants to convey. Different voice patterns can be used to effectively flank one’s own message on the paraverbal level in order to achieve a congruent and convincing effect. The appropriate breathing, the credible voice pattern and the endurance of pauses are effective communication elements when it comes to placing one’s own offer credibly in negotiations. After the offer, a pause occurs where the candidate feels into the recruiter’s statement and checks to see if it was authentic and honest, convincing and strong, or if uncertainty resonates and there is still room for negotiation. After the salary offer or other confident statements, if the recruiter lowers their voice and makes a point, controls their own breath, resists the temptation to exhale, and endures the pause, it is usually the applicant who breaks it and then makes concessions.

References 1. Amy Cuddy: Dein Körper spricht für Dich, S. 250; Wilhelm Goldmann, München, 2016 2. http://www.dr-mueck.de/HM_Angst/HM_Angst_wegatmen.htm aufgerufen am 21.10.2018 3. Michael Grinder: Seminar: The Power of Influence, Twinn Akademie, Offenhausen/Nürnberg, 18./19. Mai 2010 4. Joe Navarro: Menschen lesen, S. 57; mvg Verlag; München, 2011 5. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache im Beruf, S. 130; Der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1997 6. Osho: Das Buch der Geheimnisse, S. 51; Goldmann Arkana, München, 2009 7. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz, S. 333, Gabal, Offenbach, 2010 8. https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wirtschaft/kuenstliche-intelligenz-der-algorithmus-kann-42dimensionen-einer-persoenlichkeit-messen/22756300.html; Aufgerufen am 04.07.2018 9. Albert Mehrabian: Nonverbal Communication, S. 108; Aldine Transaction, New Brunswick and London, 2007 10. Jürgen Hausser: bAV erfolgreich verkaufen, S. 38: Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2007

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11. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 83; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 12. Bernhard P. Wirth; 30 Minuten Menschenkenntnis, S. 42; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2011 13. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 82; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech, 1992 14. Mark Bowden: Winning Body Language, S. 61; McGraw Hill, New York, 2010 15. Mark Bowden: Winning Body Language, S. 71; McGraw Hill, New York, 2010 16. Mark Bowden: Winning Body Language, S. 72; McGraw Hill, New York, 2010 17. https://www.business-wissen.de/artikel/selbstmarketing-erfolg-durch-stimme-im-unternehmen/ 21.10.2018 18. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache des Erfolges, S. 112; Heinrich Hugendubel Verlag, München, 2005 19. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz: Weniger ist mehr, S. 81; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2010 20. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz: Weniger ist mehr, S. 82; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2010 21. Wolfgang J. Linker: Kommunikative Kompetenz: Weniger ist mehr, S. 83; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2010

Legs and Feet

13

Abstract

This chapter describes the various signals that feet and legs convey during communication and builds a bridge to their effect and significance in the job interview. It lists ways in which the recruiter can react to specific foot positions and shows how the posture of the upper body can be used to infer the posture of the feet when seated. Finally, it is shown how recruiters can counteract disturbances on the relationship level by the movement and posture of their own feet and influence both their own attitude and their effect.

After first describing the holistic elements of territorial behaviour, posture and movement on our effect and then dealing with the various nonverbal signal groups of the upper half of the body, Chap. 12 on breathing dealt with a central factor that affects our nonverbal communication from the inside. Finally, the signals of the legs and feet complete the nonverbal information that we send and receive during communication.

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Basics: Legs and Feet

Although they provide us with irreplaceable services day after day, our feet eke out an often somewhat neglected existence at the bottom of our bodies. They enable us to approach pleasurable things, and it is they that quickly bring us to safety when danger threatens. It can be crucial to our survival whether we take measures quickly or fail to do so. Therefore, our feet fulfill their purpose largely automatically and oftentimes get ready to begin moving whilst the rest of the body is still busy doing other things. Due to their long distance from # The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_13

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the head, we are regularly no longer aware of our legs and feet, often pay little attention to them and thus lose access to an honest and meaningful source of information. The Honest Feet Allan Pease describes how managers were asked to lie as convincingly as possible in job interviews for various questions. While both men and women largely matched their faces and hands to their lies, they had virtually no control over their feet and showed far more unconscious movements when they lied. In addition, Paul Ekman conducted a study in which observers saw either the upper or lower body while listening to the corresponding statement. The results were clear: those observers who saw the upper body and heard the statements were significantly more likely to believe falsehoods presented. However, the group of observers who saw only the feet while listening to the statement were more certain to detect lies and were able to determine more accurately how the subject was feeling at the time. It was much easier for the observers in this group to accurately assess the other participants [1].

Desmond Morris therefore calls our feet our most honest body parts [2]. Those who pay more attention to them gain insights into the unconscious interests and desires of their interlocutors, especially when these concern a desired change of location.

Alignment of the Feet A pronounced alignment of the feet while walking or sitting expresses the firmly implemented habits of the applicant, which ultimately shape his character. The constantly outward pointing toes of the feet express curiosity and the urge to permanently gather information: The applicant is open to and interested in further education and development, but is equally not averse to a short-lived diversion. This can lead, for example, to the fact that in idea-finding processes additional information or suggestions emerge from his side, if the actual collection of material is already completed. In return, however, they can often provide unfamiliar and outside-the-box input, linking content across disciplines and thereby enriching the creative process. The challenge for this character is to balance a necessary sustained concentration and focus on a topic with an agitated and inquiring mind. This fits differently depending on the position to be filled, and depending on the character of the position and the candidate, synergies or hindering and limiting effects can arise. If, on the other hand, the tips of the feet point inwards, they erect a barrier and signal a rather cautious and often embarrassed type. This type sometimes slows itself down or can stand in its own way in key situations that require the courage to show oneself spontaneously due to its inhibited nature, while others courageously take a step forward, offer themselves spontaneously, rise to the challenge and grow from it.

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Impulse Movements of the Feet In addition to the permanent basic orientation, outward impulse movements signal that we want to turn off the path for a moment and that we would rather devote ourselves to something else right now. The tips of our feet often convey the body’s first impulses for a “towards” or an “away from” orientation and point to those things, contents and people that have just caught our interest. When walking around the premises, the orientation of the tips of the feet can be used to infer increased interest in particular content, places, or stations. If the tips of the feet begin to orient themselves in the direction of the exit after the conversation, they signal the desire to slowly leave the conversation. In principle, a change of direction of the feet away from the interviewer signals that one would prefer to leave the situation. This does not always have to be based on a away-frommotivation in relation to the person of the recruiter. The desire to leave the interview may also be motivated by a desire to do something external, for example, if a follow-up appointment has been arranged and the current interview is taking longer than expected. If initially nothing was said out of politeness or insecurity, the pressure now increases more and more the longer the conversation lasts. This may indicate a basic pattern of behaviour and a tendency to avoid confrontation. Things are postponed and only brought up when there is no other way. Since the responsibility for the timing of the interview lies with the recruiter, he or she can prevent such situations by making the planned duration of the interview transparent to the applicant at the time of the invitation.

Retracted Feet The feet do not always have to orient themselves sideways out of the conversation: Feet abruptly retreating under the chair expresses an initial impulse to flee and retreat, showing that the applicant feels pressured by a question. By retreating, the feet are in the right position to get up and leave the situation in the next step. The sudden change in movement is clearly visible due to the jerky movement and the change in rhythm associated with it, and likewise leads to a shift in the weight of the upper body. If only one foot is withdrawn, laterality characterizes the withdrawal. If the left foot withdraws, it shows an attempt to hide one’s feelings, while the withdrawal of the right foot indicates a technical retreat. While in the former case uncertainty prevails as to how one’s own feelings and wishes would be accepted in the new company, the latter may indicate ignorance with regard to professional content. Another type of impulse movement is signalled by the sudden freezing of the feet. Freezing is part of shock rigidity and is evidence of abrupt onset or perceived stress: before making a mistake, it is preferable to do nothing at all. Until the situation is sounded out, the immobility is supposed to prevent one from drawing attention to oneself. However, this can also be the case after a lie has been told and it is now silently and anxiously hoped that the personnel manager will believe it and not suspect anything.

