Nelson Bay Cave, Cape Province, South Africa, Parts i and ii: The Holocene Levels 9781407388519, 9781407388526, 9780860544647, 9781407346311

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Nelson Bay Cave, Cape Province, South Africa The Holocene Levels

R. R. Inskeep with contributions by G. Avery, R. G. Klein, A. G. Morris, A. Poggenpoel and J. C. Vogel

Part i

BAR International Series 357(i) 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S357 (I), 1987: 'Nelson Bay Cave, Cape Province, South Africa' Part I © R.R. Inskeep, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388519 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388526 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544647 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346311 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544647 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

T his work i s dedicated t o t he memory o f C harles M cBurney, who i ntroduced me t o p alaeolithic a rchaeology, a nd t o Desmond C lark, f riend, colleague, a nd mentor, who d id s o much t o s timulate my i nterest i n A frican a rchaeology.

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CONTENTS L ist o f T ables L ist o f F igures L ist o f A ppendixes L ist o f P lates P ART

I :

THE

i v v iii x iii xvi

I NVESTIGATION

1

I ntroduction

2

Regional a nd Local Geology i i C limate i ii Vegetation

3

Resources P lants i i Terrestrial a nimals, s eals, i ii Water i v S eaweed F ish vi S hellfish a nd c rustacea vii S tone

4

P ART

1 S etting

7 7 9 9

a nd b irds.

Excavation Excavation p rocedures i i Recording i ii S tratigraphy i v Validity a nd comparability o f I I:

s amples.

1 9 1 9 2 2 2 5 2 5 2 6 2 9 2 9 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 7 4 4

THE EVIDENCE RECOVERED

5

The A rtefact I nventory L ithic a rtefacts a C lassification by t ypes b D efinitions c M easurement o f a ttributes d D rawing o f s pecimens i i Non-lithic a rtefacts

6

The L ithic A rtefacts The i ncidence o f r aw materials i i The w aste c ategory a C hips a nd c hunks b C ores c U ntrimmed f lakes i ii The u tilized a rtefact c ategory a U tilized f lakes: e dge damage : s teep damage : notched b H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces c P ieces e squillees d P alettes e G rindstones, r ubbers, a nd h ammers f H ammers

5 0 5 0 5 0 5 1 5 5 5 6 5 6 5 8 5 8 6 4 6 4 7 0 7 8 8 0 8 4 8 5 8 5 8 8 9 3 1 01 r ubber/ 1 04 1 07

i v

7

T he f ormal t ools c ategory a S crapers b B acked t ools: f lakes a nd b ladelets : s egments : s crapers : f ragments : t anged p oints c D rills d R eamers e Bored s tones f M iscellaneous r etouch g A dzes h S inkers j G rooved s tones k O chre 1 M iscellaneous s tone

1 08 1 08 1 19 1 20 1 25 1 29 1 29 1 31 1 32 1 37 1 39 1 40 1 41 1 43 1 46 1 47

T he Non-Lithic A rtefacts i P ottery i i Awls i ii S patulae i v A rrowheads, l inkshafts, h ollow/bone points v Bone t ubes v i E ngraved bone v ii B one r ings v iii T ortoise c arapace i x M iscellaneous bone a nd i vory x O strich e ggshell b eads, b ottles a nd f ragments x i S hell p endants x ii P erforated Donax s hells x iii M etal o bjects

1 50 1 50 1 56 1 59

8

B urials i C ultural a spects o f t he b urials i i B iological a spects o f t he b urials

1 84 1 84 1 96

9

P lant R emains

2 10

1 0

S hellfish

2 13

1 1

F ish i i i

2 17 2 17

i ii i v v v i v ii v iii 1 2

I ntroduction T ime-linked variations i n a bsolute n umbers T he question o f c old water u pwelling.. .▪ T he h abitats e xploited Methods o f p rocurement F urther r emarks o n d iachronic c hanges. .▪ S easonality T he p rocessing o f f ish

M ammals i I ntroduction i i Non-marine mammals i ii S eals

i i

1 64 1 66 1 67 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 72 1 76 1 80 1 82

2 20 2 23 2 26 2 27 2 29 2 35 2 37 2 38 2 38 2 43 2 46

i v v

The H olocene S heep

1 3

Radiocarbon Dating i I ntroduction i i L ist o f dates

1 4

B irds: i i i i ii i v

P ART 1 5

1 6

I II:

l evels:

a s earch

f or

t rends

2 49 2 58 2 60 2 60 2 61

a n i nterim r eport o n I ntroduction S easonality S ummary A cknowledgements

s elected

s amples

2 66 2 66 2 66 2 70 2 70

D ISCUSSION A ND CONCLUSIONS

S ummary o f O bservations i a T he a ccumulated s ediments b T he a rtefacts c T he f auna d T he s equence o f c hanges i n material c ulture i i D iscussion o f s elected evidence a S crapers a nd s egments b S easonality c R aw materials i ii E stablishing a model i v Comments a nd s ome a lternatives v Testing t he c onclusions

2 71 2 71 2 72 2 79

Acknowledgements

3 12

Appendixes

3 14

References

4 72

P lates

i ii

2 79 2 84 2 84 2 87 2 89 2 90 3 03 3 06

L IST OF TABLES 1

2

N umbers o f f ood - p lant s pecies potentially a vailable t o t he o ccupants o f Nelson Bay Cave

2 0

F ield n ames a nd n umbers s tratigraphically

3 5

o f

u nits

a rranged

3

Mean

4

Mean densities o f s tone a rtefacts p er f oot o f deposit e xcavated

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

excavated a reas

M ean s tone g roupings o f

4 5

a rtefact c ontent excavated u nits

f or

s quare 4 8 various 4 9

Mean percentage p er u nit o f t he p rincipal raw material g roups f or t he t hree s trata g roupings s uggested by t he g raphs i n F igures 1 5 a nd 1 6

5 9

Mean percentage p er u nit o f t he p rincipal raw material g roups f or t he t hree s trata g roupings s uggested by t he g raphs i n F igures 1 5 a nd 1 6

6 0

I ncidence o f s hale, t ools a nd waste, s lightly modified u nit g roupings

6 1

i n

M eans f or c hips a nd c hunks e xpressed p ercentages o f u ntrimmed f lakes w ithin major s tratigraphic g roupings i ndicated r aw material f requencies

the

a s the by 6 8

M eans f or c hips a nd c hunks e xpressed a s p ercentages o f u ntrimmed f lakes w ith t he unit g rouping f or t he c entral g roup d ivided a s s uggested by t he r aw data a nd t he c umulative l ogs c urve ( Figure 1 8)

6 9

1 1

S ummary o f data o n

7 3

1 2

A verage

1 3

R atios o f f lakes p er c ore based o n o nly t hose a ssemblages w ith s cores o f 1 o r more f or both f lakes a nd c ores

7 7

U ntrimmed f lakes a ppendix 1 2

7 8

1 4

1 5

1 6

n umber o f

c ores c ores p er u nit

c lass.

7 6

A bstract o f data

F ormal t ools c ategory a s t otal s tone a rtefacts

a

p ercentage

U ntrimmed f lakes i n q uartzite, c halcedony a s p ercentages o f a rtefacts

i v

f rom

o f 8 0

q uartz and t otal s tone 8 1

1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

M ean p ercentages p er u nit p ieces: ( a) e xcluding i ncluding z ero s cores U tilized per u nit

f lakes:

8 2

e dge damaged.

F requencies 8 4

Utilized F lakes: per u nit U tilized u nit

f or t otal utilized z ero s cores; ( b)

S teep

damage.

F requencies 8 5

F lakes:

n otched.

F requencies

per 8 6

H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a s a p ercentage Formal T ools p lus U tilized P ieces

o f

H eavy-edge-flaked p ieces a s t otal u tilized c ategory

o f

a p ercentage

Heavy e dge-flaked p ieces: d imensions a nd w eights

9 0

9 1 s ummary

o f 9 2

2 4

S ummary o f d ata f or p iece e squillees

9 5

2 5

I ncidence o f p ieces e squillees a t Nelson B ay Cave i n l evels d ating 1 2000 t o 5 000 B P ( approximately)

9 6

I ncidence o f working e dges o n t he two k inds o f P iece e squillee f or t he various r aw material g roups

9 7

Grinding e quipment. F requency o f s pecimens i n t he two major s tratigraphic g roupings, a bove and b elow u nit 6 3

1 06

Grinding e quipment. Means o f percentage f requencies ( of t otal utilized p ieces) f or t he two main s tratigraphic g roupings

1 06

I ncidence o f hammerstones

1 07

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

h ammerstones

s ummary o f d ata

p lus

r ubber/

3 0

S crapers:

3 1

F requency o f s crapers b y r aw material g roups i n t he t hree major s tratigraphic g roupings

1 11

3 2

Relative a bundance o f

1 14

3 3

I ncidence o f b acked

3 4

Means

3 5

Data f or b acked s crapers

f or v arious

i n A ppendix 2 1

s crapers

f lakes

a nd b ladelets

s egment a ttributes

1 09

1 19 1 21 1 26

V

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

R atio o f b acked s crapers s crapers a t O akhurst

t o

s mall

1 27

R atio o f b acked s crapers t o s crapers a t B yneskranskop 1 Mean l engths q uartzite ( Qt)

c onvex

s mall

c onvex 1 28

a nd w idths f or d rills a nd c halcedony ( Ch)

i n 1 32

M eans o f p ercentage f requencies o f d rills w ithin t he f ormal t ools c ategory f or N elson B ay C ave a nd v arious s ites i n t he s outhern C ape

1 35

4 0

I ncidence o f

1 38

4 1

I ncidence f ragments

4 2

r eamers o f

bored

s tones,

i ncluding 1 39

I ncidence o f m iscellaneous r etouched w ithin t he t hree major u nit g roups

p ieces

4 3

M ean w eight o f

4 4

S ummary o f data r elating t o t he i ncidence o chre p encils a nd o chre s taining

4 5

4 6

4 7

I ncidence C ave

o f

s inkers

1 41

p ottery s herds

i n

F requencies o f e xcavated u nits, s tone t ools

awls per s quare a nd r atio o f awls

4 9

S ummary o f data o n b one s patulas o ne o f s hale a nd o ne o f i vory)

bone u sed

Bay

I ncidence o f a rrowheads, h ollow bone points o f

i n 1 56

f oot o f t o f ormal

f or m aking awls

bone r ings,

5 2

I ncidence o f o strich e ggshell o strich e ggshell f ragments

a nd

i n m illimeters

M ean d iameter a nd weights o strich e ggshell b eads

v i

1 62

1 65

D imensions

S ummary o f data o n b urials

1 58

( including

l inkshafts,

5 1

5 4

1 48

1 57

S ources

5 3

o f

1 52

4 8

5 0

N elson

Weights o f c oastal m idden p ottery v essels t he c ollection o f J . R udner, C ape T own

o f

1 40

o f

b eads

1 68 and 1 73

s amples

o f 1 75 1 85

5 5

T imes o f a vailability o f represented by s eeds a nd units 7 8 t o 1 44

f ood r esources c orm-bases f rom 2 11

5 6

Summary o f d ata o n moluscan

5 7

Record o f s cores f or i ndividual f ish s pecies i n t hose u nits d isplaying a bnormally h igh s cores f or a ll s pecies c ombined

2 24

5 8

I ncidence o f

2 28

5 9

Mean n umber o f f ish p er s quare f oot; Percentage o f u nits i n which t he s pecies a re present; a nd M ean n umber o f s pecies per u nit.

2 31

Mean weights ( kg p er s quare f oot) c ontributed by t he t en m ost a bundant s pecies o f f ish

2 34

Mammal f requencies ( MNI) A lbany a nd l ater l evels

2 39

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 3

6 4

l ess

A ssessments o f thirteen s eals cave

f requent

f auna s amples.

2 15

f ish s pecies

a nd p ercentages

t ime a nd a ge f rom t he upper

f or

a t death o f l evels o f t he 2 47

The i ncidence o f u nfused d istal seals i n r elation t o N ISP a nd MNI

h umeri

o f

Mammal f requencies f or u nits 1 48-22 ( NISP a nd MNI) e xpressed a s density ( = f requency X 1 00/area i n s quare f eet), a nd percentage f requency

v ii

2 49

2 51

L IST OF T EXT F IGURES 1

F loor p lan o f Nelson B ay C ave, a reas of e xcavation r eferred t o i n t he t ext, a reas of d isturbance by e arlier, u nrecorded and u nsystematic d igging, a nd d ump a reas

3

North/South p rofile t hrough c ave i ndicating i ts f orm, i ts r elationship t o t he p resent sea l evel, a nd i ndicating t he position o f the main g rid, a nd t he f irst s eason t est p it

4

3

S ection d rawings o f

5

4

S implified g eology o f R obberg

5

T he r egional s etting f or Nelson B ay C ave, t ogether w ith d iagrams f or t emperature and p recipitation

1 0

A a nd B . S implified modern, a nd r econstructed p recolonial vegetation i n t he v icinity of P lettenberg B ay

1 2

M ajor f orest a reas i n 1 931, t ogether w ith e arly f arm e stablishments i n t he a rea, i ncluding s ome r eferred t o i n t he t ext

1 3

8

D istribution o f

1 4

9

Key t o d rawn s ections e xcavated s quares

2

6

7

1 0

1 1

1 2

t he f irst s eason t est p it

8

t he f orest a reas a nd

S ections a long t he B l ine t he 0 l ine ( looking s outh)

i n

1 981

n umbering

of 3 7

( looking e ast)

a nd 3 9

S ections a long t he I II l ine ( looking a nd t he I V l ine ( looking s outh)

s outh) 4 0

S ections a long t he west s ide o f t he 1 979 c utting ( looking west), l ine F a nd t he e ast s ide o f 1 979 s quares 4 a nd 1 ( looking e ast), a nd t he n orth f ace o f 1 979 s quares 3 a nd 4 ( looking n orth)

4 1

1 3

E xcavated a reas o f u nits

4 6

1 4

D ensity o f s tone a rtefacts p er excavated deposit

s quare f oot o f

1 5

R aw material t rends:

t otal

1 6

R aw material

f ormal

1 7

C hips a nd c hunks a s a p ercentage o f u ntrimmed f lakes ( eh + c h x 1 00/Untr f l)

t rends:

v iii

4 7

s tone a rtefacts

6 2

t ools c ategory

6 3

6 6

1 8

Chips a nd c hunks: to u ntrimmed f lakes

f requency t rends

r elative 6 7

1 9

Core t ypes:

2 0

Cores:

2 1

Quartzite b ladelet unit 7 7, s quare 2

( or

Untrimmed f lakes percentage o f t otal

( all materials) s tone a rtefacts

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

f requency t rends

r aw material

7 0

t rends

7 1

f lakelet)

c ore

f rom 7 5 a s

a 7 9

Total u tilized p ieces e xpressed a s percentages o f t otal s tone a rtefacts. T he c lasses i ncluded a re h ammerstones, r ubbers, hammer/rubbers, g rindstones, p alettes, p ieces e squillees, h eavy e dge-flaked p ieces, a nd utilized f lakes ( edge, s teep, n otched)

8 3

Notched p ieces. A r andom s ample d rawn population o f s ixty-nine

8 7

Heavy e dge-flaked p ieces, population o f e ighty-six

d rawn

f rom

a 8 8

Heavy e dge-flaked p ieces, population o f e ighty-six e squillees:

f rom a

d rawn

f rom

a 8 9

2 7

P ieces

f lake

9 8

2 8

P iece e squillees:

2 9

P ieces e squillees: q uartzite s pecimens. d istribution ( all l evels)

cortical

A ll a re o f

9 9

3 0

P alettes.

3 1

S cattergrams

f or

3 2

Raw material

t rends

3 3

Quartzite s craper d imensions

3 4

Quartz a nd t hrough t ime

A real 1 00

s hale

1 02

l ength a nd w idth o f s crapers i n

t he s craper c lass

c halcedony

1 13

t hrough t ime

s craper

1 10

1 14

d imensions 1 15

3 5

Quartzite s crapers

1 16

3 6

Quartzite s crapers

1 17

3 7

Quartz

3 8

S egments:

3 9

S egments i n q uartzite chalcedony ( Ch)

( Q)

a nd c halcedony

( Ch)

s crapers

1 18

s cattergram f or w idths a nd l engths ( Qt),

q uartz

( Q),

1 22

a nd 1 23

i x

4 0

S egments i n q uartzite ( Qt), q uartz ( Q), and c halcedony ( Ch). T he s pecimen b earing mastic s tains i s s hown i n t he l ower l eft-hand c orner a t a l arger s cale

1 24

D iagrams s howing possible methods o f h afting w hich m ight a ccommodate t he p attern o f mastic o n t he s pecimen f rom u nit 1 34

1 25

4 2

Backed s crapers.

1 27

4 3

T anged p oints.

4 4

D rills.

Q t = q uartzite,

4 5

D rills.

A ll c halcedony

( Ch)

1 34

4 6

R eamers.

A ll q uartzite

( Qt)

1 36

4 7

F requency o f

up t o 1 0gms

1 42

4 8

M iscellaneous s tone p ieces, p lus o ne bored s tone f ragment ( b), a nd two a dzes ( e a nd f ) I tem g i s a f ragment o f s hale w ith two deep c ut marks

1 49

4 9

P ottery:

1 51

5 0

D iagram t o s how t he d isposition o f p ottery s herds, s heep r emains, a nd a ssociated r adiocarbon dates

1 53

5 1

B one s patulae,

a nd o ne o f

i vory

1 60

5 2

Bone s patulae,

a nd o ne o f

s hale

1 61

5 3

B one s patulae: w idths

4 1

Q = q uartz,

C h = c halcedony.

L y = l ydianite,

s inkers,

S i = s ilcrete.

C h = c halcedony

by weights,

1 33

d ecorated a nd r im s herds

s cattergram o f

1 30

l engths

and 1 63

5 4

M iscellaneous bone p ieces

1 71

5 5

M iscellaneous water-bottle p iece; ( c, d ,

1 72

5 6

5 7

o strich e ggshell p ieces: ( a) f ragment; ( b) p artly d rilled e , f ) e ngraved f ragments

S cattergrams o f t he l engths a nd w idths various s haped-pendant t ypes P erforated D onax s erra p ercentage g raph

s hells:

o f

the 1 77

c umulative 1 81

5 8

B urial

1

1 86

5 9

B urial

2

1 87

6 0

B urial

3

1 88

x

6 1

Burial

4

1 89

6 2

Burial

5

1 91

6 3

Orientation o f b urials

6 4

NBC B urial 5 ( UCT 3 48): dorsal v iew o f l eft h and i n a rticulation

t he

Multivariate Burial 2

d iscriminant

NBC

Multivariate Burial 4

d iscriminant

6 5

6 6

6 7

6 8

6 9

7 0

7 1

7 2

7 3

7 4

7 5

7 6

1 95

a nalysis

2 02

o f

2 04 a nalysis

NBC 2 05

P ercentage f requencies o f s pecies i n t he u nits s ampled A a nd B S ummary o f t he data o n t he derived f rom A ppendix 4 8 A a nd B The i ncidence o f excavated d eposit

o f

f ish p er

main

molluscan 2 14

i ncidence o f

f ish, 2 18/9

s quare

f oot

o f 2 21/2

Total f ish f requencies, p er s quare f oot, compared w ith t he e xcavated a reas o f u nits i n s quare f eet

2 30

Bar c harts f or t he t hree u nit g roupings ( 1481 04 ( lower), 1 03-64 ( middle), 6 3-22 ( upper)) s howing: p ercentage o f u nits r eflecting catches; t he mean n umber o f f ish p er s quare f oot x 1 00; a nd t he mean n umber o f f ish p er s quare f oot x 1 00, d ivided by t he p ercentage o f u nits i n which t hey o ccur

2 32

Extrapolated f ish weights ( grams p er s quare f oot) o f t he t en most a bundant s pecies f or t he t hree g roups o f u nits 1 48-104 ( bottom), 1 03-64 ( middle), a nd 6 3-22 ( upper)

2 33

Total b ovids a s a p ercentage o f t otal mammals, a nd small medium, l arge medium, a nd l arge ( SM, LM, L ) bovids a s a p ercentage o f total bovids, f or A lbany a nd l ater l evels....

2 42

S pecies f requencies e xpressed a s p ercentages o f t otal m ammals, f or A lbany a nd l ater l evels

2 45

Relative i ntensity o f p rocurement o f mammals, m ammals l ess s eals, a nd s eals

a ll 2 53

Relative MNI) f or

a nd

i ntensity o f p rocurement i ndividual mammal s pecies

x i

( NISP

2 54

7 7

7 8

7 9

8 0

8 1

P ercentage f requencies f or s pecies, b ased o n MNI c ounts

v arious

mammal 2 56

F requency x 1 00/area i n s quare f eet, o f NISP a nd MNI f or s elected s pecies a nd g roups o f s pecies o f mammals

2 57

R esults o f c orrespondence a nalysis p lot based o n monthly data f or e astern C ape beach s urveys f or dead b irds b etween 1 978 a nd 1 983. Months a re n umbered c onsecutively f rom J anuary t o D ecember. A = a dults, J = j uveniles

2 67

C omparison o f main s pecies o r g roups o f s pecies o f b irds o ccurring i n s easonal g roups ( A); t he a rchaeological s amples ( B); a nd for t he months a nd a rchaeological s amples c ombined ( C). S , P , S , P , C , = S pheniscidae ( jackass p enguin), P rocellariidae ( albatrosses a nd p rions), S ulidae ( Cape g annet), P halacrocoracidae ( cormorants), C haradriiformes ( skuas, g ulls, t erns)

2 68

S ummary o f t he p rincipal d iachronic o f t he H olocene l evels

2 73

s easonality

f eatures

8 2

S ummary o f

i ndicators

8 3

K nown s ites w ith s hell m iddens o n a djacent t o R obberg. T he d istribution c ertainly n ot c omplete

x ii

2 88 and i s 3 07

L IST OF A PPENDIXES 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

L ist o f f lora f or t he i mmediate v icinity Robberg a nd i n n earby f orests Food p lants n ot l isted i n A ppendix l isted i n Fourcade ( 1941) f or t he D ivision S tatus o f 2 2 s pecies o f u ngulates D ivisions o f H umansdorp a nd U niondale L ist o f m ammals which m ight h ave w ithin t he c atchment a rea o f NBC

o f 3 14

1 b ut K nysna 3 22 i n

t he 3 24

o ccurred 3 25

S ome l arger b irds which a re l ikely t o h ave occurred w ithin t he c atchment a rea o f NBC....

3 29

P rincipal s pecies o f molluscs a nd c rustacea o f t he i ntertidal z one o f t he T sitsikama coast

3 30

Data r elating s ample s izes

3 32

t o excavated a reas a nd a rtefact

P ercentage f requencies f or various material t ypes u sed f or s tone a rtefacts Chips a nd c hunks: types

r aw 3 35

f requencies by r aw material 3 41

1 0

I ncidence o f

c ores by t ype a nd r aw material..

1 1

I ncidence o f c ores a nd u ntrimmed r atio o f f lakes per c ore f or u ntrimmed

f lakes

f lakes,

3 47

a nd 3 51

1 2

Data

c lass

3 57

1 3

I ncidence o f t otal u tilized c ategory, a nd t heir p ercentages i n r elation t o t otal s tone a rtefacts

3 63

1 4

D ata o n u tilized f lakes

3 66

1 5

D ata

1 6

Data r elating

t o p ieces

1 7

D ata r elating

t o p ieces e squillees

1 8

I ncidence g rindstones

o f

1 9

I ncidence o f

r ubbers

2 0

I ncidence o f h ammerstones

c lass

f or h eavy e dge-flaked p ieces

whole

3 71

e squillees

a nd

( Flake)

3 75

( Cortical)

3 83

f ragmentary 3 88

a nd r ubber/hammerstones

h ammerstones

a nd

3 89

r ubber/ 3 90

2 1

D ata r elating

2 2

Q uartzite s crapers: metrical data A ppendix 2 1 g rouped t o e nlarge s amples

2 3

t o s crapers

3 91 f rom 4 08

Q uartz a nd c halcedony s crapers: metrical data f rom A ppendix 2 1 g rouped t o e nlarge s amples

4 09

2 4

D ata

f or

4 10

2 5

D ata

f or d rills

2 6

D etails o f

2 7

D ata p ieces

s egments

4 12

r eamers

r elating

4 14

t o

m iscellaneous

r etouched 4 17

2 8

I ncidence a nd weights o f

2 9

S inkers

3 0

I ncidence o f e vidence r elating r ed o chre

a s

s inkers

a p ercentage o f

4 18

f ormal t ools

4 21

t o t he u se

o f 4 22

3 1

D etails o f v arious b one awl t ypes

4 24

3 2

D ata r elating

4 28

3 3

Bone

t o bone

a rrowheads,

s patulas

l inkshafts a nd h ollow bone

p oints

4 30

3 4

B one t ubes

4 36

3 5

D etails o f bone r ings

4 38

3 6

D etails o f t ortoise s hell u tilization

3 7

3 8

s howing e vidence o f 4 40

O ccurrences o f t ortoise s hell s howing n o s igns o f u tilization

f ragments 4 42

I ncidence o f o strich e ggshell o strich e ggshell f ragments

b eads

and 4 43

3 9

I ncidence o f v arious p endant t ypes

4 45

4 0

I ncidence o f p erforated Donax s erra valves.

4 47

4 1

C ranial measurements

4 48

4 2

M andibular measurements

4 3

L ong bone 6

4 4

l engths

D iscriminant b urial 2

f or b urials

1 t o 5

f or b urials

f or b urials

1 ,

2 ,

1 t o 5 3 ,

4 ,

4 49

and 4 49

a nalysis

( females

o nly)

for 4 50

x iv

4 5

4 6

4 7

D iscriminant a nalysis 4

( males o nly)

f or b urial 4 51

I dentification a nd p rovenance o f r emains r ecovered d uring t he 1 979 s eason

I ncidence o f

4 9

Notes o n f ish s pecies r epresented deposits, p lus s ome n otable a bsentees

5 1

5 2

4 52

P ercentage f requencies a nd group t otals genera a nd s pecies o f molluscs

4 8

5 0

p lant f ield

f or 4 54

f ish s pecies a t Nelson Bay C ave

S pecies l ists f or mammals various g roupings o f u nits P reliminary l ist o f f rom s elected u nits

i n

4 56

t he 4 62

( NISP a nd MNI)

f or 4 66

s eabird s pecies a nd

MNI 4 69

Register o f p eople who a ssisted excavation i n various c apacities

XV

i n

t he 4 71

L IST O F PLATES F rontispiece.

I nterior o f

c ave a t

c lose o f

f irst s eason

1 a . b .

V iew o f c ave f rom s horeline D une r ock ' island' f rom t he

2 a . b .

Work a t mouth o f c ave i n t he s econd s eason V iew o f c utting a t c lose o f t hird s eason

3

General v iew o f t hird s eason

4 a . b .

V iew o f e ast a nd s outh f aces o f E ast f ace o f s quares A O a nd A l,

5 a . b .

West f ace o f 1 979 s quares 6 , 7 , a nd Q uartzite ' bladelet/flakelet' c ore

6

P ieces

7 a . b .

S hale p alette; S hale p alette;

8 a . b . c .

Two f laked g rindstones; u nits 3 0 a nd D impled r ubbing s tone; u nit 4 3 U ndersides o f two q uartzite s crapers

9

T anged s tone p oints, s hale s inkers

1 0

a . b . c .

c utting,

e squillees,

c ave

l ooking west,

a t

e nd

o f

f irst s eason c utting s econd s eason 8

c ortical

u nstratified u nit 4 2 1 08

u nfinished bored

s tones,

a nd

Two g rooved s tones ( arrow s traighteners) F ragment o f s hale w ith s crape marks Four c annon bone awls

1 1

S plinter

awls

1 2

Bone

1 3

Bone a rrowheads

1 4

Bone

1 5

D ecorated bone

1 6

Bone r ings, c ut-marks

1 7

I vory p laque f rom u nit 1 04 s quare 6 , e ggshell beads f rom b urials 4 a nd 5 a nd u nit G lycimeris s hells

1 8

T ype 1 s haped p endants b urial 4

1 9

T ype 2 a p endants

s patulae

t ubes

worked

pendants,

t ortoise c arapace,

f rom v arious

t ype

x vi

a nd bone w ith

u nits,

2 b p endants,

a nd

ostrich 2 7, a nd

and

f rom

type

3

2 0

Various perforated s hell b eads; pendants, s equins, a nd two p erforated D onax v alves

2 1 a .

G ourd r esonator f or ' hand p iano' s hells a ttached a t r im S quare p late o f i ron ( ? w ith r ivet)

b .

w ith

2 2

B urials

2 3 a . b .

B urial 4 P art o f o strich e ggshell h eadband a dhering t o s kull o f B urial 5 S mall f inds f rom g rave o f B urial 5 ; L t o R m illed e dged f lat p ebble, o chre p encil, g rooved s tone ( arrow s traightener), q uartz c rystals

c .

1 a nd

( Venda),

o r

3

2 4

B urial

1 s kull

2 5

B urial

2 s kull

2 6

B urial

2 maxilla a nd mandible

2 7

B urial

3 s kull

2 8

B urial

4 s kull

2 9

B urial

4 mandible,

3 0

B urial

5 s kull

3 1 a . b . c . d ,

a nd d iseased r ib

B urial 6 f ace B urial 6 mandible F ish v ertebrae e , f . F ish s caler f rom u nits

x vii

5 5

a nd

3 1

P ART 1 T HE I NVEST IGAT ION

1 I NTRODUCT ION

T his r eport s ets o ut t he c ombined r esults o f t he f our s easons o f e xcavation i n Nelson B ay C ave ( NBC) i n D ecember a nd J anuary 1 964/65, 1 965/66 a nd 1 970/71, a nd i n J anuary, F ebruary, March o f 1 979. T he s ite i s a l arge c ave o n t he s outh s ide o f t he R obberg p eninsula ( 23.22.30.E a nd 3 4.06.10.S) a t P lettenberg B ay, s ome 2 80 m iles ( 451 km) e ast of C ape Town. I t was f irst v isited by t he writer i n J uly 1 963 when r eturning t o C ape T own f ollowing f ield work i n t he E astern C ape. A t t his t ime a c ave was being s ought i n w hich d eep d eposits m ight l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f a n umber o f a spects o f S outh A frican p rehistory. E ighteen months p reviously t he K lasies R iver Mouth c aves h ad been v isited by t he writer a nd P rofessor R . S inger b ut, a lthough t hey a ppeared t o b e v irtually u ndisturbed, whereas N BC was c learly c onsiderably d isturbed, t he l atter s ite was c hosen f or i nvestigation partly f or i ts c loser p roximity t o C ape Town a nd i ts e asier a ccessibility, a nd partly t o gain e xperience i n t he e xcavation o f t his t ype o f deposit p rior t o p ossibly t urning t o t he u ndisturbed K lasies R iver Mouth s ites a t a l ater date. A s t hings t urned o ut t he i nvestigation p roved t o be a much g reater u ndertaking t han w as anticipated. A g reat deal h as b een l earned both a bout t he problems o f i nvestigating s uch a s ite, a nd a bout t he n ature a nd h istory o f i ts o ccupation: t he u sual c rop o f q uestions h as a risen, a nd t he K lasies R iver Mouth s ites h ave been t ackled by o ther workers ( Singer a nd Wymer, 1 982; D eacon e t a l, 1 986). T he principal r easons f or u ndertaking t he i nvestigation h ave been mentioned e lsewhere ( Inskeep 1 965, 1 974). I n 1 964 o nly a h andful o f s ites i n S outh A frica, w ith l ong s uccessions, h ad been e xcavated, a nd o f t hese o nly t hree o r f our were a dequately o r well e xcavated, a nd e ven f ewer a dequately p ublished. A l ist o f r adiocarbon dates f or s ubS aharan A frica t o t he e nd o f 1 964 ( Deacon, J ., 1 966 p .82) g ives o nly f ourteen dates f or t he M iddle S tone A ge a nd 2 nd I ntermediate, a nd a mere n ine dates f or t he L ater S tone A ge. S everal o f t he f ormer were k nown t o b e ' wrong' dates ( Mason, 1 962:84-85) a nd f our o f t he l atter, f or d ifferent r easons, c ould b e r egarded a s e qually u nhelpful ( Louw, 1 960; I nskeep, 1 961). I n t he c ircumstances i t i s n ot s urprising t hat a major c onsideration was t he c areful e xamination o f a l ong s uccession o f deposits a nd t he

1

a pplication o f r adiocarbon dating t o s elected parts o f i t. Equally i mportant c onsiderations were p ossible evidence f or e nvironmental c hange i n t he l ocality, a nd evidence f or e conomic ( subsistence) a ctivity. I n f act t he s ite h as more t han a dequately f ulfilled t hese e xpectations, a s v arious p ublications ( Butzer, 1 973; D eacon, J ., 1 978 a nd 1 984a; K lein, 1 972a, 1 972b, 1 974; S hackleton, 1 973) a nd, i t i s h oped, t his r eport, r eveal. I n t he y ears s ince t he p roject was i nitiated g reat p rogress h as b een made i n t he i nvestigation o f t he p rehistory o f t he s outhern part o f t he c ontinent, a nd a r esearch p roject c entred o n t he R obberg m ight h ave very d ifferent o bjectives t oday. C ertainly, a nd p artly a s a n o utcome o f t he p resent w ork, we a re a ware o f q uite n ew possibilities which m ight b e e xplored i n t he very s ame s ite, a nd t here a re g reat p ossibilities, n ot t o s ay a n u rgent n eed, f or r egional s tudies o f t he k ind exemplified i n D eacon, H . J . ( 1976) a nd P arkington ( 1972). I t was o riginally h oped t o make a w ide c utting t hrough t he t alus a nd d eep i nto t he c ave, t o bedrock. T he r easons f or p lanning s o l arge a c utting were p rimarily t o i ncrease t he p ossibility o f d iscovering a rtificial s tructures o r o ther e xpressions o f h orizontal patterning i n o ccupation, a nd t o f acilitate e xposing t he l argest possible a rea o f t he cave f loor i n o rder t o a ssess h ow i ts m orphology m ay h ave i nfluenced s edimentation i n t he e arlier s tages o f i nfilling. T he t alus was t o be c ut t hrough, a nd t he west wall o f t he c ave e xposed i n o rder t o r educe t he r isk f rom c ollapse o f s tanding s ections. T his p rocedure w as, i n f act, f ollowed t hrough t he f irst t hree s easons o f work a t t he c ave mouth, t hough i t was c lear t hat, f or t he upper l evels a t l east, most u nits would be i ncomplete b ecause o f t he e xtensive d isturbance i nside t he c ave, p articularly i n t he c entre a nd t owards t he f ront ( Figure 1 a nd F rontispiece). T owards t he e nd o f t he f irst s eason, i n o rder to g et s ome measure o f t he t ask t hat l ay a head, a t est p it was e xcavated f rom t he b ase o f t he deepest d isturbed a rea o n t he i nner s lope o f t he deposits ( Figures 1 a nd 2 a nd F rontispiece). I t was t his s ounding w hich f irst e stablished t he e xistence o f a major c hange i n s ediments ( from s hell t o s hell-free c ave e arth), f auna ( large b ovid r emains o f a k ind n ot p reviously e ncountered), a nd c ultural r emains. A rtefact s amples f rom t he s ounding were not l arge, a nd whilst t he p resence o f M iddle S tone A ge ( MSA) a rtefacts was o bvious i n l evel 2 3 ( Figure 3 ) t he i ndustry f rom t he overlying l oams, s ubsequently d esignated t he R obberg I ndustry by J . D eacon ( Klein, 1 974:258) was c onsidered n ot d iagnostic. Nor was t he A lbany I ndustry r ecognised ( Klein, i bid:258).

F igure 1 . F loor p lan o f Nelson B ay C ave, areas o f excavation r eferred t o i n t he t ext, a reas o f d isturbance by e arlier, u nrecorded a nd u nsystematic d igging, and d ump a reas.

2

3

a i • 4 )

0

u )

• 1

0 W • ( 1 O W

•

« I0 U ) •

• I r C I E 0 4 1 11

( 1 ) •

t 7 1

C T --I

•

E

4 ) ( l • d • 4 4) r

C 14 4

0

W O 0

C d• 1

r y )o • 0

ad ( l

4 ) 4 )

H • •

Oi t 1 4 0 rC I

C • 4 )

0 C l ) C d 4 )r i

W O> Z a . ) C d

•( 1 ) N

• W • r t . ,

4

1 4 ad

I n 1 969 D r. R . G . K lein was i nvited t o t ake over i nvestigation o f t he l evels e xposed i n t he s ounding ( Klein, 1 972a:177) a nd o ur own i nvestigations concentrated o n t he m ore recent l evels a t t he c ave mouth ( Figure 1 ). T he i ndustry e ncountered t hroughout o ur f irst t hree s easons

N ELSON

B AY C AVE :

1 964/65

T EST P IT S ECT IONS S OUTH F ACE

EAST F ACE

NORTH F ACE ° •

?

WEST F ACE

4

F ee t

g .

M IM IC

4 1 1 32

2 1

1

e l 2 3l e

4

C omm inu ted S he l l

d b I l

S tones

' , 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

1

r

1 : 39 1 1( 1 11 1 1 1 :3 1 M g r i zz az z om mu l a r

1 90 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 133,mic e ce i g£219 4 1 3 U 3m Il hI 1 K :1 1 11 03 . 1 I N i o l r 2 B p 1 3 1 083 1 1 1 1" 1 1 11

P o tash

• 1 1: :. ;• • 1 , i ; n u m m uNft , • 1 1 1 1ra i l l ai d ir 1 11 1 111, 6 1 1 1 1 1 1C1

T 9 1 1 9; C lean S and L ens

t e ens . e t D e l . R .R . I .

F igure 3 . S ection d rawings o f t he f irst s eason t est p it. T he principal f eatures o f i nterest a re; t he b reccia marking t he cemented upper s urface o f t he M SA deposits; t he c hange i n character f rom l oamy t o s hell dominated deposits; t he p osition o f G rN 5 889 i n u nit 2 0; a nd t he massive l ens o f b urnt s hell c omprising u nit 7 a. T he s ection may b e c ompared w ith t he extended s ections i n K lein 1 972 f igures 2 a nd 3 , a nd J . D eacon 1 984 f igure 1 6. c ould i n n o s ense be described a s W ilton, a s e ncountered i n t he uppermost l evels o f K lein's c utting ( Klein, 1 972a; D eacon, J ., 1 978), a nd was i nformally s poken o f a s ' postW ilton'. I n 1 972 t he writer moved f rom Cape Town t o Oxford a nd i t b ecame c lear t hat t he o riginal p roject i nvolving a v ery l arge c utting could n ot be s ustained. A ccordingly, t he 1 979 s eason was devoted t o making a s ounding, l arge e nough t o y ield a r easonable s ample o f a rtefacts a nd f auna, w hich would e xtend well i nto t he W ilton l evels a nd,if p ossible, p rovide a d irect s tratigraphical l ink w ith t he u pper part o f K lein's c utting. T his was s uccessfully a chieved d uring f ive weeks o f e xcavation i n F ebruary/March 1 979.

5

A t t he t ime o f t he w riter's f irst v isit i n 1 963 t he cave h ad r eceived n o n ame among t he l ocal populace. I t was a ccordingly n amed ' Wagenaar's C ave' a fter t he l ocal r esident w ho c onducted u s t o t he c ave, a nd t hat n ame, u sed t hroughout t he f irst a nd s econd s easons, o ccurs i n a n umber o f u npublished documents a nd possibly o n s ome o f t he s pecimens s tored i n t he a rchaeology department a t t he U niversity o f C ape T own ( where a ll t he f inds h ave been d eposited). A n a lternative l abelling more c ommonly u sed was " Robb." f ollowed by t he y ear o f e xcavation a nd a l ocation c ypher. S hortly b efore D r. K lein b egan h is e xcavations t he N ature C onservancy, f or t he benefit o f t ourists, h ad s ignposted s cenic f ootpaths and f ishing s pots, a nd t he l ittle p ath down t he c liff was now c learly l abelled " Nelson B ay". U naware o f o ur i nformal n aming o f t he c ave K lein u sed t he n ame ' Nelson B ay C ave' i n h is 1 972 p ublication a nd, t o a void c onfusion, t his n ame h as been a dopted f or t he s ite.

6

I

2 R EG IONAL AND L OCAL S ETT ING

2 i

GEOLOGY

T he southern c oastal r egion o f S outh A frica i s dominated by t he east-west t rending r anges o f t he Cape Folded Mountain b elt, s eparating t he G reat Karoo basin and t he i nterior p lateau f rom t he coastal plain and t he coast. I ts h igh r idges a nd deep valleys, o rographic rainfall a nd z ones o f r ain-shadow p rovide a reas o f r ichly contrasting e nvironments. T he r anges a re gently c urved a nd concave to t he south, i n contrast to t he coast, which h as a gently c urved l ine c onvex t o t he s outh. Although t he s trike o f t he mountains i s toward t he coastline t he r anges t hemselves d o not f orm promontories, f or t hey a re everywhere t runcated b y a coastal p lain o f marine o rigin and o f mid-Tertiary a ge w hich emerged b y uplift l ater i n t he Tertiary ( Wellington 1 955:163). T he pronounced bays along t he s outh coast ( Mossel Bay, P lettenberg Bay, S t. Francis Bay a nd A lgoa B ay) s eem t o owe t heir o rigin t o t he e rosion o f s ofter, C retaceous s ediments f illing deep s tructural valleys c ut d uring t he Jurassic i nto t he Table Mountain S andstone ( TMS) o f the Cape F olds ( Wellington 1 955; Rogers 1 966; K ing 1 951). T he p romontories defining the s outh-west margins o f t hese bays r epresent t he e roded r emnants o f t he s outhern f lanks o f the a ncient, i nfilled valleys, t runcated above by t he Tertiary h igh s ea-level, a nd on t he south by marine e rosion and possibly f aulting. The Robberg peninsula i s s uch a promontory. The Cretaceous s ediments ( Uitenhage S eries) i nclude t he b reccias, quartzites and conglomerates w hich may be s een i n t he h interland o f P lettenberg Bay, a nd w hich r est u nconformably on t he TMS on t he Robberg p eninsula ( Figure 4 ). Nelson Bay Cave has been e roded, m ainly i n t he C retaceous breccia, at t he contact between t he TMS and t he breccia ( Butzer 1 973). H igher o n t he c liff, a bove t he cave, t he breccia i s overlain by e stuarine d eposits, o f t he U itenhage S eries, containing well r ounded c obbles and p ebbles o f quartzite, derived f rom t he TMS ( Plates l a a nd 2 a). T he Robberg p eninsula i s a l ittle over 3 km l ong, w ith a n a xis t rending a pproximately WNW to ESE. I ts w idest point i s approximately 7 60 m a nd i t varies i n e levation f rom a round 7 6 m n ear t he n eck t o 1 48 m about two t hirds o f t he

7

R OBBERG : G eo logy T he ' Gap '

4

N e lson B ay C ave S 4 S 3 S 2 S ands S i A eo l ian i te U i tenhage S er ies MN T ab le M oun ta in S e r ies Q ua ternary

T he ' I s land ' c eo . c r : s.

F igure 4 . S implified g eology o f u npublished map by J . Rogers ( 1966)

R obberg.

Based

o n

a n

way a long, f rom whence i t f alls s teadily t o s ea l evel a t t he e asternmost point. T he TMS f oundation d ips t o t he s outh a t a ngles v arying f rom 1 2 t o 8 5 d egrees, a nd i t i s t his which i s r esponsible f or t he f ormidable c liffs which c haracterise t he n orth f ace o f t he p eninsula. T he south s ide, e xposed t o r elentless wave a ttack a nd c ontaining t he major c ave s ites, p resents much more gentle s lopes a nd r elatively e asy a ccess f rom e nd t o e nd, a t or n ear s ea l evel ( Plate l b). A bout a q uarter o f t he w ay along, f rom t he n eck, t he p eninsula i s c ut a cross by a p ronounced e rosional f eature r eferred t o a s ' The G ap'. T he U itenhage S eries, c omprising b asal b reccias, s andstones, q uartzites a nd s hale, a nd capped by c onglomerates, r ests u nconformably o n t he TMS. O bscuring most o f t he s olid g eology a re a s uite o f s ands o f v arying a ges ( Rogers 1 966), i ncluding t he a eolianite, f orming t he f oundation o f ' The I sland' a nd c overing much o f t he e astern e xtremity o f t he p eninsula ( Figure 4 ). T his a eolianite p reserves s trongly marked f alse b edding, d ipping s teeply t o t he NW o n T he I sland, a nd i s h ard e nough t o s ustain a f ine w ave-cut p latform r elated t o t he p resent s ea-level, a nd f rom 2 m t o 1 7 m w ide. S oils d eveloped o n t he TMS t end t o b e a cid, a nd w ith r ather l ow p lant-food E uropean management t hey a re ' not m uch

8

e xtremely s andy, c ontent. Under u sed except f or

p asture a nd f orestry' ( Wellington 1 955:318). S oils d eveloped o n t he U itenhage b eds a re more variable a nd v ary f rom s andy b ar ns t o c lay b ar ns, d epending o n t he underlying l ithology.

2 i i

CLIMATE

T he c limate o f R obberg P eninsula a nd i ts e nvirons i s r emarkably equable. A lmost t he e ntire e xtent s hown i n t he m ap ( Figure 5 ) l ies w ithin a n a rea o f S outh A frica which r eceives i ts r ainfall t hroughout t he year. F igures r ecorded a t t he D eepwalls F orest S tation over a 2 5 y ear p eriod ( Figure 5 ) s how t hat t he r ainfall i s r eally v ery e venly d istributed t hroughout t he y ear, t hough i t c an b e v ery variable, a nd t ends t o b e s lightly h igher i n t he s ummer months. For t he s ame p eriod t he D eepwalls r ecord ( Talbot 1 960*) i ndicates a l owest a nnual r ain o f c 3 6 i nches ( 910 mm), a maximum o f c 7 2 i nches ( 1830 mm) a nd a n e stimated mean o f c 4 2 i nches ( 1070 mm). I n h is H onours P roject o n T he G eology o f R obberg R ogers ( 1966*) g ives s omewhat l ower f igures f or t he a nnual r ainfall a t P lettenberg B ay, based o n a 5 5 y ear r ecord, w ith a m inimum o f 3 83 mm, a m aximum o f 9 46 mm a nd a n a verage o f 6 17 mm. T his r elatively a bundant r ainfall a lso h as t he a dvantage o f b eing h ighly r eliable: o ver 9 0% o n a n a nnual basis, a nd 6 5% r espectively f or t he months o f J anuary a nd J une ( Wellington 1 955; B uys e t a l 1 979). T he e ffectiveness o f t his r ainfall i s e nhanced by a v ery l ow s urface e vaporation r ate. I f r ainfall i s e quable, s o t oo a re t emperatures. F rost s eems t o b e u nknown. T he h ottest month i s J anuary w ith a verage daily m aximum t emperatures a round 2 6C ( 79F), o ften a meliorated by s ea b reezes, while t he c oldest i s J uly, w hen t he average d aily maximum d rops t o a round 1 8C ( 64F). N ight-time t emperatures d rop t o a round 1 2C ( 54F), o n a verage, i n J uly, a nd f luctuate a round a c omfortable 1 4C ( 57F) for much o f t he y ear ( Figure 5 ).

2 i ii

VEGETATION

T he maps p resented i n F igure 6 A a nd B a re b ased o n maps a ccompanying T he Veld T ypes o f S outh A frica ( Acocks 1 975) a nd a re o f i nterest mainly i n t he c ontext o f t he r egional s etting o f N BC, a s i ndicating t he various major v egetational z ones which m ight h ave h ad r elevance i n a ny s ystem o f t ranshumance. T he map o f t he a ctual v egetation i n 1 950 r eveals a p icture which i s very d ifferent f rom t hat p resented i n a r econstruction o f t he p robable s ituation i mmediately p rior t o E uropean c ontact. Various f actors a re r esponsible f or t he c hanges. T he K nysna F orest, e xpressed a s F orest a nd S crubforest i n t he r econstruction, h as b een

* T he author h as b een u nable t he T albots a nd b y R ogers.

t o c onsult

9

t he

f igures

u sed by

1 0

g reatly r educed b y i ndiscriminate e xploitation i n t he l ate e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth c enturies; s ucculent K aroo, K arroid B roken Veld, a nd S ucculent M ountain S crub h ave i nvaded t he L ittle K aroo B asin, b etween t he S wartberg r ange a nd t he O utenequa M ountains, a nd o ther valleys, a t t he e xpense o f Karroid B ushveld a nd B ushveld; a nd F alse M acchia h as e xpanded d ramatically t o r eplace F orest, S crubforest, a nd S crubby M ixed G rassveld o ver a lmost a ll o f t he h igher r eaches o f t he m ountain r anges. Most o f t hese c hanges a re t he direct r esult o f b ad v eld management ( Acocks 1 964) a nd t here i s n o e vidence t hat c limatic c hange h as p layed a p art. T he greater c omplexity s hown i n t he c ontemporary v egetation map i s n ot s imply a r eflection o f c hanges i nduced by f arming p ractices b ut t o s ome e xtent r eflects c omplexities r esulting f rom variations i n r elief a nd i n s oil types. U ndoubtedly t he p re-colonial v egetation would h ave s hown g reater c omplexity i n detail t han F igure 6 B s uggests which, t o a n e ven g reater e xtent t han i s t he c ase w ith t he modern v egetation m ap, i ndicates o nly t he b road o utlines. A cocks h imself ( 1975:1) s tresses t he i mportance o f small-scale v ariations i n t he v eld, w hich a re m appable o nly with vastly g reater e xpenditure o f l abour a nd o n a m uch l arger s cale. U nfortunately v ariability, o n e ven a s mall s cale, i s l ikely t o h ave b een o f c onsiderable i mportance t o p rehistoric man, a nd a bsence o f k nowledge a bout i t makes p redictions a bout p lant r esources v ery u ncertain. I t i s, t herefore, worth c onsidering i n s ome d etail t he r ather s cattered e vidence b earing o n t he s tate o f t he vegetation i n t he more i mmediate e nvirons o f t he c ave. I n h is a dmittedly g eneral v iew o f t he r egion, A cocks s uggests t hat w hile t he h igh f orest would h ave b een more e xtensive o n t he mountain s lopes, t he d rier c oastal p lains ' were r ight o nly f or s crub-forest' ( Acocks 1 975:7). More s pecifically, i n a n e xhaustive s tudy o f t he f orest i n t he K nysna r egion P hillips ( 1931) expresses t he v iew t hat " while t he F orests were much more e xtensive i n past c enturies, i t i s u nlikely t hat t he w hole a rea b etween t he o cean a nd t he upper mountain s lopes e ver bore F orests" ( ibid.233). O f c onsiderable i nterest i s h is o bservation t hat, while p atches o f f orest o ccur i n s heltered p ositions o n s oils developed o n C retaceous b eds, f orest ' of c limax n ature' does n ot g enerally o ccur o n t hese r ocks, n or o n a lluvium o r r aised b eaches ( ibid.17). T his i s p articularly i nteresting i n v iew o f t he p resence o f two l arge a reas o f E non Conglomerate i n t he i mmediate v icinity; t he o ne e xtending f rom t he n eck o f t he R obberg p eninsula s ome 6 km w estwards a nd 4 km t o t he n orth a nd t he o ther, s till

F igure 5 . T he r egional s etting f or N elson B ay C ave, t ogether w ith d iagrams f or t emperature a nd p recipitation. T he a rc i s d rawn a t 1 00 m iles ( 161 km) r adius f rom t he c ave. Key s ites w ithin t he a rea a re i ndicated.

1 1

0

5 0 M ls

u rn mm i g =. . . .

0

5 0K

4

2 3

3 1

4 3

:

1 •

I

i 0

I

•

. .

I

.1.1 - 1 11 ..

VEGETAT ION i n A .D . 1 400 ?

.. '•

I I

I i II •. •. I

I

1 •

•

•

•

'' '

•

NBC ores t 8 , S crub fo res t • • •F

K aroo & K arro id B ushve ld

1

', . . .. . . . . . 0.„ .. ..•

•

B ushve ld

crubby M ixed •S • •G rassve ld

F igure 6A and B . S implified modern, a nd reconstructed p rec olonial vegetation i n t he v icinity o f P lettenberg Bay. T he a reas r epresented a re t he s ame a s i n F igure 5 . Based o n A cocks 1 975 maps 1 a nd 2 . Key to 6 A: 4 = Knysna F orest; 2 3 = Valley Bushveld; 2 5 = S ucculent Mountain Scrub; 2 6 = Karroid B roken Veld; 3 0 = Central L ower Karoo; 3 1 = S ucculent Karoo; 4 3 = Mountain Rhenosterbosveld; 4 6 = Coastal R henosterbosveld; 4 7 = Coastal Macchia*; 7 0 = F alse Macchia* ( *usually r eferred t o a s Fynbos, w ith reference to t he small o r f ine-leaved bushes or shrubs which p redominate).

1 2

l arger, e xtending K eurbooms R iver.

a lmost 1 2 km WNW f rom t he mouth o f

t he

A h ighly detailed s tatement o n t he c omposition o f t he c ontemporary v egetation a round P lettenberg B ay i s f ound i n t he t hree maps a ccompanying P hillips' ( 1931) p ublication. T hese i ncorporate a n i mmense n umber o f v egetation-type i dentifications p lotted o nto l arge-scale D ivisional maps. U nfortunately t hese were r eproduced a t s lightly d ifferent r eductions a nd i t h as n ot b een possible t o c orrect f or t his i n t he map ( Figure 7 ) r eproduced h ere, t hough t he d istortions do n ot a ffect t he e vident p atterning. I n t his

F igure 7 . M ajor f orest a reas i n 1 931, t ogether w ith e arly f arm e stablishments i n t he a rea, i ncluding s ome r eferred t o i n t he t ext. Vegetation b ased o n P hillips 1 931; o ther d etails f rom v arious s ources.

m ap s ubdivisions o f t he v arious t ypes o f f orest, macchia, s crub and b ush u sed by P hillips h ave b een i gnored. T he map i ndicates t wo a reas dominated by f orest v egetation, west a nd east o f t he K eurbooms R iver, a nd c orresponding, r espectively, t o t he K nysna a nd T zitzikama f orests. T hese f orest a reas a re s urrounded by m acchia a nd s crub; t he s crub p redominating a long t he l ine o f t he c oast, a nd i n t he r iver a nd s tream v alleys ( these l atter a re omitted f rom t he map, e xcept f or a f ew markers). A m ore r ecent m ap ( Figure 8 ) c ompiled by H . G . S criba f rom a erial photographs a nd 1 :10,000 maps o f S .A. S tate F orests ( Scriba 1 984) p rovides a m uch more a ccurate p icture o f t he d istribution o f t he f orests f ifty y ears o n f rom P hillips.

1 3

F igure 8 . D istribution o f t he f orest C ompiled by J . H . S criba ( 1984).

a reas

i n

1 981.

