New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change: A Practical Guide for Workplace Transformation (Management for Professionals) 3030381285, 9783030381288

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Management for Professionals

Satinder Dhiman Joan Marques Editors

New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change A Practical Guide for Workplace Transformation

Management for Professionals

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10101

Satinder Dhiman  •  Joan Marques Editors

New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change A Practical Guide for Workplace Transformation

Editors Satinder Dhiman School of Business Woodbury University Burbank, CA, USA

Joan Marques School of Business Woodbury University Burbank, CA, USA

ISSN 2192-8096     ISSN 2192-810X (electronic) Management for Professionals ISBN 978-3-030-38128-8    ISBN 978-3-030-38129-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This volume is dedicated to all seekers of positive leadership and change who aspire to lead a life of purpose, meaning, and contribution for the common good.

Preface

Leadership has always been more challenging during difficult times. In a world beset with rising international terrorism, economic uncertainties, and flagrant violation of human values, many believe that leaders have lost their moral bearings. The unique leadership challenges facing organizations throughout the world today call for an even greater renewed focus on what constitutes “authentic, inclusive, servant, transformational, principled, values-based, and mindful” leadership. The concepts presented in this book are of universal import. That is, they are applicable to all spheres of life and leadership. The alchemy of transformation in life is not any different than that of leadership. Discipline, humility, and right attitude are as critical in life as they are in leadership. Nobody has ever become a great leader without first becoming a good human being. In essence, authors write every book on leadership for the sole purpose of gaining some clarity on our own part about the timeless art and science of leadership. Rumi, the great Persian poet, said it so well: “You are the only student you have; all others eventually leave.” Likewise, this book is submitted as a humble offering in the spirit of sharing with the fellow travelers of some lessons incidentally found along the way. The wisdom of leadership is as old as hills. Peter F. Drucker once told one of the editors that the person who supervised the construction of pyramids in ancient Egypt probably knew more about leadership than any CEO of a modern Fortune 500 company! We believe that the solution to the current leadership crisis lies in leaders’ self-­ cultivation process, emanating from their deepest values and culminating in their contribution to the common good. Traditional approaches to leadership rarely provide any permeating or systematic framework to garner a sense of higher purpose or nurture deeper moral and spiritual dimensions of leaders. Learning to be an effective leader requires a deep personal transformation on the part of the leaders. Achieving insight into the art and science of exemplary leadership is not as easy as it may seem. While some people may self-develop toward personal and professional mastery, many people need specific guidelines. This book provides those guidelines.

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Preface

There is nothing more exciting in life than inspiring excellence in oneself and in others. This volume is a humble offering of 37 scholars and practitioners from around the world to the exciting adventure of excellence in leading and managing change. Bon voyage and Godspeed! Burbank, CA, USA Satinder Dhiman Joan Marques

Contents

1 Anatomy of Positive Leadership: Authentic, Principled and Service Oriented��������������������������������������������������������������   1 Satinder Dhiman 2 Awakened Leaders and Conscious Followers: Leading Mindful Change��������������������������������������������������������������������������  19 Joan Marques 3 Servant Leadership and Change: A Review of the Literature��������������  33 Gary Roberts 4 Servant Leadership as a Pathway to a Sustainable Future��������������������  65 Christopher G. Beehner 5 Overcoming the Blind Spot of Positive Leadership: Authenticity Amidst Change ��������������������������������������������������������������������  83 Petros G. Malakyan, Wenli Wang, and Steven P. Niles 6 Organizational Spiritual Maturity: A Goal of Positive Leaders and Direction for Change ���������������������������������������������������������� 103 Adam S. Freer and Peter J. Robertson 7 Building Relational Bridges: The Inclusive Spirit of Servant-Leadership ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 127 Dung Q. Tran, Larry C. Spears, and Michael R. Carey 8 Spirituality, Success, and Happiness: Implications for Leadership in Business������������������������������������������������������������������������ 143 Rohana Ulluwishewa, Anura Uthumange, and Ranisha Weerakoon 9 Values-Based Leadership: Exploring Exemplary Approaches�������������� 159 Elizabeth F. R. Gingerich 10 Leading Positive Change �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 175 Lesley Clack

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11 Creative Minds of Leaders in Psychobiographical Perspectives: Exploring the Life and Work of Christiaan Barnard and Angela Merkel������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 189 Claude-Hélène Mayer and Roelf van Niekerk 12 Finding the Key to Positive Leadership: Applying Virtue Ethics and Inclusivity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 207 Kerri Cissna and H. Eric Schockman 13 Mindfulness and Spirituality: An Enhanced Leadership Perspective������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 229 Kanti Mohan Saini and Orneita Burton 14 Improving Engagement During Times of Change���������������������������������� 249 Melissa A. Norcross and Patrick Farran 15 Collaborative and Spiritual Inquiry: Positive Leadership in Organizational Change and Higher Education���������������������������������� 269 Sonya Sharififard, Charles Opong, and Asia Ghazi 16 Intercultural Leadership: An Indigenous Perspective in a Multicultural World �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 285 Francisco J. Rosado-May, Valeria B. Cuevas-Albarrán, and Nelsy F. Jimenez Pat 17 Transforming Shame in the Workplace, Leadership and Organisation: Contributions of Positive Psychology Movements to the Discourse��������������������������������������������������������������������� 313 Claude-Hélène Mayer 18 Developing Positive Leadership Through Literature: Towards a Human-Centric Model of Leadership and Management�������������������� 333 Nidhi Kaushal and Sanjit Mishra 19 The Discerning Capacity of Generative Leaders: Achieving Success Flowing with Synchronicity Moments���������������������� 349 Portia L. Brown 20 Authentic Leadership: Leading with Purpose, Meaning and Core Values�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 369 Omowumi Ogunyemi and Kemi Ogunyemi 21 New Horizons in Transformational Leadership: A Vedāntic Perspective on Values-Based Leadership ���������������������������� 381 Satinder Dhiman and Varinder Kumar Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 413

About the Editors

Satinder Dhiman  Recognized as a lead thinker for his pioneer contributions to the field of transformational leadership, workplace spirituality, workplace wellbeing, sustainability, and fulfillment in personal and professional arena, Professor Satinder Dhiman is a sought-after keynote speaker at regional, national, and international conferences. In 2013, he was invited to be the opening speaker at the prestigious TEDx Conference at College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, California. Since then, he has led several major national and international conferences as co-organizer and as track chair. With an instructional and research focus on leadership and organizational behavior—and with specific concentration on sustainability, workplace spirituality, and well-being—he  completed his PhD in Social Sciences from Tilburg University, Netherlands; his EdD in Organizational Leadership from Pepperdine University,  Los Angeles; his MBA from West Coast University, Los Angeles; and his master’s degree in Commerce from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, having earned the Gold Medal. He has also completed advanced Executive Leadership Programs at Harvard University, Stanford University, and Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Recipient of several national and international academic and professional honors, he won the Woodbury University Ambassador of the Year Award in 2015 and 2017; MBA Professor of the Year Award in 2015; Scholarly and Creative Writing Award in 2019; Most Valuable MBA Professor Award in 2018; Most Inspirational and Most Charismatic MBA Teacher Award in 2012, 2013, 2014, and 2018; the Steve Allen xi

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Excellence in Education Award in 2006, and the prestigious ACBSP International Teacher of the Year Award in 2004. Most recently, he chaired a symposium at the Academy of Management that won 2019 Best Symposium Proposal Award. He has done over 50 conference presentations and more than 50 invited keynotes, plenary sessions, distinguished key guest lectures, and creative workshops, nationally and internationally; published over 60 peerreviewed journal articles and book chapters; and authored, coauthored, coedited, and translated over 25 management-, leadership-, spirituality-, and accounting-related books and research monographs, including most recently authoring Bhagavad Gītā and Leadership: A Catalyst for Organizational Transformation (2019— Palgrave Macmillan); Managing by the Bhagavad Gītā: Timeless Lessons for Today’s Managers (2018— Springer; with A.  D. Amar); Holistic Leadership: A New Paradigm for Today’s Leaders (Palgrave 2017), Gandhi and Leadership (Palgrave 2015), Seven Habits of Highly Fulfilled People: Journey form Success to Significance (2012); and, with Joan Marques, Spirituality and Sustainability: New Horizons and Exemplary Approaches (Springer 2016), Leadership Today (Springer 2016), and Engaged Leadership: Transforming Through Future-Oriented Design Thinking (Springer, 2018). He has also translated several Indian spiritual classics into English, including the Sahaja Gītā. He is the editor in chief of four multiauthor Major Reference Works, Handbook of Engaged Sustainability (2018—Springer International, Switzerland) and The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment (2018—Palgrave Macmillan, USA), and of Palgrave Studies in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment and lead editor of Springer series “Management, Change, Strategy and Positive Leadership.” Some of his forthcoming titles include Leading Without Power: A Model of Highly Fulfilled Leaders (2020—Palgrave Macmillan); Conscious Consumption: Healthy, Humane, and Sustainable Living (2020—Routledge, UK); Wise Leadership for Turbulent Times (2020—Routledge, UK; with Mark Kriger); editor in chief, Palgrave Handbook of

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Workplace Wellbeing—A Major Reference Work (2020), and Routledge Companion to Mindfulness at Work (2020). Currently, he serves as the associate dean, chair, and director of the MBA Program and as the professor of Management at Woodbury University, Burbank, California. He has served as the chair for a special MBA Program for the Mercedes-­ Benz executives, China. Dr. Dhiman also serves as accreditation consultant, evaluator, and site visit team leader for the Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP) for various universities in America, Canada, Europe, and Asia. He is the founder-director of Forever Fulfilled, a Los Angeles-based well-being consultancy that focuses on workplace wellness, workplace spirituality, and self-­ leadership. He has served as the president of the International Chamber for Service Industry (ICSI) from 2016 to 2018 and now serves as a patron. Joan Marques  has reinvented herself from a successful media and social entrepreneur in Suriname, South America, to an innovative “edupreneur” (educational entrepreneur) in California, USA. Her entrepreneurial career spans over four decades and includes the creation and successful management of companies in public relations and advertising, import and export, real estate, media productions, and nonprofit, focusing on women’s advancement. In the United States, she has been a co-founder of the Business Renaissance Institute and the Academy of Spirituality and Professional Excellence (ASPEX). Based on her impressive career and ongoing influence, she was awarded in 2015 the highest state decoration of her home country, Suriname: Commander (Commandeur) in the Honorary Order of the Yellow Star. That same year, she was also awarded the Dr. Nelle Becker-Slaton Pathfinder Award from the Association of Pan-African Doctoral Scholars in Los Angeles for her exemplary and groundbreaking professional performance. In 2016, she won the Woodbury Faculty Scholarly Creative Award as well as the Woodbury Faculty Ambassador Award, both awarded by Woodbury University’s Faculty Association.

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About the Editors

She completed her PhD in Social Sciences (Buddhist Psychology in Management) from Tilburg University’s Oldendorff Graduate School, her EdD in Organizational Leadership (Workplace Spirituality) from Pepperdine University’s Graduate School of Education and Psychology, her MBA from Woodbury University, and her BSc in Business Economics from MOC, Suriname. Additionally, she has completed her postdoctoral work at Tulane University’s Freeman School of Business. She is a frequent speaker and presenter at academic and professional venues. In 2016, she gave a TEDx Talk at College of the Canyons in California, titled “An Ancient Path Towards a Better Future,” in which she analyzed the Noble Eightfold Path, one of the foundational Buddhist practices, within the realm of contemporary business performance. She also presented at the Kravis Leadership Institute, Claremont McKenna College, as a female leader during the annual Women and Leadership Alliance (WLA) conference, resulting in the collective work Women’s Leadership Journeys: Stories, Research, and Novel Perspectives (Routledge, 2019) in which she contributed the chapter, “Courage: Mapping the Leadership Journey.” She annually conducts presentations at the Academy of Management and at business venues in Los Angeles as well as for professional audiences in Miami and Suriname, South America. Her research interests pertain to awakened leadership, Buddhist psychology in management, and workplace spirituality. Her works have been widely published and cited in both academic and popular venues. She has written more than 150 scholarly articles, which were published in prestigious scholarly journals such as The Journal of Business Ethics, Business & Society, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Journal of Communication Management, Journal of Management Development, and Human Resource Development Quarterly. She has (co)authored and (co)edited more than 20 books, among which Lead with Heart in Mind: Treading the Noble Eightfold Path For Mindful and Sustainable Practice (Springer, 2019); The Routledge Companion to Management and Workplace Spirituality; Engaged Leadership: Transforming Through Future-Oriented Design

About the Editors

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Thinking (with Satinder Dhiman  – Springer, 2018); Ethical Leadership: Progress with a Moral Compass (Routledge, 2017); Leadership: Finding Balance Between Ambition and Acceptance (Routledge, 2016); Leadership Today: Practices for Personal and Professional Performance (with Satinder Dhiman— Springer, 2016); Business and Buddhism (Routledge, 2015); and Leadership and Mindful Behavior: Action, Wakefulness, and Business (Palgrave MacMillan, 2014). She currently serves as dean at Woodbury University’s School of Business, Burbank, California, where she works on infusing and nurturing the concept of “business with a conscience” into internal and external stakeholders. She is also a full professor of Management and teaches business courses related to leadership, ethics, creativity, social entrepreneurship, and organizational behavior in graduate and undergraduate programs. She is a member of the executive committee of the Management, Spirituality & Religion interest group of the Academy of Management, where she serves as the officer for Membership and Community Building. As such, she conducted workshops on qualitative research methods to global cohorts of doctoral students in 2018 and 2019.

About the Contributing Authors

Christopher  G.  Beehner  is a business professor at Seminole State College of Florida and has taught as an adjunct professor for several colleges and universities. He earned his Doctor of Business Administration degree from Northcentral University and his Master of Public Administration degree from City University of Seattle. He was employed in various leadership roles in supply chain management prior to his current career in academia. He has published, presented, and served as a panelist globally on topics related to workplace spirituality, sustainable business, and leadership. His books include Spirituality, Sustainability, and Success: Concepts and Cases, published in 2019 by Palgrave Macmillan, and System Leadership for Sustainability, scheduled for release in early 2020 by Routledge. Portia L. Brown  is an independent researcher and consultant. Her graduate studies at Kent State University focused on organizational development and more specifically on leadership. Her postdoctorate certification in organization and systems development at the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland concentrated on the larger perspective of how our personal and professional selves intersect and at our best will lead to successfully meeting our goals. She has consulted for the World Bank Group’s Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness section of Human Resources and assigned to conflict countries in Africa and the Middle East. She has also taught leadership issues in management in Ursuline College’s Socially Conscious Masters of Business Administration Program, helping students understand their intrapersonal issues and how leadership tasks are influenced by them. She is continuing her research on developing and integrating our spiritual intelligence to help leaders move through uncertain times. Orneita  Burton  is professor of Management and Information Systems in the College of Business Administration at Abilene Christian University, Abilene, TX. Her research includes studies in various forms of light and dark spirituality and the effect each form has on the psychosocial and economic conditions of people. Her research is drawn from studies on the interaction of people with technology in organizational settings and how we are changed and create change in socio-technical relationships. She has worked in recent years to apply research methods and xvii

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About the Contributing Authors

philosophies developed within traditional intellectual disciplines to guide the development of rigorous and relevant research approaches in the domain of management, spirituality, and religion. Her work informs leadership in the design of systems and global communities to create positive environments for human flourishing. Michael  R.  Carey  PhD, is associate professor of Organizational Leadership at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington; he also serves as the coordinator of the Servant Leadership Concentration and as chairperson in the Department of Organizational Leadership, School of Leadership Studies.  He has been an educator in a variety of Catholic schools over the last 45 years, teaching primary, secondary, undergraduate, and graduate students, and has served as an administrator in a secondary school and at Gonzaga University, most recently as the dean of the Virtual Campus which oversaw the development and support of online graduate programs at Gonzaga.  His research interests are transforming leadership and servant leadership, and his focus is on developmental theory and the individual’s search for meaning within the experience of community.  He has also drawn on the history of this search for meaning, specifically using Benedictine spirituality, Ignatian spirituality, and ancient sources of wisdom. Lesley Clack  is an assistant professor of Health Policy and Management and coordinator of the Master of Health Administration Program at the University of Georgia in Athens, GA. Her teaching and research interests span across the healthcare management spectrum, focusing on the areas of organizational behavior, human resource management, quality improvement, and strategic management. She completed her Doctor of Science degree in Health Systems Management from Tulane University in New Orleans, LA; her Master of Science degree in Counseling Psychology from the University of West Alabama in Livingston, AL; and her Bachelor of Science degree in Biological Science from the University of Georgia in Athens, GA. Valeria B. Cuevas-Albarrán  holds a PhD in Management and Marketing from the Universidad Popular Autónoma de Puebla (UPAEP), Mexico. A full-time faculty at the Intercultural Maya University of Quintana Roo (UIMQRoo), Mexico, she heads the Center for Intercultural Business and coordinates the academic program on business development engineering, with an intercultural approach. Her research field focuses on consumer behavior and culture and ethnomarketing mainly in indigenous communities, both in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, and abroad. In Yucatec Maya communities, her research has been key in understanding factors that explain success or failure in business developed by indigenous people. Satinder Dhiman  School of Business, Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA Patrick Farran  25+ year career as a senior organizational leader and consultant, with specialties in organizational development, HR, IT, operations, and analytics, spans multiple industries (professional services, government, healthcare, education, nonprofits, manufacturing, financial services, insurance, high-tech, energy) and

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includes service to start-ups, nonprofits, mergers and acquisitions, global organizations, and Fortune 100. He founded and currently serves as the CEO of Ad Lucem Group, an organizational growth consulting firm. He jointly holds a post with the University of Notre Dame serving as the associate director for Graduate Business Career Services, coaching full-time MBA students focused on careers in consulting, strategy, and entrepreneurship. He completed his BS in Chemistry/Education from the University of Illinois at Champaign, his MBA from DePaul University, and his PhD in Values-Driven Leadership from Benedictine University’s Center for Values-­ Driven Leadership. He researches and writes on topics of organizational change, culture transformation, work meaningfulness, and engagement. Adam  S.  Freer  seeks to improve the well-being of others by applying an integrated, theological, human service and public administration lens through which to better understand organizations, leadership, and management. His professional experience includes national nonprofit leadership roles in the areas of human trafficking and child sexual exploitation and public sector experience in early childhood, youth, and families. He is a public sector administrator serving as the program supervisor for the Children, Youth and Families Division of the Health and Human Services in Washington County Oregon. He completed his Master of Divinity degree from Princeton Theological Seminary, his Master of Social Work Administration degree from Rutgers University, and his Doctorate in Policy, Planning, and Development from the Sol Price School of Public Policy, University of Southern California. He currently lives in Beaverton, Oregon, with his wife and two daughters. Asia  Ghazi  is currently working toward completing her EdD in Organizational Leadership at Pepperdine University. She completed her Business Administration degree from California State University, Northridge, and her master’s degree in Human Resource Management from DeVry University. She is concurrently working on her master’s degree in Business Administration with a concentration in Project Management. Among her professional honors, she was recently recognized for growth in leadership development and supporting distinguished division and area directors with District 52 under Toastmasters International. She is also an executive speaker and an organizational development trainer. She consults entrepreneurs and small businesses in the areas of leadership and human resources, advocating bringing the “humanness” back into human resources. Her research and work include women in leadership as this is her passion and will be the focus of her upcoming dissertation. Asia will host the forthcoming podcast, The Creative Woman Leader, where she will interview leaders in business and speak on topics which focus on women leaders. Elizabeth  F.  R.  Gingerich  is the  Louis and Mary Morgal Chair in Christian Business Ethics at Valparaiso University and a professor of International Trade and Business Law in its College of Business. She serves as editor in chief of the Journal of Values-Based Leadership—an international journal featuring articles submitted by noted politicians, business leaders, and academicians. Additionally, she has been

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a national and international presenter of research in intellectual property, clean energy development, and sustainability reporting. Her work in tort remedies, binding arbitration, shareholder interest compromise, and renewable energy development has been widely published. She is author of a business law textbook, focusing on the impact of climate change on major business sectors. A practitioner for over 36 years, her primary fields of concentration include general trial litigation, commercial transactions, tax, real estate, estate planning, and employment law. She is a member of both the Indiana and Virginia State Bar Associations. Kerri Cissna  teaches leadership and communication and philanthropy for social change at Pepperdine. She is a producer at Inspired Life Films and the founder of Inspired Life Consulting. She was formerly the assistant vice-chancellor (fundraiser) at the Graduate School of Education and Psychology and the Leadership Development coordinator for the undergraduate school. She is a published author, speaker, and consultant and also is a board member for Cause for Celebration, hosting birthday parties in shelters across Los Angeles. She founded the Crossing Boundaries Leadership Institute in Lausanne, Switzerland, the Student Leadership Conference, the LEADership themed House at Pepperdine University, Project LEAD, and graduate assistantships and was a founding member of the Sophomore Experience Task Force, the Center for Women in Leadership, and the Digital Women’s Project at Pepperdine. She also founded the Lifelong Learning Lecture Series for women. Nidhi  Kaushal  is a scholar of Management Studies at Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. She completed her master’s degree in Business Administration and her bachelor’s degree in Computer Science from Kurukshetra University, India. She has been interested in the research works related to entrepreneurship, leadership, literature, management, and indigenous studies. During her PhD studies, she has identified the indigenous studies of literature and folklore related to leadership and management and presented her work in various international conferences and research publications across the globe. She has worked at many managerial and academic positions. Being a research fellow, she is also an event organizer and has organized conferences and other related events in the Institute. She is exploring leadership with the study of creative writings, which is her contribution to her academic research. This area will not only enrich management studies but also become immensely useful for entrepreneurs. Varinder Kumar  serves as the department chairperson and as associate professor in Commerce in Postgraduate Department of Commerce, Government College, Kapurthala (North India), with more than 30 years of teaching experience. He has authored more than 25 books on business communication, soft skills, human values and professional ethics, and Indian diversity and business, which are widely prescribed by different Indian universities. His areas of interest include spirituality at workplace, transformational leadership, diversity, and creativity. His research works include articles like “The Role of Spirituality and Ethics in Transformational

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Leadership” and “Celebrating Diversity Through Spirituality in the Workplace: Transforming Organizations Holistically,” published in The Journal of Value Based Leadership. Petros G. Malakyan  PhD, is the department head of Organizational Leadership in the School of Informatics, Humanities, and Social Sciences at Robert Morris University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.  He completed his terminal degrees from the Graduate School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California, in 1998, and served as professor and chair of Undergraduate Leadership Studies, associate professor and program director of Master of Arts in Organizational Leadership Program, and leadership coach, mentor, and educator in four universities in the United States and abroad. He has created and taught two dozens of leadership courses in 11 counties. His research focuses on leadership, followership, and leader-follower relationships in organizations across cultures. Furthermore, he has published in the Journal of Leadership Studies, Journal of Organizational Psychology, International Journal of Doctoral Studies, Journal of Leadership, Accountability, and Ethics, International Journal of Social Science Research, and others. Claude-Hélène Mayer  is a professor in Industrial and Organizational Psychology in the Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management at the University of Johannesburg; an adjunct professor at the European University Viadrina in Frankfurt (Oder), Germany; and a senior research associate at Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa. She holds a PhD in Psychology (University of Pretoria, South Africa), a PhD in Management (Rhodes University, South Africa), a Doctorate in Political Sciences (Georg-August University, Germany), and a Habilitation in Psychology with a focus on work, organizational, and cultural psychology (European University Viadrina, Germany). She has published several monographs, text collections, accredited journal articles, and special issues on transcultural mental health, sense of coherence, shame, transcultural conflict management and mediation, women in leadership, creativity, and psychobiography. Sanjit  Mishra  completed his PhD in Indian Writing in English from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (India). He is associate professor of English in the Applied Science and Engineering Department of Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. He has a teaching experience of almost two decades in different government colleges/universities including 10 years in IIT Roorkee where he has been actively engaged in research and other academic activities. He has successfully guided as many as ten doctoral dissertations mostly related to English studies. His academic interests include Indian writing in English, modernist literature, postcolonial writings, eco-criticism, and contemporary critical theories. He has also been delivering invited talks in different colleges and universities across the country on subjects as varied as literature, culture, communication, and indigenous studies. In fact, many of his significant research papers are on the writings of Amitav Ghosh.

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Steven  P.  Niles  studied Historical Musicology and Music Education at the University of Southern California, where he completed a Doctor of Musical Arts. He teaches music history and music performance at Los Angeles City College. He has performed as piano soloist in several continents and taught master classes on music pedagogy and performance practice at institutions in the United States, China, and Taiwan. He has commissioned and premiered numerous works by contemporary composers. He is an active contributor to journals and news publications, writing on the role of mindfulness in music performance and other topics. Melissa A. Norcross  is a veteran strategy executive and consultant with a career that spans three continents and multiple industries. She previously served as the chief strategy officer for Ontario Systems, a technology company in the finance space and now works in Strategy at USAA. Since 2007, she has served as a moderator for executive councils at Collaborative Gain, facilitating peer networks of senior executives in the digital and technology space. She completed her BS in Engineering from MIT, her MBA from Harvard Business School, and her PhD in Values-Driven Leadership from Benedictine University. She was awarded the inaugural Class of ’67 Leadership Research Fellowship at the US Naval Academy. She researches and writes on topics of organizational change, team performance, and humility and teaches on organizational change and strategy for the Naval Postgraduate School and Emeritus, an organization founded by the business schools at MIT, Columbia and Dartmouth. Kemi Ogunyemi  associate professor, is the director of the Christopher Kolade Centre for Research in Leadership and Ethics at Lagos Business School,  Pan-­ Atlantic University, Nigeria. She completed her LLB degree from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria; LLM from the University of Strathclyde, UK; and MBA and PhD degrees from Lagos Business School. She teaches business ethics, managerial anthropology, self-leadership, and sustainability management at Lagos Business School and is the academic director of the School’s Senior Management Program. Her consulting and research interests include personal ethos and organizational culture, responsible leadership and sustainability, and work-life ethic. She has authored over 30 articles, case studies, book chapters, and the book Responsible Management: Understanding Human Nature, Ethics and Sustainability and has also edited a three-volume key resource for educators, Teaching Ethics Across the Management Curriculum, Volume II: Principles and Applications. Kemi worked as director, team lead, and mentor in projects of the Women’s Board (ECS) before joining LBS. Omowumi  Ogunyemi  obtained her first degree in Medicine and Surgery and worked in various hospitals in Nigeria. She completed her licentiate degree and doctorate in philosophy (Anthropology and Ethics) summa cum laude from the Pontifical University of the Holy Cross, Rome.  She attended the international school of interdisciplinary research in Rome (Scuola Internazionale Superiore per la Ricerca Interdisciplinare (SISRI)) and won the 2014 DISF Award

About the Contributing Authors

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(Documentazione Interdisciplinare di Scienza e Fede) for best interdisciplinary research paper.  She was a finalist for the Expanded Reason Awards 2018. Currently, she lectures in the Institute of Humanities of the Pan-Atlantic University, Lagos, Nigeria. Her research focuses on interdisciplinary studies between philosophy, psychology, and neurosciences. Her specific interests include topics of the temporal experience of humans, narrative self-understanding and its relationship to character strengths and virtues, the application of a multidisciplinary approach to narrativity for self-development, character building, value education, and self-development. Charles Opong  is a PhD student at Pepperdine University in the Graduate School of Education and Psychology, focusing on the degree of Global Leadership and Change. His professional repertoire include, and are not limited to, community case management, academic provision, and behavioral support for African-American students in middle and high schools and African-American achievement for school districts and nonprofit organizations. He is a researcher and advocate for improving outcomes of African-American students and families and is also a best practice consultant for African-American families in South Los Angeles. His research passions include positive outcomes for Black men and boys, critical race theory, and endarkened feminist epistemology and mainly specialize in critical media analysis of people from the diaspora. His dissertation is on foster care policy and how it affects American and global society and his policy interests are prison reform policy and urban educational policy. Nelsy F. Jiménez Pat  holds a master’s degree on Business Administration. She is faculty at the Intercultural Maya University of Quintana Roo (UIMQRoo), Mexico, where she is a member of the Center for Intercultural Business. She teaches courses related to business administration to students pursuing a degree on business development, with an intercultural approach. Of Maya origin, her field of research includes understanding how indigenous people in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, develop and ran their business, mostly understanding the cultural factors that explain their successes or failures. Gary  Roberts  PhD, is a professor and director of the Master of Public Administration (MPA) Program in the Robertson School of Government, Regent University, with teaching interests in human resource management and nonprofit administration. He has held a variety of positions in human resource management within the local government, the nonprofit sector, and the private industry and serves on several nonprofit boards. His research interests include servant leadership within the human resource management system and the influence of spiritual intelligence on personal and organizational well-being. With 5 books and 50 plus articles and book chapters, he has published extensively primarily in the area of human resource management. His latest books include Working with Christian Servant Leadership Spiritual Intelligence: The Foundation of Vocational Success and Servant Leader Human Resource Management: A Moral and Spiritual Perspective.

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Peter J. Robertson  is an associate professor at the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy. His scholarly interests focus on the development of collaborative organizational systems that enhance the quality of life for human beings, their communities, and the natural environment. The foci of his latest publications include conceptual papers proposing a set of organizing principles for collaborative organizational and governance systems, investigations into real-world efforts to create collaborative interorganizational systems, and agent-based computer simulations exploring the dynamics of collaborative decision-making mechanisms. Earlier research has addressed issues pertaining to interorganizational networks, employee attitudes and behavior, the process and outcomes of organizational change, and school-based management as a mechanism for public school reform. This research has been published in a number of journals and books, and he has provided consulting and training for a variety of organizations.  He is a member of the Academy of Management and the Public Management Research Association. Francisco  J.  Rosado-May  is a full professor and the founding president of the Intercultural Maya University in José María Morelos, Quintana Roo, Mexico. His research field and academic training focuses on indigenous food systems, agroecology, and indigenous culture and education, aiming at developing concepts and methods toward intercultural development by understanding the epistemology of indigenous knowledge and culture, with emphasis on the Maya people, his own ethnicity. His academic experience includes working for the University of California, Santa Cruz, his alma mater, the University of New Mexico, the College of the Atlantic in Maine, the Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, and the Universidad de Quintana Roo, Mexico. In addition, he has been a member of the executive committee of the AgroEcology Fund and the Small Grant Program of the UN Development Program for several years. His international experience includes several countries in Latin America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Kanti  Mohan  Saini  is an OB and HR area faculty at NL Dalmia Institute of Management Studies and Research, Mumbai (India). His current research passion is at the intersection of management spirituality and religion.  At his current workplace, he serves in the research and accreditations committee and conducts teaching at graduate education programs. In his spare time, he enjoys going on meditation retreats to learn and to teach meditations. H. Eric Schockman  is professor of Politics and International Relations as well as coordinator of Humanities and the Center for Leadership at Woodbury University. He completed his PhD from the University of California. He also teaches in the MPA Program at CSU Northridge and in the PhD Program in Global Leadership and Change at Pepperdine University. He has served in numerous high-level staff roles and commission assignments on the state, local, and national level and has previously served as associate dean and associate professor at the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy, University of Southern California. He is president and founder of the Global Hunger Foundation, dedicated to helping women in the

About the Contributing Authors

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developing world to break the chains of poverty by funding projects designed to provide sustainable agriculture development and organic farming. Sonya Sharififard  is a doctoral student at Pepperdine University. She completed her Master of Arts in Organizational Leadership from Woodbury University, USA, and her Bachelor of Science in Business Management from the Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising, Los Angeles. She currently co-leads the Critical Thinking Project at Pepperdine where she teaches workshops pertaining to leadership, critical thinking, philosophy of teaching and learning, and scholarship. She also coauthored a chapter in Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment (Palgrave 2018) and has presented at major international conferences, and she serves on the review panel for various associations and institutions in North America, Europe, and Asia. Her research focuses on workplace well-being, policy in higher education, and law. Larry C. Spears  is Servant-Leadership scholar and adjunct faculty for School of Leadership Studies, Gonzaga University (Spokane), and president of the Spears Center for Servant Leadership (Indianapolis). He is editor/author of 15 books on servant leadership and contributing author to 17 additional books edited by others and serves as senior advisory editor of the International Journal of Servant-­ Leadership. From 1990 to 2007, he served as president and CEO of the Robert K.  Greenleaf Center. He has been called one of today’s foremost authorities on servant leadership. He spent time with Robert Greenleaf and first encountered Greenleaf’s writings on servant-leadership in 1982. He is coeditor, contributing author, and creative force behind a series of best-selling servant-leadership anthologies, including Reflections on Leadership (1995), Insights on Leadership (1998), Focus on Leadership (2002), Practicing Servant-Leadership (2004), The Spirit of Servant-Leadership (2011), and Conversations on Servant-Leadership (2015). A 2004 television broadcast interview of Spears on NBC’s Dateline was seen by ten million viewers. Dung  Q.  Tran  is an assistant professor of Organizational Leadership in the School of Leadership Studies at Gonzaga University. Working at the nexus of leadership and the humanities, he is interested in how spiritual, ethical, and values-based perspectives shape leader identity development.    He is coeditor of Servant-Leadership and Forgiveness: How Leaders Help Heal the Heart of the World  (SUNY Press, forthcoming—with J.  Song, S.  R. Ferch, and L.  C. Spears).    His scholarship has also appeared in the  International Journal of Servant-Leadership,  Communication Research Trends, Journal of Catholic Education,  and (with M.  R. Carey) in the following anthologies:  The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being: Reimagining Human Flourishing (Palgrave Macmillan, forthcoming); Evolving Leadership for Collective Wellbeing: Lessons for Implementing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (Emerald, 2019); The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Fulfillment (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018); and  Breaking the Zero-­Sum Game: Transforming Societies Through Inclusive Leadership (Emerald, 2017).

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Rohana  Ulluwishewa  PhD, is a visiting professor/director (Education and External Relations), Center for Spirituality in Sustainable Business Management, Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. In his 30 years of academic career, he has worked as associate professor at the University of Sri Jayewardenepura and as senior lecturer at the University of Brunei Darussalam and was visiting fellow at Wageningen Agricultural University and Leiden University both in the Netherlands, Leeds University in the United Kingdom, and Massey University in New Zealand. For the last decade, the focus of his research and publications has been on spirituality and sustainability. While his first book on this subject Spirituality and Sustainable Development (Palgrave Macmillan, UK) was honored as a finalist of the International Book Award 2014, the second book Spirituality Demystified: Understanding Spirituality in Rational Terms won the AWCT Award (the highest prize annually awarded in New Zealand for books on body, mind, and spirit) in 2015. Anura Uthumange  is an educator, administrator, and economist with academic, research, and business experience of over 25 years. He currently holds office as the dean of Sri Lanka’s pioneering and largest faculty for management education—the Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura (USJ)—and is also the executive director of its Center for Spirituality in Sustainable Business Management. His academic backdrop ranging from economics to statistics and operational research has enabled him to transcend across vistas of both social sciences and engineering. His research interests lie in the areas of sustainable development, knowledge economics, as well as operations management. He is currently engaged in research activities pertaining to the effectiveness of the university life for students’ spiritual transformation and a case study on work orientation and workplace happiness as well as on the power sector reforms and harbor management of Sri Lanka. Roelf  van Niekerk  is a professor and head of the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. He is a registered clinical and industrial psychologist as well as a Chartered human resource practitioner. He obtained his BA Theology, BA Honours (Psychology), and MA in Industrial Psychology at the University of Stellenbosch, his MA in Clinical Psychology and DPhil in Psychology at the University of Port Elizabeth, and his MEd in General Education Theory and Practice at Rhodes University. He was previously employed at the Universities of Port Elizabeth, Free State, Fort Hare, and Rhodes. His research focuses on psychobiographical research projects, particularly in the fields of personality, career, and leadership development. He teaches a range of modules including psychological assessment, career management, organizational development, personality psychology, psychotherapy, and psychopathology. Wenli  Wang  is a professor of Computer and Information Systems at Robert Morris University. She obtained her PhD in Management Science and Information Systems from the University of Texas at Austin in 2000 and subsequently held

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academic posts at Emory University, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, and Trident University. Her research focuses on cybersecurity, health informatics, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence. She has published in the Journal of Economic Theory, Decision Support Systems, IEEE Computer Society journals, International Journal of Electronic Commerce, Communications of the Association for Information Systems, Information Systems Education Journal, Journal of Information Technology Management, Technology in Society, and so on. She has served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Database Management, International Journal of E-business Research, and International Journal of Patient-Centered Healthcare. Her other research interests are organizational behavior, leadership, rich media, ethics, and mindfulness. She received her BS in Computer Engineering and Telecommunications in 1994. Ranisha Weerakoon  is graduate with an honors degree in English Language and Literature from the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura (USJ), Sri Lanka, and is currently employed as a research assistant at the Dean’s Office of the Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce, at the same university. She is interested in research areas pertaining to spirituality and management as well as business communication, and is a member of the Center for Spirituality in Sustainable Business Management of the faculty. Currently, she is pursuing her Master of Business Administration at the Postgraduate Institute of Management, Sri Lanka.

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Anatomy of Positive Leadership: Authentic, Principled and Service Oriented Satinder Dhiman

Abstract

Leadership research in the twentieth century has mainly focused on industrial paradigm of leadership characterized by a hierarchical structure of authority and responsibility manifesting in a command and control model of leadership, with an individualistic focus on the personality of the leader—one person directing other people for materialistic, utilitarian ends. Over the last several decades, we have seen the inherent limitations of this approach to leadership. It is too narrowly focused and ignores the fund of creativity and diversity available at the disposal of any organization. More so, it leads to moral ineptitude, untrustworthiness, and self-centeredness on the part of its leaders. If twentieth century was characterized by leadership theories influenced by industrial revolution paradigm; in the twenty-first century, we have spiritual revolution guiding us toward leadership approaches that are humane and are anchored in the leader’s moral compass. An effective leader of twenty-first century needs to be authentic, principled, and service oriented. As a result, we see the emergence of new forms of leadership—called “positive theories of leadership.” Authentic leadership and servant leadership are two such approaches that we will explore in this chapter. The chapter profiles Gandhi as an embodiment of exemplary virtues such as humility that epitomize authentic and servant leadership. Finally, it highlights the role of humility as a touchstone of effective leadership. Partially based on author’s books: Holistic Leadership: A New Paradigm for Today’s Leaders. Palgrave MacMillan, New York, NY—published in 2017; Gandhi and Leadership: New Horizons in Exemplary Leadership, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY—published in 2015., United States S. Dhiman (*) School of Business, Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_1

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Keywords

Authentic Leadership · Servant Leadership · Spiritual Leadership · Humility in Leadership · Gandhi an Exemplary Leader

Introduction Leadership research in the twentieth century has mainly focused on industrial paradigm of leadership characterized by a hierarchical structure of authority and responsibility manifesting in a command and control model of leadership, with an individualistic focus on the personality of the leader—one person directing other people for materialistic, utilitarian ends. Over the last several decades, we have seen the inherent limitations of this approach to leadership. It is too narrowly focused and ignores the fund of creativity and diversity available at the disposal of any organization. More so, it leads to moral ineptitude, untrustworthiness, and self-centeredness on the part of its leaders. If twentieth century was characterized by leadership theories influenced by industrial revolution paradigm; in the twenty-first century, we have spiritual revolution guiding us toward leadership approaches that are humane and are anchored in the leader’s moral compass. An effective leader of twenty-first century needs to be authentic, principled, and service oriented. As a result, we see the emergence of new forms of leadership—called “positive theories of leadership.” Authentic leadership and servant leadership are two such approaches that we will explore in this chapter. The chapter profiles Gandhi as an embodiment of exemplary virtues that epitomize authentic and servant leadership. Finally, it highlights the role of humility as a touchstone of effective leadership.

Leadership Research in the Twentieth Century Leadership research in the twentieth century has mainly focused on industrial paradigm of leadership characterized by a hierarchical structure of authority and responsibility with an individualistic focus on the personality of the leader—one person directing other people for materialistic, utilitarian ends. After critiquing hundreds of definitions of leadership put forth by different scholars and writers during the twentieth-­century, Rost concluded that they largely reflected the industrial paradigm of leadership, characterized by hierarchical and pyramid-type structures, an individualistic focus on the leader, and a strong utilitarian ethical perspective. He contends that these definitions largely define leadership in terms of good management characterized by their exclusive focus on goals and results.1 However, this traditional paradigm cannot solve many of the problems that confront us today. Rost notes that a number of leadership scholars, writers, and commentators have begun to emphasize the importance of values such as collaboration, 1  Joseph C.  Rost, Leadership for the Twenty-First Century (New York: Praeger, reprint edition, 1993); see also Joseph C. Rost, Leadership development in the new millennium. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 1993, 1 (1), 91–110.

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the common good, global concern, diversity, and pluralism as important components of leadership for the twenty-first century.2 As a result, we see the emergence of new forms of leadership—called “positive theories of leadership.” Mainly, authentic leadership and servant leadership are two such approaches that we will explore in this chapter. Drawing upon the literature review of organizational spirituality, psychology of religion, positive psychology, and spirituality leadership theory, Vasconcelos contends that the logic that has prevailed in business enterprises has been largely economic, except some honorable initiatives. He avers that these findings also indicate that the material paradigm is not suited to deal with germane problems that shape our today’s world.3 According to Rost, “Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes.”4 Two key components of this definition are “influence” and “mutual purposes.” Leadership as an influence, says Rost, has two features: (1) it is multidirectional, in that influence follows in all directions and not just the top-down; (2) it is noncoercive, meaning that it is not based on authority or dictatorial actions.5 It may be noted that Rost uses the phrase “mutual purposes” (and not “mutual goals”) to denote emphasize both the “mutuality” and “plurality” of purposes. The compelling basis of this “mutuality” is best expressed by a popular quote widely attributable to Mother Teresa: “I can do things you cannot do, you can do things I cannot do; together we can do great things.”6 In this vital observation, Mother Teresa underscores our mutuality and provides the best raison d’être for team work in organizations. The progressive history of business during the twentieth century bears out Rost’s analysis of leadership theories. If twentieth century was characterized by leadership theories influenced by industrial revolution paradigm; in the twenty-first century, we have spiritual revolution guiding us toward more humane approaches to leadership. This understanding provides a good transition to spiritual leadership.

Spiritual Leadership: Theory and Practice In the recent years, educators and scholars have underscored the importance of spirituality as a critical element of leadership.7 Astin and Astin contend that “future leaders will not only need to possess new knowledge and skills but will also be called upon to display a high level of emotional and spiritual wisdom and maturity.”8  Ibid., 181.  Joseph C. Rost, Leadership for the Twenty-First Century, 101. 4  Ibid., 102. [emphasis added]. 5  Ibid., 107. 6  These are perhaps not her exact words: http://www.motherteresa.org/08_info/Quotesf.html 7  See Lee G. Bolman & Terrence E. Deal, Leading with Soul: An Uncommon Journey of Spirit (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, revised third edition, 2011); Parker J.  Palmer. “Leading from within.” Chap. 5 from Let Your Life Speak: Listening for the Voice of Vocation (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000). Chapter retrieved March 15, 2016: http://www.couragerenewal.org/PDFs/ Parker-Palmer_leading-from-within.pdf 8  Alexander W. Astin and Helen S. Astin, Leadership reconsidered: Engaging Higher Education in Social Change (Battle Creek, MI: W. K. Kellogg Foundation, 2000), 1. 2 3

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More recently, Fry and Kriger have proposed a being-centered theory of leadership that goes beyond current theory which emphasizes having and doing—either having appropriate traits and competencies or doing appropriate actions depending on the situation.9 These perspectives illustrate how leadership is closely related to one’s spirituality with a higher awareness of self and others. Fry, Vitucci, and Cedillo define spiritual leadership as “the values, attitudes, and behaviors that one must adopt in intrinsically motivating one’s self and others so that both have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership—that is, they experience meaning in their lives, have a sense of making a difference, and feel understood and appreciated”10 Fry and Matherly theorize that “spiritual leadership involves motivating and inspiring workers through a transcendent vision and a culture based in altruistic values to produce a more motivated, committed and productive workforce…. The theory of spiritual leadership was developed within an intrinsic motivation model that incorporates vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love, theories of workplace spirituality, and spiritual survival/wellbeing.”11 Drawing upon further research, Fry provided a more comprehensive description of the purpose of spiritual leadership as “to tap into the fundamental needs of both leaders and followers for spiritual well-being through calling (life has meaning and makes a difference) and membership (belonging); to create vision and value congruence across the individual, empowered team, and organization levels; and, ultimately, to foster higher levels of employee well-being, organizational commitment, financial performance, and social responsibility—the Triple Bottom Line.”12 Fry makes it clear that spiritual leadership fulfills the quest for spiritual well-being in both the leader and the followers. In sum, spiritual leadership refers to the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically motivate oneself and others. This entails: 1. Creating a vision wherein leaders and followers experience a sense of calling in that life has meaning and makes a difference. 2. Establishing a social/organizational culture based on the values of altruistic love whereby leaders and followers have a sense of membership, feel understood and appreciated, and have genuine care, concern, and appreciation for both self and others.13

9  Louis Fry and Mark Kriger, “Towards a theory of being-centered leadership: Multiple levels of being as context for effective leadership,” Human Relations, 62(11), (2009): 1667–1696. 10  Louis W. Fry, Steve Vitucci, and Marie Cedillo, “Spiritual leadership and army transformation: Theory, measurement, and establishing a baseline,” The Leadership Quarterly,16 (5), (2005): 835–862. 11  Louis W. Fry and Laura L. Matherly, “Spiritual leadership and organizational performance: An exploratory study.” Retrieved March 21, 2016: http://precisionmi.org/Materials/LeadershipMat/ Spiritual%20Leadership%20and%20Organizational%20Performance%20-%20An%20 Exploratory%20Study.pdf 12  Retrieved March 21, 2–16: http://iispiritualleadership.com/spiritual-leadership/ 13  Louis W. Fry, “Toward a theory of spiritual leadership,” The Leadership Quarterly, 14, (2003): 693–727.

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Spiritual leadership builds on existing value-based, positive theories of leadership that foster self-awareness and garner a sense of altruistic love expressed through selfless service. Crossman highlights some ways in which spiritual leadership relates to other existing value-based theories such as transformational, servant leadership and how it fosters “the ideals of being self-aware and other-aware, but also ‘world-aware.’”14 It would not be amiss to say that a high sense of moral responsibility is the very foundation of spiritual leadership. As John Gardner has observed, “It isn’t in the grand design that we can have freedom without obligation.”15 Freedom and responsibility are interdependent. When we take care of our responsibilities, we take care of our freedom on its own accord. In the following section, we present two most important expressions of spiritual leadership: authentic leadership and servant leadership.

Authentic Leadership Personal authenticity has been explored throughout history, from Greek philosophers (“Know Thyself”—Socrates) to Shakespeare (“To thine own self be true”— Polonius, Hamlet). At one level, it implies owning one’s personal experiences, as indicated by the dictum “Know Thyself.” Additionally, “To thine own self be true” advises that one acts in accord with one’s true self.16 Thus, authenticity, as defined in this context, seems to be closely linked with self-awareness, sincerity, truth, and transparency. The first essay on authentic leadership was written by R. W. Terry in 1993, followed up in 2003 by Bill George, the exemplary former head of Medtronic. George has discussed the concept of authentic leadership in his bestseller Authentic Leadership: Rediscovering the Secrets to Creating Lasting Value. In the context of rampant corporate scandals and pervasive financial crises, George argues that leadership needs to be completely reexamined and rethought. This calls for a new type of leader who embodies qualities such as integrity, transparency, humility, and a deep sense of purpose.17 Bill George states concisely: we need leaders who lead with purpose, values, and integrity; leaders who build enduring organizations, motivate their employees to provide superior customer service, and create long-term value for shareholders.”18

 Sue Howard, S. and David Welbourn, The Spirit at Work Phenomenon (London: Azure, 2004), 123.  John Gardner, Can We Be Equal and Excellent Too? (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 154. 16  S. Harter, “Authenticity,” in C. R. Snyder and S. J. Lopez, eds., Handbook of Positive Psychology (London: Oxford University Press, 2002), 382–394. 17  See B. George and P. Sims, True North: Discover Your Authentic Leadership (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007); B. George, P. Sims, A. N. McLean, and D. Mayer, “Discovering your authentic leadership,” Harvard Business Review, 85(2), (2007): 129–138. 18  William George, Authentic Leadership: Rediscovering the Secrets to Creating Lasting Value (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2003), 9. 14 15

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In recent times, authentic leadership has gained increasing importance since it places high emphasis on behaving transparently, with a high moral and ethical bearing. According to Avolio and Gardner, authentic leadership is a somewhat of a generic term and can incorporate transformational, charismatic, servant, spiritual, or other forms of positive leadership. As one of the positive forms of leadership, authentic leadership complements work on ethical and transformational leadership.19 Walumbwa et al. define authentic leadership as follows: A pattern that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development.20

The key components of authentic leadership that emerge from this definition are: self-awareness, moral perspective, and relational transparency. Zhu et al. clarify that to be authentic, leaders must transcend their own narrow self-interests and focus on the greater common good.21 Thus authentic leadership is more than just “being true to oneself” and encompasses moral perspectives and honest relationships with followers. As a practitioner of authentic leadership, Bill George has proposed a view that leaders need to follow their internal compass to reach their true purpose. Based on interviews with 125 contemporary heads of various organizations, George and Sims have identified the following five dimensions of authentic leaders: 1 . Pursuing purpose with passion. 2. Practicing solid values. 3. Leading with heart. 4. Establishing enduring relationships. 5. Demonstrating self-discipline.22 Building on the metaphor of a compass pointing toward a magnetic pole, George, McLean, and Craig equate the search for authentic leadership with a journey toward our True North and point out: True North is the internal moral compass that guides you successfully through life. It represents who you are as a human being at your deepest level. . . . Your True North is based on what is most important to you, your most cherished values, your passions and motiva Bruce J. Avolio and William L. Gardner, “Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership,” The Leadership Quarterly, 16 (2005): 315–338. 20  F. O. Walumbwa, B. J. Avolio, W. L. Gardner, T. S. Wernsing, and S. J. Peterson, “Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure,” Journal of Management, 34(1), (2008): 89–126. 21  W. Zhu, D. R. May, and B. J. Avolio, “The impact of ethical leadership behavior on employee outcomes: The roles of psychological empowerment and authenticity,” Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11(1), (2004): 16–26. 22  George and Sims, True North, xxxi. 19

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tions, the sources of satisfactions in your life. Just as a compass points toward a magnetic pole, your True North pulls you toward the purpose of your leadership. When you follow your internal compass, your leadership will be authentic, and people will follow you naturally.23

George et al. acknowledge that finding our True North is a lifetime journey beset with risks and uncertainties. It takes hard work and a sincere look at our strengths and shortcomings: “Becoming an authentic leader,” they state, “takes hard work. It is not much different from becoming a great musician or a great athlete. To become great in any endeavor—whether it is your career, your family, your community— you must use the unique strengths you were born with and develop them to the fullest, while acknowledging and learning from your shortcomings.”24 In the Epilogue to their book True North: Discover Your Authentic Leadership, George and Sims invite us to reflect upon what our legacy will be by envisioning the end of our life. What would we like to say to our children, grandchildren, and great-­ grandchildren about the impact of our lifework? Or, what difference did we make in the world through our combined efforts? With a seriousness characteristic of certain urgency, they conclude thoughtfully: “Why not take the opportunity to think about that question right now, while you are still writing your life story? Just as it is never too late to lead, it is never too late to make a difference in the world and to leave a legacy . . . the only thing you take with you is what you leave behind. . . . That is the fulfillment of leadership.”25 What legacy leaders leave depends upon how they lead their lives.

Servant Leadership I have been serving my country for 34 years and this is the first time I’ve gotten any fulfillment out of it. ~US Marine, who handed out food and blankets to Tsunami victims in 2004

Regarded by many authors as “a valid, modern theory of leadership,”26 servant leadership was first introduced by Robert K. Greenleaf’s powerful short essay written in 1970, titled “The Servant as Leader.” Describing what he called “the leadership crisis,” Greenleaf notes that “colleges, universities, and seminaries have failed in their responsibility to prepare young people for leadership roles in society.”27 According to Greenleaf, “The servant-leader is servant first . . . . It begins with the  Bill George, Andrew McLean, and Nick Craig, Finding Your True North: A Personal Guide (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2008), xiii. 24  Ibid. 25  George and Sims, True North, 201–202. 26  Robert F. Russell and A. Gregory Stone, “A review of servant leadership attributes,” Leadership & Organizational Development Journal, 23 (3), (2002): 145–157. 27  Robert K. Greenleaf, Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1977), 77. 23

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natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. That person is sharply different from one who is leader first.”28 Greenleaf believes that through selfless service, servant leaders achieve trust among employees, customers, and communities. He then goes on to present the litmus test of effectiveness of leadership: The best test, and difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, not be further deprived? . . . The servant-as-leader must constantly ask: How can I use myself to serve best?29

Greenleaf informs us that he got the idea of servant leadership by reading Hermann Hesse’s book entitled Journey to the East. Therefore, the best way to understand servant leadership is to read Journey to the East. The book is about a spiritual journey to the East. During the journey, a humble servant named Leo does all the chores for the travelers. He keeps the group together through his songs and high spirits. And when Leo disappears, the group falls into disarray and the journey is abandoned. They cannot continue without him. Later on in the book, the narrator finds out that, Leo, whom he had taken to be a servant, was actually the noble leader of the group.30 This radical shift is the core of servant leadership: from followers serving leaders to leaders serving followers. Servant leadership is shared leadership in essence: it emphasizes increased service to others, a holistic approach to work, promoting a sense of community, and the sharing of power in decision-making.31 In short, the basic mind-set of a servant leader is a strong desire to contribute. Stephen Covey writes: “Deep within each one of us there is an inner longing to live a life of greatness and contribution—to really matter, to really make a difference.”32 Swami Dayananda, a preeminent modern spiritual teacher, puts it even more succinctly: “One must grow from being a consumer to become a contributor.”33 For as long as we are living a life of a consumer, we are not paying our spiritual debt to the universe. Servant leadership is similar to transformational leadership in that both emphasize, appreciate, and empower followers. However, as Stone et  al. point out, the main difference between servant leadership and transformational leadership is the focus of the leader: “Transformational leaders tend to focus more on organizational objectives, while servant leaders focus more on people who are their followers.”34  Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 5, 10. 30  Hermann Hesse, The Journey to the East, translated by H. Rosner (New York: Picador, 2003; Original work published in 1932). 31  Larry Spears, Practicing Servant-Leadership: Succeeding Through Trust, Bravery, and Forgiveness (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2004). 32  Steven Covey, The eighth Habit: From Effectiveness to Greatness (New York: Free Press, 2004), 28. 33  Avgcbe (December 18, 2010), Life and Work of Pujya Swami Dayananda Saraswati [Video file]. Retrieved, February 12, 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FNDth7fajY 34  G.  A. Stone, R.  F. Russell, and K.  Patterson, “Transformational versus servant leadership: A Difference in leader focus,” Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 25(4), (2004): 349–361. 28 29

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These authors further point out that servant leaders influence followers through service itself, while transformational leaders rely on their charismatic abilities.

Gandhi: An Exemplar of Authentic and Servant Leadership We all need heroes who can awaken us to the best in people and who can inspire us to be what we know we can be. Given the current leadership crisis, there is a greater need for the role models that embody and illustrate value-based, holistic leadership. This culminating section explores the hero’s journey and enduring legacy of Mahatma Gandhi, the quintessential holistic leader. His life and leadership embody the synergistic energy fashioned by the coming together of the self, spirit, and service—the three foundational dimensions of holistic leadership. Authentic leaders lead from their authentic selves and touch the authentic selves of others. They set in motion certain key processes that continue to fructify long after they have passed on. It is their steadfastness and selflessness that bring enduring benevolence and leaves their footprints on the sand of time. Judged by his abiding influence on the future generations, Gandhi emerges as one of the most remarkable leaders of all time. Gandhi’s legendary legacy became the harbinger of freedom to many countries in Southeast Asia and rest of the world. The need for leaders who are authentic, principled, and spiritually grounded is greater now than ever. Authentic leaders are primarily servant leaders. Leadership has always been more challenging during difficult times. In a world beset with rising international terrorism, economic uncertainties, flagrant violation of human values, and rampant character crises among leaders, everybody is searching for the Holy Grail, the silver bullet that will save the world. The unique leadership challenges facing organizations throughout the world today call for an even greater renewed focus on what constitutes “values-based leadership.” Gandhi was a values-­ based leader par excellence. The following story about the Buddha and a homeless man demonstrates the essence of all three types of leadership presented in this chapter:

The Buddha and a Homeless Man The homeless man has been trying to gather food and he keeps noticing that his food disappears. One day he caught a mouse that kept stealing his food and he asked the mouse: why are you stealing from me? I am a homeless man. You can steal from richer people than me and it won’t have any effect on them.

The mouse then told the homeless man: “It’s in your destiny that you can only have eight items in your possession, no matter how much you beg or gather, this is all you can have.”

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The homeless man was shocked and asked: “why is it my destiny?” And the mouse said: “I don’t know. You should try and ask the Buddha.” So the homeless man goes on his journey to find the Buddha and as it gets late he ends up at a wealthy family’s farmhouse. He asked if he could spend the night. They let him in and ask, “young man, why are you traveling so late?” “I have a question for the Buddha and tomorrow I’ll be on my way to ask him,” replied the young man. The family said: “we have an 18 years old daughter who is unable to speak since her birth. We just want to ask what we need to do so that she can speak.” The young man says that he will ask the Buddha, thanks for the shelter and the next morning he goes and continues his journey. He comes across big mountains and he meets a wizard who decides to take the young man and himself with his staff across the mountains. The wizard asks the young man: “why are you deciding to cross these mountains?” The young man said: “I’m going to ask the Buddha about my destiny.” The wizard says: “can you ask the Buddha a question for me? I have tried to go to heaven for a thousand years. According to my teachings, I should be able to go to heaven now. Can you please ask him what I have to do to go to heaven?” – “Of course I will ask the Buddha your question,” the young man said and continued his journey. He comes across a giant river that he cannot cross. He meets a big turtle who decides to take him across the river. As they are crossing the river the turtle asks “where are you going? And the young man says: “I’m going to ask the Buddha about my destiny.” “Can you ask please ask a question for me too?” the turtle asks. “I want to become a dragon since 500 years. According to my teachings I should become a dragon by now.”—“Yes of course I will ask your question.” The young man thanks the turtle and continues his journey. The homeless man finally meets the Buddha and the Buddha tells everyone in the assembly: “I will answer all of you three questions. But only three questions.” The young man is shocked. He has four questions to ask. He thinks carefully about the turtle, who has lived for 500 years trying to become a dragon, the wizard who has been living for a thousand years trying to go to heaven, and the young girl who might have to live her whole life without being able to speak. He then thinks of himself and says: “I am just a homeless beggar. I can go back home and continue begging.” So as he looks at everyone’s problem and his problem seems so small and he feels sorry for all the others. Therefore, he decides to ask all their questions. So he asks the Buddha. And the Buddha says: “The turtle is unwilling to leave his shelf. As long as he stays unwilling to leave the comfort of his shelf, he will never become a dragon. The wizard always carries his staff. He never puts it down. It acts like an anchor. He is too attached to it. He will never be able to go to heaven if he does not put his staff down. The young girl will be able to speak when she meets her soulmate.” The young beggar thanks and bows in front of the Buddha and went on his journey back home. He meets the turtle again and says: “You just have to take off the shell and you will become a dragon.” The turtle takes off his shelf and inside his shelf there were priceless pearls found deep in the ocean. The turtle gives the pearls

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to the young man and says: “Thanks, I don’t need them anymore. I am now a dragon,” and he flies away. The homeless man reunites with the wizard and says: “you just have to put down your staff and you’ll be able to go to heaven.” The wizard lets go of his staff by giving it to the young man and goes to heaven. The young man now has wealth from the turtle and power from the wizard. He then goes to the wealthy family and tells them: “The Buddha said your daughter will be able to speak when she meets her soulmate.” In that moment the daughter came back downstairs and said: “Is that the young man that was here last week?” The young girl and the once homeless man have found their soulmates. This simple story has mighty lessons for all three types of positive leadership presented in this chapter. The biggest lesson perhaps is that when we learn to put others before us (the essence of servant leadership), the universe repays us in unexpected and beautiful ways. None of the blessings would have come the homeless man’s way, had he not put the interest of the dragon, wizard, and the speechless girl before his own. Second lesson we learn from this story is about change and growth: that is, in order to grow, we have to be willing to let go of what makes our life safe and comfortable. And, finally, nature exacts price for everything; more often, we have to first give, before we receive anything from its bounties. The following section highlights the role of humility as a prerequisite to learning and as a touchstone of effective leadership.

Humility: The Touchstone of Positive Leadership Perhaps there is no arena where the dictum “pride hath a fall” is truer than leadership. Without humility, a talented leader can slip into arrogance and situational narcissism. We have a classic case of derailed leaders due to arrogance in case of Enron. Enron did not fail because their leaders lacked competence in the functional areas of marketing, finance, or strategy. They were ‘visionary leaders,’ the smartest guys in the room, so to speak, as the 2005 documentary film by the same name ironically purports to demonstrate! Their cluelessness born of unbridled conceit and greed brought company’s demise. Humility can serve as a powerful antidote to self-conceit and guard leaders from such a “fall from grace.” Humble leaders do not think that simply by being leaders makes them any better than their followers. Nor do they view themselves as being “above” their followers. They do not dismiss an excellent idea put forth by one of their employees simply because they didn’t come up with it themselves. They put others first and respect all good ideas regardless of the hierarchical status of the messenger. They subordinate their personal interest to the good of the whole team. Effective leaders credit their team for success and take full responsibility when things don’t go as planned. In leadership literature, this is generally denoted by the metaphor of mirror versus window mentality. Jim Collins discusses this in his classic book Good to Great. Collins found that leaders of great organizations looked out the “window” when things went well (to give credit to others), and looked in the “mirror” when things were not going so great (to take responsibility). The

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“window” humbles the enlightened leaders to recognize the contribution of others; the “mirror” serves only to magnify the already oversized egos of the arrogant leaders. Howard Schultz, the founder and chairman of the Starbucks chain of coffee shops, says that the great leadership expert, Warren Bennis, once told him that to become a great leader you have to develop “your ability to leave your own ego at the door, and to recognize the skills and traits that you need in order to build a worldclass organization.”35

Humility, Learning, and Leading from the Behind! Humility is unquestionably the most essential requirement when it comes to learning: without being humble, one cannot learn at all. And learning is one of the most seminal competencies for leadership success. Humility is the cause and consequence of true learning, for nothing can go in a full vessel. Humility is indeed the touchstone of great leadership. A tree with fruits bends. Humility is also a precondition for serving others for without it, even service could be but an inflation of ego. Lack of humility leads to cluelessness and cluelessness quickly leads to a leader’s derailment and demise. Humble leaders are great contributors. True humility is more like self-forgetfulness than false modesty—it means emptying ourselves of the false pride and pretense. It has been said that the function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more followers. What is the alchemy of producing more leaders? Most of the time, it is about leading from behind. In his autobiography entitled Long Walk to Freedom, Nelson Mandela, equated a great leader to a shepherd: “A leader. . .is like a shepherd. He stays behind the flock, letting the most nimble go out ahead, whereupon the others follow, not realizing that all along they are being directed from behind (1995, p. 22)”36 Elsewhere Mandela (cited in Lizza, 2011) states that “It is better to lead from behind and to put others in front, especially when you celebrate victory when nice things occur. You take the front line when there is danger. Then people will appreciate your leadership.”37 Within the short compass of these two quotes, Mandela encapsulates the leadership lessons he learnt having spent 10,000 days in jail over a period of 50 years of struggle (1944–1994) for ending bondage. Leading from behind is a leadership style whose time has come. It is style which puts followers in the forefront of leadership line. However, it requires supreme humility.

35  “Guru: Warren Bennis,” The Economist, July 25, 2008, Online extra. Retrieved: October 28, 2017, http://www.economist.com/node/11773801 36  Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela. New  York: Little, Brown and Company, 1995), 22. 37  Ryan Lizza, Leading from behind, New Yorker, April 26, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2018: http:// www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/leading-from-behind

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The following Sufi story highlights the dangers of self-conceit and the need to stay humble in all pursuits. The Sufi—the one who is not—narrates the story as follows: …and my third Master was a small child. I entered into a town once and a small child was bringing a candle, a lit candle, hiding it in his hands. He was going to the mosque to put the candle there. In the lighter vein, I asked the boy, “Have you lit the candle yourself?” He said, “Yes, sir.” And I asked, jokingly, “Since you saw the light coming when you lit the candle, can you tell me from where the light came? The boy became serious first and then laughed and blew out the candle, and said, “Now you have seen the light going, where has it gone? You tell me!” My ego was crushed, and my whole knowledge was shattered. And that moment I felt my own foolhardiness. Since then I dropped all pretense to knowledgeability.38

The Art of Humility: Thinking of Yourself, Less! What is humility, after all? Humility does not necessarily mean to think of oneself as insignificant, timid, or worthless. As someone has rightly observed, “Humility is not thinking less of yourself, it’s thinking of yourself less.”39 In fact, humility signifies utter sincerity with oneself, requiring one to think of one’s abilities as no greater, and no lesser, than they really are. Humble people know what they can and cannot do. They take note of both their gifts and their limitations in a realistic manner. True humility is definitely not about self-deprecation. We are taught to think pride is a good thing whereas humility is the absence of pride. Pride has meaning only when comparing others to yourself. By comparing ourselves to others, we learn to play the ubiquitous game of “one-upmanship.” A humble person does not base his or her self-worth on how s/he stacks up to others. She is content to make her honest contribution without raising a flag. Thus, such a person feels no need to play the game of one-upmanship. Most people often tend to confuse humility with false modesty. We all have been guilty of this at one time or another. We have a tendency to devalue what we’ve done under the pretense of humility. In fact, refusing to accept genuine appreciation is often a cover for seeking more praise from others. That is perhaps why true humility is very hard to come by.

No Humility: Only Different Shades of Pride?! Many wiser souls, somewhat jaded with cynicism, have pointed out that there is no humility; only, different shades of pride. We recall an interesting remark by a colleague: ‘Enough of me talking about myself. Tell me what you think of me!’ Real  A Traditional Sufi Tale. Author unknown.  This quote is often misattributed to C.S. Lewis. According to C.S. Lewis foundation, this quote belongs to the category of misattributed quotes and is NOT by C.S.  Lewis. See: http://www. cslewis.org/aboutus/faq/quotes-misattributed/

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humility is very hard virtue to cultivate. More often than not, humility may be a cover for subtle pride. In his classic autobiography, Ben Franklin, tells us that how he embarked upon a rather ambitious regimen of cultivating various life virtues such as temperance, silence, order, frugality, sincerity, justice, and humility. He has noted that although a seemingly simple quality, humility is the most difficult virtue to cultivate because by the time one gets to master it, one becomes proud of it! A story is told about Frank Lloyd Wright, the famous architect, who was once testifying in court for his friend. While taking oath, he is reported to have said, “My name is Frank Lloyd Wright, the greatest architect on the planet!” Later when his friend questioned him about his exaggerated sense of self-importance, Frank Lloyd Wright maintained, “I was under oath to tell the truth!” The human ego is always good at finding new avenues of manifesting itself, especially under the covert cover of humility. Such are the ways of the master ­magician—“our skin-encapsulated ego”—the socially induced hallucination of a separate self, to use a phrase coined by Aldous Huxley. The teachings about compassion, frugality, and humility find their closest parallel in the naturalistic philosophy of Taoism. Lao Tzu calls them “three treasures.” They first occur in Chap. 67 of Chinese classic Tao Te Ching which, Lin Yutang says, contains “Laotse’s most beautiful teachings.”40 In Lao Tzu’s view, nature arms with humility those it would not see destroyed: An axe first falls on the tallest tree. There is a poem by Chuang Tzu transliterated by Thomas Merton that beautifully underscores the value of the virtue of humility as follows: If a man is crossing a river and an empty boat collides with his own skiff, even though he be a bad-tempered man he will not become very angry. But if he sees a man in the boat, he will shout at him to steer clear. If the shout is not heard, he will shout again, and yet again, and begin cursing. And all because there is somebody in the boat. Yet if the boat were empty, he would not be shouting, and not angry. If you can empty your own boat crossing the river of the world, no one will oppose you, no one will seek to harm you.... …Such is the perfect man: His boat is empty.41

To be humble does not mean to have a low opinion of oneself, it is to have an accurate opinion of oneself, says the psychologist Robert Emmons. Emmons (2009, 171) describes humility as the “realistic appraisal of one’s strengths and weaknesses—neither overestimating them nor underestimating them.”42 True humility is a matter of right perspective.

 Lin Yutang, L. (1946/1976). The Wisdom of Lao Tzu (New York: Random House, Modern Library, 1948/1976), 292. 41  Thomas Merton, T. (1965). The Way of Chuang Tzu (New York: Penguin New Directions Books, 1965), 114–115. 42  Emmons, R. A. (2009). The Psychology of Ultimate Concerns: Motivation and Spirituality in Personality (New York: The Guilford Press, 2009), 171. 40

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Humility the Heart of Learning and Leadership? Is humility the most important quality to cultivate in life and leadership? Both history and current research testify that the best leaders are humble. In their recent Harvard Business Review study, Prime and Slib clarify that humble leaders should not be mistaken for weak ones for it takes tremendous courage to practice humility. These authors cite Google’s SVP of People Operations, Lazlo Bock, who says humility is one of the traits he is looking for in new hires. Based on their current research and ongoing study of leadership development practices at Rockwell Automation, they share the following practices to garner a humble, inclusive leadership style: Engage in dialogue, not debates. Engaging in dialog is good way to practice humility. When people debate to sway others to win them to their viewpoint, they miss out on the opportunity to learn about other points of view. When leaders are humble enough to suspend their own agendas and beliefs, they not only enhance their own learning but they validate followers’ unique perspectives. Embrace uncertainty. When leaders humbly admit that they don’t have all the answers, they create space for others to step forward and offer solutions. They also engender a sense of interdependence. Followers understand that the best bet is to rely on each other to work through complex, ill-defined problems. Role model being a “follower.” Inclusive leaders empower others to lead. By reversing roles, leaders not only facilitate employees’ development but they model the act of taking a different perspective, something that is so critical to working effectively in diverse teams. Inclusive leaders are humble enough to admit that they do not have all the answers and that the present day problems are too complex for any one person to tackle them single-handedly. Doing so, they garner the wisdom of the followers and allow them to come up with shared solutions.43 Lao Tzu, the great Chinese sage, stated so well, “A leader is best when people barely know he exists, when his work is done, his aim fulfilled, they will say: we did it ourselves.” He recognized the importance of humility as the key ingredient of leadership, for only the humble can truly serve a cause higher than themselves. In the following section of the chapter, we present Gandhi’s life example as an exemplar of humility in life and leadership.

Gandhi: On Humility as a Key Leadership Virtue! “Service without humility is selfishness and egoism.”44 The principles of humility advocated by Gandhi may provide a useful framework for contemporary leaders both in their personal and professional life. Gandhi writes:  Jeanine Prime and Elizabeth Salib, “The best leaders are humble leaders,” Harvard Business Review, May 2014. Retrieved July 22, 2018: https://hbr.org/2014/05/the-best-leaders-are-humble-leaders 44  P. H. Burgess, Sayings of Mahatma Gandhi (Singapore: Graham Brash, 1984), 47. 43

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“Who that has prided himself on his spiritual strength has not seen it humbled to the dust?”45 For Gandhi, a life of service must be one of humility. He was of the view that a leader, who is to serve others, must be humble. Gandhi consistently embodied the perennial values of authenticity/personal integrity, transparency, harmlessness (ahiṁsā), truthfulness (satyāgraha or truth-force), humility, self-discipline and selfless service in and through his life and death. His leadership effectiveness proceeded from his categorical adherence to these values and his openness to learn from his own mistakes. His leadership style was “follower-centric” and “contextual.” Gandhi never claimed himself to be special in any way. He credited his success to his hard work and his constant awareness of his own limitation. Johann Sebastian Bach, the great German composer, is reported to have said, “I was obliged to be industrious. Whoever is equally industrious will succeed . . . equally well.”46 In the similar vein, Gandhi wrote, “I claim to be no more than an average man with less than average abilities. I have not the shadow of a doubt that any man or woman can achieve what I have, if he or she would make the same effort and cultivate the same hope and faith.”47 This humility and openness gave Gandhi the understanding to be on the side of the truth rather than insisting for the truth to be on his side. Until the last days of his life, Gandhi remained aware of his limitations. He had enough humility to acknowledge his errors and to retrace his steps. He kept working on the ultimate task of shedding the ego. He was fully aware that treading the path of truth means reducing oneself to zero, to nonentity. Only then, one can experience the limitless and be liberated. In his own words, “I know that I have still before me a difficult path to traverse. I must reduce myself to zero. So long as man does not of his own free will put himself last among his fellow-creatures, there is no salvation for him. Ahiṁsā, nonviolence, is the farthest limit of humility.”48 For Gandhi, humility was the sine qua non to nonviolence. If influence is any measure of leader’s success, the power of humility and gentleness is amply illustrated through the life of this “little brown man in a loincloth”49 who brought the mightiest empire on earth to its knees—even though he did not hold any official title, office, or position. Gandhi was no saint. He had his share of failings and favorites. Yet for his abiding passion constantly to “remake” himself until his last breath, his dogged determination to walk the straight and narrow path of truth and nonviolence, his exceptional ability to reduce his personal self to zero, his disarming humility, and his  J.  B. Kriplani, Gandhi: His Life and Thought (New Delhi: Publications Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Government of India, 1970), 8. 46  The Greatest Music Leaders. Retrieved July 20, 2018: http://www.greatmusicleaders.org/home/ johann-sebastian-bach 47  Prabhu, R.K, and Rao, U.R. (1996). ed., The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1996), 13–14. 48  Gandhi, M. K. (1983). An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1983), 454. 49  J. B. Severance, Gandhi: Great Soul. (New York: Clarion Books, 1997), 100. 45

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excruciating self-honesty, he will continue to shine as a beacon for humanity as long as might oppresses right. Whenever a soul peacefully raises her voice against any kind of oppression, Gandhi’s legacy will continue. Aldous Huxley once said that the central technique for humans to learn is “the art of obtaining freedom from the fundamental human disability of egoism.”50 Gandhi achieved that freedom. Only those who dare achieve this freedom can truly serve.

Concluding Thoughts Leadership is an ethical-spiritual journey whose moral compass is found within the soul of a leader. What is the essence of authentic and spiritual leadership? It is just this: Knowing the truth about ourselves; being true to ourselves—in thoughts, words, and actions; helping others discover their truth; and boldly living out this truth together moment-to-moment in a life marked by humility, altruistic love, compassion, and contribution. Having material wealth doesn’t really satisfy our inner yearning for a deeper meaning and fulfillment in work and life. Servant leadership transforms the nature of leadership itself—so that the central purpose of leadership becomes spiritual fulfillment and service to society. The path to leading others starts with self-awareness through self-discipline and ends with self-transcendence through selfless service. It is paved with authenticity, humility, and compassion. “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others,” said Gandhi. For only in serving others selflessly that we find the true essence of life and leadership. Reflection Question 1. Why the industrial paradigm of leadership of twentieth century characterized by a command and control model of leadership is unsuitable for VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity) world of twenty-first century? 2. Briefly state the main pitfalls of the individualistic model of leadership based on a hierarchical structure of authority and responsibility. 3. Why true leadership is considered a journey into one’s soul? Briefly explain the key elements of authentic leadership. 4. It is said that servant leadership is a style whose time has come. Why all truly exemplary leaders were servant leaders, first and foremost? 5. What are the chief characteristics of positive leaders? How do they inspire positive change? Chapter Takeaways 1. Servant leadership is not about money, position, power, or fame; it is about contribution and serving others. Servant leaders are not concerned with who gets the credit but simply that the work gets done.  J. H. Bridgeman, Ed., Aldous Huxley: Huxley and God, Essays. (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992), 4.

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2. Authentic leaders are self-directed and other-focused. They look within, transform themselves first and then immerse themselves in the common good of all. 3. Spiritual leaders are dealers in hope. They invite everyone to share in their dream that together we can make our world a better place. They have a deep understanding of human systems. They learn to master the language of transformation and help ordinary people accomplish extraordinary things. 4. Principled leaders are ever-mindful of their moral imperative. While building their external career, they do not neglect to tend their inner character and spiritual needs. In fact, they holistically tend to their physical, psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs. Principled, authentic, leaders with a strong desire to serve can be described as holistic leaders. 5. Principled leaders understand the origins of social change: when faced with challenges, they dive within, train their mind, and transform their emotions to be the change they wish to see in others. The quest for holistic leadership starts with self-awareness and self-mastery, progresses with living authentically one’s core values, and culminates in leaving a legacy by fulfilling life’s purpose through selfless service for the greater good.

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Awakened Leaders and Conscious Followers: Leading Mindful Change Joan Marques

Abstract

This chapter describes awakened leaders as positive leaders, who are mindful of their experiences in life, as these molded them into the wakeful person they became. Elements of authentic, situational, servant, and transformational leadership are at the foundation of the awakened leadership approach, along with a strong emphasis on responsibility-based qualities, such as morals and values, respect, compassion, courage, deep listening, passion, spiritual connection, and change. The chapter subsequently discusses a critical stakeholder group: followers, emphasizing their influence in the process of accomplishing a common goal. Different types of followers are reviewed, with the aim to demonstrate the need for flexible leadership behaviors, based on the readiness and capabilities of these followers. The chapter subsequently looks into mindfulness and its influence on change-readiness. The difference between change and transition is highlighted to help the reader understand the needed steps to acquire follower support. As an illustration of awakened leadership in real life, the case of Geoffrey Canada, educator, social activist, author, and president of the Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), is presented. Keywords

Awakened leadership · Positive Leadership · Authenticity · Mindfulness · Change · Followers

J. Marques (*) School of Business, Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_2

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Introduction As awareness amongst workforce members increases and as change becomes a greater part of our daily life, the quest for leaders who are in tune with stakeholders’ needs, rather than only shareholders’ demands, augments. This development, which is heavily supported by an increasingly shrinking world with expanding global connections, has led to the emergence of a range of positive leadership theories. Positive leadership is inspired by principles of positive psychology, spawning positive organizational behavior, positive scholarship, and positive change (Bhandarker & Rai, 2015). Cameron (2012) describes positive leadership as the behavioral pattern of leaders to accommodate outstanding positive performance, nurture a positive mindset, and focus on integrity and wellbeing. Indeed, positive leaders focus mostly on the advancement of people and processes in the system of which they are a part. Whereas negative reinforcement was the common way in which leaders and managers of the past century tried to exert dominance and control, positive reinforcement has now become a major ingredient of the positive leadership movement. Terms such as inspiration and empathy have surfaced as critical drivers of this trend that focuses on the establishment and safeguarding of a positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication, and positive meaning (Mishra & Jha, 2017). Leaders that adhere to a positive leadership trend, or a combination of positive leadership trends, seem to find that organizational performance thrives and that outcomes are therefore also positive (Cameron, 2012). Zbierowski (2016) emphasizes authenticity as a foundational element of positive leadership theories. He explains authenticity as a combination of owning our personal experiences and acting in accordance with our true self. Within that scope, honesty and openness are primary prerequisites, as these qualities serve as major encouragers for a good understanding and optimal team spirit. Other characteristics that have been attributed to authentic leadership are confidence, hope, optimism, resilience, transparency, ethics, future-orientation, and connectivity (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) introduced four principles of authentic leadership as follows: self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing, and internalized moral perspective.

Awakened Leadership As is the case with most positive leadership approaches, the urge to inquire about awakened leadership arose from the current trend of massive interconnectedness, triggered by globalization, and the consequential exposure to increasingly diversifying work settings. The name “Awakened Leader” was inspired by a story of Gautama Siddhartha’s enlightenment, which established him as “the Buddha” (the awakened one) afterward. Upon a lengthy insight meditation, Siddhartha was walking up a road, when he encountered a passer-by, who was stunned by his radiance and asked him whether he was a wizard, a God, or some other kind of other upper-being. The Buddha simply responded that he was “awake.”

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The consideration of the earlier mentioned qualities captured in positive leadership theories within an ever-changing performance environment gave rise to the image of an awakened leader, who is a diversity-oriented and experienced one (Marques, 2010). As a leader, who aims to attain positive results and wellbeing for all stakeholders, human and nonhuman, an awakened leader consciously examines and cultivates a series of responsibility-based qualities, such as: • Morals and values, often coming forth from past challenges and deep self-­ reflection in order to become more aware of the type of decisions to make. • Ethics, with an emphasis on the understanding that diverse environments oftentimes harbor people with very diverse ethical insights, and that ethical decisions are not always the most positive ones. This may lead to having to explain and defend courses of actions to stakeholder groups on a regular basis. • Integrity, honesty, and trust, an interrelated set of qualities and behaviors that very much influence the way employees will consider such a leader. • Vision, which requires clear and open communication with stakeholders, in order to help them understand the reasons behind actions and inspire them toward the common goal. • Respect, which these leaders know to make all the difference in interactions of any kind. One earns respect by giving it. • Passion, which doesn’t only drive the leader, but inspires followers to perform optimally and enthusiastically. • Commitment, which is one of the foremost role-model qualities. Awakened leaders know how important walking the talk is, and how well employees gravitate to that behavior. • Compassion, which entails the leader’s ability and desire to understand the circumstances that others are subjected to, and work with them, yet, in such a way that they are not blatantly taken advantage of. • Justice, which is not always a broadly appreciated quality, but nonetheless one that awakened leaders know they should implement in order to keep matters fair and acceptable. • Kindness, which goes so much further than arrogance, autocracy, and negativity. Oftentimes, it is the experience of kindness in their lives, and the recollection of how good this experience felt, that triggers awakened leaders to be kind to others as well. • Forgiveness, which is a quality that is also acquired through experience, but becomes very important in establishing and maintaining a positive work environment. It expresses itself in workplaces by not holding grudges and moving on from conflicts once those have been settled. • Courage, a must-have in leadership, not only to develop a vision but also to stand up for what one believes and to lead the way in moving toward it. • Love, in the sense of making stakeholders—co-workers, customers, shareholders, suppliers, community members, and all others that are affected by the ­organization’s actions—understand that their wellbeing is at the core of decisions made and that the aim is to advance all parties as much as possible and to harm as little as possible.

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• Deep listening, a quality that many leaders still have to learn, as assertiveness seems to be higher regarded as a leadership trait, especially in Western societies. Yet, those who practiced deep and empathetic listening know how much it is appreciated and what bond it can help create. • Inspired and inspiring, which is almost like two sides of the same coin: a leader cannot inspire others without being inspired first. Yet, even then, it takes clear communication and many of the traits discussed here above to win followers and exude genuine good intention. • Authenticity, which was discussed earlier, entails critical awareness to personal values and adherence to integrity, honesty, and mindfulness. • Spiritual connection, in which there is a clear and present focus on the connection with the source inside instigating frequent reflections on actions, thoughts, and decisions. • Multidimensional, which pertains to both the leader’s focus on multiple stakeholders and aspects in the performance realm and his or her style of leading, which integrates the proper behavior given the situation and the followers. • Fulfillment, entailing the deep understanding of attaining positive outcomes for as many stakeholders, to ensure longitudinal personal and professional gratification. • Initiative, which is what leaders need to get into action toward accomplishments. Initiative also entails inclusion of others, in order to share ownership of processes and team spirit. • Change, a quality that is rooted in the understanding that we are not the same on a moment by moment basis and that others, as well as the circumstances we deal with, are also subject to change (Marques, 2010). A 2012 study of 69 leaders yielded that awakened leaders emphasize their focus on the wellbeing of stakeholders, doing the right thing, even if that means a reduction in the bottom line, family, which also encompass those they spend time with away from home (colleagues), enjoying their work, showing appreciation, understanding the self, earning trust, and providing recognition to those that conducted extraordinary accomplishments. Three main focus areas for awakened leaders emerged from this study: a focus on personal mastery (internal), relationships (integrated), and professional growth (external) (Marques, 2012).

Conscious Followers Followership has been defined as the ability of individuals to competently and proactively follow the instructions and support the efforts of their superior to achieve organizational goals (Agho, 2009). “Followers’ perceptions of their leader and their leader’s motives are key elements of the leadership dynamic” (Reiley & Jacobs, 2016, p. 70). Leaders may have traits that are usually considered a recipe for success, such as charisma, but if their motives turn out to be unethical and self-centered, they will not be able to maintain a dedicated and inspired follower force (Reiley &

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Jacobs, 2016). Similarly, leaders can have the ability to be transformational, but if they lack authenticity and morality, and use their power for self-aggrandizement, they will not be able to entice their follower team for long (Reiley & Jacobs). It is important for every leader to understand that today’s followers perceive themselves as free agents, not as dependent underlings. Within this awareness, they support leaders they consider uplifting and constructive and withhold support from leaders they consider bad (Kellerman, 2007). Some factors that make the relationship with followers even more intricate are the facts that oftentimes, they are geographically dispersed, representing a broad scale of cultural backgrounds, and that many of today’s followers are knowledge workers, with high levels of expertise and autonomy. It is especially this last fact that makes the distinction between leader and follower less obvious than it once was. Kellerman (2007) shines an interesting light on the types of followers we can encounter in work settings, by classifying them in five categories: • Isolates, who are very detached from what is going on. They can often be found in the larger organizations, where they can make themselves invisible by hiding in their offices or cubicles and are unproductive, or possibly even downright detrimental to progress. • Bystanders, who observe but remain inactive. Their motive to collaborate—if ever—is mainly driven by personal progress. They are useful in following orders but contribute very little to initiatives. • Participants engage to a certain extent. When these followers are supportive of the leader, they can be a true asset and good team players. When they oppose the leader, however, they act as free agents and focus on their own agenda. • Activists hold strong feelings about their leaders and organizations, and they demonstrate that through their actions. They are impactful and can be a strong support system for their leader, or a passionate and effective opponent. • Diehards are optimally involved and will give their all. Similarly to activists, but obviously to a greater extend, they can be a strong ally and support to their leader, or become an extremely powerful and detrimental opponent (Kellerman, 2007). Kellerman’s distinction between follower-types resonates to some degree with the one Kelley had presented more than a decade earlier but maintains a wider divergence in spectrum of behaviors than Kelley’s. Kelley (1992) identified five types of followers: (1) conformist followers, who simply execute what the leader dictates; (2) alienated followers, who possess and apply critical thinking where they consider it needed, but usually remain passive in their performance; (3) pragmatist followers, who stay on the fence, and only do what is needed to sustain themselves; (4) passive followers, who demand continuous handholding from supervisors; and (5) effective/exemplary followers, who think independently and actively perform their duties. While Kellerman identifies two rather passive, one median, and two rather active types, Kelley distinguished only one real active follower type out of five options.

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Considering leadership within the reality of follower cooperation, LugoSantiago (2016) points out that the synergy between these two stakeholders—leaders and followers—in any organization is better with some combinations than with others. Labeling them leaders, albeit not necessarily in formal leadership positions, he advocates that • An ethical and moral leader is a person who is appreciated for their integrity and responsibility. This individual has a strong sense of right or wrong, good or bad, and may therefore be a highly appreciated leader figure for followers who crave fairness, honesty, and justice. • A transformational leader (assuming we are dealing with one who has admirable intentions for the larger group) has the ability to articulate a vision and will be sensitive to differences in follower groups, providing different types of followers the style of leadership they need to reach their best potential. • A servant leader serves others first, thereby understanding the needs of stakeholders and fulfilling them in the most constructive and effective way toward fulfillment for the organization and those involved (LugoSantiago, 2016). An important note hereby is that awakened leaders capture the characteristics of ethics and morality, transformation, and service within their behavioral scope and are keen to involve followers with multiple levels of preparedness and enthusiasm. Here is where the element of situational leadership enters the picture: an awakened leader is comfortable with applying a situational-plus leadership style, meaning that all aspects of the situational leadership style are involved, and then some. The situational leadership is an adaptable one, whereby a leader considers the most appropriate behavior, given the level of readiness and capability of followers. Situational leadership offers four leadership approaches that represent a series of combinations in directive and supportive behaviors. For the isolates and bystanders, as described by Kellerman, directing (Blanchard, 2008) may be most appropriate, as this style simply provides stipulations on what to do, how, when, and where. For the participants, as Kellerman defined them, coaching (Blanchard, 2008) may be suitable, as this style blends direction with a high degree of support, so it is communication-­based, facilitates and encourages performance, but still keeps close control on outcomes. The activists, as presented by Kellerman, might benefit most from the supporting approach (Blanchard), which provides recognition and active listening to encourage followers to optimal performance. Delegating (Blanchard), finally, may be the best option for the diehards, as Kellerman assessed them, as this style leaves followers more autonomy, acknowledging their competence, commitment, and confidence. When considering Kelley’s distinctions, the situational approach might be applied as follows: directing for the conformists, coaching for the alienated and pragmatist followers, supporting for the passive followers, and delegating for the effective/exemplary followers.

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The above reasoning may not always turn out to be correct, as there are different degrees to each category of follower, which is why leaders will have to adjust, based on the specific situation. However, the flexibility is clear, and that is what needs to be understood here. Awakened leaders are well-aware that they also have other positive leadership approaches at their disposal, such as servant leadership, authentic leadership, transformational leadership, and more.

Mindful Change We are living in a time of constant flux. Change is upon us daily and while our psyche has come a long way in adapting to the fast pace of alternations at work and elsewhere, human beings are also creatures of habit by default. This means, that our mind can rationalize and justify change but our emotions may still get entangled in the process, resulting in stress, depression, frustration, and even exiting our workplace. Awakened leaders are aware of this existing challenge, which is a cornerstone of workplace performance, and they strive to guide change in mindful ways so that understanding and support are optimal, and conflict and other negative emotions remain minimal. Mindfulness could be defined as “a state of consciousness in which attention is focused on present-moment phenomena occurring both externally and internally” (Dane, 2011, p. 1000). It has also been described as intentional, compassionate, and nonjudgmental attentiveness to the present moment (Wamsler et al., 2018). While mindfulness used to be primarily associated with meditation due to its extended history in Eastern contemplative traditions, especially Buddhism, it has increasingly emerged into a nonsecular practice of many Westerners (Aviles & Dent, 2015). Since the 1970s, mindfulness techniques have even been acknowledged as a form of therapy within parts of Western psychology and medicine, and several studies have established that mindfulness practices are useful for enhancing the outcome of group performance (Adriansen & Krohn, 2016). As its studies and use progressed over time, mindfulness has arrived at a point of being observed in two ways: (a) as a state of mind—a practice that is oftentimes encouraged through meditation and yoga practices, and (2) as a manifestation of the cognitive process of obtaining fresh insights or renewed awareness. This practice does not rely on meditation or other Eastern-originated practices and distinguishes between mindfulness—active engagement in the present—and mindlessness— automated acting without full attention (Carson & Langer, 2006; Adriansen & Krohn, 2016). As a strategy onto itself, mindfulness is increasingly used in various professional fields and disciplines ranging from health care and the performing arts to pedagogy and business (Wamsler et al., 2018). There is also a rich base of evidence, including from the mental health to the neuroscience fields, that shows how mindfulness can help reduce stress (Hall, 2013). While training is the most common way to elevate mindfulness, a nonlinear approach may be more effective (Langer, 1997).

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Change, especially when it is of a comprehensive nature, should be implemented through mindful organizing, which focuses on paying attention and enhanced distinction-making through awareness and attention (Guiette, Matthyssens, & Vandenbempt, 2014). Indeed, organizations utilize a variety of strategies to increase mindfulness, especially when it involves organizational change (Aviles & Dent, 2015). Several studies have yielded that change is a major source of stress among stakeholders, yet, what is often overlooked within this perspective, is that, while all changes may initially be stressful, some are aimed to reduce stress in the long run (Smollan, 2015). In change situations, especially in professional environments, it is important to consider the reasons various stakeholders have to support or oppose the change. Piderit (2000) explains resistance to organizational change as a multilayered process that consists of three attitudinal aspects: the affective (the way one feels about the change); the cognitive (one’s thoughts and feelings about the change); and the behavioral (how one intends to react in response to change). It is also important to keep in mind that change and transition are two different phenomena. A transition is the process we go through toward change. That is actually the most stressful part of the process, as change is the end-situation, once the transition has been completed. Bridges (2017) encourages leaders to be aware of their stakeholders’ needs to prepare for a transition, be guided to it, and learn to accept the change. Transition is like unplugging from an old world and plugging into a new one, he explains. In that process, there will be a natural space of mourning the loss of an old and familiar situation, and that should be acknowledged and respected. One of Bridges’ most effective pieces of advice in his book is for leaders to observe the four Ps in transitions, to make the process more rewarding for all parties. The four Ps are (1) Purpose: informing all parties the reasons for instigating the change and the problem that is aimed to be solved by doing this; (2) Picture: explaining the end situation and how it is envisioned to work. Important here is also to explain what will change and what will remain the same; (3) Plan: here is where the leader has to layout the step by step implementation of the process, its duration, and the sequence of events; and (4) Part: at this point, it is critical to explain what part each person will play, and how they will be guided through that. It may be clear that communication is crucial in this process from transition to change. Leaders who want to practice awakened leadership should be mindful of that. Engaging in a study of 141 employees that went through a major organizational change, a merger, in Thailand, Charoensukmongkol (2017) found some illuminating relationships between mindfulness and perception of, thus cooperation toward, change. He found that those who were not optimistic had more resistance to change: that mindfulness is positively related to self-efficacy and that self-efficacy is positively related to optimism. In other words, stakeholders who practiced mindfulness had more confidence in their own abilities, and therefore felt more optimistic, which also made them more supportive of change. This result is a strong indicator for awakened leaders to encourage mindfulness practices, not only within themselves but also amongst their co-workers.

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Featured Case in Point: Geoffrey Canada Geoffrey Canada is an American educator, social activist, and author, who grew up poor in the South Bronx of New York, raised among abandoned houses, crime, violence, and an all-encompassing sense of chaos and disorder. Nonetheless, he has managed to establish a name for himself, not for self-centered reasons, but for being an education reformer, who tirelessly has been working on the Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), a project that has been labeled one of the most daring and potentially transformative social experiments of our time. Prior to taking on this project, Canada earned degrees from Bowdoin and Harvard Universities. In 1983, Canada became the director of an organization called Rheedlen that had been created in the 1970s as a social service and truancy prevention program in Harlem (Jackson, 2011). He soon became frustrated by the organization’s constrained impact; so in 1990, he founded HCZ, therewith swiftly starting to tread the path of an awakened leader. In the transformation, Canada converted the organization into a center that would actively follow the academic careers of youngsters in a 24-block area of Harlem. Harlem Children’s Zone is a charter school specifically created to elevate high school and college rates among students in Harlem while at the same time providing parents with tools to help their children succeed (Jackson, 2011). By completely immersing himself in this project, Mr. Canada pledged to devote his life to the service of children in communities like those in which he was raised. HCZ aims to prevent individuals to leave their poverty-stricken area, and instead help transform it thanks to a tight safety net of social and educational services to nurture children from birth through college graduation (Steele, 2009). This project came about because Mr. Canada wanted to change the lives of poor children within a 97-block radius of central Harlem. He made it his mission to work on closing the academic achievement gap between the—mostly African American children from low-income families in Harlem—and their predominantly White middle to upper class peers in the more affluent districts of downtown Manhattan is central to Canada’s mission (Haddix, Chandler-Olcott, Eatman, & Cullen, 2011). As indicated before, Canada worked hard on establishing change in these children’s school and home environments by providing parenting education and support and reforming the children’s daily schooling experiences for the whole child. The HCZ project implemented two powerful strategies, which turned out to be very successful: the “conveyor belt” strategy and the “it’s-never-too-late” strategy. Both of these strategies focus on steering teenagers from challenged backgrounds toward academic achievement at the postsecondary level. Over the past decades, HCZ has come a long way, thanks to the great media attention he received, as well as the positive reinforcement from former US President Barack Obama. Canada has appeared on high profile television programs such as 60 Minutes, where he was interviewed, two televised interviews with Charlie Rose, guest appearances on The Oprah Winfrey Show, Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, and the Colbert Report. The HCZ has received significant

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public and private funding, including a 20-million-dollar investment from Goldman Sachs (Haddix et al., 2011). In 2001, Geoffrey Canada wrote a poem capturing the spirit of his calling: Maybe before we didn’t know, That Corey is afraid to go To school, the store, to roller skate. He cries a lot for a boy of eight. But now we know each day it’s true That other girls and boys cry too. They cry for us o lend a hand. Time for us to take a stand. And little Maria’s window screens Keep out flies and other things. But she knows to duck her head, When she prays each night 'fore bed. Because in the window come some things That shatter little children’s dreams. For some, the hourglass is out of sand. Time for us to take a stand. And Charlie’s deepest, secret wishes, Is someone to smother him with kisses And squeeze and hug him tight, so tight While he pretends to put up a fight. Or at least someone to be at home, Who misses him, he’s so alone. Who allowed this child-forsaken land? Look in the mirror, take a stand. And on the Sabbath, when we pray, To our God we often say, “oh, Jesus, Mohammed, Abraham, I come to better understand, How to learn to love and give, And live the life you taught to live.” In faith we must join hand in hand, Suffer the children? Take a stand! And tonight, some child will go to bed, No food, no place to lay their head. No hand to hold, no lap to sit, To give slobbery kisses, from slobbery lips. So you and I we must succeed In this crusade, this holy deed, To say to the children of this land: “Have hope. We’re here. We take a stand!” (Canada, 2001).

In 2011, Geoffrey Canada was named on the TIME 100 list of most influential people in the world, and in March 2014, he was named one of Fortune’s 50 greatest leaders in the world (HZC.org, 2019). Fortune magazine described the Harlem

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Children’s Zone as an experiment entailing an effort to reach all the kids in a 24-block zone of New York City. The children were given education, social, and medical help starting at birth. Fortune’s Editors raved about the fact that the experiment worked so well, and added that the zone now covers over 100 blocks and serves more than 12,000 children, with 95% of high school seniors going off to college (Fortune Editors, 2014). In a 2011 interview with the New  York Times, Canada shared that leadership brings a lot of challenges that force you, the leader, to make some hard decisions. He reflected on a position he had at a school in Massachusetts, where he tried to lead by consensus, only to find that it is impossible to please everyone and that practicing good leadership does not always mean that you are the most popular person. There will always be some people who oppose a change, because they are comfortable where they are at, regardless of how detrimental that position may be for the organization. Canada addressed the fact that a leader, in times of change, will have to be mindful of the supporters and opponents of a project. He shared his learning that some people will always find something wrong in what you do, and if you prove them wrong, they will still find reasons to complain. He cautioned to make sure to have the right people in the room and understand that some people may just have to be removed in order to refrain from frustrating a good initiative. His leadership style is still one of clear communication lines, but also one where a stricter approach is applied, entailing that when a decision is made on a direction, that everyone is expected to support it, and whomever doesn’t, may leave. Canada cautions workforce members to be innovative, but not disregard the practices that make the organization successful today. He further emphasizes the importance of being open to learning from others, who are doing things better, but also reiterates the need to muster up the courage to release people if they don’t work out, even if they are friends. He finally calls for a thorough assessment of people one will hire, making sure they will be passionate about accomplishing the mission rather than extending their ego (Bryant, 2011). In June 2014, Canada stepped down as CEO of HCZ. He kept the title of president but left most decisions about the program from then on to Anne Williams-Isom, the group’s chief operating officer (Hernández, 2014). Canada has published two books: Fist, Stick, Knife, Gun: A Personal History of Violence in America (1995) and Reaching Up for Manhood: Transforming the Lives of Boys in America (1998). Case-Specific Reflection Questions 1. Consider the qualities described for an awakened leader with the description presented by Geoffrey Canada. Do you consider him an awakened leader? Why or why not? 2. Mr. Canada reflected on change and leadership. Do you agree with his approach on releasing people who don’t cooperate? Please explain your response? 3. Review the website of the Harlem Children Zone, and share some information not included in the review above?

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Positive Leadership/Change Lessons • Leaders that adhere to a positive leadership trend, or a combination of positive leadership trends, seem to find that organizational performance thrives and that outcomes are therefore also positive. • Authentic leaders act in accordance with their true self. Honesty and openness are primary prerequisites within that scope, along with confidence, hope, optimism, resilience, transparency, ethics, future-orientation, and connectivity. • Awakened leaders aim to attain positive results and wellbeing for all stakeholders, human and nonhuman, and consciously examine and cultivate a series of responsibility-based qualities, among which morals and values, respect, compassion, courage, deep listening, authenticity, spiritual connection, and change. • While not as often studies as leaders, followers are a very dynamic and powerful group of stakeholders in an organization. –– Kellerman (2007) distinguishes five types of followers: (1) Isolates, (2) Bystanders, (3) Participants, (4) Activists, and (5) Diehards. –– Kelley (1992) identified five types of followers: (1) Conformist, (2) Alienated, (3) Pragmatist, (4) Passive, and (5) Effective/exemplary. • Awakened leaders capture the characteristics of ethics and morality, transformation, and service within their behavioral scope and are keen to involve followers with multiple levels of preparedness and enthusiasm. They apply a situational-­ plus leadership style. • Situational leadership (Blanchard, 2008) offers four leadership approaches: directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating, each dependent on the readiness and capabilities of the follower. • Mindfulness could be defined as a state of consciousness in which attention is focused on present-moment phenomena occurring both externally and internally. It has also been described as intentional, compassionate, and nonjudgmental attentiveness to the present moment. • Change is often considered to be a major source of stress among stakeholders, yet, while all changes may initially be stressful, some are aimed to reduce stress in the long run. • Change and transition are two different phenomena. A transition is the process we go through toward change. That is actually the most stressful part of the process, as change is the end-situation, once the transition has been completed. Leaders should observe the four Ps in transitions to make the process more rewarding for all parties. These are (1) Purpose, (2) Picture, (3) Plan, and (4) Part. Chapter-End Reflection Questions 1. Consider the narrative on positive leadership trends in this chapter, and then reflect on the values shared in regards to awakened leadership. Then, describe in your own words how you consider awakened leadership to be a positive leadership style?

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2. The chapter explains the origin of the name “awakened leader.” Do you consider that this leadership style is exclusively for Buddhists? Please explain your response. 3. Select three of the responsibility-based qualities listed for awakened leaders that you can best relate to. Explain why these qualities appeal to you, and how you feel you apply them in your life? 4. Reflect on yourself as a follower in your current or past workplace, or in any professional or learning environment you currently find yourself. In which of the five categories from Kellerman would you place yourself, and why? 5. Describe, in your own words, the difference between change and transition. Which of the four Ps in Bridges theory do you consider most challenging for a leader, and why?

References Adriansen, H. K., & Krohn, S. (2016). Mindfulness for group facilitation: An example of eastern philosophy in western organizations. Group Facilitation, 13, 17–28. Agho, A. O. (2009). Perspectives of senior-level executives on effective followership and leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 16(2), 159–166. Aviles, P. R., & Dent, E. B. (2015). The role of mindfulness in leading organizational transformation: A systematic review. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 20(3), 31–55. Bhandarker, A., & Rai, S. (2015). Positive transformational leadership: Case study of an Indian public sector bank. Asia - Pacific Journal of Business Administration, 7(1), 34–55. Blanchard, K. (2008). Situational leadership. Leadership Excellence, 25(5), 19. Bridges, W. (2017). Managing transitions, 25th anniversary edition: Making the Most of change. Boston: Da Capo Lifelong Books. Bryant, A. (2011). To stay great, never forget your basics. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/18/business/geoffrey-canada-of-harlem-childrens-zoneon-remembering-basics.html Cameron, K.  S. (2012). Positive leadership: Strategies for extraordinary performance. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Canada, G. (2001). Take a stand. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 10(1), 56. Carson, S.  H., & Langer, E.  J. (2006). Mindfulness and self-acceptance. Journal of Rational-­ Emotive & Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 24, 29–43. Charoensukmongkol, P. (2017). Contributions of mindfulness during post-merger integration. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 32(1), 104–118. Dane, E. (2011). Paying attention to mindfulness and its effects on task performance in the workplace. Journal of Management, 37(4), 997–1018. Fortune Editors (2014, March 20). The World’s 50 Greatest Leaders. Fortune. Retrieved from https://fortune.com/2014/03/20/worlds-50-greatest-leaders/ Guiette, A., Matthyssens, P., & Vandenbempt, K. (2014). Organizing mindfully for relevant process research on strategic change. The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 29(7), 610–618. Haddix, M.  M., Chandler-Olcott, K., Eatman, T.  K., & Cullen, K. (2011). Whatever it takes: Geoffrey Canada’s quest to change Harlem and America. Language Arts, 88(5), 388–389. Hall, L. (2013). Focusing on the good things. Occupational Health, 65(2), 15–17. Hernández, J. C. (2014, February 10). Chief of Harlem Children’s Program Will Step Aside. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/11/nyregion/chief-of-harlem-childrens-program-will-step-aside.html

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3

Servant Leadership and Change: A Review of the Literature Gary Roberts

Abstract

One of the enduring images of Christianity is that of Christ as the good shepherd, which is a relevant metaphor for servant leadership’s emphasis on promoting enduring and desirable organizational change. Functional organizational change is a global construct that reflects the overall efficacy of servant leadership in promoting desirable employee attitudes, behaviors, and performance outcomes (Roberts, 2016). Servant leadership emphasizes two meta-dimensions of stewardship and servanthood directly promoting efficacious change management practices (Roberts, 2015). This chapter will review a large sample of servant leader empirical studies and present clear evidence of its positive influence on the attributes of servant leadership that promote effective organizational change. The research literature and subsequent analysis for this chapter is based upon 138 empirical mostly quantitative studies published from 2004 to 2019. Change related studies were then selected from this group of 138 by key word search in the 138 article abstracts. A total of 18 change related studies were identified through this process. The 138 studies generated 285 empirical outcomes of which 275 (96.5%) are favorable in directionality regarding the influence of servant leadership on change related outcomes. There were only nine nonsignificant (3.3%) and one negative (0.35%) relationships identified. Of the 138 studies, a final grouping of 104 studies was selected for the final analysis through the elimination of nonchange related dependent variables.