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Happy Feet and Impatient Feet In addition to the towards and away-from orientation, those impulses and tensions that are consciously or unconsciously suppressed or blocked in the upper parts of the body often end up in our feet. Like an electric current, the voltage has to go somewhere and eventually discharges where the resistance is least. Joe Navarro [3] describes various behaviors of the feet such as the “happy feet”, which show a positive and action-oriented attitude when sitting by bouncing happily and fidgetingly. This can be subtly seen in the movement of the shirt and shoulders to which the up and down bobbing is transferred. A sudden change or interruption in bobbing signals a change in mood and thus may indicate issues that are perceived as problematic or unpleasant [4]. When standing, happy feet push the entire body upward, expressing expectant anticipation. If they show up while walking after the interview, they push the body up a little with each step and show the applicant’s joy that the interview went well. This movement also indicates that the interview was important to the applicant: if something important went well, then this has an inspiring effect and is shown in such a gait pattern. While in Happy Feet the tenor of the foot and lower leg movement is upward and the feet lift happily and dynamically with a medium to fast tempo, they develop a rather nervous and shaky expression when the psychological driver is based on negative content or stress. The latter can occur after a misstatement or even if a topic point or the entire interview process is perceived as too protracted. The applicant wants to get out of the situation to the next topic and signals this by rocking more flatly, almost resembling a strong tremor, with the movement oriented slightly forward and less upward. This nervous rocking is less dynamic than happy feet. It relieves nervous tension as its main task and differs in character from anticipatory rocking, which puts the body in a state ready for action. Depending on the seating constellation and the unobstructed view of the feet, the two can be more or less easily distinguished from each other. The classification is easier if other indicators such as body tension, movement rhythm, gestures, gaze behaviour and facial expressions are taken into account. Another sign of impatience is shown by tapping feet. While the heel remains on the floor, the balls of the feet and toes tap on the floor and represent the counterpart of drumming fingertips on the table under the table, signaling that the situation wants to be left or the topic changed. Both can also be expressed via retracted, bobbing feet, with the heels wagging over the upraised toes. The retreating feet pull back from the interlocutor and out of the conversation. The feet thus bobbing and wagging have a more defensive character, for, in contrast to the ordinary standing up, in which the feet are placed farther forward, and in order to rise the upper part of the body is bent toward the partner, and thus approaching him, it is possible to push straight up from the posture with the feet withdrawn, without having to approach the other person. Likewise, the feet tapping the floor, which often appear as one slides forward on the chair and sits on the edge of the chair, are a clear escape signal.

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Sometimes the impatience is not relieved by rocking or tapping, but first accumulates before it is jerkily discharged by a rhythmic circling of the feet interrupted by short pauses. Its character is comparable to the tail beat of a cat, where tension also accumulates and then suddenly discharges abruptly before the next discharge accumulates. Foot-circling is shown when one leg is crossed over the other and at first appears calm until there is a jerky discharge indicating impatience. After a few seconds, the next circling follows. The implicit message is “Get to the point!”. As impatience increases, the time between discharges shortens until finally one’s impatience is verbally expressed.

Braking and Blocking Feet As described in Chap. 11 on gestures, movements that are performed against gravity have a positive and vital character. In addition to the direction of movement, the degree of tension indicates the driver behind the movement. The toes twitching up or lifting briefly signal readiness for action and energy. However, if the lifting is done in a cramped manner and the toes are kept lifted with high tension for a longer period of time, so that the ball of the foot is also lifted, the feet act like a brake. One braces oneself with the heels into the ground in order to resist further progress or being pulled. The brake is thus a signal for caution and restraint. In this context, too, attention should be paid to other signals which together form a signal chain and increase the significance. Another form of brake is shown when the toes are pulled inwards: If the person were standing barefoot on earthy ground, his curled toes could dig into the ground and would thus clearly indicate resistance and the need for protection. With most shoes, curled toes are difficult to detect, but they are usually accompanied by a general increase in body tension and sparing, closing gestures. Crossed feet also form a blockage and are not ready for use: Before getting started, the crossover must first be resolved. If the feet are pulled back, they form the ankle lock, the implications of which will be deepened later. As described in Chap. 6 on posture, knees that are fully extended express a blocking posture. If the knees are straight in an effort to defend one’s own position, it is more difficult to overcome the resistance of the locked joints, but in return they lack the possibility of moving themselves if the blockage is not released first, and so this posture shows limited flexibility. The person standing with the knee joints locked straight tends to insist immovably on his own standpoint, and one should not be surprised if he often shows himself to be stubborn or obstinate. Anyone who observes defiant children who plant their feet in the ground in order to stand up to their parents with their knees fully extended, can also transfer this behaviour in a weakened form to adults. These do not defy, but have “principles” [5]. If an interlocutor straightens his knees from time to time in a conversation, communication can be improved considerably if one finds out which principles are important to him [6]. At the same time, straightened knees express a certain need for protection: After all, if there is no danger, there is no reason to block. If knees are straightened when sitting, the

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alignment of the feet should be taken into account. Are the feet bent and the heels braked into the floor or are the feet stretched out to occupy even more space under the table? While this is not visible, the layout remains the same. The behavior spreading out far beyond the usual indicates a dominant character.

Support Leg and Free Leg When we are comfortable in an environment, we sometimes give up standing on both feet and shift the weight to one standing leg while placing the other leg on top of the foot or otherwise allowing it to move: It becomes the free leg. In conjunction with the characteristics of the two hemispheres of the brain, the perception of a dominant support leg and free leg allows us to draw further conclusions. They do not signal a static and permanent character type, but allow interpretations about what is going on in the conversation partner and which aspects are important to him in the current topic. The next topic may already show a different attitude, but the change almost always entails a change of the leg and often shows a general predisposition for a dominant side. If the right leg serves as a supporting leg, it shows the dominance of the left hemisphere: structure, factual and analytical topics, calculation, details as well as criticism and logic are favoured. The left foot has left the ground and serves as the free leg: here feelings have little place and hard facts are preferred [7]. Conversely, the left leg is dominated by the right hemisphere and favours themes such as relationships, analogical content, feelings and holistic perception. This time the right foot gives up contact with the ground and topics such as ratio and objectivity are put on the back burner, feelings and emotions are more important [7]. If, on the other hand, there is a rapid or regular change of the supporting leg and free leg, this shows on the one hand an indecisiveness to commit to one side, but at the same time it is accompanied by openness to both sides and flexibility. However, those who change quickly can also be prone to nervousness and moodiness: He who changes his stand more often is also more easily caught on the wrong foot once in a while. The influence of the standing and playing leg can be observed, for example, if one does not sit down immediately after the greeting, but a short small talk takes place while still standing. Likewise, after the end of the interview, when you have stood up and the applicant has been escorted to the door, an innocuous topic can be broached. If a break is to be taken during a tour of the company, standing tables are conducive to observation.

Crossed Legs Due to the limited possibility of direct action, legs that are crossed express a more reserved posture than when both feet are placed hip-width to shoulder-width apart. When sitting, if both feet are firmly on the ground and the legs are open, this signals openness, self-

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confidence and steadiness, at least in male applicants. If the legs open even further, the man is unconsciously trying to impress. Such sitting postures are not to be expected from female applicants, who will usually cross their legs. Each person has a preferred chocolate side, which leg he or she prefers to cross over the other. However, it can be observed whether crossing legs tend to turn towards or away from the interviewer. Molcho describes turning towards the interviewer as a positive signal and turning away as still hesitant and tending to reject [8]. The skin on the outside of our arms and legs is more robust and resistant than that on the sensitive inside. Thus, we have an increased need for protection with regard to the insides and tend to open them only when we feel safe. Therefore, when we cross our legs and turn the outside towards our interlocutor, this represents a more rejecting attitude than when, conversely, the more sensitive inside is turned towards us.