B ut both maps a gree i n s howing much o pen c ountry a djacent t o P lettenberg B ay a nd R obberg. M r. C . J . Geldenhuys o f t he S aasveld F orestry R esearch S tation r emarks ( in l it. 2 9.x.81) t hat " The b reak i n t he f orest i n t he a rea b etween R obberg a nd 1 0 km west o f R obberg, a nd t o t he north o f t his a rea, c an b e a ttributed t o t he r elatively l ow rainfall ( < 7 00 mm), t he g eology ( mostly E non c onglomerates and q uartzitic s andstones), b roken t opography w ith north-south s lopes, a nd t he e stuarine valley.... T he rainfall i n p articular i s v ery l ow, e specially i n r elation t o t he n utrient a nd d rainage s tatus o f t he u nderlying geology o f t hat a rea". Various p ieces o f e vidence s uggest t hat t his p attern o f f orest a nd o pen c ountry i s o f l ong s tanding, a nd was n ot c reated by E uropean t ree-felling. W ithin t he f orest t here a re a n umber o f o pen c learings, r eferred t o a s ' Islands', which h ave generally been r egarded a s o f r ecent a nd a rtificial o rigin. Within 1 2 km r adius o f t he D eepwalls F orest S tation t here are n o l ess t han e leven o f t hese, varying i n s ize f rom 3 00 m x 1 200 m t o 4 .6 km x 2 .3 km, a nd r ecent s tudies i ndicate t hat t he majority o f t hem a re a ncient a nd p ossibly e ntirely n atural f eatures ( personal c ommunication i n d iscussion at S aasveld F orest R esearch S tation). I t i s p ossible t hat s uch a reas m ight h ave b een maintained i n a n o pen c ondition, i n p art, by t he g razing o f b uffalo. W hat o f t he c ountryside s outh o f t he s urviving f orests and i n t he ' gap' b etween K nysna a nd T zitzikama f orests? I n t he e arly d ecades o f t he e ighteenth c entury, when there w as a p urposeful movement o f s ettlers t o t he e astern Cape " thick f orests b eyond t he G reat B rak R iver d iverted t he e astward

1 4

t rek over t he f irst c oastal r anges, t hrough t he L ittle K aroo and L ongkloof..."(Katzen 1 969:211). T hus, c ompared w ith t he i nterior a nd t he e astern C ape, s ettlement o f t he c oastal r egion b etween t he G reat B rak R iver a nd P lettenberg B ay was s omewhat r etarded. A s l ate a s 1 765 t here i s n o r ecord o f s ettlement a t P lettenberg B ay ( Storrar 1 978:44), b ut by 1 785 t here a re a t l east a dozen f armsteads b etween t he K nysna a nd t he K eurbooms r ivers, a t l east n ine o f which a re i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f P lettenberg Bay, s ome e stablished f or a t l east a d ecade, a nd e ven o ne o n t he S alt R iver some twenty k ilometers e ast o f t he K eurbooms. S ome o f t hese f armers w ere e ngaged i n c utting t imber, p artly f or t heir own u se, a nd p artly f or s ale. B ut whilst i t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay what a creage m ight h ave b een c leared i t s eems unlikely t o h ave b een very e xtensive b efore 1 790, i f o nly because o f t he d ifficulty o f getting t he t imber away f rom the B ay t o C ape T own, where i t was n eeded. T he f irst s hipment by s ea f rom t he B ay was i n 1 788 a nd by 1 795 t he t rade h ad s o d eclined t hat t he government a t t he C ape r ecommended t hat t he t imber s tore a t t he B ay be c losed d own. By t he e arly y ears o f t he n ineteenth c entury t he b ulk of t he t rade was c entred o n K nysna. Whilst t hese f irst settlers u ndoubtedly e arned s ome i ncome f rom t he s ale o f t imber t his w ould n ot, i n t he f irst p hase o f s ettlement, h ave s upported t hem a nd t heir f amilies a nd s ervants: t here h ad to b e open, f armable g round a lready i n e xistence f or t hem to s ettle t here. L ichtenstein ( 1812,1:234) s peaks o f t he woods o n e ither s ide of t he Kaaimans R iver, a nd o f c rossing t hree b ranches o f t he r iver " before t hey q uitted t he woods a nd g ot i nto a n o pen country". A l ittle f urther e ast a t ' Zwart-river' ( =Swartvlei) " the f ields a fford a bundance o f g rass" ( ibid 2 39). S ome f ive m iles e ast o f K nysna h e " came t o a nother l ittle wood", s uggesting t hat t he country was f ar f rom b eing uniformly c lothed i n f orest. A nd t hen " after a f atiguing r ide i n e xtreme h eat ( it was D ecember), o ver a f lat, dry country, we a rrived a t P lettenberg's b ay," w hich a gain s uggests t hat t he a pproach t o t he b ay f rom t he west w as t hrough open c ountry. T he woods were s tated t o s tart " not more t han a q uarter o f a n h our's d istance ( he does n ot s ay whether by f oot o r by h orse) f rom t he postholder's h ouse", a nd t o " run n orthwards t owards t he mountains". ( It i s i nteresting t o c ompare t his description w ith t he map d rawn by W . H . N ewdigate s ixty y ears l ater ( Storrar 1 978: f acing p .150) w hich s eems t o i ndicate t hree major a reas o f f orest t rending n orth/south, a s uggestion o f s omething d ifferent ( ? s crub vegetation) i n s ome o f t he s tream v alleys a nd a long t he c oast, a nd l arge a reas o f o pen g round b etween t he c oast a nd t he P iesang a nd B itou R ivers, a nd n orth of t he B itou). O f t he b ay a rea i tself L ichtenstein s ays " the s oil i s n ot l ess f ertile...than i n O uteniqualand, t hough t he f ields a re a lmost a ll s our...On t he h igh h ills, s weet g rass g rows i n t olerable p lenty, a nd s ome o f t he f armers t here f eed a c onsiderable n umber o f c attle". T he w ay eastward f rom t he K eurbooms was s aid t o b e i mpassable o n a ccount o f t he f orests s o t hat h e f ollowed t he r oute t o

1 5

t he L ong K loof ( ? b y way o f Uplands a nd P aarde Kop ( Figure 7 ) p assing " through s everal o utskirts o f t he f orest" ( ibid:252). A t C loetes-kraal, s ome f ifteen miles t o t he n orth o f t he b ay, a nd j ust west o f t he K eurbooms R iver t hey f ound " excellent g rass" f or t heir h orses a nd o xen. F ifteen y ears e arlier B arrow ( 1801) v isited t he a rea and s hows t he f orests, o n h is G eneral C hart, a s l ying a long t he f oothills o f t he mountains a nd a djacent t o t he r iver c ourses e rupting i nto t he s ea, e xcept i n t he case o f t he e asternmost o f t hree r ivers between K nysna and R obberg w here h e s hows a p atch o f f orest o ccupying t he l and e ast o f t he r iver, down t o t he c oast. A l arge a rea west o f t he K eurbooms R iver, r unning n orth-west f rom t he outlet, h e marks a s ' Hartebeest V lakte' ( hartebeest p lains), a nd s ays t hat " the P lain o f H artebeests a bounds w ith that n oble s pecies" ( ibid:390). W ith r egard t o h is r emarks o n t he f lora t here i s, p erhaps, s ome u ncertainty a s to w hether t hey r efer t o t he r egion i n g eneral, o r t o t he vicinity o f t he b ay, t hough t here a re good r easons f or s upposing t he l atter. I t i s t herefore o f i nterest t hat, f ollowing r emarks o n t he f lowers a long t he K eurbooms R iver a nd t he S trelitzias a long t he P iesang ( though P rotea grandiflorae were " on t he s ummit o f t he mountains") h e s ays " heaths a lso w ere v ery l arge, a nd b ulbous a nd r ooted p lants i n g reat a bundance". S till e arlier, L e Vaillant ( 1780) a lso i ndicates t hat much o f t he c ountry w as o pen. I n j ourneying f rom K nysna t o P lettenberg B ay h e r efers t o c rossing " by dreadful r oads a f orest c alled L e P oort, f rom t hence i n s even h ours we r eached t he W itte D reft" s ome f ive m iles n orth west o f t he b ay. H e mentions, h ere, f arms s ettled by c olonists, r aising c attle, a nd a lso r efers t o t he presence o f h artebeests: " a small t roup o f a bout twenty f ive o r t hirty... i n a small s pace e nclosed b y t he s ea, a nd two r ivers". F rom h is description t hese s eem l ikely t o have b een t he P iesang a nd a small t ributory o f t he K eurbooms, s outh o f t he B itou. T he p resence o f " considerable h erds o f b uffaloes" g razing " within v iew o n t he o ther s ide o f t he Q uer Boom", a nd a p ack o f w ild dogs ( the C ape hunting dog), t hrough h is c amp o ne day a ll p oint c learly t o a s ubstantial amount o f o pen g round. T he botanist T hunberg ( 1814) s eems t o h ave b een t he e arliest o f t he t ravellers t o v isit t he bay. C . B otha's f arm i n t he P iesang valley was a lready e stablished a nd i s d escribed a s " entirely a g razing f arm". " The f ields h ereabouts" h e t ells u s " were f ull o f w ild b uffaloes, s o t hat i t w as n ot u ncommon t o s ee a h undred o r two o f t hem i n a h erd. T hey g enerally l ie s till i n t he t hickets a nd woods i n t he d aytime, a nd i n t he n ight go o ut i nto t he f ields t o g raze". Most o f t he e arly t ravellers e xtolled t he b eauty, a nd t he b ounty o f O utenequaland which, t o Le V aillant ( 1790:169-173), was a " terrestrial p aradise" i nhabited by c olonists w ho b red " vast q uantities o f c attle" made b utter, c ut wood, a nd g athered h oney, a ll o f w hich were produced i n

1 6

s urplus a nd s ent t o t he C ape f or s ale. B ut most o f t hese v isitors were u nspecific a s t o t he boundaries o f t his l and o f m ilk a nd h oney. L ichtenstein s et t he e astern b oundary a t Kaaiman's R iver ( 1812,1:233) b ut f or T hunberg ( 1814:35) " Houteniquas L and t erminated o n t his ( west) s ide ( of t he K eurbooms R iver), a l and a bounding i n g rass, wood, a nd b uffaloes". T he p icture t hat emerges i s o ne o f a mosaic o f g rassland ( ? m acchia), s crub, a nd f orest, o f a k ind t hat c an be s een i n t he a rea t oday. Much o f t he t rue f orest p robably l ay, a s i t d oes t oday, i n t he s heltered k loofs ( steep v alleys) w ith d ense s crub o r b ush s pilling o ut o nto t he h igher f lanks, a nd occupying t he s hallower valleys o f s mall s treams, a nd t he b roken g round a nd s lopes f acing, a nd a djacent t o, t he s ea. The i nterfluves s eem l ikely t o h ave been o ften f airly o pen, b ut w ith p atches o f dense s crub a nd p erhaps o ccasional s tands o f t rees. T his v ariability i n t he v egetation o f t he r egion i s r eflected i n t he r ichness o f t he species o ccurring i n t he K nysna D ivision ( 810 s q. m ls.). T he c heck-list o f f lowering p lants p ublished by F ourcade ( 1941) l ists 1 463 s pecies i n 5 26 g enera a nd 1 14 f amilies. T he l ist i ncludes a ll 2 5 f amilies a nd 6 6 o f t he 9 9 genera l isted by A cocks ( 1975) a s " dominants i n a ll t he v ariations o f t he f ynbos". A f urther 1 2 o f A cocks's g enera a re i ndicated f or t he D ivision, by F ourcade, a s " within t he r ange o f t he s pecies o n t he c oastal b elt", a nd whilst 1 4 o f A cocks's g enera d o n ot o ccur i n t he K nysna D ivision, 1 9 o ther genera, w ithin t he s ame 2 5 f amilies, a re p resent. T he l ist o f 1 37 f orest s pecies o ccurring i n t he R obberg a rea ( Appendix 1 ) e xtends F ourcade's l ist by a t l east 3 0 s pecies. T hus, both f orest a nd f ynbos ( macchia) a re c learly r epresented i n t he D ivision w ithin w hich P lettenberg B ay a nd t he R obberg o ccur. T hat this p attern, d emonstrable i n t he l atter p art o f t he e ighteenth c entury, was n ot t he r esult o f t he s ettlers a xes, c attle, a nd b urning, i s c onfirmed by t he b rief r ecords r elating t o t he wreck o f t he S an G onzales. T he s hip put i nto B aia F ormosa ( Plettenberg B ay) f or o verhaul i n J une 1 630, t arried t oo l ong, a nd was dashed t o p ieces i n a v iolent s outh-easterly gale. O ne h undred s urvivors, w ith a m inimum o f s alvaged c argo, e stablished a small s ettlement i n which t hey l ived f or a t l east e ight months u ntil t hey c ould put t o s ea i n two n ewly c onstructed boats. T he l and was far f rom i nhospitable a nd t hey managed t o g row a v ariety o f s eeds s alvaged f rom t he w reck. " The h ills a nd valleys", we a re t old " abound w ith verdure a nd p lants, s uch a s r ushes, r eeds, sweet b asil, w ild o nions, t omeros, w ild m int, l avender a nd various o thers, w ith sweet-smelling f lowers. The t rees a re n umerous a nd l arge. I n a ll p arts i t i s watered b y v oluminous r ivers a nd a bundant a nd f ine s prings". T he b ay was i nhabited by pastoralists who " wander a bout i n b ands w ith t heir h erds" f rom whom t hey managed t o b arter s ome c ows a nd s heep. O n S t. J ohn's d ay " they appeared w ith g arlands o f h erbs": S torrar g ives " garlands o f g rasses" ( Storrar 1 978:14-18; R aven-Hart

1 7

1 967:132-134; A xelson, 1 960:201-2). T heir description, a gain, f its a mosaic o f macchia, f orest, a nd s crub. P hillips ( 1931) s ees g razing a nd f ire a s two o f t he most p ersistent f actors l eading t o r eduction o f t he forest and t he e xtension o f macchia, a nd whilst h e i s c learly w rong i n a sserting t hat t here w ere n o c attle i nvolved before the a dvent o f t he E uropeans ( ibid:102) t he n omadic way o f l ife o f t he p rehistoric p astoralists p robably meant t hat they m ade l ittle o r n o i nroad i nto t he f orest. T he role o f f ire i s a nother matter, b ut i t i s a f actor w hich w as i n e xistence l ong b efore p astoralism, a nd m ust b e considered a s h aving b ecome a p art o f t he n atural s ystem o f t he r egion p robably f or t ens o f t housands o f y ears.

1 8

3 R ESOURCES

3 i

PLANT RESOURCES

I n t he a bsence o f a ny s urvey designed t o e xamine t he p lant r esources i n t he v icinity o f t he s ite t he most t hat c an b e done at p resent i s t o a ssess t he p ossibilities. I n t his C . J . Geldenhuys o f t he S aasveld F orest R esearch S tation o f t he South A frican D epartment o f F orestry h as b een p articularly h elpful i n p roviding a l ist o f t he f orest f lora i n t he Robberg a rea, i ndicating t he l ife-form o f t he p lants a nd e dibility o r o ther u ses w here k nown. T his l ist, w ith s ome a dditional i nformation, a ppears i n A ppendix 1 . I n addition, t he c hecklist f or t he K nysna D ivision ( Fourcade 1 941) a nd t he l ist c ompiled by C ourtenay-Latimer e t a l ( 1967) f or t he T sitsikama F orest a nd C oastal N ational P ark have b een u sed. T he l atter i s a s election o f 1 65 s pecies o f i nterest t o v isitors t o t he p ark a nd i s h elpful h ere a s i t a dds 4 8 s pecies t o t he c ombined S aasveld a nd F ourcade l ists a nd c onfirms t he p resence o f 1 06, p ossibly 1 11, Fourcade s pecies i n a n a rea i mmediately a djacent a nd v ery s imilar t o P lettenberg B ay a nd R obberg. T he c ombined t otal o f s pecies f or t he t hree l ists i s 2 356, i ncluding t he 8 11 species i ndicated by F ourcade a s p robably p resent. I solating, f rom s o l arge a l ist, t hose which may h ave b een o f e conomic s ignificance i s m uch more d ifficult. T he l ist ( Appendix 1 ) i ndicates 5 0 s pecies a s p roviding e dible p arts; 4 6 f ruits, 1 s eed, 1 b ulb, a nd 5 v egetative p arts. A t l east f our s pecies, a nd possibly e ight, l isted b y Fourcade a nd n ot i n t he S aasveld l ist a re i ndicated a s e dible by M offett a nd D eacon ( 1977) ( Appendix 2 ) a nd a nother f ive s pecies c an b e a dded f rom C ourtenay-Latimer e t a l ( 1967), e xcluding a c ouple o f s pecies o f W atsonia, o f w hich genus t here a re l arge s tands a t t he p resent day c lose t o the R obberg. F ourcade i ndicates 4 9, a nd possibly a s m any a s 9 5 s pecies o f I ridaceae, i ncluding e ight ( or e leven) s pecies o f Watsonia f or t he K nysna D ivision a nd t he r emarks o f B arrow, a nd t he S an G onzales s urvivors, q uoted a bove make i t s eem l ikely t hat a v ariety o f g eophytes h ave, w ithin t he p eriod o f t he p resent c limatic r egime, a lways b een available i n t he v icinity. T his may b e i mportant i n v iew o f t he r ole c laimed f or g eophytes i n t he e astern a nd s outh-western C ape r espectively ( Deacon 1 976:162;

1 9

P arkington 1 972; 1 975:217ff). A dditional s pecies o r g enera y ielding e dible p arts, a nd o ccurring w ithin t he K nysna D ivision, a re g iven by P almer a nd P itman ( 1972), S tory ( 1958), a nd P arkington ( 1975), b ringing t he total k nown f ood-plant s pecies p resent i n t he K nysna D ivision t o a t l east s eventy ( Appendixes 1 a nd 2 ). U ndoubtedly t he l ist c ould b e l engthened, b ut i t s hould b e s tressed t hat t his c ulling o f t he l iterature i ndicates o nly a r ange o f possibilities. Nothing c an b e s aid a t p resent a s t o t he a bundance o r e ven a vailability o f most o f t hese p lants, l et a lone t heir n utritive value. B ut t he i ndications a re t hat a v ariety o f p lant f oods were l ikely t o be available t o s upplement t he d iet t hroughout t he y ear ( Table 1 ). A c onsiderable n umber o f t hese c an b e

N umber

o f

s pecies

b y

m onth ,

O R obberg

H arkerville

1 5

3

N

D

1 5

4

1 4

4

J

F

2 0

4

K nysna D ivision

1

1

1 2

1

T otal

2 9

3 0

3 0

3 5

2 1

M

A

2 0

M

1 8

J

1 7

J

1 4

A

1 4

S

1 3

1 2

4

4

5

5

4

3

2

2

5

5

5

4

3

1

1

3

3 0

2 9

2 8

2 6

2 1

T able 1 . Numbers o f f ood - p lant s pecies a vailable t o t he o ccupants o f Nelson B ay C ave. i ndicated f or K nysna D ivision a re p lants n ot t he S aasveld l ist f or t he f orest f lora o f H arkerville.

1 8

1 6

1 7

potentially The s pecies i ncluded i n Robberg a nd

s uggested, w ith a f air d egree o f c onfidence, to h ave been a vailable w ithin f oraging d istance o f t he c ave, o r o f o ther s ites i n t he v icinity w hich m ay h ave f ormed parts o f t he s ettlement b ase. T he f orest f lora, p roviding f or t he most p art f ruits a nd b erries, y ields t he g reatest variety o f f oods f rom m id-Summer ( January) t o l ate W inter ( July), w hile t he f lora o f t he more o pen c ountry, i ncluding t he p otentially i mportant g eophytes, y ields t he g reatest

2 0

p rofusion d uring t he h eight o f S ummer ( October T he l eanest months a re apparently J uly, S eptember, t hough e ven h ere t he c ollectable h ave dropped n ot m uch b elow a dozen.

t o J anuary). A ugust a nd s pecies m ay

I f t he f orest f ruits h ad a ny s ignificant r ole i n t he e conomy t hen i t i s l ikely t o h ave b een e nhanced by t he r educed i nfluence o f s easonality. P hillips ( 1931:245) o bserves t hat " short s pells o f e ither a bnormally moist o r a bnormally d ry w eather, a bnormally warm o r a bnormally c ool w eather, t ogether w ith l ocal e daphic a nd t opographic c onditions, s eem t o be o f more i mportance i n d eciding t he p eriods o f p roduction o f f lowers a nd f ruits t han does t he m ere following r ound o f t he s easons o f t he y ear". H e a lso n otes t hat " Individuals n ear t he s ea f lower s everal weeks e arlier t han do t hose o n t he p lateaux i nland, whereas t hose o n t he p lateaux f lower a nd f ruit s everal w eeks t o s everal months b efore t heir r elatives i n t he mountain-kloof p atches". T hus, w hile t he e ffects o f w eather may b e s aid t o i ntroduce a n e lement o f u ncertainty i nto t he s upply, t he o ver-all e ffect o f variability would s eem t o b e t hat o f c onsiderably s preading t he p eriod o f a vailability o f f ruits a cross t he l ocal l andscape. Whether o r n ot p lants s uch a s t he geophytes a re s imilarly a ffected i s n ot k nown. A lthough work b y D eacon ( 1976) a nd P arkington ( 1972 a nd 1 977) i n t he e astern a nd western C ape, r espectively, h as s tressed t he r ole o f g eophytes i n g eneral, a nd watsonias i n p articular i t i s worth n oting t hat a t l east two s pecies o f s hrub occurring o n t he R obberg h ave b een r eported a s h aving d ietary s ignificance. P almer a nd P itman ( 1972:2165) r eport t hat Chrysanthemoides monilifera was much s ought a fter by H ottentots, a nd w as a n i mportant a rticle i n t heir d iet, a nd t hat Euclea u ndulata ( ibid, 1 783) was " a s taple f ood o f t he B ushmen a t G rootfontein", a lthough P algrave ( 1977:74) o bserves o f t he l atter t hat t he f ruit i s n ot v ery p leasant t asting. A c onsiderable n umber o f t he s pecies l isted a re i ndicated by W att a nd B reyer-Brandwijk ( 1962) a s h aving medicinal a nd/or magical s ignificance i n o ne p art o r a nother o f e astern a nd s outhern A frica. S ome s uch u sages c an b e i nferred f or t he s outhern a nd s outh-western C ape g enerally, o n t he g rounds o f t heir i nfluence o n t he development o f vernacular n ames f or p lants by t he e arly E uropean s ettlers ( Smith 1 966). B ut t here s eems l ittle p oint i n a ttempting t o e laborate o n s uch u sages o ther t han t o n ote t hat t here a re a variety o f p lants o f apparently r eal medicinal value a nd t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t hese were n ot k nown a nd exploited f or t he amelioration o f major a nd m inor a ilments. A n umber o f p lant s pecies g rowing e ither l ocally o n t he Robberg ( R), H arkeville F orest R eserve ( H) o r r ecorded f or t he Knysna D ivision g enerally ( Kn) a re r ecorded by various a uthors a s h aving s pecific u ses i n t he manufacture o f a rtefacts e tc. ( cf. D eacon 1 976:42ff; W att a nd B reyer-

2 1

B randwijk 1 962: P algrave 1 977). Z ostera c apensis, u sed a s b edding, g rows i n p rofusion a round t he margins o f the l agoon a t t he K eurbooms R iver mouth a nd c an b e gathered at l ow t ide s imply by r olling i t up l ike a m at. Of v arious p lants w ith a ' reed'-like h abit, u sed i n t he manufacture o f mats, a rrows, a nd c ord, Cyperus t extilis and P hragmites c ommunis a re both r ecorded f or the K nysna D ivision. L arge s tands o f ' reeds' ( probably Phrag _mites) o ccur i n t he P iesang e stuary a nd t he K eurbooms l agoon, and t hat C .textilis p robably a lso o ccurs i s i ndicated b y the n ame M atjes ( mats) R iver which o ccurs o nly twelve m iles t o t he e ast o f Robberg. G nidia denudata ( ? R ), S truthiola sp. ( ? R ), a nd P asserina s p. ( R), a re a lso g iven i n the S aasveld l ist a s s ources o f f ibre f or s tring, while R hoicissus t omentosa ( R) a nd R . d igitata ( R) a re mentioned a s s ources f or r ope, a nd t he f ormer f or basket-work. G rewia o ccidentalis ( R) was u sed by S an h unter-gatherers f or b owstaves ( Palgrave 1 977:577), a nd B uddleja s aligna ( R) a nd C urtisia dentata ( ? R ) a re b oth mentioned b y Watt a nd B reyer-Brandwijk ( 1962:727 a nd 3 10 r espectively) a s u sed f or a ssegai s hafts. Cassine a ethiopica ( R) i s used among t he X hosa f or a xe h andles, k nobkerries, and a s f uel ( Palgrave i bid: 5 09), whilst E kbergia c apensis ( R) and C eltis a fricana ( H) a re variously m entioned a s u sed for h andles, s ticks, s poons, a nd h utbuilding. T hus, i t would s eem t hat a ll t he n ormal r equirements f or wood and plant f ibres f or t ools, weapons, c ord a nd t raps were r eadily a vailable i n t he l ocal l andscape.

3 i i

TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS,

S EALS AND B IRDS

T he s cope f or making p recise s tatements a bout t he r ange o f a nimals t hat c ould b e e xpected t o h ave b een a ccessible t o t he o ccupants o f NBC i s extremely l imited. Two h undred y ears o f E uropean c olonisation w ith i ts c onsequent d isturbance o f t he e nvironment a nd, a ll too o ften, deliberate a nnihilation o f game h ave l eft a f auna s o i mpoverished a s t o be o f very l imited h elp i n r econstruction. General s tatements o n t he c haracter o f t he f auna f or t he s outhern C ape r egion a s a w hole ( e.g. Klein 1 980) p rovide a u seful c onceptual f ramework, but t ake n o a ccount o f v ariability w ithin t he e cozone. I t i s t herefore n ecessary t o t urn t o a v ariety o f s ources i n o rder t o make a s tatement w hich i s mostly o ne o f p robability, w ith here a nd t here a f ew f irmer points. N umerous w riters f rom t he e ighteenth c entury o nwards have mentioned t he e lephants o f t he K nysna f orest, and a lso t he b uffalo: T hunberg ( 1772) s ays " it was n ot u ncommon t o see a h undred o r two o f t hem [ buffaloes] i n a h erd" a t P lettenberg B ay. I n a ddition L e Vaillant ( 1790) m entions B ubales ( Red h artebeest?) ( ibid:I,222) a nd w ild d ogs, a nd t he s mall a ntelope t hey c hased t hrough h is c amp. Barrow ( 1801:1,390) a lso mentions t he h artebeest a nd t he b ushbuck. T he s hipwrecked s ailors o f t he S an G onzales, i n t he early s eventeenth c entury, s poke o f " deer, wolves [ ?hyaenas o r

2 2

t he Cape h unting dog], s eals, b uffaloes, w ild b oars [ ?bushpig], monkeys a nd a lso t igers [ leopard] a nd e lephants a nd r abbits s imilar t o f errets". R ogers ( 1966) i n h is description o f t he g eology o f t he R obberg s peaks o f s even mammal s pecies w ithin t he s mall n ature r eserve a t t he present day, b ut mentions o nly dassies, m ongoose a nd grysbok by n ame. F or s ome l ocally e xtinct s pecies p lace names provide a c lue a s t o t heir f ormer p resence ( Sargent 1 954). A s tudy o f t he s tatus a nd d istribution o f twenty-two s pecies o f u ngulate m ammals i n t he C ape P rovince ( Bigalke a nd Bateman 1 962) u nfortunately d id n ot i nclude t he a rea under the K nysna D ivisional C ouncil, w hich i ncludes R obberg a nd i ts h interland. I t d id, h owever, i nclude H umansdorp D ivision t o t he e ast, a nd U niondale t o t he n orth w hich, while d ifferent f rom e ach o ther i n s ome i mportant r espects, p rovide b etween t hem a good i ndication a s t o s pecies l ikely t o h ave o ccurred i n o ur a rea ( Appendix 3 ). O f t he two, Humansdorp p rovides t he c losest a nalogue f or t he K nysna D ivision, p articularly i n i ts w estern h alf. More r ecently S tuart, P almer a nd M unnik ( 1978) h ave c ompiled l ists o f t he f auna r ecorded i n o r i n c lose p roximity t o t he K eurbooms R iver Nature R eserve which, w hile e vidently r ecording a depleted r ange o f l arger mammals, p rovides a v aluable i ndication f or t he smaller s pecies, a nd i s l ikely t o r eflect v ery c losely ( albeit i ncompletely) t he f auna o f t he Robberg a nd i ts h interland. F rom t hese various s ources i t i s p ossible t o c ompile a l ist o f t hose s pecies which possibly o ccurred i n t he a rea, a nd t o i ndicate t hose k nown t o h ave o ccurred, t hose w hich were p robably c ommon a nd t hose which were p robably a bundant ( Appendix 4 ). There a re n o p recise data o n t he a bundance o f t he s pecies l isted i n A ppendix 4 a nd t he i ndications g iven a re r eally i mpressions f ormed o n t he b asis o f t he l iterature a nd t he h abitat. Buffalo a re mentioned a s p resent i n c onsiderable n umbers by s everal e arly t ravellers a nd t he s ame i s t rue f or t he s eals, w hich w ere c onspicuous e nough i n h istorical t imes t o h ave g iven t heir n ame t o t he p eninsula ( Robberg: A frikaans: r obbe = s eal; b erg = mountain). T he g rey d uiker a nd the C ape g rysbok a re a ssumed t o h ave b een a bundant o n t he grounds o f t he h igh s cores r egistered i n t he a djacent a reas ( Appendix 3 ). T he s cores i n A ppendix 3 a re t he main e vidence f or l isting s ix o f t he s pecies a s p robably c ommon, p lus t he f act t hat baboons p ersist i n t he v icinity t oday ( leopard a re s till o ccasionally r eported) a nd dassies a re c ommon. A f ew e lephant s till s urvive i n t he K nysna f orest, a nd the i ndications a re t hat t hey t oo were c onsiderably more numerous i n t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth c enturies. T hus the c hief g ame a vailable t o t he i nhabitants o f t he c ave would h ave b een t he various s pecies o f s mall, s olitary a ntelope, s eals, small g round game a nd, i f t hey w ere a ble t o t ackle t hem, b uffalo a nd e lephant. T he i nformation o n T he S an Gonzales

b irds i s, s urvivors

i f a nything, e ven more s aid " The b irds a re

2 3

s canty. t urkey

[ ?bustard o r k orhaan]...geese, p igeons, t urtle-doves, and a n a stonishing n umber o f small p artridges ( of o ur p artridges t here a re f ew)" ( Storrar 1 978:16). F rom t he description o f t heir n esting h abits t he l ast-named s eem t o h ave been weaver-birds o f s ome s ort. R ogers ( 1966) mentions twenty-two s pecies o f b irds i n t he Robberg Nature R eserve, b ut mentions o nly g ulls a nd c ormorants b y name. H owever, t he s hore-life must a lways h ave been r ichly varied a nd a bundant a nd t his, p lus o ff-shore f ish, must have s upported c onsiderable c olonies o f gulls a nd c ormorants, a s well a s o ther a vian d enizens o f t he c oastline h abitat. S tuart, P almer a nd M unnik ( 1978) l ist 1 24 i ndigenous s pecies f or t he K eurbooms R iver N ature R eserve a nd i mmediate v icinity. T he b ulk o f t hese a re small b irds, b ut among t hem a re a n umber o f l arger s pecies which a re l ikely t o h ave o ccurred o n a nd a djacent t o t he p eninsula, a nd i n t he v lei, l agoon a nd e stuaries n earby ( Appendix 5 ). I n a ddition t o t hese t here a re a v ariety o f p lovers, s andpipers, t erns, p igeons a nd doves. T he San G onzales r ecord o f what may h ave b een b ustards o r Korhaan i s a r eminder t hat a t l east s ome s pecies m issing f rom t he l ist m ay h ave b een p resent i n f ormer t imes. Notable a bsentees a re members o f t he P hasianidae ( pheasants p artridges a nd q uails) a nd t he N umididae ( guinea-fowls) o f which a t least s ome c ould b e e xpected t o h ave b een p resent. H oney i s f requently mentioned by e arly t ravellers a s being m uch s ought a fter b y t he i ndigenous i nhabitants and i n t he s outh-west C ape i t s eems t o h ave b een available a t least f rom O ctober t o A pril, i nclusive, ( Moodie, 1 960: v arious i ndexed r efs.). T here i s s ome c onfusion i n r ecords o f t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth c entury a s t o whether t he t erritory k nown a s O uteniqualand ( Houteniquas Land; A uteniquas) e nded a t t he K aaimans R iver ( Lichtenstein 1 :233) o r a t K eurbooms R iver ( Thunberg 1 814), b ut L e Vaillant ( 1790,1:169-70) t ells u s t hat t he n ame " in t he H ottentot l anguage s ignifies a man l oaded w ith honey...you c annot walk a s tep w ithout meeting w ith swarms o f bees". H e mentions ( ibid:173) gathering h oney a s one o f t he s ubsistence a ctivities o f t he c olonists s ettled t here. Whether t he h oney s eason was l imited t o s even o r e ight months o f t he y ear, a s i n t he s outh-west C ape o f w hether, i n t he a bsence o f marked s easonal c hanges i n r ainfall a nd t emperature, a nd t he y ear-round a vailability of f lowers ( Phillips 1 931:245ff.) i t was available t hroughout t he year i s n ot k nown, b ut s eems n ot i mprobable. A part f rom honey t here i s l ittle o n which t o s uggest what other c ontributions t o t he d iet i nsects may h ave made. N o doubt c aterpillars would b e a vailable i n S pring a nd A utumn, as i n t he s outh-west C ape ( Parkington 1 977:fig 8 :2), and l ocusts a nd a nts may h ave made s easonal o r i ntermittent c ontributions.

2 4

3 i ii

WATER

Rogers ( 1966:7) mentions " Half a dozen small s treams" o n t he s outh s ide o f t he p eninsula, i ncluding o ne a t t he h ead o f N elson's Bay a nd o ne j ust e ast o f t he t ombolo, j oining t he d une-rock i sland t o t he p eninsula, w hich o riginate f rom w ithin s and d unes a nd c ontain f resh w ater. O thers a re d istinctly b rak. I n a ddition t o t hese s treams t here a re n umerous p laces w here t here a re m inor s eepages f rom w hich water could b e c ollected. Nelson B ay C ave i tself h as b een observed i n t hree o f o ur f ield s easons ( Dec-Jan) t o c ontain a l arge p ool o f perfectly f resh water a t t he r ear o f t he cave, a p henomenon a lso n oted by K lein d uring h is excavations i n J uly t o S eptember i n 1 970 a nd 1 971 which h ad u sually d ried u p b y t he e nd o f J anuary. K lein a lso n oted a very r apid r ise i n t he water-table i n t he c ave, f ollowing h eavy r ainfall ( Klein 1 972:178-9), which h e t hought reflected t he p resence o f a s pring l ocated b eneath t he deposits a t t he r ear o f t he c ave. T hat s tanding water h as been o f g reater e xtent a nd more p ermanent a t s ome t ime i n t he past i s i ndicated by a water-line o n t he r ear w all o f t he cave a lmost a m etre h igher t han t he a djacent c ave f loor. Away f rom t he p eninsula t he c ountryside i s well watered by p erennial s treams a nd f resh w ater i s a lways i n abundant s upply. T he even s pread o f r ainfall p robably means t hat a n a dequate s upply o f w ater f or a small, h untergatherer b and w as a lways t o b e h ad w ithin e asy r each o f t he cave.

3 i v

SEAWEED

S ixty-four s pecies o f s eaweed h ave b een l isted f or t he T sitsikama c oast ( Seagrief 1 967) which, f or p ractical purposes, may b e t aken t o i nclude t he R obberg a nd i ts e nvirons. For t he ' warm t emperate' p rovince o f t he s outh coast ( Agulhas t o A lgoa Bay) B rown a nd J arman ( 1978) l ist a f urther f ourteen. B ut l ittle s eems t o h ave b een p ublished o n t he gastronomic i nterest o f t hese p lants s o f ar a s S outh A frica i s c oncerned, a lthough i t i s l ikely t hat most a re e dible. I ndeed, i t h as been s uggested t hat very f ew s eaweeds a re l ikely t o be t oxic t o man ( personal communication: D r. H . C . B ennet-Clark, D ept. o f Z oology, Oxford U niversity). More t han a h undred s pecies a re r egularly e aten i n t he P acific ( Prescott, 1 969:349) a nd s eaweed i s s aid t o f orm " Fully 2 5% o f t he d iet" i n J apan ( ibid:351). A t l east two o f t he s pecies ( Porphyra c apensis and U lva r igida) l isted f or t he T sitsikama c oast a re n amed a s e dible ( Chapman a nd C hapman 1 980) whilst t en o f t he genera l isted a re w idely e xploited i n o ther p arts o f t he world. A ccording t o I saac ( 1937:117) " seasonal c hanges a re r elatively small...no z one o f a lgal g rowth c ompletely d isappears...Neither i s t he dominant s pecies o f a ny z one r eplaced by a nother d uring p art o f t he y ear...There a re, however, s easonal c hanges, s uch a s more l uxuriant g rowth o f

2 5

s ome s pecies". A lthough t he g enus P or _phyra i s e ssentially a c old-water a lga a nd i s g enerally r are i n t he s outh coast r egion, i t does f orm q uite dense s heets i n s ome a reas i n t he r eadily a ccessible z one b etween h igh water s pring a nd h igh water n eap t ides ( Brown a nd J arman 1 978:1258). I t o ccurs a lso i n t he u pper m id-littoral z one. A t lower l evels s eaweed s pecies b ecome more a bundant a nd most a re c oncentrated i n t he s ub-littoral f ringe, between l ow-water n eap a nd l ow-water s pring t ides, where t here i s a r egular t urf o f l ow-growing s pecies o f r ed a nd g reen a lgae, which p rovide t he b ulk o f t he s pecies e aten. Edible v arieties a re t hus l ikely t o h ave been available l ocally, a nd p robably o n a y ear-round b asis. S eaweeds a re r ich i n m inerals a nd a re a v aluable s ource o f v itamins, i ncluding A ( beta c arotene), B i, B 2, B 12, C , D , a nd E , p lus t hiamin, r iboflavin, n iacin a nd pantothenic a cid i n particular s pecies. T hey a re a lso capable o f p roviding s ignificant amounts o f c arbohydrate ( 55-57%) a nd s mall amounts o f p rotein ( 5-7%) ( Chapman a nd C hapman, 1 980; M ajor, 1 977; P rescott, 1 969; W ilson, 1 979). There i s n o doubt t hat s eaweeds a re n utritionally i mportant a nd i t i s u nfortunate t hat t here s eems t o b e n o e thnographic e vidence f or t heir u se i n S outh A frica, a nd a rchaeological e vidence i s l ikely t o p rove h ighly e lusive.

3 v

F ISH

A t l east 1 97 s pecies o f f ish may b e f ound i n t he waters o f t he T sitsikama C oastal N ational P ark ( Smith a nd Smith 1 966) a nd, by i mplication, i n t he general v icinity o f R obberg. O f t hese, many would h ave been b eyond t he r each o f p rimitive f ishing t echniques, being e ither v ery l arge game b eyond t he c apability o f l ight t ackle, o r deep-water s pecies. A f ew, g enerally r eadily r ecognisable, s uch a s t he B laasops, a re t oxic, while o thers a re dangerous a nd w ere p robably l eft a lone o nce e ncountered. S ome a re s o s mall a s t o b e u nlikely t o h ave warranted a ttention. B ut when a ll t hese u nlikely s pecies h ave b een e liminated there a re s till s ome 6 7 s pecies which m ust b e c onsidered a s being p ossibly o btainable b y s imple f ishing t echniques, a nd these most n aturally f all i nto two g roups: t he pool f ishes, which m ay b e t aken b y a variety o f t echniques, a nd t he i nshore o pen-water dwellers, a nd t hose which e nter e stuaries, which m ust g enerally b e a ngled f or, o r i n e stuaries s peared, n etted, o r t rapped. T he pool

f ishes

c omprise b anded goby

( Gobius

c affer

9 27B*),

* A n umber g iven i n b rackets f ollowing t he common o r s cientific n ame i s t he s erial n umber g iven i n Smith, J . L . B . 1 953. T he S ea F ishes o f S outhern A frica. Comments o n t he f ish a re d rawn, i n t he main, f rom S mith, J . L . B . a nd M . M . 1 966. S cientific a nd common n ames amended f rom Smith, M . M . 1 975.

2 6

a s mall f ish + 1 5 cm, bold g reedy, a nd r eadily c aught: Klipfishes ( 27 m embers o f t he f amily C linidae: 9 77-1004), varying f rom + 7 cm t o + 3 0 cm, g reedy f eeders, r eadily hooked: and t he h orned bienny ( Blennius c ornutus 9 52), + 1 0 cm, e asily c aught by l ine o r by h and. A n umber o f f ish w hich i nhabit e stuaries a nd/or r ocky s hores a re wary b iters a nd t enacious f ighters. T hese i nclude t he b lacktail ( Dielodus s argus 7 13) w hich m ay o ccur i n g reat n umbers, z ebra ( D.cervinus 7 14), t he p oenskop ( Cymatoceps n asutus 7 19), a nd t he s potted g runter ( Pomadasys c ommersonni 6 79). T he b aardman ( Umbrina c apensis 5 56), a h eavy f ish, a nd t he g aljoen ( Coracinus c apensis 6 44), a f ierce f ighter, both f eed i n t he s urf z one. T he g reat s andy b ay n orth o f t he p eninsula, a nd t he t wo smaller bays e ast a nd west o f t he d une-rock ' island' were p robably h aunts o f t he mussel-cracker ( Sparodon durbanensis), b ut i t i s a " formiddable f ighter" a nd p robably beyond t he s cope o f p rimitive t ackle. O ther i nshore f ish, w hich p redictably may h ave b een s uccessfully p ursued, i nclude t he C ape s tumpnose ( Rhadbosargus h olubi 7 09), t he b ronze b ream ( Pachymetopon g rande 7 38), Roman ( Chrysoblephus l aticeps 7 21), s andsteenbras ( Lithognathus mormyrus 7 27), c atface r ockcod ( Epinephelus a ndersoni 4 37), r ed f ingers ( Cheilodactylus f asciatus 3 97), C ape moony ( Monodactylus f alciformis 5 80), p iggy ( Pomadasys o livaceum 6 75), s teentje ( Spondyliosoma emarginatum 7 39), a nd t he f reshwater m ullet ( Myxus c apensis 8 90). T he white s teenbras ( Lithognathus l ithognathus 7 26) f avours s andy a reas a nd e stuaries a nd may b e n etted. Various o f t he m ullet ( Mugulidae) f amily e nter e stuaries i n l arge n umbers w here t hey may r eadily b e n etted o r, i ndeed, h ooked ( Robinson a nd D unn, 1 923:195), a nd i t i s a lmost c ertainly m ullet t hat L e Vaillant ( 1790:1,215-16) e ncountered i n a s mall r iver a f ew m iles west o f P lettenberg B ay ( I am i ndebted t o D r. H . G reenwood, o f t he B ritish M useum ( Nat. H ist.) f or t his s uggestion). I n L e Vaillant's own words " We observed t hat a p rodigious q uantity o f f ish c ame u p w ith t he t ide...the n umber o f f ish we c aught i n a n et o n t he ebbing o f t he t ide...was s o g reat a s t o damage t he n et c onsiderably". B asketry t raps may well h ave s ubstituted, i n s uch s ituations, f or n ets, t hough t he l atter w ere c ertainly k nown a t t he t ime ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976:42; G robbelaar a nd G oodwin 1 952:102) a nd may o r m ay n ot h ave b een u sed i n f ishing. Small s treams e nter t he s ea a f ew k ilometers e ither s ide o f t he R obberg, o ne w ith a r ocky o utlet a nd t he o ther, t he P iesang, w ith a l agoon-like, s andy o utlet. A l ittle f urther a field ( 10 km f rom t he c ave) t he K eurbooms o ffers a n e xtensive s andy l agoon a nd e stuary. T he koester ( Acanthistius s ebastoides 4 31) i s a n o ccasional i nhabitant o f s hallow r ocky a reas a nd c an b e t aken b y h and a t n ight i n l ow-tide p ools. T he l emon s ole ( Solea f ulvomarginata 3 29) o ften o ccurs i n t ide-pools,

2 7

e specially where t here a re s andy p atches between t he s tones, a nd c an r eadily b e s peared. T he s hallow w ater sole ( Synaptura marginata 3 24) c omes i nshore t o s pawn i n S ummer a nd may b e s peared a t l ow t ide n ear t he mouths o f sandy e stuaries, a nd t he C ape a nd t he b lackhand soles ( Heteromycteris c apensis 3 21 a nd S olea b leekeri 3 28) c an b e n etted i n t he s hallow, s andy bottoms o f e stuaries. T he f reshwater k urper ( Sandelia c apensis), a s mall f ish, i s e asily c aught i n n umbers o n a lmost a ny f lesh bait. T he s ea a lso y ields, t hough u npredictably, bonuses i n a n umber o f ways. Whales r egularly c ome i nto t he s heltered w ater o f P lettenberg B ay t o g ive b irth i n t he W inter and e arly S pring ( July u ntil l ate S eptember) a nd s trandings m ust h ave p rovided a n o ccasional b ounty. S harks o f a ll s izes, f rom small t o v ery l arge, o ccur i n t he v icinity and u nconsumed f ragments o f t heir p rey may, f rom t ime t o t ime, wash a shore. T he w riter o nce s aw t he m ajor p art o f a l arge f ish w ashed u p o n t he T sitsikama c oast, p resumably r eflecting s uch a n o ccurrence. B ut p robably t he most d ramatic bonus i s a ssociated w ith t he s tunning o f f ish by c old-water upwelling. T he p henomenon i s well known i n t he s tretch o f c oast f rom Mossel B ay t o P ort S t. Johns ( Brongersma-Sanders, 1 957:949) w hen, i n S ummer, f ollowing s trong s outh-easterly w inds, w ater w ith a t emperature a round 1 0C s uddenly i nvades water a t a bout 1 8C. I f the c ondition p ersists f or more t han 6 2 h ours vast numbers o f d ead a nd dying f ish may b e washed a shore. T he area b etween Mossel B ay a nd C ape S t. F rancis i s s aid t o b e particularly a ffected a nd " mortality o ccurs a lmost a nnually" i n t he K nysna r egion ( ibid:979). Smith ( 1981 i n l it) r eports " the c old w ater u pwelling o ccurs ( I s hould t hink) a t l east once a y ear a nd s ometimes f our o r f ive t imes - a ll during the s ummer m onths. S ometimes i t i s s evere e nough to k ill the more t ropical f ishes l ike P omadasys c ommersonii ( 679 s potted g runter). E ven w hen i t doesn't k ill i t d rives l arge q uantities o f s ometimes q uite b ig f ishes i nshore i nto t he t ide pools where t hey c an e ven b e c aught by h and. A y oung f riend o f m ine c aught a 5 l b Kob, A rgyrosomus h ololepidotus ( 552 Kob), t he o ther day i n a t ide pool u sing j ust h is h ands...in t he e arly days o f K nysna I k now that t he c old water u sed t o d rive i n l arge n umbers o f red s teenbras". A ccording t o Smith a nd S mith ( 1966) s potted g runter ( Pomadasys c ommersonii 6 79) a nd r ed t jor-tjor ( Pagellus n atalensis 7 28) i n p articular a re a ffected. The e conomic v alue o f s uch b onuses would, o f course, b e l imited u nless s ome s ystem o f p reserving s urpluses were employed, b ut P rofessor Smith ( ibid) s uggests t hat f ish may h ave been p reserved by s plitting a nd a ir-drying t hem, w ithout t he use o f s alt, a s i s done b y B antu g roups o n t he e ast coast. F orty y ears a go P lettenberg B ay, w hich h as j ustly been d escribed a s ' famous f or i ts f ishing' ( Storrar 1 978:229), w as a ' small, i solated a nd i n t he main r ather poor' c ommunity ( ibid:ix), t o which a f ew d iscriminating h olidaymakers, w ith a l ove o f n ature, c ame e ach y ear f or the s cenery a nd t he f ishing. Today i t i s a small t own w ith a n

2 8

a nnual i nflux o f 2 0,000 v isitors e ach s ummer, a nd i t i s n o e xaggeration t o s ay t hat t he e xcellence o f t he a ngling h as h ad m uch t o do w ith t his g rowth. T here i s a g reat v ariety o f f ish, a nd i n f ormer t imes t here was a g reat a bundance. W ithin a f ew k ilometers o f Nelson B ay C ave a lmost e very c onceivable a quatic e nvironment c an b e f ound: d eep a nd s hallow r ocky-water, g ullies, r ock-pools, s andy s hores, l agoons a nd e stuaries. T here c an b e l ittle doubt t hat t he l ocality o ffered a r ich a nd r eliable s ource o f f ish f or a ny c ommunity a ble t o muster t he t echnology a nd s kill t o e xploit i t.

3 v i

SHELLFISH A ND CRUSTACEA

T he major part o f t he R obberg s horeline i s r uggedly r ocky a nd t hose s hellfish s pecies which f avour s uch a n e nvironment a re f ound i n a bundance: most n otably t hese i nclude n ine s pecies o f l impets, t he b rown m ussel ( Perna 4 D erna), a nd t hree s pecies o f t opshells ( Oxystele) ( Appendix 6 ) . Very d ense c olonies o f P erna p erna o ccur t oday o n t he w ave-cut s helf a round t he d une-rock ' island', where t hey a re v ery e asily g athered a t l ow t ide. T he l arge g asteropods H aliotis m idae ( abalone) a nd T urbo s armaticus ( oily-crock o r a likreukel) g enerally o ccur i n r ather d eep water, b ut may b e s ecured a t l ow s pring t ide w hen, i n p ools a nd gulleys t he s ea c ucumber ( Cucumaria s ykion) a nd t he o ctopus ( Octopus g ranulatus) may a lso b e f ound. T he w hite mussel ( Donax s erra) a nd t he whelk ( Bullia r hodostoma) o ccur i n t he e xtensive s andy b eaches e ither s ide o f t he i sthmus j oining t he d une-rock ' island' t o t he p eninsula, a nd i n t he g reat s weep o f t he b ay e astwards f rom t he n eck o f t he p eninsula. Whether t hey e ver o ccur i n t he s mall e phemeral s andy c ove i mmediately b elow t he c ave i s n ot k nown. T he absence o f a ny e xtensive r ocky p latform i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he p eninsula p robably means t hat c rabs would n ot g enerally b e a vailable. T he C ape r ock l obster ( Jasus l alandii) a nd t he P ort E lizabeth c rayfish ( Scyllarides e lizabethae) a re b oth r are i n t he T sitsikama waters.

3 v ii

STONE

T he raw materials u sed f or s tone a rtefacts i n t he l evels u nder d iscussion c omprised q uartz, q uartzite, s ilcrete ( rare), s hale, c halcedony, s andstone ( two s pecimens) a n u nidentified s tone ( one f lake), a nd f erricrete ( one p ossible s inker). T races o f o ther materials i ncluded t hirteen f ragments o f very small c alcite o r a ragonite c rystals ( unit 8 0,1: 1 07,2; 1 23,1; 1 32,1; 1 48,8), a n umber o f f ractured f ragments o f a t ough s andstone c emented w ith a d ark, a pparently f erric material ( units 9 5, 1 00, 1 07, 1 08, a nd 1 21), a f ragment o f v esicular s andstone v ery l ike t hat f ound a s a s urface d eposit a t t he e astern e xtremity o f t he

2 9

p eninsula ( unit 9 9), two f ragments o f a h ard, s late-like m aterial, m uch h arder t han t he s hale n ormal to t he s ite ( unit 1 19), a nd o ne f ragment o f a h ard, s latey rock i n u nit 1 23. Q uartzite i s a bundantly a vailable. T he t hreshold a nd t he s lopes b elow t he c ave a re o f TMS q uartzite, t he w alls a nd r oof o f t he c ave a re f ormed o f a c emented C retaceous s cree i n w hich t he p rincipal c omponent i s f ragmented q uartzite, w hile a bove a nd a djacent t o t he c ave a re c liffs o f massive q uartzite c ontaining b eds o f q uartzite c obbles ( Plate l a). I n f act n o q uarry s ites h ave b een o bserved i n any o f t he m assive o utcrops, a nd t he a rtefacts t hemselves s eem c ommonly t o b e d erived f rom c obbles. T hese c ould h ave c ome f rom i mmediately a bove t he c ave w here, i n a n e asily a pproached, o utcropping c obble b ed, s ome cobbles s till i n s itu s how c lear e vidence o f b attering ( fractures a nd i ncipient c ones o f p ercussion) f rom a variety o f d irections. T his m ay h ave b een a m ajor s ource o f m aterial, b ut i s u nlikely t o h ave b een t he o nly o ne. Cobbles a re a vailable n ear ' the G ap', w here f allen c onglomerate h as c ontributed t o b each m aterial, a nd a ngular f ragments w hich w ere c ertainly u tilised c ould h ave c ome f rom a lmost a nywhere n earby. O ccasional w ind-polished f lakes o f M iddle o r e arly S tone A ge o rigin s eem most l ikely t o h ave c ome f rom t he v ery r ich s urface s ite o n t he s and chute, w hich e xtends f rom t he t ombolo, l andward o f t he d une-rock ' island'. T he t hin t ablets o f q uarzite r ecorded f or s ome l evels m ay h ave c ome f rom f urther a field, f or t he w riter h as s een n o o bvious s ource o n t he p eninsula. Outcrops w ith a n a ppropriate p latey b edding do, h owever, o ccur, b etween B eacon I sland a nd T he L ookout, s ome 3 ,8 km north o f t he c ave. S hale b eds, u sually 3 0-60 cm t hick, o ccur w ithin t he T able M ountain S eries, a nd o utcrop a t s everal points on t he n orth a nd s outh s ide o f t he p eninsula. O n t he n orth s ide, a f ew h undred m eters f rom t he c ave i s a 3 .0 m t hick b ed, a nd a nother o f a pproximately h alf t hat t hickness o ccurs o n t he s outh s ide s ome two k ilometers e ast o f NBC. Just e ast o f t he G ap, a bout 1 .0 km f rom t he c ave, t he c liff t op i s o verlain by a 6 .0 m t hick b ed o f C retaceous s hales ( Rogers 1 966:16). T hus, a bundant s hale was a vailable c lose b y f or t he small q uantities n eeded by t he c ave's i nhabitants. T he s ource o f t he q uartz u sed i n t he c ave i s very m uch l ess c ertain. Whilst s ome h as t he a ppearance o f vein q uartz a g ood d eal, p erhaps t he majority, i s d erived f rom small q uartz c rystals, p robably n ever more t han a bout 1 2 mm i n d iameter a nd r arely more t han 2 0-30 mm l ong. O n t he p eninsula q uartz o ccurs i n t he TMS i n n arrow v eins, o ne o r t wo c entimeters t hick, a nd v ery o ccasionally up t o 1 0.0 cm t hick. Rogers ( ibid) m akes n o m ention o f q uartz c rystals o n t he p eninsula. T he w riter h as s een n one t here, b ut h as s een s mall c rystals, l ess t han 2 .0 c m l ong, i n c revices i n TMS q uartzite a t K eurboomstrand, s ome 1 2.0 km f rom N BC, o n t he f ar s ide o f P lettenberg B ay. T hese e xamples w ere s een

3 0

i n c revices i n b oulder g roups o n t he b each, w ashed by s pray. I n t he s ame g eneral l ocality t here i s a lso a m assive v ein o f q uartz, p erhaps 1 .0 m w ide, r unning a s a b old r idge a cross t he b each a nd i nto a l ow, o vergrown c liff. T he r ounded a nd worn n ature o f t his f eature w ould c ertainly r ender i t very d ifficult t o quarry, b ut i t i s a t l east potentially a s ource o f r aw material. T he case f or c halcedony i s e ven more d ifficult. No r eal i ndication o f s ource c an b e g iven, a nd i t c an o nly b e s uggested t hat p ebbles o f c halcedony may o ccur i n t he a lluvial d eposits o f t hose s treams a nd r ivers which e ither r ise i n t he Cape F olded Mountains p roper, o r which, l ike t he Gamtoos a nd t he Gouritz, d rain f rom t he i nterior b eyond t he mountains. du T oit ( 1954:447ff) s peaks o f s urface d eposits, i n t he c oastal p lain a nd a t h igh l evels i n t he m ountains, which y ield " chalcedonic q uartzites" a nd " silcretes" w hich may i nclude " glassy t ranslucent t ypes". T he character t ends t o vary a good d eal, a nd t he d istribution may b e p atchy, b ut s uch o ccurrences c ould w ell h ave been t he s ource o f t he N BC c halcedony, a nd i t i s c onceivable t hat i t o ccurs a t n o v ery g reat d istance f rom t he cave. S ome o f t he f ragments f ound h ave i rregular s urfaces o r ' crusts', a nd s ometimes s urfaces l ined w ith m inute c rystals, s uggesting t hat t hey h ave i ndeed c ome f rom o utcrop r ather t han f rom g ravels.