G. Roberts (*) Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_3

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Keywords

Servant leadership · Change management · Organizational change · Employee change · Employee wellbeing · Ethical leadership · Leadership effectiveness · Global leadership · Christian leadership

Introduction One of the essential attributes of servant leadership is the embrace of change as a means to promote holistic growth, wellbeing, problem solving, and mission achievement (Roberts, 2015). Servant leaders understand the functional and dysfunctional forms of change, and systematically employ change management principles that promote the greater good while reducing unnecessary strife and stress. The purpose of this chapter is to present a conceptual framework that summarizes the research literature on servant leadership and managing workplace change. The foundation for the analysis is a review of 138 empirical studies on servant leadership published from 2004 to 2019. The results indicate a very robust and consistent positive influence of servant leadership on workplace organizational change.

Servant Leadership and Change One of the enduring images of Christianity is that of Christ as the good shepherd, which is a relevant metaphor for servant leadership’s emphasis on cultivating workplace change for the long-term, holistic wellbeing of employees, clients, and customers. Hence, effective change management is a global construct that intimately influences the overall physical, mental, and spiritual health of employees (Roberts, 2016). Servant leadership emphasizes two meta-dimensions of stewardship and servanthood that directly promote functional employee change management (Roberts, 2015). Stewardship is efficiently and effectively pursuing and achieving the organization’s mission, vision, and values utilizing moral and ethical motives, means, and ends. Hence, the servant leader is a faithful shepherd and steward of the broad array of organizational resources, human, monetary, and informational in the ongoing organizational change process. Servant leaders carefully craft an environment that enables employees to achieve short and longer success while minimizing dysfunctional stress in the change process. The second meta-dimension is that of servanthood, in which the leader as servant shepherd is motivated by agape and agapao love to promote the global wellbeing of employees and their best interests and long-term growth, development, and flourishing. Servant leaders embrace an altruistic worldview that combines ascetical commitment to delay or defer personal gratification in order to promote the global good. The tripartite ethical and moral foundation of servant leadership is the wisdom based commitment to a balance of deontological, teleological, and virtue ethics. As such, servant leadership entails a complicated and nuanced amalgamated nature and ethos of the practical and the metaphysical in

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thought, behavior, and decision making. Servant leadership is an ongoing process of development and growth that is never fully achieved or perfected, given the inherent variability of human nature and conditions. This chapter will review a large sample of servant leader empirical studies and present clear evidence of its efficacious influence on employee change.

Servant Leadership’s Religious Roots Servant leadership possesses clear theistic roots in all of the major religions including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism (Bekker, 2010; Irving, 2010). From a Christian worldview, servant leadership is the integration and implementation of the Golden Rule laws that are written in the human heart (Romans 2:15) and reflect the human spirit’s desire to achieve transcendence, as God has “written eternity in our hearts (Ecclesiastes 3:11).” As such, servant leadership represents a spiritual law of cause and effect that is universal and applicable to all of humanity, regardless of espoused theist or nontheistic belief systems. The great challenge of servant leadership relates to its complex attributes and dimensional structure leading to a great range of conceptual and operational definitions as demonstrated by several reviews (Roberts & Hess-Hernandez, 2012/2013; Parris & Peachy, 2013). For example, the Roberts and Hernandez analysis identified 39 dimensions of servant leadership in the eight study sample. The lack of consensus is both a strength and weakness given the universal scope of leadership and the variation of context and culture. The broad range of attributes also contributes to overlap with other related values-based leadership approaches such as transformational, ethical, and values-based leadership (Hoch, Bommer, Dulebohn, & Wu, 2018). However, the lack of consensus in conceptual definitions has not impeded the demonstration of broad-based favorable effects of servant leadership across settings and cultures. The universality of servant leadership’s efficacy is reflected in the growing global empirical literature. A recent meta-analysis (Hoch et al., 2018) demonstrated that servant leadership explains significant and unique incremental variance in leadership effectiveness when compared to transformational, ethical, and values-based relationship approaches.

Methodology The research literature and subsequent analysis for this chapter is based upon 138 empirical mostly quantitative studies published from 2004 to 2019 as identified by an ongoing automatic keyword search of abstracts in the Business Source Complete electronic database using the term “servant leadership.” Change-related studies were then selected from this group of 138 by keyword search in the respective article abstracts. In addition, studies of closely related change variables such as employee creative and helping behavior, organizational learning, service-sale ambidexterity, customer service recovery performance, and extra-role performance were

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grouped with the change studies. A total of 18 change related studies were identified through this process. Empirical studies on servant leadership were rare prior to 2004. A seen in Table 3.1, there are 33 countries represented with the two most frequent countries of origin being the United States (32.2%) and China (18.2%). As per region of the world, Table 3.2 indicates about seven in ten are from North America (35.7%) and Asia (33.6%). Table 3.3 demonstrates that majority of empirical studies published in the early stages of servant leadership research (2004–2008) were from the USA (85.7%) while over the last 5  years (2014–2019) the frequency is reversed with 81.6% originating outside of the United States. The review demonstrates the robust efficacy of servant leadership in producing favorable outcomes either as an independent or direct or indirect moderator variable on attitudes, behaviors, and performance. The 138 studies generated 285 empirical outcomes of which 275 (96.5%) are favorable in directionality regarding the influence of servant leadership. There were only nine nonsignificant (3.3%) and one negative (0.35%) relationships identified. See the appendix for the complete tabular listing of results (Tables 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, and 3.16). Even factoring for publication bias, this is an impressive and robust outcome on the efficacy of servant leadership. Of the 138 studies, a final grouping of 104 studies was selected for the final analysis through the elimination of nonchange-related dependent variables.

Conceptual Framework: Servant Leadership and Change Figure 3.1 summarizes the conceptual relationships between servant leadership and the key change-related outcomes in the literature. This review of the empirical literature grouped servant leader studies into global dimensions based upon the nature of the dependent variables and the independent variable servant leader attributes presented in the article abstracts. The author categorized the reviewed studies and their linkage to the key two global servant leader dimensional attributes, servanthood, and stewardship. The 138 studies used varying conceptual and operational definitions of servant leadership and of the dependent variable measures. Hence, one of the methodological weaknesses is relying on each reviewed study’s self-­ developed measures and definitions. There is no study that directly tested the elements of the model presented here, hence this is an inductive framework based upon the pattern of results found in the reviewed studies. In some cases, both the independent and dependent variables are elements of a complex and multi-dimensional ­servant leadership construct such as the studies on empowerment. The researcher grouped servant leader (SL) studies into six global dimensions that promote positive organizational change: (1) servant leader’s change management skills such as empowerment, conceptualization, active listening, and empathy; (2) servant leader’s trust-building behaviors including servanthood, humility, moral integrity, ethical behavior, serving others first, and agapao love; (3) servant leader’s follower behavior and attitudes including organizational citizenship, employee commitment, employee engagement, collaboration, and commitment to supervisor;

3  Servant Leadership and Change: A Review of the Literature Table 3.1  Frequency count of servant leader sample locations: 143 total, plus 5 joint, 2 USA–foreign, and 3 purely foreign

Table 3.2  Frequency count of studies by world region

Nation USA China Turkey Pakistan Canada Netherlands Indonesia Vietnam Iran New Zealand Spain Australia Germany Portugal South Africa Taiwan India Malaysia Finland France Ghana Kenya Lithuania Macau Nigeria Norway Trinidad/Tobago South Korea Philippines Russia Ukraine United Kingdom

North America Asia Middle East Europe Africa Caribbean

37 # 46 26 10 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 143

51 48 19 19 5 1 143

% 32.2% 18.2% 7.0% 4.2% 3.5% 3.5% 2.8% 2.8% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 100.0%

35.7% 33.6% 13.3% 13.3% 3.5% 0.7% 100.0%

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Table 3.3  Frequency count of location by time United States and non-US studies by year 2004–2008 2009–2013 2014–2019 Total

US studies 12 18 16 46

% 85.7% 42.9% 18.4% 32.2%

Servant Leader Change Management Skills (53) • Empowerment (15) • Conceptualization (5) • Empathy (5) • Leader competence and effectiveness (5) • Vision (5) • Active listening (4) • Foresight (3) • Voice (2) • Consulting and involving others (1), Inspiring other (1), Interpersonal support (1), job social support (1), Learning, (1), Persuasive mapping (1), Servant follower development (1), Shares power (1), Supervisory support (1) Servant Leader Trust Building Behaviors and Attributes (80) • Servanthood (10) • Humility (9) • Moral integrity (8) • Behave ethically, ethical work climate (7) • Motives, serve others first (5) • Agapao love, (4) • Authentic self (4) • Needs of others over self (4) • Put subordinates first (4) • Trust (4) • Altruism (3) • Procedural justice (3) • Responsible morality (3) • Altruistic calling (2) • Covenantal relationship (2) • Forgiveness (2) • Distributive justice (1), Gratitude (1), Honesty (1), Hope (1), and Interactional justice (1) Foundational Servant Follower Behaviors/Attitudes (73) • Organizational citizenship behaviors (21) • Commitment (21) • Engagement (10) • Collaboration (3) • Commitment to supervisor (3) • Self-efficacy and psychological capital (3) • Loyalty (2) • Team cohesion (2) • Team potency, confidence or efficacy (2) • Anti-social behaviors (1), Disengagement (1), Employee deviancy (1), High performance attributes (1), Team dysfunctional conflict (1), Team functional conflict (1)

Non-US studies 2 24 71 97

% 14.3% 57.1% 81.6% 67.8%

Total number of studies 14 42 87 143

% of total 9.8% 29.4% 60.8% 100.0%

Positive Change Foundational Antecedent Elements, Foundational Affective States (24) • Satisfaction (19) • Public service motivation (3) • Organizational culture (1) • Proactive motivation (1) Positive Change Foundational Antecedent Elements, Employee Wellbeing (19) • Work/family enrichment (5) • Employee wellbeing (4) • Positive work climate (3) • Burnout (2) • Stress (2) • Work/family conflict (2) • Employee thriving (1) Positive Change Foundational Antecedent Elements, Trust Variables (23) • Organizational trust (12) • Leader trust (4) • Affective and cognitive trust (3) • Interpersonal trust (2) • Trust (2)

Positive Employee Change Dependent Variables (18) • Employee creative and helping behavior (8) • Commitment to change (3) • Organizational learning (3) • Adaptability to change (1) • Service-sales Ambidexterity (1) • Customer service recovery performance (1) • Extra role performance (1)

Fig. 3.1  Servant leadership and change management model (# of studies)

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(4) servant leader’s foundational positive affective states including job satisfaction, public service motivation, organizational, and proactive motivation; (5) servant leader’s employee wellbeing variables including work/family enrichment, employee wellbeing, positive, and employee stress and burnout; and (6) servant leader’s positive change employee trust variable. The final aspect of the model is the grouping of the 19 studies that reported positive change management outcomes including employee creative and helping behavior, commitment to change, organizational learning, adaptability to change, service-sales ambidexterity, customer service recovery performance, and extra-role performance. To conserve space and avoid excessive citation detail that detracts from the text, the full number of cites are presented in the tables and the number of in-text cites are limited to three or fewer for each category. Given that many of the reviewed studies addressed multiple moderator and dependent variables and had attributes that were elements of multiple dimensions, the total number of studies classified by each dimension of the model exceeds the individual total of studies of 104 (Fig. 3.2).

Servant Leader’s Change Management Skills Servant leadership promotes effective change management through its inherent relationship-based foundation and specific change management competencies. There were 53 total studies reviewed in this area as presented in Table  3.4. The empirical literature demonstrates servant leadership’s effectiveness in promoting employee empowerment, a key element in helping employees develop the skill sets to grow and evolve (15 studies) (Patterson, 2003; Liden, Panaccio, Hu, & Meuser, 2014; Begzadeh & Nedaei, 2017), consulting and involving others (one study) (Wong & Davey, 2007), shares power (one study) (Laub, 1999), and servant follower development (one study) (Parris & Peachy, 2012). Empowerment communicates confidence in employee motivation and abilities. Servant leaders empower according to the employee’s level of maturity, motivation, and skill set (Roberts, 2015). A major element to support the emotional demands of organizational change and empowerment is supervisory support. The review identified servant leadership’s effectiveness in providing interpersonal support (Reed, Vidaver-Cohen, & Colwell, 2011), job social support (Yang, Zhang, Kwan, & Chen, 2018), and supervisory support (one study) (Ehrhart, 2004). A third empowerment-related skill set is cultivating employee voice (two studies) (Chughtai, 2016; Lapointe & Vandenberghe, 2018). It is vital that employees are consulted and possess a viable means to provide ongoing open and honest two-way feedback and communication. A fourth empowerment-­related element is promoting an organizational learning climate in which trial and error is not viewed as failure but an opportunity for growth (one study) (Focht & Ponton, 2015). Another vital change management skill is providing a compelling and inspiriting vision for the future. Without a clear vision and direction, it is very difficult to justify the costs of long-term organizational change. Employees need to possess

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SL Employee Investment Behaviors (30) • Empowerment (12) • Active listening (4) • Emphasize follower development (3) • Egalitarianism (2) • Relationship building (2) • Values and has confidence in people (2) • Consulting and involving others (1) • Interpersonal support (1) • Learning (1), Sharing power (1) and Standing back (1) SL Altruistic Leadership Orientation (42) • Servanthood (10) • Motives, serve others first (5) • Agapao love (4) • Needs of others over self (4) • Put subordinates first (4) • Stewardship (4) • Altruism (3) • Altruistic calling (2), Covenantal relationship (2), Voluntary subordination (2), Optimal human functioning (1), Positive effect on least privileged (1) SL Community Investment Behaviors (9) • Creating community value (5) • Building Community (4) SL • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Trust Building Character Virtues and Behaviors (55) Humility (9) Moral integrity (7) Healing (6) Authentic self (4), Authenticity (4) Behave ethically (4) Empathy (4) Trust (4) Responsible morality (3) Courage (2), Forgiveness (2) Caring (1) Credibility (1) Gratitude (1) Honesty (1) Hope (1) Wisdom (1)

SL Leadership Transcendence Behaviors (14) • Vision (5) • Transcendental spirituality (3) • Calling (2) • Transformational influence (2) • Inspiring others (1) • Meaningfulness (1)

Employee Antecedent Wellbeing Variables (65) • Satisfaction (19) • Organizational trust (12) • Engagement (10) • Leader trust (4) • Affective and cognitive trust (3) • Empowerment (3) • Life satisfaction (3) • Procedural justice (3) • Interpersonal group trust (2) • Loyalty (2) • Career satisfaction (1) • Disengagement (1) • Interactional justice (1) • Procedural justice (1)

Wellbeing Outcomes (22) • Work/family enrichment (5) • Employee wellbeing (4) • Ethical and socio moral work climate (3) • Positive work climate (3) • Burnout (2) • Stress (2) • Work/family conflict (2) • Employee thriving (1)

Fig. 3.2  Servant leadership (SL) and workplace wellbeing model (# of studies)

hope and confidence that the present sacrifices will promote the mission, enhance effectiveness, and provide growth and development opportunities. Key skill sets in the area include conceptualization, an essential mental and critical thinking tool that helps to chart a course of action and identify implementation problems and issues (five studies) (Spears, 1998; Liden, Panaccio, et al., 2014; Liden et al., 2015), vision casting (five studies) (Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999; Wong & Page, 2003; Boone

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Table 3.4  Servant leader’s change management skills Attribute, number of studies 1. Empowerment, 15

2. Conceptualization, 5

3. Empathy, 5 4. Leader competence and effectiveness, 5 5. Vision, 5 6. Active listening, 4 7. Foresight, 3 8. Voice, 2 9. Consulting and involving others, 1 10. Inspiring other, 1 11. Interpersonal support,1 12. Job social support, 1 13. Learning, 1 14. Persuasive mapping, 1 15. Servant follower development, 1

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 53 total Patterson (2003); Wong & Page (2003); Dennis & Bocarnea (2005); Taylor, Martin, Hutchinson, & Jinks (2007); Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson (2008); van Dierendonck (2011); van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); Boone & Makhani (2012); de Waal & Sivro (2012); Mittal & Dorfman (2012); Liden, Panaccio, Hu, & Meuser (2014); Focht & Ponton (2015); Liden, Wayne, Meuser, Hu, Wu, & Liao (2015); van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015); Begzadeh & Nedaei (2017) Spears (1998); Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson (2008); van Dierendonck (2011); Liden, Panaccio, Hu, & Meuser (2014); Liden, Wayne, Meuser, Hu, Wu, & Liao (2015) Spears (1998); Barbuto & Wheeler (2006); Washington, Sutton, & Feild (2006); Mittal & Dorfman (2012); Sun (2013) Washington, Sutton, & Feild (2006); Mayer, Bardes, & Piccolo (2008); McCuddy & Cavin (2008); Flynn, Smither, & Walker (2016); Irving & Berndt (2017) Farling, Stone & Winston (1999); Patterson (2003); Wong & Page (2003); Dennis & Bocarnea (2005); Boone & Makhani (2012) Spears (1998); Barbuto & Wheeler (2006); Boone & Makhani (2012); Focht & Ponton (2015) Spears (1998); Laub (1999); Patterson (2003) Chughtai (2016); Lapointe & Vandenberghe (2018) Wong & Davey (2007) Wong & Davey (2007) Reed, Vidaver-Cohen, & Colwell (2011) Yang, Zhang, Kwan, & Chen (2018) Focht & Ponton (2015) Barbuto & Wheeler (2006) Parris & Peachy (2012)

& Makhani, 2012), strategic foresight (three studies) (Spears, 1998; Laub, 1999; Patterson, 2003), persuasive mapping (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006), and inspiriting others (one study) (Wong & Davey, 2007). The skill sets of empathy (five studies) (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; Mittal & Dorfman, 2012; Sun, 2013) and active listening (four studies) (Spears, 1998; Boone & Makhani, 2012; Focht & Ponton, 2015) enable servant leaders to more effectively diagnose obstacles to organizational change (Roberts, 2015). Empathy is vital to understanding the perspectives of

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others including underlying motives, goals, and patterns of thought. Active listening entails a systematic and ongoing focus on the other person, giving your undivided attention and focus including nonjudgmental eye contact, body posture/movements, and tone of voice. With active listening, the leader employs a two to one or higher listen to talk ratio, probes frequently, and paraphrases. Given that humans can think faster than speak, it is vital to control the tendency to think of a response while the other person is speaking. The work of Roberts (2015) summarizes the sources of resistance to organizational change into three global areas: servanthood or stewardship factors, psychological elements, and ego-related self-interest factors. Servanthood and stewardship reasons include adverse impact on mission achievement, conflicts with foundational organizational values, deontological conflict (ethical impropriety), adverse impact on the efficiency or effectiveness of program, product or service delivery, adverse impact on key stakeholders (clients and employees), and absence of adequate employee support (training, resources, and time). Psychological change resistance factors include lack of trust through high levels of skepticism and cynicism, fear of the unknown, lack of efficacy (confidence) to cope with the demands of the new situation, fear of failure, disruption of comfortable routine and a perfectionistic spirit that inhibits innovation and trial and error learning. The final attribute, ego and political organizational change resistance factors, includes fear over loss of power, resources, influence and prestige, lack of trust in the organization, and personality conflicts and power struggles. The final change management skill relates to the overall confidence that subordinates possess in the leader’s competence and effectiveness. If employees suspect the competence or integrity of leadership and managerial abilities, they are less willing to exert effort and assume risk. The review found five studies that emphasized servant leadership’s ability to foster leader competence and effectiveness perceptions (Washington, Sutton, & Feild, 2006; Flynn, Smither, & Walker, 2016; Irving & Berndt, 2017).

Servant Leader’s Trust-Building Behaviors The level of employee trust is a major element in any organizational change scenario. Table 3.5 summarizes the results for the 80 studies reviewed. Servant leadership research demonstrates conclusively a very strong correlation with the diverse forms of employee trust-building behaviors (four studies) (Farling et  al., 1999; Dennis & Bocarnea, 2005; Focht & Ponton, 2015). The key factor is servanthood, the completion of the mission in a fashion that promotes the long term interests and growth of employees. An associated trust-building pillar is employee confidence in the moral and ethical integrity of leadership. The reviewed studies demonstrate servant leadership is associated with favorable levels of servanthood (10 studies) (Greenleaf, 1977; Wong & Davey, 2007; and Liden et al., 2015) and the associated perceptions of the leader’s motive to serve others first (five studies) (Farling et al.,

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Table 3.5  Servant leader’s trust-building behaviors and attributes Attribute, number of studies 1. Servanthood, 10

2. Humility, 9

3. Moral integrity, 8

4. Behave ethically, ethical work climate, 7

5. Motives, serve others first, 5 6. Agapao love, 4 7. Authentic self, 4 8. Needs of others over self, 4 9. Put subordinates first, 4 10. Trust, 4 11. Altruism, 3 12. Procedural justice, 3 13. Responsible morality, 3 14. Altruistic calling, 2 15. Covenantal relationship, 2 16. Forgiveness, 2 17. Credibility, 1

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 80 total studies Greenleaf (1977); Spears (1998); Laub (1999); Wong & Page (2003); Wong & Davey (2007); Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson (2008); van Dierendonck (2011); Boone & Makhani (2012); Liden, Panaccio, Hu, & Meuser (2014); Liden, Wayne, Meuser, Hu, Wu, & Liao (2015) Patterson (2003); Dennis & Bocarnea (2005); Wong & Davey (2007); van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); Mittal & Dorfman (2012); Sun (2013); Reid, Bud West, Winston, & Wood (2014); Focht & Ponton (2015); van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015) Graham (1991); Ehrhart (2004); Wong & Davey (2007); Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke (2010); Reed, Vidaver-Cohen, & Colwell (2011); Mittal & Dorfman (2012); Focht & Ponton (2015); Sihombing, Astuti, Al Musadieq, Hamied, & Rahardjo (2018) Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson (2008); van Dierendonck (2011); Liden, Panaccio, Hu, & Meuser (2014); Jaramillo, Bande, & Varela (2015); Liden, Wayne, Meuser, Hu, Wu, & Liao (2015); Pircher Verdorfer, Steinheider, & Burkus (2015); Burton, Welty Peachey, & Wells (2017) Greenleaf (1977); Farling, Stone, & Winston (1999); Patterson (2003); Boone & Makhani (2012); Focht & Ponton (2015) Patterson (2003); Sun (2013); van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015); Focht & Ponton (2015) Wong & Davey (2007); Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora (2008); Pekerti & Sendjaya (2010); Sendjaya & Pekerti (2010) Laub (1999); Hale & Fields (2007); Wong & Davey (2007); Focht & Ponton (2015) Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson (2008); van Dierendonck (2011); Liden, Panaccio, Hu, & Meuser (2014); Liden, Wayne, Meuser, Hu, Wu, & Liao (2015) Farling, Stone, & Winston (1999); Patterson (2003); Dennis & Bocarnea (2005); Focht & Ponton (2015) Patterson (2003); Reed, Vidaver-Cohen, & Colwell (2011); van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015) Ehrhart (2004); Chung, Jung, Kyle, & Petrick (2010); Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke (2010) Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora (2008); Sendjaya & Pekerti (2010); Pekerti & Sendjaya (2010); Barbuto & Wheeler (2006); van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015) Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora (2008); Sendjaya & Pekerti (2010) van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015) Farling, Stone & Winston (1999) (continued)

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Table 3.5 (continued) Attribute, number of studies 18. Distributive justice, 1 19. Gratitude, 1 20. Honesty, 1 21. Hope, 1 22. Interactional justice, 1

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 80 total studies Schwepker Jr. (2016) van Dierendonck & Patterson (2015) Wong & Page (2003) Searle & Barbuto, John Jr. (2011) Kool & Dirk (2012)

1999; Patterson, 2003; Focht & Ponton, 2015), practicing agapao love which is the “golden rule” love of neighbor in the workplace (four studies) (Patterson, 2003; Sun, 2013; van Dierendonck & Patterson, 2015), prioritizing the needs of others over self (four studies) (Laub, 1999; Hale & Fields, 2007; Focht & Ponton, 2015), placing subordinates first (four studies) (van Dierendonck, 2011; Liden, Panaccio, et al., 2014; Liden et al., 2015), practicing altruism (three studies) (Patterson, 2003; Reed et  al., 2011; van Dierendonck & Patterson, 2015), and altruistic calling (two studies) (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; van Dierendonck & Patterson, 2015). The rich array of studies demonstrates a robust positive association with servant leadership and the key character virtues that promote trust. The most frequent character virtues were humility (nine studies) (Wong & Davey, 2007; Mittal & Dorfman, 2012; Focht & Ponton, 2015), moral integrity (eight studies) (Graham, 1991; Reed et al., 2011; Focht & Ponton, 2015), authentic self (four studies) (Wong & Davey, 2007; Pekerti & Sendjaya, 2010; Sendjaya & Pekerti, 2010); promoting forgiveness (two studies) (van Dierendonck & Nuijten, 2011; van Dierendonck & Patterson, 2015), credibility (one study) (Farling et  al., 1999), gratitude (one study) (van Dierendonck & Patterson, 2015), honesty (one study) (Wong & Page, 2003), and hope (Searle & Barbuto John, 2011). There were seven ethical behavior related studies focusing on behaving ethically and promoting an ethical work climate (Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008; Liden, Panaccio, et  al., 2014; Liden et al., 2015) along with responsible morality (three studies) (Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora, 2008; Pekerti & Sendjaya, 2010; Sendjaya & Pekerti, 2010). The final set of trust-building behaviors relates to providing a fair organizational decision-making process. Servant leadership is associated with higher levels of procedural justice (three studies) (Ehrhart, 2004; Chung, Jung, Kyle, & Petrick, 2010; Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke, 2010), distributive justice (one study) (Schwepker Jr, 2016), and interactional justice (Kool & Dirk, 2012).

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Foundational Servant Follower Behaviors and Attributes In order for leaders to lead effectively, it requires the good faith cooperation and commitment of employees. As such, servant leaders promote servant followership or the enduring commitment to serve and complete the mission with excellence irrespective of the obstacles and the nature of leadership, management, and supervision (Roberts, 2015). In essence, it is a form of intrinsic motivation and character excellence through stewardship and servanthood. There is a clear body of evidence to support the symbiotic relationship between servant leadership and servant follower behavior of employees (73 studies) as summarized in Table 3.6. Servant leadership is associated with higher levels of organizational citizenship (21 studies) (Ehrhart, 2004; Zhao, Liu, & Gao, 2016; Chiniara & Bentein, 2018), organizational commitment (21 studies) (Hale & Fields, 2007; Irving & Berndt, 2017; Walumbwa, Muchiri, Misati, Wu, & Meiliani, 2018), and employee engagement (10 studies) (Parris & peachy, 2012; Prottas, 2013; Ling, Liu, & Wu, 2017). Other key indicators of servant follower behaviors are well represented including collaboration (three studies) (Irving & Longbotham, 2007; Garber, Madigan, Click, & Fitzpatrick, 2009; Sturm, 2009), commitment to supervisor (three studies) (Walumbwa et al., 2010; Sokoll, 2014; Joo, Byun, Jang, & Lee, 2018), self-efficacy and psychological ­capital (three studies) (Walumbwa et  al., 2010; Bouzari & Karatepe, 2017; Yang et  al., 2018), organizational loyalty (two studies) (Ding, Lu, Song, & Lu, 2012; Carter & Baghurst, 2014), team cohesion (two studies) (Chiniara & Bentein, 2018; Wong, Liu, Wang, & Tjosvold, 2018), team potency/efficacy (two studies) (Chung et al., 2010; Hu & Liden, 2011), antisocial behaviors (one study) (Lapointe & Vandenberghe, 2018), disengagement (one study) (Hunter et al., 2013), employee deviancy (one study) (Peng, Jien, & Lin, 2016), high-performance attributes (one study) (de Waal & Sivro, 2012), team dysfunctional conflict (one study) (Wong et al., 2018), and team functional conflict (Wong et al., 2018). In summary, there is clear empirical evidence that servant leadership promotes high levels of servant followership, an essential element of organizational change.

 hange Foundational Constituent Elements, Foundational C Affective States, and Employee Well Being and Trust Employee attitudes influence overall change management behavior. When employees possess more favorable job-related attitudes, their overall motivation and persistence are enhanced. There were 24 total studies reviewed (see Table  3.7) that demonstrated consistent positive influence of servant leadership on employee job satisfaction (19 studies) (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; Prottas, 2013; Donia, Raja, Panaccio, & Wang, 2016), public service motivation (three studies) (Liu, Hu, & Cheng, 2015; Tuan, 2016; Liu et  al., 2018), organizational trust (one study) (Sihombing, Astuti, Al Musadieq, Hamied, & Rahardjo, 2018), and proactive motivation (one study) (Bande, Fernández-Ferrín, Varela-Neira, & Otero-Neira, 2016).

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Table 3.6  Positive change foundational constituent (antecedent) elements and foundational servant follower behaviors/attitudes Dependent variable, number of studies 1. OCB, 21

2. Commitment, 21

3. Engagement, 10

4. Collaboration, 3

5. Commitment to supervisor, 3

6. Self-efficacy and psychological capital, 3 7. Loyalty, 2

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 73 total studies Favorable: 20, Ehrhart (2004); Vondey (2010); Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, & Roberts (2008); Ebener & O’Connell (2010); Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke (2010); Hu & Liden (2011); Güçel & Begec (2012); Zehiri, Akyuz, Erin & Turhan (2013); Wu, Tse, Fu, Kwan, & Liu (2013); Yoshida, Sendjaya, Hirst, & Cooper (2014); Panaccio, Henderson, Liden, Wayne, & Cao (2015); Abu Bakar & McCann (2016); Chiniara & Bentein (2016); Grisaffe, VanMeter, & Chonko (2016); Zhao, Liu, & Gao (2016); Amah (2018); Bavik, Yuen Lam, & Pok Man (2017); Bouzari & Karatepe (2017); Newman, Schwarz, Cooper, & Sendjaya (2017); Trong Tuan (2017); Chiniara & Bentein (2018) Not significant: 1, Donia, Raja, Panaccio, & Wang (2016) Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 21, Ehrhart (2004); Hale & Fields (2007); Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson (2008); Cerit (2009); Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts (2009a); Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts (2009b); Pekerti & Sendjaya (2010); Schneider & George (2011); van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); Carter & Baghurst (2014); Miao, Newman, Schwarz, & Xu (2014); van Dierendonck, Stam, Boersma, de Windt, & Alkema (2014); Yingying & Qing (2014); Bal Tastan & Kalafatoğlu (2015); Irving & Berndt (2017); Jang & Kandampully (2018); Han, Kakabadse, & Kakabadse (2010); Ling, Liu, & Wu (2017); Joo, (Brian), Byun, Jang, & Lee (2018); Lapointe & Vandenberghe (2018); Walumbwa, Muchiri, Misati, Wu, & Meiliani (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 10, van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); Parris & Peachy (2012); Prottas (2013); Carter & Baghurst (2014); De Clercq, Bouckenooghe, Raja, & Matsyborska (2014); de Sousa & van Dierendonck (2014); van Dierendonck, Stam, Boersma, de Windt, & Alkema (2014); Haar, Brougham, Roche, & Barney (2017); Ling, Liu, & Wu (2017); Sousa & Dierendonck (2017) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 3, Irving & Longbotham (2007); Garber, Madigan, Click, & Fitzpatrick (2009); Sturm (2009) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 3, Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke (2010); Sokoll (2014); Joo, (Brian), Byun, Jang, & Lee (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 3, Walumbwa, Hartnell, & Oke (2010); Bouzari & Karatepe (2017); Yang, Zhang, Kwan, & Chen (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 2, Ding, Lu, Song, & Lu (2012); Carter & Baghurst (2014) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 (continued)

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Table 3.6 (continued) Dependent variable, number of studies 8. Team cohesion, 2

9. Team potency (confidence or efficacy), 2 10. Antisocial behaviors, 1 11. Disengagement, 1

12. Employee deviancy, 1 13. High-­ performance attributes, 1 14. Team dysfunctional conflict, 1 15. Team functional conflict, 1

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 73 total studies Favorable: 2, Chiniara & Bentein (2018); Wong, Liu, Wang, & Tjosvold, D. (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 2, Chung, Jung, Kyle, & Petrick (2010); Hu & Liden (2011) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 0 Not significant: 1, Lapointe & Vandenberghe (2018). Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Hunter, Neubert, Perry, Witt, Penney, & Weinberger (2013) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Peng, Jien, & Lin (2016) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, de Waal & Sivro (2012) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 0 Not significant: 1, Wong, Liu, Wang, & Tjosvold (2018) Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Wong, Liu, Wang, & Tjosvold (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0

Table 3.7  Positive change foundational constituent (antecedent) elements and foundational affective states Dependent variable, number of studies 1. Satisfaction, 19

2. Public service motivation, 3

3. Organizational culture, 1 4. Proactive motivation, 1

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 24 total studies Favorable: 18, Barbuto & Wheeler (2006); Mayer, Bardes, & Piccolo (2008); Chung, Jung, Kyle, & Petrick (2010); Mehta & Pillay (2011); Schneider & George (2011); van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); Irving & Berndt (2017); Jenkins & Stewart (2010); Jones (2012b); Prottas (2013); Cerit (2009); Chan & Mak (2014); Grisaffe, VanMeter, & Chonko (2016); Donia, Raja, Panaccio, & Wang (2016); Neubert, Hunter, & Tolentino (2016); Akdol & Arikboga (2017); Ilkhanizadeh & Karatepe (2018) Thompson, Buch, & Glasø (2019) Not significant: 1, Amah (2018) Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 3, Liu, Hu, & Cheng (2015); Tuan (2016); Liu, Perry, Tan, & Zhou (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Sihombing, Astuti, Al Musadieq, Hamied, & Rahardjo (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Bande, Fernández-Ferrín, Varela-Neira, & Otero-Neira (2016) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0

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Table 3.8 Positive change foundational constituent (antecedent) elements and employee wellbeing Dependent variable, number of studies Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 19 total studies 1. Work/family Favorable: 5, Zhang, Kwan, Everett, & Jian (2012); Tang, Kwan, Zhang, enrichment, 5 & Zhu (2016); Haar, Brougham, Roche, & Barney (2017); Wang, Kwan, & Zhou (2017); Yang, Zhang, Kwan, & Chen (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 2. Wellbeing, 4 Favorable: 4, Reinke (2004); Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts (2009b); van Dierendonck & Nuijten (2011); Maula-Bakhsh & Raziq (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 3. Positive work Favorable: 3, Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, & Roberts (2008); climate, 3 Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts (2009a); Black (2010) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 4. Burnout, 2 Favorable: 2, Babakus, Yavas, & Ashill (2011); Bande, Fernández-Ferrín, Varela, & Jaramillo (2015) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 5. Stress, 2 Favorable: 2, Prottas (2013), Rivkin, Diestel, & Schmidt (2014) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 2, Prottas (2013); Tang, Kwan, Zhang, & Zhu (2016) 6. Work/family conflict, 2 Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Walumbwa, Muchiri, Misati, Wu, & Meiliani (2018) 7. Employee thriving, 1 Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0

There are 19 servant leader outcomes that directly assess the influence of servant leadership on various wellbeing variables (see Table 3.8 for a complete list). Servant leadership is positively associated with higher levels of work and family life enrichment (five studies) (Zhang, Kwan, Everett, & Jian, 2012; Haar, Brougham, Roche, & Barney, 2017; Yang et  al., 2018), employee wellbeing (four studies) (Reinke, 2004; Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts, 2009b; Maula-Bakhsh, & Raziq 2018), positive work climate (three studies) (Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, & Roberts, 2008; Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts, 2009a; Black, 2010), lower levels of burnout (two studies) (Babakus, Yavas, & Ashill, 2011; Bande, Fernández-­ Ferrín, Varela, & Jaramillo, 2015), lower levels of stress (two studies) (Prottas, 2013: Rivkin, Diestel, & Schmidt, 2014), reduced work and family conflict (two studies) (Prottas, 2013; Tang, Kwan, Zhang, & Zhu, 2016), and employee thriving (one study) (Walumbwa et al., 2018). Servant leaders understand the foundational

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importance of work/life balance. Roberts (2015, p.  252) summarizes key servant leader wellbeing enhancement practices below: Provide employees with a job security reinforcing that layoffs are always a last resort option. Leaders should model a commitment to work/life balance for themselves and their employees by limiting work hours. Managers commit to a moral work environment emphasizing procedural, distributive, and interactional justice and avoid even the appearance of favoritism and “in-group” formation. Servant leaders seek to understand the needs and feelings of employees through genuine relationship building. Management drives fear from the workplace by encouraging employees to grow and learn through mistakes and failures and openly discuss their own weaknesses and failings thereby promoting two-way transparency. Management sets a clear mission, vision, value, and set of strategic goals for the organization providing a clear moral and performance directional compass. Managers commit to ongoing employee encouragement, communicate a realistic optimism that provides hope, and generates faith in management. The servant leader facilitates the development of employee social support networks and sponsors and encourages opportunities for social interaction among workers.

The servant leader embraces a long-term and enduring investment in the wellbeing of employees demonstrating a consistent, harmonious, and authentic moral, ethical, and mission-related worldview. Table 3.9 summarizes the 23 direct studies on servant leadership’s positive influence on various forms of trust. Servant leadership is positively associated with higher levels of organizational trust (12 studies) (Reinke, 2004; Jones, 2012a, 2012b), leader trust (four studies) (Reinke, 2004; Joseph & Winston, 2005; Burton, Welty Peachey, & Wells, 2017), affective and cognitive trust (three studies) (Sendjaya & Pekerti, 2010; Schaubroeck, Lam, & Peng, 2011; Miao, Newman, Schwarz, & Xu, 2014), interpersonal group trust (two studies) (Chatbury, Beaty, & Kriek, 2011; Ling et al., 2017), and general trust (two studies) (Miao et al., 2014; and Jaramillo, Bande, & Varela, 2015). With high trust levels, change management effectiveness is facilitated greatly.

Employee Change Dependent Variables The research review demonstrated a consistently positive influence of servant leadership on employee change-related variables. There were 18 total studies (see Table 3.10) that demonstrated servant leadership enhances the presence of employee creative and helping behaviors (eight studies) (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; Panaccio, Henderson, Liden, Wayne, & Cao, 2015; Karatepe, Ozturk & Kim, 2019), commitment to change (Taylor, Martin, Hutchinson, & Jinks, 2007; Kool & Dirk, 2012; Tseng, 2017), organizational learning (three studies) (Choudhary, Akhtar, & Zaheer, 2013; Trong Tuan, 2017; Tseng, 2017), adaptability to change (one study) (Bande et al., 2016), service-sales ambidexterity (one study) (Bouzari & Karatepe, 2017), customer service recovery performance (one study) (Karatepe, Ozturk & Kim 2019), and extra role performance (one study) (Zhen, Haoying, & Yukun, 2018). Hence, this review of the servant leadership literature demonstrates the consistent

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Table 3.9  Positive change foundational constituent (antecedent) elements and trust variables Dependent variable, number of studies Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 23 total studies 1. Organizational Favorable: 12, Reinke (2004); Joseph & Winston (2005); Washington, trust, 12 Sutton, & Feild (2006); Sendjaya & Pekerti (2010); Rezaei, Salehi, Shafiei, & Sabet (2011); Jones (2012a); Jones (2012b); Uru Sani, Caliskan, Atan, O, & Yozgat (2013); Chan & Mak (2014); Begzadeh & Nedaei (2017); Ilkhanizadeh & Karatepe (2018); Karatepe, Ozturk, & Kim (2019) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 2. Leader trust, 4 Favorable: 4, Reinke (2004); Joseph & Winston (2005); Seto & Sarros (2016); Burton, Welty Peachey, & Wells (2017) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 3. Affective and Favorable: 3, Sendjaya & Pekerti (2010); Schaubroeck, Lam, & Peng cognitive trust, 3 (2011); Miao, Newman, Schwarz, & Xu (2014) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 4. Interpersonal Favorable: 2, Chatbury, Beaty, & Kriek (2011); Ling, Liu, & Wu (2017) trust, 2 Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 5. Trust, 2 Favorable: 2, Miao, Newman, Schwarz, & Xu (2014); Jaramillo, Bande, & Varela (2015) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0

effectiveness of servant leadership in cultivating the effective antecedent attitudes, skills, behaviors, and character attributes that cultivate the key elements of trust and organizational citizenship, which in turn, enhance the direct change-related ­behaviors. There is consistent evidence of servant leadership’s beneficial influence on performance outcomes in general (Roberts, 2018), but not linked to the specific outcomes of clearly defined and bounded organizational change efforts. (Exhibit 3.1)

Conclusion and Future Research Recommendations The research literature on servant leadership supports with a high degree of consistency of its efficacy in promoting employee change as broadly defined. The studies reviewed for this analysis demonstrated favorable direct and indirect influence with 95.6% of the dependent variables. Servant leadership research demonstrates significant “value added” incremental explained variance in comparison to other leadership approaches such as transformational and authentic leadership (Hoch et  al., 2018). Servant leadership’s espousal and practice of teleological, deontological, and

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Table 3.10  Positive employee change dependent variables Dependent variable, number of studies 1. Employee creative and helping behavior, 8

2. Commitment to change, 3

3. Organizational learning, 3

4. Adaptability to change, 1

5. Service-sales ambidexterity, 1 6. Customer service recovery performance, 1 7. Extra role performance, 1

Servant leader studies that incorporate the attribute, 23 total studies Favorable: 8 Barbuto & Wheeler (2006); Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, & Roberts (2008); Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts (2009b); Liden, Wayne, Chenwei, & Meuser (2014); Panaccio, Henderson, Liden, Wayne, & Cao (2015); Neubert, Hunter, & Tolentino (2016); Nart, Yaprak, Yildrim, & Sarihan (2018); Karatepe, Ozturk, & Kim (2019) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 3, Taylor, Martin, Hutchinson, & Jinks (2007); Kool & Dirk (2012); Tseng (2017) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 3, Choudhary & Zaheer (2013); Trong Tuan (2017); Tseng (2017) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Bande, Fernández-Ferrín, Varela-Neira, & Otero-Neira (2016) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Bouzari & Karatepe (2017) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Karatepe, Ozturk, & Kim (2019) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0 Favorable: 1, Zhen, Haoying, & Yukun (2018) Not significant: 0 Unfavorable: 0

virtue ethics generates the foundational trust levels that support healthy and robust workplace relationships that facilitate employee motivation and persistence in the face of obstacles. The results presented here demonstrate servant leadership’s efficacy in promoting the desirable antecedent workplace attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes associated with efficacious organizational change in diverse settings, geographically and culturally, of employment sector (private, government, and nonprofit), and by type of occupation. Hence, the evidence surrounding servant leadership is compelling, but more research is required to fully develop and validate the broad-based effects. What is lacking in the servant leader literature is empirical evidence that links servant leadership to specific effective mission-related goals or objectives of the change effort. It will be important in the future to develop multimethod and measure research designs that systematically assess the effectiveness of servant leadership on organizational change across the full range of research designs. For example,

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G. Roberts

Table 3.11  Master list, employee attitudes, and number of favorable direct and indirect effects of servant leadership studies

Variable Organizational (community) citizenship Organizational (customer service) commitment Job satisfaction Organizational trust (trust, affective, cognitive trust) Employee engagement (disengagement) Work/family Motivation Procedural/interactive/distributional justice Stress/burnout/health Employee wellbeing Need and life satisfaction Organizational identification Commitment to change Ethical/moral work climate Interpersonal/group trust/healthy work relationships Positive work climate Self-efficacy/psychological capital Loyalty Career satisfaction Diversity management Employee thriving Job boredom Organizational fit Social capital Sum

Table 3.12  Master list, employee behaviors, and number of favorable direct and indirect effects of servant leadership studies

Variable In-role performance Turnover Employee creative and helping behavior Organizational learning/knowledge sharing Job crafting Tardiness Team cohesion Voice and negative feedback seeking Adaptability to change Employee deviancy Extra-role performance Job social support Leadership avoidance Organizational culture Proenvironmental behaviors Service-sales ambidexterity Tacit knowledge Team functional conflict Sum

# 23 22 18 17 11 7 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 148

# 13 11 10 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 55

3  Servant Leadership and Change: A Review of the Literature Table 3.13  Master list, performance variables, and number of favorable direct and indirect effects of servant leadership studies

53

Variable Customer service/relations Firm performance Team effectiveness Corporate social responsibility Team potency Client satisfaction High-performance attributes Organizational resiliency Profit Unit performance Sum

# 7 7 6 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 30

Table 3.14  Master list, leadership variables, and number of favorable direct and indirect effects of servant leadership studies Variable Leader competence/effectiveness Leader trust Leader/member exchange Collaboration Commitment to supervisor Empowerment Goal and process clarity Customer service recovery performance (failure) Leader development Leadership identification Leadership/relationship quality Satisfaction with supervisor Servant follower development Succession planning Supervisory support Task and development I-deals (personalized work arrangements) Women higher in servant leadership Sum

Table 3.15  Master list, character variables, and number of favorable direct and indirect effects of servant leadership studies

Variable Leader character Agreeableness Empathy Extraversion Hope Integrity Vitality Sum

# 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 35

# 2 1 1 1 1 1 7

54 Table 3.16  Master list, character variables, and number of nonsignificant and negative direct and indirect effects of servant leadership studies

G. Roberts Variable Organizational outcomes (nonsignificant) Firm performance Antisocial behaviors Leadership span of control Leadership style preference Lean practices Organizational citizenship Satisfaction Team dysfunctional conflict Total nonsignificant Negative outcomes Lean tools, negative Total nonsignificant Totals negative Totals nonsignificant or negative

# 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 9 1 10

detailed case study assessments of change initiatives focusing on organizational design, service delivery, and overall mission achievement using qualitative and quantitative methods that assess the direct and indirect perceptions of employees, and first, mid-level, and executive leadership as well as other key stakeholders such as clients, customers, and volunteers. Second, the development of experimental and quasi-experimental program evaluation designs to ascertain the role of servant leadership on formative and summative outcomes is essential. Third, the development of cross-sectional research by industry, sector, and other key macro variables. For example, more research is required on the moderator and mediator variables such as gender, personality, emotional, and spiritual intelligence levels of leaders and subordinates. Recent research has demonstrated that job characteristics such as larger spans of control for leaders can attenuate the effectiveness of servant leadership (Thompson, Buch, & Glasø, 2019). More research is required to demonstrate servant leadership efficacy in promoting organizational change in regions of the world including Central and South America and Africa. Another important area for future research relates to assessing the effectiveness of servant leadership and change in diverse workplace settings in terms of gender, race, age, nationality, and religion. In conclusion, servant leadership exerts an impressive degree of consistency in promoting the antecedent variables that cultivate organizational change reflecting the presence of a global set of human conduct principles that mirror the golden rule precepts of the world’s major faith traditions. Traditional authoritarian and hierarchical forms of leadership are ill-suited to the fluid and changing present-day workplace which requires organic organization design and decision making structures given the environment of increasing complexity. Hence, today’s organizations require the cultivation of long-term employee growth and development in empo­ wered decision making in conjunction with critical thinking and analytical skills.

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The other aspect of the modern workplace is the ongoing requirement of leaders and employees to manage their affective states and mental processing through the emotional intelligence principles of emotional awareness and regulation of self and others (Roberts, 2015). Servant leadership’s emphasis on character virtue and self and subordinate knowledge of strengths and weaknesses provides for the key elements of empathy and active listening necessary to ongoing two-way communication to support problem solving and overcoming organizational micro and macro change-­ related obstacles. Hence, servant leaders possess the humility to recognize self and subordinate limits and invest in the growth of employee and other organizational stakeholders, internalizing the words and example of Jesus in Mark 9:35 “Anyone who wants to be first must be the very last, and the servant of all.” Chapter Takeaways • Servant leadership enhances employee trust, a foundational emotional affective state for effective organizational change management. • Servant leadership enhances the breadth, depth, and scope of employee participation and input, lowering resistance to organizational change efforts. • Servant leadership enhances employee creativity and innovation behaviors by reducing employee performance failure fears given the emphasis on long-term growth and learning from experience. • Servant leadership reduces employee change resistance given higher perceived levels of leadership integrity. • Servant leadership enhances the organizational citizenship behaviors that are essential for extra-role effort to promote successful organizational change. Reflection Questions 1. Reflect on your present level of empowerment either as an employee or as a supervisor. Is it sufficient for developing new skills? 2. How would you characterize the present level of trust between labor and management in your organization? What are the factors that attenuate trust and how can they be remedied? 3. What are the main obstacles to successful organizational change and how can they be overcome with the adoption of servant leadership practices? 4. How can your organization enhance employee confidence and trust in the integrity of executive leadership? 5. How does organizational leadership respond to employee performance failure? Do the organization’s leaders demonstrate patience and a long-term time horizon in managing the learning process?

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Appendix Exhibit 3.1 Summary of servant leader’s change principles (Roberts, 2014, 2015)

Spiritual Foundation • The importance of ongoing foundational prayer to provide the necessary spiritual covering Emphasize Common Interests • The need to diagnose the interests and concerns of the key stakeholders on an ongoing basis: • Employ a systematic data gathering process including surveys, focus groups, town meetings, suggestion systems, and a balanced scorecard. • The importance of empowering the key stakeholders in the implementation process to enhance ownership and buy-in. Convene implementation teams responsible for ongoing improvement efforts. • The need for a systematic, multimedia communication campaign directed at the key stakeholders. This communication campaign is critical to engendering support and overcoming opposition. Overcoming Entrenched Resistance • God-honoring means for overcoming entrenched employee resistance to the change effort. Clear Goals and Standards to Guide Efforts and Serve as Sources for Performance Feedback • The importance of setting clear action plans with SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant to the mission, and time bound) goals. It is critical that the key stakeholders participate in developing the SMART goals and metrics to enhance acceptance, relevancy, validity, and commitment. • The importance of developing clear metrics to gauge progress. Support the Planning Process • Provide employees with the training and resource support for changing work role demands and requirements. Many organizational change efforts lose credibility and employee trust when change efforts add new duties with no infrastructure assistance Institutionalize a Learning Organization Culture and Tools to Reinforce Cultural Change • Linkage of reward systems (budget, compensation, and recognition) at all levels to the achievement of HR plan goals, objectives, and metrics. The key is to reward participants for process compliance and outcome success.

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• Strategic uses of innovation grants to support change efforts. The key is to select pilot projects with a high probability of success (pick the low hanging fruit) and publicize these early successes. In effect, these become ­powerful testimonials that enhance the credibility of the change process (a form of word of mouth marketing). Ensuring Long-Term Commitment and Continuity • Emphasize the long term nature of the process that there are up-front costs for great downstream benefits. Strategic Change Quality Control • Provide ongoing evaluation of the planning and alignment process. Effective planning is integrated into the fabric of managerial decision making. Conduct yearly assessments of the plan’s progress and engage the key stakeholders in the evaluation process. This is accomplished through implementation teams that review the evaluation data and make recommendations for adjustments in the goals and implementation plan. The key components in the organizational change process are summarized below: • Communication: systematically state the benefits and costs of the change and the status-quo using a multimethod and media campaign • Staffing: select passionate and skilled change champions and facilitators • Empower: empower key stakeholders to aligning interests, facilitating ownership and improving effectiveness of the change process • Support: provide stakeholders with training and resources • Accountability: employ metrics and feedback • Flexibility: ongoing implementation adjustments • Reinforcement: link rewards to process and outcome results • Assess: systematically evaluate progress • Adjust: revise plan based upon data

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van Dierendonck, D., & Patterson, K. (2015). Compassionate love as a cornerstone of servant leadership: An integration of previous theorizing and research. Journal of Business Ethics, 128(1), 119–131. van Dierendonck, D., Stam, D., Boersma, P., de Windt, N., & Alkema, J. (2014). Same difference? Exploring the differential mechanisms linking servant leadership and transformational leadership to follower outcomes. Leadership Quarterly, 25(3), 544–562. Vondey, M. (2010). The relationships among servant leadership, organizational citizenship behavior, person-organization fit, and organizational identification. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 6, 3–27. Walumbwa, F. O., Hartnell, C. A., & Oke, A. (2010). Servant leadership, procedural justice climate, service climate, employee attitudes, and organizational citizenship behavior: A cross-­ level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(3), 517. Retrieved from http://0-search. proquest.com.library.regent.edu/docview/347854572?accountid=13479 Walumbwa, F. O., Muchiri, M. K., Misati, E., Wu, C., & Meiliani, M. (2018). Inspired to perform: A multilevel investigation of antecedents and consequences of thriving at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(3), 249–261. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2216 Wang, M., Kwan, H. K., & Zhou, A. (2017). Effects of servant leadership on work-family balance in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 55(4), 387–407. https://doi. org/10.1111/1744-7941.12122 Washington, R., Sutton, C., & Feild, H. (2006). Individual differences in servant leadership: The roles of values and personality. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27(8), 700– 716. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437730610709309 Wong, P. T. P., & Davey, D. (2007). Best practices in servant leadership [Presentation]. In Paper presented at the Servant Leadership Roundtable. Virginia Beach, VA: Regent University. Wong, A., Liu, Y., Wang, X., & Tjosvold, D. (2018). Servant leadership for team conflict management, co-ordination, and customer relationships. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 56(2), 238–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7941.12135 Wong, P. T. P., & Page, D. (2003). An opponent-process model and the revised servant leadership profile [Presentation]. In Paper presented at the Servant Leader Research Roundtable. Virginia Beach, VA: Regent University. Wu, L., Tse, E. C., Fu, P., Kwan, H. K., & Liu, J. (2013). The impact of servant leadership on hotel employees’ “servant behavior”. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 54(4), 383–395. Yingying, Z., & Qing, M. (2014). Servant leadership and affective commitment in the Chinese public sector: The mediating role of perceived organizational support. Psychological Reports, 115(2), 381–395. Yang, Z., Zhang, H., Kwan, H.  K., & Chen, S. (2018). Crossover effects of servant leadership and job social support on employee spouses: The mediating role of employee organization-­ based self-esteem. Journal of Business Ethics, 147(3), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10551-015-2943-3 Yoshida, D. T., Sendjaya, S., Hirst, G., & Cooper, B. (2014). Does servant leadership foster creativity and innovation? A multi-level mediation study of identification and prototypicality. Journal of Business Research, 67(7), 1395–1404. Zehiri, C., Akyuz, B., Erin, M. S., & Turhan, G. (2013). The indirect effects of servant leadership behavior on organizational citizenship behavior and job performance: Organizational justice as a mediator. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 2(3), 2147–4478. Zhang, H., Kwan, H. K., Everett, A. M., & Jian, Z. (2012). Servant leadership, organizational identification, and work-to-family enrichment: The moderating role of work climate for sharing family concerns. Human Resource Management, 51(5), 747. Retrieved from http://0-search. proquest.com.library.regent.edu/docview/1081163682?accountid=13479 Zhen, W., Haoying, X., & Yukun, L. (2018). Servant leadership as a driver of employee service performance: Test of a trickle-down model and its boundary conditions. Human Relations, 71(9), 1179–1203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726717738320 Zhao, C., Liu, Y., & Gao, Z. (2016). An identification perspective of servant leadership’s effects. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(5), 898–913. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-08-2014-0250

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Servant Leadership as a Pathway to a Sustainable Future Christopher G. Beehner

Abstract

Servant leadership is a much-examined leadership style wherein leaders lead ­followers by serving them, providing a pathway for leaders to look beyond themselves and their organization, by serving the common, greater good of humanity. Civilization currently faces environmental and social challenges which can only be managed through sustainable actions. Many of these actions will require individuals, groups, and organizations consider the common good ahead of their own good. Therefore, servant leadership presents a viable avenue for leaders to influence humankind to evolve beyond the short-term thinking that created current unsustainable conditions on Earth. This chapter will examine servant leadership as a pathway to a sustainable future. Readers will be invited to reflect on the relevance of this leadership style through review of the servant leadership and sustainability literature. Because leadership for sustainability requires a new form of leadership based on how individuals desire to be treated, motivated, and led, servant leadership will be examined and modeled as a necessary leadership style for the achievement of a sustainable future. Examples of sustainability leaders who embrace the ethos of servant leadership are included and reviewed. Keywords

Servant leadership · Leadership · Sustainability · Sustainability leadership · Sustainable development

C. G. Beehner (*) Center for Business, Legal Studies, and Entrepreneurship, Seminole State College of Florida, Sanford, FL, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_4

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Introduction Servant leadership and sustainability are two topics which increasingly appeared in academic and professional discourse in the latter half of the twentieth century. However, both topics experienced significant interest during the beginning of the twenty-first century (McCann & Holt, 2010). The near collapse of global markets in 2007–2008 was facilitated by unethical and unsustainable greed. Concurrently, the impacts of climate change, industrial pollution, and deforestation became increasingly evident during the same period. Deteriorating economic and environmental conditions further exacerbated the social impacts of economic greed and disregard for the environment. The necessity and desire for alternatives to “business as usual” inspired an increasing number of individuals and organizations to advocate sustainable development as a solution to the overwhelming economic, environmental, and social problems faced by humanity. However, while the desire to advance sustainable alternatives to existing systems has been admirable, the present sustainable development movement has been at times characterized by fragmented efforts, disagreement, and a lack of common leadership. While the term servant leadership was first introduced by Greenleaf in 1970, the leadership style has been manifest by leaders for millennia. Servant leaders are committed to serving others, emphasize the need for organizational stewardship, and acknowledge the necessity for organizational leaders to achieve organizational sustainability (Taylor & Pearse, 2009). Sustainability has been defined as satisfying the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to satisfy their needs (Brundtland, 1987). Sustainability leadership literature began appearing a few years after the emergence of sustainability and sustainable development in the late 1980s. However, most academic and professional literature about leadership for sustainability was written in the current millennium. Some scholars have suggested that servant leadership is an appropriate leadership style for incorporating sustainability in organizations (Taylor & Pearse, 2009) because twenty-first-century organizations require successful, servant, and sustainable leadership to prosper in a global economy (McCann & Holt, 2010). In this chapter, sustainability will be briefly described, and several leadership styles will be examined within the context of sustainability. Because of the overlapping characteristics of servant leadership and sustainability, servant leadership will be examined and advocated as a viable pathway to a sustainable future. The relevance and development of servant leadership for sustainability will be discussed, and examples of successful servant sustainability leaders will be examined.

Sustainability Sustainability requires the current generation meet current needs without interfering with the needs of future generations (Brundtland, 1987). Sustainable development requires conscious action at the individual, organizational, and societal

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level. Because this chapter is included in a leadership handbook, the focus of sustainability within this chapter is within the context of organizational leadership for sustainability. Because business is a significant actor in both the challenges and necessary solutions to our current unsustainable trajectory, much of the content of this chapter examines leadership for sustainability within a business ­context. However, leadership for sustainability is both relevant and necessary in all organizational settings, therefore, the content of this chapter is applicable to any type of organization. Management author, consultant, and educator, Peter Drucker, defined businesses as organizations that create value for the customer, suggesting that businesses would cease to exist if they did not continually meet customer needs and create value (Drucker, 2001). In many businesses, the core value guiding corporate governance has been profit and share value maximization, often at any cost (Rodriguez, Ricart, & Sanchez, 2002). However, an increasing number of customers are demanding that their needs be met without compromising the needs of future generations, or adversely impacting the environment. Incorporating sustainability into the business model may enhance the competitive advantage of a business as well as provide a method of continual performance improvement (Slankis, 2006). Sustainability adds value when applied as the drive of new innovations, technologies, or processes intended to genuinely enhance business operations (Slankis, 2006). Current and future business leaders should recognize the necessity of linking sustainable leadership to profitability, encourage sustainability as a driver of innovation, and promote sustainability as a catalyst for forward-thinking both inside and outside their organizations (McCann & Holt, 2010). Organizational values should not be solely economic in nature, but based on sustainable organizational development, and guided by energetic, innovative, and sustainable governance and leadership (McCann & Holt, 2010). The fundamental goal of businesses should be value creation for shareholders and society, accomplished by shareholder engagement and fulfilment, and conditional upon ethical organizational behavior (Rodriguez et al., 2002). Moreover, both internal and external stakeholders seek evidence that organizations are focusing on more than just bottom-line performance goals, but are also engaged in ethical activities with a focus on looking out for the future (McCann & Holt, 2010). Surviving global economic crises has proven to be a greater challenge than previously thought (McCann & Holt, 2010), not only for businesses but also for nonprofit organizations and government agencies. In the global economic environment of the early twenty-first century, organizational leaders must be ready and willing to utilize all necessary tools to gain and maintain a competitive advantage (McCann & Holt, 2010). The effective use of these tools by leaders may result in both a sustainable and recession-proof organization (McCann & Holt, 2010). The sustainability challenges faced by contemporary organizations clearly require an appropriate, sustainable leadership style.

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Leadership for Sustainability Regardless of the scope or scale, sustainability efforts require dedicated sustainability leaders (Parkin, 2010). Because twenty-first-century organizations operate within multiple complex, extensive, adaptive systems, these organizations require leadership that empowers followers to adapt to the demands of those systems (Metcalf & Benn, 2012). The organizational system inputs include environmental, social, and economic issues (both locally and globally). These diverse inputs must be properly assimilated into the organization through an increasingly permeable “membrane” that separates the complex internal organizational system from the complex external systems (Metcalf & Benn, 2012). Leadership operating under these conditions must be capable of functioning within this membrane, thereby ensuring a flexible, successful connection between the internal system and the broader external systems (Metcalf & Benn, 2013). Leadership is not a position held by an individual, but rather a characteristic demonstrated by both individuals and teams throughout an organization in reactive processes (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). This framework suggests that every participant possesses some degree of leadership capacity, one that is essential for leading with and not over others (Ferdig, 2007). Leadership for sustainability empowers the innate leader existing within each person and nurtures stable, healthy, sustainable, and equitable change through creativity and collaboration (Ferdig). Within this framework, organizational and team members can communicate and share challenges, adapting their behavior to respond to those challenges, instead of waiting for instructions from someone else (Heifetz, 1994). Therefore, sustainability leaders “create opportunities for people to come together and generate their own answers” (Ferdig, 2007, p. 31). Leadership for sustainability suggests a new, broader understanding of leadership characterized by actions that are influenced by sustainability values, a living process framework, and resulting in an inclusive, harmonious, and reflective leadership process (Burns, Diamond-Vaught, & Bauman, 2015). Sustainability leaders do not simply apply new leadership styles to existing practices, processes, and problems. Instead, they identify and analyze the underlying causes of unsustainability, seek to understand the social, cultural, economic, and environmental impacts of their organizations, and recognize and embrace the ecological and cultural diversity of natural systems (Foundation for Deep Ecology, 2012). The elements of successful leadership for sustainability include effective leadership characteristics and behaviors; higher quality organizational vision; effective communication; and effective and influential methods characterized by straightforward goals and objectives, integrity, and trust (Dalati, Raudeliūnienė, & Davidavičienė, 2017). Visser and Courtice (2011) developed a sustainability leadership model based upon leadership theory and sustainability leadership practice. The leadership for sustainability observed and described by Visser and Courtice focused on producing significant change within and among political, economic, business, and societal ­systems. The model has three components: the external and internal leadership context; the qualities, abilities, and knowledge of the leader; and the leader’s actions.

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Context refers to the surroundings in which sustainability leaders operate and includes the external environment over which they may exert limited influence and the internal environment of their organization or sector over which they may exert significant influence (Visser & Courtice, 2011). Sustainable leaders know how to manage and overcome the demands of the external and internal environment to achieve and maintain stability (Šimanskienė & Župerkienė, 2014). While none of these components are unique to sustainability leaders, the combination of these components provides a unique set of features and actions to respond to sustainability issues (Visser & Courtice, 2011). Sustainable leadership has been described as being supported by ten pillars: being change oriented; able to connect the organization through broad systems thinking; being socially and environmentally consciousness; possessing business savvy and credibility; to link sustainability with stakeholder value adaptability; patience in commitment to long-term focus; ability to translate thought into action; persuasiveness; possessing energy and passion to communicate vision and drive innovation; and mentoring and development (Slankis, 2006). Of these pillars, mentoring and development is the most synonymous with servant leadership characterized by a commitment to lasting leadership through follower development. Increased focus on these pillars can bridge the gap between social values and organizational performance (McCann & Holt, 2010). Many of the challenges faced by sustainability leaders are no different from those faced by other leaders, past and present. However, some of the challenges posed by unsustainability are not only unique, but pose catastrophic risks if not addressed properly and in a timely manner. Never in history has humankind possessed the capability to alter or eliminate entire ecosystems or even humankind. Therefore, sustainability leaders must influence others to take action, both inside and outside their respective organizations, sectors, and communities. The leadership style adopted and demonstrated by the leader will have a significant impact on the outcome of sustainability efforts. In the following sections, several dominant leadership styles will be described and examined within the context of sustainability.

Servant Leadership Greenleaf (1970) described the servant leadership style as one that begins with the natural feeling of wanting to serve others first, which leads to a conscious choice to lead. Inspired by the character Leo in Hesse’s novel Journey to the East (1957), Greenleaf noted servant leaders often did not intend or desire to become leaders but accepted the role while acting in a capacity of service to others. Servant leaders place the needs of others first, desiring that those served grow, become better off, independent, and more likely to serve others. In contrast, nonservant leaders place the needs of self or organization first, perhaps serving others as an afterthought, and only when necessary for goal achievement. Greenleaf’s leadership model placed serving the needs of followers, customers, and community first. Servant leadership theory draws upon the natural reaction that

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individuals desire to serve others first, which afterward inspires a desire to lead. The true test of servant leadership is whether the followers who are served grow as individuals, and become healthier, wiser, more autonomous, and more likely to become servant leaders (Greenleaf, 1977). Spears (1998; as cited in McCann & Holt, 2010) summarized the following characteristics of servant leadership based upon Greenleaf’s writings: 1. Listening—Servant leaders focus on listening intently and reflectively to others. 2. Empathy—Servant leaders strive to understand and empathize with others. 3. Healing—Servant leaders learn how to heal difficult situations in organizations. 4. Awareness—Servant leaders are generally and self-aware. 5. Persuasion—Servant leaders focus on using persuasion versus authority. 6. Conceptualization—Servant leaders nurture their ability to dream. 7. Foresight—Servant leaders foresee situations. 8. Stewardship—Servant leaders hold their organization responsible for the overall good of society. 9. Sense of community—Servant leaders build a sense of community in their organizations. 10. Commitment to growth of employees—Servant leaders believe that employees have more to offer than just at work (Spears, 1998, p. 2). Organizational leaders recognize that no member or component of an organization is insignificant (Zohar, 1997). Servant leadership originates from a level of deep, revolutionary vision (McCann & Holt, 2010), with servant leaders changing organizations, conceiving new paradigms, creating space for new ideas and innovations, and accomplishing these through being rather than doing (Zohar, 1997). Moreover, an intuitive relationship appears to exist between servant leadership and strategic management, with the philosophy of key organizational leaders having a significant influence on organizational values, culture, and ethical practices (Taylor & Pearse, 2009). Servant leadership can occur anywhere and affect anyone (Graham, 1998). However, within the context of servant leadership in business, Graham pointed out that corporate executives have the potential to affect more people globally than most other individuals. It is at the most senior level of an organization that strategic decisions are made and policies put forth that affect vast numbers of people, both internal and external to the company. However, it is also at the top levels of organizations that ethical-based approaches to decision making have yet to firmly take hold. Servant leadership clearly demonstrates characteristics similar to and supportive of an altruistic concept such as sustainability. In serving others, servant leaders consider the needs and benefit of others and empower followers to take responsibility for the good of society. While the premise of this chapter is the suitability of servant leadership for sustainability, it is necessary that we consider other leadership styles which may likewise be appropriate for sustainability.

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Potential Leadership Styles for Sustainability In the previous sections, sustainability and servant leadership have been described, and the argument presented that current sustainability challenges require an alternative leadership style to those which created or at least enabled the unsustainable trajectory on which humankind is currently traveling. Fortunately, other leadership styles and models exist, which would likely be effective methods for development of a sustainable future. Prior to our examination of servant leadership as an appropriate leadership style for sustainability, other styles, theories, and models should be considered. In this section, several dominant leadership styles and models will be examined. Leadership has been defined as the process of influencing other people to work together for a common goal or purpose (Northouse, 2018). Successful leaders not only unite groups of individuals in a creative coalition, they empower people to actively engage in a relationship with chaos, unpredictability, and evolution (Wheatley, 2006). Working collaboratively to solve problems is not simple or easy, even when everyone involved agrees and key values are shared. However, leaders recognize that the ambiguity, tension, and conflict resulting from individual differences provide opportunities for evolution of innovative solutions (Ferdig, 2007). Moreover, this cooperative process requires both individual and collective contemplation for success. Effective leadership requires inner reflection, in which the leader develops a foundation of self-understanding, and understanding of the leader’s relationship with the world, the mastery of which enhances the ability to influence change in others (Heifetz, Grashow, & Linsky, 2009). Three leadership styles have been directly or indirectly related to organizational sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR): authentic, ethical, and transformational (Metcalf & Benn, 2013). These leadership styles share common characteristics, although each style has unique aspects and attributes (Metcalf & Benn, 2013). Likewise, leadership for sustainability shares several common characteristics with other leadership styles and theories, while still exhibiting unique elements (Peterlin, Pearse, & Dimovski, 2015). To better understand the applicability of these styles to leadership for sustainability, the three previously identified leadership styles will be briefly described in this section. Authentic leadership is one of the newest leadership styles being examined in organizational leadership literature (Northouse, 2018). The focus of authentic leadership is with the authenticity of the leader—whether the leader is genuine. Authentic leadership is characterized by a pattern of leader behavior originating with the positive psychological qualities and strong ethics of the leader (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008). Authentic leadership is often triggered by a critical life event, and is characterized by four components: self-­ awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency (Northouse, 2018). Cavagnaro and Curiel (2012) proposed authentic leadership as an appropriate leadership style for the journey to sustainability because this leadership style recognizes the need for leadership of self.

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Ethical leadership is based upon ethical theory, providing leaders with a set of principles used to guide decision-making (Northouse, 2018). Ethical leaders treat others with respect, serve others by placing the welfare of others above their own, base all decision-making on fairness and justice, are honest, and are committed to building community (Northouse, 2018). Because leadership is a process of influence, it requires ethical responsibility for the individuals being led. While sustainable leadership is rooted in ethical leadership (Brown & Treviňo, 2006), sustainable leadership expands the ethical scope by considering the needs of a broader range of stakeholders, future generations, and the natural environment (Peterlin et al., 2015). According to Heifetz (1994), leaders use authority to mobilize followers to overcome difficult challenges and assist followers with managing change and personal growth. Transformational leadership is a leadership process that changes and transforms leaders and followers (Northouse, 2018). In contrast with transactional leadership, in which leadership is viewed as a series of transactions between leaders and followers, transformational leadership is a process whereby leaders create a connection with followers, resulting in an increased level of motivation and morality among both leader and followers. Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve more than what is expected through concern for emotions, values, ethics, and long-­ term goals. Much like servant leaders, transformational leaders seek to empower and nurture followers, resulting in a level of consciousness in which individuals transcend their own self-interests for the sake of others. Transformational leadership has intuitive appeal because followers are attracted to leaders who are out front advocating for a cause, and who present a compelling vision for the future. However, transformational leadership possesses the potential for abuse because leaders may modify follower values and motivate them toward a new vision (Northouse, 2018), which may be incompatible with the desired values or vision of the followers, and therefore, not be in their best interests to pursue. Transformational and sustainability leadership share four common characteristics: a commitment to holistic understanding, intellectual stimulation of stakeholders, providing encouragement by inspiring action, and an individualized approach to stakeholders (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999; Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). Leadership for sustainability expands and extends beyond transformational leadership, which is the primary leadership style taught in colleges and universities (Shriberg & MacDonald, 2013). However, there are also distinct differences between the two leadership styles. While the focus of transformational leadership is with personal charisma in influencing current followers (House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991), the focus of leadership for sustainability is with nurturing future generations’ ability to enjoy a dignified existence (Peterlin et al., 2015). In addition to authentic, ethical and transformational leadership, there are additional leadership styles and theories that may contribute to leadership for sustainability. The focus of path-goal theory is with how leaders motivate followers to accomplish goals by matching leadership style to follower needs (Northouse, 2018). The premise of path-goal theory is to motivate followers to achieve goals, point them in the appropriate direction, and assist them by removing obstacles. Four pathgoal leadership styles have been identified—directive, supportive, participative, and

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achievement-oriented. All four leadership styles might be appropriate for the achievement of a sustainable future, depending on organizational circumstances. The situational approach to leadership focuses on leadership in the situation and is composed of both a directive and supportive dimension (Northouse, 2018). From this perspective, effective leadership requires the leader adapt the leadership style based upon the demands and circumstances of a given situation. Dependent on the situation and skill levels of followers, the leader must change the degree to which the directive or supportive dimensions are applied. One of the strengths of situational leadership is the recognition that one leadership style is not the best, emphasizing that leaders must be flexible and adapt the style to the situation. Noted weaknesses include the limited availability of research supporting how leaders match style to followers and circumstances (Northouse, 2018). In this section, several alternative leadership styles and theories have been examined as suitable for achievement of a sustainable future. While each of these styles may be appropriate leadership styles for sustainability, all have strengths and weaknesses, and may not be optimal styles for movement toward a sustainable future. In the following section, servant leadership will be examined within the context of being an appropriate, and perhaps best-suited leadership style for achieving sustainability.

Servant Leadership for Sustainability Leadership The challenges of creating a sustainable future for humanity are complex, complicated, and interconnected. Because these challenges transcend leaders and organization, the leadership style necessary to empower humankind to embrace and overcome these challenges must focus on followers, leaders, and anyone impacted by the decisions and actions of both. Moreover, these challenges are moral and ethical in nature, requiring a leadership style based on moral and ethical behavior. Laub (1999) suggested the need for a new leadership style that is not “trendy and transient” (p. 7), but based on a high level of ethical and moral teaching and focused on motivating, treating, and leading individuals in a manner desirable to those individuals. The servant leadership style may provide the moral, ethical, follower-­ focused leadership necessary to navigate toward a sustainable future. Leadership for sustainability is about leadership for significant and essential change. Servant leadership may positively influence the success of organizational change efforts (van Dierendonck & Sousa, 2016). Leaders play a crucial role in creating a meaningful, harmonious work environment, which is essential during any change process. Servant leaders reinforce a sense of purpose through a synthesis of personal attention and the ability to present change as a higher purpose that ­transcends the organization. Servant leadership has been characterized by a model in which meaningfulness among employees can be encouraged by following four pathways: self-connection, unification, contribution, and individuation (van Dierendonck & Sousa, 2016).

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Organizational leaders are continuously seeking ways to maintain a competitive advantage in the global marketplace of the twenty-first century. Successful organizational leaders are utilizing a combination of sustainability and servant leadership to maintain a competitive advantage and for continual improvement of organizational performance (McCann & Holt, 2010). Because of the complex challenges faced by leaders in the current volatile economic climate, the demands placed on leaders will increase, potentially contributing to an increase in organizational failures. To survive and prosper, organizations require leaders who can manage and satisfy these demands. Sustainability is an ethical issue. There is no legal requirement that organizational leaders preserve resources for future generations. The choice to is a voluntary, although quite compelling ethical choice. Servant leadership is an ethical leadership style, with practitioners leading “in ways that serve the greater good of the organization, community, and society at large” (Northouse, 2018, p. 219). Because servant leaders put others first, that altruism is beneficial to individuals outside of the influence of the leader. In addition to attending to the needs of followers, servant leaders are concerned with the less privileged and seek to remove inequalities and social injustices (Northouse, 2018)—all relevant to the overall mission of sustainability. Business sustainability initiatives are frequently included within CSR programs. Understanding and striving for servant-leadership presents one solution to the difficulties faced by many business leaders embracing CSR efforts (Kincaid, 2012). Although working adults in the United States work long hours, many of these workers report unhappiness and are attracted to CSR initiatives such as improved quality of work life, trust, transparency, and elimination of office politics (Kincaid, 2012). Senge suggested the combination of worker desire for improved work conditions and the transformational power of servant-leadership will result in increased CSR impact (Kincaid). Both servant leadership and CSR seem to demonstrate similar foundational characteristics, with both emphasizing the importance of stewardship and community building (Kincaid, 2012). While Greenleaf did not frame the servant leadership concept as intending to change or impact society, one of the identified outcomes of servant leadership is societal impact, in which servant leaders produce healthier organizations which benefit society through positive social change, allowing society to flourish as a result (Northouse, 2018). A servant leader recognizes the significance of stakeholders beyond the immediate organization and community. This is especially important for business, because “chasing profits is peripheral; the real point of business is to serve as one of the institutions through which society develops and exercises the capacity for constructive action” (Harvey, 2001, pp. 38–39). Leaders who demonstrate both sustainable and servant leadership are more likely to make strategic decisions that consider the economic, social, and ecological aspects of those decisions, in addition to the interests of multiple stakeholders (Peterlin et al., 2015). Within the context of responsible leadership, there are several reasons servant and sustainability leadership offer a unique contribution to strategic decision-making that cannot be made by other theories (Peterlin et al., 2015). First, both servant and sustainable leadership are oriented to placing the

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service and well-­being of others and the natural environment above self-interest. Second, servant and sustainability leaders focus on the long-term interests of numerous organizational stakeholders. Finally, servant and sustainability leaders recognize the responsibility of leadership to act as stewards of organizational and natural resources for the benefit of the common good (Peterlin et al., 2015). While both servant and sustainable leadership focus more on the needs of followers than those of the leaders (Avery & Bergsteiner, 2011a), the focus of sustainable leadership is with the future needs of multiple stakeholders, in addition to the present needs of followers (Avery & Bergsteiner, 2011b). Servant leaders typically demonstrate foresight (Peterlin et al., 2015), which is the ability to foresee future effects of past and current actions (Spears & Lawrence, 2002). Leaders who exercise foresight recognize the unity of all things and act with a longer term strategic perspective, aligned with a sustainability worldview that acknowledges responsibility to future generations (Peterlin et al., 2015). Foresight and awareness are two essential attributes of servant leadership that reinforce the CSR objectives of sustainability and environmental responsibility (Kincaid, 2012). Navigating the challenges presented by sustainability will require leaders who are aware of and possesses the foresight to anticipate and prepare for the unexpected. When combined, sustainability leadership and servant leadership provide a values-­ based approach to leadership which reinforces the strategic decision-making process in organizations desiring to embrace sustainability (Peterlin et al., 2015). This combination produces the synergy necessary to assimilate social, environmental, and economic interests in decision-making (Peterlin et al., 2015). The essence of sustainability is ensuring future generations have access to the same quality of life and resource access enjoyed by the present generation. Leadership for sustainability implies service to future generations, who may not yet be alive, but who may 1 day emulate the leadership style of current leaders who possessed the foresight to anticipate the future needs of society. Servant leaders are committed to building value-based organizations, that are sustainably, ethically, and socially focused, a task best achieved through and synonymous with the practice of sustainable leadership (McCann & Holt, 2010). Because organizations that embrace a servant leadership culture are committed to helping stakeholders who exist both inside and outside of the organization (Northouse, 2018), servant leadership is an appropriate leadership style for achieving sustainability.

Discussion The argument that servant leadership is an appropriate and perhaps ideal method of leadership for a sustainable future has been presented. Servant leadership and sustainability are separate, yet compatible concepts, both exhibiting the characteristic of caring for other people, organizations, and systems. Servant leadership is more than a leadership style—it is a philosophy of life, with adherents dedicated to the growth and advancement of others (McCann & Holt, 2010). Within a sustainability context, growth and advancement are characterized by enabling present generations

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to grow and advance, without preventing future generations from enjoying the same opportunities. Due to the complexity of sustainability, it is unlikely that one leader will possess adequate information and abilities to engage in effective sustainable decision-­ making. Therefore, some scholars propose team or shared leadership as the preferred leadership for sustainability model, suggesting that leaders who promote team leadership ensure organizational effectiveness (Ireland & Hill, 2005; Pearce & Conger, 2003). Team-oriented leaders recognize that satisfactory relationships among team members create a foundation of organizational advancement and sustainability. Moreover, these leaders ensure staff competence through staff development to ensure organizational success (Šimanskienė & Župerkienė, 2014). Servant leaders share power and control with followers by empowering them to become self-sufficient and make independent decisions (Northouse, 2018). Through this empowerment process, servant leaders encourage the shared leadership necessary to achieve and promote sustainability. Sustainability education performs a significant role in developing leaders who are capable of collaborative efforts to address complex sustainability issues because sustainability has become inextricably connected with leadership (Burns et  al., 2015). Moreover, educational institutions are increasingly responding to the need for leadership programs that develop sustainability leaders capable of working in this context (Shriberg & MacDonald, 2013). Because servant leadership is a viable leadership style for achieving a sustainable future, it is essential that individuals develop servant leadership skills and mindsets. Therefore, sustainability education initiatives would benefit by including servant leadership training. However, leadership is not an ability that can be quickly taught. Rather, it is a process that occurs, and leadership development only occurs with time and experience. Leadership instruction should include case studies and examples of successful servant leaders from other movements, with student reflection about how those traits and actions can be emulated and applied within the sustainability context. Because leadership has been conceptualized as being inseparably related to ­sustainability, pedagogical methods and processes are needed to develop leadership in adult learners (Burns et al., 2015). The focus of development of servant and sustainability leaders should be with extending leader influence beyond the limits of everyday organizational needs and considering the needs of current and future stakeholders, both inside and outside the direct influence of the leader. Servant sustainability leaders must learn to develop the foresight and awareness necessary to navigate the unpredictable circumstances in which they will lead. While teaching foresight and awareness may be difficult, these skills can be developed and enhanced through curriculum that provides case study scenarios requiring students to develop solutions to sustainability problems and challenges. Role-playing scenarios can help students learn how to react in various scenarios because leadership can be best learned through practice. While considerable literature describing servant and sustainable leadership as individual topics exists, limited research exists on the combination of the two leadership styles (McCann & Holt, 2010). Therefore, the need to examine the

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combination of servant and sustainability leadership is increasingly important (McCann & Holt, 2010). The focus of previous research has been with employee perception of managers and supervisors using a variety of leadership survey instruments, with limited studies employing the servant leadership questionnaire (SLQ). McCann and Holt investigated sustainable leadership in organizations using the SLQ, finding a moderate relationship between sustainability and servant leadership, with the level of sustainable leadership generally higher than the level of servant leadership (McCann & Holt, 2010). However, further research is necessary to describe and support the intersection of servant leadership and sustainability and to strengthen the proposition introduced in this chapter.

Examples of Sustainability Servant Leaders Countless leaders and organizations have demonstrated a commitment to sustainability. In addition, many organizations embrace servant leadership as a component of organizational culture. An increasing number of organizations and leaders are demonstrating a commitment to both sustainability and servant leadership. In this section, I will introduce several organizational leaders who have exemplified both servant and sustainability leadership, describe their accomplishments and characteristics, and summarize their impact on the organizations they lead or have led. Kip Tindell founded The Container Store in 1978, serving as CEO until 2016. The Container Store is consistently ranked one of the best places to work and shop in America, having been ranked number 49 on Fortune’s annual list of “100 Best Companies to Work For”, and having appeared on the Fortune list for 18 consecutive years (Schwantes, 2017a). Melissa Reiff assumed the role of CEO at The Container Store in 2016, building upon the sustainability and servant leadership legacy of her predecessor. Reiff is dedicated to advancing the servant leadership culture of the Container Store, and demonstrated in her commitment to “conscious capitalism” (Schwantes, 2017a). Conscious capitalism is a transformational business philosophy resulting from the combined efforts of business scholars and practitioners seeking to reinvent capitalism as an economic system with a conscience and a feeling of interconnectedness (Beehner, 2019). One of the keys to success at The Container Store is the transparency policy requiring all company information be shared with every employee. While transparency can be an overwhelming venture, The Container Store management recognizes the power of transparency with the following statement on their website: “nothing makes someone feel more a part of a team than knowing everything has been communicated to them. We know that some information we share could fall into competitors’ hands, but the advantages far outweigh the risks” (Schwantes, 2017a). Starbucks is another major business recognized for embracing both servant leadership and sustainability as part of its culture, with several current and former senior executives recognized as servant leaders. Former President Howard Behar now commits a significant amount time to the development and education of future

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leaders, having been a longtime proponent of servant leadership. Behar identified six principles to achieve better leadership and a better life: 1 . Give your people room to make mistakes. 2. Remove fear with trust. 3. Serve one another. 4. Set expectations and get agreement. 5. Treat people more like human beings, less like mere employees. 6. Discover the truth of who you are (Schwantes, 2017b). Behar’s legacy has continued with other Starbuck’s senior executives. Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson was described by outgoing chairman, Howard Schultz, as a genuine servant leader (Cooper, 2018). Under Johnson’s management, Starbucks management is also committed to sustainability, evident with the introduction of the “Starbucks Greener Stores” framework (Starbucks, 2018). The “Starbucks Greener Stores” initiative will be based upon comprehensive performance criteria to ensure the company’s approach to designing, building, and operating the company-owned stores will create a new standard for sustainable retail. Starbucks is currently developing an accredited program to audit existing company-operated locations in North America against the framework criteria. The goal is to achieve 10,000 “Greener Stores” globally by 2025, including new, existing, and renovated locations. The “Starbucks Greener Stores” framework will then be open-sourced to contribute to improvements within the broader retail industry (Starbucks, 2018). According to Starbucks President and CEO Kevin Johnson: “Simply put, sustainable coffee, served sustainably is our aspiration” (Starbucks, 2018). Recognizing the financial benefits of sustainability, Johnson noted that designing and building greener stores is not only the responsible thing to do, it is also a cost-effective business strategy (Starbucks, 2018).

Conclusion Humankind is increasingly experiencing the adverse effects of climate change, pollution, poverty, and inequality. However, countless individuals, organizations, and communities are currently taking individual and collaborative action toward a more sustainable future (Burns et al., 2015), and many are applying servant leadership to achieve sustainability. Organizational leaders who serve the needs of others, both inside and outside of organization are actively contributing to a sustainable future for humankind. Many of these sustainability actors are accomplishing their work absent any consolidated, structured leadership system, by encouraging innovation and creativity while paying attention to issues about which they are passionate (Hawken, 2007). While some contemporary sustainability leaders are unaware of the term servant leadership, they are clearly servant leadership practitioners. Peter Senge optimistically suggested, “In an era of massive institutional failure, the ideas in servant

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leadership point toward a possible path forward and will continue to do so” (Senge, 2002, p. 345). Servant leadership can clearly provide a pathway forward to a sustainable future. It is my hope that more people will embrace servant leadership and sustainability, and lead humankind down that pathway. Chapter Takeaways • Servant leadership presents a viable avenue for leaders to influence humankind to evolve beyond the short-term thinking that created our current unsustainable conditions. • Business leaders should recognize the necessity of linking sustainable leadership to profitability, encouraging sustainability as a driver of innovation, and promoting sustainability as a catalyst for forward-thinking both inside and outside their organizations. • Servant leadership is an appropriate leadership style for incorporating sus­ tainability in organizations, because twenty-first-century organizations require successful, servant, and sustainable leadership to prosper in a global economy. • Additional research on the combination of servant and sustainability leadership is necessary. • Servant sustainability leaders must develop the foresight and awareness necessary to navigate the unpredictable circumstances in which they will lead. Reflection Questions 1. Servant leadership may be considered a more passive leadership style when compared with other styles. How can servant leadership be appropriate for addressing a critical issue such as sustainability, which demands urgent and significant action? 2. In their sustainability leadership model, Visser and Courtice recognized that the external environment is an area in which sustainability leaders may only exert limited influence. How can sustainability leaders be expected to influence individuals and groups outside of their organization to achieve sustainability? How can servant leadership help them accomplish this? 3. In what organizations, businesses, or sectors do you believe servant leadership would be most appropriate for achieving sustainability? In which ones do you  believe servant leadership would be least appropriate for achieving sustainability? 4. Three leadership styles were identified as directly or indirectly related to organizational sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR): authentic, ethical, and transformational (Metcalf & Benn, 2013). Under what circumstances or conditions would one or more of these leadership styles be more effective than servant leadership for influencing sustainability? 5. What risks or challenges do you see with employing servant leadership to achieve sustainability? How would you recommend overcoming those risks and challenges?

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Ireland, R. D., & Hill, M. A. (2005). Achieving and maintaining strategic competitiveness in the 21st century: The role of strategic leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 19, 63–77. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.1999.1567311 Kincaid, M. (2012). Building corporate social responsibility through servant-leadership. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(2), 151–171. Retrieved from https://www. regent.edu Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2012). The leadership challenge (5th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Laub, J. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the servant organizational assessment (SOLA) instrument. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Boca Raton, FL: Florida Atlantic University. McCann, J. T., & Holt, R. A. (2010). Servant and sustainable leadership: An analysis in the manufacturing environment. International Journal of Management Practice, 4(2), 134–148. https:// doi.org/10.1504/IJMP.2010.033691 Metcalf, L., & Benn, S. (2012). The corporation is ailing social technology: Creating a ‘fit for purpose’ design for sustainability. Journal of Business Ethics, 111(2), 195–210. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10551-012-1201-1 Metcalf, L., & Benn, S. (2013). Leadership for sustainability: An evolution of leadership ability. Journal of Business Ethics, 112(3), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1278-6 Northouse, P. G. (2018). Leadership: Theory and practice (8th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Parkin, S. (2010). The positive deviant: Sustainability leadership in a perverse world. Washington, DC: Earthscan. Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (2003). Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Peterlin, J., Pearse, N.  J., & Dimovski, V. (2015). Strategic decision making for organizational sustainability: The implications of servant leadership and sustainable leadership approaches. Economic & Business Review, 17(3), 273–290. https://doi.org/10.15458/85451.4 Rodriguez, M. A., Ricart, J. E., & Sanchez, P. (2002). Sustainable development and sustainability of competitive advantage: A dynamic and sustainable view of the firm. Sustainable Development and Competitive Advantage, 11(3), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8691.00246 Schwantes, M. (2017a, March 29). The world’s 10 top CEOs (They lead in a totally unique way). Retrieved from https://www.inc.com/marcel-schwantes/heres-a-top-10-list-of-the-worldsbest-ceos-but-they-lead-in-a-totally-unique-wa.html Schwantes, M. (2017b, August 29). Starbucks' former president reveals 6 leadership traits that led to his wild success. Retrieved from https://www.inc.com/marcel-schwantes/starbucks-formerpresident-reveals-6-leadership-tr.html Senge, P. (2002). Afterword. In R. Greenleaf (Ed.), Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness (25th anniversary ed., pp. 343–359). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Shriberg, M., & MacDonald, L. (2013). Sustainability leadership programs: Emerging goals, methods & best practices. Journal of Sustainability Education, 5, 1–21. Retrieved from http:// www.susted.org/ Šimanskienė, L., & Župerkienė, E. (2014). Sustainable leadership: The new challenge for organizations. Forum Scientiae Oeconomia, 2(1), 81–93. Retrieved from www.wsb.edu.pl.forum/ Slankis, E. (2006). Sustainable thinking, sustainable leadership-the new E.Q. Leadership, 2006. Spears, L.  C. (1998). Creating caring leadership for the 21st century. The Not-For-Profit CEO Monthly Newsletter, 4(9). Indianapolis, IN: The Robert K.  Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership. Spears, L. C., & Lawrence, M. (2002). Focus on leadership: Servant–leadership for the 21st century. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Starbucks. (2018). Starbucks announces global greener stores commitment. Seattle, WA: Author. Retrieved from https://news.starbucks.com/press-releases/starbucks-announces-globalgreener-stores-commitment

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Overcoming the Blind Spot of Positive Leadership: Authenticity Amidst Change Petros G. Malakyan, Wenli Wang, and Steven P. Niles

Abstract

This chapter argues that positive leadership that grows out of positive psychology and strengths-based leadership theories has its own blind spot, which must be overcome in order to understand the process of authentic change and workplace transformation. Various philosophical, religious, and cultural worldviews are used to indicate the interconnected and interdependent nature of positivity and negativity that exists in the physical, biological, and spiritual world. Such an honest, balanced, and integrative approach to what is perceived to be positive (yang) and negative (yin) may overcome the blind spot of positive leadership and pave the way for mutually inclusive yin-yang leader-follower relationships in organizations toward authentic change and workplace transformation. Keywords

Positive leadership · Positivity and negativity · Yang and Yin · Change · Workplace transformation

Introduction This chapter explores positive leadership for workplace change in the midst of authentic personal and organizational change. It specifically considers some hidden risks in the perspective of positive leadership. The question that is worth exploring P. G. Malakyan (*) · W. Wang Robert Morris University, Moon, PA, USA e-mail: [email protected] S. P. Niles Piano, Los Angeles City College, Los Angeles, CA, USA © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_5

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is “does the emphasis on the positive in positive leadership promote authentic workplace transformation, or does such emphasis create a blind spot that may hinder the desired workplace transformation?” Kim Cameron in his book on Positive Leadership proposes four positive leadership strategies (i.e., positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication, and positive means) for positive organizational performance. Although the author asserts, “the key is not to avoid or eliminate the negative but to transform it into an opportunity for flourishing” (Cameron, 2012, p. xi), the negative has not been integrated with the positive to understand the interplay between them in the workplace. He proposes two-step strategy to (1) diagnose the leader behavior and (2) create an action plan to implement positive climate, relationships, communication, and means. By doing so, Cameron (2012) seems to aim to prevent negative behavior by positive action plan. Is the emphasis on positivity alone sufficient for workplace transformation? What are the forces that are at work when change occurs in the workplace? To address these and related questions in the areas of positivity, perceived negativity, and authenticity, this chapter reviews theories and concepts of positive psychology and leadership, as well as the concepts of yin (negative) and yang (positive) in Taoism. It argues that both negative (yin)/positive (yang) are necessary components in leadership-followership for authentic workplace transformation regardless if changes occur as a result of passive (yin) and/or active (yang) processes internally (yin) or externally (yang) in an organization. It explores the necessities and interdependencies of both yin and yang in the context of leadership amidst change and demonstrates the organizational implications of yin and yang as an existential necessity for a dynamic and balanced organizational life. Organizational change will be examined as the integration of yin (passive, negative) and yang (active, positive), and possibly nonaction mindfulness, within internal/external and passive/active forces of change. Authenticity then, in terms of yin and yang, would be viewed as an honest, balanced, integrated, and yet dynamic state of being to embrace change despite its perceived positivities and negativities. The difficult question, however, is how to balance both yin and yang? The chapter concludes with practical suggestions and lenses to minimize the blind spot in positive leadership by embracing and balancing negativity with positivity for authentic workplace transformation.

 istory of Positive Leadership, Strengths Theory, and Positive H Organizational Behavior Positive Leadership and Positive Psychology Positive psychology emerged in behavioral science as an attempt to discover positive sides of life, particularly the concept of happiness, flourishing, thriving, meaningful, good, and fulfilling life (Watkins, 2016). In other words, “positive psychology is the scientific study of the good life” (Watkins, 2016, p. 3). One of the criticisms

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that positive psychology receives is its alleged attempt to make one to neglect negativity in life, human suffering, and pain. However, the response to this criticism by the positive psychologists has been that it is better to spend one’s research energy more on studying the positive without neglecting the negative in life, in order to understand what makes one a happier person (Seligman, 1998). Positive psychology has had a profound impact on leadership studies. Instead of people asking themselves “what is wrong with me,” who had been the trend of the twentieth-century psychology, Donald O. Cliften and Associates began exploring alternative approaches to understanding human talents or strengths rather than weaknesses (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Rath & Clifton, 2007). They posed, “What would happen if we study what is right with people?” (Rath & Conchie, 2008, p. 239).

Strengths Theory The outcome of positive psychology was the emergence of Strengths philosophy, the basis for strengths-based leadership, toward a constant achievement of excellence by individuals who intentionally focus on their sets of strengths – elaborated as thirty-four (34) strengths in four (4) leadership domains: executive, influencing, relationship building, and strategic building (Rath & Conchie, 2008).

Positive Organizational Behavior To address the positive and negative in the workplace, let us address negative and positive emotions in relation to leadership and organizations. Fredrickson (2001) has spent decades to study the impact of positive emotions on human health and well-being. They measure “objective happiness” through people’s momentary experiences of good and bad feelings, to argue that “positive emotions are worth cultivating, not just as end states in themselves but also as a means to achieving psychological growth and improved well-being over time” (p. 218). Fredrickson (2001) maintains that positive emotion can undo lingering negative emotions. This is an important process, according to the author’s research findings, because negative emotions narrow one’s “momentary thought—action repertoire” while “positive emotions broadens this same repertoire.” Thus, “positive emotions might correct or undo the after effects of negative emotions” (p. 221). Further, drawing from Positive Psychology and positive emotions, Luthans and Associates (2001) proposed a positive organizational behavior (POB) approach defined as “the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today’s workplace” (p. 7). They stressed the concepts of optimism (i.e., viewing the glass as half full) and hope (i.e., willpower and waypower that things will get better) as some of the rich components of positive approach to leadership (PAL).

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Blind Spot of Positive Leadership Strengths philosophy seems to omit the possibility of viewing negativity as a strength or talent that some individuals possess inherently. For instance, individuals with “negativity” traits exhibit the following behaviors: distrust, hesitation, reluctance, suspicion, and disapproval (see https://www.thesaurus.com/browse/positivity). These qualities may be considered followership strengths to prevent power abuse by unethical leaders. Authors such as Goffee and Jones (2006) raise similar distrust toward unauthentic leaders when they entitled their book as Why Should Anyone Be Led By You? Similarly, emphasizing positive emotions alone may have negative consequences, and vice versa, in leader-follower relationships in organizational contexts. For instance, narrowing the leader’s “momentary thought-action repertoire” in overly enthusiastic positivity by her/his followers’ negativities (e.g., pessimistic and conservative feeling toward the leader’s proposed positive goals) might be a good thing for the leader and the followers because the leader’s attempt to broaden her/his momentary thought-action repertoire based on mere overly positive emotions, without solid empirical data for decision-making, may be detrimental for the organization. In other words, the leader’s positive emotions need a constant checks and balances by the negative emotions of the followers and vice versa. Thus, it would be naïve to assume that positive emotions guarantee good results while negative emotions produce bad results for the workplace. Rather, both emotions seem needed for a balanced approach to workplace well-being, transformation, and change.

Biased Labeling of Positivity and Negativity in Relation to Change Human thought, internationally, is generally structured dualistically. Values are assigned within a framework of binary oppositions, such as positive and negative, pleasure and pain, and growth and decay. Positive psychology, like most guiding psychological principles, often begins with the premise that each factor in a binary opposition has a clear value, whether inherently or by social consensus. Pain, for example, is universally devalued and held as inherently problematic to be avoided, ended, or numbed. Decay is similarly regarded as unworthy of acceptance, compared with growth. However, some argue that failures, suffering, and pain may lead to literary success or make one more successful. 1 According to positive psychology, admirable qualities are deemed worthy of focus (positivity), while undesirable traits are given a cold-shoulder treatment (negativity). They are greeted with a kind of xenophobia of ideas, psychologically quarantined, and invalidated by silent neglect, somewhat as an abandoned baby is left to 1  See BBC articles on “Is failure the new literary success?” (Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/ capital/story/20190703-why-suffering-setbacks-could-make-you-more-successful) and “Why suffering setbacks could make you more successful?” (Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/culture/ story/20190620-is-failure-the-new-literary-success).

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expire by exposure. But the value-based strategy of focusing on positivity or negativity comes with at least two key risks: the valuation of traits is often influenced by biases and performed without critical thought, and even when values can be assigned with certainty, a divisive, excessively general outlook may emerge as a result of emphasizing high-value over low-value traits (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). For instance, change may be perceived as positive for leaders and negative for followers, or vice versa, in organizational context. Both views seem biased if critical thinking and integrative systems thinking do not balance them. Further, the literature on organizational change is abounding but seem somewhat extraneous to positive psychology. John Kotter, Professor Emeritus in Harvard Business School and one of the leading experts on leadership and change, admits that change is hard, that most efforts for change fail, and that most people have a tendency to resist change (Kotter, 1995, 1997, 2012). Kotter seems to view resistance to change as a negative phenomenon that needs to change itself. To overcome resistance and failure, Kotter and Associates came up with various models (i.e., Kotter’s 8-Step Process for Leading Change) for successful and sustainable change (Kotter, 2012; Kegan & Lahey, 2009) assuming that change is a good or a positive thing to initiate. Therefore, a positive change in an organization or community requires a sense of urgency to first introduce and then lead change (Kotter, 2012; Kotter & Cohen, 2012). As social beings, humans experience internal and external changes as a result of internal and external forces. These changes may be labeled as positive and negative. To reach a balanced understanding of positive and negative change, be it personal or organizational levels, let us examine whether or not the nature of change and transformation is external or internal, hard or pleasant, and voluntary or involuntary. The butterfly’s life cycle, for instance, is an involuntarily change and transformation into something different in substance, shape, and quality through a four-stage process known as metamorphosis. 2 Stage 1. The first stage of the metamorphosis is laying eggs on plants by the adult female butterfly.

Image 1: Butterfly egg

2  The butterfly life cycle. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University. Retrieved from https://ansp.org/exhibits/online-exhibits/butterflies/lifecycle/

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Stage 2. The second stage is the feeding stage of caterpillar called larva, when caterpillar splits its skin and sheds.

Image 2: Caterpillar Stage 3. After the caterpillar is fully grown and stops eating plants, it becomes a pupa or chrysalis and continues to change inside of a silk cocoon. Nothing seems to be happening outside, but internally great transformational processes take place for weeks or months.

Image 3: Pupa or chrysalis Stage 4. In fourth or adult stage called the reproductive stage, the caterpillar turns into a butterfly to fly distances and lay eggs for the next transformational cycle.

Image 4: Adult butterfly

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Each stage of the metamorphosis is external and involuntary transformation. Anthony Athos puts it this way: “The caterpillar doesn’t know that it’ll come out as a butterfly. All it knows is that it’s alone, it’s dark and it’s a little scary.” 3 Thus, the inevitable change often seems scary, dark, and painful without which no real change or transformation may occur. From the organizational perspective, Goss, Pascale, and Athos (1993) argue “Reinvention is not changing what is, but creating what isn’t. A butterfly is not more caterpillar or a better or improved caterpillar; a butterfly is a different creature” (p. 98). Similar to metamorphosis, authentic change and workplace transformation is the combination of positive and negative emotional processes, physical and psychological changes, and transformation that often are unpredictable. Strengths philosophy for its noble intention of promoting kindness towards self and other, for its ability to reconcile diversity under the heading of strengths, and with its goal of imbuing energy into a depressed workplace environment—despite such admirable aspirations—runs the risk of reinforcing superficial perceptions and calcifying otherwise arbitrary distinctions into rigid boundaries. In emphasizing strengths, it tacitly (or overtly) devalues perceived weaknesses, generating a duality which may not inherently exist at all and which may itself be a source of conflict. Before emphasizing “bold, decisive action” as positive, and in so doing, effectively devaluing the trait of “hesitant uncertainty,” it should be considered whether perceived negatives really deserve their poor reputation. It may be worthwhile to contemplate the potential value of hesitation or even nonaction in periods of change. Beyond deliberate, active decision-making, catalysts to change may also be involuntarily and passive, the product of circumstances. For instance, carbon (Latin carbo or “charcoal”) is the 19th most common element on Earth and is found in living organisms, in rocks, and in the atmosphere. “Carbon is not black, or transparent, or soft, or hard, or a conductor, or a nonconductor--it all depends on structure.” 4 Carbon manifests itself in nature as fuels, fossil fuels, charcoal, petroleum, coal, oxides, graphite, and diamond. The difference between these elements is the density of carbon atoms. The thicker of the density, the harder the matter is. For instance, although the diamond has the same carbon atom as coal, the differences between the two are the structure and the density of carbon atoms:

3  It is Okay to NOT be Okay (January 14, 2015). In Authentic Alaska. Retrieved from https:// authenticalaskan.com/2015/01/14/its-okay-to-not-be-okay/ 4  Carbon. Retrieved from https://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/carbon.htm#Intr

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Diamonds are formed in the depth of the earth under a pressure of approximately 55,000 atmospheres and a little over 1000 °C. Similar conditions are obtained at a depth of 150 km below continents and 200 km below ocean crust.

Image 5: Diamond (© Amethyst Galleries) Unlike diamond, graphite is very soft due to its atomic structure. The carbon atoms packed and structured as hexagon but not as dense as in diamond. For the formation of the graphite, a deep burial, high heat and pressure, as well as long period of metamorphic process, is required. Graphite is used in art and engineering.