While it used to be seen mainly in the USA, the “4”, in which the ankle of one leg is placed on the knee of the other leg, has also become established among German men in recent decades, not least due to the influence of Hollywood. This results in a triangle around the ankle, knee and genitals, which forms a barrier through the leg laid across, which can be reinforced if the lower leg of the leg laid across is held with the hands. In this case the posture, which otherwise has a dominant character because of the space it occupies, acquires a protective note with a partly anxious character. If the “4” is shown without embracing the lower legs, it simultaneously forms an acute angle around the man’s genitals, emphasizing them in the process. Since women generally send more subtle signals in this area, they also rarely show the “4”. Of course, there can always be anatomical or health reasons for any postures. It is precisely the posture that we imitate from our psychological parents and role models at an early age. Due to the different strain on the tendons, we then develop a preferred side over time that feels more comfortable and relaxed and expresses our firmly implemented habit. So even crossed legs are not a general indicator or sole criterion of affection or rejection. In general, however, we turn towards the subject that interests us, and so with crossed legs in pleasant conversations we tend to sit down and turn towards the sympathetic interlocutor, whereas in negative situations we withdraw and turn away. In key situations, an abrupt change in the crossed leg is a sure indicator of a pattern change. For example, if the legs were just crossed in the direction of the free seat on the train and this is now occupied, there is often a direct change when a new passenger arrives. Unconsciously, out of politeness, one sits down a little more neatly, while the legs are usually crossed directly in the other direction and the insensitive outside is turned towards the new passenger. In conversations that were just harmonious and now meet a critical point, it can often be observed that the interlocutor reacts directly and abruptly changes the legs just crossed in our direction and aligned to the other direction. The critical statement was perceived as a verbal attack and one protects oneself first. Likewise, the interlocutor may have been sitting

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normally and now the posture is changed to one with crossed legs. Depending on the intensity of the trigger, this reaction indicates the sensitivity of the interlocutor. In addition, the reaction can indicate the attitude towards dealing with criticism. While one person sees criticism as a threat and turns away from it and withdraws, the other sees it as an opportunity for growth, turns toward it, engages in confrontation, and leans more into the conversation to seek a solution. Even with crossed legs, the normal behavior should first be determined. Applicants who tend to switch regularly, changing the crossed leg every few minutes, are usually also more lively, changeable and indecisive in their whole nature than those who remain stoically in one posture. At the same time, however, they may be more flexible as well as more adaptable and more active in free thought and association or in creative processes. In the negative, they tend to be nervous. A moving mind causes an equally moving body, which can be seen in the frequent changing of the crossed leg [9]. Once one has determined normal behavior and developed a sense of the rhythm with which the crossed leg is changed, one can infer growing readiness to act from an acceleration of rhythm that is accompanied by positive other nonverbal signals. If, on the other hand, the acceleration of rhythm is accompanied by negative signals indicating stress, or if the rhythm slows down, one can conclude that the person is withdrawing from the conversation. If the legs are placed close together or strongly crossed when sitting, this indicates tension. Whereas when the legs are crossed, the relaxed dangling or slightly bobbing foot signals well-being, tension and resistance increase when the legs are tense and crossed tightly. Finally, even greater entanglement occurs when the foot of the crossed leg is brought behind the supporting leg. This posture has a minimum of mobility and flexibility, takes up as little space as possible, is very self-referential, and appears uptight. Sitting with legs intertwined does not allow for any movement, but can build up a high tension that screws the body up from below, supports the upper body and helps it to assert its own point of view or to communicate it to others. As long as those around accept the opinion, this can go quite well, but it is to their detriment and causes a one-sided conversation and power relationship. There is hardly any room for other opinions, the lack of flexibility of the crossed legs cannot take a step towards others, and so the mood threatens to tip abruptly in case of opposition or other views.

Ankle Closure Once the feet are drawn back under one’s own chair while sitting, it often becomes apparent that one foot is placed over the other at the ankle. The person sitting in this way is not ready for action, he lacks a clear point of view, the feet are not only defensively retracted, but at the same time still interlocked with each other down there at the back – not a good posture, therefore, for taking action or making a decision: should someone start spontaneously in this posture, this would fail because of his own feet. Even if the ankle lock takes place under the table, it can be seen because the body’s centre of gravity changes. At the same

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time as the ankles are taken backwards and crossed, the upper body bends slightly forward, i.e., while at the top one seeks contact and shows a certain interest, at the bottom there is a lack of mobility and thus the final drive to actually make a decision and get down to business. Latent reservations are still present or no clear decision is yet possible, the applicant is not yet ready to commit completely. As Pease describes, ankle lock is a mental on-the-lip biting that occurs when holding back a negative emotion such as uncertainty or fear [10]. Sometimes the feet are only placed on the toe of the lower foot. The resulting lack of grounding prevents energy from flowing off and security from being gained; we are often dealing with a latently insecure or nervous type. Due to the lack of stability of the feet not being planted, the entire sitting posture shows a certain restlessness. Although the posture is agile and flexible, it can be tedious to get to the heart of the conversation, the mental flexibility combined with the lack of readiness to act leads to one or two ifs and buts. If a tendency to locked knuckles is noticeable, these are often flexible but insecure and sometimes timid types. Trained salespeople pay attention to the ankle closure and do not ask the closing question until it is undone: If the ankles are not yet open, the objection is not over. Sustained decisions are usually not made until both feet are planted on the floor. Applicants who are sitting with their legs crossed, a “4” or with locked ankles should not be pressured into making a decision. In contrast, they should be given the opportunity to communicate doubts and reservations. As described by Pease [11], in 42% of cases applicants could be reopened by asking questions. Another variation was that the interviewer went to the other side of the desk, also then the applicants opened up and a more personal conversation resulted [11]. This situation could be brought about, for example, by showing the applicant documents or reviewing them together with the applicant. If the recruiter leads the applicant to an aspect of interest to them by asking the right questions, they will lean forward and put both feet up to get into action readiness.

Ankle Closure at the Dentist At the dentist, we have to face the situation, even if it may hurt once. The contraction associated with ankle closure prevents the flow of information in the body, at the same time it prevents us from running away. During routine dental exams, 68% of patients locked their ankles. If drilling was required, the number of occlusions rose to 88%. The peak was when the syringe was placed: Now 98% of the patients closed their ankles [10].

Crossed legs also show when standing and then mark a defensive posture that currently lacks self-confidence. One’s own claim to space is reduced to a minimum, movements or a change of position are not possible from this posture. This posture appears shy to uptight and conveys the unspoken request to please let the chalice of a deeper or more confrontational conversation pass by the person standing in this way. The request should first be granted to the extent possible in the hope that the space given will help the person open up and approach at his or her own pace. The resources and consideration that must be

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expended to integrate applicants who show up in this manner during small talk or breaks while walking through the establishment provide a foretaste of the possible additional needs that may arise if they are to be integrated into the establishment. Depending on the position and its networking and communication-heavy nature, this can mean a higher or lower level of effort. The need for protection reaches its maximum when the feet of the retracted legs are wrapped around the legs of the chair from the inside, sometimes the applicant still sits on his own hands, so that it is in no way apparent how the applicant sitting there could find his way into the company or even help out there. Comparable to a snail shell from which he has to be coaxed out with difficulty, he may be ready for offers from the upper body, but the blockages sitting below turn it into a pronounced taker attitude characterized by a certain timidity and refusal to act. He “doesn’t really know . . .”.

13.2

The Own Feet

As with facial expressions, posture and gestures, the principle of interaction can be used to influence one’s own feelings by consciously adopting different foot and leg postures. For example, the consciously adopted ankle lock can be used to control one’s own emotional state and counteract a rash decision. Personnel managers who tend to ankle lock, on the other hand, can consciously register how often they adopt this position with different applicants and whether this differs with different interview partners. In the sense of objective decision-making, the ankle lock can then be consciously dissolved from time to time or the increased tendency to lock with individual applicants can be perceived and consciously used as a signal to think further and ask oneself what leads to increased locking with this type. Grounding Alexander Lowen deduces that emotional security cannot be separated from physical security and grounding of the feet [12]. In observing and perceiving grounding, a challenge regularly arises in practice for people who have not developed in themselves a sense of grounding and a consciously perceived physical position. Fortunately, this feeling can be developed with only a little practice. "

Exercise: Perceive Your Own Grounding

Ideally, but not necessarily, the exercise is performed barefoot on natural soil. First you should take a slightly more than shoulder-width stance and bend your knees slightly. Shift your weight evenly onto both feet and try to stand well balanced between ball and heel and keep your upper body straight. With your eyes closed, it is now easier to concentrate on the soles of your feet for a minute or two and feel them resting on the floor. Now slide your upper body straight over your left leg without taking your right leg off the floor. As you do this, the

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left leg bends a little more while the right leg stretches. Consciously press the loaded foot to the floor and slide the straight torso from one foot over the other a few times. In this exercise, it is important to make sure that the alternating impulse that shifts the upper body is pushing from the feet and not pulling from the shoulders. After several weight shifts, pause and feel into your feet. They will feel heavier and warmer, and the sensation of the ground beneath you will also be more pronounced. Molcho compares this sensation to the feeling of wearing magnetic shoes. Now direct your gaze to a point in space and walk towards it step by step, trying to maintain the feeling of the ground beneath you. Molcho recommends performing these or other exercises regularly to improve grounding and achieve inner peace and a greater sense of security [13].