3 1

4 E XCAVAT ION

4 i

EXCAVATION P ROCEDURES

T he e xcavation p rocedures a dopted i n t he f irst and s econd ( and s ubsequent) s easons h ave b een f airly f ully d escribed e lsewhere ( Inskeep 1 974:149-153) a nd o nly t he s alient f eatures n eed t o b e m entioned h ere. T he e xcavation was i nitiated b efore metrication was i ntroduced t o South A frica a nd s o t he e xcavation g rid was l aid o ut u sing i mperial u nits. T he p lan, i nitially, was t o e xcavate o ne s quare t o a depth o f t hree o r f our f eet a nd t hen t o e xcavate the s quares behind two a djacent s ides w ith t he v isible s ection c ontrol o n o ne f ace. When t he two l ines h ad b een e xcavated t o t he l imits o f t he g rid t he r emaining s quares could t hen b e e xcavated, e ach w ith two e xposed f aces a s a control o n s tratigraphy. T o g ive a dequate w orking s pace w ithin i nitial s quares a g rid o f s quares 4 ft x 4 ft was d ecided u pon. O nce t he g rid was e stablished o n t he contemporary c ave f loor, a s many p oints a s possible were t ransferred t o t he c ave r oof, t o c emented wooden b locks, where they r emained a vailable a s r eference p oints t hroughout the i nvestigation. W ith t he e xception o f o ccasional h earths a nd a sh s preads t he d eposit c onsisted a lmost e ntirely o f whole and c omminuted s ea s hells w ith a n a dmixture o f a rtefacts and bone, o ften w ith l arge n umbers o f f ish r emains. S orting t his was s uch a t ime-consuming operation t hat i t was q uickly e stablished t hat o ne e xcavator c ould s upply e nough e xcavated d eposit t o k eep s ix o r e ight s orters f ully o ccupied, a nd t he o nly t ime when more t han o ne person was e xcavating, w as w hen b urials c ame t o l ight. Deposit was r emoved w ith t rowel a nd a shpan t o b uckets o f u niform s ize, a nd t hence t o t he s ieves. A ll deposit was s ieved i n a h alf-inch mesh s ieve b anked o ver a n e ighth-inch s ieve, and t ransferred t o s orting t rays. Where a shy deposit was e ncounted, s orting w as n ear i mpossible u nless t he r esidue w as washed, a nd t his w as done w ith s ea-water i n t he f irst t hree s easons a nd w ith f resh water f rom t he bottom o f K lein's e xcavation i n t he f ourth s eason.

3 2

R ough sorting, a nd p ackaging, i nto s tone, f ish-bone, n onf ish bone, a nd s mall f inds w as c arried o ut c ontinuously a t t he s ite. C harcoal s amples f or dating w ere t aken w herever p ossible i n s itu: i f t aken a fter w ashing, t hey were m arked a ccordingly. D uring t he f irst t hree s easons t otal r ecovery o f f ish r emains w as a imed a t. I n t he f ourth s eason, u sing a n e xperienced t eam o f s orters, o nly d iagnostic p ieces, a nd t hose u seful f or c ounting, w ere s ought. I n t he f irst s eason s hell s amples were t aken f or p alaeotemperature a nalysis o nly. I n t he s econd s eason b ulk s amples were t aken a nd r eturned t o C ape T own. I n t he t hird a nd f ourth s easons s hell s amples w ere s orted a nd c ounted o n s ite. When excavation c ommenced t he c rest o f t he t alus s lope l ay a lmost i mmediately b elow t he d ripline ( plate 2 a), p roviding p recious l ittle s pace f or s ieving a nd s orting e tc. Excavated s poil t hroughout t he f irst t hree s easons was d umped down t he t alus s lope t o c reate a working p latform, a nd a s t he excavation p roceeded i t b ecame n ecessary a t t imes t o c ut t he d ump away a nd r e-level i t. A t t he e nd o f t he third s eason t he f loor was s heeted down w ith b lack polythene s heet, a nd c overed w ith s everal i nches o f s poil f rom the d ump. I n t he f ourth s eason t he s poil w as r etained w ithin t he o verhang a nd a t t he e nd o f t hat s eason t he w alls a nd f loor o f t hat c utting w ere s heeted a nd t he c utting was backfilled. D uring t he f irst a nd s econd s easons, w ithin t he a rea o ver which excavation w as p lanned, t ime w as d evoted t o l ocating a nd clearing d umped a nd d isturbed d eposit r esulting f rom earlier, u nrecorded a nd h aphazard d igging. T his material was removed t o s elected dump a reas ( Figure 1 ) w here i dentity i s l ess l ikely t o p rovide p roblems i n t he f uture. No r eal a ttempt w as made t o s ort t his d isturbed m aterial, t hough i t was r ich i n a rtefacts a nd f auna, b ut l arger p ieces which c aught t he e ye were o ften t hrown t o o ne s ide, a gainst t he west w all o f t he c ave, a s a p ossible s ource o f t eaching s pecimens. T he r esultant n ew d umps i nside t he c ave may, t herefore, c ontain a ppreciable q uantities o f a rtefacts a nd f auna. T he p latform o f s poil o utside t he c ave contains a v ery l ow f requency o f a rtefacts a nd f auna f rom occasional d umped ' cleanings' w ithin t he c ave, a nd f rom the s craping o f u nstratified d eposit f rom t he s urface o f t he t alus s lope. T he r emoval o f a s ubstantial v olume o f deposit f rom t he a rea e xcavated a t t he m outh o f t he c ave h as greatly i ncreased t he l evel o f l ight a nd t he c irculation o f a ir i n t he c ave.

4 i i

RECORDING

A ll l evels were r ecorded w ith a d umpy l evel a nd s taff, a nd r elated t o a t emporary b ench mark c ut o n a l arge b oulder o n t he talus s lope, a l ittle t o t he e ast o f t he e xcavation a rea. T his t emporary b ench mark w as 5 2ft 9 ins ( 16.05 m ) above mean s ea l evel a t 0 900 h rs o n D ec. 1 4th 1 964, a nd i s u sed a s t he d atum p oint f or a ll d rawn s ections. I n t he

3 3

f irst s eason i n p articular t he c lose p roximity o f t he roof t o t he d eposit, p articularly e ast o f t he C l ine p resented d ifficulties i n s urveying, a nd l evelling o ften had t o be c arried o ut w ith a d ealer's d isplay v ersion o f a f armer's s taff w hich c ould b e r educed t o t welve-inch l engths. Unit p lans w ere d rawn o n s ite, a s t hey d eveloped, t hroughout all f our s easons. Wherever possible s ections were d rawn o n s ite o r a t b ase, b ut t he b ulk o f t he s ection-drawing was c arried o ut f rom t he r ecorded p lans a nd l evels i n C ape Town a nd O xford. F or t he f irst t hree s easons t he g rid s quares a re i dentified b y t he l ines e nclosing t hem o n t he w est a nd s outh s ides, a nd i n t he f irst s eason e xcavated u nits were i dentified by a c ombination o f g rid s quare c ipher ( e.g. E IV) p lus layer n umber w ithin t hat s quare ( e.g. E IV 7 ). T hus a s ingle s tratigraphic u nit m ight i nvolve s everal s quares w ith a d ifferent l ayer n umber f or e ach s quare ( e.g. EV 2 1 + E IV 1 2 + E IIIa8) b ecause o f t he r ather d ramatic changes i n s tratigraphy f rom o ne a rea t o a nother w ithin quite small d istances. I t was c lear a t t he e nd o f t he f irst s eason t hat t his s ystem would r esult i n a n e normously u nwieldy c orrelation o peration a nd s o t he e xcavation a nd r ecording p rocedures were c hanged f or t he s ubsequent s easons. I nstead o f r emoving s everal l ayers f rom a s quare a nd then f ollowing t hem i nto a djacent s quares, t he h ighest a vailable u nit w ithin t he e xcavation a rea was s elected, g iven a name, a nd r emoved s quare by s quare u ntil c ompleted. I f i t was f ound, u nexpectedly, t o d ip b elow a nother u nit i ts r emoval w as t emporarily h alted while t he n ew u nit was r emoved. T hus, f or t he s econd, t hird, a nd f ourth s easons u nits a re i dentified b y s quare c iphers a nd n ames ( e.g.) C I I Alex) which, w hile f ollowing a g eneral a lphabetical sequence, d o n ot c arry a ny s pecific c onnotation o f s tratigraphic p osition o r r elationship. S ubsequently, f or convenience o f r eference, a nd t he l abelling o f s pecimens, a ll t hese named u nits, a nd t he c ombinations o f c iphers f or t he f irst s eason, h ave b een g iven n umbers, f rom 2 to 1 48, a s i ndicated i n T able 2 . I n t hree c ases f irst s eason c ipher g roups h ave b een c orrelated w ith f ourth s eason named units, a nd h ave b een i ncorporated w ith t hem. I n o ne case ( E I V 1 3+ E IIIa9) t he c orrelation p laces t he u nit ( No.60) b etween t he l owest t hird s eason u nit a nd t he h ighest f ourth s eason u nit. I n t he f ourth s eason, i n o rder t o a void t he s omewhat u nstable f ace o n l ine F , t he c utting was l aid out twelve i nches w est o f t he f ormer n orth-south g rid l ines, t hough c oinciding w ith t he e ast-west l ines. B ecause o f t his t he s quares w ere i ndividually n umbered f rom 1 to 8 , a s i ndicated i n t he l ower l eft h and c orner o f F igure 9 . Apart f rom t his, e xcavation p rocedures a nd r ecording w ere t he s ame a s f or t he s econd a nd t hird s easons.

3 4

2 2

B etty

2 3

B ill

( 850 1 5 0)

( 455 1 3 0; 1500 1 3 5) 2 EV1+2,

2 4

A lex

( 650 1 5 0)

3 EV3

2 5

B abs

2 6

M b .

Babs

5 E V5,

DVO

27

B rett

2 8

B ob

6 EV6,

E IV2,

2 9

B rett/Bonnie

3 1

B ert

3 2

P atella

3 3

Charles

3 4

Cedric

3 5

Desmond

3 7

E IV1,

E IIIal

4 EV4

( 2560 1 6 0)

E IIIa2

( 2450 1 6 0)

7 EV7

( 1930 1 6 0)

8 EV8+9+10 ( 2950 1 8 0) b .

3 0

Bonnie

( 2085 1 3 5)

9 EV11

Bob

1 0

E IV3

1 1

EV12

1 2

E V4

1 3

EV13

Chris

1 4

E V14,

DV1

3 8

Clara

1 5

E V15,

EIV5

3 9

Cyril

1 6

E V16,

EIV6

4 0

D ick

1 7

EV17,

EIV7

4 2

Dan

1 8

E V1 8,

/ IV8,

4 3

David E dward

47

Gertie

4 8

G ina

4 9

Garth

5 0

I van

5 2

I one

5 3

John

5 4

Jane J oy

57

L ola

5 8

L uke

Derek

Carmel

E IIIa5+4

( 2540t50)

( 2970 1 6 0)

George

Kay

M 1

( 2925 1 3 5)

4 4

5 5

3 6

4 1

4 5

56

. 1 1 1 1 1

4 6

Guy

1 9

EV20( upper),

E IV9,

2 0

E V19,

DIV4+5

2 1

E V20(lower),

EIVIO,

E II16+7( >2660 1 5 0)

E IVI1

( 3020 1 3 5) 5 1

+ Ida

5 9

Geoff/Upper

6 0

E IV13,

6 1

L ouis

6 2

L ucy

63

M at

64

M ark

65

G rave

66

M ary

Graham

+ Jill

Geoff+EV21,

EIV12,

E II18( 3190 1 5 0)

EIII9 + EIV14,

EIII10

( 3270 1 7 0) ( 36000 1 5 0) ( 3350 1 6 0) F ill + EIV15,

EIIII1

7 2

M ike

67

Merlin

7 3

O live

6 8

Nancy

7 4

Oscar

6 9

Muriel

7 5

P eter

7 0

Norman

76

P at

7 1

Nel

77

P am

c ontinued... Table 2 . F ield stratigraphically. 4 i ii.

n ames a nd n umbers For d iscussion o f

3 5

o f u nits a rranged s equence s ee s ection

7 8

Paul

( 4520±60)

8 2

A sh

8 4

Revil

8 5

Ruth

a .

8 6

Reg

87

Rona

8 8

P it

8 9

Sonia

9 1

Sheila

9 2

Tot

9 3

Tim

9 4

Tina

9 5

Toddy

97

U rsula

9 8

Unwin

9 9

Grey

7 9

Peggy

R 3

Ron

9 0

Rose

9 6

B rown

Ron

8 0

B rown

8 1

Hearth

a .

Rose

b .

Pam

infill

b

1 00

Una

1 02

Shelly

1 03

Valda

1 08

Vera

1 10

Vincent

1 11

Van

1 13

Vivian

1 14

Vetch

1 15

Vadim

1 16

Wilf

1 18

Vance

1 19

Hearth

1 20

Val

1 21

Violet

1 22

Velma

1 23

Hearth

1 25

Winnie

1 26

Wilma

b .

Wolf

1 29

Valerie

1 30

Vanessa

1 31

Verity

1 32

Wheeler

1 33

Wayne

1 35

William

1 36

Wispy

1 37

Woolley

1 38

Willey

1 39

Wotan

b .

Vance

b .

Val

Wulder

1 41

Wallace

1 42

Wendy W impey Whisky

1 46

Xavier

1 47

Xenou

1 48

Xerxes

Una

1 07

1 40

1 44

Toddy

Tina

1 27

1 43

b.

B rown

b .

1 01

Grey

b .

1 09

Vic

1 12

Victor

Valda

Una

1 06

1 17

Ash

Wilf

1 24

Veda

1 28

Veronica

1 34

Wilfred

( 5860 1 7 0)

+ Wade

+ Werner

1 45

Wittering

( 5890 1 7 0)

3 6

Vaughan

1 04

Victoria

1 05

Hearth

b .

Victoria(5320t220)

K EY T O D RAWN S ECT IONS

a nd

S QUARE N UMBER ING

D I I

0

BO

A A ' 4 11

8 17 6 1 5 32 1 979 C UTT ING

11 1 1 1 V I V I V I I

7-

I I I I I V V

F igure 9 . K ey t o d rawn s ections a nd n umbering o f e xcavated s quares. T he t riangles i ndicate t he d irections f rom w hich t he drawn s ections ( bold l ines) a re v iewed.

4 i ii

S TRATIGRAPHY

T he stratigraphy e ncountered i n t hese e xcavations was e xtremely c omplex ( Plates 4 a, 4 b, 5 ). I t was e vident a t a n e arly s tage t hat s ome u nits were o f r ather small e xtent, w hile many r epresented r emnants o f u nits t runcated by e arlier d igging o r c omprised t he m argins o f u nits whose m ain body l ay b eyond t he e astern e dge o f t he e xcavation a rea. T he d eposits d isplay a f air amount o f variability: s hell m iddens ( with a ssociated a rtefacts a nd bones) w ithout a ssociated h earths; t hose w ith h earths ( taken t ogether a s a u nit); i solated h earths w ith o r w ithout a ssociated a sh s pread, a rtefacts a nd f auna; a nd a f ew w ith a s trong a dmixture o f, o r e ven dominated b y, d ark, l oamy s oil, i n t he extreme s outh-west c orner o f t he c ave ( Plate 3 ). A lthough i t i s i mprobable t hat h earths would h ave d eveloped w ithout s ome a ssociated m idden d eposit, a nd p erhaps o ther f eatures t oo, t hey were s ometimes r emoved a s i ndependent u nits where t here w as c lear doubt a s t o w hich o f t wo ( or m ore) a djacent m iddens a h earth m ay b elong. I nterfaces b etween u nits c ould v ary f rom a lmost h orizontal t o a d ip o f 4 0 d egrees.

3 7

F ollowing t he i nterfaces b etween u nits c ould b e relatively e asy, o r e xtremely d ifficult a nd t here i s n o doubt t hat e xperience w as a g reat a sset. O ften a n i nterface c ould be ' felt', a nd f ollowed, m uch more r eadily w ith t he t rowel t han i t c ould b e s een, e ither i n s ection o r e ven i n p lan i n a p artially e xcavated s tate. O ften t here w as a p latey c leavage b etween u nits, w here t he s urface o f t he underlying m idden h ad b een e xposed a nd t rampled b efore b eing buried by f resh d eposit. S ometimes t he s urface w as ' dirty' i n a way t hat t he b ody o f t he m idden was n ot, a nd t his was e specially t he c ase n ear t he s outh-west c orner o f the cave i nto w hich t here h ad a pparently b een s ome down-washing o f s oil f rom t he s lope t o t he west o f t he c ave m outh. S ometimes a h earth a nd i ts a ssociated a sh-spread provided a c ontrast w ith o verlying c lean s hell. B ut t here were s ituations w here a n ew m idden h ad a pparently accumulated o ver a s urface w hich h ad n either b een t rampled nor b ecome d irty, a nd s eparation i n s uch c ircumstances was f raught w ith d ifficulty. O ften, when a u nit, which was b eing r emoved w ith c omparative e ase f rom i ts underlying n eighbour, d ipped b elow a nother u nit t he f irst i ndication m ight b e o nly when t he t rowel ' found' a nother b edding p lane, a lmost by a ccident, a t a h igher l evel t han t he one b eing f ollowed. E xcluding t he f irst-season t est p it, t he d eposits e ncountered i n t he f irst t hree s easons were p redominantly s hell, w ith o ccasional h earths a nd a sh s preads. I n t he f ourth s eason h earths a nd a sh w ere m uch more i n e vidence a nd b elow u nit 9 9 o ften dominated t he d eposit t o a n e xtent t hat s ome u nits c ould p roperly b e d escribed a s ' ash d eposits c ontaining s ome s hell a nd c ultural r emains' ( Figures 1 0, 1 1, 1 2, a nd P late 5 a). I n c ontrast, t he d eposits i mmediately n orth-east o f, and b elow u nit 1 48 ( Figure 1 2), c omprising t he upper 1 .8 m o f t he 1 964/65 t est p it ( Figures 1 a nd 3 ) w ere, a gain, s hell dominated, w ith l ittle e vidence o f h earth or a sh. T he one e xception w as l ayer 7 a o f t he t est p it ( Figure 3 ) which c onsisted o f b urnt s hell, w ith two h earths a nd a l ens o f c lean s and a ssociated, f illing a n e longated h ollow. The t est p it a lso f irst r evealed t he t ransition f rom s hell m iddens t o l oamy d eposits w ith s toney h orizons a nd e vidence o f e xtinct f auna, a nd t he M iddle S tone A ge b reccia ( Figure 3 l ayer 2 3) a t t he b ase o f t he t est p it. T hese l evels and

F igure 1 0. S ections a long 0 l ine ( looking s outh). s hell.

t he B l ine ( looking e ast) a nd the T he deposits a re p redominantly

F igure 1 1. S ections a long t he I II l ine ( looking south) and t he I V l ine ( looking s outh). Note t he two a reas o f s uperimposed h earths; a p henomenon o bserved s everal t imes i n t he d eposits e xcavated. T he bold l ine h alf way d own o n t he l ine I V s ection m arks t he s urface a t t he commencement o f t he 1 979 s eason.

3 8

1

c o

L n

I

I

I

c r e

C N I

I

I

i n

/

H EARTH /A SH S PREAD

F

W ITH S OME S HELL

/

B LACK L OAMY D EPOS IT

•/

T ALUS SO IL

/

B LACK L OAMY D EPOS IT

. /

P REDOM INANTLY S HELL

c -

CO

N

1 ;

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L U g s ;

1 )1

z :

7

W O e — . L UC ID < L L .4 0 c o

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L OOK ING EAST

7 . ; =

CO

4

g l.

c o

> -

L i z 7 . , z o z o I 0 w c n

C N I

0 2

3 9

t

•0

0

L i -

4 0 1 979

S URFACE

D EPOS ITS T RUNCA TED

B Y

EARL IER

D IGG ING

C : 1

A

C ID

H EARTH / A SH S PREAD

I

P REDOM I NANTLY

L OAMY D EPOS IT

i n I -

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W L i -

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S ECT ION O N N ORTH F ACE O F 1 979 S QUARES

2 ,3 ,5 ,6 ,7 , &8 1 979 S QUARES

I I W

C I

\ al-. 1 ( V, -4 > 4 C Ie ie t / C • Q Ou )a ) 6 4 > , H w .c 4 r. 4 M I . 1E I C d H ( / ) Ci t Ce l •• 0 a ) Ou ) " 1 I ) . i . . ) . 1 4 . c ui t s uc n 4, 3 . )r f a ) r. r C , U ) Ch 0 ( 1 )( i ) H C . 04 • N 4 )« 5 HL k e N 1 l4 1o c O C 0 04 ( 1 ) • . I a ) N 4 X i (i ) • Wo . C 7 1r o o . ,w • i . . . . , H r e 5 _ 4 r i 4 r n— Q . i t

4 1

t heir c ontent, h owever, h ave b een s tudied i n g reater d etail b y K lein ( 1972a) B utzer ( 1973) a nd J . D eacon ( 1978, 1 984a) a nd w ill n ot b e d iscussed f urther i n t his r eport. E xcavation i n t he f irst t hree s easons e xtended o ver a c onsiderable a rea ( 78 s quare metres) a nd i n many cases u nits a re s eparated f rom e ach o ther l aterally i n s uch a way t hat i t i s n ot p ossible t o e stablish b y s tratigraphic means t heir r elative o rder o f d eposition. T hus i n t he s tratigraphic t able ( Table 2 ) u nits t o t he r ight o f v ertical o r h orizontal l ines c an b e s hown t o l ie b etween t he n ext u nits a bove a nd b elow t hose l ines, b ut t heir p osition r elative t o t he u nits t o t he l eft o f t he l ines c annot b e determined. F or e xample, u nits 6 7, 6 8, 6 9, 7 0 a nd 7 1 a re a ll o lder t han 6 6 a nd y ounger t han 7 9. They o ccur i n t he s equence i ndicated, b ut c annot b e r elated i n more d etail t o u nits 7 2 t o 7 7 w hich a re a lso o lder t han 6 6 a nd y ounger t han 7 9. U nit 9 6 i s o lder t han u nit 9 5 and y ounger t han u nit 9 8, b ut c ould b e y ounger o r older t han u nit 9 7, o r o f t he s ame a ge. C orrelation o f t he units e xcavated i n t he f irst s eason w ith t hose o f the s econd, t hird, a nd f ourth p resents p roblems b ecause t hey were mostly t runcated a nd r emoved o n t heir western s ide by e arlier d igging which a ffected much o f t he D l ine o f s quares a s w ell a s a reas f urther w est, n orth o f t he I II l ine: a t rench-like e xtension o f t his d isturbed a rea i s r ecorded i n t he s ection o n l ine I II i n F igure 1 1 a nd P late 4 a. F or t his r eason s ome r emarks o n u nits 2 t o 2 1, i nclusive, s eem i n o rder. T he a bsence o f p ottery, e xcept f or a s ingle s herd i n unit 2 , s uggests t hat t hese u nits a re a ll o lder t han u nit 2 8; t he s ingle s herd i n u nit 3 1 i s p robably o ut o f context ( see 7 i ). T he date ( Pta 1 485) o f 2 950 + 8 0 B P f or unit 3 1 must p lace u nits 2 t o 1 8 ( the l atter w ith i ts date GrN 5 715 o f 2 540 + 5 0 B P) a bove u nit 3 1. T heir r elationship t o units 2 9 a nd 3 0 i s l ess c ertain. U nit 2 9 h as a t l east o ne s heep, a nd t herefore s hould p robably b e g rouped w ith units 2 2 t o 2 8, w ith t heir pottery a nd s heep. T he t anged points i n u nits 6 , 1 6, a nd 1 8 s uggest t hat t he b lock 6 t o 1 8 f orms a g roup w hich i s best i nserted b etween u nits 3 1 a nd 3 0. U nits 3 , 4 , a nd 5 , w ith t heir v ery s mall content o f a rtefacts ( 14, 1 , a nd 1 r espectively) c annot be p laced i n r elation t o u nits 2 9 a nd 3 0, b ut p resent n o problems i n t erms o f c ontent. U nit 2 , w ith i ts r ather a bundant a rtefact c ontent a nd s ingle s herd, c ould f it e asily b etween u nits 2 8 a nd 3 0, o r b elow 3 0 i f t he s herd i s c onsidered out o f c ontext. U nits 1 9 t o 2 1 a lso c annot b e c ertainly p laced: o n d irect s tratigraphic g rounds t hey a re o lder t han u nit 1 8, w hile a d ate ( LV 217) o f 2 660 + 1 50 B P o btained o n t he r ibs o f a h uman s keleton b uried i n u nit 1 9* m ust b e o lder t han u nits 2 9, 3 0 a nd 1 8. Whether t hese u nits ( 19-21) a re o lder than u nit 3 1 i s n ot k nown, b ut t hey a re c ertainly younger t han u nit 5 8. U nits 1 9 a nd 2 0 c ontain 1 .1% a nd 2 .0% r espectively o f c halcedony a nd q uartz i n t he Waste c lass,

4 2

but n othing o ther t han q uartzite i n t he f laked c omponent o f t he F ormal T ools a nd Utilised c ategories. S uch a ssemblages could occur a nywhere a bove u nit 6 4 a nd t he c ontent o ffers n o h elp i n p lacing t he u nits. The most l ikely s equence f or t he uppermost l evels, f rom t he t op d own, a ppears t o b e a s i ndicated i n T able 2 . T he f ield r ecords make i t p ossible t o p roduce a l arge n umber o f d rawn s ections o f t he d eposits, b ut f or r easons o f e conomy, a nd because t here s eemed t o b e n o g reat value i n a m ultiplicity o f s ections, t he smallest n umber n eeded t o p ortray t he general s equence a nd c haracter o f t he deposits h as b een d rawn. T he d isposition o f t hese i s s hown i n F igure 9 , i n which the h eavy b lack t riangles i ndicate t he d irection f rom which t he s ections a re v iewed. I n t he s ections t hemselves ( Figures 1 0, 1 1, 1 2) t he d atum, a bove a nd b elow w hich h eights a re g iven, c orresponds t o t he t emporary b ench mark ( 4 i i above). T he youngest u nits s eem t o b e t hose i n t he s outh-west c orner o f t he c ave, c ontaining t he pottery a nd s heep r emains. T hey a re s eparated by s ome d istance f rom t he b lock o f u nits e xcavated i n t he f irst s eason b ut d espite t he absence o f d irect s tratigraphic l inkage i t h as b een possible t o s uggest w hat t hat r elationship was ( Table 2 ). A t a s lightly l ower l evel i t h as been possible t o e stablish t hree l inkages b etween f irst s eason u nits a nd u nits o f t he t hird a nd f ourth s easons. I n t he s ection o n l ine I V ( Figure 1 1) t he u nit n umbered 5 9 was e xcavated i n 1 964/65 a s E IIIa8, E I V 1 2, a nd E V 2 1, a nd c orresponds c losely t o t he t hird s eason u nit c alled G eoff + U pper G eoff. T he u nit r epresented by E IIIal0 a nd E I V 1 4 i n 1 964/65 corresponds t o t he u ppermost o f t he f ourth s eason u nits ( Louis = u nit 6 1), whilst E i nar ] . p lus E I V 1 5 h ave b een c orrelated w ith f ourth s eason M ary ( = u nit 6 6). O n t he F -line s ection d rawing ( Figure 1 2 l ower l eft) t he apparent i nconsistencies b etween t he upper ( first s eason) p art o f t he s ection a nd t he lower ( fourth s eason) p art, s tem p artly f rom i nconsistencies i n measurement a nd a re partly a n i llusion r esulting f rom t he f act t hat t he 1 979 f ace was twelve i nches west o f t he F l ine. A t t he n orth e nd o f t he s ection u nits 6 2 a nd 6 4 a re d ipping t o t he e ast, while a t t he s outh e nd of t he s ection u nit 6 6 i s d ipping t o t he west ( resulting i n a n a pparent gap w ithin t he u nit o n t he s ection). T he u nits 4 5, 4 9, 5 1, 5 2, a nd 5 9 ( in o rder o f i ncreasing a ge), i nvestigated i n t he t hird ( 1970/71) s eason, w ere a ll f ollowed o ver p art o r t he w hole o f t he r emaining ( southern)

* T he a ssignation t o u nit 1 9 i s most p robable, b ut n ot a bsolutely c ertain. T he b urial c ame t o l ight i n t he f irst s quare t o b e e xcavated i n t he f irst s eason, i n a n a rea o f e xtensive d isturbance, a nd f or t he r easons o utlined a bove t here i s s ome p ossibility t hat t he a ssignation i s w rong.

4 3

h alf o f s quare E I II. H owever, d iscrepancies between t he s tratification r ecognised i n E IIIa ( the n orthern h alf o f t he s quare) i n 1 964/65 a nd t hat o bserved i n t he r emaining h alf i n 1 970/71 made i t s eem u nwise t o a ttempt to c orrelate a nd c ombine t he u nits. S ix u nits a bove 4 5, i n t he s outhern h alf o f E I II, w ere d iscarded w hen a l arge a rea o f i nfilled d isturbance was l ocated i mmediately t o t he s outh o f E I II, p ossibly i nvolving s ome o f t he material t hought t o have b een i n s itu. T his d isturbance was a pparently an e xtension o f t hat r ecorded i n t he s ection b etween E a nd D on t he I II l ine ( Figure 1 1). U nit 3 1 was a bout two t hirds e xcavated i n 1 965/66 u nder t he l abel ' Bert', b ut t he r emnant t aken i n 1 970/71 proved to b e d ivisible, o n t he basis o f c ontained h earths, i nto three p arts, l abelled a t t he t ime, Upper, M iddle, a nd Lower Bert. T here i s l ittle doubt t hat t he u nit s hould h ave been s ubdivided i n 1 965/66, b ut t he i nterfaces w ere not r ecognised. For p urposes o f a nalysis, h owever, a ll t he m aterial h as been c ombined, e ven t hough i t i s apparent f rom t he t hickness o f t he u nit, a nd f rom i ts a rtefact c ontent ( 993 p ieces), t hat more t han o ne d epositional u nit i s i nvolved. 4 i v

VALIDITY AND COMPARABILITY O F SAMPLES

A b ag f ull o f a rtefacts, p lus f our o r f ive b ags o f s hell, b one, s and a nd r oof f ragments, s cattered o ver an a rea o f a c ouple o f h undred s quare f eet o r s o, would h ave n o r ecognisable o r measurable t hickness. T hus, what i s being i solated i n t he p rocess o f e xcavation a re t he a bnormal c oncentrations o f r efuse ( where s uch exist) g enerally r eferred t o a s m iddens; o r o ccasionally, h earth a ccumulations. I t must b e u nderstood t hat t he specimens a t t he i nterface o f a m idden, b oth a bove a nd below, may b elong w ith t hat m idden, o r w ith t he m iddens above o r below, r espectively, o r w ith a ny o f a n umber o f episodes o f o ccupation r epresented b y n earby m iddens which happen not t o i mpinge o r be i mpinged o n b y t he m idden u nder excavation. E ven a fter a ctive a ccumulation o f a m idden ceases i ts s urface may c ontinue t o r eceive s tray c ontributions until s uch t ime a s i t i s e ffectively b uried by a r esumption o f d umping o ver a ll o r a p art o f i t. I f t he m idden h appens t o l ie i n a n a rea where i t r eceives n o t rampling, s uch c ontamination m ight c ontinue f or q uite a l ong period a nd s till n ot b e detectable. I f, h owever, a d ump ( midden) area b ecomes more o r l ess h eavily t rampled f airly soon after a bandonment a dditions a re l ess l ikely t o go u nnoticed. T here s eems t o b e n o p ractical way o f o bviating t his d ifficulty i n t he f ield. B ut a s l ong a s t he character o f t he o ccupation r emains c onstant t hrough t ime i t p robably d oesn't matter a l ot a s t he s amples w ill t end to a verage t hemselves o ut. When i t does b ecome a p roblem i s when e pisodes o f c hange o ccur a nd t he i mplications f or t his a re d iscussed below ( 7 i ) i n c onnection w ith pottery a nd s heep r emains.

4 4

I n a ddition t o t he p roblem o f t he v alidity o f a ssociation i n t he e xcavated s amples i s t he q uestion o f t he c omparability o f s amples. The main a rea o f e xcavation, i n t he f irst t hree s easons, w ithin w hich u nits 2 2-61 o ccurred, c overed a n a rea o f 6 80 s quare f eet. I n t he f ourth s eason i t w as n ecessary t o operate o n a m uch more l imited s cale a nd units 6 2-110 a nd 1 11-148 were e ncountered i n two c uttings, e ach o f 6 4 s quare f eet. O f t he 1 47 u nits e xcavated o nly f ive were a pparently c omplete. O ne o f t hese ( unit 4 0) was merely a h earth, b ut t he o ther f our, u nits 3 8, 3 9, 5 0, a nd 5 4 were s hell m iddens, i n o ne c ase w ith a n a ssociated h earth, a nd i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t heir a reas, i n s quare f eet, were 2 8.0; 2 9.5; 2 9.5; a nd 2 9.25 r espectively. T he r eason f or t his c urious c oincidence o f s ize i s p robably t hat t his r epresents t he l ower l imit o f t he s ize-range o f m iddens, a nd a nything s ubstantially l arger h as s uffered t runcation e ither by e arlier, u nrecorded d igging, o r by t he l imits o f o ur own c uttings. O f t he s ixty-one u nits e xcavated w ithin t he l arge a rea, n ine are r ecorded a s o ver 1 00 s quare f eet, b ut t he very l arge s izes r ecorded f or u nits 4 2, 4 3, 4 4, a nd 5 9 ( Appendix 7 ) s hould p ossibly b e r egarded w ith r eserve, f or t hey may b e t he r esult o f e rrors i n e xcavation. T he a reas we h ave a vailable f or c omparison ( Appendix 7 ) a re t hus n ot t he o riginal a reas o f t he u nits, b ut t he a reas exposed by e xcavation. T hese a re s et o ut i n Table 3 a nd F igure 1 3, a nd i t w ill b e s een t hat t he a reas s ampled were v ery much l arger i n u nits 2 2 t o 6 2 t han i n t he l evels b elow. The

Excavated of

Units

22

- 62

units

in

areas

sq.

feet.

S . dev.

Range

5000, 3

70,7

2 ,0

- 329, 2

N

Mean

Var.

6 1

56, 4

6 4 -

1 04

41

1 7,9

2 17,4

1 4,7

2 ,2

-

64,0

-

1 48

4 4

1 0,4

6 9,8

8 ,3

1 ,2

-

39, 0

1 05

,

T able 3 . M ean e xcavated a reas. T hese i n n o way t he original s izes o f t he m iddens, f ew o f w hich w hole a nd w holly w ithin t he a reas e xcavated.

4 5

r eflect r emained

d ivision o f t he l ower u nits i nto 6 4 t o 1 04 a nd 1 05 t o 1 48 i n T able 3 was s uggested by t he s hift i n a rtefact d ensity r evealed i n F igure 1 4; i n t erms o f a rea t he d ivisions have n o r eal s ignificance, a nd p robably r eflect c hanges i n t he s hape o f t he c utting. Volume would c ertainly have b een a more desirable basis f or c omparing s ample s izes, b ut n o r ecord was kept i n t he f irst a nd s econd s easons, a nd t hat f or t he t hird s easons, b ased o n b ucket l abel counts was a bandoned when i t b ecame a pparent t hat l abels h ad n ot been s ystematically r etained. A r eliable b ucket count e xists o nly f or t he f ourth s eason ( Appendix 7 ).

U N IT 1 0 " 2 2-

1

3 0 ,

5 0 ,

2-.

7, 0

9, 0

1, 0

_ •

9-. 2 . ' •_ . 3 1 3 8 -

1 96 2 52 2 39

4 8 5 8 -

3 29 2 20

- -2 53

6 8 - * . .• . 7 8 8 8 - • 9 8 - . • _ 1 08 -. : . . ; • 1 8 -, . — 1 28 -

* : . • .

1 38 -

• : • : :' • •: . .

1 48 , 'i 1 0

, •I 3 0

E XCAVA TED A REAS I N S QARE F EET

5' 0

7 0'

91 0

F igure 1 3. E xcavated a reas o f u nits. t hat o nly f ive u nits a re r epresented i n b eing a h earth).

1 0

I t s hould b e n oted t heir e ntirety ( one

O f f ar g reater i mportance i s t he v ariation d ensity ( Figure 1 4 a nd T able 4 ) which, d espite o f being b ased o n a rea r ather t han v olume,

4 6

i n a rtefact t he d rawback i s s een t o

U N ITS 2 2-

D ENS ITY o f T OTAL

•

2 -

P c •

S TONE

A RTEFACTS

2 1 4 4-

, M

• M

•

.4 =

• • •

6 3 -

•

. 2 _ = • • (

•

• . 1

1 05 -

•

1 48-

•

•

4 ' 0 ' 8 b 1 6 0 A r te fa c ts p e r S quare F oo t 6

2 0

l i o

F igure 1 4. D ensity o f s tone a rtefacts p er s quare f oot o f e xcavated deposit. T he boundaries d rawn a t u nits 4 4, 6 3, a nd 1 05 a re s imply s uggested by a v isual s can o f t he g raph.

4 7

Total

Units

N

stone

Mean

artefacts

Var.

per

S . dev.

sq. ft.

Range ,

o , 1 - 1 5,8

22

-

62

6 1

3 ,4

1 2,2

3 ,9

6 4

- 1 04

4 1

1 5,6

1 3,7

1 0,6

1 ,1

- 4 4,o

1 05

- 1 48

4 4

5 6,3

3 3,3

1 ,1

- 1 84,2

114,4

'

T able 4 . M ean d ensities o f d eposit e xcavated. b ased o n F igure 1 4.

o f s tone a rtefacts p er square T he s tratigraphic g roupings

f oot a re

c hange v ery s ignificantly w ith t he p assage o f t ime. The c ontrast b etween u nits 2 2-62 a nd t hose b elow h ad b een a nticipated f rom i mpressions g ained i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavation, b ut t hat b etween u nits 6 4-104 a nd 1 05-148 was q uite u nexpected. D espite t he v ery m uch l arger a reas o f u nits a bove u nit 6 3 ( Table 3 ) t he n umbers o f t he a rtefacts c ontained i n t hem s hows a d ramatic d ecrease c ompared w ith t he u nits b elow ( Table 5 ). F inally, a s i ndicated a bove ( 4 i ii), t here i s s omething o f a c hange i n t he c haracter o f t he deposits e ncountered i n t he f ourth s eason c ompared w ith t hose r emoved e arlier. U nits 2 2 t o 9 8 a re b est d escribed a s s hell m iddens w ith a ssociated h earths a nd a sh s preads, b ut o ften f airly p ure s hell. B elow u nit 9 8 t he u nits s ampled a re much more h eavily c ontaminated w ith a sh, a nd o ften m ight reasonably b e d escribed a s h earth o r a sh deposits c ontaminated by s hells ( Plate 5 a). T he possibility exists t hat t he c haracter o f t he s amples i s i nfluenced by f acies d ifferences a nd t hat, f or t his r eason a lso, t he s amples a bove a nd b elow u nit 9 8 a re n ot s trictly c omparable. T hese f actors, r eliability o f a ssociation, area/volume s ampled, a bundance variability, a nd l ateral v ariation n eed c onstantly t o b e k ept i n m ind w hen a ssessing t he i nventories. I t i s a moot p oint t o what extent t he g reater a rtefact a bundances o f t he l ower l evels compensate f or t he smaller a reas s amples.

4 8

Total

stone

artefacts

per

unit

. Units

N

Mean

Variance

St. dev

22

-

62

6 1

149, 5

4341 0, 4

208, 3

64

-

134

7 1

432, 4

350054,1

591, 6

1 35

-

148

1 4

537,

0

1 50265, 6

387, 6

64

-

148

85

449, 6

3 18654, 0

564, 4

T able 5 . M ean s tone a rtefact o f e xcavated u nits.

c ontent

f or various

g roupings

I n t he e nsuing d iscussions o n a rtefact c ontent o f t he v arious u nits i t w ill o ften b e s ufficient t o b ase d iscussion o n p resence o r a bsence o r p ercentage f requency o f a rtefacts w ithin c ategories. I n s ome c ases, h owever, i t i s d esirable t o t ry t o a ssess r elative f requencies b etween m ajor s tratigraphic g roupings. T his p resents a s erious d ifficulty, f or t here i s n o c ompletely s atisfactory way o f c ompensating f or t he f act t hat t he upper l evels ( 22-62) w ere examined i n a c utting whose a rea was l arge, while t he l ower u nits ( 64-148) were e xamined i n much smaller c uttings. I n t he a bsence o f a c omplete b ucket r ecord i t i s n ot possible t o e xtrapolate o n t he basis o f volume, e xcept w ithin u nits 6 2-148, a lthough t his i nformation h as been u sed where a ppropriate. T hus, where s uch c omparison h as b een deemed n ecessary, s uch a s i n t he c ases o f g rinding e quipment, a nd b ored s tones a nd r eamers, i t h as g enerally b een made o n t he b ases o f mean p ercentage f requency, a nd o n f requency p er s quare f oot o f t he t otals o f t he a reas o f m iddens e xcavated w ithin t he r elevant g roups o f u nits.

4 9

P ART I T HE E V IDENCE R ECOVERED

S T HE

A RTEFACT

I NVENTORY

5 i

L ITHIC ARTEFACTS

5 i a

C lassification

By Types

D uring t he f irst t hree s easons no a ttempt was m ade t o c lassify a rtefacts i nto types i n t he f ield a nd very l ittle s orting was carried o ut u ntil 1 971, f ollowing t he third f ield s eason. D uring 1 971 s tudents, working u nder t he writer's s upervision, a ssisted i n c arrying o ut a p reliminary s orting a ccording t o a l ist o f types approximating t o t he l ist appearing i n t his report, b ut l acking s ome types which appear h ere a nd i ncluding others which h ave s ince been dropped. Then, i n 1 974, d uring a v isit t o Cape Town f rom Oxford, t he w riter worked again t hrough a ll t he material, r evising t he s orting t o accord w ith a l ist o f t ypes which J . D eacon h ad devised t o deal w ith t he material f rom K lein's excavations i n t he older l evels o f t he cave ( Deacon 1 978: t able 1 a nd pp. 9 1-92). U nfortunately t here was l ittle opportunity i n 1 974 t o d iscuss w ith D r. D eacon t he details o f h er various c lasses a nd f urther adjustments were made f ollowing d iscussions i n Oxford i n 1 978. The main a rea i n w hich adjustments were n eeded was i n t he c lass o f Utilized F lakes. I n 1 974 t he writer had s eparated out a group of a rtefacts u nder t he general h eading o f ' Edge Damaged'. These s howed c onsiderable variety i n s ize a nd s hape, w ith t he damage f alling i nto t hree c lasses: ( i) p ieces s howing s igns o f b ruising o r battering o f a n e dge o r p rotuberance, ( ii) p ieces s howing c hipping o r f laking o f t he e dge, n ot s ufficiently extensive o r r egular a s t o be p laced i n t he ' scraper' c lass, a nd ( iii) p ieces s howing a f lat s caling o n a n e dge. A s a r esult o f d iscussions i n 1 978 t he f irst o f t hese ( i) was t aken t o equate w ith D eacon's ' Utilized F lakes: e dge', t he s econd ( ii) w ith h er ' Utilized F lakes: s teep', a nd t he t hird ( iii) w ith h er c lass o f ' Miscellaneous R etouch' ( Deacon, J . 1 978: t able 1 ) which e arlier ( Deacon, J . 1 972: t able 1 a nd p . 1 4) s he h ad described u nder ' Other R etouched Tools', a nd defined a s ' several t ypes o f f lakes w ith f lat i nvasive r etouch o n t he dorsal o r t he main f lake s urface'. T he correlation i n t he c ase o f g roups, ( ii) a nd ( iii) i s c lear; t hat of g roup ( i)

5 0

t hough i t s ounds l ess l ike h er ' light e dge damage' ( Deacon,. J . 1 978: 9 1), was a greed t o approximate most c losely t o h er ' Utilized F lakes: e dge'. I t i s p robable t hat i n d iffering c ircumstances t he w riter m ight h ave a dopted a d ifferent ( though n ot n ecessarily b etter) s eries o f c lasses t o describe t he material f rom N BC, b ut i t w as deemed s ensible t o f ollow D eacon's c lassification f or K lein's W ilton material t o f acilitate c omparison between t he e arlier a nd l ater Holocene material. T hus t he i nventory u sed h ere d iffers o nly i n m inor ways f rom t hat u sed i n Deacon 1 978. I n h er ' Wilton' p aper Deacon ( 1972) l isted C hips a nd C hunks s eparately, t he f ormer a s " all waste p ieces l ess t han 1 0 mm i n maximum d imension", a nd t he l atter a s " all p ieces over 1 0 mm which a re n ot o f f lake o rigin a nd which h ave n o o bvious potential f or u se". I n h er NBC a nalysis ( Deacon 1 978) o nly ' Chunks' a re r etained, apparently w ith t he s ame d efinition, while h er ' Chips' h ave been a bsorbed i nto h er c lass o f ' Untrimmed F lakes'. I n 1 971 t he writer h ad a dopted t he t erm ' Chips a nd C hunks', f rom K leindienst ( 1961) t o i nclude f ragments o f a ll s izes which were n ot o bviously o f f lake o rigin, n or o bviously c ores, b ut which were c onsidered, n one t he l ess, t o h ave b een f ractured by h uman a ction. B roken p ieces o f u nretouched f lakes, o f a ny s ize, p rovided t heir f lake o rigin c ould be determined, h ad been i ncluded w ith t he ' Untrimmed F lakes' c lass, a nd t here s eemed t o be n o p oint i n s ubdividing t he ' Chips a nd C hunks'. Because o f t his t here may be s light d ifferences i n t he o bjects i ncluded i n t he r elevant waste c lasses. W hereas D eacon h as o nly o ne t ype o f ' Pieces E squillees' we h ave i ntroduced a s econd t ype which, while d isplaying t he s ame c haracteristic s quilling a nd c rushing, i s f ormed o n c ortical f lakes. T he l imited d istribution o f t hese i n t ime, a nd i n s pace w ithin t he deposit ( 6 i ii c b elow), s uggests t hat, f or a t ime, c ortical f lakes were d eliberately s elected. F or Deacon's ' Smoothed S lates' we h ave p referred t he o lder t erm o f palettes'; n either t erm i s e ntirely s atisfactory a s o ne p resupposes f unction whereas t he o ther p resumes p articular r aw material. T he o bjects c oncerned f orm a h ighly c haracteristic, i f somewhat e nigmatic, g roup. A c lass o f ' Backed S crapers' h as been a dded w ithin t he ' Backed Tools' g roup ( 6 i v b b elow), a nd t he t erm ' Drills' h as been p referred t o Deacon's ' Borers'. A v ery small n umber o f r e-used M iddle S tone a ge f lakes was r ecorded, b ut t hese h ave n ot been k ept a s a c lass w ithin t he i nventory.

5 i b

Definitions

WASTE CATEGORIES C hips a nd C hunks: f ragments o f a ll s izes which a re n ot o bviously o f f lake o rigin, n or o bvious cores, b ut which a re

5 1

j udged a gency.

t o

h ave b een b roken

by

h uman

r ather

t han

n atural

C ores: p ieces o f r aw m aterial f rom w hich f lakes h ave b een d eliberately r emoved o ther t han w ith t he i ntention o f c onverting t he p iece i tself i nto a t ool; ( i) I rregular: A ny c ore w hich i s n ot c lassifiable a s a r adial o r b ladelet c ore o r a ny o ther f ormal t ype o f c ore; ( ii) R adial: C ores h aving a p erimeter f rom which f lake s cars t end t o b e d irected t owards t he c entre o f t he p iece, o n o ne f ace o r t wo. T hese a re r arely v ery c ircular o r r egular, a s i n t ext-book M SA f orms; ( iii) B ladelet: T hese a re small, o r v ery small cores f rom which small, n ot a lways e longate f lakes h ave b een r emoved: n o particular s hape o r s ystem o f f laking i s i mplied; ( vi) B ipolar: T hese a pproximate t o J . D eacon's Core R educed P ieces ( Deacon, J ., 1 984a: 3 74). T hey w ere i nitially i ncluded w ith p ieces e squillees o n a ccount o f t heir g eneral r esemblance t o t hose a rtefacts, b ut were s ubsequently r ejected a s s uch a fter c loser s tudy o f t he g roup, a nd t ransferred t o t he c lass o f b ipolar c ores. U ntrimmed F lakes: F lakes which s how n o s ign o f r etouch, n or a ny o bvious s ign o f u se. F ragments a re i ncluded i f t hey a re c learly d erived f rom f lakes t hat h ave b roken. I n p ractice t his g enerally m eans p ieces r etaining p latform a nd/or b ulb o f p ercussion, o r well m arked b ulbar r ings. S uch f eatures t end t o b e b etter marked o n c halcedony a nd q uartz t han o n q uartzite, w ith t he r esult t hat more b roken f lake p ieces i n t hese materials w ill b e r ecognised a s s uch, w hile a c onsiderable n umber o f q uartzite f lake f ragments w ill p robably go t o t he C hips a nd C hunks c lass.