Image 6: Graphite (© amethyst galleries)

Failure to Recognize the Unity of Positive and Negative According to Chinese philosophy of Taoism, the universe constitutes two opposite forces, yin and yang (i.e., passive vs. active, negative vs. positive), that is the essence of “Chi,” i.e., the energy the universe, nature, and humankind (Bai & Roberts, 2011). In comparison to the duality found in Judeo-Christian religious worldview of good and evil, where God representing the ultimate good and Satan representing the ultimate evil (Genesis, 1–3), Taoism duality of yin and yang sees both good and evil in either. Nevertheless, faith and action in the New Testament, attitude and behavior in social psychology, and yin and yang in Taoism seem to all indicate the interdependent and mutually balancing nature of human experiences. In other words, faith, attitude, and passivity are balanced by action, behavior, and intentional activities (Myers, 1987). A number of attributes of yin and yang are listed in Table 5.1. The interdependent and mutually influencing forces within organizations are the working relationships among people, more specifically, between leaders and followers. They are interdependent, counterbalancing forces of each other and exchangeable due to the dynamic nature of roles and the constant change of the Table 5.1  Attributes of yin and yang (Bai & Roberts, 2011, p. 728) Yang Yin

Moving Tranquil

Active Passive

Hard Soft

Open Conservative

Positive Negative

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organizational context, which aligns well with Taoism (Bai & Roberts, 2011). Therefore, according to yin-yang philosophy, one may seek a balance between positive and negative because both are needed for workplace interaction, since there is negative in positivity and positive in negativity. Positivity and negativity are culturally relative and partial to shifting perceptions within a culture and over a span of time. Thus, perceptions on positive and negative are often cultural constructs rather than products of an inherent essence. Any biases with respect to such value judgments must therefore be adopted only with great caution and awareness. As seen in the histories of music, arts, and science, there are plenty of examples that the original work was initially heavily criticized (because they are so revolutionary), and only with the passage of time and repeated examinations, the values of the work become recognized. The essence of the work remains the same but it is the perceptions of the audience that has put a hasty label of negativity or positivity, which may affect the acceptance of the work. Hence, the true nature of the phenomenon may not change, it is the perceptions of it that have changed. An example in music illustrates the fickle flow of change in tastes: Igor Stravinsky’s (2000) Rite of Spring with its abstract, highly untraditional use of dissonances and rhythms (and perhaps even more strikingly, the barbaric primitive movements of Nijinsky’s choreography), incited a riot upon its premiere at the Paris Opera house in 1913. Yet the work is now firmly established in the musical canon, widely regarded as among the most significant and frequently performed orchestral works of the twentieth century. Thus, it is clear that the initial perception of the work was reversed, giving way to its own opposite with the same fervor, much as the principle reversal of yin and yang. Further, from a quantum physics perspective, the authentic nature of phenomena is the fact of changeability itself. For instance, electrons have a two-sided nature, referred to as wave-particle complementarity. Electrons manifest as either wave or particle depending on the observer. The observer is the active participant in the outcome of the manifestation. Circumstances arising in an organization can also exhibit the two-sided nature of duality, i.e., it has the potential to be either positive or negative. A hasty labeling of it as distinctly positive or negative could halt the unfolding of its true nature. The observers, i.e., the organizational and societal environment and individuals’ viewpoints on arising situations, are active participants of the situation as well. Rather than hastily labeling a situation’s attributes, it would be wise to be mindful of the effects of such impulsive labeling and instead take a nonaction approach, allowing circumstances to unfold organically and fulfill their innate latent potential.

Coping Mechanism: Authenticity Amidst Change Wang and Skovira (2017) acknowledge three dimensions of authenticity: authentic self, authentic being, and authentic context as a curtailing concept of human existence that presupposes truthfulness and honesty to the self within a situation, be

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present and free in relation to others, and an authentic form of “living in place and possible situations” (p.  4). Leadership scholars, on the other hand, such as Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008), define authentic leadership as “a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-­ awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development” (p. 94). Self-awareness presupposes seeking feedback to improve interactions and learn self-capabilities from others. Relational transparency expects to say what the person means and be willing to admit mistakes made. The internalized moral perspective is to show consistency between one’s beliefs and actions as well as making decisions based on one’s core values. Balanced processing enables one to challenge her or his “deeply held positions” and listen to “different points of view before coming to conclusions” (Walumbwa et al., 2008, p. 121). Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, and Avey (2009) use the term “positive psychological capital PsyCap” to describe individual and group positive psychological capacities (capital) “as the shared variance between self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resiliency” with a mediated role of trust in leader-follower relationships (p. 230). In other words, if leaders are authentic and followers utilize their PsyCap in an environment where they trust their leader, positive results in an organization may follow. Is it possible to balance positive leadership, authenticity, PsyCap, and internal and external changes as individuals and organizations go through as a life cycle without losing self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resiliency? To address the question posed, it is important to go back to our earlier discussion on yin and yang. First, in the yin-yang universe (i.e., positive and negative), self-­ efficacy and inadequacy coexist together, hope and despair are a part of human experience, optimism and pessimism reflect human authentic self, and trust and lack of trust exist almost in all relationships and organizations whether we acknowledge or not. These psychological and emotional forces are constantly at work. Second, according to Taoism and Taiji diagram, there is a seed of self-efficacy element in inadequacy, hope in every hopeless situations, optimism in every pessimist, and trust in distrust. Such realization may minimize the blind spot or the one-sided or inauthentic approach to life and work relationships. The above dilemma lies in the very nature of seemingly counterintuitive worldview of yin and yang. There are at least two options to choose wisely depending on the situation. • Option 1. One may adopt a passive (yin) or a nonaction attitude toward internal and external forces of change that are beyond one’s control with a realization that there is always yang in yin. • Option 2. One may adopt an active (yang) behavior toward internal and external forces of change that are under one’s control to engage and participate in the change process with a realization that there is always yin in yang.

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Apophatic mysticism of ancient Greece, the “don’t know mind” and “beginner’s mind” associated with Zen Buddhism, and the Taoist concept of Wei Wu Wei (爲無 爲, action nonaction, or doing not doing), each acts as a healthy agnosticism with respect to perceptions of value in people, events, and circumstances. In so many contexts, one pole contains within it its own opposite: positive is so often pregnant with negative and vice versa, each waiting to repolarize and emerge transformed and self-reinvented. Additionally, in the Christian tradition, death is the seed of life; weakness is the source of strength. Jesus Christ, in reference to death and life, told his disciples, “unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains just a single grain; but if it dies, it bears much fruit. Those who love their life lose it, and those who hate their life in this world will keep it for eternal life” (The Gospel of John, 12:24, NRSV). Accordingly, Apostle Paul, in his Second Letter to Corinthians, admitted, “I will boast all the more gladly of my weaknesses, so that the power of Christ may dwell in me. Therefore I am content with weaknesses, insults, hardships, persecutions, and calamities for the sake of Christ; for whenever I am weak, then I am strong” (2 Corinthians, 12:9–10, NRSV). Studies show that individuals, whether they are either optimists or pessimists, seem to exhibit constant behavior and no evidence that they may become someone else (Kubzansky, Kubzansky, & Maselko, 2004). In other words, much like strength domains, optimism and pessimism may be viewed as another set of “strengths.” Additionally, Kubzansky et al. (2004) reported that optimism and pessimism appear to be distinct paradigms due to substantive differences between them and that “optimism and pessimism each independently predicted anxiety, anger, and depressive symptoms in the expected directions” (p. 950). Thus, despite the fact that optimism generally assumes positive and pessimism negative outcomes (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994), both seem to be distinct and valuable human constructs built within one’s personal identity. As for the concept of hope, if one is not hopeful or pessimistic for the future may benefit from others who have hope. Conversely, if one is hopeful or optimistic for the future and yet outcomes turn out to be negative may find comfort with a pessimist, who never lives with positive expectations in the first place, to avoid disappointment, anger, and despair. Recognizing one’s natural positivity or negativity, be it pessimism or optimism, not as a problem between the leader and followers, is a step forward toward authenticity in the leadership process. Kelloway and Associates (2013) have proposed, in Positive Leadership and Employee Well-being, that “to change leader behavior to enhance well-being” and that leaders should be taught to “engage in more positive interactions with their followers” (p. 110). How can a leader, who is a conservative, pessimist by nature, change her or his behavior to act as a liberal and an optimist? If a leader’s strength is not empathy, for instance, should the leader work hard to become empathetic toward her or his followers, and to what extent? Authenticity here implies that the leader recognizes her or his weakness, in this case lack of empathy, and seeks help from followers or other group members to reach a positive group outcome. Additionally, as much as one does not possess all thirty-four (34) human strengths or talents in all four (4) domains of leadership and need others to

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accomplish group and organizational tasks, according to strength-based leadership (Rath & Conchie, 2008), so do pessimists need optimists, and vice versa, in order to achieve authentic workplace transformation. For instance, electric power is generated only as the interactive result of negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons. Thus, interpersonal and organizational power may be generated if negative and positive strengths are integrated or brought together. 5

Two Stories The “Penguin” Story Organizational change that often comes externally and unexpected requires leaders to come up with a strategy to adapt change (Kotter & Rathgeber, 2006). Kotter is convinced that if people follow the eight steps of change, they may transform organizations for a lasting good. Kotter also argues that any inevitable change is manageable if there is a strategy to cope with change and adapt to a new environment, much like the colony of penguins in Antarctica in the fable of “Our Iceberg Is Melting” (Kotter & Rathgeber, 2006). Fred, a member of the colony who had been studying their home iceberg and the sea for years, discovered that their iceberg “is melting and might break apart soon!!” (p. 10). Fred was able to show evidence and convince the leadership of the colony to leave their home iceberg and adapt to a nomadic lifestyle. “Today, the colony moves around like nomads. Most have accepted it. Some love it. Some never will” (Kotter & Rathgeber, 2006, p. 122). This is an example of a passive yin external change that requires an attitudinal change for the members of the colony to adopt an active yang attitude toward the upcoming change and be willing to change from negative to positive thinking. Finally, the colony embraced an intentionally active yang behavior to do something about the immanent change by adapting a nomadic lifestyle.  he “Old Man Lost His Horse” Story T There is a famous story from the “In the World of Men” chapter of the ancient Chinese text of Huai Nan Zi (淮南子:人間訓). Huai Nai Zi is a book written sometime before 139 B.C. It integrates Taoism, Confucianism, and Legalism and incorporates yin/yang and wuxin (five elements) theories. The story started with its theme of “夫禍福之轉而相生, 其變難見也.” which can be directly translated as “It is difficult to see the changes in the interdependent birth of one from the other due to the turn between calamity and fortune.”  Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-electricity-4019643 Petros and his wife Annie have lived together for 35 years. She is an authentic pessimist and Petros is an authentic optimist. His outlook to the world is positive in most cases. Her outlook to the world, in most cases, is negative. When he sees a painting, for instance, he spontaneously appreciates the artwork. When his wife sees the same painting, she spontaneously critiques and tries to find errors. Petros sees the glass half full. Annie sees the same glass half empty. They complement each other, and as magnets, +/−, they attract each other. Their friends and family, including their two grown children, consider them a good match. 5

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Then the story follows: 近塞上之人有善術者, 馬無故亡而入胡 人皆吊之 其父曰: 「此何遽不為福乎?」 居數月, 其馬將胡駿馬而歸 人皆賀之 其父曰:「此何遽不能為禍乎?」 家富良馬, 其子好騎, 墮而折其髀 人皆吊之 其父曰:「此何遽不為福乎?」 居一年, 胡人大入塞, 丁壯者引弦而戰, 近塞之人, 死者十九, 此獨以跛之故, 父 子相保 And the translation in English is: In the frontier lived a family with tactics. Their horse, for no reason escaped and entered “Hu” territory. Everyone consoled the family. The father said “how can it be hastily viewed not as a fortune?” After several months, the family’s horse came back together with the prized horse from “Hu.” Everyone congratulated the family. The father said “how can it be hastily viewed not as a calamity?” Family became rich due to good horse; the son who liked riding fell and broke his thigh bone. Everyone consoled the family. The father said “how can it be hastily viewed not as a fortune?” After a year, “Hu” invaded the frontier and strong men took on weapons and fought. Nine out of ten men living near the frontier died, but the father and the son’s lives were spared solely due to the son’s crippled leg. The story concludes with “故福之為禍, 禍之為福, 化不可極, 深不可測也,” which translates to “Therefore, fortune is calamity, calamity is fortune. The changes cannot be exhausted, their depth that cannot be measured.” The story later is shortened into a famous proverb in China as “塞翁失馬, 焉知 非福” which translates to “The old man in the frontier lost his horse, how can one know it is not a fortune?” This proverb is used often in Chinese culture to describe the interdependency between calamity and fortune, i.e., negativity and positivity. A related popular Chinese phrase is “禍兮福之所倚, 福兮禍之所伏.” It translates to “Calamity is what fortune leans on; Fortune is what calamity lies in.” This phrase also well describes the interdependency and interchangeability of negativity and positivity. The above two stories show the interdependencies and changeability of yin and yang. And each story demonstrates the outcomes of embracing both yin and yang and seeing yin in yang and yang in yin. The difficult question is “how to balance yin and yang?” and “especially in proactive and systematic ways?” Numerous philosophical traditions exist which may be of service in assessing traits for value and providing for harmonious coexistence of binary oppositions, thus side-stepping the tendency towards the caustic duality of perception the marks most thought. Here we explore the Hegal’s western approach and the “yin-yang transformation” Eastern approach for practical guidance.

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The Hegel’s Approach in the Western Tradition Hegel’s approach to dialectical reasoning excels in honoring the dissenting view within a conflict, indeed seeking out a “negative” with which to put the original or primary view into perspective. As described in his Phenomenology of Spirit, among other sources, Hegel refers to a triadic structure of mediation, whereby premises leading to contradictions are not merely discarded, as in Platonic argumentation, but rather allowed to remain and evolve into an enlightened perspective, enriched by the competition of opposing positions. The Hegelian style of thought includes three discrete, sequential phases, known as moments. The logical process begins with acknowledgement of a “fixed moment” or “abstract” (often interpreted as a thesis). This is a point of departure in a conversation, analysis, or argumentation. Here, it may be comparable to a perceived strength in society and the workplace. That fixed moment is subject to transformation in the light of new insight and can be expected to mutate with the passing of time, not unlike the principle of entropy in thermodynamics or annica (impermanence) in Buddhism. Thus, the Taiwanese Buddhist teacher Zheng Wuguang proclaimed, “today’s epiphany is tomorrow’s mistake. (Young, 2017, p. 146). Hegel encourages the responsible thinker to test the fixed moment against a negating consideration, exposing the fixed moment for any potential flaws and inconsistencies. This marks a critical juncture in the evolution of a concept and cannot be omitted in thorough contemplation. Hegel utilized the term Aufhebung, which simultaneously conveys the dual sense of destroying and preserving, translated variously as sublation or overcoming. The sound attributes of the fixed moment will be retained and preserved, while doubtful aspects are abandoned and replaced with the positive attributes of the dissenting perspective. The final phase of the triadic thought scheme now emerges, whereby fixed moment and negative are reconciled in relationship (the “concrete”), elements of each being preserved and coexisting in harmony. Strengths philosophy, in its emphasis on existing strengths as a source of guidance, may find a complementary purpose in models where opposing considerations are deliberately sought out, not for purposes of invalidating such strengths, but rounding them out, testing their limits, and exposing potential drawbacks. Embracing ostensible negatives alongside strengths may lead to richer inquiry, deeper insight, and greater resiliency, without loss of valuable attributes.

The “Yin-Yang Transformation” Approach in the Eastern Tradition Bai and Roberts (2011) use Taiji diagram to conceptualize the process of organizational change through five-element theories of Taoism: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water representing the beginning, the growth, maturation, aging, and dying of organizations (pp. 729, 732). Here, Taiji diagram is used to understand the role of yang (active, indicated in the white parts) and yin (passive, indicated in the black parts) forces in personal and organizational change processes. The personal change refers

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to yin and yang behaviors of leaders and followers in organizations. The organizational change refers to ways in which interpersonal relationships affect organizational transformation. Bai and Roberts (2011) writes: The following figure demonstrates a Yin-Yang cycle of leadership in an organization, where the white part is Yang symbolizing for a proactive and driving force, and the black part is Yin symbolizing a passive and conservative force. Within each part there is a seed (the opposite element) that grows in the process until it replaces its parent force (p. 732).

Different colored circles in Fig. 5.1 represent different organizational contexts where leaders and followers exhibit either very strong, strong, and relatively strong, or very weak, weak, and relatively weak behaviors. As a result, the organizational culture or the climate changes from leadership dominance to leadership decline, role shifts, and from followership dominance to followership decline. Each phase requires realization and acceptance of one’s strengths and weaknesses, which results in balanced coexistence between proactive-driving and passive-conservative forces of relationship dynamics. Thus, “according to Taoism, the circumstances of leadership at both internal and external. levels are under constant change” (Bai & Roberts, 2011, p. 735). As discussed earlier, positive leadership, on the other hand, tends to focus on the positive aspect of the person and organizations. Similarly, positive psychology attempts to utilize primarily positive emotions to overcome negativity of life. Contrary to the one-sided argument for positivity, Yin-yang approach to

Fig. 5.1  Yin-yang change process of leader-follower relationships (Adopted from Bai & Roberts, 2011)

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organizational change seems to minimize the blind spot of positive leadership and positive psychology by offering an integrative and a balanced approach to positivity and negativity, optimism and pessimism, and activism and passivism as essential components of authentic and dynamic interplay between passive, negative yin and the opposing active, positive yang forces in life. As Bai and Roberts (2011) put it, Ancient wisdom of Taoism allows for holistic observation and integration while modern science is good at positivism and analysis. A combination of the two provides a powerful new platform for enhancing our understanding of leadership as well as the nature and practice of adaptive leadership, in the rapid and complex changes of the global twenty-first century (p. 737–738).

Thus, it can be said that yin and yang play a balancing role in workplace transformation and that relationships between leaders and followers and the organization are dynamic and constantly changing. This realization may help us to embrace the unknown, find our own authentic selves, and adapt to the immanent change, whether pleasant or unpleasant, expected or unexpected.

Conclusion Positive leadership, following positive psychology, seems to have a blind spot, which is its inability to see the necessity of the negative, change, and interdependency of positive and negative. An overly positive attitude may hamper the opportunity to confront and in turn grow from negativity. An overly negative attitude limits hope and aspiration for a brighter future. Leaders may adopt positive leadership situationally, but overly emphasizing positivity at all times and ignoring negativity may itself infuse negativity into leadership. The change from positive leadership to negativity in leadership is only a part of the cyclical transformation between positivity and negativity. Negative and positive emotions and feelings keep the human body and mind in healthy balance. Passive and active intentions and actions keep organizational power and resources in checks and balances. It is the sadness that enables one to value happiness, it is the evil that defines what good is, it is the constant struggle between right and wrong that guarantees social justice, it is the death that nurtures and springs forward birth, and it is the backdrop of nonaction that makes the action powerful. Thus, it is critical to acknowledge that negativity in leadership such as the glass is half empty is as important as the positive view of the glass being half full. It is not either or, but both that makes human perspective complementary and holistic, and hence authentic. Authenticity remains understandable as a sense of balance, wholeness, integration, and truth to oneself, relation, and context: congruency between essence and action, words, and deeds. In addition, we see how the acceptance of competing values and the flow of change itself is necessary in achieving a state of balance, integration, and truthfulness. Change is diverse, taking on many forms. To live authentically amidst change requires awareness of the interdependencies of

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opposites and hence the essential togetherness (i.e., non-dual) in the outer appearances of separation (i.e., duality). Atoms, the building blocks of life, have neutrons (with positive charge) and electrons (with negative charge). Polar opposites in life are useful and have meanings just as the neutrons and electrons do. For instance, both yin and yang are the interwoven fabric of human experience. One should recognize yang in yin and yin in yang or absolute necessity for having both yin and yang for a balanced organizational life, especially amidst change. The passive attitude of yin always lives alongside of active behavior of yang, which is the essence of not only power source in nature but also in leader-follower relationships in organizations. It is the relational balance between leaders and followers that makes the process of leadership possible. So, what is positive leadership for workplace transformation? It is the recognition of the coexistence of yin and yang, the abilities to see yin in yang and yang in yin, and the skillful means to integrate and balance yin and yang. Thus, the true transformation of a person or an organization is to authentically embrace the process of cyclical change from yin to yang and from yang to yin with the mindfulness of all intricate interactions and even non-duality between yin and yang, without overly emphasizing one or the other from personal and organizational life. Chapter Takeaways 1. Positive psychology has had a positive impact on human self-perception and relationships. Instead of asking “what is wrong with me,” the positive psychology research encourages people to ask instead “what is right with me” in order to cultivate positive emotions and positive organizational behavior. 2. Strengths philosophy that is built on the positive psychology seems to omit the possibility of viewing negativity as a strength or talent that may produce positive results. Thus, positive and negative emotions must be measured by positive outcomes because positive emotions do not necessarily guarantee positive outcomes. 3. Positivity and negativity, strengths and weaknesses, are always understood from biased sociocultural lenses. They are an essential part of human experience that produces life-giving change. Thus, authentic change and workplace transformation is the combination of positive and negative emotional processes, physical and psychological changes, and transformation that often are unpredictable. 4. The universe constitutes two opposite forces: yang and yin (i.e., active vs. passive, positive vs. negative in Taoism) or good and evil (i.e., in Judeo-Christian religions). These forces are interdependent and intertwined. Thus, the histories of music, arts, and science show us that there is positivity in negativity, negativity in positivity, good in evil, and evil in good, despite our culturally shaped personal or collective perceptions and interpretations. 5. The stories of “Penguin” and the “Old Man Lost His Horse” teach us how to cope with change and adapt to a new environment without failing to see yang in yin or vice versa.

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6. Overcoming the blind spot of positive leadership is to acknowledge the following interdependency and unity of negative and positive: (a) Negative and positive emotions and feelings keep the human body and mind in healthy balance. (b) Passive and active intentions and actions keep organizational power and resources in checks and balances. (c) It is the sadness that enables one to value happiness. (d) It is the evil that defines what good is. (e) It is the constant struggle between right and wrong that guarantees social justice. (f) It is the death that nurtures and springs forward birth. (g) It is the backdrop of nonaction that makes the action powerful. Reflection Questions • • • • •

What to do with personal bias on duality? How to deal with personal blind spots of overly emphasizing positivity? How to see yin in yang and yang in yin? How to live a balanced life in the midst of yang and yin balance? How to achieve workplace transformation by utilizing human potential in the interdependence and unity of negativity and positivity?

References Bai, X., & Roberts, W. (2011). Taoism and its model of traits of successful leaders. Journal of Management Development, 30(7/8), 724–739. Buckingham, M., & Clifton, D.  O. (2001). Now, discover your strengths. New  York: The Free Press. Cameron, K. (2012). Positive leadership: Strategies for extraordinary performance. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G.  R., & Avey, J.  B. (2009). Authentic leadership and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust at the group level of analysis. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(3), 227–240. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-­ build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218. Goffee, R., & Jones, G. (2006). Why should anyone be led by you? What it takes to be an authentic leader. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press. Goss, T., Pascale, R., & Athos, A. (1993). The reinvention roller coaster: Risking the present for a powerful future. Harvard Business Review, 71(6), 97–106. Kegan and Lahey. (2009). Immunity to change: How to overcome it and unlock the potential in yourself and your organization. Harvard Business Press. ISBN:1422129470. Kelloway, E. K., Weigand, H., McKee, M. C., & Das, H. (2013). Positive leadership and employee well-being. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(1), 107–117. Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail (Vol. March–April, pp. 59–68). Harvard Business Review.

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Organizational Spiritual Maturity: A Goal of Positive Leaders and Direction for Change Adam S. Freer and Peter J. Robertson

Abstract

Organizational spiritual maturity (OSM) is an important new way of understanding organizations. Two core elements of OSM are important for positive leaders when pursuing organizational change. First, all organizational attributes are rooted in an organization’s spirit, and unless the spiritual root is addressed, any negative or undesirable quality will not likely be resolved  – even through the strategies of positive leadership. Second, in the highly interconnected and integral world, leaders must fully consider the pervasive impacts of their organization both internally and externally. OSM provides a clearer vision and new strategies that can help positive leaders be even more effective in improving the well-being, health, and effectiveness of the people and organizations they lead. A key quality of OSM is spiritually mature leadership and management approaches. Spiritually mature leaders are described and contrasted with positive leaders and the more general concept of spiritual leaders. Keywords

Spiritual leadership · Spirit at work · Organizational purpose · Organizational transformation · Organizational development

A. S. Freer (*) Washington County Department of Health and Human Services, Hillsboro, OR, USA P. J. Robertson USC Price School of Public Policy, Los Angeles, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_6

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Introduction Positive leadership (PL) seeks healthy and productive employees and organizations. Based largely on positive psychology, PL seeks to achieve this by strategically promoting positivity (Youseff-Morgan & Luthans, 2013) in order to encourage “positively deviant” behavior, which is extraordinary in its virtuousness and efficacy (Cameron, 2008, 2013). Strategies that have been demonstrated to achieve this include creating a positive climate, positive meaning, positive communication, and positive relationships (Cameron, 2008). The goals and strategies of positive leadership align very well with the concept of organizational spiritual maturity (OSM), which was introduced by Freer (2017). OSM complements positive leadership in a number of ways. First, it provides a new lens through which to understand organizations, including root causes of negativity. Second, OSM provides a coherent vision for what could be considered a fully “positive” organization that includes a positive climate, meaningful communication, and relationships. This can give leaders greater clarity on the direction towards which their positive energy can be focused. Third, OSM can inform the strategies that can be taken to achieve this positive organization. However, there are some important distinctions between the two concepts. PL is rooted in positive psychology and was developed in response to negativity that is pervasive in many modern organizations. However, proponents have made it clear that the positivity is not a naïve replacement for the potentially well-founded negativity, but rather a counterforce to overcome the counterproductive or harmful effects of negativity (Youseff-Morgan & Luthans, 2013). OSM emerged in response to recognition that many organizations inflict harm on every level of human society and the planet itself. In fact, organizations are quite possibly the most destructive entities in the world (cf. Bakan, 2004; Korten, 2001). Although a great deal of effort by scholars and practitioners has been invested in addressing and preventing these harms, we argue that most of these efforts do not address the true root of the problem – the maturity of the organization’s spirit. As Mitroff and Denton (1999, p xiv) put it: We believe that today’s organizations are impoverished spiritually and that many of their most important problems are due to this impoverishment…We believe that organizational science can no longer avoid analyzing, understanding, and treating organizations as spiritual entities.

The notion of “spiritual” used here is nonreligious and reflects the extent to which the organization understands its interconnectedness with and impact on the larger whole of the world. Driven by this understanding, spiritually mature organizations seek to have a net positive impact. Conversely, as with individual humans, spiritually immature organizations tend to be self-serving, which translates into transactional and exploitative approaches. By pursuing OSM, leaders can not only increase the well-being of their employees and their organizations, but the wellbeing of human society and the planet will also be improved.

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This chapter first elaborates on the definition and qualities of organizational spiritual maturity. This is followed by the identification of some specific practices that positive leaders can use to change their businesses, nonprofits, government agencies, faith-based organizations, etc., into healthy and effective organizations that are both positive and spiritually mature.

Organizational Spiritual Maturity (OSM) The topic of spirituality in organizations has received considerable scholarly and popular attention over the last quarter-century (de Klerk, 2005; Houghton, Neck, & Krishnakumar, 2016; Karakas, 2006). A key conceptual distinction in research on workplace spirituality is between the individual and organizational levels of analysis. Research at the individual level focuses on the spirituality of people in organizations, with a primary interest in identifying the consequences of employees’ experience or expression of spirituality at work (e.g. Roof, 2015; Tombaugh, Mayfield, & Durand, 2011). Organization-level spirituality “describes the spirituality of the organization itself” (Houghton et al., 2016, p. 181) and is often defined in terms of a spiritual culture or climate as reflected in an organization’s values, vision, and purpose (e.g., Kolodinsky, Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2008). The concept of organizational spiritual maturity is based on the premise that organizations have a deeper nature or essence that shapes their culture, policies, and practices. This perspective is supported by ideas from systems theory and complexity theory, which view organizations as complex systems. Simple metaphors of organizations have proven inadequate over time as they failed to capture the adaptability and self-organizing nature of organizations (Ajmal & Lodhi, 2015; Harder, Robertson, & Woodward, 2004; Hatch, 2011). Scholars have been increasingly turning to more organic metaphors to capture the true essence of organizations, including that of complex adaptive systems. A system is defined as “an interconnected set of elements that is coherently organized in a way that achieves something” (Meadows, 2008, p 11). Systems thinking has made at least two major contributions to organizational science. The first is recognition that the system is more than the sum of its parts. In other words, the system has emergent properties that transcend the parts, i.e., that cannot be found in any of the parts and cease to exist if the system is dismantled. A key example is an organism, which is a system of cells, organs, etc. A whole organism, such as a human, cannot be understood by examining any of the individual components of the system, i.e. their bones, heart, brain, etc. (Meadows, 2008; Wheatley, 2006), and if a system, or person, is dissected into its constituent parts, it ceases to be a system – it loses that unique nature that made it a coherent system. Another important contribution of systems theory is that systems are nested within other higher-order or more complex systems. Boulding (1956) developed a hierarchy of systems with each level being a higher order of complexity, which he called the Framework for General Systems Theory. According to this theory, all humans are complex systems, comprised of simpler, but yet still complex, systems

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and simultaneously existing as components of larger and more complex systems, such as organizations. Most organizational scholars underestimate the complexity of organizations. This is critical, because our conceptualizations serve as paradigms through which we understand organizations. If our paradigm is too narrow or restrictive, we cannot accurately comprehend them (Sridhar & Camburn, 1993). This has likely been the primary obstacle for people to recognize the existence and importance of organizational spirits.

Definition Dictionary definitions of spirit include “an animating or vital principle held to give life to physical organisms” (Spirit, n.d.a); “the non-physical part of a person which is the seat of emotions and character; the soul” and “the non-physical part of a person regarded as their true self” (Spirit, n.d.b). These understandings of the concept of spirit are consistent with those found in the organizational literature. Lázár (2011) refers to the spirit as “an invisible, transparent…substance” that enters living beings and gives them life (p 95). Moreover, this substance is regarded as the “essence of our being, our very nature, our core, our true, permanent identity” that is separate and distinct from our physical body (Pruzan, 2001, p 6). In other words, it is not part of our identity; it is our identity – our truest and deepest identity – from which all of our other attributes flow. It also impacts the appearance of our physical selves (consider how the extent of a person’s vanity affects his or her appearance). In the same way, the organizational spirit is the invisible but truest essence of the organization, the source of its culture, actions, policies, practices, physical manifestations, and leadership selection. Organizational spirit: the intangible and deepest essence of an organization that is reflected in its qualities, culture, physical manifestations, policies, and practices. While there are clear similarities between organizational and individual spirits, there are also some important differences. As suggested by Boulding (1956) and by living systems theory, organizations are more complex than individuals (Miller, 1978), so the organizational spirit can be expected to differ in substantive ways. Rather than having one brain, organizations are “multi-cephalous” or have multiple brains. As such, individuals that comprise organizations “act in concert and develop shared meanings, shared cultures and a collective value system” (Sridhar & Camburn, 1993, p 729). This supports the assertion that an organizational spirit is cocreated through dynamic interactions among individuals, their values, goals, and the physical artifacts of the organization (cf. Cleveland, Byrne, & Cavanagh, 2015; Kolodinsky et al., 2008; Neal, 2013). It is neither fully created nor fully embodied by the top executive, nor can it be completely destroyed by that person. In keeping with systems theory, an organizational spirit is considered to be a unique and distinct emergent property of each organization.

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Perhaps the most common element in definitions of spirituality is the concept of connection. Mitroff and Denton (1999) state that if a single word could capture the essence of spirituality, it would be interconnectedness. This sense of interconnectedness can be with other people, with nature, and/or with a higher power (Liu & Robertson, 2011). The core premise is that the world is deeply connected, or even one single entity (Capra & Luisi, 2014; Lázár, 2011), and the more spiritually advanced have greater awareness, or consciousness, of this (Barrett, 1998). However, it is insufficient to merely be aware of it. There is an understanding embedded in these conceptualizations of spirituality that consciousness deeply affects one’s understanding of reality and interactions with the world, and increases in spirituality involve striving to increase or restore connectedness (de Jager Meezenbroek et al., 2012; Lázár, 2011). Built into this core concept is the recognition that increasing spirituality involves transcendence – a rising above focus on the self in order to better understand this connectedness or to realize the desired interconnection or unity. As Shafranske and Gorsuch (1984) put it, spirituality is “a transcendent dimension within human experience…in which the individual…attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context” (p 231). It involves an expansion of the concept of self to include more of the world (Liu & Robertson, 2011). The degree of this transcendence and connectedness represents the extent of spiritual maturity. Those who are more self-­ focused are less spiritually mature. On the other end of the spectrum, those who are highly conscious of this interconnectivity and live in a way that reflects it are more spiritually mature (cf. Liu & Robertson, 2011). We argue that the same applies to organizations. Organizational spiritual maturity (OSM): the extent to which an organization recognizes its profound interconnectedness with its members, society, the physical planet, and the whole of existence and consequently respects, values and seeks to care for and benefit them. In the next section, we elaborate on this definition by summarizing the key observable qualities of an ideal-type spiritually mature organization, as depicted in the literature on spirituality in organizations.

Qualities of Spiritually Mature Organizations Freer (2017) identified over 70 different terms used to describe spiritually mature organizations in the extant literature. These were synthesized into six robust qualities: love, wisdom, integrity, purpose for the common good, spiritually mature leadership and management approaches, and continual evolution. These qualities are interdependent and together paint a holistic picture of a spiritually mature organization. They can be expected to co-occur, since they are all different expressions or manifestations of the same spiritual essence. On the other hand, perfection or complete spiritual maturity is elusive if not impossible to attain, for organizations just as

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for individuals, such that it serves as a goal for which to continually strive. Our hope is that, by providing a clear vision of an ideal spiritually mature organization, more organizations will be inspired to take proactive steps to evolve in this direction (Laloux, 2014; Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999).

Love Organizational spiritual maturity is defined above in terms of recognition of interconnectivity as well as the impact this understanding has on values and actions. It is not enough to merely recognize connectedness or be conscious of it. Rather, spiritual maturity implies that this connection is inherently and deeply positive, with love as its ideal nature. According to Lázár (2011), spirit is the transcendent, or divine, aspect of humans that is expressed through love. Higher levels of consciousness are “dominated by love and feelings of connectedness” (Barrett, 1998, p. 161), suggesting that the process of spiritual maturation not only increases the sense of connection but also the extent of love felt and expressed. Consequently, love is the primary quality of a spiritually mature organization, from which the other qualities naturally flow. Love pervades the organization internally and flows outward through its work and interactions. In particular, spiritual maturity results in unconditional love that can be applied to oneself, other people, society, other living things, the planet itself, and even the transcendent. Traditional theories of organization tend to leave little room for love (Argandoña, 2011), such that it is a relatively new concept in the organizational and management literature (Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013). However, the literature on spirituality in the workplace fairly consistently includes love as an expression of that concept (Barrett, 1998; Capra & Luisi, 2014; Dorr, 2008; Howard, 2002; Johnson, 2009; Karakas, 2006; Lázár, 2011; Melé, 2011; Schabracq & Smit, 2007), yet there have been few attempts to actually define the term. Drawing on insights from Christian managers who sought to express love through their work, Cunha et al. (2017) concluded that “organizational love can thus be theorized as the exercise of constructing virtuous, other-oriented human communities that transcend the productive functions of work and respond to important human needs” (p. 1). This definition introduces two key notions – virtue and community – that point to the value of distinguishing between two different aspects of organizational love. Virtue represents the general goodness and morality that comes from love, whereas a sense of community includes the warmer, more emotional feelings of communion, caring, and acceptance (Bowman, 2008). Thus, spiritually mature organizations can be expected to display high levels of both virtuous love and communal love. Virtuous love recognizes the interconnectedness of all parties and moves the organization to act based on this recognition. An action is virtuous if it seeks to benefit others or seeks the good of others, even if all others are not explicitly known (Argandoña, 2011). Virtuous love incorporates several other spiritual qualities identified in the literature (Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013; Johnson, 2009; Lázár, 2011; Marques, Dhiman, & King, 2007), including charity, altruism, compassion, kindness, and

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mercy. It leads an organization to factor into its decisions the needs of and impact on those both inside and outside of the organization and to prioritize these over its own bottom line, profit, or potential self-serving gains. The resulting actions would by definition be more loving and more spiritually mature than those enacted by organizations that do not seek virtue. Communal love creates a sense of community in the organization, defined as “a way of being together with both individual authenticity and interpersonal harmony so that people become able to function with a collective energy even greater than the sum of their individual energies” (Barrett, 1998, p. 153). Modern organizations have a tendency to be impersonal and detached from the people that comprise them – “even indifferent to them” (Cook Jr., 2000, p. 292). Conversely, spiritual organizations promote the well-being of their members and seek to develop caring relationships (Khasawneh, Alrjoub, & Al Zawahreh, 2010), thereby creating a sense of solidarity, unity, and wholeness (Barrett, 1998). The result is that organizational members feel valued, display mutual concern for each other and for the organization, and are even willing to suffer together. This translates into an organizational culture in which everyone is free to be themselves, with management focused on helping employees succeed rather than judging them (Cunha et al., 2017). People are encouraged to try their best but are also allowed to make mistakes (Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013) because they are respected, trusted, and loved. Everyone’s potential is maximized through a nurturing, embracing, and engaging organizational environment (Marques et al., 2007) that perpetuates and models a loving community in the work environment.

Wisdom Spiritually mature organizations also exhibit wisdom (Howard, 2002; Thompson, 2011). Extensive literature is available on the concept of wisdom, including its application to organizations (cf. Edwards, Biloslavo, Kwaymullina, & Kwaymullina, 2012; Malloch, 2015; Spiller, Pio, Erakovic, & Henare, 2011). Briskin, Erickson, Ott, and Callanan (2009) identify many of the features commonly associated with wisdom, including the exercise of sound judgment, great understanding of people and situations, and consideration of multiple perspectives and forms of intelligence, with wisdom in groups demonstrated by insight, good sense, clarity, objectivity, and discernment rooted in deep caring and compassion. Based on this definition, wisdom is used here as a unifying term for three closely connected aspects of spiritually mature organizations – sound judgment, stewardship, and continual learning. There is general agreement in the scholarly literature that wisdom includes qualities related to sound judgment and decision-making, including discernment, insight, and openness (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff, 2005). Spiritual organizations tend to seek deeper levels of truth, are more apt to develop creative solutions, and have a higher tolerance for risk and ambiguity (Marques et  al., 2007). Bartunek, Gordon, and Weathersby (1983) argued that developmental maturity also increases the ability to empathize with differing positions in order to better understand them.

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Sound judgment requires both inclusive and well-informed decision-making processes. Some scholars argue that openness is a core attribute of spiritual organizations (Kolodinsky et al., 2008; Thompson, 2011; Biberman, 2009), because wise decisions require consideration of diverse perspectives (Koehn, 2005) that can improve problem-solving and counteract groupthink (Schabracq & Smit, 2007). Wisdom involves self-awareness that requires acknowledging the limitations of one’s knowledge and the fact that we are not always aware of what we do not know. Porter and Norris (2013) suggest that workplace spirituality manifests most fully when organizational structures are participative and that wisdom is nearly nonexistent in controlling, top-down hierarchies. This is in part because participation allows people to bring out the best in each other and collectively serve as good stewards of the organization. Wisdom also requires a great deal of discernment in terms of the quality of the data that inform organizational decisions, including personal experience, as well as what this information means. While decisions usually require some interpolation as data is interpreted and applied in new ways, this should be done with full awareness of which actions are directly supported by the data and which are not. Underlying assumptions should also be identified and examined to prevent their undue if not undesirable influence on the decision-making process. Assumptions, especially those that are unacknowledged, can prevent consideration of legitimate options or create strong biases for others. Political pressures should also be clearly identified, and their influence mitigated, to minimize their ability to interfere with the judicious consideration of the facts or steer the decision away from the organization’s spiritual values. Consistency with these values is a hallmark of sound decisions. Another core aspect of a sound decision-making process is consideration of the big picture and long-term implications, which several authors have identified specifically as spiritual qualities (Marques et  al., 2007; Marques, Dhiman, & King, 2009; Neal, 2013; McMichael, 2009; Neal & Vallejo, 2008). A central idea regarding long-term implications focuses on the effects of an organization’s actions on the natural environment, such as their rate of use of natural resources and impact on our life-support systems. Several scholars include harmony or connectedness with nature as reflections of spirituality (Biberman, 2009; de Jager Meezenbroek et al., 2012; Dorr, 2008), recognizing that organizations are responsible for much, if not most of the damage to the planetary life support systems (Barrett, 1998). The wise and respectful management of natural resources is often referred to as stewardship and is a core component of many indigenous forms of wisdom around the world (Edwards et al., 2012; Hartmann, 2004; McGaa, 2004; Spiller et al., 2011). For the concept of OSM, this is expanded to include the effective stewardship of all resources, which include natural, financial, and human. Many organizational decisions involve the use of these resources, which can be done wisely or wastefully. In order to stay informed so they can make sound decisions demonstrating wise stewardship, organizations must adopt an attitude of continual learning. Barrett (1998) argues that most established companies become arrogant and too rigid in their beliefs and knowledge, which causes them ultimately to fail. They believe they have all the answers and are unable to adapt and evolve in response to the rapidly

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changing world. Only those that are continually open to input from a wide variety of sources, challenge assumptions, and seek self-knowledge will survive.

Integrity The literature suggests that spiritually mature organizations display a high degree of integrity (Dorr, 2008; Johnson, 2009; Lee, Lovelace, & Manz, 2014) and developing integrity has been identified as a pathway to increasing spirituality (Karakas, 2006). Hendricks and Hendricks (2003, p. 429) argue that “spirituality flows from the source-spring of integrity and withers without that source.” Integrity refers to coherence of spirit, identity, beliefs, values, purpose, goals, and actions. For a spiritually mature organization, it means existing and operating in a way that is fully consistent with spiritual values, through internal relationships and operations as well as external actions, representations, and impacts. The use of the term in the literature suggests that the integrity has two main manifestations in organizations, namely, wholeness of identity and morality (Schabracq & Smit, 2007). In addition, standing firm against pressures that may seek to undermine an organization or cause it to compromise its morals requires backbone or the courage and ability to withstand these pressures. These three components of integrity are further described below. Achieving a sense of spiritual wholeness demands personal integrity (Selman, Selman, Selman, & Selman, 2005); in fact, the root of the word integrity is the concept of wholeness (Hendricks & Hendricks, 2003). Those with high integrity can be said to be whole because they lack a distinction between inner life and outward behavior, which is a sign of spiritual maturity (Johnson, 2009). People and organizations with high integrity will not act in ways that are inconsistent with their words or beliefs (Michael, 2013). They can be trusted to do what they say they will – they practice what they preach. For this reason, honesty is often identified as a key component of integrity (Johnson, 2009; Koehn, 2005; Michael, 2013; Solari & Torre, 2013). More generally, the OSM quality of integrity implies that an organization acts in a way that reflects a deep understanding of its interconnectedness with the world. Integrity both helps to reveal and establish a strong and coherent identity, because the consistency of beliefs, principles, policies, and actions that endure over time provides a clear and undistorted understanding of an entity’s true identity (Schabracq & Smit, 2007). Integrity is “earned” through consistency, especially when tested during difficult times. Consequently, other terms often associated with or used to define integrity are consistency, congruence, and continuity (Michael, 2013). When there is no consistency of identity, people are compartmentalized, which prevents them from being their true selves (Koehn, 2005). Even worse, the lack of consistency and wholeness of identity has been identified as a characteristic of psychopaths (Schabracq & Smit, 2007). In order to have integrity of identity, all expressions of identity must be consistent. In a spiritually mature organization, this creates a sense of comfort, trustworthiness, safety (Schabracq & Smit, 2007; Maak, 2008),

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inner peace, harmony, solidarity, and unity (Lázár, 2011; Melé, 2011). If an organization’s identity is unstable or unclear, there will likely be anxiety, stress, insecurity, disharmony, discord, and fragmentation. Morality is another aspect of organizational integrity, which demands congruence between moral principles and moral action. This applies to interactions with all internal and external stakeholders and implies that a moral course of action is consistently taken even if there are negative consequences for the organization. Intentions are the defining element of a moral action. Organizations will be seen as having integrity to the extent that their behavior is motivated by the right intentions (Michael, 2013). Morality entails doing what is right and just for the purposes of adhering to a moral standard, which gives the perception that an individual or organization is moral and can therefore be trusted to act in a way that is beneficial and not harmful. Conversely, a lack of moral integrity destroys trust (Johnson, 2009). When people or organizations lack moral integrity, they are able to justify harmful behaviors to achieve their ends (Koehn, 2005). For this reason, selfishness is considered a “moral flaw,” because it readily leads to sacrificing justice in order to achieve self-serving desires (Duska & Ragatz, 2008, p. 161). Finally, backbone, or courage and strength, is necessary to have integrity in one’s identity and be consistently moral. Courage is identified by some as a spiritual quality (Dorr, 2008; Khasawneh et al., 2010). The term backbone is used here instead to represent the internal strength required to maintain integrity, because this strength may come from courage or it could reflect spiritual qualities of hope or faith (Schabracq & Smit, 2007). In general, the greater the disparity of morality between an actor and the situation, the greater the backbone required, because the risks to the actor will be greater. When faced with strong situational pressures, very few have the courage to resist authority (Comer & Vega, 2011; Milgram, 1975). In other words, it requires a great deal of backbone for an employee to challenge his or her organization. It also requires a great deal of backbone for an organization to take risks and resist powerful pressures from shareholders and political forces in order to stand for what is right.

Purpose for the Common Good Another quality of spirituality commonly identified in the literature is having a purpose that, rather than being self-serving, serves the common good (Barrett, 1998; Lépineux & Rosé, 2011; Marques et al., 2007; Melé, 2011; Neal, 2013) or is rooted in the notion of service to others (Biberman, 2009; Howard, 2002; Karakas, 2006; Kolodinsky et  al., 2008; Lips-Wiersma, 2011; Maxwell, 2003; Neal & Vallejo, 2008). Some scholars associate an individual’s or organization’s purpose with its soul, on the basis that this purpose actually defines the true nature of the being (Duska & Ragatz, 2008). Having a purpose of serving others is a direct reflection of the awareness of interconnectedness that is definitional to spirituality. Spiritually mature organizations understand that their very reason for being is to serve the greater good.

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This quality of OSM is closely aligned with a sense of social responsibility or obligation (cf. Neal & Vallejo, 2008). When we become truly aware of how we affect others, we naturally develop a sense of obligation and responsibility for our impacts (Cohen, 2011). We cannot easily continue to focus solely on our own needs, because as Cohen (2011, p. 86) puts it “our small…bubble of separate individuality bursts... and we awaken to a powerfully implicating new moral context for our existence.” This can occur on the organizational level as well, which is why Barrett (1998) identifies social responsibility as a key indicator of an organization’s spiritual well-being. Spiritually mature organizations are able to transcend a primary focus on self-­ preservation that dominates most organizations (Laloux, 2014) in order to seek harmony, or symbiosis, with society and the planet to meet the needs of those both internal and external to the organization (Biberman, 2009), such as supplying important goods and services that meet human needs and improving the environment (Johnson, 2009). Lépineux and Rosé (2011) provide two broad categories into which common good actions can be grouped: those related to existence and those related to coexistence. The actions related to existence involve helping sustain the existence of the planet and humanity, such as providing energy, water, healthcare, etc. Actions related to coexistence promote healthy relationships and connections, and include enhancing civil and political rights, cultural diversity, freedom of information, peace, etc. Organizational actions often contradict the organization’s mission statement and code of conduct (Amann & Stachowicz-Stanusch, 2013), which is why Meadows (2008) argues that the only way to determine the true purpose of an organization is by observing its actions. Also, various levels of systems – individuals, groups, and departments  – can operate according to differing purposes, often unintentionally and without awareness. This can create situations in which organizations have unintended and often harmful impacts that run counter to the purposes stated in their mission and vision statements (Meadows, 2008).

Continual Evolution While wisdom involves continued learning, this learning must be applied, which requires that the organization be in a perpetual state of evolution as the learning suggests new and better ways of operating and interacting with the world. More specifically, spiritually mature organizations recognize that it is always possible to further increase its benefits to the world. Traditional perspectives on organizational change have focused primarily on the need for organizations to adapt to environmental contingencies. When environmental conditions become too dynamic, however, a more significant transformation of the organizational system may become imperative. Evolution implies that these processes are oriented in a positive direction towards helping the organization achieve greater spiritual maturity. Instead of simply adapting to environmental dynamics or engaging in continuous improvement to enhance process efficiency or product quality, spiritually mature organizations strive to evolve continually towards a more enlightened state of being.

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Evolution involves a high degree of organizational change. While more spiritual organizations are naturally more likely to be open to change (Biberman, 2009), simple change is insufficient in the current fast-paced world. The only way for organizations to survive is to “embrace evolution” (Barrett, 1998, p. 15). There are three levels of organizational change – change, transformation, and evolution. Change is “doing things differently.” Transformation involves a “different way of being” that results from changes in values, beliefs, and assumptions. Evolution exceeds both of these both in duration and extent. It is ongoing as it entails “constant adjustments in values, behaviors, and beliefs based on learning gained from internal and external feedback” (Barrett, 1998, p. 14). Organizations that prioritize learning and are able to learn will naturally evolve faster. Evolution can also be facilitated by organizational efforts to clarify its identity, purpose, mission, vision, and/or values and then to bring strategies, structures, processes, and personnel into alignment with these. To gauge their progress and engage in the reflective learning needed to continually evolve, these organizations proactively assess themselves to better understand where they are doing well and how they can improve. In the next section, we offer some brief comments about this process of assessment, before turning to a discussion of some paradigmatic changes that are increasing the relevance of the notion of organizational spiritual maturity.

Spiritually Mature Leadership and Management Approaches Spiritually Mature Leadership  The organizational spiritual qualities described here would not be possible without spiritually mature leadership and management approaches that consistently promote and reinforce them. Therefore, spiritually mature leadership and management is the final component of a spiritually mature organization. While no clear definition for spiritually mature leadership yet exists (Harris et al., 2019), in general, spiritually mature leaders (SMLs) display the OSM qualities described above. To capture this idea succinctly and to be consistent with the definition of OSM, we define the term here as a person in a formal or informal leadership position who recognizes his or her profound interconnectedness with others, society, the physical planet, and the whole of existence and consequently respects, values, and seeks to care for and benefit them. Individuals in leadership roles and the management processes they use must support the continual spiritual development of the organization. In other words, they must reflect or support all the spiritual qualities described in this study, or they will compromise or hinder its development. In other words, they promote integrity to the values, ethics, vision, and mission of the organization by modeling and reinforcing them throughout the organization and by identifying and addressing any perceived gaps. They also encourage and model learning and promote continual evolution. More generally, they help advance spiritual development on the individual and organizational levels (Fairholm & Gronau, 2015).

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This requires that leadership and management are rooted in love, which means putting the well-being of people ahead of the organization (Delbecq, 2008). This is because all of the OSM qualities are rooted in love, and by enacting love, leaders and managers model and inspire the same in others (Barsade & Gibson, 2007; Chartrand & Lakin, 2013; Menges & Kilduff, 2015). Also, a leader centered in love never loses sight of the ultimate purpose of leadership, which is to benefit others (Delbecq, 2008). In fact, the founder of Michelin tires reportedly told all his managers that “Your number one task is to love the employees for whom you are responsible” (Malloch, 2015, p. 27). The need for leaders in spiritually mature organizations to both pursue and promote OSM qualities is supported in the literature. For instance, spiritual leaders must be open to the ideas of others (Biberman, 2009), be open to change, be self-­ disciplined, and have a healthy work-life balance (Seybold-Clegg, 2007). They should be sensitive and kind (Marques et al., 2007), enlightened, and compassionate (Nandram & Borden, 2011; Seybold-Clegg, 2007) and focused on the needs of others. This requires a great deal of transparency (Biberman, 2009), and dealing above-­ board, so to speak, with everyone internally and externally, such as not withholding important information, not lying, or even telling half-truths (Seybold- Clegg, 2007). They must be continually developing spiritually as well, which requires that they be sufficiently authentic, humble, open, and honest about their own shortcomings in order accept feedback (Secretan, 2009). They should generate feelings of hope and joy (Johnson, 2009), and in dealings with others, they should be trusting, highly collaborative, and transparent (Biberman, 2009). Integrity has been called the core of leadership (DePersis & Lewis, 2013). Leaders either build integrity or tear it down through their actions (Fairholm, 2013). One survey indicates that a lack of integrity is one of the top reasons managers fail (Longenecker, Neubert, & Fink, 2007), because it is difficult for someone to take instruction from someone they perceive as dishonest or unethical (Collins, 2010). Another critical trait in leadership is wisdom. Leaders can create stability in a workplace by not being reactionary or rushing to make a decision, but rather taking the time to communicate with staff, seek truth, and understand the broader implications of the decision (Cunha et al., 2017). This further supports the general sound decision-­making practices described above. Because these traits cannot be known with any certainty upon hiring, if not democratically elected, promotions into leadership roles should be based on the degree to which people display these characteristics (Barrett, 2006). Spiritually mature leaders serve three main roles. First, they facilitate the creation of the organization’s vision (Barrett, 1998; Khasawneh et al., 2010; Marques et al., 2007; Neal & Vallejo, 2008), which includes the vision for the organization’s spiritual development as well as its greater purpose for the common good (Goodpaster, 2011; Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013). Second, leaders must serve as role models for how to embody and apply the desired spiritual qualities in the workplace and through the work. They must display the highest levels of integrity or risk losing credibility and their ability to lead and guide others (Pruzan, 2001). This requires a great deal of transparency (Biberman, 2009), and dealing above-board, so to speak, with everyone internally and externally, such as not withholding important

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information, not lying, or even telling half-truths. Pruzan (2001) also identifies the need for spiritual leaders to model a sense of peace and calm in organizations, especially in times of trial. Third, spiritually mature leaders must help create an organizational culture and environment that promotes the development of the organizational spirit and of individual members (Fry & Nisiewicz, 2013; Johnson, 2009; Vasconcelos, 2015). This includes utilizing spiritually mature management approaches that are consistent with all of the OSM qualities (Neal, 2013). Spiritually Mature Management Approach  The management approach adopted by spiritually mature organizations also embodies and advances its spiritual development. In general, spiritual management styles tend to be less hierarchical, flatter, and more decentralized, with an emphasis on the empowerment of employees. Research has found that organizations adopting a highly empowering approach exhibit greater integrity between the organization’s spiritual values, employee work and spiritual attitudes, and organizational performance (Milliman, Ferguson, Trickett, & Condemi, 1999). Because they have a stronger identification with the organization and feel more a part of it, employees are more apt to assimilate the values and take increased ownership of the work. Conversely, organizations that adopt top-down decision making generate passivity and detachment in subordinates that can have highly negative impacts on both their moral and spiritual developments (Collins, 2010). Authentic empowerment requires employees to believe that they can and actually be able to make real change in and through the organization, be sources of creativity, behave in self-managing ways and have input into organizational policies. A common way for this empowerment to manifest, in addition to participating in decision-­ making, is through the encouragement of creativity and innovation (Biberman, 2009; Barrett, 1998; Neal, 2013) that advances the work and results in continuous improvements (Milliman et al., 1999). More generally, organizational structures and processes should be organic, emerging naturally in specific contexts to achieve specific purposes. This requires a management approach that continually adapts in response to the ever-changing organizational environment. To accomplish this, spiritually mature organizations rely on higher levels of trust, more openness, a desire for continual learning, and greater faith in collective wisdom than hierarchical superiority. They also encourage or even require effective cooperation both internally among organizational units (Biberman, 2009) as well as externally with those seeking similar purposes.

 istinguishing Spiritually Mature Leaders, Positive Leaders, D and Spiritual Leaders There are clearly many natural overlaps between spiritually mature leaders (SMLs) and positive leaders, as both seek to promote positivity and virtue in comprehensive and pervasive ways throughout their organizations. But there are several important distinctions. Most fundamentally, positive leadership is more of a generic or “root construct” that can serve as a basis for other concepts which have a clear “vision,”

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such as spiritual leadership, which can be considered a form of positive leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005, p. 328). However, positive leadership is not the root construct for OSM, as the latter is not primarily grounded in positive psychology. Because many undesirable and harmful aspects of organizations result from the lack of organizational spiritual maturity, any solution that does not address this root cause is unlikely to be successful. For example, like spiritually impoverished people, spiritually immature organizations are inherently self-serving. They tend to exploit people and resources for their gain with little regard for the harm they may cause to employees, communities or the planet. Exploitative organizations can pursue increased productivity by promoting positive leadership and positive organizational behavior. However, if the organization does not truly care about the well-being of individual employees, the endeavor will be compromised and probably unsuccessful. This likely scenario demonstrates the importance of using the OSM lens to achieve true positive change in organizations. The “vision” for SMLs is an important differentiating factor from spiritual leadership as promoted by Fry (2003). The qualities of SMLs and spiritual leaders are strongly aligned, as can be expected from the terminology. In fact, the concept of spiritual leadership is a contributing root construct for spiritually mature leadership. Both exhibit love, integrity, courage, and pursuing the spiritual development of followers. Both seek greater organizational well-being and productivity, but the OSM qualities serve as a much clearer vision for leaders to convey and pursue. Where spiritually mature leadership departs most significantly from the spiritual leadership concept is that SMLs have a global mindset through which they pursue the well-being of the whole of existence due to their understanding of the deep interdependence of all things. SMLs seek to ensure that their organizations promote greater benefits for and decreased harm to the world by advancing OSM. Conversely, the purpose of spiritual leadership is ultimately to “foster higher levels of organizational commitment and productivity” (Fry, 2003, p. 693) and “create an intrinsically motivated, learning organization” (Fry & Matherly, 2006, p. 7). There is a clear danger in advancing the productivity of organizations with the assumption that productivity is always positive. As Freer (2017) points out, it is possible for individuals to be positive, productive, and highly committed to the organization while the organization itself is highly destructive, even evil. A prime example is the Nazi regime in which it was possible for normal, presumably good people to contribute to the overall destructive impacts of the larger organization. If SMLs determine that the net impact of their organization on the world is irredeemably negative, they will be compelled to decrease or stop productivity to the point of dissolving the organization because this would be in the best interest of the common good.

Discussion This chapter presents the new concept of organizational spiritual maturity that extends existing literature by conceiving of organizations as spiritual entities that demonstrate varying levels of spiritual maturity. This explicitly spiritual perspective

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on organizations is compatible with an emerging worldview that is more spiritual than the materialistic worldview (Harman, 1998) that has come to dominate modern society. This worldview is “integral” (Laszlo, 2010; Wilber, 2000) in that it integrates knowledge from both scientific and spiritual traditions, rather than treating these two spheres of knowledge as distinct and in conflict. In particular, this new “paradigm” (Woodhouse, 1996) or “story” (Korten, 2015) reflects growing awareness that all of life is inherently interconnected (Capra, 1996) and also that consciousness is inherent to the universe (de Quincey, 2002; Schwartz & Russek, 1999). The scientific foundations of this new perspective come from quantum physics, which discovered that, at a subatomic level, all matter is energy and all energy is interconnected in a unified quantum field (McTaggart, 2002). This new worldview also incorporates the “perennial philosophy” at the core of the world’s spiritual traditions (Huxley, 1945; Wilber, 1998), namely that life exists on a “great chain of being” including spiritual dimensions not accessible through ordinary human consciousness. These various dimensions are not separate and distinct but instead interpenetrate, such that spirit and matter are intimately linked in a fundamental unity (Miller, 1992). This core spiritual idea regarding the interconnectedness of life and the universe is further reflected in a growing “ecological consciousness” now influencing contemporary culture (Metzner, 1999; Uhl, 2004). Capra and Luisi (2014) point out that the new paradigm incorporates a deep ecological awareness that recognizes the fundamental interdependence of all phenomena, such that “ecological awareness is spiritual in its deepest essence” (13). Ecological thinking is diffusing into the world of business (Adner, 2017; Bragdon, 2016; Kramer & Pfitzer, 2016; Moore, 1996; Unruh, 2008), and ecological principles have been incorporated into both economics (Daly & Farley, 2004) and capitalism (Hawken, Lovins, & Lovins, 1999). Likewise, growing use of collaborative governance arrangements (Ansell & Gash, 2008; Emerson & Nabatchi, 2015) in the public sector can be seen as a shift towards a more ecological mode of collective decision-making (Robertson & Choi, 2010), and advocates of “Government 2.0” (Chun, Shulman, Sandoval, & Hovy, 2010; Eggers, 2004; Tapscott, Williams, & Herman, 2008) envision government serving as a platform that enables an ecosystem of stakeholders to collaborate in the creation and provision of public value. A key conclusion in this new paradigm is that societal evolution can take place intentionally, or consciously, giving rise to the notion of conscious evolution (Hubbard, 1998). The idea of raising consciousness already has a significant history and typically has referred to helping people understand the “bigger picture” regarding the circumstances that shape and constrain their lives, so that they will be more aware, for example, of how they are being oppressed by those with power (Freire, 1972). In the present context, consciousness-raising refers to greater awareness of and concern about one’s interconnectedness with others and the world (cf. Mirvis, 2008) and thus is similar to the notion of spiritual development. The diffusion of this new worldview, and the changes it will generate in key systems, processes, institutions, and technologies, could ultimately result in a transformation of human civilization (Harman, 1998; Hartmann, 2004; Hubbard, 1998; Woodhouse, 1996). Elgin (1993) argues that humanity is on the verge of a shift to a

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higher level of consciousness that is moving us into the next stage of civilization, which he calls the communications and reconciliation era. This phase will entail the development of reflective consciousness at the civilizational scale, based on mutual understanding and appreciation of others as well as greater awareness of our shared fate. It is reasonable to anticipate that this maturation of the human race will lead also to fundamental changes in our economic and political systems, to make them more congruent with the new worldview (Capra, 2002; Korten, 2006; McLaughlin & Davidson, 1994). We believe that organizations have a critical role to play in this transformation, to the extent that it is unlikely to succeed if organizations do not participate in the process of conscious evolution. This paper has proposed that organizations should be thought of as spiritual entities that pursue purposes and have the capacity to learn, grow, and adapt. Furthermore, we posit that the general maturation of civilization can be greatly advanced by intentionally increasing OSM and, conversely, greatly inhibited by continuing failure to address it. Schwartz and Russek (1999, p. xxi) point out that science has “given us the conceptual tools to predict the existence of living, evolving, info-energy systems  – spirits and souls  – in all material systems.” We argue that this includes organizations, which through their decisions and actions reflect their level of spiritual maturity as they enact a particular worldview and its corresponding values and ways of thinking. At present, too many organizations operate at a low level of spiritual maturity, leaving plenty of room for conscious evolution to higher levels of OSM.

Conclusion Although the concept of OSM is still quite nascent, it provides a clearer and larger vision for leaders striving for positivity in their organizations to consider when pursuing change. Positive leaders seek increased productivity, but it is not safe to assume that productivity of all individuals and organizations is good when considering its impact not only on the employees but on the whole world. Spiritually mature organizations have spiritually mature leaders who lead the organization to strive for continually more positive and less harmful impacts on the world by advancing the spiritual development of individuals and the organization itself. Freer (2017) identifies ways to assess an organization’s spiritual maturity as well as ways that OSM can be developed. However, a great deal remains to be learned about how to effectively and reliably evaluate and develop OSM. Building on the growing recognition of the increasing connectivity of our modern world and the powerful impacts organizations have on it, we believe the importance of this pursuit cannot be underestimated. Chapter Takeaways • Organizations have spirits which are the roots of all their attributes. • Organizational spirits can be immature, or underdeveloped, or mature. Spiritually mature organizations seek to have positive impacts on their employees and the world.

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• Unless the spiritual root is addressed, any negative or undesirable quality will not likely be resolved – even through the strategies of positive leadership. • In the highly interconnected and integral modern world, leaders must fully consider the pervasive impacts of their organizations both internally and externally. • The concept of organizational spiritual maturity provides a clearer vision and new strategies that can help positive leaders be even more effective in improving the well-being, health, and effectiveness of the people and organizations they lead. Reflection Questions 1 . Do you believe organizations have spirits? Why or why not? 2. How can positive leaders apply the concept of OSM to achieve desired goals? 3. Based on the qualities of OSM presented, how spiritually mature would you say are the organization(s) with which you are most affiliated? 4. In which area(s) are they spiritually mature? In which are they less than the ideal? 5. What do you think are the impacts of both the areas of spiritual maturity and immaturity on employees, your community, society, and the planet?

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Building Relational Bridges: The Inclusive Spirit of Servant-Leadership Dung Q. Tran, Larry C. Spears, and Michael R. Carey

Abstract

The aim of this chapter is to investigate how servant-leadership’s lexicon can serve as a dialogic bridge across diverse intellectual, philosophical, theological, and wisdom traditions. This narrative unfolds in three movements. First, we revisit the historical and theoretical foundations of servant-leadership, primarily focusing on the vision of Robert Greenleaf (Greenleaf. Servant-leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness (25th Anniversary ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. (Original work published 1977), 2002) and insights of Larry Spears (Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf’s theory of servantleadership influenced today’s top management thinkers. New York, NY: Wiley, 1995). Second, relying on the work of Kent Keith (The case for servant-­leadership. Westfield, IN: Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, 2008), Fons Trompenaars and Ed Voerman (Servant-leadership across cultures: Harnessing the strength of the world’s most powerful management philosophy. New  York, NY: McGrawHill, 2009), and Larry Spears (Servant-leadership as an ecumenical bridge. Unpublished manuscript, 2019), we synthesize servant-leadership’s resonance with the world’s various intellectual and spiritual worldviews. Third and finally, our chapter concludes with a brief reflection about how servant leadership can inspire positive leadership and change as well as workplace transformation in nonprofit and corporate settings such as a gang intervention and rehabilitation program, and a closely held, diversified transportation services company.

D. Q. Tran (*) · M. R. Carey Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, USA e-mail: [email protected] L. C. Spears Larry C. Spears Center for Servant-Leadership, Indianapolis, IN, USA © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_7

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Keywords

Positive leadership · Servant-leadership · Inclusive leadership · Robert Greenleaf · Homeboy Industries · Gregory Boyle · Penske Corporation · Roger Penske

Introduction Alongside disappointing leadership narratives associated with the 2008 global financial crisis (Cantore, 2017), the widening catastrophe that is the Catholic clergy sexual abuse and cover-up (Faggioli, 2019), and the international humanitarian crises of escalating division, polarization, racism, migration, mental illness, poverty, homelessness, violence, and ecological degradation (Wheatley, 2017), are narratives of frustration, despondency, and exclusion stemming from the inflammatory rhetoric and leadership of some executive leaders. With powerful voices “doing their best to convince us that true is false, right is wrong, and up is down” (Palmer, 2019, para. 1), it is clear that certain organizational leaders and their leadership efforts lack the empathy and gravitas needed to marshal human and organizational resources in a manner that creates more just, humane, and inclusive communities, organizations, and societies. The interconnected “crises of our time that make all leadership more difficult – at all ends of society and in all relationships” (Greenleaf, 1996, pp. 295–296), along with the emergence of positive psychological approaches to leadership (Cameron, 2013; DeRue & Workman, 2012; MacKie, 2016), are an opportunity to engage in critical reflection about a more life-affirming and inclusive approach to leadership. This thoughtful discernment ought to occur with respect to the positive leadership theories themselves and in respect to how the discourse is contributing to the creation of communities, organizations, and societies where everyone matters and all are welcome to bring the fullness of their humanity to bear. According to MacKie (2017), the following explicit theories of positive leadership have “emerged as a response to the shift to a more positive strengths-based conceptualization of leaders and leadership” (p. 301): (a) authentic leadership, (b) servant-leadership, (c) positive global leadership, and (d) transformational leadership. Given the lingering questions concerning “the conceptual and empirical overlap between servant-leadership and transformational, ethical and authentic leadership” (Eva, Robin, Sendjaya, van Dierendonck, & Liden, 2019, p. 129), and the need to “bridge Greenleaf’s original ideas and writings to current-day challenges” (van Dierendonck & Patterson, 2018, p. 7) such as discord and division, and, isolation and indifference, we propose that the time has come to (re)affirm how a positive and holistic model of leadership such as servant-leadership can bridge the canyons of (in)difference and empower people of good will. Regardless of one’s way of thinking and/or being, anyone can become a great servant-leader (King, 1963/2012): “productive and prosocial catalysts who are able to make a positive difference in others’ lives and alter broken structures of the social world within which they operate” (Eva et al., 2019, p. 114).

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To that end, this chapter examines how servant-leadership can provide a positive and inclusive lexicon and serve as a dialogic thought-partner with many intellectual, philosophical, theological, and wisdom traditions. This narrative unfolds across three movements. First, we begin by revisiting the historical and philosophical foundations of servant-leadership, primarily focusing on the life and work of Robert Greenleaf (1977/2002), the intellectual parent of contemporary servant-leadership studies, and the insights of Spears (1995), whom Ken Blanchard considers the “premier student of Greenleaf’s writings” (as cited in Blanchard & Broadwell, 2018, p. 14). Second, relying on the efforts of Kent Keith (2008), Trompenaars and Voerman (2009), and Spears (2019), we explore the intersection of servant-­leadership with the world’s various intellectual and spiritual worldviews. Third and finally, our chapter concludes with a brief reflection of how servant leadership can inspire positive leadership and change as well as workplace transformation in nonprofit and corporate settings such as a gang rehabilitation and reentry program, and a closely held, diversified transportation corporation.

Who Is Robert K. Greenleaf? The term servant-leadership was first coined in a 1970 essay by Robert K. Greenleaf (1904–1990), entitled “The Servant as Leader.” Greenleaf, born in Terre Haute, Indiana, spent most of his organizational life in the field of management research, development, and education at AT&T.  Following a 40-year career at AT&T, Greenleaf enjoyed a second career that lasted 25 years, during which time he served as an influential consultant to a number of major institutions, including Ohio University, MIT, Ford Foundation, R. K. Mellon Foundation, the Mead Corporation, the American Foundation for Management Research, and Lilly Endowment Inc. In 1964 Greenleaf also founded the Center for Applied Ethics, which was renamed the Robert K. Greenleaf Center in 1985 and is now headquartered in South Orange, New Jersey. With regard to his interior life, Robert Greenleaf was a Quaker (Religious Society of Friends). He drew upon both religious and secular examples of servant-leaders in his writings, talks, and teaching. Greenleaf believed that there are many paths to servant-leadership and that it is within our grasp to accept the invitation to servant-­ leadership and to do so in addition to any other spiritual beliefs or secular philosophies that we may also hold. As a lifelong student of how things get done in organizations, Greenleaf distilled his observations in a series of essays and books on the theme of “The Servant as Leader”—the objective of which was to stimulate thought and action for building a better, more caring society.

The Servant as Leader Idea The idea of the servant as leader came partly out of Greenleaf’s half century of experience in working to shape large institutions. However, the event that crystallized Greenleaf’s thinking came in the 1960s, when he read Hermann Hesse’s

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(1957/2011) short novel Journey to the East—an account of a mythical journey by a group of people on a spiritual quest. After reading this story, Greenleaf concluded that the central meaning of it was that the great leader is first experienced as a servant to others, and that this simple fact is central to his or her greatness. True leadership emerges from those whose primary motivation is a deep desire to help others. In 1970, at the age of 66, Greenleaf published “The Servant as Leader,” the first of a dozen essays and books on servant-leadership. Since that time, more than a half-million copies of his books and essays have been sold worldwide. Slowly but surely, Greenleaf’s servant-leadership writings have made a deep, lasting impression on leaders, educators, and many others who are concerned with issues of leadership, management, service, and personal growth.

What Is Servant-Leadership? In his works, Greenleaf discusses the need for a better approach to leadership, one that puts serving others—including employees, customers, and community—as the number one priority. Servant-leadership emphasizes increased service to others, a holistic approach to work, promoting a sense of community, and the sharing of power in decision-making. Who is a servant-leader? Greenleaf (1977/2002) said that the servant-leader is one who is a servant first. In “The Servant as Leader” he wrote, It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead…. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant—first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test is: Do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they benefit or at least not be further deprived? (p. 27)

It is important to stress that servant-leadership is not a “quick-fix” approach. Nor is it something that can be quickly instilled within an institution. At its core, servant-­ leadership is a long-term, transformational approach to life and work—in essence, a way of being—that has the potential for creating positive change throughout our society.

Characteristics of the Servant-Leader After some years of carefully considering Greenleaf’s original writings, Spears (1995) extracted a set of 10 characteristics of the servant-leader that he viewed as being of critical importance. According to Ferch (2012), “the ten characteristics provide the most well-known, widely used, and profoundly accessible definition of the essence of servant leadership” (p. xi). The following characteristics are central to the development of servant-leaders:

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1. Listening: Leaders have traditionally been valued for their communication and decision-making skills. While these are also important skills for the servant-­leader, they need to be reinforced by a deep commitment to listening intently to others. The servant-leader seeks to identify the will of a group and helps clarify that will. He or she seeks to listen receptively to what is being said (and not said!). Listening also encompasses getting in touch with one’s own inner voice and seeking to understand what one’s body, spirit, and mind are communicating. Listening, coupled with regular periods of reflection, is essential to the growth of the servant-leader. 2. Empathy: The servant-leader strives to understand and empathize with others. People need to be accepted and recognized for their special and unique spirits. One assumes the good intentions of coworkers and does not reject them as people, even while sometimes refusing to accept their behavior or performance. The most successful servant-leaders are those who have become skilled empathetic listeners. 3. Healing: Learning to heal is a powerful force for transformation and integration. One of the great strengths of servant-leadership is the potential for healing one’s self and others. Many people have broken spirits and have suffered from a variety of emotional hurts. Although this is a part of being human, servant-­leaders recognize that they have an opportunity to “help make whole” those with whom they come in contact. In “The Servant as Leader,” Greenleaf (1977/2002) writes: “There is something subtle communicated to one who is being served and led if, implicit in the compact between servant-leader and led, is the understanding that the search for wholeness is something they share” (p. 50). 4. Awareness: General awareness, and especially self-awareness, strengthens the servant-leader. Making a commitment to foster awareness can be scary—you never know what you may discover. Awareness also aids one in understanding issues involving ethics and values. It lends itself to being able to view most situations from a more integrated, holistic position. As Greenleaf (1977/2002) observed: “Awareness is not a giver of solace—it is just the opposite. It is a disturber and an awakener. Able leaders are usually sharply awake and reasonably disturbed. They are not seekers after solace. They have their own inner serenity” (p. 41). 5. Persuasion: Another characteristic of servant-leaders is a primary reliance on persuasion, rather than using one’s positional authority, in making decisions within an organization. The servant-leader seeks to convince others, rather than coerce compliance. This particular element offers one of the clearest distinctions between the traditional authoritarian model and that of servant-leadership. The servant-leader is effective at building consensus within groups. This emphasis on persuasion over coercion probably has its roots within the beliefs of The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), the denomination with which Robert Greenleaf himself was most closely allied. 6. Conceptualization: Servant-leaders seek to nurture their abilities to “dream great dreams” (Greenleaf, 1977/2002, p. 30). The ability to look at a problem

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(or an organization) from a conceptualizing perspective means that one must think beyond day-to-day realities. For many managers this is a characteristic that requires discipline and practice. The traditional manager is focused on the need to achieve short-term operational goals. The manager who also wishes to be a servant-leader must stretch his or her thinking to encompass broader-based conceptual thinking. Within organizations, conceptualization is also the proper role of boards of trustees or directors. Unfortunately, boards can sometimes become involved in the day-to-day operations and fail to provide the visionary concept for an institution. Trustees need to be mostly conceptual in their orientation, staffs need to be mostly operational in their perspective, and the most effective CEOs and leaders probably need to develop both perspectives. Servant-­leaders are called to seek a delicate balance between conceptual thinking and a day-to-day focused approach. 7. Foresight: Closely related to conceptualization, the ability to foresee the likely outcome of a situation is hard to define, but easy to identify. One knows it when one sees it. Foresight is a characteristic that enables the servant-leader to understand the lessons from the past, the realities of the present, and the likely consequence of a decision for the future. It is also deeply rooted within the intuitive mind. As such, one can conjecture that foresight is the one servant-leader characteristic with which one may be born. All other characteristics can be consciously developed. There hasn’t been a great deal written on foresight. It remains a largely unexplored area in leadership studies, but one most deserving of careful attention. 8. Stewardship: Block (2013)  – author of Stewardship and The Empowered Manager – has defined stewardship as “holding something in trust for another” (p. xxiv). Robert Greenleaf’s view of all institutions was one in which CEOs, staffs, and trustees all played significant roles in holding their institutions in trust for the greater good of society. Servant-leadership, like stewardship, assumes first and foremost a commitment to serving the needs of others. It also emphasizes the use of openness and persuasion rather than control. 9. Commitment to the growth of people: Servant-leaders believe that people have an intrinsic value beyond their tangible contributions as workers. As such, the servant-leader is deeply committed to the growth of each and every individual within his or her institution. The servant-leader recognizes the tremendous responsibility to do everything within his or her power to nurture the personal, professional, and spiritual growth of employees. In practice, this can include (but is not limited to) concrete actions such as making available funds for personal and professional development, taking a personal interest in the ideas and suggestions from everyone, encouraging worker involvement in decision-­ making, and actively assisting laid-off workers to find other employment. 10. Building community: The servant-leader senses that much has been lost in recent human history as a result of the shift from local communities to large corporations as the primary shaper of human lives. This awareness causes the servant-leader to seek to identify some means for building community among those who work within a given institution. Servant-leadership suggests that true

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community can be created among those who work in businesses and all other institutions. Greenleaf (1977/2002) said: “All that is needed to rebuild community as a viable life form for large numbers of people is for enough servant-­ leaders to show the way, not by mass movements, but by each servant-leader demonstrating his own unlimited liability for a quite specific community-­ related group” (p. 53). These ten characteristics of servant-leadership are by no means exhaustive. However, Spears (1995) believes that the ones listed serve to communicate the power and promise that this concept offers to those who are open to its invitation and challenge.

 he Universal Resonance of Servant-Leadership with Various T Wisdom Traditions There are sincere and equally authentic practitioners of servant-leadership among those who identify themselves as Christians, Muslims, Jews, Buddhists, Humanists, Agnostics, Atheists, Native traditions, and dozens of other religions and philosophies. In that sense, servant-leadership serves to unite people of differing faiths and beliefs and who share a desire to live and grow as servant-leaders. For example, in his book, The Case for Servant-Leadership, Keith (2008), former Chief Executive Officer of both the Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership in the United States and Asia, surveyed the world’s wisdom traditions in an effort to demonstrate the universal and far-reaching nature of servant-leadership. Along with other scholars, Keith found that the notion of servant-leadership resonated with the thought of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, who identified courage, righteousness, moderation, and wisdom as virtues of a good life (Trompenaars & Voerman, 2009, p. 6). From an Aristotelian perspective, the essence of life was to “serve others and do good” (as cited in Keith, 2008, pp. 2–3). Similarly, Cicero claimed that “men were brought into existence for the sake of men that they might do one another good” (as cited in Trompenaars & Voerman, 2009, p. 6). The philosophy of servant-leadership is also evident in various world religions. Taoism’s Tao Te Ching taught that “the way to heaven is to benefit others and to not injure” (as cited in Keith, 2008, p. 2). The Bhagavad Gita of Hinduism held that “through selfless service, you will always be fruitful and find the fulfillment of your desires. That is the promise of the Creator…he is present in every act of service” (as cited in Trompenaars & Voerman, 2009, p.  6). Within Buddhism, the Shantideva stated the following: “If I employ others for my own purposes, I myself shall experience servitude. But if I use myself for the sake of others, I shall experience only lordliness” (as cited in Keith, 2008, p. 2). The Jewish Talmud noted that “all men are responsible for one another” (as cited in Trompenaars & Voerman, 2009, p. 5). In the New Testament, Jesus of Nazareth instructed his disciples on the principles of servant-leadership while they were arguing over who was the greatest among them:

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Jesus summoned them and said to them, “You know that those who are recognized as rulers over the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones make their authority over them felt. But it shall not be so among you. Rather, whoever wishes to be great among you will be your servant; whoever wishes to be first among you will be the slave of all. For the Son of Man did not come to be served but to serve and to give his life as a ransom for many.” (Mark 10:42–45)

In John’s Gospel, Jesus left his disciples with an enduring image of servant-­ leadership by engaging in the act of washing the feet of his disciples, a task normally performed by the servants and laborers in that cultural context. Nair (1997) noted the long-standing bond between service and leadership with the following: The importance of service to leadership has a long history. Ancient monarchs acknowledged that they were in the service to their country and their people….Modern coronation ceremonies and inaugurations of heads of state all involve the acknowledgement of service to God, country, and the people. Politicians define their role in terms of public service. And service has always been at the core of leadership in the spiritual arena, symbolized at the highest level by Christ washing the feet of His disciples. (p. 59)

While some scholars consider Jesus of Nazareth as the greatest model of spiritual (Blanchard & Hodges, 2003, p. 10; Blanchard & Hodges, 2005, p. 34) and servant-­ leadership of all time (Garrison, 2012, p. 39; Ortberg, 2004, p. 87), the notion of servant-leadership, as initially conceived by Greenleaf, was not meant to be “inherently spiritual or religious in nature” (O’Brien, 2011, p. 15). Lore (1998) noted that even in a Catholic organizational context, the practice of servant-leadership is “descriptive rather than dogmatic, anchored in the Christian Gospel but universally applicable” (p. 300). In the forward to The Servant-Leader Within: A Transformative Path, Beazley (2003) articulated the universal and transformational resonance of servant-leadership: Servant-leadership belongs to a class of leadership philosophies that have the power to bring about dramatic and profound transformations in individuals, their organizations, and the society in which they live. Like other such philosophies, servant-leadership rests on eternal truths, is driven by deep human needs, and is grounded in existential realities. It resonates with the human psyche because it is directly related to our humanity – to what we are as human beings – and because it fascinates and challenges us with its simplicity and difficulty, its demands and revelations, its promises and potentialities. (pp. 2–3)

Regardless of the source of a servant-leader’s spirituality, every servant-leader must be willing to plunge into the depth of his or her being. According to Bolman and Deal (2011), “there we find soul, a bedrock sense of identity and meaning – who we are, what we care about, and what we are here to do” (pp. 4–5). This process of reflection helps servant-leaders “come to grips with who they are and where they are on the journey” (Greenleaf, 1997/2002, p. 327). In Doohan’s (2007a) view this process of transformation “implies a self-emptying of former approaches to leadership and a new commitment to servant-leadership” (p. 296). At the same time, this inner journey can be dangerous as it can “call us to change and maybe abandon what we

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have cherished for so long” (Doohan, 2007b, p. 14). However, for aspiring servant-­ leaders who “have the courage to embark on this spiritual expedition it will be a breakthrough journey that leads to enlightenment, to the discovery of one’s true hopes and calling, to a refocusing of one’s attitudes to life” (p. 14). In and of itself, servant-leadership is congruent with every religious tradition, secular philosophy, and human person. As defined by Robert Greenleaf (1977/2002), it is a belief that the best leadership comes out of a desire to serve others and that the end goal is to help others to become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, and more likely themselves to serve others. With that core idea as a starting point, there is no overt religious context or faith requirement whatsoever attached to servant-­ leadership, which is why we find people of many-any-and-no religious beliefs interested in servant-leadership today.

 omeboy Industries: A Servant-Led Case Study of Inclusion H and Kinship Among the great issues of our time are the fractures and fissures across many human societies. A contributing factor to our polarized reality is a growing sense of indifference to human suffering induced by a technocratic paradigm of consumerism— an atrophying away of one’s sense of responsibility for others, “which all civil society is founded” (Francis, 2015, para. 25). In diagnosing the world’s ills, Mother Teresa maintained that “we forget that we belong to each other” (as cited in Costello, 2008, p. 10). Consequently, Greenleaf (1979) wrote about the need for a “community of seekers” (p. 58). Perhaps this is what is needed to bring humanity together, a recognition of our nature as seekers of many truths—not one truth. Boyle (2011, 2017a), a Jesuit priest and founder and executive director of Homeboy Industries, one of the largest gang intervention, rehabilitation, and re-­ entry programs in the United States (Giraldo, Huerta, & Solorzano, 2018), is one such servant-leader in the inclusive spirit of Greenleaf who has responded to Los Angeles area gang members’ “lethal absence of hope” (Boyle, 2011, p. 89) with jobs and love. Boyle first encountered gang violence in the Boyle Heights community of East Los Angeles, when he served as pastor of Dolores Mission Church, from 1986 to 1992. As noted in a commendation from former US President Barack Obama (2014) for being a champion of change, it was with the poor and prophetic community of Dolores Mission that Boyle started what is now known as Homeboy Industries, “a nonprofit organization that employs and trains more than 300 former gang-members every year in seven social enterprises” (para. 1). As of this writing, Homeboy Industries (2019) has accompanied “almost 7,000 members of the immediate Los Angeles community” and provided 3000 tattoo removal treatments (para. 2). Additionally, “Homeboy has similarly helped 147 programs in the United States and 16 programs outside the country find their beginnings in what we call the Global Homeboy Network” (Boyle, 2017a, p. 3). Undergirding Father Boyle’s (2011) humanistic bridge building with former gang members and at-risk youth is the notion of kinship, which he distinguishes

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from service with the following: “Pema Chödrön, an ordained Buddhist nun, writes of compassion and suggests that its truest measure lies not in our service of those on the margins, but in our willingness to see ourselves in kinship with them” (p. 71). After three decades of walking with “gang members as they jettison their gang past for lives more full of freedom, love, and a bright reimaging of a future for themselves” (Boyle, 2017a, p. 3), Boyle has learned the following: You stand with the least likely to succeed until success is succeeded by something more valuable: kinship. You stand with the belligerent, the surly, and the badly behaved until bad behavior is recognized for the language it is: the vocabulary of the deeply wounded and of those whose burdens are more than they can bear. (p. 179)

This transformational insight came to him during his sixth year: I had mistakenly tried to “save” young men and women trapped in gang life. But then, in an instant, I learned that saving lives is for the Coast Guard. Me wanting a gang member to have a different life would never be the same as that gang member wanting to have one. I discovered that you do not go to the margins to rescue anyone. But if we go there, everyone finds rescue. (Boyle, 2017b, para. 2)

Among Father Boyle’s (2017a) many profound and powerful stories of kinship is the “heartbreaking story of Puppet and Youngster, sworn enemies who became brothers while working together until Puppet was beaten to death” (p. 24). Although lengthy and emotionally challenging, Boyle’s (2014) gift for storytelling captures the essence of kinship, inclusion, and servant-leadership: So I had a young homie, 19 years-old, a little guy, everyone called him Youngster. I thought he was ready, so I bring him into our Homeboy silk-screen factory [and] introduce him to all his 30 coworkers, many of them rivals and enemies. I watch him shake hands with each one; I think, “Wow, this is great.” Until he gets to the last guy, a guy named Puppet, and when Puppet and Youngster are in each other’s vicinity, they mumble something, they stare at their shoes, and they don’t shake hands. Well, I know that they are enemies, because I know what gangs they are from, but he just finished shaking hands with other enemies. I discover later that this is a hatred that is really deep and personal and beyond which neither of them think that they can get passed. I sense that much at the moment. And I say, “Look, if you guys can’t work together, let me know. I’ve got a lot of people who want this job.” But six months later, Puppet leaves his house to go to a corner store a short distance from his home and he buys something, but on his way home for some reason he takes a shortcut, he dodges into an alley, and because he’s taking this detour, suddenly and unexpectedly he’s surrounded by ten members of a rival gang. Ten against one. And they beat him badly and while he’s lying on the ground, they will not stop kicking his head, until he’s lifeless. Somebody finds his body and takes him to White Memorial Hospital where he’s declared officially brain dead. But they keep him connected to machines for 48 hours, so that he can get two full days of a flat-read, no brain activity, so that the doctors can sign the death certificate. …I’ve seen a lot of horrible things in my life, but nothing compared to the sight of this young man with his head swollen many times its size—it was horrifying, you could barely train your eyes on him. At the end of the 48 hour period, I gave him a blessing as a priest, I anointed his forehead, we disconnected, and a week later we buried him.

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…in the first 24 hours, while Puppet was lying beaten in the hospital, I was alone in my office, it was 8:30 at night, the phone rings, and it’s Youngster, Puppet’s coworker. And he says, “Hey, that’s messed up about what happened to Puppet.” And I say, “Yeah, it is.” And then with a certain kind of eagerness even, he says, “Is there anything that I can do? Can I give him my blood?” And we both fall silent under the weight of it. Until finally he breaks the silence, choking back his tears and says with great deliberation, “He was not my enemy. He was my friend. We worked together.” (paras. 18–22)

Ultimately, Homeboy Industries…wants to bend the world to grace, and it doesn’t need to turn up the volume in order to accomplish that. It aspires to put a human face on the gang member. If this doesn’t happen then kinship is impeded. It is also meant to soften our conventional take on who this gang member is and ushers in an abiding belief that we belong to each other. It is anchored in the truth that all demonizing is untruth. (Boyle, 2017a, p. 8)

Putting Your Arms Around People at the Penske Corporation Nonprofits such as Homeboy Industries have been heralded for calling all people of good will to lessen “their pledge of allegiance to the bottom line” and stand “with those who line the bottom” (Boyle, 2017a, p.  7). At the same time, Fortune 500 companies like the Penske Corporation, a diversified transportation company in the United States, have also demonstrated a commitment to building relational bridges between executive leadership and everyday employees. Such organizational relationality depends on the answers to the following questions: How familiar are decision makers with the organizational realities, morale, and satisfaction of colleagues, especially those who earn the least? What organizational communication culture, channels, strategies, and structures are in place to promote the free flow of ideas and information, including critical feedback? While the contemporary corporate leader or nonprofit executive cannot possibly be familiar with every fine detail of a colleague’s work, how does one communicate and demonstrate interest and availability to associates of all ranks? Roger Penske, a motorsports entrepreneur and billionaire executive, is one example who can serve as a case study. Penske believes that human capital is the most important asset of his diversified transportation services corporation: “It’s all about people, it’s about human capital. Human capital wins on the racetrack, it wins in sales, it wins in operations, and certainly, I say it wins in business” (Thomas, 2016). As part of his people-first commitment to his company, Penske visits each of his businesses on an annual basis. Among the many metrics he prioritizes during each visitation are the following: the customer satisfaction index and employee feedback. He leverages those data points to help managers improve organizational and personnel performance, and ultimately customer satisfaction. For instance, in response to a question about his “boots-on-the-ground” approach to serving as a chief executive officer, Penske provided the following example: “In the morning, I do a site walk around with the people, and I encourage our managers. I don’t go to the conference room. I walk around the facilities. In Belfast, we have a big complex with Mercedes,

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Audi, BMW, and Porsche, and at 7:30, I meet those managers, walk all the sites, and get up to speed” (Rechtin, 2017, para. 17). To further illustrate the importance of cultivating a more humane organization and its impact on organizational performance, Penske shared a story of when he purchased Detroit Diesel Corporation, a diesel engine manufacturer based in Detroit, Michigan. When he walked in the door on the first day, there were 3000 grievances on file—one for every employee on the shop floor. Recognizing the tension between the employees and senior management, Penske immediately reached out to the union leadership and expressed his desire to collaborate in good faith to move the company forward. Penske’s employee-first commitment was concretized through the following actions: installing air conditioning and televisions in the break rooms, adding a fitness center to the main plant in Detroit, and inviting employees to racing events at nearby Michigan International Speedway, which was also owned by Penske at the time (Vlasic & Bunkley, 2009). After 3 months of standing Friday meetings with key stakeholder leaders to settle the issues, only one hundred complaints remained. With a majority of the issues resolved, Penske’s team was able to move Detroit Diesel from 3% market share to 30% because of his people and team-first approach to business leadership (Lassa, 2005). Beyond the boardroom and racetrack, Penske has leveraged his business relationships to contribute to the common good in a manner consistent with the inclusive servant-leadership vision of Robert Greenleaf. For example, during his stint as chair of Detroit’s Super Bowl host committee in 2006, Penske helped create “Clean Downtown,” a transitional employment initiative that hired unemployed persons from historically disadvantaged communities to provide additional maintenance support to Downtown Detroit. In exchange for their hard work, each employee received a uniform, one meal per eight-hour shift, and training to secure full-time employment (Lawrence, 2014). Penske also enlisted a cadre of business contacts to purchase 100 police cars and 23 emergency medical vehicles for the City of Detroit. In addition, he also helped devise the plans for a light-rail system connecting the suburbs to the city’s downtown core. Roger Penske’s practices as an owner of a global transportation corporation and chairperson of a Super Bowl host committee suggest that a “hands-on” and “people-­first” leadership approach that serves the common good can go a long way. According to Smith and Lindsay (2014), an inclusive organization is one that “seeks, welcomes, nurtures, encourages, and sustains a strong sense of belonging and high performance from all employees” (p. 1). Among the many significant benefits of implementing an inclusive workplace include lower levels of turnover and absenteeism due to increased “job satisfaction and well-being for individual employees” (Mor Barak, 2017, p.  316), which can enhance market share, brand loyalty, and customer satisfaction. So whether one is an executive leader of a global transportation company or a gang intervention program, it’s about “putting your arm around your people, and operating at the same level,” (Thomas, 2016) that can positively contribute to the triple bottom line of people, planet, and profits.

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Conclusion As evidenced by the preceding presentation, servant-leadership is not the exclusive province of any single religion, philosophy, corporation, or type of person. If one accepts Robert Greenleaf’s (1977/2002) definition and best test as the basis for servant-leadership, then servant-leadership becomes an authentic bridge with the potential to bring people together, rather than drive them apart. Greenleaf’s writings on servant-leadership are congruent with virtually every faith tradition and human philosophy. Echoes of Greenleaf’s basic idea are found in the Bible, the Koran, and in other foundational books which form the core teachings of many world religions: The servant-leader is servant first; and, that the best test of servant-leadership is whether people are healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants; and, what is the effect on the least privileged in society—will they benefit or at least not be further deprived?” (p. 22)

We have occasionally encountered people who claim to believe that one cannot be an authentic servant-leader without also accepting a particular set of religious beliefs. Conversely, we have also occasionally encountered people at the opposite end of the spectrum, secularists who reject the idea of servant-leadership out of hand because they are suspicious that servant-leadership is some cleverly disguised religious leadership belief. In both instances, we contend that it is not Greenleaf’s definition of servant-leadership that is the problem. Indeed, Greenleaf’s definition of servant-leadership does not require anyone to reject or to change their own deeply held religious or philosophical beliefs. Servant-leadership is congruent with all of them to some degree. Using Greenleaf’s definition of servant-leader, it is also easy to see that being of any particular faith or philosophy does not necessarily mean that one is automatically a servant-leader. Indeed, we can all think of our own examples of people of faith or philosophy who act as anything but servant-leaders. That is why we say that servant-leadership is congruent with one’s faith tradition, but it is not automatically present in every individual. Absolutely anyone can be a servant-leader, no matter what their own particular beliefs on matters of religion, spirituality, or philosophy. It is our belief that servant-­ leadership is one of the most inclusive and unifying ideas in the world today. It is a fundamental idea embraced by many and one which has the potential to help in linking together people from all walks of life. Each of us has our own personal beliefs, and we all bring those beliefs with us into our experiential expressions of servant-leadership. As deeply personal expressions of servant-leadership, each of them is valid. Servant-leadership has far greater implications for the world than realized to date. The greatest contribution of servant-leadership may yet be found in its ability to build bridges between people of different faiths, philosophies, and ways of being. People of many different beliefs increasingly find themselves united by their shared

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desire to act as servant-leaders. Each and every servant-leader is a seeker in his or her own unique way. When it comes to servant-leadership, there is no need for “either/or”—it really is “both/and.” Indeed, one can find in the wisdom literature of all the great faith traditions, philosophies, and stories of at-risk youth the encouragement to build relational bridges that create communities where everyone matters and all are welcome to bring the fullness of who they are to bear. Chapter Takeaways • Robert K. Greenleaf, who coined the term servant-leadership in 1970, drew upon religious and secular examples in his writings about servant-leadership. • Servant-leadership emphasizes increased service with and for others, a holistic approach to work, promoting a sense of community, and the sharing of power in decision-making. • Servant-leadership can function as a dialogic thought-partner with any intellectual, philosophical, theological, and wisdom tradition. • Absolutely anyone can become a servant-leader, regardless of one’s views on religion, spirituality, or philosophy. • As evidenced by nonprofits such as Homeboy Industries and Fortune 500 companies like the Penske Corporation, cultivating a servant-led culture of kinship, where everyone operates collaboratively at the same level, can positively contribute to the triple bottom line of people, planet, and profits. Reflection Questions • • • •

Who is Robert K. Greenleaf? What ideas shaped Greenleaf’s thinking about servant-leadership? What aspects of servant-leadership speak to you? How does the spirit of servant-leadership resonate with the world’s various wisdom traditions? • What servant-leadership lessons can be learned from Homeboy Industries and the Penske Corporation? • How might you integrate these lessons into your own practice of leadership?

References Beazley, H. (2003). Foreword. In H. Beazley, J. Beggs, & L. C. Spears (Eds.), The servant-leader within (pp. 1–11). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Blanchard, K., & Broadwell, R. (Eds.). (2018). Servant leadership in action: How you can achieve great relationships and results. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Blanchard, K., & Hodges, P. (2003). The servant leader: Transforming your heart, head, hands & habits. Nashville, TN: Countryman.

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Blanchard, K., & Hodges, P. (2005). Lead like Jesus: Lessons for everyone from the greatest leadership role model of all time. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Block, P. (2013). Stewardship: Choosing service over self-interest (9th ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2011). Leading with soul: An uncommon journey of spirit (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Boyle, G. (2011). Tattoos on the heart: The power of boundless compassion. New York, NY: Free Press. Boyle, G. (2014). Father Gregory J.  Boyle-2014 commencement keynote speech. Retrieved from https://www.whittier.edu/news/fri-05232014-316-pm/ father-gregory-j-boyle-2014-commencement-keynote-speech Boyle, G. (2017a). Barking to the choir: The power of radical kinship. New  York: Simon & Schuster. Boyle, G. (2017b, March 28). Father Greg Boyle: I thought I could “save” gang members. I was wrong. America. Retrieved from https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/03/28/ father-greg-boyle-i-thought-i-could-save-gang-members-i-was-wrong Cameron, K. (2013). Practicing positive leadership: Tools and techniques that create extraordinary results. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Cantore, S. P. (2017). Positive approaches to organizational change. In L. G. Oades, M. F. Steger, A. D. Fave, & J. Passmore (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches to work (pp. 272–296). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Costello, G. (2008). Spiritual gems from Mother Teresa. New London, CT: Twenty-Third. DeRue, D. S., & Workman, K. M. (2012). Toward a positive and dynamic theory of leadership development. In K. S. Cameron & G. M. Spreitzer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 784–797). New York: Oxford University Press. Doohan, L. (2007a). Spiritual leadership and reflection. The International Journal of Servant-­ Leadership, 3(1), 281–301. Doohan, L. (2007b). Spiritual leadership: The quest for integrity. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. Leadership Quarterly, 30, 111–132. Faggioli, M. (2019, February 18). The sex-abuse crisis is global: And the Vatican knows it. Commonweal. Retrieved from https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/sex-abuse-crisis-global Ferch, S. R. (2012). Forgiveness and power in the age of atrocity: Servant-leadership as a way of life. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Francis. (2015, May 24). Encyclical letter: Laudato si’of the Holy Father Francis: On care for our common home. Retrieved from http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html Garrison, S. (2012). Servant leadership. In J. Hurtgen (Ed.), World changers for Christ (pp. 39–59). Bloomington, IN: CrossBooks. Giraldo, L. G., Huerta, A. H., & Solorzano, D. (2018). From incarceration to community college: Funds of knowledge, community cultural wealth, and critical race theory. In J. M. Kiyama & C. Rios-Aguilar (Eds.), Funds of knowledge in higher education: Honoring students’ cultural experiences and resources as strengths (pp. 48–65). New York: Routledge. Greenleaf, R. K. (1979). Teacher as servant: A parable. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Greenleaf, R. K. (1996). In A. T. Fraker & L. C. Spears (Eds.), Seeker and servant: Reflections on religious leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Greenleaf, R. K. (2002). Servant-leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness (25th Anniversary ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. (Original work published 1977). Hesse, H. (2011). The journey to the east. Mansfield Centre, CT: Martino Publishing. (Original work published 1957). Homeboy Industries. (2019). About us. Retrieved from https://homeboyindustries.org/our-story/ about-homeboy/ Keith, K. M. (2008). The case for servant-leadership. Westfield, IN: Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership.

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King Jr., M. L. (2012). A gift of love: Sermons from strength to love and other preachings. Boston: Beacon. (Original work published 1963). Lassa, T. (2005, October 12). People: Roger Penske…this guy should run GM. Motor Trend. https://www.motortrend.com/news/roger-penske/ Lawrence, A. (2014). Roger Penske conquered the business world by following his love for racing. Sports Illustrated, December 12, 2014. https://www.si.com/racing/2014/12/12/ pro-files-roger-penske-racing Lore, J.  S. (1998). Servant-leadership in a Christian organization: The sisters of Saint Joseph Health System. In L. C. Spears (Ed.), Insights on leadership: Service, stewardship, spirit, and servant-leadership (pp. 297–307). New York: Wiley. MacKie, D. (2016). Strengths-based leadership coaching in organizations: An evidence-based guide to positive leadership development. Philadelphia: Kogan Page. MacKie, D. (2017). Positive approaches to leadership development. In L. G. Oades, M. F. Steger, A. D. Fave, & J. Passmore (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches to work (pp. 297–316). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Mor Barak, M. E. (2017). Managing diversity: Toward a globally inclusive workplace (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Nair, K. (1997). A higher standard of leadership: Lessons from the life of Gandhi. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. O’Brien, M. E. (2011). Servant leadership in nursing: Spirituality and practice in contemporary health care. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Obama, B. (2014). Champions of change: Father Gregory Boyle. Retrieved from https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/champions/reentry-and-employment/father-gregory-boyle Ortberg, N. (2004). Reflections on enable others to act. In J. M. Kouzes & B. Z. Posner (Eds.), Christian reflections on the leadership challenge (pp. 85–98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Palmer, P. J. (2019, February 24). We live in a complex, conflicted, confusing times when a lot of powerful voices are doing their best to convince us that true is false, right is wrong, and up is down [Facebook status update]. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/parkerjpalmer/ posts/10156116276337078 Rechtin, M. (2017, November 7). Roger Penske: The interview. Motor Trend Magazine, https:// www.motortrend.com/news/roger-penske-the-interview/ Smith, J. G., & Lindsay, J. B. (2014). Beyond inclusion: Worklife interconnectedness, energy, and resilience in organizations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Spears, L.  C. (Ed.). (1995). Reflections on leadership: How Robert K.  Greenleaf’s theory of servant-­leadership influenced today’s top management thinkers. New York: Wiley. Spears, L. C. (2019). Servant-leadership as an ecumenical bridge. Unpublished manuscript. Thomas, T. [DrTodd Thomas]. (2016, January 1). Roger Penske interview on leadership. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hxBMsH1Sw4c Trompenaars, F., & Voerman, E. (2009). Servant-leadership across cultures: Harnessing the strength of the world’s most powerful management philosophy. New York: McGraw-Hill. van Dierendonck, D., & Patterson, K. (2018). Introduction. In D. van Dierendonck & K. Patterson (Eds.), Practicing servant leadership: Developments in implementation (pp. 1–8). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Vlasic, B., & Bunkley, N. (2009, September 19). Roger Penske, Detroit’s Mr. fix-it, takes on Saturn. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/20/business/20saturn.html Wheatley, M. J. (2017). Who do we choose to be?: Facing reality, claiming leadership, restoring sanity. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

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Spirituality, Success, and Happiness: Implications for Leadership in Business Rohana Ulluwishewa, Anura Uthumange, and Ranisha Weerakoon

Abstract

There is a general consensus that success leads to happiness and successful people are happier than others. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that the relationship between success and happiness is more complex than it appears. One may achieve one’s goals continuously and be successful but one’s level of happiness may not rise continuously. Happiness generated through success is not true happiness but pleasure, thus invariably short-lived. Happiness is inherent within all human beings and can only be experienced when we grow spiritually. With the help of scientific evidence, this study points out that spiritual growth is our inner journey toward attaining the highest state and that we are designed to achieve this purpose and remain happy. Therefore, if any success we achieve is to deliver happiness, the activities we perform to achieve success should be aligned with this purpose – all activities should contribute to our spiritual growth. This applies to the happiness sought when doing business as well. They should be seen as a spiritual practice or a selfless service. Evidence suggests that integrating spirituality into business and managing business as a spiritual practice not only delivers happiness to all parties involved but also increases profits, and spiritual-based leaders inspire, encourage, and drive success. Keywords

Success · Happiness · Spirituality · Business · Selfless service · Leadership

R. Ulluwishewa (*) A. Uthumange · R. Weerakoon Center for Spirituality in Sustainable Business Management, Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_8

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Introduction The Oxford Dictionary (online) broadly defines success as the accomplishment of an aim or purpose which effectuates fame, wealth, and social status. Success therefore resonates to a positive emotion experienced as a result of achieving/ obtaining a desired state of being or doing. Success, in today’s context, is the most likely motivation which drives a person to painstakingly educate and employ oneself. Success also plays a significant role when contemplating and determining life choices such as marriage, child rearing, and so on, since people generally desire an option that would complement them in their quest for success. Success therefore is part and parcel of life in the present day. It is believed to be a prerequisite for living a blissful and enjoyable life full of happiness. Thus, success is considered as the most agreeable final destination for which all efforts in life are directed, and behind all these endeavors toward becoming successful is the hope for true happiness. Success therefore is both the most favorable route and the road mostly taken to becoming happy in life. However, the present study identifies a loophole in this understanding of the relationship between success and happiness. The lifestyle of today’s society resonates to a production process that goes from one highly compartmentalized manufacturing stage to another. As a result, most children from their young ages are trained to adhere to this process of jumping one hurdle after another. Therefore, a majority of the population is engrossed in jumping these hurdles, one by one, successfully, with the consolation of what Mel Schwartz (2012) described as the I’ll be happy when... mindset. According to Mel Schwartz such people enjoy pleasure with the hope of being truly happy on a later date as opposed to enjoying a sustained sense of happiness throughout. Children from their very young ages are taught to accept momentary pleasure as true happiness and be satisfied with it. Thus, their worlds are imprisoned within a narrow perspective. Further, the individual goal of “being very well off financially” has become intensely popular, while the significance of “developing a meaningful philosophy of life” – that ranked highest during the 1970s – has declined dramatically among learners (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011). This has created an entire generation of individuals who perceive themselves only as big as their next goal, and so, while one’s level of success has gone from height to height, one’s happiness has not been able to preserve the same pattern. Aristotle demarcates two distinct spheres of happiness and identifies them as Eudaimonia and Hedonia. Eudaimonia refers to the broad state of human flourishing – the feeling of goodness, well-being, fulfillment, and contentment that one may experience when being fully connected to one’s inner self. Hedonia is referred to as an outcome experienced as and when the human senses are pleasured – the instant gratification or rather the momentary satisfaction gained as a result of material wealth, physical pleasure, designation, power, social status, and respect. Thus, the fleeting feeling of happiness which we experience as we succeed in life can be

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associated to what Aristotle referred to as hedonia, since despite our many successes and accolades, our happiness does not increase nor remain in that same upward manner. Current Pattern of Success and Happiness driven by Pleasure

Success Happiness

Time

We, however, are of the opinion that complex as it is, success and happiness is a robust relationship which could enjoy a consistent pattern of growth in both its dimensions if addressed from a spiritual perspective. Success, driven by spirituality, is anchored and fast-tracked in terms of material advancement. Zohar and Marshall (2001) provide further substance to this argument: The spiritual means to be in touch with some larger, deeper, richer whole. It is to have a sense of ‘something beyond’, of ‘something more’ that confers added meaning and value on where we are now. That spiritual ‘something more’ may be a deeper social reality or social web of meaning. It may be an awareness of or attunement to the mythological, archetypal or religious dimensions of our situation. It may be a sense of some more profound level of truth or beauty. And/or it may be an attunement to some deeper, cosmic sense of wholeness, a sense that our actions are part of some greater universal process. Whatever our specific sense of the spiritual, without it our vision is clouded, our lives feel flat and our purposes dreadfully finite.