When a challenging situation motivates us, the body activates the sympathetic nervous system and provides us with extra energy to successfully overcome the challenge. But the presence of additional energy is only half the battle: The effect only results from its purposeful use. Practiced communicators use it to spark their interlocutors. Untrained communicators, on the other hand, are often overwhelmed by the additional energy and perceive it only undifferentiated as nervousness. If this is not directed in a targeted manner, it seeks out other ways to dissipate itself via various displacement activities, adaptors, too fast pronunciation or erratic movements. This is not only unpleasant, but also counterproductive. To counteract this, developing a secure sense of groundedness helps. A grounded stance, where you consciously put both feet on the ground and feel the ground, provides security and has a balancing effect. If the feet are placed side by side and firmly grounded, this can be supported with the inner visualization of roots growing into the earth through the soles of the feet. As a further positive effect, the feet being placed sturdily and firmly on the ground results in a more ergonomic and stable posture of the rest of the body, in which we can sit more easily and without stretching our entire sitting system. The stability gained also radiates reliability and thus meets a fundamental need of applicants for a reliable and secure employer and workplace. As Molcho [14] describes, the pelvic area is also critically important in the context of energy management. A mobile pelvis allows energy to flow and distribute throughout the body. A stiff, immobile pelvis blocks the flow of energy and divides the body, inhibiting its holistic expression. Bioenergetics also works with these principles and offers methods to regain holistic access. In addition to the pelvis, other joints such as the elbow or knee are possible bottlenecks that can impede the free flow of energy in the body, which is the basis for a convincing effect, if they are blocked.

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Don’ts The knees should not be visible above the level of the table when sitting. In some cultures, visible shoe soles are considered very offensive, and in our culture, too, it is a signal of dominance if the legs are crossed in such a way that the shoe soles become visible or point to another conversation partner. At most, this can happen if you cross your legs to form a “4” and also lean back a little. When the legs are crossed, the foot may point in the direction of the conversation partner, but the tip of the foot should not be directed between the legs: On an unconscious level, he would otherwise feel threatened [8]. Those who tend to wrap their feet around the legs of their chair should work on getting out of the habit of this posture and get to the bottom of the causes. Permanently placing the feet on the tips of the toes costs grounding, crossed ankles can result in decision-making difficulties, which can be counteracted by consciously addressing the causes. As with the applicant, territorial behavior does not end for the recruiter under the table. Taking up a lot of space there is a dominant sign that can intimidate the applicant and lead to uncomfortable situations. Even under the table, the middle of the table is considered the boundary of the two areas: Recruiters who tend to spread out under the table can pull their own chair back a bit to prevent territorial encroachment.

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Conclusion: Legs and Feet

The signals of the feet are often overlooked or neglected, therefore they usually allow unfiltered insights into the honest intentions and emotional states of the applicant. Their impulse movements show whether our interlocutor wants to turn to other topics, engage more deeply in the conversation, or withdraw. The direction in which the legs are crossed when sitting can indicate where our interest is going. To some extent, orientation is also influenced by habits shaped by social role or by anatomical predispositions. The ankle lock indicates that there are still inhibitions regarding a decision. The sense of one’s own grounding is a necessary prerequisite for recognizing it in others. This feeling can be developed quickly, increases one’s own security and subsequently helps to present oneself more confidently and securely.

References 1. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 199; Ullstein Taschenbuch, Berlin, 2009 2. Desmond Morris: Körpersignale, S. 244; Wilhelm Heyne Verlag GmbH, München, 1986 3. Joe Navarro: Menschen Lesen, S. 71; mvg Verlag, München, 2011 4. Joe Navarro: Menschen Lesen, S. 73; mvg Verlag, München, 2011

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5. Samy Molcho: Alles über Körpersprache, S. 156; Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag, München, 2001 6. Samy Molcho: Mit Körpersprache zum Erfolg 3.0, PC-DVD ROM; USM, München, 2010 7. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 95 f; der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 8. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache, S. 121; der Goldmann Verlag, München, 1996 9. Samy Molcho: Seminar: Der Körper spricht immer; Jürgen Höller Akademie, Schweinfurt, 2013 10. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 208; Ullstein-Verlag, Berlin, 2006 11. Allan & Barbara Pease: Die kalte Schulter und der warme Händedruck, S. 209; Ullstein-Verlag, Berlin, 2006 12. Vera F. Birkenbihl, Signale des Körpers, S. 72; mvg Verlag, München, 2001 13. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache des Erfolgs, S. 43 f; Heinricht Hugendubel Verlag, München, 2005 14. Samy Molcho: Körpersprache des Erfolgs, S. 52 ff; Heinricht Hugendubel Verlag, München, 2005

Guide

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Abstract

This chapter brings together the contents of the previous chapters and shows how these can be systematically integrated in the interview and which obstacles and dangers should be taken into account. In doing so, one of the central causes of the perceived shortage of skilled workers is described and it is shown how the situation can be counteracted by advanced communication behaviour.

In the previous chapters, the elements of non-verbal communication relevant for recruiting were described and explained. But how can we now transfer this understanding into practice in order to increase the quality of the selection process on the one hand and to win the most sought-after candidates for our own company on the other?

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Consolidation

As described, various bottlenecks will occur in the learning process before new competence plateaus are reached. The contents of this book are presented compactly and are the essence relevant to recruiting from hundreds of books, seminars, studies, articles, DVDs, video contributions and many years of experience from individual coaching, consulting and group training. Since nonverbal communication happens holistically, but the content in the book is necessarily dealt with gradually, it is recommended to read the book twice: The understanding gained during the first reading enables the contents of the individual chapters to be internalized and linked more sustainably during the second reading.

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 C. Bernhardt, Nonverbal Communication in Recruiting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-36929-3_14

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First Properly, then Quickly When acquiring new skills, the principle is that you should master new skills properly before you can pick up the pace. So you should take your time with body language as well: During one to two weeks and for several conversations, one should concentrate on a single subject area at a time and improve the ability to recognize its signals. In this way, the entire content will gradually be internalized and then fit together to form a whole. Now the individual tells can be put in relation to the whole picture and thus hasty interpretations can be prevented, which otherwise threaten, if the matter was only superficially encountered and individual or the most striking tells were interpreted undifferentiated.

Question Own Perception and Interpretation Michael Grinder [1] recommends to always form three interpretations for each perception and to check them for correctness. If signal X, for example “arms closing”, has been observed and the cause of the signal interpreted as (a) “cold sensation”, (b) “withdrawal from the conversation” or (c) “pure comfort”, the prediction of the next action helps to verify the hypothesis. For (a), the next action should be to hunch the shoulders or rub the hands up the upper arms; for (b), we might distance ourselves or communicate more sparingly; for (c), on the other hand, comfortable signals and friendly facial expressions might follow. If we become aware of the cases in which our forecasts are not correct, we gradually refine our perception through the “aha” /moments and can successively improve our forecasting reliability.

Understanding the Body Language of Others Depends on Our Understanding of Our Own Body The suggested exercises facilitate the transfer and intuitive understanding of the systematics and principles underlying non-verbal communication. These should also be done at least once and repeated where described or practiced over a longer period of time. As Lowen describes, our ability to understand the body language of others depends on our ability to perceive our own body signals [2]. As a result of their habits, many people’s relationship with their own bodies and their sensitivity to their own body signals has deteriorated. Therefore, it is first necessary to regain and sharpen this awareness. The exercises described help to experience the contents for oneself and on this basis not only to develop a basic understanding, but also to create the basis for understanding new signals more intuitively. While reading the book, one should perform the described tells and postures oneself and concentrate on the sensations that arise: If they are experienced for oneself while the effect is read, a deeper understanding of their meaning emerges [3]. Those who wish to increase their awareness of their own body’s signals even more intensely can

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join a theater group or engage in a sport that directs attention inward, such as yoga. Regular mindfulness training and meditation also guide awareness into one’s own body and improve access to its sensations.

