no Britain's Reptiles and Amphibians. A guide to the reptiles and amphibians of Great Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands [1/1, 1 ed.] 9781903657256

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First published 2009 by WILDGuides Ltd. Reprinted 2011 WILDGuides Ltd. Parr House 63 Hatch Lane Old Basing Hampshire RG24 7EB UK www.wildguides.co.uk

ISBN 978-1-903657-25-6 © 2009 Howard Inns Robert Still (digital artwork, maps and illustrations) Edited by Brian Clews, Robert Still and Andy Swash (WILDGuides) Copyright in the photographs remains with the individual photographers. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers.

The Environment Agency has important statutory duties to conserve and enhance the aquatic environment in England and Wales, and to promote the conservation of plants and animals that depend on water and wetland habitats. This Guide will help to raise awareness of the ecological requirements of reptiles and amphibians and should make an important contribution to the conservation and enhancement of their habitats in Britain and Ireland.

Production and design by WILDGuides Ltd, Old Basing, Hampshire. Printed in England by ABC Print

Contents Foreword ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 6 Reptiles and Amphibians in Britain .................................................................................................................. 8 Distribution and Status ...................................................................................................................................... 11 Reptile and Amphibian Sites ............................................................................................................................ 15 The Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust ..................................................................................... 23 Conservation Action ............................................................................................................................................ 24 Finding and Recording ....................................................................................................................................... 27 How to Identify Reptiles and Amphibians ................................................................................................. 33 Summary identification charts Adult reptiles............................................................................................................................................................ 36 Adult amphibians .................................................................................................................................................. 37 Reptile sloughs........................................................................................................................................................ 39 Egg and larval stages............................................................................................................................................ 40 How to use the species accounts ................................................................................................................... 42

The Species Accounts lizardS Slow Worm Common Lizard Sand Lizard Wall Lizard Green Lizard

SNakeS Grass Snake Adder Smooth Snake

44 Anguis fragilis ....................................................................... 48 Zootoca vivipara ................................................................. 52 Lacerta agilis ......................................................................... 56 Podarcis muralis ................................................................... 60 Lacerta bilineata ................................................................. 62 64 Natrix natrix .......................................................................... 70 Vipera berus .......................................................................... 74 Coronella austriaca ............................................................. 78

TUrTleS, TOrTOiSeS aNd TerraPiNS Leatherback Kemp’s Ridley Loggerhead Green Turtle Hawksbill

84 Dermochelys coriacea ....................................................... 86 Lepidochelys kempii ........................................................... 88 Caretta caretta ..................................................................... 88 Chelonia mydas .................................................................... 90 Eretmochelys imbricata ..................................................... 90

frOgS and TOadS Common Frog Agile Frog Pool Frog Edible Frog Marsh Frog Common Toad Natterjack Toad Midwife Toad

NeWTS Smooth Newt Great Crested Newt Palmate Newt Alpine Newt

92 Rana temporaria ................................................................. 98 Rana dalmatina ................................................................ 102 Pelophylax lessonae ..........................................................104 Pelophylax kl. esculentus ............................................ 108 Pelophylax ridibundus ..................................................110 Bufo bufo .............................................................................. 112 Epidalea calamita ..............................................................116 Alytes obstetricans ..........................................................120 122 Lissotriton vulgaris ........................................................... 126 Triturus cristatus ................................................................ 130 Lissotriton helveticus ....................................................... 134 Mesotriton alpestris .......................................................138

OTHer NON-NaTiVe SPeCieS Or eSCaPeS Corn Snake Aesculapian Snake Red-eared Terrapin European Pond Tortoise European Tree Frog American Bullfrog African Clawed Frog Italian Crested Newt Other reptiles and amphibians that have been recorded living wild in Britain as introductions or escapes

Pantherophis guttatus ................................................. 140 Zamenis longissimus ........................................................ 140 Trachemys scripta elegans ............................................. 142 Emys orbicularis ...............................................................142 Hyla arborea ..................................................................... 144 Lithobates catesbeianus ..............................................144 Xenopus laevis ................................................................. 146 Triturus carnifex ...............................................................146 .................................................................................................... 148

Reptiles and Amphibians in the Garden.................................................................................................... 149 Legal and Threat Status ................................................................................................................................... 155 Useful Addresses ................................................................................................................................................. 158 Further Reading ................................................................................................................................................... 159 Photographic and Artwork Credits ............................................................................................................ 160 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... 162 Index of English and Scientific Names ....................................................................................................... 163

Foreword I remember finding my first baby Grass Snake as if it were just yesterday and similarly the heart pounding thrill of peering over a clump of heather and gazing down at a brilliant green male Sand Lizard, huge headed, licking his lips and twitching in the May sunshine of 1976. So long ago, but still so striking ! So what is it about our reptiles and amphibians that ignites such a passion in naturalists and why does it endure a lifetime? Well, there is their obvious beauty, maybe a little too obvious in the case of those verdant newcomers the Green Lizards or the brilliant ‘fire-belly’ of the Great Crested Newt, maybe even understated in the case of the secretive Smooth Snake or that raucous rattler the Natterjack Toad. But then these and the Sand Lizards have the allure of rarity on their side, a trait irresistible to most, and besides, who can question the neat perfection of their scaled bodies or their wonderful patterns and colours? Then there is the hot, quick alacrity of most reptiles – nothing scurries so super-fast as a Common Lizard across a log as it attempts to avoid a schoolboy’s grasp, nothing vanishes quite like the tail of a Grass Snake leaving only a dry rustle of leaves where it had been resting. And so there is also their relative inaccessibility, before you learn the knack they are difficult to find and watch and most people ramble past a pond without ever knowing about all that amphibian action they have missed just below the water’s surface. At the other extreme, even the most dedicated reptile fanciers will be lucky to see any of our marine species, such chances invariably fall to those who marvel in ignorance of the true value of their encounter. Then there is their ‘naughtiness’, their infamy as envenomators! The poisonous skin of the Common Toad which can leave a dog foaming at the mouth or the Adder – quite harmless unless harmed and with the proper respect applied there isn’t a dangerous animal on earth that will attack anyone. Nevertheless, such ‘poison-packing’ builds reputations and fears and with it a paradoxical fascination, one which is deeply ingrained in our cultures and further expands the appeal of these animals. This smart little book is designed to introduce you to these amazing characters, to tell you a bit about their distribution, habits, ecology and how we are trying to conserve them, and of course how to tell them apart. It also offers a few tips on how to find and watch them and when I flick through its pages I so wish I’d been armed with it when I first began sneaking up on snakes, netting for newts and lunging after lizards. I hope some of you will read and use it to become similarly ‘infected’ ! Chris Packham 2009

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Introduction Reptiles and amphibians are amongst the most successful animals on earth. Modern-day amphibians have their origins in creatures that crawled out of the swamps in the Lower Carboniferous period, over 350 million years ago. In contrast, the earliest reptile remains date from the Upper Carboniferous period, some 50 million years later. This long history has meant that a huge diversity of species and a spectacular range of extremely different body forms have evolved. Although many of these early species are very different from those found today, others, such as crocodiles, have changed remarkably little. One group of ancient species, the dinosaurs, holds such a fascination that their names are as familiar as those of their modern-day descendants. Perhaps the best-known scientific name for any reptile, and arguably any animal, is Tyrannosaurus rex, a mighty animal that died out over 60 million years ago but actually has virtually no ancestral influence on today's reptiles. Whilst there are some fundamental differences in the biology, ecology and life-cycles of reptiles and amphibians the two groups, as in this book, are frequently considered together and are even occasionally collectively referred to as ‘herptiles’ or ‘herpetofauna’, although these rather ugly and unhelpful terms will not be used in the pages that follow. reptiles include snakes, lizards, crocodiles, tortoises and turtles. They are characterised by their dry, scaly skin that can retain water, allowing them to inhabit some of the driest places on earth. They usually mate on land and, depending on the species, either lay eggs or give birth to live young that are a miniature version of the adult. amphibians include frogs, toads, newts and salamanders. Most amphibians (including all the British species) are aquatic for part of their life-cycle. Each year adult amphibians return to water to breed, laying eggs or spawn that develop into aquatic larvae which bear little resemblance to the adult. Through a process of metamorphosis larvae gradually develop into tiny versions of the adult, at which point they leave the water. Amphibian skin is not waterproof and must remain moist. Because of this they live predominantly in damp habitats when on land. Reptiles and amphibians are often thought of as being cold-blooded. This is not strictly true and a more accurate description would be ‘ectothermic’, i.e. relying on warmth from outside their body (by basking in the sun for example) to raise their temperature to a level that will enable them to be fully active. This explains why the majority of the 14,000 or so amphibian and reptile species are found in the warmer areas of the world. In Britain and Ireland there are just 13 native species. Three additional species are found in the Channel Islands and one species of marine turtle occurs in British waters as part of its natural range. The primary aim of this book is to help the reader to identify the reptiles and amphibians that can be found in Britain. As well as native species the book covers those non-native species that have been introduced to Britain, several of which have become wellestablished in certain areas. Species are grouped by type and, because of the significant differences between these groups, their life-cycles and biology are covered in sections that introduce each group. Each species has its own account, illustrated with photographs, which cover identification, behaviour, reproduction and habitat preferences. 6

Reptiles like the Common Lizard (above) have dry scaly skins, whereas amphibians such as the Common Frog (below) have smooth, moist skins.

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As reptiles and amphibians are both shy and elusive, some practical tips are given to help the reader find them more easily. Information on population levels and an insight into the conservation challenges faced by these sedentary animals with specific habitat requirements and poor powers of dispersal are also presented. Whether it was the fault of Shakespeare’s witches in Macbeth – whose evil cauldron included body parts from almost all of our species including ‘eye of newt and toe of frog’ and even ‘Adder’s fork and blind-worm’s sting’ – reptiles and amphibians don’t generally receive a good press. In reality they are excellent indicators of the health and well-being of the habitats in which they live. Reptiles and amphibians are for the most part carnivorous and are positioned high up in the food chain and hence can only survive in habitats that are ecologically productive and largely undisturbed. A morbid fear of snakes is one of the more common phobias. Indeed there will be people who will not even be able to look at some of the photographs in this book. However, there will be others who are fascinated by snakes, and more still who have never seen one in the wild in Britain. This book also has the aim of presenting some straightforward facts that should dispel some of the myths and introduce more people to these intriguing animals.

Reptiles and Amphibians in Britain Britain’s native reptiles and amphibians are listed in the table opposite, showing their English names and their most recently accepted scientific name. Where there is more than one English name, the most frequently used name is shown first and is the name used for the species throughout the book. The convention adopted in this book is to use initial capitals for the English name (e.g. Grass Snake). All of our native species are also found in mainland Europe and the fossil record suggests that they reached Britain after the last Ice Age by crossing the land bridge that existed until approximately 8,000 years ago. Only the early colonists (Common Frog, Natterjack Toad, Smooth Newt and Common Lizard) reached Ireland, because the Irish Sea formed prior to England becoming separated from continental Europe. It is apparent from sub-fossil evidence that during the warm period following the last lce Age some species were more widespread and other European reptiles and amphibians were found in Britain. As well as all native species, sub-fossil remains of the Agile Frog, Moor Frog Rana arvalis and European Pond Tortoise have been found but, with the exception of the Agile Frog on Jersey, none of these species are found in Britain today. Most of the species found in Britain are at the northern limit of their range. For comparison, France has five times as many reptile and amphibian species as Britain and, even on its northern coast, with England clearly visible on the horizon, it is possible to find at least six amphibians that are not native to Britain. This proved to be too great a temptation in the past for some naturalists interested in these animals and introductions of various 8

THe NaTiVe SPeCieS Of BriTaiN aNd irelaNd rePTileS

amPHiBiaNS

Slow Worm (Blind Worm)

Anguis fragilis Common Frog

Common Lizard (Viviparous Lizard)

Zootoca vivipara Northern Pool Frog

Rana temporaria Pelophylax lessonae 1

Sand Lizard

Lacerta agilis Common Toad

Adder (Northern Viper)

Vipera berus Natterjack Toad

Epidalea calamita

Grass Snake (Ringed Snake)

Natrix natrix Smooth Newt (Common Newt)

Lissotriton vulgaris

Smooth Snake

Coronella austriaca Great Crested Newt (Warty Newt) Palmate Newt

Bufo bufo

Triturus cristatus Lissotriton helveticus

Additional species native to Jersey (Common) Wall Lizard

Podarcis muralis Agile Frog

Green Lizard

Lacerta bilineata

Marine Turtles ‘native’ to British Waters Leatherback

Dermochelys coriacea

Rana dalmatina

1 Whilst the northern race of Pool Frog is

native, there are also introduced non-native populations of the southern race of Pool Frog elsewhere in Britain.

eSTaBliSHed NON-NaTiVe SPeCieS (Common) Wall Lizard

Podarcis muralis 2 Edible Frog

Green Lizard

Lacerta bilineata 2

Marsh Frog

Pelophylax kl. esculentus Pelophylax ridibundus

2 Whilst the Green Lizard and Wall

Midwife Toad

Alytes obstetricans

Lizard are native to Jersey there are also introduced non-native populations in various locations in Britain.

Alpine Newt

Mesotriton alpestris

OTHer NON-NaTiVe SPeCieS Or eSCaPeS European Pond Tortoise Emys orbicularis American Bullfrog Corn Snake

Lithobates catesbeianus

Pantherophis guttatus African Clawed Frog

Xenopus laevis

Aesculapian Snake Zamenis longissimus European Tree Frog

Hyla arborea

Red-eared Terrapin

Trachemys scripta Italian Crested Newt elegans

Triturus carnifex

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non-native species have been happening for hundreds of years. In addition to deliberate introductions, many species have been imported for the pet or laboratory trade and some of these have found their way into the wild. A few introduced species, for example the Marsh Frog and Wall Lizard, are very successful breeders. Their distributions are well-known and their populations are expanding to the extent that they can be regarded as an established part of Britain’s wildlife. These established non-native species are described in detail in the species accounts. Other non-native species, that are introductions or escapes, are more limited in occurrence. These are either breeding species with a restricted distribution, or species unable to breed in the British climate and therefore the subject of repeated release or escape. The most frequently encountered of these, or those with a long history of introduction, are also summarised in the species accounts. Currently there is no evidence to suggest that alien species such as the Midwife Toad and Alpine Newt pose a threat to our native wildlife, but there are concerns that in certain areas the non-native Wall Lizard thrives at the expense of native lizards. Other alien species, such as the American Bullfrog, are voracious by nature and therefore highly likely to have a detrimental effect on native wildlife. For this reason their presence is regarded as highly undesirable and importation is now controlled by European Union legislation.

Fire Salamander – one of our closest amphibian neighbours but not native to Britain (see page 8).

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Distribution and Status The distribution and status of reptiles and amphibians in Britain has changed markedly since Victorian times, when naturalists first started to keep significant records. The Natterjack Toad, for example, was lost from its last known sites in London early in the 20th century and by 1970 was extinct in Surrey. Investigations published in 1948 and 1963 provided the first reliable information about the distribution of reptiles and amphibians in Britain and Ireland. Subsequent work included the studies undertaken by De Montfort University between 1983 and 1993, the distribution atlases published by the National Records Centre (Arnold, 1973, 1983 and 1996), and research by The Herpetological Conservation Trust. This information shows general trends of falling population numbers and diminishing distributions for all species, with even the Common Frog and Common Toad showing dramatic declines during the 1960s. The three rarest British species – the Smooth Snake, Sand Lizard and Natterjack Toad – have always had limited distributions because the habitats in which they live are themselves localised and limited in extent. The two primary habitats for these species are lowland dry heathland and coastal sand dunes. Both of these habitats are based on sandy soils that warm up quickly when exposed to the sun and have a varied local topography with plenty of sheltered banks and hollows. This combination of features creates a warm microclimate which is an essential requirement for reptiles and amphibians, especially for those at the northern edge of their range. Lowland heathland is located mainly in the south of Britain, whereas sand dunes are located mainly in western coastal areas. The extent of lowland heathland today is a

Heathland – the single most important reptile habitat in Britain.

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fragment of what it once was. Analysis of maps and other records show that, in the Thames basin, western Weald and Dorset, between 85% and 90% of the heathland that existed when the first edition Ordnance Survey maps were produced in the late 18th century has been lost. Sand dunes have suffered a similar fate; in Victorian times the huge dune system along the Sefton Coast in Merseyside, which still supports Natterjack Toads and Sand Lizards, was almost three times the size it is today. Declines of both heathland and dune habitat are due to a number of reasons. The spread of urban areas, the planting of large areas as pine plantations, agricultural use and leisure developments such as holiday camps and links-style golf courses are major factors. In addition, a lack of suitable habitat management, combined with the natural succession of heathland to woodland (often accelerated by self-seeding from nearby pine forestry plantations), has also played a significant part in the loss of these habitats. The areas that do remain are often highly fragmented, making it difficult for reptile and amphibian populations to re-establish themselves if they are lost for any reason, natural or otherwise. Public pressure generally and fires in particular can also be a problem, especially on the more urban heathlands. The distribution and status of the three rarest species – the Smooth Snake, Sand Lizard and Natterjack Toad – is closely linked to changes in these key habitats. A national survey of the Smooth Snake in the 1980s confirmed the animal’s presence at 86 sites. More have been discovered as a result of subsequent detailed survey work by The Herpetological Conservation Trust and the number of known sites has almost doubled. Similar work has catalogued over 500 populations of Sand Lizards and approximately 60 Natterjack Toad sites in Britain and Ireland. These are recorded in the Natterjack Toad Site Register, which has been maintained since 1986.

Coastal sand dunes – an important habitat for reptiles and for the Nattterjack Toad.

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Road and rail embankments can be important sites for reptiles.

The more widespread reptile species – the Slow Worm, Common Lizard, Grass Snake and Adder are found in a broader range of habitats than the rare species. As well as heathland and sand dunes, other areas favoured are open woodland, sea cliffs, chalk downland, grassy scrub and moorland, and, in the case of the Grass Snake, wetlands. However, many of these habitats are also under pressure. Large areas have become less suitable for reptiles through the natural succession from open habitats to woodland and because of intensive management regimes involving burning, mowing or intensive grazing. As is the case for amphibians, the intensification of agriculture has also made the farmed landscape less attractive to reptiles. However, there are some man-made habitats that have become important for reptiles, including railway and road embankments, abandoned quarries, brownfield industrial sites and spoil heaps from mineral workings. Similarly, the distribution and status of the more widespread amphibian species – the Common Toad, Common Frog, Smooth Newt, Great Crested Newt and Palmate Newt – is closely tied to the availability of suitable breeding ponds. Research has indicated a loss of 70% of ponds in the wider countryside over the last century. Ponds that served as a water supply for livestock were once common on farmland. These were often located near to ditches and hedgerows and provided a perfect terrestrial habitat for amphibians. The intensification of agriculture has resulted in many hedgerows being removed and ponds being replaced by drinking troughs. The farm ponds that do remain are at risk of contamination from fertiliser, silage and pesticide run-off. The change in agricultural practice is one of the main reasons for amphibian decline in the wider countryside. Additionally, urbanisation has also destroyed many ponds and the value of those remaining as a breeding environment for amphibians is often reduced by the introduction of fish. 13

For all of the more widespread reptile and amphibian species, a challenge for the 21st century is to re-appraise their distribution and status. This work is urgent because, in addition to other pressures, it is not known what effect climate change will have or is already having. There is some logic in the theory that warmth-loving reptiles and amphibians could benefit from a warmer climate, but it is hard to reconcile this with a growing body of evidence that some species have declined significantly and in some cases can no longer be found at sites where they were once common. Climate Change Modelling suggests that, in Britain, climate change is likely to mean hotter, drier summers, milder, wetter winters, higher sea levels and a related increase in flood risk for coastal areas. However, these models are based on a set of highly complex variables, which could be further complicated by potential changes in the Gulf Stream – the Atlantic currents that help maintain Britain and Ireland’s mild weather conditions. Although generally warmer summers may benefit reptiles, enabling them to inhabit a larger area and wider range of habitats, it could have the opposite effect on amphibians for which the availability of breeding ponds is a key factor that determines their range. It may well be that drier conditions may not only reduce the actual number of ponds available but also cause ponds to dry out before metamorphosis occurs, leading to a failure to breed and hence reducing the local population. Additionally, milder winters may reduce hibernation length and intensity, potentially causing a raised metabolism in which a hibernating animal’s reserves would be used up more rapidly than usual. In such an event animals may not survive hibernation or may emerge in a state of reduced fitness. The lowered breeding success of some toad populations has been attributed to the poor body condition of animals emerging from hibernation after a mild winter.

Could declines in Common Toad populations be due to climate change?

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Reptile and Amphibian Sites The following photographs show some of the best sites or habitats for reptiles and amphibians in Britain.

frensham and Churt Commons, Surrey Frensham Common is adjacent to Churt, Hankley and Thursley Commons and is typical of the Lower Greensand heaths of the Weald. It is a stronghold for the Sand Lizard and also has isolated populations of Smooth Snakes. The Natterjack Toad was native until the 1960s and although it has been re-introduced, success has been limited. The famous Frensham Ponds are home to the Common Toad and smaller populations of Common Frogs and Smooth Newts. Palmate Newts inhabit the smaller pools and ditches on Churt Common. All the more widespread species of reptile can also be found in the heathland areas. 15

Studland Heath, dorset

This beautiful site, located by the sea, is an area of heathland fringed with sand dunes and supports all six native reptile species as well as good Common Toad populations in some of the lakes. Studland is part of the extensive Purbeck heathland system, in which all of our native reptiles can be found. Sefton dunes, lanacashire

Just south of Southport, the Ainsdale and Birkdale sand dune systems support a very healthy Natterjack Toad population, breeding in the shallow slacks located just behind the frontal dunes. Sand Lizards are also present although their small, localised colonies are hard to find. Common Lizards inhabit some areas and the more widepread amphibians, including the Great Crested Newt, can be found in the larger water bodies of the fixed dunes. 16

inch dunes, County kerry, ireland

The wild and isolated dune peninsula of Inch in County Kerry is one of Ireland’s most important sites for the Natterjack Toad. The area also supports the Common Frog, Smooth Newt and Common Lizard. Sea Cliffs – Worth matravers, dorset

Cliffs, particularly in the south and west of Britain, support good populations of reptiles and often Common Toads if there are suitable breeding sites. The wild under-cliff of the Dorset coast supports all of the widespread reptiles, often in abundance, and the ponds formed by clay slumps attract Great Crested Newts. 17

Norfolk Woodland – Pool frog Site

The re-introduction site for the Pool Frog in Norfolk is a network of ponds in a lightly wooded area. The Grass Snake, Common Lizard, Smooth Newt, Great Crested Newt, Common Frog and Common Toad are also found in the area. Upland moorland

Moorland is often home to good numbers of Common Lizards and Adders, particularly on sheltered south-facing slopes. Common Frogs and Palmate Newts often breed in smaller shallow upland pools.

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Woodland-edge Pond

Fish-free lowland ponds close to good terrestrial habitat, such as deciduous woodland, wild hedgerows or unimproved pasture, can support good populations of all the widespread amphibians. This, in turn, makes woodland-edge ponds a favourite haunt for Grass Snakes. Woolmer forest, Hampshire

The shallow heathland pools of Woolmer Forest in Hampshire support the last remaining native heathland Natterjack Toad population in southern England. The extensive surrounding heathland also supports all six native reptile species, following the introduction of Sand Lizards in the 1970s, and, in certain areas, all of the remaining five species of widespread amphibians. 19

Chalk downland

Chalk downland with a mix of rough grassland can support good populations of Common Lizards, Slow Worms and Adders. Grass Snakes also inhabit some sites. Although water bodies are typically scarce on chalk downland, amphibians, particularly Smooth Newts and Great Crested Newts will breed in dew ponds that were built to provide water for livestock. Ouaisne Common, Jersey

This area of coastal heath and scrub supports the last native Jersey population of the Agile Frog and a healthy native population of Green Lizards. The Grass Snake, Slow Worm, Palmate Newt and Common Toad are also found here.

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les Blanches Banques, Jersey

The extensive dune system at the western end of Jersey is the stronghold for the native Green Lizard. The Grass Snake, Slow Worm and Common Toad are also found in some areas of the site. romney marsh dykes, kent

Marsh Frogs abound throughout the dyke system of Romney Marsh, sharing some areas with Common Toads. Both species are a food source for the healthy population of Grass Snakes.