A person whose success is driven by spirituality thus enjoys an increasing and sustained sense of eudemonic well-being in the long run in addition to hedonic well-­ being, since having a spiritual outlook toward life would provide a sense of wholeness in perception. “The whole contains a richness, a perspective, a dimensionality not possessed by the parts. So the whole is not just a larger quantity, but has added quality too” Zohar and Marshall (2001). This level of quality in life would ensure true happiness – a sense of contentment that goes beyond the invariably short-lived sense of pleasure which is dependent on physical sensations.

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Proposed pattern of Success and Happiness driven by Spirituality

Success Happiness

Time

Spirituality and Happiness The word Spirit evolves from the Latin term “Spiritus” – breath or that which gives life or vitality to a system. Human beings according to Zohar and Marshall (2001) are spiritual beings because they are “driven by a need to ask ‘fundamental’ or ‘ultimate’ questions and are defined by a specifically human longing to see [their] lives in some larger, meaning-giving context.” Spirituality, therefore, is the state of being one with the spirit; it is our inner reality and also the conscious energy which fills the whole universe. Spiritual growth, on the other hand, is the process of the realization of this inner reality – the consciousness toward this oneness and the subsequent ability to live in accordance with this truth. The oriental understanding of the spirit and spirituality is a reiteration of the same. For example, the Sinhalese word [adh-yA-th-ma] which connotes the term spirituality is a combination of [Adhi + Athma]. [Adhi] herein refers to the idea two Sanskrit words + [Athma] refers to the individual. Thus, of being in the highest level while or rather refers to the highest level that an individual can attain. Science also confirms this reading. Its interpretation of the human reality is that human beings are pockets of energy. Quantum Physics explains that 99% of an atom is empty and that its emptiness is filled with energy which is invisible. Therefore, all living beings are fields of invisible energy. Since who we are is energy, our ultimate inner reality is also energy. The laws of physics affirm that energy is deathless, that it can be neither created nor destroyed, and that it only changes form. Thus, when looking at life from this perspective, we all are deathless and immortal beings. However, if we recognize ourselves as just a physical manifestation, we most definitely end our lives at the point of death. On the other hand, if we perceive ourselves as energy which is the sense of experience and sensations, we cannot die.

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Jill Bolte Taylor, a brain scientist who experienced a massive hemorrhage on her left brain causing a stroke, testifies of that life-changing incident through her book, “My Stroke of Insight.” Speaking of her experience of shifting “from the doing conscious of [her] left brain to the being consciousness of [her] right brain” during the time of the stroke, Taylor (2008) describes her perception as follows: For many of us, thinking about ourselves as fluid, or with souls as big as the universe, connected to the energy flow of all that is, slips us out just beyond our comfort zone. But without the judgment of my left brain saying that I am a solid, my perception of myself returned to this natural state of fluidity. Clearly, we are each trillions upon trillions of particles in soft vibration. We exist in fluid-filled sacs in a fluid world where everything exists in motion. Different entities are composed of different densities of molecules but ultimately every pixel is made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons performing a delicate dance. Every pixel, including every iota of you and me, and every pixel of space seemingly in between, is atomic matter and energy. My eyes could no longer perceive things as that were separate from one another. Instead, the energy of everything blended together. My visual processing was no longer normal. (I compare this pixilated perspective to Impressionist pointillism paintings) I was consciously alert and my perception was that I was in the flow. Everything in my visual world blended together, and with every pixel radiating energy we all flowed en masse, together as one. It was impossible for me to distinguish the physical boundaries between objects because everything radiated with similar energy. It’s probably comparable to when people take off their glasses or put eye drops into their eyes – the edges become softer. (p. 72)

She further explains that “in the absence of [her] left hemispheres’ negative judgment, [she] perceived [herself] as perfect, whole and beautiful just the way [she] was.” All of the abovementioned confirms that the spirit is indeed a united whole which has no separations. Thereby, attempts at living spiritually access this wholeness and secure eudaimonic well-being. Therefore, a spiritually driven person would see oneself, one’s community, workplace, and workspace as extensions of that same reality. As a result, a person transcends the notion of being a mere physical manifestation and connects with their innermost reality. You begin to see that “yourself” is also the “self” within others, and therefore, that all are one. This realization of oneness breeds consciousness and sensitivity which eventually makes us less self-centered, less selfish, less greedy, and instead more loving, more compassionate, and more empathetic toward ourselves and others including the environment. This eventually creates the atmosphere for permanent happiness and peace. Religion originates from the term religare, which means to relink or reunite with the spirit, God, or the ultimate reality. Spirituality can be sought for with or without religious influence since all religions are mere pathways or, rather, varied modes of expressions in becoming spiritual. Despite one’s choice of the pathway which one wishes to take, all religious scriptures, nonreligious pathways, as well as neuroscientific findings reveal certain qualities of the highest state. All of these varied qualities lead toward an ultimate quality that can be described as Love. Quoting Relational Psychotherapist, Richard Cookerly, Lok Sang Ho (2013) describes love as a “powerful, vital, natural process of highly valuing, desiring for, often acting for and taking pleasure in the well-being of the loved.” Since the spirit functions as a single,

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undivided whole, it does not have any preferences, attachments, or aversions. Love thereby becomes the source of all our lives as well. Anita Moorjani (2012) explaining her journey from cancer to near death and healing thereafter expresses her encounter with this sense of love as she became one with the universal consciousness: In my NDE [Near-Death Experience] state, I realized that the entire universe is composed of unconditional love, I am an expression of this. Every atom, molecule, quark, and tetra quark, is made of love. I can be nothing else, because this is my essence and the nature of the entire universe… in fact, Universal life-force energy is love, and I am composed of Universal energy!

This love, therefore, is founded, formed, and seeded internally within one’s self and blossoms when a person becomes one with the spirit. Love manifests itself in various forms: giving, sharing, helping, being kind, compassionate and empathetic, respecting, listening, and forgiving. All spiritual activities are meant to grow in love, give love, and receive love, leaving no space for selfish desires, attachments, personal interests, or fears. Therefore, if any activity does the latter, it is not a spiritual activity. However, despite love being the reality within us, it is almost impossible to fathom its authenticity when living life daily. Most of what we hear, see, and experience on a daily basis are expressions far from this definition of love, our original design. Instead, what we see around us is an abundance of self-centeredness which seemingly flourishes in this competitive society. Neuroplasticity, a recent phenomenon in Neuroscience, helps us in understanding why. Neuroplasticity refers to the capacity which the brain possesses in forming new neural circuits and dissolving existing ones. It is the brain’s ability to selectively transform itself in response to certain experiences: the brain herein acts like the film of a camera, which records all images that it is exposed to. When the brain is exposed to the world through the sense organs – seeing through the eyes, hearing through the ears, smelling through the nose, tasting through the tongue, and feeling through the skin – it captures all of these information and images and records them. Information once recorded creates perceptions, beliefs, and filters that create our individual realities, motives, and identities. Pleasant, amiable, and positive perceptions herein instantly activate neurons which emit pleasure-producing neurochemicals such as dopamine. Thus, we respond to a person positively based on these pleasure-producing neurochemicals that are surged into the body through the nervous system. Alternatively, if the perception is a negative one, the neural circuit do the opposite. It activates the neurons which produce pain or displeasure, thus directing us to react negatively. However, since our pleasurable and painful perceptions change over time due to the varied interactions with society, the wiring caused by neuroplasticity is known as the soft-wiring of the brain or rather the soft-wired brain (Merzenich, 2013) Nevertheless, since one’s perceptions define one’s attitude and reactions to life, this soft-wired nature maintains an automatic control mechanism over life in general. Thus, the foundation for self-centeredness among individuals is rested on this

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unconscious process relating to neuroplasticity. In the meantime, our inner reality, identified previously as love, is known as the hard-wiring of the brain or rather the hardwired brain. This hardwired nature is predominantly displayed by children and highly spiritual individuals: children  – since all humans are born with minimum neural circuits in their brain and since their exposure to life is narrow allowing the formation of only a limited number for perceptions; and highly spiritual individuals – since they continuously make conscious attempts to rid themselves of these soft-wired perceptions. Generally, however, our soft-wired brains take precedence over the hardwired since our brain constantly urges us to resort to pleasure-inducing activities to overcome the unwelcome feelings caused by our perceived separateness from the true self. Thereby, we constantly pursue external or material goods and services to arouse the mind or induce excitement. Thus, our happiness conforms to being a mere aroused form of happiness, which truly speaking is pleasure and not happiness itself, and this we experience through our senses, nervous system, and thoughts. Such excitement naturally subsides after a while and then we begin to feel the usual dissatisfaction and discontent once more. Therefore, in order to maintain this same level of excitement and pleasure brought about by an aroused mind, we have to make a constant effort in consuming material goods and services. Thus, we gradually forget our true selves and become highly dependent upon material wealth or happiness. Spirituality therefore is the solution to unearth this hardwired nature of love. Spirituality produces qualities that assist us in disrupting the feelings of I, me, and mine. It chips in to the duality of the “me versus other” dichotomy and affects the likes and dislikes that are both created and are in operation due to the soft-wired brain. Thus, our tendency to fall prey into our attachments and aversions in life is controlled. Hence, making this conscious decision to be aware of the soft-wiring and unearth the hardwired reality through our thoughts, words, and actions allows us to stay true to our original design of life. It thus creates an environment conducive to eudaimonic well-being wherein happiness comes naturally. Happiness therefore can either be a eudaimonic or hedonic pursuit. While hedonic happiness is a neurochemical reaction to pleasure, eudaimonic happiness is what one experiences when growing spiritually. Evolving spiritually is associated with the weakening or dissolving of the neural circuits that keep us addicted or attached to pleasurable experiences; thus, once these neural circuits become weak, the habit of seeking pleasure fades away and we seek natural happiness instead of temperamental pleasure. This preference for natural happiness empowers us to live in the present moment both mindfully and with purpose. Eudaimonic well-being or rather natural happiness, therefore, is an internal phenomenon that erupts from the core of one’s being. It is not reliant on any externalities and does not face the danger of departing from one’s self in the absence of such external sources. Having such a perspective toward life also provides the opportunity to enjoy pleasure or rather hedonic well-being without becoming attached to it or have it seeped into our identities.

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Our capacity to obtain that which we like and abandon that which we dislike almost exclusively depends on the size of material wealth at our disposal, our power to control, exploit, and grab wealth from others. However, what we do not fathom at first is that we cannot experience happiness at the expense of another. Thus, a person focusing on spiritual growth through all his endeavors and efforts enjoys the beauty of the big picture and knows which battles to pick and how not to react to every situation and not get offended or hurt when the one’s ego or likes are challenged. Thus, such an outlook over all circumstances and situations helps us look at life through a wider lens and find direction for all of our thoughts, actions, and words. Spiritual happiness is inherited by birth. Enjoying such happiness means that we realize our true human values, potentials, and capacities and stay true to them. This elevates us to becoming ‘full human beings” who understand our real nature and seek purpose in all that we do.

Success and Spirituality Success is a social construct which varies in meaning from person to person and place to place. It however is an idea which oftentimes requires individuals to drive down pathways which they perhaps may not choose if given a choice. It is generally perceived as a personal feat and understood as an arduous journey which people resort to nevertheless in order to obtain the fame, wealth, or social status which they aspire for. Success therefore is one’s struggle to maximize one’s utility by capitalizing on knowledge, expertise, exposure, competence, positional power, etc. Success helps a person in earning pleasure while reducing pain and suffering caused by the lack of it. Thus, this utilitarian perspective of success, which also happens to be the most prevalent and most recognized avenue in becoming successful, is mostly a hedonic process which operates on the pleasure principle. However, success can also be achieved resulting a eudaimonic course of action. An individuals’ compulsion to maximize utility through self-centered mechanisms is generally known to create atmospheres and situations that are discouraging and perhaps even toxic to be part of. This is so, since a self-centered drive toward success undermines and devalues the potential and contribution of others. It disheartens and promotes a crippling culture of sabotage and frustration which clips another’s wings in the process. Also, since it focuses only on the benefit to self, it discourages individuals in working together and promotes unnecessary competition wherein each person is compelled to “watch their own back.” It thus encourages a selfish environ that is passive-aggressive and exhausting to be part of. Further, people who are made to treasure material wealth over basic human values measure their success by the level of materialistic achievements, such as the acquisition of material wealth, power, social status, recognition, respect, reputation, and so on, over happiness. Thus, in order to secure such achievements and maintain them, a person must not just compete with another but also must ensure their win over others. As a result, the success of one is the failure of another. Therefore, this race toward success is invariably short-lived and the potential which it carries to create happiness is

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limited to satisfying what psychologists refer to as “neurotic needs” or “pseudo needs.” Gratification of neurotic needs does not make one healthy whereas gratifying basic needs does. For example, giving a neurotic power seeker all the power in the world would still not make that person less neurotic. However, gratifying basic needs such as love or safety would make a person healthy. Additionally, unlike basic needs, neurotic needs cannot be satiated and this is because what they really seek for is hidden beneath the veil which we identify as the neurotic need: for instance, they seem to thrive at the face of social status, but what they are looking for in reality is self-esteem. Abraham Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs” provides further evidence that recognizes how a self-centered approach to success may not provide the natural happiness which individuals ultimately seek. Maslow mentions that those who have already gratified their survival needs and have secured their means for survival do not suffer from hunger or an inadequacy of other basic survival needs. They however suffer a sense of dissatisfaction which according to Maslow cannot be addressed without them first accessing their true self that is within them. He identifies these needs as “higher needs” and they include needs relating to love, belonging, self-­ esteem, and self-actualization, which are all nonmaterial in essence. Therefore, while the self-centered pathway can make one successful, it is certain to come at a very high cost in terms of health, relationships, and most importantly one’s own self. Therefore, despite this being the road taken by many, it seems to be an exploitative, ignorant, and unconscious way of life which does not contribute to our well-being or that of another. Thus, success of this nature would rarely find the validation of happiness or the comfort of peace which it truthfully seeks, since a success of this sort strives to define itself based on the people, circumstances, and situations in which it is placed. Many are of the opinion that spirituality is yet another part of life similar to family, work, leisure, health, and so on. However, we believe that spirituality is not yet another part of life but that it is life itself and that all other parts such as work, family, and so on obtain meaning and purpose from this context. This includes businesses. Therefore, success similar to everything else should be an offshoot of spirituality that enlivens one’s spiritual growth and bridges the gap between the hardwired and soft-wired realities of a person so that one may truly enjoy a continuous and increasing sense of both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being.

Implications for Business Management Operating a business from a spiritual context results in transforming the nature of the business itself. The primary purpose of such businesses and its leadership according to Miller and Miller (2008) of the Global Dharma Center is “spiritual fulfillment and service to society.” Thus, money and wealth creation do not become the end goal. Instead, these businesses perceive money and wealth generation as mere means for enabling and sustaining its larger purpose. The Millers go on to say that such businesses stem from the understanding that:

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1. Having material wealth doesn’t really satisfy the inner yearning to access a deeper meaning and obtain fulfillment in work and life. 2. What we’ve been doing with the Earth’s resources and with international relations (still based on “survival of the fittest”) has been destructive, unjust, and unsustainable. Further, businesses of such orientation advocate human values as their source of inspiration and growth because human values are manifestations of spiritual development. Success therefore is inadvertently driven by human values and a growing body of research confirms how human values have become the foundation for success: Google in 2015 set out on a two-year long internal quest to comprehend the dynamics that nurtured its most successful teams in becoming so. They named this research as “Aristotle” in honor of his famous saying that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” This study analyzed over 200 Google employees of over 180 active teams. It resulted in a number of insightful findings which according to Rozovsky (2015) concluded that “who is on the team matters less than how the team members interact, how they structure their work, and how they view their contributions.” She further stated that the following five driving forces were behind Google’s most effective teams: 1. Psychological safety – Rated number one and is the underpinning of the other four qualities which according to Google is its most important dynamic. It refers to the capacity that a person has in taking risks without feeling vulnerable or embarrassed. It is the mental safety provided to speak and share one’s perspectives freely. Google admitted that the safer individuals felt among each other, the more likely they were to admit mistakes, partner, and take on new roles. 2. Dependability – The extent to which one may rely and count on another to complete high quality work on time. 3. Structure and clarity – The understanding that each person has about their roles, goals, and execution plans as well as the clarity maintained at all points of communication. 4. Meaning of work – How important each person’s job is for each of them. 5. Impact of work – Employees’ fundamental belief that the work they do matters and their understanding on the greater purpose for which they all serve. The findings of Hewlett-Packard’s study, conducted in 1990, which attempted to discover the key differences between its successful, unsuccessful, and extraordinary teams resonate to Google’s number one driving force – psychological safety. It mentions of two factors which created a distinction between the successful and extraordinary teams – authenticity and honesty. “Those teams that stood out had leaders and managers who treated their customers as they themselves wanted to be treated and their team members found in themselves a quality of truth.” The 30-year-long study conducted by the Great Places to Work Institute is also yet another great example of how human values became the driving force of success behind certain high-performance organizations. The Great Places to Work Institute

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investigated high trust, high productivity, and high-performing workplace cultures spread across different parts of the world to analyze what makes them great places to work. Its employees rated their organizations in five essential dimensions – credibility, respect, fairness, pride, and camaraderie which illustrated an overall sense of trust. The institute then tracked the stock market growth of publicly traded companies around the world in which employees ranked them as high on all the said dimensions and noted how they performed significantly better than the market average and maintained superior results in avenues such as operating income per employee, operating margin, growth rate, and return on assets. Thus, all three of these studies go on to show how extraordinary achievements leading to success goes beyond one’s personal boundaries and how it is founded on human values which stem from a largely spiritual context which views work as a selfless service. A person focused on spiritual growth rather than success understands the hedonic paradox and thus focuses on consciousness over pleasure. A conscious person is aware of the surrounding wholeness and understands the intricate connection that one has with everything around oneself. Thus, such a person is not deluded by the “I” vs. “other” dichotomy. As a result, this person realizes that happiness or rather pleasure is not the goal but a result of being engaged in some larger purpose that is connected to getting in touch with one’s real self or spiritual growth. Zohar and Marshall (2001) refer to this ability of gaining and retaining such a perception and being grounded in one’s reality of the spirit as “Spiritual Intelligence’ (SI). SI they say helps “address and solve problems of meaning, value and place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning giving context. With which we can assess the one course of action or one life-path which is more meaningful than another.” They perceive this intelligence to be the ultimate intelligence which provides the necessary foundation for the effective functioning of both the intellectual and emotional intelligence since it compels one to “ask why, to look for the connections between things, to bring to the surface the assumptions we have been making about the meaning behind and within things, to become more reflective, to reach beyond ourselves a little, to take responsibility, to become more self-aware, to be more honest with ourselves and more courageous.” Persons governed by their spiritual intelligence are guided by their dharma which means to act in accordance with one’s essential nature and/or purpose. Spiritual growth and the intelligence which we obtain as a result of it therefore help us be more grounded in reality as we strive toward profit and success. It also provides the context necessary for us to be more conscious and open toward the people and the planet that surrounds and uplifts us in this journey toward success. Thus, success perceived and driven through the lenses of spiritual growth and spirituality seems to be a healthier and sustainable pathway for achieving and retaining both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Businesses today are challenged with the need to cater to the triple bottom line. Thus, workplaces and work spaces are struggling to find that right balance of getting the best out of all their resources while making innovation and profitability multiply. Therefore, there is no better time than this very present moment for organizations to explore how spirituality and human values can contribute to this discourse of

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finding the balance and achieving success. Adam Grant’s (2014) study “Give and Take” through which he identifies how professional success depends on how one would interact with another provides a stepping stone to comprehend how spirituality may perhaps be the ultimate solution for driving long-term success that would bring about both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Grant herein classifies the work force as givers, takers, and matchers: Every day employees make decisions about whether to act like givers or like takers. When they act like givers, they contribute to others without seeking anything in return. They might offer assistance, share knowledge, or make valuable introductions. When they act like takers, they try to get other people to serve their ends while carefully guarding their own expertise and time. (Grant, 2013)

This study reiterates the findings mentioned above and challenges many common views that are accepted across the board: You look across a wide range of industries and even countries, and you find these three styles exist everywhere. Indeed, the givers are overrepresented at the bottom. Putting other people first, they often put themselves at risk for burning out or being exploited by takers. A lot of people look at that and say, ‘Well, it’s hard for a taker to rise consistently to the top, because oftentimes, takers burn bridges. So, it must be the matchers who are more generous than takers, but also protect their own interests.’ When I looked at the data, I was really surprised to see that those answers were wrong. It’s actually the givers again. Givers are overrepresented at the top as well as the bottom of most success metrics. (Knowledge at Wharton, 2013)

Givers

Most Successful

Takers and Matchers

Givers

Least Successful

Grant then goes on to say how the givers represented on the least successful end of the spectrum became so and mentions that they were those who could not “distinguish generosity from three other attributes—timidity, availability, and empathy—that tend to travel with it” (Grant, 2013) and were thus exploited for their selfless nature. However, as mentioned before, spiritual growth of a person also paves way for the development of one’s spiritual intelligence which helps in distinguishing between becoming an intelligent selfless giver or an unintelligent selfless giver. Therefore, organizations that promote and operate on a spiritual context will encourage intelligent selfless givers who will create for themselves workplaces that are exciting, healthy, and favorable: “leading employees means evoking each person’s sense of spiritual purpose in life.” (Miller & Miller, 2008) These organizations will then sport cultures and conditions of trust, psychological safety, authenticity,

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honesty, and unity of thoughts, words, and actions that would be reflected in all external manifestations. The direction of leadership within spiritually oriented organizations is yet another interesting avenue. Such leaders perceive their organizations as units which serve the society above all and enjoy spiritual fulfillment in doing so. They trace all of their goals, strategies, and objectives to connect and support their ultimate purpose of selfless service. The beauty of it is how all its individual functional areas such as Human Resource Management, Finance, Marketing, Operations, etc., also come together in achieving this mission as one. The entire organization thereby is well-aligned with one particular purpose in mind. Thus, an organization with such a leadership is able to fast-track their journey toward success since they are on a clear path with a clear vision ahead of them. A leadership stemming from such a spiritual context is similar a tree and its branches. The bark of the tree, its potency, and direction outwardly seem to guide the branches in spreading out. However, underneath the bark, connected to the soil, are the roots and an intricate system built on cells upon cells which coordinate and provide the bark the nutrition and strength that it requires to flourish. Leadership herein can be associated with the bark of the tree – the outward face of the organization which supports and provides the necessary atmosphere for its braches – the resources to grow and prosper. However, hidden beneath the bark and under the soil is the spiritual direction that grounds the tree with its reality and provides it the sustenance it requires to connect with its branches in a more personal manner and produce the outward beauty in terms of fruit and prosperity. Isaac Tigrett, the founder of the Hard Rock Café, provides further counsel on how his human values stemming from a spiritual backdrop helped in approaching his business: “all I did was put spirit and business together in that big mixing bowl and add love. I didn’t care about anything but people. Just cherish them, look after them, be sensitive to them and their lives.” (Miller & Miller, 2008). We may term and categorize leadership as transformational leadership, servant leadership, so on and so forth; all of these types of leadership are different combinations of certain human values that academics, authors, and philosophers may see as important when leading people. Therefore, we propose that leaders, whichever path they may follow and whichever term they would wish to associate themselves with, inspire, encourage, and drive success keeping in mind their first and foremost reality of being spiritual forms of life. The moment we become conscious of this reality and work in accordance with it, we experience personal empowerment, empowering relationships, and more meaningful networks.

Conclusion Many people are of the opinion that spirituality refers to the collapse and downfall of hedonic well-being. People assume that being spiritual involves letting go of all material wealth and living the life of a hermit. However, this discussion breaks away from that age-old perception and interprets success from a spiritual perspective

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which in contrast to the popular belief mentioned above identifies spirituality as a promising pathway and, truthfully, a fast track to become successful without losing sight of oneself, ones’ relationships, and most importantly one’s happiness. It observes one’s well-being from both the perspectives of eudaimonia and hedonia and concludes that spirituality is indeed practical, relevant, grounded, empowered, and timely in ensuring success from both these perspectives. Thus, driving toward success with such an approach and consciousness will undoubtedly sustain both hedonic as well as eudaimonic well-being and lasting happiness. Chapter Takeaways • While happiness is an outcome of our spiritual growth which involves an inner transformation from self-centeredness to selflessness, pleasure is an outcome of neurochemical activity taking place in our brain when we obtain something that we like. • Pleasure is inherently transient and short-lived whereas we can experience happiness as long as we are in contact with our reality within. • We all seek success and we want to be successful in everything that we do in our lives. Hence, success most often leads to pleasure. However, success does not necessarily lead to happiness. • Success leads to happiness only if the activity that we are engaged in contributes to our spiritual growth. If the activity is business and if the business is undertaken as a selfless service, its success leads to happiness. • Business leadership has a key role to play in transforming businesses from a profit orientation to a service orientation. Reflection Questions 1 . Explain briefly what spirituality means in scientific terms. 2. What is the difference between pleasure and happiness? 3. Why doesn’t success necessarily lead to happiness? 4. What makes a business a spiritual activity? 5. Reflect on the role of leadership in making a business a spiritual practice.

References Astin, A., Astin, H., & Lindholm. (2011). Cultivating the spirit: How college can enhance students’ inner lives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Grant, A. (2013). In the company of givers and takers. Retrieved March 27, 2019 from https://hbr. org/2013/04/in-the-company-of-givers-and-takers Grant, A. (2014). Give and take: Why helping others drive our success? New York: Penguin Books. Ho, L.  S. (2013). The psychology and economics of happiness: Love, life and positive living. New York: Routledge.

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Mel Schwartz, L. C. S. W. (2012). I’ll be happy when... Unravel the mythology of happiness and the genuine pathway toward that end. Retrieved April 17, 2019, From https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/shift-mind/201202/i-ll-be-happy-when Merzenich M (2013) Soft-Wired: How the new Science of brain plasticity can change your life. Parnassus Publishing, LLC, San Francisco. Miller, W. C., & Miller, D. R. (2008). Spirituality: The emerging context for business leadership. Copenhagen, Denmark: Global Dharma Center. Retrieved March 27, 2019, from www.globaldharma.org Moorjani, A. (2012). Dying to be me: My journey from cancer, to near death, to true healing. Carlsbad, CA: Hay House Publishing. Rozovsky, J. (2015). The five keys to a successful Google team. Retrieved March 27, 2019 from https://rework.withgoogle.com/blog/five-keys-to-a-successful-google-team/ Taylor, J. B. (2008). My stroke of insight: A brain scientist’s personal journey. New York: Plume. Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. N. (2001). SQ: Connecting with our spiritual intelligence. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA.

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Values-Based Leadership: Exploring Exemplary Approaches Elizabeth F. R. Gingerich

Abstract

This chapter chronicles the genesis and development of  an important journal, called the Journal of Values-Based Leadership (JVBL). As the process of defining various parameters unfolded, several broad-based topics of universal interest quickly emerged and included theories and orientations based upon faith, spirituality, environmental sustainability, servant leadership, authenticity, and corporate social responsibility. From these general topics, specific approaches to principled leadership have been derived. The central theme throughout the journal’s life has been principled leadership  – ethically premised orientations of guidance rooted in various concentrations. In analyzing the various approaches propounded over the years, there has inevitably been a crossover of overall thematic components, but nuances of each theory remain distinctively remarkable. During its 12-year history, the JVBL has featured the lifework and interviews of scores of scholars and practitioners of leadership, most notably the 2009 interview of Ray C. Anderson, the founder of Interface, Inc., conducted by the author. The chapter brings together some important lessons culled from various issues of the journal on various positive forms of leadership. Keywords

Corporate citizenship · Community leadership · Conflict resolution · Servant leadership · Faith-based leadership · Stakeholder engagement

E. F. R. Gingerich (*) The Louis S. and Mary L. Morgal Chair of Christian Business Ethics, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, IN, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_9

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Background In 2006, the College of Business at Valparaiso University, located in the greater Chicagoland area in the USA, explored methods of disseminating values-based, decision-making practices and theories to international markets. From this objective emerged the Journal of Values-Based Leadership (JVBL). One of the first significant steps taken in fostering attention for the journal was to establish a defined readership. The decision was made to target business leaders, academics, and government representatives. Initially, a wide net of solicitations was cast to specific individuals, including academicians James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner (Santa Clara University), Dr. Kim S. Cameron (U. of Michigan), and Dr. James O’Toole (U. of Denver); business leaders Bud A’Hearn (VP of CH2M Hill) and Katherine W. Dean (CFP, CIMA SVP, The Wealth Planning Center at Wells Fargo); and government leaders former Senator Richard Lugar (R-IN) and former US Farm Bureau CEO Jill Long Thompson (Obama Administration). An international editorial board has fully developed since the launch, representing various government entities, faith representatives, educational specialists, and managerial gurus.

The central theme throughout the journal’s life has been principled leadership – ethically premised orientations of guidance rooted in various concentrations. In analyzing the various approaches propounded over the years, there has inevitably been a crossover of overall thematic components, but nuances of each theory remain distinctively remarkable.

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Establishing Parameters The submission guidelines were constructed to attract examples of leadership highlighting attributes of integrity, credibility, and morality; to spotlight particular ethical, values-based organizations; to emphasize the importance of balancing the concerns of shareholders, consumers, labor and management, and the environment; and to teach students how to identify and understand their personal core values and how such values impact organizational performance. To accentuate these primary principles, the JVBL’s stated purpose was formulated to support people who sought to create more ethically and socially responsive organizations through leadership and education and to cultivate a readership including business leaders, academics, and students interested in the study and analysis of critical issues affecting the practice of values-based leadership. This has, and continues to be, addressed through interviews, case studies, guest editorials, book reviews, and full research manuscripts. In seeking pieces which demonstrated elements of both commonality and diversity in the subject of values-based leadership, it has been essential to allow authors and interviewees the opportunity to define values as influenced by their own diverse cultures, settings, countries, and circumstance. Several broad-based topics of universal interest quickly emerged and included theories and orientations based upon faith, spirituality, environmental sustainability, servant leadership, authenticity, and corporate social responsibility. From these general topics, specific approaches to principled leadership have been derived.

Ethical Leadership Commonalities While the following theories are described with a particular degree of specificity, there are invariably crossovers and overlapping elements of each approach explored. For instance, concentrations on spirituality, servant-leadership, compassion, and sustainability often speak of service to others, humility, forgiveness, stewardship, and selfless objectives. One commonality, however, lies in the recognition of adequately addressing the needs of all stakeholders impacted by organizational activity and leadership direction. Shared Characteristics  A common thread linking these theories centers around the premise that no positive progress can be achieved nor change be effected within an organization without singular direction. And this motivating influence must come from the top – from leaders who artfully and truthfully communicate and engage their stakeholders, set reasonable targets, establish themselves as examples to be emulated, promote unity of purpose and message, and ultimately implement a decision uniformly and fairly. True leaders are often cited as those who are sufficiently courageous to leave their respective zones of comfort and demonstrate action to engender followership loyalty which is rooted in wisdom, experience, sacrifice, ongoing self and organizational assessment, honesty, concern, and compassion.

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Engaging Stakeholders  Regardless of the approaches used to define different leadership models, most address the concept of stakeholders as a term that includes, but goes beyond, the individual shareholder – one whose ties to the company are solely economic in nature. Shareholder-based activities often command a type of leadership that singularly produces a financial advantage for the investor. The larger grouping of stakeholders, however, is expanded to include all entities impacted – either negatively or positively  – by the operations of an organization which may consist of local communities and governments, the affected workforce and associated unions, business competitors, suppliers, governing administrative agencies, the media, and the environment. Holistic Leadership  Acknowledgement of the wide array of stakeholders is a trait of holistic leadership; with this type of leader, there is an advanced awareness of the close relationship between economic and social development. Holistic leaders understand the complexity of the relationship between business and society and often strive to shape their business activities to balance maximizing shareholder value while carefully considering the impact caused by the entity’s social and environmental performance as well. The United Nations’ Global Compact, for example, encourages the business world to engage in this comprehensive approach through publicly addressing such matters as environmental degradation, human rights, worker exploitation, and systematic corruption. Spirituality, Faith-Based, and Religious Leadership  Offering oneself as an example of conduct desired of others defines servant leadership – a type of leadership which manifests in different forms. For instance, spirituality, faith, and religion are often comingled descriptors of servant leadership methodology, but deserve more segregationist treatment. Whereas spirituality reflects an overall belief in a higher being and a sense of collective existence, faith better ascribes a confidence or trust in a set of beliefs designed to explain the meaning of existence, and religion then further refers to the symbols and methods used to express a particular sacred adherence. Each will be explored as a separate harbinger of leadership commitment.

Leadership Theories Spirituality and Leadership Again, spirituality can be differentiated from an allegiance to a particular faith or religious affiliation; it embraces the acknowledgement of a superior force or being that drives the collective destiny of all. Leadership is born from this sense of a higher presence. Social and economic dilemmas are viewed from an indivisible amalgamation of energy and resources. As the concept of spirituality might be typically perceived of as a personal venture into the exploration of the meaning of life and the trait of leadership as more of a collective encounter, these terms would appear, at first glance, to be mutually exclusive. However, several authors have

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attempted to explain that it is this very soul-searching impact on the individual that leads to the intentional influence of others’ behavior (Lynch & Fadrowski, 2016). It is this type of leader who demonstrates characteristics of integrity, honesty, humility, and commitment to the overall good who is able to exert effective guidance. These leaders use their own experiences to instruct others to either follow or avoid certain paths. They seek the input of those who follow and, in the process, remove artificial barriers that detract from open and honest communication. Spiritual leaders are often better poised to maximize their own contributions and value others’ skills and talents to work toward the achievement of a common goal or objective. They care about their individual followers and strive to encourage all to deliver a cohesive and superior performance as a collective entity. A person’s spirituality often enables her or him to engage in a certain amount of risk, to be bold, and to assert defining beliefs. Climate change, racial inequality, and socioeconomic parity are several such issues that many leaders pursue relentlessly and often to a degree of success. As spirituality is seen as transcending faith or career choice, the concept of one’s self is relegated to a fervent commitment to collective action and effort. In the Winter/Spring 2015 issue of the JVBL, authors Aman Jhaveri and A. Anantaraman present an interview of a prominent leader of Indian industry who identifies those values intrinsic to the making of spiritual leaders: first and foremost is love as it is the human power of love that serves to motivate leaders to effectively guide their followers. From love, then, empathy and devotion naturally emanate. It is the totality of these forces that produce natural managerial skills and a healthy organizational culture. The leader must first self-assess, however, before attempting to transform those who follow.

Faith-Based Leadership The major faiths of the world are typically identified as Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Hinduism. Each faith presents a set of established beliefs and practices. Each grapple with the reality of a higher existence that can often affect personal lifestyle as well as professional behavior. Faith-based leadership often transcends merely a belief in God or a higher being and permeates all actions and thought processes. Faith can often provide the necessary fortitude to maintain focus in times of calamity, to remain strong in the face of criticism, and to instill confidence in decision-making. In an interview with several residents of an Amish community in North Central Indiana in 2010, a basic theme was established. As these individuals are all adherents of the Christian faith, they follow what they believe to be the teachings of Christ. Leadership is then translated for them in the form of behavioral guidance, forgiveness, and deference to the collective good. When one member suffers a hardship, the remaining residents of that community are there to assist – whether in the form of harvesting another’s fields in the event of unforeseen illness or in the sharing of resources to enable a family to acquire a new household or business. As

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Christ is regarded as their spiritual head and His manner of living on Earth is to be emulated, living in a way that is simple and honest is of paramount importance in day-to-day living. Under this rubric, faith-based leadership is additionally found in the example of the Native American Indian who is regarded by many Amish as also living a life to be emulated. Lifestyle decisions are guided by several basic tenets: the world’s bounty is always considered to be a blessing, environmental stewardship is fundamental, and all resources are to be used wisely and fully to generate no waste. As furniture-making is a key business of this Amish community, certain sustainability business techniques are employed to lessen or offset any harmful impact caused to the land: for example, multiple saplings are planted in each area where a tree has been taken (Gingerich, 2010a, 2010b).

Religious Leadership With respect to many religious practices, a leader’s vision of the future is often predicated on the lessons learned from the past. Religious leaders strive to learn, understand, and appreciate the history that brought them and their organizational members to their current situation. While understanding the past does not necessarily dictate the course of the organization’s future, certain traditions are preserved and exercised as both a reminder and a form of celebration of that particular group’s culture. Rituals can be used to interject a value system and a particular philosophy into the tenets of modern leadership and the formation of the present-day organizational structure. Leading by way of invoking sacred traditions, ceremonies, and rituals can also generate a dedicated followership and strengthen an already established community or organization. One such example is provided by the American Lakota Indian. This leadership model focuses on a traditional dance which is repetitively performed. The ritual itself celebrates the group’s core belief of the interrelatedness and interconnectedness of all humans as well as highlights leadership attributes which include generosity, bravery, generosity, wisdom, and fortitude (Modaf, 2014).

Authentic Leadership A growing interest in organizational leadership models more recently includes that of leadership which stems from positive organizational context and behavior and reflects measurable and effective human resource capabilities. An authentic leader is “tantamount to little more than being true to oneself or being who you profess to be” (Bishop, 2013, p.  3). This self-realization allows for genuine activities and behaviors to more naturally occur. Concentration on acting in accordance to one’s natural proclivities appears to be distinctly subjective and self-centered; however, it can serve as the beginning point for the development of an ethical code and provide the requisite motivation to justify the leader’s directions. In this manner, a leader

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can begin to maneuver and guide others’ conduct: to truly understand what motivates the actions, the leader must first discover his or her own inner beliefs and values systems to be perceived as trustworthy to followers. This process of self-discovery includes not only the revelation of individual strengths but takes into account one’s own weaknesses as well. Self-realization of shortcomings indicates where improvement is desired and possible. Being authentic is not necessarily equated with selfishness  – just self-awareness. From personal awareness of one’s own core values, motives, and emotions, realization of authenticity becomes further reinforced by being open about personal perspectives while remaining objective in considering the opinions of others (Onyalla, 2018).

Servant Leadership As an alternative to top-down or authoritative rule, the servant leadership theory, as defined by Robert K. Greenleaf, is known by its selfless approach to the management of others. Under this theory, a servant leader in the workplace functions as a resource to employees, developing their abilities to aspire to organizational goals. This type of leadership embodies the attributes of empathy, compassion, and acceptance (Davis, 2017). Altruism permeates this approach, elevating the good of the organization to the forefront. The servant leader makes a concerted effort to cultivate the abilities of the follower, often transcending sense of self. While self-­ examination remains essential to this perspective, it is incumbent on the leader to assist others to likewise analyze their defining principles and motivators. Dedicating self to the group is pivotal to the creation of the servant leader and to ultimately achieve organizational success. Without self-sacrifice for a higher good, there is often distrust of others; a personal drive to gain power and riches presupposes that others are solely driven by similar ambitions. Within this inherent conflict comes the need to lead in a top-down fashion, providing both the carrot and the whip to energize the masses. Servant leadership functions in an opposite direction. Servant leadership does not necessarily connote total submersion to the service of others nor to the complete abandonment of self-interest. In fact, author Michael K. McCuddy explains that all human endeavors are predicated on the moral orientations of selfishness, selflessness, and self-fullness and that effective leadership does not necessarily sacrifice the concept of self entirely (2008). The moral orientation of selfishness involves pursuing one’s self-interest and seeks to maximize one’s rewards to the exclusion of benefitting others. Selflessness could be construed as requiring the practice of pure altruism to the complete absence of individual goals and aspirations. The natural assumption would be, then, that true servant leadership is the entire dedication of self to the service of those who follow; however, this might not necessarily trigger the most effective and successful type of leadership. It is the orientation of self-fullness, McCuddy argues, which occupies middle ground and appears to join the concepts of both authentic leadership and servant leadership; it involves the simultaneous pursuit of constrained self-interest with a realistic concern for the common good. Fealty to followers, in this manner, does not sacrifice all

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of one’s self but connotes the full use of one’s talents and resources to concomitantly pursue personal goals while galvanizing collective action to achieve collective objectives.

Sustainability Leadership It is quite impossible to address leadership theories at a time of the existential threat of climate change without emphasizing the need to create and maintain sustainable industry and lifestyle. Most would unequivocally agree that the essence of leadership revolves around the greatest anxiety of the present time and those who identify and formulate sustainability as a business strategy are doing just that. Unchecked consumption trends and oft unregulated industrial practices have produced a rising number of cancers while subjecting a growing number of animal and plant species to endangerment or extinction and destroying millions of acres of forestland. The global citizenry demands leaders with an unfettered commitment to curbing otherwise unchecked emissions of greenhouse gases and widespread pollution of fresh water depositories. Humankind demands leadership which redefines wealth, prosperity, and economic growth. Pursuit of re-tailored organizational goals with due deference to the Earth’s resources signals this desired leadership. Sustainability leaders champion the need to create a new stakeholder mindset while engaging their workforces to rally behind such preservationist goals. This restructured paradigm can generate favorable economic returns while participating in the responsible production of a useful product without further usurping Earth’s resources. Leaders who champion planetary sustainability might engage in a recognized set of activities: they first premise their communications in well-established scientific fact. They champion the collective good  – a value which arguably arises from a higher state of consciousness. They tout environmental respect and preservation which are inextricably enmeshed. There must additionally be a global awareness of the imminent consequences of universal harm and widespread ecosystem degradation; the leader must seize and act upon this understanding in order to properly guide followers in activities that strive to achieve success through honoring planetary preservation. There is an urgency present for recognition and identification of true and effective leaders in this regard. As John Renesch warns, “There is no room for the status quo. Apathy and lack of true leadership will simply perpetuate the unsustainable, self-destructive course we have embarked upon and continue to perpetuate” (Renesch, 2010, p. 2). Renesch passionately calls to end any legitimacy given to dysfunctional leaders and systems. Instead, he advocates a commonality of purpose to seek out long-term approaches necessary to achieve a sustainable future and to take corrective measures without fearing failure. With the existential threat of global warming ever-presently showing its destructive tentacles, many leaders have emerged espousing one fundamental message: use one’s position of leadership to save the planet and create real change. The stark reality of more frequent and intense weather events impacting all sectors of business inevitably affect consumer behavior  – more so than with typical

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market-based changes. David B. Brauer (2012) opines that a commitment to true change must be the rallying cry of genuine leaders. In so doing, financial aspirations do not need to be abandoned as adopting sustainability as a business paradigm can provide a successful business strategy. BP is an example of failed leadership – as was exhibited after its devastating 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico – changing to a reformed leadership, which helped construct the world’s eighth largest wind farm all while attempting to morph its identity from British Petroleum to Beyond Petroleum. In 2009, an interview with Ray C. Anderson revealed that real change should be grounded in a fervent commitment to sustainable operations and to new ways of thinking about resource consumption. In 1973, Anderson founded Interface, Inc., which soon thereafter became a billion-dollar corporation and the world’s largest producer of modular floor coverings. In 1995, Anderson’s leadership of Interface came under scrutiny as pressures of ecological disaster could no longer be ignored. While the company had generated thousands of jobs, was fiscally sound, and was producing useful products in an international marketplace, the environmental consequences of such successes had become apparent. While other business leaders might not have been concerned with the negative ramifications on the planet’s eco-­ structure, Ray Anderson jettisoned the notion of spending his remaining days on earth living in a sheltered zone of comfort and accomplishment. Instead, he parlayed his inner conflict of guilt and remorse by re-examining the nature of his business and his leadership role in that business. He initiated a midcourse correction, moving from self-described earth plunderer to its advocate and protector.

Anderson believed that ethical leadership required constant, pervasive, and restorative action. In this way, the retooling process of Interface began. Anderson became determined to rebuild a profitable business premised upon environmental respect and stewardship. His passion for, and dedication to, remedial environmental action without the forfeiture of profit-making had spread to the company’s suppliers, competitors, employees, and customers. The Interface model quickly became a lasting example of leadership in sustainable manufacturing (Gingerich, 2009).

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Diversity and Leadership Societies characterized by diverse populations and cultures can prove to be strategically advantageous but must first address the intricacies of natural pluralism. Hester and Killian (2010) proffer the analysis that “dialogic civility provides a foundation from which purposeful ethical leadership is able to be strengthened.” These authors explain that naturally, then, any group of individuals can represent more than simply a collection of singular actions and financial skillsets; they, instead, largely depend upon a commonly shared image and a mutual commitment and understanding. This “collective consciousness” is defined by the assessment, comparison, and integration of moral standards to avoid conflict and project harmony. In light of apparent values neutrality, moral lapses, and mass surrender to the seeming hopelessness of endemic corruption, environmental degradation, and nuclear proliferation, it is the need to openly discuss values diversity which helps build relationships; this interconnectivity, then, results in the courage to foster inclusive morality and ethical leadership. Each organizational member can equally contribute to contributing to a belief system as shaped by his or her own unique experiences and upbringing. And each leader can only engage in fair dealing by evaluating divergent opinions and broadening the scope of competing principles. The organization is at risk of imploding when various beliefs are ignored or discounted. Leadership which not only manages diversity effectively but celebrates its very existence has been viewed as a workforce recruitment and retention tool, promoting greater productivity, increased creativity, and a heightened morale. According to Dhiman, Sanjay, and Varinder (2019), a diverse workforce can spearhead creative collaboration as well as corral and channel universally held values. Organizations with diverse workforces typically benefit from the sharing of divergent perspectives and experiences. The anticipated challenges arising therefrom can actually translate into opportunities which effective leaders can pursue, simultaneously sparking employee engagement and participation. Furthermore, the impactful leader, upon identifying and addressing his or her own biases, is better equipped to understand and deal constructively with others’ hindrances, fomenting widespread inclusivity and, in the process, fully utilizing all resources to their greatest degree.

Moral Leadership Leadership is premised on relationships: these relationships, in turn, are sustained by commonly shared values. There is a subjective nature and degree of relativism in defining moral authority for an individual’s belief system is inevitably shaped by environs, place, time, and circumstance. While moral dictates continuously evolve, there are undeniable connections in a shared humanity. It is this tempered pluralism which takes into account both the means and the ends of any organizational task and quest for positive growth. Moral leadership is, then, naturally demarcated by integrity, the building and sustaining relationships, vision, service to others, and respect for all (Marques, 2015).

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Over the years, various authors have written about moral leadership in the form of a more specific theory. As explained by Marques, the universalist approach, for example, initially developed by eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, focuses upon duty-oriented leadership, self-assessment, and accountability. There is a selfawareness supporting the reasons which underlie each action. In a universalist ideology, one explores whether the decision to be made or act to be committed is something that could be supported across the globe. The “Golden Rule”  – treat others as you would have them treat you – has been considered as an example of this branch of thinking. One obvious shortcoming with this approach, however, is channeling the belief systems of different peoples, different traditions, and different cultures into a singular prescription of right or wrong conduct. This leaves little room for revision and alternate interpretation. In comparison, the moral leadership orientation known as utilitarianism sets its focus on the consequences of one’s actions where the end result represents the pivotal consideration before the implementation of any act. Outcomes, therefore, hold a superior position to the overall circumstances of a particular act (Marques, 2015).

Representative Leadership Serving others through a position acquired by either political appointment or public election, this type of leadership is often viewed as reflective of the basic tenets of a particular political party of which he or she is a member. How a representative leader votes or otherwise premises a specific decision is often seen as supporting a referendum of that person’s constituents. Public officials are commonly understood to occupy a fiduciary-like role, holding the public’s best interests in trust; it is thus the obligation of the elected to strive to ascertain and speak the truth, to reject lobbyist influence and promises of financial enticements to act in an expected fashion, and to implement change and shape policy based upon fact and not supposition. Voting must take into account all details and pertinent facts surrounding the subject to be decided; it is this knowledge that should guide the official to act in a manner that is not necessarily consistent with the thoughts and views of that representative’s constituents. The elected must use fair and accurate judgment based upon detailed research to respond in the most informed way possible. The expectation demanded of citizens, the electors, is to call out those government officials who neither seek nor speak the truth (Gingerich, 2010a, 2010b). British Columbia’s former Premier, Christy Clark, and its former  Minister of Environment, Mary Polack, (2011–2017) are also examples of government representatives who have used scientific fact with steadfast courage and global leadership (Gingerich, 2016). As British Columbia’s economy is largely resource-based, it is unduly susceptible to the forces of environmental degradation. To protect these resources, the provincial government actively responded to climate change drivers and indicators, prompting it to undertake a series of steps – including the introduction of a revenue-neutral, carbon tax in 2008. This tax has allowed both homeowners and commercial enterprises to reduce emissions while incentivizing the adoption of cleaner energy use and development. As a revenue-neutral tax, all monies

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generated by its collection are returned to the citizens of the province through credits and/or a proportionate reduction in other taxes. The carbon tax applies to the purchase and use of fossil fuels and covers approximately 70% of the territory’s greenhouse gas emissions. First introduced in 2008, the tax has already survived the provincial elections of 2009, 2013, and 2017. Because of its unwavering leadership in this area, the World Bank has identified British Columbia as an example of a region which uses its political might and ecological capital to fashion a state characterized by innovation and conservation. In effect, because of its representative leadership, the province has evolved into a global leader in combatting climate change.

Leadership on the Battlefield In times of armed conflict, galvanizing leaders are essential to those who follow. They understand that not only do their forces need to follow their lead and believe in the task at hand, but attempt to positively involve those living in the trenches as a unit which must additionally be targeted. In Employing the Seven Army Values to Win Hearts and Minds, first Lt. Jonn Kusch, of San Antonio, Texas, provides the necessary context for leadership during the early years of the war in Afghanistan. As stated by the author: “The central issue here is leadership. Before the Soviets invaded in 1979, the leaders were progressives and intellectuals. The Soviets spent a decade eliminating the urban population base [and with that, more responsible leadership]. When they left, the more uneducated, conservative, religious tribal leadership took over, completely spearheaded by the Taliban” (Kusch, 2011). Lt. Kusch, on the ground, explained how the goal of impacting hearts and minds positively and effectively was essential. Using mutual learning experiences and instruction were central in gaining the trust of the local communities. He accentuated his writing by interjecting photos detailing regional involvement during that time.

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Conclusion To date, the journal has published nearly 300 papers on principled leadership, drawing authors from 54 schools of business and 21 countries of origin; highlighting over 229 businesses ranging from a start-up coffee bean enterprise and a mid-level winery to IBM, Whole Foods, Playpumps International, One Water, Interface Global, and CH2M Hill; and showcasing the environmental legislative efforts and sustainable business practices of government entities and nonprofit organizations. The more specific leadership topics have further covered: • Corporate citizenship, community leadership, and conflict resolution • Challenges of England’s National Health Service (NHS) • Anti-bullying in the workplace, showcasing the Boston-based anti-bullying center • Moral challenges of both small business entrepreneurs and multinational corporations • Application of ethical teaching and reporting methods in accounting, business metric reporting (AA1000 Series), and engineering • Business leadership in India (featuring members of the Tata Group) • Clean water distribution through implementation of the playpump (used successfully by Valparaiso University’s chapter of Engineers-Without-Borders in the Turkana region of Kenya) https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=p2Ecn0TzHMA&t=6s; • Ethical challenges in NCAA athletics • African-American leadership in the pharmaceutical industry With its 26th publication scheduled for an early July 2020 release, the JVBL enters its 13th year as a solid leadership resource for academicians, administrators, business owners and managers, ethicists and spiritual counselors, educators, and legislators worldwide. Chapter Takeaways • The essence of twenty-first-century leadership – in business, government, and academia – is about service to others. • Regardless of geographic origin, the root of organizational leadership lies in the basic premise of the Golden Rule – treat others as you would want to be treated. • The actions of leaders are increasingly predicated upon on the judgment of those they serve. Years of article submissions have repeatedly articulated this premise. • Leadership has evolved into an open source project where individuals and organizations can offer, apply, and critique their expertise while asserting their views, values, and philosophies.

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• Leadership philosophies  – servant, diversity-based, authentic, representative, moral – are enhanced when conveyed via didactic stories and case studies to better engage and impart knowledge to the readership audience. • Any individual or entity not committed to developing an overarching, morally infused leadership philosophy will ultimately stumble regardless of past or present performance. Reflection Questions 1. How can you transform your individual interactions into joint endeavors and effectively infuse your expertise to persuade others to alter their ways of behaving or thinking to act in a more altruist way? 2. When leaders fall short of acting in line with fundamental ethical standards, how can one promote accountability, redemption, and change? 3. If a particular business entity lives and dies by the transaction, what is the best way to create a unique and lasting relationship that customers value beyond any particular transaction? 4. As any vision requires a communicable plan, how can that vision be articulated in an imaginative, authentic manner? 5. In the twenty-first-century digital world, it is said that advancing shared values creates value. If this is indeed true, how can a person or enterprise effectively communicate such value in a perceptively divided world? 6. Whatever the nature of an enterprise, the primary concern is to serve the customer. What are the best ways to mobilize every resource – fiscal, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual – to best serve the customer base?

References Bishop, W. H. (2013). Defining the authenticity in authentic leadership. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 6(1), 7. Brauer, D. B. (2012). A model for implementing a successful sustainability strategy. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 4(2), 6. Davis, H.  J. (2017). Discerning the servant’s path: Applying pre-committal questioning to Greenleaf ‘s servant leadership. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 10(2), 10. Dhiman, S.  K., Sanjay, M., & Varinder, K. (2019). Celebrating diversity through spirituality in the workplace: Transforming organizations holistically. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 12(1), 6. Gingerich, E. F. R. (2009). Sustainability and the bottom line: The responsible collusion of economics, social responsibility, and the environment  – An interview with Ray C.  Anderson. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 2(1), 2. Gingerich, E.  F. R. (2010a). The Amish: An economy of values  – An interview with Glen Schmucker. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 3(2), 3. Gingerich, E. F. R. (2010b). Introducing ethics legislation: The courage to lead after 200 years of silence (interview with Jill Long Thompson). Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 3(1), 2.

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Gingerich, E. F. R. (2016). British Columbia: Climate action leadership (interview with British Columbia’s minister of environment, Mary Polack). Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 9(2), 4. Hester, J., & Killian, D. R. (2010). The moral foundations of ethical leadership. Journal of Values-­ Based Leadership, 3(1), 5. Jhaveri, A., & Anantaraman, A. (2015). Finding your self by losing yourself: Integrating spirituality and business. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 8(1), 4. Kusch, J. (2011). Employing the seven Army values to win hearts and minds. Journal of Values-­ Based Leadership, 4(2), 2. Lynch, J.  J., & Fadrowski, W.  J. (2016). Leadership and spirituality. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 9(2), 15. Marques, J. (2015). Universalism and utilitarianism: An evaluation of two popular moral theories in business decision making. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 8(2), 3. McCuddy, M. K. (2008). Fundamental moral orientations: Implications for values-based leadership. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 1(1), 3. Modaf, D. P. (2014). Leadership trails: Lessons from the Lakota sun dance. Journal of Values-­ Based Leadership, 7(1), 3. Onyalla, D. B. (2018). Authentic leadership and leadership ethics: Proposing a new perspective. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 11(2), 7. Renesch, J. (2010). Conscious leadership: Transformational approaches to a sustainable future. Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 3(1), 3.

Leading Positive Change

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Lesley Clack

Abstract

Change is inevitable for organizations in today’s ever-changing, fast-paced environment. Organizations should embrace change in order to remain competitive in their environments. Across time, research has reported that the majority of organizational change initiatives fail. This preconception leads to resistance from employees and hesitance from leaders. To this end, having leaders who are skilled at leading change is vitally important. Change is hard, but it simply requires hard effort to succeed. Leading positive change is about leading people and organizations toward new opportunities. Successful leaders will be able to understand why people resist change, help employees accept change, and act as change agents in creating a culture of change for the organization. Even very experienced leaders can struggle with leading positive change. Change management research has been conducted for decades. As a result, there are many models and processes for change that leaders can use as a guide in implementing organizational change. Keywords

Leading change · Change management · Positive change · Leadership · Organizational change

L. Clack (*) College of Public Health, Health Policy and Management, Athens, GA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_10

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Introduction Managing change is a process used in order to maintain control of events during a change initiative in an organization. Learning change is about creating a vision for the future, which includes change, motivating others to embrace the change vision, gathering needed resources to make the change, and using the appropriate leadership behaviors to accomplish the change (Johns, 2017). Change can be viewed as an opportunity (positive) or a threat (negative). The acceptance or rejection of a change lies with the people who are potentially affected by the change. Most change today comes from an organization’s external environment and may be in the form of things such as new legislation, new regulations, or new technology. The resulting change is the organization’s attempt to respond and adapt to the changes in the environment (Ritter, 2016). There are many different types of change models. Behavioral models of change focus on how an individual’s behavior can be influenced through rewards and punishments. The underlying premise is that incentives will increase performance (Gneezy, Meier, & Rey-Beil, 2011). Cognitive models of change focus on aligning an individual’s perspectives about change with their beliefs and values. People feel more at ease pursuing change when the change is aligned with their personal beliefs and values (Johns, 2017). An individual’s response to change can be assessed through Prochaska’s stages of change (Table 10.1). The influence of group dynamics on an individual’s attitude toward change is explained through Kurt Lewin’s Change Model (1947). His model views change as a series of forces working in different directions. For implementation of change, Table 10.1  Prochaska’s stages of change (Prochaska, Norcross, & DiClemente, 1995) Stage Pre-­ contemplation phase

Individual’s reaction Individuals see no need for change. They lack information about the reason for change

Contemplation phase

Preparation phase Action phase

Individuals understand there is a problem, but lack awareness of how the problem’s solution can have a positive impact on them Individuals are ready to begin planning for change Individuals take action to change

Maintenance phase

Individuals continue with new behaviors and a positive outlook

Leader’s response Leaders can raise the individual’s awareness of the problem and the solution by listening to and acknowledging an individual’s fears about change Leaders can help them evaluate how the change can be a positive impact on them personally as well as the organization Leaders can support individuals by helping them set personal goals Leaders can help by providing resources and social support to achieve the goals the individual has set and by restructuring the environment to support success Leaders can assist individuals by continuing to provide resources, social support, autonomy, and an environment that sustains the implemented change

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there must be an increase in strength of the driving forces (force for change), and the strength of the opposing forces (force against change) must be reduced (Ritter, 2016). In addition, Lewin (1947) proposed a three-step process for implementing planned change: (1) unfreeze, (2) change, and (3) refreeze. The unfreeze stage is about getting ready for change, understanding that change is necessary, and preparing for change. The change stage is the transition as change is occurring. This stage is filled with fear and unknown and can be the most difficult for people to deal with. Refreeze refers to establishing stability once changes have been made. In this stage, changes are accepted and become the new norm (Ritter, 2016).

Resisting Change As creatures of habit, it is human nature to resist change, whether planned or unplanned. Planned change arises from changes in organizational goals and objectives and may originate from a revision of the mission, vision, and values of the organization. Unplanned changes arise from unexpected events, due to things such as emergence of new competition, changes in technology, or changes of economic conditions (Ritter, 2016). Commonly, both planned and unplanned changes are met with resistance. Resistance to change may arise from organizational barriers or individual barriers and can present itself in a variety of forms, such as passive, aggressive, or rebellious behaviors. Rosabeth Moss Kanter (2012) proposed ten reasons why people resist change: 1. Loss of control. This sense of a loss of control can stem with a reduction in autonomy that comes from change. Employees may feel like they have lost control over their territory. 2. Excess uncertainty. With change comes uncertainty and fear of the unknown. The greater the uncertainty and unknown, the greater the fear and resistance will be. 3. Surprise, surprise! Change that comes as a surprise with little notice or time to adjust will be met with greater resistance. 4. Everything seems different. Although changing things does mean things will be different, too many differences happening all at once can lead to greater resistance. 5. Loss of face. Individuals that were involved in the implementation of the process/structure that is now being changed may meet change defensively. 6. Concerns about competence. When the change is a new technology or something new to learn, individuals may resist change due to being skeptical about their ability and skills. 7. More work. Resistance often stems from the perception that the change will lead to more work. 8. Ripple effects. Resistance to change may be due to the fact that change in one department often disrupts processes and systems in the entire organization.

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9. Past resentments. Old resentments and memories of the past will resurface when organizations attempt something new or different. 10. Sometimes the threat is real. People resist change because change can hurt. When new technologies replace old ones, jobs can be lost, prices can be cut, and investments can be wiped out. Although resistance to change is inevitable to some extent, there are some situations in which individuals are less likely to be resistant and are more likely to embrace change. The change outcomes that may cause individuals to react positively to change are security, money, authority, status/prestige, better working conditions, and self-satisfaction (Ritter, 2016). If employees perceive that the change will result in a positive benefit for them, they will be less resistant.

Dealing with Resistance One characteristic of a successful leader is being able to help employees accept change. There are eight steps that leaders can use to help employees accept change: (1) state the change, (2) listen to feedback, (3) acknowledge the feedback, (4) use emotional intelligence, (5) explain the why, (6) define clear roles, (7) provide training, and (8) reward acceptance (Gleeson, 2016). First, leaders must clearly articulate the change, why it’s important, the potential benefits of the change, and how this change will directly affect employees. All leaders and managers must be on the same page prior to communicating the change to employees, to ensure that the message is clear and there is no confusion. The important thing to remember is to be as transparent as possible. Secondly, leaders should listen to feedback from their team. It is important for employees to know that their voice is valuable and will be heard. In addition, employees can provide valuable feedback that will aid in minimizing resistance. Third, leaders must acknowledge feedback that they receive from employees and must take action. It is important for leaders to consistently gather feedback during the change process, to communicate with employees the feedback that they are receiving, and to act on the feedback received. Fourth, leaders must possess good emotional intelligence, meaning that they must be able to recognize their employees’ emotions, understand their own emotions, and to be able to manage and adjust based on the situation. Change can be an emotional situation. Leaders must be able to communicate clearly, show discipline, and be transparent. Leaders that proactively improve on their emotional intelligence are better equipped to lead positive change. Fifth, leaders must be able to clearly explain why the change is occurring. If employees understand the reasoning behind the change and how the change will lead to improvement for them in the long run, they will be less resistant. Sixth, leaders must clearly define the roles of each person involved in the change. All involved in the change must understand who the decision-makers are, who is accountable, and who is responsible. Seventh, leaders must provide training. Regardless of the type of change, training will be required. Employees who are well trained in the new change initiative will be less resistant.

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Lastly, leaders must reward acceptance. Publicly rewarding those that take the time and effort to embrace the change will lower resistance (Gleeson, 2016).

Strategies in Creating a Culture of Change Transformational leadership is a style of leadership that can be used for creating a culture of change in an organization. The culture of an organization is a learned pattern of behavior, shared from one generation to the next, and it includes the values and assumptions shared by members about what is right, what is good, and what is important (Bass, 1998). The theory of transformational leadership was developed by Bernard Bass. The premise of this model is based upon the measure of the leader’s influence on followers (Ledlow & Coppola, 2014). A transformational leader creates trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect in followers through the leader’s actions and behaviors (Yukl, 1994). Leaders motivate followers to do more than expected. Leaders make followers more aware of the importance of task outcomes and induces them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team, which activates their higher order needs (Bass, 1998). In order to do this, leaders use the transformational behaviors and actions (Table  10.2). Leaders should develop an organizational culture focused on transformation, continuous improvement, and the ability to thrive in dynamic environments. Transformational cultures exhibit the following characteristics (Ledlow & Coppola, 2014): • • • • • • • •

A sincere sense of purpose and feeling of family. Long-term commitments. A sense of shared fates, mutual interests, and interdependence. Leaders serve as mentors, role models, and coaches. Leaders work to socialize new members into the organization. Flexible and adaptable shared norms. Emphasis on organizational purposes, visions, and missions. Changing norms with changes in the organization’s environment.

In order to lead positive change, leaders must be able to change the culture of the organization. Primary embedding mechanisms are powerful tools, behaviors, and Table 10.2  Transformational leader behaviors and actions (Ledlow & Coppola, 2014) Behavior Charisma Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration Inspirational motivation

Action Influences followers by arousing strong emotions and identification with the leader Increases follower awareness of problems and influences followers’ view of problems from a new perspective Provides support, encouragement, and developmental experiences for followers The extent to which the leader communicates an appealing vision using symbols to focus subordinate effort and model appropriate behaviors

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mechanisms that leaders can use to develop, refine, maintain, or change organizational culture (Schein, 1999). Primary embedding mechanisms include the following: what leaders pay attention to, measure, and control; leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises; deliberate role modeling, teaching, and coaching by leaders; criteria for allocation of rewards and status; and criteria for recruitment, selection, promotion, retirement, and excommunication (Ledlow & Coppola, 2014). Secondary reinforcement mechanisms support and reinforce the primary embedding mechanisms. These include the organization’s design and structure; organizational systems and procedures; design of physical space, facades, and buildings; stories, legends, myths, and parables about important events and people; and formal statements of organizational philosophy creeds, and charters (Schein, 1999; Ledlow & Coppola, 2014). These mechanisms are secondary because they work only if they are consistent with the primary mechanisms. All of these mechanisms are tools a leader can use to change and maintain organizational culture. Another model useful in changing organizational culture is the Dynamic Culture Leadership (DCL) model. The DCL model includes assessing and aligning the leadership and management team to ensure that all of the individuals can use their knowledge, skills, abilities, and perspectives while being consistent in developing and maintaining an appropriate organizational culture (Ledlow & Coppola, 2014). The development of the predetermined organizational culture desired is facilitated by the leader’s use of the sequential and building elements of the model’s process. The elements in the process constructs are described in Table 10.3. From these three integrated aspects of leadership-primary embedding mechanisms, secondary reinforcement strategies, and the DCL model, a positive change in the organization can be realized.

Table 10.3  The DCL model process elements (Ledlow & Coppola, 2014) Element Communication improvement

Strategic planning

Decision-making alignment Employee enhancement

Knowledge management and organizational learning Evaluating, reflecting, and retooling

Description Leader’s predetermined modeling, training, rewarding, and assimilation of the communication environment into the organization in the manner that best contributes to an effective organizational culture The structured inclusive process of planning to determine mission, vision, strategies, goals, objectives, and action steps that are consistent with organizational values and that meet the external environment’s expectations of the organization Aligning decisions with the strategic and operational plan while understanding reality-based decision making Assessing employee knowledge, skills, abilities, experience, and trustworthiness and the practice of increasing or reducing responsibilities in line with the organizational culture Capturing what the organization knows and what is has learned, so that improvements to effectiveness, efficiency, and efficacy can be achieved Leader’s assessment of the DCL model and understanding of how to perform the cycle better in the next repetition

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Table 10.4  The 5D model of appreciative inquiry (Priest et al., 2013) Stage Defining

Purpose Define the overall focus of the inquiry

Discovery

Discover and appreciate personal and organizational success stories Co-create a desired future from collective ideas of the group

Dream

Design

Destiny

Choose the design elements that will support and develop the organizational structures to bring the dream to life Sustain momentum and build capacity of participants to capture the process

Task Clarify the area of work to be considered Gather stories and key ideas that identify the organization’s strengths Co-create visions of all of the elements participants want to introduce in the organization Participants identify which projects they want to be a part of to make the dream happen Continued learning and adapting, and looking for new opportunities

Appreciative inquiry is also a useful tool for leading change in organizations. Appreciative inquiry is a method for focusing organizations on inquiring into what’s working well within the system and systematically creating more of it. This process involves identifying the root causes of success in order to create more of those conditions (Priest et al., 2013). To implement appreciative inquiry, a leader uses the 5D model to guide the organization toward a vision and desired goals. The five stages of the 5D model are described in Table 10.4. Appreciative inquiry is an ongoing, continuous process. Because of that, leaders may encounter resistance to the approach. However, appreciative inquiry can provide insight into how groups make meaning of their experiences and enact change practices. Appreciative inquiry shapes an organization’s identity, employees’ sense of self, and their view of their role within the organization (Priest et al., 2013).

Acting as a Change Agent Every leader must be a change agent if they want to succeed. The role as a change agent can be facilitated through listening, as this will provide a better understanding of how individuals relate to their work and how organizational changes could help or harm them. A change agent is anyone who “has the skill and power to stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate the change effort” (Lunenburg, 2010, p. 1). Leaders who act as change agents will be able to more easily anticipate fears and concerns and address them proactively (Dye & Garman, 2015). Change agents can act in three distinct roles: consultants, trainers, or researchers. Consultants help employees find solutions to problems through analysis of valid data. Trainers help employees learn how to use data to affect change by providing them with a new set of skills. Researchers train employees in skills needed for evaluation of the change initiatives that have been implemented (Lunenburg, 2010).

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Effective change agents display the following characteristics (Holsinger & Carlton, 2018): 1. Facilitates development of a learning organization 2. Creates systems and structures for transformational change 3. Creates evaluation systems for change strategies 4. Facilitates strategic and tactical assessment and planning 5. Facilitates identification of emerging and acute problems 6. Utilizes change theories and models in strategic development 7. Identifies emotional and rational elements in strategic planning 8. Creates critical dynamic tensions within change strategies 9. Facilitates development of effective dialogue 10. Utilizes methods to empower others to take action 11. Models active learning and personal mastery 12. Models and facilitates cultural sensitivity and competence 13. Models utilization and application of systems thinking 14. Models critical thinking and analysis skills 15. Models appropriate risk-taking behavior 16. Models group process behaviors: listening, dialoguing, negotiating, encouraging, and motivating 17. Models leadership traits: integrity, credibility, enthusiasm, commitment, honesty, caring, and trust Organizational change initiatives fail more often than they succeed. Thus, effective leadership is essential for successful change. Every organizational change requires one or more change agents. Success of any change initiative depends heavily on the leadership abilities of the change agent (Lunenburg, 2010).

Guiding Principles for Leading Change Building on Lewin’s model, Kotter identified eight steps for managers to follow for leading successful organizational change (1995, 1996). This process was revised in 2016 to eight steps for accelerating change (Table 10.5). Steps 1 through 4 are the Table 10.5  Comparison and contrast of Kotter’s change processes Leading change Eight-step process (1996) Respond to or effect episodic change in finite and sequential ways Drive change with a small powerful core group Function within a traditional hierarchy Focus on doing one thing very well in a line or fashion over time

Accelerating change Eight-step process (2016) Run the steps concurrently and continuously For a large volunteer army from up, down, & across the organization to be the change engine Function in a network flexibly and nimbly outside of, but in conjunction with, a traditional hierarchy Constantly seek opportunities, identify initiatives to capitalize on them, and complete them quickly

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unfreezing stage, steps 5 through 7 are the change stage, and step 8 is the refreeze stage (Ritter, 2016).

Kotter’s Eight Accelerators to Change (Kotter, 2016) 1. Create a Sense of Urgency Leaders must describe an opportunity that will appeal to individuals’ heads and hearts. “Building urgency is all about concentrating on a window of opportunity that is open today but may close tomorrow. Such an opportunity brings people together, aligning them around a commonality, and clarifying where energy should be directed” (Kotter, 2018, p.10). Determining your big opportunity: • Identify a big opportunity that could ignite the hearts + minds of your people • Articulate and communicate the big opportunity to employees • Connect an external change factor with a special capability of your organization • Consider the stakes if you succeed and the consequences if you fail 2. Build a Guiding Coalition The guiding coalition must consist of members from multiple layers of the hierarchy, represent many functions, receive information about the organization at all levels and ranks, and synthesize that information into new ways of working. Without a guiding coalition, the organization will continue to rely on traditional, hierarchical ways of operating which often act in ways that kill off, rather than accelerate, needed change. What makes a great guiding coalition? • Diversity of the team in terms of level, function, geographic location, tenure, and ideas • An ability and a willingness to work across the hierarchy while also working with people across all levels and functions • A commitment to the change initiative at hand 3. Form a Strategic Vision and Initiatives Strategic initiatives are targeted and coordinated activities that will make your vision a reality. Characteristics of a terrific strategic vision include communi­ cable, desirable, creates a verbal picture, flexible, feasible, imaginable, and simple. What makes a great strategic vision? • Motivates people to take action. • Coordinates and aligns their actions. • Without it, strategic initiatives can struggle to get activity behind them. • Clarifies how the future will be different from the past and how that future will become a reality. • Ties directly to the big opportunity.

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4. Enlist a Volunteer Army Large-scale change can only occur when very significant numbers of employees come together under a common opportunity and drive in the same direction. Accelerate explains that “history has demonstrated that it is possible to find many change agents, but only if people are given a choice, and feel they truly have permission to step forward and act” (Kotter, 2018, p.19). You must build excitement around the big opportunity and develop a feeling that one wants to contribute. How do you build a successful volunteer army? • Give people a reason and motivation to join the movement. A strong vision goes a long way. • Focus on having enough volunteers (approximately 15% of your organization is enough) to build material momentum toward change. • Recognize the effort of existing volunteers to keep them engaged and to recruit more. 5. Enable Action by Removing Barriers Enable action by removing barriers such as inefficient processes and old norms. Leaders provide the freedom necessary for employees to work across boundaries and create real impact. Many leaders agree that even their own management practices are too bureaucratic and annoying, yet remnants of the past can have tremendous staying power. How to spot barriers? • In order to remove barriers, you must identify them. Think about why past initiatives have failed. • Barriers can be commonly accepted statements that, while appearing helpful, can deter attempts to get past legacy obstacles, such as we tried that before and it didn’t work. • Common barriers include silos, pressure to hit numbers, complacency, legacy rules or procedures, and limited access to key stakeholders and leaders. 6. Generate Short-Term Wins Wins are the molecules of results. They must be collected, categorized, and communicated early and often to track progress and energize your volunteers to drive change. A win is anything, big or small, that helps you move toward your opportunity. They may take the shape of actions taken, a lesson learned, a process improved, or a new behavior demonstrated. Characteristics of an effective win: • Relevant in light of the opportunity before you. • Meaningful to others. People beyond the winner or winners care about the win, whether it is members of your team, another team, customers, or stakeholders. • Unambiguous, visible, and tangible such that people can replicate or adapt it. Wins have the most impact when they scale across organizations. 7. Sustain Acceleration Press harder after the first successes. Your increasing credibility can improve systems, structures, and policies. Be relentless with initiating change after change until

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the vision is a reality. Once you’ve had a few wins, it can be easy to lift your foot off the gas pedal after experiencing some success. Instead, this is the time to press harder and use those wins as momentum to further fuel the change. Tips to sustain acceleration: • Revisit urgency after generating some significant wins. It is so easy to lose sight of the ultimate goal, which is to move the initiatives into the culture and sustain them. It may be necessary to revisit some of the urgency-raising activities incorporated at the start. • Get more and more people involved, always looking for ways to expand the volunteer army. • With new volunteers and fresh eyes, you’ll find more barriers in need of knocking down. 8. Institute Change To ensure new behaviors are repeated over the long term, it’s important that you define and communicate the connections between those behaviors and the organization’s success. Years of a different kind of experience are often needed to create lasting change. That is why cultural changes come once you are deep into a transformation, not at the beginning. You first have to build the track record of experiences. Culture changes after you have successfully altered people’s actions, connecting the dots between new behaviors and better performance. How to make it stick: • Accelerators 1–7 are all about building new behaviors and new ways of working. Accelerator 8 is about sustaining it long into the future. • New practices must be deeply rooted and anchored to replace the old ways. • There must be clear communication and synchronization between the traditional hierarchical structure and the innovative network of volunteers. • A key challenge is inserting the new practices onto roots that may be old but still effective, while killing off the inconsistent pieces (Kotter, 2018). In addition to the accelerators for change, Kotter developed four change principles (Kotter, 2018). Kotter’s Four Change Principles: 1. Leadership and Management Leadership must be focused on a vision, action, innovation, celebration of successes, and essential managerial processes. 2. Select Few and Diverse Many It takes a diverse many to make change happen, which may uncover leaders within all levels of the organization. 3. Head and Heart A greater meaning and purpose behind leadership efforts provides extraordinary results. 4. “Have to” and “Want to” Making employees feel included in a meaningful opportunity helps to create change.

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Keys to Leading Positive Change So, with so many sources of resistance, how do we lead positive change? Five interactive elements have been identified as being critical for the successful transformation of organizations: (1) a strong impetus to change, (2) a leadership commitment to quality, (3) improvement initiatives that actively engage staff in meaningful problem solving, (4) alignment to achieve consistency of organization goals with resource allocation and actions at all levels of the organization, and (5) integration to bridge traditional intraorganizational boundaries among individual components (VanDeusen Lukas et al., 2007). In addition, Rosabeth Moss Kanter (2013) identified six keys to leading positive change: 1. Show up. If you don’t show up, nothing happens. Be there. Trust that your presence matters and can make a difference. 2. Speak up. Use your voice. Say what needs to be said. Ask the questions that need to be asked. Shape the agenda. Reframe issues and give new perspectives. 3. Look up. Have a higher vision and bring values to the team. Know what you stand for. Elevate people out of the weeds and to a bigger picture of why our work is important. 4. Team up. Everything goes better with partners. Don’t try to do it alone. Build a sense of partnership. 5. Never give up. Persist until done. Everything looks like a failure in the middle. It will take longer than you imagine; keep going anyway. Be flexible in your approach, but inflexible in your persistence. 6. Lift others up. Share success, share credit, and give back once you have a success. Leading change is not an easy feat. Many leaders may struggle with leading positive change. In order to effectively lead positive change, leaders should focus on concrete and clear behaviors that they want to see from employees, and avoid being vague. Leaders should connect the behaviors and the change directly to company values. Another helpful tool for leaders struggling with leading positive change is to invest in skills in their employees. Investing in building ability can make the change process easier. Leaders should also leverage peer pressure by gaining buy-in from key employees and using them to assist with getting other employees onboard. Peers can be far more effective at gaining compliance than leaders. Leaders can also seek to change the environment by adding necessary tools and resources in order to make the change easier for employees (Maxfield, 2013). Chapter Takeaways • Leaders must be able to clearly articulate the change, why it’s important, the potential benefits of the change, and how this change will directly affect employees.

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• Embracing change will enable organizations to remain competitive in their environments. • Successful leaders will be able to understand why people resist change and help employees accept change. • In order to lead positive change, leaders must be able to change the culture of the organization. • Leaders should focus on the concrete and clear behaviors they want to see from employees and invest in building skills in their employees. Reflection Questions 1. Think of a time when an organization you worked for was going through change. What positive leadership behaviors did the leadership of the organization display that led to a successful change process? 2. Identify a change an organization may take and then describe how you could use Kotter’s eight steps for leading successful organizational change to lead the change. 3. Why do employees inherently resist change? What should leaders do to overcome this resistance? 4. What is meant by the phrase “a culture of change”? How do leaders build this culture? 5. What is a change agent? How do leaders become change agents?

References Bass, B. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dye, C. F., & Garman, A. N. (2015). Exceptional leadership: 16 critical competencies for healthcare executives (2nd ed.). Chicago: Health Administration Press. Gleeson, B. (2016). 8 steps for helping your employees accept change. Forbes. Retrieved from https:// www.forbes.com/sites/brentgleeson/2016/10/17/8-steps-for-helping-your-employees-accept-c hange/#3773c05d29f2 Gneezy, U., Meier, S., & Rey-Beil, P. (2011). When and why incentives (don’t) work to modify behavior. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(4), 191–210. Holsinger, J.  W., & Carlton, E.  L. (2018). Leadership for public health: Theory and practice. Chicago: Health Administration Press. Johns, M. L. (2017). Leadership development for healthcare: A pathway, process, and workbook. Chicago: AHIMA Press. Kanter, R. M. (2012). Ten reasons people resist change. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2012/09/ten-reasons-people-resist-chang Kanter, R.  M. (2013). TEDxBeaconStreet: Six keys to leading positive change. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=owU5aTNPJbs Kotter, J. (2018). 8 steps to accelerate change in your organization. Retrieved from https://www. kotterinc.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/8-Steps-eBook-Kotter-2018.pdf

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Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 59–67. Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Ledlow, G. R., & Coppola, M. N. (2014). Leadership for health professionals: Theory, skills, and applications (2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Lewin, K. (1947). Frontiers in group dynamics. Human Relations, 1(1), 5–41. Lunenburg, F. C. (2010). Managing change: The role of the change agent. International Journal of Management, Business, & Administration, 13(1), 1–6. Maxfield, D. (2013). 5 Steps for leaders struggling to lead positive change. Retrieved from https:// chiefexecutive.net/5-steps-for-leaders-struggling-to-lead-positive-change/ Priest, K. L., Kaufman, E. K., Brunton, K., & Seibel, M. (2013). Appreciative inquiry: A tool for organizational, programmatic, and project-focused change. Journal of Leadership Education, 12(1), 18–33. Prochaska, J., Norcross, J., & DiClemente, C. (1995). Changing for good: A revolutionary six-stage program for overcoming bad habits and moving your life forward. New York: HarperCollins. Ritter, J. (2016). Managing resistance to change. In N. Borkowski (Ed.), Organizational behavior in health care (3rd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning: Burlington, MA. Schein, E.  H. (1999). The corporate culture survival guide: Sense and nonsense about culture change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. VanDeusen Lukas, C., Holmes, S. K., Cohen, A. B., Restuccia, J., Cramer, I. E., Shwartz, M., et al. (2007). Transformational change in health care systems: An organizational model. Health Care Management Review, 32(4), 309–320. Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in organizations (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Creative Minds of Leaders in Psychobiographical Perspectives: Exploring the Life and Work of Christiaan Barnard and Angela Merkel

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Claude-Hélène Mayer and Roelf van Niekerk

Abstract

Creativity changes over the lifespan. Therefore, creative thinking should be investigated at different life stages and in different contexts. In this chapter, the careers of two exceptionally creative leaders are explored. The investigation is based on a comparative, longitudinal, psychobiographical case study design and employed a purposive sampling method to select the participants. The aim of psychobiographical case studies is to describe and interpret the contributions of exceptional individuals. Psychobiographical case studies provide a valuable method to further application and refinement of psychological theories. This study explored the manifestation of creativity in the life histories of the cardiac surgeon and medical pioneer, Christiaan Barnard, and the politician and German Chancellor, Angela Merkel. The data included both primary and secondary documentary data. The data analysis strategy proposed by Irving Alexander was used to interpret the data according to Robert Sternberg’s WICS model. To maintain ethical standards, the authors were guided by respect, empathy, and accountabi­ lity in dealing with the documentary data. The investigation demonstrates the interplay of wisdom, intelligence, and creativity during the careers of ­extraordinary individuals.

C.-H. Mayer (*) Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Institut für Therapeutische Kommunikation, Europa-Universität Viadrina, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany R. van Niekerk Industrial and Organisational Psychology, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_11

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Keywords

Creativity · Leadership · WICS · Psychobiography · Comparative case study

Introduction Creativity is a boundary spanning cognitive activity that requires the systemic interaction of thinking and behavioral processes as well as contextual factors (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). In the 1950s, creativity studies began to form a major psychological research area (Runco & Albert, 2010) characterized by a range of theoretical and methodological approaches (Long, 2014). This research highlighted the characteristics of creative individuals, such as divergent thinking that produces novel and compelling ideas (Baer & Kaufman, 2006); playfulness; the ability to switch perspectives (Glăveanu, 2015; Runco, 2015); specific personality attributes such as tolerance of ambiguity, sensible risk taking, willingness to manage challenges, as well as intrinsic, task-focused motivation; and environments that support creative thinking (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). The research also suggested the useful role of creativity in managing complex problems and challenges (Csikszentmihalyi & Wolfe, 2014; Rojanapanich & Pimpa, 2011; Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Eiermann (2011) emphasized the need experienced in contemporary societies, especially in terms of the sociopolitical challenges facing citizens. Although creativity develops and is demonstrated throughout the life span, Csikszentmihalyi (2014) also observed that creative individuals often contribute to social-political issues and transformation during the later stages of their life to impact on society on a larger scale. Researchers have differentiated several types of creativity. Several authors (Beghetto, 2010; Gralewski & Karwowski, 2016; Rubenson & Runco, 1995) referred to exceptional creativity that involves legendary, life-changing creations, and discoveries widely recognized by peers as Big-C creativity. Examples of Big-C creativity ranges from Einstein’s relativity theory, the discovery of the medicinal uses of penicillin, and the work of eminent artists, writers, and musicians, such a Picasso, Mozart, or Dickinson. Others (Beghetto & Kaufman, 2007; Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009) differentiated additional categories based on their impact, namely Little-c, Pro-c, and Mini-c creativity. Little-c creativity refers to “recognizable everyday creative outputs” (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009, p. 3) manifested, for example, in school or at work. Pro-c creativity refers to acts that occur between Little-c and Big-C creativity, while Mini-c creativity refers to everyday problem-solving acts, the use of language, or the meaningful interpretation of life events (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2013). Leaders are often required to resolve problems and find creative solutions in complex, ambiguous situations (Reiter-Palmon & Illies, 2005). This usually requires Big-C creativity. Sternberg (2003) and Sternberg and Grigorenko (2007) related creative skills and attitudes to leadership success and suggested that leadership focuses largely on how leaders formulate, make, and act upon decisions.

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In this regard, Klemm (2017) commented that although leaders may not always be creative, they need to understand the creative processes to generate novel ideas and optimal solutions. This chapter focuses on Big-C creativity and uses the WICS model of Sternberg (2003, 2005, 2006) to describe and interpret the careers of two extraordinary individuals.

The WICS Model of Robert Sternberg Sternberg and Lubart (1995) define creativity as the ability to formulate problems and solve them in novel, effective ways. According to Sternberg’s model (2005), effective leadership requires the synthesis of three qualities, namely wisdom, intelligence, and creativity. Wisdom refers to the ability (a) to use intelligence, creativity, and knowledge successfully and in a balanced way for a greater common good; (b) to balance intra-, inter-, and extrapersonal personal interests; (c) to adopt a long-­ term perspective and include certain value sets; (d) to recognize problems of injustice; and (e) to apply dialogical thinking that views problems from multiple perspectives. Intelligence refers to the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate problem solutions; define performance components; and execute solutions while acquiring knowledge and the ability to solve problems through the allocation of resources. Furthermore, intelligence requires a contextualized approach that is sensitive to cultural differences. Creativity refers to the skill needed to generate ideas and products, which are relatively novel, high in quality, and appropriate to the task at hand. Sternberg differentiated between skills and types of creative leadership (for a detailed description of these processes, see Sternberg, 2005). First, he identified nine skills underlying successful leadership. They include problem redefinition, problem analysis, selling solutions, willingness to take sensible risks, willingness to surmount obstacles, belief in one’s ability to accomplish the task at hand, willingness to tolerate ambiguity, willingness to find extrinsic rewards for the things one is intrinsically motivated to do, and continuing to grow intellectually rather than to stagnate. Second, Sternberg (2005) identified eight types of creative leadership. They include replication (maintaining the field or organization where it is), redefinition (viewing the status of the organization from a different point of view), forward incrementation (leading a field or organization in the direction it is already going), advance toward incrementation (moving a field or organization in the direction it is already going, but beyond the expected rate of progression), redirection (redirecting an organization or field toward a different direction), reconstruction (moving a field or organization back to where it once was), reinitiation (moving a field or organization from a new starting point in a direction different from the one previously pursued), and synthesis (integration of ideas that were previously seen as unrelated or opposed). Third, Sternberg (2005, 2008) indicated that the content of creativity in leaders is usually seen in the success or failure stories leaders create. Successful leadership

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stories enable leaders to fulfill their mission and reflect the creative potential of leaders. They are usually aligned with the leaders’ actions and relate to life events and emotions experienced by followers. In contrast, failure stories do not match the needs of followers, are not coherent, fail to communicate and implement the story, fail to persuade followers, move from story to story without convincing followers that there is a need for changing stories, and replace stories of successful leadership with stories of personal failure.

Methodology The aim of this qualitative investigation was to describe and interpret how creativity and leadership are manifested in extraordinary individuals. The investigation contributes to filling the void of qualitative methodologies in the fields of creativity and leadership (Long, 2014; Mayer & Maree, 2018). The investigation is based on a comparative, longitudinal, psychobiographical case study design (Yin, 2009) and employed purposive sampling to select the two extraordinary participants. Psychobiographical case studies focus on the life histories of historically significant and extraordinary individuals and aim “to uncover and reconstruct their lives psychologically” (Fouché & van Niekerk, 2010, p. 2). Although the research on creativity from a psychobiographical perspective is limited (John-Steiner, 2015; Runyan, 2013), Kováry (2011) emphasized that such studies provide an important base for creativity research. Although psychobiographical research is often viewed as a marginalized area of psychology, it has gained international recognition and acceptance in the main field of psychology during decades (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010; Schultz, 2005). In the area of creativity research, several studies aimed at exploring and unterstanding creativity across the life span of extraordinary individuals in-depth (Anderson, 2003; Cohen, 2000; Kováry, 2015; Larson, 2014; Ponterotto, 2015; Ricci, 2014). The two participants are Christiaan Barnard (1922–2001) and Angela Merkel (b. 1954). Christiaan Barnard (1922–2001) is a South African cardiac surgeon and physician who performed the first human heart transplant in 1967 (Van Niekerk, Vos, & Fouché, 2015). Angela Merkel became the first female German Chancellor in 2005 and managed to be re-elected four times in a row. She is internationally recognized for leading the German nation through various political challenges and crisis. The two participants represent different eras as well as sociocultural and leadership contexts. The collected life history data included primary (i.e., autobiographical accounts and interviews) and secondary sources (i.e., biographical accounts, magazine, and newspaper articles) and were content analyzed according to the five-step process of Terre Blanche, Durrheim, and Kelly (2006). The steps are (a) familiarization and immersion, (b) inducing themes, (c) coding, (d) elaboration, and (e) interpretation and checking. Researchers conducting psychobiographical case studies must consider ethical issues such as the invasion of privacy and potential for harm or embarrassment to the participants and/or their relatives (Runyan, 1982). Consequently, the

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researchers strived to remain objective and be respectful of the participants and their families (Elms, 1994; Ponterotto, 2017). Furthermore, the researchers treated the life history data with respect, responsibility, and empathy (Ponterotto, 2017).

Creativity and Leadership in Barnard’s Career Barnard grew up in rural South Africa during the Apartheid era. Despite considerable adversity (including financial constraints, high stress levels, chronic health problems, marital problems, the deaths of close family members, recurrent conflict with coworkers, clashes with political leaders, accusations of plagiarism by colleagues, and being portrayed in the media as controversial), he was later known as the world’s most recognized medical specialist (Bonds, 1992; Logan, 2003). Early in his career, Barnard established himself as a versatile surgeon and physician. By then, he had a well-established reputation for contributions in the areas of medical research; prosthetic heart valves; pacemakers; the treatment of rare heart defects, tuberculous meningitis, and intestinal atresia; as well as the transplantation of kidneys and even a dog’s head. However, he attracted international attention after he performed the world’s first human-to-human heart transplant at the age of 45 years. Following the first heart transplant, Barnard also performed the world’s first piggyback heart transplant and heart–lung transplant. Furthermore, he also wrote more than 200 scientific articles and 18 books (Logan, 2003; Louw, 1992). The following section aims to provide illustrative examples of how Sternberg’s WICS model can be employed to illuminate the life history of an exceptionally creative leader. This section focuses on the skills and types of creative leadership. Of the nine creative skills identified by Sternberg (2005), three are particularly relevant to Barnard’s career, namely (a) belief in ability to accomplish the task at hand (or self-efficacy), (b) willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and (c) continuing to grow intellectually rather than to stagnate. These skills are discussed next in the context of Barnard’s career. One of the interesting aspects of Barnard’s personality is that his beliefs in his ability to accomplish tasks at hand functioned selectively. On the one hand, there are indications that he doubted himself, but there are also indications that he firmly believed in certain abilities. For example, a peer affirmed that Barnard “...had a chip on his shoulder, an inferiority complex because his family were poor and his father worked with coloured people” (in Logan, 2003, p. 32). However, at the same time, Barnard demonstrated confidence in his abilities to achieve, and therefore, he was known at school as a competitive learner and athlete. He demonstrated the same belief in his ability to achieve later while he studied abroad. One of the lecturers at the University of Minnesota described Barnard as follows: “…he had intense personal drive. In those two and a half years he accomplished what normally takes about five or six years…everybody who knew him in those days was struck by his intense ambition and ability to work…” (Lillehei, 1992, p. 216). A fellow-student referred to Barnard’s “...enormous amount of drive, energy, and ambition” (Story, cited in Logan, 2003, p.  88). Similarly, a colleague who later

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worked with him in South Africa remembered that for Barnard “[t]here was no question of not achieving the tasks at the best possible level of surgical execution” (Frater, 1992, p. 164). Lastly, a friend wrote: Chris Barnard possesses two very strong characteristics, namely determination and a refusal to admit defeat under any circumstances… he never gave up, whatever he tackled, for he possessed that extra force that transcended mere physical strength – as future events in his life were to prove. (Enslin, 1992, pp. 154–157)

Barnard demonstrated a second creative skill, namely willingness to tolerate ambiguity. According to Sternberg (2005), creative leaders accept the extended periods during which they are uncertain about the outcomes of their actions. Barnard transplanted the first human heart 21 years after he qualified as a general medical practitioner. He used most of these years to prepare for the procedure that would change the treatment of chronic heart illness and bring him fame. His bold and calculated approach during the decades leading up to the groundbreaking operation serves as an example here. A biographer noted: “What Barnard had that many of his peers lacked was a boldness and self-confidence that allowed him to follow his instincts” (Logan, 2003, p. 133) and “the drive to see a way forward where others saw only obstacles, a fascination with research and new ideas, the nerve to take a step others might ponder …” (Logan, 2003, p. 79). Barnard coped with ambiguity by adopting a rigorous approach. More specifically, his methodical preparation for organ transplantation included (a) several formal study programs (e.g., qualifying as both physician and cardiac surgeon; completing five degree programs), (b) informal training programs (e.g., performing more than a 1000 open-heart operations and 48 animal heart transplants; acquiring the competence to use sophisticated equipment, perform complex surgical procedures, treat rare heart defects, and manage complications related to organ rejection), (c) assembling and leading a team of highly competent medical, nursing, technical, and laboratory staff; (d) following the progress of peers at leading international cardiac units; and (e) attending numerous scientific congresses. This preparation culminated in Barnard performing the first kidney transplant in South Africa and the first human heart transplant in the world, both in 1967 (Barnard & Pepper, 1969; Logan, 2003). Barnard reflected as follows on the extended preparation period: “There was no sense of urgency in our planning; everything was organized methodically and without hurry” (in Logan, 2003, p. 128). Barnard demonstrated a third creative skill, namely continuing to grow intellectually rather than to stagnate. One of the best illustrations of this skill was his approach to retirement. Barnard’s surgical career ended in 1983 when he was 60 years old, primarily due to chronic arthritis that he suffered from since 1956. However, he preferred not to disengage completely from an active and eventful career. Instead, he initiated several projects and adopted a variety of roles, including research consultant and scientist-in-residence, cattle farmer, restaurateur, marketer, author of 14 books, and patron of the Christiaan Barnard Foundation (Logan, 2003). Also, his international status and popularity kept him in demand with local and international audiences. The discussion now turns to the types of leadership identified by Sternberg (2005) and exemplified in Barnard’s creative medical leadership. Sternberg (2005)

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identified eight types of creative leadership. The analysis and interpretation of data pertaining to Barnard’s career suggests that Barnard demonstrated at least five of the leadership types at different stages of his career. The different types of creative leadership Barnard demonstrated are discussed next. Replications are manifestations of existing ideas in new situations. Replicators essentially imitate the work of others and, therefore, replications reflect a basic level of creativity. Not surprisingly, Barnard demonstrated this type during his studies and early career when he followed the examples set by lecturers and other qualified medical practitioners. Although he soon developed a preference to follow his own instincts, replication continued to fulfill an important function in some situations, for example, when he entered private practice following his initial medical training, contributed – with two senior colleagues – to the establishment of a cardiac unit at Groote Schuur Hospital, and conducted 300 operations during which heart–lung machine was used (Lillehei, 1992). Replication fulfilled an important function in the creative leadership he demonstrated, essentially because it facilitated the acquisition and development of critical surgical and cognitive competencies. Forward Incrementations involve taking things one or two steps further, adhering to old patterns, but going beyond these patterns. Barnard demonstrated this type of leadership by extending the range of operations he could perform, for example, valve replacements, correction of complex birth defects, and repair of aortic aneurisms (Cooper, 1992). Forward incrementations also played a role in Barnard’s attempts to establish extensive collegial networks with peers in the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These networks helped him to keep up to date with the latest developments and stimulated his subsequent experimental work. An example here is his introduction of kidney transplantation to South Africa. Forward incrementations also enabled Barnard to achieve several breakthroughs in his early career. For example, as part of the MSc degree he completed at the University of Minnesota, Barnard redesigned and dramatically improved the prosthetic heart valves that had been used at the time. This and the innovative procedures he invented to correct rare congenital heart defects (e.g., Ebstein’s anomaly, transposition of heart arteries) contributed to his growing international reputation. Redirections involve changing the direction in which things are going. Redirectors are typically unhappy with where things are going and, therefore, change the direction the organization or group is pursuing. Barnard demonstrated this style during his PhD studies at the University of Minnesota when he investigated the causes of intestinal atresia. He performed more than 40 operations on dogs before he identified the cause. This groundbreaking discovery resulted in a 90% mortality ration being replaced with a 90% survival ratio. It also had a far-reaching effect on his career: “Barnard’s success with intestinal atresia confirmed his growing reputation as a man who was set for big things” (Logan, 2003, p.  84). Surgeons replicated Barnard’s findings elsewhere in the world, and in the process paved the way for the development of related intrauterine surgical procedures. Following his studies in the United States, Barnard returned to South Africa where he also drastically redirected the research and treatment activities at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town.

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Regressive Redirections involve changing the direction in which things are going, but starting at a point most people had long ago abandoned. In a sense, this style involves looking to the past, moving back to the way things were, and then move forward from there. The following example refers to a regressive redirection that was not Barnard’s own idea, although he did most of the experimental work leading up to it. After transplanting more than ten hearts, a colleague suggested to Barnard that it may be better not to remove the patient’s heart, but to use the transplanted heart to strengthen the existing weak heart. A lot of experimental work followed until Barnard solved the problem of accommodating two hearts in the chest cavity. Barnard performed the first piggyback heart transplant in 1974 and thereafter employed this procedure as the intervention-of-choice in almost 50 operations. Syntheses involve integrating different paradigms to establish innovative procedures that have not been followed. Cardiac surgeons often treat patients whose hearts and lungs are both malfunctioning. The first lung transplant operation had been performed in 1963, 4 years before the first heart transplant. After transplanting six hearts, Barnard synthesized the procedures employed for transplanting hearts and lungs and performed the first heart–lung transplant in 1971. The third component of the WICS model focuses on the stories leaders create (Sternberg, 2005, 2008). Most leaders create both successful and failure stories. This was the case in Barnard’s medical career too. The biographical data suggest that Barnard’s career is characterized by some successful, unsuccessful, and mixed stories. Several stories can be described as successful leadership stories. These include the story of an extraordinary South African medical pioneer from a humble background who achieved international fame; the innovative, versatile, and charismatic medical doctor with the exceptional repertoire of surgical skills, and the retired doctor who reinvented his career a number of times and achieved success in a range of ventures. Barnard communicated these success stories in a compelling way and, therefore, journalists went out of their way to cover his fascinating life and provocative opinions. The negative story described a self-centered, rude, and impatient taskmaster who set high standards for coworkers and did not hesitate to criticize them. There are also leadership stories that cannot be categorized as successful or unsuccessful, but rather include elements of both. Examples of these include the story of the celebrity doctor who enjoyed the high life, as well as the outspoken raconteur who did not hesitate to confront colleagues, politicians, and religious leaders.

Creativity and Leadership in Merkel’s Career Angela Merkel (neé Kasner) was born in Hamburg, previously West Germany (FRG). Merkel attracted international attention when she became Germany’s first female chancellor for the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a people’s party in Germany. As chancellor, Merkel also became one of the influential leaders in the European Union and in world politics (Moore, 2017). Although Merkel stepped down as party chairwoman of the CDU in 2018, she stayed on in the position of chancellor for a fourth parliamentary term (The Economist, 2018).

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Merkel grew up as a daughter of a Lutheran pastor and a teacher who moved from West to East Germany. In East Germany, Merkel experienced herself and her family as being outsiders (Stock, 2000). However, the outsider status did not deprive Merkel of happiness, and it did not undermine her adjustment (Müller-Vogg, 2004). She held leadership positions at school where she was known as perceptive, intelligent, and adaptable. Although she was a private person, this did not prevent her from participating in peer group activities, such as Junge Pioniere and the Freie Deutsche Jugend (Stock, 2000). Merkel earned a doctorate in physical chemistry in Berlin at the age of 32 years. Her political career started 3 years later in 1989 (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008) when she joined the Demokratischer Aufbruch party (DA). Soon thereafter, the DA appointed Merkel as press agent and then as spokesperson (Stock, 2000). She lost this position as a consequence of the German reunification process in 1989, but soon recovered from this setback when she joined the CDU (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008). In 1990, she became a member of parliament. A year later, Helmut Kohl appointed Merkel as Minister of Women and Youth (Schley, 2005). In this position, Merkel supported Helmut Kohl in his attempts to unify Germany. Merkel’s political career developed quickly in the 1990s. In 1993, she became the chairwoman of the CDU in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, one of the 16 Bundesstaaten. A year later, she became the Minister of Protection of Nature and Reactor Security (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008). In 1998, she was elected as General Secretary of the CDU. Later that year, a scandal relating to financial donations shook the CDU.  Merkel wrote an open letter to the party which led to the resignation of her political mentor, Helmut Kohl. Merkel seized the opportunity and her image of honesty contributed to her election as CDU leader in 2000. During her inauguration, she used her West and East German identity metaphorically to strengthen the reunification process (Stock, 2000). As a credible and accessible leader, she received strong support from the German people and became the German chancellor in 2005. Merkel continued to work hard to unify Germany and wanted to be known as a “chancellor of all Germans” (Spiegel, 2005). She also wanted Germany to regain its powerful position in Europe, and in the process, she became an influential international leader (Schwennick, 2006). Although Merkel’s leadership had been successful, she was criticized for a lack of decisive leadership. In some situations, Merkel exercised restraint and preferred not to take a stand until another leader stepped in first. As a result, some accused her of being stuck in a pattern of passive engagement (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008), while others criticized her appearance and image of an ideology-free natural scientist (Langguth, 2005). This section focuses on the skills and types of creative leadership. Four of the nine creative skills identified by Sternberg (2005) are particularly relevant to Merkel’s career, namely (a) problem analysis, (b) problem redefinition, (c) selling solutions, and (d) willingness to take sensible risks. Merkel demonstrated remarkable ability to analyze and redefine problems. She used this ability to manage her outsider status, the refugee crisis, and the Brexit issue. Merkel had to manage her otherness and prevent it from disrupting her life

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and career. During her childhood, she dealt with her outsider status by joining and participating fully in existing religious and political organizations. But, outsider status issues also emerged later in her career. This required sensitive understanding of the social dynamics outsiders are exposed to as well as willingness to acquire full membership of the adopted society. Merkel acquired this membership by analyzing and redefining each issue that contributed to her outsider status over the years, such as being a West German growing up in Eastern Germany, a woman in a male-­ dominated political context, a Protestant in a Catholic-dominated party, an Easterner in a Western party, and a natural scientist among lawyers and managers. Similarly, Merkel demonstrated ingenious ability to analyze and redefine problems. In 2015, Merkel took the bold decision to open Germany for the refugees. This decision elicited both praise and criticism. However, Merkel wanted to establish a “welcoming culture” and reposition Germany as a country of immigration and integration (Mushaben, 2017). Merkel’s decision toward opening Germany for refugees was deeply anchored in her upbringing in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). This enabled her to redefine the refugee problem and offer an unexpected solution supported by the idea that “Wir schaffen das!” (engl. “We will make it!”) (Mushaben, 2017). Three years later in 2018, Merkel suffered a significant loss of votes in the elections of one of the 16 Bundesstaaten, called Hessen. After careful consideration, Merkel decided to step back as chairperson of the CDU. She redefined her stepping back as a solution for a party in need of revitalization. Brexit confronted the European Union with political and social challenges. Politicians, business leaders, economists, and the general public struggled to find consensus, and this highlighted the deep divisions that exist in Europe. Merkel emphasized that creative rather than financial solutions were required, thereby creating an awareness of different (potential) solutions (Armitstead & Govan, 2012). Merkel also demonstrated the ability to sell her ideas and convince others. Due to the support of Helmut Kohl during her earlier career, Merkel acquired a Mädchenimage or “image of a girl” (Schley, 2005, p. 31). To make matters worse, women had to work hard during that era to earn the respect of their male counterparts. In this challenging situation, Merkel, as a woman leader, demonstrated three characteristics, namely the ability a) to project credibility in a quiet, imperceptible way, b) to gradually increase her influence and gain power, and c) to persevere. These characteristics earned her the nickname “Physicist of Power” (Langguth, 2005, p. 2). Other ideas that Merkel succeeded in selling her ideas was that she was a chancellor for all Germans (Spiegel, 2005), that Germany was once again a strong and unified force within Europe, that she was an intelligent and effective political leader (Schwennick, 2006), and that women are equal to men. As a woman leader, Merkel challenged the prevailing gender stereotypes that typically depict women as mothers and housewives. She promoted the visibility and equal status of women as citizens and also created legitimacy for women acting politically (Feree, 2006; Moore, 2017). Furthermore, she managed to establish alternative networks alongside the traditional male-dominated insider networks of the CDU (Feree, 2006), while in this process replacing the Mädchenimage with the image of Einzelkämpferin or “lone fighter” (Langguth, 2005, p. 274).