Feedback and Systematic Analysis Not only the feedback of our own body is important, but also the feedback from outside about the correctness or incorrectness of our interpretation enable us to develop our competences more quickly and to integrate alternative possibilities into our interpretation. For this, interview simulations in a protected setting offer enormous added value for both sides. These should be conducted by at least two coaches. Within the framework of the interview trainings of viasell GmbH [4], in which I participate as a body language trainer [5], we usually conduct interviews at least in pairs, but usually in threes, and record them on video after consultation with the coachee. After the interview we give the coachee direct feedback and discuss the critical points of his non-verbal communication as well as possible interpretations on our part. As a grid for observing and qualifying the answers, we use the viasell® Interview Rating, which differentiates the applicant’s performance according to ten dimensions. Criteria of the Viasell® Rating System for the Interview Performance of the Applicant 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Personal appearance Verbal communication Nonverbal communication Motivation to change CV selling story; commenting on your own CV Coherent communication of technical knowledge Ability to criticise and deal with conflict Sympathy/matching factor Stability Potential

The ten criteria guide perception and, in the eighth category, also take into account the personal impression or gut feeling of the recruiter. In addition to the consideration of the first impression and the distinction between verbal and non-verbal communication, communication also shapes the effect of the applicant in categories 4–7. Then we analyze the video recordings and match critical non-verbal signals with the corresponding verbal statements. In doing so, the micro-expressions, subtle expressions, but also gestures, foot movements and the posture and movements of the torso are revealing. In addition, we pay attention to the verbal orientation, which indicates on the meta-level how one positions oneself on certain topics and which motives and beliefs underlie the attitude. We prepare this content for the next meeting. The coachees are sometimes surprised at the direct signals they send, and when the video is evaluated

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together, the incongruities are sometimes striking. Afterwards, in dialogue with the coachee, we match the effect of his communication with his actual drivers and background. This not only enables the candidate to clarify himself and subsequently to communicate more coherently, but also provides us coaches with direct, honest feedback that helps us to verify the interpretation of our observations and to expand our frame of reference so that we can interpret in a more differentiated way in the future. We then clarify and reframe the drivers and backgrounds of the coachee’s non-verbal communication using various communication psychology methods and techniques, thus helping them to express themselves more authentically in the future. If the relationship of the company representatives to departing employees is not too strained, they can be offered the described interview simulations within the framework of outplacements. Alternatively, these could be carried out in rotation with a cooperation company. The HR Manager of company A could conduct them with the departing employees of company B and vice versa. An alternative could be to offer to conduct interview training sessions with graduates from schools as part of employer branding events on project days or in cooperation with the career service centres of universities. Since young people send clearer signals, this is a good introduction for the recruiter and a useful training ground, and can also be an employer branding measure through which contact can be made with the target group. An employee from the specialist departments can be called in for this purpose. Google, for example, regularly releases its employees to participate in recruiting interviews [6]. In this way, they not only develop their recruiting skills, but also intuitively internalize the demands of the organization on new employees and make a more differentiated selection when recommending potential new employees. In addition, the technical input from subject matter experts expands the recruiter’s frame of reference. Additionally, internal interview training could be offered. If interviews are recorded, this can be done from multiple perspectives, including capturing feet and taking close-ups of the face to gain additional insight. In order to develop the recruiter’s competence sustainably and systematically, the interview can be recorded and stored for quality purposes, with the consent of all parties involved and in compliance with legal requirements. If the employment relationship is then unexpectedly terminated, the conversations at the time can be analysed and attention paid to whether the right questions were asked at the time in order to check the influences that ultimately led to the failure. In addition, the answers given by the failed employee at the time can be analysed in order to examine at which points in the interview individual tells could have pointed to the later failure.

Choose Different Levels of Difficulty When developing one’s own non-verbal competence, different partners offer different levels of difficulty in order to always develop with the right degree of challenge. If the

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set goals are too high too early on, it might lead to frustration. On the other hand, if it is too easy, boredom creeps in. Young people tend to show their inner feelings more unfiltered than older people. The smoother skin of young faces makes it easier to detect subtle facial expressions, while older faces marked by wrinkles require finer perception and practice. Women send more non-verbal signals than men and also have more active facial expressions. In this way, the recruiter can develop from level to level. Not only recruiting, but also other social interactions offer a wide field for practice. In addition, it is also possible to practice during interviews on television, discussion rounds or during speeches by board members and the like. Have a front row seat and observe how the body counters or comments on what are often political and diplomatic statements, and form your own opinion to compare with future developments. If you have further information as a cadre member during observations in the company, the observations can be analysed in an even more differentiated way.

Interviewing of the Recruiter and Systematic Recording of the Tells The recruiter himself should communicate in such a way that images can develop in the applicant’s mind to which his limbic system can react and trigger non-verbal signals. In addition to concise, concrete, positive and figurative language, sufficient pauses and consideration of whether the applicant has permission to send the message are important points for successful communication. In addition to the individual catalogue of questions, it is a good idea to draw up a checklist for the various non-verbal signals and to develop a system with which what is observed can be quickly recorded. If notes are taken, the challenge is to simultaneously record both: the context of what was said in the conversation and any conspicuous nonverbal signals that have become apparent. When writing, however, the eyes are averted and there is a danger of overlooking important signals. Therefore, on the one hand, one should not immediately start writing when a tell has been observed, but only after section are completed. A symbolic shorthand of the signals and an observation sheet facilitate the creation of meaningful notes. Horst Rückle [7] has developed an efficient system for this purpose, on which the following observation sheet was based (Table 14.1). For practice, the observation sheet should be transferred to A4 in landscape format and the prepared questions should be entered in the first column. To avoid running out of space, it is advisable to leave blank lines, as several non-verbal signals will appear for one question. The list of questions that the individual interview partners ask the applicant should be made available to the other participants in the interview beforehand, so that each observer can make notes at the appropriate point and then evaluate the interview.

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Table 14.1 Observation sheet non-verbal communication in recruiting

In Medias Res: When Conversations Have to Be Held Without Preparation For interviews for which there was no time to prepare in detail, this abbreviated guide helps to efficiently and effectively bring more depth into the interview and to quickly and purposefully lead one’s own questions to the points relevant to the decision by taking into account the applicant’s non-verbal communication. Even when reviewing the resume, experienced recruiters will notice critical stops, signaling areas that should be addressed to gain clarity. In addition, the self-introduction of the applicant and the answer to his motivation to change offer two important phases in the interview, in which the applicant directly indicates through his non-verbal signals, behind which stations relevant topics are hidden and where follow-up should be done. If the applicant’s face or gestures comment on his verbal description of earlier stations in his curriculum vitae or if pauses, pattern changes, slips of the tongue, changes in rhythm, changes in gaze behaviour, gesticulation or other behaviour described in this book signal possible incongruities, then these should be put into context with the exact wording of the applicant or should be noted for later reference. If the non-verbal signals are later addressed, this opens up the possibility for creating a stronger relationship with the applicant. This follow-up should always be done in an appreciative manner. For example: “You seemed a bit pensive/critical/delayed before, when you told about the transition from university to your first job ... and I wondered what exactly made you think?” Often, the second part of the question doesn’t even need to be asked: if there’s a friendly smile and the pause is set with raised eyebrows, a slight tilt of the head and an encouraging nod. If the right verbalization was hit, this docks with the critical thought of the applicant and often leads to the fact that he communicates directly. The attitude of the recruiter is a critical point that shapes his communication and the character of the interview. The attitude should not be that of a judge judging the applicant, but that of a learner who wants to get to know the applicant better and is looking for ways to find an approach to him. Depending on the setting, different messages are conveyed at the relationship level. For successful communication, the credo should not be “I want to expose

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you”, but “I want to understand you better”. While in the first case an interrogation character arises, which accuses the applicant of deception and can harden the conversation due to the tension arising during the search, which at the same time makes the recognition of meaningful messages more difficult, the second setting shows the honest endeavor to find out whether the applicant fits the position, the team and the company. This includes a willingness to accept that he or she will not be perfect everywhere and all the time. Striving for perfection or the fear of having to be perfect is what causes people to develop anxiety and block and ultimately leads to putting on masks and forfeiting an authentic appearance.