UTILIZED

CATEGORIES

U tilized F lakes: F lakes s howing r etouch a nd/or e vidence o f u se, b ut l acking t he c haracteristics w hich m ight a llow t hem t o b e p laced i n o ther more f ormal g roups w ithin t he i nventory: t hey d isplay c onsiderable v ariety i n s ize a nd s hape. ( i) E dge: P ieces s howing b ruising o r battering, n ot g enerally s evere, o f a n e dge o r p rotuberance. ( ii) S teep: P ieces s howing c hipping o r f laking o f a n e dge, n ot s ufficiently e xtensive o r r egular t o j ustify i nclusion i n t he s craper c lass. ( ii) N otched: F lakes, o r s ometimes c hunks, w hich h ave a n otch, o r n otches, worked i n a n e dge, o r e dges. T he n otches m ay b e f ormed b y a s ingle b low o r by s everal. H eavy E dge-Flaked P ieces: T his i s a s omewhat s ubjective g roup w hich i ncludes, a t o ne e xtreme, p ieces which a re a rguably c ores, a nd a t t he o ther, p ieces which m ight a lmost b e c alled s crapers. G enerally t he f laking s eems d eliberately l imited t o what i s t aken t o b e a working e dge, i n a w ay w hich would b e u nexpected i f f lake p roduction w ere t he s ole i ntent. I n s ome c ases t here i s e vidence o f a f iner r etouch s uperimposed o n t he b older, b locking-out

5 2

f laking. S tep-flaking, a s i f f rom r e-sharpening, i s a lso n ot i nfrequently p resent. T he c lass, a lmost e ntirely i n q uartzite, may b e s omewhat b roader t han D eacon's c lassification ( 1978:91) w hich s eems t o i nclude o nly ' split c obbles', o f w hich o nly o ne o ccurs i n t he g roup u nder d iscussion: i n t he l evels d ealt w ith h ere t he c ommonest f orms o f b lank f or t he t ype a re t hick, g enerally n atural, t ablets, a nd i rregular c hunks ( 6 i ii b b elow). A f eature o f t hese p ieces i s t he g enerally v ery i rregular working e dge, o ften w ith d eep i ndentations a nd p rominent s purs; i t i s t his c haracteristic w hich s ometimes e xcludes p ieces f rom b eing c lassified a s ' scrapers'. I t i s h ard t o i magine t hat t hese p ieces w ere e ver a ttached t o a h andle w ith m astic, a s s ome s crapers a re k nown a nd o thers a re s upposed t o h ave b een ( c.f. C lark 1 958; D eacon, H . J . 1 976: 5 8). P ieces E squillees: t he d efinition g iven by J anette D eacon ( 1972:14) s eems e ntirely a ppropriate; v iz, p ieces w ith a n e dge t hat h as b een " crushed t o c ause s plintering a long a s traight o r s lightly c urved c hisel-like e dge". A s D eacon s uggests, t here c an b e d ifficulty w ith s ome, u sually v ery t iny p ieces, i n d eciding whether t hey a re worked o ut b ladelet c ores o r p ieces e squillees, a nd t his i s d iscussed b elow ( 6 i ii c ). Two t ypes o f p iece e squillee a re r ecorded i n t hese l ater H olocene l evels a t N BC ( i) P ieces e squillees, f lake: which i s t he n ormal t ype, g enerally f ormed o n a n u ndifferentiated f lake, a nd ( ii) P ieces e squillees, c ortical: developed o n c ortical f lakes f rom w ater-worn c obbles, i n which t he s trong c urvature o f t he d orsal s urface r esults i n a h ighly d istinctive n otch i n t he e dge o f t he p iece ( c.f. F igure 2 8). I n t he o riginal f ield a nd sorting r ecords t hese were c alled ' type X '. P alettes: D espite t he n ame, n o p articular f unction i s i mplied f or t hese o bjects w hich, a s a c lass, r emain e nigmatic s o f ar a s u se i s c oncerned. A s u sed h ere t he n ame i mplies a t hin, more o r l ess f lat t ablet o f s tone, w orked t o s hape by a ny o r a ll o f t he a vailable t echniques; c hipping, g ouging, g rinding. G rindstones: A ny p iece o f s tone w hich s hows s igns o f u se a s a f ixed ( nether) g rinding s urface, a gainst w hich a m oving s tone h as b een r ubbed. T hese a re c ommonly f lattish, w ater-worn s tones, b ut may b e a ngular s labs o f s uitable s ize, s hape a nd r aw material. O ften a g rindstone h as b een b roken up a nd r educed by u se a s a c ore, a nd i nventory e ntries may b e b ased o n f ragments s howing a c oncave g round s urface. R ubbers: T hese a re n ormally f ist-sized, o r s maller, w aterw orn c obbles, w hich d isplay o ne o r more f acets r esulting f rom t heir h aving b een u sed a gainst a g rinding s tone. S ometimes a s mall, p ecked d imple i s p resent i n t he c entre o f t he f acetted a rea. H ammerstones: S tones, u sually q uartzite, a nd u sually w aterw orn c obbles o r p ebbles w hich d isplay o ne o r more a reas o f

5 3

b attering, p ebble.

u sually

a t o r

n ear

t he p oles

C ombination H ammer/Rubber: A c haracteristics o f both t he R ubber

o f

a n

e llipsoidal

p iece s howing a nd t he H ammerstone.

t he

F ORMAL TOOLS S crapers: Normally f lake-tools w ith a s traight, c oncave, o r c onvex working e dge, o f f airly r egular p rofile, f ormed by g enerally small, c ontiguous o r o verlapping s econdary r etouch s cars. No p articular u se o r mode o f u se i s i mplied. B acked T ools: U sually made o n s mall, t hin f lakes o r b lades, a nd c haracterized by a b lunting r etouch applied t o a n e dge o pposite t o a n aturally s harp, o r a r etouched e dge. T he f unction o f t he r etouch s eems t o b e t o s hape t he p iece a nd, p erhaps, t o i ncrease p urchase w hen i nserted i n m astic f or h afting. F ive t ypes a re r ecognised: ( i) B acked F lakes a nd B ladelets: t hese a re s mall p ieces w ith s ome backing r etouch b ut c onforming t o n o v ery f ormal s hape; ( ii) S egments: p ieces i n w hich t he b acking f orms a c urved e dge opposite t o a m ore o r l ess s traight e dge f ormed b y t he i ntersection o f a dorsal f lake s car w ith t he main f lake s urface. T his e dge j oins t he two e xtremes o f t he c urved b acked e dge. ( iii) B acked S crapers: s imilar t o t hough g enerally t hicker t han s egments, w ith t he e dge o pposite; t he backing worked w ith a ' scraper r etouch' i nto a g ently c onvex e dge. T he t ype h as, i n t he p ast, b een v ariously r eferred t o a s ' double a rcs', ' double c rescents', ' slugs', ' canoes', a nd ' crescent a dzes' ( Inskeep 1 967:569; 1 980:95), b ut more r ecently, o n t he g rounds t hat t he working e dge i s a pparently i ndistinguishable f rom t hat o f small,convex s crapers, t he n ame ' backed s craper' h as b een p roposed ( Jacobson 1 979) a nd i s a dopted h ere. T he f unction a nd mode o f u se r emain s peculative. ( iv) B acked F ragments: f ragments o f f lakes o r b ladelets w ith s ome b acking r etouch p resent. ( v) T anged P oints: i n which a p ointed f lake o r b ladelet h as b een r educed a t t he p roximal end, b y a b lunting r etouch, t o p roduce a t ang. A b lunting r etouch may a lso b e p resent o n o ne o r both e dges n ear t he t ip. D rills: Small f lakes, b lades, o r r od-like c hips t o w hich a p ronounced t ip h as b een i mparted b y a b lunting r etouch c arried b ack f rom t he t ip f or a f ew m illimetres, u sually o n two e dges o f t he p iece. T he s mall s ize o f t he p ieces, t heir f orm, a nd o ccasional a brasion a t t he t ip s uggest t hat t hey were h afted a s d rill-tips, i n c ontrast t o t he l arge f orms ( reamers: s ee b elow) u sed t o e nlarge and i mpart f inish t o a n e xisting h ole. R eamers: A ll NBC s pecimens a re o f q uartzite; s ometimes made o n a t hick f lake, b ut more u sually o n a n atural c hunk, r od-like o r e longate t riangular, w ith q uadrilateral o r t riangular c ross s ection. T he working b it o f t he t ool i s

5 4

s haped by f laking, d irected a t r ight a ngles t o t he p lane, o r t he l ong a xis o f t he p iece, i n s uch a way a s t o p roduce a r ather m assive, t apering t ip, o ften s eparated f rom t he p roximal e nd o f t he t ool by marked s houlders. T here i s c ommonly a z one o f a brasion o r smoothing o f t he a rrises, i ndicative o f a r otational u se, a t s ome d istance b ack f rom t he t ip. M iscellaneous R etouched P ieces: F lakes o f v arious s hapes a nd s izes s howing a f lat s caling, b ack f rom a n e dge, a lmost i n t he s ame p lane a s t he s urface o n which i t o ccurs. D eacon c onsidered t his, i n d iscussion w ith t he w riter, t o b e t he e quivalent o f h er ( 1972) ' flat i nvasive r etouch', a nd h er ' miscellaneous r etouch' o f 1 978. T he w riter would, b y i nclination, h ave i ncluded t his c lass among t he ' Utilized C ategories', b ut t hey h ave b een k ept i n t he ' Formal T ools' c ategory f or r easons o f c omparability. B ored S tones: T hese a re u sually o f f lattened, g lobular s hape ( natural o r a rtificially s haped), w ith a b iconical p erforation a long t he p olar a xis. S inkers: T he n ame h as b een g iven t o small p ellets o f s hale, o ften o nly r oughly a nd m inimaly s haped, a round w hich a g roove h as b een c ut f or t he a ttachment o f a l ine. G rooved S tones: S ometimes r eferred t o a s ' bead-stones' o r a s ' poison-stones', t hese a re p ebbles o r t ablets o f s tone i nto which o ne o r more g rooves, o f ' U' o r ' V' c rosss ection, h ave b een w orn. O chre P encils: F ragments o f n aturally o ccurring, s oft, a nd f ine-grained m ineral m atter w hich b ear o ne o r m ore f acets r esulting f rom t heir h aving b een d rawn a cross o r r ubbed a gainst s ome h ard s urface. T hey s omewhat r esemble r ather w orn-down p ieces o f b lack-board c halk.

5 i c

Measurement o f

A ttributes

F or s crapers a nd b acked p ieces t he method o f measurement f ollows c losely t hat o utlined by D eacon ( Deacon, J . 1 972 a nd 1 982). That i s, f or s crapers, w idth o f r etouch i s t he l ength o f a s traight l ine j oining t he e nds o f t he r etouched p art of t he e dge; l ength i s t he d istance, a t r ight a ngles, b etween two l ines p arallel t o t he l ine d efining t he w idth o f r etouch a nd t angential t o t he a rtefact; w idth i s t he d imension b etween two p arallel l ines, a t r ight a ngles t o t he l ine d efining w idth o f r etouch, a nd t angential t o t he a rtefact. T he h eight i s measured w ith s liding c alipers a s n early a s possible t o r epresent t he v ertical d istance b etween t wo parallel p lanes, t angential t o t he a retefact, o ne of w hich i s t he p lane o f t he v entral s urface w hen t he a rtefact i s a t r est o n a f lat s urface. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t his l ast measurement may b e g reater t han t he t hickness o f t he s pecimen. H eig _ht o f r etouch w as n ot measured.

5 5

F or s egments a nd backed p ieces g enerally t he l ength i s g iven a s t he maximum d imension o f t he p iece p arallel t o the g eneral a xis o f t he c hord i n s egments, o r t he backed edge i n more o r l ess s traight b acked b ladelets. W idth i s g iven a s t he d istance b etween two p arallel l ines,tangential to t he s pecimen, p arallel t o t he a xis d efining t he l ength. H eight i s measured a s f or s crapers. F or backed s crapers, h owever, d imensions a re measured a s f or o rdinary s crapers. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a re measured i n t he s ame w ay a s s crapers. Where o ther c riteria a re u sed f or particular c lasses o f s pecimens, d etails a re g iven i n t he r elevant s ections.

5 i d

T he D rawing o f

S pecimens

I n most c ases s orting, a ttribute r ecording a nd drawing had t o b e c arried o ut d uring l imited v isits t o Cape T own. S orting a nd a ttribute r ecording were g iven p riority a nd i n m any c ases d rawings were merely ' skeletal'. T hus, i n the c ase o f q uartzite s crapers f rom u nits 2 2 t o 6 2, a nd f or s ome o ther s pecimens, t he p lan-form w as t raced, a nd t he l imits o f t he z ones o f r etouch were i ndicated; t he main s tructural l ines o f t he p iece w ere s ketched i n, a nd the h ighest p oint was marked, b ut n o a ttempt was m ade t o r epresent i ndividual f lake s cars. T hus, t he general f orm a nd a pparent i ntent a re r epresented b ut n ot t he process by w hich t hese were a chieved. Whilst t his i s c learly a l ess t han d esirable r ecord t he a lternative would h ave b een even l ess d esirable. T he d rawings most a ffected a re i n F igures 2 7, 2 8 a nd 3 5. Where s amples h ave b een d rawn f rom l arger p opulations s pecimens were s elected w ith t he use o f a r andom u nits t able.

5 i i

NON-LITHIC ARTEFACTS

I f e xplicit definitions o f l ithic a rtefact t ypes a re rare i n t he l iterature t hey a re a lmost n on e xistent f or nonl ithic a rtefacts; generally, a uthors h ave n amed a nd l isted t hem w ithout f urther e laboration. I n s ome c ases,such a s o strich e ggshell b eads, awls, o strich e ggshell w aterb ottles e tc. l aboured d efinitions s eem superfluous a lthough, a s i n t he p resent c ase, i f d ifferent types o f awl ( or a ny o ther c lass o f o bject) a re b eing p roposed, t hen t he c laimed c haracteristics m ust b e s et o ut. B ut t he c ircumstances do s eem t o b e s omewhat d ifferent f or nonl ithic material a nd t o t his e xtent, r ightly o r wrongly, i t h as b een p referred t o p rovide d efinitions i ntegrally w ith t he descriptions a nd a nalyses w here t hey h ave been d eemed n ecessary o r desirable. A s a g uide t o t he c ontent o f t he n on-lithic c omponent o f t he i ndustries t he f ollowing c ategories a re d iscussed i n detail i n t he p ages f ollowing t hose d ealing w ith l ithic a rtefacts. v iz.

5 6

P ottery Awls Bone spatulae A rrow parts Bone tubes Bone r ings M iscellaneous bone/ivory p ieces Worked tortoise c arapace P erforated Donax s hells S hell pendants O strich e ggshell beads, bottles,

a nd

f ragments.

6 T HE

L I TH IC

A RTEFACTS

6 i

THE

I NCIDENCE OF VARIOUS RAW MATERIALS

Q uartzite i s by f ar t he c ommonest r aw m aterial used i n t he c ave, c omprising 8 1.4% o f t he t otal o f 4 7,370 s tone a rtefacts. B ut n either i t n or t he o ther materials were u sed w ith a u niform f requency t hroughout t he v arious p eriods o f o ccupation. P rior t o t he f ourth s eason o f e xcavation i n 1 979 J . D eacon ( 1978: t ables 2 and 3 ) h ad i ndicated c ontributions f rom q uartz a nd c halcedony o f 1 2.47% a nd 4 .60%, r espectively, f or t otal a rtefacts i n t he e arly H olocene W ilton l evels, a nd 4 3.40% and 4 0.68% r espectively f or t he ' formal t ools' c ategory. D uring t he f irst t hree s easons' work u nits 2 t o 6 0 h ad f ailed t o p roduce a n a ssemblage which c ould p roperly b e called W ilton a nd t he mean p ercentages f or q uartz a nd c halcedony were 1 .9% a nd 0 .68% f or t otal a rtefacts, a nd 5 .87% a nd 0 .13% f or t he f ormal t ools ( Tables 6 a nd 7 ). W ithin a f ew d ays o f c ommencing t he f ourth s eason o f e xcavation c lear s hifts w ere n oted t owards i ncreased q uantities o f quartz a nd c halcedony, t ogether w ith b acked p ieces a nd s mall s crapers. I t t hus s eemed l ikely t hat r aw material f requencies might r eveal i mportant t ime-linked f eatures i n t he c ultural c ontent o f t he deposits. T he r elevant data are g iven i n A ppendix 8 a nd t he r esults o f a nalysis a re s ummarized i n T ables 6 , 7 a nd 8 a nd F igures 1 5 a nd 1 6. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote, i n F igure 1 5, that whilst s ignificant s hifts i n t rend a re a pparent for q uartz, c halcedony a nd s hale, t he c urve f or q uartzite i s almost c onstant f rom b ottom t o t op. T his, h owever, i s a pparently d ue t o a c ompensating e ffect f rom i ncreased u se o f shale c ommencing a t a bout t he t ime t hat q uartz a nd c halcedony d iminished i n i mportance. T he position b ecomes c learer w hen o nly f ormal t ools a re c onsidered ( Figure 1 6), when i t c an b e s een t hat t he t rends f or q uartz a nd c halcedony b ehave i n m uch t he s ame way a s i n F igure 1 5 b ut t hat f or q uartzite t akes o n a v ery d ifferent a ppearance.

5 8

( . 4 u o 1 c v ( N I

, 1 4 i t -

c m w

Variance

material

1 Raw

[ Units 4 u l H -

a e

Q

1 ,9

Qt

9 0,0

1 02,6

S i

0 ,1

0J6

S h

7 ,1

Ch

Q Qt

1 1,08

> c u z Range c i 2 3 ,32 1 0,13

0 ,0-15,3 4 6,1-100,0

0 ,4

0 ,0-2,4

8 4,54

9 ,19

0 ,0-53,8

0 ,68

2 ,69

1 ,64

0 ,0-8,3

1 4,88

1 60,41

3 ,8

2 ,2-100

7 2,5

173,16

1 3,1

0 ,0-93,3

S i

0 ,05

0 ,05

0 ,2

0 ,0-1,6

S h

0 ,6

3 ,25

1 ,8

0 ,0-11,2

e u p

Ch

1 1,6

4 2,86

6 ,5

0 ,0-34,4

_ e , 4

Q

8 ,29

2 ,8

3 , 7-13,5

1 1,63

3 ,4

8 1,6-94,4

e 4 ,. , 4 4

r . -

a

-

m e 4 1

Earlier

W ilton L evels

I n m . 4

Q t

7 , 78 87,2

S i

-

-

-

-

S h

0 ,59

0 ,18

0 ,42

0 ,2-1,6

Ch

4 ,11

2 ,62

1 ,61

1 ,8-7,2

Q

1 2,38

0 ,14

0 ,38

-

Q t

8 2,42

1 9, 79

4 ,44

-

Ch

4 ,34

1 0,09

3 ,17

-

Table 6 . Mean p ercentage per unit o f t he p rincipal raw material g roups f or t he t hree s trata g roupings s uggested by t he graphs i n F igures 1 5 a nd 1 6. The F igures h ere r elate t o the t otal s tone i ndustry; f ormal t ools, utilized,and waste. Unit 6 3 c ontained no a rtefacts o f a ny k ind a nd i s omitted: i t provides a convenient l evel t o u se a s a marker f or the d iscontinuity between t he upper a nd m iddle b locks o f u nits. The c ontrast between t he middle a nd l ower b locks i s l ess marked. The earlier W ilton l evels a re t hose excavated by K lein a nd r eported by J . Deacon ( 1978) o n whose table 2 t he c alculations a re based.

5 9

4 ) r ae

%

unit

f z u u c

> c o

• , I

per

( 1 )

Mean

Units

, e , 1

m

Range o f

4 . f

P ercentages

Q

5 ,87

4 85, 72

2 2,03

0 ,0-100,0

Qt

3 5,54

1 427,45

3 7, 78

0 ,0-100,0

S i

1 ,36

4 1,57

6 ,44

1

S b

2 8,18

1 197,82

3 4,60

N J c . ,

Ch

0 ,13

1 ,11

1 ,05

Q

1 6,18

6 71,74

2 5,91

0 ,0-100,0

Qt

8 ,14

276,07

1 6,6

0 ,0-100,0

S i

0 ,42

7 ,17

2 ,6

S b

4 ,85

3 72,63

1 9,30

0 ,0-100,0

I . , . 0

Ch

5 5,99

1 402,00

3 7,44

0 ,0-100,0

_ e 4 t i -

Q

1 2,13

2 40,34

1 5,50

0 ,0-40,0

Q t

5 1,76

7 31,32

27,04

0 ,0-100,0

S i

-

-

-

-

S h

1 ,78

4 1,45

6 ,43

0 ,0-25,0

Ch

2 7,13

5 47,70

2 3,40

0 ,0-75,0

Q

4 3,04

5 4,17

7 ,36

Q t

1 5,54

2 54,53

1 5,95

Ch

3 3,56

3 25,07

1 8,02

4 f N I u )

4 ( i f e, m 1 1

m , r f 1

Levels

0 ,0-100,0 0 ,0-8,3

0 ,0-9,0

-

-

[

E arlier W ilton

f n m 4

0 ,0-20,0

T able 7 . Mean percentage per unit o f t he principal r aw material g roups f or t he t hree s trata g roupings suggested by t he g raphs i n F igures 1 5 a nd 1 6. T he F igures relate only t o t he f ormal t ools category. Unit 6 3, containing n o a rtefacts, i s omitted. The e arlier W ilton l evels a re those e xcavated by K lein a nd r eported by J . Deacon ( 1978) o n w hose t able 3 t he calculations a re b ased.

6 0

%

Units

Excavated

units

Midden

w ith

No

per

Area

p osi-

of

sq. ft

t ived

frag-

x 1 00

Mean

Var

S . dev.

s cores

ments

1 5,7

7 ,03

8 0,50

8 ,97

1 ,1

0 ,24

0 ,91

0 ,95

32, 5

0 ,63

0 , 51

0 ,71

Sq.

i n Ft.

Frags

Percentage

frequency

i

3 543,1

6 9,2

6 7 - 19

722,9

1 8,8

1 20

3 62,5

82,7

22

-6 6

1 48

5 59 8 1 18

,

T able 8 . s lightly a nd 8 . s cores.

I ncidence o f s hale, t ools a nd w aste, i n t he modified u nit g roupings. D ata f rom A ppendixes 7 The m ean p ercentages ( Appendix 8 ) i nclude z ero

I n t he f ormal t ools c ategory q uartz s hows a s light t endency f or more r egular u se a bove u nit 1 33, a nd a n a lmost c omplete c ut-out a bove u nit 6 4. I n b etween ( units 1 11 t o 9 5 a nd 7 7 t o 6 4) a re two p eriods o f r ather more e rratic u se. I n t he t otal a rtefacts c urve l ittle c hange i s apparent u ntil u nit 5 8, a bove which t here i s a n a lmost c omplete c ut-out. F or quartzite t he f ormal t ools g raph s uggests a f airly u niform u se a nd f airly h igh f requency f rom u nit 1 48 t o u nit 6 1, above which f requency i s both h igh a nd r egular. S ilcrete a ppears s o i nfrequently a nd i n s uch l ow p ercentages ( Appendix 8 ) t hat i t s eemed pointless t o p lot i t i n the g raphs. S hale i s a lmost n on-existent i n t he i ndustry b elow u nit 7 7. F rom 7 6 t o 6 6 i t m akes a n e rratic c ontribution ( though a t t imes a h igh o ne) t o t he f ormal t ools c ategory b ut a bove t his i ts u se i s c onsistent a nd f airly h igh u p t o u nit 1 7, a bove which i t i s a gain s omewhat e rratic.

6 1

R AW MATER IAL T RENDS :TOTAL

S TONE A RTEFACTS

U NITS 222 S HALE

-

11 19

Q UARTZ ITE

-3 1 -4 0 -

. • . * *

•

50 -6 0 ,7 • • • ••

T i - 64

. • • • •

. • . •

-9 0-

. . • • • • • •

100 -

. • • '

•

Z ERO V ALUES

1 10 -

. • . • . •

• -8 0 -

. •

120 -

1 00 %

130 -

, HALCEDONY /C

140

-

F igure 1 5. R aw material t rends: t otal s tone a rtefacts. T he c urves a re c onstructed f rom t he c umulative totals o f t he l ogs o f p ercentage f requencies. T his device, u sed a lso i n F igures 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, a nd 2 0, w as a dopted s imply i n o rder t o c ontain t he l ength o f t he d rawings w ithin p ractical l imits.

I n F igure 1 5 t here i s a s light s uggestion o f a n i ncrease i n t he f requency o f c halcedony a bove u nit 1 35, a nd t his u sage r emains r emarkably c onstant up t o u nit 7 4. From 7 4 t o 6 4 i ts u se i s o nly s lightly l ess c onsistent, b ut above 6 4 i t d rops o ut a lmost c ompletely. W hen v iewed f rom w ithin t he f ormal t ools c ategory ( Figure 1 6) t he p attern of c halcedony u sage i s d ramatically c lear. T he c ut-out a bove unit 6 4 i s u nequivocal, a nd t he i mpression o f a l ess certain role b elow u nit 1 35 a gain a ppears. F rom 1 35 t o 6 4 t he f ormal t ools a re c learly dominated b y a c onsistent a nd h igh f requency o f c halcedony. I n a ttempting t o s ummarize t his i nformation t hat t here i s s ome e vidence o f a c hange i n u sage a bove u nit 1 35, a nd a c learly d efined u nit 6 4. T he boundaries a re n ot p recise,

6 2

one c an s ay raw m aterial change above but t his i s

F ORMAL T OOLS C ATEGORY : R aw M a ter ia l T rends . i • QUARTZ ITE

. : •••

• • SHALE .. • 6 1

ZERO V ALUES

6 4 CHALCEDONY.'

1 00 % VALUES

QUARTZ

1 33

1 35

F igure 1 6. R aw m aterial t rends: f ormal t ools c ategory. T he graphs a re c umulative l ogs o f p ercentage f requencies. U nits w ith n o f ormal t ools do n ot a ppear i n t he g raphs. s urely t o b e e xpected. T he r esults o f t he g roupings s uggested a bove a re f urther s ummarized i n T ables 6 a nd 7 f rom which i t c an b e s een t hat q uartzite dominates t he i ndustry i n u nits 1 48 t o 1 35, w ith smaller b ut s ignificant p ercentages o f q uartz a nd c halcedony. U nits 1 34 t o 6 4 a re dominated by c halcedony, f ollowed by q uartz, i n t he f ormal t ools category, t hough q uartzite s till p redominates a s t he r aw m aterial w hen t otal a rtefacts a re c onsidered. U nit 6 3 was devoid o f a rtefacts. U nits 6 2 t o 2 2 a re dominated by q uartzite a nd s hale b oth i n t he t otal s tone a rtefacts g rouping a nd i n f ormal t ools. F igure 1 5 s uggests t hat s hale i s v irtualy a bsent b elow u nit 6 6 a lthough F igure 1 6 i ndicates a n umber o f f ormal t ools below this l evel ( mostly a ccounted f or b y s inkers i n u nits

6 3

6 4-76). B ut t he c umulative l og g raphs do n ot r eflect p ercentages below 1 .3 whereas i f t hese a re taken i nto a ccount a s omewhat d ifferent p icture emerges. Examination o f A ppendix 8 s hows t hat t he f ifty-three u nits, 6 7 t o 1 19, c ontain o nly e ight p ieces o f s hale w hereas t he s ixty-five u nits a bove c ontain 5 59 p ieces a nd t he twenty-nine u nits b elow c ontain 1 18 p ieces; t he s hift i n emphasis being very c lear a bove a nd b elow t he u nit 1 19/120 i nterface. The c ontrasts b elow u nit 6 2 f ail c ompletely t o emerge i n the g raphs a nd i n T able 6 , b ut i f, f or t he p urposes o f s hale, t he u nits a re r e-grouped s lightly t he c ontrasts a ppear q uite c learly ( Table 8 ), b oth i n t erms o f f requency per s quare f oot o f e xcavated m idden a nd t he mean percentage f requencies. I n f act i t s eems v ery l ikely t hat t he s hift t owards g reater u se o f s hale i n t he upper g roup o f l evels a ctually a nticipates t he t rends o f o ther r aw materials, s tarting i mmediately a bove u nit 6 4. T he l imited a rea opened a t the l evel o f u nits 1 19/120 t ogether w ith t he v irtual absence o f s hale i n t he t hirty-seven u nits a bove 1 20 a nd t he p resence o f twenty-three p ieces o f s hale i n t hat u nit s uggests that a p eriod o f s hale u sage t erminated r ather a bruptly with u nit 1 20. T here i s t hus a p ersuasive s uggestion that i nterest i n s hale was i ndependent o f o ther r aw materials i n t he l ower l evels, b ut was c losely a ssociated i n t he upper l evels. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat f or t he p rincipal r aw material g roups ( Q, Q t, C h) i n t he t otal a rtefacts group ( Table 6 ) J . D eacon's f igures f or t he t hree u nderlying W ilton l evels correspond f airly c losely t o our l owest g rouping o f l evels, t hough w ith a s lightly h igher p ercentage o f q uartz. I n t he f ormal t ools c ategory ( Table 7 ) t he f igures f or c halcedony a re i n f airly close a greement, b ut t hose f or q uartz a nd q uartzite a re very d ifferent a nd a re a lmost r eversed i n r elative a bundance. T his s eems v ery s trange, b ut may r esult i n p art f rom Deacon h aving c lassed s ome q uartzite p ieces a s u tilized w hich t he w riter may h ave c lassed a s f ormal t ools. T hat t his i s n ot t he c omplete a nswer, h owever, i s s uggested by t he d ramatic d rop i n D eacon's q uartzite f igures ( 1978 t able 3 ) f rom 3 8.10% i n RA t o 4 .71% a nd 3 .82% i n t he two o verlying l evels. T he e xtent t o which t hese r einforced by o ther e lements

6 i i 6 i i

r aw m aterial g roupings i s d iscussed b elow.

a re

T HE WASTE CATEGORY a

C hips

a nd c hunks

I t i s a ssumed t hat c hips a nd c hunks a re a ccidental b yp roducts o f f laking t echniques a imed at p roducing u tilizable f lakes o r s haped n uclei. G iven uniformity o f f laking t echnique a nd o f r aw m aterial q uality i t s eems p robable t hat t he p roduction o f c hips a nd chunks would

6 4

r emain f airly c onstant f or e ach o f t he r aw material g roups: a ny variation o ught t o be e ntirely r andom. S ystematic v ariations m ight r esult f rom o ne o r more o f a n umber o f f actors: e .g. s ystematic variations i n t he q uality o f r aw m aterials, c hanges ( for whatever r eason) i n t echnological c ompetence, c hanges i n f laking t echniques. A pparent v ariations m ight r esult f rom i nconsistent s ampling i f t he o riginal d istributions were n ot r andom, o r f rom i nconsistency o n t he p art o f t he e xcavators i n r etention a nd c lassification o f material. I n t he p resent c ase t he i nfluence o f t he e xcavators i s b elieved t o b e m inimal. T here was good o verlapping o f p ersonnel f rom s eason t o s eason, a nd i n s ituations where i nexperienced s orters w ere u sed t he i nstruction was t o k eep a ll s tone: t he t rays were p eriodically s orted f or n ona rtefact s tone e ither by t he w riter o r by a nother e xperienced member o f t he t eam. T he f inal decisions a s t o c lassification o f material r ested w ith t he w riter d uring s orting e xercises i n t he l aboratory. T he possibility o f s ampling - d istortions c annot b e i gnored, e specially f or t he fourth s eason ( units 6 1-148) when t he e xcavation e xtended p rogressively f urther i nto t he c ave, moving f rom s hell dominated m iddens t o d eposits w ith a much g reater c ontribution f rom h earth material. T he basic data o n c hips a nd c hunks i s p resented i n A ppendix 9 , a nd a bstracts o f t he data a ppear i n F igures 1 7 a nd 1 8, a nd i n Tables 9 a nd 1 0. C lear s hifts i n r elative f requency o ccur i n a ll t hree r aw materials ( plotted a s % o f u ntrimmed f lakes) a nd, f rom a round u nit 5 9 downwards, t he t rends i n e ach, a llowing f or m inor s hifts o f emphasis, a re c losely s imilar. T his i s s omewhat u nexpected a s t here i s e vidence t hat b ipolar t echnique was employed i n t he f laking o f q uartz a nd c halcedony b ut n ot f or q uartzite ( see u nder p ieces e squillees, 6 i ii c ). To j udge f rom D ickson's ( 1977) e xperiments i n t he f laking o f q uartz b y t he b ipolar t echnique o ne would e xpect t he method t o p roduce l arger quantities o f c hips a nd c hunks t han o ther methods o f f laking, y et t he l evels w ith t he l owest p ercentages o f c hips and c hunks ( units 9 8 t o 1 48: T able 1 0) c ontain 7 5% o f t he i dentified b ipolar c ores. When the f igures f or c hips a nd c hunks a s p ercentages o f untrimmed f lakes a re e xamined w ithin t he f ramework o f t he major s tratigraphic g roupings s uggested by r aw material t rends ( Table 9 ), p articularly t hose f or c halcedony, t hey seem not t o b e i ncompatible. H owever,if t he l ogs o f percentage f requencies a re p lotted ( Figure 1 8) a s omewhat different p icture emerges. C halcedony e ffectively disappears a fter u nit 6 4 a nd q uartz, r ather l ess t idily, after unit 5 9. B elow t his t here i s a l ess d ramatic, t hough consistent, s hift i n t he c urves a bove a nd b elow a n i nterface b etween u nits 9 4 a nd 9 8, a nd t he s ame i s t rue f or quartzite. I f m ean p ercentages a re c alculated w ithin t he f ramework s uggested by t hese t rends t he c ontrasts a ppear even m ore c learly ( Table 1 0).

6 5

I

% 2 00 1 50

I

I

i

I

1 ,

1 00 1

,

5 0 1

0

,

1

5 0

,

1

,

1 0 0 1

1 5 0

1

1

2 00

1 ,

1

2 23 0_ 3-

. : e s • —

1 3-

Q UARTZ ITE

2 1_ 3 24 2-

•

•

•7

C • •. / .

5 2-

c . L. :

•

_ 0700

• -

%

8 00

•

/ .

•••• 1

1 ••••

, - . . • i • , ' ( •

_• ‘ •‘ ••

=

. ‘

N / -K . , , • _ , .• C HALCEDONY : i . , . , . ,

9 00

•

0

5 0

_ • -

I

.

11 1 Ö0 110 1 2 b0 12 1 : )'0

: : :1 : :

•

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UARTZ , . ,Q i l :

. -. .›

_ . . i :

I

1 0212 -

i, 7 : ., ____ ./ .:- . •

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1

\. • 1_

* i _ : •

1 ;.

I

9 2-

. --.

•1 V•

I ,

8 2-

._

2

• /

7 2-

•

.

1

'7 00

1.a.

• . ---- 1

• • C,

-

I

I

I

1 22-

e

. . . . ,.

I : . .. .

.

I. :

. . 1 . .. . I .

1 32-

* V7,' ••

M21 48 -

F igure 1 7. C hips a nd c hunks a s a p ercentage of u ntrimmed f lakes ( ch + c h x 1 00/Untr f l). T he s uperimposed, broken l ine c urves a re v isual a pproximations s uggested by t he g raphs.

6 6

CHALCEDONY ZERO V ALUES 1 00 %

QUARTZ ITE . —59

6 4

.Q UARTZ

9 4

9 8

C H IPS & C HUNKS FREQUENCY 1 35

R ELAT IVE

T RENDS :

T O UNTR IMMED

F LAKES

F igure 1 8. C hips a nd c hunks: f requency t rends r elative t o u ntrimmed f lakes. T he c urves a re c onstructed f rom t he c umulative l ogs o f t he percentages u sed t o c onstruct F igure 1 7. The a bnormally h igh s cores f or u nits 6 7, 7 1, 7 4, a nd 1 09 a re i ncluded.

T he rate o f p roduction o f c hips a nd c hunks i n q uartz i s c onsistently h igher t han t hat f or c halcedony, a nd f or b oth m aterials t he o rder o f f requency i s b roadly s imilar i n t he l evels f rom 9 8 d ownwards a nd f rom 6 3 upwards. I n t he i ntervening g roup ( units 6 4 t o 9 4) t here i s a markedly h igher r ate o f p roduction i n both r aw m aterials, w ith t he p roduction a ctually e xceeding t hat o f f lakes i n q uartz. Q uartzite a lso r eaches i ts h ighest r ate o f p roduction i n u nits 9 4 t o 6 4 b ut w ith a more u niform i ncrease, a nd a l ess d ramatic d ecrease a bove u nit 6 4. A s a lready s tated, i t i s c onsidered t hat e xcavation a nd s orting p rocedures a re u nlikely t o h ave i nfluenced t he f igures o ther t han i n m inor ways, n or does i t s eem l ikely t hat t he s hifts a bove a nd b elow u nits 6 4 t o 9 4 c an b e a ttributed t o a ny s hift i n t he a reas s ampled. I t i s r eally o nly f rom u nit 1 10 ( or, more c ertainly, u nit 1 16) downwards

6 7

nd c hunks a s % o f u ntrimmed f lakes C hips a U nits

N

M ean

V ar

S .dev ,

2 2 6 6 3

6 2

6 7,8

4 661,9

6 8,2

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

10,8

5 6761,2

2 38,2

3 949,5

6 2,8

1 3,8

3 ,2

Q t

1 35 - 1 48

6 8

6 5,7 *

1 4

1 2,6

, 2 2 Q

C h

6 3

6 2

2 8,9

4 7o5,4

6 8,5

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

7 5,0

1 0412,9

1 02,0

7 0+

6 6,1

4 903,2

7 0,0

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

4 3,5

6 88,1

2 6,2

2 2 - 6 3

6 2

6 ,6

9 25,7

3 0,4

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

3 0,4

2 200,2

4 6,9

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

9 ,6

3 11,2

1 7,6

+

T able 9 . M eans f or c hips a nd c hunks e xpressed a s p ercentages o f u ntrimmed f lakes w ithin the major s tratigraphic g roupings i ndicated by r aw m aterial f requencies. * E xcludes a bnormal s cores o f 1 700%, u nits 6 7, 7 4, a nd 1 09 r espectively. + E xcludes s core o f 7 00% f or u nit 7 1.

6 8

8 00%

a nd

9 00%

for

Chips

22

and

chunks

Units

N

Mean

Variance

S . dev.

67,8

4 661,9

6 8,2

9 9,2

4 635,2

6 8,0

37,

1 595,1

3 9,9

-

63

62

6 4 -

9 4

2 9*

Q t

% of

untrimmed

flakes

+ 98

- 1 34

1 35 - 1 48 22

Q

as

36 +

1 4

1 2,6

1 3,8

3 ,2

28, 9

4705, 4

6 8,5

16,3

8 511,7

9 2,5

-

63

62

6 4 -

9 4

3 04 -

9 8

6

1 34

3 7

3 6,5

1 023,7

3 1,9

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

4 3,5

6 88,1

2 6,2

-

6 3

6 2

6 ,6

9 25,7

3 0,4

6 4 -

9 4

3 1

5 6,4

3 637,3

60, 3

1 34

3 7

1 0,1

1 61,1

1 2,6

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

9 ,6

3 11,2

1 7,6

22

Ch 98

-

Table 1 0. M eans f or c hips a nd c hunks e xpressed a s percentages o f u ntrimmed f lakes w ith t he u nit g rouping f or t he central g roup d ivided a s s uggested by t he r aw d ata a nd t he c umulative l ogs c urve ( Figure 1 8). U nits 9 7, 9 6 a nd 9 5 a re omitted a s t he i nflection point f or t he t hree r aw materials varies b etween 9 4 a nd 9 8. Omits a bnormally h igh ( inclusive mean = 1 73.4). Omits 6 0.90). Omits 1 35.1).

a bnormally h igh

a bnormally

h igh

s cores

s core o f

s core o f

6 9

o f

9 00%

7 00%

1 700%

a nd

8 00%

( inclusive mean

( inclusive

m ean

t hat t he a rea s ampled moves s ystematically away f rom the mouth o f t he c ave, t owards t he i nterior, a nd t hat the c haracter o f t he deposits c hanges by t he i nclusion o f a g enerally h igher a sh c ontent. T he major s hifts i n r elative f requency o ccur w ithin d eposits o f t he s ame c haracter and w ithin t he s ame g eneral a rea o f t he c ave. I t does seem l ikely, t herefore, t hat t he f igures f or u nits 9 4 t o 6 4 r epresent a r eal a nd c onsiderable i ncrease i n t he r elative a bundance o f c hips a nd c hunks i n a ll t hree r aw m aterial g roups a nd, by i mplication, s ome c hange i n t he handling o f r aw materials.

6 i i

b

C ores

B y a nd l arge t he p atterns o f c hange t hrough t ime i n t he c ore t ypes c onfirms t he t hree-fold g rouping o f s tratigraphic u nits p roposed o n t he b asis o f c hanging raw m aterial f requencies ( Figure 1 9). B ladelet cores s how a

C ORES :F requency T rends ZERO VALUES 6 6

64 •

•

1 00 %

•

jI RREGULAR

• . • • • 10

: . •

. • ••

. •

B LADELET

1 34

ERAD IAL

F igure 1 9. C ore t ypes: f requency t rends. C umulative g raphs o f t he l ogs o f p ercentage f requencies. U nits with n o c ores a re omitted. T he p ercentages were c alculated o n c ore t otals e xcluding b ipolar c ores. T he f igures a re only v ery s lightly a ltered b y t he i nclusion o f b ipolar cores w hich, w hen p lotted, y ield a c urve v ery s imilar t o t hat f or r adial c ores.

7 0

r emarkably e ven a nd f airly h igh f requency f rom u nit 1 35 t o u nit 6 4, w ith a n a lmost c omplete c ut-out a bove 6 4. I n t he i rregular c ore c lass t he l ower d ivision i s l ess e asy t o s ustain, b ut f rom u nit 6 6 upwards t he f requency i s both h igh a nd r egular. O nly i n t he r adial a nd b ipolar c ores ( not plotted) i s t here n o apparent pattern. A n examination o f t rends i n r aw material f requencies ( Figure 2 0) a gain h ighlights t he d ifference b etween t he u pper g roup o f u nits a nd t hose b elow, b ut a gain i s much l ess c lear a bout t he s eparateness o f t he l ower g roup ( 1481 35. Q uartz s eems s omewhat e rratic b elow u nit 1 41, i s r egular a nd o f f airly h igh f requency f rom 1 41 t o 1 03, a nd w hilst t he c urve i s r elatively r egular f rom 9 4 t o 7 8 i t i ndicates a r ather l ower f requency. T he c ut-out c omes s omewhat e arlier, a t u nit 7 8. W ith a f ew i nterruptions q uartzite h as a f airly r egular a nd h igh f requency u se t hroughout t he d eposit, b ut i s i ndisputably more r egular f rom u nit 6 4 upwards. Whilst t here i s a c lear c ut-out i n

C ORES : R AW

MATER IAL T RENDS QUARTZ

ZERO V ALUES

C HALCEDONY

6 4.: —78

1 00 %

—1 12 • • • .

••5 3

: • • •

« QUARTZ ITE

. *

. . ..QUARTZ p lus C HALCEDONY

• 1 35. . •• • . • •

F igure 2 0. C ores: r aw material t rends. C umulative l ogs o f p ercentage f requencies. T he f igures i nclude t hose s pecimens o riginally c lassed a s p ieces e squillees f lake which were s ubsequently r eclassified a s b ipolar c ores. U nits w ith n o c ores a re omitted.

7 1

c halcedony a bove u nit 6 4 t here i s a s omewhat e rratic i nterval b etween 7 5 a nd 6 4. T here i s n o c lear t rend s hift i n t he l ower p art o f t he c urve, a lthough t here a re two p ronounced e pisodes w ith n o c halcedony b elow u nit 1 32. I f q uartz a nd c halcedony a re c ombined ( Figure 2 0) a r emarkably r egular c urve i s a ttained f or u nits 1 48 t o 7 5, s uggesting, p erhaps, t hat q uartz a nd c halcedony were t rue a lternatives w ithin t he t radition. I t i s i nteresting to n ote, y et a gain, t he s uggestion o f a p eriod o f adjustment b etween u nits 7 5 a nd 6 4, j ust p rior t o t he c ut-out f rom 6 3 u pwards. T he p receding r emarks a re b ased e ntirely o n t he t rends d epicted i n F igures 1 9 a nd 2 0 which, i t m ust b e s tressed, s ay l ittle i n d etail a bout f requencies. T he groupings of u nits s uggested by t he a nalysis o f r aw m aterials for t otal a rtefacts a nd f or f ormal t ools ( Figure 1 5 a nd 1 6) p rovides a f ramework w ithin w hich t o e xamine both t he f requencies o f t he d ifferent c ore t ypes a nd t he r aw m aterials i nvolved. T he r esults, t ogether w ith r aw material f requencies f or the v arious c ore t ypes, a re s ummarised i n T able 1 1. R adial a nd i rregular c ores a re s een t o be made o verwhelmingly i n q uartzite, whilst b ladelet cores are o verwhelmingly o f f ine g rained material, w ith more o r l ess e qual p roportions o f q uartz a nd c halcedony, s uggesting p erhaps, f or t he l atter, equal a vailability and i nterchangeability o f r aw material: t he s ame i s t rue for b ipolar c ores. T he domination o f t he u pper l evels ( 22-62) by q uartzite i s w ell d isplayed i n t he c ores, 9 2.3% o f which a re i n q uartzite. What was l ess e xpected was that more t han 5 0% o f t he c ores i n t he l owest g roup o f units ( 1481 35) s hould b e o f q uartzite, compared w ith o nly 2 9.9% for t he o verlying g roup ( 134-64); which t ends t o s upport the r eality o f t his g rouping a s d istinct f rom t he l evels above i t. T he f igures f or t he p ercentages o f u nits containing c ores o f t he v arious t ypes ( Table 1 1) s imply provides a n a lternative v iew o f c ore p references. T he p ercentage o f u nits w ith i rregular c ores i n t he uppermost g rouping s eems u nexpectedly l ow, a nd t he f igure i s c learly a ffected by the b lock o f u nits ( 3 t o 1 8) which c ontain o nly o ne core. The r eason f or t his i s q uite i nexplicable a s most o f t he units c arry q uite n ormal s cores f or t otal a rtefacts. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t hat t he f requency f or b ladelet c ores i n u nit 1 48 i s 1 6.6% w ith a mean o f 1 6.4% f or u nits 1 48 t o 1 35 c ombined, a s a gainst 1 7.3% f or t he u ppermost o f K lein's t hree W ilton l evels ( figures f rom J . D eacon 1 978, t able 1 ). T he f igures f or radial and i rregular c ores a re l ess i n a greement. T he equivalent f igures f or i rregular c ores a re 6 6.6% f or u nit 1 48, 6 1.1% f or u nits 1 48-135 c ombined, a nd 4 7.8% f or K lein's u ppermost W ilton; f or r adial c ores t he f igures a re 1 6.6%, 1 0.5% a nd 3 4.7%.

7 2

0?

Z 1 C O . c n t r \ . r \ c n

c o N N c .-\ c , . \

a j I n c \ I

C \ 1 .

m

\ D . _ N

, • c o

N . , \ O

c o r: C \ t

. 1 . -

, , v o

I

Z

c N . t v o

i

c \ t C \ 1

( • \

. „ , t . _

Z , . . -

i

_ I -

, -

I

\ O

-

5 0,0

4 8

Bipolar

-

. 1 .

1 7,9

U , .

5 0,0

4 1,2

6 ,3

6 ,2

k r \ c o

4 0,8

N c \ c n

245

0 N

Bladelet

Z

preferences

-

93,6

-

-

c o

4 7

g

Radial

De ,I ,II

material

k r \ 0

8 0,6

, . 0 \

-

c \ ^ c o

1 4,1

v o , _

1 3,1

frequencies

c r \ . c m v o

1 60

( %)

type

c f \-

Irregular

Core

o-

Raw

1

C 7 \ C \ i

5 1,7

C T \

C M C Y \

34,1

-1 ,0

85

1 v _ ;

,

4

5 7,1

C ' l

5 0,0

o f

4 2,8

. Z C . )

7 1,4

1 m

$ 1

o d 1 o c i , m

Raw material frequencies ( %)

reTp ret 1

( N.1 4)

4 J

, 1 o 1 g

c ores

,

N -

c 7 ;

- 1 48

c d . r i m e z

with

4aIaP u l ig

1 35

Units

u o g i • 4 . 1

9 6 of units

„ le rod-HI I " N

. , -

_

,

1

I t h as b een a rgued ( 6 i ii c b elow) t hat c ertain artefacts, i n q uartz a nd c halcedony, i dentified i n t he f ield and t hrough t he i nitial s orting p rocesses a s p ieces esquillees a re i n r eality b y-products o f b ipolar f laking techniques. T hey h ave, a ccordingly, been i ncluded w ith t he cores, and a dditional i nformation a ppears i n t he d iscussion of p ieces e squillees. T heir o ccurrence t hroughout t he deposits i s s omewhat e rratic a nd, l ike t he r adial c ores, t hey d isplay n o c onsistent f requency t rends. I n v iew o f t heir apparently f ortuitous mode o f p roduction ( Dickson 1 977) t his i s not r eally s urprising, a lthough i t s hould b e noted that D ickson's e xperiments w ere c onducted w ith q uartz only, and t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat c halcedony would r espond i n t he s ame way. I n r eviewing t he i ncidence o f c ore t ypes d uring the l atter p art o f 1 981 t he s everal b ladelet c ores i n q uartzite ( Appendix 1 0) s eemed t o s tand o ut a s s omewhat anomalous. W ith t he e xception o f e ight l ogged f or u nit 2 2 and e leven i n u nit 4 3 most w ere r ecovered d uring t he 1 979 s eason. The f ield r ecords i ndicated f or s ome o f t hese t hat t hey were u nusual i n b eing more o r l ess b ruised a nd a braded, e specially o n t he more p rominent a rrises. I n A pril 1 982 i t w as p lanned t o r e-examine t hese c ores d uring a brief v isit t o t he C ape b ut o nly h alf a dozen h ad b een l ocated: viz. u nit 7 1.1; u nit 7 7.1; u nit 8 6.4. T he l argest o f t hese s ix ( Figure 2 1, P late 5 b) i s r oughly c ylindrical, 3 5 mm l ong a nd 4 3 mm m aximum d iameter. The t wo e nds a re f lat a nd smooth a nd a re parallel t o four b edding p lanes v isible w ithin t he b ody o f t he piece. I t m ay h ave b een d erived f rom a t ablet w ith n aturally ( water w orn) s mooth s urfaces, o r t he smoothness, e specially o n one f ace, m ay i ndicate p revious u se a s a g rindstone. Both s urfaces h ave b een u sed a s p latforms f or t he removal o f f lakes ( the r ather i rregular s cars a re not s uggestive o f b ladelets) u ntil t he p iece h as r eached i ts p resent s ize a nd s hape. What i s n oteworthy, h owever i s t he e xtent t o which t he p latform e dge h as b een b attered b ack, i n places g iving a n a lmost r ounded p rofile. A lthough varying s omewhat i n s hape a nd s ize ( all a re s maller) t he r emaining f ive which were r e-examined s how t he s ame g eneral f eatures, i nvolving r emoval o f small f lakes a nd c onsiderable b attering a nd a brasion o f a rrises. O ne h as t he a ppearance o f a h eavily b attered b ipolar c ore ( vide D ickson 1 977). I t i s h ard t o e scape t he c onclusion t hat o n o ccasion q uartzite p ieces were s ubjected t o b ipolar f laking p rocedures more a ppropriate t o s mall p ieces o f f ine-grained r aw material. T o j udge by t he r emaining s cars, t he f inal g eneration o f p ieces r emoved c ould h ave been l ittle more t han s plinters which, c onsidering t he a bundance o f q uartzite a vailable, i s v ery c urious, u nless i t w ere t iny s plinters t hat w ere s ought a fter.

7 4

F igure 2 1. 7 7, s quare

Q uartzite b ladelet ( or f lakelet) 2 . S ee t ext f or c omment.

c ore

f rom u nit

I n an i nvestigation where s o many f actors may h ave i nfluenced t he a bsolute s ize a s w ell a s t he e quivalence o f s amples a ny a ttempt t o a ssess t he e conomics o f r aw materials u sage a re bound t o b e r ather t entative a nd v ery generalised. Core f requencies v ary f rom z ero t o 4 0 p er unit, a nd 5 7 u nits h ave n o c ores a t a ll. B ut a n examination o f t he a verage n umber o f c ores p er u nit ( Table 1 2) does s uggest a g eneral r eduction i n f requency w ith t he passage o f t ime. C halcedony d eparts f rom t his r ule i n t hat i t s hows a marked i ncrease i n f requency i n u nits 1 34-64. Quartz c ores a re more f requent t han c halcedony i n u nits 1 48-135, b ut a bove t his t he f igures a re a lmost i dentical f or t he t wo materials. Q uartzite s tarts w ith r elatively h igh values, d rops by a l ittle o ver 5 0% i n u nits 1 34-64, with a f urther s light d rop i n u nits 6 3-22. I n f act, i f t he anomalous-looking g roup o f 3 -18, w ith o nly o ne c ore, i s taken out o f t he c alculation t he f igure f or u nits 2 2-63 becomes 1 .5, a nd t he r eal s hift i s s een t o b e b etween u nits 1 48-135 a nd t hose a bove.

7 5

Average

22

1 2.

of

cores

6 4 - 1 34

- 63

per

unit

1 35 - 1 48

1 ,2

4 ,7

6 ,0

Q

0 ,0 1 4

1 ,5

2 ,0

Qt

1 ,1

1 ,4

3 ,

Ch

0 , 04

1 ,7

0 ,8

Q+Qt+Ch

T able

number

A verage

n umber

o f

c ores

1

p er u nit.

T he r atio o f f lakes t o c ores ( Table 1 3) i s h igh f or q uartzite i n b oth t he l ower a nd m iddle g roups of u nits a nd s hows a d rop o f more t han 5 0% i n t he upper g roup ( 63-22). Q uartz a nd c halcedony b ehave i n a b roadly s imilar w ay t o e ach o ther, a lmost doubling i n f requency f rom units 1 48-135 t o u nits 1 34-64. T he s amples o f b oth c ores a nd f lakes i n q uartz a nd c halcedony i n t he uppermost g roup o f u nits a re s o l ow a s t o h ave l ittle meaning. A lthough t here a re n umerous s amples c ontaining f lakes b ut n o c ores, a nd three i n w hich t here a re c ores b ut n o f lakes t he f igure f or t he n umbers o f f lakes p er c ore, b ased o n t he c ount f or a ll c ores a gainst a ll f lakes w ithin t he r elevant r aw m aterial a nd s tratigraphic u nit g roups, a re n ot s ubstantially d ifferent. T hey i ncrease t he s core f or c halcedony i n units 1 48-135 a nd do l ikewise f or b oth q uartz a nd c halcedony i n u nits 6 3-22 t hough h ere, a gain, t he s ample s izes a re very l ow, e specially t he c ores ( 6 c ores o nly). T he b road c onclusions s eem t o b e t hat a ll t hree m aterials w ere more i ntensively worked i n t he l ower a nd m iddle groups o f u nits t han i n t he uppermost, a nd q uartz a nd c halcedony p articularly s o i n t he m iddle g roup. T he h igh f lake f requencies f or q uartzite must i nevitably r aise t he q uestion w hether m any o f t he f lakes w ere s truck e lsewhere a nd b rought i nto t he c ave i n t he a bsence o f t heir parent c ores.

7 6

Quartz

22

Number

of

Sample

range

Mean:

samples

flakes

per

- 63

1 35 - 148

2

3 7

1 0

0

2 - 92

1 - 22

2 0,5

1 2,4

3

core

6 4 - 1 34

Variance

0

4 79,7

3 9,4

Standard deviation

0

2 1,9

6 ,2

Combined

flakes

f per

and

cores:

c

( 11,0)

( 19,4)

( 1 3,8)

Quartzite Number

of

Sample

range

Mean:

samples

flakes

1 9 1 4

per

core

Variance Standard deviation

- 223

3 6

1 0

1 - 843

5 7 - 6 36

65, 4

1 42, 4

1 71,8

331 3,1

3 0436, 4

26419, 3

5 7,5

1 74,4

1 62,5

( 65,2)

( 160,6)

( 128,3)

Chalcedony Number

of

samples

Sample

range

0

9

3 8

7 3

1- 3 1

0

1 9,2

1 0,7

Variance

0

349,8

1 21,0

Standard deviation

0

1 8,7

1 1,0

( 7,6)

( 19,8)

( 21,4)

Mean:

flakes

0 per

core

2 -

Table 1 3. Ratios o f f lakes p er c ore b ased o n o nly t hose assemblages w ith s cores o f 1 o r more f or both f lakes a nd cores. The f igures i n b rackets r epresent t he n umbers o f f lakes per core b ased o n t he c ount o f a ll cores a gainst a ll f lakes within t he r elevant r aw material a nd s tratigraphic unit groups. D ata f rom A ppendix 1 1.

7 7

6 i i

c

U ntrimmed F lakes

D espite a g ood d eal o f r andom v ariation i t h as been n oted i n t he p receding c ommentary o n t he c ores t hat t he r atio o f u ntrimmed f lakes t o c ores s eems t o s how s ome patterned c hanges b etween t he t hree major s tratigraphic g roups. The s ame t rends appear i n t he f igures f or u ntrimmed f lakes a s a percentage o f t otal s tone a rtefacts ( Table 1 4 and F igure 2 2) b ut i n t he a bsence o f metrical data o n t he u ntrimmed

U ntrimmed f lakes

N ol M ean %D eeo f U ni lg a g ency

V ar

S .dev.

R ange o f p ercentages

% u nits wi th s cores

A ll m aterials a s % o f t otal s tone 2 2 -

6 3

6 2

5 5,3

4 61,7

2 1,4

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

6 1,8

5 23,4

2 2,8

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

8 4,6

1,4

3 ,3

8 1,1

-

6 3

6 2

9 5,1

3 11,9

1 7,6

8 5,7

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

7 6,6

2 48,0

1 5,7

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

8 9,7

1 5,3

3 ,9

6 3

6 2

0 ,7

4 ,3

2 ,0

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

1 4,1

2 02,5

1 4,2

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

6 ,2

9 ,3

3 ,0

6 3

6 2

0 ,8

5 ,0

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

1 2,0

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

3 ,8

o - 1 00,0 4 ,5 -

9 6,7

9 4,7

1 00,0

9 3,8

1 00,0

- 1 00,0

9 6,7

o - 1 00,0

9 8,5

Q t a s % o f c lass 2 2 -

8 0,8

-

9 6,7

1 00,0

0 -

1 2,5

2 2,5

o - 1 00,0

9 7,1

Q a s % o f c lass 2 2 -

1 ,9

-

1 3,7

1 00,0

2 ,2

0 -

1 4,2

2 7,4

7 6,8

8 ,7

0 -

5 4,7

9 0,1

3 ,6

.1 ,9

1 ,3 -

7 ,3

1 00,0

C h a s % o f c lass 2 2 -

T able 1 4. U ntrimmed f lakes c lass. A bstract of d ata f rom a ppendix 1 2. Q t = q uartzite, Q = q uartz, Ch = chalcedony.

7 8

0 1 0 22 _ 30

2 0 • •

13 _ 2 1 -3 2 42-

•••• •

• , .

52

• •

•

92 102 1 12 122 132 142 148 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 . I i i. , , , I iI

F igure 2 2. Untrimmed f lakes o f t otal s tone a rtefacts.

8 0 9 0 1 0 0 I , ,

( all materials)

7 9

a s

a percentage

f lakes i t i s n ot p ossible t o a ssess t he s ignificance o f t hese t rends. T he w riter's i mpression i s t hat i n t he f ourth s eason ( units 6 1-148) many more small, ' trimming' f lakes were r ecovered t han i n p revious s easons, a nd t hat t hese i ncluded n ot o nly q uartz a nd c halcedony ( essentially a bsent i n t he l ater l evels) b ut a g ood many t iny q uartzite f lakes. S uch r ecovery c ould r esult p artly f rom i ncreased e xpertise o f t he s orters ( though t his i s c onsidered n ot t o b e a s eriously d istorting f actor) a nd p artly f rom t he s omewhat d ifferent c haracter o f t he d eposits: the f ourth s easons deposits w ere o ften l ess h eavily dominated by s hells. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t here i s a s teady t rend t owards a h igher mean p ercentage o f f ormal tools w ith t he p assage o f t ime ( Table 1 5), t hough t his n eed not n ecessarily i mply a n o verall i ncrease i n s econdary r etouch.