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The fourth creative skill Merkel demonstrated was willingness to take sensible risks. However, this is a skill that reflects the complexity of her leadership style because she did not demonstrate the skill consistently. On the one hand, Merkel demonstrated risk-taking propensity by, for example, challenging the leadership of her political mentor, Helmut Kohl during the so-called donations scandal in her early career. In this situation, she was willing to live with the unknown consequences of her confrontation, which included the potential loss of her political status and career. Fortunately for Merkel, the outcome favored her. Similarly, Merkel took bold and unpopular steps to strengthen the German economy and reduce unemployment. Her domestic policies often elicited strong criticism, but at the same time, she earned the reputation as a problem-solving chancellor (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008). However, in some situations, Merkel’s risk taking gave way to a slow and cautious leadership style. Her critics contended that Merkel’s leadership lacked confidence and power because she often exercised excessive restraint by waiting too long before taking a stand or acting decisively. In the following section, the types of leadership identified by Sternberg (2005) and exemplified in Merkel’s creative political leadership are discussed. Sternberg (2005) identified eight types of creative leadership. The analysis and interpretation of data pertaining to Merkel’s career suggest that she demonstrated at least three of the leadership types at different stages of her career, namely replication, advanced forward incrementation, and reinitiation. The types of creative leadership Merkel demonstrated are discussed next. Merkel demonstrated the leadership type of replication during the donations scandal that occurred in 1998. This style implies that Merkel often tried to maintain the status quo. Thus, it was important for Merkel that the CDU remains intact and stays true to its predetermined course. For example, it was important for Merkel that the CDU upholds the existing notions, such as its democratic and Christian values. Therefore, she risked her own political future by addressing party members in an open letter. Merkel wanted to minimize the damage of the scandal and protect the integrity of the party. This episode and Merkel’s role in maintaining the status quo earned her the trust of the German people. As CDU chairperson, Merkel has also often been criticized for her slow and cautious leadership style. Merkel preferred to listen, allow others to comment, or commit to a position or direction first, before formulating her point of view. She was also criticized for often following and implementing the ideas of other leaders. These criticisms confirm Merkel’s affinity for the replication leadership style. The second leadership style Merkel demonstrated, advanced forward incrementation, refers to moving an organization in the direction it is already going, but beyond the expected rate of progression. This style became apparent during the refugee crisis in 2015 when Merkel took the bold decision to open Germany’s borders for the refugees. It was important for Merkel to establish a welcoming culture for the refugees and allow them to integrate with the German people (Mushaben, 2017). With this decision, Merkel moved the party beyond where others are ready for it and created much resistance in the CDU and country as a whole.

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The third leadership style Merkel demonstrated, reinitiation, refers to moving an organization from a new starting point in a direction different from the one previously pursued. Merkel demonstrated this style by moving the CDU into new directions with regard to environmental issues. Merkel declared her intent to shift the energy supply from nuclear to renewable energy (FAZ, 2010). Critics referred to this policy change as Merkel’s Energiewende or energy turnaround (The European, 2012). The reliance on alternative energy sources did not prove to be sustainable and manageable in the long-term run. Naturally, the new master plan created lots of conflict within and outside the party (Mika, 2010). Years after Merkel tried to introduce green politics, the issue remains contentious and no real progress has been made to shift the energy supply from nuclear to renewable energy (Haas, 2017). Another example of reinitiation involves Merkel’s attempts to develop a much closer political relationship with France. This attempt to rebuild bridges with neighboring countries requires the revision of both security and migration policies (Financial Times, 2018). The above examples show how Merkel creatively employs different creative leadership styles to strengthen her leadership and maintain her effectiveness as German chancellor. The third component of the WICS model focuses on the stories leaders create (Sternberg, 2005, 2008). The biographical data suggest that Merkel’s political career is characterized by some successful, unsuccessful, and mixed stories. Several stories can be described as successful leadership stories. The positive stories describe how an unknown politician became one of the most influential European and world leaders (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008; Moore, 2017), how an honest leader dethroned a corrupt leader (Stock, 2000), how a leader effectively changed gender stereotypes (Krupa, 2005), how a childless woman became a successful all-German role model (Krupa, 2005), and how a reserved natural scientist became a courageous, revolutionary, energetic and confrontational leader (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008). The negative stories that did not fit the audience focused on the changes in Merkel’s image and opinions that led to uncertainty about who she really is (Klormann & Udelhoven, 2008; Stock, 2000), the unsuccessful attempts to promote the replacement of nuclear energy with alternative energy (The European, 2012), as well as how she managed the refugee crisis and its aftermath (Mushaben, 2017). Interestingly, there are leadership stories that cannot be categorized as successful or unsuccessful, but rather include elements of both. For example, the story focusing on the Mädchenimage theme started off as a negative story, but developed into a successful story later on (Schley, 2005). Similarly, the story of Merkel as a “chancellor of all Germans” (Spiegel, 2005) that started positively failed in the end when she had to step back from the presidency of the CDU after her support started dwindling. Lastly, the story of the pragmatic, simple, clear, and understandable communicator sometimes made way for the story of an emotionless leader with a demure way of communicating (Denkler, 2016). With regard to leadership stories, it can be said that although Merkel has managed for a long period of time to convince her followers of her politics and leadership, stories of failed leadership seem to take over which finally led to her stepping back from her chairwomanship of the CDU in 2018 and beyond. In 2019, Merkel

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was further accused to having failed the digital revolution (Lobo, 2018), not only when closing her popular Facebook account with over 2.5 million followers, being one of the mostly followed German politicians.

Conclusion The chapter explores and interprets the leadership and creativity in two selected leaders. The scope of the chapter does not allow for a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of Barnard and Merkel’s careers. It barely does justice to the extensive documentary data that is available, related only to the careers of the two individuals, and reflects data available in the public domain. However, the investigation adds to the development of knowledge in four areas, namely psychobiographical research, creativity and leadership literature, the careers of Barnard and Merkel, and the psychological factors that relate to the contributions of extraordinary individuals. The biographical data indicated that Barnard demonstrated three of the nine creative skills identified by Sternberg (2005), namely a belief in ability to accomplish the task at hand (or self-efficacy), a willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and continuing to grow intellectually rather than to stagnate. Four skills are particularly relevant to Merkel’s career and none overlaps with the skills demonstrated by Barnard. Merkel’s creativity relied on problem analysis, problem redefinition, selling solutions, and willingness to take sensible risks. Barnard demonstrated at least five of the leadership types at different stages of his career. They include replication, forward incrementation, redirections, regressive redirections, and syntheses. In contrast, Merkel’s career indicated that she demonstrated only three of the leadership types at different stages of her career, namely replication, advanced forward incrementation, and reinitiation. The investigation reveals that Barnard and Merkel exercised creative leadership in different contexts, eras, and ways. The investigation confirms the value of Sternberg’s theoretical model in the study of creative leadership.

Recommendations for Theory and Practice The investigation suggests the need for more research on the creative leadership demonstrated by leaders who work in different disciplines and contexts. This research should use psychobiographical methodology to investigate how leaders demonstrate creativity at different stages of their careers and to overcome the range of challenges confronting them. It should also investigate how and why leaders fail to demonstrate creativity and the impact this may have on their careers. Chapter Takeaways 1. Creativity is an important source in leadership, particularly with regard to managing complex problems and challenges, and changes over the life span. 2. Different types of creativity exist.

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3. According to Sternberg, effective leadership requires the synthesis of three qualities, namely wisdom, intelligence, and creativity. 4. Psychobiographical studies can help identify creativity in extraordinary leaders across the life span and its impact of the followers and the environment. 5. Creativity is strongly connected to leadership stories that leaders create around their leadership. These stories can be successful and unsuccessful and always need to be seen as contextual creations of creativity. Reflection Questions • How do you understand the concept of creativity? • What different types of creativity do you know? How are they expressed in your daily life routines? • How are creativity and career development interlinked? • How does psychobiography contribute to creativity and leadership studies? • Can you explain the WICS model of Robert Sternberg? Please do so. • What are successful and unsuccessful leadership stories and how are they connected with creativity? • What creativity aspects are extraordinary in Barnard’s and Merkel’s life? • What are the types of leadership according to Sternberg? • How do creativity and leadership change across the life span of the described individuals? • How did creativity change within your own life so far? • What are your preferred leadership types? • Please tell one successful and one unsuccessful leadership story regarding your own life and leadership.

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Finding the Key to Positive Leadership: Applying Virtue Ethics and Inclusivity

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Kerri Cissna and H. Eric Schockman

Abstract

Positive leadership has evolved from the study of positive psychology and brain research (Carleton et al, Can J Behav Sci 50:185–194. https://doi.org/10.1037/ cbs000010, 2018; Hannah et  al, J Organ Behav 30:269–290. https://doi. org/10.1002/job.586, 2009; Luthans, J Organ Behav 23:695–706. https://doi. org/10.1002/job.165, 2002; Saladis, Positive leadership in project management. Paper presented at PMI Global Congress 2015—EMEA. Project Management Institute, London/Newtown Square, 2015; van Dierendonck, J Manag 37:1228– 1261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310380462, 2010) and seeks to better understand the role that leaders have on their followers through invoking positive and purposeful modeling, leading to enhancing positive emotions and outcomes. The work of Kim Cameron (Positive leadership. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., San Francisco, 2008) provides a solid launching pad for the study positive leadership, which includes vital traits and skills such as positive affect, mindfulness, virtuousness, moral integrity, emotional stability, and hope. Cameron’s three connotations of positive leadership are as follows: (1) it facilitates positively deviant performance; (2) it features an affirmative bias, meaning that it is oriented toward positive instead of negative strengths; and (3) it fosters the good in people. This chapter builds on Cameron’s notion that positive leadership “fosters the good in people” and creates a formula that Virtuous Ethics + Inclusivity  =  Positive Leadership. This new organic leadership (and followership) framework uses virtuous ethics and inclusiveness as a roadmap to the state of organizational and personal flow. If positive leaders increase the flow of K. Cissna Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, USA H. E. Schockman (*) Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_12

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p­ ositive emotions for people to optimize their inherent strengths, then this intentional leadership style will bring out the best in people. There will be “net” positive interactions (more positive than negative); the culture will be inclusive, transparent, supportive; and there will be underlying virtue ethics at the core. Keywords

Positive leadership · Positive psychology · Ethics · Virtue · Inclusion · Inclusive leadership · Diversity · Inclusivity · Flourishing · Flow

Introduction Leaders have a significant role in creating the state of mind that is the society. They can serve as symbols of the moral unity of the society. They can express the values that hold the society together. Most important, they can conceive and articulate goals that lift people out of their petty preoccupations, carry them above the conflicts that tear a society apart, and unite them in the pursuit of objectives worthy of their best efforts. —J. W. Gardner, 1965, p. 256

Positive leadership can play a significant role in shaping collective cultural values and enhancing the preoccupations of society at large. These leaders serve as positive role models that demonstrate values-based decision-making and guiding morality. Positive leaders articulate the values that make for a better world. When leaders create positive and hopeful goals that can be conceived by followers, a unified vision emerges that transcends individual distractions and pettiness. Researchers in positive psychology predict that the twenty-first century will see science come to understand and build out the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Positive leaders are needed to make this prediction a reality. Modern leaders are at an advantage in understanding positive leadership, as researchers now know more about the brain and how positive psychology operates than any previous generation. Leaders can use this information on how positive emotions impact the brain, to make a real impact on the direction humanity is headed. Fredrickson (2001) found that positive emotions will broaden momentary thought-action repertoires, which serves to build enduring physical, intellectual, social, and psychological resources. Her findings suggest that the experience of positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength central to the study of human flourishing (Fredrickson, 2001, p. 1). Positive leaders can build on this information to create a better environment for people to thrive. Positive leadership has evolved from the study of positive psychology (Carleton, Barling, & Trivisonno, 2018; Hannah, Woolfolk, & Lord, 2009; Luthans, 2002; Saladis, 2015; van Dierendonck, 2010). The mission of the positive psychology movement is to foster understanding about the factors which allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Before World War II, the field of psychology had three dimensions: curing mental

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illness, making lives more productive and fulfilling, and identifying/nurturing high talent and potential (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Psychology had largely been a science that concentrated healing on repairing damage within human disease mode (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). The aim of positive psychology was introduced to shift the focus away from the preoccupation in repairing the worst things to attention on the positive qualities and attributes of life (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). By studying the positive experiences of humans, researchers are able to create environments that cultivate flourishing. Positive psychology and modern brain research in emotional intelligence have opened the floodgates for a new organic leadership framework called positive leadership. This leadership style is based on virtuous ethics and inclusiveness, to move organizations and individuals into a new flourishing apex. This form of positive leadership seeks to better understand the role that leaders have on their followers through invoking positive and purposeful modeling, which enhances positive emotions and outcomes. The work of Kim Cameron (2008) on positive leadership provides a solid launching pad that would include vital traits and skills such as positive affect, mindfulness, virtuousness, moral integrity, emotional stability, and hope. Cameron’s three connotations of positive leadership are as follows: (1) it facilitates positively deviant performance; (2) it features an affirmative bias, meaning that it is oriented toward positive instead of negative strengths; and (3) it fosters the good in people. Cameron (2008) introduces the notion that positive leadership “fosters the good in people.” It creates a context for people to thrive. If positive leaders increase the flow of positive emotions, the assumption is that followers will be able to reach their zeniths in life. By intending to bring out the best in each person, positive leaders cultivate “net” positive interactions (more positive than negative). As a result of this type of leadership that has virtue ethics at the core, the culture will be inclusive, transparent, and supportive. This new organic leadership (and followership) framework demonstrates that virtuous ethics and inclusiveness create a roadmap to the state of organizational and personal flow. Positive leadership is a new and developing field that has many discursive elements which radiate from an interdisciplinary stitching together of the conceptual terrain of “virtuous ethics,” “positive psychology,” and “inclusive leadership.” The emerging discourse of living a life of positive change with flow, purpose, meaning, and happiness as the end goals date back more than 2500 years ago to Aristotle’s writing about the power of virtue in his Nicomachean Ethics. The intent of this chapter is to draw an intellectual timeline from ancient Greek wisdom to modern positive psychology and the more contemporary writings of Edwin P. Hollander, who is regarded in the literature as the “father” of inclusive leadership. This evolution of leadership theory demonstrates how leaders and followers hold each other accountable for pursuing a life of meaning and change. Understanding these “human-centered” flourishing concepts further demonstrates how virtuous ethics, from its Aristotelian roots, uses inclusive ideas borrowed from Taoism and Buddhism that can be applied to one’s personal and professional spheres in advanced modern global societies.

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Problem Statement Positive leadership is sorely needed for the modern age. The pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless can result in a model of Homo sapiens lacking the positive features that make life worth living (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). “At the end of 20th century, people have begun to face spiritual emptiness, moral abnormalities, twisted social values, greed, and all kinds of crimes, against the backdrop of the formation of knowledge economy and the acceleration of material satisfactions due to technological advancements. This has caused an imbalance between material and spiritual life” (Bhunia, Mukhuti, & Khan, 2012). The modern age has seen an increase in exposure to corrupt leadership practices. PricewaterhouseCoopers published a strategy report which showed a rise in the number of CEOs who were forced out of their positions in 2018 for ethical lapses. They analyzed the world’s 2500 largest public companies to find that 39% of CEOs were forced out for ethical lapses rather than financial performance or board struggles, a first in the study’s history. This was a 50% increase from 2017 when it was 26% (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2018). As a result of this ethical maelstrom, society is looking for positive leaders to create balance in the environment through virtuous ethics and inclusivity.

Virtuous Ethics Virtue ethics is not just a recent development in leadership theory and thought. A deep dive into Aristotelian moral status of man (woman) as a political animal with contemplative intellectual powers instigates a timeline from ancient Greek wisdom to modern positive psychology. This work is consistent with the Socratic tradition that the unexamined life is not worth living.

 ack to the Future: Cultivation of Virtue, the Science B of Happiness In Aristotle’s most influential and comprehensive work, the Nicomachean Ethics, he explores the theory of happiness and human flourishing (eudaimonia) which is the thing that sets humans apart from other species. He establishes a virtue ethics theory that by the Middle Ages is synthesized into Christian theology and Thomistic thought (the philosophy that arose as the legacy of Thomas Aquinas). Aristotle believes that two things, “virtuousness” and the “eye of the soul” (developed more in his work Metaphysics), are the basis of our intellect and the ability to make rational and responsibility choices. According to Greek philosophy, everything has a purpose/aim/intention called telos (the root of teleology study of purposiveness). All objects have a telos, but the ultimate human telos is to reason. This hierarchical view of nature (mineral, vegetative, animal, and human) leaves no doubt that a truly happy life is one of

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self-contemplation using the capacity nature gave us which is intellect, rationality, and the exercise of living a life with virtue. Human happiness is beyond pleasure alone. Animals and humans both seek pleasure, and while not denying physical urges, humans alone through advanced capacities can find virtue and happiness as ends in themselves. Real happiness (not fake riches) is found by using intellect to achieve virtue and moral perfection. Aristotle’s notion of happiness is profoundly democratic, since everyone can decide to be happy following a virtuous moral path. To achieve happiness, one must have a good moral character—what he calls “complete virtue.” His lectures sought to answer two key questions: “What is the end or goal for which we should direct all our human endeavors?” and “What is the ultimate purpose of human existence”? Aristotle used teleological moral reasoning to explain that the end of all Homo sapiens’ existence is to achieve an existential state of eudaimonia. This state of human flourishing can be reached by practicing the habits of virtue and good moral character. According to Aristotle, the pursuit of happiness is tied to “complete virtue.” He writes, “... the function of man is to live a certain kind of life, and this activity implies a rational principle, and the function of a good man is the good and noble performance of these, and if any action is well performed it is performed in accord with the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, then happiness turns out to be an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue” (emphasis added) (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 2004, 1098a13). Being virtuous, using the telos of eudaimonia or human flourishing, could lead to a hedonistic and self-centered life. Aristotle is the first to remind us that the notion of the common good and the contributions to the polis save us from this otherwise dark end. Finnis (1999, p. 155) defines the common good as a “set of conditions which enables the members of a community to attain for themselves reasonable objectives, or to realize for themselves the value(s) for the sake of which they have reason to collaborate with each other’s (positively or negatively) in a community.” Man (woman) is not only a thinking animal but living in a polis, man becomes a “political animal” or politikon zöon. Living in a structured society governed by laws and societal mores, people reach their greatest potential in a social context. Humans live in a community and learn through a process of habituation to become more human through building relationships. This is the “good life.” Not the perfect easy life, but with the practice of habits of virtue, we might overcome the “soil of adversity” which furnishes us with a buffer from the harshness and cruelty of the vacillations of life. So even if misfortune befalls onto the virtuous individual, according to Aristotle, that individual will always retain a degree of general well-being because of the development and intentionality of pursuing a good moral character. We choose to have a social nature and pursue “practical” virtues leading to the ultimate happiness in the pursuit of wisdom and self-knowledge. Aristotle’s virtue ethics makes each one of us a “moral agent” responsible for one’s character development within the context of a larger common good. It requires a complete life lived in conformity with virtue and moral values to obtain happiness not only for the individual but also for the community writ large.

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At its very foundation, leadership is about positively influencing others and having an explicit moral focus to comprehend the cascading effects of leaders—follower’s interactions and behavior (Treviño, den Nieuwenboer, & Kish-Gephart, 2014; Yukl, 2002). Aristotle writes of six “cardinal” virtues occupying the top echelons of virtuous leadership: courage, temperance, justice, prudence, humanity, and truthfulness. These actually align well with the work of Martin Seligman, one of the early pioneers of positive psychology. According to Seligman (2002), there are three pillars that buttress the field of positive psychology: (1) the study of positive emotions; (2) the study of positive traits (virtues and moral behavior); and (3) the study of positive institutions (open and transparent rights and democratic grassroots entities). Aristotle was probably in touch with his own emotions, but the historical record is void of such psychobiological translations. There is an overlap with Aristotle, in particular, in the study of positive traits and institutions. Seligman’s conclusion is that the science of happiness (eudaimonia in an Aristotelian sense) can be cultivated in the “Pleasant Life, the Good Life and the Meaningful Life.” The Pleasant Life is one lived in bodily and psychic pleasures; the Good Life is developing internal strengths, creativity, and virtues; but it is the Meaningful Life where flow meets happiness and gives a greater fulfillment for purpose outside the self. The takeaways for positive leadership are reminders that human flourishing determined by logos (reason) is the starting point of turning practical wisdom into the perfection of happiness in followers and in the general society. Ethical virtue theory is like taking a daily habitual bath where the defective states of character (hexis) and dysfunctionality are soaked away. Being an ethical agent, positive leaders must provide for more than eu zên (living well) by promoting a community with a “distinctive spirit” of “doing and evolving well.” They must set the foundations for the mass realization that inclusiveness and diversity bring us closer to our own humanity and eudaimonia.

Positive Psychology The mission of positive psychology is to foster understanding about the factors which allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Before this, the field of psychology had largely been a science concentrated on repairing the damage within human disease mode (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Psychologists have come to understand how people endure conditions of adversity (Benjamin Jr, 1992; Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000; Koch & Leary, 1985; Smith, 1997). However, this focus on pathology neglected to study the lives of fulfilled individuals and thriving communities. The goal of positive psychology is to shift the focus away from the worst things to place attention on the positive attributes of life (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Positive psychologists seek to understand how people can flourish under benign conditions. The field of positive psychology explores subjective experiences that humans report, such as happiness, well-being, contentment, satisfaction, hope, optimism, and flow (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Individual traits are examined, such

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as the capacity to love, vocation, courage, interpersonal skills, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). Positive traits can be assigned to groups as well, which are more about: civic virtues, institutional values, citizenship, responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). These subjective experiences are analyzed by positive psychologists who seek to understand what components cultivate human flourishing. Positive leaders can use this to catapult organizations to higher levels of thriving by addressing the greatest potential of mankind. Martin Seligman (2002) describes positive psychology as a focus on mental health rather than mental illness in his book Authentic Happiness. He suggests that happiness will emerge from nurturing inherent strengths such as optimism, kindness, generosity, originality, and/or humor. He also believes that when humans focus on causes that benefit humankind and utilize unique signature strengths, they will transcend to higher planes of authentic happiness. Positive leaders can utilize this knowledge to create a stronger vision and mission for their teams. Seligman describes positive psychology as a movement away from trying to improve areas that are weak and focus solely on areas that are inherently stronger. He states, “I do not believe that you should devote overly-much effort to correcting weaknesses. Rather, I believe that the highest success in living and the deepest emotional satisfaction comes from building and using your signature strengths” (Seligman, 2002, p.  13). This is a drastically new way of approaching human growth. For example, children are often taught to identify areas of improvement rather than areas of potential expertise. Positive leaders build teams that leverage the strengths of each team member, which is the place where both the individual and team can thrive. Positive leaders spend time during annual reviews to identify the ways that employees can thrive, instead of identifying areas where the employee has room to grow. It is a different approach to understanding and leveraging the psyche of a human being. Positive leaders also understand the role of positive emotions in shifting the focus from deficit to strengths.

Positive Emotions One theoretical perspective for positive psychology suggests that the capacity to experience positive emotions may be a fundamental human strength that is central to human flourishing (Fredrickson, 2001). This theory called broaden-and-build posits that the experience of a positive emotion will expand people’s momentary thought-action repertoires. This can build enduring resources (physical, intellectual, social, and psychological). In other words, positive emotions can build long-term positive effects in the lives of humans. Positive leaders should note the important role that positive emotions play in the lives of their team members. Positive emotions can provide evidence of optimal well-being and human flourishing. Therefore, it is important for positive leaders to pay attention to these indicators of success. When people experience positive

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emotions such as joy, interest, curiosity, love, and contentment, they can avoid being drained by more negative emotions like anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair. Positive emotions serve as the markers for optimal well-being. Positive leaders understand that positive emotions not only signal human flourishing, but they produce it as well. People who are able to balance positive and negative emotions seem to have subjective well-being (Diener et  al., 1991). Objective happiness can be measured by tracking people’s momentary experiences of good or bad feelings (Fredrickson, 2001; Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999). Positive emotions are worth cultivating as a way to achieving psychological growth and improved well-being over time (Fredrickson, 2001). Positive leaders can also create positive emotions through individualized relationships with each person on their team. Individualized leadership styles rely on a unique relationship that develops between the leader and each individual member. Once a leader has determined to have individual relationships with each follower, which is called dyadic theory, the focus can shift to exploring the leader–member exchange (LMX) (Daft, 2008). Studies have shown that high-quality LMX relationships have led to positive outcomes for leaders, followers, and organizations (Daft, 2008). Various studies have been done on leadership styles and their effect on outcomes such as employee satisfaction on performance. Positive leaders understand the role of developing emotional connections and building reciprocal relationships with followers. Humans will often experience positive emotions from feeling a sense of attachment or inclusion with other community members. There is a significant amount of research on attachment that helps explain the importance of inclusivity for the future of positive leadership. Aristotle described the unifying need that Homo sapiens have to achieve an existential state of eudaimonia, human flourishing, by practicing the habits of virtue and good moral character. This cannot be done in isolation, for humans must interact with other humans in order to create virtuous ethics. Understanding that virtuous ethics can lead to human thriving, but is played out in community, creates a need for positive leaders to understand attachment theory, and why humans need to feel a sense of belonging in order to flourish.

Attachment Theory Leadership theorists are beginning to see that attachment theory can be applied to the workplace with adults. Positive emotions are a natural byproduct of attachment. Positive leaders understand that positive emotions are needed to create an attachment to the organization, team members, and the leader. Attachment theory explains that children attach to authority figures (mostly parents) to form the basis for whether they feel secure or insecure (Popper, Mayseless, & Castelnovo, 2000). When a child feels secure, they will perceive the world positively, and a child who feels insecure will perceive every encounter from a negative perspective. This concept can also be applied to adults in the workplace. Employees who have access to attachment figures in times of need will feel more motivated and engaged at work (Bowlby, 1979). There is also research that demonstrates employees will have more

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meaningful work experiences when there is a sense of belonging (Gupta, 2017). Interconnectedness leads to social acceptance and creates an attachment to the workplace and coworkers. The definition of workplace attachment is an emotional connection that creates a bond between people in the workplace (Bowlby, 1969). Popper et al. (2000) compared attachment theory to transformational leadership and found significant correlations between attachment and transformational leadership. This is highly significant in building a case for positive leadership that understands how to help followers feel connected and attached at work. Attachment at work has produced positive outcomes such as work motivation, performance, and ethical behavior (Yip, Ehrhardt, Black, & Walker, 2018). One of the most fundamental needs that humans have is for a sense of belonging (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Maslow, 1994). People need to feel like they belong at their place of work in order to be at ease with themselves. To do this, employees should be encouraged to share their emotions at work (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). Emotions become very important in developing relationships with others at work (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005). When employees have insecure bonds with others, they exhibit negative behaviors, yet when they feel secure in their relationships with the others, they tend to have positive experiences (Bowlby, 1969). People feel accepted at organizations when there is concern for their personal lives (Petchsawang & Duchon, 2009). When people feel valued, they will experience positive emotions that lead to an increase in productivity and engagement. The more connected people are to the organization and to each other, the more fulfilled they will feel in life (Gupta, 2017). Research studies have suggested that a sense of community at work will have a positive impact on the commitment levels of employees (Fry, 2003; Gupta, 2017; Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003; Pawar, 2009; Rego & Cunha, 2008). A recent research study examined how inclusive leadership (defined as the openness, accessibility, and availability of a leader) fosters employee creativity in the workplace (Carmeli, Reiter-Palmon, & Ziv, 2010). Using a sample of 150 employees, this study explored the relationship between inclusive leadership, psychological safety, and employee involvement in creative work tasks. The results of their structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis indicated that inclusive leadership positively relates to psychological safety, which cultivates employee involvement in creative work (Carmeli et al., 2010). The psychological safety that is created by inclusive and positive leadership will result in the risk-taking that is essential for innovation and creativity. Bill Gates extols that organizations must “innovate or die” (Lee, 2013). Inclusive leadership is key to creating a more diverse, inclusive, and innovative workplace (Kurschner & Schmidt, 2017). Today’s leaders are facing complex business problems that take a moral compass and more than one person to solve. Inclusive leaders will achieve better results by including diverse voices into the creation of a workplace culture that empowers people to think innovatively and reach their maximum potential. Attachment theory makes a case for the need that humans have to feel connected, but inclusive and positive leadership is needed to make that a reality.

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Inclusive Leadership A culture of inclusion exists when “people of all social identity groups [have] the opportunity to be present, to have their voices heard and appreciated, and to engage in core activities on behalf of the collective” (Wasserman, Gallegos, & Ferdman, 2008, p. 176). Having “a voice” surfaced in the literature as a theme among employees in inclusive environments. An inclusive organization is “one in which the diversity of knowledge and perspectives that members of different groups bring to the organization has shaped its strategy, its work, its management and operating systems, and its core values and norms for success” (Holvino, Ferdman, & Merrill-­ Sands, 2004, p. 249). Mor Barak stated that: employee perception of inclusion-exclusion is conceptualized as a continuum of the degree to which individuals feel a part of critical organizational processes. These processes include access to information and resources, connectedness to supervisor and co-workers, and ability to participate in and influence the decision-making process (2000, p. 52).

As the world shrinks, organizations are becoming more diverse and humans are more connected than ever before... yet isolation persists. Inclusive leadership in organizations can take this new reality to another level of productivity and providence. It is not sufficient for leaders to recruit a diverse makeup of employees, inclusivity must accompany a culture and appreciation of diversity in order to create an environment where all employees can thrive. Many organizations focus on attracting diverse employees, but then struggle to retain them because there is not an inclusive workplace culture (Janakiraman, 2011). Research suggests that diversity policies and procedures are not able to create inclusive environments, but the mindset of leaders will determine if an organizational culture is inclusive (Janakiraman, 2011). Pelled, Ledford, and Mohrman define inclusion as “the degree to which an employee is accepted and treated as an insider by others in a work system” (1999, p. 1014). Inclusion is a specific form of relationship with “leaders who exhibit openness, accessibility, and availability in their interactions with followers” (Carmeli et al., 2010, p. 250). Roberson suggested that inclusion is “the removal of obstacles to the full participation and contribution of employees in organizations” (2006, p. 217). Miller refers to inclusion as the extent to which diverse individuals “are allowed to participate and are enabled to contribute fully” (1998, p.  151). Lirio, Lee, Williams, Haugen, and Kossek describe the state of inclusion, “when individuals feel a sense of belonging, and inclusive behaviors such as eliciting and valuing contributions from all employees are part of the daily life in the organization” (2008, p. 443). Leaders can create inclusive environments by ensuring that each employee is contributing to the daily life of the organization in some way. Decisionmaking processes should be democratized to achieve this reality. Inclusive leaders make a positive impact on organizations because they “encourage everyone to engage in the organizations mission in their own unique way” (Morrow, 2014, p. 1). Positive leaders understand the importance of inclusivity and virtue ethics, because social relationships give life meaning while loneliness diminishes meaning

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in life. Psychologists now have enough information about the brain to know that inclusion is essential for positive experiences. A multivariate network approach to examining the resting state of MRI functional brain connectivity (n = 942) found that loneliness and meaning in life were negatively correlated (Mwilambwe-­ Tshilobo et  al., 2019). They measured whole-brain functional connectivity and found a significant and reliable pattern. Loneliness was associated with dense, less modular connections between networks, while a greater sense of meaning in life was associated with increased, more modular connectivity between default and limbic networks. Lower loneliness was associated with more modular brain connectivity, and lower life meaning was associated with higher connectivity. This study provides evidence that loneliness and meaning in life are distinct features of sociality (think Aristotle) that are interdependent. Through the lens of social exchange theory, stressing the “norms of reciprocity” Edwin Hollander described leadership (adopting Mary Parker Follett) of “doing things with people, not to people.” Our nuanced update to Hollander’s concept of inclusiveness is that utilizing human-centered virtuous ethics, we break free of the old human relations paradigm that inclusiveness = diversity. Diversity research used to be dominated by focus on “problems” associated with diversity, such as discrimination, bias, affirmative action, and tokenism (Shore et al., 2011). Scholars now focus on the fact that diversity enhances work processes and organizational mechanisms that increase the value of diversity in work settings (Gonzalez & DeNisi, 2009; Homan et al., 2008; Shore et al., 2011). One strand of research that is ever evolving in this area focuses on creating work environments where diverse individuals feel included (Bilimoria, Joy, & Liang, 2008; Roberson, 2006). Inclusion leads to workplaces where people feel more connected to the mission of the organization and work hard toward accomplishing goals together as a cohesive unit. All of this research points to a demand for inclusive leadership in organizations that want to stay competitive for today’s globalized, digital marketplace. According to psychologist Charley Morrow, inclusive leaders make a positive impact on organizations because they “encourage everyone to engage in the organizations mission in their own unique way” (2014, p. 1). They are capable of including others in vision setting and decision-making and do not rely on themselves to lead the organization. These leaders are also able to identify the best qualities in each person, and they work to develop those strengths. Inclusive leaders will shine a spotlight on the accomplishments of others, embrace diversity, and value every voice (Morrow, 2014). Janakiraman (2011, p. 5) suggests several practical strategies for becoming an inclusive leader: • • • • • •

Check assumptions and biases. Assume positive intent. Slow down your responses. Scan social dynamics and interaction patterns for exclusion behaviors. Treat everyone as your Number 1. Deepen self and other-awareness.

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• Engage and motivate others in learning about differences and experiences nonjudgmentally. • Provide individual feedback and coaching to transform exclusion behaviors. • Model inclusive behaviors in your sphere of influence. • Engage in constructive conversations to prevent, reveal, and transform exclusionary patterns and behaviors. These traits all demonstrate the virtuous ethics that Aristotle said leads to human flourishing. Positive leaders are able to embrace these qualities of inclusivity through a commitment to virtuous ethics. The result is a dynamic workplace where humans can thrive. A deep dive into the world of inclusive leadership theory can strengthen the foundation for positive leaders.

Inclusive Leadership Theory In ​ Breaking the Zero-Sum Game: Transforming Societies through Inclusive Leadership​, Ebere Morgan states that people are tired of living in a “zero-sum” world that relies on the paradigm that some people “win” while others must “lose” (2017, p. xiii). This book provides a series of cutting-edge theories and best practices that are shifting society into being more diverse, inclusive, and democratic. It also offers a new global perspective of inclusiveness that transcends culture, nation states, and other “artificial boundaries” that humans have created (Morgan, 2017). Humans have created geographical boundaries and categorized people groups. With this recognition that divisiveness is a human construct, comes an understanding that humans are all connected and can create a new mental model of inclusion. This was the aim of Csikszentmihalyi and Seligman (2000) who introduced positive psychology as a way to shift focus from repairing the worst things to placing attention on positive qualities of life. By studying the positive experiences of humans, positive leaders are able to create inclusive environments that cultivate flourishing. These inclusive environments have been studied by positive psychologists who understand virtue ethics as a priority for human flourishing. Edwin Hollander introduced​ Inclusive Leadership Theory​to the world of social psychology, which revealed the bond that leaders establish with their followers over a shared purpose in their work (2009). “Inclusive leadership is about relationships that can accomplish things for mutual benefit... and means doing things with people, rather than to people” (Hollander, 2009, p. 3). Followers should be actively included with leadership according to the four R’s: respect, recognition, responsiveness, and responsibility (Hollander, 2009, p.  3). This framework is based on the assumption that a leaders’ vision is not enough to truly make a difference in the life of followers. Hollander looked at followership instead of employing a leader-centric understanding of the concept of leadership. His work truly embodies the blending of virtue ethics and inclusivity for a model of positive leadership. According to Hollander (1958), leaders receive “idiosyncrasy credits” from followers when they bond over a shared vision. This gives the leader credibility when

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trying to experiment and innovate new ideas. However, if the leader is not creating these bonds over a shared purpose, the credibility of the leader will be diminished.​ Hollander described a mutually beneficial relationship between leader and followers when there are shared goals and a common vision for the future. Hollander emphasized the role of “followership” as he focused on the leader–follower relationship as a two-way influence process (Hollander, 2009). Hollander does not suggest that followers need to be stroked in order to comply; however, they need to be included in the tasks of leadership. This type of active role is essential for followers who can improve the chances of achieving desired outcomes. The goal of inclusive leadership is to create an “inclusive process” that others are truly involved in as partners making inputs, with persuasion used over coercion (Hollander, 2009). Inclusive leadership (IL) seeks to create relationships that can accomplish things for mutual benefit (Hollander, 2009). Leaders at this level understand that they influence by working with people to create results, which is the true essence of inclusion (Hollander, 2009). This model does not rely on one person’s leadership capabilities in decision-making and achieving goals but relies on the group to make decisions together. IL promotes an environment that allows for input and output to come from everyone. It also respects competition and cooperation as part of a participative process (Hollander, 2009). In the political sphere, it becomes serious about the “consent of the governed” as a point of accountability (Hollander, 2009). Leaders who understand inclusivity stay focused on the notion of the “common good” which Aristotle introduced as the way to avoid the dark side of leadership (selfishness/ego). Inclusive leaders are able to sacrifice their personal agenda for the good of the community, which is an organic byproduct of virtuous ethics. While other leader-centric concepts emphasize traditional leader qualities such as character and charisma, they neglect the essential relationship with followers (Hollander, 2009). IL demonstrates how followers can be included actively in leadership, with a role in a mutual process which can improve the understanding and practice of effective leadership. Leaders typically take greater initiative, but followership is vital to the process. Leadership benefits from active followers, in a unity, including “upward influence” on a two-way rather than a one-way street (Hollander, 2009). Morgan provides competencies that inclusive leaders must have as: global mindset, self-awareness, empathy, cultural intelligence (CQ), and collaborative teamwork (2017). A Deloitte study found that inclusive leadership is about three important things: • Treating people and groups fairly—that is, based on their unique characteristics, rather than on stereotypes. • Personalizing individuals—that is, understanding and valuing the uniqueness of diverse others while also accepting them as members of the group. • Leveraging the thinking of diverse groups for smarter ideation and decision-­ making that reduces the risk of being blindsided (​ Bourke & Dillon, 2016).

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Inclusive leadership is not a new concept, although its relevance has dramatically increased with the modern age. As systems become more democratized, organizations become more diverse, and humans become more connected, there is an increased demand for inclusive leaders to emerge. Successful companies like Google, Lyft, Mastercard, IBM, and Nestle are paving the way, as they recruit leaders who view their roles as a connector more than authoritarian. “Ninety percent of companies are redesigning their organizations to be more dynamic, team-centric, and connected” (​ Abatiello, Knight, Philpot, & Roy, 2017​, p. 1). The world is hungry for inclusive leaders who design organizations where every member can thrive.

 onnecting Inclusivity, Virtue, and Flow with Positive C Leadership It is clear the Aristotelian notion of the common good is another element that “fosters the good in people.” But is true happiness ever attainable either on the individual, organizational or societal level? Can Aristotle’s eudaimonia be updated into a more contemporary framework? In Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) view, the zenith of human happiness is thought of in terms of what he calls “flow.” Flow is about being sublimated to some intense activity, the loss of oneself while contributing to something beyond oneself. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) studied “flow” for more than 20 years which is the state of optimal experience, the times when people report feelings of concentration and deep enjoyment. His investigations revealed that genuinely satisfying experiences are found in a state of consciousness called flow when concentration amounts to absolute absorption in an activity. Every human can experience flow and will recognize its characteristics: feeling strong, alert, effortless control, unselfconscious, and at the peak of their abilities. During the flow states, a sense of time and emotional problems seem to disappear. It leads to an exhilarating feeling of transcendence. He states that we can achieve flow through challenges—tasks that are neither too difficult nor too simple for our abilities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). These goals help people order the information that enters consciousness and improve the quality of life. He writes, “contrary to what most of us believe, happiness does not simply happen to us. It’s something that we make happen, and it results from our doing our best” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 29). His research (1975) identifies six factors of flow: (1) intense and focused concentration on the present moment; (2) merging of action and awareness; (3) a loss of reflective self-consciousness; (4) a sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity; (5) a distortion of temporal experience; (6) experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding (also known as the autotelic experience) (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow is a Zen-like state of transcendence that stretches the limits of our abilities without overwhelming them. Self-consciousness becomes sublimated to the grand-consciousness of a new alternate “zone,” being hyper-­ focused resulting in loss of one’s sense of space and time.

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Dhiman (2012) suggests that the Buddhist meditative practice of mindfulness contributes to the creative process and the concept of flow. While flow may be conceptually novel in the west, we can identify a long history of ancient Hindu, Taoist, and Buddhist texts identifying Dhyana (meditation) in karma (actions) forgetting time and place in a mental state of “action of inaction” or “doing without doing” (Mitchell, 2002). Flow might also be conceptualized in a Maslow state of self-­ actualization or the ethical nourishing of the soul. In addition, flow must be tied to virtue in that people with high moral character make ethical moral choices. Like flow, virtues are not easily developed but persist over time. Being a virtuous leader embodying a state of flow helps develop a sense of moral identity and a portrayal of a moral exemplar within the cosmos. Seligman’s ideas on “authentic happiness” are very similar to Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) notion of “flow” and Maslow’s “peak experiences” which are transient moments of bliss. These experiences can be compared to “being in the zone” where everything just seems to fit together perfectly (Conley, 2017). Maslow wrote, “the person in the peak experience usually feels himself to be at the peak of his powers, using all of his capabilities at the best and fullest… He is at his best, at concert pitch, the top of his form” (1994, p. 13). These “peakers” will experience creativity, flexibility, courage, willingness to make mistakes, openness, collegiality, and humility (Conley, 2017, p. 10). All these concepts are similar to Aristotle’s influential contributions to Nicomachean Ethics, where he describes eudaimonia, the theory of happiness, and human flourishing. After studying every religion, Maslow (1994) found that the universal nucleus of each religion grew out of a “peak experience.” This was a “private, lonely, personal illumination, revelation or ecstasy that was reported by some acutely sensitive prophet of seer” (Maslow, 1994, p.  19). These experiences were understood as supernatural at the time, but psychologists who sought scientific explanation revealed another plausible hypothesis that “to the extent that all mystical or peak experiences are the same in their essence and have always been the same, all religions are the same in their essence and always have been the same” (Maslow, 1994, p. 20). Maslow sought the commonalities and differences reported in peak experiences, but what he found was even more significant: all humans have access to peak experiences. Aristotle would further express that these experiences come from living a life filled with virtuous ethics. Maslow’s research also rendered another important finding that a true peak experience is cultivated out of a private revelation where myths, symbols, rituals, and ceremonies are revealed and have little meaning to anyone else. According to Maslow, “every ‘peaker’ discovers, develops, and retains his own religion” (1994, p. 28). This notion is shared by all the great world religions like Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Hinduism and also includes atheistic ones like Buddhism, Taoism, Humanism, and Confucianism (Maslow, 1994). Maslow made a significant declaration by stating that all humans can have peak experiences (not just religious seers, prophets, and mystics). From this point of view, humans can select to have private/ personal/transcendent experiences, which are an opportunity for therapy/growth/ fulfillment, but they can choose to suppress/deny these experiences as well. His

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work on peak experiences unites humans across various ideologies in a very profound way (Maslow, 1994). As religion has been a major source of conflict throughout time, this new ideology creates a foundation for positive leadership to create environments for flourishing; contexts that unite rather than divide. Peak experiences are the symptom(s) or outward manifestation of positive psychology. Therefore, they become the outcomes to be measured by positive leaders. Maslow did a great job of compiling a list of defining characteristics of the peak experience. These allow positive leaders to identify ways to instigate them: 1. The universe is perceived as connected; all are one. 2. Acceptance of everything, everyone is equally important. 3. B-cognition (the cognition of being, detached, objective independent perception of the world). 4. Transcends ego (unselfish). 5. Self-validating, self-justifying moment which carries intrinsic value. 6. Makes life worthwhile, life is meaningful. 7. There is no time and space. 8. Everything that happens is beautiful and good (there is a purpose for evil). 9. Become “god-like” in being able to see that “evil” is a product of limited or selfish vision and understanding, and therefore there is never blame or condemnation, disappointment or shock (only pity, charity, kindness, sadness and even amusement). 10. B-values (intrinsic values of being)—spiritual values, the highest values, religious values. 11. B-cognition is ready to listen and hear in humility. 12. Emotions such as wonder, awe, reverence, humility, surrender, worship are reported (reconciliation with death). 13. Dichotomies, polarities and conflicts of life tend to be transcended or resolved, moving towards integration and unity. 14. Loss of fear, anxiety, inhibition, defense, control, confusion, conflict, delay, restraint. 15. Immediate effects are therapeutic or even life-altering. 16. Heaven is experienced. 17. Real self is identified. 18. Free-will is experienced- to be responsible, active, creative, self-determined, free agent. 19. People with strongest identities are able to transcend the ego and become selfless. 20. Become loving and accepting, more spontaneous, honest and innocent. 21. Transitions from being a “thing” to becoming a “person” subjected to psychological laws of the “higher life.” 22. Becomes unmotivated, non-striving, non-needing, non-wishing, no desires, and asks for less (less selfish). 23. Gratitude, all-embracing love for everyone and everything, leading to an impulse to do something good for the world, and eagerness to repay, sense of obligation.

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2 4. The polarity between humility and pride is resolved (fused into one). 25. Universal Consciousness is a sense of the sacred is glimpsed in the secular/ worldly momentarily (Maslow, 1994, p. 65). Seligman makes suggestions about getting to such “peak” psychological experiences in his work on Authentic Happiness. Seligman’s work builds on Maslow’s research to help all humans enter such joyous states more often. All these theories are based on virtuous ethical theory that Aristotle presented. Positive leaders understand ways to acquire more flow and peak experiences through the use of positive emotions inclusivity and virtuous ethics.

Conclusion The world has a high demand for this new type of Positive Leadership. This comes as a result of the pathologies of modern leaders that have created a barren and meaningless model which lacks the positive features that make life worth living (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman, 2000). The end of the twentieth century demonstrated that people face emptiness, moral abnormalities, twisted social values, greed, and various crimes against the backdrop of the knowledge economy and the acceleration of material satisfactions due to technological advancements (Bhunia et al., 2012). More CEOs have been fired due to immorality than ever before, and the media is filled with negative messages that impact society at large. This has created a strong need for a new type of Positive Leadership. As a result of this literature review, a simple formula emerged for this type of leadership to revolutionize the modern age: Virtuous ethics + Inclusivity = Positive Leadership. Inclusion combined with human-centered flourishing virtuous ethics can create positive personal and professional environments that provide psychological security, a sense of belonging, and true happiness flow. Positive leadership has evolved from the study of positive psychology and brain research which seeks to better understand the role that leaders have on their followers through invoking positive and purposeful modeling. The findings from this research suggest that positive leadership “fosters the good in people” (Cameron, 2008) and creates an environment that leverages the personal strengths of each person. This is done through the use of positive psychology and positive emotions that create levels of human flourishing. These experiences are measured by the “flow” and “peak experiences” that lead to creativity/innovation and connect humans together for another level of thriving. This new organic leadership (and followership) framework utilizes virtuous ethics and inclusiveness as a roadmap to the state of organizational and personal flow. If positive leaders can increase the flow of positive emotions, then people can do amazing things. Positive leaders should concentrate on bringing out the best in others so that there will be “net” positive interactions (more positive than negative), and the culture will be inclusive, transparent, and supportive. This form of positive leadership will create a foundation for a more positive world.

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Chapter Takeaways 1. Positive psychology has led to a field of research on positive leadership, which seeks to better understand the role leaders have on their followers through invoking positive emotions/experiences. 2. Positive leadership fosters the good in people and cultivates virtuous ethics. 3. Inclusivity is a key component of positive leadership and leads to more meaningful workplace settings. 4. Positive leadership optimizes the strengths of team members and creates a culture that is inclusive, transparent, and supportive. 5. Virtuous ethics is at the core of positive leadership. A new formula for positive leadership is introduced: Virtuous Ethics + Inclusivity = Positive Leadership. Reflection Questions 1. How can positive leaders use the knowledge of how the brain is impacted by positive emotions to their advantage in building a high-performing team? 2. As psychology shifted from a focus on repairing illness and disease to placing attention on the positive qualities and attributes of life, how does leadership need to make a similar shift? 3. What practical ways can a leader cultivate “net” positive interactions with followers (more positive than negative)? 4. Why does Aristotle believe that the state of human flourishing can be reached by practicing the habits of virtue and good moral character, and how does this impact leadership for the modern age? 5. As “flow” was described as the natural outcome of positive leadership built on inclusivity and virtuous ethics, in what ways can a leader assist followers in reaching this state of being “at the peak of their abilities?”

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Mindfulness and Spirituality: An Enhanced Leadership Perspective

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Kanti Mohan Saini and Orneita Burton

Abstract

The success of companies today largely depends on leadership capabilities of employees throughout the organization. Managers with an interest in how people perform their work must be aware of the significance various leadership models have on organizational performance. In conversations among management ranks, the concept of leadership is often discussed as an implied skill, either naturally imbued or associated with generally accepted personality traits or characteristics. As such, the measure of efficient leadership does not consider qualities such as spirituality in leading an organization. Mindfulness has been increasingly proposed as one of several leadership paradigms with potential for unleashing inner strength within individuals. Therefore, in this chapter, we discuss the importance of Mindfulness in the preparation of organizational leadership. However, we enhance this view to suggest that mindfulness alone is a necessary but not sufficient intervention to produce the best leadership outcomes. As such, we extend this discussion by proposing an enhanced view of leadership that blends Mindfulness + Spirituality in a working model to optimize leadership efforts. This research considers the role of leadership at the individual level based on the mindfulness and spirituality literatures and includes a higher order concept of Spiritual guidance as revealed in Wisdom writings.

K. M. Saini NL Dalmia Institute of Management Studies and Research, Mumbai, India O. Burton (*) College of Business Administration, Abilene Christian University, Abilene, TX, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_13

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Keywords

Leadership · Mindfulness · Spirituality · Spiritual intelligence · Wisdom

Introduction Leadership is one of the most essayed concepts in the domain of organizational studies (Bass, 1990; Burns, 1978; House, 1977; House & Aditya, 1997; House & Mitchell, 1974; Yukl, 2002). Because leadership is a critical factor in the positive development of individual performers, social and organizational outcomes are duly impacted by leadership perspective. The principal reasons for both theoretical and empirical studies in leadership research can be attributed to the critical role of leadership in organizational sustainability. Factors such as company profitability, stockholder wealth, reward and punishment incentives to motivate and align organizational interests, group/individual performance objectives, and job satisfaction are key elements of organizational performance as guided by leadership style and effectiveness. As a result, researchers investigating leadership principles have made relentless efforts in the past decades and still ongoing to understand the construct of leadership. Avolio (1999, 2007) states that “leadership theory and research have reached a point in its development at which both need to move to the next level of integration for continued progress to be made in advancing both the science and practice of leadership.” The primary objective of such a timely review is to understand leadership, its role, dimensions, underlying processes/causes, predictors, and antecedents in a comprehensive manner. Although there are certainly a plethora of studies that explore leadership, specifically trait/behavior view (Fielder, 1967; Fielder & Garcia, 1987; House & Mitchell, 1974; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991), inspirational view such as charismatic theory (Conger & Kanungo, 1987, 1988; House, 1977), transformational theory (Bass, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Burns, 1978), motivation (Chan & Drasgow, 2001), visionary theory (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Sashkin, 1988), and informal leadership (Bowers & Seashore, 1966; Hollander, 1964; Hollander & Julian, 1969), there have been limited attempts to consider the impact of mindfulness as a new leadership paradigm. More recently, a conference and symposia on mindful leadership and how leadership might look in the future were organized by Harvard Business School Professors. Professor William George organized a conference on “Mindful leadership: where east meets west” (George, 2010; Silverstone, 2010) to incorporate eastern wisdom on mindfulness to develop leaders through an increase in situational awareness and to emphasize having compassion in leadership practice. Similarly, Langer (2010) puts forward “a call for mindful leadership.” Thus, based on the above expressions, it is reasonable to review mindfulness and its influence on the future and development of leadership.

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Similarly, incorporating spirituality in leadership has drawn more attention in recent years as complexity in global relationships and clashes in leadership style have led to instability in social, economic, and political progress (Aisen & Veiga, 2013; Fry, 2003, 2005; Man, 2014; Radu, 2015). When similar conditions developed with the advent of technology and the changing design of computers to integrate with business strategies, Herbert Simon (Simon, 1981) put forth the theory of Bounded Rationality. Bounded rationality is explained as when individuals make decisions, their rationality is limited by the “tractability of the decision problem, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the time available to make the decision” (Clippel, 2014; Daston, 2015; Dick, 2015; Esponda & Pouzo, 2016). In this view, decision-makers act as satisficers, seeking a satisfactory or “good enough” solution rather than an optimal one. Simon proposed bounded rationality as an alternative for the mathematical modeling used to develop decision-making algorithms in software development, and has been cited in political science, economics, and related disciplines as a limiting factor in achieving optimum decision outcomes. It complements “rationality as optimization,” which views decision-making as a fully rational process of finding an optimal option given the spatiotemporal nature of the information available (Choudhury & Sampler, 1997; Gigerenzer & Selten, 2002). Models of human behavior in the social sciences also assume that people can be reasonably described as “rational” entities (see, for example, rational choice theory in Dickson (1992) and in Hechter and Kanazawa (1997), and political agency models in Downs (1957)). Many economic models assume that people are on average rational and, as estimated in large enough samples, can be assumed to act according to their personal preferences. The concept of bounded rationality revises this assumption to account for the fact that perfectly rational decisions are often not feasible in practice because of the “intractability of natural decision problems and the finite computational resources available for making them” (Clippel, 2014; also Choudhury & Sampler, 1997). In this chapter, an extended perspective to understand the construct of leadership is suggested. Instead of identifying traits or personality attributes that significantly impact the workplace or that can be developed or identified through training or recruitment, this research proposes that existing views about leadership and its role in seeking optimum decision-making outcomes need further inquiry. As such, the causal connection of Mindfulness + Spirituality in leadership needs to be explored. To facilitate this association, the paper is organized as follows: First, research and definitions of leadership are outlined. Next, theories of leadership are addressed. Thereafter, roles of leadership are discussed. These are followed by definitions, roles, and manifestations of mindfulness, and then definitions, roles, and manifestations of spirituality. Discussions follow which emphasize the need to integrate both in decision-making. Finally, based on these discussions, “Mindfulness + Spirituality” as a new leadership paradigm is explicated. Conclusions and takeaways emerging from this paper are discussed along with implications for future research and practice.

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Leadership Leadership Research Leadership is a wide-reaching concept that has been researched extensively both qualitatively and quantitatively. The early efforts of research on leadership developed constructs that were based on leadership character traits. In later works, the research in this area focused on leadership styles or behaviors. While attempts to understand the nature of leadership were voluminous, such efforts failed to account for elements in the leadership process (Rost, 1991). Since then, a more integrated approach to examine leadership has been taken. Consistent with the views of Avolio (2007), Bass (1990), Day (2000), and Yukl (2002), leadership is no longer limited to the individual but rather observed as larger and more perennial. Similarly, Marion and Uhl-Bien (2001) emphasize that “leaders are part of the dynamic rather than being the dynamic itself.” Thereafter, many new dimensions of leadership have been proposed (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2005; Brass, Galaskiewicz, Greve, & Tsai, 2004; Carroll, 2008; Fry, 2003, 2005; Fry & Matherly, 2006; Lord, Brown, Harvey, & Hall, 2001; Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2001). Specifically, Lord et al. (2001) insisted that “how situations are inferred (perceptions), moreover, it appears they are the result of proximal and distal contexts in which such mental representations are made.” The implication in Lord’s view is supported by Weldon (1998) in defining leadership performance as measured by goal setting. Weldon states that “distal goals define the ultimate level of performance to be achieved, while proximal goals define preliminary levels of performance to be achieved while working toward the distal goal.” As such, measures of leadership performance can be considered and measured along a spectrum of accomplishment. Recently, due to sudden social, political, technological, and economic changes, attention has again moved toward seeking new areas of leadership, particularly authentic leadership, spiritual leadership, and mindful leadership. As a result, there are opportunities to further evolve and expand the leadership construct.

Definitions of Leadership Stogdill (1974) defines leadership “as the initiation and maintenance of structure in expectation and interaction.” Similarly, Burns (1978) defines leadership as “leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the values and the motivations of both leaders and followers.” Further, Berlew (1974) emphasizes that leadership “is the process of instilling in others shared vision, creating valued opportunities, and building confidence in the realization of the shared values and opportunities.” Thereafter, Jacobs and Jacques (1987) describe leadership “as a process of giving purpose to collective effort and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose.” Accordingly, in line with the above definitions, Hemphill and Coons (1957) define leadership as the behavior of an individual when directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal. Finally, Astin and Leland (1991) defines

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leadership as a process by which members of a group are empowered to work together synergistically toward a common goal or vision, that will create change and transform institutions and will improve the quality of life. From these views, we find that the leader is a “catalytic force” or facilitator who by virtue of position or personal influence empowers others toward collective action to accomplish the goal.

Theories of Leadership Over the years, there has been an outpouring of studies covering leadership. Prior and present theories of leadership have resulted in an explication of the leaders and their attributes ranging from productive to counterproductive (see Stogdill, 1948). For example, Bass’s (1990) study exhaustively describes the concept of leadership. Further, Judge, Bono, Ilies, and Gerhardt (2002) evidenced the five-factor model of leadership involving neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Similarly, Kaplan et  al. (2001) reported that leaders fail due to deficient personality traits. Although many leadership theories have been proposed and supported by a succession of extended research, no single theory has been posited as a standalone theory that encompasses the aggregate nature of the leadership spirit. The domain of leadership has expanded over the years. In this chapter, although the extant literature reports a great deal of leadership theories, only a limited number of theories of leadership are covered. For our purposes, four leadership theories are considered in more detail to support the premise of this work: Fielder’s (1967) contingency theory; House and Mitchell’s (1974) path goal theory; Conger and Kanungo’s (1987) charismatic theory; Bass’s (1985) transformational theory.

Contingency Theory Fielder’s (1967) contingency theory suggests that leaders are either categorized as task-oriented leaders or people oriented which is evaluated through the least preferred coworker scale. The contingency model proposed that task-based leaders are effective in favorable and unfavorable situations, while counterintuitively, people-­ oriented leaders perform better in moderate situations.

Path Goal Theory House and Mitchell’s (1974) path goal theory suggests that people with authority (e.g., supervisors, managers) will be effective to the degree they are aligned with the environment in which their followers perform by providing constant support and needed resources. In this theory, four specific behaviors were identified by House and Mitchell (1974). They are directive path goal clarifying leader behavior, supportive leader behavior, participative leader behavior, and achievement-oriented behavior.

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Charismatic Theory Weber (1947) initiated the discussion to include charisma in leadership (Beyer, 1999). However, Conger and Kanungo (1987) developed and expanded charismatic theory which was based on the work of House (1977). Their theory posits that a charismatic leader transforms individual needs and values into a collective pursuit. Therefore, leaders are charismatic when they succeed in changing followers’ attitudes to accept the advocated vision by displaying favorable behaviors.

Transformational Theory Bass’s (1985) transformational theory was based on the works of Burns (1978) who first distinguished between transactional and transformational leaders. Bass (1985) advanced the work and proposed that transformational leaders motivate the followers to go “the extra mile” by doing more than expected, by putting forth more effort for the broader organizational goals above personal interests. Transformational theory covers both transactional and transformational behaviors in eight attributes of leaders (leadership behaviors): idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration are included in the transformational domain. This model has also been regarded as a “stewardship” or servant leadership model in religious studies (Lucado, 2010; Lytle, 2010). Further, in the transactional domain, contingent reward, management by exception active, management by exception passive, and lastly, laissez-faire elements are discussed.

Role of Leadership From the above perspectives (in discussing leadership research, definitions, and theories), the role of leadership can be understood as follows: (1) displaying behaviors that show their initiation and commitment which leads to the involvement of individual members. Then, (2) formation of group participation takes place. Individual interest turns toward a collective effort to achieve a worthwhile and common goal. Further, (3) norms are established within the groups. Expectations and standards of performance are modeled and observed through the leader. Thereafter, (4) the views of the group are represented via communication. A key leadership trait is demonstrated as leaders value the communications of the group. Next, (5) followers carry out goals to achieve a vision. Ownership and execution of strategy are modeled through leadership. Then, (6) outcomes are shared and success credited to the group effort in following a common goal/vision. Finally, (7) all through the process of executing strategy and accomplishing goals, leaders ensure trust, inspiration, satisfaction, support, and credit for success among the group by facilitating efforts and ensuring proper performance measurement.

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Leadership in This Research From the above definitions and views concerning the role of leadership, leadership entails multiple dimensions, to include less studied factors such as influencing others by example, motivating through intrinsic reward and redirection, creating shared resource-based goals, facilitating the personal motivations of individuals, arranging processes to bring individuals together, and circumspectly attributing credit for success. Specifically, Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) insist on drive, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, cognitive ability, and knowledge as leader attributes. Further, Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan (1994) corroborated surgency, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability as factors connected to leader effectiveness. Lytle (2010) and Lucado (2010) emphasize servant leadership and stewardship and genuine concern for people and future needs. Finally, House and Aditya (1997) noted achievement motivation, prosocial influence motivation, adjustment, and self-­confidence as effective leadership traits. Thus, based on these definitions and views, this research assumes that leadership implicates cognizant behavioral as well as spiritually purposed patterns. Hence, leadership can be defined as a set of dimensions which a person holds, develops, or is allocated so as to bring about positive individual and organizational results.

Mindfulness Definitions of Mindfulness The most widely acknowledged definition of mindfulness comes from KabatZinn (1994) which is defined as the “ability to pay attention on purpose in the present moment with a nonjudgmental view.” In line with the above perspective, Glomb, Duffy, Bono, and Yang (2011) define mindfulness as “…a state of consciousness characterized by receptive attention to and awareness of present events and experiences without evaluation, judgment and cognitive filters.” Likewise, mindfulness is explained as “receptive attention to and awareness of present events and experience” (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Further, Shapiro (2009) notes mindfulness as “the awareness that arises through intentionally attending in an open, accepting, and discerning way to whatever is arising in the present moment.” Thereafter, Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson, and Anderson (2004) explain mindfulness as the “process of regulating one’s attention to bring awareness to have orientation towards curiosity, openness, and acceptance towards one’s experience.” Thus, based on the above opinions, it can be concluded that mindfulness results from four factors: acceptance, attention, present moment focus and awareness, which are similarly being pointed by Brown and Ryan (2003) and Brown, Ryan, and Creswell (2007).

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Role and Manifestations of Mindfulness in a Leadership Context Mindfulness and mindfulness-based interventions have drawn considerable interest in recent years. The reasons for such appreciation are based on extensive evidence by researchers who have reported benefits of mindfulness on improved mental and physical health (e.g., Baer, 2003; Bishop et al., 2004; Brown et al., 2007; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Carmody, Baer, Lykins, & Olendzki, 2009; Glomb et  al., 2011; Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 1982, 2003; Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995). Due to such reported positive outcomes, the benefit of mindfulness is increasingly being accepted in clinical and nonclinical settings. For instance, in recent years, studies have reported the benefits of implementing mindfulness as an intervention in the workplace (e.g., Giluk, 2010; Glomb et  al., 2011; Hunter & McCormick, 2008; Tipsord, 2009).

Spirituality Role and Manifestations of Spirituality in a Leadership Context Workplace spirituality and its impact on management have been widely researched within the domain of incorporating spirituality in leadership practice (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Benefiel, 2003; Biberman & Whitty, 1997; Fry, 2003, 2005; Fry & Matherly, 2006; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003a, 2003b; Reave, 2005 and more). Mitroff and Denton (1999) define spirituality as “the desire to find ultimate purpose in life, and to live accordingly.” Making the distinction between religion and spirituality has generated a volume of questions and responses from the research community (for detailed responses, see Marques, Dhiman, & King, 2005, p.  82). An in-depth review of these and related studies show that there is a clear consistency and connection between spiritual values and practices leading to effective leadership. Values that have long been considered spiritual ideals, such as integrity, honesty, and humility, have been demonstrated to have a positive effect on leadership success (Reave, 2005). Similarly, practices traditionally associated with spirituality as demonstrated in daily life have also been shown to be connected to leadership effectiveness. This scholarly thread continues as detailed reviews of spirituality in leadership are being incorporated in disciplines unrelated to religious domains (Benefiel, Fry, & Geigle, 2014; Marques, 2019; Neal, 2018). For example, Ali, Siregar, Muhtar, and Aridhayandi (2018) presented a brief case study on the value of spiritual leadership in Islamic education. This work was informed by research from Barret (2014), Fry (2003), Karakas (2010), Marques et  al. (2005) and the extant literature on spirituality and leadership. Conclusions from this study considered spiritual leadership values defined as calling, integrity, honesty, humility, expressing respect for others’ values, caring and concern, listening, and appreciating others can bring consistency between the (leaders) image and also allow others to function with a higher level of inner personal integration. In other words, the

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“consistency between (leaders) values and behavior will create…effectiveness and acceleration in gaining organizational goals” (Reave, 2005). Spiritual values and practices related to leadership effectiveness still dominate much of the guidance provided in these and related literatures. The expected value-­ add is, when spiritual leadership values and practices blend successfully within the organizational climate, both life balance and organizational success are achieved. In addition, Meng (2016) puts forth a well-documented theory of leadership as introduced by Judge et al. (2002) and developed through Stogdill (1974) explaining the importance of the situation in determining the effectiveness of leadership. Consequently, a good leader must first be spiritually oriented to evaluate the situation and act accordingly. The challenge, as Simon (1981) suggests in The Sciences of the Artificial regarding limitations to rationality in decision-making, is that there are also dimensions of spirituality that lie above the manifestations of human boundedness. Schrage defines this saying, “A fundamental tension between rational goals and spiritual fulfillment now haunts workplaces around the world” (Schrage, 2000). One such limitation in spirituality that closely relates to bounded rationality is the notion of human error. The phrase “To err is human; to forgive, divine” is a common sentiment to human failing (Pope, 1711). Wrong doing, that is, sin, is a human reality. As such, forgiveness is an eternal decision of divine grace. Unfortunately, forgiveness is not an economic reality in business design or a solution to the effects of ill-informed management decisions. Being spiritual is also associated with other less amicable dimensions of spirituality. As referenced in Scripture, not all spirituality seeks a common good. 1 Corinthians 2:13 says, “This is what we speak, not in words taught us by human wisdom but in words taught by the Spirit, explaining spiritual realities with Spirit-­ taught words.” Although not openly communicated as such, most can relate to the definition of sin as penned by the apostle Paul in Romans 7:19: “For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want, it is what I do.” Ephesians 6:12 states that there are elements of “dark” spirituality that are at work: “For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.” This dark side of spirituality has been studied in extended work on spirituality (Burton, Jeong, & Saini, 2018; Kämmerle, Unterrainer, DahmenWassenberg, Fink, & Kapfhammer, 2014; Koteles, Simor, Czet, Arog, & Szemerszky, 2016; Schyns, Wisse, & Sanders, 2019). Considering that we are free to choose the direction of our spiritual focus, a wisdom not prone to human boundedness and error is needed.

Role and Manifestations of Mindfulness in Spirituality Consistent with the above research for the purpose this chapter, and seeing that various studies ameliorate existing leadership research, it is fair to discuss the role of mindfulness within the context of spirituality. Especially, the interest in this area lies

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in the functions of mindfulness as a precursor to the acceptance of wisdom in spiritual guidance, and the underlying reasons behind the connection and manifestations of this process. The literature germinated by researchers on mindfulness has also indicated central functions and outcomes of Mindfulness + Spirituality at work. Because our aim is to understand the role of Mindfulness + Spirituality, this research proposes a variation of a leadership model adapted from Grabovac, Lau, and Willett (2011). The central message of the new model is to understand the nature of the mind of leaders as informed by spiritual transformation. Transformation in this sense means that cognition is not biased by awareness. Further, due to unawareness, the mind works mechanically as guided by that which transcends the personal self. Moreover, the responses to events (internal as well external) are intuitive rather than choice based. However, the question arises regarding the manner in which such things happen. Along with definitions of mindfulness, mindfulness-based interventions play a critical role. First, stress, anxiety, and emotional disturbance are curtailed by mindfulness-­based interventions (Brown & Kasser, 2005; Brown & Ryan, 2003, 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 1982, 1990). Second, these interventions facilitate a nonjudgmental view and attitude of acceptance of events (Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Laurenceau, 2007; Hayes, Strosahl, & Willson, 1999; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1986; Kabat-Zinn, 1990), which are among the distinctive features of both mindfulness and spirituality. As such, Scripture informs healthy spirituality as indicated in Romans 2: 1–3: “You, therefore, have no excuse, you who pass judgment on someone else, for at whatever point you judge another, you are condemning yourself, because you who pass judgment do the same things. Now we know that God’s judgment against those who do such things is based on truth. So when you, a mere human being, pass judgment on them and yet do the same things, do you think you will escape God’s judgment?” Because, mindfulness results from four factors as indicated by Brown and Ryan (2003) and Brown et al. (2007), a steady practice of mindfulness interventions strengthens Spiritual factors where eventually there is insight into the nature of the mind. Because the practice of mindfulness can create positive conditions for transformation toward Spirituality (e.g., aversion or attachment, habitual reactions, and the ability to separate entity from the events, as in Grabovac et al., 2011), it is implied that other practices can alternately result in negative conditions of spirituality. Recent research suggests that dark personality traits, also considered “dark” spirituality, can exist in leadership (Burton et  al., 2018; Schyns et  al., 2019). Wisdom speaks to this as a condition of the heart which, as the centrality of decision-making, implies the mind: “But you are stubborn. In your heart you are not sorry for your sins. You are storing up anger against yourself… (There are some who) want glory, honor, and life that never ends. But there are others who only look out for themselves. They don’t accept the truth. They go astray. God will pour out his great anger on them. There will be trouble and suffering for everyone who does evil… But there will be glory, honor and peace for everyone who does good” (Romans 2:5–11).

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Choice is made regarding a spiritual direction. However, such choice can be informed through the positive instruction of mindfulness, which focuses on positive spirituality. Recent research in the Academy of Management Perspectives (AMP) suggests that “humans have the capability to transcend self-interest and, thus, can choose to serve others’ interests” (Neubert, 2019). Through such insight, the reception toward training and events is still optional (Siegel 2007), described here as regulated patterns of behavior. Positive leadership occurs through mindfulness training, because the mind is not biased from perception, that is, unfiltered perception (Hunter & McCormick, 2008). Such training helps individuals see reality without projections and biased mediation. Colossians 2: 8 instructs: “See to it that no one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the elemental spiritual forces of this world rather than on Christ.” In other words, intentionality toward good is aided through Spiritual teachings that are informed through Wisdom, not typically from tradition or private teachings, but through Mindfulness of Spiritual guidance. Taken together, such grounding allows individuals to decouple from experiences and emotions and other factors that lead to biased or self-serving decision-making (Glomb et al., 2011). Mindfulness training is particularly important because religious teachings alone would not guarantee effective leadership practice. In fact, training of any kind with the intent to form positive leadership traits is a necessary but not sufficient condition (see Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA), Thiem, 2018). Often, conflict in religious training can actually undermine progress in management training (Miller, 2019). Therefore, to be taught to make healthy spiritual choices guided by religious training with the intent of shaping the heart/mind and then acting accordingly are not one in the same (e.g., “Do not merely listen to the word, and so deceive yourselves. Do what it says”: James 1:22). Wisdom states that to know to do good but to choose to live otherwise is living in a state of error, that is, it is deceptive, it is sin. Sin results in suboptimal decision outcomes. If you’re brought up Jewish (Christian, or under religious instruction), don’t assume that you can lean back in the arms of your religion and take it easy, feeling smug because you’re an insider to God’s revelation, a connoisseur of the best things of God, informed on the latest doctrines! I have a special word of caution for you who are sure that you have it all together yourselves and, because you know God’s revealed Word inside and out, feel qualified to guide others through their blind alleys and dark nights and confused emotions to God. While you are guiding others, who is going to guide you?…While preaching “Don’t steal!” are you going to rob people blind? Who would suspect you? The same with adultery. The same with idolatry. You can get by with almost anything if you front it with eloquent talk about God and his law. The line from Scripture, ‘It’s because of you Jews that the outsiders are down on God,’ shows it’s an old problem that isn’t going to go away. (Romans 2: 13, 17–24).

Also, Circumcision, the surgical ritual that marks you as a Jew, is great if you live in accord with God’s law. But if you don’t, it’s worse than not being circumcised. The reverse is also true: The uncircumcised who keep God’s ways are as good as the circumcised—in fact, better.

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Better to keep God’s law uncircumcised than break it circumcised. Don’t you see: It’s not the cut of a knife that makes a Jew. You become a Jew by who you are. It’s the mark of God on your heart, not of a knife on your skin, that makes a Jew. And recognition comes from God, not legalistic critics. (Romans 2:25–29)

Many researchers have reported positive manifestations of mindfulness. As a result, mindfulness aligned with spiritual training can improve leader receptiveness to ideas, impressions, or suggestions that can lead to Spiritual transformation. For instance, mindfulness training in positive emotion (Tipsord, 2009) will help people become more resilient to the challenges of the work environment (Glomb et  al., 2011). Further, such mental resiliency could result in higher empathy (Shapiro, Brown, Thoresen, & Plante, 2011). Feelings of fellowship will improve relationship quality (Giluk, 2010), which may breed closer relationships (Kabat-Zinn, 1994) and in turn ensue relationship satisfaction (Tipsord, 2009). Eventually, such affects can lead to emotional, that is, spiritual intelligence (Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006). Such traits are regarded as decisive factors of leadership performance (see Goleman, 1998, 2000) based on Goleman’s (1996, 1998) emotional intelligence model. Moreover, such qualities will facilitate decision-making and task performance (Glomb et al., 2011). Based on the reported outcomes of mindfulness, it can be assumed that not only Goleman’s (1996) emotional intelligence characteristics (self-awareness, self-­ regulation, social skill, empathy, motivation) but also Costa Jr and McCrae’s (1992) and Costa Jr, McCrae, and Dye’s (1991) big five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) are either embedded in or influenced by mindfulness. Hence, Mindfulness + Spirituality would facilitate positive traits in leadership.

Mindfulness + Spirituality: A New Leadership Paradigm The overall goal for leadership in organizations is to make them sustainable. To achieve financial stability, growth, and global visibility, there is a call for leadership that get results (Goleman, 2000, 2004). However, developing strategies and goals that consider the personal, social, and emotional needs of people requires effective spiritual leaders. As such, effective leadership is viewed as a competitive advantage (McCall, 1998; Vieere & Fulmer, 1998). There is additional emphasis on leadership development that informs spiritual awareness and intelligence (Day, 2000; Vaughan, 2002). Vaughan defines spiritual intelligence as “… one of several types of intelligence” that can be developed relatively independently. Spiritual intelligence calls for multiple ways of knowing and for the integration of the inner life of mind and spirit with the outer life of work in the world. It can be cultivated through questing, inquiry, and practice. Spiritual experiences may also contribute to its development, depending on the context and means of integration. Spiritual maturity is expressed through wisdom and compassionate action in the world. Spiritual intelligence is necessary for discernment in making spiritual choices that contribute to psychological well-being and overall healthy human development. (Vaughan, 2002)

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The reality of corporate scandals, global financial and sociopolitical disturbance has led organizations to recognize the importance of spiritual leadership based on actions that promote positive values and compassion. Some admirable postulations of leadership are authentic leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), mindful leader/leadership (Carroll, 2008; Gonzalez, 2012), and spiritual leadership (Fry 2003, 2005). The hallmark of authentic spiritual leadership is positive psychological capital, positive ethics and moral perspective, positive modeling, positive social exchanges, and positive strength-based cultures (see Avolio, 2005; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Gardner et  al., 2005;  Avolio & Luthans, 2006). Similarly, spiritual leadership includes vision, altruistic love, and hope/faith (Fry, 2003). Further, charismatic theory incorporates elements such as articulation of goals, instilling motivation, role model of values/beliefs, and collective effort through high performance (Weber, 1947). Along the same lines, Conger and Kanungo (1988) also include vision, sensitivity to the needs of others, displaying behaviors that challenge status quo, risk taking, and sensitivity to the environment as distinctive features of charismatic or effective leadership. Thereafter, Bass (1985) includes behaviors such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, contingent reward, management by exception, active management by exception-­passive, and laissez-faire dimensions. Thus, based on the behaviors supported in these theories, it can be concluded that these traits are not naturally derived. Such Spiritual leadership is in one or the other way realized through mindfulness. Marion and Uhl-Bien (2001) emphasize that “leaders are part of the dynamic rather than being the dynamic itself.” This dynamic is, therefore, complex and situational. The decisive factor within such contexts for leaders’ performance and effectiveness is contingent. Hence, leaders must respond according to a standard that is not influenced by circumstances. Such a paradigm change in leadership can only be influenced through Mindfulness + Spirituality.

Conclusion This chapter provides a supportive perspective that Mindfulness + Spirituality can inform leadership toward positive individual and organizational outcomes. First, definitions and dimensions of leadership are broad and situational. Second, the role of leaders and leadership is important both individually and organizationally. Third, due to changing and complex global scenarios, effective and humanitarian leadership is required based on an inherent spiritual intelligence as developed through mindfulness. Fourth, mindfulness creates awareness, thereby making internal and external responses to situations more purposed, with purpose guided by Spiritual influence. Lastly, by incorporating mindfulness in leadership practice, individual and collective benefits can be attained. We conclude that Mindfulness + Spirituality as a new leadership paradigm is at its formative stage. Yet, many empirical and theoretical strides are needed to corroborate the views presented in this chapter. Hopefully, by discussing various issues related to leadership, Mindfulness + Spirituality as a new leadership paradigm is a small step in that direction.

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Finally, Mindfulness + Spirituality should not be viewed as a mandate for organizational change. Efforts to develop spiritual intelligence should be practiced individually and willfully using mindfulness interventions. As a result, Spiritual transformation as a way of life will come naturally and create the heart and mind needed for a healthy life and work environment.

Implications for Research The conclusions from this research provide opportunities for future inquiry. For example, a proposal that the present chapter makes for theory is that it may inspire scholars to advance leadership initiatives by proposing conceptual classification of Mindfulness + Spirituality as a combined leadership dimension. An additional possibility is to formulate theoretical classifications to provide empirical explanations around leadership in live organizational settings. Based on real stories and events, research may guide practice by identifying specific components that influence leaders in organizational contexts for higher performance and leadership effectiveness. The views of this work as fuel for future research are expressed in the words of Bass (1974, 1990) who suggests that “… theory and empirical research should move forward together, each stimulating, supporting, and modifying the other. Neither can stand alone. An elegant theory without prospects of elegant data gathering makes a sketchy theory. (However) Early in a line of investigation, crude data and theory may be useful.” Later, Bass (1974) continues his insight, stating that, “as understanding develops and practice improves, more stringent standards are required” (see also Bass, 1990).

Implications for Practice Shao and Skarlicki (2009) noted that to deliver positive work outcomes, mindfulness and mindfulness-based interventions have potency. As such, practitioners may incorporate mindfulness as a source of learning for individual and organizational transformation. As noted by Daft (1999, 2001), analysis of situations is vital to tailor behaviors according to events. Thus, mindfulness is fundamental to spiritual leadership training as a guide for effective decision-making. Practitioners, through effective leadership training based on mindfulness and the development of spiritual intelligence, can build a more effective leadership pipeline.

Limitations Past theoretical and empirical rigor on the construct of leadership has been very intense. Despite this, some limitations arise from the present paper. First, there is limited coverage on spiritual intelligence and leadership as informed by mindfulness. Second, further empirical exploration is required concerning how mindfulness

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impacts both positive and negative dimensions of spiritual leadership. Third, more research is needed to understand Spirituality within the context of business. Lastly, although a combined view of mindfulness + spirituality may ease the limited and conceptual coverage because it generates fair stimuli for future research and practice, this work is one of the few attempts to propose “Mindfulness + Spirituality” as a new leadership paradigm. Key Takeaways 1. Mindfulness can lead to a state of mind where Spirituality can transform individuals and organizations. 2. Spirituality defines the motivation/heart/mind of effective leadership. 3. Integration of Mindfulness and Spirituality can properly direct spiritual leadership. 4. Mindfulness must be properly defined to understand how to implement Spiritual business interventions/processes. 5. Without Mindfulness, personally directed “dark” spirituality may misdirect missional goals, misallocate resources, and mismanage people who could otherwise faithfully contribute to the organization. Reflection Questions 1. What is the difference between Mindfulness and Spirituality? How does one inform or complement the other? 2. What is the difference between Spirituality, which transcends human thought, and spirituality, which represents a personal orientation (light or dark) in spiritual thought? 3. How can we discern differences in spirituality? 4. What aspects of spirituality can enhance effective spiritual leadership? 5. How can Mindfulness help eliminate judgmental thoughts toward Spirituality?

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Improving Engagement During Times of Change

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Melissa A. Norcross and Patrick Farran

Abstract

The vast majority of change initiatives fail to meet their objectives and most decimate their organization’s levels of engagement in the process. The effect of plummeting employee engagement during turbulent times creates a downward spiral that can result in permanent damage to the organizational culture and capabilities. This phenomenon has led some to believe that change can only be achieved at the cost of employee engagement and that engagement can only be improved during periods of stability. Our work suggests that this is a false dichotomy. Through careful planning and active management, some organizations utilize these times of change to deploy strength-based, positive approaches to successfully deliver their change agenda while simultaneously cultivating greater work meaningfulness and engagement. In this chapter, we examine a case study that demonstrates, through the use of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) as one such approach, how taking on aggressive change initiatives in this manner can be leveraged as an opportunity for widescale reinvention of the organization, enabling greater work meaningfulness, engagement, and flourishing. Keywords

Organizational change · Appreciative inquiry · Work meaningfulness · Inspiration · Workforce engagement

M. A. Norcross (*) United Services Automobile Association (USAA), San Antonio, TX, USA P. Farran University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA Ad Lucem Group, Goshen, IN, USA © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_14

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Introduction We begin this chapter by looking at the challenge that organizational change poses to employee engagement. Further time is spent unpacking work meaningfulness, exploring how it is developed, and considering how it relates to and shapes organizational engagement. From there, we build on this foundation by discussing how engagement presents at each level of the organizational structure and how it improves outcomes. Through the examination of a representative case study, we demonstrate how specific organizational change approaches can be used to foster greater work meaningfulness and, we assert, increase engagement which contributes to more successful implementation of the change initiatives at hand. Organizational change is a notoriously challenging endeavor, as anyone who has spent any portion of their career as a manager knows. Yet, one certainty about all organizations is that in order to thrive over the long term, they must change and grow. Unfortunately, decades of research confirm that, despite our best efforts, failure is the most likely outcome for any given change initiative (Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990; Beer & Nohria, 2000; Kotter, 1995; Kritsonis, 2005; Lippitt, 1958; Pasmore, 2011) with some estimating failure rates at 70% or above (Burke, 2011). Additionally, even if an organization does manage to deliver against their financial, strategic, and productivity objectives, it is highly likely that it has come at a huge cost to morale (Huy, Corley, & Kraatz, 2014). This has led many practitioners and researchers alike to presume that you can have either change or engagement, but not simultaneously. Our work, which draws heavily on the work of positive organizational scholars such as Cooperrider and Srivastava (1987) and Cameron and Quinn (2011), suggests that this is a false dichotomy. When undertaken mindfully, change can provide the platform for building greater engagement and vice versa. Engagement and the factors affecting it can be difficult to isolate within an organization. Organizational culture is complex and can both affect engagement and be affected by it. Further, unique cultures and subcultures can exist within a single organization (Bunker & Alban, 1997; Cameron & Quinn, 2011; Lippitt, 1958; Pasmore, 2011; Schein, 2010). The complex and nested nature of most organizations requires change to be simultaneously managed at multiple levels – organization, department, group, unit, team, and individual (Kotter & Cohen, 2002; Lippitt, 1958; Schein, 2010). Positive organizational approaches, such as Appreciative Inquiry, that are designed to engage a wide swath of the organization in building upon the organizational strengths to co-create a desired future state have the greatest chance of delivering sustainable change by simultaneously increasing engagement.

The Challenge of Organizational Change Organizations that fail to evolve and change find themselves overcome by competitors when there are external changes in market forces, technologies, or customer expectations. Tumultuous markets, changing customer demographics, cultural shifts, regulatory changes, financial swings, and workforce changes reshape the

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competitive landscape. Effectively adapting, however, is significantly more complex when their environment is volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA), a situation faced by more and more organizations given the speed at which innovation and market changes happen in today’s world (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Horney, Pasmore, & O’Shea, 2010). In order to survive long term, organizations must successfully navigate not only a single change initiative, but the regular waves of change necessary to remain competitive, while minimizing cynicism, lethargy, complacency, and other manifestations of change fatigue among employees. Unfortunately, as the high failure rates demonstrate (Burke, 2011), mastering change is not easy, and traditional approaches to managing change have not proved the panacea that their proponents might suggest. So, organizations must now consider new ways of facilitating change, including approaches that engage a broader cross-section of the organization in ways that increase their commitment and decrease the potential for change fatigue. Engaging workers in change initiatives rather than simply issuing top-down change mandates allows employees to authentically participate, improving their levels of commitment and engagement. Real involvement in the decision-making processes associated with the change further improves the potential for successful change outcomes. Earlier and more meaningful engagement should happen in a phased way, progressing from (1) understanding the need for change, to (2) framing the change, then (3) understanding the change process, and finally (4) sustaining change outcomes (Pasmore, 2011). Allowing individuals to participate in architecting change efforts increases the likelihood that they will feel ownership and potentially be inspired by them (Morgan, 2001). Higher levels of inspiration and ownership drive positive energy and action and ultimately improve work meaningfulness (Avey, Avolio, Crossley, & Luthans, 2009). Furthermore, they reduce levels of change fatigue and cynicism associated with mandated or poorly managed change efforts.

 stablishing a Model for Work Meaningfulness, Engagement, E and Successful Organizational Outcomes Defining Work Meaningfulness People inherently seek meaningfulness in their lives (Frankl, 1959; Yeoman, 2014). However, most people struggle to achieve and sustain a sense of meaningfulness in their work, particularly amidst a barrage of change initiatives imposed from the top down within an organization. This is troubling given the amount of time we spend at work and the prevalence of failed change initiatives. A lack of work meaningfulness and failed change initiatives tends to become a self-feeding cycle that perpetuates both conditions. Our research suggests that there is a better way to execute change that results in improved meaningfulness and successful change initiatives. Before going further, it is helpful to establish the definition for work meaningfulness that we use for this chapter. We also want to note that we use work

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meaningfulness and meaningful work synonymously to describe the level of p­ urpose and significance that work holds for an individual (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010). Because individuals themselves attribute work meaningfulness, personal values and priorities impact its assessment, including attributes of the work, the organization, the culture, the organization’s mission, or the organization’s customer (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003).

Creating Meaningful Work Because of this, work meaningfulness can be developed in a variety of ways in and across an organization. In some organizations, the mission may provide an inherent sense of meaningfulness for some members. Other organizations may find that their employees experience meaningfulness via relationships with coworkers, common goals, or the ability to balance time at work with other meaningful activities. Because meaningfulness is something that is attributed by each unique individual (Wrzesniewski, Dutton, & Debebe, 2003), there are many different sources of work meaningfulness (Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Rosso et al., 2010). Even workers in the most stigmatized or unpleasant situations can find a sense of meaningfulness in their work (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999; Lips-Wiersma, Wright, & Dik, 2016). Regardless of their missions or the type of work they undertake, organizations can cultivate an environment which nurtures meaningful work context (Yeoman, 2014) and builds positive relationships between the workers and the work (Wrzesniewski, 2003). While corporations would like to provide meaningful work to their employees, the intensely personal and individual nature of connecting to a task means that what may be engaging or meaningful to one worker may not be to another (Wrzesniewski et  al., 2003). Furthermore, the multidimensional factors associated with making work meaningful, even at the individual level, result it in being difficult to understand and influence, much less manage (Both-Nwabuwe, Dijkstra, & Beersma, 2017). Despite being highly personal, job meaning is most frequently derived through an interactive, interpersonal sensemaking process at work that involves interaction with others (Wrzesniewski et al., 2003). The sensemaking process draws upon collective storytelling and visualizing (Baumeister & Vohs, 2002; Maitlis & Lawrence, 2007; Rosso et al., 2010; Sonenshein, 2006; Weick, 1995). Meaningful work can be a challenge to both create and sustain, and it is a shared responsibility between individuals and the organizations of which they are a part (Farran, 2018). Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2018) provide a model suggesting that meaningful work is created via four primary pathways: Integrity of Self, Unity with Others, Serving Others, and Expressing Full Potential. In their model, these pathways are held in tension to maintain balance between Self and Others as well as Being and Doing and manifest themselves within the context of Inspiration and the Reality of our Self and our Circumstances (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2018). Because

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inspiration is a powerful life force with significant prospective benefits, it is no ­surprise that, within their model for experiencing greater meaningfulness, it serves as the central magnetizing core that “breathes life into, stimulates, animates and lifts us up” (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2018, p.85). Our research and theorizing explore how to support the creation of greater work meaningfulness and corresponding engagement within the context of a case study using Appreciative Inquiry, which we will discuss further in a bit.

Work Meaningfulness Impact on Engagement Organizations that cultivate work meaningfulness find that it improves their ability to successfully execute organizational change initiatives (Steger, Dik, & Duffy, 2012). However, building meaningfulness during times of change must be undertaken judiciously, as there is also the potential to erode rather than enhance work meaningfulness. Because meaningful work has significant impact on a variety of organizational outcomes, there are important implications and benefits for the organization as a whole (Rosso et al., 2010). As meaningfulness rises, so do prosocial behaviors (e.g., helping others) which strengthen relationships (Hooper, 2016; Van Tongeren, Green, Davis, Hook, & Hulsey, 2016; Weinstein & Ryan, 2010), leading to richer organizational networks. As individuals, when we experience work meaningfulness, we find it easier to make a connection and truly engage. On an individual basis, high levels of work meaningfulness contribute to individual job satisfaction (Wrzesniewski et  al., 1997), job performance (Allan, Duffy, & Collisson, 2018; Grant, 2008; Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Wrzesniewski, 2003), personal fulfillment (Kahn, 2007), and worker identification with the organization (Pratt, Rockmann, & Kaufmann, 2006), all contributing factors to employee engagement. The direct impact of work meaningfulness upon engagement has been confirmed empirically via multiple studies in a variety of contexts (May, Gilson, & Harter, 2004). Worker engagement was found to rise with increasing work meaningfulness and act as a conduit for the effects of empowering leadership in multiple geographic and organizational contexts (Kindipan, 2017; Lee, Idris, & Delfabbro, 2017). A similar relationship between engagement and meaningful work was observed in a study of ethical leadership; however, it strengthened the case for meaningful work as a pathway by demonstrating the strengthening effect it had upon engagement (Demirtas, Hannah, Gok, Arslan, & Capar, 2017). The case is strengthened by considering the established relationship between engagement and contributing factors of work meaningfulness, including self-efficacy (Prouty, 2017) and calling (Hirschi, 2012). Further supporting the meaningfulness-engagement connection, meaningful work allows employees to be more tolerant of distress and less likely to experience burnout (Leiter & Harvie, 1997; Williams, 2017), both factors associated with engagement.

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Engagement Drives Performance Engagement has long been a popular construct for human resources professionals globally; however, it has been only in the last decade that consistent definitions and research on the constructs have allowed us to begin to develop a shared understanding of engagement and its impact (Kahn, 1990; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Shuck & Wollard, 2010). In their detailed analysis, Macey and Schneider (2008) moved our understanding of employee engagement forward by demonstrating how engagement can be expressed as a trait, state, or behavior: 1. The trait of having a positive disposition toward work that facilitates the tendency to be positive, adaptive, and energetic at work (Macey & Schneider, 2008). 2. The psychological state of feeling connected, affirmed by their work connected to people’s personal satisfaction (Towers-Perrin, 2003). 3. The observable behavior in which individuals expend discretionary effort (Kahn, 1990). Every person is affected differently by their work attributes and environment (Macey & Schneider, 2008). As a result, each individual’s engagement may experience a particular state of psychological engagement that differs from their peers’, despite experiencing the same stimuli. As a result, understanding true levels of ­psychological engagement requires observation of each individual and a deeper understanding of their current state (Macey & Schneider, 2008). The complexity of understanding engagement requires studying all three of the above elements in order to fully grasp an employee’s true level of engagement (Kahn, 1990; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Shuck & Wollard, 2010; Towers-Perrin, 2003). Because increasing or decreasing any one of the three elements of engagement will have a resulting effect on the others (Macey & Schneider, 2008), it is possible to establish the relationship between engagement and other constructs such as performance and work meaningfulness. Therefore, let us turn to the connection between engagement and performance, leveraging data from studies of engagement to do so. Engagement has been shown to positively impact organizational performance (Crumpton, 2018; Luthans & Peterson, 2002; Young & Steelman, 2017). In addition, studies in a wide array of organizational climates and cultures show that performance and retention improve with engagement (Crawford, LePine, & Rich, 2010; Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Idris, Dollard, & Tuckey, 2015; Kindipan, 2017; Kompaso & Sridevi, 2010; Lee et al., 2017; Saks, 2006). In addition, during times of significant organizational change, engaged employees are more likely to be receptive toward change initiatives (Leiter & Harvie, 1997). Unfortunately, workplace engagement is in a sorry state, with Gallup (2017) reporting levels hovering at 33% on average, which have real financial impacts associated with absenteeism, profit, sales, and productivity. Therefore, organizations that can cultivate meaningfulness and effectively impact engagement stand to make real strategic impact. Employee voice has been shown to contribute to higher levels of engagement (Rees, Alfes, & Gatenby, 2013). It is, therefore, critical to consider the roles that voice and empowerment play in enabling organizations to

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Work Meaningfulness

Engagement

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Improved Performance

Fig. 14.1  Meaningfulness, engagement, and improved performance

contribute to more meaningful work experiences (Bailey & Madden, 2016; Srivastava, Bartol, & Locke, 2006; Wood & De Menezes, 2011). Participative organizational practices such as Appreciative Inquiry can increase work engagement (Kwon, Farndale, & Park, 2016).

 ummarizing: Why Work Meaningfulness Matters S in Organizational Change In addition to the moral, ethical, and humanistic arguments for the importance of organizations in supporting work meaningfulness and engagement, it simply makes good business sense to do so. As we have discussed, work meaningfulness has the power to drive improved employee engagement (Hirschi, 2012; Lee et  al., 2017; Steger & Dik, 2010). In turn, engagement impacts organizational outcomes, including improving the likelihood of success for change initiatives (Leiter & Harvie, 1997; Pratt & Ashforth, 2003; Rosso et al., 2010). This process is illustrated in our working model (Fig. 14.1) which depicts the impact of meaningfulness on organizational outcomes via engagement.

 ppreciative Inquiry as an Approach to Enhanced Work A Meaningfulness, Engagement, and Organizational Outcomes Appreciative Inquiry offers one such method to achieving greater work meaningfulness, engagement, and organizational outcomes through the process as outlined above. An appreciative mode opens up our ability to discover new “possibilities that can enrich our existence and give it meaning” (Cooperrider & Srivastava, 1987, p. 164). Contrast this with traditional problem-solving approaches in which practitioners execute against standard diagnostic checklists and processes which lay the foundation for “ameaningful” thinking (Cooperrider & Srivastava, 1987; Koch, 1981). This limits the potential of positive impact of change efforts, and as Cooperrider and Srivastava (1987) summarize, it is … important to recognize that the problem-solving method of organizational inquiry … paints a picture of organizational life in which a whole series of colors are considered untouchable. In this way the totality of being is obviously obscured, leading to a narrowed conception of human nature and cultural possibility. (p. 155)

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One alternative approach to orchestrating change that has the potential to create meaningfulness and generative possibility is Appreciative Inquiry (AI). Research on AI summit interventions supports their effectiveness in cultivating opportunities for greater work meaningfulness (Farran, 2018). In AI, organizational changes are considered opportunities to be embraced rather than problems to be solved, which opens up a new set of possibilities for working together. This way of framing the situation creates the conditions in which people can experience a greater sense of unity with others, allowing participants to work together to create a more engaging future (Ludema, Whitney, Mohr, & Griffin, 2003) and improve organizational outcomes by cultivating greater work meaningfulness. Furthermore, because AI is a bottom-up rather than a top-down organizational change practice, it enables employees to have a voice and feel empowered. Given the comprehensive nature of AI and its ability to span multiple pathways to work meaningfulness, it is an effective forum in which to facilitate widespread change while improving employee engagement. Let us now take a look at a specific case study and corresponding outcomes of an organization (Gridmax) that employs this approach.

Case Study: Gridmax Energy’s Approach to Change Gridmax Case Overview The Gridmax Energy case brings to life many of the concepts we have discussed thus far and provides a foundation for subsequent points. It illustrates how Appreciative Inquiry can have significant impact on organizational results while improving employee engagement. Positive organizational approaches such as AI allow work meaningfulness and engagement to grow during these periods of change in several different ways. Gridmax Energy is a multistate energy distribution company located in the United States. Their information technology (IT) services group has struggled to innovate and provide the level of service expected by their internal stakeholders, resulting in frustration across the company and dissatisfaction inside the IT services department. A new executive, Anne Jones, has recently taken on leadership of the group and has been tasked with turning the situation around, fundamentally changing how IT does business. Faced with low levels of engagement inside the department and such a major organizational change on the horizon, Anne knows that she needs to both deliver change and improve engagement in order to succeed long term. In an effort to achieve this, she decides to engage the entire organization in an Appreciative Inquiry summit facilitated by a small group of change consultants.

Gridmax Planning Working together with the consultants, Gridmax Energy’s senior IT leaders and Anne establish a common understanding of the overall objectives and create the affirmative topic around which the group will coalesce. While the group originally

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viewed their objective as finding a “sustainable fix” for the “broken” automation and compliance processes, the AI process reframed this into the positive topic which would be the focus of the summit – “Amped-up automation: empowering our people to reimagine how we deliver secure and compliant service and value.” With this focus agreed upon, a team of 20 people from different levels and parts of the organization is selected to plan and design the summit. Together with the consultants, this team plans and designs a summit agenda that meets the needs and aspirations of the “whole system” of stakeholders. This approach to architecting and executing the AI summit sets the stage for a positive focus and widespread participation that creates the foundation for this unique approach which can simultaneously deliver both change and engagement.

Gridmax AI Summit The AI Summit itself was attended by 66 participants over the course of 3 days during which the participants themselves unpacked their own experiences inside the company, assessed their strengths, envisioned a new future together, and architected a change plan complete with teams and objectives. More importantly, they shared experiences that created greater individual and collective work meaningfulness as they laid a new and stronger cultural foundation. The AI four-step process of discovering their positive core, dreaming about the future, designing a new reality, and putting a plan together to deliver it (Cooperrider & Srivastava, 1987) was not a dry or mechanical exercise. During this summit, participants engaged in a high-energy, creative, and joy-infused set of exercises that allowed them to create their own future. In one session, participants doubled over with laughter as they watched members perform skits highlighting potential initiatives that ranged from game shows to catwalk comedy. Even the more rigid managers showed off their extreme sides and brought the group to their knees as they danced, impersonated, and did any number of ridiculous things, much to the shock and delight of their compatriots.

Measuring Work Meaningfulness Our research utilized the quantitative Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale (CMWS) developed by Lips-Wiersma and Wright (2012) that measures the dimensions these eight dimensions mentioned in the preceding section (i.e., Integrity of Self, Unity with Others, Serving Others, Expressing Full Potential, Balance of Self and Others, Balance of Being and Doing, Inspiration, and Reality of our Self and our Circumstances). These same dimensions comprise the Map of Meaning model (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2018) that can be used for qualitative reflections. Both of these instruments were used within the Gridmax case study to measure the effects of Appreciative Inquiry on Work Meaningfulness for the participants in this study. The CMWS was administered before the study to establish a baseline and following the AI intervention. The interviews that utilized the Map of Meaning followed the AI intervention as well and supplemented the quantitative findings.

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Gridmax Results Following the AI Summit, participant CMWS total scores measuring experienced Work Meaningfulness improved, particularly along the dimensions of Unity with Others, Inspiration, and Expressing Full Potential (Farran, 2018). Participants were energized – some reported even returning to their day jobs feeling refreshed despite facing piles of accumulated work (Farran, 2018). They also returned to work having built measurably stronger working relationships that transcended organizational functions, roles, and levels. In fact, the culture change pre- and postsummit was dramatic. Prior to the summit, when the IT staff gathered to discuss the 3-year strategic plan, the meetings turned into complaint sessions in which the lack of trust for managers and empowerment of staff was palpable. Fast forward to a few months postsummit: those same meetings were now productive sessions absent the negativity that had previously plagued them. There was also tangible progress made during the summit that could be carried forward immediately. Change initiatives that were identified at the summit were presented just a few weeks later to executive sponsors during a company-wide meeting for integration into the organization’s strategic plans. The teams that presented them had made extraordinary progress and exhibited a level of buy-in and energy that one individual described as “phenomenal.” In addition, what participants learned about how to approach challenges impacted nearly everything they did. They were so impacted by their experiences with the optimal positive-to-­ negative ratios suggested by Gottman and Levenson (1999) that they made and posted “5:1” placards on all of their office spaces as a reminder. In postsummit interviews, participants cited the brainstorming sessions and the strategic opportunity map creating as among the exercises that improved their work meaning. One participant summed up what she viewed as the most impactful aspects of the experience, stating that the AI Summit has been the single most meaningful experience in her career. When asked what made the experience so meaningful, she cited … Watching the employees transition from who I know they are to them being excited about work and providing value. The new leadership that I saw emerge. Just the positivity that was in the room compared to what it was before the event. That hit me for so long. I’ve still been excited about that event [weeks later] and can’t stop talking about it. In my entire life, that was probably the most meaningful [career experience].

For another participant, it allowed her to engage at unprecedented levels: … I’ll say that the off-site [summit] that we had was one of the more engaging activities that I’ve been involved in my 12–13 years at Gridmax … I felt like I’ve not seen that [level of engagement and energy] at Gridmax [before] …

Yet another employee, with one foot out the door having already interviewed for a position outside the organization, decided to stay following the summit. There can be no clearer statement about the validity of an approach to change than to be able

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to say that it effectively created career high points and transformed the experiences of disengaged employees to the point that they were actively engaged with newfound work meaningfulness.

 iscussion: Exploring How Appreciative Inquiry Supports D the Creation of Work Meaningfulness Appreciative Inquiry creates a fertile environment in which meaningfulness can grow by balancing inspiration and reality. Within the Map of Meaning, Inspiration serves as the central magnetizing core but it must be bound by reality, allowing us to stay grounded (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2018). Inspiration in the absence of reality results in lack of credibility, while reality in the absence of inspiration results in cynicism, apathy, and disengagement. Therefore, the appropriate balance between Inspiration and the Realities of Self and Circumstances is critical to any initiative meant to develop meaning and, in turn, engagement.

Connecting Reality to Aspirations Participants in Gridmax Energy’s summit had the opportunity to take stock of the organization’s positive core and embrace its untapped potential, all while acknowledging the need for organizational change. Appreciative Inquiry allowed participants to balance inspiration and reality, thereby creating a space within which meaningfulness could flourish (Farran, 2018). AI creates an environment where inspiration can be generated which, in turn, allows participants to enhance performance, generate more creative options, and improve problem solution generation (An & Youn, 2018; Smith & Futrell, 2014).

Supporting Mindfulness Certain aspects of Appreciative Inquiry support intentional mindfulness at both the organizational and the individual levels. For instance, setting aside day-to-day business for a large group of participants to come together to take time to recall, reflect, and share high point experiences is, in itself, a mindful practice. In addition, many of the AI practices themselves are mindful, including the reflective ­process associated with the discovery phase. Because mindfulness has been demonstrated to improve engagement and create immunity to burnout at work (Geller, Krasner, & Korones, 2010; Hülsheger, Alberts, Feinholdt, & Lang, 2013 and Leroy, Anseel, Dimitrova, & Sels, 2013), AIs impact on mindfulness must not be underestimated.

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Creating Energy Appreciative Inquiry employs both left- and right-brain activities, allowing participants to be creative, experience moments of joy and fun, and embrace their own humanity. Many of the skits and activities brought creative energy into the room and broke down walls that had existed for years. It allowed participants to be more “human” and gave them permission to engage more fully and authentically at work. The ability to unlock this side of themselves allowed them to embrace an additional generative and innovative capacity that had not been present before.

Unlocking New Solutions The brainstorming process, which builds on creative exercises and skits and applies the principles of design thinking, creates an environment in which new solutions emerge. In fact, participants often cited the brainstorming sessions and the strategic opportunity map exercises as experiences that affected their work meaningfulness most significantly. The process supports an environment that is rife with greater creativity and innovation. This ultimately leads to greater expression of full potential, a significant pathway to increased Work Meaningfulness, increased engagement, and improved organizational outcomes in the form of more robust business solutions.

 reating a Shared Vision and Strengthening Coworker C Relationships AI summits allow participants to engage with the group in order to set a new direction and co-create a shared vision of the future. This approach to driving change also has the added benefit of strengthening relationships between coworkers as they focus on common goals. Bringing together large portions of the organization and allowing them to work together in nontraditional but meaningful ways improves the acceptance of new perspectives and styles, promotes inclusivity, and improves the sense of belonging. This cultivates a stronger collaboration that extends beyond the summit itself and begins to build stronger bonds and break down silos. This theme relates to the particular pathway of Unity with Others in the CMWS and Map of Meaning as a means for creating greater Work Meaningfulness.