Strengthen the Relationship with the Applicant To deepen the relationship with other people, several short meetings are better suited than one long one. In addition, since we have different daily schedules, more nuanced insights can be gained through multiple, shorter interviews. For example, Google conducts five 30-min interviews [6]. Throughout the recruiting process, one should be in continuous contact with the applicant and bridge the information gap that regularly occurs after the first auto-response email confirms receipt of the application materials. Failure to do so still represents one of the most frequently queried negative experiences of candidates in the application process. Especially in the competition for the most attractive profiles, it is true that the “recruiting iron should be struck while it is hot”. Especially in small companies, there is a danger of dragging out the process for too long. Sifting through new profiles often takes a back seat to the more “urgent” demands of daily operations as HR-tasks are not prioritised. But the competition never sleeps, and if you wait too long to get back to the candidate, they may well have already been hired by another company. If, after advertising a position and receiving various applications, you do not respond to them for several weeks, often the only applicants left are those left by the faster-recruiting competition. Therefore, a realistic time frame should be calculated for filling the new position. Those who have to make decisions under pressure tend to make mistakes as well as concessions and their ability to empathize and thus strengthen the relationship level is limited. As a result, suboptimal and thus often less sustainable appointments result. At the beginning of 2019, the average vacancy time across all job profiles in Germany is 113 days [8]. In the labour market monitor of the Federal Employment Agency, the exact figures for the different job profiles and regions or agency districts in Germany can be researched and provide an orientation on the required lead time for new appointments. The experience that several short contacts increase the bond more than a single long contact is supplemented by the experiences that are made and the variety that arises. It is therefore advisable to receive the applicant in different locations and to interview him or her in different constellations. For example, in the second round the HR-Manager whom the applicant already knows from the first round could remain as a familiar company representative, while the other two interview partners change. Subsequently, the applicant

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could be led by the HR manager through the company to the managing director, who would conduct a one-on-one interview with the applicant, who could choose a different seating constellation than before or vary the type of chair as described above. The entrance exams of various fraternities and other organizations show that the higher the barriers to entry that had to be overcome, the stronger the subsequent bond of a new member. Groups that are easy to get into have something less exclusive about them, and you lose nothing when you leave. If, on the other hand, you have to push your limits to get in, you feel privileged and you do not put your new achievement on the line so easily later. So, a multi-stage selection process not only improves the quality of the selection, but can make the candidate more loyal to the company. It is important not to delay the process unnecessarily, but to conduct it in a structured manner with transparent and appreciative communication. The difficulty of getting a new job should not lie in overcoming sloppy HR processes. If a company is currently not in a position to do this, an external HR specialist should be entrusted with the task in order to ensure professional processes and sustainable results.

The Self-Inflicted Shortage of Skilled Workers A critical difference between successful recruiting companies and less successful ones is the attitude of those involved. While HR work is a top priority for the former and the acquisition of new employees has top priority, HR work is sometimes perceived by the latter as an a bothersome evil that has to be done somehow. This observation is particularly evident in small companies, which are often understaffed due to the challenging situation on the labor market and try to somehow cope with the abundance of orders. Due to the recruiting experience from those times when there were still enough applicants and due to the resulting attitudes, there is often still a lack of awareness that personnel is a strategic resource that requires an extended planning horizon. Under stress and distracted by the supposedly more urgent tasks of day-to-day business, the acquisition of new employees becomes a secondary matter and leads to a vicious circle. If good candidates are neglected and a random selection is made in the course of a superficial selection, sustainable staffing often fails and the cycle begins again, this time with worsened starting conditions, because often the sustainability of personnel work is not taken into account in applicant communication. The fact is that fewer qualified potential candidates are available today than a few years ago. Nevertheless, Gaedt is also right when he speaks of the myth of a shortage of skilled workers [9]. The volatility of the labour market has changed dramatically. Stephan Jung [10] reports how the current generation entering the workforce will go through an average of up to 17 job changes over the course of their careers. Other studies show that on average one third of employees in companies are willing to change jobs. Therefore, there are definitely interested candidates available. This is reflected, for example, in the up to 6000 applications that Google receives for a vacant position.

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Consolidation

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The reason why the number of applicants is declining so sharply in many companies and leading to a perceived shortage of skilled workers is often homemade and is often due to the negligent communication behavior of recruiters. When jobs were filled in the past, applicants who were not considered at the time were often notified only in brief or not at all. Whereas in the past, applications were sometimes returned up to six months later, today, stressed personnel managers or managing directors often simply delete e-mail applications at the end of the process in order to save time and move on to the next item on the agenda. But this is exactly the crux of the matter. An applicant who doesn’t seem to be a good fit at the moment may be the perfect candidate in two or three years. And he would then even likely be willing to a change his job, but our company is no longer worthy of consideration. He remembers the rebuke he got during the last application process and the fact that he didn’t hear anything at all from the company after his application or received an impersonal standard letter after a long wait. The majority of applicants generalise the behaviour of companies and form the opinion that they can save themselves future applications because the company “doesn’t want them anyway”. Only very few apply more than once. In addition to this, a rule of thumb from sales applies, according to which an unsatisfied customer communicates his dissatisfaction to seven other customers. Since the goal is to get mental relief by sharing the negative opinion, the more competent the interlocutor is with regard to a topic, the higher the relief. To make matters worse, rejected applicants often inform precisely those people in their environment who have a connection to the job description or to the company whose behavior is being criticized.

The Implicit Danger in Three-Pile Selection There is a certain tragedy in the careless behaviour of some recruiters, because often they communicate decently with the wrong people and neglect those on whom they should focus. The reason for this lies in the classic three pile method. The first pile is made up of those candidates you absolutely want to meet, the second pile is made up of those who could be considered if none of the candidates from the top pile work out. The third pile is made up of the group of candidates who are definitely out of the question. The good intentions of applicant-friendly communication are regularly taken to heart with the unsuitable applicants in the third group and these are politely and directly rejected so that this part of the process is completed. At the same time, the top profiles are courted and the selection process is initiated. The applicants in the second pile, however, are parked on the “siding” by being diplomatically told that the selection process will take a little longer and that they will be in touch again. Unfortunately, only very few of these potentially interesting applicants understand that they are just being put on the back burner and are actually only serving the company as a stopgap, but they actually still reckon they have a chance of being invited later. Now the selection process drags on, and when the position is finally filled by one of the candidates in the first pile, many weeks have often passed. Now there are several

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dangers: Either everyone in the company is happy to finally have the position filled and closes the process. But it can also happen that more urgent issues come to the fore or that the recruiter is simply uncomfortable to contact the applicants of the second pile after such a long time, even with a rejection. A contact would not only be inconvenient, but it costs time and is not relevant to the result (in the short-term) anyway, which is why it is often not conducted in practice. Who likes to deliver bad news? If the documents are available digitally, they are often deleted and the matter is settled – for the company, but not for the applicant. The applicant is still waiting for an answer. The behaviour that the company does not contact the applicant anymore at some point is still one of the most frequently cited in candidate experience studies. But where the recruiter’s behavior does not seem to be relevant to results at the moment, it catches up with him in future job placements. The applicants in the second pile, which usually comprises more candidates than the first pile, were once classified as possible alternatives. If they have done well since then, they would often be suitable candidates for the top pile today, except now they do not respond to our company’s current job ads any longer: We didn’t want them then, they’ve learned that our company is not interested in them or does not even think it necessary to give them an appropriate rejection. Few things are more counterproductive and harder to patch up than disappointed expectations and wounded pride. There is an enormous number of applicants who can be sustainably scared away in this way in a single selection process, so it is imperative that the person responsible for the selection process prevents rejected applicants from getting the impression that it is a general rejection, otherwise they will be absent in the future. Classically, the written form was the legally approved standard rejection- companies are usually afraid that applicants consider a rejection as not AGG compliant (AGG is the German antidiscrimination law) -and take them to court. Although this currently saves time, it is impersonal and reduces the number of applicants for the next vacancy. Applicants are also unsure, they receive diplomatically worded rejections but don’t know why. Having a brief conversation with second batch applicants here takes time, but it is time well spent. For data protection reasons, application documents may only be stored for a manageable period of time. But no data protectionist forbids networking with applicants via Xing and similar platforms. If you call the applicants of the second batch in a short time and tell them honestly and verbally why someone else was a better fit for the advertised position, most people can deal with this form of rejection, especially if the rejection was not based on personality. If the candidate can then possibly be given a tip for future procedures and is offered the opportunity to network so that they can get in touch with each other again in the future, very few people turn down this offer. In this way, these candidates can be contacted directly in the future when new positions are filled and can also be activated in newer recruiting processes such as crowd recruiting.