F ormal Units

t ools N

a s % o f

t otal

Range

s tone

a rtefacts

M ean

Var

S .dev

6 3

6 2

3 ,5

2 1,6

4 ,6

6 4 - 1 34

7 1

1 ,9

2 ,5

1 ,5

1 35 - 1 48

1 4

1 ,0

0 ,1

0 ,4

2 2

-

T able 1 5. F ormal t ools c ategory a s a p ercentage s tone a rtefacts. T he m eans a re c alculated i ndividual u nit p ercentages.

o f t otal f or t he

When e xamined i n r elation t o t otal s tone a rtefacts ( Table 1 6) q uartz a nd c halcedony d isplay a lmost i dentical t rends. T hey a re both e ffectively a bsent f rom u nits 2 2-63 a nd a re markedly more a bundant i n u nits 6 4-134 t han i n units 1 351 48. T he f igures f or q uartzite a re v ery s imilar i n t he upper t wo s tratigraphic g roups a nd a re s ignificantly h igher i n t he l owest g roup.

6 i ii

T HE UTILIZED ARTEFACT CATEGORY

T he various a rtefact c lasses a nd s ubclasses within t he c ategory a re dealt w ith i ndependently b elow, but i t i s worth n oting h ere t hat t he c ategory a s a whole reflects a n i mportant c hange i n t he l evels a bove u nit 6 3 compared w ith t hose b elow. D ata a re g iven i n A ppendix 1 3 a nd a re s ummarized i n T able 1 7 a nd F igure 2 3. A lthough t he

8 0

Units

Ch

Qt

* 63

5 1, 3

0 ,3

0 ,2

64 - 1 34

52,8

7 ,1

7 ,9

7 5,1

5 ,3

3 ,4

22

1 35

-

- 1 48

Table 1 6. U ntrimmed f lakes i n q uartzite, q uartz a nd c halcedony a s p ercentages o f t otal s tone a rtefacts. The f igures r epresent t he s um o f u ntrimmed f lakes a s a percentage o f t he s um o f t otal s tone a rtefacts f or e ach r aw material a nd s trata g roup.

category i s r epresented i n a ll u nits f rom 1 48 t o 1 35 i t i s l east f requent i n t hese l evels. I n u nits 1 34-64 a nd 6 2-22 i t o ccurs i n s imilar p ercentages o f t he u nits ( 60.0 a nd 6 5.5 percent r espectively), b ut t he f requency i n t he upper group i s more t han t hree t imes t hat o f t he m iddle g roup, whether t he mean p ercentages a re c alculated i ncluding z ero s cores, o r n ot. T he s ituation i s most c learly e xpressed i n F igure 2 3 a nd p rovides i nteresting i ndependent c onfirmation f or t he d ivision b etween t he upper g roup o f u nits ( 22-62) a nd t hose below. T here i s n o c lear i ndication o f a ny change below t his. I t h as b een n oted a bove ( 5 i b ) t hat t he a rtefact c lass ' Miscellaneous R etouch' i n t he F ormal T ools c ategory m ight more properly h ave b een i ncluded i n t he U tilized c ategory. I t i s a lso r ecognised t hat u tilized f lakes a nd m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces a re t he l east s tudied c lasses a nd t hat e rrors i n c lassification b etween t hese c lasses m ight h ave o ccurred. F or t hese r easons t he f igures were r e-calculated f or t otal utilized p ieces plus miscellaneous r etouched p ieces t o s ee i f t he i nclusion o f t he l atter i n a ny w ay c hanged t he t rends r eferred t o a bove. The o nly n otable c hange i s t hat t he point o f i nflection i n F igure 2 3, a t u nit 6 3 i s moved down f ive u nits t o u nit 6 8, and e ven t his m ay n ot b e s ignificant a s i t i s b rought a bout by t wo abnormally h igh s cores i n t he m iscellaneous r etouch c lass i n u nits 6 8 a nd 6 7. T hus, t he c ontrast b etween u nits 1 48 t o 6 4 a nd 6 2 t o 2 2 r emains u naltered a nd valid.

8 1

g le

Units Mean

Var

S dev

Range

( a)

40

65,5

4 ,4

1 0,6

3 ,2

0 ,5 -1 5,1

( b)

6 1

1 00,0

2 ,9

1,4

3 ,3

o ,o -1 5,1

6 4 - 134 (a)

4 2

6 0,0

1 ,4

2 ,5

1 ,5

0 ,1

- 6 ,6

( b)

70

1 00,0

0 ,8

2 ,0

1 ,4

0 ,0

- 6 ,6

1 4

1 00,0

0 ,8

0 ,1

0 ,4

0 ,3

- 1 ,8

22

- 62

1 35 - 1 48

T able 1 7. M ean p ercentages p er u nit f or t otal u tilized p ieces: ( a) e xcluding z ero s cores; ( b) i ncluding z ero s cores. T he r ight h and c olumn i ndicates t he distribution o f t he s ubclass w ithin t he t hree s tratigraphic groupings.

8 2

T OTAL U T IL IZED P IECES

i

:

i

6 37 ! — •

0 4

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 i f : i

C UMULAT IVE

P ERCENTAGES G RAPH

F igure 2 3. Total u tilized p ieces e xpressed a s p ercentages o f t otal s tone a rtefacts. T he c lasses i ncluded a re h ammerstones, r ubbers, h ammer/rubbers, g rindstones, palettes, p ieces e squillees, h eavy e dge-flaked p ieces, a nd utilized f lakes ( edge, s teep, n otched).

8 3

6 i ii Edge

a

Utilized F lakes

damaged

( Appendix

1 4)

T he d efinition o f t hese ( 5 i b ) a s " pieces s howing b ruising o r battering, n ot g enerally s evere, o f a n e dge o r p rotuberance" c ould b e t aken t o s uggest d amage a pproximating t o t hat d escribed f or p ieces e squillees, but t here i s r eally n o r esemblance b etween t he two. The s ubclass h as n ot b een s ubjected t o a ny c lose s tudy and r emarks a re l imited a lmost e xclusively t o f requency o f o ccurrence. T en s pecimens r ecovered i n t he f irst t wo s easons, a ll o f q uartzite, h ave w eights varying f rom 7 .0 gms t o 6 41.0 gms w ith a m ean o f 1 94.7 gms. O f t he 1 39 s pecimens r ecovered 8 0 ( 57.5%) a re o f q uartzite, 2 3 ( 16.5%) o f q uartz a nd 3 6 ( 25.8%) o f c halcedony. A ll t he q uartz a nd chalcedony s pecimens a re i n u nits 6 4-148. When v iewed i n t heir s tratigraphic c ontext ( Table 1 8), whether z ero s cores are i ncluded o r n ot, i t i s c lear t hat t he s ubclass occurs most f requently i n t he c entral g roup o f u nits ( 134-64) a nd l east f requently i n t he upper g roup ( 62-22).

U tilized f lakes:

E dge D amaged.

F requency p er u nit

U nits N 22

-

62

6 4 - 134

1 35 - 148

( a)

8

N

Mean

Var

S . dev

1 3,0

1 2

1 ,5

0 ,25

0 ,5

1 -2

0 ,28

0 ,5

0-2

%

Range

( b)

6 1

1 00,0

1 2

0 ,1

( a)

29

4 1, 4

16

4 ,0

3 0,3

5 ,5

1 -28

( b)

7 0

1 00,0

16

1 ,6

1 6,4

4 ,0

0 -28

( a)

8

5 7,0

1 1

1 ,3

0 ,2

0 ,4

1 -2

( b)

1 4

1 00,0

1 1

0 ,7

0 ,5

0 ,7

0-2

of t otal

8 ,6

83,4

7 ,0

T able 1 8. U tilized f lakes: e dge damaged. F requencies per u nit, ( a) e xcluding z ero s cores, ( b) i ncluding z ero s cores. D ata f rom A ppendix 1 4.

8 4

S teep damage

( Appendix

Utilized f lakes:

1 4;

T able

1 9)

Frequency p er unit

S teep Damage.

%

Units N

22

6 4

-

-

62

1 34

-

1 48

N

Mean

Var

S . dev

Range

of t otal

9 1,5

( a)

1 7

27,8

65

3 ,8

1 9,7

4 ,4

1- 1 9

( b)

6 1

1 00,0

6 5

1 ,0

8 ,4

2 ,9

0- 1 9

(a) ( b)

1 35

° A

( a) (b)

2 70

1 1 4

2 ,8

3

1 ,5

0 ,2

0 ,5

1 -2

1 00,0

3

0 , 04

0 ,06

0 ,2

0-2

7 ,1

3

3 ,0

-

-

-

1 00,0

3

0 ,2

0 ,7

0-3

0 ,5

4 ,2

4 ,2

-

T able 1 9. U tilized F lakes: S teep damage. F requencies per u nit, ( a) e xcluding z ero s cores, ( b) i ncluding z ero s cores. D ata f rom A ppendix 1 4.

O f t he s eventy-one s pecimens r ecorded 6 8 ( 95.7%) a re o f q uartzite a nd 9 1.5% o ccur i n t he upper g roup o f u nits ( 622 2). T he r ange o f weights o f 6 4 s pecimens i s 1 -550 gms, w ith a mean o f 1 16.7 gms. No c loser s tudy h as b een made o f t his group o f a rtefacts. N otched

P ieces

T hese appear w ith b roadly s imilar f requencies i n e ach o f t he three major s tratigraphic d ivisions ( Table 2 0). T hey a re a h ighly i nformal g roup, v arying a g reat deal i n s ize a nd shape, a nd i n t he appearance o f t he n otches ( Figure 2 4). A lthough 8 5 s pecimens a re r ecorded o n t he u nit r ecord s heets, a nd w ere t ransferred t o t he i nventory i t s eems very l ikely t hat n ot a ll o f t hem a re t ools, f ormal o r i nformal. S ix or s even s pecimens c an p rbably b e d ismissed a s f ortuitous b reakages o r n egative cones f rom p revious f lake r emovals, a nd o ne ( chalcedony) may b e a f ragment f rom a b acked p iece. T wo s mall, c halcedony p ieces a ppear t o b e r e-sharpening f lakes f rom p re-existing s carred n otches r ather t han t ools i n t heir own r ight. O n t he o ther h and a t iny specimen f rom u nit 7 8 ( max d imension 1 cm) a ppears t o

8 5

Utilized Units

22-62

64-1 34

1 35-1 48

Frequency

Flakes:

notched

per unit

N

%

N

Mean

Var

S . dev Range

( a)

1 6

26,2

3 7

2 ,3

6 ,8

2 ,6

1 -11

( b)

6 1

1 00,0

3 7

0 ,6

2 ,8

1 ,6

0-11

( a)

2 1

3 0,0

33

1 ,5

1 ,9

1 ,3

1 -7

( b)

70

1 00,0

33

0 ,4

1 ,1

1 ,0

0-7

( a)

8

57,0

1 5

1 ,8

0 ,6

0 ,5

1 -3

( b)

1 4

1 00,0

1 5

1 ,0

1 ,2

1 ,0

0-3

% of t otal 43,5

3 8,8

1 7,6

T able 2 0. U tilized F lakes: n otched. F requencies p er u nit, ( a) z ero s cores e xcluded, ( b) z ero s cores i ncluded. Data f rom Appendix 1 4.

b e deliberately made o n t he b roken e nd o f e lliptical q uartzite p ebble.

a

very

small

A lthough t he s ubclass i s i ncluded w ithin t he a rtefact c lass o f U tilized F lakes t he s pecimens a re b y n o m eans a ll made o n f lake p re-forms ( Appendix 1 4). F or t he 6 5 s pecimens for w hich t he a ttribute i s r ecorded, 3 6 ( 55.3%) a re o n f lakes o r f lake f ragments, w hile 2 9 ( 44.6%) a re o n c hips o r c hunks. O ne s pecimen h as t hree n otches s truck on a n edge o n a w eathered E .S.A. o r M .S.A. c ore, a nd a nother i s f ormed o n t he b roken e dge o f a n o therwise n atural tablet o f q uartzite. O nly t hree s pecimens, small o r f ragmentary, a nd o f c halcedony a ppear t o h ave d eliberately r etouched n otches; t he r est a re g enerally d eep, s ingle-blow n otches a nd t heir c lassification a s u tilized p ieces i n i nevitably s ubjective. A ll s pecimens w ere e xamined b riefly t hrough a low-powered h and l ens a nd t he n otches w ere c haracterized a s ' scarred' o r ' clear' ( Appendix 1 4); t he f ormer b eing n otches i n which t he i nner p art o f t he e dge i s more o r l ess chipped o r ' bruised-looking'. O f 6 6 o bservations 4 8 ( 72%) are s carred' a nd 1 8 ( 27.2%) a re ' clear'. W ithout experiment, h owever, i t c annot b e a sserted t hat t his s carring i s not a by-product r esulting f rom t he r emoval o f t he f lake which c reated t he n otch.

8 6

F igure 2 4. Notched p ieces. population o f s ixty-nine.

A r andom s ample drawn

8 7

f rom a

6 i ii b

H eavy E dge-Flaked P ieces

F igure 2 5. population o f

H eavy e dge-flaked e ighty-six.

8 8

( Figures

p ieces,

2 5,

2 6)

d rawn

f rom

a

F igure 2 6. p opulation o f

H eavy e dge-flaked e ighty-six.

8 9

p ieces,

d rawn

f rom

a

T hese h ave b een d escribed i n g eneral t erms u nder ' Definitions' ( above, 5 i b ) b ut s ome a dditional r emarks a re c alled f or. The t erms u sed i n A ppendix 1 5 to describe t he p re-forms r elate t o t he g eneral m orphology o f t he p iece r ather t han t o i ts t echnological o rigin a s f lake, c ore, c hunk o r n atural f ragment. T hus, f or e xample, a p iece d escribed a s ' ridged' m ight h ave r eceived i ts f orm f rom t he f laking o f a t hick f lake, n ucleus, o r c hunk, but m ay, a lternatively, be a n aturally ' ridged' f ragment of q uartzite modified o nly by t he f laking w hich c onverts i t to a h eavy e dge-flaked p iece. T he t erm ' flake' i s u sed f or s pecimens i n w hich t he o riginal f lake c haracteristics a re l argely p reserved: t hese a re g enerally l arge, f lattish w edge-shaped f lakes. W ithin t his f ramework t he m ost f requent a re s pecimens o f g enerally t abular form ( 27) f ollowed by i rregular c hunks ( 11), r idged p ieces ( 9), pyramidal ( 6), f lake ( 5), a nd c obble ( 1). I n twenty-six c ases d etails a re n ot r ecorded, a nd t hese a re mostly f ourth s eason s pecimens f or which t ime i n S outh A frica was i nadequate f or a d etailed description t here, a nd o nly a ( random) s ample c ould b e b rought t o O xford. T he

s ummary o f

t he data,

p resented

Units

Heavy

i n T able

Edge-Flaked

Percentage

22

per

i ndicates

Pieces: unit

N

%

N

Mean

Var

S . dev

Range

( a)

2 1

3 4,4

2 1

1 8, 2

425,2

20, 6

3 ,4

-

1 00,0

( b)

6 1

1 00, 0

2 1

6 ,2

221,2

1 4, 8

0 ,0

-

1 00,0

( a)

1 8

25,7

1 8

1 7, 8

582,5

24,1

3 ,2

-

1 00,0

( b)

7 0

1 00,0

1 8

4 ,5

2 1 0,8

1 4, 5

0 ,0

-

1 00,0

( a)

8

1

8

1 2, 4

8 ,1

2 ,8

9 ,5

-

1 6,6

( b)

1 4

1 00,0

8

7 ,1

4 2,8

6 ,5

o ,o

-

1 6,6

- 62

6 4 - 1 34

1 35

2 1,

5 7,

- 1 48

T able 2 1. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a s F ormal T ools p lus U tilized P ieces. D ata 1 3, 1 5.

9 0

a p ercentage f rom A ppendixes

of 8 ,

t hat heavy e dge-flaked p ieces o ccur w ith g enerally s imilar f requency t hroughout t he deposit, a lthough t hey o ccur i n o nly 3 1.9% o f u nits o ver a ll. Whilst 1 00 u nits h ave n o e xamples p resent, a nd t he c ommonest f requency i s a s ingle s pecimen, f ourteen u nits c ontain two, t hree, o r f our s pecimens, a nd t wo u nits c ontain a s many a s s ix a nd s even ( Appendix 1 5). W ithin t he t otal u tilized category ( table 2 2) the f requencies s how n o d ramatic f luctuations t hrough

Units

Heavy Edge-Flaked Percentage

2 2

Pieces;

Utilized

Mean

Var

Category

S . dev

( a)

2 1

34, 4

2 1

28,9

892,8

2 9,8

( b)

6 1

1 00,0

2 1

9 ,9

497,1

22,2

( a)

1 8

25,7

1 8

3 8,0

981,0

3 1, 3

( b)

70

1 00,0

1 8

9 ,7

5 28,9

2 2,9

- 62

6 4 - 1 34

( a)

1 35 - 1 48

of

( b)

8 1 4

5 7,1

8

2 4,8

5 5,1

7 ,4

1 00,0

8

1 4,2

1 82,7

1 3,1

Range

5 ,5 - 100,0

7 ,1

- 1 00,0

1 4,2 - 3 3,3

T able 2 2. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces a s a p ercentage o f t otal utilized c ategory. T he t able expresses t he means o f t he percentage o ccurrence f or e ach o f t he u nits: ( a) e xcluding z ero s cores, ( b) i ncluding z ero s cores.

t he three main s tratigraphic g roupings. I t i s e vident, b oth f rom t he r aw data i n t he a ppendix a nd f rom t he s ummary i n T able 2 3, t hat t here i s a g reat deal o f variation i n t he d imensions a nd, c onsequently, t he weights o f t he s pecimens. D espite t his t he m eans f or most d imensions a re very s imilar i n t he t hree s tratigraphic g roupings. I n t he t ables r eferred t o a bove, t he mean p ercentage f requencies a re g iven o n t he b asis o f both i ncluded a nd e xcluded z ero s cores a nd, a s K lein's e xcavation i solated o nly e ight s tratigraphic u nits i n a b lock o f deposit s panning s ome 7 000 y ears, i t i s e vident t hat f or p urposes o f c omparison i t i s t he f igures based o n z ero-included s cores which s hould b e u sed. I f t his i s done, t he p ercentages f or u nits 1 35-148 a nd K lein's 1 C ( Deacon 1 978) a re n ot d issimilar ( 14.2 a nd 1 1.5% r espectively) b ut, f or

9 1

N

U nits 2 2 - 6 2

4 31,4

2 0,7

4 0 - 1 40

W idth

4 8

8 1,7

2 91,2

1 7,0

5 4 - 18

4 8

6 6,2

2 51,9

1 5,8

3 5 - 10

4 2

3 7,3

9 9,0

9 ,9

4 1

2 90,9

2 8438,2

1 68,6

L ength

1 3

5 8,3

3 96,2

1 9,9

2 7 - 9 6

W idth

1 2

9 0,2

5 64,5

2 3,7

5 4 - 1 43

W idth o f R etouch

1 2

6 8,8

6 21,0

2 4,9

1 0 - 14

H eight

1 3

3 4,7

2 8,3

5 ,3

1 2

1 87,9

4 788,5

6 9,1

8 8 - 3 46

1,7

8 4 9 - 7

W eight

1 35 - 1 48

R ange

8 1,5

W eight

U nits

S .dev

4 8

H eight

6 4 - 1 34

V ar

L ength

W idth o f R etouch

U nits

M ean

( g ins)

( gi ns)

1 5 - 5 3 1 09

•1 058

2 7 - 4 5

L ength

4

6 6,2 ' 1 37,1

W idth

4

8 9,2

1 08,6

1 0,4

W idth o f R etouch

4

7 4,2

6 0,6

7 ,7

1 6 2 - 8

H eight

4

3 4,0

5 ,0

2 ,2

3 1

4

2 35,0

3 879,5

6 2,2

W eight

( g i ns)

7 6 - 1 05

- 3 7

2 17 - 3 34 .

T able 2 3. H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces: a nd weights.

s ummary of d imensions

most o f K lein's l evels t he f igures a re two o r t hree t imes g reater t han t hose i n T able 2 2. T he a nomaly i s a ll t he g reater when i t i s r ecalled t hat D eacon's h eavy e dge-flaked c lass i s l imited t o s pecimens made o n s plit c obbles ( Deacon 1 978:91) which, i n t he l evels t reated h ere, a re t he l east f requent p re-form. I t i s possible t hat, i n t he l evels

9 2

t reated h ere, s pecimens h ave b een i dentified a s h eavy e dgef laked w hich D eacon would h ave c lassified a s cores b ut, w hilst t his m ight r educe t he c ontrast i n p re-forms, i t w ould g reatly e xaggerate t he contrast i n f requencies, r endering t he t ype a lmost a bsent a bove K lein's h ighest W ilton l evel.

6 i ii

c

P ieces E squillees:

f lake a nd c ortical

S pecimens were s orted o n t he b asis o f t he definition g iven a bove ( 5 i b ). I n a ddition, what appeared t o b e a v ariation o f t he t ype, n ot p reviously e ncountered, were r ecorded i n t he f ield a s " X-type": t hese a re t he q uartzite s pecimens o n c ortical f lakes ( Appendix 1 7). O bjects s howing s imilar, o r c omparable, f eatures h ave been w idely r ecorded b oth i n t ime a nd geographically a nd t here h as been m uch d ebate a s t o t heir n ature a nd s ignificance; s ome s eeing t hem a s t ools, a nd others a s by-products o f b ipolar f laking t echniques. White ( 1968) h as p rovided a u seful s ummary o f s ome o f t hese v iews a s a n i ntroduction t o h is comparison o f b ipolar c ores, d iscarded by D uma-speakers i n t he W estern H ighlands o f New G uinea, w ith e xcavated s amples o f ' fabricators' f rom t hree A ustralian s ites. H e c oncludes t hat t he p resence o f ' fabricators' ( c.f. p ieces e squillees) i n N ew S outh Wales s ites, a nd by i nference i n o ther A ustralian s ites, i s b est explained by c onsidering t hem cores r esulting f rom t he p roduction o f small f lakes, p robably by a b ipolar f laking t echnique. H e s uggests t hat s ome outils e cailles i n o ther parts o f t he world may a lso b e cores b ut a dmits t he possibility t hat s ome may b e o therwise. White's c onclusions a re s upported by Vanderwal ( 1977), a nd D ickson ( 1977) h as s hown, e xperimentally, t hat t he reduction o f small n uclei o f quartz i s v irtually o nly p ossible by t he u se o f f laking between a h ammer a nd a nvil a nd t hat t his i nevitably l eads t o t he p roduction o f b ipolar c ores d isplaying a t l east s ome o f t he c haracteristics o f p ieces e squillees, a s d efined h ere. S o f ar a s A frican s pecimens a re c oncerned a t l east o ne r ecent writer h as t aken t he v iew t hat p ieces e squillees a re " debitage w ithin t he Wilton" ( H. J . D eacon 1 967:57) whereas a nother ( J. D eacon 1 984:374 a nd 3 79) d istinguishes t hem f rom ' core r educed p ieces' a nd s ees t hem a s t ools whose e dges a re d amaged by u se. I t i s worth c onsidering, t herefore, t o w hat extent t he NBC s pecimens may b e r egarded s imply a s w aste p roducts o r w hether a c ase c an be made f or s ome a s t ools. C ombining p ieces e squillees ' flake' a nd ' cortical', 1 68 s pecimens were r ecovered f rom 5 1 o f t he 1 47 s tratigraphic u nits e xcavated. O f t hese, 1 20 a re o f q uartzite, 2 3 o f c halcedony, 2 4 o f q uartz, a nd 1 o f s ilcrete. O f t he q uartzite s pecimens 1 17 9 7.5%) o ccur a bove u nit 5 0, w ith t he remaining t hree s pecimens ( 2.4%) b elow u nit 1 46. O f t he other 4 8 ( quartz c halcedony a nd s ilcrete) 4 3 ( 89.5%) o ccur b elow u nit 6 5 a nd 5 ( 10.4%) a re a bove u nit 4 3.

9 3

Q uartzite s pecimens a re dramatically l arger i n all d imensions t han t hose i n f ine-grained materials a nd are c orrespondingly h eavier ( Table 2 4); t hey a re most positively f ormed o n f lake p re-forms; a nd, despite t he f act t hat t hey d isplay a h igher f requency o f working e dges per s pecimen ( Table 2 6), t here i s l ess t endency f or e dges t o o ccur a s opposed pairs ( Table 2 4). T he 8 9.5% o f t he nonq uartzite p ieces e squillees o ccur i n t he s ame b lock o f u nits ( 64-148) which c ontains 2 26 ( 92.2%) o f t he b ladelet c ores, a nd 2 01 ( 89.2%) o f t hose c ores a re o f quartz o r c halcedony. T here a re n o b ladelet c ores i n q uartz, c halcedony o r s ilcrete a bove u nit 6 4, a nd o nly 5 p ieces e squillees i n t hose materials above t hat u nit. E leven s pecimens i n o ne o f D ickson's ( 1977) experiments r anged i n l ength f rom 1 8.1 t o 2 8.8 mm, while t he mean l ength o f s amples f rom s ixteen s ites i n A ustralia a nd New G uinea ( Vanderwal 1 977: t able 3 ) r anges f rom 1 8 t o 2 9 mm. T hus, t he quartz a nd c halcedony s pecimens f rom N BC w ith mean l engths o f 1 4.1 a nd 1 6.8 mm, r espectively, a re very much c loser i n s ize t o t he A ustralasian s pecimens t han t o t heir NBC q uartzite c ounterparts ( Table 2 4). T he NBC q uartz a nd c halcedony s pecimens a re e xtremely small, a nd i dentification o f t he p re-form i s a dmittedly o ften s ubjective b ut, whilst t hey s how a h igh degree o f s imilarity i n t his matter t o e ach o ther, t hey c ontrast markedly w ith t he q uartzite s pecimens which are o verwhelmingly f ormed o n f lakes ( Table 2 4). A nother s omewhat s ubjective a ssessment, t ending t o d istinguish t he q uartz a nd c halcedony s pecimens f rom t he q uartzite, r elates t o t he c haracter o f t he damaged e dge: i n t he t iny q uartz a nd c halcedony s pecimens t he e dge i s g enerally s plintered r ather t han c rushed, whereas i n t he q uartzite s pecimens c rushing i s m uch i n evidence. T here a re t hus a n umber o f f eatures w hich s uggest t hat we a re dealing w ith two d istinct groups o f objects; t he c rypto-crystalline g roup, a nd t hose o f q uartzite. The c rypto-crystalline g roup a re v ery s mall, t heir e dges tend t o be s plintered r ather t han c rushed, 6 5% o f those e dges f orm opposed pairs, 4 6.5% a re f ormed o n f lake b lanks, 8 9.5% o ccur b elow u nit 6 5. By way o f c ontrast, t he q uartzite s pecimens a re l arge, t he a ffected e dges d isplay crushing a s well a s s plintering, o nly 2 8.5% o f e dges a re i nvolved i n o pposed p airs, 9 2.6% a re o n f lake b lanks, a nd 9 7.5% o ccur a bove u nit 5 0 ( the r emaining 2 .5% o ccur i n t he two l owest u nits, 1 47 a nd 1 48). T he o ccurrence o f t he c rypto-crystalline s pecimens i n p recisely t hose l evels y ielding small, f ormal tools i n t he s ame r aw materials ( Appendix 1 6; T able 2 5) t heir v ery small s ize, a nd t he a bsence o r l ow i ncidence o f c rushing o f t he e dges s uggests t hat t hey a re, i n f act, r esidual waste p roducts f rom t he r eduction o f o riginally s mall p ieces o f r aw material by b ipolar f laking. O n t he o ther h and, t he q uartzite s pecimens a re g enerally o f a much more h andlable

9 4

V ariance

5 1,13

4 94 ,19

2 2 ,23

16

2 3 ,52

11,32

1 0 ,55

H eight ( mm)

6 9

1 4 ,61

4 2 ,16

6 ,49

1 . ' o g , W eight ( gm )

6 7

3 9 ,83

2 940 ,3

5 4 ,22

L ength ( mm ) W idth o f R etouch ( mm) 4 ) 4 . )

N

E dges o ccurring a s o pposed p airs

4 2

/ 1

S t. D ev.

M ean

6 9

P iece E squille es F lake

2 3

1 4 ,13

9 ,15

3 ,02

W idth o f R etouch ( mm )

2 8

6 ,1

6 ,2 1

2 ,49

! 4 H eight ( mm)

2 3

4 ,7

1 ,96

1 ,4

& W eight ( gm)

2 1

0 ,8 1

0 ,28

0 ,53

L ength ( am)

1 8

1 3

k) F C h C

N 6 0

% 8 5 ,7

9

1 2 ,8

-

1 ,4

( 35 ,0% )

L ength ( mm)

E dges o ccurring a s o pposed p airs

,

/ 28

1 6 ,82

F C h C

1 0

4 3 ,4

9

3 9 ,1

-

-

4

1 7 ,3

( 46 ,4% )

2 ,58

6 ,67

3 0 7 ,44 2 ,61 6 ,83 › , W idth o f R etouch ( mm) 0 0 1 : 1 eight ( mm) 1 9 5 ,26 3 ,88 1 ,97 o H 0 , , 1 8 1 ,11 0 ,44 0 ,66 5 1 W eight ( gm) 6 2 6 / 32 ( airs 8 1,25% ) E dges o ccurring a s o pposed p

F C h C

l o

5 0 ,0

5

2 5 ,0

2

1 0 ,0

3

1 5 ,0

P f öce E aquillges C ortical

L ength ( mm) , W idth o f R etouch ( mm ) 4 . )

. r 4

. t t 2 iH eight ( mm)

2

& W eight ( gm) E dges

5 9

6 6 ,82

2 77 ,35

1 6 ,65

17

3 2 ,55

1 90 ,60

1 3 ,80

6 2

1 4 ,75

1 7 ,53

4 ,18

5 9

7 6,79

3 014 ,6

5 5 ,62

airs o ccurring a s o pposed p

2 6

/ 118

F

6 6

1 00 ,0

( 22 ,0% ) I

T able 2 4. S ummary o f data o f p ieces e squillees. T he q uartzite s pecimens s tand apart f rom t hose i n o ther m aterials i n a ll d imensions a s w ell a s i n t he f requency o f f lake p re-forms a nd i n t he l ower f requency o f opposed w orking e dges.

9 5

. P ieces E s

Wo F ormal T ools i n Q , C h, a nd S i r aw m aterials

q u i l g e s

W ilton

7 ,25% ) 8 9 (

9 3 , 1 5

A lbany

1 7 ( 1,56% )

2 1, 2 7

R obberg

19 ,6% ) 9 7 (

6 0 , 8 7 ,

T able 2 5. I ncidence o f p ieces e squillees a t N elson B ay C ave i n l evels dating 1 2000 t o 5 000 B P ( approximately); i n b rackets a re g iven t heir p ercentage f requencies w ithin t he ' Utilized' c ategory. T he r ight h and c olumn g ives t he p ercentage o f ' Formal Tools' i n Q uartz ( Q), C halcedony ( Ch) a nd S ilcrete ( Si). ( Data f rom J . D eacon 1 978).

s ize. T he c onstraints u nderlying t he b ipolar reduction o f q uartz a nd c halcedony, ( its n on-availability i n t he i mmediate l ocality, a nd t he i nferred small s izes i n which i t was a vailable) do n ot a pply to q uartzite. Not o nly does t here s eem n o r eason t o s ubject q uartzite t o t his p articular f laking t echnique, b ut t he most e asily s tudied g roup, t hose made o n c ortical f lakes o n which there a re n o p rimary f lake-scars t o c onfuse t he i ssue, s hows n o c onvincing e vidence t hat t heir o ften h eavily crushed a nd s plintered e dges d eveloped i n t he c ourse o f f lake p roduction ( Plate 6 ). T here i s a r eal n eed f or c loser s tudy o f t hese a rtefacts, both i n N BC a nd e lsewhere, c ombined w ith s ystematic e xprimentation. However, t he w riter, a ssisted by D r. L . H . K eeley, h as f ound t hat damage very s imilar t o t hat o n q uartzite p ieces e squillees can b e r eplicated by u sing t he e dge o f a f lake t o s hear s oft material ( such a s s tring) a gainst a s tone anvil. T he d istribution o f t he q uartzite s pecimens ( Figure 2 9) a t t he mouth o f t he c ave a nd o n t he t alus s lope may i ndicate a n a ctivity r equiring g ood l ight. T here i s s ome evidence f rom t he upper l evels o f t he s ite ( certainly a bove unit 5 6) t hat f ish w ere ' filleted', a t l east t o t he e xtent o f c utting away f ins, a nd t his i s a nother a ctivity w hich may h ave l ed t o c rushed e dges o n t he t ools u sed. T he evidence i s s trongly i n f avour o f r egarding q uartzite p ieces e squillees

9 6

o f E dges No.

'

P fecea

Q t

E aquillges

F lake

P

C ortical

C h

@

.

E aq

O fg

T otal Q t

Q t

T otal F ine G rained _

1 (100 ,0 )

1 9 (40 ,4)

6 0(52 ,1)

2 7 (61,3 )

1 0(50,0)

—

1 6(34,0)

3 2(27,8)

1 5 (34,0 )

1 ( 4 ,3 )

1 ( 5 ,0)

—

8 (17,0)

1 3 (11,3 )

2 ( 4 ,5)

3 ( 4 ,4)

—

—

—

3 ( 6 ,3 )

6 ( 5 ,2)

—

5

2 ( 49)

—

_

_

1 ( 2 ,1)

3 ( 2 ,6)

—

6

1 ( 1 ,4)

—

_

_

_

1 ( 0 ,8)

—

1

4 1(60 ,2)

1 7 (73 ,9)

9 (45,0)

2

1 6(23 ,5)

5 (21,7)

3

5 ( 7 ,3 )

4

, 6 8

2 3

4 7

1

2 0

e , 15

4 4

,

, N R

1

1

4

3

1

5

4

.

.

T able 2 6. I ncidence o f working e dges o n t he two k inds o f P iece e squillee f or t he various r aw m aterial g roups. NR = s pecimens f or w hich details w ere n ot r ecorded.

a s utilized f lakes a ssociated w ith a t ask o r t asks i nvolving t he s hearing o f s oftish m aterials a gainst a s tone a nvil, w ith e ither a p ressing o r a c hopping a ction.

9 7

F igure 2 7. P ieces e squillees: f lake. S tippled a reas = c ortex. I n u nshaded d rawings t he l ines i ndicate t he main s tructural f eatures. T he bold l ines a djacent to t he p lans a re t racings o f t he i mpressions m ade b y t he working e dges, whose l imits a re i ndicated by s hort d ashes.

9 8

F igure 2 8. P iece e squillees: c ortical. T he p ieces a re v iewed f rom t he d orsal ( cortical) s ide, a nd n o a ttempt h as b een m ade t o i ndicate i nvasion o f t he c ortical s urface by d amage. T he l imits o f working e dges a re i ndicated by s hort d ashes, a nd t he b old l ines a re t raced f rom i mpressions made b y t he a djacent w orking e dges.

9 9

F igure 2 9. P ieces e squillees: q uartzite s pecimens. A real d istribution ( all l evels). A f urther f ourteen s pecimens w ere r ecovered o n t he t alus s lope, d uring c leaning, a nd a re n ot p lotted.

1 00

6 i ii

d

P alettes

T en specimens w ere f ound, f our u nstratified i n d isturbed d eposit d uring c leaning o f t he c ave, a nd s ix s cattered a t i ntervals t hrough t he deposits, f rom t he y oungest t o a lmost t he oldest. D etails a re a s f ollows. 1 .

Unstratified. ( Plate 7 a) G rey s hale. Well s haped a nd smoothed a nd r etaining s triae, apparently f rom s haping. I ncomplete, b ut t he r emaining morphology s uggests t hat t he l ength was approximately 1 50 mm a nd t he w idth 7 1 mm.

2 .

Unstratified. ( Figure 3 0). G rey s hale. T he major p art o f o ne f ace a nd a bout o ne t hird o f t he o ther h ave f laked away, b ut t he e dge i s c ompletely p reserved. I t i s c arefully s haped a nd smoothed, w ith l ittle e vidence o f s triae o n t he r emaining s urfaces. T he n arrower e nd i s s lightly s quared. L . 1 19 mm, W . 6 1 mm, T h. 8 .3 mm.

3 .

Unstratified. ( Figure 3 0). G rey s hale. R everse s urface i s c ompletely gone; t he r emaining s urface i s smooth a nd t he e dge well r ounded. A f air amount o f f ine s triation i s s till v isible o n t he s urviving s urface. E stimated L . + 9 6 mm, W . + 5 0 mm. T h. 6 .2 mm.

4 .

Unstratified. ( Figure 3 0). G rey s hale. T he o utline i s i rregular, a s i f n o s haping was g iven t o t he p iece, but t he o ne r emaining s urface i s v ery smooth, a nd retains a f ew s triae. Two e dges a re b roken, a nd t he other two s moothed, a pparently by u sage.

5 .

Unit 2 2 Y -II. ( Figure 3 0). G rey s hale. A f ragment w ith o nly o ne f ace p reserved, e xcept f or a small a rea near t he e dge, where t he r ounding o f t he e dge a ppears complete. T he t hickness h ere i s 4 mm. Two p arallel s triae v isible.

6 .

Unit 4 2 B II. ( Plate 7 b). G rey s hale. A n u nusual form o f p alette w ith a c arefully worked, t hough n ot smoothed, t ang o r h andle. T he s patulate part h as a r ather u neven, t hough generally smoothed s urface, marked b y a considerable n umber o f s triae. T he ' handle' r etains c learly t he marks o f t he c utting a nd gouging which gave i t i ts s hape. L . 1 44 mm, W . 6 6 mm, Th. ( handle) 1 3.2 mm ( blade) 1 0.4 mm.

7 .

Unit 5 9 E IV. ( Figure 3 0). D ark g rey s hale. F ragment retaining o nly o ne s urface, which h as a f ine smooth f inish w ith o nly a f ew s triae v isible. T he e dge i s evenly r ounded a nd smooth.

1 01

F igure

3 0.

P alettes.

A ll

a re

1 02

o f

s hale.

8

Unit 1 20 S q6. ( Figure 3 0). Dark grey s hale. H ardly any s triae a re v isible o n t he f aces, which h ave a generally s mooth, a lmost ' greasy' appearance. The edges e specially a re smoothed, t o a h igh polish i n places, a s i f t he s pecimen h as been much h andled, o r carried a round i n a pouch which h ad i mparted a smoothness a nd polish. L . 1 25 mm, W . 8 3 mm, T h. 9 .3 mm ( max).

9 .

Unit 1 20 S q5. ( Figure 3 0). P inkish s hale ( ? a ltered by h eat). F ragment f rom o ne c orner o f a palette. T he rounded e dge i s f inely smoothed, a nd both f aces a re i ntact. T h. 6 .9 mm.

1 0.

Unit 1 39 S q8. ( Figure 3 0). P inkish s hale ( ? a ltered by h eat). F ragment p reserving part o f t he e dge a nd both f aces. The e dge i s a symetrically r ounded a nd well smoothed. T he s urface i s c learly marked by groups o f parallel s triae, apparently f rom s urface f inishing r ather t han u se. Th. 9 .4 mm.

I n a ddition t o t he palettes j ust described t here a re a n umber o f units i n t he l ower part o f t he s uccession which h ave y ielded i rregular f ragments o f t hin, t abular s andstone o r q uartzite o f a k ind n ot e ncountered e lsewhere i n t he deposits o r, i ndeed, o n t he p eninsula. They vary f rom a bout 6 mm t o 1 2 mm i n t hickness a nd approximately 7 0 mm t o 1 40 mm i n maximum d imension. There i s n o e vidence o f s econdary working t o g ive t he p ieces s hape a nd, w ith t he e xception o f o ne w ith o chre s taining, n o e vidence o f u tilization. S o f ar a s t he writer i s aware, t he n earest possible s ource o f s uch t hin t abular r ock i s i n e xposures c lose to t he o ld t imber s tore, j ust s outh o f t he L ookout Rocks, a bout 6 km n orth o f t he cave. D etails a re a s f ollows. U nit

1 08.

O ne t abular s andstone f ragment a nd o ne quartzite f ragment w ith o chre s taining.

U nit 1 18.

Two t abular q uartzite

U nit 1 19.

Two t abular h arder t han

U nit

1 23.

O ne

U nit

1 28.

Two p ieces

o f

t abular

U nit

1 29.

Two p ieces

o f

t hin

f ragments.

f ragments o f a h ard, s late-like t he n ormal s hale a t t he s ite.

f ragment

s imilar

t o

s andstone.

t abular q uartzite.

O ne f ragment o f t abular t abular quartzite.

U nit

O ne

f ragment o f

r ock,

1 19.

31. U nit 1

1 32.

t abular

t abular

s andstone

a nd

o ne

o f

q uartzite.

Woodhouse ( 1968) h as s uggested t hat t he t anged palette f rom u nit 4 2 i s part o f a p ainter's s tock i n t rade, a nd t his

1 03

v iew i s c learly s hared b y S inger a nd Wymer ( 1982:136-7) w ho r ecovered a n a lmost i dentical s pecimen f rom t heir C ave 5 ( ibid. p 1.50) 9 0km e ast o f NBC, a nd s eems t o b e t he i mplication f or s hale p alettes g enerally i n R udner's r ecent r eview ( Rudner, I . 1 982:223-236). T here i s, h owever, n o p ersuasive e vidence. T here i s a bundant a rchaeological e vidence t hat o chre-based p aint i s e xtremely t enaceous, y et n one o f t he p alettes, a nd o nly o ne o f t he t abular q uartzite p ieces, s hows a ny s igns o f o chre s taining. I t i s p ossible t hat c areful examination o f t he s urfaces o f palettes, f or c hemical t races, would s hed more l ight o n t hem, b ut f or t he t ime b eing t hey r emain e nigmatic. A n u ntested i mpression s uggests t hat t he a ssociation w ith c oastal e nvironments i s s tronger t han a ssociations w ith p ainting. Goodwin ( 1938:215) describes w hat s ounds l ike a c lose parallel t o t he t anged s pecimen ( No.6, u nit 4 2) f rom K lip K op Cave, 8 0km s outh e ast o f C ape T own. U nfortunately l ittle can b e s aid o f i ts a ge o r a ssociations.

6 i ii

e

G rinding Equipment: g rindstones, c ombination r ubber/hammer

rubbers,

a nd

O n t he a ssumption t hat t he r ubbing s tones a nd t he ( nether) g rindstones were u sed i n c onjunction w ith o ne another, a nd t ogether r eflect a p articular a ctivity o r a ctivities, i t s eems s ensible t o r eview t hem t ogether. E ight whole g rindstones a nd f ifteen f ragments were f ound, p lus a nother two o ccurrences f or which f urther details a re n ot r ecorded ( Appendix 1 8). T he f ragments r epresent f lakes o r c hunks f rom g rindstones r educed b y deliberate f laking t echniques a nd, i n two c ases, more o r l ess c omplete s pecimens p artially r educed by f laking ( Plate 8 a). I t i s p erhaps worth n oting t hat o nly t hose p ieces r etaining r ecognisable a reas o f g rinding s urface a re i dentifiable a s t o s ource, a nd t he m ajority o f p ieces s temming f rom t he r eduction o f a g rindstone would n ot b e r ecognisable a s s uch. O f t he n ine c omplete, o r n ear c omplete, s pecimens a ll e xcept o ne a re o f q uartzite a nd a ll b ut o ne q uartzite s pecimen a re o n water-worn b locks, m ost p robably d erived f rom n earby beaches o r g ullies. T hree o f t he c omplete s pecimens l ay w ith t he g rinding s urface downward. Twentytwo o f t he twenty-five s pecimens b elong a bove unit 6 3, a nd o nly t hree f ragments ( one a lmost c omplete) c ome f rom t he e arlier l evels. T hirty r ubbing s tones w ere r ecovered ( Appendix 1 9) b ut n o a ttributes h ave b een r ecorded b eyond t he f act that o ne f rom u nit 4 3 h as a p ecked d imple approximately c entral o n t he g rinding s urface ( Plate 8 h) a nd t hose f rom u nits 1 20 a nd 1 42 a re o chre-stained, t he l atter s pecifically o n i ts g rinding s urface. T he f igure o f t hirty i ncludes e leven w hich a re c ombination r ubber/hammerstones. E lsewhere c hange i n

i n t his r eport w e h ave t he c ultural c ontent o f

1 04

i ndicated t he u nits

a s ignificant a bove u nit 6 3

c ompared w ith t hose b elow, a nd i t i s a matter o f s ome i nterest t o d etermine i f, a nd t o what e xtent, a ctivities i nvolving g rinding e quipment were i nvolved i n t hese c hanges. The a nswer i s n ot e asy t o f ind, f or t he a reas o pened f or e xamination ( 4 i v a bove) a re v ery d ifferent f or t he f irst t hree s easons ( units 2 2-62) a nd t he f ourth s eason ( units 6 4-148), a nd t he r esults o f a nalysis vary a ccordingly a s o ne l ooks a t f requency by e xcavated a rea ( Table 2 7) o r a s a p ercentage o f t he t otal u tilized c ategory, o f w hich t he s pecimens f orm a part, ( Table 2 8). W hen viewed i n t erms o f f requency p er e xcavated s quare f oot ( Table 2 7) g rindstones a nd r ubbers a re more a bundant i n t he u pper g roup o f u nits, b ut t he p icture i s r eversed f or r ubber/hammerstones. T he t otal o f g rinding e quipment i s, h owever, b iased i n f avour o f t he upper g roup o f u nits. I f w e examine t he m eans o f t he p ercentage f requencies o f t he v arious c lasses w ithin t he c ategory o f T otal U tilized P ieces ( Table 2 8) we f ind a s omewhat s imilar p icture. H owever, i t h as b een s uggested ( Davidson a nd M aCarthy 1 957:441) t hat a g rindstone would b e l ikely t o wear o ut s everal r ubbing s tones which, i f correct, m ay make r ubbing s tones a m ore s ensitive measure o f g rinding a ctivity t han g rindstones. I t may f urther b e o bserved t hat t here i s n o e vidence a t N elson B ay C ave t hat worn o ut r ubbing s tones w ere used a s a s ource o f f lakes, s o t heir s urvival value i s p robably g reater. B eing, p resumably, more a bundant a nd m ore s usceptible t o l ateral movement t han g rindstones t here i s perhaps a b etter c hance o f t heir t urning up i n r andom s amples. I t i s i nteresting, t herefore, t o n ote t hat r ubbers a nd r ubber/hammers t ogether y ield very s imilar p ercentages f or t he t wo s tratigraphic g roupings ( Table 2 8), a lthough t he l atter c learly h ave g reater d ensity i n t he l ower l evels, a s do t he f ormer, t o a l esser e xtent, i n t he u pper l evels. F inally, i t m ust be n oted t hat 8 9.4% o f t he 1 9 o rdinary r ubbers o ccur i n t he upper g roup o f u nits ( 226 2) while 6 3.3% o f t he 1 1 r ubber/hammers o ccur i n t he l ower g roup ( 64-148). T he f igures a re v ery d ifficult t o i nterpret a nd i t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he s amples a re t oo small t o y ield a ny c lear m essage. A c onservative v iew would b e t hat t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest a ny s ignificant d ifference i n t he e mphasis o n g rinding a ctivity a s b etween u nits 6 4-148 a nd 2 2-62. H owever, t he a lmost e xclusive s tratigraphic g rouping o f r ubbers v ersus r ubber/hammers does r aise t he q uestion whether t he f oodstuffs b eing p rocessed m ight h ave b een i n s ome w ay d ifferent s uch t hat t he t ools i n u se i n t he l ower l evels were u sed p ersistently f or c racking o r c rushing p urposes, a longside t heir g rinding f unction, i n a m anner which l ed t o p ercussive b ruising o f t he n on-grinding e nd: t here i s s ome s uggestion t hat t his w as t he c ase w ith s ome A ustralian s pecimens ( O'Connell, 1 977:277).

1 05

I C \1

c m

1

i \ , r )

1 4,5 1 5,6 7 1 7,9 2 46,2

9 1 5,6 2 10,4

2 2,3 498, 9 26, 5 1 8

2 ,0 4 ,2 1 2,6 9 ,9 c o

106

n I C M C M

2, I 1M D

( C I • . 1 4 _ ) " Q 0 cn

E

0

( I ) 0-0

e

•

0w.

4 j

e

C T ' C D 4 ) C Dl4 0 DL I . c

4 . )

0

o

w w

•

S 1 o a )

w ( 1 )

E

• . I U )

Q )

o

C C I " ) • H

e 4 -) o c • H @

u )

0 4 ) • H C' • • 4 0

0 a l C D

( 1 )

0 Hr C : 71 W . C 2 4 1 0

e

C . ) a ) • H . 0

0

( 4 1

0

t r ( 1 ). H C 4 -) t ' dC d W 4 -)

o

• C D 4 1 4 1

c •• " Q 4 J Cd E

E

e0

c 0 ( 1 ) a ) .0 0 4

e

•

e

b.' U ) t r T s ( 1 ) • Q . 1

3 ,5 2

5 ,5

,

3

sd var m N

Rubbers

sd

5 84,6 2 4,1

D O 2r -

1 5 2 3,1

C M V j

var

c n . 0 0 C . T -

1 0,7

9 1 5,0

0

1,8

C M

1 40,4

C M

0 ^ C T \

8 1 3,4

0

m

0 \ . i f \ 7 ' 1 --

15,0

var m N var sd

k r \ . c . " 1 C O C M

Hammer

Utilized Total of Percentage

var

Rubbers Pieces

Rubber/hammers

plus

sd

Rubber/hammers

+ Grindstones Rubbers +

0 , 0101 1 2

0 ,0059 7 0 , 0016 2

4 0 , 0049

Rubber/

0 , 0124 43

sd c n 4 > • H

• 4 -, c e ( 1 ) • g i 01 < M

\c o M D , .

C M . c ,1 M D

N

T . I 1 ) 4 > a i

Grindstones

I > o d 0 X W

Units

H a l 4 > 0 E l

O C . -

F

Z

0 ,0025

4 > g r 4 0 . 4 04 C f )

3

Grindstones

Z

1 7

4 J g G . 0 . g i 01 C l )

0 , 0063

Z

22

( 2 . ) • A l , C r i C i 2

Rubbers

Rubber!

Hammers

4 )

0 , 0011

_

Z

0 ,0076

C D • g s c r ( i )

9

+ >

0 , 0060

Z

2 1

Rub/Hammer

+

+ Rubbers

Grindst plus

0 ) • g • c r, ( f )

Rubber/Hammer

Rubbers

i ,

0

n

• f r e • 1 4

o C Y )

>

e

C I )

E

0 4 • 4 )

c

4 )

t 31 C I ) ( 1 )

t r r n C O ( 1 )

• r C j

Z 14 ^ C I ) • 1 U ) N 4 C D C D O U )

•

6 i ii

f

H ammerstones ( Appendix 2 0)

I ncluding

R ubber/Hammerstones

sq. ft.

I t i s quite possible t hat t he damage o n t he r ubber/hammerstones r esults n ot f rom t heir u se a s s tonek napping t ools, b ut i ncidentally i n t he c racking o r c rushing o f s ome h ard f ood i tem w ith which t he g rinding s urface i s more r ecognisably a ssociated ( Inskeep 1 983; a nd p revious s ection). H owever, r emoval o f t hese f rom t he s cores makes o nly a s mall d ifference t o t he f igures i n T able 2 9 a nd s eems n ot t o c hange t he s ignificance o f t he

c o

P 4 1

22

—62

6 3 — 1 34 1 35 — 1 48

>4 1 r d • u e X 0 ) a )

u ) o

f i P O

M i P 0

o c . . )

Cores

P • C l i P

per

e t 0

7 5

3445,9

78

0 ,02

63

0 ,8

1 025,3

3 37

0 ,32

27

0 ,08

772

1 53,0

8 5

0 ,55

1 5

0 ,17

4 20

T able 2 9. I ncidence r ubber/hammerstones.

o f

h ammerstones

p lus

f igures. T he n umber o f h ammerstones per c ore s eems e xceptionally l ow i n u nits 6 4-134 a nd i s s till l ow i n u nits 1 35-148, c ompared w ith u nits 2 2-62, y et when t he r atio o f f lakes t o h ammerstones i s e xamined t he f igures a re q uite t he opposite. W hatever t he f laking t echniques were i n t he u nits b elow 6 3 t hey were a pparently e conomic i n t erms o f h ammerstones. T his may b e d ue i n p art t o t he t oughness o f q uartzite c ompared w ith q uartz a nd c halcedony, b ut i t h as a lso been n oted a bove, i n t he d iscussion o f c ores, t hat p rior t o unit 6 3 q uartzite m ay h ave been f laked away f rom t he s ite. A bout a ll t hat c an b e s aid i s t hat t he i ncidence o f h ammerstones i s c ompatible w ith t he l atter s uggestion.

1 07

H ammerstones vary a l ot i n t he d egree o f wear t hey display a nd i t i s possible t hat s pecimens o ther t han c obbles, o r d isplaying v ery l ittle wear, h ave b een m issed. T he i ndications a re t hat t he c lass h as r elatively l ittle t o c ontribute t o a n u nderstanding o f t echnological a ctivity a t t he s ite. Weights, w hich r egrettably were not r ecorded, m ight h ave p roved more i nformative t han a mere c ount. O ne s pecimen ( unit 3 8) i s o f q uartz, a nd two ( units 1 29 a nd 1 45) a re o f s andstone. O ne ( unit 7 6) a ppears t o h ave b een u sed a s a n a nvil, whilst two s pecimens i n e ach o f units 6 6 a nd 7 6 a re o chre-stained.

6 i v

THE FORMAL TOOLS CATEGORY

6 i v a

S crapers

I n p rocessing t he a ttributes f or t he s crapers i t w as o bserved t hat t here was a d iscrepancy o f 8 b etween t he n umbers a ctually a nalysed a nd t he n umber appearing i n t he i nventory. E ight u nits w ere i nvolved. A r e-examination o f t he r ecords s howed t hat i n t he c ase o f two units t here h ad b een e rrors i n t ranscribing f rom i nitial r ecord s heets ( for i ndividual s quares) t o t he s ummary s heets f rom w hich t he i nventory was c ompiled. I n s ix c ases t he d iscrepancies a ppear t o h ave r esulted f rom s pecimens b eing r e-classified w ithout t he r ecords b eing a ltered. Whilst percentages f or i ndividual u nits m ight b e markedly a ffected i n t he f ormal t ools c ategory t he p icture f or t he m ajor groupings o f u nits w ould n ot b e s ignificantly c hanged, n or would t rends b e n oticeably a ffected. C alculations i n t he i nventory h ave t herefore n ot b een a ltered. I t s hould be n oted t hat d ifferences i n s cores f or s elected a ttributes i n t he t ables v ary t o s ome e xtent b ecause n ot a ll a ttributes w ere m easurable f or a ll s pecimens ( e.g. w here i ncomplete). I n t he c ase o f double, o r t reble s crapers ( thirteen s pecimens), a ttribute s ets a re r epeated. A part f rom o ne s pecimen i n s ilcrete ( unit 5 6) a nd two i n u nidentified f ine g rained materials ( unit 1 48) a ll s crapers w ere o f q uartzite, q uartz, o r c halcedony. The b asic d ata o n s crapers a re g iven i n A ppendix 2 1 a nd a re s ummarized i n T able 3 0. F rom t he l atter a nd f rom F igure 3 1 i t i s a pparent t hat, i n a ll d imensions, q uartz a nd c halcedony s pecimens a re v ery s imilar ( except i n u nits 2 2-62, w here t he n umbers a re v ery s mall), a nd t hat t hey s tand a part v ery c learly f rom t hose m ade i n q uartzite. T he s imilarity o f t he d imensions f or q uartz a nd c halcedony i n t he t wo l ower s tratigraphic g roupings ( 64-134 a nd 1 35-148) i s s uch a s t o s uggest t hat t he t wo materials were r egarded a s i nterchangeable a lthough i t i s c lear f rom T able 3 1 that a m arked p redominance o f c halcedony c haracterised u nits 1 34 t o 6 4, e ither t hrough c hoice o r a vailability o f material. B y t he s ame t oken, t he e normous d ifference i n s ize between t he s pecimens made i n q uartz a nd c halcedony and t hose m ade i n q uartzite l eaves l ittle r oom f or doubt t hat t he l atter

1 08

› . 0 g l

o

1 r \

0

I r \

t r \

1 . *

C n

C I D

1 "

c ' ' )

1-

_ . / . .

c , " \

C " )

0

, .