Creating Greater Voice, Empowerment, and Commitment As any parent will attest, after having negotiated with a toddler or a teenager, children tend to embrace the things that are their ideas and resist those things that are forced upon them. This is simply how we are wired as people and is not something we outgrow. As such, the very practice of allowing participants to take a hand in

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shaping their change initiative allows them to embrace rather than resist or simply accept change. Because AI facilitates change through identifying initiatives and allowing participants to self-select where they spend their time and energy, it also provides an opportunity for job crafting. In addition, the group-level dynamic also allows for collaborate job crafting that strengthens the organizational culture and builds a greater sense of work meaningfulness (Luu, 2017; Mäkikangas, Aunola, Seppälä, & Hakanen, 2016; Mäkikangas, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2017; McClelland, Leach, Clegg, & McGowan, 2014; Tims, Bakker, Derks, & van Rhenen, 2013). Built into the AI process is a heightened level of voice and empowerment experienced by participants. This, in turn, leads to greater commitment to the change initiative. Team members who participate in change initiatives that include AI summits express sentiments of being heard and valued, while also feeling as if leadership was being transparent and trustworthy. Part of this stems from the fact that all levels of the organization participate as peers in these sessions, working side-by-­ side as a single team. Furthermore, because individuals choose the initiatives they will work on during the summit, they leave the room caring about and fostering a deep commitment to enacting these changes. These themes contribute to the Expressing Full Potential, Unity with Others, and Inspiration dimensions within the CMWS and Map of Meaning as a means for cultivating greater Work Meaningfulness.

Improving Performance Appreciative Inquiry engages individuals in the change process, allowing them to consider their current reality while embracing an inspired future. AI has the ability to cultivate work meaningfulness by generating inspiration – “a trait or state, triggered by internal or external stimuli, which is characterized by evocation, motivation, and transcendence” (Thrash & Elliott, 2003, p. 871). Recent research highlights that enhanced outcomes linked to inspiration, including the ability to enhance performance, generate more creative options, and improve problem solution generation (An & Youn, 2018; Smith & Futrell, 2014). Adopting the AI mindset and practices can have overarching impacts on performance and fundamentally change the way in which organizations operate. These approaches involve the entire organization, encouraging those at all levels to actively participate. In practice, it means that staff is more likely to “opt-in” because they were engaged both early and deeply. As a result, participants typically report a greater sense of community, management observes an energized workforce, and the culture typically shifts toward one that supports greater work meaningfulness. The net result is that change initiatives in which AI summits or similar positivist approaches are used provide an opportunity to connect to a greater sense of hope, purpose, or inspiration. As demonstrated in the Map of Meaning (Lips-Wiersma & Morris, 2018), inspiration cannot only directly impact work meaningfulness in and of itself, but can also drive meaningfulness indirectly via each of the other pathways.

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Implications for Practice and Research Organizational change typically creates disengagement in a work force, often making leaders feel as if they must choose between necessary change and workforce engagement – a “no win” choice if ever there was one. Appreciative Inquiry, and its ability to deliver both change and improved engagement, allows the choice to be seen for the false dichotomy that it is. AI’s potential to generate change while improving Inspiration, Unity with Others, and Expressions of Full Potential demonstrates the multiple paths through which AI can positively impact meaning. Work meaningfulness, in turn, has been shown to drive higher levels of engagement, higher levels of commitment, an increased sense of accomplishment and growth, higher levels of morale and well-being, greater job enjoyment, lower levels of intention to quit, and improved performance (Bailey, Yeoman, Madden, Thompson, & Kerridge, 2016). AI can improve work meaningfulness, engagement, and ultimately performance through the process shown in Fig. 14.2. The above model provides a construct supported by both theoretical and empirical published works. As a next step, large-scale quantitative testing should be performed at several different points in time with organizations undertaking change initiatives. Consistent measures for work meaningfulness, engagement, and organizational change measurements should be implemented as part of the methodology. Appreciative Inquiry is but one option in a whole range of positive organizational interventions that can be tested, each of which may have a similar positive effect on meaningfulness and engagement. Further study of these alternate approaches that currently provide significant promise in current positive organizational practice is worth pursuing as a basis for comparison and a deeper understanding of their impact to employee engagement and organizational outcomes. Chapter Takeaways 1. The commonly held belief that organizations can pursue either change or employee engagement, but not both simultaneously, is fundamentally flawed. 2. Change initiatives that incorporate appreciative methods drive engagement while improving performance. 3. Appreciative Inquiry develops shared experiences and vision-creation, stronger coworker relationships, improved mindfulness, and greater empowerment and commitment – all of which foster work meaningfulness.

Appreciative Inquiry-Based Change Programs

Work Meaningfulness

Engagement

Improved Performance

Fig. 14.2  AI’s contribution to work meaningfulness and performance during organizational change

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4. Employees who participate in AI-based change processes are more “bought in” to the organization’s change agenda. 5. Adopting the AI mindset and practices can have overarching impacts on performance and fundamentally change the way organizations operate. Reflection Questions 1. What makes achieving both engagement and change simultaneously so challenging? 2. What are the unique aspects of an AI-based approach that make it possible to deliver both change and engagement? 3. How might another organization adapt the AI approach that Gridmax used in order to pursue different types of change or performance improvements? 4. How could organizations better plan their change initiatives to take advantage of the meaningfulness → engagement → performance process? 5. Of the many ways in which work meaningfulness can be improved, what might be the most effective to tap into when attempting to implement change?

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Collaborative and Spiritual Inquiry: Positive Leadership in Organizational Change and Higher Education

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Sonya Sharififard, Charles Opong, and Asia Ghazi

Abstract

This chapter explores the structural, oral, and attitudinal aspects of positive organizational change strategies among leadership by addressing and analyzing the paradigms of leadership and how they connect to organizational change management (Cameron. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 44(1):7–24, 2008). Specifically, the authors sought to determine how women encounter, serve, and work within organizational structures and understand the levels of discourse present in elevating personal and professional identities for future leadership efforts and contributions in the workplace. This analysis focuses on positive leadership and the outcomes of assumed, administered, and perceived changes. The authors recommend that institutions of higher education must articulate and develop an environment where academics can be nurtured and exposed to a more broadened range of professional experiences from the beginning of their employment and continue their spiritual development as an investment to enable the development of potential leaders. The authors further suggest that educators who seek a place to enhance aspects of their leadership formally acquired through personal life histories should also promote the acquisition of new leadership experiences among the human resources, political, and referential contexts when practicing mindfulness in the workplace. Keywords

Leadership · Positive change · Spirituality · Management · Human resources

S. Sharififard (*) · C. Opong · A. Ghazi Pepperdine University, Los Angeles, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_15

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Introduction Career trajectories and the preparation of the lived experiences of a leader, with the transition from an academic to a corporate or entrepreneurial role, is likely to depend on several encounters and periods of distinguishable dyads and transformative interactions. However, the preceding steps to becoming a leader, or transitioning to a position of influence, often begin in higher education settings. Institutions of higher education, becoming more responsive to spirituality, leadership (Schockman, Heath & Sharififard, 2018) and the motivation to succeed in curricular collaborations that allow educators, entrepreneurs, and professionals to prepare for successful careerism and inclusivity. As the educator portrays the role of a researcher and a practitioner, he/she understands that their lived experiences within the classroom are linked to the paradigms of humanity, which requires a unique understanding of individuals who have experienced disadvantaged situations and persistent marginalization. Practicing a spiritual task is known to develop a sense of humility and openness for researchers and students who have fundamentally been affected by the circumstances of their community, their neighborhoods, their businesses, and their educational institutions to achieve a sense of reciprocity. The reciprocal relationships and fundamental goals designated in the classroom will help sustain a model of establishing a leader identity. The identities of students as leaders and researchers as influencers must be incorporated in the curriculum to help identify the pedagogies, knowledge sharing, and inquiry practices of research and discourse that affect the teaching and identifications of spirituality in the institution. Leaders equipped with the knowledge, trust, and skills to assist them in their leadership roles will elevate their reflective practices used to articulate their call to leadership and scholarship while maintaining positions of influence. When they are faced with new challenges and dilemmas, what they have learned through educational narratives will be as important and recognizable as what they have learned from past failures and successes. If their approaches and phenomenon to traditional and overarching tasks and outcomes are not implicitly positive, what would be known to have have been problematic can be subsided with the levels of conscientious leadership. Much of what has been learned will require conscious changes, or unlearning, to leadership styles if the dyadic qualities and situations of past experiences have enabled specific capabilities of the leader to accomplish or pursue as a student. Ensuring the motivation, retention, and promotion of effective leadership will affect others toward assessing their values and spiritual self-efficacy within the realm of higher education. When students are aware of the inner spirituality and motivation of becoming a leader, they can reflect and review how well they are achieving their goals, and specify initiatives and indicators of change to maintain effective working relationships with their peers and instructors. At the same time, individuals must also articulate the types of actions which are helpful, meaningful, influential, as well as unhelpful. They must also ascertain which types of behaviors should be either continued or changed to improve the working relationships of how students work as

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team members, and as professionals in their area of work, their studies, and their curriculum such that the interpersonal and intrapersonal skills are developed. There are cognitive activities and interpersonal responses that can emerge when educators promote learning, such as discussing concepts in the classroom and the professoriate and connecting their present narratives with traditionally known forms of oral communication and educative concepts. Since cooperation and self-­ recognized identities can be interrelated to achieve a desired goal, the processes and skills critical to managing leadership identities constructively are essential to the long-term success of learning the intended desires and outcomes. Without the ability to interact in conversations inclusive of dialog that is reflective of the attitudinal and behavioral elements of leadership, students may become indifferent or demotivated by the lack of opportunities and personal networks, and subsequently fail to oversee their accountability. To establish a positive leadership dynamism, individuals must be clear about their intentions and evaluate how they will implement their goals. Personal accountability can only exist when those who may have needed personalized or individual attention and motivation are encouraged and supported to share authentic models of behavior where growth is consistent with leveraging purpose. Students with narratives of experiences with cultural insensitivity and cultural exclusion may opt to seek personalized educational opportunities that will help them improve their participation, and increase collaboration in the quality of the environments they will be contributors and leaders. When individuals are provided the opportunity to conceptualize their cognitive advantages in transitioning from academia to employment and develop shared mental models of complex phenomena, they become less likely to struggle with reinforcing misconceptions about their collective leadership styles. An understanding of the reciprocal forms of dialog and transparency prompts a dynamism where the behavior of one individual exceeds the ethical consciousness of spiritual and purposive intellect.

Positive Leadership Positive leadership has become more popular due to the theme of empowerment – ensuring that the community or employees of an organization are flourishing, exhibiting positive behavior patterns, and having a dynamic network. While mostly optimistically oriented, positive leadership is a theory that is the methodically integrated appearance of leadership traits, behaviors, and outcomes which are uplifting, extraordinary, and uphold the idea of progressive aptitude (Youssef-Morgan & Luthans, 2013). The performance of the individual is perceived in a positive aspect because the outcomes have excessively gone beyond what is expected within the direction of the organization and the culture. Achievements are extraordinary because the prominence is on strengths, proficiencies, and opportunities instead of the weaknesses, problems, and hazards which would generally be examined in any organization or community (Youssef-Morgan & Luthans, 2013). Positive leadership is viewed from the perception of subordinates, colleagues, and subjects to a person

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in a leadership position. According to Cameron (2008), positive leadership uses scientific substantiations grounded in academic research within the organization for the sake of positive results. Positive leadership is lived experiences from the perspective of the leader and how they institute positive emotional intelligence to the person(s) they serve or are considered superior to (Cameron, 2008). If an organization considers the inquiry of a female and what her plans are for an organization with major scrutiny and does not consider the same situation for a male, it is considered flawed and inequitable for any of its employees to assume a position within that organization under that type of leadership (Cameron, 2008). Because positive leadership is inclusive of its constituents and the community at large, it is critical for women to be recognized for their style of leadership and effectiveness at leading. Women’s leadership styles are distinctively different than men’s leadership styles in many ways. As women began entering the corporate world more than 50 years ago, women initially imitated the behaviors and characteristics of their male counterparts to achieve their leadership status. This occurred mainly so they had the ability to be recognized as leaders which also led to females becoming more masculine, pushing back the feminine qualities that were a benefit for effective leadership. Many women working in executive corporate positions also dressed similarly to men to mimic masculine leadership (Stanford et al., 1995) and some continue this symbolic action to this day. As women began to shed the masculine leadership style and commenced accepting their more feminine qualities of nurturing, empathy, collaboration and enhanced communication, the traits and styles began to change. Leadership theorists emphasized women having an advantage as leaders due to their feminine leadership qualities (Stanford et al., 1995). An empirical female leadership model was founded by Stanford et al. (1995) based on interviews with 12 participants in a study conducted to find the heuristic leadership styles of women executives. The model showed six steps interwoven together: (1) A visionary who… (2) facilitates communication; (3) involves employees in team building; (4) prefers referent or reward power bases; (5) inspires and motivates; and (6) fosters mutual trust and respect (Stanford et al., 1995). Furthermore, in the last 29 years, women have been developing a more nontraditional style of leadership which draws from their shared experiences and their collaborative nature. As a result, effective positive leadership was better achieved through the more feminine characteristics which were unheard of in the past (Rosener, 1990). While leadership styles and values have progressed, women are seen as more transformational in their leadership styles versus men who are more transactional with the way they lead (Rosener, 1990). As such, women executives have had their share of advantages and challenges while staying within their leadership roles and have had to learn how to overcome their challenges while perusing their strengths to be more effective, and positive leaders. It is important to consider women in leadership in this study as they have diverse leadership styles, with their individual strengths and challenges they must learn to overcome as they lead their followers. While negative situations are given more energy and thought due to being perceived as threats, the more positive the interactions and intentional behaviors, the

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more the adverse circumstances begin to diminish. Positive leadership does not negate the negative aspect of issues that do occur and must be critically resolved. What it does is create a broader sense of what a leader should do to promote positivity even during difficult times. An organization or a community works better and exceeds goals because of the drive toward achieving a shared vision despite the obstacles that may emerge. Challenges and affirmations create a developmental process of extraordinary efficiency. When leaders find themselves in a hardship, intentional action and behaviors to overcome the trials exceeding above and beyond the norms of expectation create the positive development which is instrumental to success (Youssef-Morgan & Luthans, 2013). When organizational change occurs and setbacks are more likely to happen, positive leadership comes to the forefront. A leader who can diminish the challenges and turn them into opportunities to teach and lead will see the good of their service during the time of transition, and observe the organizational change as the process of growth and evolvement of both the employees and the organization. This is also true in communities that deal with the changes which affect all stakeholders. Ultimately, it is important for both positive and negative responses to occur, as this allows for the positive change to ensue. A study was conducted on the employees’ opinion of leadership in a company facing organizational change. The conceptual framework of this study was on understanding the employee perceptions of their leaders using the positive leadership, or authentic leadership model with Kurt Lewin’s three-step model to ensure employees’ inclination for change. The study adopted Lewin’s three-step model by critically analyzing the lack of leader–follower relationships in that model (Bakari, Hunjra, & Niazi, 2017). A new three-step model representing the influence of employee perceptions of leadership during times of change was created through the use of Lewin’s three steps  – unfreezing, moving, and refreezing. Unfreezing, according to Lewin’s model, is the beginning of the process of change. However, unfreezing is understandable as the readiness stage for change in the new model proposed. For any organizational transition to be successful, leaders should better comprehend the humanistic needs of the organization and its followers for commitment and readiness in dealing with change. For change to occur in organizations and communities and positive leadership to flourish, leaders must comprehend what the needs of their followers are. It is imperative to understand the role of the follower and how this affects the role of the leader. According to Barbara Kellerman (2007), followers are rebellious and may not always follow their leaders. Many uprisings occurred as the dependency lessened on leaders. History has proved time and time again that followers do not consider themselves to be followers. Instead, they make choices and oust ineffective leaders to support positive leaders while believing in themselves as free agents (Kellerman, 2007). Kellerman (2007) discovered the types of followers that leaders should be familiar with, typologized as “isolates, bystanders, participants, activists, and diehards”. These typologies are important to  understanding how engaged followers interact with their leaders. Isolates are passive and are unaware of their surroundings. They are passive followers who follow the norms of the organization or community and

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are detached, hiding, (Kellerman, 2007) and are not conducive toward a positive environment, nor are they partners in organizations which follow positive leadership. Bystanders are disengaged and may be more likely to show an unwillingness toward taking an interest in taking action and leading change. They have the propensity to deliberately avoid social and confrontational settings  unless it is for their self-interests (Kellerman, 2007). Participants care about the impact they make and work with the leader, although their engagement is still considered at a lower level (Kellerman, 2007). However, they can cause problems if they complicate the relationship between leaders, as participants are either supportive of or rebellious against leaders, contingent on the cause. On the other hand, activists are highly engaged and can work with their leaders, or overpower them if leaders are not doing a good job of leading the organization or the community (Kellerman, 2007). Finally, diehards are on the other end of the spectrum of isolates. They can be extremely loyal to their leaders, or they can be loyal to the idea of ousting the leader they dislike (Kellerman, 2007). Knowing these types of followers is imperative for a leader to encourage positive leadership, and to build a framework for relationship building with a dynamic empowerment ideology. It is essential for organizations and communities that are undergoing significant transformational changes, such as mergers and acquisitions, professional roles, and emerging political shifts, to understand the concept of collaborative inquiry. This notion of collaborative inquiry is that it is an application of examination, innovation, and action which endorses transformational change. Organizations using the theory of collaborative inquiry create a critical thought process through which the method of inquiring allows for solving multifaceted issues and actively finding solutions through numerous perspectives  – it is participatory-based (Bray, Lee, Smith, & Yorks, 2000). As such, the use of collaborative inquiry is found in education through teacher development. Bray (2002) describes educational instructors as inquisitorial and wanting to try new processes or approaches to things they have not tried before. Organizations adopting collaborative inquiry as part of positive leadership and organizational change may have a more constructive outlook toward how change will take place and the effects of the change on the employees, and the leader–follower paradigm. When change happens at a rapid pace without the consideration of how people will adapt, chaos will ensue. Therefore, change must be planned to promote trust and positive morale. Interpreting the relational characteristics and leadership personifications needed for the organization help improve leadership styles, considering that the transformational approach is not always practical when the individual may be perceived as lacking effective leadership skills. Another indicator of effective leadership about women is their aspiration to ascend to leadership positions and roles. According to Carbajal (2018), connectedness, self-esteem, and a fear of negative evaluation affect the types of feedback women receive in the workplace and prevent them from becoming empowered (Carbajal, 2018). In the instance that women do not see any direct setback on their leadership ascendancy, age has been reported to be a common factor affecting how they are perceived in their leadership

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positions as well as their overall ascension (Carbajal, 2018). Mentoring females and having an influential voice in the workforce is also critical to developing their capabilities and roles as leaders, because they might not have leadership career aspirations, as their voices might not be heard when they are lacking sponsors or endorses in the workplace to help with furthering their professional growth. In transformational and organizational change, women in leadership should not feel that they must compromise their femininity at any point in their careers or in the process of becoming leaders and effective decision-makers in favor of more masculine traits. By exerting the confidence and attention of the self, the individual can stay connected to their professional and personal networks while carrying interpersonal dialog within the organization that extends their unique qualities as a leader, and empowers their strengths as leaders. Further, organizations seek change when the markets begin to shift. As technological growth continues to advance, leaders must hypothesize the unknown threats and opportunities lingering in the external markets (Schoemaker, Heaton, & Teece, 2018). If traditional business models are still being used when change occurs, an organization can be left unprepared and at risk of failing. Innovation and change go hand in hand for the organization’s success and benefit. Visionary leaders should be able to hypothesize the way change is happening within the organization, and the challenges which may occur – for example, the backlash or resistance of change by those who may feel threatened if the change happens without notice. Rather, they must prepare everyone in the organization and show them the new opportunities that await them once the transition is complete. When organizational change occurs, it must be planned in a way that promotes trust and positive morale. Positive leadership requires the need to establish the development of trust through dialog which may occur in organizational change (Schoemaker et al., 2018). Storytelling is the way to create dialog that brings people together and provides integrative solutions to any issues the organization or community may encounter. Through narrative, employees and community members will be willing to adapt to a new environment and instill more diversity while accepting societal/organizational norms. Only then will change succeed and leaders can influence positivity in their respective communities and organizations, while creating an organizational identity which becomes a part of the newly implemented culture. Creating identity is critical to supporting organizational change and culture, and to support leaders who are working on developing their identities in the community. Organizational identity thus becomes a part of the firm which is distinguishable to those on the outside looking in from a reflective perspective, which starts one part of authentic leadership. Authentic leadership is more visible, and individuals are more effectively likely to show their authenticity by strengthening and connecting with the culture of the firm (Atienza, 2017). Organizations that adopt positive leadership and connect with their leaders while creating a sense of culture, confidence, and identity to support their members will have a seamless capacity in the transformational process.

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Positive Leadership and Eastern Philosophies A positive culture coupled with a defined philosophical inquiry of leadership and the strategies required for educational growth can empower and direct guidance over institutional complexities. Examples from Eastern philosophies can also help to heighten educational and personal development considerably through discourses and personal self-analysis. For example, Confucian leadership emphasizes living virtuously and ethically with justice and sincerity. Establishing good relationships with others and behaving good influence the responsibilities and growth needed to continuously act toward implementing strategies for a better and more productive society. Being sincere, truthful, and caring to oneself and to society brings great benefits to stakeholders and leaders who are developing relationships and partnerships against a set of moral grounds and values (Han, 2013). Further, Confucianism yields deeply into love for oneself and for society. Having a personal and committed sense of respect for one’s presence, perspectives, attitudes, and behaviors is important to strengthening purpose and positive performance. To accomplish this, one must learn from others, embrace collaboration, and respond to the interests and concerns of others. Confucian thought affecting managerial efficacy is prevalent to the organizational culture that plays a significant part in leadership and the cultivation of societal harmonization and individual productivity. Effective leadership, self-actualization, and personal efficacy all contribute to encouraging collective action toward high-performing leadership and agility. To distinguish good leadership from great leadership, morality is depicted as the representation of human nature and the phenomenon of human behavior. These terms are used to enable individuals to govern well and emphasize ethics and idealism of benevolence, morals, and character that cultivate a whole person (Ip, 2003). Confucianism values reciprocating thoughts, feelings and actions, forming bonds over organizational orientations. Cultural depictions, ethical reasoning, and ontological decision-making affect how, in the modern sense, leaders guide and motivate their employees (Dong & Liu, 2010). In the philosophy of Daoism, leadership is embedded around the interrelation between service and authenticity (Zhang, Everett, Elkin, & Cone, 2012). Individuals might seek a holistic view on interpreting the cycles of negative and positive experiences. By displaying perspective and reflection in orienting tasks and also rejoining certain tasks, projects, and familiar environments, individuals work toward building resilience and acceptance to recognize whether relevant outcomes should be known or understood to reevaluate the direction of leadership and the established goals. Daoism promotes movement, flow, and internal energies, and its application in the organization requires a clear, cohesive vision, and a mindset that balances receptiveness and assertion to attain harmony while also solving personal and environmental problems (Huang & Snell, 2003), which can be beneficial to certain industries and organizations with such specialized knowledge. Daoism also emphasizes conflict avoidance, and the need to refrain from arguing and disputing when attempting to prove or cite evidence for a position or

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endorsement, because it overlooks what it means to act and live in harmony and reap the rewards of  selflessness (Wang, 2003). Followers of Daoist philosophies seek to serve as peacemakers and peacebuilders, emphasizing the use of modesty in using expressive language and opinions. Self-expression is therefore not used to explain the range of diverse thinking, competences, and interactions, because “strategy” is not defined as a form of tact or action that ascends decision-making and leadership. Instead, tasks are diligently followed without expression and direct emotion to avoid conflict and confrontation, placing an overall emphasis on performance, status, and culture building. Further, Daoist philosophies elevate servant leadership and the ways in which one chooses to respond to ethical reasoning and behaviors across multiple multinational and international industries (Ma & Tsui, 2015) with a regional or local perspective.

Endarkened Feminist Epistemology and Leadership The following section explores positive leadership with an African-American perspective and a framework of Endarkened Feminist Epistemology and feminist theory (Davis, 2012; Hooks, 2006). The literature of Moodly and Toni (2017) is retrospective in terms of the transformation of higher education. Critical discourse analysis is used to assess impacts of policy, leadership model between genders, and structures of institutional basis, which compound to the colonization theory of varying perceptions of how different perceptions may be connected to the superseding of some organizational functions and structures. A historical context is worthy to substantiate inequities of people in leadership for both men and women with an emphasis on the underrepresentation of leadership of positive organizational change for  women of color (Cameron, 2008; Hooks, 2006; Williams Jr., 2017). Organizations have proven to be successful with women of color being in leadership (Gomez, 2015; Howard-Vital, 1987). Organizations have also exhibited characteristics of transformational leadership, which may lead to responses of positive leadership. If these two preceding studies have displayed positive output from people of color in leadership positions, the critical thought in question is, ‘where is the recognition for leaders who are women of  color within educational spaces? Leadership in organizations should explore the global and intercultural aspects of a pedagogical process, a tangible product, and the sources of leader efficacy present in the educational, entrepreneurial, and health fields who assume leadership roles while they are developing their scholarship and knowledge transferability. Subsequently, leaders have to distinguish their identities in both their personal and professional lives, especially female leaders. This assumes that women have dual roles which can affect their ability to lead (Dillard, 2000). Leadership development includes understanding and implementing leader identity with one’s self (Karelaia & Guillén, 2014). At the same time, women contrast their identities as (1) being a woman, and (2) being a leader and question whether they can fulfill their leadership roles while keeping their identity of being a female.

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It is important to first understand what identity means. There are two different types of identities people associate themselves with: (1) social identity and (2) personal identity or self-identity. Social identity is defined as identifying with a group of people of similar characteristics, which creates a set of meanings and modes an individual to attach themselves (Karelaia & Guillén, 2014). Personal or self-identity is the person’s unique individuality, thereby creating an attachment to the self to identify who they are in relation to the world and the relationships they create. Both are important to leader identity. Leader identity is defined as identifying the self as a leader and to the extent, what their role as a leader is. When both identities are combined  – as the woman and as the leader  – they become interrelated. Women have multiple identities that combine to make up their overall self. For example, mothers, wives, friends, leaders, and activists identify a woman’s self. Those identities, if not looked upon favorably, may create identity conflict (Karelaia & Guillén, 2014). However, when social identity is favorable, then identity conflict is lessened. Women leaders often find incongruences between their social identity as a woman and their identity as a leader. These multiple facets of identities are exceptionally challenging, as both identities are vastly different from one another due to the behavior, characteristics, and traits which differ between each identity (Karelaia & Guillén, 2014). For instance, a woman is known to be nurturing, friendly, warm, and encouraging, whereas a leader may not have these traits. A leader may be more assertive, competitive, and may not be nurturing in nature as women are. Leader traits are attributed to men more than to women. As such, women feel the pressures of combining both social and leader identity together creating identity conflict due to inconsistency in action and behavior (Karelaia & Guillén, 2014). One identity can interfere with carrying out duties of another identity, thereby becoming a threat. This can affect the psychological well-being in every facet of the woman’s life and other identities strongly correlated, such as being a partner and a mother. It also negatively affects motivation and the sense of self when inconsistency is found in the social and leader roles women hold. Ultimately, they will find themselves less apt to be leaders and less likely to see themselves as such (Karelaia & Guillén, 2014). Organizations in support of women leaders should commit to creating an environment where women are favored as leaders alongside their male counterparts and highlighting those traits or characteristics attuned toward women identities. A successful organization develops inclusivity toward women and encourages them to take on leadership roles through effective coaching and counseling. With a growing population of African-American millennials, it is important that the global mindset and the tiers of adopting a global mindset ought to be incorporated within established identities. If the leadership does not reflect the students it serves, misrepresentation occurs (Tiggs, 2018). When misrepresentation occurs, it is important to consider implications of societal identification and what student self-­ perception means for the workplace in relation to the initial foundation they received from leaders who do not look like them, nor identify with their lived experiences (Small, 2015).

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There are masculine forces within the leadership theories that need exploration; yet, there are pertinent forces of feminism that should be embedded in the narratives focusing on leading conversations of leadership and organizational change. Masculine forces of leadership tend to overshadow forces of feminine leadership due to positionality of power and who the authors of leadership have been within education, prior to the nineteenth century (Small, 2015; Turner, 2006; Weatherspoon-­ Robinson, 2013). This is another inequity for the professional and political order and flow of leadership. If all that is seen and interpreted is a masculine paradigm, it may be obscured and skewed to reimagine leadership with feminine forces attached (Hooks, 2006; Weatherspoon-Robinson, 2013). According to Hollander (2008), leadership is not leadership without followership. There is a way to lead, as there is a way to follow. The framework of followership is inclusive of leadership, as is leaderships framework inclusive of followership. Followers are deserving of a framework of what a follower or subordinate’s description indicates. Followers are also entitled to what and whom they are being led by. They need not be ambiguous to the terms and conditions their leader has but should have a detailed and informative composition of their leader. This is what Hollander (2008) discloses in the literature and the importance of inclusive leadership and its reciprocation. Hollander’s literature also incorporates the importance of “doing things with people and not doing things to people” (Hollander, 2008).

Conclusion Ultimately, leadership is aligned with many facets aside from management and business. Leadership is associated with education, human resources, and the epistemology of endarkened feminism (Dillard, 2000). Although management and leadership are two broad and distinct aspects, when they are brought together, effective change occurs. It becomes imperative for managers to positively manage their employees, while fostering growth and development to create more leaders so that both work well together. A manager can be a leader if they have the ability to empathize, empower, and understand their members’ needs, and in turn, members show their trust in their manager while performing at top productivity. Human resources management carves the support and the space in developmental leadership theories and strategies because ultimately, job satisfaction and employee performance directly correlates with the leadership abilities of the organization and executive directors who are looked up to as leaders. Positive leadership becomes an important aspect in empowering followers who are part of the organization or community. The contribution toward leadership theories stems from a deeper aspect of human resources management by allowing managers to develop the necessary leadership skills which drives higher rates of productivity, satisfying the needs of their employees and generating a positive, structured environment. Human resources is where humanistic development should occur  – the building of relationships between the  leader and the follower is imperative for success. Equally important,

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communication bridges gaps, and positive leadership builds thriving organizations, making change more enhanced as it emerges. Notably, it is important for an organization to consider people of color prior to research, in that, the literature on leadership needs to be authored and rewritten for the identities of the people it intends to lead (Dillard, 2000; Hooks, 2006). Although women have been increasingly obtaining roles in executive leadership positions, women still tackle the multitude of challenges in the corporate world. In a census collected in 2016, approximately 163 million women were entrepreneurs running their businesses in the 74 economies worldwide (Simona & George, 2018). According to the Pew Research Center, female Chief Executive Officers reached a high of 6.4% in 2017 – approximately 32 women taking over from major firms in CEO roles. The number of women sitting on the board of directors of top Fortune 500 companies has doubled from 9.6% to 22.2% between 1995 and 2017 (Pew Research, 2019). With these statistics, it is significant for leadership to be taught from experience and within the inspiration of education. Leadership should be representative of the students it leads and serves (Weatherspoon-Robinson, 2013). Most schools in the United States do research on the students and demographics of incoming students and graduates and current student enrollment, indicating that the ratio of teachers at an institution or school district should match the population of students at a fraction that meets the identity of students enrolled in any class throughout the school year. According to Williams Jr. (2017), there are more African-American men in school districts and institutions than those who are employed at the institute. The implication of people in communities being underserved by the very community they live in or serve in is disruptive, and is a direct consideration of what future constructs should do from a transformative leadership approach. Leadership is indicative of the environment of the institution it serves. Recognition is key to influence leaders, students, employees, society, and the greater good for positive outcomes of global change and organizational leadership, yielding positive results (Dillard, 2000; Hooks, 2006; Williams Jr., 2017). Chapter Takeaways Positive leadership is inclusive of its constituents, stakeholders, and the change agents who bring desirable attributes to their organizations and their work. Although positive leadership is a paradigm of transformational leadership (Cameron, 2008), an organizational mindset is essential first to implement the necessary steps for a transitional model to be established within the organization for positive leadership to occur. This may include philosophical frameworks, purpose-driven reasoning, and clarity around contemporary workplace interchange among colleagues and between individuals. With positive leadership implemented around organizational leadership and transitional models involved in the process, assessment must be recognized and distinguished before there is actual leadership implementation. Leaders must be good followers to be good leaders, and they must establish a positive rapport with their followers when contributing to any community or organization. Leaders can gain successful followership when they encourage, guide, and

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protect their followers. Kellerman (2007) introduced diverse follower types that leaders must be aware of when engaging followers, which are isolates, bystanders, participants, activists, and diehards. Decolonization does not entirely involve race and ethnicity. It incorporates gender and the moral and ethical treatment of women in positions of leadership (Dillard, 2000). When understanding how positions of leadership in higher education may be predominately held by men, it is important to assess policies that have informed the role of practices affecting managerial and spiritual inquiries as told by the individuals who have not held leadership positions in their formal roles. This topic is primarily meant for the elaboration of Endarkened Feminist Epistemology, yet uses the premise of gender and equity toward fostering effective positive change. Reflection Questions • To what extent does positive leadership transform the current force of women in higher education? • What are the desirable traits of a good follower? How can a leader position themselves in such a way where they can empower their followers to become effective leaders? • How does spiritual inquiry inform Endarkened Feminist Epistemology for women of color in leadership positions within higher education? • How can leaders innovatively encourage their employees to adapt to and accept change? • How can the theory of positive leadership promote this change in the organization or the communities they lead?

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Intercultural Leadership: An Indigenous Perspective in a Multicultural World

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Francisco J. Rosado-May, Valeria B. Cuevas-Albarrán, and Nelsy F. Jimenez Pat

Abstract

To understand the role of culture in leadership, and to develop methods for research and practical applications, two terms have been used in trying to understand and to improve international interactions: cross-culture and intercultural. Cross-culture leadership is the dominant paradigm, and a large number of papers have been published on this concept. A more recent term in the literature is intercultural leadership. The literature reviewed on cross-cultural leadership research gives the impression that cultural differences exist only between countries or people from different nationalities, not within countries. Thus, the concept of cross-cultural leadership provides insights in multicultural settings, meaning international, but in populations trying to build a social fabric under the concept of intercultural societies, including indigenous and non-indigenous people, the concept of intercultural leadership offers a better framework to develop methods, training, and the like, needed for good governance. However, the conceptual framework of intercultural leadership is not well defined in the literature; sometimes, it overlaps with cross-cultural meaning. On the other hand, the indigenous approach to intercultural leadership is also missing in the literature. This article builds on concepts of culture, leadership, cross-culture, and intercultural views to examine the indigenous factor in the concept of intercultural leadership. Keywords

Intercultural leadership · Cross-cultural leadership · Indigenous leadership · Yucatec Maya · Multicultural world

F. J. Rosado-May (*) · V. B. Cuevas-Albarrán · N. F. Jimenez Pat Universidad Intercultural Maya de Quintana Roo, Quintana Roo, Mexico © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_16

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Introduction The term and action of leadership, which has played a critical role in any society since ancient times (Thomas, 1995; Wren, 1995), have attracted the attention of substantial scientific research. Winston and Patterson (2006) searched the Expanded Academic Database in 2003 of published articles using the term “leadership” and found over 26,000 articles; their study uncovered over 90 variables that may comprise the whole of leadership and proposed an integrative definition of leadership, but acknowledged that more and new research could uncover new insights into leadership and their definition would need to be upgraded. Defining leadership has proven to be a challenge. According to Bass (1981), there are almost as many definitions as there are persons attempting to define the concept. Yildirim (2016), for instance, reports over 400 definitions of leadership. One of the earliest accepted definitions was provided by Stogdill in 1950, who considered leadership as “the process (acts) of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement” (p. 3). Earlier, Rost (1993), after reviewing existing definitions of leadership, discussed critical components of defining leadership (e.g., leader’s wishes, achieving group or organizational goals, management, influence, and traits). Barker (2002) also reviewed definitions of leadership and concluded that leadership is a continuous social process. Nevertheless, Winston and Patterson (2006) articulated the 90 variables found in their research on the various definitions of leadership and propose a rather long but integrative definition of leadership as follows: A leader is one or more people who selects, equips, trains, and influences one or more follower(s) who have diverse gifts, abilities, and skills and focuses the follower(s) to the organization’s mission and objectives causing the follower(s) to willingly and enthusiastically expend spiritual, emotional, and physical energy in a concerted coordinated effort to achieve the organizational mission and objectives. The leader achieves this influence by humbly conveying a prophetic vision of the future in clear terms that resonates with the follower(s) beliefs and values in such a way that the follower(s) can understand and interpret the future into present-time action steps. In this process, the leader presents the prophetic vision in contrast to the present status of the organization and through the use of critical thinking skills, insight, intuition, and the use of both persuasive rhetoric and interpersonal communication including both active listening and positive discourse, facilitates and draws forth the opinions and beliefs of the followers such that the followers move through ambiguity toward clarity of understanding and shared insight that results in influencing the follower(s) to see and accept the future state of the organization as a desirable condition worth committing personal and corporate resources toward its achievement. The leader achieves this using ethical means and seeks the greater good of the follower(s) in the process of action steps such that the follower(s) is/are better off (including the personal development of the follower as well as emotional and physical healing of the follower) as a result of the interaction with the leader. The leader achieves this same state for his/her own self as a leader, as he/she seeks personal growth, renewal, regeneration, and increased stamina–mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual–through the leader-follower interactions. The leader recognizes the diversity of the follower(s) and achieves unity of common values and directions without destroying the uniqueness of the person. The leader accomplishes this through innovative flexible means of education, training, support, and protection that

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provide each follower with what the follower needs within the reason and scope of the organization’s resources and accommodations relative to the value of accomplishing the organization’s objectives and the growth of the follower. The leader, in this process of leading, enables the follower(s) to be innovative as well as self-directed within the scope of individual-follower assignments and allows the follower(s) to learn from his/her/their own, as well as others’ successes, mistakes, and failures along the process of completing the organization’s objectives. The leader accomplishes this by building credibility and trust with the followers through interaction and feedback to and with the followers that shapes the followers’ values, attitudes, and behaviors towards risk, failure, and success. In doing this, the leader builds the followers’ sense of self-worth and self-­ efficacy such that both the leader and followers are willing and ready to take calculated risks in making decisions to meet the organization’s goals/objectives and through repeated process steps of risk- taking and decision-making the leader and followers together change the organization to best accomplish the organization’s objectives. The leader recognizes the impact and importance of audiences outside of the organization’s system and presents the organization to outside audiences in such a manner that the audiences have a clear impression of the organization’s purpose and goals and can clearly see the purpose and goals lived out in the life of the leader. In so doing, the leader examines the fit of the organization relative to the outside environment and shapes both the organization and the environment to the extent of the leader’s capability to insure the best fit between the organization and the outside environment. The leader throughout each leader-follower-audience interaction demonstrates his/her commitment to the values of (a) humility, (b) concern for others, (c) controlled discipline, (d) seeking what is right and good for the organization, (e) showing mercy in beliefs and actions with all people, (f) focusing on the purpose of the organization and on the well-­ being of the followers, and (g) creating and sustaining peace in the organization–not a lack of conflict but a place where peace grows. These values are the seven Beatitudes found in Matthew 5 and are the base of the virtuous theory of Servant Leadership. (pp. 7,8)

The comprehensive contribution by Winston and Patterson (2006), to the concept of leadership, has a strong cultural dimension without making it visible in the definition.

Culture and Leadership Studies on, and practice of, leadership have incorporated the cultural dimension. According to Byrne and Bradley (2007), both personal and national culture influences leadership efficiency, and thus, culture plays a critical role in leadership. Schein (1985) was one of the first authors to address in a holistic manner the role of culture in understanding leadership in organizations; to Schein (1985), “culture and leadership are two sides of the same coin, and neither can really be understood by itself” (p. 2). The role of culture has been present in different areas of studies on leadership; for instance, Sharkey (1999) shows the impact of leadership and leadership development on culture; Montesino (2003) demonstrates the relationship between the global nature of the economy and the role of culture in leadership; Locander, Hamilton, Ladik, and Stuart (2002) address the need for cultural

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understanding in large multi-group organizations; in analyzing the multicultural ­settings in which leadership takes place, Snaebjornsson, Edvardsson, Zydziunaite, and Vaiman (2015) discuss the concept of cross-cultural leadership incorporating the gender approach as part of culture and provide a model. A key element on the role of culture in leadership is the definition of culture. Based on several publications (e.g., Chanchani & Shantapriyan, 2009; Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2018; Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952; Lebrón, 2013; Rathje, 2009; Schein, 2004; Spencer-Oatey, 2012), culture has proven very difficult to define. There are some definitions that are more accepted, and cited, than others; for instance, the often-cited early work by Kluckhohn (1951a) considered culture as a: …patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (ie. Historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values (p. 86).

Another influential work is the publication by Hofstede (1991), who followed the argument presented by Kluckhohn (1951b) regarding values in human actions. Using the onion metaphor, Hofstede (1991, p. 9) considers that culture has different layers, visible and invisible. At the surface, there are various layers resembling practices that can be observed and compared, but at the core of the onion are the values which function as the mental software that people are not fully aware of. Hofstede’s paradigm has received increasing critiques (e.g., Fang, 2003; Holden, 2002) because it identifies cultural differences but does not offer enough insight of the dynamic process of cross-cultural management characterized by change and paradox in cultural learning occurring in different settings, nor for knowledge transfer or synchronized information sharing (Fang, 2010). In connecting culture to leadership, authors have proposed that culture does not apply only to large social groups but also to organizations, small or large. Thus, the concept of organizational culture was proposed first by Elliot (1951) in studying how factories operate. Years later, Schein (1984) defined the concept of organizational culture in terms of a dynamic model that explains how culture is learnt, passed on, and changed, and found a: …pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered, or developed in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, and have worked well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (p. 3).

There is a level of acceptance that culture is a social construct. Schein (2004, p. 3) considers that “culture is an abstraction, yet the forces that are created in social and organizational situations that derive from culture are powerful”; and after reviewing the accumulated literature on culture, formally defined culture changing some wording from an earlier publication of the same author in 1984: The culture of a group can now be defined as a pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration,

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that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Schein, 2004, p. 17)

Cross-Cultural Leadership  Based on literature reviewed, Dorfman (2004) acknowledged that “because a complex interplay between effective management and leadership, it seems reasonable to expect that cultural differences should influence not only management processes but also leadership processes” (p. 267). In a review of the role of culture in leadership, Furmanczyk (2010) acknowledges the great influence that the work by Hofstede (1991) has had in leadership studies and applications to international marketing. Previously, Dickson, Den Hartog, and Mitchelson (2003) reviewed literature on leadership, from 1996, observing the legitimate and independent emergence of the field of cross-cultural leadership and with it the beginning of the decline in the quest for universal leadership principles that apply equivalently across all cultures. Smith and Peterson (2002), on the other hand, found that different authors use the label “cross-cultural” in various ways, identifying four strands of meaning: Firstly, the phrases ‘cross-cultural leadership’ and ‘international leadership’ are often used to encompass studies which have taken theories of leadership developed within the United States and tested their predictive validity in other parts of the world. Secondly, authors from the United States often also refer to models of leadership developed and tested in countries other than the United States under the heading ‘cross-cultural’. Thirdly, there are studies that focus upon leadership of work teams whose composition is actually multicultural. Given the multicultural nature of the workforce in many of the leading industrial nations of the world, it could be argued that most studies of leadership, both within and outside the USA, fall into this category (p. 217).

Although the term cross-cultural leadership is very appealing, Dorfman (2004) concluded that “there is no generally accepted theory of cross-cultural leadership” (p.  266). However, cross-cultural leadership has proven to be a much-needed approach not only for business purposes, or peace, but also for the military. In reporting findings for the project GLOBE, Javidan, Dorfman, Sully de Luque, and House (2006), using a hypothetical case, measured several indicators used on cultural studies and compared the results between countries organized in 10 culture clusters from a 62-culture sample. The research was based on the Implicit Leadership Theory, which assumes that individuals hold a set of beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviors that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership. These set of beliefs, also known as cognitive categories, mental models, or stereotypes in a broader social cognitive literature, are assumed to affect the extent to which an individual accepts and responds to others as leaders (Locander et  al., 2002). The research shows differences between countries as a result of cultural differences; thus, GLOBE claims that effective interactions, including leadership, between different countries can be developed. In the report 2008–01, the US Army Research Institute published a study by Abbe, Gulick, and Herman (2007) on cross-cultural competence in army leaders. According to those authors (p. vii):

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Military operations increasingly require soldiers to interact with individuals and groups whose cultural context differs from their own. ….full-operations demand a broader cultural capability, whereby Army leaders are able to adapt successfully to any cultural setting. Meeting this capability will require the development of culture-general knowledge and skills as a necessary complement to language skills and regional knowledge. Cross- cultural competence is conceptualized as a set of knowledge, affect, and skill components that develop in response to experience, training, and education. Evidence shows that culture-general competencies contribute more to intercultural effectiveness than do more specific skills and knowledge, including language proficiency, culture/region-specific knowledge, and prior international experience. Traits such as extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and self-monitoring are also associated with adjustment and performance in intercultural settings.

Defining cross-cultural leadership is not an easy task; all papers reviewed here do not provide a working definition. However, there are definitions available in dictionaries for the word cross-cultural that can help understand the use of the concept of cross-culture. The Collins Dictionary (2019) defines cross-cultural as (a) the means involving two or more different cultures; (b) involving or bridging the differences between cultures; (c) of or relating to different cultures, nations, etc., or to comparisons of them. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2019) defines cross-cultural as dealing with or offering comparison between two or more different cultures or cultural areas. In understanding the role of culture in leadership, the concept of cross-cultural leadership has opened another concept, intercultural leadership. An intercultural approach in leadership is quite recent in the field of studies on leadership. For instance, after reviewing a number of studies on leadership, Poprawski (2009) found a connection of leadership with culture and described it in the context of an intercultural process in a multicultural world. Unfortunately, Poprawski (2009) did not discuss the meaning of “intercultural process in a multicultural world.” Abbe et  al. (2007) mentioned the word intercultural in the context of effectiveness for military operations, but did not discuss the meaning of the term. Nevertheless, from the cross-cultural thinking, a new element in the discussion of cultural influence on leadership has been introduced: intercultural competence in leadership, which is being applied to the international business arena (e.g., Morley & Cerdin, 2010) and education (e.g., Irving, 2010). Interesting to note is that those papers seem to leave to the readers the understanding and interpretation of intercultural leadership. Also, those papers did not include any article reviewed on indigenous leadership or indigenous cultures. Intercultural Leadership  Research on intercultural leadership has been growing in the last 30 years. A diverse set of topics have been addressed to understand processes, develop theories, determine factors to explain successes or failures, indicators, and methods for training. A dominant concept, to understand intercultural leadership, is intercultural competence. This term, along with others such as intercultural effectiveness and intercultural adaptation, according to Spitzberg and

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Changnon (2009), largely traces back to the 1970s; the Peace Corp program from the US international business and military missions seems to have had an important role in promoting those terms. The pioneer work by Bennett (1986, 1993a, 1993b) on the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), has provided a theoretical approach to understand individual’s development in their orientation toward cultural differences; it is based on three ethnocentric (denial, defense/reversal, and minimization) and three ethnorelative (acceptance, adaptation, and integration) categorical orientations. Based on this model, Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman (2003) understand intercultural competence as the ability to think and act in interculturally appropriate ways; thus, the concept of intercultural sensitivity is crucial for intercultural competences. Following Bennet’s work, Justin (2010a, 2010b) confirmed the need for intercultural competences as organizations continue to experience globalization processes and encourages educational institutions to measure what matters around intercultural competencies. Language and communications were two of the first factors in the process of understanding effective leadership across cultures, especially with multinational corporations and international negotiations increasingly adopting English. Addressing the role of higher education in intercultural dialogue, meaning language and communication, the Council of Europe published a book edited by Bergan and van’t Land (2010). In this book, Deardoff (2010) discussed the need for having a conceptual framework to study intercultural competence and, based on a consensus among leading intercultural experts, defined intercultural competence as “effective and appropriate behavior and communication in intercultural situations” (p. 87). In an attempt to promote effective results in multicultural settings using English, rather than local languages, one approach was to standardize systems of communicating and teaching English across countries. This approach was studied by Zander & 24 coauthors (2011) in 17 countries and measured the effect on leadership decisions and reactions; the study showed that the choice of language, native or English, does not matter much when it comes to leadership scenarios, instead effective leadership depends more on cultural and situational context. The use of indicators to train or to predict performance in intercultural leadership has been studied from different angles. One example is the work by van Woerkom and Reuver (2009), who used the Management Performance Appraisal to measure indicators such as multicultural personality (using factors such as cultural empathy, open-mindedness, social initiative, emotional stability, and flexibility), and transformational leadership measured by a self-report scale. Using a sample size of 138 managers, these authors found that more transformational leadership style led to higher performance in an intercultural context and concluded that both these dimensions of multicultural personality and transformational leadership are needed for excellent managerial performance in an international environment. Hofstede (2011) in analyzing the contributions by Hofstede (1980, 1991, 2001, 2010) regarding the six dimensions of national cultures (Power Distance, Uncertainty

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Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Long/Short Term Orientation, and Indulgence/Restraint) used as a paradigm to compare cultures concludes that those dimensions depend on the level of aggregation, and although cultures are dynamic, those dimensions can still be used. Intercultural competences for leadership have been examined from the responsible global leadership by Miska, Stahl, and Mendenhall (2013); given the international approach to corporate social responsibility (CSR), global leaders should learn about intercultural competences. These authors empirically reviewed three CSR decision-making approaches: globally standardized, locally adapted, and transnational; although different competency configurations were related to each of the three approaches, intercultural competences were most critical to the transnational and identified the competences for each of the three global competences inventory as defined by Mendenhall, Stevens, Bird, and Oddou (2008) and Bird, Mendenhall, Stevens, and Oddou (2010). Karim (2003), on the other hand, proposes the concept of intercultural consciousness for inclusion in leadership training, attempting to understand how people make sense of the world and engage accordingly in leadership actions at different levels of intercultural consciousness. Assuming that intercultural competence is a developmental concept, the author proposes five mindsets for categorizing intercultural perspectives: naïve universalist, intentional supremacist, reluctant minimalist, fragmented relativist, and integrated functionalist. Chen and An (2009) discuss a Chinese conceptualization of leadership competence applied to an intercultural context and call for a new model of intercultural leadership competence. Based on Chinese philosophy grounded on the concept of yin and yang, and various religions, they present a model composed of three dimensions: self-cultivation, culture profundity, and action dexterity, present components of Chinese culture for each of them and, using ontology, axiology, epistemology, and methodology, they compare their components (East) to other cultures (West), calling it intercultural context, to demonstrate the differences in the behavioral level of global leadership competence. The issue of intercultural leadership taking into account indigenous perspectives is a topic poorly addressed in the literature. Collard (2007), from an educational point of view, documented experiences in Australia which showed that the leadership discourse has been dominated by Anglo-American perspectives oblivious to the cultural diversity, which has meant to indigenous groups suffering alienation, exclusion and disadvantage. The author claims that cross-cultural research has generated territorial maps that promote stereotypes that mask the existence of complex subcultures and dynamic forces of change within national cultures. Frawley and Fasoli (2012) examined the Australian idea of “both ways” with an intercultural approach, between aboriginal and non-aboriginal staff to be intercultural teachers and leaders, and concluded that for multicultural settings, new leadership capabilities must be developed not just cross-culturally but interculturally.

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Indigenous Peoples This section is based on the definition of indigenous peoples (IPs) by the United Nations (2019a), which states: Indigenous Peoples are inheritors and practitioners of unique cultures and ways of relating to people and the environment. They have retained social, cultural, economic and political characteristics that are distinct from those of the dominant societies in which they live. Despite their cultural differences, indigenous peoples from around the world share common problems related to the protection of their rights as distinct peoples.

The UN definition reflects the findings by several authors; for instance, Popova-­ Gosart (2012), in reviewing the many dimensions needed to define the meaning of IPs, concluded that at least three main elements had to be present in that definition: the social, legal, and political aspects of those societies. Sanders (1999) points out the progress in the definitions of IPs has been aided by the political perception that this category of claimants is limited and, in some respects, unique, thus they can be safely treated as a special case. According to the International Labour Organization (2019a), there is no universal definition of indigenous and tribal peoples; however, there is a common denominator for more than 370 million people, found in more than 70 countries worldwide. They have their own cultures, languages, customs, and institutions, which distinguish them from other parts of the societies in which they find themselves. Indigenous and tribal peoples have local names such as native peoples, aboriginal peoples, first nations, adivasi, janajati, hunter-gatherers, or hill tribes. According to the World Bank (2018): Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct societies and communities. The land on which they live and the natural resources on which they depend are inextricable linked to their identities, culture, livelihoods, as well as their physical and spiritual well-being. There are approximately 370 million Indigenous Peoples worldwide, in over 90 countries. Although they make up 5 percent of the global population, they account for about 15 percent of the extreme poor. While Indigenous peoples own, occupy, or use a quarter of the world’s surface area, they safeguard 80 percent of the world’s remaining biodiversity. They hold vital ancestral knowledge and expertise on how to adapt, mitigate, and reduce climate disaster risks.

The above description can also be considered an important proof of the high resilience indigenous peoples have had. That resilience and the role of indigenous peoples in safeguarding 80% of the planet’s biodiversity (Barragán Alvarado, 2008), as well as the knowledge and expertise on how to adapt, mitigate, and reduce climate disaster risks (Makondo & Thomas, 2018), are threatened by many factors; poverty is one of them, also acknowledged by the World Bank (2018). However, it would be safe to assume that poverty is not the only limiting factor; without proper leadership and governance, there might not be room for economic growth to achieve sound community development for indigenous peoples.

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The issue of economic growth in indigenous communities has been addressed by many authors (e.g., Hernandez, 2013; Rosado-May, Cuevas-Albarrán, Moo Xix, Huchin Chan, & Cavazos, 2018), but the other components, leadership and governance, still require some discussion. The above scenario is happening in a multicultural/globalized setting, which in turn demands a conceptual framework not only to understand processes but also to provide some answers to urgent questions such as what kind of leadership is needed to develop better public policies to address poverty climate change and other issues challenging the development of indigenous peoples. Thus, this essay addresses the following questions: What do we know about indigenous leadership? Is there a conceptual framework that incorporates indigenous thinking regarding intercultural leadership?

Indigenous Leadership Research on indigenous leadership is beginning to attract attention, perhaps due to facts like the ones mentioned in the previous section, or perhaps due to the connections between good governance and effective ethical leadership as essential requirements for any organization to be considered successful in the eyes of multicultural stakeholders in the twenty-first century. Although researching indigenous leadership presents many challenges to modern scientists, the potential for finding new avenues for dealing with complex issues such as the nature–society relationship, mitigation of global warming or well-being, just to mention a few, is amplified. The base for this opportunity rests in understanding how indigenous peoples construct knowledge and represent it into their cosmovision. After studying the perception of the world by four indigenous peoples in Brasil, Aoki Inoue and Moreira (2017) found that in their cosmovision, there is a natural world, but there are many natures. To understand that cosmovision, those authors claimed for ontological and epistemological parity of indigenous ways of knowing, or modes of thinking, doing, being, and relating to nature, or to many natures, in which there is a wide network of interrelations between and among agents (human or non-humans). Understanding this reasoning provides elements to practical situations that leaders, both indigenous and non-indigenous, face in modern times and in a multicultural society. For instance, Fabricant (2013) presents the question on how to address a situation in which indigenous climate justice activists in Bolivia mobilize a particular vision of Andean indigeneity to make specific political claims about their rights in relationship to the environment and propose alternative economic structures. Many activists argue that the ecological problems of this century are a direct result of advanced capitalism, which has turned lands, forests, and natural surrounds into commodities. However, their timeless vision of indigeneity, particularly using the imagined ayllu or pre-Columbian land-holding patterns as solutions to climate crisis, poses dangers for the millions of Bolivians who live and work in urban centers (Fabricant, 2013). According to Brysk and Bennett (2012), Bolivia is a country in which indigenous peoples have been empowered and represent the

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majority of the population that has been struggling for rights since the 1952 Revolution. Let us not forget that Bolivia is not the only country with a high indigenous population but provides lessons for understanding indigenous leadership now facing the question of how to come up with decisions in a multicultural population. Perhaps understanding that Chinese world vision, based on their cultural background, plays an important role in designing successful strategies in their negotiations with leaders from other cultures, Chinese researchers have been studying indigenous leadership. One example is the work by Zhang et al. (2012); they argue that indigenous leadership research is an ideal way to examine and interpret leadership practices in a specific social context because not all leadership practices are captured in dominant Western perspectives that utilize Western-built instruments, which often fail to account for perspectives and practices of leadership in non-­ Western context. King and Zhang (2014) studied the differences between Chinese and Western leadership models by reviewing 60 years of literature; in their findings, they highlight that although Western and Chinese concepts of leadership are historically different, in recent years, they are converging; however, the perspective of considering that leadership should be considered holistic, rather than taxonomic, creates better scenarios for the two models to converge. Scholars in Australia have also been studying indigenous leadership. In studying leadership among indigenous artists and arts leaders, Evans and Sinclair (2016) report four territories, as they call them, and multiple practices of leadership; the four territories are: authorization in a bi-cultural world (cultural authorization and self-authorizing); identity and belonging (both fearless and connected); artistic practice (innovative and custodian of cultural values); and history, colonization, and trauma (expressing and containing trauma, empowering, and generating hope). Despite the high indigenous population, in Latin America, indigenous leadership has received little scientific attention. Most of the literature is associated with indigenous movements in which leaders are identified, but there is no description of the process of leadership much less the components of it (Gruggel & Riggirozzi, 2012; Jackson & Warren, 2005; Madrid, 2005, 2008; Van Cott, 2007; Warren & Jackson, 2002; Yashar, 1998). One of the early reports in analyzing indigenous leadership is from Stavenhagen (1997), who identifies leadership in indigenous communities in Latin America as a community process: ...leadership is generally carried out by an older generation of local authorities who were not always well prepared to meet the challenges of “modern” organizations and political negotiations, they are being displaced by younger generations of Indigenous activists who have been trained in non-Indigenous environments; however, in many cases their roles is complementary: the traditional authorities take care of community matters, while the younger leaders devote their efforts to building organizations and alliances for dealing with the outside world. (p. 67).

On the other hand, Hartford (2017) studied the role of gender, focusing on women. Under the assumption that women have limited access to a position of power in an indigenous community system where men dominate, Hartford (2017) identifies two factors that help to encourage women leadership: less machismo and

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better access to formal education, and factors that prevent women leadership: war traumas, culture degradation, presence of international business, domestic violence, low literacy, and a culture that encourages machismo. Indigenous female leadership in Latin America, according to Bonfil Sánchez and Becerril Albarrán (2010), emerges from indigenous organizations; those leaders respond strongly to ethnic and gender discrimination, in their own communities and outside as well, their leadership operates in a constant interaction between formal and informal participation, within political spheres, and between their private and public spaces. In studying the incursion and participation of indigenous representatives to Parliaments and local government, Ströbele-Gregor (2013) discusses the transition process in which indigenous leaders move from traditional to more formal leadership, from their own villages or social groups to broader population. This process demanded the creation and adoption of new forms of organizations and new concepts of representation. The author considers this process as positive for building democracy in a broader sense, a multicultural one, and at the same time cautions that democracy cannot be consolidated if there are no proper mechanisms to build agreements that take into account the needs of all stakeholders. Inostroza P. (2013) studied colonial times ethnic leadership in Belén, Arica, Chile, tracking information from church and tax registers, and old wills; the idea was to determine the different dimensions of authority by indigenous leaders. The author found that the consolidation of local government emerged from the role played by local ethnic leadership, not based on cacique regional leadership. Indigenous leadership is also a means to provide effective conflict resolution (Pinto, 2000). For the Navajo, peacemaking begins (Yazzie, 2005) …selecting the individual as leader, who has proven themselves to be successful in speaking, planning and spirituality. For the Navajo, the success of peacemaking is often the product of traditional Navajo concepts of solidarity, mutuality, and reciprocal obligations. Traditional Navajo leadership is not authoritarian or bossy, it is persuasive but at the same time stronger than that, it is grounded in the reputation for wisdom and knowledge of the leader. (p. 108)

To someone without proper training or immersion in the local culture, life in an indigenous community might seem too quiet; almost no changes can be perceived, not even in a relatively long period of time. Leroy Little Bear (2011) called this situation “dynamics without motion,” meaning that indigenous communities have their own ways and pace of adapting, evolving, and reinforcing their identities and culture. It would be a mistake to consider that there is no leadership in indigenous communities under dynamics without motion, especially when there are no signs of leadership as defined in Western concepts.

Yucatec Maya Leadership The Yucatec Maya population is present in all three states in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico: Quintana Roo, Yucatan, and Campeche. With thousands of years of history (see Lutz, Prieto, & Sanderson, 2000), the indigenous population in Yucatan, the

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vast majority Maya, nowadays represents 54% of the total population (4′772,553) in the peninsula (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, 2019). Unfortunately, there are no scientific reports on how Yucatec Maya leadership functions. Following there is a description of leadership practices observed and obtained through interviews with both leaders and community members from Yucatec Mayas in the state of Quintana Roo, who very often call themselves Mazewal Maya. Acknowledged as “leaders” by community members, this essay includes three traditional Maya judges (X-Yatil, Señor, and Yaxley) and two Traditional Maya Generales from two Maya Shrines (Felipe Carrillo Puerto and Chancah Veracruz), both in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. The Mazewal Maya Shrines in Quintana Roo, five of them in total, have a military-­ religious organization that resulted from the called “casta war” between the Maya rebels and the Mexican government (Reed, 2001). The war started in July 1987 and officially ended on June 2, 1929 when the Maya leader, General Francisco May, signed a treaty with Governor José Siurob (Chablé Mendoza, 2009). Previously, in 1901, the Mexican army took Noh Cah Santa Cruz Balam Nah (named today Felipe Carrillo Puerto), the “capitol” and main Shrine of the Maya rebels, but there were no people, they had fled taking with them the symbolic talking cross and opening other four Shrines in the forest. Because of the war, the Mayas adopted a military-­religious system and leadership was based on these two elements. Today, the Shrines are organized in a way that a number of communities in the surroundings “belong” to each of them, resembling the ancient Maya organization called city-states (Grube, 2000; Marcus, 1989). Nowadays, a Maya General is named by a consensus between the dignitaries of each Shrine and given to someone who has shown good leadership skills, wisdom, experience, seasoned, vocal, and good communication skills both for within the communities and outside; thus, the person should speak both Maya and Spanish, and, most of all, should be someone who has lived under the values of the culture and is humble but strong when it comes to the point of defending the interests of the communities conforming the Shrine. This system adds elements to the discussion on how leadership is acquired in Maya societies for social organization (Gillespie, 2000). In 1997, the local congress in Quintana Roo passed the “Indigenous Justice Bill” which officially acknowledged a traditional system for justice. In 17 communities located in the central region of Quintana Roo, traditional judges were named by the local population (Buenrostro Alba, 2013), who play a critical role in keeping peace in their communities. Today, the Mayas in Quintana Roo, who call themselves Maya Mazewal, still keep the same “casta” war organization (Buenrostro-Alba, 2015), but the leadership system has had adaptations. For some decisions such as cohesion in the communities around each of the Shrines, military-religious leadership is responsible; for peace keeping decisions and connection with the state legal system, it is the traditional judge’s responsibility; and for everyday decisions such as building a house, hunting, and the like, other community members are responsible. Details of location of the Maya communities where the Shrines and traditional judges are located can be obtained from Ríos Zamudio (2011).

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In Yucatec Maya, there is no word for leadership with the same meaning that the Oxford Dictionary (2019) defines it: a leader is a person who leads or commands a group, organization, or country. Although a similar meaning for leader and leadership does exist in Yucatec Maya, the word they use is “poolil.” The etymology of this word is based on the words, “pool,” which means head or tip, and “il,” which means to look, to observe. The word “lil” is associated with road or direction or horizon, but depending on the sound of i, it could also mean to shake, or to spread or to spray. Poolil, thus, means something close to “using the head to guide.” Leadership, or better said “poolil,” in a Maya Mazewal community is implemented everyday by different people. Following are notes from Xyatil describing leadership activities routinely taking place in different moments. The same description can be made in any other Yucatec Maya community. This description does not include the activities of a Maya General, and it will be presented later on. It is about 7:00 pm, in a known location of the community people, only men gather and talk about their experiences of the day. One of them was planning to build a hut (local name palapa) and needed help because he does not master the art of hut building, so he asked somebody else to help him and “poolil” the job. In the community there is only a handful of people who are known to be the best palapa builders, their job is actually to lead a crew of people and together they all build the palapa. This person only discuss with the future owner some details of the size of the palapa, the remain decisions are his completely; he decides all the details, such as when to collect the material from the forest, at what time, how to cut it, (this decision is based on the position of the moon), the size of the beams, how deep to bury the pillars sustaining the main frame of the palapa, etc. In another day, in a family reunion there was a talk about a birthday coming up, the wife mentioned the idea of having deer for the celebration. The husband, not an expert in hunting, decided to talk to somebody else well known in the community as a great hunter. There were only a couple of great hunters in the community, so most people needing to hunt an animal in the jungle ask the experts to lead the “batida”, a Spanish name for the whole process. In a “batida” about 10-15 adults participate, and about the same number of dogs; sometimes they let a couple of young people to start learning by participating in the process. No women participate, at least not until now. Organizing the batida is critical then it is crucial to follow instructions to succeed and not to have any injuries. The expert in hunting, who most likely is not the same who builds palapas, leads the whole process and makes all the decisions. Hunting is in the dark, and in the jungle, several potential dangers have to be overcome by the hunters in order to bring home their catch and call a success at the end of the activity, with no injuries; following instructions by the leader is crucial for the success. At around 9:00 am, in a place where the “nixtamal” (corn seeds prepared to grind to obtain corn dough) is ground, women gather and while waiting for their turn they have a conversation on many topics. One of them needed help in designing and making a huipil (traditional Maya women dress). She is told to talk to someone in the community recognized as the best. The expert assumes the role of a leader, heading the process from the beginning to the end, until the huipiles are finished. A similar process happens when a family needs to cook a special food for a special occasion, they turn to an expert and ask her to lead the whole process, from the beginning until the food is prepared and ready to serve.

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From the above descriptions, based on observations and interviews, it is possible to identify elements in the process than can describe how leadership is applied successfully in the Maya communities: (a) Leadership carries acknowledgment and respect to knowledge, wisdom, and interpersonal interactions. An effective community leader represents those traits. (b) Effective communication in the process is explained not only because they all speak the same language, Yucatec Maya, but also because due to cultural processes, they use and understand body language, signs, looks, and marks in the forest or the kitchen or the clothes. (c) There is a system developed by the communities to make sure that those cultural traits that include developing leadership and learning to guide or to follow instructions are passed on from one generation to the next. This system, according to Rosado-May (2017), is called “iknal” (p. 169). (d) They take on learners, apprentices, from any family, interested in learning their knowledge and skills. (e) There is a spiritual component in their cosmovision that guides many of their beliefs and actions, especially when it comes to respect other people and nature. (f) There is concern about the future generations regarding adaptation to changes and keeping the values of their culture. Following are notes from Xyatil, Señor, and Yaxley, describing some examples of the role of traditional judges considered leaders in their communities. At around 7:00 pm, one night a woman visits the traditional Judge of her community at his house. First, she greets him, talks about the meeting that the community just had at the local school to discuss the end of the year celebrations. After a few minutes she then introduces the real subject for her visit, her husband had beaten her when he arrived home drunk the day before. She asked the Judge to talk to her husband because she does not like to be treated like that. The Judge understood the situation, knows the couple and promised to talk to her husband. The Judge chooses a special moment to approach the husband, he did not issue a letter asking him to come to the office, a small palapa located in the central area of the town which is the official place where the traditional Judge supposed to work. The Judge asked the husband to confirm what his wife had mentioned, without actually saying that the wife had come to see him and asked for help. The husband, as a sign of respect to the Judge, acknowledged the situation, confirmed the version and promised not to do it again. A simple conversation that the Judge had with somebody who did something wrong, was enough to solve the situation in most cases. So it is for drunk noisy people, robbery, fights, land dispute, and the like. The traditional Judges do not oversee crimes related to killings, or drugs. If the bad situation is not corrected, at least after two warnings, the traditional Judge may impose a sanction to the offender. The sanction is based on shame, for instance cleaning or weeding a public place, toilets in a school, painting a wall. Interesting to note that the traditional Judges do not have under their command any police, so the only strength they have is moral, is based on their reputation, their wisdom, their fairness, their ability to judge right based on values shared by the community. When somebody is asked by the Judge to clean or weed or paint, because of his or her misbehavior and not listening

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to the first warnings, the decision is public, everybody in the community knows the ruling/ decision by the Judge, there is no dispute and there is no police making sure that the offender will comply with the ruling. If he or she does not comply the whole community may have to make the decision to expel him or her from the community. This system of justice has prevailed for centuries, it is possible to find a correlation of peace in communities that still function under this system, whereas those where this system is broken or does not exist, there are more problems, less peace or no peace at all.

Based on observations, conversation with community members and discussions with traditional judges, their leadership in their communities is grounded on the following aspects: (a) A position of respect. Traditional judges are named by the community; by doing so, community members agree to respect and follow any ruling. Traditional judges do not have a term for their activity and receive very little payment. Unless the community demands the separation, a traditional judge may stay in that position for many years until he or she decides to step down. They gain respect due to their wisdom, knowledge of the culture, ability to communicate verbally, to mediate conflicts, and fairness in their ruling. (b) They hear the people’s opinion before ruling, meaning that they first build consensus before making any decision, but they do not take very long to do so, otherwise the community might be disappointed. (c) They are active in organizing traditional celebrations, thus connecting with people in their community. (d) They are also highly respected by outside, municipal, state, and federal authorities. (e) They take on learners, apprentices, from any family, interested in their knowledge and wisdom. (f) There is concern on the rapid changes coming into communities and not having enough time to have proper adaptations and maintaining the core elements of their culture. (g) There is also a spiritual component in their cosmovision that guides many of their ruling, especially when it comes to respect other people and nature. Based on observations and conversations with Maya Generals and community members, following is a description of an example of how they operate. On February 12th, 2019, a publication in a prestigious national media called the attention on a difficult situation that a Maya General, J, from one of the five Shrines, was undergoing (Caballero, 2019). A couple of members of the same Shrine and a General from another Shrine in collusion with outsiders representing political interests different than the local shrine, decided wrongly to remove and degrade General J. This decision provoked an outcry from both indigenous and non-indigenous people. Most likely the decision to remove General J would be challenged; General J visited his communities, talked to people, presented arguments and gathered support. His reputation, way of living, work he had previously done in favor of his Shrine, were acknowledged and gathered enough support to challenge the wrong doing by some members of his own Shrine and outsiders.

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It is a General’s job to maintain peace and attend needs among all communities around each Shrine. Although General J will prevail and overcome his removal, there are greater challenges out there that he and other Maya leaders might not be prepared to face. Both Indigenous individuals and Indigenous communities are now protected under the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples adopted by the General Assembly on September 13th, 2007 (United Nations, 2019b). Many countries since then, including Mexico, have changed their internal normativity to adopt the same principles. These Declarations recognize that Indigenous peoples, both individually and collectively, are subject, not object, of international law (Gómez Isa, 2017; Guzmán Brito, 2002). Under these Rights and with misinterpretations by people in decision making positions, there might be an unfounded fear to the following scenario: the organization of city-states of the Maya Shrines (with their surrounding communities) could meet the requirement to claim autonomy, which is, according to Bartolome (2001) their right, a figure that has already been implemented for many years in Chiapas, Mexico by the Zapatistas (Almeyra, 2009; Ávila Rojas, 2018). There is no clear direction in the near future of the Maya Shrines regarding autonomy; nevertheless, with the wrong action of his removal, General J has quite a bit of work ahead, his leadership skills will be tested. His vision for the future involves a strong position of advancing high quality intercultural education for the young generations, a model of education that enables them to learn modern concepts and techniques but well-grounded in their own Maya values, language and culture.

The above description is a big challenge for any leader. So far, the successes achieved by the Maya Generals are based on the following traits detected in this study. (a) A Maya General poolil (leads in Western terms) combines thinking and action and uses them wisely. (b) A Maya General represents the values, knowledge, language, and wisdom of the culture, and lives and conducts himself based on them. (c) A Maya General must speak Maya, understand Spanish, and preferably speak Spanish as well. (d) A Maya General is able to make decisions, even if they are difficult. No hesitation is shown when it comes to a point in which somebody needs to be punished for a wrongdoing. (e) The life of a Maya General must be transparent and be ready to be accountable for decisions or actions taken. (f) A Maya General is humble but strong and firm at the same time. (g) A Maya General possess very good skills of communication with his people and with outsiders. The General must speak the truth with solid bases. (h) A Maya General has a vision for the future, shared by the people in the communities encompassed by the Shrine, in which all community members should be ready to adopt changes and at the same time stand up for what they believe, for their values, for their families and for their communities. (i) A Maya General promotes the transmission of traditional knowledge to younger generations.

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Although the information presented in this section is not presented in the form used by King and Zhang (2014) when comparing Western traits of leadership with non-­ Western ones, or the model presented by Chen and An (2009), to understand traditional Chinese leadership traits, it represents a beginning in the process of understanding, studying, and generating tools to fulfill one of the expectations of all Maya leaders: to pass on knowledge. By identifying the elements of effective poolil (leadership) among the Mazewal Yucatec Maya, it is possible to present the following traits that emerge from each of the categories studied (community everyday leaders, traditional Judges, and Dignitaries such as a General). 1. There is a connection among the three levels studied; it seems that all three levels are well articulated and complement each other. A disruption on any of the three levels could mean a threat to the others. 2. The core elements in all three levels of leadership are: values, spirituality, respect for each other and for nature, communication skills, listening to their constituency to make sound decisions, and concern for knowledge to pass on to new generations. 3. Increasing changes in everyday life should match the pace of adaptations. If the adaptations are not well thought out and implemented, the core values and elements of the culture will be lost; thus, the identity as Maya indigenous people will have no ground to support it. Future Maya leaders will need some training, will need to develop modern methods of leadership because their culture is changing by the day and because the Maya are interacting with many other cultures in a multicultural society.

Intercultural Leadership Revisited Most of the literature reviewed uses the term intercultural assuming there is a good understanding of its meaning. The UN Peace Enforcement also uses the term intercultural leadership; peacekeeping takes place in chaotic, complex, and unpredictable environment, carried out by people from different nations in a context of different “home culture” and the “host culture” made up by different social groups with different cultural backgrounds. These conditions generate extremely demanding leadership situations not only in complex situations but also at different levels (Seiler, 2007). Deardoff (2010), who defined intercultural competence as “effective and appropriate behavior and communication in intercultural situations” (p. 87), did not present a definition of interculturality. Intercultural leadership is not only about learning other languages and communicating effectively by knowing customs and traditions of other cultures. Effective communication provides concepts that reflect ways of constructing knowledge. Assuming that there is a working definition of leadership that suits the needs of different researchers, this essay claims that advancing intercultural leadership

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requires a working definition of the meaning of the word “intercultural.” The Oxford online dictionary defines intercultural as an adjective that means “taking place between cultures, or derived from different cultures” (Oxford Dictionary, 2019). According to the Collins dictionary on line, the same word is an adjective that means in British “existing between, relating to, or involving one or more cultures” and in American: “between or among people of different cultures” (Collins Dictionary, 2019). Under these definitions, the use of the word intercultural in the literature reviewed, along with the term leadership, could be interpreted as leading in a context of different cultures. The same interpretation is true for the concept of cross-cultural leadership. Strictly speaking, an intercultural leader or a cross-cultural leader does try to lead in a context of different cultures; there is no need to go further in examining the concept. However, as pointed out in the paradigmatic assumptions (p.  204) presented by Chen and An (2009), in the context of indigenous people’s cultures and assuming that the term leader reflects actions based on Western worldview, the working definition of intercultural leadership needs to be reexamined. Intercultural leadership carries implicitly a process of interculturality, meaning that the parties involved have different cultures, worldviews, ways of constructing knowledge, and thus, there might be different understanding of the same processes or outcomes. The word intercultural is different from the word multicultural. In a multicultural setting, people from different cultures may come to agreements or may follow the same leader without actually having an in-depth interaction with each other. Thus, theoretically speaking, an “easy” intercultural leadership happens when the parties understand the same language spoken, know some particularities of the other culture (like different meanings of the same word or how to behave in the interactions), and, especially, sharing the same values on the subject or topics addressed (see Madrigal Torres, Luna Riz, & Vargas Hernández, 2016, for the case of India and Mexico). In business, usually the same values are on the table, values that result from the economical approach in action. For instance, under capitalism, the business values are shared among different cultures (Sharier, Kotani & Kakinaka, 2016). But capitalism is not in the values of indigenous peoples, in general (Jalata, 2013; Rosado-May et al., 2018), nor are other aspects of indigenous cosmovision such as interconnectivity with other people and nature or spiritual values; thus, differences in cultural values represent a challenge for intercultural leaders. Intercultural relationships are being studied in different fields like education (e.g., Frawley & Fasoli, 2012), agroecology (e.g., Rosado-May, 2017), and medicine (e.g., Mignone, Bartlett, O’Neil, & Orchard, 2007). Based on studies regarding cognitive processes (e.g., Karim, 2003), and assuming that different cultures have different ways of learning (Rogoff, 2014) and constructing knowledge, an emerging working definition of interculturality is the following: interculturalism is the result of a process that allows different systems of creating knowledge to interact in a safe environment, creating conditions for new knowledge to emerge (based on Rosado-­ May, 2015, p. 130). An intercultural leader, then, would know how to distinguish the different ways of learning and constructing knowledge, based on culture, and work from there to achieve effective leadership.

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By using systems of learning and creating knowledge as points of reference, and identifying them for the cultures involved in a process of leadership, it would be safe to propose the following premise: knowing the ways of learning and constructing knowledge of cultures involved in negotiations or any other relationship, new and effective methods can be developed for practicing and training/teaching intercultural leadership. This premise closes a gap left open under the definition of the adjective intercultural by the dictionaries visited in this essay. Interculturality and intercultural leadership are about constructing knowledge that can benefit all stakeholders, not just having a multicultural leading process, but an actual process in which win–win conditions can be created for all the cultures involved. The working definition of interculturality hereby presented provides new ways to approach leadership in indigenous education. In addressing this issue, Faircloth and Tippeconnic III (2013) mention the importance of this leadership in cases in which the “need for indigenous leadership was fueled in large part by ongoing trends of low academic achievement and associated measures of social, economic, and physical well-being for indigenous students’ post-graduation” (p. 481). But intercultural leadership must go beyond preventing low academic achievements or dropouts in school by indigenous students. The idea of intercultural leadership developed from understanding ways of learning and constructing knowledge is not only for indigenous peoples; it also works for non-indigenous people. Wiessner and Sullivan (2007) examined the new learning that occurred in a professional development program for participants who aspire to a community college presidency. Knowledge construction occurred on three levels: personal, professional, and disciplinary; new knowledge was expressed cognitively, affectively, and conatively. Kim and Starcher (2012) studied leadership factors in native-born Koreans from three different leadership levels: cross-cultural community leaders, cross-national leaders, and international leaders. These authors found six key factors divided into two broad categories: external influences and internal dispositions. Important external influences were family heritage, pivotal encounters, and academic achievement. Important internal factors consisted of individual attitudes, acquired skills, and personal traits. With rapid technological changes and global movement of cultures, nowadays, indigenous leaders face big challenges. The example described for the Maya General J is only one of many cases that most likely would surpass their skills if the new generations of indigenous people are not prepared interculturally to be the next leaders. In the near future, all leaders, both indigenous and non-indigenous, must have intercultural skills. With the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the implementation of the principles of International Labour Organization (2019b) Convention 169, the indigenous participation in the Convention on Biological Diversity (2019) process, the international treaty known as the Kyoto Protocol (2019), the Nagoya Protocol (2019) on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity the Maya people in the Yucatan, and indigenous elsewhere, are in need of leadership to meet the challenges posed by these legal framework. To do so effectively, not any

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kind of leadership, but intercultural leadership, is a most for both indigenous and non-indigenous peoples. Chapter Takeaways (a) Culture plays an important role in effective leadership. (b) Cross-cultural leadership and intercultural leadership are different. (c) Leadership in indigenous cultures has not received enough attention in research. (d) Effective intercultural leadership requires good understanding of processes related to ways of learning and constructing knowledge from stakeholders. Those processes are culturally determined and have great influence on human behavior. (e) Future leaders must train in intercultural leadership, not only cross-cultural leadership. Reflection Questions (a) How does culture influence effective leadership? (b) What kind of leadership is needed to develop better public policies to address poverty climate change and other issues challenging the development of indigenous peoples? (c) What do we know about indigenous leadership? (d) Is there a conceptual framework that incorporates indigenous thinking regarding intercultural leadership? (e) Is there a conceptual framework to develop a curriculum to train intercultural leaders in a multicultural world?

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Transforming Shame in the Workplace, Leadership and Organisation: Contributions of Positive Psychology Movements to the Discourse

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Claude-Hélène Mayer

Abstract

In the twenty-first-century workforce, shame seems to be an often unconscious and neglected topic which is hardly addressed on micro-, meso- and macro-­levels in different cultural contexts. Shame is generally viewed as a negative emotion which impacts negatively on the self within the context of others. Previous research has shown that shame affects individuals in organisations and needs to be addressed and transformed to impact constructively on leaders, employees and the organisation. This chapter presents an overview on relevant aspects of shame in the workplace and places it into the discourse of positive psychology (1.0) and the second wave of positive psychology (2.0). Keywords

Shame · Leaders · Workplace · Organisation · Transforming negative emotions · Health resource · Workplace health · Positive psychology (1.0) · Positive psychology wave two (2.0)

Introduction Who has never experienced shame? Shame generally develops early in life (Hilgers, 2013) and has in the past often been referred to as a pathological concept or at least a destructive emotion which can have an extraordinary impact on a person or a C.-H. Mayer (*) Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Institut für Therapeutische Kommunikation, Europa-Universität Viadrina, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_17

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group (Vanderheiden & Mayer, 2017). Shame can be experienced at any point in time and is often triggered by experiences which are connected to situations and experiences that occurred earlier in life (Hilgers, 2013). Researchers have emphasised that shame exists in various cultures (Gilbert, Gilbert, & Sanghera, 2004; Jaffe, Flórez, Gomes, Rodriguez, & Achury, 2014; Wong & Tsai, 2007), has been explored interdisciplinarily and it has been discussed that various categories of shame need to be differentiated which range from body shame, moral shame, intimacy shame, traumatic shame to group shame (Hilgers, 2013). Which kind of shame a person experiences depends on previous experiences and ways of coping with shame. Although shame as an emotion is omnipresent, it is often ‘invisible’ or ‘tabooed’ in Western contexts (Scheff, 2013). This is particularly true for the work-related context where feelings of shame – which relate to thoughts and feelings of being out of place – are often not acknowledged or appreciated and therefore hidden. In recent years, voices (e.g. Wurmser, 2010) have highlighted that shame needs to be viewed not only as a negative emotion, but also from a positive, health-related perspective to thereby explore the positive effects more in-depth and counteract the very well-studied negative implications, such as intense self-denial, feelings of worthlessness, powerlessness or depression, burn-out or anxiety. Andrieux (2012) emphasises that shame is a holistic, complex and painful emotion which needs to be understood as such and explored from holistic perspectives. This chapter presents an overview of relevant theoretical aspects regarding shame in the workplace, drawing onto selected theories and empirical studies from different cultural perspectives. The author primarily envisions shame as a health resource (Vanderheiden & Mayer, 2017), while using it as a constructive and meaningful force (Wong, 2017) within the workplace to develop employees, the organisation and health and well-being in the work context in general. Additionally, it is argued that the theoretical paradigm of the positive psychology wave two (PP2.0) – an expansion and further developed concept of the original positive psychology movement (PP1.0) – can build a foundation for understanding shame and transforming it constructively on individual and/or organisational levels (Mayer, 2019 in press). The aim of this chapter is to discuss shame and its impact in the workplace from a positive psychology (PP2.0) perspective, showing that shame, when transformed constructively, can become a health resource, contributing to create conditions in which employees can realise their own potential and their potential within the organisation. Firstly, theoretical approaches to shame in the workplace, in leadership and organisation are discussed as a prelude to demonstrating shame as a health resource from a positive psychology perspective (PP2.0). Further, the author will present strategies on how to transform shame within organisations and the impact on this redefinition of the – originally often described as negative – emotion on individual, organisational and societal levels. The author will, in addition, present original ideas on transforming shame in the workplace and its impact on workplace, health and well-being. The chapter finally will provide conclusions and recommendations for theory and practice.

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Shame in the Workplace In the twenty-first-century workforce, shame seems to be an often unconscious and neglected topic which is hardly addressed on micro-, meso- and macro-levels in different cultural contexts (Mayer & Vanderheiden, 2019a, 2019b). Shame is generally viewed as a negative emotion which impacts strongly on the self within the context of others (Tracy & Robins, 2004, 2008). Starrin (2016) emphasises that shame is a taboo topic and that it is usually associated with the impression of ‘being out of the place’ (Ryan, 2017). Other authors (Purpora, Cooper, & Sharifi, 2015) point out that particularly workplaces are riddled by disruptive workplace behaviour and bullying which might be associated with shame, while Felblinger (2008) explains that shame is associated with belonging to the disruptive behaviours. Shameful feelings involve the negative evaluation of the self and propose to the individual that outcomes of behaviour might be incongruent with identity goals (Mascolo & Fischer, 1995; Tangney, 1991). At the same time, shame signals that the expectations, norms and values of the social group or individuals in close contact are important and acknowledged and that the individual concerned experiences shortcomings of living up to these expectations and norms (Boiger, 2017). Shame as an emotionally challenging experience entails a disruptive potential which might impact negatively on health and well-being of individuals and groups/ teams in the workplace. Individuals usually react to shame with avoidance, overcompensation, competition or self-centeredness (Andrieux, 2012). Besides the often negative impacts of experienced shame, it has been recognised that shame might be used in organisations as a negative motivator (Stiles, 2008), although it has been emphasised that the intentional use of shame in organisations impacts negatively on self-worth, mental health and career development (Alkire & Santos, 2009) and, thereby, indirectly, on the productivity on the job, job satisfaction and work engagement. In certain workplaces, such as in higher education institutions in South Africa, shame is used as a strategy to uphold certain ethics and moral standards, and employees might feel shamed by their superiors (Mayer & Ley, 2016). However, employees usually respond to shaming with withdrawal, avoidance, retraction or other negative and destructive reactions which do not contribute either to a positive work attitude or a positive and constructive organisational atmosphere (Mayer & Tonelli, 2017). It has been argued before (Mayer & Tonelli, 2017; Vanderheiden & Mayer, 2017) that shame needs to be recognised, acknowledged as a topic in organisations and finally transformed into a constructive force and health resource. This can either be done through counselling and therapy (Mayer, 2017; Sinha, 2017), through intra-­ psychological approaches (van Alphen, 2017), such as mindfulness trainings and self-reflection or through organisational responses to shame and shaming in the workplace (Mayer & Tonelli, 2017; Oosthuizen, 2019). Poulson II (2000) has described that employees are prone to shame when communication within organisations is unclear, when the psychological contract between employees and superiors and/or organisations changes or is violated and when goals are set in an

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authoritarian rather than in a participative way. Shame is, however, also ripe in organisations when employees are dismissed, contracts are terminated, promotions fail or performance is negatively appraised and powerlessness is experienced. Additionally, according to Poulson II (2000), shame occurs in the context of bullying, harassment and exclusion which is displayed and experienced within organisations. Further on, shame in the broader context of organisations and workplaces is experienced when individuals experience unemployment (Rantakeisu, Starrin, & Hagquist, 1997). This seems particularly to be the case for high achievers (Mayer, 2019a; 2019b; 2019c; 2019d). Previous research has shown that shame affects individuals in organisations and needs to be addressed and transformed to impact constructively on employees and the organisation. This chapter presents an overview on relevant aspects of shame in the workplace and places it into the discourse of positive psychology (1.0) and the second wave of positive psychology (2.0).

Shame, Leadership and the Organisation Shame has been researched in organisational and leadership contexts (Clough, 2010; Plate, 2015; Mayer & Tonelli, 2017; Mayer, Viviers, & Tonelli, 2017; Oosthuizen, 2019); although research on shame has in the past mainly focused on clinical, therapeutical, philosophical and self-development contexts, it is also vivid in leadership, organisation and workplaces and should not be underestimated with regard to its impact (Mayer & Vanderheiden, 2019a, 2019b). Shame in leadership and organisation refers to shame in the context of motivation and workplace behaviour, decision-making processes between an employee and a superior, shame experienced during opportunities to speak out, regarding requesting and receiving support from superiors, getting advice from leaders, wrong doing and sympathisation with the person victimised in a situation (Mayer & Tonelli, 2017). Shame can further be associated with positive leadership behaviour and might be seen as a strategic move for leaders: wrong doers in organisations might be confronted by leaders for ‘educational’ purposes with shame or shaming (Mayer & Tonelli, 2017). Buch (2017, 167) emphasises further, that not only individuals as leaders in organisations, but organisations as systems use shame and shaming strategies to ‘wipe out unwanted cultures’ and change behaviour. Obviously, leadership and organisational practice are tightly interlinked when it comes to managing shame within workplaces and organisations. Plate (2015) has conducted an analysis of the interlinkages of shame, leadership and the organisational structure and shows that shame is associated with complex leadership dynamics, and Clough (2010) points out that shame within organisations and leadership affects particularly motivation, performance, organisational cohesiveness and interpersonal relationships. Shame is strongly related to negatively perceived organisational and leadership behaviour, such as bullying and scapegoating (Clough, 2010). It further, according to Clough (2010), impacts strongly on how organisations are perceived

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internally and in the public arena. It is tightly connected to the internal and external reputation of an organisation and its employees. Grevenstein and Cilliers (2012) point out that leadership is – within their South African organisational context of research – experienced as a ‘bad object containing unresolvable shame’. Thereby leaders seem to wait for macro-level interventions within organisation and society to resolve shameful experiences and issues of the past while defending off the increase of awareness of their own defensive leadership behaviour. Leaders, in the cited study, defend against shame on micro and interpersonal levels and prefer to stay unaware of shameful issues, giving the topic into the hand of the macro-organisational and societal structures to be resolved for them. Shame  – when not addressed consciously  – becomes an ‘ever-present shadow in organisations’ (Bentley, 2012). It is argued here that shame needs to be addressed in organisations in a healthy way to transform it into a positively and constructively used emotion which contributes to the organisational development and the leadership within the organisation. This needs to be tackled by presenting new theoretical approaches to transform shame in leadership, organisation and workplaces, as well as practical approaches and recommendations to deal with shame constructively.

 he Movement from Positive Psychology (1.0) to the Second T Wave of Positive Psychology (2.0) The positive psychology movement developed in the twenty-first century and grew strongly during the past decades. It is defined as the study of optional functioning of the human being (Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006) and particularly focuses on the positive aspects and attributes within the life of a person. The movement has been integrated in psychological research and the psychological science since many years and has also gained implications for practical approaches in counselling, therapy and organisational management (Gruman, Lumley, & González-­ Morales, 2018). Focusing on the question on how positive psychology is defined, Seligman, Steen, Park, and Peterson (2005) provide some insights, emphasising the positive emotions, character traits and enabling institutions as the three pillars of defining positive psychology. Thereby, the authors (Seligman et  al., 2005) emphasise that relief of suffering and the focus on the negative differ from the enhancement of happiness and thereby the focus on the positive. Recently, Fincham and Beach (2010) have pointed out that the study of positive psychology has brought about the fourth pillar to PP1.0, namely the study of (the impact of) positive relationships. The PP2.0 movement, however, claims that the positive and the negative side are inherently interdependent and cannot be separated from each other. A positive psychology needs, according to the researchers of the PP2.0 movement, to take both aspects into account to reach the most holistic view possible. Wong (2011) and Wong, Ivtzan, and Lomas (2017) thereby highlight that PP2.0 needs to include the scientific study of virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being to improve the life of humankind and individuals with regard to the entire life. Additionally, negative

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aspects need to be taken into account, recognised, acknowledged and transformed. The synthesis of both, the positive and the negative, is therefore most important in PP2.0, as is the holistic view on different levels of analysis while building constituency with other branches of mainstream psychology, suggesting a meaning-centred approach in the context of improving life for individuals and for humankind as such. Further, not only the individual is taken into consideration, but rather how to address the challenge to improve the socio-cultural conditions of individuals and societies (Wong, 2011). PP2.0 thereby focuses on creating full functioning individuals while aiming for organisations and institutions which are psychologically healthy, focusing on the holistic well-being of individuals (Wong et al., 2017). While PP1.0 interventions were mainly aiming at enhancing positive emotions and meaning and engagement in life (Seligman et  al., 2005), PP2.0 expands the bases of the PP1.0 interventions by bringing virtue, meaning, resilience and well-­ being into play as the four pillars of PP2.0, referring to previous research having shown their importance for PP1.0 already (Wong et al., 2017). The major difference, however, between PP1.0 and PP2.0 seems to be the aim to emphasise the positive while managing and transforming the negative to increase the well-being for individuals, organisations and societies.

 hame in the Workplace Within the Positive Psychology S Frameworks (1.0 and 2.0) Recently, shame has been reflected as a construct which can be evaluated with regard to its positive potential (Deonna, Rodogno, & Teroni, 2012; Hilgers, 2013; Vanderheiden & Mayer, 2017; Wurmser, 2010) and Vanderheiden and Mayer (2017) have explicitly developed the idea to see shame as a health resource within the context of the positive psychology movement (PP1.0) across cultures. They have thereby drawn on Antonovsky’s (1979) idea of promoting salutogenesis in individuals and – as a consequence – in organisations (Mayer, 2011). This perspective highlights according to Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi’s (2000) perspective on PP1.0 that shame can be transformed to create flourishing and flow in individuals, as well as in groups and societies and thereby creating mental health and well-being. In this sense, shame can create optimal functioning as can be seen as a source of optional functioning of the human being as defined in Linley et al. (2006) with regard to the PP1.0 movement. Rothmann (2014) further emphasises that transforming individual experiences within the context of positive psychology (PP1.0) leads to increasing feelings of self-sufficiency, ability to adapt, general coping and optimised personal potential. Further on, Fredrickson (2001) points out that more research on emotions and positive psychology is needed to explore their interrelationships on a deeper level. In this context, shame has been defined as a potential source of resilience (Tangney & Dearing, 2002) and social coherence (Connor, 2001) which helps in building management of task relationships, unity across differing groups and mastery of work.

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With regard to shame in the context of PP1.0, shame is – in conclusion and when viewed as a resource for health and well-being – associated with a potential source of self-esteem, coping, self-reflection and self-awareness, mindfulness, flow and flourishing, and an adjustment factor in social and cultural contexts. Through the experience of shame and by extracting the positive aspects of this rather negative experienced emotion, the individual and organisation can gain new access to deeper knowledge, strength and competencies (Hilgers, 2013). In this sense, shame fulfils the four pillars of positive functioning – as according to Seligman et al. (2005) – while focusing on the positive only: • Shame as a positive emotion. • Shame as impacting positively on character traits (change of personality). • Shame as a positive aspect in enabling institutions (workplaces and organisations to focus on health and well-being, flourishing, happiness and development of the employee). • Shame as a force to enable and improve positive relationships. Wong (2017), however, points out in his review on Vanderheiden and Mayer (2017) that shame is not only to be seen as a health resource and within the context of the positive psychology movement (PP1.0), but that he understands the positive psychology approach of Vanderheiden and Mayer (2017) regarding shame as a construct of PP2.0. Wong (2017) points out that he understands shame based on Vanderheiden and Mayer (2017) as a PP2.0 construct by highlighting two points: first, by emphasising that shame needs to be acknowledged in its negativity first, before the positive potential of it can be seen and used (as in May, 2017), and second, by highlighting that shame is not only a source of flourishing and happiness (Seligman et al., 2005), but that shame is also a source of meaningfulness (Bhawuk, 2017; Buch, 2017; Mayer, 2017; Sinha, 2017). Additionally, Wong et al. (2017) claim that PP2.0 needs to include the scientific study of the following: • • • •

Virtue Meaning Resilience Well-being to improve the life of humankind and individuals with regard to the entire life

This is true for the transformation of shame to contribute to health and well-­ being in the workplaces and organisations. In the following, shame will be discussed in the context of virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being.

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Shame and Virtue A few studies in different cultural contexts have associated shame with virtues, such as Bagozzi, Verbeke, and Gavino (2003). The authors highlight that shame can be used in positive ways if civic virtues are recognised, acknowledged and respected. Also, Ryan (2017) sees positive aspects in shame within the context of virtue ethics from a Christian perspective, particularly highlighting the virtue of charity, love, Christian living and the development of the moral self-impacting on the health of individuals. Shame, in the context of virtues, can contribute to developing a moral self through the experience and working through shame experiences. Also, Bhawuk (2017) emphasises that in cultivating virtues, lajjA (translated as shame, modesty, embarrassment or timidity) is found to be a virtue which guides thoughts and behaviour. Rehn and Lindahl (2010) emphasise that organisations and leadership should promote a culture of respect and pride and that leaders need to take on a self-­ respective, self-reflective role-taking perspective, particularly in emotionally charged management settings. The authors point out that honour within organisations can support new perspectives in organisation and leadership and be effective in dealing with issues of shame. Bulatova (2014) has taken the discourse in organisations further and has studied shame in the context of ethics, virtues and ethical leadership from an ethical leadership perspective. Therefore, shame is associated with concepts of responsibility and of ‘lost value’. Further on, quality in leadership is a discussed issue and shame is found to be a healthy way or reminding leaders of responsibilities, moral and ethical values and is viewed as an important internal mechanism of self-regulation. Shame, in the context of organisation, leadership and virtue, needs to be placed with discourses on leaders and organisational decision-making, responsibility and ­ ­individual and organisational ethics, and is closely placed within the context of communicating ethical standards and values (Trevino, Brown, & Hartmann, 2003). According to Bulatova (2014, 14), there is a void in the literature and research, which addresses shame as an important condition in the context of business leadership and virtues, emotion and cognition; however, the author highlights that there seems to be a ‘lack of shame’ when it comes to leadership. Boddy (2011) connects this lack of shame in leadership contexts with malfunctions, such as selfishness, short-term orientation, lying, hubris, manipulation and manipulativeness and lack of empathy. Leadership which experiences this lack of shame is referred to as ‘narcissistic leadership’ (Symington, 2004) or even ‘psychopathic leadership’ (Boddy, 2011). Symington (2004) is of the opinion that organisations are often unable to differentiate between narcissistic characters and leadership and empathetic leaders. Interestingly, narcissistic leaders rather seem to be promoted and uplifted into key positions in organisations. Symington (2004), therefore, makes a point in highlighting that organisations need to increase their ability of sensing shameless and ego-­ centric individuals to control them. This kind of ‘pathologic’ leadership is usually contrasted with ‘ethical, responsible leadership’ (Maak & Pless, 2006), which is based on positive and ethical virtues and values.

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Shame and Meaning Kämmerer (2010) refers to shame as a meaningful self-reflective emotion. Since Scheff and Retzinger (1997) have called shame ‘the master of emotion’, other researchers from different cultural contexts have commented on the meaning of shame from social and cultural stances (e.g. Sueda, 2019). The aspect of meaning has further on gained interest in shame research, and Ryan (2019) points out that in shame-laden events, the meaning of the experience of shame should be explored to develop an insight into the deeper meaning of shame and also to develop self-­ awareness, self-transcendence and love. Wong (2011) points out that not only meaning-­making within individual contexts but also the greater good of humankind needs to be taken into account. The experience of shame and the establishing of meaning within PP2.0 should thereby feed back into creating full functioning individuals, which contribute positively to meaning making and the greater good for humankind in terms of increasing holistic well-being and psychologically healthy environments (as in Wong et al., 2017).

Shame and Resilience Brennen, Robertson and Curtis (2017) emphasise that shame and resilience are closely related in the context of New Zealand and that resilient responses to shame are needed to contribute to health and well-being. This has been claimed for the Western cultural context before by Tangney and Dearing (2002), who emphasise the importance of shame as a factor of resilience, while Vanderheiden and Mayer (2017) and Hernandez and Mendoza (2011) point out that resilience is strongly important to cope with shame constructively and successfully, not only on a general base, but also with regard to addictive behaviours. Mayer and Tonelli (2017) describe that for leaders in the South African workplaces, shame is resiliently overcome by using specific communication styles and strategies which help the individual to cope with shame in educational contexts to overcome shameful feelings and experiences. Finally, Brown (2006) has developed a theory on ‘shame resilience’ with special regard to how women overcome shame experiences in a resilient way. It can be concluded that shame being managed and transformed in a resilient way can lead to personal and organisational growth (Brennen et al., 2017; Van Vliet, 2008). However, this is only the case when negative and positive aspects of shame are taken into consideration and reflection (Brennan et  al., 2017) and when the ambivalence of shame is being faced (Andrieux, 2019).

Shame and Well-Being Lomas, Hefferon and Ivtzan (2015, p. 1347) emphasise that positive psychology is the science which focuses specifically and entirely on the ‘science and practice of improving well-being’, pointing out that while ‘the first wave of positive

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psychology is characterised by valorisation of the positive, the PP2.0 recognised that well-being actually involves a subtle, dialectic interplay between positive and negative phenomena’ (Ivtzan, Lomas, Hefferon, & Worth, 2015). In this context, the authors have pointed out that in any way, research on health and well-being from the PP2.0 perspective needs to take culture and cross-cultural nuances into account which might be specific for a certain cultural context (Ivtzan et al., 2015). As highlighted previously by several authors (Andrieux, 2019; Mayer, 2019a, 2019b; Vanderheiden, 2019), shame can create health and well-being in certain circumstances. Wong (2017), however, emphasises that negative emotions, such as shame, can only contribute positively to health and well-being when their intra- and inter-personal ‘dark sides’ are embraced, thereby agreeing to Ivtzan et al. (2015). Then, human dignity, self-respect, happiness and mental health and well-being can be regained (Wong, 2017). In conclusion, shame can be transformed from a toxic to a healthy emotion when it is: • Firstly, recognised in its entire ambivalence without being tabooed. • Secondly, acknowledged with all its shadow and light sides. • Thirdly, overcome and transformed constructively by taking a holistic view on shame on cognitive, affective and behavioural levels. Most of the research on shame which argues from a positive psychology perspective (PP1.0 and PP2.0) agrees that shame can only be fully transformed into a health-promoting resource when it is acknowledged with regard to its ambivalence and when the individual, group, organisation and society are prepared and willing to take the conscious and unconscious, as well as the individual and collective parts of shame into account to develop further on different levels (Mayer, 2019c, 2019d). A usual process in transforming shame could be the following. However, it needs to be taken into consideration that in some circumstances, individuals, groups, organisations and socio-cultural systems might prefer to focus on the positive aspects first, to prepare to work on the negative aspects and shadow sides later on. The process is not necessary a linear process, but rather one that moves forward and backward between the ambivalences until, in the end, integration of the ambivalences can take place (see Fig. 17.1).

 onclusions on Transforming Shame in Leadership C and Organisations After having identified shame as an emotion which can be viewed within the context of PP1.0 and PP2.0 in leadership and organisations, it can be concluded that shame can be transformed into a health resource within workplaces and organisations by using an existential view on it. Shame thereby needs a complex understanding of the development and process of shame intra-, inter- and transpersonally and it needs a holistic approach which takes the wholeness of the person into account (Wong,

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Transforming shame in process

Acknowledge shame as what it is, a painful emotion and work through the emotion in connection with its interliked memories, cognitive representations, emotions and behavioural aspects on individual, organisational and socio-cultural level

Become aware of the (potential) positive aspects of shame on all levels

Integrate negative and positive aspects on all levels and use the new understanding to develop healthy holistic views, wholeness in the person and in relationships

Connect shame with meaning and meaningfulness in life and work, focusing on virtue, meaning, resilience and wellbeing to improve life and humankind in general

Fig. 17.1  Processing and transforming shame on individual, organisational and socio-cultural levels

2019). To transform shame from a toxic into a healthy emotion, the theoretical paradigms of PP1.0 and PP2.0 can build functional theoretical foundations to discuss the transformation of shame on theoretical as well as on applied levels. If shame is viewed in the context of workplaces, leadership and the organisation, fundamental concepts of health and well-being need to be viewed as more than just a source of human flourishing, happiness and an emotion which can be transformed into a positive source of personal growth, as described in the theoretical approaches of PP1.0. It is argued here that shame needs to be rather seen as an emotion which forms part of a mindful approach incorporating the PP1.0 and the PP2.0 movements which claim positive psychology constructs to be viewed holistically  – not only positively – including their subtle negative and positive aspects. Shame – for being a potential and impacting source of workplace well-being and human flourishing – needs to be recognised and acknowledged in both: in its negativity (including the negative effects, the pain and the shadow) and with regard to its positive and constructive values (the development potential, the new perspectives, the positive outcomes). Only then, leaders, workplaces and organisations can authentically contribute to health and well-being of employees within organisations: when negative emotions, such as shame, and their consequences are allowed to be seen and acknowledged and when they are not ignored or tabooed. Further on, shame should not be limited to a negative and/or positive emotion and be caught up in this dualism which impacts on the workplaces and organisations, but it should rather be seen as a source of emotional complexity which aims at using PP1.0 and PP2.0 as theoretically based perspectives and foundations (as shown in Fig. 17.2) to promote healthy

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SHAME • Recognise as present (consciously & unconsciously) • Acknowledge shame in all its parts and expressions (positive and negative) • Transform (holisticallly with impact on personal growth, health and well-being)

use

PP1.0 • Shame & positive emotion • Shame & character trait • Shame & enabling institutions • Shame & positive relationships

use

PP2.0 • Shame and virtue • Shame and meaning • Shame and resilience • Shame and well-being to improve the life of humankind and individuals across the entire life span

towards

Integra ti on • Integrate PP1.0 and PP2.0 perspectives to understand shame and develop the individual, the organisation, the sociocultural embedding system towards existential values of wholeness and meaningfulness

Transforming shame holistically across the life span on individual and group levels anchored in PP1.0 and PP2.0 approaches

Fig. 17.2  Transforming shame holistically using PP1.0 and PP2.0 theoretical foundations

leadership and organisations. Integrating shame working through PP1.0 and PP2.0 perspectives could contribute to a deeper understanding of the self (here the employee, including the leader and the subordinate), the organisation and its broader socio-cultural embeddedness.

 ecommendations for Transforming Shame in Workplace R Health and Well-Being With regard to shame and its transformation, recommendations are provided in terms of future theory and practice. Future research needs to explore the similarities and differences and the developments of PP1.0 and PP2.0 in more depth. Generally, it appears that the PP1.0 movement and the second wave of positive psychology PP2.0 need to be defined with clarity by using specific categories and characteristics to describe both movements, their interlinkages and differences clearly and in-depth to define their contributions in the work with shame in leadership and organisation. More research needs to be conducted with regard to the frameworks of both movements. Therefore, meta-­ analyses of both frameworks should be conducted and their applications with regard to research since the 1990s should be conducted. Further on, PP1.0 and PP2.0 need to be studied with regard to their culture-relativity and their attempt to provide universal frameworks within the context of the discipline of psychology, industrial and organisational psychology and the subdiscipline of positive psychology.