14.2

Stumbling Blocks

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Crowd Recruiting In crowd recruiting, similar to filling a position via a headhunter, a certain budget is made available for filling a new position. However, this is offered to the network and distributed along the path of the network through which the new hire finally came about. For example, if a recruiter has a budget to fill a vacancy of 10,000 EUR and 100 potential Xing contacts, they can be contacted first. Of these 100 candidates, 20–40% should be open to being approached, depending on how the initial contact was and how precisely the approach is placed. One-third will refuse and the last third will not respond at all. If the position cannot be filled, those who have declined can be offered to activate their network and, if successful, to distribute the budget to the successful path in the network. If 50 of the candidates (A) have declined and only 20 of them distribute the position in their network to 20 potential candidates (B) each, 400 hand-picked potential applicants will learn about the vacant position. If these in turn inform 20 potential candidates each (C), you already reach 8000 possible candidates. In sales, it is much easier for us to decide in favour of a product that we have been recommended by an acquaintance; a similar effect can also occur in crowd recruiting. If an employment contract is finally concluded, the 10,000 EUR are divided among the successful path. In the end, the company has spent the same money as it used to for newspaper advertisements or recruiters, but has the advantage that it has done good business with part of its network and that they are certainly open to similar actions in the future. Here too, of course, those applicants generated by the network who have to be turned down should be turned down appreciatively and in such a way that they can be integrated into the network and won over for future advertisements or crowd recruiting campaigns.

14.2

Stumbling Blocks

In labour market consulting, the rule of thumb is that the smaller a company is, the more flexible it is, but also more chaotic and unstructured. The larger the company, on the other hand, the more processes are systematized and standardized. Recruiting is no exception. For this reason, Martin John Yate [11] recommends applicants to pay attention to whether the interview is conducted by a professional or an amateur. Small companies in particular, where selection interviews are not the order of the day, are therefore threatened by stumbling blocks that can endanger sustainable recruiting success. "

Stumbling Blocks on the Way to Professional Recruiting

1. No decided job description in advance, no named benefits for the applicant. 2. No suitable publishing channels, just “post & pray recruiting”. 3. Lack of knowledge regarding the position to be filled, as there was a failure to request a more in-depth description from the line, especially for differentiated, complex positions. 4. Lack of knowledge within the departments about the actual situation on the labour market. 5. Lack of job differentiation, interview is not requirement based.

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6. The interview duration is too short or too long in relation to the position to be filled. 7. Unrealistic time planning, too little time is planned so that you are pressed for time in the interview. 8. Poor interviewer preparation, no written preparation, unstructured interview, no questions or commonly known standard questions. 9. No individual preparation with critical review of the applicant’s resume. 10. No written notes during the interview. 11. Too few rounds of interviews (Dr. Knoblauch recommends up to a nine-stage selection process, with not all stages consisting of interviews). 12. Recruiters are guided by first impressions, although these are not sufficient for a differentiated judgement. 13. The conversation is had early on in the process and the recruiter succumbs to the “matching face principle.” Leslie A. Zebrowitz [12] recommends gathering information first through means such as documents, referrals, pre-tests, and emails, and only then interviewing. 14. The recruiter succumbs to the halo effect: because the applicant is good looking or has well-known companies on their resume, they are preferred. 15. The recruiter hires someone because they resemble them. Depending on the position to be filled, however, similarity is precisely what is not needed. 16. The recruiter can be influenced too much by sympathy. 17. Interviewer’s share of the conversation is greater than that of the applicant. The split should be one third to two thirds. 18. Interviews are conducted alone: So it might as well be a roll of the dice. 19. Failure to provide a level playing field for all applicants. Lack of knowledge about the manifold influences on decision making. 20. Poor timing (1): You react too late to applications – the best candidates are with the competition, while you have to make do with B-candidates yourself. 21. Poor timing (2): The search for candidates is carried out too late and vacancy times are not taken into account or are underestimated. 22. Outdated understanding of roles: applicants are treated from above or as supplicants. No customer service driven- behaviour on the part of the recruiter. 23. No sustained communication with rejected applicants. “After the interview is before the interview”: Applicants who are scared away today contribute to tomorrow’s skills shortage.

14.3

Counteracting Wrong Decisions

Most stumbling blocks, as described, threaten at the procedural level. But also in the conversation itself, dozens, if not hundreds of communication-psychological heuristics and behaviors cause the emergence of wrong decisions. The cause is regularly based on the fact that our brain, as the number one energy consumer in the body, has to be efficient and thus,

14.3

Counteracting Wrong Decisions

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in the course of evolution, has begun to form simplifications due to the limited processing capacity of the conscious mind. These led to automated processing, which works in everyday life, but is one of the main causes of misjudgement in the abstract and complex requirements that a selection interview has to meet. Kahneman [13] derived from this the benefits of a structured interview and clear response parameters, and showed how wellevaluated algorithms can reduce human error in decision making, which may imply a viable approach for multi-stage, semi-automated recruiting processes with feedback loops, large data sets, and longer-term survey periods. Nevertheless, the recruiter’s intuition must also be taken into account. Gerd Gigerenzer [14] distinguishes between (Kahneman’s) decisions under calculable risk and those under incalculable uncertainty and discussed how, in the case of complex decisions under uncertainty, heuristics in the form of rules of thumb are nevertheless often more successful in practice than elaborate calculations. The Recruiter 2.0 in Industry 4.0 will integrate both approaches. To this end, it is advisable to set up structured recruiting, collect large amounts of data and evaluate it over long periods of time in order to incorporate the insights gained into future pre-selection. However, it is just as important to write rules of thumb for daily practice. The basis for their application is perception and knowledge of the elements of non-verbal communication in the job interview. There are various errors of perception and biases that influence recruiters and which they should at least be aware of in order to be able to counteract them. The most common ones such as the halo effect, the similarity bias as well as the primacy and recency effect and the Pygmalion effect have been described at various points in the book. Relevant publications such as those by Daniel Kahneman [15], Dan Ariely [16] or Carl Naughton [17] provide more in-depth insights here. After a conversation, the person who was able to communicate usually feels that the conversation was more successful than the person who was only allowed to listen and did not get a chance to speak. In the need to communicate, we are often so programmed by our own intentions that we do not perceive the subtle information of the interlocutor, or even find it disturbing or ignore it. In doing so, we are subject to the tendency to reject, suppress, or reinterpret observations made in favour of our intentions and goals. These procedures also distort our perception and thus promote the formation of erroneous judgments. The fact that an applicant is a good listener and the recruiter could tell a lot in an interview and feel better afterwards says nothing about the applicant’s fit. In contrast, silence can be golden: recruiters who discipline themselves and let the applicant talk not only learn more from the applicant’s verbal and non-verbal communication, but also make the applicant feel better about him- or herself, thus favouring a possible decision by the applicant in favour of the recruiter’s company. In addition, we all carry an elementary need for security within us. Archaically, in conversation, the relaxed organism of the counterpart is an important indicator of a dangerfree overall situation. We react unconsciously to the degree of tension of the person we are talking to, and while we are attracted to relaxation and can relax as well as engage more deeply with the situation, we tend to withdraw when we feel tense. So far, pressure and nervousness have predominantly appeared on the candidate side. With increasing pressure

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in recruiting, the danger of becoming tense and thus representing the company less attractively is now also growing for recruiters or managing directors of smaller companies. In addition, contraction reduces the absorption of information and increases the danger of becoming blind to the non-verbal, and in some cases even deaf to the verbal signals of the applicant and thus overlooking messages that are important for the decision. This also favors misjudgments, which can be reduced by higher communication competence.