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Hampton Nature reserve, Peterborough

This is an example of a huge area of mineral workings which has resulted in a network of ponds that supports a large meta-population of Great Crested Newts, as well as the other widespread amphibians, and Grass Snakes, Adders, Slow Worms and Common Lizards. Bournemouth Cliffs, dorset

The steep, south-facing cliffs that extend for several miles along parts of the sea front at Bournemouth have areas of heathland, gorse scrub, rough scrubby grassland and bare sand. This area supporrts a number of Sand Lizard colonies and both the Common Lizard and Slow Worm can also be found. However, the non-native Wall Lizard is the most frequently seen species. There is also a thriving population of Green Lizards. 22

The Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust

The Amphibian and Reptile Trust was established in 2009 to continue the work of the Herpetological Conservation Trust which was founded in 1989. ARC-Trust promotes and advances the conservation of reptiles and amphibians through: ● The management of nature reserves and the development of sustainable management practices. ARC-Trust owns or manages a significant suite of reserves, mainly in Dorset, Hampshire, Surrey, Cumbria and Norfolk. Many of these are showcase sites for heathland conservation management or pond management. ● Leading or jointly leading the UK Biodiversity Species Action Plans for the reptile and amphibian species which focus on the implementation of practical conservation measures including re-introductions such as the Pool Frog. ARC-Trust also takes a lead role in a number of Habitat Action Plans, and plays a key role in addressing policy and legislation issues in the UK and beyond. ● Supporting research, monitoring and recording including support of the National Amphibian and Reptile Recording Scheme (NARRS). ARC-Trust also works with universities to develop, fund and oversee specific research projects, including work on amphibian diseases. ● Advancing education by engaging with the education system and by providing specific training schemes. ARC-Trust also provides targeted advice and training for farmers and other land owners, managers and consultants, as well as providing advice to the public through comprehensive web resources. ● to take part in species recording, habitat creation and management and reserve wardening on ARC-Trust reserves. A strong relationship is maintained with ARG UK , the county-based Amphibian and Reptile Groups (ARGs), County Wildlife Trusts and the British Herpetological Society (BHS). ARC-Trust works closely with other UK conservation organisations as well as overseas organisations to help the conservation of reptiles and amphibians in other countries.

www.arc-trust.org

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Conservation Action All of Britain’s reptile and amphibian populations have suffered significant declines, particularly during the second half of the 20th century. For species such as the Natterjack Toad and Sand Lizard a detailed understanding of their distribution, habitat requirements and reasons for decline has made it possible to slow down, and even reverse, these declines through conservation action and legal protection. Reptile and amphibian conservation in Britain began in the late 1960s in response to declines of the rare species. In Surrey, as an example, the Natterjack Toad had already become extinct and the Sand Lizard was restricted to a handful of heathlands in the Frensham area, despite both species not long previously being widespread on heathlands throughout the county. This led to pioneering efforts by the British Herpetological Society Conservation Committee (BHSCC), which campaigned for the legal protection of these animals and also began to protect and manage the best remaining heathland sites. These efforts included the clearing of encroaching tree cover; the digging of sandy patches to create suitable areas for the remaining Sand Lizards to lay eggs; and the re-introduction of populations onto some former sites. Early conservation management for the Natterjack Toad at both heathland and sand dune sites consisted of creating new breeding pools and keeping the surrounding terrestrial habitats free of invasive species such as birch, pine and, on the dune sites, Sea Buckthorn. The work focused on sites in Dorset, Hampshire, Surrey and on Merseyside’s Sefton Coast and proved increasingly successful. The Herpetological Conservation Trust (The HCT) was set up in 1989 and took on the Species Action Plans (SAPs) lead or joint lead for the Natterjack Toad, Sand Lizard, Great Crested Newt, Pool Frog and marine turtles. Sites such as Hengistbury Head in Dorset once again reverberate with the churring call of Natterjack Toads on warm spring evenings, and Sand Lizards have returned to the sand dunes of North Wales and the Sussex coast. The conservation of Britain’s rare reptile and amphibian species has been successful in halting the declines of the mid-20th century, and their future in Britain and Ireland now appears secure. Today’s challenge is to prevent the more widespread species becoming tomorrow’s rarities. For the widespread reptile species, conservation activities usually focus on sites that have existing or former populations. Typical measures include: ● Tree and scrub clearance to create open sunny areas with dense ground cover, particularly on south-facing slopes; ● The protection of hibernation sites; ● The protection of areas used by reptiles from intensive mowing or grazing; and ● The provision of piles of rotting vegetation as Grass Snake egg-laying sites.

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Clearance of young, self-seeded, pine trees is a relatively easy task (above) and will prevent this heathland slope becoming a dense wood. Nevertheless, if mature pine trees are cleared (below), heathland will regenerate surprisingly quickly from the heather seed bank in the soil.

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Conservation for the more widespread amphibians often involves pond management, such as: ● The removal of rubbish and protection from agricultural or road run-off; ● The maintenance of an open sunny aspect by the selective removal of trees; ● The removal or control of invasive plant species; ● The removal or control of fish; ● The protection and management of surrounding terrestrial habitat; and ● The building of new ponds where sufficient terrestrial habitat exists to support amphibian populations. Conservation of the more widespread species requires local co-ordination. This challenge has been taken up by county-based amphibian and reptile groups (ARGs), which aim to co-ordinate recording, establish local priorities and undertake local conservation work. Many ARGs are affiliated to the County Wildlife Trusts and in 2005 a national body, ARG UK, was set up to oversee future developments. Encouragement and support of these groups will be essential to ensure that more people become involved in reptile and amphibian conservation.

A well-managed natural pond.

26

Finding and Recording Chance encounters with reptiles and amphibians are often too brief for accurate identification and so it is perhaps not surprising that the key to identifying an animal is to get a good, clear, prolonged view. This section provides the information you need to help you achieve this.

Looking for reptiles Reptiles are secretive, highly camouflaged, unpredictable and generally do not assemble in one place to breed. This makes finding and recording reptiles more challenging than locating amphibians. The 1:25,000 scale Ordnance Survey maps which show vegetation symbols and features such as pylon lines through woodland, are very useful in the identification of potentially good places to look for reptiles. Anecdotal evidence or historical records can also be helpful.

Woodland rides, such as this example in Hampshire, are often good places to find reptiles and can be easily identified from maps.

27

Because reptiles are regarded as sun-loving, it might be imagined that they would be easiest to find in hot, sunny weather. In fact this is not the case, and the best conditions for finding reptiles are when the weather is cooler with hazy sunshine. An understanding of how reptiles behave in relation to weather conditions is perhaps the most important key to finding them. The response to weather – thermoregulation All reptiles need to reach a specific body temperature to be fully active. For British species this is between 25 and 30° C. The process by which a reptile achieves and subsequently maintains their required body temperature is called thermoregulation. Body temperature is raised primarily by basking in the sun, and some species will actually flatten their bodies in order to present a larger surface area to the rays of the sun. The Adder and Common Lizard are both particularly efficient at thermoregulation, enabling them to inhabit areas north of the Arctic Circle. As well as basking, a reptile can also obtain the heat it needs from a source of retained heat, such as sun-warmed rocks or logs, or by sheltering under a surface that has been similarly warmed by the sun. Observation times Once an individual has reached its necessary body temperature it will set off to hunt for food or to look for a mate. If, during these activities, body heat is lost, e.g. as a result of spending time in the shade, the animal will need to bask again to regain any lost body heat. The longer a reptile basks, the easier it is to observe them. The optimal conditions are an air

When basking, Adders often flatten their bodies to expose a greater surface area to the sun.

28

temperature of 9–18°C, with hazy or intermittent sunshine and little or no breeze. Generally, the most likely times of day for these conditions to occur are early to midmorning or late afternoon. Whilst reptiles can be found all through their active period, the best times of year to watch them are: ● Between March and May when they are likely to be distracted by breeding activity and can be more tolerant of being observed. Also at this time of year ‘April showers’ provide good reptile spotting conditions as the showers cause a rapid drop in temperature, during which reptiles retreat into the undergrowth, followed by sunshine during which they bask to warm up again. ● In September and October, when the air temperature is lower but there is still warmth in the sun. At this time young reptiles, which are less wary than adults, are at their most abundant. Observation techniques Reptiles typically bask on sunny slopes but close to cover into which they can retreat quickly. Some species position themselves so that they are partially covered by vegetation. It is helpful to know some of the preferences of individual species. For example, Common Lizards often bask on debris such as fallen logs that both retain heat and provide good exposure to the sun. The best strategy is to walk slowly and quietly with the sun behind you, and to examine potential basking spots (perhaps with binoculars)

A Common Lizard basking on a log, ready to dive for cover at the first sign of disturbance.

29

Snake’s eyes turn milky just prior to sloughing as can be seen in this Adder.

from a distance of at least three metres. If you hear a rustle as an animal retreats into the undergrowth, mark or remember the spot, walk away immediately and return carefully after 10 minutes or so. Reptiles often return to the same spot to bask, or somewhere close by. Occasionally snakes will be found in a ‘pre-slough’ condition (see page 67), in which they can often be approached closely. Looking for basking reptiles requires patience and practice. Don’t be disheartened by negative results and be prepared to make plenty of visits. Using refuges to find reptiles Reptiles – particularly snakes and Slow Worms – also raise their body temperature by sheltering under warm surfaces. A convenient survey technique is to place small sheets of corrugated iron partially exposed to the sun in areas where reptiles are suspected to be. It may take some time for snakes and Slow Worms to find them but, when they do, they will use them in a wide range of weather conditions from spring to autumn. As well as corrugated iron, materials such 30

Reptile survey ‘tins’ are helpful in finding all reptile species particularly Smooth Snakes and Slow Worms.

as carpet or roofing felt can also be used. Great care should be taken when positioning refuges to avoid exposing reptiles to risks such as crushing or collection. Each refuge should be carefully mapped (or its location recorded with a handheld GPS) so it can be found again easily. If you intend to use refuges in a survey for reptiles there are some important considerations to be taken into account. For example refuges are often used by Adders, and surveyors have been bitten; also the use of refuges to attract Smooth Snakes requires a licence. Contact one of the organisations listed on page 158 for further information.

Looking for amphibians The fact that amphibians assemble in ponds at around the same time every year makes finding them relatively easy. Potential breeding ponds can be identified from 1:25,000 scale Ordnance Survey maps. To find all the amphibian species that might inhabit a pond it is recommended that several visits are undertaken during the course of the spring breeding season. Visits should be made with a particular species in mind and timed to coincide with that species’ peak breeding activity. In general, breeding activity starts earliest in the south and west and latest in the north and east of Britain. The species accounts (pages 44–138) contain further information

important things to remember when searching for amphibians: n

Ponds are potentially dangerous, particularly if you visit them with children or after dark.

n Avoid visiting ponds alone. n Always seek the permission of the

land owner. n You will need a licence if you

anticipate finding any life stage of Great Crested Newt or Natterjack Toad.

finding amphibians by torchlight If a pond is clear, easily accessible and safe, searching with a powerful torch just after dark can produce excellent results. Check the pond edges for frogs and toads and shallow open water for newts. However, when using this method, it may be difficult, and impossible in the case of females, to distinguish Palmate from Smooth Newts. day time visits Visits in May or June on a sunny day are the best way to find water frogs (see page 37). They are very vocal in the breeding season. A productive technique is to walk along the banks of a pond or dyke, which will prompt basking frogs to leap into the water. Once their presence has been established in this way, scanning the banks with binoculars should yield the location of others and enable them to be observed. finding spawn and eggs (see page 40) Visiting by day is the best way to find spawn and eggs. The familiar clumps of Common Frog spawn are normally easy to see in the shallowest, warmest part of a pond, often at the surface. In contrast water frogs attach their small clumps of spawn to aquatic or sub31

surface parts of emergent plants, and can be difficult to locate. The spawn strings of the Common Toad are normally wrapped around aquatic plants just below the surface of the water whilst Natterjack Toads deposit their spawn strings in extremely shallow water at the edge of their breeding ponds, where they are usually clearly visible. Newt eggs can be found by looking carefully for the folded leaves of aquatic plants just below the water surface. You may need to unfold the leaf to confirm the egg’s identity but do not unfold too many as exposed eggs will be vulnerable to predation or may fail to develop. Using a net A sturdy pond net with a mesh of 2–4mm (see suppliers listed on page 158) can be used to sample ponds for newts and tadpoles. The net should be vigorously swept through a weedy part of the pond, remembering that every sweep will disturb and may damage the aquatic habitat. Anything caught should be identified immediately, while still in the net if possible, and returned to the water without handling. Nets and boots should be cleaned after each pond visit to avoid the transfer of any animal or plant material, which may carry disease, to other ponds. Trapping Traps are often employed as part of intensive studies. These include barriers and pitfall traps used to intercept amphibians on their way to or from breeding ponds, and newt traps for use in the water. Newt traps can be constructed by cutting the top from a plastic bottle, inverting it and replacing it into the base. Newts are able to enter through the inverted bottle top but unable to find their way out. However, newts can drown Bottle trapping for Newts can be effective but you in incorrectly set bottle traps and a licence will need advice and a licence. may be required, so their use should only be undertaken under guidance from a recognised authority. Contact one of the organisations listed on page 158 for further information. WHY reCOrd rePTileS aNd amPHiBiaNS? Information about amphibian and reptile populations provides the basis for appropriate conservation action. All records, including those from gardens, will help build the detailed picture needed to ensure that viable populations of these creatures continue into the future. The National Amphibian and Reptile Recording Scheme (NARRS) is a programme designed to promote the monitoring of British reptiles and amphibians. Distribution data for these species can be found on the National Biodiversity Network website (see page 158). To ensure that your records are included and to find out what information is needed to make a record, contact any of the organisations listed in Useful Addresses (page 158), or your local wildlife trust. 32

How to Identify Reptiles and Amphibians Most amphibian and reptile species in Britain can, with a little practice, be recognised in the field without the need for catching or handling. There are, however some things that can confuse the beginner. For example, newts in their terrestrial phase superficially resemble lizards. Also, frogs and toads can look similar and the legless Slow Worm resembles a snake. Here are some simple things to look out for to help with initial identification:

lizard or terrestrial newt? LIZARD

NEWT

Skin covered with bead-like scales

Skin lacks scales and appears velvety on dry land

Move quickly unless they are extremely cold Move very slowly on land Toes have sharp claws

Toes do not have claws

Tails covered in rough scales and round in cross-section

Tails smooth, flattened and narrow-looking from above

Common Lizard

Terrestrial Palmate Newt

33

frog or toad? FROG

TOAD

Skin smooth, damp and slippery

Skin rough and warty, appears quite dry when on land

Back legs relatively long, often with irregular dark banding

Back legs relatively short and lack banding

Dorso-lateral folds clearly visible along each side of the back (see page 92)

Dorso-lateral folds absent

Jump rather than walk

Generally walk, but will hop or run if alarmed

Snake or Slow Worm? SNAKE

SLOW WORM

Skin with clearly defined scales making the skin appear rough

Skin with tiny smooth scales making the skin appear shiny and polished

Unable to blink; eyes have fixed lens, with no eyelids

Able to blink; eyes have eyelids

Tail tapers to a fine point

Tail-tip is relatively blunt (even when the tail is unbroken)

Tongue forked, long and thin; flicked out regularly

Tongue flat and notched; extended slowly and deliberately

iS iT aN adder? Because Adders can inflict a venomous bite, it is very important to be able to identify them. Here are some clues. ● Adders almost always have a very distinctive dark zig-zag marking which extends from behind the head to the tip of the tail. ● Black Adders are quite common. In contrast, very few black Grass Snakes and no black Smooth Snakes have been found in Britain. It is safest to assume that any black snake you find is an Adder. ● Adders usually only enter gardens that are immediately adjacent to suitable habitat such as heathland or scrub, including locations such as golf courses. ● Adders rarely enter water and are not normally attracted to garden ponds or compost heaps – snakes found in these are likely to be Grass Snakes. 34

Common Frog

Common Toad

Grass Snake

Slow Worm

It is safest to assume that any black snake found is an Adder.

35

SUmmarY ideNTifiCaTiON CHarT: lizards and snakes A summary of the key features of adult lizards and snakes native to Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands.

lizards SPeCieS

length

form

Slow Worm (page 48) Common lizard (page 52)

Colour and markings

Legless lizard quite unlike other lizards. Slim

Typically brown, occasionally dull green (but never bright green), marked with a modest pattern of flecks and lines

Sand lizard Usually longer than 15 cm (page 56)

Robust

Strongly marked with a bold pattern of dark spots with light centres and distinct, light dorso-lateral stripes. Females are shades of brown; males have bright green flanks in the spring

Wall lizard Usually longer than 15 cm (page 60)

Slim and agile

Mottled pattern of brown or green with some white markings on the flanks

green lizard (page 62)

Up to 40 cm

Large and robust

Bright grass green peppered with tiny black spots. Males have blue throats; females typically have dark dorsal markings and light dorso-lateral stripes

length

Colour and markings

Snakes SPeCieS

Rarely longer than 15 cm

Scales

grass Snake Often up to 1 m long (page 70)

Dull green with a yellow and black collar and black Rough; keeled bars along the flanks

adder (page 74)

Rarely longer than 60 cm

Brown or greyish-white with a prominent dark dorsal zig-zag pattern and dark spots along the flanks

Smooth Snake (page 78)

Rarely longer than 55 cm

Greyish brown with a black heart shaped mark on Smooth; the head, a thin dark stripe through each eye and unkeeled a double row of dark dorsal spots

36

Rough; keeled

SUmmarY ideNTifiCaTiON CHarT: frogs and toads A summary of the key features of native and established non-native adult frogs and toads found in Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands.

frogs SPeCieS

length

agile frog (page 102)

Pool frog (page 104)

edible frog (page 108)

marsh frog (page 110)

Medium; 60–90 mm

Medium; 60–90 mm

Small/medium; 60–70 mm

Medium; 75–100 mm

Large; 100–130 mm

Colour and Grey/brown markings rarely green,

Light brown Brown with often pinkish, some green and some small black black dorsal spots

often with black dorsal spots

Snout eye/Head

dorsal Stripe

W AT E R F R O G S

Common frog (page 98)

Rounded Dark patch behind each eye

Pointed

Dark patch behind each eye, large eardrum

No dark patch behind each eye

None

Yellow or green

Vocal sacs White leg length to the ankle shorter than joint (measured with the body length hind leg carefully extended alongside the body)

Usually green

Usually none

Greyish-white

Grey

same size as body length

longer than body length

MARSH MARSH

EDIBLE

features to distinguish water frog species – also see page 94

Green with some Green, brown and black sometimes with dorsal spots of darker green

POOL EDIBLE

POOL

metatarsal tubercle Prominent

EDIBLE

Medium

MARSH

MARSH

Small EDIBLE

POOL

Toads SPeCieS

EDIBLE

MARSH

POOL

EDIBLE

POOL

Natterjack Toad (page 116)

midwife Toad (page 120)

Large, up to 90 mm

Medium, up to 75 mm

Small, up to 50 mm

Paratoid glands Present (see page 92)

Present

Absent

Vertebral stripe Absent

Distinct; thin, yellow

Absent

length

POOL

Common Toad (page 112)

37

MARSH

SUmmarY ideNTifiCaTiON CHarT: Newts A summary of the key features of native and established non-native adult newts found in Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands.

Newts female

Underside (both sexes)

Smooth Small, Highly spotted Newt rarely Wavy-edged crest extends the (page 126) longer full length of the back and tail than 10 cm

Smooth-skinned, plain brown, with white spotted throat

Off-white with dark spots and central orange streak

great Large, Crested up to Newt 16 cm (page 130)

Very dark colouration

Rough, warty skin; black or dark brown; very large

Bright orange/ yellow with irregular black blotches

Palmate Small, Newt rarely (page 134) longer than 9 cm

Lines of spots on flanks and tail Smooth-skinned; plain brown with Crest little more than a thin raised line; webbed back feet; pink unspotted tiny filament at the end of the throat; white tail; white metatarsal tubercule metatarsal tubercule

Pinkish-white with few spots and central orange/yellow streak

SPeCieS

length

Breeding male

Ragged-edged crest with a break between the back and the tail

alpine Medium, Distinctive blue colouration Newt rarely Smooth-edged, low black and (page 138) longer white crest than 11 cm

Granular skin; dull blue colouration

Unmarked bright red or orange

The crest of a breeding male Smooth Newt (above) extends along the whole length of the back and the tail whereas the crest of a Great Crested Newt (below) always has a clear break at the base of the tail.

38

rePTile SlOUgHS Sloughs of native reptile species.

▲

▲ Slow Worm The typical appearance of a sloughed skin showing the tiny smooth scales. Common lizard Showing the broad ventral scales and the flank pattern.

▲

Sand lizard

Showing the often very prominent pattern and the rows of broad ventral scales.

▲ adder

▲ Smooth Snake

▲ grass Snake

Normally the pattern and strong keels of the dorsal scales can be seen.

Clearly showing the smooth, unkeeled scales.

Clearly showing the prominent keels of the dorsal scales.

39

rePTile aNd amPHiBiaN SPaWN aNd eggS

Common frog: Clumps with black eggs each in their own distinct sphere of jelly

Pool frog: Laid in small clumps and the eggs are brown (Marsh and Edible Frog spawn similar)

Common Toad: Spawn string with alternating

Natterjack Toad: Spawn string with single row

rows of black eggs

of black eggs

Sand lizard: The oval eggs are white with a soft

Newts: The eggs of the great Crested Newt (bottom) are larger – 5 mm including the jelly capsule – and white or pale lime yellow/green compared to the small (3 mm) light grey-buff eggs of Smooth Newt (above left) or Palmate Newt (above right).

parchment-like shell.

40

amPHiBiaN larVae The larvae shown are full-grown tadpoles at life-size

Common frog

Common Toad

Natterjack Toad

Brown with hints of green, speckled with tiny gold or copper spots; tail-tip pointed.

Jet black with a rounded tip to the tail.

Slightly smaller than the Common Toad; jet black with a blunt tail and sometimes with an indistinct white patch below the mouth. The thin yellow dorsal stripe is just visible in the later stages of development.

agile frog Brownish with darker spots and a light, gold-spotted underside. The tail has a high, arched crest and a very pointed tip.

Water frogs The tadpoles of the Pool, Marsh and Edible Frog are indistinguishable from one another. Brown or olive-green above, often with a pink or mauve underside.

midwife Toad Brown with dark blotches, huge size. The black spots on the tail are a distinguishing feature.

41

Introduction to the Species Accounts The species accounts are grouped as follows: Pages 44–63: lizards; Pages 64–83: snakes; Pages 84–91: turtles tortoises and terrapins; Pages 92–121: frogs and toads; and Pages 122–139: newts. Each group of species has an introduction that gives a general account of the life-cycle, biology and behaviour of that group. Individual accounts for both native and established non-native species follow the introduction. Other non-native and escaped species are described on pages 140–148. Within each species account the text follows a consistent format as outlined below:

english name Scientific name Where this has changed recently, the former name is also given.

adUlT: A concise description detailing key identification features, differences between the sexes and the main differences from similar species.

egg, TadPOle, HaTCHliNg, VOiCe aNd SlOUgH: Brief descriptions of the different life stages and other important identification features.

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON: A summary of typical behavioural characteristics that can help in identification, and notes on key aspects and timing of the reproductive cycle.

HaBiTaT: A summary of the most frequently used habitats, including the types of water body used by amphibians when breeding. POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON: Notes on the distribution and status and an outline of any species-related conservation activity.

THe PlaTeS These show examples of typical males and females, other key life stages and the most frequently found variant forms. The following annotations are used on the plates: M male F female H hatchling

42

Status

UK BAP Priority Species

Native; widespread adult:

Hatchling:

measurements Typical adult length and other relevant measurements for all key life stages.

JUN

JUL

AY M

APR

SEP

MAR

OCT

active mating egg-laying hatching hibernation

V

FE

B

NO

JAN

distribution map Green shading indicates the species’ current natural native range: n dark green indicates that the species has been recently recorded in most 10 km squares; n light green indicates that the area is within the species’ range but there are few recent records; and ● green with a red outline indicates re-introductions. ● Purple circles indicate areas where a non-native species has been introduced. n The marine distribution of the Leatherback Turtle is shown in blue with: n dark blue areas indicating where the majority of sightings have taken place.

80 mm

G AU

annual activity clock A circular chart showing as follows: n the months of the year during which the species is normally active and the periods when the main life-cycle stages occur; n the main mating period; n egg-laying or spawning; n the emergence of young – either the appearance of hatchlings in reptiles or metamorphosis in amphibians; n hibernation period.

35–40 cm, sometimes longer

DEC

legal Status Details of any specific legal protection or inclusion on the list of UK BAP Priority Species (see page 155).

OBSerVaTiON TiPS WHere TO fiNd Useful pointers to help in the finding of these animals, including best times of day and optimal weather conditions.