• •

0 0

\ C, c n

c n

1 r \ N

k r \

c \ r

o

c • •

e t

et

Chalcedony

n • 0 C ' " ) . . . t \ I

k >

. t

c *.\

0

r C \

k r \ \ l )

.

e t

.

. -

• •

c , -)

, -

c '

a \ C V c 9

• oO . 0.

e •

Z

•

c •-• \

N. a \

c • '-\ C T \

. t D L t

0 0 4 .

0 0

e

g

0

c o

C 1)

C _\

C D

, .—.

N

, -

• -

.

\ . r o V D g i ( Z i

e t

c o

c •-\

k r ,

c ,\

N

c •-\

r• -•

r—

t ,, -

l e .

I . •

e t

et

i s ,

. 0

L t-\

V J

0 .

N

e e

k r \

c r \

e e

, -

0

n

( , \

N. . ( \ /

l e

C Y \

c •.• \

c m

.- -

1. .

G ,

1 . "

\ O

k r 1

N

I l e

•k

e-

e

, •

4 .

C M

.""

n

03

c \ . 1

, •

, , -

i r-\

.

r—

1 . — .

• r I C \ 1

. 1 •

.

o

.

0

• 4

0

C O

N

( \ t

r-

\r )

, --

0

c 1

v D

t -

0

1 1

t • •

N . -

N . •

1 . ( -\ ( %

0 , • •

0

0

I

n y o

c \ 1 r -

( . -

c n V D

c m , -

( . . )

k l 1 V D

I n

o

• •

Ch

C . -) . N r-1

V %

o

t -

V J . -

( 3 \

t ' -

r-

N

l e

( , . \

In

n

0

• • •

( N I

. 7

t , -

N

ee

0

N

ä r l

e e

N

V 0 \ C )

e-

O.

0

C \. 1 C V

0

L f " )

O .

0

C V

o o

U 1

0.

0

c N t

r-

c l. \

c n

0 %

c \ I

—

le

1 -

c ‘ t

• N

N

( \ 1

,--

N

4 -)

.

, -

> a )

(I)

V J

C V

0 c i )

et

I N . .

0

0

n

l r \ N -

i n N -

1

C O

0

0

C V • -

n

/-

CM

c d

-; . c ," \

2V D

n , -

, , -

o C O

c h 0

, -

c 0 c r \ 2-

V :, N . c 9 •

i -O

N N

c n N -

N . 0 1 i •

k r 1 . 0 0 r 1

I » . L ^ c '

. C n c \ t

t • • , •

. V D , -

. . l • . ) 0

c n

—

_ e

c •-\

C 9

c \ i

2n -

Scrapers:

o o c n

3 9,6

1. . 1 . "

1 570,08

l e

G O

76,6

e e

C O

E 1

1

c \ t

i f. ' . / . -

e t

o o

6 '95

k r-\ C h " t r \

t ( , \ c \ I

e s

C O

3 8,0

C O 1 . n c . . -\

o 4-

4 1 .

1 1

I n c , -) \ . 0

r-

04

5 870,70

o i -

CM

83,8

n C T \

C

r-

1 2

o I " . 0 \ 0 n

n

I t

e •

C ‘ I

5 'tt i

CM

k i-

8 5'o85

r-

4e.

Units

1 " C , . c 9 v o c m 0 1

I _ e \ . 0

D O , \2, I d l n

tn . D ua l

c m \ r o I C \ 1 c m

1c , ' • \ —

c o _ 1, •

( 9 v o

I " r \ , -

0 0 _ e. , •

I

I

I

1

1

1 . " < : ,

11 1 -

k r 1 n

P TIA

c 9 c \ t

_ e v , )

k r \ c n

g o n o4 at E Jo

0

• -

7 3,1

• •

t i e'LoL

Quartzite

C \ 00

1 7 9

Z

ek

Lr\

t '89

g ( 1 ) z

N

L 6'6e e

F 4 a l >

.

o 't iz

( I )

k r \ N

n

5 '9z

•

c \ I , -

6 'oz

> ( 1 )

n

r-

v o

5 352,7

Ch

Z

4 4

r-

15,9

z

• i -

6 4

a

1• 1413

Tli

1 09

I c m ( N I

G O e , 1

I 2. i )

0 1 —

4 11 2 Tal

ec n

c \ t . 0 I ( N t c 9

o o _ 2-

1

1

I\ . t o

k r 1 c n

4 142 Talk

S CRAPERS

1 00 •

QUARTZ I T E

•

•• •

8 0

•

• •

•

•

6 0

0 0

•

•

• •

•

• •

•

•

%• •

T 4 0

•

/

•

•

•

4

"

•

S D

mm

I

I 2 0

1

•

U N ITS

I 4 0

I

2 2

1 8

1 8 •

•

••

1 0

1 00

1 0 .

6 ALL L EVELS: QUARTZ 1

6

1 0

1 20

•

6

2

• + 4 .

•/ • : • • .

s .: .

2 mm

2 2 - 5 9 6 4 -1 34 1 35 -1 48

I I 6 0 8 0 WI DT H

2 2

1 4

•

•

•

M M

•

• •

•

2 0

•

•

1 4

1 8

W m m

2 2

1

2 6

1

J

3 0

2 mm

.

•

•

A LL L EVELS: CHALCEDONY .

2

1

1 _

6

1

1

1 0

_1

1

1 4

1

W

1

1 8

1

m m

1

2 2

1

i

2 6

3 0

F igure 3 1. S cattergrams f or l ength a nd w idth of s crapers. T he d iscrepancy i n s ize between quartzite specimens a nd t he r est i s c learly marked.

1 10

Scrapers per unit, average

N

Raw materials o/o Qt Q

Ch

(61)

78

91,o

5,1

J,8

1,2

64 - 134 (7 l)

330

J,6

20,0

76,3

4,6

135 -148 ( 14)

41

31,7

31,7

36,5

l, 't

Units 22

- 62

N

Table 31. Frequency of scrapers by raw material groups in the three major stratigraphic groupings. are not simply versions of the former made for purpose but in a different raw material.

the

same

That the quartzite scrapers are quite different tools probably used for quite different purposes is suggested by other features. The quartz and chalcedony specimens are generally so small that they must surely have been attached to handles by mastic to make them usable (c.f. Clark 1958 and Deacon, H. J. 1976:58 and figs. 32 and 33) whereas the irregularity, chunkiness and size of many of the quartzite scrapers raises doubts as to whether they were intended to be hafted at all. The retouch on the quartz and chalcedony scrapers is fine, and the convex working edges present an even profile (Figure 37), whereas the quartzite specimens are much more coarsely retouched and the edge profiles are often markedly irregular (Figures 35 and 36; Plate 8c). The implication to be drawn from these observations is that whilst both groups (quartzite and fine grained) are classified as scrapers they should not be thought of as interchangeable. They were probably used for quite different purposes in quite different ways. If this conclusion is correct, then we are not simply faced with a shift in preferred size, as noted by J. Deacon (1972) at the Wilton type site, and H. J. Deacon (1976:6lff.) at Melkhoutboom, but with the behaviour of, effectively, two different tool types designed for different functions. The alternative view, since large quartzite scrapers effectively replace small quartz and chalcedony scrapers after unit 64 (see below and Table 31), is to propose a gross change in attitude to the tasks being carried out with these tools, but such a view would require a certain ambivalence in those earlier levels where large and small 111

s crapers h ere.

o ccur

s ide by s ide,

a nd

t his

v iew

i s

not

f avoured

A n e xamination o f t he t rends i n s craper f requencies ( Figure 3 2) i ndicates a marked c hange s oon a fter t he deposition o f u nit 6 4. Upwards f rom, a nd i ncluding, u nit 5 9 q uartzite s crapers a ssume r egular a nd h igh p ercentages, whilst f rom u nit 5 6 q uartz a nd c halcedony a re v irtually absent. The c hange i s n ot a s c lear c ut a s i n t he c ase o f total a rtefacts, o r f ormal t ools ( Figures 1 5 a nd 1 6), but t his i s u ndoubtedly a r eflection o f t he a vailable s amples: units 6 3, 6 2, 6 1, a nd 6 0 h ave n o s capers, 5 9 h as two ( Qt), 5 8 has o ne ( Q) a nd 5 6 h as two ( one S i r ecorded a s C h, and o ne Qt). I t i s p erhaps more s ignificant a t t his l evel t hat t here are n o q uartzite s crapers i mmediately b elow u nit 5 9 t han that t here a re two f ine-grained s pecimens j ust a bove u nit 6 4. T aking i nto a ccount t hese c onsiderations t here i s n othing i n t he s craper f requencies t o c onflict w ith n otions of a marked c hange a t a bout t he l evel o f u nit 6 3 ( conveniently a s terile u nit). A t t he l ower e nd o f t he t rend l ines i n F igure 3 2, a s i n t he c ases o f t otal a rtefacts ( Figure 1 5), f ormal t ools ( Figure 1 6), c ore t ypes ( Figure 1 9), a nd c ore r aw materials ( Figure 2 0), t he p attern i s l ess c lear. I n t he c ase of q uartzite s crapers t here i s p erhaps a s lightly g reater degree o f r egularity f rom u nit 1 35 downwards, a nd a c orrespondingly s light f all i n t he r egularity o f t he l ine f or quartz and c halcedony, c ompared w ith i ts r emarkable r egularity from 1 34 t o 6 4. T hese s uggestions f ind s upport i n t he a nalysis o f r aw material p references s et o ut i n T able 3 1, t hough T able 3 2 i ndicates t hat t he r esult s tems more f rom t he d ropping o ut o f q uartz a nd c halcedony s crapers t han f rom a ny g reat i ncrease i n t he o verall n umbers o f q uartzite s crapers. B earing i n m ind t he t ime-linked s hift i n s craper d imensions n oted by J . D eacon ( 1972) a t t he W ilton t ype s ite a nd H .J. D eacon ( 1976:61ff.) a t M elkhoutboom t he f igures for t he NBC s crapers were s imilarly e xamined. T he two g roups, q uartzite a nd q uartz p lus c halcedony were e xamined s eparately a nd, b ecause s ome u nits h ad o nly one o r two s crapers; while o thers h ad many, u nits were g rouped where n ecessary t o g ive s amples o f n ot l ess t han 9 f or q uartzite s pecimens a nd 1 1 f or q uartz p lus c halcedony. The r esults a re s et o ut i n A ppendixes 2 2 a nd 2 3 a nd F igures 3 3 a nd 3 4. T he q uartzite s crapers s how a g eneral t hough s omewhat e rratic i ncrease t hrough t ime i n a ll d imensions, w ith a n e qually t entative s hift t o r educed w idth/length r atio. But t he r ather small s ample s izes a nd c onsiderable r anges o f v ariation r equire t hat t hese t rends s hould b e viewed with c aution.

1 12

:

S CRAPERS

:'

5 9

6 4

.•' Q UARTZ

' QUARTZ ITE

& C HALCEDONY

Z ERO V ALUES 1 00 7 0

F igure 3 2. R aw m aterial t rends i n t he s craper c lass. T he c urves a re d erived f rom t he l ogs o f t he p ercentage f requencies o f t he two r aw m aterial g roups. Units w ith n o s crapers a re omitted.

1 13

Mean number

Units

per

sq. ft.

Qt 22

s crapers

1 00

Q + Ch

2 ,3

- 62

of x

Total

2 ,6

0 ,2

6 4 - 1 34

1 ,3

37,

0

38, 7

1 33 - 148

7 ,0

1 7,5

24, 5

T able 3 2. R elative a bundance o f s crapers. t he means o f t he f requencies p er s quare u nits i n w hich s crapers o ccur, p lus z ero i n w hich t hey do n ot.

L ENGTH

W IDTH

W IDTH o f

H E IGHT

T he f igures a re f oot f or t hose s cores f or t hose

( W /L)x 1 00

U N ITS

Z I . . \

2 2 -2 8

R ETOUCH

220

. 7. •

3 0 mm

510

3 5 43 6 4-134

7 0 4 0 61 0 mm

8 6

2 0 41 0 mm

60 1 1 0 3 0 mm

1 0 0

3 0 3 1 4 4 59

9 1 0 1

1 3 5148 1 2

1 1 1 2 1

1 30

Figure 3 3. Q uartzite s craper d imensions t hrough t ime. U nits h ave b een g rouped a rbitrarily t o i ncrease s ample s izes. G iven t he s mall s ample s izes a nd t he considerable r anges o f v ariation, l ittle s ignificance p robably a ttaches t o t he a pparent t rends.

1 14

L E NGTH

W IDTH

W IDTH o f R ETOUCH

H E IGHT

(WI L)x1 00

6 4 -7 7

/

. . . .•

: \

. . . . . . . . . . ,.

• -•

. . -

/

)

. 7 '

N. .

.7-

1 4 mil l

U N ITS

1 3 f i l m

1 5

1 ( T I M

1 3

I . . , _ . . / .. / 7' . / . \ .'

3 4 5 1 00 ' 1 20 mm

9 0-9 1 9 3-95 1 00 1 08 1 1 1 1 61 19 1 2 1124 1 3 1- 1 3 4 1 4 4-148

8

9 2

N

7 8 4_ 8 9

9 7-99 1 0 1107 1 21 15 1 20 1 2 6130 1 3 514 1

1 3 1 6

2 2 1 1 4 2 3 1 8 1 4 1 8 2 2 1 9 1 7 1 4 1 9 1 8 1 5 1 6 1 4 1

1 40 '1 60

F igure 3 4. Q uartz a nd c halcedony s craper d imensions t hrough t ime. U nits h ave b een a rbitrarily g rouped t o i ncrease s ample s izes. S craper l engths a re m arkedly l ess a bove u nit 9 0, r esulting i n a s hift i n w idth/length r atios.

I n t he c ase o f t he q uartz p lus c halcedony s crapers both t he s amples a nd n umber o f o bservations a re l arger a nd t he r esults ( Figure 3 4) may b e more s ignificant. T he f igures f or both w idth a nd w idth o f r etouch i n t he upper l evels ( 89-64) r emain w ithin t he r ange f or l ower l evels, b ut a re a ccompanied by a p ronounced d rop i n l ength, t he r esult o f w hich s hows up c learly i n t he W/L r atio ( Figure 3 4). A c hange i n t he w idth o f t he working e dge m ight h ave b een t aken t o r eflect s ome s hift r elated d irectly t o t he m aterial b eing w orked ( the material i tself o r t he manner o f w orking i t), b ut t he o bserved s hift i n s hape s eems more l ikely t o r eflect s ome s light c hange i n h afting p ractices, t he underlying c auses o f w hich r emain o bscure. A lthough t here i s a good d eal o f variation i n t he f requencies o f s crapers i n t he e xcavated u nits, f rom n il t o t wenty-five, i t a ppears ( Table 3 2) t hat s crapers a re c onsiderably more a bundant below u nit 6 3 t han a bove i t.

1 15

F igure 3 5. Quartzite s crapers. Z ones o f retouch i ndicated by s hort dashes. I n t he u nshaded specimens bold l ines delineate t he main s tructural f eatures o f p iece.

1 16

are the the

F igure 3 6. Q uartzite s crapers. Z ones o f r etouch a re i ndicated by s hort dashes. S tippled a reas a nd s tippling c ombined w ith s hading r epresent c ortex/natural f racture s urfaces.

1 17

F igure 3 7. Q uartz ( Q) a nd c halcedony ( Ch) s crapers. s ome c ases z ones o f r etouch a re m arked by s hort d ashes t he e xtremities. S tippling i ndicates c ortex.

1 18

I n a t

6 i v b F lakes

Backed T ools a nd b ladelets

T en p ieces h ave b een r ecorded i n t his s ub-class, b ut none c an l ay c laim t o b eing a c arefully s haped t ool. I n n o case i s t he backing r egular, n or does i t i mpart a n even e dge, e ither c urved o r s traight. B ut f or t he a bruptness o f t he r etouch most p ieces c ould a s well h ave g one t o t he M iscellaneous R etouch c lass. D etails a re s et o ut i n T able 3 3. I t i s n otable t hat t he t wo specimens i n u nits 2 2-62 a re o f quartzite, w hereas t hose i n t he u nderlying u nits a re o f q uartz o r c halcedony w ith one s pecimen n ot r ecorded a s t o r aw material. The mean percentage f requency w ithin t he b acked t ools c lass, i n u nits 6 4-148, i s 5 .6% c ompared w ith 6 .6% f or t he t hree u nderlying W ilton l evels e xcavated by K lein ( calculated f rom J . D eacon, 1 978, t able 1 ).

Raw Units

T able 3 3. quartzite,

% within

N

Material

class

23

1

Qt

1 00, 0

42

1

Qt

1 00, 0

6 6

1

Q

7 6

1

Ch

1 00, 0

78

1

Ch

50 ,0

8 6

1

Ch

1 00, 0

1 06

1

Ch

50, 0

1 18

1

NR

50, 0

1 24

1

4

5o, o

1 40

1

Ch

25, 0

5 0,0

I ncidence o f b acked f lakes a nd b ladelets. Q = q uartz, C h = c halcedony

1 19

Qt =

S egments

( Appendix

2 4)

T hirty-five w hole a nd f ive b roken s egments w ere r ecovered. Two ( 5.0%) a re o f q uartzite, n ine ( 22.5%) o f quartz, a nd t wenty-nine ( 72.5%) o f c halcedony. A ll o ccur i n u nits 6 41 48. T hirty-seven ( 92.5%) o ccur i n a nd b elow u nit 1 06, w hile t hirty-three ( 82.5%) a re c ontained w ithin t he group o f u nits 1 13-140. T able 3 4 a nd F igure 3 8 i ndicate a c onsiderable r ange o f s izes, t hough m ost c luster f airly c losely a round 1 4.5 x 5 .5 mm. A lthough t here i s c onsiderable v ariation i n l ength a nd w idth, h eight i s c learly a m uch m ore r igidly c ontrolled f eature, w ith 9 4.7% f alling w ithin t he r ange 1 .5 t o 4 .8 mm. T he l arge q uartzite s pecimen i n u nit 1 40 l ooks totally o ut o f c ontext w hen s een a longside t he o ther p ieces, b ut i n l ength a nd w idth i t i s n ot m uch g reater t han two s pecimens i n u nits 1 20 a nd 1 29. T he l atter t wo s pecimens, h owever, a re b oth l ess t han 4 .5 mm i n h eight, w hereas t he q uartzite s pecimen s tands o ut boldly w ith a t hickness o f 1 1.0 mm. I n f act i t b ears a much c loser r esemblance t o t he q uartzite a dze i n u nit 4 3, b ut f or t he a bsence o f r etouch o r damage o n t he c hord e dge. O ne c halcedony s egment i n u nit 1 34 ( L 1 8.1 mm, W 6 .1 mm H 1 .7 mm) r etains c lear t races o f mastic ( Figure 4 0) o n both f aces. T he a rea c overed o n both f aces i s very s imilar a nd a lthough i n t he r ight h and d rawing ( Figure 4 0 b ) t he m astic a ppears t o s top a bout t hree q uarters of t he w ay a long, i t does, i n f act, c ontinue c learly on t he backed e dge, t o t he p oint i ndicated. T he i mpression g iven very s trongly i s t hat i n i ts h afted f orm n either o f t he t wo e nds w as embedded a nd t he m ethod o f h afting was a s i n F igure 4 1. T he s ame appears t o b e t he c ase w ith most o f t he s egments w ith m astic t races i llustrated by H . J . Deacon ( 1976, F igure 3 8), o nly o ne o f w hich ( right h and specimen i n s econd r ow f rom t op) s hows t races c onsistent w ith a n o blique s etting. T he d istribution o f mastic on t he Nelson B ay C ave s pecimen would n ot b e i nconsistent w ith a ny of t he s ettings s hown i n F igure 4 1. W ithin t he f our s tratigraphic g roupings i n T able 3 4 there i s a v ery s light t rend t o r educed l ength a nd i ncreased w idth w ith t he passage o f t ime r esulting i n a general i ncrease i n t he W/L r atio. C omparison w ith t he f igures f or t he l ower W ilton l evels a t t he s ite ( J. D eacon, 1 982:table 5 9) i ndicates t hat t his i s n ot t he c ontinuation o f a t rend, f or t he s egments i n t he two u nderlying l evels ( IC a nd BSC) a re p rogressively s horter a nd i n I C a re considerably wider. U nfortunately t he means o f t he W/L r atios a re not g iven f or t hese l evels b ut i f W/L r atios a re c alculated on t he means f or w idth a nd l ength t he c ontrast b etween I C and B SC a nd t he o verlying g roups o f u nits i s v ery g reat: t he older s egments b eing r elatively much d eeper f rom c hord t o b ack.

1 20

S egment

Mean

Var.

Attributes

S . dev.

Range

Units

N

6 6 - 1 16

9

1 4,58

7 ,70

2 ,77

9 ,0

- 26,5

4 4 )

1 18

- 1 22

8

1 5,96

3 6,19

6 ,01

9 ,5 - 30 , 8

0

1 23 - 1 31

9

1 6,61

4 0,97

6 ,40

1,3 - 3 2,0

- 1 46

9

1 6,81

2 8,71

5 ,53

8 ,3 - 1 8,1

7 ,24

8 ,40

2 ,89

4 ,0 - 1 3,2

( I D a

4

1 32

6 6 - 16 - 1 12

9

7 ,50

1 0,57

3 ,25

4 ,5 - 1 4,2

1 23 - 1 31

9

6 ,94

1 4,58

3 ,81

4 ,4 - 1 7,4

1 32 - 1 46

9

5 ,92

2 ,25

1 ,50

4 ,2 - 9 ,8

6 6 - 16

9

3 ,05

1 ,06

1 ,03

1 ,8 - 4 ,8

9

2 ,90

0 ,80

0 ,89

1 ,5

- 4 ,1

2 ,54

0 ,51

0 ,72

1 ,7

- 4 ,0

1 ,6

- 5 ,0

1 18

4 4 , v >

p

4 i t , f o =

0 0 g > 1 . 1

1 0

1 18

- 1 12

1 23

- 1 31

1 0

1 32 - 1 46

9

2 ,74

1 ,18

1 ,08

6 6 - 16

9

4 4,43

4 3,37

6 ,58

3 3,33 - 5 3,22

18 - 1 22

8

4 5,58

70,5 0

8 , 39

3 5,29 - 6 4,73

1 23 - 1 31

9

4 2,01

3 5,92

5 ,99

3 0,55 - 5 4,37

1 32 - 1 46

9

4 1,24

8 0,75

8 ,98

3 3,33 - 6 2,02

T able 3 4. M eans f or v arious s egment a ttributes w ith s amples g rouped a rbitrarily, b ut i n s equence, t o g ive s amples o f e ight t o t en. D ata f rom A ppendix 2 4. T he t hick q uartzite s pecimen f rom u nit 1 40 i s e xcluded.

1 21

2 0NBC V 1 0m m

: •• •. . . ..

• • .. ..•

• •:.•

;

0 0

I 1 0

, 2 0 L mm

310

41 0

F igure 3 8. S egments: s cattergram f or w idths and l engths. T he r ays a re d rawn f or t he means o f t he N BC g roup ( all l evels) a nd f or W ilton L arge Rockshelter ( all l evels). T he W ilton r ay i s based o n t he a rithmetic means g iven i n J . D eacon, 1 972, t able 8 .

1 22

n a h

2 r X 6 6.EIV . Q

7 9 .1.Q

p

Q

9 8 .4. C h .

1 06.6 . Ch .

V 1 07 . 3 .Qt.

P 16 . 5.Q .

13. 5 . C h .

1 07 .5 .Q.

e

5 1 1 * 1

16. 6 . C h .

p

. 1 20 .5 . Q .

1 8 .6.C h.

1 6 . 5 . C h.

P 1 20 . 7 .Ch.

gf 1 20 . 6 . Ch .

1 20 . 7 . C h .

Q 1 20 .5 . C h.

b -z .

1 20 . 6 . C h.

V

1 22. 6 .Ch .

1 21.6 . Ch.

1 23.6 . C h .

P

1 29 . 6. Ch .

1 30 . 6 . C h . 0

3 9. S egments c halcedony ( ch). F igure

1 24 . 5 . C h.

1 23 . 6.Q .

1 23 . 6 . C h.

i n q uartzite

1 23

1 3 1.6 . Ch .

1 3 1. 6.C h.

C MS

1 26 . 7 .Q

5

( Qt),

q uartz

( Q),

a nd

e f 12 :S 1 3 1.6 .Q .

•( , ) 1 37.7 .Ch .

P

g e t%

1 32.7 . C h.

1 33 .6.Ch .

e2h

1 38 .7 . Q .

1 40 . 8 .Ch .

1

1 34.6 , Ch .

P

1 38.8 .Ch .

1 40 . 7 . Q t .

P

1 38 .7 .Ch .

1 4 6 . 7 . C h .

2 ! CMS 0 CMS 5 1 1 1 11 , 1 1 1 1 1

1 34 .6, C h .

F igure 4 0. S egments i n q uartzite ( Qt), q uartz ( Q), c halcedony ( Ch). T he s pecimen b earing m astic s tains s hown i n t he l ower l eft-hand c orner a t a l arger s cale.

a nd i s

G iven t he degree o f variation b etween i ndividual s pecimens, b etween m eans f or g roups o f s pecimens, a nd absence o f c omparable c hronological c ontrol, t here s eems l ittle point i n c omparing d imensions w ith g eographically r emote s ites. A bout t he most t hat c an b e s aid i s t hat, w ith t he e xception o f t hose i n u nits 6 6-116, o ur s egments a re, on a verage, j ust a l ittle l onger t han t hose a t W ilton, Melkhoutboom, B omplaas, a nd i n t he l ower l evels o f N elson B ay Cave. They a re a lso g enerally a l ittle w ider.

1 24

-

A t i . p .

AA

a

b

\

C

-

,

F igure 4 1. D iagrams s howing possible methods o f w hich m ight a ccommodate t he p attern o f mastic s pecimen f rom u nit 1 34.

B acked

h afting o n t he

s crapers

O f t he e ight s pecimens r ecovered o ne ( unit 6 5) i s f rom t he f illing o f a g rave which c ut i nto u nits 8 0 a nd 8 1 a nd t herefore a lmost c ertainly i s d erived f rom t hese l ower u nits. T hus, a ll t he s pecimens c ome f rom a g roup o f f ive u nits c losely r elated i n t ime. I f t he s pecimen f rom u nit 7 7 came f rom t he l ower i nterface i t i s p ossible t hat a ll e ight s pecimens derive f rom t he two u nits 7 8 a nd 8 0, o r e ven f rom t he s ingle u nit 8 0, w ith t he r emaining s pecimens r epresenting l ateral s catter f ortuitously i ncorporated w ith t he units t o which t hey a re a ssigned. T he s uggestion t hat t he specimens d erive f rom a s ingle o ccupation e pisode o r, a t most, a s mall n umber o f e pisodes c losely l inked i n t ime d epends t o s ome e xtent o n n egative e vidence. B ut t he c ase i s s trengthened w hen we n ote t hat t here a re, w ithin u nits 6 4-148, t en o ther u nits y ielding s amples o f over a t housand a rtefacts ( unit 7 8 h as 1 074) a nd twenty-two w ith s amples o f more t han f our h undred ( unit 8 0 h as 4 66), w ithout a ny b acked s crapers. S even o f t he e ight s pecimens a re c halcedony a nd o ne i s q uartz: a r aw material p reference which f ollows c losely t hat f or q uartz a nd c halcedony s crapers. T he d imensions a re generally s mall ( Table 3 5) a nd a s a g roup ( Figure 4 2) t hey do n ot b ear a c lose r esemblance t o t hose i llustrated

1 25

f or Byneskranskop i n t he s outh west C ape W ilson, 1 982, f igure 1 9).

Backed

( Schweitzer

a nd

S crapers 0 *

4 4 , • I 1

C d 1 1

c L ) ; • 4 a i

g i W

>

4 )

a ' ( f )

o i v s ZE

65

2

Q

77

2

78

4)

4 ) U

, Z 4 , V 4 4

r 4 C d' 41

C l ) =

4 4 0c n . 1 I E a )k o >

1 ) G : tu ) 0 E, 4 E 4 g l 0 o o , s • ' .g r , E 4

4 ( V

4 4

a ) . 1

>

4 -)

9 ,2

4 ,6

2 ,8

0 ,1083

-

Ch

1 4, 3

8 ,9

5 ,0

0 ,6917

25,0

3

Ch

1 4,0

6 ,0

4 ,1

0 , 3637

3 ,7

80

2

Ch

1 4,1

7 ,3

3 ,1

0 ,2612

80

2

Ch

1 8,6

1 0,1

5 ,2

0 ,8825

8 1

2

Ch

1 7,2

8 ,6

3 ,5

0 ,6123

8 1

2

Ch

1 7,1

7 ,3

5 ,3

0 ,5927

87

2

Ch

1 3,9

5 ,7

2 ,8

1 4,80

7 ,3

1

Mean

c t l c 4 = c t i u )

1 :3 1 :19

1 :5

13,3

1 :6

0 ,1802

1 6,6

1 :4

3 ,97

0 ,461 5

1 5,04

7 ,38

2 ,95

1 ,00

0 ,0651 4

47,13

S t. dev.

2

, 7

1 ,71

1 ,00

0 ,2558

6 ,86

T able 3 5. D ata f or b acked s crapers. f ill a nd f or t his r eason h as b een p ercentage c alculations.

4 1 )

0C D f Z , • r 4 a l

1 6,6

Variance

1

o

44

Unit 6 5 i s a grave e xcluded f rom t he

S eventy-four b acked s crapers were f ound i n l ayer C o f t he n earby M atjes R iver R ock S helter ( Louw 1 960) a nd these, w ith t he e ight s pecimens u nder d iscussion s eem t o be t he most e asterly o ccurrence o f t he t ype. T o t he w est, a t O akhurst, a f ew b acked s crapers ( "double c rescents") w ere r ecorded by S chrire ( 1962) b ut c lose c omparison w ith o ur own s ample i s r endered u nsatisfactory p artly t hrough a bsence o f dating ( despite t he d ates p ublished by J . D eacon, 1 979) a nd p artly b ecause i t i s c lear t hat S chrire was u nable t o l ocate i mportant p arts o f the o riginal c ollection ( ibid:192). I n t hose l evels where t hey o ccurred t he r atios t o s mall s crapers a re g enerally s imilar ( Table 3 6) t o N elson B ay C ave. T he o nly o ther r ecently i nvestigated s ite, i n t he s outhern C ape, f or which backed s crapers h ave b een r ecorded i s Byneskranskop i n t he s outh

1 26

F igure

4 2.

B acked s crapers.

Oakhurst Spit

level

( inches)

Q = q uartz,

Backed

C h = c halcedony.

S crapers

Backed

Small

Ratio

S crapers

S crapers

Backed Small

1 8

- 27

2

6

1 :3

2 7

- 3 6

1

9

1 :9

3 4 - 45

2

60

1 : 30

50

2

1 2

1 :6

- 54

C 1 4 Dates t o

BP

3 450 ± 5 5

7910

± 70

T able 3 6. R atio o f b acked s crapers t o small c onvex s crapers a t O akhurst. T he f igures a re d rawn f rom S chrire 1 962 a nd t he d ates f rom J . D eacon 1 979. T he l evels a re t hose o f t he o riginal e xcavator, A . J . H . Goodwin, a nd t he C 14 s amples, c ollected f rom h is c leaned s ection t hirty y ears l ater, c annot b e a ssigned w ith c ertainty t o t hose p articular l evels, t hough t hey a re u nlikely t o be w ildly d iscrepant.

w est C ape ( Schweitzer a nd W ilson, 1 982). S pecimens were r ecovered i n n ine l evels dating b etween 6 540 + 5 5 B P a nd 3 220 + 4 5 B P o r e ven l ater, b ut were markedly more c ommon _ 1 27

i n t hree which t he C ave.

l evels o lder t han 3 400 + 5 5 B P ( Table 3 7), r atio t o s mall s crapers i s s imilar t o Nelson

i n Bay

B yneskranskop B acked S crapers

L evel

B acked S crapers

S mall S crapers

R atio B acked S mall

t o

C 14 D ates B P

1

3

8 9

1 ;29,6

1 880150 3 220 4: 45

2

1

3 5

1 :35,0

3 4001.5 5

4

3 4

18

1 :3,4

5

10

3 13

1 :2,8

6

7 5

2 60

1 :3,4

7

1 5

2 31

1 :15,4

3 900160

8

9

1 86

1 :20,6

9

3

2 26

1 :75,3

63701.9 0 6 1001.1 40

2

6 8

1 :34,0

6 5401.5 5

1 0

T able 3 7. R atio o f b acked s crapers a t B yneskranskop 1 . S chweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982.

s crapers t o small c onvex T he d ata a re drawn f rom

T he o nly o ther s ignificant o ccurrence k nown t o the w riter, t hough u nstudied a nd u npublished e xcept f or a p assing r eference by P . a nd C . W hite ( 1964), i s a t t he open s ite o f B rakfontein, n ear R iversdale, s ome 2 00 km t o t he w est o f P lettenberg B ay. T his i s a v ery l arge d eflated s and area f rom which a r esident i n R iversdale m ade a l arge c ollection o ver a p eriod o f many y ears. T he c ollection i ncludes ESA ( a l ittle), M SA, a nd L SA material, a ll i nextricably m ixed. I ts i nterest l ies i n t he vast n umber o f t ypologically LSA a rtefacts; small s crapers, s egments, a dze b lades, and b acked s crapers t otalling a pproximately 3 0,000 p ieces i n a ll. S everal t housand o f t hese, p erhaps a s many a s t en t housand, a re b acked s crapers. W ithout t he f igures t o hand ( calculated by t he w riter a bout 1 963) i t would be u nwise t o p in t oo m uch o n memory, b ut i t would s eem t hat t he r atio o f b acked s crapers t o small c onvex s crapers i n t his s ite was

1 28

o f t he o rder o f b etween 1 :1 a nd p erhaps 1 :3. Whilst t his i s apparently a f airly n ormal r atio i n s everal o f t he small s amples q uoted a bove, what i s o f i nterest i s t hat t he t ool s hould h ave p ersisted i n u se a t t his l ocality o ver what m ust be p resumed t o b e a r ather l ong period o f t ime. T he a rtefact u nder d iscussion i s q uite d istinct f rom t he c lass o f " crescent a dze" d escribed by C lark ( 1958, f igure 5 ) a nd I nskeep ( 1959, f igure 2 : 1 8-22), a nd o n a vailable e vidence t he t ype does n ot o ccur i n Z ambia. Neville J ones ( 1932, f igure 8 :11,12) d raws a ttention t o two s pecimens f rom M adiliyangwa, which h e describes a s r are a nd r esembling " those more c ommonly f ound i n C ape K itchen M idden s ites", b ut t hey s eem n ot t o o ccur i n a ny o f t he o ther major s ites i n Z imbabwe, a nd t he r esemblance o f t he M adiliyangwa s pecimens may b e f ortuitous. The t ype does n ot appear t o b e p resent i n t he T ransvaal o r i n N atal a nd s eems t o be c learly i dentified o nly i n Namibia a nd C ape P rovince. I n N amibia Wendt ( 1972:31) s uggests t hat b acked s crapers a nd o rdinary s mall c onvex s crapers may r epresent d ifferent f orms o f t he s ame f unctional t ool, a nd metrical w ork by J acobson ( 1979) t ends t o c onfirm t he s uggestion. I f backed s crapers a nd small convex s crapers w ere made t o p erform t he s ame r ange o f t asks i t i s l egitimate t o a sk why a small p ercentage s hould be made i n a deliberately d ifferent way o n s ome o ccasions b ut n ot o n o thers: a nd m ore particularly why t hey s hould make s uch a f leeting a ppearance i n t he h istory o f t he u se o f Nelson B ay C ave. U se-wear s tudies would c learly b e o f v alue i n a ttempting t o a nswer t hese q uestions. B roken

b acked p ieces

T here a re t hree s mall 9 5, 1 07, a nd 1 26. i ncomplete t o d eserve T anged

f ragments o f b acked p ieces f rom u nits A ll a re i n c halcedony a nd a re t oo f urther c omment o r i llustration.

p oints

T hree t anged p oints were r ecovered during t he f irst s eason's e xcavation ( 1964/65) a nd a re a ssigned t o u nits 6 , 1 6, and 1 8. T he s tratigraphic position o f t hese u nits i s d iscussed a bove ( 4 i ii) a nd t he r adiocarbon dates o f 2 450 + 6 0 BP f or u nit 6 , a nd 2 540 + 5 0 B P f or u nit 1 8 i ndicate ä r ather b rief t ime s pan f or the a ppearance o f t his t ype i n t he cave. D etails a re a s f ollows. U nit 6 S q E I IIa ( =northern h alf o f s quare) ( Figure 4 3; P late 9 ). M ade o n a b ladelet o f a b lack, m att s tone ( ?lydianite). T he b ladelet h as b een o bliquely t runcated by a f ine, b lunting r etouch a long o ne . margin. A s hort t ang i s f ormed by a n ibbling r etouch d irected t owards t he d orsal s urface o n t he l eft h and m argin ( when v iewed f rom t he dorsal s ide) a nd t owards t he v entral s urface o n t he r ight h and margin. L ength 2 4.5 mm; W idth 9 .6 mm; H eight 3 .0 mm.

1 29

F igure

4 3.

T anged p oints.

l y = l ydianite,

S i

= s ilcrete.

U nit 1 6 S q E IV ( Figure 4 3; P late 9 ). M ade o n a b ladelet o f v ery dark g reenish-grey s ilcrete o r l ydianite; a small a rea o f b rown c ortex r emains o n t he d orsal s urface. T he b ladelet h as b een o bliquely t runcated o n both margins, i n t he o ne c ase by a r ather i nvasive r etouch d irected t owards t he dorsal s urface, a nd o n t he o ther by a f ine n ibbling r etouch d irected t owards t he v entral s urface. The t ang i s f ormed by b ifacial f laking o f t he l eft h and margin ( viewed f rom t he dorsal s urface) a nd by u nifacial f laking d irected t owards t he v entral s urface o n t he o pposite margin. A n e stimated m illimetre i s m issing f rom t he t ip, a nd t he s urviving d imensions a re: L ength 2 4.0 mm; W idth 8 .0 mm; H eight 3 .0 mm. U nit 1 8 S q EV ( Figure 4 3; P late 9 ). M ade f rom a b ladelet o f f ine, b anded, g rey a nd b lack s ilcrete. T he f orm o f t he b ladelet was s uch t hat t he d istal p ortion r equired very l ittle r etouch t o g ive i t i ts f inal s hape. A small amount o f n ibbling r etouch h as b een a pplied t o t he margins near t he t ip, d irected i n o ne c ase t owards t he dorsal s urface a nd i n t he o ther t o t he v entral. T he t ang i s s haped b y b ifacial f laking which i s m uch more e xtensive t han o n t he o ther two s pecimens: o n t he v entral s urface t his r etouch i s v ery f lat, a s i f t o a chieve c ross-sectional symmetry i n t he t ang. A n e stimated t wo m illimetres i s m issing f rom t he t ip, a nd t he s urviving d imensions a re: L ength 3 4.0 mm; W idth 1 1.0 mm; H eight 3 .0 mm. B ifacially p ublished

f laked, b arbed a nd t anged a rrowheads h ave been f or a c ouple o f dozen s ites i n S outh A frica a nd

1 30

L esotho ( Van R iet Lowe, 1 947; H umphreys, 1 969; Carter a nd Vogel, 1 974). T hese bear n o r esemblance t o t he Nelson Bay C ave Specimens, a nd whilst most a re s urface f inds, t hirteen f rom recent excavations i n L esotho ( Carter a nd Vogel, i bid) a re well dated between t he t hird c entury BC a nd t he s eventeenth c entury AD. The d istribution o f t hese s pecimens i s f airly well defined, f rom L esotho i n t he east, a cross t he southern part o f t he O range F ree S tate, t o t he K imberley area o f Cape P rovince i n t he west. The Nelson B ay Cave specimens t hus s tand apart i n date, type, a nd l ocality. S omewhat s imilar a re two specimens i llustrated by Maggs a nd Ward ( 1980:figure 1 1; 2 1 a nd 2 2) f rom deposits i n t he Driel s helter, Natal, dated 1 755 BP and l ater. Two f rom t he Bergville district i n Natal ( Wilson ( 1980:78) a re s imilar i n t hat t hey l ack barbs and a re s haped by e dge n ibbling, b ut they a re r ather c rude compared w ith t he NBC s pecimens a nd those f rom Driel. Hewitt ( 1921:P1.9;1 a nd 2 ) i llustrates two f rom a F ish R iver m idden s ite a t Halesowen, n ear Craddock, o ne o f which i s very s imilar t o o ne o f t he D riel and two o f t he NBC specimens. 6 i v c Drills

( Appendix

2 5)

I ncluded i n t his c lass a re two specimens i n q uartzite, f rom u nits 3 1 a nd 3 5, which s tand apart f rom t he r est i n a lmost e very r espect. They a re t he o nly examples i n t he upper b lock of u nits ( 22-63), a nd t hey a re s ubstantially l arger t han the remaining s pecimens ( Table 3 8). The r emaining t hirty-three s pecimens a re a ll i n chalcedony a nd 9 0.9% are concentrated i n t he b lock o f f ifteen units 1 13 t o 1 37 ( Figures 4 4, 4 5). Compared with o ther r ecently excavated s ites i n t he s outhern C ape ( Table 3 9) Nelson Bay Cave has exceptionally h igh percentages o f drills, a nd o ne o f t he other s ites s hows the s ame c hronological concentration: o nly 2 o ccur i n t he earlier l evels excavated by K lein ( J. Deacon, 1 984: t able 1 3). I n f act, t here s eems t o be no r eal pattern i n t he occurrence o f drills i n t he s ites examined. A t t he W ilton t ype s ite a nd a t Melkhoutboom t here i s a s uggestion o f greater abundance i n t he e arly t o m id-holocene l evels b ut the percentages r emain constant r ight t hrough t o t he l ate Holocene l evels. Of t he 1 14 s pecimens i n twelve l evels at Byneskranskop 1 a s many a s 4 6 o ccur i n a s ingle l evel ( at 3 900 + 6 0 BP), but t here i s n o c lear patterning i n t he percentage f requencies f rom before 7 750 + t o a round 1 800 + 5 0 BP o r l ater. At t he n earby s ite o f D ie Kelders, whose deposits d ate between 2 019 + 8 5 BP and 1 509 + 1 00 BP, o nly a s ingle s pecimen was f ound i n t he l owest l evel. A t B uffelskloof, i n t he Cape Folded Mountains, a mere e ight s pecimens occur i n s ix l evels dated between 8 960 + 8 0 BP a nd 5 120 + 6 5 B P, while at t he adjacent Boomplaas s ite t he b rief herder o ccupation a t about A .D. 2 50 y ielded o nly one s pecimen and t he underlying BLD member, dated t o a round 2 000 BP y ielded f ive ( J. Deacon, 1 984a: t able 1 9). The

1 31

Drills

Length N

Qt Ch

2 32

Mean

Var

34, 0

4 ,0

1 4,1

1 3,83

Width

mm. Sd

2 ,0 3 ,71

Range

N

3 2, 0

- 36, 0

8 ,0

- 24, 5

2 3 1

T able 3 8. Mean l engths a nd w idths ( Qt) a nd c halcedony ( Ch).

mm.

Mean

Var

Sd

Range

1 1,1

0 ,16

0, 4

1 0, 7 - 1 1,5

6 ,5

2 , 44

1 , 56

f or d rills

4 ,5 - 1 0, 5

i n q uartzite

f igures s uggest t hat d rills do n ot r elate t o any r egular a ctivity e ssential f or t he maintenance o f t he g roup b ut w ere u sed s poradically a s n eed o r f ashion d ictated. T he t ip o f t he q uartzite s pecimen ( Appendix 2 5, N o. 1 ) i s h eavily worn a nd a lmost polished; t hat o f n o. 2 i s s lightly a braded. A ll o f t he c halcedony s pecimens were e xamined w ith a b inocular m icroscope a t b etween x 6 a nd x 24, a nd s even s pecimens were f ound t o s how s igns o f use r anging f rom s light a brasion t o v ery c lear s triation a nd s moothing o f a rrises. Number 1 5 ( unit 1 23) i s h ighly a symmetrical a nd p resumably w as h and-held r ather t han e nd-mounted a s a d rill b it.

6 i v d

R eamers

T he g eneral c haracteristics o f r eamers h ave been s et o ut u nder t he s ection o n d efinitions a bove ( 5 i b ) a nd s ome i ndication o f v ariety may b e g ained f rom F igure 4 6. Apart f rom variety i n s hape, w eight v aries f rom 6 0 gms t o 4 53 gms i n t he n ineteen s pecimens w eighed. N ineteen a braded s pecimens a re r epresented by p ortions which permit m easurement o f t he maximum d iameter a ffected by a brasion ( Appendix 2 6) a nd t hese g ive a n a rithmetic mean o f 2 4.7 mm w ith a r ange o f 1 3 mm t o 4 3 mm.

1 32

F igure

4 4.

D rills.

Qt = q uartzite,

1 33

C h = c halcedony.

1 29 . 6.C h.

1 29 . 5 . C h .

1 31. 5 . C h.

1 31 . 7 .C h .

1 32 .7 . C h .

1 32 .7 . C h . 0

F igure

4 5.

D rills.

A ll

1 30. 6 ,C h .

1 32. 7 . C h .

1 34 . 6 . C h . CMS 4 I. 1 i I iI

c halcedony

1 34

( Ch).

1 31 . 7 .C h .

1 3 2 . 7 . C h .

1 37 . 7 . C h.

Drills

as

percentage

of

formal

t ools

Melkhoutboom

4 Z

al et S

eacon

1 2

1 979)

Wilson and

1 972)

levl Kelders

5

W

( Schweitzer

6

c n

Die

2 0 .

2 u , v , 0 g

1 982)

type

Deacon

Wilton

NBC. ( J.

2 f r z ‹ .

( J.

s ite

;

Byneskranskop

I : 1 -12

1 976)

z

BSC + RA ( Klein) Deacon 1 978)

6 4 - 148 Units NBC

Deacon

( Schweitzer

( H.J.

, N Mean Var S .d.

1 8

2

7

1

2 ,9

3 ,1

3 ,6

2 ,5

1 83,76

3 , 34

2 , 36

6 ,79

0 ,22

-

1 3,55

1 ,83

1 ,53

2 ,6

0 ,47

1 ,0

1 ,6

1 ,9

4 , 76

6 ,0

9 ,4

20,7

7 ,1

9 ,4

1 2

1

6

2 ,2

0 ,4

3 ,7

3 ,24

-

-

1 1, 48

-

1 ,8

-

-

3 ,38

1 ,9

-

0 ,6

-

-

0 ,27

3 ,0

-

6 ,2

-

-

2 ,6

Range 50, 0

1

1 0,0

T able 3 9. M eans o f p ercentage f requencies o f d rills w ithin t he f ormal t ools c ategory f or N elson B ay C ave a nd various s ites i n t he s outhern C ape. N = t he n umber o f l evels i nvolved i n e ach s ite, n ot t he n umber o f s pecimens. T here i s s light v ariation i n t he i nventory content o n w hich t he p ercentages a re b ased, b ut a djustment t o a chieve u nformity m akes l ittle d ifference t o t he o rder o f p ercentages.

1 35

F igure

4 6.

R eamers.

A ll quartzite

1 36

( Qt).

R eamers a re w idely a ccepted a s t ools u sed i n t he manufacture o f b ored s tones, a nd t he a brasion o n m any o f t he specimens i s consistent w ith t heir u se a s tools f or f inishing t he h oles c arried t hrough by p ecking f rom opposite s ides. A part f rom t he r eamers, t he p reparation o f bored s tones o n t he s ite i s s uggested by t he unfinished s pecimen f rom u nit 3 0 a nd by t he f ragments, w hich a re more l ikely t o h ave c ome f rom s pecimens b roken d uring manufacture t han f rom b reakage i n u se, which o ne s upposes would generally o ccur away f rom t he c ave. Bored stones a re o ne o f t he f ew t ools i n t he s ite which c an be i dentified w ith c ertainty a s r elated t o p articular f oode xtracting a ctivity a nd variations i n t he f requency o f t heir manufacture/renewal p resumably r eflect v ariations i n t he i ntensity o f t his f ood-getting a ctivity. Because t he i ncidence o f r eamers i s a n i ndirect r eflection o f manufacturing a ctivity, a nd m ay well b e a b etter g uide t han r emains o f t he s tones t hemselves which, i t i s s upposed, were o ften c arried away f rom t he cave a nd n ot r eturned, i t i s a matter o f s ome i nterest t o t ry t o d etermine i f t here were variations i n t he abundance o f t hese t ools t hrough t ime. U nfortunately a s imple comparison b etween t he v arious g roups o f s trata i s n ot possible because o f t he s ubstantial d ifferences i n a reas e xcavated a t d ifferent l evels ( 4 i v a bove). However, a n examination o f t he p ercentage f requency w ithin t he f ormal t ools c ategory, a nd o f t he f requency o f s pecimens p er s quare f oot o f e xcavated m idden ( Table 4 0) s uggests t hat r eamers were m uch more i n u se i n u nits 1 48 t o 1 20 a nd 6 2 t o 2 2 t han i n t he i ntervening u nits ( 119 to 6 4). T he s uggestion r eceives s ome s upport f rom t he i ncidence o f s hale i n t he waste c ategory ( Table 8 ) w hich, i n t he l ower g roup o f l evels, i s most l ikely t o derive f rom t he m anufacture o f bored s tones, a lthough i t i s n oteworthy t hat two s hale p alettes o ccur i n u nit 1 20. T he o nly o ther t ype of s hale a rtefacts a t t he s ite a re s hale ' sinkers', l imited t o t he u pper g roup o f u nits.

6 i v e T hirteen

Bored S tones s pecimens a re

r epresented,

a s

f ollows.

U nit

3 0

s q. Y 0 . A n u nfinished s pecimen i n s andstone, w ith p ecked i ndentations ( Plate 9 ). T he e quator s hows a reas o f d amage a s i f u sed a s a h ammerstone. D iameter 9 8 mm x 8 8 mm, h eight 6 1 mm, w eight 7 30 gms.

U nit

3 0

s q.

Y 0 .

U nit 1 7

s q.

E I V.

F ragment o f

s hale s pecimen.

U nit

s q.

C I I.

F ragment o f

s hale s pecimen.

3 6

F ragment o f

1 37

s hale s pecimen.

Excavated Area

of

Units

Units

in

Sq. Ft.

22

- 62

6 4 - 19 1 20

- 1 48

% I - No Units

Reamers

with I Warns Sq. Ft. x 1 00

3 1,1

8 15,8

5 ,3 1 7,2

Percentage

frequenc y

per

Reamers

3445,9

362, 5

of

Mean

Var.

S . dev.

1 , 45

1 0,63

385, 38

1 9, 63

3

0 ,36

0 ,42

4 ,27

2 , 06

7

1 ,93

3 ,4

8 0,64

8 ,98

50

T able 4 0. I ncidence o f r eamers. T he mean percentages i nclude z ero s cores. D ata f rom A pppendixes 7 and 2 6.

U nit

4 2

s q. B I I. S hale. U nfinished s pecimen i n s hale ( Plate 9 ). T he i ndentations s how s igns o f g ouging a s well a s p ecking. D iameter 8 6 m m x 7 7 mm, h eight 5 3 mm, weight 5 48 gms.

U nit

4 3

s q. Y I I. ( Figure 4 8 b ). F ragment f rom s hale s pecimen, i ncluding p art o f u nfinished p erformation. T he s urface, f inished by g rinding, i s v ery smooth, w ith f ine s triations v isible. T he p erforation was a bout 1 0 t o 1 5 mm d eep when t he s pecimen w as b roken.

U nit

4 3

s q.

C I I.

U nit

5 3

s q.

D I II.

U nit

6 1

s q. 3 . Small f lake ( 27 x 2 2 mm) f rom s urface o f a s hale s pecimen. S urface smoothly f inished, w ith f ew s triations.

U nit

1 05

s q. 7 . F lake ( 32 x 2 0 mm) f rom s urface o f a s hale s pecimen. S urface f inely f inished.

U nit

1 31

s q. 6 . B roken s hale s pecimen. A bout o ne t hird o f t he s pecimen h as b een l ost by a f racture r unning d iagonally a cross t he perforation but, j udging by t he smoothness o f t he e dges o f t he b reak, t he s pecimen r emained i n u se after b eing b roken. T he s urviving p art o f t he perforation r etains c lear e vidence o f p ecking a t t he c omplete e nd while t he m ain s haft a nd t he b roken e nd are f inely smoothed, w ith l ongitudinal s triations,

S hale.

C ondition n ot

F ragment o f

1 38

r ecorded.

s hale s pecimen.

p resumably f rom f riction o n t he d igging s tick. T he s urviving d imensiolns a re: d iameter 8 7 mm x 7 6 mm, h eight 4 9 mm, weight 3 83 gms. T he smallest d iameter o f t he p erforation i s a pproximately 2 5 mm. T he s pecimen h as a well worn a ppearance. U nit

1 34

s q. 6 . Small f lake ( 25 x 2 0 mm) f rom t he s urface o f a s hale s pecimen. Well smoothed.

U nit

1 41

s q. 8 . L arge f lake f rom o ne e nd o f a s hale s pecimen, i ncorporating p art o f t he p erforation. T he l atter f orms q uite a s harp j unction w ith t he s urface o f t he s pecimen a nd i s s moothed l ongitudinally, a s i f f rom u se. T he o riginal s urface i s v ery u neven b ut smoothed, w ithout s igns o f d ressing a nd t he s pecimen may h ave b een m ade o n a water-worn b lock o f s tone. E stimated d iameter o f p erforation i n s urviving f ragment, 2 8 m m.

T he i ncidence o f b ored s tones ( Table 4 1) i s b roadly s imilar t o that o f a r eamers, w ith t he upper a nd l ower g roups o f u nits h aving a s ignificantly h igher i ncidence t han t he m iddle g roup. T he i ndications a re t hat bored s tones were b eing both manufactured a t a nd u sed f rom t he s ite.