Business Aesthetics Wolfgang Eckelt describes the recruiting-relevant findings of business aesthetics based on the publications of Gernot Böhme and Brigitte Biehl-Missal [18]. Products are becoming more and more interchangeable and thus it is becoming increasingly decisive that the purchase feels good for the consumer, which is connected to his aesthetic perception. Businesses must meet this customer need on all communication channels. Depending on the position, the demands on the applicant to fit in with these aesthetics vary, and so the applicant is required in the interview – whether the recruiter is aware of it or not – to also fulfil precisely these demands in order to be perceived as fitting in. The recruiter himself moves, comparable to the fish in the water, in the aesthetic field of the company and is not or only latently aware of this field due to the lack of reference points. Only when applicants who clearly deviate from this field appear does he perceive their difference and perceive them as unsuitable. In his snapshot, however, he underestimates the dynamic aspect of the influence of the field of the company on newly hired employees and often misses the opportunity at the same time to adapt the entire field of the company to the changes in the market through targeted new hires and to lead it towards the field character of upcoming challenges. Since this selection is also made unconsciously and is based on the signals of non-verbal communication, the first critical step here is also to consciously perceive and process them. In this way, mistakes made so far can be recognized and improved. Those who first allow what they perceive to have an effect on them and accept it valuefree before interpreting it, prevent the perceptual errors described above and can increase the quality of their decision. At the same time, they strive for a high goal. The Indian philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti once described this ability to observe without judging as the highest form of human intelligence.

14.4

Conclusion: Guideline Condensed

So how can we proceed in concrete terms? In the following, we will form rules of thumb for a successful interview from the most important points in the sense of Gigerenzer:

14.4

Conclusion: Guideline Condensed

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1. At least two interviewers should conduct the interview, ideally differentiated by gender, cultural background and hierarchical level in the company. 2. Before the selection process, each interviewer should think about who the ideal candidate might be, or what they should be like, and put into writing for themselves what qualities make them suitable for the job. Then each interviewer should write down questions to which they need answers in order to make a decision. 3. In addition, individual questions should be prepared on critical stages of the resume. 4. No or as few standard questions as possible should be used. 5. Open-ended, circular, hypothetical, and stimulus questions are key to allowing the applicant to open up. 6. However, these questions should only be the introduction. If the answer is not convincing, the interviewer should go into more depth or note the applicant’s behaviour in order to come back to this point of view later. 7. In doing so, the recruiter should adopt the inner attitude of a learner rather than a judge. 8. When asked to “tell us about yourself,” the recruiter should take notes on the points where the applicant’s facial expressions slip. 9. Another aspect should be the wording and the verbal orientation of the applicant. If the applicant uses relativizing phrases or unspecific descriptions, the question of his inner clarity and real goal orientation arises. 10. It is important that all three interviewers pay attention. If one interviewer notices something, he will no longer be able to pay attention to the applicant’s body language while writing. The notes should therefore be short and meaningful, ideally short in-depth questions are formulated with which the topic will be taken up again later. 11. When asking about the motivation to change, attention should be paid to microexpressions and to the way in which the answers are formulated. Is there a towards formulation to the new position or an away-from motivation in regard to the old position? If away-from formulations are used, the interviewer should ask how high the motivation to change to the company actually is or whether it is not primarily about leaving the old company. Here too, non-verbal signals show whether there are other reasons for the change that are being concealed. 12. The recruiter should regularly defocus the gaze to better identify micro-expressions. 13. A clock should be inconspicuously visible in the field of vision so that the recruiter can update himself and not get into a time crunch. 14. He should periodically shift inwardly to the meta-level and ask himself whether there is a cooperative or competitive atmosphere and whether the applicant feels comfort or discomfort. 15. Likewise, the recruiter should expand the frame of reference to include the level of the offerer-accepter rhythm. Who follows whom, does the company apply to the applicant or vice versa? The goal is to get into a common rhythm. If this prevails, it can be observed whether the applicant starts to follow the recruiter in case of changes in movement. This signals a strengthening connection and high permission to send.

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16. A confrontational attitude and a massive desk between the participants influence the decision-making process and make it difficult to establish contact and have a constructive discussion. For this reason, it may be advisable, especially in later selection rounds, to conduct the discussion at round tables or at tables in group rooms across corners. There you can sit at right angles to each other, which promotes the emergence of a cooperative atmosphere. Which arrangement is suitable at which stage of the selection process and for which position, each company will decide for itself. 17. For an objective selection in recruiting, comparable conditions should be created for all applicants. 18. Once this has been achieved, it is possible to deviate from them in later rounds of talks in individual cases in a targeted and systematic manner in order to test hypotheses that have been established. 19. At least two, ideally three personal interviews should be conducted with each applicant. If these are conducted in a structured manner, 30–60 min per interview are sufficient. 20. After the interview, each recruiter should first assess the interview briefly in writing, either on the basis of their own criteria or on the basis of the ten criteria listed, for each criterion with a school mark of 1–6. Writing this down is necessary, it forces thoughts to be clarified and brought to a conclusion, and it also increases identification with one’s own opinion during the subsequent exchange. Only then should the exchange with the colleagues take place and the observations and impressions be compared. If, on the other hand, the exchange takes place directly after the interview and nothing has been noted down, there is a danger of undifferentiated adherence to the opinion leader. 21. Depending on the selection round and the number of interviews conducted, one’s own unconscious can be left to make part of the decision by first making notes but consciously mulling over the decision between two candidates overnight before discussing it with colleagues. As we sleep, we consolidate the information we have gathered and often the decision is clear the next morning. 22. If multiple interviews are conducted, the primacy and recency effect should be considered to prevent candidates interviewed in the middle from falling through the psychological cracks. 23. Therefore, one should deliberately deviate from the order of the first interview in the second round. 24. The field of applicants should only be reduced towards the third round. 25. Professional follow-up and networking with unsuccessful mid-stack applicants, and especially with those with whom face-to-face interviews were conducted, is essential.

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References 1. Michael Grinder: Seminar Nonverbale Kommunikation: Ein Training in differenzierter Wahrnehmung, Offenhausen/Nürnberg, 14.05.–17.05.2015 2. Alexander Lowen: Bio-Energetik, S. 87; Rowohlt Taschenbuch-Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1979 3. Alexander Lowen: Bio-Energetik, S. 86; Rowohlt Taschenbuch-Verlag, Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1979 4. www.viasell.ch 5. www.bernhardt-trainings.com 6. Jörg Knoblauch: Das Geheimnis der Champions: Wie exzellente Unternehmen die besten Mitarbeiter finden und binden, Kapitel zu Google; Hörbuch, tempus GmbH, Giengen, 2016 7. Horst Rückle: Körpersprache für Manager, S. 413 f; Verlag Moderne Industrie, Landsberg/ Lech 1992 8. https://arbeitsmarktmonitor.arbeitsagentur.de/faktencheck/fachkraefte/tabelle/515/9/0/?r¼& b¼&o¼indikatoren aufgerufen am 04.01.2019 9. Martin Gaedt: Mythos Fachkräftemangel, Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2014 10. Stephan Jung: Vortrag: So lebst du morgen! Im Rahmen des Studium Generale der DHBW Lörrach am 26.09.2018 11. Martin John Yate: Das erfolgreiche Bewerbungsgespräch, S. 9; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005 12. Richard Conniff: Was für ein Affentheater, S. 209; Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2006 13. Daniel Kahneman: Schnelles Denken, langsames Denken, S. 284–286: Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 14. Gerd Gigerenzer: Risiko, S. 145–146; btb Verlag, München, 2014 15. Kahneman: Schnelles Denken langsames Denken: Siedler Verlag, München, 2012 16. Dan Ariely: Denken hilft zwar, nützt aber nichts; Droemer Knaur GmbH & Co. KG, München, 2015 17. Carl Naughton: Denken lernen; Gabal Verlag GmbH, Offenbach, 2016 18. Wolfgang J. Eckelt: Kandidaten lesen, S. 110; Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden, 2016