43

Lizards Worldwide, the reptiles alive today (Class Reptilia) can be divided into four major divisions, or orders, as shown below:

Squamata Sauria

(or Lacertilia)

Lizards

ca. 5,000 species

Reptilia Chelonia

Ophidia

Amphisbaenia

Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins

Snakes

Worm-lizards

313 species

(or Serpentes) ca. 3,000 species

Crocodilia Crocodilia Rhynchocephalia Rhynochocephalia Crocodiles Tuartara (ancient lizard-like Crocodilia and Alligators reptiles found in New Zealand) 23 species

2 species

170 species

As can be seen from the table above, lizards belong to the reptile sub-order Sauria. Most lizards have a body covered in relatively fine, bead-like scales. In the lacertids (which includes the legged species found in Britain), the scales on the underside are broader and usually arranged in rows. Largely due to their need for warm conditions, the majority of the 5,000 or so lizard species live in the tropics. Only three species are native to Britain, although the Green and Wall Lizard are native to Jersey. How lizards are classified The sub-order Sauria consists of five groups (infra-orders): Iguania – comprising 13 families which include agamas, the highly arboreal anoles and chameleons and the heavyweights of the lizard world, the iguanas. Gekkota – with three families of highly agile geckos as well as some less agile legless species. Platynota – comprising three families including another heavyweight group, the monitors, amongst which is the largest lizard of all, the Komodo Dragon Varanus komodoensis. Also within this infra-order is the Gila Monster Heloderma suspectum, the infamous venomous species from southern USA and Mexico. Diploglossa – comprising three families of mainly legless lizards, including the family Anguidae which includes the Slow Worm. Scincomorpha – the largest group of all with six large families of skinks and typical lizards including, within the family Lacertidae, all of the other lizards found in Britain.

THe aNaTOmY Of a TYPiCal lizard

Dorso-lateral stripes

Vertebral line

Snout Base of tail

Throat Flank Underside

44

A male Sand Lizard in breeding colours.

life-CYCle Hibernation and emergence In Britain, lizards hibernate during the winter, usually alone rather than communally, in underground burrows or in deep leaf-litter. Hibernation can be interrupted by exceptionally warm weather and during these periods a lizard may emerge to bask in the sun. Common Lizards are the first British species to emerge completely from hibernation, doing so on warm, sunny days in late February. The other species emerge during March and early April. Males are the first to appear and spend their first three or four weeks basking in the early spring sunshine after which time they shed, or slough, their skin. This first slough marks the start of breeding activity and this is when, for example, male Sand Lizards acquire their stunning green colouration. Courtship and mating Female lizards emerge from hibernation at about the same time as the males’ first slough and their emergence stimulates males to establish territories and engage in running battles with other males. Males will engage in combat at this time of year and in some species, such as the Green Lizard, fights can be quite vicious. Male lizards have a pair of reproductive organs (the hemipenes) located at the base of the tail, which enlarge, making the tail base appear swollen during the breeding season. Either hemipenis can be used to transfer sperm directly into the female’s reproductive tract. Lizard couplings are frequent and sometimes preceded by a rudimentary courtship, during which a female indicates her readiness to mate by flattening her body and waving her front legs in a circular motion. Copulation is quite brief, the male grasping the female’s body in his jaws before twisting his body round to mate with her. 45

The rather brutal process of mating in the Common Lizard which also shows the colouration of the underside of both sexes.

Egg-laying and hatching Approximately one month after mating Sand, Wall and Green Lizards lay eggs with parchmentlike shells, depositing them in clutches in a warm, moist incubation site. The Sand Lizard, for example, buries its eggs several centimetres down in sand that is exposed to the sun. Females of the egg-laying species are capable of producing more than one clutch of eggs during a summer. Inside the incubating egg, the young lizard is nourished by the stored yolk and, depending on incubation temperature, will fully develop over 2 or 3 months. When ready to hatch the lizard will repeatedly slash the inside of the eggshell with its egg-tooth, a tiny but extremely sharp projection on the tip of its snout. It may take the young lizard, or hatchling, a day or more to emerge completely from the shell and find its way to the surface. Once above ground a hatchling

A Sand Lizard hatches from its egg.

46

A newly-born Slow Worm emerging from its membranous egg capsule.

is immediately active and starts to hunt for tiny invertebrate prey. Although Slow Worms and Common Lizards give birth to live young, the embryos do not receive nourishment directly from the mother, in the way that a mammal does. Instead, each embryo is nourished mainly by its own supply of yolk and the young develop within a self-contained membranous egg capsule. The most important way in which a mother helps the developing embryos is by basking to keep them warm. The young are born, still enclosed in their membranous egg capsule, from which they quickly struggle free. Growth Hatchling lizards grow rapidly and can double their size in the weeks or months before they hibernate for the first time. Lizards generally become sexually mature after their second or third winter. They can survive for up to 12 years but there are records of captive Slow Worms living for over 50 years.

feediNg aNd PredaTiON Lizards use their speed and agility to catch prey, which they crush and kill with surprisingly strong jaws before swallowing. They eat mainly insects and spiders, although the larger species are also known to eat hatchling lizards, even of their own kind. Lizards are also often attracted to ripe fruit, particularly berries, which they may lick or take a bite from. Slow Worms don’t have the same athletic ability as other lizards and consequently eat slower-moving invertebrates such as slugs. Lizards are themselves prey to a range of daytime predators. Kestrels and pheasants are known to take them and domestic cats can have an impact on garden Slow Worm populations. All British lizards have the ability to escape predation by voluntarily dropping their tail. Once detached, the tail will continue to wriggle for several minutes, distracting the predator while the lizard escapes into nearby vegetation. This phenomenon (autotomy) is the result of a localised muscular contraction that breaks a fracture plane that can be found in each of the tail vertebrae. Whilst the tail will re-grow around a newly-formed rod of cartilage, the re-grown portion is always shorter than the original. In Slow Worms the re-grown part of the tail is rarely more than a centimetre long.

Voluntary shedding of the tail will allow this Common Lizard to escape while the predator is distracted by the still moving tail.

47

UK BAP Priority Species

Slow Worm Anguis fragilis

Native; widespread adult:

35–40 cm, sometimes longer

Our most commonly encountered lizard is found in a wide variety of habitats and thrives in wild gardens where its superficially snake-like appearance can sometimes cause alarm.

Hatchling:

adUlT

HaTCHliNg

A legless lizard with a very smooth, shiny appearance. The adult male is uniform grey or grey-brown with a steel-grey underside that has lighter markings. The female has a brown back, which can be any shade from gold to deep copper, with darker flanks and a black underside. Females often have a thin dark vertebral line and sometimes have other fine linear markings along the back. The head of the male is broader than the female, giving it a more distinct 'neck'. Both sexes have ventral and dorsal scales that are small, indistinct, smooth and polished. The throats and heads of both sexes have fine, dark markings that are unique to each animal. The tail, when complete, is much longer than the body. However, a high proportion of Slow Worms lose their tail (true to its scientific name fragilis) and although it will grow back, it is always much shorter; such stumpy-tailed individuals are the most commonly encountered. Some specimens, usually males, have tiny blue specks on their upper body. Entirely black or melanistic individuals occur but are extremely rare. The presence of eyelids, lack of ventral scutes (see page 64) and the tongue, which is broad and flat with a notched tip, distinguish this species from any snake.

80 mm

Back light gold or silver with a distinct black vertebral line; flanks and underside jet black.

SlOUgH (page 39) Regularly found under refuges, often scrunched, concertina style into a ring. The smooth, tiny scales will confirm identification.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Slow Worms find warmth by sheltering under flat objects that are exposed to the sun. Perhaps the easiest way to find them is by turning over rubbish or deliberately placed refuges, such as sheets of corrugated iron, planks of wood, tiles or old carpet.

right: Hatchlings showing the typical distinctive colouration. facing page top: Adult female

with typical copper colouration. centre: Typical male with an incomplete tail. bottom: Female with an intact tail.

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Slow Worms normally hibernate underground, often in disused mammal burrows, where a number may gather, or in dense vegetation such as grass tussocks. They emerge in March, mating in April and May following some combative rivalry between males and a rather brutal courtship. During the summer gravid females are noticeably swollen. Young are born live from late summer to early autumn in clutches of up to 25, depending on the size of the female. Slow Worms find warmth by sheltering under flat rocks or debris exposed to the sun (corrugated iron is a favourite) and in warm compost heaps. They bask in the open far less readily than other lizards, more often choosing to bask semi-concealed in deep vegetation. In very warm weather they are hard to find, as they take refuge underground or in thick vegetation. If disturbed they will retreat slowly and if handled they will often thrash about wildly and sometimes cast off their tail. They are occasionally seen in the early evening, when searching for food, especially the small, white Netted Slug Deroceras reticulatum.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT

right: Typical Slow Worm basking position, deep in the vegetation with only part of its body exposed.

WHere TO fiNd The first place to try is a compost heap in a garden. Alternatively, leave a small sheet of corrugated iron located in low undergrowth that is exposed to the sun. Otherwise, search in any open habitat including brownfield sites, road and rail embankments. 50

Found in a wide range of habitats, of which sea cliffs, heathlands, open woodland, rough grassland, hedgerows, gardens, allotments, road/rail embankments and urban wasteland are the best. This is the reptile most likely to be encountered in a garden and is Britain’s most urban species, with colonies in many major cities, often in wild areas beside railway lines.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON Occurs throughout Britain, widespread and common in the south but more local in northern counties and Scotland. In Ireland it is found in and around the Burren, County Clare, where it is a presumed introduction. It is the most widespread reptile on the Channel Islands. Slow Worms often reach high densities in favourable habitat, particularly in the south. Although the species benefits from any conservation management that maintains an open scrub-free habitat, specific activity for this species is often focused on translocating animals that are threatened by development. The success of such schemes is sometimes difficult to determine because of the difficulties in assessing how well the translocated animals fare on the receptor sites.

A male exhibiting fine blue spots – the most common colour variation.

A female in the process of sloughing.

A melanistic male – an extremely unsual colour variation.

51

Common lizard Zootoca vivipara previously Lacerta vivipara

UK BAP Priority Species

Native; widespread but declining adult:

130–150 mm (with full tail)

A familiar inhabitant of dry and open habitats that has become increasingly less common over recent decades, especially in southern counties.

Hatchling:

adUlT

HaTCHliNg

A small, active, lizard with a pointed snout. Both sexes are similar in general appearance, usually brown to tan above, often with thin, lighter pale brown dorso-lateral lines, and with darker brown flanks. Common Lizards occur in a range of colours, with shades of grey, ginger and dull green being common and melanistic individuals frequent. Males are typically patterned with lines of fine black and white flecks, slightly darker flanks and an orange underside. Females generally have a pale back with dark markings and a dark vertebral line, contrasting dark flanks and a yellow underside. Females are noticeably fatter than males particularly when they are gravid. The head of the male is slightly broader than that of the female. When intact, the tail is long with a rough appearance, though many individuals have a tail that has been lost and has re-grown shorter and darker. Common Lizards are often found on the same sandy sites as Sand Lizards but can be distinguished by their smaller size, slimmer build and lack of the prominent ‘eye-spot’ dorsal markings of the Sand Lizard. In addition, male Common Lizards in the breeding season lack the Sand Lizard's bright green colouration.

Jet black at birth, paling to a copper colour with a faint hint of the adult pattern prior to first hibernation.

40 mm

SlOUgH (page 39) The skin is shed in pieces and the slough retains fine markings that are clearly visible.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Look for basking lizards on sunny days in spring and autumn. Focus on open patches exposed to the sun. If you hear a rustle, mark the spot and come back 10 minutes later; Common Lizards often return to the exact same spot to bask.

right: Male in typical basking pose. facing page top: Typical male. centre: Female showing the typical darker flanks, dark vertebral line and narrower head. bottom: A hatchling, showing the typical dark colouration, with its mother.

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Common Lizards bask readily, especially in spring. A typical basking spot will be a log, rock or fencepost close to dense vegetation. Once warmed up they disperse into vegetation to feed, mainly on small insects and spiders, returning to bask when they need to restore their body temperature. Although easily disturbed when basking, Common Lizards usually return to exactly the same spot within a few minutes. They hibernate underground or in deep litter, usually alone. Breeding activity starts shortly after emergence in late February or early March and often involves chases and occasional fights between males. After mating, females become noticeably swollen with developing young and give birth in July and August. Young are born in membranous, egg-like birth capsules, in clutches of 5–9. The black colouration of the newborn lizards can be seen through the transparent membrane of the capsules, which the hatchlings eventually rupture before breaking free.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Common Lizards are found in both upland and lowland habitats. They prefer open, undisturbed habitats with good exposure to the sun, for example heathlands, commons, sea cliffs, sand dunes, railway and road embankments, chalk downland, open woodland, forest rides, moors and bogs. The species can tolerate a range of conditions from sea level to 1,000 m, including quite damp environments, but there are very few populations in intensively farmed areas.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd The best places to look are south-facing slopes on heathlands, dunes, moorland or sea cliffs. In the right weather conditions, you are almost guaranteed to see Common Lizards basking on the boardwalks that cross the bog at Thursley Common National Nature Reserve in Surrey. 54

The Common Lizard is found throughout Britain although absent from the Channel Islands. The species is widely distributed in Ireland, where it is the only native reptile: as is the case in the Isle of Man. It is also well distributed in Scotland where there is some evidence that populations are thriving. This is in contrast to more southern areas where there is increasing concern that the species is being lost, or suffering significant population declines at sites where it was once common. Although there are very few examples of sites where habitat is managed specifically for the conservation of the Common Lizard, it will benefit from the specific management of heathland for rare reptiles, or any management of suitable habitat that removes shading and scrub, whilst retaining enough vegetation to provide shelter and a good invertebrate food supply.

A group of typically coloured Common Lizards, one in the process of sloughing.

Male showing the orange underside; the claws of the front toes are also clearly visible.

Common Lizards with a green colouration are occasionally found, as in this example from North Cornwall. However, they never match the bright green colour of the male Sand Lizard.

Melanistic male – a relatively frequent colour variant.

55

Bern Convention App II W&C Act (Sched 5) UK BAP Priority Species

Sand lizard Lacerta agilis The future of the stunningly attractive Sand Lizard has been assured by dedicated conservation effort and it now thrives on carefully managed heathland sites and a limited number of sand dune systems.

Native; highly local adult:

160–190 mm (with full tail)

Hatchling: egg:

55 mm 10–12 mm

adUlT A robust, strikingly patterned lizard. The backs of both sexes are patterned with prominent ‘eye-spots’ – darker brown markings with white to cream centres – set against a brown or grey background, and distinct light grey-brown dorso-lateral stripes. ‘Eye-spots’ are also present on the flanks, although may be reduced or absent in some males. Between April and June, breeding males are intense bright green on the flanks, underside and throat, but not on the back. The bright green colour fades to a dull greenishyellow after the breeding season. The head of the male is significantly broader that that of the female. Females typically have a brown or grey background colour with a light grey or yellowish underside, although they can vary considerably in colour, from straw-coloured or light grey-brown through to deep chocolate brown. The more northerly dune populations tend to be lighter in colour, with ‘eye-spots’ arranged in a linear, striped pattern.

SlOUgH (page 39) The skin is shed in pieces and the distinctive ‘eye-spots’ are apparent.

egg (page 40) Oval; white with a soft parchment-like shell.

HaTCHliNg Grey-brown with light dorso-lateral stripes and tiny ‘eye-spots’ on the flanks. OBSerVaTiON TiPS Warm days with hazy sunshine in May are best. Look in open patches amongst deep vegetation on south-facing slopes, either early to mid-morning or late afternoon. If a lizard runs off, mark the spot and return 10 minutes later, but also check the surrounding area, as they may move to another basking spot nearby once disturbed.

right: A hatchling basking in the autumn sunshine. facing page top: Breeding male

basking deep in heather. centre: Typical female, showing the bold pattern of ‘eye-spots’. bottom: Typical female from Surrey.

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Sand Lizards are most often encountered basking in open patches in the vegetation, particularly in spring and autumn. They are nervous and will retreat if disturbed, although will return after several minutes to bask either in the same spot or another nearby. Once warm, they hunt spiders and insects, including bees, and will also eat hatching lizards, including those of their own species. Sand Lizards dig burrows in which they spend the winter. Males often retire for the winter as early as late August to early September; females do so a month or so later. They emerge from hibernation in March and April and breeding starts within a month. There is significant territorial rivalry between males, with confrontations involving a great deal of posturing and display of their bright colours. Fighting may ensue if posturing does not resolve the dispute. In late April and early May successful males pair with females, basking together and mating frequently. A month later, clutches of 6–12 eggs are laid several centimetres deep in open sand. These hatch after two to three months, usually in August or September.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT In Britain, Sand Lizards are only found on dry lowland heathland and coastal sand dunes. The largest populations are in areas with a mix of dense, mature vegetation and plenty of open sand. The species also has a strong preference for areas with a varied topography, particularly south-facing slopes, ridges and gullies that provide warm, sheltered areas.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd The best sites for Sand Lizard with good public access are Studland National Nature Reserve in Dorset, Frensham Common in Surrey and parts of the Birkdale Hills near Southport on the Merseyside coast. 58

The British range of the Sand Lizard decreased significantly in the second half of the 20th century. Original, native populations exist only on the heathlands of Surrey, Hampshire, and Dorset and on sand dunes in Merseyside. In an effort to restore them to their former range, they have been re-introduced to managed sites in West Sussex, Devon, Cornwall, Wales, Berkshire, and Kent. A population established on Coll (Inner Hebrides) in the1970s still persists. The Sand Lizard has been the focus of a great deal of conservation action through the management of their required heathland and dune habitats. Measures including the removal of pine and birch trees to reduce shading, the maintenance of mature habitat and the provision of plenty of open sand for egg-laying have been largely successful in safeguarding the future of the species.

A male from the Merseyside coast showing the lighter colouration of animals from this region.

A female from the Merseyside coast.

A gravid female excavating a burrow in which to lay her eggs.

59

Podarcis muralis The Wall Lizard is presumed to be native to Jersey but not to Britain. Although they are active and great fun to watch, it seems they are thriving at the expense of native mainland species.

adUlT A medium-sized lizard usually seen on walls or in rocky habitats. Wall Lizards have very fine scales and a sharplypointed snout. Males have a mottled dorsal pattern of black with either brown or green markings (different populations have a tendency to be either green or brown) and darker flanks mottled with white. Females are similar, but have a narrower head and a generally less intense dorsal pattern, often with a dark vertebral line. Both sexes have an orange or red underside. The tail is long, often with black and white barring on the side.

Bern Convention App II

Presumed native to Jersey; elsewhere a localised introduction adult: Hatchling:

60 mm

egg:

10 mm

egg White; oval with a parchmentlike shell.

HaTCHliNg Similar in pattern to the female, sometimes with a purple sheen.

JUN

JUL

MAR FE

JAN

In Jersey, the Wall Lizard is presumed to be native, inhabiting a few coastal sites mainly in the north and east, often on old fortifications. In Britain, it has a long history of introduction. The oldest known population is in Ventnor, on the Isle of Wight, on buildings at the southern end of the town. It also thrives in the quarries of Portland Bill and the Purbeck coast, on the Bournemouth cliffs, Shoreham beach and at Folkestone. Other colonies were known from London, Surrey, Bristol, Devon and Shropshire. Introduced colonies, particularly those in Bournemouth, may have already had a detrimental effect on native lizard populations. 60

DEC

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

V

Populations in Britain are always associated with walls or rocky habitats, that are well-exposed to sunlight, such as sea cliffs, disused quarries and castle walls.

OCT

active mating egg-laying hatching hibernation

NO

HaBiTaT

SEP

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BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON An alert, busy and conspicuous lizard often seen basking on walls or rocks. It can be found on sunny days throughout the active period and occasionally on warm days in winter. Wall Lizards lay several clutches of approximately 8 eggs, either in sandy soil or under rocks, from May to July, which hatch from July to September.

170–180 mm (with full tail)

B

Wall lizard

Male from Portland with a partially re-grown tail.

Typically coloured hatchling.

Green form female basking on the promenade wall in Bournemouth.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Wall Lizards are active almost whenever the sun shines. Watch for movements on walls or rocks close to deep vegetation cover.

Brown form female from Portland.

WHere TO fiNd In Bournemouth they can often be seen on the walls of a number of the zig-zag cliff paths. Mont Orgueil Castle at Gorey is the best place to see them in Jersey. 61

Bern Convention App II

green lizard

Native to Jersey; a local introduction elsewhere

Lacerta bilineata previously Lacerta viridis

This brightly-coloured, imposing lizard still thrives at a number of sites on Jersey.

adult:

up to 40 cm

Hatchling:

75–80 mm

egg:

15–20 mm

adUlT

egg

Males are bright grass-green, finely peppered with black spots. The head is a darker green and the throat is blue, particularly in the spring. Females are smaller with a narrower head and are slightly less vivid in colour. They usually have two distinct cream to light-brown dorsolateral lines and brown or black marks on the back and flanks. Both sexes have a pale yellow or white underside.

White; oval with a parchmentlike shell.

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OCT

Green Lizards were imported in large numbers for the pet trade and there is a long history of failed introductions into many locations in England, Wales and on the Burren in County Clare, Ireland. The Bournemouth breeding population has been known since 2003. In Jersey, although many former colonies have been lost to agriculture, the remaining populations are thriving and continued conservation effort is focused on habitat protection and management. Green Lizards from Jersey have also been introduced to Guernsey with some success.

SEP

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

active mating egg-laying hatching hibernation

V

In Jersey, the Green Lizard is found in dunes and on coastal heathland, mainly in the west. Similar populations in northern France also inhabit woodland edges and hedgerows. The introduced population to the east of Bournemouth inhabits the scrubby grass and heathland of the steep south-facing cliffs.

JUL

NO

HaBiTaT

JUN

G AU

Green Lizards usually bask deep in the vegetation and are extremely nervous and difficult to approach, making quite a commotion as they dash off through the undergrowth. They hibernate underground in burrows. In late April and early May males compete aggressively for females. Eggs are buried in open sand or vegetation, in loose clutches of up to 20, hatching in August or September.

Light brown with a hint of green, especially around the throat and usually with two or four distinct pale dorsal lines.

DEC

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON

HaTCHliNg

A male showing the blue throat (left) and a female (right) both from Jersey.

Hatchling eating a Garden Spider Araneus diadematus.

A male from Bournemouth.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Visits on warm days in May are best. Approach potential basking spots slowly and quietly. Remember that Green Lizards on Jersey are strictly protected.

WHere TO fiNd On Jersey, the best place to see Green Lizards is at Les Banques Blanches nature reserve located in the west of the island.

A young female showing the typical colouration.

63

Snakes Reptilia Chelonia

Squamata Sauria

(or Lacertilia)

Lizards

≈ 5,000 species

Ophidia

Amphisbaenia

Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins

Snakes

Worm-lizards

313 species

(or Serpentes) ≈ 3,000 species

Crocodilia Crocodilia Rhynchocephalia Rhynochocephalia Crocodiles Tuartara (ancient lizard-like Crocodilia and Alligators reptiles found in New Zealand) 23 species

2 species

170 species

Snakes belong to the reptile sub-order Ophidia and their characteristic features include an eye with a fixed lens and a thin, forked tongue. The skin is covered with distinct scales, which are either smooth or have a central ridge or keel rather like the mid-vein of a leaf. The scales on the underside (or ventral scutes) extend across the full width of the belly. They not only protect the underside of the snake but can also assist the snake in crawling slowly or climbing. Compared to a lizard, the tail of a snake is relatively short, usually less than 20% of it’s entire length. Males have longer tails (as a proportion of body length) than females. Despite the morbid fear that many humans have of snakes, only one-fifth of the world’s species are venomous. There are just three species of snake found in Britain – the Grass Snake, Smooth Snake and Adder. Whether the reason was St Patrick, who reputedly banished them from the nation 1,500 years ago, or the separation of mainland Britain from Ireland by the Irish Sea, there are no snakes in Ireland. In the Channel Islands the Grass Snake, found on Jersey, is the only native species. How snakes are classified Within the sub-order Ophidia, there are three main groups or infra-orders: Henophidia – the pythons and boas which comprises four families and includes the largest snakes in the world. Scolecophidia – comprising three families of small, largely tropical, worm snakes or blind snakes. Caenophidia – a large group which includes all of the other snakes in eight super-families, the three largest of which are: Elapoidea – largely venomous snakes, including the sea snakes, cobras and the notorious Black Mamba Dendroaspis polylepis. Colubroidea – typical, mainly non-venomous, snakes, which includes the Smooth Snake and the Grass Snake. Viperoidea – a mostly venomous group including America’s best known snake group, the rattlesnakes, tropical pit vipers and the sub-family Viperinae, which includes the Adder.