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With regard to future research on shame in the context of PP1.0 and PP2.0, studies need to focus on shame and its effect and consequences on intra- and inter-psychological factors in leadership and organisations. Therefore, the positive and the negative aspects of shame should be taken into account from a 360-degree perspective of individuals working in the organisation. The potential of (toxic) shame to become healthy shame needs to be researched and the factors impacting on this potential transformational process needs to be taken into account with regard to personality characteristics and traits, but also in terms of leadership style and preferences, work culture and work conditions, organisational structures and organisational support systems, as well as organisational climate and atmosphere. Additionally, research should focus on shame in the context of PP1.0, researching shame as a positive emotion, as impacting positively on character traits, as a positive aspect in enabling leaders, employees as well as organisations to strive for wholeness and holistic well-being by enforcing and improving positive relationships. Shame needs therefore to be researched in connection with the main concepts in PP1.0, such as flow, flourishing, happiness and hope. Further on, research is needed to explore shame as a health resource in the context of virtue, meaning, resilience and well-being to improve the life of the individual, but also the life within the broader context of the individual, such as family, subgroup-membership, organisation, society and humankind. Therefore, shame research should not be limited to specific situations, but should also take the longitudinal time frames into account and focus on shame within PP1.0 and PP2.0 across the (work) life span and the effect on longitudinal organisational development, particularly the interrelatedness of transforming shame constructively, the effect on leaders and subordinates and the organisation (e.g. stability, task- and relationship-orientation, health factors, subjective health and well-being of employees, and meaningfulness). Finally, shame research should use triangulation of theories and methodologies and use quantitative, qualitative and mixed method approaches to gain the most possible insight into the dynamics surrounding this emotion and its transformation for personal development, growth and positive change in individuals and organisational and societal collectives. With regard to the practical implications and recommendations for future practice, the following might be highlighted. Individuals need to become self-aware and mindful with regard to shame and its positive and negative sides of the ‘dark emotion’. Thereby, individuals might embark on mindfulness, self-awareness and other training courses to become aware of shame and its toxic and health-related implications. Therefore, both perspectives (PP1.0 and PP2.0) should be taken into account in self-reflection processes and employees should be trained to being able to apply different perspectives on shame. Organisations need to take care of the topic of shame by constructively and pro-­ actively engaging into the topic of shame in the workplace. Thereby, organisations can aim at transforming individual and organisational shame through engagement, making shame visible as an (often suppressed) organisational reality, embracing it and using it to transforming it within the organisational contexts for personal and

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organisational growth. Organisations can approach the topic of shame by developing a pro-active, positive organisational culture of health and well-being and by: 1. Tackling related topics, such as emotions and character traits at work, becoming an enabling organisation and improving relationships (PP1.0) 2. Exploring related topics, such as happiness, flow, virtues, meaning and meaningfulness in organisations, resilience, health and well-being (PP2.0) Organisations should professionalise their processes by using counsellors and consultants who aim at constructing an organisational culture and atmosphere which takes PP1.0 and PP2.0 as theoretical foundations of the organisational and workplace health and well-being practices into account. Organisational consultants as well as leadership coaches need to develop skills to work with the topic in an empathetic and constructive way while being aware of their own, personal limitations and blind spots regarding the emotion. Chapter Takeaways 1. Shame is a universal emotion which exists across cultures and appears to be experienced, expressed and managed in culture-specific ways. 2. Shame is a powerful tool to implement change and development. 3. Leaders and organisations need to constantly approach shame as an underlying, powerful and impactful emotion which might need to be transformed from an unconscious challenge towards a conscious force of growth, development, creativity and innovation within organisations. 4. Shame can become a conscious source of meaning and well-being in leadership and organisations and plays an often underestimated role in ethics and ethical leadership. 5. Positive psychology theories (PP1.0 and PP2.0) can help to understand shame from new perspectives and transform shame from a negative emotion towards an emotion which fosters growth, development of self and others and positive new insights. Reflection Questions • What is shame and how is it interlinked with leadership and organisations? • How can shame be transformed from a negative towards a positive emotion? Please describe the transformation process. • Please explain the core aspects of the PP1.0 and the PP2.0 movement and how these two movements differ from one another. • How do PP1.0 and PP2.0 influence the transformation of shame?

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• When you transfer what you have learned in this chapter into your own life: how do you experience shame and how did you deal with it in the past? How will you deal with it from now on? • Imagine you are a leader: how exactly do you deal with shame in the organisation? What strategies will you use to transform shame? Acknowledgements  I would like to thank the global community of Positive Psychology scholars for their contributions and particularly Professor Paul P.T. Wong, Toronto, Canada, for advancing the field.

References Alkire, S., & Santos, M.  E. (2009). Poverty and inequality measurement. In S.  Deneulin & L. Shahani (Eds.), An introduction to human development and capability approach. Freedom and agency (pp. 121–161). London: International Development Research Centre. Andrieux, L. (2012). Facing the ambivalence of shame issues: Exploring the use of motivational techniques to enhance shame resilience and provoke behaviour change. Submission for INSEAD executive masters thesis consulting and coaching for change. https://flora.insead.edu/ fichiersti_wp/InseadEMCCCtheseswave1-10/77561.pdf. Accessed June 7, 2018 Andrieux, L. (2019). Facing the ambivalence of shame issues: Exploring the use of motivational techniques to enhance shame resilience and provoke behaviour change. In C.-H.  Mayer & E. Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 585–602). Cham, CH: Springer International. Antonovsky, A. (1979). Health, stress and coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Bagozzi, R., Verbeke, W., & Gavino, J. (2003). Culture moderates the self-regulation of shame and its effects on performance: The case of salespersons in the Netherlands and the Philippines. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(2), 219–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.219 Bentley, T. (2012). Shame in organisations. Gestalt Review, 16(1), 88–109. Bhawuk, D. P. S. (2017). lajiA in Indian psychology: Spiritual, social and literary perspectives. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame. Exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. 109–134). Cham, CH: Springer, International Publishing. Boddy, C. R. (2011). The corporate psychopaths theory of the global financial crisis. Journal of Business Ethicas, 102, 255–259. Boiger, M. (2017). A cultural perspective on shame. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame. Exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. vi–vii). Cham, CH: Springer, International Publishing. Brennan, S., Robertson, N. & Curtis, C. (2017). Shame and resilience: A New Zealand based exploration of resilient responses to shame. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame – exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. 201–222). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Brown, B. (2006). Shame resilience theory: A grounded theory study on women and shame. Families in Society, 87(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.3483 Buch, B. (2017). Canada/North America: Shame between indigenous nature-connectedness, colonialism and cultural disconnection. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame. Exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. 157–187). Cham, CH: Springer, International Publishing. Bulatova, J. (2014). Shame as a leadership virtue: Theoretical and practical grounds. Journal of Business Management, 8, 45–51.

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Clough, M. (2010). Shame and organisations. International Journal of Leadership in Public Services, 6(1), 25–33. Connor, S. (2001) The shame of being a man. http://www.stevenconnor.com/ shame. Accessed June 7, 2018 Deonna, J., Rodogno, R., & Teroni, F. (2012). In defense of shame. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Felblinger, D. M. (2008). Incivility and bullying in the workplace and nurses’ shame responses. Journal of Gynaecological Neonatal Nursing, 37, 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15526909.2008.00227.x. Accessed June 7, 2018. Fincham, F. D., & Beach, S. R. H. (2010). Marriage in the new millennium: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 630–649. Fredrickson, B. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-­ build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. Gilbert, P., Gilbert, J., & Sanghera, J. (2004). A focus group exploration of the impact of izzat, shame, subordination and entrapment on mental health and service use in South Asian women living in Derby. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 7(2), 109–130. Grevenstein, H., & Cilliers, F. (2012). Followership's experiences of organisational leadership: A systems psychodynamic perspective. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 38(2). http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2071-07632012000200003 Gruman, J.  A., Lumley, M.  N., & González-Morales, M.  G. (2018). Incorporating balance: Challenges and opportunities for positive psychology. Canadian Psychology, 59(1), 54–64. Hernandez, V., & Mendoza, C. (2011). Shame resilience: A strategy for empowering women in treatment for substance abuse. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 11(4), 375– 393. https://doi.org/10.1080/1533256x.2011.622193 Hilgers, M. (2013). Scham. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Worth, P. (2015). Second wave positive psychology: Embracing the dark side of life. London: Routledge. Jaffe, K., Flórez, A., Gomes, C. M., Rodriguez, D., & Achury, C. (2014). On the biological and cultural evolution of shame: Using internet search tools to weight values in many cultures. Caracas, Venezuela: Laboratorio de Evoluciòn, Universidad Simón Bolìvar. http://arxiv.org/ftp/ arxiv/papers/1401/1401.1100.pdf Kämmerer, A. (2010). Zur Intensität des erlebens von Schamgefühlen bei psychischen Störungen. Psychotherapie, Psychosomotik, Medizinische Psychologie, 60(7), 262–270. Linley, P.  A., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., & Wood, A.  M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present and (possible) future. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 3–16. https://doi. org/10.1080/17439760500372796. Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Ivtzan, I. (2015). The LIFE model: A meta-theoretical conceptual map for applied positive psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(5), 1347–1364. Maak, T., & Pless, N. (2006). Responsible leadership in stakeholder society – A relational perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 66, 99–115. Mascolo, M. F., & Fischer, K. W. (1995). Developmental transformations in appraisals for pride, shame, and guilt. In J. P. Tangney & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Self-conscious emotions: The psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (pp. 64–113). New York: Guilford. May, M. (2017). Shame! A system psychodynamic perspective. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame. Exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. 43–60). Cham, CH: Springer, International Publishing. Mayer, C.-H. (2011). The meaning of sense of coherence in transcultural management. Münster: Waxmann. Mayer, C.-H. (2017). Shame—“a soul feeding emotion”: Archetypal work and the transformation of the shadow of shame in a group development process. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame. Exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. 277–302). Cham, CH: Springer, International Publishing.

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Mayer, C.-H. (2019 in press). Transforming shame experiences in therapeutic interventions. In Wong, L. C. J., & Tam, E. M. (Eds.). (2019). The existential positive psychology of suffering: Essays in honour of Dr. Paul T. P. Wong’s 80th birthday. (p. xx-xx). Toronto, ON: INPM Press. Mayer, C.-H. (2019a). Unemployed and high achiever? Working with active imagination and symbols to transform shame. In C.-H. Mayer & E. Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 463–470). Cham, CH: Springer International, p. 463–470. Mayer, C.-H. (2019b). Healing rituals to transform shame: An example of constellation work. In C.-H.  Mayer & E.  Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 463–470). Cham, CH: Springer International, p. 521–532. Mayer, C.-H. (2019c). Opening the black box part 1: On collective shame in the German society. In C.-H. Mayer & E. Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 3–20). Cham, CH: Springer International. Mayer, C.-H. (2019d). Opening the black box part 2: Exploring individual shame in German research. In C.-H. Mayer & E. Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 21–34). Cham, CH: Springer International, p. 21–34. Mayer, C.-H., & Ley, L. (2016). Experiences of shame in SA organisations and higher education institutions. Conference paper, SIOPSA, 19–21 July 2016, Pretoria, South Africa Mayer, C.-H., & Tonelli, L. (2017). “Dream on—There is no salvation!”: Transforming shame in the South African workplace through personal and organisational strategies. In E. Vanderheiden & C.-H. Mayer (Eds.), The value of shame. Exploring a health resource in cultural contexts (pp. 135–156). Cham, CH: Springer, International Publishing. Mayer, C.-H., & Vanderheiden, E. (2019a). The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts. Cham, CH: Springer International. Mayer, C.-H., & Vanderheiden, E. (2019b). Calling on Shame! An Introduction to Transforming Shame. In: Mayer, C.-H. & Vanderheiden, E. (Eds.). The Bright Side of Shame. Transforming and Growing through Practical Applications in Cultural Contexts.Cham, Switzerland: Springer International, pp. xix-xxxiii. Mayer, C.-H., Viviers, R., & Tonelli, L. (2017). ‘The fact that she just looked at me...’ – Narrations on shame in South African workplaces. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, 43(1), a1385. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1385 Oosthuizen, R. (2019). Managing shame in organisations: Don't let shame become a self-­destructive spiral. In C.-H.  Mayer & E.  Vanderheiden (Eds.), The bright side of shame. Transforming and growing through practical applications in cultural contexts (pp. 217–234). Cham, CH: Springer International. Plate, M. (2015). Shame and the undoing of leadership – An analysis of shame in organisations. In C. E. J. Härtel, W. J. Zerbe, & N. M. Ashkanasy (Eds.), New ways of studying emotions in organizations (Vol. 11, pp. 81–107). London: Emerald Group Publishing. Poulson II, C. F. (2000). Shame and work. Emotions in the workplace: Research, theory, and practice (pp. 250–271). Westport, CT: Quorum. Purpora, C., Cooper, A., & Sharifi, C. (2015). The prevalence of nurses’ perceived exposure to workplace bullying and its effect on nurse, patient, organization and nursing-related outcomes in clinical settings: A quantitative systematic review protocol. JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports, 13(9), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.11124/jbisrir-2015-2225 Rantakeisu, U., Starrin, B., & Hagquist, C. (1997). Unemployment, shame and ill-health: An exploratory study. Scandinavian Journal of Social Welfare, 6, 13–23. Rehn, A., & Lindahl, M. (2010). Leadership and the 'right to respect' – On honour and shame in emotionally charged management settings. European Journal of International Management, 5(5), 62–79. Rothmann, S. (2014). Flourishing in work and careers. In M. Coetzee (Ed.), Psycho-social career meta-capacities. Cham, CH: Springer.

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Developing Positive Leadership Through Literature: Towards a Human-Centric Model of Leadership and Management

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Nidhi Kaushal and Sanjit Mishra

Abstract

Literary writings have a significant space in the arena of academic disciplines. No doubt, while these writings are a common, ordinary reader’s delight, they also serve as beacons to a discerning scholar/researcher who wants to explore yet another horizon of truth. As such, with its wider dimensions and its implication in other related fields, literature serves as a powerful tool for academic exploration in other areas of study. The various theories of leadership and other scientific studies on modern management which are being practised in the modern times are deeply rooted in and influenced by all those creative writings of the past. This chapter intends to identify the literary texts as a reliable source of knowledge on positive leadership. It would be profitable venture, and academically trustworthy too, to excavate and re-examine the literature that was written thousands of years ago. It develops new criteria of learning various aspects of the positive, spiritual and servant leadership through literary texts like the Rāmāyanā and the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā, and also enriches the field of leadership through the theoretical understanding of creative writings. Keywords

Equanimity · Leadership · Literature · Management · Meditation · Positive · Psychology · Servant · Spirituality · Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā · Rāmāyānā

N. Kaushal (*) · S. Mishra Department of Applied Science and Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_18

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Introduction This chapter deals with the significance of frameworks of philosophical bases of leadership, literature and management. The ideology of positive leadership has been analysed in this context, and there are five themes in this chapter about positive leadership which are quite significant. They are as follows: (1) positive leadership; (2) significance of positive psychology and positive deviance; (3) positive spiritual and servant leadership; (4) the role of literary texts in positive leadership; (5) noble causes of positive leadership. The principles of leadership and management can be learnt from alternative sources like literature, arts and other cultural studies. The scholarship on positive leadership includes the study of positive organizational practices, positive deviance, positive psychology which leads to positive outcome and maintains the positive and enthusiastic environment in the organizational culture. In this chapter, ancient literary texts and other creative writings have been incorporated in order to establish the reliability and utility of these alternative sources in the field of positive leadership. These literary texts have been analysed from the perspective of positive leadership because they are helpful and aimed at the leader for making an emotional connection, building strong relationship, prompting others and inculcating in them a sense of affiliation. Positive leadership has been exemplified through teachings of the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā which have been used as a source for practical wisdom that can be adopted, implemented by the organizational leaders and other people of the society as well. It has described the ‘efficiency of karma’ as yoga. Karma is an essential part of our life and includes the result of actions. There is no such action that fails and the result is present in karma. In this chapter, while the ancient theories have been juxtaposed with the modern techniques, the different cultures have also been yoked together and fruitfully employed to enrich the study of management with literature as a connecting tool. The words ‘management’ and ‘leadership’ are firmly cemented together. Management is indispensable for every kind of decision-making. It is used advertently and inadvertently by everybody born as human being on this earth. In other words, each one of us uses management in our daily life. Only a few know that they are using management while most people do not know that they are really making use of management. Traditionally, the term ‘leadership’ is used to describe what certain individuals do under conditions of change. Leadership can exist without an organization, whereas management develops out of the organizing of others. When organizations are dynamic and undergoing transformation, people at the top are supposed to exhibit leadership. Management, on the other hand, has traditionally been used to describe what executives do under conditions of stability (Carlopio, Andrewartha, Whetten, & Cameron, 2012). Leadership as a subject has been broken down, packaged up and re-engineered over and over. It has been revered as an art, and it has been subjected to the rigorous of hard science (Mühlfeit & Costi, 2016). It is important to discuss the role of leadership in management studies. A large number of writers have considered leadership to be a key task of management practice. Leaders are supposed to be strategic and to inspire and energize their followers. Managers, on the other hand, allegedly take care of managing people and tasks, and attend to the routine details.

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Positive Leadership Positive leadership is a relatively new approach to leadership. ‘It involves the implementation of multiple positive practices that help individuals, and organizations achieve their highest potential, flourish at work, experience elevating energy and reach levels of effectiveness difficult to attain otherwise’ (Cameron, 2013, p. 2). It is based on the concept that workers are happier and more productive when they work in a positive environment (Gauthier, 2015). Positive Leadership is heliotropic. This refers to the tendency in all living systems towards positive energy and away from negative energy (Cameron, 2012). Positive leaders make the most of every opportunity to be others-centred by wilfully equipping, encouraging, empowering and inspiring those around them to raise the bar on their own leadership potential, themselves. From organizational perspective, positive leadership aims not just to create positive emotions in people – to help people feel happy – but to dramatically affect organizational performance for the better and it includes positive leadership strategies such as cultivating positive climate, positive relationships, positive communication and positive meaning (Cameron, 2012). Positive leadership is significantly related to the ethical practices and procedures of an organization to develop trust and loyalty and reflects the positive outlook of the organization as well. The scholarship of positive leadership is concerned primarily with the study of especially positive outcomes, processes and attributes of organizations and their members. It does not represent a single theory, but it focuses on dynamics that are typically described by words such as excellence, thriving, flourishing, abundance, resilience or virtuousness. Positive organizational scholarship represents an expanded perspective that includes instrumental concerns but puts an increased emphasis on ideas of ‘goodness’ and positive human potential (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003). Positive means that a quality exists, and Positive Organizational Ethics (POE) focuses on creation and sustainability of goodness (rather than on what is lacking). POE as the study of people, practices and contexts that cultivate and sustain individual and collective ethical strength to achieve successful and durable moral performance in organizations (Sekerka et al., 2014). It means the development of an organizational culture based on ethical procedures, righteousness, protection of human values and rights, and prosperity. In a positive ethical organization, the right thing to do is the only thing to do, and the living code is the cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestation of ethical organizational identity (Verbos et al., 2007). This code of positive organizational ethics (POE) provides strength to the organizational members and positively influence their behaviour and enhance performance. For example, in the Positive Behavioural Studies, scholars might examine how to cultivate organizational environments that foster employee well-being. Scholars in the Business Ethics might examine compliance with ethical standards. In the POE intersection, scholars might explore how values-based management approaches help to cultivate ethical behaviour that goes above and beyond compliance and creates organizational well-being

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(Sekerka, Debra, Comer, & Godwin, 2014). Michel and Webb (2015) define that positive leadership enable leaders to: • • • •

Equip others to experience few frustrations and more consideration. Encourage others to promote less separation and more unification. Empower others to strive for less dissatisfaction and more appreciation. Inspire others to fear less, love more and do their part to leave their part of the world better than they first found it.

Traditional books on leadership clearly and accurately describe what a leader must be and do to be effective in the leadership role. A high-impact positive leader is self-defined, credible, inspiring, people-oriented, energetic, curious, focused, courageous, organized and supportive (Traversi & Gerber, 2007). These points are also regraded as the traits of a positive leader and the key positive leadership characteristics include trust, courage, humility and authenticity. Mühlfeit and Costi (2016) observe that there are 4Ps involved in positive leadership and they target the Who, Why, How and Where of positive leadership such as the following: • • • •

Positive people: building strengths – the ‘who’ Positive purpose: personal mission and ultimate vision – the ‘why’ Positive process: energy management – the ‘how’ Positive place: success vs happiness – the ‘where’

Significance of Positive Psychology and Positive Deviance An easy way to identify positive leadership is to observe positive deviance (Cameron, 2012). Individuals who are positively deviant are more enthusiastic about wanting to provide additional support and social sustainability to their organizations and teams (Chan, 2018). Linking the idea of positive deviance in organizations, it is found that those who excel in their roles tend to think and act beyond that of the norm, with the tendency to be more proactive, constructive, and productive, and possess an innate problem-solving ability (Cameron, 2012). A positive deviant organization is one that is flourishing, benevolent, generous and honours people in their contributions. Organizations that display positive deviance are likely also to display a high level of virtual actions and practices (Lewis, 2011). For positive leaders to focus on positive deviance does not mean that they ignore non-positive conditions or situations when mistakes, crisis, deterioration or problems are present. Thus, achieving positive deviance is not dependent on completely positive conditions, just like languishing and failure are not dependent on constant negative conditions. A role exists for both positive and negative circumstances in producing positive deviance (Bagozzi, 2003), and both conducive and challenging conditions may lead to positive deviance (Cameron, 2009). Empowering and transformation leadership behaviours show many similarities, but one key difference may explain these results in the context of positive deviance: empowering leadership aims to involve employees in decision-making and stimulate autonomy, while transformational leadership focuses more on being a charismatic and strong leader, which has

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a dual effect of creating both empowerment and dependency (Kark, Shamir, & Chen, 2003). Positivity broadens and builds. It transforms people and helps them to become their best. Positivity opens us. The first core truth about positive emotions is that they open our hearts and our minds, making us more receptive and more creative. Positivity transforms us for the better. This is the second core truth about positive emotions, by opening our hearts and minds, positive emotions allow us to discover and build new skills, new ties, new knowledge, and new ways of being. It helps in revitalizing the leader’s worldview, mental energy, relationships and potentials uniquely (Fredrickson, 2010). The term ‘positive’ reveals that the concept has such a wide range of connotations and so many applications as to defy the establishment of precise conceptual boundaries (Cameron, 2008). Positive psychology points the way towards a secular approach to noble purpose and transcendent meaning and, even more astonishingly, towards a God who is not supernatural (Seligman, 2002). A positive psychology-based understanding of aspects and elements of organizational life offers us an ethically viable choice about how to be leaders and managers (Lewis, 2011). Positive psychology literature has three main points. It includes the study of positive emotions; the study of the positive traits, foremost among them the strengths and virtues, but also the ‘abilities’ such as intelligence and athleticism; and the study of positive institutions, such as democracy, strong families and free inquiry, that supports the virtues, which in turn support the positive emotions (Seligman, 2002). Positive psychology is a huge part of positive leadership and nurturing goodwill between the leader and his team (Mühlfeit & Costi, 2016). Positive morale is even more powerful and can boost the well-being and performance of the entire team as well (Seligman, 2012). Positive and transformational leadership resembles each other in terms of effective leadership practice and positive leadership can be stated under transformational leadership because it includes idealize influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1985), and all these components have the potential to advance positive psychology among employees in positive leadership-oriented organizations. Because in transformational leadership behaviour (Burns, 1978), a leader and team member help in promotion through enthusiasm and morality by following a positive approach towards each other. For example, in critical situations, leaders who manifest idealized influence are able to forego organizational pressures for short-term financial outcomes and instead focus their efforts on the long-term health and well-being of their employees. Leaders exhibiting inspirational motivation inspire their employees to achieve more than what was once thought possible. These leaders inspire employees to surmount psychological setbacks and instil in them the strength to tackle future hurdles. Leaders who manifest intellectual stimulation help employees to question their own commonly held assumptions, rephrase problems, approach matters in innovative ways (Sivanathan, Arnold, Turner, Barling, & Seligman, 2012). Finally, individual consideration occurs when leaders pay special attention to employees’ needs for achievement and development; they provide needed empathy, compassion and guidance that employees may seek for their well-being. This significant mechanism of leadership can only be realized through positive leadership.

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Positive, Spiritual and Servant Leadership The concepts of positivity and spirituality are interrelated to each other. Positive leadership is defined as leadership that develops higher level, universal moral values and character; enhances employee meaning and connection; and maximizes both employee well-being and sustained performance excellence. So, positive leadership and positive leadership development can be identified as components of spiritual leadership theory and also considered central to spiritual leadership development (Fry & Matherly, 2006). Positive leadership is more than just a leadership style; it is a leadership approach and mindset. It is not, however, a pollyannaish attitude that suggests an unreasonable or even illogical optimism. Positive leaders have high expectations for their employees, the quality of their products and the quality of their customer service (Gauthier, 2015). A high-impact positive leader builds a value-based core, generates ideas, forms a vision, builds a plan, engages a team, builds a responsive structure, creates accountability and produces results (Traversi & Gerber, 2007). These tasks are considered to be the basic functions of a positive leader. Spiritual leadership thrives on attentive listening, compassion, optimism and hope. It requires an understanding that humility is more important than ego. It requires curiosity about things, but it requires greater curiosity about people (Brown, 2015). Leadership inspires other people to pursue their vision to the extent that it later becomes a shared vision between the leaders and the subordinates that contributes towards the success of organization (Rayiramkandath, 2017). Leadership is much less a role than an activity (Gonzalez, 2012), and it is about stretching people to where they never thought they could go (Brown, 2015). A positive spiritual leader works selflessly and takes all decisions with detached mind and is indifferent to the results (Goel, 2015). Spiritual leadership is also responsible for establishing a social/organizational culture based on altruistic love whereby leaders and followers have genuine care, concern and appreciation for both self and others (Parthasarathi, Rajeswara, & Reddy, 2016). Zohar (2005) defines that spiritually positive leadership can be fostered by applying the principles of self-awareness, spontaneity, being vision- and value-led, holism, compassion, humility, ability to reframe and positive use of adversity among leaders. Meditation and spirituality have a significant role in positive leadership. Meditation is the process of withdrawing the mind from countless disturbances of thoughts (Sharma, 2013). It is a spiritual too, an act of self-­ realization, and establishes spiritual realization as main priority of a leader, clarifies awareness over time, provides discipline that enhances self-esteem, removes stress from the body and mind, awakens intuitive ability, and opens heart and mind to divine guidance, inspiration, wisdom and compassion (O’Brian & Goldberg, 2018). Meditation, if practised with knowledge and common sense, gives leader the invaluable ability of intuitional cognition of truth or falseness (Sadhu, 2005). It helps the leader to explore enormous power which lies hidden in inner self to act positively. It is first and foremost vehicle for self-development and act as a first step towards spirituality also.

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There are similar practices of mediation involved in every great tradition of spiritual practice like in India, the Sanskrit word for meditation is dhyana, and ch’an term is used in Chinese culture. In Buddhism philosophy, the term tantrayana has been used for meditation and, it is called as hesychasm in Christianity. This refers to the concentration of mind on a divine presence. In Judaism, it is a technique called as kabbalah and Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam has used the term dhikr or remembrance to define meditation (Jyotirupananda, 2009). Meditation fine-tunes the mind and helps to develop and hold the positive attitude, and also helps the mind to obtain a deeper state of awareness. The meaning of meditation in the leadership context is that it focuses on the leader’s ability to focus and stay on course of vision and goals (Roka, 2018). The primary act of positive mindful leadership is to be open – to fully appreciate circumstances before we seek to influence or act upon them. The Tibetan word for this vulnerable openness is jinpa, which means ‘complete generosity,’ and traditionally cultivating jinpa is considered the basic practice of the positive leader. When we express jinpa – when we are intelligently open and vulnerable – we create the opportunity to genuinely lead and inspire others (Carroll, 2008). One of the keys to positive and spiritual leadership is being mindful. Mindfulness is not a technique; it is a skill. Gonzalez (2012) points out the benefits of mindfulness meditation in positive leadership: • • • • • • •

Greater focus and concentration. Improved time management. Improved judgement and decision-making. Increased ability to deal with conflict. Enhanced team effectiveness. Greater innovation and inspiration. Increased ability to deal effectively with stress.

It can also relate to the different aspects of development of positive leadership like control of the mind and moral perfection. Through mental maturity, passion evolves into compassion and selfish attachment into unselfish love and moral consciousness dictates concerns for all things in all actions (Adiswarananda, 2008). Mindfulness meditation helps to train the mind to become aware and to stay in the present moment (Gonzalez, 2012). Serving others is the means by which the servant leader facilitates the accomplishing of their desired goals (Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999). An interesting type of leadership is ‘servant leadership’, where the leader feels that being anointed leader is a gift to serve more people (Vilas, 2017). Robert Greenleaf has identified the concept of servant leadership from the literary work of Hermann Hesse’s Journey to the East (1932). In this story, a band of men are on a mythical journey, and the central figure of the story is Leo. He accompanies the party as a servant who does their menial chorus, but also sustains them with his spirit and his song. He is a person of extraordinary. All goes well until Leo disappears. Then the group falls into disarray and the journey is abandoned. They cannot make it without the servant Leo. The narrator, one of the parties, after some years of wandering, finds him and taken

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into the Order that had sponsored the journey. There he discovers that Leo, whom he had known first as servant, was in fact the titular head of the Order, is guiding spirit, a great and noble leader. Leo was actually the leader all of the time, but he was servant first because that what he was, deep down inside. Leadership was bestowed upon a person who was by nature a servant. His servant nature was the real man, not bestowed, not assumed, and not be taken. He was servant first (Greenleaf, 2002). Servant leader interacts with followers along a continuum from agapao love to service: Agapao love is an ancient Greek term that means to treat others in an ethical and respectful way; to love in a social or moral sense. It encompasses seven virtuous constructs, which work in processional pattern. These are (a) agapao love (b) humility (c) altruism (d) vision (e) trust (f) empowerment and (g) service. These constructs are virtues and become illuminated within a servant leadership context (Patterson, 2003). In terms of autonomy, servant leaders want to see their followers thrive and develop as autonomous individuals and in terms of competence, servant leaders want to see their followers develop a sense of confidence and mastery over their work. In terms of relatedness, servant leaders make it explicit to followers that they are interested in helping them to grow, develop and succeed (Dierendonck & Patterson, 2010). Servant leadership comprises other dimensions of leadership behaviours which also foster followers’ trust in leaders. These leaders exercise their influences among their followers through transformative subordination, that is, servant leaders affirm and submit to the diverse individual aspirations of the followers who are also regarded as moral agents (Sendjaya, 2010). Trust is the important factor in the positive as well as servant leadership and there are some related behavioural dimensions which are responsible for creating and maintaining trust between followers and the leader. Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora (2008) define the significantly related behavioural characteristics of leadership such as voluntary subordination (e.g. consider others’ needs and interests above his or her own); authentic self (e.g. is not defensive when confronted); covenantal relationship (e.g. treats people as equal partners in the organization), responsible morality (e.g. takes a resolute stand on moral principles); transcendental spirituality (e.g. helps me to find a clarity of purpose and direction); transforming influence. They are also helpful in developing the positive attitude and positive leadership in the leaders (Fig. 18.1).

The Role of Literary Texts in Positive Leadership The Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā is a literary and theological treatise and the foremost world classic (Theodor, 2016). It is predominately considered as a work of ancient wisdom and has been widely studied in the contexts of philosophy, theology and ancient eastern literature and has been considered a source of wisdom and inspiration for leadership and management theorists as well (Roka, 2018). It acts as a guiding source in the field of positive leadership. The Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā [18-20] states that the leader should drive self with knowledge which helps him to observe equality in humanity, despite people being different by body and mind (Sharma,

18  Developing Positive Leadership Through Literature: Towards a Human-Centric… Fig. 18.1 The Behavioural Dimensions of Servant Leadership. (Source: Sendjaya et al. (2008))

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Voluntary subordination

Transforming influence

Authentic self

Trust Transcenden tal spirituality

Responsible morality

Covenantal relationship

2013). Concentrate, meditate and introspect are three ways, which the leader must use on right occasions on the way to perfection, whereas vision, determination and confidence are three pillars of leadership existence. By cultivating positive thoughts and intentions, a leader can attain supreme consciousness, which, in turn, helps the leader attain his full potential for self and the organization. The welfare of the self and the organization is attained by focusing on the supreme consciousness (Roka, 2018). The concept of Karma-Yoga has been exemplified in [2.47] and [2.50] verses of the second chapter of the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā such that – karmaṇy evādhikāras te mā phaleṣu kadācana mā karmaphalahetur bhūr mā te saṅgostv akarmaṇi [2.47]

The meaning of this shloka is: your right is for action alone, never for the results. Do not become the agent of the results of action. May you not have any inclination for inaction (Gambhirananda, 2018). buddhiyukto jahātīha ubhe sukṛtaduṣkṛte tasmādyogāya yujyasva yogaḥ karmasu kauśalam [2.50]

It means, endued with this evenness of mind, one frees oneself in this life, alike form vice and virtue. Devote thyself, therefore, to this, yoga. Yoga is the very dexterity of work. A follower of Karma-Yoga can have no personal motive for any action. Our action without motive becomes colourless and loses its character of vice

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or virtue. It is the nature of work to produce bondage. Karma-Yoga is the dexterity of work, because it not only robs work of its power to bind but also transforms it into an efficient means of freedom (Swarupananda, 2016). Yogaḥ karmasu kauśalam means that right choice in action (that action takes us to our higher self) is yoga. It is usually translated as ‘Efficiency in action is yoga’. Yoga implies exercising that choice in every action which unites us with Ishwara (God). Right choice in action is yoga. Kauśalam means right choice and discretion. Evert action entails a choice upon the doer (Bhide, 2012). With such a high goal, even an ordinary mortal engrossed in achieving things of self-interest can tap into his real potential, become creative and energetic to transform him into an ordinary immortal, the best performer of works (Singhal, 2019). Ralph Waldo Emerson writes that the reward of a thing well done is to have done it (Emerson, 1876). Scriptures like the Rāmāyānā present the realities of life in the most exciting manner; the simple wisdom to be found in dharmic tales like the Rāmāyānā is always fresh and gives us the clarity we often need and introduce the traditional values of culture (Vilas, 2017). It has been the source of spiritual, cultural, sociological, political and artistic inspiration for ages for the people (Muniapan & Satpathy, 2010). The notion of dharma is central in Rāmāyānā and teaches the proper action of men through its hero, Rama, who plays the role of ideal son, husband, king and friend in the epic. It advocates a pluralistic view with diverse but appropriate codes of moral behaviour or dharma for the various beings (Saigal, 2000). It is one of the sacred texts of Indian ancient literature and it has been analysed by different scholars to learn the lessons of life, wisdom, leadership, humility and behaviour. It is considered as an ideal of perfect life, so the implication of positive leadership from the Rāmāyānā is given here. Probably the way that the narrative of Rāmāyānā resolves the tension between a pluralistic view of moral behaviour and the idea of a universal morality could be stated as follows: while cosmic and social harmony is achieved by each group of inhabitants functioning within its own realm, such harmony can be sustained only by exceptional leadership in each group. The exceptional quality stems from the ability of the leaders to conform not only to their group dharma but also to the demands of universal dharma. Rule by such ‘enlightened, exceptional leaders’ alone guarantees social and cosmic harmony. Such leaders would respect the territorial rights of the other groups in the world and would not violate others borders. This emphasis on leadership seems only natural in the setting of the Rāmāyānā, since the story is not about common people but about a royal family in India. In some sense, conformity to a universal code is expected only of the leaders of the various groups in the Rāmāyānā. (Sundararajan, 1988, p.  125). Rāmāyānā describes the attributes of the supreme-self like omniscience, ever abiding in blissful illumination, freedom, and absence of limitation and eternity (Nath, 2005, p. 374). These attributes are significant for the leader and helpful to learn positive leadership as well. The positive leadership interpretations from the Rāmāyānā, the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā are of immense help for developing leadership skills because teachings from these sacred texts provide fruitful solutions to modern leaders for dealing with organizational problems.

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The Noble Bases of Positive Leadership Management creates a condition in which people are willing to work with interest so that goal of the organization can be attained. This realization can be obtained through one’s duties. Yoga is efficiency in action and the quality of work, in fact, is the reflection of spiritual efficiency. It is this spiritual efficiency reflected in the quality of work that brings prosperity. The Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā beautifully blends the qualities of the man of action and the man of wisdom (Srivastava, 2018). Some noble features of leadership include equanimity, dexterity, hard work, courage and positive attitude. The foremost condition for a great leader is to first establish his credentials, and this he can do only with exemplary conduct and behaviour (Malhotra, 2010). Yogaḥ karmasu kauśalam implies that yoga automatically bestows dexterity, proficiency, competence, deftness in doing works if done with resolute intelligence, balance of mind and without any self-interest (Singhal, 2019). Equanimity is the ability to maintain dynamic balance and overcome disorientation in a fast-changing, information-rich environment (Cummings & Keen, 2007). This refers to the aptitude to accept ‘what is arising within you’ without resistance and to accept you can’t change (Gonzalez, 2012). It is often defined in a manner that comes close to even mindedness (Cummings & Keen, 2007). Equanimity in leadership means the leader does not sway between the extremes, nor he does get affected by the highs and lows of his enterprise (Malhotra, 2010). A person endowed with such wisdom of equanimity discards consideration of both types of results, the auspicious for the good acts and the inauspicious for the sinful acts. Therefore, get firmly united with this yoga of equanimity. This yoga provides him with dexterity, the most important requirement in performing any work. Dexterity demands neither perfection nor best implements, nor best resources; but it does demand determination (Singhal, 2019). It requires the coordination of different types of abilities such as assessment-based abilities, process-based abilities and integration-based abilities (Fairweather & Montemayor, 2017). Dexterity always refers to the environment and that it always has an element of extemporaneousness. It is nurtured and better exercised when more deliberate variations and unexpected obstacles take place (Bernstein, 2014), whereas action dexterity is the leader’s ability to appropriately and effectively initiate, maintain and terminate verbal and nonverbal interaction (Chen & An, 2009). It requires quickness of wits and is the ability to create a perfect key for any emerging lock. This feature is also called adequacy. All movements of a dexterous person are certainly adequate to resolve posed problems (Bernstein, 2014). The mind is the receptacle of a powerful force called emotion, which influences a major part of our lives, perhaps more than many of us realize (Tyagananda, 2014). Meditation is both an art and a science depending upon whether the aim is worldly desires or the quest for the eternal truth. As an art, it helps us to perfect our technique of controlling our mind and concentrating on a given object. Our thinking becomes flawless, vision clear and our deeds noble. This gives us excellence in thought, word and deed, and conforms to what the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā says ‘yogaḥ karmasu kauśalam’ – excellence in deeds is the real yoga. As a science, on

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the other hand, meditation makes our mind a laboratory wherein we constantly make experiments with the truth. It helps us to develop a vision (Drishti) towards ourselves, the life and everything else around us. That becomes our Jeewan Darshan – philosophy of life and lends purpose to our existence (Dhar, 2003). For all varieties of professionals, managers, leaders, and workers, nishkam karma conserves precious psychological energy and prevents debilitating stress. Sakam karma, on the other hand, while directly promoting unethically, indirectly aggravates stress and psychological energy wastage as well. Poornatwa means the self-fulfilled, autonomous core of our personality. The lower, empirical self is also called the vyavaharik vyakittwa, while the higher trans-empirical self is termed as paramarthik vyakittwa. Wisdom leadership consists of arousing this dormant high self to lead and guide the active lower self. The beginning of leadership is within oneself. Dignity and selflessness are inherent in the paramarthik vyakittwa. They are absent in the vyavaharik vyakittwa which is full of hunger or trishna (Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2006). Kauśalam signifies doing work with devotion and without attachment, that is, without becoming a workaholic. Such detached attitude enhances its values and improves the concentration and skill of the worker. If we work with elegance, fortitude and skill, our Body-Mind-Soul will cooperate with our hands. By becoming a tool in the hands of Supreme, one has to perform the work. Any work becomes valuable if carried out with full concentration, dedication and abilities and also helps us to become valuable to others as well as to society. We should never yearn over the fruits of action (Kumar, 2011). Hard work is one of the significant prerequisites for the noble reasons of leadership. yad ācarati śreṣṭhas tat tad evetaro janaḥ sa yat pramāṇaḿ kurute lokas tad anuvartate [3.21]

The above shloka appears in Chap. 3, verse 21 of the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā. It means that the manner in which a good and a great man conducts himself persuades others to follow him. Whatever examples he sets become standards of performance for others. A leader has to set a standard of exemplary performance. The foremost condition for a great leader is to establish his credentials in a system, and that is possible with his exemplary conduct and behavior particularly. His work, therefore, becomes very important and so does the manner in which he goes about achieving that task (Malhotra, 2010). Another prerequisite for leadership is courage and it is the quality of mind that enables people to encounter danger or difficulty firmly, without fear or discouragement. Courageous leaders face unpleasant and even devastating situations with equanimity, then act firmly to bring good from trouble, even their action is unpopular. Leadership always faces natural human inertia and opposition. But courage follows through with a task until it is done (Sanders, 2007). Leaders who sustain enduring commitments and keep themselves robust and flexible in facing an uncertain, changing world of multiple landscapes have either learnt how to trigger their own re-balancing as a reflex or have learnt to trigger re-balancing more consciously through means they access when they sense the loss of balance (Cummings & Keen, 2007). Jaganathan (2019) defines that a person with

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positive thinking anticipates happiness, health and success and believes that he or she can overcome any obstacle and difficulty. A positive thinker is an optimist who looks for opportunities in every problem, who readily thinks of a situation(s) for every problem and is someone who never looks back except for learning. Positive leadership is the way of leading with a positive attitude. It includes the term ‘positive’ which focuses on all the leadership practices responsible for creating the positive environment in the organization, developing positive approach among the team, increasing the efficiency of people and providing positive results. The ancient literary texts and creative writings have been analysed in this context, and their implication in the modern leadership and management studies has also been discussed. Thus, spread into its related five main aspects of positive leadership, this chapter explored the significance and role of literary texts as an authentic source of learning and developing positive leadership.

Conclusion Literary writings can be used as sources of ultimate wisdom and helping in transformation of personality. The approach of getting the new insight and wisdom is to enrich the positive leadership studies. The depiction of qualities of a leader has been a significant feature of ancient Indian texts and has been dealt with in detail in the creative writings also. Literary writings have lessons for every field and when there is management of human resources in the organization and developing leadership skills among leaders; one can easily get the solution from the literature due to its indefinite scope and significance in our culture and values. Positive psychology and meditation have significant role in the field of positive leadership because a positive and optimistic approach definitely yields positive results in the normal and critical situations as well. Regular meditation practice helps in attaining positivism and provides strength to the leader and its team members. Positive leadership contains the aspects of spirituality, novelty and a selfless domain, which are also the part of servant leadership literature. Literary texts not only enrich the scholarship of positive leadership, but also provide a way of learning leadership skills to modern leaders. These writings are helpful for leaders in motivating followers, developing positivism, enthusiasm and decision power, and in removing stress because they act as a real guiding source to the leaders and transforming their personality in a positive way. The teachings of ancient sacred texts are found powerful in learning and developing positive leadership and the literary writings have come up as a wonderful and fruitful source of learning and enriching leadership and management. Relevant Lessons that Can Be Drawn from the Chapter 1. Positive leadership is an intellectual process which involves the development of positive attitude, enhancement of performance and the accomplishment of tasks with positive outcomes in the organization.

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2. Personal growth and transformation can be best achieved by following the approach of servant leadership, and literary writings in any form have been fruitful in enriching the field of positive leadership. 3. The strength of the leadership based on positivism and spiritual mechanism is that it inspires and looks for opportunities in every situation and is helpful for the leader in serving and leading others. 4. Positive leadership has been rooted in spiritual and indigenous cultural-based literary writings which have been useful for modern leadership studies as well. 5. The teachings of the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā are the best source of learning leadership characteristics and development of spirituality which transforms the personality of the leader positively. Reflection Questions 1 . Why the practice of positive leadership is important for the leaders? 2. How literature can be helpful to develop a positive attitude in leaders? 3. What is the significant role of positive psychology in positive leadership? 4. How literature is useful in manifesting the various aspects of spirituality and servant leadership in the leader? 5. How the study of ancient literary writings like the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā is valuable for improving the personality and performance of the leader? 6. What significant characteristics of positive leadership can be analysed through the study of texts?

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The Discerning Capacity of Generative Leaders: Achieving Success Flowing with Synchronicity Moments

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Abstract

Five people in leadership positions in two Midwest higher education institutions were selected because of their familiarity with synchronicity experiences, those meaningful coincidences that draw on spiritual intelligence. Four research questions would illuminate how they identified their synchronicity moments; how each used their spiritual intelligence to make meaning of the moments and integrated that knowing into generative outlooks within their organizations or themselves; how their transpersonal evolutions from the synchronicity experiences resulted in more mindful, generative leadership styles; and any implications the experiences have for generative leadership in general. Narrative inquiry for this transpersonal human research allowed for capturing the stories, and provided a direct knowing  of how they became mindful of their internal personal events. Sixteen themes emerged from the collective narratives that illustrated the leaders’ capacity to discern the incidents; attended to interconnections between them and God or something beyond them guiding them toward higher purposes; how they relinquished their self-focused thinking to participate with the incidents to a greater outcome; and submit that this way of internal discerning is accessible by anyone to integrate into their leadership practice. They named successes far greater than they imagined without decimating their workforces or budgets in the process. Keywords

Spiritual intelligence · Generative learning · Synchronicity · Integrative knowledge · Effective leadership

P. L. Brown (*) Independent Consultant and Researcher, Cleveland/Akron, OH, USA © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_19

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Introduction Reflect for a moment on the occasions when you have noticed coincidences that happened to be linked to a project you may be working on, or one you have been ruminating about for a while. They may continually appear and catch your attention. A former university Chancellor shared in a conversation in 2000 how he recognized a series of those incidents that happened repeatedly in his workplace. Trained as a quantum physicist, he aligned those meaningful coincidences and synchronicity with quantum principles and a holographic theory of the universe. Just as the Chancellor noticed interconnections between the coincidences, quantum physics, and his organization’s progression, he associated a transpersonal spiritual event with his cognitive processes. He associated it all with God (Awbrey & Scott, n.d., p. 1). David K. Scott realized the inadequacy of the paradigms we hold (Eisenstein, 2007/2013, p. xiii). In that brief conversation, Scott touched on discernment, synchronicity, spiritual intelligence, an integrated self, and generative leadership. He applied this broader way of knowing to his leadership practice in service to nurturing university students becoming more integrative humans who will create a better and wiser world (Scott, n.d., p. 1). Interconnected problems require theoretical and methodological pluralism to integrate and generate the best knowledge (Olsson & Jerneck, 2018). For this time we live in, we are called to go outside scientific comfort zones and adopt a higher level of knowledge integration. Making transformative change requires moving beyond traditional models and sharing new information that crosses knowledge boundaries (Kauffman & Arico, 2014, p. 413). This chapter offers clues on how to return to our fully integrated selves, crossing the boundaries we imposed on ourselves, and returning to a holistic contemplative practice of knowing and being by highlighting the capacity of our internal awareness. If we are to live fully integrated lives seeing the immediate and global interconnections we have to one another, and especially to the environment, we must appreciate a process by which our collective consciousness becomes known. Recognizing synchronicity moments in our lives facilitates the process of becoming more discerning, more integrated, and cultivating generative problem-solving practices. When leaders intentionally elect to attend at this higher level of consciousness, they will discern opportunities for more positive outcomes.

Aggregating Concepts Generative Leading Ken Gergen’s work on generative theory moves beyond traditional science approaches that thrive on common vocabularies and norms embedded in research efforts because they limit the potential of science and culture in the discovery

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process. Rather, a generative theory will unsettle common assumptions within the culture and make space for new methods inspiring change (Gergen, 1994; Gergen & Gergen, 1986). A generative approach will allow for new discourses and language, using a new lens to view problems and reevaluate how success is defined. It invites a radical contrast in perspective from mechanistic science to one with more reverence to an interconnection in the universe (Adrienne, 1998; Bradbury, 2000; Wheatley, 1999). At this higher and deeper level of consciousness, generative leaders move away from the technical paradigm to one that is more experiential. If leaders had not considered before that they have a higher purpose than previously realized, the experiential paradigm helps illuminate that for them.

Integrated Leading Eisenstein (2013) applies the term integrated to his discussion of our universal interconnection, which he terms interbeing. Sadly, beliefs, judgments, and fears have separated us from ourselves and from one another. We partition off our spiritual selves (and often social and emotional), and live a fragmented existence, separated from our inner awareness. Integrated leaders move from a self-focused ego-driven identification that separates them from others to one that sees not only a greater interconnection to others, but to a broader global society and to the environment (White, 1999a), grasping the impact of their decisions. The individuals become more integrated within themselves as they realize a higher human self, actualize more aspects of themselves and greater possibilities to be explored (French & Bell, 1999). As this inner part of the self is nurtured, leaders become part of a larger reality (Heubner, 1995). They can see the “more” of what is possible for them to become.

Spiritual Intelligence and Discerning Gardner’s work on multiple intelligences explains intelligence as a means of solving problems (Gardner, 1991, p. 12). With the increased attention to spiritual intelligence come a multitude of defining properties. In addition to Joseph and Sailakshmi (2011), Sisk (2016), and Dhiman (2017), Vaughn’s description states that spiritual intelligence calls for multiple ways of knowing and for the integration of the inner life of mind and spirit with the outer life of work in the world (2002, p. 16). Among the numerous definitions of spiritual discernment (Costen Kunz, 2011, p.  176; Delbecq, Liebert, Mostyn, Nutt, & Walter, 2004, p.  147; Knutson, 2017, p.  3; Pelletier, 2007, p.  36), Nouwen defines spiritual discernment as hearing a deeper sound beneath the noise of ordinary life and seeing through appearances to the interconnectedness of all things, to gain a vision of how things hang together in our lives and in the world (2013, p. x). Accessing our interior supports the generative path to achieving success.

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Synchronicity Those meaningful coincidences Scott experienced were termed synchronicity by psychotherapist Carl Jung while discerning an experience with a patient (Begg, 2001; Bolen, 1979; Combs & Holland, 1990; Jaworski, 1998). Synchronicity events manifest themselves through meaningful coincidences between an internal thought or dream we have, which corresponds to an external event we experience. They are acausally connected coincidences that have meaning to the person experiencing the moment (Adrienne, 1998; Begg, 2001; Bolen, 1979; Combs & Holland, 1990; Jaworski, 1998; Jourard, 1971; Peat, 1987; Redfield, 1993). White points out even more succinctly that they occur because of a need we have (1998, p. 143). This phenomenal occurrence is a fundamental evidence of an interconnectivity to something beyond us. The synchronicity experiences reveal a higher intelligence of our collective unconscious (Begg, 2001). As we become more discerning of these events, we become more grounded in a higher level of consciousness (White, 1998; Wilber, 1996). They are common in our lives, but not everyone is aware of them. Rather than believe these coincidences are anomalies, some people allow themselves to be guided by the experiences, flowing with the knowledge that they will achieve their goal (Crawford, 1998; Hanson, 1999). Leaders initiating projects that integrate this level of consciousness into their work allow an opening for life-­ generating possibilities to occur (Adrienne, 1998; King, 1981; Palmer, 2000; Redfield, 1993, 1997). Here is an example of a simple synchronicity experience. You are thinking of an old friend you have not seen in years. In short order, you run in that friend while out shopping. It is important to understand that the synchronicity moments are acausally connected. Your thought did not make your friend drive to the same venue, yet you arrive in the exact same location in a moment so precise that you could not miss one another. The simplicity of this example is offered to initiate the reader to this shared, but often overlooked, reality.

Introduction to the Research and Methodology This research topic was selected to investigate whether people in leadership roles discern these spiritual experiences of synchronicity, thereby acknowledging a different way of knowing. If they discerned and acknowledged the events, did they then integrate their knowing into their leadership practices? Since we have created complicated problems across societies globally and have endangered our environment, this can potentially become a practice which calls for less fragmented tactics to generate positive and sustainable solutions. Each leader provided examples of reflecting on what is occurring within and contemplating how it is connected to circumstances in their external environments. Four of them attributed the incidents to the Holy Spirit of God that reaches out to guide us during uncertain times. Although the fifth leader believes in God, he does not limit his thinking with constructs of how these moments evolve. They model a

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level of integrated leadership, demonstrating their ability to be conscious of their whole selves including their spiritual awareness. Each of them was mindful of moving through an experiential process that takes them to a higher end for a greater good. All of the leaders acknowledge their spiritual interconnections, and realize their interconnectivity with colleagues and to aspects of their work. They have associated tapping into their spiritual intelligence and integrating it into their decision-­ making processes to achieve success beyond their imagination. The small group of five leaders chosen for the dissertation research includes a Director of the Upward Bound program (designed to expose African-American high school students to campus life), a Director of Community Service, and an Assistant Vice-President of Student Affairs at a private Midwestern university. The other two were administrators from a large Midwestern 2-year college with three major campuses and nine off-site learning centers. One was President of that entire system, and the other was a President of one of its major campuses. The former will be referred to as the President and the latter will be distinguished as the Campus President. The President and both Directors were female, and the Assistant Vice-­ President and Campus President were males. All were African American. They were interviewed in the order listed here. The size of the participant group was deemed appropriate because of the methodology applied. Narrative inquiry to capture the telling was combined with the transpersonal human research to “honor human experience in its fullest and most transformative expression” (Braud & Anderson, 1998, p. xxi). To investigate phenomenological events, there must be an opportunity to collect the data that these leaders are contextualizing via written chronicles and oral narratives incorporating their intention, direct knowing, and other internal events (White, 1998, p. 135). In order to delve deeply into the totality of the data, the group must necessarily be small for the research to be purposeful. A considerable amount of time is required for collecting and analyzing the field research on each participant’s experience of each event to result in rich text from the interviews (Brown-Winston, 2003, p. 75). Two interviews, follow-up calls for clarification, personally transcribing the recordings, and two rounds of coding produced the themes. In spite of the group being small, they were instrumental in providing data that helped frame themes that crossed all their stories of very subjective experiences in a manner that met the three criteria used to assess thematic inquiry: structural corroboration, referential adequacy, and consensual validation (Flinders & Eisner, 2000, p. 206). Cognizant of some scientists’ aversion to what is seen as less objective or mechanistic, there was due diligence in adhering to the appropriate data analysis. This assessment is a very critical component in researching aspects of a spiritual nature. The mere mention of anything involving spirituality causes an antagonistic reaction in some people, although there was never consideration of the beliefs of an organized religious worship assembly in the research. The individual experiences and how the leaders made meaning of them was the focus of the research, and whether it was spiritual, philosophical, or rooted in the quantum physics perspective was of no consequence to their belief of interconnections.

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Findings The consensual validation by a colleague revealed several elements of a synchronicity experience in the data analysis. This section begins fusing examples of how the leaders responded to the first research question of how they identified their synchronicity incidents with technical components of this phenomenological event. The following 11 elements will help elucidate the transpersonal experience. Framing the experience is critical to allowing readers to formulate an image of what is unfolding internally and contextualize the intricacies of the incident (Brown-­ Winston, 2003, p. 234). 1. The event(s) has/have come to an individual unexpectedly. 2. The event(s) is/are usually small and inconspicuous to an external observer. 3. The event(s) catch(es) the attention of the individual and is regarded as “unusual.” 4. The event(s) or their immediate consequence is accompanied by a feeling that is meaningful only to the individual, i.e., as if custom-tailored. 5. The individual is always given a choice at this point, which is clear in its directive for action, i.e., the event transforms into a signal for action. 6. The individual may or may not act on the guidance of the signal, but if not, they are aware they went against it. 7. The signal always leads to an unfolding of more events. 8. If he/she did not follow a warning, signpost, or confrontational synchronicity, the consequences are negative, often dramatically so. 9. Some signals may “repeat” until the individual “self-corrects.” 10. Those signals that she/he acted on have led to significant, life-changing implications and consequences. 11. The individual deduces life lessons about the pattern of such signals, and may rely on them for decision-making. This framework aligned with White’s characteristics of what she terms exceptional experiences (1999a).  Individuals transcend their conventional beliefs and ego-­centered thinking to now have exceptional human experiences. They actively work in concert with what they discern, which shifts them to more generative ways of being.

Synchronicity Patterns The data also corresponded to Crawford’s explanation of the patterns, purposes, and categories of synchronicity experiences (1998, p.  18). The three patterns of the meaningful coincidences are single event, series, and clusters. The single event has a defined beginning and end, as the chance encounter between old friends mentioned above. Each leader could name an internal experience that quickly corresponded with an external incident. Both of the Directors mentioned occasions when

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they were facing some difficult trials at work and had not reached out to anyone for support. In short order, they each received phone calls from close associates who felt the need to reach out and check on them. The callers sensed a need to connect with their respective colleagues. A series of synchronicity events appear in a relatively short time frame and all reference a specific facet of the individual’s circumstances. The external events occur in fairly rapid succession and they appear in different ways but the individual recognizes they all pertain to their circumstances. The Director of the Upward Bound program lost her funding by the smallest of margins. She had a history of writing successful grant proposals, but that year she received no funding. She reported the decision to her superior, but had no idea of how she might keep the program afloat. Over the following few weeks, some workers in Dining Services informed her that they would provide meals for the students in her program from their budget. The same offer was made by Housing Services; they would board the students from their budget. Unbeknownst to the Director, students began a petition to review the proposal and reconsider funding for that year’s program. As happens in moments of synchronicity, unexpected allies appear to help individuals toward their goal. The Director received financial contributions for her program that specifically targets the success of African-American students from White citizens who reside in an area known for historically racist positions. Finally, the proposal was re-evaluated, and she received more money than she had originally requested. The third pattern is the cluster of coincidences occurring over a longer period of time that have a specific meaning in their totality. For example, one leader looked back over several years and conceded he could see how phenomenal events brought him to his position. The Assistant Vice-President explained how he was invited to attend a private boarding school, which interrupted his plan to get on the football recruiting radar at his public high school. While playing high school football, he was twice paralyzed temporarily, further interfering with his plans to play professionally. He granted the second paralysis occurred because God was trying to tell him something but he refused to listen. He intentionally accepted an academic scholarship to attend a college not well known for its football team, but could not let go of his plan to play in the NFL (National Football League). After joining the college team, his plan was thwarted again because the coach limited his playing time. In that same period of time, he was discovering an interest that was related to a large part of his identity growing up. He always looked out for classmates who were bullied. Now he was drawn to supporting children’s development and their ability to thrive. Cluster experiences offer broader life lessons. The incidents from high school through the university redirected him from his self-focused plan to one that served a higher purpose for a greater good.

Synchronicity Purposes These events manifest for four purposes, which were evident across the narratives. One purpose is to confront us to do what we may have been procrastinating or

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unsure about, avoiding, ignoring, or resisting, but there is a reason we need to act on something. One of the Directors shared an experience of hearing the voice of the Holy Spirit instruct her to apologize to the university’s Provost for speaking ill of him. She disagreed with a decision he made and was sharing her displeasure with people. Not at all enthusiastic about humbling herself to correct her behavior, her response was insistence on confirmation of what she had discerned: that she actually needed to apologize. She described how she regularly visited a friend who worked for the Provost but absolutely never saw him. Within days of her request for confirmation of what she discerned, she visited that friend and came face to face with the Provost, a most remarkable indication of confirmation. She resisted and hoped to avoid making the apology, but the confirmation she sought unfolded with her bumping into him, unlike any time prior to that day. He had no knowledge of her complaints about him and graciously accepted her apology. In an unexpected turn, that decision to humble herself opened up an opportunity for her. The Provost became an advocate for her, offering to assist her in her dissertation process. Humbling ourselves can be very rewarding. A second purpose is to warn us. Clear warnings against making decisions that have long-term consequences were described by each participant. The events were sometimes life-changing, which left indelible impressions on each of them. An example the Campus President gave was of a single synchronicity while sitting at a traffic light on his motorcycle, the bike began to shake violently beneath him. He determined that this unusual occurrence meant he should return home, which he immediately did. The following day the same thing happened but he elected to not return home. Minutes later, he was involved in a traffic accident, and years later, he still has repercussions from not heeding the warning. This could be branded evidence-­based results of failing to join in with the experience. All the leaders became more mindful of noticeable tensions they were discerning internally after ignoring those synchronicity moments. Third is the guidance we receive from synchronicity moments. When uncertain about choosing between two job offers, the President described how she grappled over how she would choose between them. A series of incidents came to her attention signaling one institution may practice values more aligned with hers than the other. What she discerned guided her to the post that she thrived in for more than two decades. The fourth purpose synchronicity moments appear is to comfort us and provide a sense of peace when we are overwhelmed. Sometimes we are inundated with tasks and challenges, or overcome by fatigue because we have little to no energy to persist in our duties. One Director had been working toward her doctorate and was exhausted from the grind of a full-time position while she was simultaneously spending countless hours in the library doing the required research. After privately complaining, she regrouped and returned to her literature search. As she walked down an aisle of books, a business card on a shelf caught her eye. In the entire library with thousands of books, she was stunned to discover her own card on the precise aisle she chose. Her meaning-making of that single synchronicity event: continue on with the work and you will be sustained in the effort.

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Synchronicity Categories The three categories that Jung identified all pertained to the time factor of when we are aware of our internal discerning and when the external event appears (Crawford, 1998, p. 17). First, there are synchronicity events that unfold with individuals discerning internally as an external event simultaneously presents itself in the immediate proximity. The example of the Director moving through the library stacks, her feeling of being overwhelmed was shortly met with the comforting message that she would be able to endure to the end. The second category includes discerning incidents that occur simultaneously with an event taking place in a different location, outside the leader’s perception, and that is subsequently verified. The President planned to stop by a deli to pick up dinner following work but discerned a warning to avoid the shop she frequented. She obeyed the directive. The evening news later reported a mafia-style hit on the shop owner. She would have been in the deli at the time of the homicide. The third category includes those synchronicity events that leaders discerned prior to the external event that would not occur in close proximity to them. One Director and the President, respectively, shared their experiences of discerning a looming death and of a tragic accident of someone close. These were potent experiences for two reasons. First, early knowledge about a serious loss is jarring. Second, these experiences also offer clear evidence-based results in a compelling way. Death is an objective and observable demonstration of the internal and external incidents. The events that followed accurately corresponded with what they discerned internally. While these were not work-related experiences, they added a dimension to both leaders’ meaning-making. They integrated their spiritual intelligence to discern the interconnection between both incidents. Neither of them appreciated having that foreknowledge, but it affirmed their capacity to discern their interconnections to others. The time lag between the second and third categories necessitates the leaders having integrated this spiritual way knowing into their cognitive processes. They had not negated the earlier internal experience. They were able to recall what they discerned internally and recognize the interconnection. Recognizing patterns of these phenomenological moments supports the initial awareness of the meaningful interconnections; that we are linked to something outside of ourselves. Understanding the purposes supports awareness of our interconnection to a divine, sacred source which four leaders call God. Realizing the orientation to time and that some events unfold at a slower pace reinforces learnings on assured outcomes even though they cannot confirm the precise time. We are not separated from, but connected to God who offers to guide us during times of uncertainty if we flow with the moments unfolding. These patterns, purposes, and categories encourage leaders to become more discerning and integrate this way of knowing into their decision-making when at a loss for strategies or resources.

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Themes in the Narratives The research revealed 16 themes that crossed the various narratives (Brown-­ Winston, 2003, p. 98). Each of the themes was present in at least three narratives. All five participants spoke of incidents involving the first six themes (37.5%). Numbers 7–11 were referenced by four participants (31.25%). Numbers 12–15 (25%) were common to three of the leaders, and the final theme was common to only two of the leaders (6.25%). 1. They believed that each individual must decide to be open to discerning synchronicity incidents, be in agreement with the instruction that comes, and participate by being obedient to follow it. 2. After discerning the experiences and obeying the guidance, there was an assurance of peace, and things flowed. 3. Ignoring the synchronicity message resulted in broken spirits and terrible consequences. They needed to let go of their ego-centered thinking and follow what they discerned. 4. Labeling their synchronicity experiences was difficult because there is no common language for these phenomenological experiences. 5. This is another way of knowing. Synchronicity moments are real and do occur. 6. Each leader could identify synchronicity moments that led them to their positions. They could see a divine interconnection moving in their favor. 7. The spiritual aspect of these experiences is “not about church” but your relationship with God. 8. Submit to the incident and be transformed by the experience. Most began to seek the moments when they had a dilemma. 9. These exceptional experiences are God-centered or of a higher power. They realized that God was trying to tell them something, and/or they were being guided. 10. They were aware of the internal incident–external event time factor whether it was immediate, manifesting afterward in a short period of time or a series of experiences over a long period of time. 11. They “replayed the tapes” of internal messages they discerned when they needed confirmation that they were adhering to the guidance or instruction, sometimes verbally asking for confirmation. 12. They could identify childhood experiences of synchronicity moments. 13. They may not have been certain about the career path they were being led to, but were open to being led to God’s purpose or objective. 14. They were keenly aware of narcissism in their occupational sector and felt angst at how people in leadership either created or perpetuated negative environments and circumstances. 15. Clear awareness of interconnectivity with colleagues was very evident. 16. Sometimes, there was unease with sensing some synchronicities, particularly discerning an impending death.

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Research Questions An overview of the first three themes will provide a response to the first research question of how the leaders made meaning of their experiences. They are not listed in linear phases, merely factors that support understanding how they had become more integrated. The first theme common to the leaders was that we must actively choose to be open to what we are discerning. Each leader recognized that we must be attuned to the message that is presenting itself, its applicability to a particular pressing issue, that we have an opportunity to engage with what is emerging, and that we can participate. The active participation was seen as obeying a divine instruction when we are being confronted or warned or guided. Second, all of them felt an assurance from a sense of peace when they did choose to follow what they discerned. They each commented that their circumstances flowed and they moved in sync with everything that unfolded in their favor and for their benefit. Resources appeared and plans fell into place without much effort on their part. The foremost requirement was their agreement to participate with what they discerned. In their obedience to the internal message, they recognized that when they had no answers to problems, or resources to overcome their challenges, what was needed would be presented. This indicated the interconnection to a divine source intending to guide and provide for them when they are at a loss as to how they will resolve the crisis at hand. They had enough encounters to believe the replicability of what could unfold. Third, as referenced with the warning scenario, they all were aware that when they knowingly ignored what they discerned, they suffered some type of regrettable consequences as a result. The collective consciousness revealed a level of wisdom around the importance of heeding the messages that came. Each of them understood they needed to relinquish their ego-centered thinking about what they may have preferred to do in that situation and follow the guidance of the synchronicity message. Four of the five referenced God in this theme and noted a realization that God was trying to tell them something, but unfortunately, they chose not to listen. Four of them also recounted how they ignored the messages and were hospitalized due to some event they could trace back to what they discerned. Their consequences validated the experiences. The second research question asked how the leaders integrated their meaning-­ making of their synchronicity moments and translated the experience into life-­ generating experiences. In their telling, the leaders provided examples of how their synchronicity moments moved them to adopt a new view or outlook on their identity, and  on a macro level of their organization. In this evolutionary process, the concepts of time and timing are intricate parts of their discerning and their consciousness shifting. Some incidents brought immediate transformative outlooks while others unfolded more slowly. To varying degrees, each leader expressed the courage to seek out a new paradigm and rest in it. Seven data points emerged: an evolution of consciousness, seeking confirmation on synchronicity incidents, a connectedness with divinity, awareness of how ignoring the events brought clear and negative consequences, their spiritual development, a new cognition, and serenity.

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The Campus President shared an example of his evolution of consciousness, describing an unexpected offer while he was in the library during his doctoral studies. A stranger asked if he were interested in participating in a 5-week study tour to Africa. He explained how meeting so many African scholars, academicians, entrepreneurs, artists, film makers, and activists transformed his self-identity. Until that trip, he had felt the burden of oppression being a Black man in America. Three weeks into the trip, he literally felt the weight of constantly defending himself being lifted. Moving into a new outlook of the self can involve tentative steps. In any developmental process, an individual progresses up a ladder, transcends each phase of growth, and includes that learning in the next level of awareness. When the leaders evolved through earlier stages, then had an experience of a higher dimension, they had to grow to a point of being able to embed or accommodate the subsequent deeper dimension. Moving upwards may initially create some tentative thoughts on grasping this spiritual intelligence (Brown-Winston, 2003, p.  131). As a result, sometimes, the leaders sought confirmation on what they were discerning. For example, having a vision that explains our interconnection to God through Christ was simple for the Community Services Director after she had questioned God’s presence in her life. But when she discerned the Holy Spirit guiding her to initiate a conversation with an administrator about a position that had not yet been created, but one she would occupy, she needed confirmation of the message before taking so bold a step. A third evidence of the leaders’ self-identity evolving is their connectedness to divinity. Conscious thinking rooted in rationalization can interfere with discerning a synchronicity moment (Begg, 2001). It may only be noticed in hindsight. Two leaders explained that there must be a conscious link between how they are discerning and moving with the flow of the experience. The President was confident that when open to discerning the messages in synchronicity moments, we receive the right things at the right time. When led, and we allow ourselves to follow, and what is appropriate will happen. The Community Services Director expounded on how God is reaching out and wants our voluntary participation. Obeying, or following the lead of the synchronicity brings the higher end. Disconnecting from the divine message makes the journey longer. This leads to the discovery of how the leaders’ outlook shifted. Each made clear their meaning-making of the results of consciously ignoring the guidance, warning, or confronting of a synchronicity moment. This revelation reinforced the power of the experience and substantiated the reason for integrating this awareness as part of a new way of being. These were very powerful results-based evidences of the internal discerning–external event connections. The Assistant Vice President was paralyzed, the Campus President had an accident on his motorcycle, and both Directors reported being hospitalized after knowingly ignoring some warnings. The after-effects of experiencing synchronicity moments and being transformed by them include having immediate and long-term aftereffects and outcomes. The leaders shared narratives of having a new sense of courage, knowing inner peace,

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becoming more empathic, a change in their identity, and conviction of our interconnectedness. Providing these narratives allowed the leaders to reinforce the manner in which they moved from rational ways of knowing to a deeper level of understanding (Guare, 1998; Wilber, 1996) at a more spiritual level. Integrating a new cognition became apparent in the first four leaders’ narratives of having their mettle tested. They were at a crossroad in their lives, or faced some sort of personal challenge. Each of them reached a moment where they relinquished their will and let go of their self-focused thinking about how they might overcome the obstacles. They transcended their egos and opened themselves up to the divine hand of God. After struggling with herself, the Upward Bound Director explained (Brown-Winston, 2003): You don’t have to understand what’s happening, and you’re not meant to. Just let God have His way. Turn it over to Him…I just knew it was going to be okay, but I didn’t know how it would turn out…You’re not supposed to know how certain things are going to happen. (p. 143).

The President explained that this is another way of knowing, or another way of receiving information just as we use our other senses. Viewing it with this lens, she integrates it in all facets of her life, including on the job. That integration is the comprehensive approach she takes overall. They all shared examples of the sense of serenity that emerges developing their consciousness of a higher part of themselves and identifying with it. The Campus President pointed out his intellectual search for truth until he discerned the futility in finding it in books. He let go of believing in philosophical religious systems and structures, even though he believes God exists. Rather than try to force any context, which he believes is a projection of a limiting position, he said, “At those times when I’m able to let go…it’s just very peaceful. Life is good” (Brown-Winston, 2003, p. 147). The Community Services Director shared an experience of a time when she felt like her life was disintegrating. When a colleague offered her a gospel artist’s audio tape, she discovered a particular song that resonated with her circumstances. “I had peace unlike any other time in my life…I should have been a basket case…And people were commenting on the fact that I looked to be so happy” (Brown-Winston, 2003, p. 146). She added that all the turmoil continued for another 2 weeks, but in the interim, she maintained a sense of serenity about it all. The Assistant Vice-­ President’s sense of peace came forth after he relinquished his plans to God’s guidance. Mindful of how they have been so bluntly cancelled, he elected to allow God to reveal how he would be molded and shaped, rather than try to control the larger outcomes. The third research question investigated whether there was any impact on the participants’ leadership styles, and how the leaders integrated new knowing from their transpersonal experiences into their leadership practices. These data points outline the relation between the synchronicity experiences and the leaders’ careers; how they seek out and anticipate synchronicities to guide or assist them in their

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workday challenges; their openness to trusting life’s processes unfolding; and how some leaders hold dialogue with colleagues about their experiences. Each of the leaders named experiences that were directly associated with bringing them to their positions. The Campus President returned some misdelivered mail to a new neighbor, whom he had been intending to meet. That neighbor had a guest visiting, the then-President of a 2-year college. Their introductory conversation led to his hiring. The Community Services Director was guided by the Holy Spirit to seek out a yet-to-exist position. She paid deep attention to the guiding messages she discerned on approaching a Vice President to discuss the position, and discovered that he had been working on an initiative to create that very position. Although the time frame actually took longer, and even when her friend decided to compete for the position, along with several others, the Director flowed with what she discerned would be hers, and she indeed was hired. A second data point was how being mindful of the potential of the synchronicity incidents brought them to a new level of awareness. This presented itself in a number of ways. Since they had a history of flowing with the events, they reported that they anticipated and sometimes sought out those moments. It may have been for personal crises, but other times to further the progress of the institution. Additionally, they matured enough to release their otherwise unyielding attitudes and preference to control situations to a predetermined completion. As one becomes more attuned to these incidents, they notice them occurring more often (Begg, 2001). After several replicated experiences, they are accustomed to being guided by those exceptional moments, not always knowing how circumstances will end. This way of being is also integrated in addressing issues for the greater good of the organization. The President believes “leadership is about the interconnectivity of people” (Brown-Winston, 2003, p. 159). She nurtures relationships to link people with the objective of sparking new ideas and launched a think tank to provide a space where any staff member can collaborate with administrators on generative ideas for the institution. The Assistant Vice-President was keenly aware of the many ways people in organizations can become dysfunctional. He extended himself to colleagues, offering training on more affirming approaches of nurturing the students. The Campus President reported his ability to become present with workflow stagnation. When his projects reach a standstill, he acknowledges the need to release it and allow someone else to take the lead. “It’s never about me. I’m not that big in that equation. It’s for the benefit of this institution and the students we serve” (Brown-­ Winston, 2003, p. 160). Trusting life’s processes was a third practice the leaders integrated into their work lives. Wheatley’s (1999) work on the new science of leadership moves us to a paradigm where we become aware of dynamic processes and recognize how those processes manifest in visible behaviors. In their narratives, these leaders stopped blocking their awareness of the synchronicity moments, became present with them, and flowed with what emerged, living in the moment. The Upward Bound Director has “clearing” moments in her morning shower. Her day presents itself in the shower and she attends to what she is discerning. As her day progresses, she moves with

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what emerges. Even when the unexpected happens, she is grounded in her capacity to discern a way forward. She trusts that what is needed will present itself. The President trusts that what is right for an individual will show up when we are present with the experience that is emerging. Sometimes, she anticipates some messages and they emerge, but not always. In general, she trusts that she will know the best path to choose. The leaders revealed the importance they placed on their connectivity with others, particularly in the workplace. The Assistant Vice President extends compassion to every student and family that suffers a loss. A mother shared with him that when her husband died, no one else at the college seemed to care about her son or the family. When she realized that her son had some lingering grief issues, the mother contacted him for ways to support her son. The Upward Bound Director has a network of colleagues she can discuss her spiritual experiences. The Campus President remarked that he has adopted a practice of speaking less and listening more. A transformation of learning from their spiritual experiences has helped them to make meaning with different dimensions of awareness (Kegan, 2000; Mezirow, 2000). As they have deepened their inner place of knowing, they not only focus on themselves but what is emerging beyond themselves and their organizations. The final research question addressed any implications for leaders in general. Two data points were revealed on this question. First is to acknowledge synchronicity events. Be open to discerning the messages that appear. The President explained that those who live with a more integrated worldview consciously choose to pay attention to emerging synchronicity moments. Some people consciously decide not to give attention to them, but if a series of coincidences unfold, “What is the probability of them being coincidences?” (Brown-Winston, 2003, p.  170). We are in volatile, unchartered waters. It would serve  all leaders well to see our interconnections. Participating translates to relinquish the will to control every situation. The ability to be comfortable with not having the right answers, or any answers is timely for the many crises we face. Sometimes, the only answer is to take a leap of faith. The Upward Bound Director confessed the difficulty of relinquishing her will. But as she remained mindful of the powerful outcomes she had witnessed after obeying what she discerned, the internal work became less of a struggle. It is important to give credence to a new holistic view in order to access that force. White is certain that in order to realize our greatest human potential, we must first cooperate with the process of obeying and participating with these exceptional moments (1998, p. 130). If we consciously choose to dismiss these events, they will occur less frequently; we distance ourselves from what is possible. The five leaders were mindful of successes they have experienced in their professions which they traced to synchronicity moments. Leaders must understand that the small messages that come to them are part of a larger generative force that will reshape the world. Discerning our interconnectedness to the source greater than us, which for most of them is God, and the success they have achieved, translated to realization of the divine hand participating with them and sometimes intervening on their behalf. All of their experiences of engaging with synchronicity moments not

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only brought success but also served a higher purpose. The harsh realities we face are the result of leaders not paying attention to what presented itself decades ago. Generative leaders see the more of what is possible when opening themselves up to the experiences that emerge. Thus, current leaders would benefit from integrating this way of knowing into their decision-making and problem-solving practices.

Conclusion Zohar (1997) wrote of the need for a rewiring of the corporate brain which includes how leaders can use new understanding. Deep transformation is painful and slow, usually beginning when the pressure points have reached their limits. Ours have. This research offered a view of returning to our first knowing, that even precedes words. Synchronicity was the term used for research purposes. The leaders identified their synchronicity moments with certainty, although they were more focused on living the experiences than getting bogged down with assigning jargon to name it. As they understood the synchronicity incidents, they confirmed the patterns, purposes, and timing categories Jung identified. The 16 themes revealed their collective unconscious in their meaning-making of how they experienced the events. They shifted their levels of consciousness to integrate this deeper way of knowing into practice. Taking this spiritual intelligence to their leadership roles, they recognized how yielding their egos brought about a higher and a greater good in their lives, the lives of others, and in their organizations. They have learned to trust life’s processes and recognize that even when they do not have all the answers, what is needed will show up. Whether it is through colleagues, strangers, or unexpected allies, there was evidence for four of the five that God provides. This discerning supported them being more generative in their roles, and was a source of encouragement for other leaders to adopt. These incidents are common enough for all to have noticed and provide results-based evidence of the benefits of flowing with them. We need a different consciousness to address current crises. We desperately need a new paradigm for leadership. These narratives offer a way to shift to a different paradigm for more generative leadership. While this work was informative, future research will provide a more instructive methodology to enhance the transition to this model of positive leadership. Chapter Takeaways 1. Understanding synchronicity moments in our lives facilitates the process of becoming more discerning, more integrated, and cultivating generative problem-­ solving practices. 2. It is time to make a generative shift from a technical to an experiential paradigm. 3. Integrating our spiritual selves expands our awareness of greater possibilities. 4. Synchronicity moments often emerge when we are in need.

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5. They serve purposes, follow patterns, and have a timing component that becomes clear when you are attuned to them. Reflection Questions 1. What incident have you experienced but have been reticent to share with colleagues because it seemed too out-of-the-cultural norm of leadership? 2. What part of yourself are you not including in workplace meetings or operations? 3. What conversation would you like to have that has been nudging at you, but you have resisted? 4. Who has surprised you as an ally in your work objectives? 5. What have you previously considered an anomaly, but noticed it reoccurs?

References Adrienne, C. (1998). The purpose of your life: Finding your place in the world using synchronicity, intuition, and uncommon sense. New York: Eagle Books. Awbrey, S. M., & Scott, D. K. (n.d.). Creating integrative universities for the twenty-first century. Retrieved from http://www.dkscott.com/Frameset.html Begg, D. (2001). Synchronicity. Hammersmith, London: Thorsons. Bolen, J.  S. (1979). The Tao of psychology: Synchronicity and self. San Francisco: Harper and Row. Bradbury, H. (2000). On the plural attentions necessary for catalyzing and implementing sustainable development. Reflections: The SoL Journal, 1(4), 13–23. Braud, W., & Anderson, R. (1998). Transpersonal research methods for the social sciences: Honoring human experience. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Brown-Winston, P.  L. (2003). The role of synchronicity in transforming generative leaders: A narrative analysis supporting the exceptional human experiences of selected higher education administrators (Ph.D. thesis). Kent State University. Combs, A., & Holland, M. (1990). Synchronicity, science, myth and the trickster. New  York: Paragon House. Costen Kunz, S. (2011). Respecting the Boundaries of Knowledge: Teaching Christian Discernment with Humility and Dignity, a Response to Paul O. Ingram. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 31(1), 175–186. Crawford, J.  I. (1998). Flowing with knowing: The experience of interpreting synchronicity (Master’s thesis). Center for Humanistic Studies, Detroit, MI. Delbecq, A., Liebert, E., Mostyn, J., Nutt, P. C., & Walter, G. (2004). Discernment and strategic decision making: Reflections for a spirituality of organizational leadership. In M. L. Pava (Ed.), Spiritual intelligence at work: Meaning, metaphor, and morals (pp. 139–174). San Francisco: Elsevier JAI. Dhiman, S. (2017). Holistic leadership: A new paradigm for today’s leaders. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Eisenstein, C. (2007/2013). The ascent of humanity: Civilization and the human sense of self. Berkeley, CA: Evolver Editions. Eisenstein, C. (2013). The more beautiful world our hearts know is possible. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

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Flinders, D.  J., & Eisner, W.  W. (2000). Educational criticism as a form of qualitative inquiry. In D. L. Stufflebeam, G. G. Madaus, & T. Kellaghan (Eds.), Evaluation models: Viewpoints on educational and human services evaluation (pp.  195–208). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. French, W., & Bell, C. H. (1999). Organization development (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books. Gergen, K. J. (1994). Realities and relationships. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gergen, K. J., & Gergen, M. (1986). Social psychology (2nd ed., pp. 11–12). New York: Springer Verlag. Guare, R. (1998). The spirituality of leadership: A heron’s dance. Journal of Management Systems, 10(4), 1–10. Hanson, D. M. (1999). A phenomenological study of the experience of being carried along by a series or flow of unforeseen circumstances or events culminating in a right and desired outcome (Doctoral dissertation). American School of Professional Psychology, Rosebridge, CA. Heubner, D. (1995). Education and spirituality. JCT, 11(2), 13–34. Jaworski, J. (1998). Synchronicity: The inner path of leadership. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Joseph, C., & Sailakshmi, S. (2011). Spiritual intelligence at work. The IUP Journal of Soft Skills, 5(4), 21–30. Jourard, S. (1971). The transparent self. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Kauffman, J., & Arico, S. (2014). New directions in sustainability science: Promoting integration and cooperation. Sustainability Science, 9(4), 413–418. Retrieved from https://link.springer. com/article/10.1007/s11625-014-0259-3 Kegan, R. (2000). What “form” transforms? A constructive-developmental approach to transformative learning. In J.  Mezirow & Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp. 35–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. King, M. L. (1981). Strength to love. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. Knutson, J. (2017). Individual spiritual discernment: Receiving, testing, and implementing leadings from a higher power (Pendle Hill Pamphlet 443). Wallingford: Pendle Hill Publications. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult. In J. Mezirow & Associates (Eds.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp.  3–24). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Nouwen, H. J. M. (2013). Discernment: Reading the signs of daily life. New York: HarperCollins. Olsson, L., & Jerneck, A. (2018). Social fields and natural systems: Integrating knowledge about society and nature. Ecology and Society, 23(3). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5751/ ES-10333-230326 Palmer, P. (2000). Leading from within: Out of the shadow, into the light. In J. Conger & Associates (Eds.), Spirit at work: Discovering the spirituality in leadership (pp. 19–34). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Peat, F. D. (1987). Synchronicity: The bridge between matter and mind. New York: Bantam Books. Pelletier, V. (2007). Discernment. The Furrow, 58(1), 35-42. Redfield, J. (1993). The Celestine prophecy. New York: Warner Books. Redfield, J. (1997). The Celestine vision. New York: Warner Books. Scott, D. K. (n.d.). General education for an integrative age. Retrieved from http://www.dkscott. com/Frameset.html Sisk, D. (2016). Spiritual intelligence: Developing higher consciousness revisited. Gifted Education International, 32(3), 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261429415602567 Vaughn, F. (2002). What is spiritual intelligence. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42(2), 16–33. Wheatley, M. (1999). Leadership and the new science: Discovering order in a chaotic world. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. White, R. A. (1998). Becoming human as we work: The reflexive role of exceptional human experiences. In W.  Braud & R.  Anderson (Eds.), Transpersonal research methods for the social sciences: Honoring human experiences (pp. 128–145). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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White, R. A. (1999a). Exceptional human experiences: A brief overview (3d ed.). New Bern, NC: Exceptional Human Experience Network. Retrieved April, 25, 2019 from http://www.psychognosis.net/cgi-bin/default.pl?page=viewdoc&doc=eheoverv&group=3 Wilber, K. (1996). Eye to eye. Boston: Shambhala. Zohar, D. (1997). Rewiring the corporate brain: Using the new science to rethink how we structure and lead organizations. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Authentic Leadership: Leading with Purpose, Meaning and Core Values

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Omowumi Ogunyemi and Kemi Ogunyemi

Abstract

Authentic leadership is a commonly used term; however, its significance and merits may not be fully grasped without paused reflection. Authentic leaders are true to the self and true to the values that they hold dear. They transmit those values to their followers. Those values are not arbitrary inventions or personal interests, but they are the core values that enable both leaders and followers to find meaning in their activities and to reach their goals. This chapter explores the concept of authentic leadership, highlighting its characteristics and the role it plays in the development of organisations. Authentic leadership fosters the growth of firms by giving meaning, core values and purpose to all who work there, thus empowering them to exercise their creativity in attaining their own fulfilment in a way that is compatible with the firm’s development. Authentic leadership thus differs from self-satisfaction and self-affirmation. It involves a sincere concern for the integral well-being and development of followers. Keywords

Authentic leadership · Meaning · Values · Well-being · Purpose

O. Ogunyemi Institute of Humanities, Pan-Atlantic University, Lagos, Nigeria K. Ogunyemi (*) Lagos Business School, Pan-Atlantic University, Lagos, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_20

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Introduction Authenticity has been defined and described in various ways and yet remains a relatively imprecise concept that can be approached from many angles. In the context of an organisation, it consists of moral behaviour hinged on a system of sound values which align with others and with the organisation. It continually evolves and reveals itself through relationships with peers and followers. According to Bishop (2013), an authentic leader is one who is true to self or who works for the collective good and is ethically accountable; he therefore opines that authentic leadership emphasises the self, benefits others and gives true example. Presenting a different though not conflicting perspective, Seco and Lopes (2013) claim that trust and self-­awareness are vital for authentic leadership, where selfawareness helps the authentic leader to be emotionally intelligent and requires maturity, intense self-examination and individuation. They further argue that criticisms are necessary for building self-­awareness. Given these insightful descriptions, it would seem that authentic leadership would play a pivotal role in improving managerial effectiveness in organisations. In fact, Datta (2015) established that authentic leadership results in various dimensions of managerial effectiveness such as organisational performance, satisfaction of followers’ needs, as well as improvement of work life while leading to a reduction in negative attitudes including absenteeism, dissatisfaction and hostility. Authentic leadership works through various functions to support their continued good performance for the good of the organisation. For example, it could contribute to the processes that support knowledge management in organisations – such as the creation, sharing and use of knowledge – since it encourages commitment and builds trust. It builds organisational relationships guided by transparency, openness and trust (Besen, Edivandro, & Fialho, 2017). Authentic leadership is one more construct for looking at leadership, like ethical leadership, servant leadership, spiritual leadership, transformational leadership, shared leadership, etc. that have also been studied extensively by leadership scholars. Its main scholars converge in regarding the four main facets of authentic leadership as (1) self-awareness; (2) relational transparency; (3) internalised moral outlook and (4) balanced processing or fair mindedness (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004; Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005; Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, & Dickens, 2011; Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2007). This chapter explores authentic leadership as leadership with purpose and meaning, and takes a practical look at how through it, the organisation’s core values can be more deeply shaped, transmitted and embedded. The chapter next presents some literature on authentic leadership and its meaning; describes its purpose and its quest for meaningfulness, explores how it enhances the transmission of core values from leaders to followers; and ends with some final considerations on the foregoing.

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From Leading to Leading Authentically The scholarly approach to the concept of leadership over the years has led to it being studied as different constructs. Thus, scholars have looked at transformational leadership, charismatic leadership, servant leadership and, recently, ethical leadership and spiritual leadership before, also recently, focusing on authentic leadership as a desirable form of leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). In this context, authenticity is the quality of the leader and a product of his or her relationships and interrelationships. The quality of a relationship determines the quality of leadership and what happens in an organisation (Duignan & Bhindi, 1997). In addition, authenticity consists of moral behaviour and a system of sound values which places alignment with others and with the organisation at its crux (Bishop, 2013). In further support of these positions, several studies provide a portrait of the authentic leader and how he or she relates to followers. Covelli and Mason (2017) note that being true to one’s personal life story and showing compassion are qualities of authentic leaders. Authentic leaders tolerate imperfections in others and help them learn, and develop themselves as well as succeed (Duignan & Bhindi, 1997). They act in consonance with their deep values and beliefs to gain the confidence and respect of their followers (Bento & Ribeiro, 2013). They therefore give a higher level of feedback to their followers through their internalised moral perspectives and balanced processing (Emuwa, 2013). Authentic leaders also build trusting relationships by considering the various points of views of their followers and encourage collaboration among them (Duignan & Bhindi, 1997). Indeed, Seco and Lopes (2013) posit that trust and self-awareness are vital in authentic leadership and argue that one cannot be emotionally intelligent (as is needed to be an authentic leader) if one lacks self-awareness. This requires, in addition to maturity, an intense and continuous work of self-assessment and individuation. They further argue that criticisms are necessary in building self-awareness. On the other hand, Peus et al. (2012) see self-knowledge and self-consistency as vital antecedents to authentic leadership. They believe that self-knowledge explains the fact that a person has stable knowledge about his or her values, motives, convictions, strengths and weaknesses while self-awareness describes the fact that a person constantly questions and re-assesses his or her strength and weaknesses (Peus et al., 2012). Authentic leaders are often faced with the major challenge of reconciling the interest of the individual with that of the organisation (Duignan & Bhindi, 1997). According to Covelli and Mason (2017), authentic leadership has become a more useful concept in contemporary societies as a result of decrease in ethical leadership as is obvious from high-profile scandals involving major corporations globally and locally. They clarified that authentic leadership is not a solution to corruption and greed but rather a positive leadership model that underscores integrity, honesty and ethical and moral upright behaviour. It builds organisational relationships guided by transparency, openness and trust (Besen et al., 2017). This is because, according to Christy and Duraisamy (2015), authenticity can be perceived by others and this accounts for the pivotal role authentic leadership plays in improving organisational

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effectiveness. Datta (2015) establishes that authentic leadership results in various dimensions of managerial effectiveness such as organisational performance, satisfaction of followers’ needs, as well as improvement of work life. It equally leads to reduction in negative attitudes including absenteeism, dissatisfaction and hostility. Emuwa (2013) opines that employees identify easily with leaders who possess attributes of authentic leadership. Consequently, an organisation that hires and or develops authentic leaders will improve productivity from empowered and committed employees and reduce attrition and turnover costs as well as enjoy a sustained innovation resulting from continuity and commitment. Peus et al. (2012) also note that authentic leadership encourages team effectiveness and has a significantly positive relationship with subordinates’ organisational commitment and satisfaction with their supervisors.

The Meaning of Authentic Leadership Many people today complain that many workers have lost the ability to engage with the deeper purpose of our lives, to engage at work, find fulfilment and meaning within it, and embrace life with energy and joy (Dundon & Pattakos, 2012). The definition of authentic leadership has converged around several underlying dimensions (Walumbwa et al., 2007). Authentic leadership has been described in various ways by different people. A common denominator of these descriptions is that of a leader who gives meaning and purpose. This chapter presents authentic leadership in relation to effective management and transformation of the workplace. As noted above, authentic leadership has evolved in content and meaning over the years. Even though many authors identify four critical aspects of authentic leadership, they often describe these aspects in different ways and may include other ancillary features. Currently, proponents of the authentic leadership theory affirm that such leadership constitutes an emergent dimension of an authentic self (Gardner & Avolio, 2005). According to these authors, the core components of authentic leadership theory include self-awareness and self-regulation and authentic leaders create positive ethical climates and foster veritable and sustainable performance in organisations (Gardner & Avolio, 2005). Other scholars affirm that the constituents of positive leadership include positive intention, giving unconditionally, happiness, including happiness on seeing someone else develop further, not necessarily wanting to be labelled in a certain way or positioning yourself. It encompasses the ability to give, to receive, and to forgive (Blekkingh, 2015). Drawing on social information processing theory, authentic leaders are posited to transmit social information about the importance of inclusion into the work environment through inclusive leader role modelling (Boekhorst, 2015). Whitehead (2009) describes an authentic leader as someone who is self-­aware, humble, always seeking improvement, aware of those being led and looks out for the welfare of others. Such a person also fosters high degrees of trust by building an ethical and moral framework and is committed to organisational success within the construct of social values.

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According to Bhindi and Duignan (1997), authentic leadership has four components: authenticity, intentionality, spirituality and sensibility. Although the nomenclature is different from the previous scholars cited, there are commonalities in the significance of their content. For example, authenticity is important for living according to one’s values and intentionality is important for self-awareness and purposeful decision-making. Other features of authentic leaders include trustworthiness, an ability to genuinely connect with others and a willingness to serve (George & Sims, 2007, p. xxxi). Recurring ideas in the discussions on authentic leadership include self-knowledge and self-awareness, relationship strengths, interests in serving others and concern with for their well-being and growth. Ethics lies at the heart of authentic leadership. Leaders are expected to have high moral standards, live by those standards that they profess and teach them to others. Authentic leaders are role models. Their behaviour is an example for followers (Boekhorst, 2015), as they personify the strong value systems which they live by. Truly authentic leaders must lead in a way that honours their core values, beliefs and strengths with their weaknesses (Gardner et al., 2011). Walumbwa and other scholars define authentic leadership as “a pattern of leader behaviour that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalised moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development” (2007, at p. 94). The above definitions point out specific elements often acknowledged separately by other scholars (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). However, for Walumbwa et al. (2007), positive climate and psychological capacities foster authentic leadership but are not essential to the definition of authentic leadership. Thus, there are four main features of authentic leadership on the part of the leader. First, self-awareness, which implies that the leaders possess a known and recognisable, internalised moral perspective according to which they live and teach others to do so. As people go through life, their experiences change who they are if they have some sense of themselves Leaders should be able to identify their strengths and key into them (Avolio et al., 2004). Second, genuineness and transparency in their relationships such that they present themselves to others as they are, with their values and beliefs. Other people can see their characters and what they have on the inside. The third feature, the balanced processing of information, involves carefully evaluating data about any given case from different possible perspectives in order to arrive at the most appropriate conclusions. The equilibrium required for the process is comparable to the Aristotelian concept of prudence and requires the exercise of practical wisdom.  Fourthly, the authentic leader must have an internalised moral perspective that translates into ethical decision-making in practice and inspires followers to follow his or her example in this regard. It should be noted that the practical implications and manifestations of the above four elements of authentic leadership vary from leader to leader. An authentic leader may also have stronger inclinations for some of the elements than others, even though the other features are present to a significant level. The purpose of leadership also influences the practical ways in which the above attributes are lived out.

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Purpose in Leadership In the fourth century B.C., Aristotle proposed that a leader’s task is to create conditions under which all followers can realise their full human potential (O’Toole, 2005). A leader ought to create the conditions for engaging with deeper purpose (Dundon & Pattakos, 2012), a purpose that often relates to existential dimension of the person in his ontological status as an intelligent human being. The purpose of leadership, from classical thought, was to see to it that every member of society can reach and all round development and reach fulfilment. In this view, the leader is concerned about others. Such leadership is not about the leader’s desires for wealth, honour, power and prestige; rather, it is about the leader’s responsibility to create an environment in which followers can develop the capabilities with which they were born and grow as much as is possible for them with their natural abilities (O’Toole, 2005). One of the hallmarks of successful leadership is the education of team members as autonomous rational agents who can manage a wide variety of situations even when the leader is not present. “The best of all leaders is the one who helps people so that, eventually, they don’t need him” (Manz & Sims Jr., 1987). One may then ask, what does purpose consist in? For Aristotle, the purpose of human life is the fulfilment of the activities of their most superior faculties associated with the intellectual life. It is not a unitary purpose but one that is ordered towards living the good life. The purpose of the activity is therefore informed by the ultimate end of both the agent and the actions. Interestingly, purpose is not necessarily a construct that refers only to the concrete actions of a trade. It is closely linked to a hierarchy of needs, the search for meaning, and values. Thus, describing the purpose of activities, including those of a leader, includes the considerations of the more robust of the meaning of life, well-being and the search for human fulfilment. History has shown leaders whose guidance led to unforgettable changes in people’s lives and made notable impact on their quest for self-understanding in the different facets of life including their professional life. Mahatma Gandhi is a well-­ known example of a leader whose contributions to his nation are still felt today. Scholars propose that we learn from and apply his leadership styles to management of the contemporary workplace. A striking characteristic of the testimonies about this leader is that he held onto clear values which transmitted to people. He also put the concerns of his people above his own and led by example (Kim Cheng Low, 2010). His leadership of his people had a purpose which seems to address the fundamental political crisis of the people then, but in fact also influenced the way of life, character and manner of thinking of his followers.

 eadership and the Quest for Meaning (Meaningful L Leadership) People often search for meaning in life. According to Erik Erikson and other psychologists, many people experience a deep search for meaning at the midlife. Narrative psychologists see this mid-life crisis period as one in which one can

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evolve as a highly generative adult. Generativity is a concern for future generations and an interest in leaving a lasting legacy. In the midlife, it is not unusual for adults to develop such interest in contributing to society and future generations. It is a “concern for establishing, maintaining, and guiding the next generation” (McAdams, 2014, p. 63). In fact, Erikson lists this phenomenon as a stage psychosocial development: the stage of generativity vs stagnation. During that period, adults strive to create or nurture projects and things that will outlast them. They feel the need to contribute to society and to engage in activities that benefit future generations. Narrative psychologist Dan P. McAdams and his team of researchers studied generativity extensively. At the midlife, many of such people are at the prime of their work life. One would expect that they spend most of their wakeful hours at work and therefore work would be one of the principal places where they would find meaning. In a workplace, team leaders often greatly influence the momentum and magnitude of achievements of each member. Such a tendency may also affect the follower’s quest for meaning, a lasting legacy and fulfilment. In order other words, highly generative adults and all who seek meaning may require support from their leaders. Good leadership seeks to find meaning for its followers. It involves many aspects of development of the followers and is not limited to profitmaking alone. Authentic leaders create a suitable environment for followers to find meaning at work (Dundon & Pattakos, 2012). “Such leadership should take cognisance of the psychological, social and spiritual values, and associated needs, of individual workers and their families, thereby placing” (Flynn, 2008). Followers enjoy benefits of authentic leadership. Although each person is a member of a group and works within it, scholars affirm that authentic leadership is linked to positive outcomes at the individual level, including performance, work engagement, creativity and job satisfaction (Lyubovnikova, Legood, Turner, & Mamakouka, 2017). The above statement suggests that although self-regulation is a core component common to the four dimensions of authentic leadership, its effects go beyond the modification and growth of the leader to positively influence the well-being of the followers. Work engagement, creativity and job satisfaction are some features of workers who have found meaning at work and as such progressively perform better. It is therefore not surprising that the new wave of positive psychologists who study well-being in the workplace also speak of the need for working with purpose in organisations. Martin Seligman, often referred to as the father of positive psychology, describes the ingredients of well-being in the workplace with the acronym PERMA: Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment. One can see that finding meaning is an essential part of the five elements of workplace well-being and of happiness. Work becomes more rewarding and fulfilling, when people see how their efforts have a genuine impact on the lives of others. The above-listed elements require the practice of virtues and one is often motivated to imitate the virtues of role models. As previously mentioned, the authentic leader is a role model, a person who strives to transmit virtues through examples.

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According to other positive psychologists, ethical leadership, self-leadership for development and fostering virtuous behaviour for all members of an organisation are central to creating a workplace where people can find meaning, job satisfaction and fulfilment. Organisations bring out the best in their members by focusing on the evaluation and promotion of such positive psychological concepts as strengths, hope, optimism, self-confidence, self-motivation, resilience, joy and gratitude. “Organisations of virtue strive to do well by doing good, and strive to do good by doing well” (Froman, 2010, p.  68). They are concerned about the satisfaction of their members and of their clients. Achieving the balance between protecting the interests and complete well-being of the members of the organisation interests and simultaneously protecting the interests of clients while contributing to societal development will require an effective leadership system. Authentic leadership based on the four elements and core values seems apt for reaching the target.

Transmitting Core Values Organisations often identify a number of values that they would like to have permeate their culture and dub them the core values of the entity. In so doing, they expect all staff to imbibe such values and practise them while at work and, at times, even outside the work space. If this decision to have a culture that’s based on core values remains an announcement, it may not actually happen. There is a need to push for practice in various ways and to transmit the core values to new hires as they come into the company. Bishop (2013) describes an authentic leader as one who must be true to one’s self or be who one professes to be, give good example and equally be ethically accountable for the collective good. For him, authentic leadership continually develops through relationships with peers and followers (Bishop, 2013). The practical ways in which the four main aspects of authentic leadership reinforce the transmission of core values are discussed briefly below. Leader Self-Awareness – An authentic leader tends to be self-questioning and self-aware. At times, leaders who are not self-aware can cause their followers to disconnect when they realise that the leader is not applying the values in one way or the other. For example, a leader who is trying to engrave respect as a core value in the company culture needs to be aware of the way he or she practises respect and maximises his or her strengths in this aspect of relationships while detecting and ameliorating his or her weaknesses. If it is a person who finds it easy to wait for others to pass through the door, it would be good to check that he or she does this for everyone in the organisation regardless of their real or perceived ranking in relation to him or her. If it is a person who does not notice a tendency to barge through the door, almost pushing people out of the way, realising it would help to consciously strive to practise that detail of respectfulness. Similarly, being aware that one consistently arrives late to meetings can help the person to strive to be more punctual and thus more respectful of other people’s schedules. Thus, followers would notice that their leader respects them and tries to show it and are thus more likely to imbibe the core values.

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Relational Transparency  – The leader’s transparency in communicating and relating with others in the organisation facilitates the embedding of core values. They do not have to wonder what he is thinking; what his motives are, or what his opinion of them is. They know that all relevant information will be shared with them in due course. If followers are in doubt about the objectives of their leader and the direction in which he or she is taking them, levels of clarity and of trust may be affected and this can make it more difficult for them to incorporate the core values into their actions. Honest conversations make it easier for an employee to trust his or her boss, subordinate or peer to be straightforward with him or her and not to do hurtful things behind his or her back. It engenders understanding, loyalty and ease in mutual relations. One knows that one will be told to one’s face if there is a problem, and therefore one can relax and put in one’s best at work without fearing intrigue, deliberate misinformation or misdirection, or backbiting. It makes it easier to believe in the values of the organisation and to practise them. Internalised Moral Perspective – A leader whose moral compass is firm is experienced by followers as a person of integrity. This is the kind of person who does not look only to rules or to consequences in order to judge what the right thing to do is in each situation but is rather educated and self-developed enough to practise ethical reflection based on solid moral principles while asking for advice when in doubt. Such a person has an internal locus of control with regard to ethical decision-­making and does not hide behind circumstances or external pressure (fear that competitors will compete unethically, pressure to meet shareholder demands at any cost, etc.) to do the wrong thing. Followers are likely to respond positively to being encouraged by such a leader to accept and internalise the organisation’s core values. This is important for every organisation but even more critical for those ones that explicitly list integrity or honesty among their corporate core values. For example, a leader who is able to decide to create parking space for the company’s trucks at cost to the company, motivated by concern for the environment and for people who live and work in the area and need to be able to move easily, even though others in the same industry do not do the same, will more likely get traction when suggesting that employees should respect sustainability imperatives and act with concern for others in both their personal and professional lives. In like manner, a firm that looks for creative ways to support their staff will also get the best out of them when trying to get them to support one another. Balanced Processing or Fair-Mindedness  – Leading authentically includes weighing available information thoroughly; seeking additional information when possible; and asking for opinions and advice where needed, before making a decision. If employees know that judgements that will affect them are properly processed avoiding biases and prejudices and with detailed and objective fact-finding as well as adequate consideration for everything impacted by the decision, they will be more likely to commit to the organisation and to embrace its core values. They could be led to treat others the way they are treated and this could lead to greater fairness towards fellow employees and in dealing with customers. It also makes it possible for the leader to maintain the equity of judgement consistently over time and across a variety of situations, once the habit of processing situations with objectivity and balance has been acquired.