Units

Excavated Midden

% of

Area

with

Sq. Ft.

B . St.

units

No of

B . St. per

B . St.

% Frequency

Sq. Ft 1 00

Mean

Var.

x

S . dev.

3445, 9

1 1, 4

9

0 ,26

1 ,83

3 7,98

6 ,16

6 4 - 19

8 15,8

1 ,7

1

0 ,12

o ,4 4

1 0,96

3 ,31

1 20 - 1 48

3 62,5

1 0,3

3

0 , 82

1 , 45

25, 58

5 , 05

22

62

T able 4 1. I ncidence o f bored s tones, i ncluding T he mean p ercentages i nclude z ero s cores.

6 i v f

M iscellaneous Retouched P ieces

f ragments.

( Appendix 2 7)

T he class h as n ot b een s tudied i n d etail a nd observations a re l imited t o f requency a nd r aw m aterial ( Table 4 2). O n t he basis o f mean p ercentages f or t he t hree g roups o f u nits t he class w as s ignificantly more a bundant i n u nits 6 4 t o

1 39

Units % P ositive s cores 2 2

- 6 2

N

Mean %

Q

N

Ch

%

N

%

. 2 1,3

2 4

4 ,0

2 4

1 00,0

-

-

4 0,8

7 6

4 3,3

3 8

5 0,0

6

7 ,8

8 5,7

2 3

3 0,4

2 2

9 5,6

-

-

6 4 - 1 34 1 35

Q t

Class

- 1 48

N

%

3 2* 1

4 2,1 4 ,3

T able 4 2. I ncidence o f m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces w ithin t he t hree major u nit g roups. T he mean ( class) p ercentages i nclude z ero s cores. T he 3 2 C halcedony s pecimens i n u nits 6 4-134 i nclude o ne o f s ilcrete. Data f rom A ppendix 2 7.

1 48 t han i n u nits 2 2 t o 6 2 a nd was most a bundant i n units 6 4 t o 1 34. T he r aw material p references do much t o s upport t he validity o f t he d ivisions o f u nits p roposed o n t he b asis o f r aw materials o verall a nd o n particular a rtefact c lasses. Q uartzite was c learly t he p referred material f or t hese i nformal t ools a lthough i n t he m iddle g roup o f units f ine-grained r ocks t ook o ver f or 5 0% o f t he s pecimens.

6 i v g

A dzes

Two s pecimens ( Figure 4 8 e a nd f ) were r ecovered w hich b etter described a s a dzes t han a s b acked s crapers.

s eem

U nit

1 8

s q. E I II. C halcedony. T here i s no b acking t o t he s pecimen; p resumably t he f orm o f t he f lake making i t u nnecessary.

U nit

4 3

s q. Y I V. d ull.

Q uartzite.

T he e dge

i s

a braded a nd

Whilst i t h as b een p referred t o e xclude t hese two s pecimens f rom t he c lass o f b acked s crapers i t m ust b e stressed t hat t hey do n ot bear a c lose r esemblance t o t he c lass a s i llustrated by H . J . D eacon ( 1976, f igs. 4 0a and 4 1a) a nd S chweitzer a nd W ilson ( 1982, f ig. 1 8). I ndeed, i n t he s ense t hat most workers c urrently u se t he t erm i n South A frica, a dzes may b e s aid n ot t o o ccur i n Nelson B ay Cave i n t he d eposits u nder d iscussion.

1 40

6 i v h

S inkers

O ne hundred a nd t hirty-eight s pecimens ( Appendix 2 8) were f ound i n u nits 2 2 t o 7 6, o ne o f which ( unit 6 6) c onsisted o f a barely modified, i rregular s andstone n odule, w hilst t he rest were m ade f rom p ieces o f s hale ( Plate 9 ). A s econd s andstone s pecimen, f rom u nit 1 14, was r ecorded i n t he f ield a s " doubtful" ( it was n ot c lear i f t he f aint s uggestion o f a g roove o n part o f t he s urface was n atural o r a rtificial) a nd i n v iew o f i ts c omplete i solation, s tratigraphically, f rom a ny u nequivocal s pecimens i t i s t aken to b e a n atural o bject a nd h as b een e xcluded f rom t he a ppendixes a nd t ables. T here i s a t endency f or t he s hale t o split a long b edding p lanes a nd, a s a r esult, f orty s pecimens a re i ncomplete. T able 4 3 g ives t he mean weight a s 4 .0 gms, o r 4 .3 gms i f t he extrapolated weights o f i ncomplete s pecimens a re i ncluded, w ith a r ange o f 0 .3 gms t o 3 6.3 gms, b ut F igure 4 7 i ndicates t hat t he c ommonest weights a re b etween 0 .6 gms a nd 1 .2 gms, w ith 7 6% o f t he t otal b eing u nder 3 .0 gms. S mall a s t hese p ieces a re, i t was s hown by e xperiment i n o ur third s eason ( by t he l ate Robbie Welbourne, w ho was t hen a s tudent) t hat s uch a weight was s ufficient t o c arry d own a l ine w ith t horn ' hook' baited w ith l impet f lesh, a nd w e t ake t he v iew e spoused by H . J . D eacon ( 1970) t hat t hey a re s inkers a ssociated w ith l ine f ishing.

a

Mean

Variance

St. dev

98

4 , 00

5 1,96

7 ,2

0 ,3

- 36, 3

138

4 , 30

52,27

7 ,23

0 ,3

- 36, 3

T able 4 3. s pecimens, s pecimens.

Range

Mean w eight o f s inkers: ( a) b ased o n c omplete ( b) i ncluding e xtrapolated weights o f i ncomplete

1 41

S INKERS

2 0-

1 0-

0

1

2

3

4

s

6 GRAMS

n 7

8

9

9 1 0

F igure 4 7. F requency o f s inkers, b y w eights, up t o 1 0 gms. I ntervals a re 0 .2 gms. O ne h undred a nd e ighteen s pecimens a re i ncluded: twenty s pecimens over 1 0 gms a re omitted. C omparable s pecimens s eem t o h ave b een r eported f rom o nly t wo o ther s ites, a nd t hese both i n t he s ame s tretch o f c oastline. L ouw ( 1960, f ig.53,5) i llustrates a s hale s pecimen which h e i nterprets a s a b ead. Two were f ound i n h is l ayer A a nd h e mentions, w ithout f urther e laboration f ourteen s hale beads f rom l ayer C , w hich i t i s p resumed m ust b e o f t he s ame k ind. L ouw 's l ayer A i s undated b ut t here a re two d ates o f 7 750 + 3 00 B P a nd 5 400 + 2 50 B P f or l ayer C . T hus, i f t he e vidence w ere r eliable - i nkers would h ave b een p resent i n M atjes R iver a t a much earlier date t han i n Nelson B ay C ave. H owever, w ithout d etailed d escription we c annot b e s ure t hat h is l ayer C s pecimens a re s inkers, n or, i n v iew o f t he v irtual absence o f s tratigraphic c ontrol a t t he s ite ( Inskeep, 1 961) c an we b e s ure t hat t he s pecimens were r eally o f t he o rder o f a ge i ndicated. T he s econd r eported o ccurrence i s i n t he Swatrif m idden i n t he T sitsikama National P ark ( H. J . D eacon, 1 970) w here t wo s pecimens were f ound i n a m idden deposit c ontaining a bundant s hellfish a nd f ish r emains. T he s ite i s u ndated b ut t he a bsence o f pottery h as l ed t he e xcavator t o s uggest a date p rior t o t he i ntroduction o f pottery l ocally. T he N elson B ay C ave s pecimens a re q uite c learly a p henomenon o f t he upper b lock o f u nits ( 62-22), a nd t he i solated s pecimen r eported by J . D eacon ( 1978: t able 1 ) f rom t he l owest W ilton l evels ( RA) i s c onsidered by t he w riter t o b e m isplaced. H owever, t he s ixteen s inkers i n

1 42

t he units i mmediately u nderlying u nit 6 2, down t o u nit 7 6, a re certainly n ot o ut o f p lace. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat t he n ine s pecimens i n u nit 6 4 r eally b elong w ith t he o verlying u nit 6 2; o nly a small a rea being masked by t he i ntervening u nit 6 3. T his, h owever, s eems u nlikely, i n v iew o f t he n umber o f s pecimens i nvolved. B ut s ince u nit 6 4 separates c ompletely t he u nderlying u nits f rom e verything a bove, i t i s c lear t hat s inkers r eally do make t heir appearance s omewhat e arlier t han t he c hange p roposed a bove t he 6 4/62 i nterface. T heir i ntroduction c an b e d ated t o between 4 250 + 6 0 B P ( Pta 2 916) f or u nit 7 8, a nd 3 350 + B P ( Pta 2 910) f or u nit 6 4, a nd p robably f airly s oon a fter t he e arlier date. T he q uestion whether o r n ot t his i nnovation f inds a ny c orrelate i n c hanges i n t he f auna f rom t he cave w ill b e e xamined l ater. A lthough i t i s r ecognised t hat t he d ivision o f a rtefacts i nto formal t ools, u tilized p ieces, a nd waste i s a rbitrary, a nd probably m asks a good deal o f e vidence f or i ndustrial a ctivity a t t he s ite, i t i s worth n oting ( Appendix 2 9) t hat s inkers f orm a h igh p ercentage o f t he f ormal t ools c ategory: a m ean o f o ver 5 0% f or t hose l evels i n which t hey o ccur, a nd o f o ver 2 5%, f or t he s eventy-five u nits i nvolved, i f z ero s cores a re c ounted.

6 i v

j

G rooved S tones

T wo complete g rooved s tones were f ound i n u nits 6 6 ( sq. 3 ) a nd 8 1 ( sq. 2 ), a nd p art o f a b roken s pecimen a ccompanied t he grave goods d eposited w ith b urial 5 ( sq. 7 /8). T he specimen f rom u nit 6 6 ( Plate 1 0a) i s r ectilinear, 3 7.4 x 1 5.3 x 1 2.4 mm, w ith a l ongitudinal g roove o n o ne o f t he l ong f aces a nd a t ransverse g roove o n o ne o f t he a djacent f aces. Both a re i mperfectly developed U-shaped g rooves; t he l ong o ne b eing r elatively w ide a nd s hallow ( 5.4 mm x 1 .15 mm a t t he best d eveloped e nd) w ith p ronounced, b ut g enerally smoothed l ongitudinal g rooves. T he s hort t ransverse g roove c onsists o f a U -shaped g roove ( 5.5 mm w ide x 1 .6 mm d eep) which i s f airly well d eveloped a t o ne e nd, s uperimposed o n a c ut o r s awn g roove which i s deeper, n ot longitudinally r egular, a nd s howing n o s ign o f polish o r abrasion. I nterestingly, t he s hort U -shaped g roove s hows, c learly, f ine p arallel s triations r unning a t r ight a ngles t o t he a xis o f t he g roove. I t appears t hat a U s haped g roove w as i ntended a nd t he method o f p roducing i t w as to c ut a V -shaped n otch, a nd t hen r otate i n i t a c ircular, r od-shaped o bject h ard e nough ( with o r w ithout a brasive) t o p roduce t he desired p rofile. T here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest a ny s ubsequent a brasion l ongitudinally i n t his g roove. The l onger g roove s eems t o h ave b een made e ntirely by l ongitudinal c utting, s ubsequently smoothed, w ithout a ny s ign o f r otational abrasion. T he e ntire s urface o f t he s tone i s e xtremely s mooth, n ot t o s ay p olished, w ith t he r emains o f very f ine c riss-crossing s triae v isible u nder a h and l ens. A pparently s uper-imposed

1 43

o n t his f ine s urface a re a n umber o f h air-line cracks which may, o r may n ot, b e f eatures o f t he o riginal s tone, p resent b efore u se. T he s tone i tself i s a v ery dark grey, and i s s oft e nough t o be marked w ith a p in: p resumably a s hale. T he s pecimen f rom u nit 8 1 ( Plate 1 0a) i s made on a f lattish, s ubrectangular, water-worn p ebble, 3 9.8 x 2 8.6 x 1 5.6 mm. The g roove, which i s a p erfectly developed U s hape, r unning d iagonally a cross t he l ongest d imension i s 6 .0 mm w ide by 3 .9 mm deep a t t he d eepest point, n ear t he c entre. T he f loor o f t he g roove i s c ompletely f lat f rom e nd t o e nd, i s h ighly polished, a nd bears f aint striae l ongitudinally. T he s urface o f t he p ebble i s very smooth, b ut s hows s ome s igns o f g rinding a t o ne e nd and o n t he u nderside. T he material i s s oft, p resumably s hale, and a m uch l ighter g rey t han t he p receding s pecimen: i t a lso s hows t he s ame f ine h air-cracks d isplayed by t he p receding s tone. T he t hird s pecimen, f rom t he g rave o f b urial 5 , i s i ncomplete ( Plate 2 3), b ut j udging f rom t he r emaining f ragment t he o riginal d imensions m ust h ave been i n t he o rder o f 8 0 mm x 6 0 mm x 2 7 mm: considerably l arger t han e ither o f t he o ther two s pecimens. T he material i s a lso q uite d ifferent, b eing a h eavy, d ark g rey stone, quite u nmarkable w ith a s teel point. I t h as no c rystalline o r g ranular s tructure v isible i n r eflected l ight u nder a b inocular m icroscope, a nd may be a f orm o f q uartzite. T he g roove, which i s a h ighly polished, well f ormed U -shape, w ith o ccasional v ery f aint l ongitudinal s triation v isible, i s 7 .9 mm w ide a t t he b reak, a nd 3 .7 mm deep ( within t he z one o f polish: 5 .25 mm f rom t he h ighest points o f t he s urface). T he s urface i s smooth, a s i f f rom much h andling, a nd i t i s c lear f rom smoothing o f t he b reak e dges a nd s ome o f t he h igh points o f t he b reak s urface, t hat t he stone c ontinued b eing c arried a nd h andled, i f not a ctually used, c onsiderably, a fter b eing b roken. Whilst well k nown i n t he l iterature g enerally, specimens o f t his t ype a re by n o means c ommon i n t he s outhern C ape s ites r ecently r eported. L ouw ( 1960) r eports two " arrow s traighteners" f rom h is l ayer C , f or w hich h e publishes t wo dates o f 7 750 + 3 00 a nd 5 400 + 2 50 B P, t hough h e n either describes n or — i llustrates t hem . T hree s pecimens were r eported i n t he " Smithfield C " a t O akhurst ( Goodwin, 1 938: f igs. 5 3, 5 4, 5 6) w hich, o n a vailable e vidence a re l ikely t o b e b etween 3 500 a nd 8 000 y ears o ld ( J. D eacon, 1 979). Two o f h is s pecimens h ave small k nobs on t he s ide, p resumably t o p rovide a b etter p urchase f or t he f ingers. H e c onsiders n either were b eadstones a s t he f ormer, though p ossessing a well developed U-shaped g roove, i s c onsidered t o h ave t oo small a g roove d iameter, w hile t he s econd h as r ather s light g rooving which b ifurcates a t o ne e nd a nd i s s aid t o b e a bone point s harpener. T he t hird s pecimen, which i s b roken, r esembles a smaller v ersion o f o ur burial 5 s pecimen. No mention o f r aw m aterial i s made, b ut i t m ust b e s upposed t hat t he two s pecimens w ith l ateral knobs

1 44

a re

o f

a s oft

s tone,

a nd p robably w ere

s hale.

K lasies R iver M outh C ave 1 p roduced a s ingle s pecimen, w ith U -shaped g roove, i n t he l ower o f t wo g roups o f m iddens ( Singer a nd Wymer 1 982: f ig. 9 .6, N o. 7 ) a ssociated w ith d ates o f 4 759 + 9 5 B P a nd 4 695 + 1 80 B P. T he s tone i s s aid t o be a s oft l imestone. Mel j ihoutboom h as o ne ( H. J . D eacon, 1 976: t able 6 ) i n t he MB l evel w hich i s dated t o 5 900 B P, b ut t he s pecimen i s n ot d escribed i n d etail. B uffelskloof 1 h as o ne, dated t o b etween 5 120 + 6 5 B P a nd 7 300 + 1 20 B P, b ut a lso n ot d escribed i n d etail ( Opperman 1 978), — a nd Byneskransklop 1 h as o ne w ith a V-shaped g roove a cross t he e dge o f a p ebble, d ated t o a round 3 900 + 6 0 B P ( Schweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982). Van Noten ( 1974) l ists a " grooved s tone" a ssociated w ith a d ate o f 2 700 + 4 0 B P b ut, a gain, i t i s n either i llustrated n or d escribed. T he c hronologically m ost r ecent s pecimens described a s " grooved s tones" a re two f rom D ie Kelders ( Schweitzer 1 979) w hich a re dated t o a round 2 000 B P. T hey a re n ot i llustrated a nd t he description " measuring b etween 9 a nd 1 2 cm a long t he m ajor a xis [ and e ach b earing] a n oticeable g roove p arallel t o i ts m ajor a xis a nd i n t he c entre o f a b road f ace" s uggests t hat t hey may n ot b e c losely c omparable t o t he N elson B ay C ave s pecimens. I t i s a p ity t hat t he f orm a nd d imensions o f t he g rooves a re n ot g iven i n t his, a nd o ther c ases c ited. N o s pecimens a re l isted f or t he W ilton t ype s ite ( J. D eacon 1 972) n or f or t he h erder l evels a t Boomplaas, r epresented by a bout a c entury o f o ccupations a round 1 700 BP. D etails o f t he u nderlying H olocene l evels a re n ot, a t t he t ime o f writing, available. T he a bove s urvey l ays n o c laims t o c ompleteness, b ut i s s ufficient t o i ndicate t hat s pecimens o f t he t ype a re n ot p articularly c ommon, e specially when i t i s c onsidered t hat s ome o f t hose l isted a bove may b e, f unctionally, q uite d ifferent. I t i s n otable t oo t hat t he c hronological r ange s eems t o l ie b etween a bout 3 000 B P a nd 7 000 o r 8 000 BP. T he complete a bsence o f a ny s pecimens i n t he v ery l arge a rea e xamined f or t he post 3 300 B P m iddens a t Nelson Bay C ave t ends t o r einforce t he i mpression t hat t his i s n ot a l ate H olocene t ype i n t he s outhern C ape r egion. G rooved s tones h ave h ad various u ses a ttributed t o t hem. S tow ( 1905: 6 6-67) s peaks o f " the poison-stone", " about two a nd a h alf i nches l ong, w ith a d eep g roove a long t he c entre...kept f or t he p urpose o f working t he poison upon a rrows, w ithout t he n ecessity o f t he h eads o f t heir t he f inge r s " . H e a lso m e nt io n s t ouching i t w ith w ith f our o r f ive r ather deep c ylindrical s tones o n t he s ide s , a nd u se d f o r r o und ing l ongitudinal g rooves a lso f o r r o u nd in g o st r ich e gg she ll b one a rrowheads a nd 6 9-70 a nd p l.XI) i llustrates twelve b eads. D unn ( 1931: s pecimens, n ine o f which a re s aid t o b e f or s traightening r eeds u sed f or a rrow s hafts, o ne f or s haping bone a rrow p oints, a nd two f or f inishing o strich e ggshell b eads. For a rrow s traightening, h e s ays, a s tone w as n eeded which would " stand t he f ire w ithout c racking", a nd t he r aw

1 45

materials l isted b y h im a re f ine s andstone ( 1), s andstone ( 4), quartzite ( 2), a nd m udstone ( 2), whereas f or s haping bone points a nd g rinding e ggshell b eads t he m aterial i s d escribed a s " sharp s andstone". More r ecently S teyn ( 1971) mentions s pecifically s andstone a s u sed f or b ead-finishing s tones. H e i llustrates two which, i n general f orm, a re s imilar t o t he N BC s pecimens, b ut t he d ifference i n t exture i s c learly s ignificant. I n describing t he manufacture o f a rrows ( ibid) h e s ays " to s traighten t he [ reed] s hafts t hey a re h eated o ver t he f ire a nd bent. I n i solated c ases g rooved s tones ( /wadzi) were f ound b eing u sed f or t his p urpose". / Han 0 k ass'o, o ne o f M iss L loyd's i nformants i n 1 878-79, a lso d escribed t he u se o f a h eated g rooved s tone f or t he s traightening o f r eeds f or a rrow s hafts, b ut b ecause h e s aid t hat " People make a ! kui s tone ( grooved s tone) f rom a s plit d igging s tone" G oodwin, who p ublished t he a ccount ( 1945 n ote 5 ), t ook t he v iew t hat i t was a n u nmodified f ragment o f bored s tone t hat was u sed a nd t hat g rooved s tones " are o bviously u sed f or r ounding o strich e ggshell b eads". T his s eems r ather i mprobable, a nd i t i s a s l ikely t hat / Han 0 k ass'o was i mplying t hat a b roken d igging-stick w eight was a c onvenient s ource o f r aw material f or t he making o f a g rooved s tone. M arshall ( 1976:145) a lso d escribes t he u se o f a grooved s tone f or t he s traightening o f a rrow s hafts among t he ! Kung. I n t his c ase t he s tone i s " about 5 i nches l ong, a bout 2 i nches w ide, a bout 1 .1/2 i nches t hick [ with] a n eat g roove c ut l engthwise down t he m iddle. T he a rrow was w armed o ver t he f ire a nd p ressed i nto t he groove a nd l eft t o c ool. T hus, h eat a nd a g roove s eem t o be t he e ssential f eatures, w ith t he a lternatives o f h eating e ither t he s tone, o r t he a rrow. W hether t he g rooved s tone was u sed p rimarily t o a pply t he h eat, w ith s ubsequent manipulation o f t he a rrow, o r a s a f ormer i n which t o l ay t he a rrow a fter h eating over t he f ire, m ight w ell h ave a n i mportant b earing o n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he s tone. T he NBC s pecimens a re o f f ine-grained r ock, w ith a welldeveloped polish a nd would s eem h ardly c apable o f p roviding t he abrasion r equired i n t he s haping o f b eads, o r t he f ashioning o f bone points. T hat t hey were n ot bead-stones i s a lso s uggested by t he f act t hat t here i s n o e vidence f or t he manufacture o f o strich e ggshell b eads a t t he s ite. T he i nterpretation f avoured h ere i s t hat t hey were a rrows traighteners u sed t o a pply h eat t o r eed s hafts. T he p rocess o f h eating, p resumably i n t he r educing a tmosphere o f t he h ot a sh b ed, may a ccount f or t he f ine c racks d isplayed by t he s pecimens f rom u nits 6 6 a nd 8 1, a nd f or t he i rregular f racture o f t he s pecimen a ccompanying b urial 5 . 6 i v k

O chre

( Appendix

3 0)

S ince o chreous material o ccurred n aturally i n t he matrix o f t he c ave w alls a nd r oof o nly o chre p encils ( pieces w ith o ne o r more s triated f acets) a nd o chre s taining h ave b een t aken a s e vidence f or t he u se o f colouring m atter.

1 46

Twenty-four p encils were r ecovered, n ine i n u nits 2 2-62, t welve i n u nits 6 4-134, a nd t hree ( including o ne s pecimen f rom B urial 5 ) f rom u nits 1 35-148. T he s pecimen a ccompanying B urial 5 i s u nusual i n b eing o f a n a lmost b lack material m ottled w ith pockets o f c reamy w hite s ubstance; t he r emainder a re v arious s hades o f r ed. I f t he i ncidence o f p encils i s d ivided by t he s quare f ootage o f e xcavated m idden ( units) w ithin t he u nit g roupings i t i s a pparent t hat o chre p encils a re c onsiderably more a bundant i n t he l ower t wo g roups t han i n t he upper ( Table 4 4). T he s ame t rend i s a pparent w ith r egard t o o chre s taining o n p ieces o f s tone a nd t o a l ess marked degree i n t he f requency o f u nits c ontaining e vidence o f o chre u sage ( Table 4 4).

6 i v

1

M iscellaneous

S tone

S everal i tems o f s tone which d o n ot i nventory a re d escribed h ere.

f it

r eadily

i nto

t he

1 .

Unit 3 1 s q. D I I ( Figure 4 8c). A f ragment o f s hale r etaining p art o f a c ircular p erformation. T he p iece i s f lat o n t he upper s urface, w ith a b edding-plane f racture s urface b elow, a nd a g round f acet a t o ne e nd o f t he upper s urface. T he p erforation i s s traights ided, u nlike t he p erforation o f a bored s tone, a nd appears f inished. T hus, i ncomplete t hough i t i s, there s eem g rounds f or r ejecting i t a s a f ragment o f a d igging s tick w eight.

2 .

Unit 4 3 s q. Y I II ( Figure 4 8h). T ip o f a r eamer-like tool, i n q uartzite, p robably p art o f f lake. U nlike t he r eamers d escribed s eparately t his p iece h as v ery neat a nd r egular r etouch, which does n ot q uite r each t he t ip. T here i s n o o bvious a brasion, b ut s light s tep-flaking, e xtending f rom t he b reak t o w ithin 1 5 mm o f t he t ip, may b e t he r esult o f u se. I t i s t he k ind o f t ool w hich may h ave b een u sed t o f inish t he perforation i n t he s hale o bject described a bove, f rom unit 3 1.

3 .

Unit 2 3 s q. A I ( Figure 4 8d). A b acked q uartzite f lake. T he r etouch i s d irected f rom t he dorsal s urface w ith which i t f orms a n a ngle o f approximately 9 0 d egrees. T he e dge b etween t he r etouch a nd t he dorsal s urface i s s omewhat u niformly b ruised. T he p iece i s s imilar t o l arge b acked f lakes which h ave sometimes b een d escribed f rom M SA c ontexts b ut h as n o appearance o f b eing a n o bjet t rouve. I t f inds a m uch c loser p arallel i n t hree p ieces f rom L SA c ontexts a t Klasies R iver Mouth ( Singer a nd Wymer 1 982: f igs.9.4 a nd 1 0.3).

1 47

Ochre

Ochre

Staining

Pencils

Per Units

N

Sq. Ft. x 10

N

Per Sq. Ft. x 10

Units with ochre

N

%

22

-

62

9

0 , 026

8

0 , 023

1 4

22, 9

64

- 134

13

0 ,126

9

0 ,087

1 8

25, 3

0 ,1 30

4

0 ,261

1 35

-

1 48

2

5

3 5,7

T able 4 4. S ummary o f data r elating t o t he i ncidence o chre p encils a nd o chre s taining. D ata f rom Appendix " Per S q.Ft." r efers t o t he s um o f t he e xcavated a reas u nits.

o f 3 0. o f

4 .

F ive s mall f ragments o f s hale e ach r etaining p art o f a f lat s urface b earing s core marks which a re s light i n s ome c ases, a nd h eavy i n o thers. Two p ieces m ay b e d erived f rom p alettes; t he o thers c an o nly b e s aid t o s how positive s igns o f working. O ne i s f rom u nit 1 37 ( Plate 1 0b) a nd f our f rom u nit 1 38.

5 .

U nit 2 2 s q. A I ( Figure 4 8a). P robably an M SA f lake w ith r ecent r etouch o n t he d orsal s ide a long both e dges. T he t ip i s m uch r ounded a nd polished, w ith s ome p olish o n a rrises t o 1 3.0 mm d iameter. T he p iece h as n ot b een i ncluded w ith r eamers b ecause o f i ts r elative d elicacy.

1 48

F igure 4 8. M iscellaneous s tone p ieces, p lus s tone f ragment ( b), a nd two a dzes ( e a nd f ). f ragment o f s hale w ith two deep c ut m arks.

1 49

o ne bored I tem g i s a

7 T HE

N ON L ITH IC

ARTEFACTS

7 i

POTTERY

T he 2 55 s herds r ecovered a re n ot, i n t hemselves, o f p articular i nterest. A ll c an be matched, o r approximately s o, f rom s ites a long t he s outh c oast ( cf. Rudner 1 968; Goodwin 1 938), while o ne s herd, F igure 4 9f, f inds a n a pproximate parallel f rom a c ave n ear t he e astern e xtremity o f t he p eninsula ( Rudner 1 968, XXXII, 8 0). T he r im p ieces a re n ondescript a nd c an g enerally b e matched i n s uch w idely s eparated l ocalities t hat, i n t he p resent s tate o f k nowledge, l ittle s ignificance c an b e a ttached to t he f act ( e.g. F igure 4 9c w ith R udner 1 968, X VI,2; XVII,4; X XXI,43: F igure 4 9a w ith i bid VII1,4; I X,5; X XIII;2; XXXI,56). O f greater i nterest i s t he q uestion o f t he age o f t he p ottery. There i s a n i ncreasing t ide o f evidence a nd o pinion t hat pottery a nd s heepherding enter t he a rchaeological r ecord i n t he s outh a nd s outh-west C ape a s a ssociated t raits ( Deacon, J . 1 972:37ff; D eacon, H . J . e t a l 1 978; S chweitzer, 1 979:201ff; I nskeep, 1 978;114-117; R udner, 1 979) a nd, i n t his context, t he dating o f p ottery i s o f considerable i mportance. A t NBC p ottery o ccurs i n f ourteen o f t he f ifty 4 ft x 4 ft s quares e xcavated, a nd s hows a d istinct concentration j ust b ehind t he dripline i n t he s outh-west c orner o f t he c ave: a n a rea where, a fter t he f irst s eason's d igging, i t was s upposed, o n s tratigraphic evidence, t he youngest d eposits p robably l ay. A part f rom t he s urface s herd ( Figure 4 9a), f ound i n t he c ourse o f p reliminary c leaning o f t he a rea, s herds o ccur i n n ine s tratigraphic u nits w ith a ssociated r adiocarbon dates r anging f rom 2 950 + 8 0 B P t o 4 55 + 3 0 B P ( Table 4 5). The e vidence s hould n ot, h owever, be t aken a t t his f ace value, a nd s ome comment i s n ecessary. F or r easons a lready s tated ( 4 i ii a bove) s tratigraphic c ontrol i n t he a rea where most o f t he p ottery was r ecovered i s b elieved t o h ave been generally good. However, a lthough s ome a rtefacts were i solated i n t he c utting most were r ecovered f rom t he s ieves a nd i n n either c ase i s t here a ny c loser r ecord o f f ind-spot t han u nit a nd square: t here i s n o i ndication a s t o whether a n a rtefact c ame f rom t he t op,

1 50

NBC P o t te ry

F igure

4 9.

P ottery:

decorated a nd

r im s herds.

b ody or b ase o f a u nit. A ny s pecimen w hich h appened t o l ie a t t he i nterface between two u nits c ould b e t aken w ith e ither, a nd m ight b elong t o e ither, o r t o a t hird o ccupation s eparated l aterally, a nd h aving n o r ecognisable e xistence i n t he a rea i n q uestion. T he d isposition o f s herds i s g iven i n F igure 5 0 a nd i s amplified i n t he f ollowing n otes. 1 .

The s ingle s herd, a ssociated w ith n ine q uartzite f lakes i n D IV 1 , h as n ot b een i ncluded i n t he g eneral analysis b ecause o f u ncertainty a s t o i ts p roper correlation. T he u nit was n ot s ealed by a ny overlying unit a nd t he s herd m ay h ave been derived l aterally.

1 51

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most part overly t he more northerly e xtension of t he BSC, a nd which h ave y ielded a date o f 4 860 + 6 5 BP ( Deacon 1 984a:63), making I C broadly contemporary w ith our units 1 05 t o 7 8 ( 5300 + 2 20 to 4 520 + 6 0 BP). T hus, i n a ttempting t o e valuate, a gainst t he 1 3 assage o f t ime, s hifts i n t he f auna r epresented, i t makes s ense t o combine BSC w ith units 1 48 t units 1 12 t o 6 4.

8 0

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6 0-

T ota l 0/ 0

b ov ids a s o f t o ta l ma m ma ls

4 0, L M , L 2 0 - SM b ov ids a s .. 0/ 0 o f t o ta l b ov ids 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

F igure 7 3. Total bovids a s a percentage o f t otal m ammals, a nd small medium, l arge medium, a nd l arge ( SM, L M, L ) bovids a s a percentage o f t otal bovids, f or Albany and l ater l evels. ( Data f rom Appendix 5 0 a nd J . Deacon, 1 984, t able 6 ). 1 = GSL, 2 = CS, 3 = B SBJ, 4 = J , 5 = RA/RB, 6 = B SC + units 1 48-113, 7 = I C + u nits 1 12-64, 8 = u nits 6 23 0, 9 = units 2 9-22.

U nfortunately K lein's units RA a nd RB h ave been combined i n t he f aunal l ists ( Klein 1 972, J . Deacon 1 984a) whereas J . D eacon ( 1978 a nd 1 984a) i ndicates a c ultural c hange, conventionally i dentified a s A lbany g iving way to W ilton, between RA a nd RB. This may not matter much f rom t he point o f v iew o f e nvironmental i nfluences o n f aunal composition, b ut i t may mask i nfluences s temming f rom changes i n c ultural b ehaviour. By and l arge t he f auna p resents n o s urprises. O ne need l ook n o f urther a field t han t he peninsula f or the marine mammals a nd, i n a ll p robability, t he r ock h yraxes. Some, a t l east, o f t he duikers were most p robably t aken o n the p eninsula, a nd i t i s i nteresting t hat Rogers ( 3 i i a bove) mentions 3 0 grysbok among t he mammals o ccurring t oday i n

2 42

the R obberg Nature Reserve; t hey a re p redominantly g razers, and p resumably c rop t he g rassy s lopes o n t he s outh s ide o f t he p eninsula. O ther small g ame, s uch a s t he porcupines, genet, Cape g rey mongoose, w ildcat a nd c aracal c ould a s well have b een t aken o n t he p eninsula a s o ff i t, a nd l ikewise t he o ccasional c lawless o tter, which a re k nown t o f eed a long c oasts i n r ocky a reas ( Smithers 1 983: 4 27). T he water mongoose a nd a nd E gyptian mongoose, which t end t o b e a ssociated w ith w atery-environments, o ne s uspects were more l ikely c aptured a way f rom t he p eninsula, p erhaps n ear t he vleis which develop b ehind t he d une c ordon a k ilometer northwest o f t he c ave. O ther a nimals point a s s trongly t o exploitation o f a reas p robably a t s ome d istance f rom t he peninsula: b uffalo, b lue a ntelope, v aalribbok, mountain r eedbuck a nd, i f t hey o ccur among t he g rysbok/steenbok, t he s teenbok, w hich f avour open c ountry ( Smithers 1 983:641).

1 2

i i

NON-MARINE MAMMALS: observations

e nvironment

a nd

g eneral

Nine s pecies p resent i n t he A lbany l evels ( Table 6 1: G SL, CS, B SBJ, a nd J , s panning a pproximately 1 1,000 t o 9 ,000 B P) d isappear f rom t he r ecord a fter u nit J , a nd o ne o ther ( the honey badger) i s n ot r ecorded a fter RA/RB. Whilst f ive o f t he n ine a re e ssentially g razers ( oribi, b lesbok/bontebok, roan, s outhern r eedbuck, a nd warthog) i t i s n otable t hat two o f t hese a re g regarious a nimals, a s i s t he e land, a mixed f eeder which d isappears a long w ith t hem. G rassland clearly r emained t hroughout t he H olocene s ufficient t o s upport b uffalo, b lue a ntelope, v aalribbok, mountain r eedbuck, a nd g rysbok/steenbok w hich, i f n ot a ll exclusively g razers a ll r equire a s ubstantial availability o f g rass except, p erhaps, t he s teenbok. I t i s t hus possible t hat t he l oss o f o pen c ountry t hat m ilitated against t he g regarious s pecies was d ue l ess t o c limatically i nduced vegetation c hanges; t han t o l oss, by i nundation, o f open country s outh o f t he p resent c oastline a s t he s eal evel rose; a n e vent c learly r eflected i n t he d ramatic percentage i ncrease i n marine m ammals i n B SBJ, a lthough climatic a nd v egetation c hanges were u ndoubtedly i nfluential. O pen c ountry a nd g rassland c learly s urvived west o f t he p eninsula a nd P lettenberg Bay, t hough a ssociated w ith s ufficient c over f or b uffalo, b ushpig, a nd bushbuck. P erhaps t he most s triking e vidence f or t his l ies i n t he s mall h erd o f r ed h artebeest ( Alcelaphus b uselaphus c aama) mentioned by L e Vaillant ( 1790, 1 :222) a nd B arrow ( 1801, 1 1:390) o n what i s t oday known a s H artebeest-vlakte, s ome 1 2 km n orth o f t he c ave. The r ed h artebeest moves i n s mall h erds o f 2 0 t o 3 0, occasionally l arger, a nd i s p redominantly a g razer. I ts complete a bsence f rom t he N elson B ay C ave r ecord i s s urprising. P ossibly t he h erd w as r estricted t o t he o pen ground between t he K eurbooms a nd B itou r ivers, a nd l ay outside t he c atchment a rea o f t he c ave. I t i s a lso possible t hat, r ather t han b eing a r elict h erd s urviving f rom t he l ate P leistocene, t hey r epresent a h erd t hat h ad

2 43

w andered down f rom f urther n orth, b y way o f open c ountry w est o f t he Keurbocms R iver, i n r elatively r ecent t imes, t hough t his s eems u nlikely. T hat c hange o ccurred i s s uggested b y t he d uikers ( Grimm's a nd b lue). I n h is r eport o n t he f auna f rom h is own e xcavations i n NBC K lein ( 1972, t able 1 ) r ecords a s ingle G rimm's d uiker i n YGL, a p ossible s pecimen i n each o f B SL a nd B SBJ, a nd o ne o r t wo i n I C. I n t he l ater l ist p ublished by J . D eacon ( 1984a, t able 6 ), b ased o n a r ea nalysis by K lein i n 1 974 t he e arlier s pecimens have gone, a nd s he r ecords o ne s pecimen i n e ach o f t he units RA/RB, B SC, a nd I C: t hese a re t he t hree s pecimens i ncluded i n t he p resent l ist ( Table 6 1). S imilarly K lein's 1 972 l ist i ncludes a s ingle b lue d uiker i n e ach o f t he units C S a nd I C, b oth o f w hich h ave b een r emoved f rom t he 1 984 Deacon l ist; t his p resumably r eflects r evision o f i dentifications b y K lein w ho, i n a l etter t o t he w riter ( 31.v.83) r emarks o n t he p resence o f b lue d uiker f rom o ur own e xcavations a s r epresenting a s pecies " not p resent l ower down". I t t hus a ppears t hat t he t wo d uikers ( Grimms a nd b lue) a re l imited t o t he p ast s ix t o e ight t housand y ears ( possibly 3 000 i n t he c ase o f b lue d uiker), a nd a re most a bundant i n t he past t hree t housand y ears. G iven t hat dense c over s eems t o have b een p resent n earby ( bushbuck, b ushpig, a nd b uffalo) s ince a t l east 1 1,000 y ears a go, a nd t hat s naring h as p robably b een p ractised ( Klein 1 981:55) f or a t l east a s l ong, t he t emporal d istribution o f t he d uikers i s i nteresting, a nd r aises t he q uestion w hether t hey a re r elative newcomers t o t he v icinity o f R obberg, r eflecting t he s pread o f f orest i n t he K nysna a rea a round 7 ,000 y ears a go ( L. S cott, 1 984:79). K lein ( in l it. 3 1.v.83) h as o bserved t hat t he f auna f rom u nits 1 48 t o 2 2 " almost s mells l ike t he K nysna f orest", b ut t here a re c lear i ndications, t hroughout, t hat t he f orest s hared t he l andscape w ith c onsiderable a reas o f open c ountry. I f we s eek t o c ontrast t he f auna o f the H olocene w ith t hat o f t he l ate p leistocene ( Albany l evels G SL to J i nclusive) we n ote a general d ecline i n b ovids, p articularly t hose i n t he s ize-range s mall-medium t o l arge ( Figure 7 3), a nd a marked i ncrease i n t he r ole o f small, n on-bovid, f auna s uch a s r ock h yrax, porcupine, o tter, mongooses a nd g enet. T he c oastline moved c lose e nough t o t he c ave t o b ecome a r eadily e xploitable r esource z one a bout 1 0,000 y ears a go, a nd t his i s c learly r eflected i n t he s harp i ncrease i n s eals i n B SBJ, f rom which t ime they h old a f airly s teady l evel o f i mportance despite a r ather s harp d rop i n u nits 6 2-30 ( Figure 7 4) w hich, i nterestingly, c oincides r ather c losely w ith o ne o f t he e pisodes o f l ow f ish i ntake i n t he c ave ( c.f. F igure 7 0). T he u se o f t he bow a nd a rrow i n h unting s ome o f t he game r epresented i s i nferred f rom bone a nd s tone a rrowheads and s tone a rrow-straighteners among t he a rtefacts r ecovered, a nd s nares s eem a lmost c ertain f or t he t aking o f small, s olitary a ntelope, a nd p erhaps o ther g ame. B ut f or b uffalo a nd b ushpig p itfall t raps s eem more l ikely, a nd this

2 44

b us h buck 77. 7 1

b lack b acked j a cka l g enet

F7 t , 1 0-

7 . 7 1

+ 1 v erve t

- b aboon

J ••

o t te r +mongooses

•

G r im m 's

b lue

s ou the rn r eedbuck

r oan -• ••• • • 1

3 0.. . • . • • ma r ine ma mma s . •

1 0-

_ _ r7 . 1

m o u n t a i n r eedbuck

f e l ids

2 0-

C ape b uf fa lo

d u ike rs

p o rcup ine

-

e land

b lue a n te lope

3 02 0-

0

1 0-

4 0-

g rysbok

2 0-

s te enb ok • . .. o r ib i

r ock h yrax ; • -.• .•.•. • wa rthog 4

.•.

-1

v aa t r i bbok

b ushp ig .

h ippo 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

_sma l l med ium b ov ids u nd i f fe rent iated j • . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

F igure 7 4. Species f requencies expressed a s percentages o f t otal mammals, f or A lbany a nd l ater l evels. 1 = G SL, 2 = C S, 3 = B SBJ, 4 = J , 5 = RA/RB, 6 = B SC + units 1 48-113, 7 = I C + u nits 1 12-64, 8 = u nits 6 2-30, 9 = u nits 2 9-22.

s imple, t hough e ffective, means o f c apture may a ccount f or t he r emarkably c onsistent, i f small, i ncidence o f b ushpig a nd t he r ather more f requent, a nd equally c onsistent p resence o f b uffalo ( Figure 7 4). F itzSimons ( 1923:543) i n h is a ccount o f e xcavations i n c aves a long t he T zitzikama c oast describes f inding s uch p itfalls: " Over the b row o f t he c liffs i n t he a djacent f orest, c onsiderable n umbers o f a nimal p itfalls w ere d iscovered. O ne, o n being c leared o ut, d isclosed t he r emains o f a b uffalo. N ear a d rinking p ool a t G root R iver, a n e laborate s eries o f t hese p itfalls h ad b een made a t i ntervals o f a bout 1 2 f eet". B ushpigs r ange w idely, p ossibly a s m uch a s 4 k m i n a n ight i n s earch o f f ood, a nd f ollow n arrow, c learly m arked p aths, s o that p itfall t raps would s eem t o b e a s imple and p robably p roductive m ethod o f s ecuring t hem. I nformation o n a ge p rofiles m ight p rovide a t est f or t his a lthough a vailable s amples a re p robably t oo small. I nformation o n b lue a ntelope i s s carce. G raham R enshaw, q uoted b y F itzSimons ( 1920:97-105), s uggests t hat t he blue a ntelope ( blaauwbok) wandered s ingly o r i n small t roops o ver t he o pen v eld, p robably i n t he c ompany o f Springbok", b ut, g iven t he r ather s trong p resence o f t his a ntelope f rom a t l east 1 8,000 y ears a go, a nd t he r ecord o f o nly one s pringbok d uring t he p ast 1 1,000 y ears, t he a ssociation s eems more l ikely t o h ave b een f ortuitous t han h abitual.

1 2

i ii

S EALS

A spects o f t he s eal r emains h ave b een s tudied by both R . G . K lein a nd J . E . P arkington, t o both o f w hom I am g rateful f or u npublished i nformation. T he o verall f igures f or s eal M NI v ary b etween 3 5 a nd 3 8, depending o n t he groupings o f s pecimens ( Appendix 5 0). P arkington ( 1976:138) i ncluded b ones f rom o ur u nits 2 2-60 i n h is c omparison of f emora s izes, t o s how t he s ize d istribution o f s eals a t four S outh A frican s ites. T he r esults i ndicate a r ather w ide r ange o f s izes f or NBC, w ith a p eak i n t he l ower h alf o f t he s izer ange c orresponding t o t he r ange f or y earlings. The d istribution i s i n m arked c ontrast t o t hat o f E lands Bay C ave ( ibid) w here t he s pecimens were e xclusively d erived f rom y earling s eals: a p attern t hought t o r eflect the s cavenging o f w ashups ( Parkington 1 972:141). A provisional a ssessment o f t he a ge a t death, based o n measurements of t he mandible, f or t hirteen s pecimens f rom u nits 2 8 t o 7 8 ( Table 6 2), p lace s even i n t he a ge r ange 1 t o 4 years, f our a t 5 t o 1 0 y ears, a nd two p robably o lder t han 1 0 y ears: o nly o ne s pecimen a ppears t o b e l ess t han o ne year old ( Parkington, p ersonal c ommunication). P arkington's f emora s ample g rouped a ll t he s pecimens a vailable a t t he t ime, t he majority o f w hich c ame f rom K lein's e xcavations and i ncluded a s ubstantial n umber f rom t he A lbany l evels, t hus m asking a ny p ossible d ifferences b etween t he l ate P leistocene a nd H olocene s amples.

2 46

U nit

S ex

A ge i n y ears

P robable m onth o f d eath

2 8

2

O ct

2 9

3

F eb

3 0

3

D ec

4 3

1 0??

A ug

4 3

1 0??

4 3

4 ?

9

5 0

2

D ec

7 8

6 ?

7 8

2

O ct

7 8

1

A ug

7 8

6 ??

J ul

7 8

6 ?

7 8

5 ?

Table 6 2. A ssessments o f t ime a nd a ge a t death o f t hirteen seals f rom t he u pper l evels o f t he c ave. T he a ssessments are based o n mandible measurements. ( Personal communication, J . E . P arkington, D epartment o f A rchaeology, University o f Cape T own).

Klein, i n a s eparate s tudy ( personal c ommunication) o f t he medio-lateral d iameter o f u nfused d istal h umerous s hafts for f ive S outh A frican s ites, w ith a modern c omparative sample compiled b y G . A very ( The S outh A frican M useum, C ape Town) for control, h as i ndicated t he p resence o f twentyf ive specimens a pproximately n ine months o ld a t death, i n t he o verall s ample f rom u nits 2 2 t o 1 48. P arkington ( in l it. 2 2.i.87) s uspects t hat g rowth may s ometimes be s low i n t he a ge-range + /- 1 1 months t o + /- 2 3 months, a nd that s ome o f K lein's ' yearlings' may, i n f act, r epresent s low growth s econd y ears, t hus c omplicating s easonality i nterpretations. C loser s tudy o f l iving a nimals a nd w ashups i s n eeded t o r esolve t his p roblem. T he v irtual a bsence o f s uch young a nimals f rom P arkington's mandible s ample possibly r esults f rom p oor p reservation o f t he mandibles o f s uch young a nimals. K lein ( personal c ommunication) confirms t hat t he t otal s eal s ample i ncludes many o lder

2 47

s pecimens, a nd f emora.

a s

i ndicated by P arkington's data o n

m andibles

M arean ( 1986) s ees t he E lands B ay C ave pattern o f e xclusively y earlings a s r epresenting t he collection o f w ashed-up d ead o r e xhausted i ndividuals, p erhaps w ith t he r equirement s uggested by P arkington ( 1972; 1 976:112), t hat t he s ite was s cheduled f or a b rief o ccupation t imed t o c oincide w ith t he p eriod d uring which s uch wash-ups were most c ommon ( sometime b etween J uly a nd l ate O ctober). S imilarly, Marean i bid.) s ees a p attern o f e xclusively o ld s eal r epresentation a s i mplying t he s cavenging of w ash-ups. H e t akes t he v iew t hat a ctive h unting a t a r ookery would r esult i n s eals o f a ll a ges b eing t aken: i f t he y oung were b eing s ought ( perhaps f or p elts) t hen a dults would a lmost c ertainly h ave t o b e d ispatched i n o rder t o get a t t he y oung; i f a dults w ere s ought f or m eat, b lubber, o r h ides t hen d efenceless y oung would a lmost c ertainly be t aken t oo. H e t hus s ees t he N BC s ample a s r eflecting a ctive h unting o f s eals. H owever, i t i s n ot c ertain t hat t his h as t o be t he c ase a t N BC: i f t he s ite were v isited y ear-round, t hen o pportunities would e xist f or c ollecting wash-ups a t a ny t ime o f y ear, a nd o f a ll a ges. M uch depends o n t he a ssociations o ccurring i n i ndividual u nits, a nd a t p resent we h ave l ittle i nformation o n t his. I ndividual unit counts m ight, i n a ny c ase, b e t oo l ow t o p rovide r eliable i nformation. K lein's work o n t he u nfused d istal h umeri, r eferred t o a bove, o ught t o i ndicate l ate w inter/spring ( August/September) o ccupation f or t hose u nits i n w hich t he u nfused d istal h umerus s hafts o ccur. B ut whether t he a bsence o f l arger u nfused s pecimens i ndicates a n a bsence o f o ccupation i n s easons w hen o lder ( larger) s pecimens m ight b e e xpected c annot b e f irmly a sserted, a s t he absence may b e more a pparent t han r eal i f P arkington's s uggestion o f s low g rowth i n s econd-years p roves t o b e c orrect. D espite t his t he t emporal d istribution o f u nfused d istal h umeri, w ith a medio-lateral d iameter o f 3 9.80 mm ( the upper l imit f or 9 month o ld s eals i n a modern s ample) o r l ess, i s s uggestive ( Table 6 3). A lthough s easonality m ay b e o bscured, t he data a t l east s uggest a d ifferent p attern o f p rocurement a bove u nit 6 4, when v ery young s eals become m uch more a bundant. A t t he t ime o f w riting, t he r esults o f a geing s pecimens f rom mandible m easurements, by P arkington a nd h is c olleagues a t t he U niversity o f C ape Town, a re s till r egarded, b y t hose workers, a s t entative, a nd s ubject t o modification by f urther work, b ut i t i s i nteresting that, i n t he two u nits w here s everal s pecimens a re i nvolved, t he r esults s uggest a n emphasis o n o lder i ndividuals ( Table 6 2). H owever, i n t he a bsence o f d ata on t he a ge c omposition o f w ash-ups, month b y month, i t i s not p ossible t o d etermine whether t hese i ndicate h unting o r s cavenging, t hough t he i nclusion o f 4 , 5 , a nd 6 y ear-old a nimals, which m ight b e c onsidered t o b e i n t heir p rime, p erhaps f avours t he n otion o f h unting.

2 48

Units

N ISP

MNI

22-29

866

14

18

30-62

70 3

13

16

64-112

736

9

4

1 13-148

48

2

0

* Of which 25/30 have lateral diameter o f less.

Table 6 3. in r elation

12

i v

The i ncidence o f to N ISP a nd MNI.

THE HOLOCENE LEVELS:

Unfused distal humeri*

a medio39.8 mm or

unfused d istal

a s earch

f or

h umeri

o f

s eals

t rends

In a ddition to making observations o n h abitat, a nd p robable areas and methods o f exploitation, a nd s hifts i n f aunal composition over t he past 1 1,000 years o r s o, i t s eemed worthwhile, i n v iew o f t he a rtefactual evidence f or c hange, to s ee i f any marked changes o ccurred i n t he f aunal r ecord within the Holocene. In h is i nitial a nalysis o f t he f auna K lein d ivided t he stratigraphy i nto f our groups o f units ( 22-29, 3 0-62, 6 4112, a nd 1 13-148) d esigned broadly to parallel i n s cope t he faunal samples i n h is own excavations, whilst conforming to guidelines s uggested by t he writer f or grouping o n t he basis of artefact a nalyses i n 1 983. S ubsequently, t he two alternative groupings ( 22-63, 6 4-103, 1 04-148, and 2 2-77, 7 8-148) g iven i n A ppendix 5 0 were provided a t t he writer's request to f acilitate comparison w ith groupings s uggested by o ther data f rom t he s ite; i n e ach c ase t he principal objective was t o a scertain i f changes i n o ther systems ( artefacts, f ish, mollusca) were r eflected i n t he mammalian fauna. No attempt has been made t o apply s ophisticated methods o f a nalysis d iscussed, i nter a lia, by G rayson ( 1984) although we r ecognise t he l imitations o f working s imply with N ISP a nd MNI. However, i t h as not been an objective o f o ur i nvestigations t o a ttempt to a ssess precisely t he meat-weight contributed a t various t imes by the various s pecies r epresented, f or which more sophisticated approaches would s urely be i ndicated.

2 49

R ather, we h ave a ttempted t o e xamine f or comparability b etween g roups o f u nits i n which t he r ange o f available s pecies r emains t he s ame, a nd t he a ccumulating a gencies a re b elieved t o b e c onsistent t hrough t ime. No d etailed s tudy i s a vailable t o a ssess t he potential r ole o f n on-human p redators o r s cavengers i n a ccumulating t he b ones. Among t he m ore a bundantly r epresented a nimals t he r ock h yrax c ould c onceivably r epresent t he p rey o f the C ape e agle owl, w hich r equires a n a bundance o f l arge p rey of o ne t ype. B ut n esting r equirements, " well concealed b y s urrounding r ocks, g rass o r b ushes", ( Steyn, p ., 1 982:269) would n ot a ppear t o b e met w ithin t he c ave. M ost species a re r ecorded i n small n umbers i n t he s amples a nd i t i s a rguable t hat s ome may h ave b een b rought i nto t he cave b y u nidentified p redators o r s cavengers. Among t he m ore a bundant s pecies ( Cape f ur s eal, r ock h yrax, bushpig, g rysbok/steenbok, a nd l arger bovids, i ncluding buffalo) s everal a re w ithin t he s ize-range o f l eopard p rey, a nd t here i s n o s ure way o f k nowing whether, o r t o w hat extent, l eopard c ontributed t o t heir p resence i n t he cave. K lein ( 1980:243) h as p roposed a c orrelation b etween l eopard a nd b aboon r emains b ut whilst l eopard s eem to d isplay a c lustering b etween B SBJ a nd I C/112-64 ( Table 6 1), baboons o ccur i n s mall n umbers i n a ll g roups e xcept J . C ertainly l eopards do u se c aves b oth a s b reeding and a s f eeding l airs ( Brain, 1 981:85-89), b ut s tudies are n ot n umerous, a nd i t i s n ot c lear w hat p arameters d etermine t heir u se. T he Mount S uswa e xamples s eem t o b e a special c ase, r elated t o t heir u se a s s leeping-places b y baboons ( Brain, i bid:84), whilst t hose s tudied by B rain i n S outh West A frica ( ibid:85-89) may h ave a ssumed i mportance owing t o t he o penness o f t he country a nd/or t he e xtremes o f t emperature e xperienced t here. S tevenson-Hamilton ( 1950:181) s uggests t hat l eopards o nly s eek out c aves a nd c revices t o e scape t he i ntense m idday h eat, w hen t heir h abitats c onsist o f r ocky k rantzes a nd kopjes: w here g ood c over e xists ( as would b e t he c ase a t R obberg) t hey prefer t o l ie up i n d ense v egetation o r i n t rees. Stuart ( 1981:41) r eports t hat a long t he s outhern c oast leopards s eem t o f avour t he deep s eaward g orges a nd dense forest, a lthough t hey m ay move a bout a long t he i ntertidal z one; a nd C oryndon ( quoted i n B rain 1 981:84) s uggests t hat, s o f ar a s c aves a re c oncerned l eopards s eem " to p refer a v ery d ark r ecess w here n o l ight c an p enetrate". G iven t he o pen n ature o f Nelson B ay C ave, t he a bsence o f i ntense midday h eat, a nd t he a bundance o f c over i n t he a rea g enerally, t here s eems l ittle j ustification f or i nvoking l eopards a s o ther t han p ossible, o ccasional r esidents. O f t he f our c ave-lairs s tudied by B rain ( 1981:85-89) i n S outh W est A frica o ne was u sed f or o nly two w eeks a nd contained t he p artly e aten r emains o f o nly t hree a nimals, b ut i n t he r emaining t hree c aves f rom 9 .8% t o 6 9.6% o f t he bones r ecovered s howed s igns o f p orcupine g nawing, and t he S uswa c aves s eem a lso t o h ave been s hared, p ersistently, b y p orcupines ( Brain, i bid:84) s uggesting a p redilection, o n

2 50

i f )

C

)

( =

C c o ▪ 1 c r )

0

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In

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0

•

0

c v

. . ,

c o 0

c v . .

r -

r -

c o

c v

c o

e -I

Cn

CD

Cn

C

0

.