THe aNaTOmY Of a TYPiCal SNake (underside shown in white)

Dorsal area Eye with fixed lens

Tail Forked tongue

64

Eye stripe

Flank Paired sub-caudal scales

Vent

Ventral scutes

life-CYCle Hibernation and emergence Snakes often hibernate communally, a typical hibernaculum being a disused rabbit burrow on a dry, well-drained, slope. Because they are used year after year, the preservation of these hibernacula is an important element of snake conservation. Although snakes sometimes surface to bask on warm winter days, true emergence starts in the early spring. Males tend to be the first to emerge and spend 2–3 weeks in the sun before sloughing, losing their dull winter skin and acquiring their brightly coloured breeding appearance. It is at this time that the females emerge and give off a strong scent, prompting a great deal of excited competition between males.

In the early spring, Adders freshly emerged from hibernation often bask together.

A Grass Snake starts the sloughing process.

65

The rare sight of two male Adders in the ritualised combat for a female known as the 'Dance of the Adders'.

Courtship and mating Mating in snakes is preceded by a rudimentary courtship during which the male, in a sequence of jerky movements, taps his head repeatedly along the female’s back, rapidly flicking out his tongue and entwining his tail with hers in an attempt to mate. Like lizards, male snakes have a paired reproductive organ (the hemipenes) which causes the base of the tail to appear swollen during the breeding season. During mating either hemipenis can be used to transfer sperm directly into the female’s reproductive tract and snakes can remain coupled for an hour or more. 66

A Grass Snake hatches from its egg.

A newly born Smooth Snake about to break free from its membranous egg capsule.

Egg-laying and hatching Many snakes, including the Grass Snake, lay eggs. Gravid females carefully select a suitable site to lay their eggs which are then left to incubate for between two and three months. When the young snake is ready to hatch it uses its tiny sharp egg-tooth to slash through the papery egg shell. On emergence the hatchling immediately begins an independent active life. Other snakes, including the Smooth Snake and Adder, are ovo-viviparous, a strategy in which the young develop inside the mother in their own self-contained membranous egg capsule nourished by a supply of yolk. The mother provides warmth for the developing embryos by basking in the sun. They are born enclosed in their membranous egg capsule, from which they quickly struggle free. Growth and sloughing With an adequate food supply, young snakes will grow quickly. As they grow, snakes slough their skins three or four times a year. For a few days before sloughing, fluid builds up beneath the old skin which makes the snake appear dull or milky, and turns the fixed lens of the eye opaque with a blue colouration. The old skin eventually breaks away around the mouth and, as the snake moves forward, through a combination of the skin snagging on surrounding vegetation and fine muscular contractions, the old skin peels off in one piece and is left behind, turned completely inside out. Snakes can take several years to reach sexually maturity and they are relatively longlived. Adders and Smooth Snakes are known to live for over 30 years in the wild.

A snake slough left in the vegetation.

67

The forked tongue of a Smooth Snake often has a reddish tinge.

feediNg Snakes tend to feed on a narrower range of prey compared with other reptiles and amphibians, and this has a strong bearing on where a species lives. For example, Grass Snakes prey mainly on amphibians and fish and so are almost always found near water; the diet of the Smooth Snake contains a high proportion of lizards, which are often common on the heathland sites to which it is restricted; and the Adder prefers small mammals and the chicks of ground-nesting birds. As a rule, snakes are systematic hunters and rely upon scent to locate their prey. A snake will flick out its tongue to pick up scent particles, which are then transferred to the Jacobsen’s organ, a specialised receptor which is located inside the mouth and which allows the snake to identify the presence of nearby prey. Once located and caught, prey is swallowed whole; snakes being able to swallow prey that is far larger than their own girth. This is possible due to a snake’s specialised skull structure in which the jaw bones, because they are not fused together, can stretch apart in order to swallow seemingly oversized prey. The skin of the body stretches to accommodate the prey while it is digested. Reptiles, in comparison to mammals, require much less food to survive. This is because the majority of a reptile’s food energy is not used in the maintenance of body temperature. Snakes, in particular, because they consume relatively large and nutritious prey, eat surprisingly infrequently. Male Grass Snakes will scarcely feed during the breeding season and a female may not eat from the time she emerges from hibernation in March or April until after she lays her eggs in June or July. After that she may only then feed about every three weeks. Snakes rely heavily on camouflage to escape predation. However, despite this and their secretive nature, they are a food source for a range of predatory birds and mammals, particularly at the hatchling stage when they have even been known to be eaten by toads. 68

Other reptiles, in this case a Common Lizard, are common prey items for Smooth Snakes.

An Adder about to engulf a Bank Vole Myodes glareolus that it has just envenomated.

69

UK BAP Priority Species

grass Snake Natrix natrix Perhaps Britain's most impressive snake and one that is familiar to many, particularly in rural areas of the south. It has become increasingly uncommon over recent decades in many of its wild habitats, but it is able to thrive in large, wild gardens.

adUlT A large snake with a distinct collar that consists of two yellow or orange patches, each with a black crescentshaped mark to the rear. The sexes are similar and typically have an olive-green background colour (though sometimes brownish or grey-green), vertical black bars along the flanks and two lines of alternating black dorsal spots. The intensity of the dark markings varies between individuals and some can be a uniform grey-green. The underside is chequered black and white. The dorsal scales are strongly keeled. Females are larger than males and also have a broader head with less distinct yellow markings in the collar that, in older individuals, may even be absent (see page 82). Wholly black or melanistic individuals do occur but are very rare. A Grass Snake could, in some situations, be mistaken for a Smooth Snake – but a good view of the collar will always confirm its identification as a Grass Snake. below:

A fine example of a male Grass Snake.

facing page top: A male Grass Snake with prominent dark bars on the flanks. bottom: Females typically have a broader body and a 'heavier' appearance than males.

Native; localised adult:

Male 70–80 cm Female 80–100 cm, occasionally up to 150 cm Hatchling: 16–18 cm egg:

25–30 mm

egg Oval; white or off-white with a thick parchment-like shell. Usually found glued together in clutches.

HaTCHliNg A miniature version of the adult but with slightly darker colouration.

SlOUgH (page 39) Often shed in one piece and without clearly visible markings. Whilst the dorsal scales are keeled, those on the flanks are only weakly keeled. OBSerVaTiON TiPS Watch quietly for snakes hunting around pond margins early to mid-morning on warm days between May and July. Grass Snakes are also often found under refuges.

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Grass Snakes are often seen basking deep in low vegetation but they are very wary and move off quickly if disturbed. In summer they can be encountered hunting in ponds or lakes for their preferred amphibian or fish prey. They chase any they encounter and rely on numerous tiny backward-facing teeth to secure a grip, even on the most slippery of prey. Once they have taken hold, Grass Snakes swallow their food live. Frogs and toads are often seized from behind and swallowed back feet first. Grass Snakes usually hibernate underground, or in deep bracken litter (sometimes sharing with Adders), emerging in March and normally mating in April. Often a number of males will chase a single female and may form a ‘mating ball’, in which each male writhes frantically to achieve a suitable mating position. The successful male is usually the largest. Eggs are laid in June, in damp, warm, rotting vegetation (e.g. compost heaps or manure piles) in clutches of 10–40 depending on the size of the female. When laid the eggs are sticky and sometimes become glued together in a large mass, which may be made up of clutches from more than one individual. Incubation takes 2–3 months and the young snakes hatch in August or September. As a deterrent to predators, or if handled, a Grass Snake may release an intensely foul-smelling liquid from its anal gland. Many individuals also pretend to be dead when handled.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT A lowland species found in open woodland, commons, hedgerows, woodland rides, heathland, golf courses, road and rail embankments and gardens. Although a Grass Snake’s diet necessitates a close association with lakes and ponds, it will often travel a long way from water. The drive to find a suitable site for egg-laying means that snakes are often encountered in gardens, allotments and farm manure piles.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd Wild sites in the south and the Midlands where there is a good combination of wetland with adjacent open, drier habitats. 72

Found throughout England and Wales, but rare in northern England and southern Scotland and absent from Ireland. It is present on Jersey. The species has declined in recent decades because of a reduction in suitable habitat and declines in amphibian populations. Some breeding sites are used year after year so the loss of any such site can have a significant effect on the local population. Conservation efforts have been based on increasing prey numbers by pond management, providing breeding sites and hibernacula and encouraging people to tolerate Grass Snakes in their gardens.

Typical basking position.

A Grass Snake pretending to be dead, showing the typical black and white markings of the underside.

73

UK BAP Priority Species

adder Vipera berus Britain's only venomous snake which is an inhabitant of open, predominantly dry habitats. Although good populations still exist on heathland and moorland nature reserves, the Adder has declined significantly in many places where it was previously common.

adUlT A short, stocky snake with a distinct dark zig-zag dorsal pattern and often a row of dark spots along each flank. The head pattern is complex, often with an inverted V-shaped or X-shaped mark (see page 82). The eyes are red with a vertical pupil reminiscent of a cat’s eye. The scales are strongly keeled. Males typically have black markings against an off-white background with a steelgrey underside. In the breeding season male Adders look very bright, often with a blue tinge. Females typically have dark brown markings against a light brown or strawcoloured background with a dull brown underside. Both sexes are very variable in appearance and individuals of various shades of brown, grey, brick-red and even purplish colour have been recorded. Wholly black, melanistic specimens are frequent and, in some areas, make up a significant proportion of the population. It is always safest to assume that any black snake encountered is an Adder.

Native; localised adult:

Hatchling:

Male 40–55 cm Female 50–70 cm, occasionally longer 16 cm

HaTCHliNg Often brick-red, but otherwise resembles an adult.

SlOUgH (page 39) Sloughed skins are frequently found, particularly in spring near hibernacula. The scales are obviously keeled and the zig-zag pattern is clearly visible.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Look for Adders in early spring sunshine from late February when they will bask together close to their hibernation sites.

right: A hatchling basking deep in the vegetation. facing page top: A typically

coloured male. The brown colouration and fatter appearance is typical of the female. bottom:

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active mating birth hibernation

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Adders are most often encountered in spring and autumn when basking near their traditional hibernation sites (often disused mammal burrows). They emerge from hibernation in late February or early March and mate approximately a month later. Male Adders, attracted by the strong scent of a receptive female, sometimes engage in a ritualised form of combat known as the ‘Dance of the Adders’ (see page 66). This involves two males in a frantic race through the vegetation, during which they frequently rise up with their bodies twisted together in an attempt to force each other to the ground. The winning male is usually the largest and will remain with the female, guarding her against further suitors, before eventually mating with her. After mating Adders disperse and lead a solitary existence. The young are born live, in clutches of about 10, during August. Adders prey mainly on small mammals and the chicks of ground-nesting birds. An Adder will strike at its prey and inject a lethal dose of venom via two hollow fangs that hinge down from the front of the roof of their upper jaw. The venom quickly takes effect, and the snake follows the scent trail of the dying animal, swallowing it as soon as it is immobilised. Adders will also use their venomous bite defensively. An Adder will retreat quite slowly if disturbed but, if threatened, it will hiss, draw its head and neck back over its coiled body and strike, with the mouth open at a 180° angle, at anything that comes within range. Even the tiniest newborn Adder can inflict a venomous bite on a person.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Open habitats such as heathlands and commons, moorland, sea cliffs, chalk downland, open woodland, woodland rides, and road and rail embankments. WHere TO fiNd Most heathland sites in the south – for example the New Forest, Studland in Dorset, and Frensham in Surrey – have good populations. Adders are also well-known on the Pembrokeshire Coast and, in Scotland, areas such as Kinloch on the Isle of Skye and parts of Dumfries and Galloway support healthy populations. 76

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON Adders are found throughout Britain but are infrequent in the central counties of England and are absent from Ireland. In Scotland they can be found in upland areas at altitudes up to 1,000 m. Adders have become much less common in recent decades, especially in habitats such as chalk downland. Heathland populations generally benefit from any measures undertaken for the rarer reptiles. The recognition of the importance of hibernation and spring basking sites, often referred to as Adder banks, has also helped their conservation. However, despite the fact that the Adder is afforded some legal protection, there is still evidence of persecution.

Photos Page 2 VB6 A group of Adders FH, VB8 FH, VB10 freshly emerged from HI, VB11 FH hibernation.

Adders are not aggressive and most bites result from accidental encounters, deliberate handling or antagonisation. An Adder bite is serious and immediate medical attention should always be sought. First aid should consist only of reassurance and immobilisation of the affected limb. Human deaths are extremely rare, much rarer than deaths as a result of wasp or bee stings. The risk of being bitten is minimal if Adders are treated with respect and observed from a distance.

Black Adders are frequently found but the zig-zag dorsal pattern is often still visible.

77

Bern Convention App II W&C Act 1981 (Sched 5) UK BAP Priority Species

Smooth Snake Coronella austriaca

Native; highly localised

This small, secretive snake has benefited from the conservation management of heathland and healthy populations exist on suitably managed sites.

adult: Hatchling:

45–55 cm 130–150 mm

adUlT

HaTCHliNg

A small, slim, greyish or brownish snake with an indistinct dorsal pattern. Both sexes have a black heart-shaped mark on the top of the head (see page 82) and a distinct black stripe that runs from the nose, through the reddish eye, to beyond the head and neck. The back is marked with pairs of irregular spots that are often joined, becoming less distinct towards the tail. The tongue is a reddish colour. The underside of a female is typically steel-grey; that of a male is often ginger or yellow, especially on the throat. Older snakes often show indistinct light-coloured dorsolateral stripes. True to its name, and unlike the other two native snake species, the Smooth Snake’s small scales are unkeeled and the skin is smooth, often having a subtle rainbow sheen. Grass Snakes can appear superficially similar if only the rear half, or just the tail, is seen. The dark crown (hence the scientific name Coronella), lack of a collar and dark eye-stripe are diagnostic of the Smooth Snake.

Similar to the adult but generally much darker.

below:

The markings of a hatchling are often dark and distinct.

facing page top: A male showing the typical colouration and the indistinct,

light dorso-lateral stripes often seen in older individuals. A female photographed as it was found under a corrugated iron survey ‘tin’ on a heath in Surrey. bottom:

SlOUgH (page 39) The fragile slough can occasionally be found deep in vegetation or under refuges. The scales are smooth and un-keeled.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Usually found under refuges – small sheets of corrugated iron are often used to survey for this species. However you need a licence if you intend to search for this species (see page 155).

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Smooth Snakes are secretive and spend much of their life in deep stands of mature heather. They bask occasionally in hazy sun usually entwined amongst the stems of old heather plants, where they are well camouflaged. Smooth Snakes are less nervous than other snakes, moving away slowly when disturbed. They are frequently found under refuges exposed to the sun and small sheets of discretely positioned corrugated iron are often used for population monitoring. Smooth Snakes emerge from their underground hibernation sites in late March or April and have a secretive breeding behaviour. Mating takes place in May and young are born live in clutches of 8–15 in late August or September, when groups of newborn hatchlings can occasionally be found basking together. Smooth Snakes feed mainly on lizards and occasionally on small mammals and can tackle prey the size of an adult Slow Worm. They kill by constriction, seizing their prey and instantly coiling tightly around it. Once dead the prey is swallowed slowly.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Smooth Snakes have only been recorded in Britain in recent times from heathland and immediately adjacent habitats such as woodland edge and grassland. They prefer areas of deep mature heather on south-facing slopes with good populations of other reptiles.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd The large heathlands around the Poole Basin in Dorset, such as Studland and Godlingston, support good populations. 80

Because the Smooth Snake is confined to such a specific habitat, they have never been common; indeed, the species was not recorded in Britain until the 1850s. Today the Smooth Snake is found on the heathlands of Dorset, where on some it is the most frequently encountered snake. In Hampshire it is found in the New Forest, where it is restricted to areas of dense, mature heather, and in the Avon Valley. In Surrey, it was once more widely distributed but native populations are now restricted to a handful of heathland sites. There are unconfirmed or historic records from North Hampshire, Berkshire, the Hampshire coast, Wiltshire, The Lizard in Cornwall and east Devon. Smooth Snakes and Sand Lizards often occur together and both species benefit from the same heathland management regime, especially the removal of tree cover on south-facing slopes with mature heather and varied topography. Smooth Snakes have been successfully re-introduced to a number of managed heathlands in other parts of Surrey and in West Sussex.

Typical basking position.

A light coloured male showing the ginger underside and throat.

A female showing the dorsal spots and bars.

81

grass Snake top view showing the head scale pattern of an individual lacking the yellow colouration in the collar; side view showing the typical black edges to the large scales above the mouth.

Adder top view showing

the head scale pattern and the inverted V-shaped marking; side view of a female showing the red eye and vertical pupil.

Smooth Snake top view showing

the head scale pattern and distinctive dark crown; side view of the head showing the distinctive eye-stripe.

82

83

Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins Squamata

Reptilia Chelonia

Lizards, Snakes and Worm-lizards

Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins

≈ 8,170 species

313 species

Crocodilia Crocodilia Rhynchocephalia Rhynochocephalia Crocodiles Tuartara (ancient lizard-like Crocodilia and Alligators reptiles found in New Zealand) 23 species

2 species

The defining feature of all species within the reptile order Chelonia is their shell (or carapace) which encloses the main organs of the body and, in the majority of land-based chelonians, also provides protection for the head and limbs. The shell is attached to the skeleton and formed from bony plates which are covered, in most species, with horny, interlocking shields. In almost all species the top part of the shell, is closely fused with the underside or plastron. In broad terms, tortoises are terrestrial, terrapins are semi-aquatic species of freshwater habitats and turtles inhabit both marine and freshwater aquatic environments. There are no native terrestrial chelonians in Britain, although sub-fossil remains of the European Pond Tortoise have been found, confirming that it inhabited Britain during the warm period after the last Ice Age. The popularity of certain species as pets, particularly before international legislation regulated their importation, coupled with their longevity means that there is always a chance of encountering an exotic escapee roaming in the wild. How tortoises and turtles are classified The order Chelonia consists of a complex grouping of seven sub-orders or superfamilies: Cryptodira – the snapping turtles which are mostly American species including the intimidating Common Snapping Turtle Chelydra serpentina which occasionally turns up as an escaped pet in Britain. Testudinoidea – a large group comprising three families of terrestrial and semi-aquatic tortoises, terrapins and box turtles. Trionychoidea – a group that includes many species with soft rather than bony shells. Kinosternoidea, Pleurodira and Pelomedusoidea – three small sub-orders/superfamilies which include mainly river turtles and side-neck turtles. Cheloniodea – the sea turtles, of which there are two families: Dermochelyidae – with the Leatherback as its only species. Cheloniidae – which includes all of the other marine turtle species.

mariNe TUrTleS Marine turtles are well adapted for a life at sea. Their limbs have evolved into flippers, the front pair of which are extremely strong and their span is approximately the same as the length of the animal itself, making them highly efficient swimmers. Although five species have been recorded in British and Irish waters only the Leatherback, the world’s largest marine turtle, can be regarded as occurring here as part of its normal range. Whilst the Loggerhead, with its temperate distribution, is recorded regularly, the Green Turtle, Kemp’s Ridley and the Hawksbill have a tropical distribution and are only recorded as rare vagrants, often being injured or ill when found. 84

life-CYCle Marine Turtles mate at sea and the females lay their eggs on tropical or sub-tropical beaches. Whilst the females of most turtle species produce multiple clutches each year, individual females may not breed every year. Females haul out onto beaches and excavate deep pits with their rear flippers in which they lay clutches of up to 200 spherical eggs. The eggs incubate in the warm sand and after about two months hatch en masse, with the hatchlings breaking free of the eggs and, upon reaching the surface, scrambling down the beach to the sea. This first journey of the hatchling turtles is perilous and often turns into a feeding frenzy for predatory seabirds and other animals, including crabs and fish. Those turtles that do survive begin a long and entirely aquatic life. Most species do not reach sexual maturity until their teenage years and are thought to live for about 75 years or more.

feediNg aNd PredaTiON Different species of marine turtles have different feeding habits. Whilst the Green Turtle is largely vegetarian, other species eat marine invertebrates such as crustaceans, molluscs, sponges and jellyfish. Although hatchling turtles have a wide range of predators, adult marine turtles have few. Some larger shark species have been found with turtle remains in their digestive tract and both the Tiger Shark Galeocerdo cuvier and Great White Shark Carcharodon carcharias can bite through a turtle carapace or even swallow one whole. However, the biggest challenges facing marine turtles are man-made. On land, pressures come from tourism, egg-collection and nest predation on breeding beaches. At sea, the main threats are drowning as a result of entanglement in fishing gear, being caught on longline fishing hooks, struck by boat propellers and marine pollution. Conservation organisations throughout the world are doing what they can to protect and highlight the plight of these animals, particularly through education, but currently all marine turtle species are listed as Endangered or Critically Endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) (see page 157).

A newly hatched Hawksbill starts its perilous scramble to the sea.

85

CriTiCallY eNdaNgered W&C Act 1981 (Sched 5) Bern Convention App II UK BAP Priority Species

Dermochelys coriacea One of the world’s largest reptiles with a worldwide range that includes British and Irish waters, particularly the Atlantic coasts. Much remains to be discovered about this ocean wanderer but numbers have declined over recent decades.

adUlT A huge turtle with an elongated carapace covered with tough leathery skin, rather than scales or plates. The carapace, flippers and head are dark brownish-grey with seven, or occasionally five, distinct ridges that run the length of the carapace. The underside is white or pinkishwhite and the flippers, head and sometimes the front of the carapace have a profusion of white or pink markings.

regular visitor adult:

up to 2.9 m – the largest ever recorded in the world was washed up dead on a Welsh beach in 1988. Hatchling: 6 cm

HaTCHliNg A miniature version of the adult.

egg Spherical; white, in clutches of up to 120.

BeHaViOUr AY M

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SEP

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The worldwide population is difficult to assess but is estimated at between 30,000 and 40,000 breeding females. Breeding beaches are predominantly located in Central America, the Caribbean, West Africa and South-East Asia. Adult Leatherbacks have huge ranges, and cover thousands of miles each year. Litter in the marine environment is a major conservation threat as Leatherbacks can swallow plastic bags which they mistake for jellyfish. The bags can become impacted in the gut and eventually cause death. Leatherback conservation is a truly global challenge involving research to better understand the species’ ecology, protecting breeding beaches, reducing sea-borne litter and implementing turtle-conscious fishing practices. 86

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Encounters in British waters are usually of a solitary animal seen at the surface a good distance from shore in areas with a high density of jellyfish, their primary food source that they can dive to depths of over 1,000 m to find. Dead or dying individuals are occasionally found stranded on beaches. Leatherbacks can tolerate cold water down to approx 5° C because they are, to an extent, warmblooded. A combination of their bulk, insulating fat and special mechanisms to avoid heat being lost through their flippers means that they can retain heat generated through muscular activity and maintain a body temperature of approx 18° C.

DEC

leatherback

Most records of live Leatherbacks in British Waters are of animals seen swimming at the surface.

WHere TO fiNd Most encounters are entirely by chance, with around 25 being reported each year between July and September, mostly from the west coast, particularly the Atlantic coast of Ireland and in Cardigan Bay.

A massive female Leatherback hauled out to lay eggs on Hawaii Beach on the Pacific coast of Guatemala.

A female returning to the sea after laying her eggs on a tropical beach.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS There is only a very slim chance of encountering a Leatherback although they are occasionally seen from boats on whale or birdwatching cruises and from light aircraft used for marine surveys.

87

CriTiCallY eNdaNgered

kemp’s ridley Lepidochelys kempii

rare vagrant adult:

up to 70 cm

A small, round-shelled turtle that is grey or olive-green above and pure white below. The beak is distinctly parrot-like. This tropical turtle reaches Britain from time to time and live stranded specimens are occasionally successfully repatriated to the USA. The worldwide population breeds almost exclusively on a single beach in the Gulf of Mexico. The species came close to extinction in the 1980s but due to concerted conservation efforts numbers are now increasing. They are bottom feeders and eat crustaceans, molluscs and echinoderms.

eNdaNgered

loggerhead Caretta caretta

rare vagrant adult:

An attractive, medium-sized turtle with a smooth, shield-shaped shell. Loggerheads are reddish-brown above and yellow or off-white below. The distinctive head is large and heavy (hence the name) with a thick horny beak. Although not as frequent as Leatherbacks, Loggerheads do turn up in British or Irish waters, mostly around western shores, during the winter months. Many are either juvenile or wounded individuals possibly swept here by strong currents. Of the stranded individuals found alive very few survive but those that do are usually repatriated to the Canary Islands. Loggerheads breed in the Mediterranean Sea and the temperate latitudes of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. They feed mainly on jellyfish in open water but will also take crustaceans and molluscs.