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It is difficult to proclaim people who may still change authentic leaders since one cannot know all their current doings or say what they will do in future. However, it is possible to identify situations in which authentic leadership has been practised. If we characterise such situations as those in which trust and transparency have been expressed in order to lead followers with meaning and purpose while upholding core values, the following examples depict such instances. Leaders who share the burden deal with real issues; who admit failure are generally considered to display qualities of authenticity. In all these instances, followers are meant to feel like they matter.

Final Considerations In conclusion, authentic leadership appears to provide a unique and complex perspective of leadership which provides deep meaning as well as value-laden content to the concept of leadership and therefore can give a new and positive impulse to the practice of leadership in corporate organisations in both the public and private sectors of society. Such a complex construct affects many facets of the lives of both authentic leaders and their followers. Even though authentic leadership scholars have already done a lot of work to describe its four components, plumbed its features and the characteristics of individuals who possess it; and initiated the discovery of its antecedents and outcomes, the construct is important enough to inspire further research and to demand studies regarding its application in private and public organisations. An enriched understanding of the concept and its implications for the global development and well-­ being in the workplace requires its further and deeper evaluation from the perspectives of its provision of an environment conducive to finding meaning and purpose and of transmitting core values. Such constructs as finding meaning, identifying worthwhile values, and living according to them, are central to human fulfilment. The recommendations from positive psychology on the need to focus on the integral well-being of the members of an organisation, a task mainly ascribed to its leaders, with everyone’s collaboration, can greatly improve job satisfaction and a sense of fulfilment. Authentic leadership through all its elements, but especially through its relational transparency and exemplarity in integrity and an empathy for followers, can foster a growth in workplace well-being. It can be expected that the effects of such leadership will go beyond the organisation as the members whose characters and way of thinking and living have been influenced by model leaders would in turn leave their mark in other locations outside their place of employment. Chapter Takeaways An authentic leader is one who is true to self but not selfish, who works for the collective good and is ethically accountable. Such a leader gives meaning and purpose to subordinates. The purpose of leadership, from classical thought, was to see to it

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that every member of society can reach an all-round development and reach fulfilment. Authentic leaders try to create an environment in which each follower can attain fulfilment. They have guiding principles which they standby and also transmit these values to others. Reflection Questions 1 . Does authenticity mean self-centeredness? 2. How can leaders foster integral development and well-being of followers? 3. Can one lead others in  such a way that one grows with the others, such that everyone benefits from the leader–followership relationship according to their capacity? 4. How can a leader create an environment that enables followers to attain satisfaction and empowers them to find fulfilment? 5. Can authentic leadership boost personal creativity?

References Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 315–338. Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders’ impact follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(6), 801–823. Besen, F., Edivandro, T., & Fialho, F. A. P. (2017). Authentic leadership and knowledge management. Gestão & Produção, Sao Carlos, 24(1), 2–14. Bento, A. V. & Ribeiro, M. I. (2013) Authentic leadership in school organizations. European Scientific Journal, 9(31), 121–130. Bhindi, N. & Duignan, P. (1997). Leadership for a new century: Authenticity, intentionality, spirituality and sensibility. Educational Management Journal, 25(2), 117–132. Bishop, W. (2013). Defining the authenticity in authentic leadership. Journal of Value Based Leadership, 6(7), 1–8. Blekkingh, B. W. (2015). Authentic leadership: Discover and live your essential mission. Oxford, UK: Infinite Ideas. Boekhorst, J. A. (2015). The role of authentic leadership in fostering workplace inclusion: A social information processing perspective. Human Resource Management, 54(2), 241–264. https:// doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21669 Christy, A. V. & Duraisamy, (2015). Authentic leadership style. Intercontinental Journal of Marketing Research Review, 3(10), 24–31. Covelli, B. J. & Mason, I. (2017). Linking theory to practice: Authentic leadership. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 16(3), 1–10. Datta, B. (2015). Assessing the effectiveness of authentic leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 9(1), 62–75. Duignan, P. & Bhindi, N. (1997). Authenticity in leadership: An emerging perspective. Journal of Educational Administration, 35(3), 195–209. Dundon, E., & Pattakos, A. (2012). Leading from meaning. Leadership Excellence Essentials, 29(3), 19–19. Emuwa, A. (2013). Authentic leadership: Commitment to supervisor, follower empowerment, and procedural justice climate. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 6(1), 45–65.

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Flynn, G. (2008). The virtuous manager: A vision for leadership in business. Journal of Business Ethics, 78(3), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9331-y Froman, L. (2010). Positive psychology in the workplace. Journal of Adult Development, 17(2), 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9080-0 Gardner, W. L., & Avolio, B. J. (2005). Authentic leadership theory and practice: Origins, effects and development (1st ed.). Amsterdam: JAI Press Inc. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). Can you see the real me? A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 343–372. Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M., & Dickens, M. P. (2011). Authentic leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(6), 1120–1145. George, B. & Sims, P. (2007). True north: Discover your authentic leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ilies, R., Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D. (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-­ being: Understanding leader-follower outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 373–394. Kim Cheng Low, P. (2010). Leading, the Mahatma Gandhi way. Leadership & Organisational Management Journal, 2010(2), 111–118. Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership development. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organisational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 241–261). San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler. Lyubovnikova, J., Legood, A., Turner, N., & Mamakouka, A. (2017). How authentic leadership influences team performance: The mediating role of team reflexivity. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2692-3 Manz, C. C., & Sims Jr., H. P. (1987). Leading workers to lead themselves: The external leadership of self-managing work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 32(1), 106–129. https://doi. org/10.2307/2392745 McAdams, D. P. (2014). The life narrative at midlife. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 145, 57–69. O’Toole, J. (2005). The true measure of a CEO. Across the Board, 42(5), 45–48. Peus, C., Wesche, J. S., Streicher, B. Braun, S. & Frey, D. (2012). Authentic leadership: An empirical test of its antecedents, consequences and mediating mechanisms. Journal of Business Ethics 107, 331–348. Seco, V., & Lopes, P.  M. (2013). Calling for authentic leadership: The moderator role of calling on the relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement. Open Journal of Leadership, 2(4), 95–102. Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson, S. J. (2007). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89–126. Whitehead, G. (2009). Adolescent leadership development: Building a case for an authenticity framework. Educational Management Administration & Leadership 37(6), 847–872.

New Horizons in Transformational Leadership: A Vedāntic Perspective on Values-Based Leadership

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Satinder Dhiman and Varinder Kumar

Abstract

This chapter explores the values-based, Vedāntic perspective on transformational leadership. Drawing upon various key Vedāntic texts, it explains why Self-­ knowledge is so crucial to transformational leaders. As a system of Self-­ knowledge, Advaita Vedānta is free from sectarian bias or dogma. Its tenets are rational, universalistic, and scientific in spirit. After briefly reviewing some variants of transformation leadership (such as authentic leadership, responsible leadership, and servant leadership), this chapter presents the values-based leadership examples of two stalwarts of modern India—Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi. Finally, it discusses the leadership style of Dr. E. Sreedharan, widely known as the Metro Man of India, as a case in point of a values-driven leader. Advaita Vedānta teaches that the phenomenal world, though real at the relative level, is merely a manifestation of an underlying Absolute Reality, known as Brahman. The philosophy of Vedānta advocates Oneness of the Universe. This understanding fosters equality in ethical conduct stemming from realizing the divinity of all beings and serving them with altruistic motive. Vedānta teaches respect, tolerance, and understanding of the other faiths and, thus, nurtures humanity and solidarity in the contemporary fragmented world. As different beings are just the expressions of one universal consciousness, hurting the other means hurting oneself. This realization is the source and foundation of all philanthropy, ethical conduct, and social contract. The teachings of Vedānta have profound relevance in context of transformational leadership and values-based leadership. S. Dhiman (*) School of Business, Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] V. Kumar Government College, Kapurthala, Punjab, India © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 S. Dhiman, J. Marques (eds.), New Horizons in Positive Leadership and Change, Management for Professionals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38129-5_21

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Keywords

Transformational leadership · Values-based leadership · Advaita Vedānta and Self-knowledge; Mahatma Gandhi; E. Sreedharan · Swami Vivekananda

Introduction This chapter explores the values-based, Vedāntic perspective on transformational leadership. Drawing upon various Vedāntic texts, it explains why Self-knowledge is so crucial to transformational leaders. As a system of Self-knowledge, Advaita Vedānta1 is free from sectarian dogma. Its tenets are rational, universalistic, and scientific in spirit. After briefly reviewing some variants of transformation leadership (such as authentic leadership, responsible leadership, and servant leadership), this chapter presents the values-based leadership examples of two stalwarts of modern India—Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi. Finally, it discusses the leadership style of Dr. E. Sreedharan, widely known as the Metro Man of India, as a case in point of a values-driven leader. Advaita Vedānta teaches that the phenomenal world, though real at the relative level, is merely a manifestation of an underlying Absolute Reality, known as Brahman. The philosophy of Vedānta advocates Oneness of the Universe. This understanding fosters equality in ethical conduct stemming from realizing the divinity of all beings and serving them with altruistic motive. Vedānta teaches respect, tolerance, and understanding of the other faiths and, thus, nurtures humanity and solidarity in the contemporary fragmented world. As different beings are just the expressions of one universal consciousness, hurting the other means hurting oneself. This realization is the source and foundation of all philanthropy, ethical conduct, and social contract. The teachings of Vedānta have profound relevance in context of transformational leadership and values-based leadership.

Four Universal Goals of Life Vedānta is regarded as the culmination of Indian philosophy. According to Vedānta, man is not confined to body–mind mechanism that is temporary and transitory with its own phases of birth, growth, decay, and death. In Indian philosophy, Dharma— righteousness, Artha—acquisition of wealth for security purposes, Kama—gratification of physical and material needs, and Moksha—liberation of oneself have been regarded as four purusharthas—sacred goals of human life. Indian philosophy says that all these are legitimate ends of life. However, the mere acquisition of wealth and gratification of desires cannot be the ultimate goals of life. These are to be pursued with awareness and in a righteous way. 1  In this chapter, the terms Vedānta and Advaita Vedānta are used synonymously. The non-dual (advaita) interpretation of Vedānta represents it in its purest form.

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As spiritual freedom (Moksha) is the ultimate goal of life, these purusharthas are the means to this end. Therefore, Vedānta lays greater emphasis on ethical and spiritual values in daily living and seeks work through righteous means as medium of worship. Put differently, the first three pursuits are seen as the material goals, while the last pursuit, moksha, is considered the spiritual goal culminating in liberation through Self-knowledge. It is important to note that dharma underpins and regulates the other three pursuits to ensure their propriety; therefore, according to Hindu scriptures, the right order of these pursuits should be dharma, artha, kama, and moksha. The ancient seers were very keen to ensure that our pursuit of pleasure and security should be guided by the spirit of righteousness and conscientiousness.

Evaluation of Experience Regarding Four Pursuits Indian philosophy recommends that we should carefully look at the desirability of all the pursuits and determine what one really needs to do to attain the invariable condition of fulfillment. Here is an important Vedāntic verse that captures the fundamental human predicament and also suggests a way out: Parīkṣya lokān karmancitān brāhmaṇo nirvedam āyān nasty akṛtah kṛtena, tad vijnānārthaṁ sa gurum evābhigacchetsamit-pāṇiḥ śrotriyam brahma-niṣṭham (Mundaka Upanishad 1.2.12).

After having properly examined the transient nature of all things in the world that are attained through actions, a wise person should acquire a sense of dispassion: That which is not the product of any action cannot be produced by actions—nothing that is eternal can be produced by what is not eternal. In order to understand that Eternal, one should humbly approach a great teacher who is well versed in the Vedas and ever absorbed in Absolute. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka (4.4.9) and Kaṭha (II.iii.14) Upaniṣhads confirm: Yadā sarve pramucyante, kāmā ye ‘sya hrḍiśritāḥ; Atha martyo ‘mrṭo bhavaty, atra brahma samaśnute.

When a person completely gives up all the obsessive compulsive cravings he is harboring in his heart, he moves from the mortal realm to that of the imperishable and enjoys real joy and fulfillment in the Absolute Truth.

Revolutionary Teachings of Vedānta: Ontology and Epistemology Advaita Vedānta teaches that the phenomenal world, though real at the relative level, is merely a manifestation of an underlying Absolute Reality, known as Brahman. At the individual level, this reality is experienced as pure awareness or consciousness. The Self (ātman) is essentially an expression of Brahman itself

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(the Absolute). There is one limitless Consciousness which is the substratum of all and everything. This vision of the essential oneness of Reality (ātman) and the reality of the world (Brahman) provide a foundation and raison d’être for acting for the good of others. Once understood clearly, it becomes a lived experience, a living reality, serving as both the path and the goal for the quest for fulfilment in the form of self-­knowledge and selfless service. The basic truth of the Vedānta is that the nature of the Self is essentially pure Consciousness. This truth is self-existent and self-evident: we know that we exist and we are conscious of our existence. No further proof is required to show that we exist. In addition, the existence of the Self, once experienced as It is, can never be denied. Representing the culmination of sacred knowledge, Vedānta has been called the philosophia perennis, the perennial philosophy, whose truth is found in many different traditions of the world that emphasize the essential “oneness of being.”2 As Swami Nikhilananda notes, “The existence of the Self, or Consciousness, cannot finally be doubted, because the doubter himself is the Self, or Conscious Entity. It cannot be denied, because the denier himself is the Self, or Conscious Entity.”3 In the similar vein, Sureśvarācārya, a ninth-century Advaitin, explains: Wherever there is a doubt, there, the wise should know, the Self [the Real] is not. For no doubts can arise in relation to the Self, since its nature is pure immediate Consciousness.4

In the form of Consciousness presence, our Self is indubitable, undeniable, self-­ established, and a self-evident fact. According to Vedānta, the ultimate reality is called Brahman. Vedānta declares, “All of this is Brahman” (सर्वंखल्विदंब्रह्म sarvaṁ khalvidaṁ brahma: Chāndogya Upaniṣhad 3.14.1). All this multiplicity, diversity is but Brahman only. Brahman is one, without a second (एकमेवाद्वितीयम्ब्रह्म ekamevādvitīyam brahma: Chāndogya Upaniṣhad 6.2.1). There is no second thing here. Śaṅkara says that all this multiplicity is imagined only in Brahman (सर्वम्हिनानात्वम्ब्रह्मनिकल्पितमेव sarvam hi nānātvam brahmani kalpitameva). Brahman means Absolute Reality. It is described as Sat-Chit-Ananda: Pure Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss. It is called Pure Existence because it is beyond time, space, and causality. Normally, the existence of anything depends on time, space, and causality. Whereas Brahman as pure existence lends existence to time, space, and causality! That is why it is called pure existence—meaning, it does not depend on time, space, and causality. They depend on it!

2  For example, the Sufi doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd literally means the “Unity of Existence” or “Unity of Being.” This, along with its corresponding doctrine of the “Oneness of Perception” (wahdat al-shuhud), was formulated by Ibn al-Arabi (1165–1240 AD), which postulates that God and His creation are one, since all that is created preexisted in God’s knowledge and will return to it. 3  Swami Nikhilananda, Self-Knowledge: Atmabodha (New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 1987), 45. 4  Cited in Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta, 19.

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It is Pure Consciousness because it is bereft of objects, yet all objects depend on it. Everything internal (thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.) and external (the perceived world, universe) are objects to it. Their existence depends on Consciousness. Put differently, everything other than consciousness has dependent existence only. They cannot exist apart from it. It is Pure Bliss because it is uncaused. All experiential happiness is caused—it depends on circumstances, person(s), or objects. It has a beginning, and since it has beginning, it has an end. It is limited by time and space. However, Brahman is Pure Bliss because it is free from the duality of the other. That is, there is no second thing to It for It to desire. It is Infinite Bliss of desirelessness. This bliss is not caused by anything else because there is no second thing to Brahman. This Infinite Bliss is its very nature, svabhāva. Then, the Upaniṣhad makes a most unusual statement. This Brahman which is Pure Existence, Consciousness, and Bliss is YOU! You are THAT! It is not that you will become THAT after you have meditated for several years or has done this or that spiritual practice or after death; You are THAT right here, right now. Period! The whole uniqueness of this is that it is not an intellectual claim that should be taken on faith. This Brahman is available to us all in our own experience as the consciousness presence. The felt presence of our being. As the Witnessing Consciousness of our thoughts, feelings, desires, including our waking, dream, and deep sleep states. It is the eternal Subject to which every thought including the I-thought (ego)—and all and every perception—is an object. That we exist and we are aware that we exist—these are undoubtable facts that can never ever be negated or denied. This is our true Self, which is never not one with Brahman, the Absolute. This is the final declaration (उद्धघोष) of Vedānta: In our true essence (Ātman), we are one with the Ultimate Reality, Brahman.

Advaita Vedānta and Self-Knowledge While each of the wisdom traditions of the world upholds the importance of Self-­ knowledge as a necessary condition for wholeness, happiness, and lasting peace, in no other tradition is Self-knowledge explored to such a depth and breadth as in the Vedas. The entire philosophy of Vedānta is devoted to discovering the essence of Self-knowledge, fulfilment, and freedom. Advaita in Sanskrit means “nondual,” and Vedānta means “the end or inner core of the Vedas.”5 Vedānta is a philosophy of nonduality based on the Upaniṣhads, the concluding portions of the Vedas.6 The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit root vid (to know) and means that which makes us know.7 The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts in the world. The Upaniṣhads, the Brahma Sūtra, and the Gītā form the “triple standard” on which  See: Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta: A Philosophical Reconstruction (Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1973), 3. 6  K.  Satchidananda Murty, Revelation and Reason in Advaita Vedānta (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 3. 7  Ibid., xvii. 5

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Vedāntic schools are based.8 Advaita Vedānta is widely considered by Western scholars of religion and Hindus, to be the philosophical culmination of the Indian spiritual tradition.9 As a system of Self-knowledge, Advaita Vedānta is free from sectarian dogma. Its tenets are rational, universalistic, and scientific in spirit. In addition, there is substantial Advaita metaphysics, which has come to emerge in the philosophical foundations of contemporary quantum physics. It expounds the essential oneness of humanity and the universe and presents its message through logical axioms, where there are no dogmas to adhere to. It maintains that all that is required is an open mind and willingness to understand objectively the truth of our own existence. Vedānta helps the seeker to appreciate happiness and liberation (moksha) as an ever-­ attainable fact in the present. Who Am I? The Essential Question of Vedānta There is no such thing as a healthy ego, any more than there is a thing as a healthy disease.10 – Sri H. W. L. Poonja ji

Vedānta affirms that there is only one question worth asking and answering: “Who Am I?” Through the process of self-exploration called Self-inquiry (“who am I?”), Vedānta points out that we are not what we normally take ourselves to be, a limited body–mind–senses complex. Vedāntic wisdom tells us that we are, in fact, limitless Consciousness that inheres and enlivens the body, mind, and senses. According to Sri Ramana Maharshi, “Self-inquiry is the most direct means to realize the unconditioned, Absolute Being that you really are.”11 Sri Ramana, a twentieth-century seer-saint of Vedānta, stated that the very inquiry “Who am I?” will lead us to realize the Self—if consistently pursued. By conducting the “Seer-Seen discrimination,” dṛg-dṛśya viveka, I can realize that all that is seen—from the world of objects up to my own mind—cannot be I, the Seer. We do not notice this because our attention is generally focused on the objects outside. The practice of this inquiry into the nature of the Self will slowly turn our attention inward—first to the mind, and then from the mind to the “I-thought,” and finally from the “I-thought” to the Self. As Swami Sivananda explains: The Upanishads declare that the Atman [Self] is the unseen seer, the unheard hearer, the unknown knower. One cannot see the seer of seeing, one cannot hear the hearer of hearing, one cannot know the knower of knowing. The Atman [Self] has neither a subject nor an

 See: K. Satchidananda Murty, Revelation and Reason in Advaita Vedānta, xvii.  See: Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta: A Philosophical Reconstruction (Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1973). 10  Cited in Dennis Waite, The Chapter of One: The Ancient Wisdom of Advaita (Winchester, UK: O Chapters, 2011), 23. 11  See: Maharshi’s Gospel: The Teachings of Sri Ramana (Tiruvannamalai: Sri Ramanasramam, 2003), 38. Michael James, the preeminent translator of some of Sri Ramana’s most important books, once told this author that this is perhaps the most succinct and inspired collection of Sri Ramana’s teachings. It is believed that Maurice Frydman, the gifted, self-effacing Polish humanitarian, is the compiler of Maharshi’s Gospel. Frydman is also the compiler of another modern spiritual classic, I Am That. Everything Frydman did is touched with distinction! 8 9

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object. The subject and the object are both comprehended in the Atman [Self] in which all divisions appear and which is raised above them all.12

When we ask “Who Am I,” we are basically inquiring about the essential nature of the Self. Upaniṣhads tell us that the Self, ātmā, is of the nature of pure Consciousness (shuddhachaitanya-svarūpa) or of the nature of pure Knowledge (shuddhajñāna-­svarūpa). Swami Paramārthananda, a modern Vedānta teacher, explains the nature of the Self, ātmā, as follows13: 1 . The Self is not a part, property, or product of the body. 2. The Self is an independent conscious principle that pervades and enlivens the body. 3. The Self is not limited by the boundaries of the body. It is all pervading, like space.14 4. The Self is unborn and eternal and does not die with the death of the body. As a primary spiritual practice, Vedānta recommends a process of Self-inquiry (ātma-vicāra)—a method of inquiring into the essential nature of our discerning the real by separating it from the unreal. It requires a certain level of preparation by the spirant to appreciate the subtlety of this methodology. Ideally, one learns the Vedānta by being in close association with a teacher who is well versed in this teaching tradition (sampardāya).15 It is said that when a seeker is ready, the Divine arranges that a teacher will cross path with the seeker.

Transformational Leadership and Its Variants16 Transformational leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality with fused purposes (Burns, 1978). This type of leadership is elevating, mobilizing, inspiring, exalting, uplifting, exhorting, and evangelizing as it engages the hearts and minds of others, enlarges the shared vision, clarifies purposes, makes behavior congruent with principles and values, helps each other to achieve greater motivation, satisfaction, and greater sense of achievement (Burns, 1978; Crainer, 1997, p. 50), and brings about changes that are permanent, self-­ perpetuating, and momentum building (Covey, 2002). The real power in  Swami Sivananda, Essence of Vedānta (Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India: The Divine Life Society, 2009), 148. 13  Swami Paramārthānanda, The Essence of Vedānta-Part 1. General Talks. 14  Being all-pervading, it is called by two names: ātmā and Brahma. 15  Samapardāya, a Sanskrit word, denotes more than just a tradition. It means a system that hands over the knowledge properly as is, in an unbroken chain of teacher–student relationship—samyak pradiyate iti sampardāya. 16  Parts of  this section have been drawn from  a  previously published paper in  the  Proceedings of the International Conference on Spirituality: The Essence of Ethical Leadership and Management (22–24 November 2014), School of Management Sciences (SMS) Varanasi, India. 12

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transformational leadership comes when the relations among persons are of understanding and trust. Therefore, transformational leadership involves an ethical influence process (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996). Leaders of the organizations who exhibit ethical, authentic, and transparent behavior have profound and penetrating influence upon other members of the organization. Transformational leadership has been found to be positively related to perceived leader’s integrity (Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2002). Transformational leadership emphasizes moral values like liberty, equality, and justice, and it is guided by universal ethical principles—responsibility, fairness, etc.—along with empathy (Johnson, 2013, p. 190). Transformational leadership uses the active element of transactional approach also for getting results along with idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) make distinction between authentic transformational leaders and inauthentic or pseudo-transformational leadership. Authentic transformational leadership is grounded in “a moral foundation of legitimate values.” Authentic transformational leadership is characterized by the following: • Behavior true to self and others. • More reasonable and realistic concept of self—a self that is connected to friends, family, and community whose welfare may be more important to oneself than one’s own. • Representing more an ideal moral type. • Commitments beyond the self (Gardner, 1990). • Congruence between values and behavior (Price, 2003). • No distinction between the self and the organization (Ford & Harding, 2011). Transformational leaders raise awareness of moral standards, highlight important priorities, foster high moral maturity in followers, create an ethical climate of shared values and high ethical standards, encourage followers to look beyond self-­ interest to the common good, promote cooperation and harmony, use authentic and consistent means, provide individual coaching and mentoring, appeal to the ideals of followers, and allow followers freedom of choice. Whereas pseudo-­ transformational leaders promote special interests at the expense of the common good, encourage dependency of followers and may privately despise them, foster competitiveness, pursue personal goals, foment greed, envy, hate, and deception, engage in conflict rather than cooperation, use inconsistent and irresponsible means, keep their distance from followers and expect blind obedience, seek to become idols for followers, and manipulate followers (Bass, 1995). Researchers at the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) identify nine transformational attributes universally associated with outstanding leadership: motive, arouser, foresight, encouraging, communicative, trustworthy, dynamic, positive, confidence builder, and motivational (Den Hartog, House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, & Dorfman, 1999).

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In the pioneer research of leadership challenges, spanning over more than 25  years, James Kouzes and Barry Posner (2012) presented Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: Model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act and encourage the heart. Although the context of leadership has changed dramatically over 30 years, the content of leadership has not changed much at all (Kouzes & Posner, 2012, p. 15).

These five practices effectively bring results like creating high-performing teams, generating increased sales and customer satisfaction levels, fostering renewed loyalty and greater organizational commitment, enhancing motivation and willingness to work hard, promoting high degrees of involvements and positively influence recruitment rates (p.  27). As leadership is relationship and reciprocal process between leaders and their constituents, it requires leaders to be honest, forward-­ looking, competent and inspiring (p. 35).

Authentic Leadership To Luthans and Avolio (2003), authentic leadership is “a process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development” (pp. 241–25). Authentic leaders are genuine people who are true to themselves and to what they believe in (Avolio, 2010; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wersing, & Peterson, 2008). These leaders bring people together around a shared purpose and empower them to step up and lead authentically in order to create value for all stakeholders (George, 2003). Bill George and Peter Sims (2007) advocate discovering one’s True North, Just as a compass points toward a magnetic field, your True North pulls toward the purpose of your leadership. When you follow your internal compass, your leadership will be authentic, and people will naturally want to associate with you. Although others may guide or influence you, your truth is derived from your life story and only you can determine what it should be. (p. xxiii)

To them, five dimensions of an authentic leadership are as follows: • • • • •

Pursuing purpose with passion Practicing solid values Leading with heart Establishing enduring relationships Demonstrating self-discipline

To Avolio, Luthans, and Walumbwa (2004), authentic leaders are deeply aware of their thinking pattern and behavior and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others’ values/moral perspective, knowledge, and strengths. They are

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aware of the context in which they operate and are confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, and high on moral character.

Ethical Leadership Ethical leadership incorporates moral principles such as integrity, fairness, honesty, and trust in their values, behavior, and practices. It is the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and promotion of such conduct among followers through communication, reinforcement, and decision-making (Brown et al., 2006). Ethical leaders engage in acts beneficial to others and refrain from causing harm to others (Kanungo, 2001). Integrity, ethical standards, and fair treatment of employees are the cornerstones of ethical leadership. The domain of ethical leadership is broad that incorporates different types of values, such as altruism, compassion, honesty, fairness, and justice. Ethical leadership behavior involves being very supportive and helpful when someone has a problem, being fair in distribution of rewards and benefits, being open and honest while communicating, making sacrifices to benefit others, setting clear ethical standards for the work, and adhering them strictly by holding people accountable (Yukl, Mahsud, Hassan, & Prussia, 2013).

Spiritual Leadership Spiritual leadership means practicing “the values, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to intrinsically motivate one’s self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership” (Fry, 2003, pp. 693–727). To Fry, two essential dimensions of spiritual leadership are calling and membership. This leadership embodies spiritual values such as integrity, honesty, and humility and creates the self as an example of someone who can be trusted, relied upon, and admired. Such leadership is demonstrated through reflective practices or ethical, compassionate, and respectful treatment of others (Fairholm, 1996; Pruzan, 2008; Reave, 2005). The qualities of spiritual leadership are vision (as manifested in broad appeal to key stakeholders, defining the destination and journeying, reflecting high ideals, encouraging hope, and establishing a standard of excellence), altruistic love (characterized by forgiveness, kindness, integrity, empathy/compassion, honesty, patience, courage, trust/loyalty, and humility), and hope/faith (reflected through endurance, perseverance, do what it takes, stretching goals, and expectation of reward/victory) (Fry, 2003).

Servant Leadership Greenleaf (1977) informs us that he got the idea of servant leadership by reading Hermann Hesse’s book entitled Journey to the East (1932/1956). To Robert K. Greenleaf (1977) servant leadership is leadership with two roles of servant and

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leader fused in one real person (p. 21). This type of leadership is basically attuned to basic spiritual values like service motive or taking care of others, listening and understanding others, being withdrawn to oneself, acceptance and empathy, awareness and transformed perceptions, knowing the unknowable beyond conscious rationality, foresight, awareness, and transformed perceptions (Greenleaf, pp.  22–49). Such leaders like to live by conscience—the inward moral sense of what is right and what is wrong—and build sustaining relationship based on trust. Servant leaders do not seek leadership roles first, but are moved by compelling vision and desire to serve others first (Spears, 2010). Like moral or ethical leadership, servant leadership is based on a set of values like a sense of fairness, honest, respect, and contribution that transcends culture (Dennis, 2004). The basis of these ethical values is inner conscience that shapes moral authority, enables to sublimate the ego to a higher purpose or principles, inspires to become part of a cause worthy of our commitment, teaches us that ends and means are inseparable, and introduces us to the world of (authentic) relations (Covey, 2002).

Responsible Leadership Responsible leadership is a social-relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction with those who interface with leadership and have a stake in the purpose and vision of leadership relationship (Freeman & Auster, 2011; Maak & Pless, 2009). Such leaders work with responsible mindsets and care for the needs of others and act as global and responsible citizens (Maak, 2007). The greatest challenge they have to face is to deal with moral complexity resulting from a multitude of stakeholders’ claims and to build enduring and mutually beneficial relations with them in the form of social capital that enable people to act collectively with trust and goodwill inherent in social relations. Like transformational leaders, these leaders are visionary and architects of the transformed culture focused at morality, change agents as well as coach, and helpful to enable others to find meaning. Like ethical leaders, they are also steward or guardian of values to protect their personal and professional integrity and steering a business responsibly and respectfully (Maak & Pless, 2009). However, their focus of attention is more on balancing the stakeholders’ interest.

Eupsychia Leaders The word “eupsychia” was created by Abraham Maslow (1965) that integrates two words eu means good and psyche meaning mind or soul. Eupsychian means “having a good mind or soul” or “the well-being of psyche.” Eupsychia is a culture or society inhibited by 1000 self-actualizing people. Eupsychia leaders are leaders who are self-realized beings and help others to realize their potentials (Rego, Cunha, & Oliveira, 2007, p. 66). Eupsychian leadership behaviors include “(a) promotion of self-determination and employee personal development; (b) respecting the personal

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and inner life of employees; (c) kindness, compassion, loyalty, and respect; (d) promotion of positive interpersonal relationships and a sense of team community; and (e) courage and open-mindedness” (Rego et  al., 2007, pp.  174–177), and the employees’ reactions to these leadership behaviors include “(a) psychological well-­ being, (b) commitment and calling, (c) positive behaviors and attitudes toward the supervisor, and (d) sense of self-worth (feeling of being appreciated” (p. 175).

Lessons of Vedānta in Context of Transformational Leadership The philosophy of Vedānta has profound relevance for transformational leadership which is concerned with raising the morals and motivations of followers and the transformation of the organizational culture. The relevance of the message of Vedānta also extends to various variants of transformational leadership like ethical leadership (Brown & Trevino, 2006; Kanungo, 2001), authentic leadership (Luthans & Avolio, 2003), servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977), spiritual leadership (Fry, 2003), etc. 1. Self-Awareness The first quality of transformational, authentic, and servant leadership is self-­ awareness gained through self-knowledge. Advocates of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1996) regarded self-awareness hold that knowledge about one’s emotions is the first and foremost requirement of leadership. Without self-knowledge, service of others cannot be authentic or ethical, as we cannot transcend our narrow selfinterest. Vedānta teaches that seeking self-knowledge is not a matter of “acquisition” or a result of our “doing,” but a matter of “understanding” our true nature. Usually, we identify ourselves with body–mind mechanism and consequently become egoist, which superimposes the useless limitations due to selfishness. As a result, we fail to understand our real nature and identify the unreal as the real. Vedānta explains that one is not just the limited body–mind complex but pure awareness. This feeling gives one inexhaustible courage, freedom to act, and abundant happiness not only for oneself, but for other beings that surround us. Therefore, advocates of Vedānta like Ramana Maharshi, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Nisargadatta Maharaj, etc. have taught to realize oneself. With self-awareness, ego and world shall look like illusive dreams. “A man verily becomes liberated in life if he feels: God is the Doer. He alone is doing everything. I am doing nothing” (Sri Ramakrishna: Gospel, 1942, p. 142) and performs one’s ordinary duties in an unselfish manner. While performing one’s ordinary duties in detached way, one should renounce the world in one’s mind, as mind is the source of all bondage and liberation. In one of his talks, Ramana Maharshi (1955/2006, p. 342) profoundly remarks, “By ‘spiritual leaders’ we understand those who are ‘spiritual’ as opposed to ‘physical’. Spirit is unlimited and formless. Being unlimited it includes the leaders, the man,…There is no differentiation.” According to his view, to become authentic leader, one should “Realise the Self within [oneself]” (Ramana Maharshi, 2003, p. 1).

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2. Work and Worship To Vedāntic texts, work is meant to excel and elevate oneself while living in the world, provided it is done as yajna, dedicated to Universal force. “Work is only a means to the realization of God.” (Sri Ramakrishna: Gospel, 1942, p. 143). It is not work that is bondage to worship, but the attitude to work that makes the difference as bondage or liberation. Therefore, Vedānta advocates approaching work as form of worship. “If you meditate in the right manner, then the current of mind induced will continue to flow even in the midst of your work….With this, there is no conflict between work and wisdom,” Ramana Maharshi advises Paul Brunton (1934, pp.156–157). 3. Overcoming Negativities The various types of negativities like egotism, greed, and anger exist first in mind of an individual. The source of all these negativities or impurities of mind is false identification with body–mind mechanism. Once one understands that one is not confined to body or other petty identifications and nothing remains permanent, one understands that negative emotions and thoughts are transitory phenomenon, one is likely to overcome them. However, when one thinks over them again and again without awareness, these negative thoughts continue in mind. These need to be subsided it with self-awareness and detachment from external events and objects. With this, one is likely to feel authentic happiness and freedom in oneself than being dependent on external objects. For this, Vedānta advocates the path of self-­knowledge or knowing oneself (Jnana Yoga), seeking divine in everyone (Bhakti Yoga) while discharging one’s cherished duties without any tag to results (Karma Yoga). 4. Transforming Emotions Vedānta teachers advocated focus on purification of emotions and transforming emotions to devotions and passion to compassion as authentic source of spirituality and values: “The heart of the devotee is the drawing-room of God” (Sri Ramakrishna: Gospel, 1942, p. 133). The concept of chitashudhi—purification of mind—is profounder than the concept of emotional intelligence of modern psychologists (Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2008). Managing and controlling of emotions lead to surface acting or hardly deep acting than feeling genuine emotions. This ultimately leads to emotional stress due to emotional labor. Therefore, one should overcome one’s negative thoughts and emotions like lust, anger, greed, attachment-love for one’s near and dear with feeling of “my-ness,” and to serve the world with compassion which is “love one feels for all beings of the world. It is an attitude of equality” (Sri Ramakrishna: Gospel, 1942, p. 161).

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5. Acceptance of the Unique Existence The realization of oneness of everything that Vedānta talks leads to acceptance of the unique existence and essence of everyone and the feeling that “whatsoever destined to happen shall happen” (Balsekar, 2003) or events are happening as per the grand plan of the Existence and there is no individual doer to that. With this, one develops the understanding that both negative and positive forces of Existence have their own role to play in one’s life. This attitude of acceptance is the infinite source of humility, harmony, and happiness in our daily living. Transformation leaders, while experiencing this feeling, instill it among others with force of their positive influence with rippling effect. 6. Cultivation of Profound Ethical and Spiritual Values Transformational leadership emphasizes moral values such as liberty, equality, and justice and is guided by universal ethical principles—responsibility, fairness, etc.—along with empathy (Johnson, 2013, p. 190). Laura Reave (2005) reviewed 150 studies and finds consistency between spiritual values and practices in context of effective leadership. The study demonstrates that values which were considered spiritual—integrity, honesty, and humility—have definite effect on leadership success. Gay Hendricks and Kate Ludeman (1996), authors of Corporate Mystics, identify the characteristics of corporate mystics/spiritual leaders with three sources of leadership as integrity, vision, and intuition in the organization: absolute honesty, fairness, self-knowledge, focus on contribution, no dogmatic spirituality, getting more done by doing less (in effortless effort), calling forth the best of themselves, openness, special sense of humor, keen distant vision and up-close focus, unusual self-discipline, and balance in their lives (pp. 4–20). Spiritual leadership, variant of transformational leadership, means practicing “the values, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to intrinsically motivate one’s self and others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership” (Fry, 2003, pp.  693–727). To Fry, two essential dimensions of spiritual leadership are calling and membership. Indian philosophy of Vedānta “does not contain an articulate code of morality derived from acknowledged ethical ideal. Though the problems of modern ethics are not explicitly raised in Vedānta writing, the answers to them can be gathered from suggestions contains in the Vedānta texts” (Radhakrishnan, 1914). As the Vedānta metaphysics states that Brahman is the sole reality, and the world at large and individuals are its modifications or manifestations, therefore one should look upon all creation as one in the spirit of abheda, nondifference with universal feeling of love and brotherhood. Therefore, “The Vedānta requires us to respect human dignity and demands the recognition of man as man…(as) nothing is alien…The individual’s life is not a means to satisfaction of his personal desires, but a trust for humanity” (Radhakrishnan, 1914). Therefore, Vedantic perspective—with ideal of love, fellowship, and self-sacrifice being rational reflection upon man’s place in the cosmos—is inexhaustible source of ethical and spiritual values, such as universal compassion, altruism, harmlessness, and interconnectedness. It treats routine and

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daily work as worship or way of inner elevation if done with awareness and mindfulness. According to Ramana Maharshi, “Everyday life is not divorced from the Eternal State. So long as daily life is imagined to be different from the spiritual life these difficulties arise. If the spiritual life is rightly understood the active life will be found to be not different from it” (Talks with Ramana, 1955, Talk 376). According to Vedānta, daily life and spiritual life are not different, if they are understood in right perspective. Vedānta does not encourage quietism or inactivity, or ask us to act without motives, “but asks us to serve humanity, without any selfish desires or petty interests, without envy or jealousy, regardless of party or personality” (Radhakrishnan, 1914). 7. Leading by Example The transformational, ethical, and authentic leaders lead others by their examples than directing others. Ethical leaders act as moral person as well as moral managers while discharging their role as leader (Johnson, 2009, p. 76). They treat their people fairly and express care and concern for them. Authentic leaders draw both positive and psychological capacities among the followers by generating greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behavior besides fostering positive self-development (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Philosophy of Vedānta is perennial guide for persons to lead by example as it helps to develop greater level of self-­ awareness and sensitivity, to appreciate the divinity in every soul, to treat others with care and compassion, and to do justice with everyone. Daniel Goleman (2013) in his work Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence presents his view that three kinds of focus—on oneself, on people, and on environment at large—contribute to the effectiveness of a leader. “A leader tuned out of his internal world will be rudderless; one blind to the world of others will be clueless; those indifferent to the larger system within which they operate will be blindsided” (p. 4). Vedānta talks about these focuses when it advocates self-knowledge and self-awareness, considering others divine and cultivating of sensitivity to the environment at large. 8. Engagement of Others People’s engagement is assuming important aspect of business management. Research studies suggest that high involvement of people at organization can assure increased customer care and satisfaction and can reduce employee turnover. The different factors that contribute to people’s engagement at work include empathy, understanding, and feeling of resonance, ethics, fair-treatment, trust, and transparency. Spirituality helps to establish authentic connections, to delve deep into resonating dialogues, and to tap into the hearts and souls of other persons (Rabbin, 2009; Ross, 2009). Vedānta being source of infinite spirituality helps to recognize the divine nature of other persons and to indulge in authentic connections, which in turn help to engage the heads and hearts of people and to build learning organization where people contribute to their individual learning as well as team learning through pursuit of dialogues on continuous basis (Senge, 1990).

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9. Selfless Service Servant leadership, one of the variant of transformational leadership, is practiced by putting others’ interest first. “Great leaders approach their work as a contribution, as a service, without any sense of entitlement whatsoever” (Dhiman, 2012, p. 140). Vedānta talks of Nishkam karma—doing actions without being attached to results or sense of doership, and treating work or actions as offering to the Divine. This selfless service can be offered in numerous ways like financial assistance, physical help, and emotional and spiritual support. The aim of selfless service is to contribute to the welfare and well-beings of others through thoughts, words, and actions without expectations of reward. Mahatma Gandhi—rare example of transformational, ethical, and servant leadership who devoted his life for the freedom and upliftment of his countrymen—remarked profoundly, “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others.” 10. Law of Sacrifice The law of sacrifice is the eternal law. Sufi mystic Gurdjieff states that “nature is full of mysteries and we have to pay price for its revealing.” “Where sacrifice is not willingly given, Nature exacts it by force, she satisfies the law of her living,” Sri Aurobindo (2009, pp. 54–55) profoundly remarks. Bhagavad Gita illuminates sacrifice or Yajana in two chapters: chapter 3 (shloka 10–16) and chapter 4 (shloka 24–35) as means for purification of the being or ways toward attainment of the highest truth. This sacrifice or Yajana (offering to Lord) may be of many types: materialistic or psychological sacrifice of self-control and self-discipline or other forms. But sacrifice in the form of sharing of knowledge is regarded as the highest form of sacrifice as all karmas find their culmination and completeness in the knowledge of the Divine, sarvam karmakhilam jnane parisamapyate. However, any sacrifice should be in the spirit of offering to Lord as Sri Aurobindo (2009/2013), illuminating 4.24 of BG, comments: The universal energy into which the action is poured is the Divine; the consecrated energy of the giving is the Divine; whatever is offered is only some form of the Divine; the giver of the offering is the Divine himself in man; the action, the work, the sacrifice is itself the Divine in movement, in activity; the goal to be reached by sacrifice is the Divine. For the man who has this knowledge and lives the acts in it, there can be no binding works, no personal and egoistically appropriated action… (pp. 89–90)

The law of sacrifice and theory of Karma Yoga—the path of work without any attachment to fruits—as stressed in first six chapters of BG holds that the world belongs to God and is “not a field for the self-satisfaction of the independent ego; not the fulfilment of the ego.. but the discovery of God” (Sri Aurobindo, 2009/2013, p. 55). All the working of the world is in great circle of sacrifice, yajna, with the Divine being as the enjoyer of all dynamic interplay and to know this Divine all-­ pervading in sacrifice is highest realization.

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11. Dispassion and Detachment Gross ignorance and illusion that materialistic possessions, power, and pursuit of pleasures contribute to happiness is the cause of human sufferings and miseries. Their senseless pursuit causes dependence upon them due to attachment with them. But the feeling of power, control, and pleasure are temporary and transitory phenomenon. However, as the person develops attachment with objects, situation, and persons, s/he becomes dependent on them which ultimately leads to sorrow (Swami Paramarthananda, 2003, pp.  1–3). Happiness is “deep sense of flourishing that arises from an exceptionally healthy mind—an optimum state of being” (Ricard, 2006, p. 19). Pleasures are momentary, sensual, and dependent on external circumstances, whereas happiness is everlasting state of mind–human flourishing, not dependent on the external circumstances. There is nescient unawareness in pursuit of pleasures, whereas there is awakened freedom from mental blindness and afflictive emotions in case of happiness. The sources of happiness are not only our successful economic pursuits, feeling of emotional satisfaction in interactions with our surrounding members, but finding the meaning in our work and existence to deep state of human flourishing—deep contentment and calm that we develop around us—a state of nondependence upon external objects, persons, and situations. सर्वंपरव शंदुःखंसर्वमात्मवशंसुखं, एततविधातसमासेनलक्षणंसुखदुःखयो: (Liberty in all respects is happiness, and dependence in all matters is misery. Know these to be the general definitions of happiness and misery—Manu Smriti, IV. 160). In Indian philosophy, ignorance of the self or lack of self-knowledge is the root cause of all sufferings. Because of nescient ignorance, we value unreal as Real and develop undue attachment to the objects and persons we desire, which becomes the cause of anxiety, stress, restlessness, and ultimate lead toward sufferings. To cultivate happiness, one should learn to discriminate between what is real and what is eternal and develop profound sense of calm and equanimity which is possible through discriminative analysis and dispassion toward illusive world of ever-­ changing emotions and other temporary phenomenon of the phenomenal world. Viveka, discrimination between transient and eternal, and vairagya, detachment toward the illusive world and negating the illusory superimpositions, are the time-­ tested Vedāntic Wisdom for cultivating profound focus on the real Self, creating conditions of everlasting happiness within and around oneself, and serving the world as liberated being—free from physical, mental, and intellectual entanglements. While pursuing our mundane activities in the ordinary world, we may not be able to capture pristine purity of the hidden and sublime message with great subtlety unless we achieve integration of discriminating intellect, detachment, ethical behavior targeted at elimination of personal interests and minimization of dependence upon external environment, and tranquility of mind for reflection and meditation. Besides this divine preparation with mental caliber and moral character, it requires serene environment surrounded by dedicated and devoted seekers and its elucidation by realized beings with intellectual and spiritual heights.

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Attachment: Source of Bondage As we interact in the world, we develop one or other type of attachment, which becomes bondage. As a result, man suffers because of attachment with persons, materialistic objects, and body–mind mechanism. Attachment may provide some psychological satisfaction, but it anaesthetizes our sensitivity and impairs our judgment. As we develop attachment with external objects and persons to satisfy our vasanas (inner inclinations) or to accommodate changing moods, we destroy the equipoise which Sankara calls as “dire death” (maha mritu). Thus, attachment is short-term gains and long-term pains. S/he who controls her or his own delusory misconceptions (moha) and is not tempted by the external world finds ultimate solace and contemplation because of liberation from entanglements (Swami Chinmayananda: Vivekacudamani, shloka 85). Shlokas 2.62 and 2.63 of Bhagavad Gita link attachment with downfall and destruction of human being, which Sri Aurobindo (2009/2013, p. 60) illuminates in following words: The mind naturally lends itself to the senses; it observes the objects of sense with an inner interest, settles upon them and makes them the object of absorbing thought for the intelligence and of strong interest for the will. By that attachment comes, by attachment desire, by desire distress, passion and anger when the desire is not satisfied or is thwarted or opposed, and by passion the soul is obscured, the intelligence and will forget to see and be seated in the calm observing soul; there is a fall from the memory of one’s true self, and by that lapse the intelligent will is also obscured, destroyed even. For, for the time being, it no longer exists to our memory of ourselves, it disappears in a cloud of passion; we become passion, wrath, grief and cease to be self and intelligence and will.

Attachment is regarded as one of the ten bad qualities or inner tendencies that need to be overcome. Other bad tendencies are associated with attachment in one or other way. Dasha-hara and Vijaydashmi are Sanskrit words which mean overcoming ten bad qualities or inner tendencies within oneself: Kama vasana (Lust), Krodha (Anger), Moha (Attachment), Lobha (Greed), Mada (Excessive pride), Matsara (Jealousy), Swartha (Selfishness), Anyaya (Injustice), Amanavta (Cruelty), and Ahankara (Ego). Vivekacudamani further links attachment with man’s downfall in the following words: śabdādibhiḥ pañcabhireva pañca pañcatvamāpuḥ svaguṇena baddhā / kuraṅgamātaṅgapataṅgamīna bhṛṅgā naraḥ pañcabhirañcitaḥ //76//

The deer, the elephant, the moth, the fish, and the honeybee—these five are annihilated because of their slavery to one or the other of the senses such as sound and [touch, sight, taste, and smell] and so on, through their own attachment. What then is the condition of a man who is attached to all these five? (Swami Chinmayananda: Vivekacudamani, shloka 76)

Swami Vivekananda on Leadership Vivekananda’s unique contribution lies in making Vedānta familiar to the Western World, bringing it out of the hermit’s cave into the market place of the world and regarding service of man as worship of the divine (Swami Swahananda, 2003). His

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message has profound relevance for searching unity among diversities and harmonizing with different diverse and divergent forces of Existence. Swami Vivekananda’s message of the Upanishad, “Arise! Awake! Stop not till the goal is reached,” has profound relevance for leaders transmitting enthusiasm and energy besides instilling passion and purpose among their followers. Swami Vivekananda’s letters reflect his state of mind that has profound influence on the lives of those to whom these are addressed as well as readers of different ages. These letters also reflect his servant and authentic leadership style. “Swami Vivekananda had preached and practiced the sublime concept of servant-leadership in his life and within his organization 80 years before it was introduced in the corporate world…” Chaudhuri, 2011, p. 3). Vivekananda was also “one of the sources of inspiration for Mahatma Gandhi’s momentous deeds, which are based on renunciation and service, the twin pillars of every true leader” (Chaudhuri, 2011, p. 4). Swami Vivekananda as embodiment of spirituality practicing servant leadership gets manifested in his qualities like empathy, compassion, love, and concern for others. The concept of Servant Leadership has attracted attention of the researchers (Roberts, 2015; Boone & Makhani, 2012; Focht and Ponton, 2015; Farling, Stone, & Winston, 1999; Ehrhart, 2004; Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006) ever since the work of Robert Greenleaf (1977). Robert Greenleaf (1904–1990) talks about Swami Vivekananda’s concept of leadership by becoming “a servant of servants.” A leader has to be servant first before leading others. Influenced by fictional character of Leo in Hermann Hesse’s novel The Journey to the East (Hesse, 1956), Greenleaf models it as servant leader. Leo was the servant of the group who used to serve other members of the group traveling across the desert, and suddenly disappears as they were served. The group later on realized that Leo was not their servant, but was in fact leader who led by serving them. The theory behind servant leadership is that leadership and service is manifested in the care of others by putting others’ welfare as the highest priority. The best test of leadership is by asking oneself, “Do those served grow as individuals; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?” (Greenleaf, 1977, p. 4). Noble Laureate Hermann Hesse (1877–1962) was close friend of another Noble Laureate Romain Rolland (1866–1944) as their frequent meeting used to occur till the death of the former in 1944 (Chaudhuri, 2011, p.  58). Even Hermann Hesse (1951) dedicated his novel Siddhartha, based on Eastern mysticism to Romain Rolland who rekindled his interest in Eastern philosophy and inspired him with his profound writings on Life of Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda. Therefore, subtle influence of Swami Vivekananda on writing of Greenleaf cannot be ruled out. “It is truly amazing that in the pantheon of great leaders in modern times Vivekananda was probably the first to introduce the concept of servant-­ leadership in no uncertain terms and practice it” (Chaudhuri, 2011). We find key qualities of servant leadership in Swami Vivekananda—self-awareness, good listener, empathy, stewardship, altruism, unconditional love, and character virtues such as integrity, authenticity, courage, forgiveness, hope, humility, and ability to lead with ethics and moral integrity. His role as a servant-leader was to envision the work to be done for transforming the masses through the message of Vedānta,

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executing the work as decided with hard work, engaging the heart and spirit of his followers, empowering and encouraging them for self-expression, and having empathy with them. Asim Chaudhuri (2011) talks about different leadership traits of Swami Vivekananda which lead to transformational leadership or its variant like authentic leadership or servant leadership like having a vision, bias for action, empathy, empowerment, organizing skills, developing people, integrity, self-mastery, fairness, ability to transform others, etc.

Mahatma Gandhi and Leadership Mahatma Gandhi, cited as spiritually grounded and outstanding leader by Burns (1978), with consistently deep commitment to truth and nonviolence (Narayan Desai, 1999, p.  4), was profoundly influenced by the Bhagavad Gita as “every moment of his life was conscious effort to live the message of the Gita” (Desai, 1946, p. 6). Gandhi regarded the Gita as “spiritual dictionary” and frequently turned to it for spiritual solace throughout his life. “He considered service to humanity as worship of God and every little activity therefore attained the significance of being part of the worship….individual knowledge, attitude and skills were directly linked with the service of the society” (Desai, 1999, p.  6). Mahatma Gandhi’s life was dedicated to search for truth and nonviolence. Gandhi’s Outstanding Leadership components, as stated by Pascal Alan Nazareth (2006, pp. 11–45), include: • Elevated or utopian vision that humans, the highest manifestation of God’s creation, can and would live in harmony and peace, firmly adhering to Truth, Justice, Love, and Nonviolence. • Courage and character as he affirms “fear and truth are mutually contradictory terms,” “being a slave to fear is the worst form of slavery” and “the greatest help you can give me is to banish fear from your hearts.” • Compassion as seen in his constant focus on the oppressed and empathy for them, dedication to India’s unity and prevention of its partition, and determination as seen in Satyagraha. • Communication skills that backed with his authenticity and truthfulness of the message that transformed India’s freedom from small group to mass movement. • Organization skills and Charisma as reflected in establishing training camps and exerting moral influence upon different leaders of that time to change their ways. • Strategizing skills as he fashioned innovative Satyagraha strategy by integrating truth, nonviolence, and self-suffering, chose Charka for spinning to undermine British economic dominance over India and to bring equality between women and men in spinning activity. • Management skills were transparent, methodical, and humane with greater insistence on ethical means to achieve the desired objectives or ends. To him, not only ends but also means were important: “The means may be liked to a seed, the end of a tree. There is the same inviolable connection between the means and ends as there is between the seed and tree.”

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• Magnanimity as seen in his forgiveness of those who hated, reviled, and attacked him. • Self-assurance as it enabled him to remain unaffected in the circumstances of false accusations. • Enlightened patriotism and nationalism keeping with the ancient Indian maxim “Udara charita nam tu vasudaiva Kudumbakam” (for the broad minded, all mankind is one family) that gives equal respect to different religions. • Broad-spectrum worldview as we find his concern for German Jews tragedy as well as Palestinians and Arabs.

Gandhi and the Value of Values in Leadership Values represent the heart of leadership and guide behavior and performance. As Samuel Blumenfeld has clearly pointed out, “You have to be dead to be value-­ neutral.” Values are like a lighthouse; they do not change. It is the ship of practices that has to find its way guided by the lighthouse of values. Can an evil leader be an effective leader? The answer to this question depends on whether we consider ethics to be a necessary condition for leadership. It also begs the fundamental question, “What good is leadership if it is not ethical?” Since leadership is an expression of who we are, in discovering, living, and sharing our deepest values lies the fulfillment of our life and leadership. In his seminal essay titled “Notes toward a Definition of Values-Based Leadership,” James O’Toole (2008) calls Gandhi the “most manifestly values-based of all leaders.” Besides Gandhi, the author’s shortlist of such leaders includes Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, Vaclav Havel, Mother Teresa, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Jean Monet. Gandhi consistently embodied the perennial values of authenticity/personal integrity, transparency, harmlessness (ahiṁsā), truthfulness (satyāgraha or truthforce), humility, self-discipline, and selfless service in and through his life and death. He believed that the universe is not amoral and that it has a structural bias toward good. His leadership effectiveness proceeded from his categorical adherence to these values and his openness to learn from his own mistakes. Gandhi’s innovation lies in extending them from the personal to the public arena. His was essentially a values-based, principle-centered approach to leadership. Despite his faults, or perhaps because of them, we find there is much to learn about Gandhi’s development as a leader—who lived and died for the values he held most dear.

Authenticity and Transparency Personal authenticity has been explored throughout history, from Greek philosophers (“Know Thyself”—Socrates) to Shakespeare (“To thine own self be true”— Polonius, Hamlet). Authenticity as defined in this context seems to be closely linked with self-awareness, sincerity, truth, and transparency. An authentic leader operates

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from a strong personal and moral stance embodying the unity and purity of thoughts, words, and deeds.Gandhi underscores this alignment by noting: “I say as I think and I do as I say.” Two Stories about Mahatma Gandhi that illustrate Authenticity and Role-Modeling A mother once brought her son to Mahatma Gandhi and said, “Sir, please tell my son to stop eating sugar.” Gandhi looked at the boy for a long time and then, turning toward mother, said, “Bring your son back to me in two weeks.” The mother did not understand the rationale of the delay in instruction, but she did as she was asked. Two weeks later she and her son returned. Gandhi looked deeply into boy’s eyes and said, “Stop eating sugar.” The mother was grateful, but puzzled. She asked, “Why didn’t you tell my son to stop eating sugar two weeks ago when we were here?” And Gandhi replied, “Two weeks ago, I was eating sugar.”17 In another story, Mahatma Gandhi was boarding a train, one of his sandals slipped from his foot and landed near the track. Suddenly, the train began pulling away leaving him no time to retrieve it. Immediately, Gandhi removed the other sandal and tossed it back to lie with the other along the track. When his astonished fellow passenger asked why he did this, Gandhi replied, “Now the poor man who finds it will have a pair he can use.”18 Grace Notes. These are excellent stories to underscore the importance of being authentic by “walking the talk” for those in leadership positions. At another occasion, Gandhi was asked by a journalist, “Sir, what is your final message?” Gandhi replied, “My life is my message.” The ability to connect one’s voice with one’s touch goes a long way in the making of a great leader. There is a great message underlying these two stories for all leaders interested in initiating change. Too often, we are tempted to wear a “social reformer’s hat” and start making changes around us without considering to first enshrine those changes in our own lives. This breeds lack of trust and short-circuits the whole change process. As humans, we have yet to discover a more effective method of inspiring change than role modeling. This is the essence of authentic leadership.

Gandhi viewed his life and work as an undivided whole and approached his lifework in an utterly selfless manner, renouncing the usual trappings of title, authority, and position. If true living or leadership is an expression of who we are, authenticity becomes the most essential value in life and leadership. According to Warren Bennis, “The ‘Dean’ of Leadership Gurus,” the real task of becoming a leader boils down to becoming an authentic individual first: “At bottom, becoming a leader is synonymous with becoming yourself. It’s precisely that simple, and it’s also that difficult.” Authenticity does not mean being perfect. It is accepting oneself (and others) as one truly is, warts and all. It is about being aware of one’s flaws and learning from them. In fine, it is about leading from within. Gandhi led from within—from the  Dan Millman, Way of the Peaceful Warrior. (Calif.: Kramer Books, 1980).  Steve Hagen, How the world can be the way it is: An inquiry for the New Millennium into Science, Philosophy, and Perception (Wheaton, Ill.: Quest Books, 2000), 300–301.

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deep moral and spiritual core of his being. His life and leadership were inseparably one. His life was an open book for all to see. His autobiography is an exemplary model of candidness and transparency. Such a level of “transparency” has not been observed in the life of any other public leader before or after.

Harmlessness or Nonviolence Gandhi believed that the only test of truth is action based on the refusal to do harm— ahiṁs̄a. The commonly used English equivalent “nonviolence” may be misleading, as it seems to give the impression that ahiṁsā is just a negative virtue. Ahiṁsā is not mere abstention from injury in thought, word, and deed; it also implies the positive virtues of compassion and benevolence. For Gandhi, ahiṁsā was a positive force of love. In addition, nonviolence is not a cover for cowardice. Gandhi has said that “where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence.” Gandhi’s distinctive contribution in this area lies in his unique interpretation of “passive” forms of violence such as hatred and anger. The passive violence that we commit consciously and unconsciously every day causes the victims of passive violence to get angry, and their anger eventually leading to physical violence. We have been told by experts that anger instigates almost 80% of the violence that we experience either in our personal lives or as a society or nation. Anger leads to conflict and conflict to violence. Learning how to use the powerful energy of anger intelligently and effectively is the foundation of Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence. When used properly, rightly channeled anger can go a long way in reducing the passive violence at the workplace. Nonviolence is both the end and the means. For Gandhi, nonviolence was the means and truth was the end.

Truth Truth and nonviolence are interrelated; for there is no spirituality without morality. Taken together, truth and nonviolence constitute the alpha and omega of Gandhi the man, as well as Gandhi the leader; every form of discipline or vow that Gandhi observed in his life was just a variation on these themes. And based on all the available evidence, Gandhi remained true to both of these vows in both letter and spirit. For Gandhi, there was the “relative truth” of truthfulness in human interactions and the “absolute truth” of the Ultimate Reality. This ultimate truth is God (as God is also Truth) with ethics as expressed in the moral law as its basis. Gandhi was humble enough to acknowledge that the truth we experience at the level of human interactions is “relative, many-sided, plural, and is the whole truth for a given time. Pure and absolute truth should be our ideal.” This humility gave Gandhi the understanding to be on the side of the truth rather than insisting for the truth to be on his side. Such humility and courage of conviction are object lessons for contemporary leaders. Even while committing to truth and nonviolence as the absolute ideals, leaders should remain open to the fact of many-sidedness of truth encountered at the level of human interactions.

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Humility Many spiritual traditions speak about the need to “be poor in spirit and pure in heart.” Of all the leadership qualities, humility is perhaps the most difficult to develop. Ben Franklin tells us in his legendary Autobiography that the reason humility as a virtue is hard to cultivate is because by the time one gets to be good at it, one becomes proud of it! Gandhi strongly believed that the “truth is not to be found by anybody who has not got an abundant sense of humility. If you would swim on the bosom of the ocean you must reduce yourself to a zero.” In fact, humility is both the means and the goal. In the field of leadership, the importance of humility can hardly be overemphasized. Only humble leaders can serve a cause higher than themselves. Howard Schultz, the founder and chairman of the Starbucks chain of coffee shops, says that the great leadership expert, Warren Bennis, once told him that to become a great leader you have to develop “your ability to leave your own ego at the door, and to recognize the skills and traits that you need in order to build a world-class organization.”

Self-Discipline Gandhi once said, “Our greatness lies not so much in being able to remake the world as being able to remake ourselves.” Every time Gandhi confronted human frailties in the outer world, he turned his moral searchlight within (a phrase Gandhi loved using) to find answers in the deep recesses of his soul. This spiritual and moral anchorage was the key to Gandhi’s political potency and innovation and became his most important discovery: A person’s capacity for self-discipline enhances his capacity to influence the environment around him. And no power on earth can make a person do a thing against his will. He who disciplines himself gains the strength to shape the environment. Peter Senge concurs and regards self-mastery to be the key aspect of growing as a leader. Through prayer, contemplation, self-abnegation, and self-purification, he cultivated his being to such an extent that it emanated a gentle soul-force that endeared him even to his severest critics and detractors. Even Gandhi’s critics agree that his strength lay in his towering spirit that resided in his frail frame. With his indomitable spirit, Gandhi was able to win his ideological wars in the long run, even when he seemed to be losing his battles in the short run.

Selfless Service A leader’s true inspiration comes from doing selfless work. Selfless work brings equanimity of mind which in turn contributes to leadership effectiveness. Exemplary leaders are not motivated by personal desires or interests. They recognize that selfless service is the highest principle of life and leadership. They become instruments of the Whole and selflessly work for the well-being of all beings. This is where their true fulfillment lies. Gandhi was right: the best way to find oneself is to lose oneself in the service of others.

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Gandhi believed that only by not regarding anything as their own can leaders truly devote themselves, body and soul, to the selfless service of others. For unless mind is purged of personal desire and attachment, even service is but an inflation of the ego. These are all valuable lessons for contemporary leaders to emulate. The path to leading others starts with self-awareness through self-discipline and ends with self-transcendence through selfless service. It is paved with authenticity, humility, and compassion. “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others,” said Gandhi. He lived and died by this maxim.

Gandhi’s Talisman Gandhi’s advice to a fellow seeker, given 5 months before his death: I will give you a talisman. Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, apply the following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him [her]. Will he [she] gain anything by it? Will it restore him [her] to a control over his [her] own life and destiny?... Then you will find your doubts and yourself melt away.19

This admirably sums up Gandhi the humanist. Gandhi was essentially the archetypical moral force whose appeal to humanity is both universal and lasting. Originally a timid and taciturn soul, he became “a century’s conscience” and grew into a paragon of higher order visionary leadership, helping to secure liberation of a fifth of the world’s population from the rule of the largest empire on earth. His life became a guiding star to leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela—his spiritual heirs to nonviolence. “His legacy is courage, his lesson truth, his weapon love.”20 With his life as his monument, Gandhi now belongs to all humanity, and his leadership lessons apply to all nations and times. “Of all the modern politicians and statesmen,” writes a recent commentator, “only Gandhi is an authentically global figure.”21 If we want to bring about any change in the world, we have to begin with ourselves: We have to be the change that we wish to see in the world. This was Gandhi’s most important discovery and his greatest gift to humankind. Gandhi had his share of human failings and favorites. Yet for his abiding passion to constantly “remake” himself until his last breath, his dogged determination to walk the straight and narrow path of truth and nonviolence, his exceptional ability to reduce his personal self to zero, his disarming humility, and his excruciating self-honesty, he will continue to shine as a beacon for humanity as long as might oppresses right.

 Cited in Narayan Desai, My Gandhi (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 2011), p. 189.  Louis Fischer, Gandhi: His Life and Message for the World (New York: New American Library, 1954), p. 189. 21  Ramchandra Guha, Gandhi Before India (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2014), p. 2. 19 20

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 ase Study of Metro Man Dr. E Sreedharan: Leading C with Human Values Dr. E. Sreedharan (June 12, 1932–), well known as Metro man, is highly respected among his colleagues and staff members for his excellence in construction projects of Indian Railways like Pamban Bridge Project (that was completed in 46 days, despite deadline of 3  months), Konkan Railway Project—the gigantic challenge involving construction of 1880 bridges and 91 tunnels on Western Ghats that reduced the distance of 1800 km through innovative funding and involvement of different governments of different political parties—and Delhi Metros to give clean mass transportation system to Delhi and nearby areas. Dr. E. Sreedharan transformed the functioning of Konkan Railways and Delhi Metros by making it paperless based on trust and mutual respect among different staff members, timely payment to contractors, and valuebased decision-making. Dr. E.  Sreedharan is not only known for his engineering excellence, professionalism, diligence, and knowledge but also known for his commitment for values like personal integrity, hard work, sincerity, professional competence, and profound values deeply rooted in Indian Spirituality. Dr. E. Sreedharan is regarded as Avatara, Bhagawan, or fatherly figures by his staff members. Completing projects like Konkan Railway or Delhi Metro within budget and deadline involves various complex facets of project management, understanding of multirange issues, presenting practical and instant solutions, keeping the staff motivated, facing political pressures, and managing the routine. This was possible because of “a unique work culture that we were able to bring in and nurture in those two organizations. I think the four major pillars of work culture were punctuality, integrity, professional competence, and a sense of social responsibility or accountability.” (Sreedharan, 2012/2017) 1. Punctuality: As trains are expected to run on time unless we the people are punctual, we cannot expect our trains to be punctual. Metro trains in the world over are considered late if it is 3 minutes late. In Delhi Metro, this standard was updated to 60  seconds, and 99.6% or 99.7% punctuality was found in 3000 trains run. Same type of punctuality was to be followed in project management and for this countdown clock system was used. According to it, a project is assigned a time and then reverse counting is done to pressure. 2. Integrity: To Dr. E. Sreedharan, integrity is not merely honesty, or lack of corruption, but includes all activities with transparency as the main factor of this culture. Because of integrity of the people, different governments trusted the organization and proposals were approved without questioning. 3. Professional competence: Learning on continuous basis should be pursued. In the initial stage of projects, Delhi Metro engaged foreign consultants, but at second phase onward, its people pursued the projects on their own way because of acquisition of knowledge. 4. Social responsibility: To Dr. E. Sreedharan, completion of project on time without cost overruns is not only question of professional competence but also social responsibility as “it is the people’s money, the tax payers’ money. It has to be

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spent for the right cause in the right way…with least inconvenience to the citizens” (Sreedharan, 2017). Another aspect of environmental issue like tree-­cutting was there. Delhi Metro decided that it would plant 10 trees for every tree cut as a compensatory effort. “Social responsibility is a very important dimension of any project and implies that society should benefit from the project and not suffer because of it” (Sreedharan, 2017). These values are deeply influenced by Dr. E.  Sreedharan’s spirituality based on Bhagavad Gita as he advises: 1 . What so ever you do, do with best of your ability. 2. Do your work as offering to God. 3. Do not expect return. Do not get attached to results (Sreedharan, 2019, Personal Communication with author). muktasaṅgonahaṃvādī dhṛtyutsāhasamanvitaḥ / siddhyasiddhyor nirvikāraḥ kartā sāttvika ucyate //Gita 18.26//

If you want to be a virtuous doer, you should not be too attached to the work that you are doing. You should not bother about the results either, whether failure or success. You should have the same attitude about the project. If you are able to assume that status of mind and execute the project, you can never fail.22 Dr. E. Sreedharan has disciplined and focused lifestyle as he gets up every day at 4.00 a.m., does some Pranayam and Yoga for 45 minutes, and reaches office 5 minutes earlier. He prefers to complete the work within office and devote his evening to his family members or evening walk. Dr. E. Sreedharan is so busy that even at the age of 87 years, he works hard and leads by his personal example. He has to take care of different metro projects of different governments like Rajasthan, Delhi, Kerala, Bangalore, Jammu and Kashmir, and Hyderabad. Even UN engaged his services regarding recommendation of sustainable transportation. For working hard without feeling of stress, he advises top executives to study Bhagavad Gita as spiritual text to find solution for ordinary problems. Dr. Sreedharan had a metal plaque inscribed with the following words of Yog Vashishat and hung in his offices: Karyam karomi, na Cha Kinchit, Aham Karomi (Whatsoever is to be done I do, but in reality I do not do anything.)

 D: Is it possible to enjoy samadhi while busy in worldly work? M: The feeling ‘I work’ is the hindrance. Ask yourself ‘who works?’ Remember who you are. Then the work will not bind you; it will go on automatically. Make no effort either to work or to renounce; your effort is the bondage. What is destined to happen will happen. If you are destined not to work, work cannot be had even if you hunt for it; if you are destined to work, you will not be able to avoid it; you will be forced to engage yourself in it. So, leave it to the higher power; you cannot renounce or retain as you choose. (‘Maharishi’s Gospel’, Book I, Ch. I [‘Work and Renunciation’]; Artwork from https://janeadamsart.wordpress.com/…/portrait-gallery-2-of…/ [“Annamalai and Ramana are at work, building the Ashram.”])

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Conclusion The philosophy of Vedānta that advocates the Oneness of the universe and divinity of every being has profound relevance for transformational leadership and its variants. Different spiritual masters have lived and interpreted Vedānta. Their teachings have definite relevance in context of transformational leadership. The various lessons of Vedānta in context of transformational leadership include acceptance of the unique Existence of other beings, cultivation of profound ethical values, leading by example, engagement of others, overcoming negativities, and pursuit of selfless service as offering to Divine. What are the implication of the preceding discussion in the context of the workplace and leadership? Essentially, all human beings are unique manifestations of the One Self as consciousness and have unique qualities and capabilities; every human being is cut from the cloth of Consciousness. In this sense, no one is higher than another or lower than another in their Essential One Self. This understanding fosters equality in ethical conduct stemming from realizing the divinity of all beings and serving them with altruistic motive. The teachings of Vedānta regarding respect, tolerance, and understanding of the other faiths nurture humanity and solidarity in the contemporary war-ravaged world. This understanding of oneness of all beings furnishes the best rationale for the golden rule. This awareness of oneness also provides the best explanation of Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Impetrative of treating everyone as an end in itself. As different beings are just the expressions of one universal consciousness, hurting the other means hurting oneself. This realization is the source and foundation of all philanthropy, ethical conduct, and social contract. Chapter Takeaways 1. The philosophy of Vedānta advocates Oneness of all beings in the Universe. The understanding of oneness fosters kinship with the all human beings and the world at large. This has far-reaching implications for living a life of self-­ awareness, harmony, and peace. This understanding fosters equality in ethical conduct stemming from realizing the divinity of all beings and serving them with altruistic loving-kindness. 2. Advaita Vedānta teaches that the phenomenal world, though real at the relative level, is merely a manifestation of an underlying Absolute Reality, known as Brahman, the universal consciousness. As different beings are just the expressions of one universal consciousness, hurting the other means hurting oneself. This realization is the source and foundation of all philanthropy, ethical conduct, and social contract. 3. Vedānta lays greater emphasis on ethical conduct and spiritual values in daily living. It recognizes four pursuits or goals of life: artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), dharma (righteousness), and moksha (liberation). Since righteousness (dharma) underpins and regulates the other three pursuits to ensure their propriety, according to Hindu scriptures, the right order of these pursuits should be dharma (righteousness), artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), and moksha (liberation).

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4. True transformational leaders raise awareness of moral standards, highlight important priorities, foster high moral maturity in followers, create an ethical climate of shared values and high ethical standards, encourage followers to look beyond self-interest to the common good, promote cooperation and harmony, use authentic and consistent means, provide individual coaching and mentoring, appeal to the ideals of followers, and allow followers freedom of choice. 5. Values represent the heart of leadership and guide behavior and performance. As Samuel Blumenfeld has clearly pointed out, “You have to be dead to be value-­ neutral.” Values are like a lighthouse; they do not change. It is the ship of ­practices that has to find its way guided by the lighthouse of values. Can an evil leader be an effective leader? The answer to this question depends on whether we consider ethics to be a necessary condition for leadership. It also begs the fundamental question, “What good is leadership if it is not ethical?” 6. Leadership is journey into one’s soul. Since all authentic leadership is an expression of who we are, in discovering, living, and sharing our deepest values lies the fulfillment of our life and leadership. Reflection Questions 1. How Vedāntic principle of oneness of all beings fosters equality in ethical conduct? What are its implications for the workplace and leadership? 2. What are the common elements among different variants of transformational leadership? 3. What were the most important ethical values for Gandhi that guided him in his quest for self-realization and servant leadership? 4. Which leadership competency has contributed the most in Dr. Sreedharan’s success as a leader? 5. What key life and leadership lessons emerge from a comparative study of leadership styles of the three exemplary leaders profiled in this chapter?

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Index

A Academy of Management Perspectives (AMP), 239 Active listening, 42 Adjective intercultural definition, 304 Advaita Vedānta, 382, 408 acceptance of unique existence, 394 body–mind mechanism, 382 dispassion and detachment, 397 emotions, 393 ethical and spiritual values, 394–395 human predicament, 383 law of sacrifice, 396 negativities, 393 Ontology and Epistemology, 383–385 self-awareness, 392 self-knowledge, 385 selfless service, 396 spiritual freedom, 383 transformational leadership, 382 Upaniṣhads, 383 values-based leadership, 382 work and worship, 393 Alienated followers, 23, 24, 30 Altruism, 74 Anxiety, 314 Appreciative inquiry (AI), 181, 250, 253, 255, 256 commitment, 260, 261 creating energy, 260 empowerment, 260, 261 fertile environment, 259 greater voice, 260, 261 inspiration, 259 orchestrating change, 256 organizational changes, 256 performance, 261

possibilities, 255 problem-solving approaches, 255 reality to aspirations, 259 shared vision and strengthening coworker relationships, 260 supporting mindfulness, 259 Artha, 382 Attachment theory, 214–215 Aufhebung, 96 Authentic Happiness (book), 213 Authentic leadership, 5–7, 71, 164, 275, 389 components, 6 concept, 5, 371–372 core values (see Transmitting core values) definition, 6, 372 dimensions, 6 knowledge management, 370 meaning, 370, 372–373 moral behaviour, 370 practitioner, 6 purpose, 370, 374 well-being, 373–376, 378 Authentic self, 44 Authenticity, 20, 22, 23, 30, 91, 98, 401, 402 electric power, 94 employee well-being, 93 leader behavior, 92 optimism and pessimism, 93 options, 92 psychological capacities, 92 self-awareness, 92 self-efficacy element, 92 Authenticity/personal integrity, 16 Autobiography, 14 Awakened leadership, 20–22, 25, 30 authenticity, 22 commitment, 21 compassion, 21

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414 Awakened leadership (cont.) courage, 21 deep listening, 22 ethics, 21 forgiveness, 21 initiative, 22 integrity, honesty and trust, 21 justice, 21 kindness, 21 love, 21 morals and values, 21 multidimensional, 22 passion, 21 qualities, 21 responsibility-based qualities, 21 spiritual connection, 22 vision, 21 Axiology, 292 B Balanced processing, 71 Battlefield leadership, 170 Big-C creativity, 190, 191 Boots-on-the-ground approach, 137 Bounded rationality, 231 Brahman absolute reality, 384 consciousness, 384, 385 pure bliss, 385 reality, 384 Śaṅkara, 384 Self (ātman), 383 svabhāva, 385 Brainstorming process, 260 Breaking the Zero-Sum Game: Transforming Societies through Inclusive Leadership, 218 Broad-based favorable effects, 35 Broaden-and-build posits, 213 Buddha, 9–11 Business, 67 driving forces, 152 purpose, 151 spiritual context, 151 Business strategies, 231 Business sustainability, 74 Business values, 303 C Cardinal virtues, 212 Casta war, 297 Change

Index agents, 181–182 definition, 176 leaders acceptance, 178 models, 176 Prochaska’s stages, 176 resisting, 177, 178 strategies appreciative inquiry, 181 DCL model, 180 embedding mechanisms, 179 reinforcement mechanisms, 180 secondary reinforcement mechanisms, 180 transformational culture, 179 transformational leadership, 179 Change agent characteristics, 182 definition, 181 organizational change, 182 roles, 181 Change management, 176 active listening, 41, 42 compelling and inspiriting vision, 39 ego and political organizational change resistance factors, 42 empathy, 41 employee voice, 39 empowerment, 39 interpersonal support, 39 job social support, 39 leader’s competence and effectiveness, 42 organizational learning, 39 outcomes, 39 persuasive mapping, 41 physical, mental and spiritual health, 34 psychological change, 42 relationship-based foundation, 39 servanthood, 42 skill sets, 40 and SL, 38, 39, 41 stewardship, 42 strategic foresight, 41 vision casting, 40 Charismatic theory, 230, 234, 241 Chinese culture, 292 Chinese world vision, 295 Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 196–200 Christian leadership, 34, 35 Climate change, 66 Cognitive ability, 235 Cognitive categories, 289 Coherent identity, 111 Collaborative teamwork, 219 Communal love, 109

Index Communications, 291, 302 Community leadership, 171 Community members, 214 Company-wide meeting, 258 Comparative case study, 192 Complete virtue, 211 Comprehensive Meaningful Work Scale (CMWS), 257, 258 Conflict resolution, 171 Conformist followers, 23, 24, 30 Confucian leadership, 276 Confucianism, 276 Confuse humility, 13 Conscientious leadership, 270 Consciousness, 408 Contingency theory, 233 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) process, 304 Conveyor belt strategy, 27 Coping, 319 Corporate citizenship, 171 Corporate scandals, 241 Corporate social responsibility (CSR), 71, 292 Cosmovision, 294 Creativity in Barnard’s career adversity, 193 ambiguity, 194 beliefs, 193 intellectually, 194 medical research, 193 redirections, 195 regressive redirections, 196 replications, 195 self-efficacy, 193 syntheses, 196 challenges, 190 characterization, 190 complex problems, 190 and innovation, 260 in Merkel’s career adaptable, 197 advanced forward incrementation, 199 biographical data, 200 CDU, 196–200 characteristics, 198 credible and accessible leader, 197 DA, 197 intelligent, 197 perceptive, 197 political and social challenges, 198 political career, 197 problem analysis, 197, 198

415 problem redefinition, 198 reinitiation, 200 replication, 199 selling solutions, 198 successful leadership stories, 200 unsuccessful leadership stories, 200 willingness to take sensible risks, 199 life history data, 192 personality attributes, 190 psychobiographical case studies, 192 qualitative investigation, 192 success/failure stories, 191 types, 190, 191 WICS, 191–192 Cross-cultural community leaders, 304 Cross-cultural leadership, 289, 290 Cross-national leaders, 304 Cultural intelligence (CQ), 219 Culture concept of, 288 definition, 288 element, 288 in human actions, 288 and leadership, 287 multi-group organizations, 288 personal and national, 287 social construct, 288 Culture degradation, 296 Customer service recovery performance, 35, 39 D Decision-makers act, 231 Decision-making algorithms, 231 Decision-making process, 44, 110, 216, 251 Deforestation, 66 Demokratischer Aufbruch party (DA), 197 Dependent and independent variables, 36 Depression, 314 Detroit Diesel Corporation, 138 Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), 291 Dharma, 382 Digital marketplace, 217 Displaying behaviors, 234 Disruptive behaviours, 315 Distal goals, 232 Diversity, 212, 216, 217, 286 Domestic violence, 296 Dyadic theory, 214 Dynamic Culture Leadership (DCL) model, 180

416 E Ecological consciousness, 118 Ecological thinking, 118 Economic growth, 294 Economic uncertainties, 9 Effective leaders, 11 Effective/exemplary followers, 23, 24, 30 Efficiency of karma, 334 Embrace diversity, 217 Embrace uncertainty, 15 Emotional intelligence, 240 Empathy, 219 Employee change definition, 50 dependent variables, 49–51 efficacious influence, 35 management, 34 resistance, 55 Employee creative, 35 Employee engagement, 254, 256 Employee trust-building behaviors, 42 Employee voice, 39, 254 Employee wellbeing, 4, 39, 48, 49 Empowering and transformation leadership behaviours, 336 Empowerment process, 76 Engaging in dialog, 15 Epistemology, 292 Equanimity, 343, 344 Ethical and moral leader, 24 Ethical leadership, 34–36, 42, 44, 49, 72, 390 Ethical leadership commonalities holistic leadership, 162 shared characteristics, 161 spirituality/faith-based/religious, 162 stakeholders engagement, 162 Eudaimonia vs. hedonia, 144 Eudaimonic happiness, 149 Eudaimonic/hedonic pursuit, 149 Eupsychian leadership, 391, 392 Exceptional creativity, 190 Executing strategy, 234 Exemplar of humility, 15 Exemplary Leadership, 389 External influences, 304 Extra-role performance, 39 F Faith-based leadership, 163, 164 Feelings of worthlessness, 314 Feminist epistemology critical discourse analysis, 277 followers, 279

Index identities, 277–278 masculine forces, 279 transformational leadership, 277 Financial performance, 4, 210 Financial stability, 240 Fist, Stick, Knife, Gun: A Personal History of Violence in America (book), 29 Flourishing, 208–214, 218, 221–224 Followers activists, 23 bystanders, 23 capability, 24 coaching, 24 cooperation, 24 definition, 22 diehards, 23 enthusiasm, 24 ethical and moral, 24 knowledge workers, 23 participants, 23 perceptions, 22 preparedness, 24 servant leader, 24 situational approach, 24 situational leadership, 24 transformational, 23, 24 types, 23, 30 Followership, 219 Forgiveness, 237 Forward incrementations, 195 Framework for General Systems Theory, 105 Freie Deutsche Jugend, 197 G Generative approach, 351 Generative leadership comprehensive approach, 361 evolution of consciousness, 360 faith, 363 generative leading, 350, 351 God’s guidance, 361 Holy Spirit, 362 integrated leading, 351 internal discerning–external event, 360 knowledge integration, 350 leaders’ self-identity, 360 personal challenge, 361 spiritual experiences, 363 spiritual intelligence, 351, 360 synchronicity (see Synchronicity) time and timing, 359 German Democratic Republic (GDR), 198

Index Global economics, 67 Global financial crisis, 128 Global leadership, 34–36, 42, 54 Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE), 388 Globalization, 20 GLOBE project, 289 Golden Rule laws, 35 Good to Great (book), 11 Greenleaf’s leadership model, 69 Gridmax AI Summit, 257 Gridmax energy AI Summit, 256, 257 complaint sessions, 258 concepts, 256 IT services, 256 participants, 258 phenomenal, 258 planning, 256, 257 postsummit interviews, 258 unprecedented levels, 258 work meaningfulness, 257 Gridmax planning, 256, 257 Guiding coalition, 183 Guiding morality, 208 H Happiness, 144 discriminative analysis, 397 eudaimonic/hedonic pursuit, 149 natural, 149, 151 sources, 397 spirituality, 146–149 vs. success, 144, 145 Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), 27–29 Harmlessness, 16 Harvard Business Review study, 15 Health resource, 314, 315, 318, 319, 322, 325 Heart transplant, 192, 193 Heart–lung transplant, 193, 196 Hedonic happiness, 149 Hegel’s approach, 96 Helping behavior, 35 Hesychasm, 339 The Hidden Driver of Excellence, 395 Higher education institutions in South Africa, 315 Hofstede’s paradigm, 288 Holistic leadership, 9, 162 Holy Spirit of God, 352 Home culture, 302

417 Homeboy industries gang violence, 135 humanity, 135 nonprofit organization, 135 notion of kinship, 135, 136 technocratic paradigm of consumerism, 135 Homeless man, 9–11 Homo sapiens, 210 Host culture, 302 Human behavior, 231 Human happiness, 211 Human resources, 254 Human resources management, 279 Humanity, 73 Humankind, 78 Humans live, 211 Humility, 5 Humility in leadership art of, 13 autobiography, 14 cluelessness, 12 derailed leaders, 11 description, 14 effective leaders, 11 Gandhi’s legacy, 15–17 guard leaders, 11 and learning, 12, 15 self-conceit, 11, 13 self-forgetfulness, 12 self-importance, 14 virtue, 14 I Inauthentic or pseudo-transformational leadership, 388 Inclusion, 214, 216–219, 223 Inclusive behaviors, 216 Inclusive environments, 218 Inclusive leaders, 15 Inclusive leadership (IL) theory Breaking the Zero-Sum Game: Transforming Societies through Inclusive Leadership, 218 consent of governed, 219 decision-making processes, 216 definition, 216 diversity research, 217 environments, 218 espect, recognition, responsiveness, and responsibility, 218 followership, 219 global mindset, 219

Index

418 Inclusive leadership (IL) theory (cont.) idiosyncrasy credits, 218 inclusive behaviors, 216 inclusive organization, 216 leader-centric concepts, 219 loneliness, 217 modern age, 220 mutual benefit, 219 mutually beneficial relationship, 219 positive psychology, 218 practical strategies, 217, 218 psychologists, 217 social exchange theory, 217 work environments, 217 Inclusivity, 210, 214, 216, 218–224 Indigeneity, 294 Indigenous Justice Bill, 297 Indigenous leadership, 294–296 Indigenous peoples (IPs), 293–294, 303, 304 Individual-follower assignments, 287 Individualized leadership styles, 214 Industrial pollution, 66 Influence relationship, 3 Informal leadership, 230 Inspiration, 251, 252, 257–259, 261, 262 Integrated leading, 351 Integrity, 5, 111, 115 Intense self-denial, 314 Interconnectedness, 107 Interconnectivity, 303 Intercultural competence, 302 Intercultural consciousness, 292 Intercultural leadership, 290–292 Intercultural relationships, 303 Intercultural sensitivity, 291 Internal and external stakeholders, 67 Internal factors, 304 Internalized moral perspective, 71 International business, 296 International leaders, 304 International terrorism, 9 Interpersonal communication, 286 Intra-psychological approaches, 315 Islamic education, 236 J Job crafting, 261 Job performance, 253 Job satisfaction, 253 Job security, 49 Journal of Values-Based Leadership (JVBL) descripition, 160 leadership attributes, 161 principled leadership, 160

Journey to the East (book), 8, 69 Junge Pioniere (book), 197 K Kama, 382 Knowledge integration, 350 Kotter’s change principles, 185 Kurt Lewin’s Change Model, 176 L Languages, 291, 302 Leader identity, 278 Leader–member exchange (LMX), 214 Leadership, 115, 155, 334 and creativity (see Creativity) and organisations, 316, 317, 322–324 being-centered theory, 4 contribution, 279 decisive factors, 240 definition, 2, 232, 233, 241, 286, 287, 302 dimensions, 241 domain, 233 ethical-spiritual journey, 17 human resources, 279 implication of people, 280 implications practice, 242 research, 242 in management, 334 influence relationship, 3 moral and ethical integrity, 42 objective, 230 personal accountability, 271 principles, 78, 334 research, 232 role of, 234, 235 term and action, 286 theories, 233 types, 194 The leadership crisis, 7 Leadership effectiveness, 35, 39, 42, 50, 51, 54, 57 Leadership research characterization, 2 limitations, 2 mutual purposes, 3 positive theories, 2 in twentieth century, 2–3 Leadership styles, 12, 15, 16, 29, 66, 75, 76 sustainability authentic, 71 characteristics, 71 cooperative process, 71

Index CSR, 71 definition, 71 development, 71 ethical, 72 organizational sustainability, 71 self-understanding, 71 transformational, 72 Leadership theories authentic leadership, 164, 165 battlefield leadership, 170 diversity and leadership, 168 faith-based, 163, 164 moral leadership, 168, 169 religious leadership, 164 representative leadership, 169, 170 servant leadership, 165 spirituality, 162, 163 sustainability leadership, 166–167 Leading change guiding principles guiding coalition, 183 institute change, 185 Kotter principles, 185 removing barriers, 184 sense of urgency, 183 short-term wins, 184 strategic vision and initiatives, 183 sustain acceleration, 184, 185 volunteer army, 184 Leading positive change DCL model, 180 elements, 186 organization culture, 179 Lewin’s three-step model, 273 Little-c creativity, 190 Long Walk to Freedom, 12 Longitudinal case study, 192 Low-income families, 27 M Magnanimity, 401 Mahatma Gandhi authenticity, 401–403 harmlessness or nonviolence, 403 humility, 404 leadership components broad spectrum worldviex, 401 communication skills, 400 compassion, 400 courage and character, 400 enlightened patriotism and nationalism, 401 magnanimity, 401 management skills, 400 organizational skills, 400

419 Satyagraha strategy, 400 self-assurance, 401 vision, 400 self-discipline, 404 selfless service, 404, 405 talisman, 405 truth, 403 values-based leadership, 401 Management, 334–336, 339, 340, 343, 345 Management drives, 49 Masculine leadership style, 272 The master of emotion, 321 Meaning-centred approach, 318 Meaningful leadership, 374–376 Meaningful work, 252, 253, 255 Media attention, 27 Meditation, 25, 338, 339, 343–345 Mental models, 289 Mental resiliency, 240 Metro man, 382 Military operations, 290 Military-religious system, 297 Mindful change definition, 25 enhanced distinction-making, 26 human beings, 25 manifestation, cognitive process, 25 meditation, 25 neuroscience fields, 25 paying attention, 26 professional environments, 26 professional fields, 25 self-efficacy, 26 state of mind, 25 transition, 26 Mindful leadership, 230 Mindfulness, 22, 25, 26, 30, 319 definition, 235, 238 functions, 238 limitations, 242 outcomes, 240 practices, 238 role and manifestations, 236 training, 239 Mindfulness trainings, 315 Modern age, 210 Moksha, 382 Moral integrity, 44 Moral leadership, 168, 169 Moral perspective, 6 Morality, 112 Motivation, 230 Multicultural personality, 291 Multicultural society, 294

Index

420 Multicultural world, 290, 305 Mutual purposes, 3 N Narcissistic leadership, 320 National Health Service (NHS), 171 Naturalistic philosophy, 14 Nature–society relationship, 294 Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA), 239 Negative motivator, 315 Neuroscience, 25, 148 Neurotic needs, 151 Nicomachean Ethics, 209, 210 Non-indigenous people, 304 Nonservant leaders, 69 O Objective happiness, 214 One-upmanship, 13 Ontology, 292 Organisational decision-making, 320 Organisations, 316, 317, 322–324 Organizational and individual spirits, 106 Organizational change, 34, 36, 39, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 250, 253, 254, 259 change agent, 181 complex and nested nature, 250 employee engagement, 250 Kotter’s change process, 182 meaningfulness, 250 measurements, 262 outcome, 250 practice, 262 research, 262 work meaningfulness (see Work meaningfulness) Organizational commitment, 4 Organizational culture, 77, 250 Organizational integrity, 112 Organizational leaders, 70, 74 Organizational learning, 35, 39 Organizational objectives, 8 Organizational outcomes, 255 Organizational performance, 69, 230 Organizational spiritual maturity (OSM) continual evolution, 114 definition, 105, 107 integrity, 111–112 leadership, 111–112 love, 108–109 management approach, 116 perspective, 105

PL, 104 self-preservation, 113 social responsibility/obligation, 113 system hierarchy, 105 values, vision and purpose, 105 wisdom, 109–111 Organizational spirituality, 3 Organizational studies, 230 Organizational sustainability, 71 P Pamban Bridge Project, 406 Passive engagement, 197 Passive followers, 23, 24, 30 Path goal theory, 72, 233 Pathologic leadership, 320 Penske corporation benefits, 138 building relational bridges, 137 corporate leader/non-profit executive, 137 customer satisfaction index, 137 employee feedback, 137 light-rail system, 138 organizational performance, 138 servant-leadership, 138 transportation services corporation, 137 Performance meaningfulness, 254 Personal fulfillment, 253 Personal integrity, 111 Personal lives, 215 Personal/self-identity, 278 Philosophia perennis, 384 Philosophical inquiry Confucian leadership, 276 Daoism, 276, 277 personal self-analysis, 276 Physicist of Power, 198 Political agency models, 231 Political animal, 211 Politikon zöon, 211 Positive Behavioural Studies, 335 Positive climate, 20 Positive communication, 20 Positive deviance, 334, 336, 337 Positive emotions, 208, 209, 212–214 Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and Accomplishment (PERMA), 375 Positive functioning, 319 Positive institutions, 212 Positive leadership, 239, 338–340, 343–345 4Ps, 336 academic research, 272

Index advantages, 208 awakened, 20–22 business models, 275 collaborative inquiry, 274 community, 272 conceptual framework, 273 constituents, 272 creating identity, 275 cultural values, 208 definition, 336 description, 20 developmental process, 273 employees’ opinion, 273 empowerment, 271 feminine characteristics, 272 follower, 273 foundational element, 20 framework, 209 guiding morality, 208 identification, 222, 223 ideology, 334 inclusiveness, 209 individuals and organizations, 335 ingredient, 20 Lewin’s three-step model, 273 masculine leadership styles, 272 model, 272 negative aspect, 273 organizational change, 83 pathologies, 210 perception, 271 performance, 271 POE, 335 positive and negative energy, 335 positive emotions, 209 positive psychology, 208, 209 Positivity and negativity (see Positivity and negativity) researchers, 208 scholarship, 334, 335 self-esteem, 274 strength, 86 transformation and organizational change, 275 transformational changes, 274 typologies, 273, 274 values-based decision-making, 208 virtuous ethics, 209 vital traits and skills, 209 Women’s leadership styles, 272 yin and yang, 84 Positive leadership (PL) OSM, 104 psychology, 104

421 Positive meaning, 20 Positive organizational behavior (POB), 85 Positive organizational ethics (POE), 335 Positive organizational practices, 334 Positive organizational scholars, 250 Positive organizational scholarship, 335 Positive psychological approaches, 128 Positive psychology, 3, 84, 208, 209, 212, 213, 334, 336, 337 POB, 85 positive emotions, 212 positive institutions, 212 positive traits, 212 principles, 20 strength, 85 Positive psychology 1.0 (PP1.0), 314, 316–323 Positive psychology wave two (PP2.0), 314, 316–323 Positive relationships, 20 Positive theories of leadership, 2, 3 Positivity and negativity, 98 carbon, 89 metamorphosis, 87, 89 organizational change, 87 organizational context, 91 perceptions, 91 personal/organizational levels, 87 psychological principles, 86 quantum physics, 91 strength, 89 Taoism, 90 value-based strategy, 87 yin and yang, 90 Poverty-stricken area, 27 Powerlessness, 314, 316 Pragmatist followers, 23, 24, 30 Primary embedding mechanisms, 179 Principled leadership theories ethical leadership commonalities, 161–162 leadership theories (see Leadership theories) Problem-solving approaches, 255 Problem-solving chancellor, 199 Pro-c creativity, 190 Prochaska’s stages of change, 176 Promote trust, 44 Prosocial behaviors, 253 Pseudo needs, 151 Pseudo-transformational leaders, 388 Psychobiographical case studies, 192 Psychobiological translations, 212 Psychological contract, 315 Psychological engagement, 254 Psychology of religion, 3

422 Psychopathic leadership, 320 Publication bias, 36 Purusharthas, 382 Q Qualitative investigation, 192 Qualitatively, 232 Quantitatively, 232 R Rāmāyānā, 342 Rational entities, 231 Reaching Up for Manhood: Transforming the Lives of Boys in America (book), 29 Real happiness, 211 Refreeze, 177 Relational transparency, 6, 71 Religious leadership, 164 Representative leadership, 169, 170 Research and methodology questions, 359 spiritual intelligence, 353 synchronicity categories, 357 data analysis, 354 patterns, 354, 355 purposes, 355, 356 White’s characteristics, 354 themes, 353, 358 transpersonal human research, 353 Resilience, 321 Responsibility, 320 Responsibility-based qualities, 21 Responsible leadership, 391 Responsible morality, 44 Robert Greenleaf, 129, 399 Role of leadership, 234, 235 S Sat-Chit-Ananda, 384 Satyagraha strategy, 400 Scholarly approach, 371 Scholars in Australia, 295 Scholarship, 334, 335 The Sciences of the Artificial, 237 Secondary reinforcement mechanisms, 180 Self-awareness, 5, 6, 17, 71, 219, 319, 321, 392 Self-centered mechanisms, 150 Self-conceit, 13 Self-confidence, 235

Index Self-development contexts, 316 Self-discipline, 17 Self-efficacy, 26, 193, 253 Self-esteem, 319 Self-feeding cycle, 251 Self-importance, 14 Selfless service, 5, 17, 153, 396 Self-reflection, 315, 319 Self-reflective role-taking perspective, 320 Self-respective, 320 Self-sufficiency, 318 Self-transcendence, 17, 321 Servant leader, 24 Servant leadership (SL), 7–9, 17, 165, 338–340 attributes, 34 change principles, 56 change-related studies, 35 character variables, 53, 54 characteristics, 70 conceptual relationships, 36 definitions, 36 dependent and independent variables, 36 description, 69 development and growth, 35 dimensions, 36, 39 direct and indirect effects, 52–54 empirical studies, 36 employee attitudes, 52 employee change dependent variables, 49–51 employee wellbeing, 48, 49 ethical and moral foundation, 34 foundational affective states, 45, 47, 48 foundational constituent (antecedent) elements, 45–50 foundational servant follower behaviors/ attitudes, 45–47 frequency count of location by time, 36, 38 of servant leader sample locations, 36, 37 of studies by world region, 36, 37 Greenleaf’s leadership model, 69 independent and dependent variables, 36 leadership variables, 53 master list, 52–54 performance variables, 53 publication bias, 36 religious roots, 35 research literature, 50 servanthood, 34 stewardship, 34 trust-building behaviors, 42–44 and workplace wellbeing model, 40

Index Servant leadership questionnaire (SLQ), 77 Servant-leadership, 128, 139 awareness, 131 building community, 132 conceptualization, 131 contribution, 139 empathy, 131 experiential expressions, 139 foresight, 132 growth of people, 132 healing, 131 intellectual and spiritual worldviews, 129 listening, 131 movements, 129 power, 130 quick fix approach, 130 religious beliefs, 139 Robert Greenleaf, 129, 139 stewardship, 132 universal resonance Aristotelian perspective, 133 Bhagavad Gita, Hinduism, 133 disciples, 134 faiths and beliefs, 133 Jewish Talmud, 133 Nazareth, Jesus, 133 organizational context, 134 reflection, 134 workplace transformation, 129 Servanthood, 34, 42 Service-sales ambidexterity, 35, 39 Shame categories, 314 early in life, 313 and leadership, 316, 317 and meaning, 321 optimal functioning, 318 and organisation, 316, 317 positive functioning, 319 PP1.0, 317–323 PP2.0, 317–323 and resilience, 321 self-sufficiency, 318 and shaming strategies, 316 in various cultures, 314 and virtue, 320 voices, 314 and well-being, 321–323 in workplace, 314–316, 318–322 Shared leadership, 76 Sincerity, 5 Situational leadership, 24, 30 Social activist, 27 Social exchange theory, 217

423 Social identity, 278 Social psychology, 218 Social responsibility, 4 Social values, 69 Socio-cultural conditions, 318 Sound judgment, 110 Spiritual awareness, 240 Spiritual happiness, 150 Spiritual intelligence (SI), 153, 240–242, 350, 351, 357, 364 Spiritual leadership, 3–5, 338–340, 390 Spirituality, 162, 231 attitudinal and behavioral elements, 271 businesses, 151–153 choice, 239 cognitive activities, 271 definition, 236 dimensions, 237 guidance, 239 happiness, 146–149 healthy, 238 intelligence, 153 interpersonal responses, 271 in leadership, 236 leadership model, 238 limitation, 237, 242 meaning, 145 view, 238 organizations, 154 positive leadership, 271–275 practices, 237, 270 research, 237 scholarship, 270 science, 146 student identities, 270 success, 145, 150, 151 teachings, 239 transformation, 238, 240 values, 236, 237 wisdom, 239 workplace, 236 Spirituality leadership theory, 3 Spiritually mature leaders (SMLs), 114, 116 PL, 116 productivity, 117 vision, 117 Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā, 334, 340–344, 346 Starbucks, 77, 78 Starbucks Greener Stores, 78 Sternberg’s model, 191–192 Stewardship, 34, 42, 66, 235 Stricter approach, 29 Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis, 215

Index

424 Success definition, 144 role, 144 spirituality, 145, 150, 151 vs. happiness, 145 Supervisory support, 39 Sustain acceleration, 184, 185 Sustainability, 66–67 businesses, 67 challenges, 67 education performs, 76 global economics, 67 leadership styles, 71–73 organizational leadership, 67 Sustainability leadership, 166, 167 academic and professional discourse, 66 altruism, 74 business, 74 challenges, 69, 73 change/impact society, 74 characteristics, 68, 72 components, 68 contribution, 73 CSR, 74 definition, 66 development, 66, 69 directive and supportive dimension, 73 directive/supportive dimensions, 73 elements, 68 and environmental responsibility, 75 ethical issue, 74 external and internal environment, 69 framework, 68 individuation, 73 internal and external systems, 68 leadership style, 69 leadership theory, 68 mentoring, 69 organizational change, 73 organizational leaders, 74 organizational system, 68 path-goal theory, 72 practice, 68 quality of life, 75 self-connection, 73 service, 75 stakeholders, 75 stewardship, 66 strategic perspective, 75 unification, 73 well-being, 75 Sustainable development, 66, 67, 71, 76 Sustainable fix, 257 Svabhāva, 385

Swami Vivekananda concept, 399 message, 399 qualities, 399 servant leadership, 399–400 spirituality, 399 Vedānta, 398 Synchronicity, 350, 352, 363 T Team-oriented leaders, 76 Teleological moral, 211 Telos of eudaimonia/human flourishing, 211 Theist/nontheistic belief systems, 35 Theories of leadership, 233 TIME 100 list, 28 Traditional judges, 300 Traditional science approaches, 350 Transformational leader, 24 Transformational leader behaviors and actions, 179 Transformational leadership, 8, 72, 179, 408 attributes, 388 authentic, 388 challenges, 389 ethical principles, 388 integrity, 388 principles and values, 387 transactional approach, 388 Transformational theory, 230, 234 Transforming negative emotions, 314, 315, 322, 323, 326 Transforming shame leadership, 322–324 organisations, 322–324 well-being, 324–326 workplace health, 324–326 Transition process, 296 Transmitting core values balanced processing/fair-mindedness, 377, 378 internalised moral perspective, 377 leader self-awareness, 376 relational transparency, 377 Transparency, 5, 16 Tribal peoples, 293 True humility, 13 True leadership, 130 True North: Discover Your Authentic Leadership (book), 7 Trust-building behaviors, 42–44 Truthfulness, 16 Tumultuous markets, 250

Index U UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 304 UN Peace Enforcement, 302 Unsustainability, 68 Upaniṣhads, 383 Utilitarianism, 169 V Value-based theories, 5 Values-based decision-making, 208 Values-based leadership, 9, 161, 401 Values-based leadership approaches, 35 Virtue, 320 Virtue ethics, 210 Virtue ethics theory and inclusive leadership (see Inclusive leadership theory) attachment theory, 214–215 cardinal virtues, 212 Greek philosophy, 210 human happiness, 211 moral agent, 211 positive emotions, 213, 214 positive psychology, 212, 213 real happiness, 211 soil of adversity, 211 teleological moral, 211 telos of eudaimonia/human flourishing, 211 Virtue of humility, 14 Virtuous ethics, 209, 214 Virtuous love, 108 Virtuousness, 210 Visionary leaders, 11 Visionary theory, 230 Voices, 314 Volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA), 251 W Well-being, 321–326 Western-built instruments, 295 WICS, 191–193, 196, 200 Wisdom, 230, 237–240 Women leadership, 295 Women’s leadership styles, 272

425 Work engagement, 255, 256 Work meaningfulness, 250, 251, 254–257, 259–263 contributing factors, 253 creation, 252, 253 definition, 251, 252 on engagement, 253–255 expressing full potential, 252 integrity of self, 252 measurement, 257 multidimensional factors, 252 sense making process, 252 serving others, 252 sources, 252 unity with others, 252 Worker identification, 253 Workforce engagement, 251–255, 262 authentically participate, 251 Workplace, 318–322 shame, 314–316 Workplace attachment, 215 Workplace engagement, 254 Workplace health, 324–326 Workplace spirituality, 236 Workplace transformation change, 84 positivity and negativity, 89 Y yin and yang, concept of, 292 Yin-yang transformation balanced coexistence, 97 leader-follower relationships, 97 organizational change, 97 positive psychology, 97 theories, 96 workplace transformation, 98 Yucatec Maya leadership communities, 299, 300 description, 297 elements, 302 Indigenous Justice Bill, 297 indigenous population, 296 Mazewal Maya Shrines, 297 military-religious system, 297 non-Western ones, 302 poolil, 298 transmission, 301