88

ca. 1 m

above: A rescued Kemps Ridley (top) and Loggerhead (bottom). Both were successfully re-patriated. right: Loggerheads are often washed up dead, as is the case with this individual on a Cornish beach.

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eNdaNgered

green Turtle Chelonia mydas

rare vagrant adult:

up to 1·5 m

A large, smooth-shelled turtle that is dark olive, brown or black on the upper surface and pure white below. Its name refers to the colour of its fat rather than the colour of its shell. There are a handful of British records, almost exclusively of stranded, dead or dying animals. There is a small breeding population in the Mediterranean but most breed in the tropical latitudes of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. This once abundant species has suffered significant persecution, mainly for human consumption. Green Turtles are more vegetarian than other species, though they are carnivorous when young.

CriTiCallY eNdaNgered

Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata

rare vagrant adult:

A medium-sized turtle around 1 m in length with a beautiful greenish-brown mottled shell and a yellow underside. The horny plates of the shell overlap, unlike other sea turtles, and it has a long, tapering beak – hence the name. This is a truly tropical species living amongst coral reefs and breeding on nearby beaches. British reports are exceptionally rare, the last being of an individual found entangled in a herring net near Cork in 1983. Hawksbills have suffered from very significant exploitation for their shells because of the, now illegal, trade in ‘tortoiseshell’. They feed almost exclusively on sponges and other soft-bodied prey.

90

ca. 1 m

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Frogs and Toads Squamata Anura

Amphibia Gymnophiona Rhynochocephalia (or Apoda) Chelonia Caudata Crocodilia Caecilians (Legless, segmented worm-like burrowing amphibians mostly found in the tropics)

(or Urodela)Crocodilia

Frogs and Toads

Newts and Salamanders

≈ 5,000 species

≈ 500 species

≈ 160 species

Frogs and toads belong to the largest amphibian order, the Anura, which comprises around 5,000 species. Frogs typically have smooth, moist skins, long back legs and are proficient jumpers, whereas toads have dry warty skins, relatively short back legs and are generally less athletic. In Britain and Ireland, the differences between frogs and toads are clear, although these differences are less apparent in species from other parts of the world. Tree frogs, for example, are regarded as frogs but, based on features of their skeleton, they are actually more closely related to toads. How frogs and toads are classified Anurans are classified into three sub-orders: Archaeobatrachia – which comprises three families and includes midwife and fire-bellied toads. Mesobatrachia – including the burrowing spadefoot toads as well as a range of aquatic species similar to and including the African Clawed Frog. Neobatrachia – a huge group including all other frogs and toads from the tiny, brightly coloured poison arrow frogs (Dendrobates) of South America through to the 30 cm Goliath Frog Conraua goliath from West Africa. The largest of the 44 families in this sub-order are: Ranidae – which includes all of the frogs found in Britain. Bufonidae – which includes the Common and Natterjack Toads.

aNaTOmY Of a TYPiCal frOg Or TOad

Eardrum

Paratoid gland

Dorso-lateral folds

Dorsal stripe

Throat (some species vocal sacs located here) Vocal sac Flank Underside

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Metatarsal tubercle

frOgS aNd TOadS iN BriTaiN The familiar Common Frog is found throughout Britain and Ireland and on Guernsey, and the closely related Agile Frog is found on Jersey. There are two species of native toad: the Common Toad, which is widespread in Britain and the Channel Islands, but not native to Ireland; and the Natterjack Toad, which is extremely local in Britain and Ireland. Over the years, frogs and toads from continental Europe, in particular Marsh, Edible and Pool Frogs, have been introduced to various parts of Britain. These species belong to a closely related group of frogs that are often referred to as ‘water frogs’ or ‘green frogs’. These are all active, noisy frogs, often green in colour, that live close to water throughout the year. All water frogs have a habit of basking in the sun on the bank of a pond or on floating mats of aquatic vegetation. They are wary and will dive spectacularly into the water if disturbed. This behaviour can be an important clue to the identification of this group of frogs as the Common Frog rarely behaves in this way. Until recently all water frogs in Britain were regarded as non-native. However, there was always some doubt over the provenance of some populations of Pool Frogs in Norfolk. A range of recent studies, including in 1999 the discovery of a Pool Frog bone in Saxon-aged Fenland deposits, have indicated that the northern race of the Pool Frog was native to Britain. However, by the time of the 1999 study the species had disappeared from its last known site. Whilst efforts are now well underway to re-introduce Pool Frogs of the northern race from Sweden to Norfolk, elsewhere in the country introduced populations of other, southern, races are thriving.

A female northern race Pool Frog – one of the individuals introduced from Sweden.

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WaTer frOg geNeTiCS

Originally it was thought that the two dominant species of water frogs were the Marsh Frog (found in southern and eastern Europe) and the Edible Frog (found throughout central Europe), with the Pool Frog regarded as a sub-species of the Edible Frog. However, detailed work on the genetics of the group has shown that the Edible Frog is in fact a hybrid between the Marsh Frog and Pool Frog, originating from pairings between male Pool Frogs and female Marsh Frogs. Unlike most hybrids, the Edible Frog can breed with one of its parent species (usually the Pool Frog), with the resultant offspring being an Edible Frog. This explains the reason for their wide European range. The scientific name of the Edible Frog is Pelophylax kl. esculentus, where kl. is an abbreviation for klepton or thief, as this ‘species’ has ‘stolen’ its identity from its parents and is, in reality, a hybrid rather than a true species. Edible Frogs show many characteristics that are intermediate between Pool and Marsh Frogs. The three species of water frog found in Britain can be identified by their appearance and, with practice, by their calls. If a specimen can be captured without harming it, identification can be confirmed by measuring relative leg length and by examining the metatarsal tubercle – a small, hard projection on the heel present in most frogs and toads. These features are illustrated below.

Leg length:

Pool frog (p.104)

edible frog (p.108)

marsh frog (p.110)

long – ankle bends before the snout.

medium – ankle bends at the snout. metatarsal tubercle

long – ankle bends beyond the snout.

MARSH

Metatarsal tubercle:

medium EDIBLE

small EDIBLE

MARSH

EDIBLE POOL

EDIBLE

MARSH

EDIBLE

POOL

life-CYCle

large POOL

POOL

POOL

MARSH

EDIBLE

The correct way to handle a frog when measuring leg length.

POOL

Courtship and mating In Britain and Ireland, breeding activity in most frog and toad species starts shortly after they emerge from hibernation. The timing of emergence is affected by temperature – typically being earliest in the south and west and latest in the north and east. Breeding activity is centred on a pond or lake and is often intense with a great deal of active and highly vocal competition between males. All frogs and toads produce croaks or calls by inflating a highly elastic vocal sac or sacs and forcing air over their vocal chords. The loudest calls serve as advertisements by males to attract females, and this is particularly dramatic in the Natterjack Toad whose calls can be heard from a distance of several hundred metres. Other calls, known as release calls, are made either by a male to reject the unwelcome attention of another male, or by a female to reject a male if she has already spawned. 94

MARSH

Male Common Frogs assembling to breed in the early spring.

Spawning In preparation for spawning a male frog or toad will grasp a receptive female behind her forelegs (an embrace known as amplexus). His grip is strengthened by thickened nuptial pads which develop on his thumbs at this time of year. Frogs and toads can remain in amplexus for several days and eventually, usually at night, the female releases her eggs which the male immediately fertilises. The coating of the eggs quickly absorbs water and expands to form a protective jelly, resulting in clumps of frog spawn or long strings of toad spawn. Growth and metamorphosis Nourished by their stored yolk, the eggs quickly develop into tadpoles which struggle free from the dissolving jelly of the spawn mass. At first the tadpoles use external gills to breathe but, as they grow, the gills become covered with skin so that they are effectively internal. After several weeks of growth, metamorphosis occurs. During this phase

Common Toads often arrive at their breeding ponds already in amplexus.

Common Toad spawn string showing the multiple rows of black eggs.

95

the tail shrinks, the legs grow rapidly and the lungs develop in preparation for a terrestrial life. They leave the water as froglets or toadlets, often after rain, and sometimes in considerable numbers. The speed of tadpole development is dependent not only on the availability of food – mainly algae, detritus and carrion – but also on water temperature. The metamorphosis of the Natterjack Toad, which breeds in warm shallow pools, can be completed within a month. In comparison, in cool, upland ponds Common Frog tadpoles sometimes overwinter and complete their development the following year. However, most young frogs and toads begin their terrestrial life sometime between the June and September of their birth year. They reach sexual maturity after their second or third winter and return to water to breed. As frogs and toads grow they periodically shed their skins. During the shedding process, the skin breaks over the back, the back legs are extracted and the front legs are used to pull the old skin over the body towards the mouth. The old skin is then swallowed. Frogs and toads can live for about 8 years in the wild, although Common Toads have survived for several decades in captivity.

feediNg Frogs and toads consume only live prey, to which they are initially attracted by movement. They eat a wide range of invertebrates including insects, spiders, woodlice, earthworms, small slugs, snails and even other young reptiles or amphibians. Whilst Common Toads tend to sit, wait and pick off any suitable prey that comes within range, other species hunt more actively. On land, frogs and toads capture food with the aid of a long, sticky tongue that extends from the front of the lower jaw at a speed too fast for the naked eye to see. Frogs and toads close their eyes when swallowing to help force the food down. Water frogs, particularly the large Marsh Frog, are voracious feeders, hunting both above water, where they catch flying insects, and underwater, where their prey includes invertebrates, other frogs, freshwater shrimps, newts and dragonfly larvae. 96

Tadpoles at various stages of development.

Froglet.

The aquatic larvae of insects, including dragonflies and water beetles, consume many tadpoles. Some larvae, such as this Great Diving Beetle, can even tackle adult newts – in this case a male Smooth Newt.

PredaTiON The tadpoles of frogs and toads are an important food source for aquatic insects such as dragonfly and water beetle larvae. Fish and newts are also voracious predators of frog spawn and tadpoles, and even Blackbirds are known to pick off frog tadpoles from the edge of a pond. Adult frogs and toads are eaten by a wide range of predators, including herons, crows, Foxes, Otters and Grass Snakes. Toads and their tadpoles have some protection because of the toxicity of their skin, although this does not deter Grass Snakes, and some predators, such as Otters, strip off the skin and just eat the flesh. Common Toads sometimes meet a grizzly end as a result of parasitism by the Toad Fly Lucilia bufonivora the maggots of which infest the nostrils of a toad and slowly devour the unfortunate animal from the inside. In recent decades mass mortality of Common Frogs has been noted, particularly in southern England during the summer months. The cause is thought to be a bacterial disease initiated by a viral infection. It is often referred to as ‘red leg’ because the back legs of infected animals become reddened and ulcerated. Mass frog mortality has been reported from many garden ponds, although populations usually recover within a few years. In other parts of the world, populations of certain species of amphibians have been devastated by huge population crashes. The cause is the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis that causes a skin disease – chytridiomycosis – which is thought to interfere with respiration and water uptake. Isolated cases of the disease have been found in Britain so an extensive programme is now in place to monitor our amphibian populations for further cases. Swabbing for the presence of Chytrid fungus. 97

Common frog Rana temporaria Our most familiar amphibian is distributed widely throughout Britain and Ireland and is the amphibian most likely to be found in the garden, where it is generally very welcome.

Widespread adult:

60–90 mm

full-grown tadpole: Spawn clump:

35 mm 10–15 cm across

adUlT

TadPOle (page 41)

A smooth-skinned frog with a rounded snout, a dark patch behind each eye and usually several irregular black dorsal spots. Breeding males are grey with a light blue throat (where the small vocal sac is located) and their muscular front legs have black nuptial pads on each thumb. Their colour lightens to pale or olive-brown after the breeding season. Females are similar, but their flanks often have areas of yellow or brick-red that are dotted with small pearly spots. Both sexes have an off-white underside, distinct but thin dorso-lateral folds, back legs with irregular dark banding and long, webbed toes. The black dorsal spots range in intensity from absent to almost complete coverage. The Common Frog is highly variable in colour and markings. All shades of grey, olive or brown, often with hints of red or purple, occur and extreme colour variants, including orange, red, yellow or albino examples are frequent. Individuals can change colour in response to variations in light and temperature. The Common Frog can be distinguished from the water frogs by its rounded snout, the widely-spaced eyes with a dark patch behind each eye, and the lack of a prominent dorsal stripe. Unlike most water frogs, Common Frogs rarely show any bright green colouration or bask in the sun.

Brown with hints of green, speckled with tiny gold or copper spots. Tail-tip pointed.

right: Breeding Common Frogs showing the bluishwhite throat of the male. facing page top: Male showing the

typical colours outside the breeding season. bottom: A female showing the pearly spots on the flanks.

98

SPaWN (page 40) Round spawn clumps with up to 2,000 eggs, each black with a lighter patch underneath, enclosed in a sphere of jelly. When many frogs spawn together the individual clumps can form a single conjoined mat. OBSerVaTiON TiPS Most obvious during the brief, early spring breeding season when the heads of croaking males breaking the surface and intense activity, both day and night, make for a lively pond.

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JUN

JUL

VOiCe SEP

APR

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AY

G AU

M AR

O CT

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

NO V

B FE

The low purring croak of the Common Frog can be heard during both day and night in the breeding season and occasionally in the autumn.

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON Common Frogs tend to hibernate in damp conditions either close to water or submerged in the mud at the bottom of a pond, absorbing sufficient oxygen through their skin to survive. They breed as soon as they emerge from hibernation, typically in late February or early March. Common Frogs are often described as explosive breeders as they create quite a commotion in their breeding ponds for a week or two, with many croaking males visible at the surface. However, as soon as spawning is over the adult frogs quickly disperse – hence their the scientific name temporaria. Spawn is always laid in the shallowest, sunniest part of a pond and tadpoles emerge from it within two weeks. Fully grown tadpoles are not particularly active, often resting on the mud at the bottom of the pond. The froglets leave the pond in damp weather between June and September, depending on water temperature. In cold conditions tadpoles will overwinter. Outside the breeding season, adults are quite secretive, hiding in damp vegetation, although they will return to ponds and pond margins during dry spells.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Found in a wide range of damp habitats including woodland, damp grassland, hedgerows, marshes, moorland, parks, gardens and upland habitats up to 1,000 m. Whilst they typically breed in small, shallow ponds and the margins of larger lakes, Common Frogs also use ditches, puddles or slow-flowing water. They are opportunistic breeders and are not faithful to their birthplace.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON WHere TO fiNd The garden is the first place to look especially if it has a pond. Common Frogs are likely to be found in almost any habitat that includes a pond, especially damp woodland and woodland edge. 100

The most widespread amphibian, found throughout Britain and Ireland, including the Hebrides, Guernsey in the Channel Islands and on the Isle of Man – where it is the only amphibian. The Common Frog population in the wider countryside declined dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century, mainly due to agricultural intensification and the loss of farmland ponds. Garden ponds have been somewhat of a saviour for the species. Populations thrive in suburban and semi-rural residential areas, where the species’ powers of dispersal have helped to ensure its survival, with newly-constructed ponds often being quickly colonised.

The male’s powerful grip and the female’s abdomen bloated with spawn can be seen in this pair in amplexus.

A freshly emerged froglet begins its life on land.

Colour variants, such as this red individual, are often found.

A well grown tadpole showing the pointed tail-tip and profusion of gold spots.

101

Bern Convention (App II)

agile frog

adUlT A long-legged, athletic version of the closely related Common Frog. Both sexes are light brown or pinkish-buff in colour, have small black dorsal spots and an off-white underside and flanks, often with yellow around the base of the hind legs. The male’s nuptial pads are grey. The eardrum is larger and closer to the eye than that of Common Frog and the dark-banded back legs are noticeably longer.

adult: Spawn clump:

Brownish with darker spots and a light, gold spotted underside. The tail has a high, arched crest and a very pointed tip.

SPaWN Similar to Common Frog but in smaller clumps with dark brown eggs. JUN

102

AY M

APR MAR

OCT

On Jersey, the Agile Frog has declined dramatically due mainly to agricultural intensification. Of the 7 sites left in the 1970s only 2 remained in 1987. At this time, the population at Noirmont was lost after a pesticide spillage, leaving a single site at L’Ouaisne Common. Conservation includes habitat management, pond creation, research and captive breeding. The population is increasing slowly and re-introduction at Noirmont is underway.

SEP

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

B FE

V

In Europe, Agile Frogs inhabit light woodland, breeding in shallow woodland-edge ponds. On Jersey, the historic distribution included woodland but the species is now restricted to coastal heathland where it breeds in shallow ponds in light scrub. Agile Frogs do not thrive in gardens.

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

NO

HaBiTaT

JUL G AU

A weak, squeaky, purring call made underwater or at the surface during the day and at night in the breeding season. Adults hibernate on land and assemble to breed in February. Small clumps of spawn (up to 750 eggs in Jersey) are laid around plant stems in shallow water and tadpoles generally complete their metamorphosis by August. Its habits are otherwise similar to the Common Frog.

45 mm 5–10 cm across

TadPOle (page 41)

VOiCe

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON

60–90 mm

full-grown tadpole:

JAN

This widespread European species is native to Jersey where the natural population is restricted to a single site. Conservation action is focused on preventing its extinction.

Native to Jersey only

DEC

Rana dalmatina

Photo

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Most likely to be found during the breeding season in early spring.

WHere TO fiNd L’Ouaisne Common on Jersey (above) offers the only opportunity to see the Agile Frog but it is a strictly protected site.

103

W&C Act 1981 (Sched 5) UK BAP Priority Species

Pool frog (northern race) Pelophylax lessonae previously Rana lessonae

The last native population of this species became extinct in the 1990s. It was originally found in fenland pools of Norfolk, where a re-introduction programme is underway. Confusingly, other nonnative populations of the more southerly race of this species exist elsewhere in Britain.

adUlT A small to medium-sized frog with brown or green patterning, a distinct yellow or green dorsal stripe and a pointed snout. The sexes are similar, typically being shades of brown with some green markings, prominent light brown dorso-lateral folds and darker spots particularly on the flanks. The back legs are light brown with dark bands. Males are often yellow around the head and eyes, with this colour becoming more intense in the breeding season, and with a white vocal sac located at each corner of the mouth. Introduced animals from central Europe, are often found with Edible Frogs and are typically green on the back and flanks. The Pool Frog can be distinguished from the other water frog species by its pure white vocal sacs (those of the Edible Frog are light grey, and those of the Marsh Frog a darker grey). Its hind legs are shorter than the other water frogs (see page 94) meaning that, when at rest, the heels do not touch behind the body.

right: One of the ponds, a glacial pingo, at the last known native site at Thompson Common in Norfolk. facing page top: A male of the

northern race – one of the individuals introduced from Sweden. bottom: A female from the re-introduction programme.

104

Native; re-introduced adult: full-grown tadpole: Spawn clump:

60–70 mm 60–70 mm 3–5 cm across

TadPOle (page 41) Brown or olive-green above often with a pink or mauve underside.

SPaWN (page 40) Small, loose clumps attached to aquatic vegetation with small brown eggs each with an obvious white or cream underside. OBSerVaTiON TiPS Most easily observed on warm sunny days. Approach the banks of a pond and watch for basking frogs leaping into the water. Listen for the distinctive call in the late afternoon and evening from late May to early July. The pure white vocal sacs of a calling male will distinguish it from the other water frogs.

m

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105

JUN

JUL

VOiCe SEP

APR

M AY

G AU

A series of loud croaks interspersed with a longer purring call. They call by day and night between May and July.

MAR

OCT

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

NO V

F

EB

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON The Pool Frog is much more aquatic than the Common Frog, staying in or very close to water all year round. They habitually bask in the sun on the banks of ponds or at the surface on top of submerged aquatic vegetation and are less wary than the other water frogs. They hibernate on land close to their breeding ponds. Breeding starts in May, some time after they emerge from hibernation. It is heralded by loud calling during which males engage in complex and highly vocal interactions as they compete for the attention of females. Females lay several clumps of spawn in weedy shallows that are well exposed to the sun. The breeding season is much more prolonged than that of the Common Frog, often with a second spawning in June. The initially very tiny, light brown tadpoles grow extremely rapidly and, when fully grown, are secretive. Metamorphosis usually occurs in August or September when the froglets can be seen basking at pond margins, although after a cool summer tadpoles may overwinter and emerge the following year.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Pool Frogs prefer groups of ponds in open woodland. The last known native population existed in Norfolk at a complex of small glacial ponds, or pingos, in relatively open habitat. The initial re-introduction site, which has a large number of very similar ponds, is lightly wooded and is managed by grazing to reproduce the conditions of the last known native site.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd The re-introduction site in Norfolk has restricted public access but, because of the species’ long history of unmanaged introductions, other races of the Pool Frog may be encountered in other parts of the country. 106

Based on the sub-fossil evidence, it is likely that Pool Frogs originally inhabited ponds throughout East Anglia – they were recorded in Cambridgeshire as early as the 18th century. The last known population in Norfolk became extinct in the 1990s, before the native status of the Pool Frog was determined. After the decision was made to re-introduce the species, a number of northern European donor sites were considered and frogs from Sweden were found to be a close match to the Norfolk frogs based on their appearance, DNA from museum specimens and from recordings of their calls. The programme started in 2005, the reintroduced frogs are now breeding and further re-introductions are planned.

Southern race (not native) Pool Frogs from Hampshire in amplexus showing the pure white vocal sacs of the male.

A well-grown tadpole showing the pinkish underside.

A newly-metamorphosed Pool Frog at the re-introduction site in Norfolk.

107

edible frog

TadPOle (page 41) Brown or olive-green above often with a pink or mauve underside.

SPaWN (page 40) In small loose clumps with small brown eggs, each with an obvious white or cream underside.

JUN M

APR MAR

The Edible Frog has a long history of introduction in Britain. Animals introduced to east Surrey between 1903 and the 1960s have spread along river valleys into much of the county and into East Sussex. Significant water frog populations which include Edible Frogs are known from Hampshire, Somerset, Yorkshire's River Hull, Hertfordshire's Lee Valley and near Heathrow Airport. Because of a proven ability to spread, they could be encountered almost anywhere. 108

V

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

NO

Favours large, unshaded, clean ponds and gravel pits but also inhabits slow-flowing streams, dykes, ditches and rivers.

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

OCT

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON

SEP

Noisy. A sequence of duck-like quacks building into a soft rattle made during the day and at night in May and June.

HaBiTaT

G AU

VOiCe

The Edible Frog is highly aquatic and is generally encountered when basking on the bank of a pool or at the water’s surface on submerged aquatic vegetation. They are wary and will dive into the water when approached. Breeding behaviour is very similar to the Pool Frog.

JUL

AY

A medium-sized, attractively patterned frog with a pointed snout. Sexes are similar, usually with a green background colour, a lighter dorsal stripe and black markings, which are most intense on the flanks and towards the back legs. The back legs are grey, mottled with irregular dark bands. The dorso-lateral folds are prominent, brown and often have a metallic sheen. The upper lip is often white. Males have a greyish vocal sac at each corner of the mouth and typically have less dorsal markings than females. Most features are intermediate between Pool and Marsh Frogs.

5–7 cm across

B

adUlT

65 mm

Spawn clump:

FE

A successful and attractive non-native hybrid that has spread locally from its original introduction sites and is now established in several areas of England.

full-grown tadpole:

JAN

previously Rana kl. esculenta

adult: 75–100 mm, sometimes larger

DEC

Pelophylax kl. esculentus

introduced; localised

A male from Somerset.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Look carefully at undisturbed areas of exposed mud close to the pond shoreline where you may find a small group of frogs basking in the sun. Close examination of the hind leg length (see page 94) is the best way to distinguish Edible Frogs from other water frogs but you will have to catch one first!

WHere TO fiNd Gravel pits and other water bodies in the Lee Valley in Hertfordshire and around Heathrow Airport have good populations.

Some individuals, such as this female, can be brown.

109

adUlT A large green frog, with a rough skin and a pointed snout. The sexes are similar, usually with a dull green back, often with darker spots, prominent brown dorso-lateral folds, occasionally a light vertebral stripe and an off-white or cream underside. The male’s vocal sacs are distinctly grey when inflated. The dark-banded hind legs are long (see page 94) meaning that, when at rest, the heels touch or overlap behind the body.

Brown or olive-green above, often with a pink or mauve underside. Solitary, often living amongst aquatic vegetation.

SPaWN (page 40) Hard to find, laid deep in aquatic vegetation in small, loose clumps of tiny brown eggs, each with an obvious white or cream underside.

JUN

The large population on Romney Marsh originated from 12 frogs introduced from Hungary in 1935. The species has spread to the Walland and North Kent Marshes, Lewes Brooks and south Essex and it can also be found at the London Wetland Centre. Water frog populations in the valleys of the River Lee in Hertfordshire and the River Hull in Yorkshire may also include Marsh Frogs. 110

AY M

APR MAR

OCT

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

SEP

Highly aquatic and, in Britain, mostly confined to marshland dykes and ditches but also found in sunny, open lakes and gravel pits with plenty of aquatic vegetation.

V

HaBiTaT

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

NO

Marsh Frogs bask on the banks of ponds and marsh dykes, or rest at the surface on top of submerged aquatic vegetation. They are particularly wary and will jump spectacularly into the water when approached. Hibernation is usually underwater. Breeding behaviour is similar to Pool and Edible Frogs.

JUL G AU

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON

5–7 cm across

TadPOle (page 41)

VOiCe A very loud, raucous sequence of duck-like quacks which builds to a loud laugh-like cackle (ridibundus means laughing) heard day and night in May and June.

70 mm

Spawn clump:

B

First introduced to Romney Marsh in the 1930s, this impressive frog is thriving. It has spread throughout low-lying parts of Kent and has been introduced to a number of other places in England.

10–13 cm sometimes larger

full-grown tadpole:

FE

previously Rana ridibunda

adult:

JAN

Pelophylax ridibundus

introduced; localised

DEC

marsh frog

A male calling showing the grey vocal sacs.

A female showing the warty skin and prominent dorso-lateral fold.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Choose a warm, sunny day in the late spring or early summer. Listen for the raucous call or watch for the impressive leaps from basking spots on the bank. Binoculars will help you get a better view.

WHere TO fiNd A trip to Romney Marsh will usually prove successful. The Royal Military Canal has the best public access. They can also be seen at the London Wetland Centre.

Marsh Frogs in typical pose at Offham in Sussex.

Some Marsh Frogs exhibit a yellow or green dorsal stripe.

111

UK BAP Priority Species

Common Toad Bufo bufo An endearing and popular amphibian, despite having an undeserved reputation for having an association with all things evil. Although found in gardens, populations in the wider countryside appear to be in decline.

adUlT A robust brown or grey-brown toad with warty skin, a broad, rounded snout, copper-coloured eyes and large paratoid glands, located behind each eye, that are oblique, pointing in the direction of the snout (see page 92). When on land a toad’s skin can appear quite dry. The colour of the back and flanks is uniform, usually a shade of grey-brown or grey-green in the male and brown in the female. Some individuals have lighter coloured patches but never a distinct dorsal stripe. The underside is whitish with dark, irregular blotches. Males develop dark rough nuptial pads on their thumbs during the breeding season. Immature toads are often brick-red, as are some adult females. Albinos have occasionally been recorded. The Common Toad is unlikely to be confused with the Natterjack Toad, which almost always has a distinct thin yellow dorsal stripe, short back legs and paratoid glands which are parallel to each other.

VOiCe A croaky squeak that does not carry far. Males call by day and night.

right: Like this individual, Common Toads often spend the day hiding under a log. facing page top: A typical male

showing the muscular front legs. bottom: A typical female.

112

Native; widespread adult:

Male 60–75 mm Females 70–90 mm sometimes larger full-grown tadpole: 30 mm

TadPOle (page 41) Jet black with a rounded tip to the tail.

SPaWN (page 40) Spawn strings are wound round aquatic vegetation and have double alternating rows of black eggs, each string on average containing 1,500 eggs.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Common Toads are easiest to observe after dark during their springtime migration and breeding period. Adults can also frequently be found under logs, debris and even refuges set out for reptile surveys (see page 30).

m

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JUN

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BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON SEP

APR

M

AY

G AU

M AR

O CT

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

V

B FE

NO

Common Toads hibernate on land, often in old rodent burrows which can be a considerable distance from water. The springtime migration to their breeding ponds – often the ponds in which they were born – usually takes place after dark on damp evenings in March. This often results in many toads being killed by cars in areas where a road crosses their migration route. The risk of being crushed is increased because males often wait on the road surface to ambush passing females. Common Toads congregate in their breeding ponds in large numbers, with males often forming ‘mating balls’ as they compete for females. Spawning takes place at night and the jet black tadpoles usually emerge from the eggs within two weeks. Larger toad tadpoles often swim in shoals in open water. Newly metamorphosed toadlets emerge en masse in June or July, especially after rain. At this stage they are less than 10 mm long, black with fine gold spots, and can be easily mistaken for insects. Outside the breeding season toads are mainly nocturnal and range far and wide, sheltering during the day under debris or logs. They migrate back to their hibernation sites in early autumn and again some are killed on roads.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Found in a wide range of habitats, particularly open woodland, hedgerows, grassland and gardens. Toads are more tolerant of dry conditions than frogs or newts, and can be found far from water outside the breeding season especially on heathland, moorland and on sea cliffs. They prefer to breed in lakes or gravel pits but will also use park or large garden ponds and occasionally canals or slowflowing rivers. Because Common Toads are less prone to fish predation than Common Frogs, populations can exist in waters inhabited by fish.

POPUlaTiONS aNd CONSerVaTiON WHere TO fiNd Can be encountered almost anywhere and often in gardens. Listen for the squeaky croaks of breeding males in March and early April amongst emergent vegetation in the shallows of lake or gravel pits. 114

Distributed throughout mainland Britain and the Channel Islands, although more local in Scotland. The Common Toad is not native to Ireland although an introduced population did exist for a period in West Cork. There is significant evidence, mainly from counts of toads rescued at their regular springtime road crossings, that Common Toad numbers have reduced significantly over recent decades. Although the reasons for this are not clear, road mortality, climate change and habitat loss could all be contributory factors.

This reddish colouration is typical of a young Common Toad.

A darker than normal Common Toad.

The tadpole is jet black with a rounded tail.

Freshly emerged toadlets are black with fine gold spots.

Breeding is often something of wrestling match.

115

W&C Act 1981 (Sched 5) Bern Convention App II UK BAP Priority Species

Natterjack Toad Epidalea calamita previously Bufo calamita

The enigmatic and highly vocal ‘running toad’ is more or less restricted to sand dune systems and heathland. Concerted conservation effort has hopefully secured the future of this rare amphibian.

adUlT A small greenish-brown toad with a thin yellow dorsal stripe. Closer examination reveals a complex and attractive pattern of irregular grey-green patches against a background of light brown fading to off-white on the flanks. The skin is warty, with some of the warts tipped bright red. The underside is granular and white or cream with dark patches. The paratoid glands are large and parallel to one another. The eyes are greenish-yellow and crazed with black veins. The back legs are relatively short, giving the species a squat, stocky appearance. There is little difference between the sexes although females tend to be larger and fatter and breeding males have a bluish throat and dark nuptial pads. The thin yellow dorsal stripe is the distinguishing feature and is almost always present.

VOiCe A loud, squeaky rattle. A chorus of males generates an impressive pulsating ‘churr’ that can carry for several hundred metres. The large balloon-like vocal sac extends out from the throat.

right: A male Natterjack Toad showing the distinctive yellow dorsal stripe. facing page The male (top) and female (bottom) are

similar in appearance.

116

Native; highly localised adult:

Male 50–65 mm Female 60–75 mm full-grown tadpole: 25 mm

TadPOle (page 41) Jet black with a blunt tail and sometimes with an indistinct white patch below the mouth. The thin yellow dorsal stripe is just visible in the later stages of development.

SPaWN (page 40) Spawn is laid as a single string, containing as many as 7,500 black eggs, in shallow water at the edge of a breeding pond. OBSerVaTiON TiPS Natterjack Toads are best found during the breeding season on warm, damp evenings after dark. Their loud calls often give their presence away. Whilst many sand dune sites have public access, the toads are strictly protected and it is illegal to disturb them.

m

f

117

JUN

JUL

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON SEP

APR

M

AY

G AU

M AR

O CT

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

V

B FE

NO

The Natterjack Toad is mainly nocturnal, spending the day in a sandy burrow and emerging after dark to hunt for insects, especially beetles, in open, close-cropped habitat. They move by running quickly rather than hopping. Natterjack Toads excavate their own deep sandy burrow in which they hibernate. On emergence, they begin an extended breeding season, often lasting from early April to July, during which females can spawn more than once. Males often call to attract females after dark on warm, damp evenings from the shallow margins of a breeding pond. Spawning also takes place at night. The tadpoles do not shoal although they are often fairly obvious and active in shallow water. Tadpole development requires a water temperature of 17–27° C and, with favourable conditions, metamorphosis can occur within a month. The tiny toadlets are less than 10 mm long, but already have the distinct yellow dorsal stripe when they leave the water.

DEC

JAN

HaBiTaT Found in sand dunes where they breed in shallow dune slacks, and heathland where they breed in shallow, sandy-bottomed pools and lake margins. There are also populations on the upper reaches of some saltmarshes and an isolated population on open moorland in the south Cumbrian fells.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd Large populations occur in the Birkdale and Ainsdale dune systems just south of Southport on the Merseyside coast. Further south, the re-introduced population at Hengistbury Head in Dorset is doing well. 118

The strongholds of the Natterjack Toad are the coastal dune systems of Merseyside and Cumbria and the dunes and saltmarsh of the Scottish side of the Solway Firth. Smaller dune populations exist in Lincolnshire and Norfolk, with re-introductions in North Wales and Kent. Native heathland populations are restricted to Hampshire and Norfolk although there are re-introductions in Dorset, Surrey and Bedfordshire. In Ireland, they can be found at several dune sites in Kerry, and at an introduction site in Wexford. Numbers have declined dramatically during the 20th century, particularly on heathland, due to habitat loss, water table changes and breeding pond acidification. Conservation efforts at the 60 remaining sites focus on habitat management, including clearance of invasive scrub and the provision of extensive, often grazed, open areas for foraging. New breeding scrapes are created and ponds re-profiled with shallow warm margins and with enough depth to prevent them drying out before metamorphosis is complete. Measures are sometimes required to bring heathland ponds to a near neutral pH to ensure successful breeding.

The large vocal sac creates a loud call which can carry some distance.

A tiny toadlet emerging from a breeding pond at Frensham in Surrey clearly showing the yellow dorsal stripe.

The tadpole is similar to that of the Common Toad but smaller.

A pair in amplexus.

119

Bern Convention App II

midwife Toad Alytes obstetricans A delightful but secretive non-native toad that often gives away its presence with the delicate beeps of its single-note call.

adUlT A small toad with a pointed snout, rough warty skin, often with more prominent warts along each dorso-lateral line, and no paratoid gland. The sexes are similar, usually grey-brown on the back and flanks, sometimes with darker, greenish blotches, and a lighter underside with dark blotches. Males may have 10-50 creamy-yellow eggs attached to their hind limbs in summer, a distinguishing trait of this species.

introduced; localised adult:

Male 50 mm

full-grown tadpole:

70 mm

TadPOle (Page 41) Brown with dark blotches and growing to an astonishing 70 mm, longer than a full-grown adult.

SPaWN The spawn string of between 10 and 50 cream to yellow coloured eggs is wound around the male’s back legs and carried for several weeks.

VOiCe A single, sonar-like note repeated regularly.

JUN AY M

APR MAR B FE

DEC

JAN

In Bedfordshire, Midwife Toads originated from European imports to a local nursery in around 1900. They were taken by the Brocklehurst family to their home in Bedford and have since spread throughout north Bedford and to nearby villages. Toads were moved to Luton and Ashridge in Hertfordshire, Woodsetts, near Worksop (where they are still abundant) and Sheffield. They have also been found in Devon, Norfolk and Cambridgeshire. 120

OCT

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

SEP

Introduced colonies are well established in gardens with ponds on light or sandy soils into which they can burrow easily.

V

HaBiTaT

active mating spawning metamorphosis hibernation

NO

Midwife Toads are nocturnal, spending the day under rocks, logs or other debris. During May and June, males call from dusk to attract females. They pair up away from water and the female lays a spawn string which the male immediately fertilises and winds around his back legs, where it remains for several weeks. When the tadpoles have developed inside the eggs the male unhitches the spawn string at the edge of a pond. Here the tadpoles complete their development, often overwintering, before leaving the water as 20 mm toadlets.

G AU

BeHaViOUr aNd rePrOdUCTiON

JUL

A Bedfordshire male carrying eggs.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Listen for the distinctive call just after dusk in May. Also check under rocks or other debris in gardens during the summer months

A Bedfordshire female.

A well-grown Midwife Toad tadpole showing the characteristic dark marks on the tail.

WHere TO fiNd Populations are mainly restricted to gardens and private property. 121

Newts Squamata Anura

Amphibia Gymnophiona Rhynochocephalia (or Apoda) Chelonia Caudata Crocodilia Caecilians (Legless, segmented worm-like burrowing amphibians mostly found in the tropics)

(or Urodela)Crocodilia

Frogs and Toads

Newts and Salamanders

≈ 5,000 species

≈ 500 species

≈ 160 species

Newts and salamanders belong to the tailed amphibian order Caudata, also known as Urodela. Worldwide this group only contains about one tenth of the number of frog and toad species. The urodeles are a diverse group of species which live in an extremely wide range of habitats. Some are totally aquatic, some live in underground cave systems and others can be found in mountainous regions and on sub-arctic tundra. In Britain, there are three native newts but no salamanders, despite the fact that the Fire Salamander Salamandra salamandra inhabits the cliffs of north-west France, within sight of the Kent coast. Other European species have been introduced from time to time and there are established breeding colonies of the Alpine and Italian Crested Newts. How Newts are Classified The amphibian order Caudata has three sub-orders: Cryptobranchoidea – with two families of largely aquatic salamanders including the impressive Giant Salamander Andrias japonicus, a monster from Japan that can grow to well over a metre. Sirenoidea – eel-like aquatic salamanders which have no hind limbs and only rudimentary front limbs. Salamdroidea – a group of seven families which include salamanders and all of the newts. The newts found in Britain are all classified in the sub-family Pleurodelinae.

THe aNaTOmY Of a TYPiCal NeWT

Dorso-lateral ridge

Body crest

Tail crest

Cloaca Throat Flank

122

Toes (fringed or webbed)

Tail filament

life-CYCle Hibernation and emergence Newts normally hibernate on land, often concealed in underground crevices, underneath logs or buried in loose soil or leaf-litter. They arrive at their breeding ponds during the winter or in early spring. Male and female newts are easy to differentiate in the breeding season since at this time the males of most species develop impressive crests and other adornments. Courtship and mating The business of courtship and mating takes place in the water and is a far more sophisticated affair than that of frogs and toads. On encountering a female, a male newt will move in front of her and perform a dance in which he displays his crest and rapidly fans his tail to waft his scent towards her. If she shows interest by moving towards him, he will deposit a spermatophore (a small white package containing his sperm cells) and lead the female forward so that she picks it up in her genital opening or cloaca. Here the sperm is stored ready to fertilise her eggs as they are laid. Egg-laying and metamorphosis Female newts lay individual eggs that are coated in jelly and use their hind feet to wrap each egg in the leaf of an aquatic plant. Egg-laying may continue for several weeks but is usually complete by late spring or early summer. At this time the adult newts leave the pond and begin their terrestrial phase, feeding and building-up their fat reserves in preparation for hibernation. Once on land, male newts lose their crests and the sexes become harder to differentiate.

Courting Smooth Newts.

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A sequence of Palmate Newt eggs at different stages of development.

Newt eggs quickly develop into larvae – the term ‘tadpole’ is only used to refer to the larvae of frogs and toads. Newt larvae are more fish-like than tadpoles and breathe with the aid of prominent external gills which they retain throughout their aquatic development. Their legs appear soon after hatching, although unlike tadpoles the front legs develop first. The larvae feed on tiny invertebrate prey such as water fleas Daphnia. Most newts complete their metamorphosis and start their terrestrial life in late summer. They are sometimes referred to as efts at this stage of their development. Metamorphosis of newt larvae in cool, heavily-shaded or upland ponds may be delayed and, as a result, they may overwinter and emerge from the pond the following spring. Two or three years after metamorphosis, newts return to the water to breed. They slough their skin from time to time as they grow. The castoff skin is usually eaten but is sometimes left floating, ghost-like, in the water. The smaller newt species can live for at least 6 years and the A Smooth Newt larva illustrating that in newts the front legs develop before the back legs. Great Crested Newt for at least 14 years. Smooth Newts (in common with other newt and salamander species) can sometimes enter a state of arrested development termed neotony. In this state, instead of developing into the adult form, an individual grows to full-size, is often albino, and retains the characteristics of the larval stage, external gills being the most obvious feature. Neotonous Smooth Newts are occasionally found in Britain.

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feediNg aNd PredaTiON Newts feed on invertebrates including worms, insects and aquatic crustaceans, both in the water and on land. They are also voracious predators of frog spawn and tadpoles. On land, Smooth and Palmate Newts capture food with the aid of their sticky tongue that extends from the front of the lower jaw, in a manner similar to frogs. In water, newts normally sample the scent of their prey before lunging at it. In common with other amphibians, newt larvae, and even the adults of smaller species, are prey for some aquatic insects, particularly water beetle and dragonfly larvae. Adults are taken by a wide range of predators including herons, Kingfishers, ducks and Grass Snakes. Fish are also predators of all newt life stages and, because of this, it is unusual to find thriving newt populations in ponds inhabited by fish. Newts have little defence against predation, although the warty skin of Great Crested Newts contains distasteful toxins which protect them to some degree. Curiously, newts are able to re-grow fingers and even whole limbs if they lose one to a predator. Newt and salamander populations in other parts of the world have been affected by chytridiomycosis – a disease resulting from chytrid fungus infection. British amphibian populations are being closely monitored for signs of infection.

Herons are prodigious predators of amphibians including Great Crested Newts.

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Smooth Newt Lissotriton vulgaris previously Triturus vulgaris

Britain’s most frequently encountered and widespread newt, which is equally at home in a garden pond or a small pond in the wider countryside.

adUlT A medium-sized brown newt. Breeding males are brownish-grey with prominent dark spots, a dark eyestripe and a continuous, wavy-edged crest extending along the full length of the back and tail. They also develop fringes along the edges of their fingers and the tail often has a blue line along the bottom edge. The crestless females are uniform light or olive brown, often with dark spots and a tail which has a line of spots and an orangeyellow streak extending along the lower edge. Both sexes have an off-white throat with dark spots and a buffcoloured underside with dark spots and an orange or yellow central streak. Neotony sometimes occurs in Britain (see page 124). The male’s crest is reduced to a vestige during the terrestrial phase and at this time both sexes look similar with a brown or gingery, dry, velvety skin. Female Palmate Newts are similar but have a pink, unspotted throat (page 134).

Native; common and widespread adult:

Male 90–100 mm

full-grown larva: egg:

30 mm

3 mm diameter, including jelly capsule

larVa Uniform light brown with a rounded tip to the tail and distinct feathery gills. Indistinguishable from Palmate Newt larva.

egg (page 40) The individual jelly-coated eggs are light grey-brown and attached to the leaf of an aquatic plant.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Most easily observed in shallow clear ponds in April and May by using a powerful torch just after dark.

right: A Smooth Newt larva showing the prominent gills and delicate legs. facing page top: Breeding male. centre: Breeding female. bottom: The colourful underside of a male.

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Smooth Newts hibernate on land, returning to their breeding ponds in February and March, remaining there until June. Courting, mating and egg-laying occurrs both day and night throughout the breeding season and can be easily observed. At this time of year, newts can often be seen swimming to the surface to take in gulps of air. Over the course of several weeks, a female lays several hundred individual eggs, each of which is painstakingly concealed in the fold of a leaf. The eggs take around two weeks to hatch. Smooth Newt larvae are solitary and secretive, staying near the bottom of the pond. They develop slowly, with the majority emerging between July and September; in cooler ponds, a proportion may overwinter. During their terrestrial phase Smooth Newts are secretive, most often found under logs or other debris in the daytime but emerging on damp nights to hunt for small invertebrates.

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HaBiTaT Found in an extremely wide variety of lowland habitats but shows a preference for small, fish-free ponds and ditches. Smooth Newts are also frequently found in garden ponds, even in built-up areas. They prefer ponds with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH and, for this reason, upland populations are generally associated with areas of chalk or limestone, often being found in dew ponds high on chalk downland. During their terrestrial phase, they inhabit hedgerows, undisturbed grassland, woodland, gardens and farmland.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd Garden ponds are the first place to look. In the wider countryside, Smooth Newts are likely to be present in almost any clean, sunny pond on neutral or slightly alkaline soil. 128

The Smooth Newt is found throughout Britain. The highest concentrations are in the south and east and it is more sparsely distributed in Scotland north of the Central Lowands. It is the only species of newt found in Ireland, where it is widespread, and is also found in the Channel Islands on Guernsey. Like the Common Frog, the other widespread British amphibian, the Smooth Newt has a remarkable ability to colonise new ponds. This is due to its propensity to wander over great distances during its terrestrial phase. It is also able to tolerate a high population density even in small ponds, which can appear to be carpeted with newts during the breeding season. The Smooth Newt’s attraction to garden ponds helps mitigate to some degree the decline of populations in the wider countryside as a result of habitat destruction, the loss of farm ponds and the intensification of agriculture.

A terrestrial male found concealed under a log.

The heads of a pair of terrestrial Smooth Newts showing the granular nature of the skin.

A Smooth Newt egg with another concealed in the fold of the leaf.

A recently metamorphosed Smooth Newt starts its life on land.

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W&C Act 1981 (Sched 5) Habitats Directive (Ann II) Bern Convention (App II) UK BAP Priority Species

great Crested Newt Triturus cristatus Britain is somewhat of a European stronghold for this large and impressive newt. Whilst it is still widespread, populations have declined and this species is strictly protected.

adUlT A large newt with rough and warty skin. Both sexes have a dark brown back and flanks with indistinct black spots. In addition, the head and lower flanks are covered in prominent tiny white speckles. The underside is bright orange with irregular black spots and the throat is dark with white speckling. Breeding males sport an impressive ragged crest which runs along the length of their body, except for a break between the lower back and the base of the tail. The tail has a silvery flash along its centre. The crestless females have an orange stripe along the base of the tail and can appear extremely large when they are swollen with eggs during the breeding season. During the terrestrial phase, males lose their crest and both sexes are black with a moist, warty skin, although females retain the orange tail stripe. Albino or partially albino individuals are occasionally recorded. Great Crested Newts are usually easy to distinguish from all other species due to their much larger size. There is some scope for confusion with the crested male Smooth Newt (page 126), although this species is much smaller and the crest runs unbroken down the length of the body and tail.

right: Great Crested Newt larva. facing page top: A male showing

the dark spots and orange underside. centre: An impressive male showing the prominent crest that is broken at the tail. bottom: Female.

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Native; widespread but localised adult: Male 12–14 cm Female 13–16 cm, occasionally larger full-grown larva: 70 mm egg:

5 mm diameter, including jelly capsule

larVa Large; grey-brown with small black marks; prominent feathery gills; long, delicate legs and a tail with a high crest with a filament at its tip.

egg (page 40) The individual jelly-covered eggs are white, very light yellow or lime-green and usually concealed in a folded leaf. OBSerVaTiON TiPS Searching by torchlight in the shallow margins of clear ponds just after dark between April and early June is the best way to see adults. Take particular care when visiting flooded mineral workings as they can be steep-sided and very deep.

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After hibernating on land, adults assemble in March to breed. Courtship and mating take place at night. Females lay their eggs meticulously using their back feet to fold a leaf around each egg, The eggs hatch within three weeks and the solitary larvae often swim or float in mid-water. They feed voraciously on invertebrates and other newt larvae, including those of their own species. Young newts leave the water in August and look similar to adults although they sometimes have a thin yellow dorsal stripe. Adults leave their breeding ponds in July and become secretive, hiding in damp habitats quite close to their breeding ponds.

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HaBiTaT Found in a wide range of lowland river valley or springline ponds with a generally neutral pH. They show a preference for larger ponds or small lakes where, particularly in flooded mineral workings, extremely large populations can develop. However, they also breed in smaller ponds, ditches and, occasionally, garden ponds where they often co-exist with Smooth Newt. Fish-free ponds support larger populations, as the behaviour of the larvae leaves them highly vulnerable to fish predation. Terrestrial habitats are important, with deciduous woodland, mature hedgerows and undisturbed grassland being favoured.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON

WHere TO fiNd Great Crested Newts favour river valley ponds and springline ponds as well as large, fish-free ponds in mineral workings such as brick pits, clay pits and quarries. 132

The Great Crested Newt is found throughout mainland Britain although it is less common in the west. It is very local in Scotland, where it is mainly found in lowland areas, but is absent from Ireland and the Channel Islands. Numbers declined significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, primarily because of pond loss, especially those on farmland. The protection and management of existing wild ponds and associated terrestrial habitats is important and recent research shows that newt populations that range over a large area (meta-populations) require a pond-rich landscape linked by continuous suitable terrestrial habitat. The Great Crested Newt is protected under the 1981 Wildlife and Countryside Act, which places a requirement on developers to carry out adequate prior surveys, mitigate the destruction of breeding ponds and offset any loss through the provision of suitable alternative breeding ponds and terrestrial habitat. These legal requirements, coupled with the species’ widespread distribution, regularly leads to conflicts with developers.

Terrestrial Great Crested Newts always look moist and very dark..

Newly metamorphosed Great Crested (above) and Smooth Newts (below) showing the significant difference in size.

A Great Crest Newt larva in its final stage of metamorphosis.

The developing egg of a Great Crested Newt carefully folded in the leaf of an aquatic plant.

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Palmate Newt Lissotriton helveticus previously Triturus helveticus

Native; localised adult:

80–90 mm

full-grown larva: egg:

Britain’s smallest newt, most frequently found in heathland, grassland and moorland habitats, gets its name from the webbed back feet of the breeding male.

30 mm

3 mm diameter, including jelly capsule

adUlT

larVa

A small, brown newt with lines of spots along the flanks and tail. The breeding male is dark olive or brown, with a dark eye-stripe and two lines of dark spots along the flanks and tail. Two dorso-lateral ridges make the body appear square in cross-section and a smooth-edged crest runs the length of the body and tail. Other features that distinguish the male of this species are the dark webs between the toes of the back feet and the tiny filament at the end of the tail. The female is uniform plain brown or olive, sometimes with lines of spots on the flanks and tail. Both sexes have a dull yellow underside, an unspotted pink throat and a light coloured vertical mark above the back legs. Terrestrial phase Palmate Newts of both sexes are brown or gingery and often look very dry and thin. Terrestrial males retain their square-shaped back. During hibernation they often become dark brown in colour. Neotony is known to occur in Britain (see page 124) but is extremely rare. Female Smooth (page 126) and Palmate Newts are very similar and close examination is required to distinguish them. Palmate Newts have a light-coloured, vertical mark above their back legs, a white metatarsal tubercule and a pink, unspotted throat, in contrast to the white, spotted throat of the Smooth Newt.

Brown in colour with feathery gills and a rounded tailtip. Indistinguishable from Smooth Newt larva.

right:

Larva.

facing page top: Breeding males;

side view (above); and showing the square body, filamentous tail and webbed feet (below). bottom: Females; showing the unspotted pink throat (above); side view (below).

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egg (page 40) Grey-brown in a jelly capsule, often not particularly well hidden.

OBSerVaTiON TiPS Use the same techniques as other newts. Palmate Newts are often found in shallow, relatively weed-free ponds so despite their small size, they can be quite easy to see by torchlight.

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Palmate Newts typically arrive at their breeding ponds from their terrestrial hibernation sites in February, although in some populations they make their way to the ponds in late autumn and spend the winter in the water. Courtship and breeding takes place at night, with peaks of activity at dawn and dusk. The long egg-laying season lasts from March to June, reaching a peak in May, with each female laying 200–300 individual eggs. The habits of the larvae are similar to those of the Smooth Newt, in that they are secretive and usually stay close to the bottom of a pond. Because the egg-laying season is so long there is often a wide age range of larvae, and some will overwinter. During their terrestrial phase Palmate Newts are tolerant of quite dry conditions and can range long distances, feeding on tiny invertebrates they encounter.

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HaBiTaT In contrast to the Smooth Newt, Palmate Newts favour ponds that have a neutral to very slightly acid pH, and are typically found in ponds on heathland and moorland in both lowland and upland areas. They also inhabit small ponds and ditches in open woodland and grassland, but are less frequent in garden ponds. In keeping with other newt species, Palmate Newts fare better in fish-free ponds.

POPUlaTiON aNd CONSerVaTiON The Palmate Newt occurs throughout Britain although it is rare in large areas of the Midlands and eastern England. In contrast to the Smooth Newt, it is more abundant in the west of Britain and is widespread in Scotland. However, there are ponds in some areas where it co-exists with the Smooth Newt and there are even ponds where all three native newt species can be found together. It is absent from Ireland but is found in the Channel Islands on Jersey. This species attracts less conservation attention than other newt species but can benefit from conservation measures put in place for the Natterjack Toad, particularly on the heathland sites where breeding ponds are shared by both species. WHere TO fiNd In the south, shallow heathland ponds are the best places to find Palmate Newts. In more mountainous areas, look for them in small shallow moorland pools. 136

A Palmate Newt during its terrestrial phase.

Palmate Newt eggs are often only loosely concealed.

A tiny, newly-emerged Palmate Newt larva showing its almost fish-like appearance.

Originally created for Natterjack Toads, this heathland pond on Churt Common in Surrey attracts many Palmate Newts.

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introduced; highly localised

alpine Newt

adult:

Mesotriton alpestris

full-grown larva:

previously Triturus alpestris

egg:

This strikingly attractive newt from the near continent has always been a favourite aquarium species. Inevitably, some have found their way into the wild and have established breeding populations.

larVa

Populations are known from east Surrey, Dorset, London, Kent, Hertfordshire, Sunderland in County Durham, Yorkshire, Brighton in East Sussex, Shropshire, Cheshire and Central Scotland. Some of these populations are well established but none have spread very far.

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In Europe, the Alpine Newt lives up to its name and inhabits upland pools, but it also breeds, particularly in the north of its range, in lowland ponds in open woodland and in sand dune slacks. In Britain, most introductions are based around garden ponds but in some areas they have colonised ponds in open woodland and grassland.

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The jelly-coated egg is light grey-brown and usually wrapped in the leaf of an aquatic plant.

NO

Breeding behaviour is very similar to that of the native newts. In Britain, Alpine Newts arrive to breed a week or two later than the other species. They can tolerate quite dry conditions during the terrestrial phase.

egg

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Dark with black spots and a relatively long tail with a rounded tip, intermediate in appearance between Smooth and Great Crested Newt.

G AU

A medium-sized blue-black newt with an unmarked, vivid red or orange underside. The skin has a rough, granular texture. Breeding males have a dark blue background colour, a light blue flash along the tail and a low, smoothedged dorsal crest and flanks that both have a pattern of black spots against a white or yellow background. Females are less spectacular, with a mottled pattern of dark shades of blue although still with a bright yellow-orange underside. The bright, spot-free underside distinguishes it immediately from the native newt species.

40 mm

3–4 mm diameter, including jelly capsule

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90–110 mm

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OBSerVaTiON TiPS As with the other newt species, searching the shallows of a clear pond with a torch just after dark between April and early June will yield the best results.

The skin of terrestrial Alpine Newts often has a dry, granular appearance.

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Other Non-native Species or Escapes Corn Snake Pantherophis guttatus previously Elaphe guttata A slender, attractively-patterned red snake up to 1·5 m long. The sexes are similar with a background colour of light orange brown with darker red spots outlined in black along the back and flanks. The underside has a white and black chequerboard pattern. A huge range of colours has been bred for the pet trade including grey, albino and striped patterns. Over the last few decades, the Corn Snake has become Britain’s most popular pet snake and it is the most frequently encountered escaped snake, usually turning up in urban or suburban settings. If they escape in cool weather they find shelter in woodpiles, sheds, garages or cellars. They are good climbers but need considerable warmth to be active. Corn Snakes are native to south-west USA. They have limited prospects of living wild in Britain and are extremely unlikely to breed successfully. They are non-venomous and feed predominantly on small mammals, hence the more appropriate common name of Red Rat Snake.

aesculapian Snake Zamenis longissimus previously Elaphe longissima A large, slender, agile snake, uniformly grey, olive or brown with a yellowish underside. The scales are unkeeled and often have a thin white margin. Adults can grow up to 1·75 m long but are usually smaller. A population of this central European, non-venomous snake has existed for several decades close to the Welsh Mountain Zoo in Colwyn Bay, North Wales, from where it is assumed they originally escaped. The population is well established and has bred successfully but has not spread. A similar population exists in Central London close to London Zoo. The Aesculapian Snake produces up to 15 eggs which are as big as a hen’s egg and have a grooved shell. Its egg-laying habits are similar to those of the Grass Snake and the hatchlings are large, up to 20 cm long. Hatchlings have several rows of dark spots, yellow colouration around the head and neck and a black mark behind the eye, so can easily be confused with the Grass Snake.

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Other Non-native Species or Escapes red-eared Terrapin Trachemys scripta elegans Thousands of tiny green hatchlings of this species have been imported to Britain and sold as pets. As a result many have been released into urban park ponds throughout the country. They are longlived and can survive the British winter, although our summers are not warm enough for this North American species to breed successfully. This limiting factor has created a widespread population of large adults, which can grow up to 30 cm long. The adults have smooth shells which appear dark olive-green to black with fine greenish markings, darkening with age. The underside is dull yellow with dark grey to black marks. The head and neck are dark green with distinct yellow stripes and there is a clear red mark behind each eye. Red-eared Terrapins are typically seen basking on banks or logs (above) and slide into the water when approached. They are active from April to October, feeding voraciously on a wide variety of prey and are considered a threat to our native amphibians.

european Pond Tortoise Emys orbicularis A dark-shelled terrapin up to 25 cm long with yellowish spots and streaks. The shell is dark brown or black with faint, dull yellow markings. The head and neck are dark brown, dotted with small yellow spots. The underside is yellow with dark grey to black blotches. They bask on the banks of ponds and lakes but are particularly nervous and difficult to watch, sliding into the water at the slightest hint of disturbance. Whilst sub-fossil remains of this species have been found in fenland deposits in East Anglia, the individuals that occasionally turn up today are considered to be introductions or escapees. This species was widely imported for the pet trade until the 1960s and many attempts were made to introduce it. These included releases in Surrey, the Isle of Wight and Suffolk, where there was some evidence of breeding in 1929. There are occasional records from Norfolk. The European Pond Tortoise is rare over much of Europe, where it lives in lakes, ponds, ditches and slow-moving streams. They mate in the spring and in June females lay a clutch of, typically ten, eggs in a deep hole often some distance from water. The eggs need three months of continual hot weather to incubate before the tiny (25 mm long) hatchlings emerge. The feeding habits of this species are similar to those of the Red-eared Terrapin. 142

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Other Non-native Species or Escapes european Tree frog Hyla arborea A small, bright-green frog with a rounded snout and toes that end in a rounded sticky pad. Tree frogs are usually found crouching tightly against vegetation in brambles, reeds or low shrubs close to water. Both sexes are approximately 40 mm long, grass-green in colour with an irregular grey stripe finely bordered with white running along each flank, and a white underside. A well-known colony existed from the early 20th century until the 1980s at a pond near Beaulieu in the New Forest and another colony existed in south-east London. However, both are now extinct. In their native range in northern Europe, European Tree Frogs prefer small ponds exposed to the sun in open, warm habitats such as sand dunes. Males call in the spring and early summer with a very loud single rasping note which is repeated frequently. Females lay small clumps of spawn, 25 mm in diameter, which hatch into silvery, fish-like tadpoles, completing their metamorphosis in the late summer and emerging as 12 mm froglets. European Tree Frogs eat invertebrates, often leaping to catch flies in mid-air.

american Bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus previously Rana catesbeiana An exceptionally large, highly aquatic frog with a smooth skin dotted with warts and a large prominent eardrum behind each eye. American Bullfrogs grow up to 20 cm in length and are olive-green with dull green or brown mottling on the back and flanks and an off-white underside. The dorso-lateral folds do not extend down the back. They like to bask in the sun but are nervous and hard to approach. American Bullfrog tadpoles were widely imported for the aquarium trade in the 1980s. Some escaped into the wild and have grown to adulthood, mostly in the south of England. In 1999, a successful breeding colony was discovered in East Sussex. Because of the potential threat to native wildlife, measures were put in place to eliminate it and it is now believed to be extinct. However, American Bullfrogs still turn up from time to time in other areas. American Bullfrogs are native to eastern USA but have been introduced elsewhere in Europe and in some places have become well established. Males call with a deep booming double-noted call often described as “jug o’ rum”. Spawning occurs at water temperatures over 20°C with each spawn clump containing tens of thousands of eggs. The olive-brown tadpoles grow to 15 cm in length and, in Britain, are thought to take two or three years to complete their development. The American Bullfrog is a voracious predator that, like the Marsh Frog, can hunt underwater; it is considered to be a significant threat to native amphibians 144

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Other Non-native Species or Escapes african Clawed frog Xenopus laevis A flattened, aquatic frog up to 11 cm long with feeble front legs, powerful back legs and sharp black claws on the toes of the back feet. Both sexes are mottled greyish brown in colour, sometimes marbled with red and with lines of dark, stitch-like marks on the flanks. It lives secretively in the mud and vegetation at the bottom of ponds. The African Clawed Frog was originally known in Britain from ponds on the south-western cliffs of the Isle of Wight, but this population is now thought to be extinct. A population was discovered in 1979 in South Wales in man-made ponds, streams and underground water cisterns. There are occasional records from other parts of Britain, including a recent discovery in Lincolnshire. African Clawed Frogs were originally imported from their native South Africa for use in pregnancy testing, as females injected with the urine of a pregnant woman react by spawning. Females produce several thousand eggs, and the tadpoles, which take several months to metamorphose, resemble miniature catfish. Studies of the South Wales population suggest that breeding success in Britain is infrequent but enough to sustain the population; it has also been shown and adults will cross land to reach new ponds. The African Clawed Frog feeds on aquatic invertebrates.

italian Crested Newt Triturus carnifex A large, dark newt, which until 1983 was regarded as a sub-species of the Great Crested Newt (page 130). Both sexes are very similar to the Great Crested Newt but with a less warty skin, more obvious dark spots and without the profusion of small white spots on the flanks. Females and juveniles often have an orange or yellow vertebral stripe. This species was widely imported for the pet and laboratory trade and small breeding populations are known from east Surrey and Birmingham. Its biology is similar to the Great Crested Newt and the fact that the two species interbreed makes for a confusing picture.

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Photo Xenopus TB

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Other reptiles and amphibians that have been recorded living wild in Britain as introductions or escapes COmmON Name

SCieNTifiC Name

OrigiN

Dice Snake

Natrix tessellata

Southern Europe

Garter Snake

Thamnophis sirtalis

North America

Italian Wall Lizard (Ruin Lizard)

Podarcis sicula

Southern Europe

Snapping Turtle

Chelydra serpentina

North America

Painted Terrapin

Chrysemys picta

North America

Hermann’s Tortoise

Testudo hermanni

Southern Europe

Spur-thighed Tortoise

Testudo graeca

Southern Europe

Iberian Water Frog

Pelophylax perezi

Southern Europe

Yellow-bellied Toad

Bombina variegata

Central Europe

Fire Salamander

Salamandra salamadra

Central Europe

Marbled Newt

Triturus marmoratus

Western Europe

Spur-thighed (above) and Hermann’s Tortoises are popular pets and surpisingly good escapologists, so are occasionally encountered living wild in Britain.

The attractive Marbled Newt has been released into garden ponds in Britain and is capable of breeding here.

The Italian Wall Lizard has occasionally been released in Britain and been known to breed. However this individual was photographed in the Roman Forum in Rome.

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Reptiles and Amphibians in the Garden With the ever-increasing pressures on the countryside, gardens have become an important habitat for some of the more widespread species of reptiles and amphibians. The increase in the number of garden ponds since the 1960s has particularly benefited amphibians. The Common Frog and Smooth Newt now have large populations in urban and suburban environments and the Palmate Newt uses garden ponds in some areas. The Common Toad and Great Crested Newt have also benefited, but to a lesser extent because of their preference for larger ponds. The Slow Worm and Grass Snake can be found in gardens, with the latter being particularly attracted to garden ponds for food and to compost heaps for egg-laying. Other reptile species are also found occasionally in those gardens that are immediately adjacent to suitable habitats. Some introduced species will also thrive in gardens – the Midwife Toad is more-or-less restricted to them – but the priority should be to encourage native species of reptiles and amphibians.

gardeNiNg fOr rePTileS aNd amPHiBiaNS In recent years there has been an increasing interest in creating wildlife gardens. This has included digging ponds and establishing native plants, log piles, wild flower meadows, bramble patches and compost heaps. Gardens with such features support many invertebrates, especially if the use of chemicals is avoided, and thus provide food for reptiles and amphibians. They also provide more places to breed, shelter and hibernate than gardens with closely-mown lawns, decking and dense, shady conifer hedges. Frogs, toads, newts and Slow Worms are beneficial to the gardener as they all eat snails, slugs and other garden pests. This is particularly true of the Slow Worm which consumes

Reptiles are good for the garden – the Slow Worm is an avid devourer of slugs.

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considerable numbers of the small white Netted Slug Derocera reticulatum, a species that is often considered to be a particular nuisance by gardeners. Whilst almost any open and sunny wildlife garden has the potential to support reptiles and amphibians, the tips below aim to help make ponds, wild areas and compost heaps particularly attractive to them.

gardeN PONdS fOr amPHiBiaNS Water feature construction has evolved into an art form of its own and a huge range of products and services is available from most garden centres. Good advice about wildlife pond construction is also provided in the leaflets available from Natural England and in other publications such as those listed on page 158. The following tips will help to make new or existing ponds attractive and useful to amphibians. n Amphibians breed most successfully in warm, sunny ponds so, ideally, they should be located in the sunniest part of the garden or, if not, any shading should be removed. n Large areas of shallow, open water (less than 20 cm) increase pond temperature and are good for courting newts. Deeper areas (over 75 cm) are also important, particularly for hibernating frogs. n Pond edges should slope gently to allow emerging young amphibians to climb out easily and reduce the risk of drowning. n Ideally, ponds should be adjacent to an undisturbed wild area so that young amphibians can find food and shelter quickly.

A good wildlife pond should provide large areas of open water, emergent plants, dense surrounding vegetation and be well-exposed to the sun.

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n n

n

n

A pond without fish is best as many species eat amphibian eggs and larvae. Avoid pond plants that grow prolifically, because some amphibians will not breed as successfully in ponds that are choked with aquatic vegetation. The leaflets listed on page 159 provide advice on the best plants and how to obtain them. Amphibians and Grass Snakes can be easily disturbed or predated by cats and dogs. Fences around ponds and electronic ultrasound devices can provide some protection. Pond safety is essential in gardens to which children have access. Secure fencing with lockable gates and metal pond grilles with a grid size of 80 x 80 mm constructed using 6–8 mm wire should be installed if children have unsupervised access to a garden.

iNTrOdUCiNg amPHiBiaNS It is best to allow amphibians to colonise new ponds naturally and, with Common Frogs and Smooth Newts, this normally happens surprisingly quickly. However, if none arrive after two years the best way to introduce amphibians is by introducing frog spawn, adult newts, or water plants in which newts have laid their eggs. These should preferably come from another garden pond, not from the wild and ideally (for maximum genetic diversity) from more than one pond. When transferring material from one pond to another, avoid inadvertently introducing invasive plant species or fish. Remember that it is illegal to move Great Crested Newts or their eggs without a licence and toad spawn should only be introduced to larger ponds.

It may not be necessary to introduce amphibians to a new garden pond – Common Frogs such as these often arrive without any assistance.

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ONgOiNg maNagemeNT All garden ponds need management because through a process of natural succession they can ultimately fill with vegetation. Weed-choked ponds have less open water and are therefore less attractive to amphibians. Regular removal of some of the aquatic and emergent plants is therefore important. There is no perfect time to do this as there are always some animals in the pond, but the least damaging time of year is early autumn, after frogs and newts have metamorphosed and before adult frogs hibernate. Taking care not to damage the pond lining, rake out a large proportion of the aquatic plants, silt and dead leaves and cut back the root mass of emergent vegetation. Create clear areas in the shallows so that the bottom is visible as these are important for courting newts. Leave any material removed in loose piles right on the edge of the pond for a few days to allow aquatic invertebrates to crawl back into the pond. Ponds that are attractive to amphibians also act as a magnet for other wildlife, in particular species that prey upon them. These include aquatic insects and their larvae such as dragonflies, damselflies and water beetles and, of course, Grass Snakes. Many mammals and birds also use ponds for drinking from or bathing.

COmPOST HeaPS fOr rePTileS In the early summer, female Grass Snakes actively seek the heat generated by decomposing vegetation to incubate their eggs. Compost heaps are ideal and therefore extremely important for this species.

This compost heap is regularly used as an egg-laying site by Grass Snakes.

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Gardeners also want good, hot compost heaps because they quickly produce high quality compost. You can obtain advice about building compost heaps from gardening books and a useful leaflet is available from Natural England (see page 159). The following tips should help to attract Grass Snakes, as well as other reptiles and amphibians, to a compost heap. n Make sure the compost heap is well aerated. Building it as a loose pile on a criss-cross platform of sticks will help. Keep the sides open and accessible to snakes. n Add plenty of green material but avoid using chemical accelerators. n Avoid disturbing the heap during the summer months if you think that Grass Snakes may have laid their eggs in it. Try to leave it until the next year to allow the young snakes to hatch and give them the option to hibernate in the heap. You can always build another compost heap! n Situate it in a wild part of the garden, preferably close to a pond. This will give young Grass Snakes quick access to their amphibian food source. n Leave a small piece of corrugated iron on top of the heap to enable you to check for the presence of Slow Worms and Grass Snakes.

Garden ponds are extremely important sources of food for Grass Snakes.

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Wild areaS Wild areas that appeal to reptiles and amphibians are patches of undisturbed, relatively dense ground cover such as a wild flower meadows, dense heather borders, mature ‘cottage garden’ style borders, sunny bramble patches or Ivy-covered log or rubble piles. Undisturbed basking sites are of particular importance for reptiles. To attract Common Lizards a large wild area where the sun can reach basking spots at ground level is essential. Small corrugated iron ‘tins’ can be used as a way of monitoring the reptile population and may also attract small mammals and bumblebees. Hibernating reptiles and amphibians need frost-free underground sites that will not flood. In areas with poorly-drained soils it is best to provide a large rubble pile covered lightly with earth, or vegetation such as Ivy. In well-drained soils hibernacula can be constructed by digging a pit at least 50 cm deep and 1 m wide in a sunny position, filling it with irregular lumps of rubble or logs and capping with a thin layer of soil. ‘Corridors’ should always be considered when creating wild areas. For example, if a garden has a natural hedgerow as a boundary, the wild area should link the hedgerow to the pond and the compost heap. Gardens are extremely important for reptiles and amphibians. There is evidence that urban populations of amphibians are already acting as reservoirs from which the wider countryside is being re-populated. Encouraging these animals in your garden is not only fascinating, it can also make a real contribution to conservation.

A wild area in a relatively small garden showing a network of ponds, dense vegetation and an open compost heap. Common Frogs, Smooth and Palmate Newts, Slow Worms and Grass Snakes all breed here.

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Legal and Threat Status Whilst all of Britain’s native species are afforded some level of legal protection, different areas of Britain are subject to different legislation. The United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland are members of the European Union, and so have enacted domestic legislation to comply with European nature conservation Directives.

eUrOPeaN legiSlaTiON European legislation, particularly the Bern Convention 1979 and the Habitats Directive 1992 (92/43/EEC), require that legislation is enacted by Member States to implement their objectives, which include protection of certain species and habitats such as heathland.

UNiTed kiNgdOm (eNglaNd, WaleS, SCOTlaNd aNd NOrTHerN irelaNd) Responsibility for the environment is devolved to each of the separate countries in Britain and consequently there is a bewildering array of wildlife legislation. Legal protection was first provided in Great Britain in 1975 for the Sand Lizard, Smooth Snake and Natterjack Toad by The Conservation of Rare Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act. This was replaced in 1981 by the Wildlife and Countryside Act (WCA) and this also added the Great Crested Newt as a protected species. The WCA remains the core protective legislation and the protection given to reptiles and amphibians has been increased by subsequent legislation and variation of schedules. In England and Wales, the WCA has been amended by the Countryside & Rights of Way (CROW) Act 2000, and in Scotland by the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004. In England, Wales and Scotland the implementation of the European Union ‘Habitats Directive’ is achieved through the Conservation (Natural Habitats etc.) Regulations 1994. In summary, this legislation endows European Protected Species status on the Smooth Snake, Sand Lizard, Natterjack Toad, Great Crested Newt, all marine turtles and, most recently, the Pool Frog. The table below provides a simple summary of the legislative protection afforded to the reptiles and amphibians in Great Britain.

What the legislation means

fully Protected

Partially Protected reptiles

Partially Protected amphibians

Species

Smooth Snake Sand lizard Natterjack Toad great Crested Newt marine turtles Pool frog

Grass Snake Adder Slow Worm Common Lizard

Common Frog Common Toad Smooth Newt Palmate Newt

What is illegal?

Injure, kill, disturb, capture, keep or sell. Damage or destroy the habitats in which they live.

Injure, kill or sell

Sell

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For Fully Protected species, some activities, for example disturbance for monitoring purposes or keeping for captive breeding, are permissible with a licence. The organisations listed on page 158 can provide more advice and assistance with licensing. Offences against protected species can lead to arrest and can incur penalties of up to six months imprisonment or £5,000 fine for each animal involved in the offence.

legiSlaTiON eNaCTed BY OTHer admiNiSTraTiONS In Northern Ireland the Wildlife (NI) Order 1985 is the main protective legislation and provides Fully Protected status for the Common Lizard and Smooth Newt. The Common Frog is partially protected and sale of this species is prohibited. In the Republic of Ireland the 1976 Wildlife Act and its 2000 amendments gives Fully Protected status to all native amphibian and reptile species. In The Isle of Man, the Wildlife Act 1990 provides Fully Protected status for the Common Frog and Common Lizard. In Jersey, the Conservation of Wildlife (Jersey) Law 2000 gives Fully Protected status to all reptiles and amphibians.

BiOdiVerSiTY In England and Wales, the Natural Environment and Rural Communities (NERC) Act 2006 and in Scotland the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 placed a duty on public authorities to conserve biodiversity. This legislation requires the creation of lists of species that are of principle importance in conserving biodiversity. The Common Toad, Great Crested Newt, Sand Lizard, Common Lizard, Slow Worm, Smooth Snake, Grass Snake and Adder all appear in these lists. This means that these species must be taken into consideration in land use planning. Each country also issues planning guidance in respect of biodiversity. For example Planning Policy Statement No. 9 in England relates to Biodiversity and Ecological Conservation and covers important issues such as habitat connectivity. The UK Biodiversity Action Plan initiated in 1994, following the Convention on Biological Diversity held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, identifies species and habitats where specific action plans would be initiated. This was updated in 2007 and all native species, with the exception of the Common Frog, Smooth Newt and Palmate Newt, are now recognised as national priorities. The introduced species have no legal protection in Britain and it is illegal intentionally to introduce any non-native species anywhere in Britain or Ireland, even those species that are already established here. Legislation is, of course, subject to continuous change and it is important for those working with these species to keep a check on the most recent situation.

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iUCN CriTeria Sadly, all five of the turtle species recorded in Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands are threatened with extinction. Standard criteria for categorising the degree of threat that species face have been adopted by The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (the World Conservation Union) (IUCN). A summary of the definitions of these categories, and the species which currently fall into each, are shown in the following table. Category

definition

Species concerned

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.

Leatherback Kemp’s Ridley Hawksbill

ENDANGERED

Not critical but facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future.

Loggerhead Green Turtle

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Useful Addresses Societies amphibian and reptile Conservation Trust: 655a Christchurch Road, Boscombe, Bournemouth, Dorset BH1 4AP arg Uk (Amphibian and Reptile Groups of the UK) British Herpetological Society: 11 Strathmore Place, Montrose, Angus, DD10 8LQ agile frog group: States of Jersey Environment Division, Howard Davis Farm, Route de la Trinite, Trinity, Jersey, JE3 5JP Pond Conservation: BMS, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP

www.arc-trust.org

www.arg-uk.org.uk www.thebhs.org

www.groups.arguk.org/jarg/

www.pondconservation.org.uk

marine Conservation Society: Unit 3, Wolf Business Park, Alton Road, Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire, HR9 5NB

www.mcsuk.org

National Biodiversity Network

www.nbn.org.uk

Plants flora locale: Postern Hill Lodge, Marlborough, Wilts, SN8 4ND

www.floralocale.org

Pond Sampling nets alana ecology ltd: New Street, Bishop’s Castle, Shropshire, SY9 5DQ

www.alanaecology.com

Magazines British Wildlife: British Wildlife Publishing, The Old Dairy, Milton on Stour, Gillingham, Dorset SP8 5PX

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www.britishwildlife.co.uk

Further Reading Arnold, E.N. 2002 (second edition). A Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe. HarperCollins. Beebee, T.J.C. & Griffiths, R. 2000. Amphibians and Reptiles. HarperCollins New Naturalist Library. Gent, T. & Gibson, S. 1998. Herpetofauna Workers Handbook. Joint Nature Conservation Committee Griffiths, R. 1995. Newts and Salamanders of Europe. Poyser Natural History. Langton, T.E.S., Beckett, C.L. & Foster, J.P. 2001. Great Crested Newt Conservation Handbook. Froglife, Halesworth. Smith, M. 1951. The British Amphibians and Reptiles. Collins New Naturalist. [Out of print but a seminal work on the British species and well worth a read.]

Natural england provides a number of useful leaflets: NE27 – Garden ponds and boggy areas: havens for wildlife

Natural England, 1 East Parade, Sheffield, S1 2ET

IN167 – Wildlife-friendly gardening – a general guide

www.naturalengland.org.uk

NE18 – Amphibians in your garden: your questions answered NE15 – Reptiles in your garden: your questions answered NE26 – Composting and peat-free gardening Countryside Council for Wales publications: Amphibians in Wales Reptiles in Wales

Scottish Natural Heritage publications: Amphibians & Reptiles: Naturally Scottish Series (2004)

Countryside Council for Wales, Maes-y-Ffynnon, Penrhosgarnedd, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2DW www.ccw.gov.uk

Scottish Natural Heritage, Great Glen House, Leachkin Road, Inverness, IV3 8NW www.snh.org.uk

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Photographic and Artwork Credits Front cover Back cover Frontispiece

grass Snake: Howard Inns. Sand lizard, great Crested Newt, Common frog: Fred Holmes. adder head-on: Fred Holmes. Sand lizards: Jonathan Webster.

iNTrOdUCTOrY SeCTiONS p. 7 Common lizard: Fred Holmes. p.7 Common frog: Fred Holmes. p.10 fire Salamander: Richard Griffiths. p.11 Heath: Fred Holmes. p.12 dunes: John Newton. p.13 road embankment: Paul Edgar. p.14 Common Toad: Howard Inns. p.15 frensham: Steve Webster. p.16 Studland: Howard Inns. ainsdale: John Buckley. p.17 inch: John Buckley. Cliffs: Howard Inns. p.18 Norfolk Pool frog site: Jim Foster. moorland: Jim Foster. p.19 Woodland-edge pond: Will Watson. Woolmer: John Buckley. p.20 Chalk downland: Maggie Cullen. Ouaisne: Howard Inns. p.21 Jersey: Howard Inns. romney: Brian Banks. p.22 Hampton: Froglife. Bournemouth cliffs: Simon Mole. p.25 Heathland clearance, before and after: Fred Holmes. mature pine felling: Neal Armour-Chelu. p.26 Pond: Will Watson. p.27 forest ride: Tim Bernhard. p.28 adders: flattened; Rodger McPhail. p.29 Common lizard: Howard Inns. p.30 adder: Howard Inns. p.30 Survey tin: Fred Holmes. p.32 Bottle trap: Jim Foster. p.33 Common lizard: Fred Holmes. Palmate Newt: Howard Inns. p.35 Common frog, grass Snake, Slow Worm, adder: Fred Holmes. Common Toad: John Wilkinson. p.37 measuring leg length: Peter Sutton. p.38 great Crested Newt, Smooth Newt: Howard Inns. p.39 Sloughs: All images; Howard Inns. p.40 frog and toad spawn: Howard Inns. p.40 Sand lizard eggs: Chris Davies. p.40 Newt eggs: James Grundy. p.41 artwork. Tadpoles: Robert Still. all line illustrations © Robert Still

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SPeCieS PrOfileS LIZARDS p.45 Sand lizard: Fred Holmes. p.46 mating Common lizards, Slow Worm: Fred Holmes. Sand lizard hatching: Paul Edgar. p.47 autotomy: Fred Holmes. Slow Worm p.48 Hatchling: Fred Holmes. p.49 All images: Howard Inns. p.50 Fred Holmes. p.51 Blue-spotted form: Howard Inns. p.51 Female sloughing; black individual: Fred Holmes. Common lizard p.52 John Wilkinson. p.53 Male; female: Howard Inns. p.53 Female; hatchling: Fred Holmes. p.55 Group: Fred Holmes. Green: Malcolm Lee. Black: Tim Bernhard. Side view: Fred Holmes. Sand lizard p.56 Hatchling: Jonathan Webster. p.57 Male; female (bottom): Howard Inns. Female (middle): Fred Holmes. p.59 Male: John Newton. Female: David Browne. Egg-laying: Howard Inns. Wall lizard p.61 All images: Howard Inns. green lizard p.63 Male; female, Jersey: Howard Inns. Hatchling: Chris Davies. Young female; male, Bournemouth: John Burnham. SNAKES p.65 adder emerging: Jim Foster. grass Snake sloughing: Fred Holmes. p.66 adder dance: Mike Thurner. p.67 grass Snake hatching: Paul Edgar. Smooth Snake slough: Fred Holmes. p.68 Smooth Snake tongue: Fred Holmes. p.69 Smooth Snake feeding: Fred Holmes. adder: Rodger McPhail. grass Snake p.70 Male: Fred Holmes. p.71 Male; female: Howard Inns. p.73 Basking; playing dead: Fred Holmes. adder p.74 Hatchling: Fred Holmes. p.75 Male: Jonathan Webster. Female: Howard Inns. p.77 All images: Fred Holmes.

Smooth Snake p.78 Fred Holmes. p.79 Male; female: Howard Inns. p.81 All images: Fred Holmes. Snake heads p.82/83 All images: Fred Holmes. MARINE TURTLES p.85 Hawksbill: Peter Richardson MCS. leatherback p.87 Swimming: Mike Daines. Female on beach: Matthew Witt. Female egg-laying: Francesca Barker. p.89 p.91

kemp’s ridley and loggerhead: Peter Richardson MCS. dead loggerhead: Andy Summers. green Turtle, Hawksbill: Peter Richardson MCS.

FROGS AND TOADS p.93 Pool frog: Jim Foster. p.94 measuring leg length: Peter Sutton. p.95 Common frogs: Jim Foster. Common Toads om amplexus: Fred Holmes. Common frog spawn: Howard Inns. p.96 Common frog tadpole: Stage 1: Robert Still. Stage 2: Howard Inns. Stages 3, 4, 5: Fred Holmes. p.97 Tadpole Predation: Julian Whitehurst. Swabbing: Jim Foster. Common frog p.98 Breeding: Will Watson. p.99 Male; female: Fred Holmes. p.101 Pair: Jim Foster. Froglet; Red adult: Fred Holmes. Tadpole: Howard Inns. agile frog p.103 Male; female: States of Jersey Planning and Environment Department. Pond: Howard Inns. Pool frog p.104 Thompson Common: John Buckley. p.105 Male; female: Jim Foster. p.107 Pair; tadpole: Howard Inns. Metamorph: John Wilkinson. edible frog p.109 Male: Peter Sutton. Females: Fred Holmes. marsh frog p.111 Male calling; female: Dave Rogers. Group: John Wilkinson. Brown female: Fred Holmes. Common Toad p.112 Under log: Fred Holmes. p.113 Male: John Wilkinson. Female: Howard Inns. p.115 Red; dark; toadlet; breeding: Fred Holmes. Tadpole: Howard Inns.

Natterjack Toad p.116 Fred Holmes. p.117 Male: Fred Holmes. Female: Howard Inns. p.119 Calling; paired: Fred Holmes. Toadlet: David Browne. Tadpole: Howard Inns. midwife Toad p.121 All images: Howard Inns. NEWTS p.123 Courting Smooth Newts: Charles Snell. p.124 Newt eggs, Smooth Newt larva: James Grundy. Neotony: Peter Sutton. p.125 Heron: Roy and Marie Battell. Smooth Newt p.126 Larva: Fred Holmes. p.127 Male; Underside: Fred Holmes. Female: Howard Inns. p.129 Terrestrial; pair: Fred Holmes. Eggs; metamorph: James Grundy. great Crested Newt p.130 Larva: Brett Lewis. p.131 Male underside: Brett Lewis. Male; female: Howard Inns. p.133 Adult; metamorphs; larva: James Grundy. Egg: Howard Inns. Palmate Newt p.134 Larva: James Grundy. p.135 Male (top); female (top): Howard Inns. Male (bottom): Fred Holmes. Female (bottom): James Grundy. p.137 Terrestrial; egg; pond: Howard Inns. Larva: James Grundy. alpine Newt p.139 Male; female upper; female under: Fred Holmes. Terrestrial: James Grundy. Non-native species and escapes p.141 Corn Snake: Howard Inns. aesculapian Snake adult: Jonathan Webster. Hatchling: Linda Inns. p.142 red-eared Terrapin basking: David Browne. p.143 red-eared Terrapin: Fred Holmes european Pond Tortoise: Howard Inns. p.145 european Tree frog: Brett Lewis. american Bullfrog: Brian Banks. p.147 african Clawed frog: Tim Bernhard. italian Crested Newt: Charles Snell. p.148 Spur-thighed Tortoise; italian Wall lizard: Howard Inns. marbled Newt: James Grundy. p.149 p.150 p.151 p.152 p.153 p.154

Slow Worm eating slug: Fred Holmes. Wild Pond: Dorothy Wright. Common frogs: Jim Foster. Compost Heap: Tim Bernhard. Swimming grass Snake: Fred Holmes. Wild garden: Howard Inns.

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Acknowledgements Many people have contributed to the production of this book and my sincere thanks are due to them all. It is my intention that everyone who has contributed is named in this section but if I have inadvertently missed anyone I can only apologise. Despite the contributions of others I hold full responsibility for any errors or omissions Working with the WILDGuides team has been a pleasure and I am extremely grateful to Rob Still for his artistic skill, eye for detail and sheer technical ability in being able to pull together text, photographs, diagrams and artworks with amazing speed and still to remain calm, cheerful and patient. I also thank Brian Clews for keeping the momentum going and Brian, Rob and Andy Swash for their assistance with fine tuning the text. This book is brought to life by its photographs and I am indebted to Fred Holmes who has not only allowed me to use so many of his excellent photographs but has also given me positive encouragement and support during the entire project. Many others have also contributed their photographs and, where possible, I have selected those of animals as seen in the wild. Behind these shots are some amazing stories of patience, perseverance (and luck!) that sadly we don’t have the space to tell. I thank the photographers below for their pictures and their stories; Neal Armour-Chelu, Brian Banks, Roy and Marie Battell, Francesca Barker, Tim Bernhard, David Browne, John Buckley, John Burnham, Maggie Cullen, Mike Daines, Chris Davies, Paul Edgar, Jim Foster, Richard Griffiths, James Grundy, Linda Inns, Rodger McPhail, Malcolm Lee, Brett Lewis (www.brettlewisphotography.co.uk), Simon Mole, John Newton, Peter Richardson, Dave Rogers, Peter Sutton, Charles Snell, Andy Summers, Mike Thurner, Will Watson, Jonathan Webster, Steve Webster, Julian Whitehurst, John Wilkinson, Matthew Witt and Dorothy Wright. Every photograph used in this book is listed in the photographic credits section (pages 160-161) together with the photographer’s name I am grateful for the help of the staff and Trustees of Amphibian and Reptile Conservation. I thank Professor Trevor Beebee for generously spending many hours checking the detail and helping to make the text more readable and Dr Tony Gent for his contributions particularly the legal section. Neal Armour-Chelu, John Baker Francesca Barker, John, Buckley, Jan Clemons, Debbie Clothier, Rob Free, Chris Gleed-Owen Julian Howard, Nick Moulton, Gary Powell, Jonathan Webster, John Wilkinson and Dorothy Wright have all contributed in one way or another. I am also grateful to Chris Packham for his foreword and his great enthusiasm for never missing an opportunity to increase the popular appeal of these much maligned beasts. Other important contributions were made by Ferdia Marnell and Caroline Hurley (Ireland), John Pinel (Channel Islands), Frank Bowles (Scotland), Helen Muir-Howie (Midwife Toads), Peter Richardson (Marine Turtles), Julia Wycherley (Water Frogs), Martin Noble and Steve Langham (Wall Lizards). Helpful contributions were also made by Dave Bird, Jon Cranfield, Jim Foster, Robert Gandola, Barry Kemp, Sheila Wright, Nick and Ros Hughes and I thank Martin Jenner for his help with an early draft of the text and Andrew Branson for his encouragement throughout. I also acknowledge those who have so generously shared their knowledge with me over the years. As well as many of those already mentioned above, this list also includes Keith Corbett, Jonathan Webster, Mike Preston, John Gaughan, Bill Whitaker, Tom Langton and Tony Braithwaite. In the company of these friends, I have trekked miles across Britain’s heaths and dunes looking for reptiles and across fields in the dead of night to torch ponds for amphibians. Finally I would like to thank my wife Linda and my children Heather and Patrick for their patience and support not only whilst I have been working on this book but with all things to do with reptiles and amphibians that have taken up so much time over the years.

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Index of English and Scientific Names This index includes the common English and scientific names of all the reptiles and amphibians which are native to, or which have been recorded living wild as introductions or escapes in, Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands. Bold red figures refer to the page on which the main text for the species can be found; blue italicised numbers indicate the location of other photographs; normal black figures refer to pages where information on some of the introduced or escaped species may be found. Adder .......................... 28, 30, 35, 39, 65, 66, 69, 74, 82, 83 Aesculapian Snake ............................................................................ 140 African Clawed Frog ........................................................................ 146 Agile Frog ............................................................................................ 41, 102 Alpine Newt ............................................................................................... 138 Alytes obstetricans ............................................................................ 120 American Bullfrog .............................................................................. 144 Anguis fragilis ............................................................................................. 48 Blind Worm (see Slow Worm) ................................................. 48 Bombina variegata ............................................................................ 148 Bufo bufo ...................................................................................................... 112 Bullfrog, American ............................................................................. 144 Caretta caretta ........................................................................................... 88 Chelonia mydas ....................................................................................... 90 Chelydra serpentina ......................................................................... 148 Chrysemys picta .................................................................................... 148 Common Frog ................................ 7, 35, 40, 41, 95, 98, 151 Common Lizard ..................... 7, 29, 33, 39, 46, 47, 52, 69 Common Newt (see Smooth Newt) .......................... 126 Common Toad ..................................... 14, 35, 40, 41, 95, 112 Common Wall Lizard (see Wall Lizard) ....................... 60 Corn Snake .................................................................................................. 140 Coronella austriaca .............................................................................. 78 Dermochelys coriacea ...................................................................... 86 Dice Snake ..................................................................................................... 148 Edible Frog ................................................................................................... 108 Emys orbicularis ................................................................................... 142 Epidalea calamita .............................................................................. 116 Eretmochelys imbricata .................................................................. 90 European Pond Tortoise ............................................................ 142 European Tree Frog .......................................................................... 144

Fire Salamander ........................................................................... 10, 148 Frog, African Clawed ....................................................................... 146 —, Agile .................................................................................................. 41, 102 —, Common ..................................... 7, 35, 40, 41, 95, 98, 151 —, Edible ........................................................................................................ 108 —, European Tree ............................................................................... 144 —, Iberian Water ................................................................................... 148 —, Marsh ........................................................................................................ 110 —, Pool .......................................................................................... 40, 93, 104 Garter Snake ............................................................................................... 148 Grass Snake .......................... 35, 39, 65, 67, 70, 82, 83, 153 Great Crested Newt ....................................... 38, 40, 125, 130 Green Lizard ................................................................................................... 62 Green Turtle .................................................................................................... 90 Hawksbill .................................................................................................. 85, 90 Hermann’s Tortoise ............................................................................ 148 Hyla arborea ............................................................................................. 144 Iberian Water Frog .............................................................................. 148 Italian Crested Newt ....................................................................... 146 Italian Wall Lizard ................................................................... 148, 148 Kemp’s Ridley ............................................................................................... 88 Lacerta agilis ................................................................................................ 56 — bilineata .................................................................................................... 62 Leatherback ................................................................................................... 86 Lepidochelys kempii ............................................................................ 88 Lissotriton helveticus ...................................................................... 134 — vulgaris ................................................................................................... 126 Lithobates catesbeianus ............................................................ 144

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Lizard, Common ..................... 7, 29, 33, 39, 46, 47, 52, 69 — , Common Wall (see Lizard, Wall) ............................... 60 — , Green ........................................................................................................... 62 — , Italian Wall ............................................................................ 148, 148 — , Ruin (see Lizard, Italian Wall) ....................... 148, 148 — , Sand ................................................................ 1, 39, 40, 45, 46, 56 — , Viviparous (see Lizard, Common) .......................... 52 — , Wall ................................................................................................................. 60 Loggerhead .................................................................................................... 88 Marbled Newt .......................................................................................... 148 Marsh Frog ................................................................................................... 110 Mesotriton alpestris ......................................................................... 138 Midwife Toad .................................................................................. 41, 120 Natrix natrix .................................................................................................. 70 — tessellata ............................................................................................... 148 Natterjack Toad ................................................................. 40, 41, 116 Newt, Alpine .............................................................................................. 138 — , Common (see Newt, Smooth) ................................ 126 — , Great Crested .............................................. 38, 40, 125, 130 — , Italian Crested .............................................................................. 146 — , Marbled ................................................................................................. 148 — , Palmate ............................................................... 33, 40, 124, 134 — , Smooth ....................................... 38, 40, 97, 123, 124, 126 — , Warty (see Newt, Great Crested) ......................... 130 Northern Viper (see Adder) ....................................................... 74 Painted Terrapin .................................................................................... 148 Palmate Newt ........................................................ 33, 40, 124, 134 Pantherophis guttatus ................................................................. 140 Pelophylax kl. esculentus .......................................................... 108 — lessonae ................................................................................................ 104 — perezi .......................................................................................................... 148 — ridibundus .......................................................................................... 110 Podarcis muralis ...................................................................................... 60 — sicula .......................................................................................................... 148 Pool Frog .................................................................................... 40, 93, 104

Salamandra salamadra ............................................................... 148 Sand Lizard ....................................................... 1, 39, 40, 45, 46, 56 Slow Worm .......................................................... 35, 39, 46, 48, 149 Smooth Newt ................................. 38, 40, 97, 123, 124, 126 Smooth Snake ................................ 39, 67, 68, 69, 78, 82, 83 Snake, Aesculapian ........................................................................... 140 — , Corn ........................................................................................................... 140 — , Dice ............................................................................................................. 148 — , Garter ........................................................................................................ 148 — , Grass ................................... 35, 39, 65, 67, 70, 82, 83, 153 — , Red Rat (see Snake, Corn) ............................................. 140 — , Ringed (see Snake, Grass) ................................................. 70 — , Smooth ........................................ 39, 67, 68, 69, 78, 82, 83 Snapping Turtle ..................................................................................... 148 Spur-thighed Tortoise ..................................................... 148, 148 Terrapin, Painted ................................................................................... 148 — , Red-eared .......................................................................................... 142 Testudo graeca ........................................................................................ 148 — hermanni .............................................................................................. 148 Thamnophis sirtalis ........................................................................... 148 Toad, Common .................................... 14, 35, 40, 41, 95, 112 — , Midwife ....................................................................................... 41, 120 — , Natterjack ...................................................................... 40, 41, 116 — , Yellow-bellied ................................................................................ 148 Tortoise, European Pond ........................................................... 142 — , Hermann’s .......................................................................................... 148 — , Spur-thighed .................................................................... 148, 148 Trachemys scripta elegans ...................................................... 142 Triturus carnifex .................................................................................... 146 — cristatus ................................................................................................. 130 — marmoratus ...................................................................................... 148 Turtle, Green .................................................................................................. 90 — , Snapping ............................................................................................. 148 Viper, Northern (see Adder) ...................................................... 74 Vipera berus .................................................................................................. 74 Viviparous Lizard (see Common Lizard) .................. 52

Rana dalmatina ................................................................................... 102 — kl. esculenta ...................................................................................... 108 — temporaria ............................................................................................. 98 Red Rat Snake (see Corn Snake) ..................................... 140 Red-eared Terrapin ........................................................................... 142 Ridley, Kemp’s ............................................................................................... 88 Ringed Snake (see Grass Snake) ......................................... 70 Ruin Lizard (see Italian Wall Lizard) ............... 148, 148

Wall Lizard ........................................................................................................ 60 Warty Newt (see Great Crested Newt) ................... 130 Worm, Blind (see Worm, Slow) ............................................... 48 — , Slow ................................................................... 35, 39, 46, 48, 149

Salamander, Fire .......................................................................... 10, 148

Zamenis longissimus ..................................................................... 140 Zootoca vivipara ..................................................................................... 52

164

Xenopus laevis ....................................................................................... 146 Yellow-bellied Toad ........................................................................... 148