.

CV

C

.

O

0

o

o

r-

o

0

0 . 1 cv

0

0

0

0

0

0

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C .4

C •4

h

‘ . 0

c n

C

c " -) C o cv 0

0

.

v ,

c o

. c )

r -

C o o

o

c o

O

O

11

1 -1

r -I

CD

11

0

.

O

.

C)

.

C

C 0

C 0

c ) 0

0

0

0

r—I

s sO

o . i 0

N

0

v o 0

0

0

s z ) o

c ' ) o

0

0

0

0

0

c ," )

c v

o .

c v 0,

. c s i

c v . 1 .

c v

. 4

.

N

.

I 0 0 C D

c r, . .

c v

I - 1

o tter c lawless

b lack-backed

j ackal

Z

2 51

. -

I1

Z Z

. 4 .

c v 0, I— I

.

.

c v

c v

c v

C -;

CD

CD

.

r-

C r)

Z

p orcupine

.

c v

C O 0 CD

Cf )

I1

c v

. .

(A

I1

C /)

c r )

Cf )

h 1

z

Z

Z

"C

c aracal

c . 1

. c v

c v C Y, g— I

m ongoose

0 c v

. . C

g rey

. 1

4C / 1 ,

C ape

M

a ) c ,

N

m ongoose

0 CD

. . n . .

I " . 4 .

s pan

. 4

N . I .. . C

m onkey

,. 0

C O N

v ervet

I .0

> , 4 . 1 1

c v C

C

b aboon

CV N

4 › ,

N N -

c hacma

, . C D

N 0,

C

E gyptian

c n

C Y, c v 1

0 C O

m ongoose

C O

▪ c -.

w ater

0 VD

t ime

( NISP a nd MNI)expressed

c o -

c v

v -1

•r l

z

continued...

f requency x

C )

i n

c r

c r o

0, N

0 c o

c

o

c r,

s z C

0

N

O

i i n

in

( 3-,

o

i n

0

o

. r I

i n

i n

.

Cn

0

0

7

C O

i n

0

0 , 0

c n

0

C

C O

0

0 ,

0 ,

c s ,

0 c o

0 o

, o o

o i n

c n i n

, n

O

r --

0

N

N

0

in

CO GO

O

N

N

CO

en

CV

r 4

1 1

-. 7

e -I

0,

CO

CV

0

0

c . , 1

in

N

CV

in

0,

7

) . 0

r 1 0,

,0

0

C O

2 '

N

0, 0

C O

in

0

,2 )

0

O

CO

N

r I

t I

0

0

0

0

O

, n

CO

in

N

CO

CO

0

CO

. .

0

o

rI

0,

GO

1 1

c o i n

c v . i

c o i n

c v i i

r c v

, . c p r -

c r, c o

i n r v

i i i n

i n c v

r -

c o i n

0

0

0

0

0

0

i n

o.

i n

o

, r )

i n

r --

\ JD

0

N

in

in

cn

. 0

i

n

r . .

c o

r -

i n

n

r-

i n

. 1-

0

CO

N

in

0

N

0,

N

. .

in

in

. ..

0

in

c o

.I

, .

0

CV

,C )

n

o

r-

r i n

. 1 . , .

0

.

0 ,o c , i i n

, .

N

0

. 1 .

0

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2-

CO

0,

i n 0

c v r .

. 1 . , ,

r r -

0

CV

, .

0

0, r i n

0 i n

c n cy E N

o

c o

C Y,

in

in

i n

. . e .

c v

Cn

0

0

i n . i

r • •

N

i n 0 N

, ,

, ,

CV

s . o o 0

CO.

a , , n

0 0

0 i n

c o r -

c v . . 1 .

i n c o , ,

i n

c v c v

c , i

o-; o.

N

i n i n m i .,

, o 0

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00

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N

( -V

0

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,.

H1

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z z

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r • •

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in

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r4

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. . . c r

i n

0 r y c v

\ J D

. .

, .

c v

c : r

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GO

in

0

0

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0

Cn

I - -

-0

, . .

.

CO CO

c n.

L r )

0

-0

CV

c

c

in

r • • • •

0

o r--

0

c v s z

n

0, , o c o ,

N c r .

) .0

L . r )

i n 0,

0

o

t c n

N N 0

M

0

r --

L r )

c o CO

,0

c

C• 4

CD

CN

, c )

0

O

c v

CO

N

0,

( N I

• •1 .

CC

C i]

C l) Z

Z

0

c f ) 0

0

0

-1 Z

c i) Z C

cn Z

Z

00

F 1

0

Z

C r )

Z

z O

C T )

C

Z

C /3

0

C 0

C / D

z

Z z

0

1 1 C 0

z

z z

c n z

. 4 C I )

( )

C U

,

C

C u

c r.

C . )

C u C u

c i l

c n

C u

C

s .

. 1 ,

C

C

•H 0

44

i i

C u

• r I

C / 1 C u

0

C u

/

0

0

.,

d

C u

x C u 00 >, .0

• H C . .

.0 0.

.2

.0

0

C O

U

( f )

C u

, I

0

0

C . )

C u

S .

.0

b ushbuck

Z ) , . V )

2 52

•H 0

g rysbok

C u C u 4 C u

-C

C ape

r eedbuck

C

m ountain

, • 4 1

C C u u

‚ i r . C u E C I )

a . C u C u 0 u l

. < H 0 H .

z

the p art o f porcupines, f or b one-littered l eopard l airs. That Klein ( 1980:231-2), i n h is s tudies o f s outhern C ape a rchaeological s ites, f ound t he i ncidence o f porcupine gnawing n ever e xceeded 0 .5% s uggests t hat t he s ites i n question were n ot u sed t o a s ignificant degree by porcupines: by i mplication t his m ight be e xtended t o i nclude l eopards. O ur c onclusion, t herefore, i s t hat l eopards a re u nlikely t o h ave c ontributed s ignificantly t o t he b one a ccumulations i n N elson B ay C ave. The f aunal l ists h ave b een e xamined f or i ndications o f s hifts i n e mphasis a nd i n what, i n c onnection w ith t he f ish r emains, w e h ave c hosen t o r efer t o a s ' intensity o f procurement'. T he r esults a re s ummarized i n T able 6 4 a nd F igures 7 5 t o 7 8. T he r esults a re p resented o n t he b asis

1 5-

A LL MAMMALS

S EALS

4' 3210

N ISP

MN 1

N ISP

MN I

•—• • 2

3

4

2

3

4

8

L ESS S EALS 3 -

N ISP

L

MN I

•

2 1 -

—— .. r .

01 2

3

4

. / 1 2

3

2

4

3

4

1

2

3

4

F igure 7 5. R elative i ntensity o f p rocurement o f a ll mammals, mammals l ess s eals, a nd s eals. T he g raphs r epresent r atios o f h igher s cores t o l owest s core ( represented a s 1 .0) b ased o n f requency x 1 00/area o f excavated d eposit i n s quare f eet ( c.f. T able 6 4). 1 = units 2 2-29, 2 = u nits 3 0-62, 3 = u nits 6 4-112, 4 = u nits 1 13-148.

2 53

o f K lein's o riginal f our-fold d ivision o f t he s ample, a s i t w as f ound t hat d ivision i nto t hree g roups a nd two groups ( Appendix 5 0), whilst a ffecting, q uite d ramatically i n c ertain c ases, f requencies p er s quare f oot, a nd MNI p ercentages, d id n ot g enerally c hange t he pattern o f r elative f requencies b etween l ower, m iddle a nd upper g roupings, o r l ower a nd upper i n t he c ase o f t he t wo-fold d ivision. K lein's warning ( 1980:227-8), r eiterated by v arious a nalysts ( e.g. G rayson, 1 984), t hat s ubdivision o f t he s ample i nto smaller a ggregates w ill t end t o i ncrease MNI c ounts, a nd t he c onverse, i s r elevant h ere i n t hat t he g roup o f u nits 3 0-62 s amples a n a rea a lmost twice t hat o f t he o ther t hree g roups c ombined. H owever, F igures 7 5 a nd 7 6 i ndicate t hat t he p atterns o f c hange f or N ISP a nd MNI a re g enerally v ery s imilar, s uggesting t hat t he e ffect o f i ncluding a v ery l arge a ggregate w ith t hree much s maller

N ISP

MM

N ISP

m oun ta in r eedbuck 5 0

g enet S. •

5 -

MM

N ISP

0 •

1 0-

5-

E gypt ian mongoose

1 0-

0

d u ike r

C ape g rysbok •

c hac ma b aboon

1 0 -

sma l l med iu m b ov ids

.

0 -

• . . . . . --. . . . . . .•

;

3

4 1

1

2

3

4

\, . . . • • • • • • • • • • • . .

b lack

" . , . . . -- -•

1 0 -

0 b ushbuck ,_ , . . . . . . . . •

5 -

• • • •, . . .-

0 -1

2

./ .

5 .

4

1

2

3

b acked j acka l

•

•—•‘ "

3

2 0-

h yrax

b us .h -• p ig Z . / \ .7 .

5 •\ , . . . . .

\

3 0-

.

r ock

0

\

f ur s ea l

•

5 -

_

0, 1

./ \

0

1 05 -

C ape

5-

s heep 2 0-

/ .

1 5 -*

. . . . . -.

9 2. 6

\

0

0

• • • . . •. • ••

0 -

5 -

5 -

b uffa lo

5 _

—• — • • 7 1 .3

C ape g rey mongoose 0

p o rcup ine

5 -

5 -

5 -

\

1 5-,

b lue a n te lope

b lue

MM

4 1

01 .

2

.\ . / .

c law less o t te r . . • ‘ . . 3

4

1

;

3

4

F igure 7 6. R elative i ntensity o f p rocurement ( NISP and MNI) f or i ndividual mammal s pecies. T he g raphs r epresent r atios o f h igher s cores t o l owest s core ( represented a s 1 .0), b ased o n f requency x 1 00/area o f e xcavated deposit i n s quare f eet ( c.f. T able 6 4). 1 = u nits 2 2-29, 2 = u nits 3 0-62, 3 = u nits 6 4-112, 4 = u nits 1 13-148.

2 54

o nes h as n ot s ignificantly a ffected t he r esults. G iven t hat bone w as p robably n ever r andomly s cattered o ver s urfaces, o r t hroughout m iddens, i t i s possible t hat t he l ower u nits, s ampled o ver g enerally s mall a reas, a re o ver o r under-represented c ompared w ith s amples f rom t he upper u nits, which were o ften s ampled o ver l arge a reas ( Figure 1 3). T here s eems t o b e n o way o f t esting f or t his possible d istortion, t hough, g iven t hat a ll g roupings a re a ggregates o f units o f v arying a rea, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he e ffects o f s uch d istortions w ill h ave b een m itigated. T hese r eservations a nd o bservations a re, h owever, t hought n ot s eriously t o u ndermine t he l imited c onclusions derived f rom t he data. F igure 7 7 s hows h ow t he r ange o f s pecies t aken i ncreased w ith t he p assage o f t ime, t hough w ith a s light decrease a gain i n t he u ppermost g roup i n u nits. T he i ncrease s eems t o h ave i nvolved a n umber o f a nimals r anging i n s ize f rom l ess t han 1 k g ( Cape g rey mongoose) t o 2 5 k g ( baboon) a nd 3 0 k g ( mountain r eedbuck). Apart f rom t he f act t hat s everal a re small a nimals t hey h ave very much t he a ppearance o f r esulting f rom c hance e ncounters r ather t han s pecialised o r s ystematic h unting, w ith t he possible e xception o f t he mongooses, porcupine, a nd d uikers. T he i tems which a ppear r egularly a nd i n s ignificant q uantity i n t he d iet, t hroughout, were C ape f ur s eal, r ock h yrax, b ushpig, b uffalo, g rysbok/steenbok, a nd small medium a ntelope, i ncluding b ushbuck. S imple p ercentage f requencies, h owever, do n ot i nform o n t he i ntensity w ith which a p rey s pecies m ay h ave b een t aken i n d ifferent p eriods, e specially where s mall n umbers a re i nvolved: a f ew g enets a nd mongoose a ppearing f or t he f irst t ime w ill d iminish t he p ercentage f requency o f, f or e xample, b uffalo o r b ushpig, r egardless o f whether f ewer o f t hese a nimals were a ctually t aken. I n a n a ttempt t o e xamine t his p roblem, f requencies per s quare f oot o f e xcavated deposit were c alculated f or e ach s pecies, a nd f or s ome g roups o f s pecies, a nd t hese a re p resented i n T able 6 4 a nd F igures 7 5, 7 6 a nd 7 8. I t i s a ssumed t hat a ny c ultural f actors i nfluencing t he p resence o f bones i n t he deposits, s uch a s b utchering p ractices, a nd " schlepp e ffect", w ill h ave operated more o r l ess u niformly t hroughout t he period i n question. W ith t he e xception o f s eals, porcupine, C ape g rey mongoose, a nd b ushbuck, a ll s pecies r epresented i n e ither t hree o r f our g roups o f u nits d isplay t he s ame t rends: r elatively h igh s cores i n t he l owest a nd h ighest g roups o f u nits, a nd r elatively l ow s cores i n t he i ntermediate g roups ( Figure 7 6). I t s hould b e s tressed t hat t hese f igures do n ot a ttempt t o s ay a nything a bout a ctual n umbers o f a nimals p rocured, b ut o nly t he r elative i ntensity w ith w hich t hey w ere p rocured d uring t he p eriods r epresented b y t he f our g roups o f u nits. T he i ndication t hat u nits 6 2-30 i n p articular mark a p eriod o f l ow i ntensity o f m ammal p rocurement i s i nteresting i n t he l ight o f s imilar e vidence

2 55

b lue a n te lope 1 - 1

C ape g rysbok

b lue d u i k er \ ; 4 .0

2 -{

1 0

0

e l ephant s ea l

1 0

r ock

Ö

0

h yrax

3 0 .0 1 i

\

. 1 1 0

0

b ushp ig

3 .5

.

E gyp t ian mongoose

N .

4

4 0

0

1 \

47 -- • .-1 0% 1 0

moun ta in r e edbuck

/ 2 5 .0 • \

0

0

1 0

•3 0 .0

0

w i ldca t

c a raca l

l e opa rd

C ape

•4 .2

•1 3 .0

2 5 .0

7 5 .0 1 80 -0

I -

1 0

c hac ma b aboon

1 0

\ 1 0

-

2 - (1 6 .0 I

0

1 0

f ur s ea l

•

i • v 0 .8

3 -

p o rcup ine

• r 1 0

/3 0 .0 /4 0 .0

\

i .i• 3 0

2 0

C ape g rey m ongoose

/3 .4

3 -

• 7 ?3 0 .0

b ushbuck

•6 0 .0 \

4 -

2 -

I7 • 75 .0

s heep

•

•3 46 .0 3500 .0

1 -

•

1 0 .0

\

4 0%

1 -

s ma l l m ed ium b ov ids

/

I . ‘ .

2 3

b u f fa lo

0

1 0

v e rve t monkey 4 -5

0

1 0

b l ack b acked j acka l

* .-

0

•I

1 0

c law less o tter

!7 .2

I

i1 2 .5

• , * *--

0

•

1 0

g enet s p .

1

.

2 0

I

3 0

water m ongoose 3 .4

1

I

1 0

0

1 0

0

1 0

0

1 0

0

1 0

0

1 0

F igure 7 7. P ercentage f requencies f or various m ammal s pecies, b ased o n MNI c ounts. 1 = u nits 2 2-29, 2 = units 3 0-62; 3 = u nits 6 4-112; 4 = u nits 1 13-148.

i n r elation t o f ish p rocurement ( 11 v i a bove, and F igure 7 0). T he porcupine c urve f its w ith t he evidence f or i ncreased h unting o f small a nd m iscellaneous game i n l ater l evels, b ut t he p attern f or s eal p rocurement s tands o ut a s v ery d ifferent f rom a ll o thers i n i ts marked r elative i ncrease i n u nits 1 12-64: t he emphasis being s uch t hat i t a ctually r everses t he t rend f or a ll o ther mammals ( Figure 7 5).

2 56

N ISP

MN I

N ISP

P er s qua re f oot x 1 00

1 40-

1

P er s qua re

1 b ushp ig . . .. . . . . . . .

1 20 -

1 0. 0

b ov ids e xc lud ing 3 0-

/ •

1 00-

1 b uf fa lo • . ., . . . . . . 0

. . . . . . . . . . . , .

•

s ea ls

. . -" .

0

8 0. . • • • • • * " .•

60-

s heep a nd b u f fa lo 3 -

40-

2 :

2 0-

2 -

0

0

3 •

. • • •" • • •• . 1 0-

1 -\

0

1 0-

mamma ls e xc lud ing p i gs , b ov ids , h y raxes • N ind s ea ls

e xc lud ing

1

3 0-

/ •

3 ; h y raxes

. 7

2

. . . . .„, • . , , , „ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

s heep

W-

o

1 -\

. . . . / .• • . . . . . .

•

• / bov ids

2 0-

1-\

.

0

4 0: 3 0-

f oo t x 1 00

t t

1 0-

2 0-

1 85 .5

MN I

3

o

4

1

2

3

4

o

1

2

3

1-

4

o

1

•

2

./ *

3

4

F igure 7 8. F requency x 1 00/area i n s quare f eet, o f N ISP a nd MNI f or s elected s pecies a nd g roups o f s pecies o f m ammals . 1 = u nits 2 2-29, 2 = u nits 3 0-62, 3 = u nits 6 41 12, 4 = u nits 1 13-148.

I n a ssessing s hifts i n emphasis i t i s n ecessary t o k eep a n e ye o n t he f igures o n which t he c alculations a re b ased ( Table 6 4). Where a n MNI o f o ne i s r epresented by a s ingle s keletal e lement, a s i n t he c ase o f b ushbuck i n u nits 6 41 12 a nd 1 13-148, a nd b lue a ntelope i n u nits 2 2-29, N ISP a re p robably a more r eliable g uide t o r elative a bundance. I n t he c ase o f b lue a ntelope, c ertainly t he N ISP r atio would f it b etter w ith K lein's c ontention ( 1980:244) t hat b lue a ntelope a re u nlikely t o b e r epresented i n l evels i n which s heep a re r ecorded. I n t his c ase t he s ingle bone i n u nits 2 2-29 i s l ikely t o b e derived f rom s ome o lder u nit ( c.f. 4

2 57

i v a bove). H owever, w hat o ne m ight c all opportunistic h unting ( Figure 7 8: mammals e xcluding p igs, b ovids, h yraxes, a nd s eals) c learly a ssumed a g reater i mportance i n u nits 2 2-29 t han a t a ny e arlier t ime.

1 2 v

S HEEP

S heep r emains h ave b een i dentified f rom u nits 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 2 7, a nd 2 9, c omprising f ourteen s keletal c omponents w hich r epresent 1 0 s heep o n i ndividual u nit c ounts, o r t hree i n t he a ggregate o f u nits 2 2-29, a nd o ne i n u nits 3 0-62. O ther s pecimens may r emain u nidentified i n t he c lass of small medium b ovids ( Table 6 4).

T he date o f a rrival o f s heep s outh o f t he Cape F olded mountains ( or i n s outhern A frica a s a whole) i s s till a matter f or debate, b ut t hey appear t o h ave b een present on t he s outh coast by s ome t ime i n t he f irst or s econd c enturies A D ( Avery 1 975:112; S chweitzer 1 979:202-3; S chweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982:160-1). T he dating of s heep at N elson B ay C ave i s t herefore o f s ome i nterest. S everal s pecimens a re a ssociated w ith r adiocarbon dates ( Figure 5 0), b ut t he r eliability o f t he a ssociations i s f ar f rom c ertain. T he u ncertainties i nvolved i n a ssuming a t rue r elationship b etween i ndividual s pecimens a nd t he e xcavated u nits t o which t hey a re a ssigned h ave b een d iscussed i n 4 i v, a nd a gain i n 7 i , i n c onnection w ith p ottery. B asically, w ithout k nowledge o f t he p osition o f a s pecimen w ithin t he u nit w ith w hich i t was e xcavated, i t m ay b e a s y oung a s t he o verlying m idden b y which i t i s s ealed ( i.e. i n i ts own s quare), a s o ld a s t he m idden u nderlying i t ( in i ts own s quare, o r o f t he a ge o f a ny o lder m idden c ontaining s heep w hose s urface w as n ot s ealed when t he u nit i n question was b eing l aid down ( i.e. i t m ay b e moved l aterally f rom t he s urface o f a n o lder m idden i n w hich i t p roperly belongs, t o b e i ncorporated w ith t he y ounger m idden c urrently b eing f ormed). T he e ffect o f m istakes i s p articularly s erious w here v ery small n umbers o f s pecimens a re i nvolved. T hus, t aking t he most s tringent v iew o f t he e vidence, the s pecimens i n u nit 2 2 c ould b e o f a ny a ge w ithin t he t imer ange o f s heep a t t he s ite. T he s heep f rom u nit 2 3 s quare A I I i s u nlikely t o b e o lder t han u nit 2 7 b ut c ould be y ounger t han u nit 2 3 ( i.e. u nit 2 3 o utcrops a t t he s urface i n t his s quare). S heep f rom u nit 2 3 A l, c annot be y ounger t han u nit 2 2 A l, which s eals i t ( 455 + 3 0 BP). The s pecimen i n u nit 2 4 h as b ecome s eparated f rom i ts s quare n umber, a nd c annot b e a ssessed. T he s pecimen f rom u nit 2 7 A l c annot b e y ounger t han u nit 2 3 ( 850 + 5 0 B P) but c ould b e o lder t han u nit 2 7. T he s pecimen f rom u nit 2 9 Y -I c ould b e a s y oung a s u nit 2 7 b ut n ot y ounger, o r c ould b e o lder t han u nit 2 9 ( 1930 + 6 0 B P) i f s heep w ere p resent i n t he c ave before t his. — B ecause o f t hese u ncertainties, and b ecause o f t he p otentially e arly date o f t he s pecimen f rom

2 58

u nit 2 9 t his p articular s pecimen w as made t he s ubject o f d irect dating b y t he R adiocarbon A ccelerator U nit a t Oxford. I t y ielded a d ate o f 1 100 + 8 0 B P ( OxA-873), w ith a c alibrated m ean o f A D 9 00 t o 9 80 ( 780-1020 A D a t 1 s d, 6 8% c onfidence), c onfirming t he r eservations e xpressed about t he r eliability o f a ssociations e xtended t o i ndividual s pecimens. On t he available e vidence, t herefore, s heep c annot b e s aid t o b e present a t N elson B ay C ave b efore 1 100 + 8 0 B P u nless d irect dating o f o ther s pecimens a t s ome f uture d ate s hould p rove otherwise. No i nformation i s available o n t he a ge a t death o f t he v arious s heep s pecimens. T he s mall n umber o f s pecimens makes i t s eem u nlikely t hat t he c ave w as u sed a s a k raal b y p astoralists, a nd t he s heep w ere p robably obtained by h unter-gatherers, by c apture o r b arter, f rom pastoralists.

2 59

1 3 R AD IOCARBON DAT I N G 1 3

i

I NTRODUCTION

Twenty-three s amples w ere s ubmitted f or r adiocarbon dating, o f which o ne was dated a t L ouvain ( Gillot 1 967), a nd o ne i n O xford a t t he R adiocarbon A ccelerator U nit ( see 1 2 v a bove). The r emaining s amples were dated at G roningen ( Vogel 1 970) a nd P retoria ( Vogel e l a l. i n p rep). O f t he s amples dated a t P retoria a nd G roningen Vogel r eports ( Inskeep a nd Vogel 1 985:103) t hat " The s amples c onsisted, o n t he whole, o f good q uality c harcoal, which w as p re-treated w ith d ilute a cid t o r emove s oluble o rganic m atter a nd c arbonates. T he o lder s amples, t he o ne f rom u nit 6 a nd t hose f rom u nits 4 3-148, were a lso e xtracted w ith d ilute a lkali b efore measurement a lthough t his i s n ot c onsidered n ecessary f or s uch y oung material. A ll t he dates w ere c orrected f or ( small) variations i n 1 3C content. T he dates c onfirm t he g eneral s tratigraphic s equence, w ith a f ew e xceptions. T hese c an a ll b e explained by t he a dmixture o f c harcoal f rom l ower l evels b rought t o t he s urface by s uch a ctivities a s g rave-digging, o r by t he i nadvertent i nclusion o f l aterally s cattered charcoals". F or t he most p art t he i nconsistencies o ccur i n t he uppermost u nits w hich were t hose most a ffected b y r ecent d isturbance a nd t rampling, b eing c ut by t he e arlier, u nrecorded d igging a t t he s ite, a nd by t he only f ootpath i nto t he c ave. The d iscrepant dates may, a s D r. Vogel s uggests, r epresent c ontamination b y o lder c harcoals t hrown u p by p rehistoric a ctivities i n t he c ave, b ut c ould a s w ell r eflect e rrors i n e xcavation i n a n a rea where t he d igging w as f raught w ith d ifficulties. T he dates o f 4 55 BP ( Pta 1 361) a nd 1 500 B P ( Pta 1 360) f or u nit 2 2 h ave b een d iscussed a bove ( 7 i ) i n r elation t o p ottery, a nd, c oming f rom d ifferent s ides o f t he p athway i nto t he cave, p robably c ome f rom d ifferent m iddens t aken i n t he f ield t o b e o ne a nd t he s ame. T he i nverted d ates f rom u nits 2 3 a nd 2 4 ( Pta 3 361 a nd 3 362) a re c loser t o e ach o ther i n a ge, a nd a re t hought more l ikely t o r eflect m ixing o f c harcoals i n e arly t imes t han s tratigraphic e rror. T he date o f 2 560 B P ( Pta 3 363) f rom u nit 2 8 s eems most l ikely to r epresent c ontamination by o lder c harcoal. T he o nly other date o ut o f s equence i s t hat o f 3 600 B P ( Pta 2 919) f or unit 6 3,

2 60

s andwiched between dates f or units 6 2 a nd 6 4 ( 3270 3 350 BP) which s eem more l ikely t o be correct.

BP

a nd

F or the r easons g iven i n 4 i v above t he a ssociation o f i ndividual o bjects w ith t he excavated u nits t o which t hey a re a ssigned c annot be t aken f or granted, b ut can o nly be t ested by d irect dating o f t he object concerned, where t his i s possible. T hus G N-5703 ( 1930 + 6 0 BP) may be c orrect f or unit 2 9 o n t he whole, but i s s e n not t o date t he s heep m andible o riginally a ssigned t o t he unit, which h as been d irectly dated t o 1 100 + 8 0 BP ( OxA-8 :7 3). O n the whole t he s equence o f dates i s h ighly s atisfactory a nd, a s Dr. Vogel r emarks, confirms most parts o f t he s tratigraphic i nterpretation. The dates a lso provide a s atisfactory c hronological f ramework f or t he major d iachronic f eatures o f t he s ite.

1 3

i i

L IST O F DATES

P ta-1361

NBC Unit

2 2

4 55

+ 3 0

$ 13C = 24,95%o C harcoal C omment:

f rom S q

A l

a nd

AO,

L ayer

p retreated w ith d iluted

P ta-1360

NBC Unit

Betty,

Unit

2 2.

a cid.

2 2

1 500 _ + 3 5 $ 13C

C harcoal

f rom S q X0,

L ayer

C omment:

pretreated w ith

P ta-3361

NBC

Betty, d iluted

U nit

Unit

2 2.

a cid.

2 3

8 50 _ + 5 0 $ 13C

C harcoal C omment:

f rom S q A II,

L ayer

B ill,

p retreated w ith d iluted

2 61

= 25,55%o

Unit acid.

2 3.

= 25,0%o

P ta-3362

NBC U nit

2 4

6 50

+ 5 0

$ 13C = 24.7%o C harcoal

f rom S q B II,

C omment:

L ayer

A lex,

Unit 2 4.

p retreated w ith d iluted a cid.

P ta-3363

NBC U nit

2 8

2 560

+ 6 0

$ 13C = 24.4%o C harcoal

f rom S q B II,

C omment:

NBC U nit

C omment:

d ue t o o nly.

smallness

O xA 873

o f

NBC U nit

S heep bone

f rom s quare Y -I,

P ta-1363

C omment:

Unit

2 8.

p retreated w ith d iluted a cid.

G rN-5703

C harcoal

L ayer Bob,

1 930 + 6 0 A .D. -2 -0 $ 13C = 24.2%o

s ample p retreated w ith

2 9

unit

NBC U nit

f rom S q YO,

2 9

1 100

+ 8 0 BP

2 085

+ 3 5

$ 13C

= 24.65%o

2 9.

3 0

L ayer Bonnie,

U nit

3 0.

p retreated w ith d iluted a cid.

P ta-2921

NBC U nit

6

2 450 _ + 6 0 $ 13C

C harcoal C omment:

acid

f rom S q E IV,

L evel

2 ,

U nit

p retreated w ith a cid a nd

2 62

6 . a lkali

= 24.1%o

G rN-5715

NBC U nit

Comment:

d ue t o s mallness o f o nly. Contamination,

Lv-217

Comment:

R ibs

1 8

2 540 + 5 0 5 90 B C.

s ample p retreated w ith a cid however, c annot be s erious.

o f Burial

1

2 660 + 1 50 7 10 B .C.

bones w ere t reated w ith c old n ormal i nsoluble p art u sed f or dating.

P ta-1485

NBC U nit

3 1

HC1

2 950

a nd

t he

+ 8 0

$ 13C = 24.5%o Charcoal Comment:

f rom S q B II,

L ayer B ert,

U nit

3 1.

p retreated w ith d iluted a cid.

GrN-5702

NBC U nit

4 2

2 925 + 3 5 9 75 B .C. $ 13C = 24.2%o

Comment:

d ue t o s mallness o f o nly. B ecause a ge c annot b e s erious.

Pta-2913

NBC U nit

s ample p retreated w ith a cid i s not h igh, contamination

4 3

2 970

+ 6 0

$ 13C = 24.5%o Charcoal

f rom S q BO,

L ayer David,

U nit

4 3.

Comment:

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

Pta-2920

NBC U nit

4 9

3 020

+ 3 5

$ 13C = 25.3%o Charcoal Comment:

f rom S q C I,

L ayer G arth,

U nit

4 9.

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

2 63

P ta-3095

Charcoal

NBC U nit

f rom S q E III/DIII,

5 9

L ayer G eoff,

Unit

Comment:

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

P ta-3097

NBC Unit

C harcoal

f rom S q

2 ,

L ayer L ucy,

6 2

Unit

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

P ta-2919

NBC U nit

f rom S q

2 ,

L ayer Mat,

6 3

Unit

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

P ta-2910

NBC U nit

f rom Sq

3 ,

L ayer Mark,

6 4

Unit

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

P ta-2916

NBC U nit

Comment:

f rom S q

3 ,

L ayer

P aul,

7 8

Unit

7 8.

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

2 64

= 24.4%o

5 9.

3 270

+ 7 0

$ 13C

= 24.6%o

3 600

+ 5 0

$ 13C

= 25.1%o

3 350

+ 6 0

$ 13C

= 24.9%o

4 520

+ 6 0

$ 13C

= 25.2%o

6 4

Comment:

C harcoal

$ 13C

6 3.

Comment:

Charcoal

+ 5 0

6 2.

Comment:

C harcoal

3 190

P ta-2933

NBC U nit

1 05

5 320

+ 2 20

$ 13C = 25.9%o Charcoal Victoria,

f rom h earth U nit 1 05.

f rom

S q

7 ,

L ayer

Comment:

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali, a nalysed i n m ini-counter.

P ta-2915

NBC U nit

1 29

H earth

b elow

1 94,7 mg c arbon

5 860

+ 7 0

$ 13C = 25.4%o Charcoal

f rom S q 6 ,

L ayer Valerie,

U nit 1 29.

Comment:

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

P ta-2909

N BC U nit

1 48

5 890

+ 7 0

$ 13C = 24.7%o C harcoal Comment:

f rom S q 8 ,

L ayer X erxes,

U nit 1 48.

p retreated w ith a cid a nd a lkali.

2 65

1 4 B IRD R EMA INS

By G raham Avery, Town. 1 4

i

South

A frican

M useum,

Box

6 1,

8 000

Cape

I NTRODUCTION

T he following i s a n i nterim r eport o n s easonality a spects o f s elected s amples o f b irds: a f ull r eport will a ppear e lsewhere. A detailed account o f t he approach adopted h ere i s described i n Avery & Underhill ( 1986). I dentified s eabird s pecies a nd MNIs f rom s elected excavated units are l isted i n A ppendix 5 1. These data are grouped c hronologically i n o rder t o i ncrease t he s ample s ize. I t s hould be noted that f or t his preliminary i nvestigation MNIs were not r ecalculated and totals f or each unit were s imply added t ogether. There i s consequently a potential problem that s ome MNIs may be over-represented, particularly i n v iew o f t he small s ize o f t he excavated units t hemselves. 1 4

i i

SEASONALITY

I n general the most common s pecies t end t o be j ackass penguins or Cape gannets. C ape cormorants, P rocellariiformes ( albatrosses, petrels, s hearwaters) and whitebreasted cormorants f orm a consistent p roportion. I t i s noteworthy t hat Cape cormorants, which a re good i ndicators on t he west coast o f O ctober t o March/April exploitation ( Avery & Underhill 1 986), a re not a s c ommon a t NBC. The correspondence analysis p lot f rom data collected o n beach s urveys i n t he Eastern Cape ( Figure 7 9) demonstrates t hat t he year can be divided i nto t hree p eriods: January t o May, J uly t o S eptember a nd October t o D ecember, w ith June f alling i ntermediately. I t i s possible t hat January t o March and April a nd May could be f urther split ( note that o nly some o f t he s pecies i ncluded i n t he a nalysis a re s hown i n F igure 7 9. P roportions o f t he major groups i n e ach o f t hese periods a re g iven i n F igure 8 0A. T his s hows t hat t he J anuary t o May p eriod i s pretty homogeneous as f ar a s s eabird mortality i s concerned. This p eriod i ncludes h igh

2 66

A X IS

2

•COMMON

T ERN

I

•T ERN

SR

WH ITEBREASTED •C ORMORANT

1 0

WH ITECH INNED P ETREL

•

•A LBATROSS 1 2

A X IS

I

A LBATROSS C APE

CORMORANT

4

9

5

8 ALBATROSS •

J ACKASS P ENGU IN ( J ) G ANNET ( A )

•P R ION

K ELP G ULL J ACKASS • P ENGU IN ( A )

7

S OOTY • SHEAR WAT E R

2-

•P R ION • ALBATROSS

6 G ANNET ( J ) •

F igure 7 9. R esult o f c orrespondence a nalysis p lot b ased o n monthly data f or e astern C ape b each s urveys between 1 9781 983. Months a re n umbered c onsecutively f rom J anuary t o December. A =adults, J=juveniles. proportions o f j ackass p enguins a nd C ape gannets a nd Charadriiformes ( skuas, g ulls, t erns), while P rocellariiformes a nd c ormorants a re l ow. J une i s characterized by l ow n umbers o f j ackass p enguins a nd h igher Cape g annets a nd c ormorants. T he J uly t o S eptember p eriod s hows a c hange t o e ven l ower p enguin n umbers a nd v ery f ew gannets, w hile P rocellariiformes a nd c ormorants a re h igh.

2 67

( A ) 0 / 0 80

J AN- MAY

J AN- MAR

A PR- MAY

2 000-3000 B P

3 0008P

J UL - S EP

J UN

O CT DEC

60

40

20

0

S P

S P

C

( B ) 80- 4001000 B P

-5 500-6000

B P

-6000 B P

60 -

40-

20 -

(C) 80- J AN-DEC

400-6000 BP

60-

40 -

20

0

F igure 8 0. Comparison o f main s pecies o r g roups of s pecies o ccurring i n s easonal g roups ( A), t he a rchaeological s amples ( B) a nd f or t he months a nd a rchaeological s amples c ombined ( C). S ,P,S,P,C = S pheniscidae ( jackass p enguin), P rocellariidae ( albatrosses, p rions), S ulidae ( Cape g annet), P halacrocoracidae ( cormorants), C haradriiformes. ( gulls, t erns e tc). D uring O ctober t o D ecember w ith P rocellariiformes a nd

o verall p roportions a re s imilar, c ormorants r elatively c ommon.

F igure 8 0B s hows t he s ame a vian g roups using t he a rchaeological s amples. None o f t he a rchaeological p rofiles b ears a ny o bvious s imilarity w ith t he p rofiles f or t he b each s urveys. I t a ppears, h owever t hat t he 4 00 t o 1 000 B P a nd 2 000 a nd 3 000 BP s amples i nclude e lements o f b oth t he O ctober t o D ecember a nd J anuary t o M ay ( probably M arch i n

2 68

o rder

t o

l ower

t he C haradriiformes'

c ontribution)

p eriods.

A lthough possible, t he s ample s ize i s p robably s mall e nough t o d iscount t he s imilarity w ith t he c ombined J anuary t o D ecember p rofile ( Figure 8 0C). T he 3 000 B P ( units 5 3-57) p rofile a ppears t o h ave e lements o f d isparate p eriods, possibly s uggesting t hat o ccupation d uring t his p eriod t ook p lace at d ifferent t imes o f t he y ear. A more l ikely a lternative a t t his s tage, h owever, i s t hat t he m idH olocene h igh s ea-level s tand a ffected r egional b reeding i slands, o r c reated n ew o nes ( Avery, 1 987), p erhaps i solating t he d une r ock " island" beyond t he g ap. T he e xceptionally h igh p roportion o f j uveniles i n t his g roup, i ncluding a p ossible n estling, may be r elevant i n t his c ontext. I n t his c ase t he e ffect o f p enguins b eing o verr epresented would b e t o mask a p eriod s ometime t owards t he e nd o f t he y ear i n o rder t o r aise t he p roportions o f P rocellariiformes, g annets a nd cormorants. T he 5 500 t o 6 000 a nd 6 000 B P p rofiles a ppear t o i nclude various c omponents o f t he O ctober t o M arch/May p eriods, a lthough t he 5 500 t o 6 000 s ample may m ore c losely r esemble t he J une t o S eptember p eriods. S easonal d etermination a long t he s outh coast appears t o b e more complex t han o n t he west c oast. A part f rom t he p roblems o f s ize o f both b each ( distance c overed o ver t hree y ears was o ne t hird o f t hat o n t he west c oast) a nd a rchaeological s amples, t his may b e b ecause Nelson B ay C ave i s s ituated f ar f rom t he l arge b reeding c olonies o f A lgoa B ay and t he West c oast. F urthermore, w hile d istance f rom t he colonies i s l ikely t o a ffect t he c omposition a nd n umbers o f b irds c oming a shore, t his f actor i s f urther c omplicated by t he f act t hat d ispersal a long t he c oasts, p articularly o f n on-breeding a nd j uvenile p enguins, g annets a nd Cape c ormorants ( Brown e t a l. 1 982) i s l ikely t o mask s easonality r elated t o b reeding. A lthough l ocal b reeding s pecies s uch a s t he j ackass p enguin a nd whitebreasted c ormorant b reed t hroughout t he y ear a nd a re o f l imited v alue ( Avery & Underhill 1 986), t he p resence o f j uvenile/nestling C ape g annets a nd C ape c ormorants a nd medullary bone i n t he f ormer p rovide more a ccurate i nformation. Medullary bone i n two gannet i ndividuals f rom t he 4 00 t o 1 000 B P s amples p rovides unequivocal e vidence ( Avery 1 981) f or e xploitation d uring t he O ctober t o M arch b reeding s eason which p eaks between O ctober a nd November ( Batchelor 1 982). A j uvenile g annet f rom t he s ame g roup o f s amples was t aken b etween F ebruary a nd J uly ( allowing f or i ncubation a nd f ledging), t he p eak f ledging p eriod b eing F ebruary a nd March. Cape c ormorants b reed mainly b etween S eptember a nd M arch n ormally p eaking b etween S eptember a nd O ctober. Nestlings, a vailable f rom O ctober, a re p resent i n t he 4 00 t o 1 000 B P p eriod, c onfirming t he e vidence f rom t he g annets. A j uvenile ( November t o M ay), i s p resent i n t he 5 500 to 6 000 B P s amples. I n g eneral i t h as b een n oted ( Avery & U nderhill 1 986) t hat much s eabird mortality i s r elated t o b reeding. A s s uch a dult i ndividuals o f s easonal

2 69

b reeders s uch a s gannets a nd C ape c ormorants a re l ikely t o h ave been a ccessible t o p rehistoric f oragers a t t hese t imes. T he o ccurrence o f s ooty s hearwater ( Appendix 5 1) a nd M anx a nd g reat s hearwaters ( Brown e t a l, 1 982) i n t he 4 001 000, 2 000 + 3 000 a nd 5 500 t o 6 000 B P p eriods c onfirms a s ummer c omponent i n t hose s amples i n w hich t hese s pecies o ccur. 1 4

i ii

S UMMARY

S easonal determinations b ased o n s eabirds i n a rchaeological s amples o n t he s outh c oast appear t o b e more c omplicated t han t hose o n t he west c oast. T he u se o f a l onger-term b each s urvey database a nd t he i nclusion o f a ll a rchaeological s amples i n t he n ext s tage o f t his i nvestigation w ill h opefully a llow g reater r esolution. I t s eems c lear t hat d uring t he 4 00 t o 1 000 B P period s eabirds were e xploited b etween O ctober a nd M arch. T he e vidence i s n ot a s c lear f or t he r emaining p eriods, a lthough b roadly s peaking, t hey a lso a ppear t o i nclude t he s ame p eriod. This i s c onsistent w ith p revious s uggestions ( Avery & U nderhill 1 986; A very 1 987), t hat s easonal e xploitation o f s eabirds was a f actor o f availability r ather t han s easonal o ccupation p er s e. 1 4

i v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

V . M . van Z yl a ssisted w ith t he p rocessing o f b ones. T he b each s urveys were c onducted by members o f t he A frican S eabird G roup a nd t he c orrespondence a nalysis was r un by L . G . U nderhill o f t he D epartment o f M athematical S tatistics, U niversity o f C ape Town. F inancial a ssistance f rom t he C ouncil f or S cientific a nd I ndustrial R esearch, F oundation f or R esearch Development i s g ratefully a cknowledged.

2 70

P ART I I D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUS IONS

1 5 D ISCUSS ION

AND

C ONCLUS IONS

1 5

i

SUMMARY OF O BSERVATIONS

1 5

i a

T he A ccumulated

S ediments

I n the c ourse o f t he e xcavations d escribed 1 47 s tratigraphic u nits w ere r emoved, c overing a t ime-span o f a pproximately 5 ,435 y ears ( 455 B P t o 5 890 B P). I n p art I I o f t he r eport t he c ontent o f t he s ite h as b een a nalysed a nd d iscussed i n t he c ontext o f t hese e xcavated u nits b ut i t i s e vident f rom a n e xamination o f t he a ssociated r adiocarbon t ime-scale t hat r ates o f a ccumulation h ave v aried c onsiderably f rom t ime t o t ime. F igure 8 1 h as t herefore b een constructed t o f it t he s tratigraphic data i nto a c onventional t ime-scale. I n c onstructing t he t ime-scale c ertain l iberties h ave h ad t o b e t aken. T he date o f 4 55 B P f or u nit 2 2 h as b een t aken r ather t han t hat o f 1 500 B P, a nd d ates which appear o ut o f s equence ( units 2 3, 2 8, a nd 6 3) h ave been omitted, a s h as L v-217 f rom t he r ibs o f b urial 1 . T he c entral f igure f or e ach date h as b een u sed, r egardless o f t he m argin o f e rror. T o p rovide a b asis f or p lacing s tratigraphic b oundaries o n t he F igure t he t ime i nterval b etween d ates h as b een d ivided e qually b etween t he n umber o f units i nvolved, t here b eing n o g uarantee t hat a ny more s ophisticated m ethod would y ield a more a cceptable r esult. T hus, a lthough e rrors h ave q uite c ertainly b een b uilt i nto F igure 8 1 i t i s b elieved t hat i t n one t he l ess g ives a r easonably a ccurate i ndication o f t he t iming o f t he e vents r ecorded. N o evidence o f a ny m ajor s tratigraphic b reak was n oted i n t he f ield, n or d oes t he s ubsequent a nalysis s uggest a ny. B ut even a llowing f or m istakes i n e xcavation a nd f or t he l arge n umber o f u nits which l ay, l aterally, o utside t he a rea o f t he c uttings, i t i s c lear t hat t he deposits d o n ot r epresent a n u nbroken s eries o f a nnual o ccupations. I ndeed, t he evidence s uggests t hat t here must o ften h ave b een many y ears a t a t ime when t he c ave was n ot v isited a t a ll, t hough i t i s a lso p robable t hat s ome, p erhaps m any, e pisodes o f o ccupation w ere o f a s ufficiently e phemeral n ature t hat t he r esidues t hey l eft c annot b e i solated a s d iscreet e ntities.

2 71

U nder ' Rates o f A ccumulation' b locks o f t ime bracketed b y r adiocarbon dates h ave b een d ivided b y t he n umber o f units r epresented, i n t he r elevant parts o f t he s uccession, t o g ive a measure o f t he n umber o f y ears p er u nit ( YPU) a s a r ough measure o f t he f requency, o r i ntensity o f u se o f t he c ave a t d ifferent t imes. A lthough t he f igures must b e very i mprecise, a nd episodes o f o ccupation ( excavated u nits) m ust h ave o ccurred o n a v ery i rregular basis, the f igures a lmost c ertainly do r eflect very r eal variations i n f requency a nd/or i ntensity o f u se o f t he c ave. There seem t o b e t wo e pisodes ( 4500-3300 BP, a nd 2 000-500 BP) w hen u se o f t he c ave was v ery i nfrequent ( or i ncluded much e phemeral u se which we h ave been u nable t o r ecognise); a p eriod w hich, i f we i nclude K lein's B rown S oil Complex, m ay have s panned a c entury o r l ess when t here w as very f requent u se, w ith t he a ddition o f a l arge n umber o f p redominantly a shy deposits; a nd two p eriods ( 5800-4500 B P a nd 3 300-2000 B P) o f s omewhat i ntermediate f requency o f u se ( or o f a ccumulation o f r ecognisable ' units' o f deposit). I n t he l ower p art o f t he s uccession i t c ould be a rgued t hat t here i s s ome connection b etween t he c haracter o f t he d eposits a nd t he r ate o f a ccumulation, b ut a s omewhat s imilar cycle o ccurs h igher up ( 3300-500 BP) e ntirely w ithin d eposits w hich a re e ssentially u niform i n c haracter, a t least f rom a g ross s edimentological point o f v iew. 1 5

i b

T he A rtefacts

T he u nderlying a im o f t he i nvestigations a t NBC has b een t o e lucidate t he i nterrelationships o f h uman b ehaviour a nd n atural r esources. I t i s r ecognised t hat e ach m ay vary i ndependently o f t he o ther o r i n r esponse t o t he o ther. T he H olocene s ediments may c ontain n on-humanly accumulated e vidence o f t he b iome ( bird r oosts, c arnivore and rodent a ctivity, a nd p erhaps i nsect a ctivity) a nd t he p ossible r oles o f b irds, a s s eed depositers ( section 9 above), a nd l eopords, ( 12 i v a bove) h ave been c ommented on. H owever, t hese ' natural' c ontributions a re b elieved t o be p resent o n a v ery small s cale, a nd a lmost u ndetectable. O n t his p remise t he v iew i s t aken t hat t he n atural e nvironment, a nd a ny c hanges i t may h ave e xperienced, c an o nly b e v iewed f rom t he s tandpoint o f general r egional s tudies, a nd t he s ampling o f t he n atural e nvironment c arried out b y t he p rehistoric o ccupants o f t he c ave. O ur p rincipal c oncern, t herefore, h as been t o examine t he c hanging content o f t he deposits a s a k ey t o c hanging h uman b ehaviour f rr r l w c m -v t e L d isenta le t he i ndependent r oles o f e nvironmental c onstraint a nd h uman c hoice. P redictably t he most v isible e vidence o f w hat w e a re s eeking l ies i n t he t echnological expression o f c hanging c ultural b ehaviour, a lthough s uch t hings a s t he variable c haracter and c hanging r ates o f a ccumulation o f s ediments, a nd i ntensity, a nd v ariability i n t he p rocurement o f f ood r esources, h inted a t i n t he data o n f ish a nd mammal r emains, a lso c arry m essages i f we c an d iscover t he c orrect w ay t o r ead t hem. O ur f irst t ask, t herefore, h as b een t o i dentify c hanges i n t he t echnological f ield, a nd t hese a re s ummarized i n F igure 8 1.

2 72

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F igure 8 1. A s ummary of t he main diachronic f eatures of the Holocene l evels. Qt = Quartzite, Q = Quartz, Ch = chalcedony, Sh = shale, MPF = mean percentage f requency, P SF x 1 00 = per s quare foot x 1 00, ERR = e rratic. Large dots = i ndividual specimens.

2 73

C hanges a re i mmediately a pparent i n d iscontinuities a nd s hifts i n emphasis i n a n umber o f e ntities, but i n some c ases s amples a re small a nd s cattered, a nd do n ot l end t hemselves, s ensibly, t o continuous a ssessment. Where s amples a re l arger a nd more c ontinuous, a s w ith t he waste p roducts o f s tone t echnology ( in particular t he c hoice o f r aw materials), s crapers, a nd utilized p ieces, c umulative g raphs h ave been p resented i n P art I I ( Figures 1 5, 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 2 0, 2 3, 3 2) a nd a re s ummarized a t t he l eft o f F igure 8 1. Most o f t he o riginal g raphs s how v ery c lear p oints o f i nflection a t t he i nterface b etween u nits 6 4 a nd 6 2 ( unit 6 3, a n a sh s pread, c ontained n o a rtefacts), dated t o a round 3 300 B P. A t t he l ower e nd, s everal g raphs s uggest, much l ess c ertainly, a s hift i n emphasis o r r egularity round a bout u nit 1 35 ( e.g. F igures 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 5 7). These p articular f eatures h ave, t herefore, b een u sed a s a basis f or making a t ripartite d ivision o f t he e xcavated units ( 148-135, 1 34-64, 6 2-22) w ithin w hich t he f requencies o f o ther i tems which d id n ot l end t hemselves t o c umulative g raph t reatment h ave been e xamined. T hese a re t he i tems r epresented i n t he b lock o f c olumns s eparated i n t he main part o f F igure 8 1. I n c ertain c ases, p rincipally bone a rtefacts and c ertain t ypes o f p endant, a rtefacts h ave a n e xclusive, o r e ffectively e xclusive, t emporal d istribution i n b locks o f u nits a t t he l ower o r upper e nd o f t he s uccession, a nd s egments, backed s crapers, a nd d rills a re q uite s harply l ocalised i n t ime. I n o ther c ases t he s ituation i s l ess c lear. Bored s tones ( fragments t hereof) a nd r eamers occur t hroughout a nd, i n t he c ase o f t he f ormer, i n rather small n umbers. However, when e xamined w ithin t he t ripartite d ivision o utlined a bove, whether i n t erms o f mean p ercentage f requency o r f requency p er s quare f oot o f e xcavated deposit, both bored s tones a nd t he r eamers used t o make t hem a ppear markedly more a bundant i n the period 5 890 t o 5 650 B P a nd 3 300 t o 5 00 B P t han i n t he i ntervening 2 ,300 y ears. I n s uch c ases i t appears t hat t here a re s hifts i n emphasis, t hough i t i s n ot possible t o a ssign p recise dates t o t he b eginning a nd e nd o f s uch periods of g reater o r l esser a bundance. T he c ase o f bone arrowheads, l inkshafts a nd h ollow bone points, s een a s c omponents o f a rchery e quipment i s very s imilar ( Table 5 0), though here t he e vidence i s more i n f avour o f a b ipartite d ivision, a bove a nd b elow u nit 6 3. T he evidence i s s lender, b ut does point t o more emphasis o n a rchery e quipment b efore 3 300 B P t han l ater, a nd t his may b e s upported by t he evidence o f t he t hree a rrow s traighteners, a ll o f which o ccur i n d eposits o lder t han 3 300 B P. T his i s a s uitable moment, perhaps, t o t ake note o f t he variations i n e xcavated a reas o f deposits ( Figure 1 3) a nd o f t he r emarks o n v alidity a nd c omparability of s amples made i n 4 i v a bove. I t may b e a rgued t hat t he absence below u nit 6 1 o f a n a rtefact t ype t hat o ccurs i n only small n umbers a bove m ay r eflect s ampling v agueries rather than t emporal r estriction o f t he t ype, b ut by t he s ame token

2 74

o bjects o ccurring i n small n umbers i n t he l ower units o ught t o be present, a nd i n l arger n umbers, i n t he upper u nits, u nless o ther f actors a re i nfluencing t heir f requency. T hus, i n r eviewing t he evidence r elating t o t ime-linked c hanges i n t he u se o r popularity o f various a rtefact t ypes we h ave t hree l evels o f i ndication: i ) a rtefacts which o ccur w ith s ufficient f requency a s t o permit t he c onstruction o f c umulative graphs which r eflect more o r l ess s harp points o f i nflection a nd episodes o f r egular a nd i rregular occurrence; i i) a rtefacts which o ccur i n s ufficient n umbers a nd which a re s harply r estricted i n t heir chronological d istribution s uch t hat t heir occurrence i n t he a rea may b e s imilarly i nferred t o be t emporally r estricted; a nd i ii) a rtefacts i rregularly d istributed t hroughout t he deposits w ith r ather l ow density which, n one t he l ess, appear t o s how s ignificant t ime l inked s hifts i n f requency when v iewed i n t erms o f mean percentage f requency, o r f requency per square f oot o f excavated deposit, w ithin g roupings o f u nits generally s uggested by t he c umulative f requency c urves. To a c ertain extent f aunal r emains ( shellfish, f ish, mammals) may be t reated i n t he s ame way a s group ( iii). Very c lear c hanges a re i ndicated a t a round 3 300 BP i n t he c hoices o f r aw materials, u sed f or f ormal t ools, a nd t o a c onsiderable degree t hese a re r eflecting t he p resence o r a bsence o f small s crapers ( quartz a nd c halcedony), l arge s crapers ( functionally very d ifferent: quartzite), a nd r eamers ( quartzite). S hale, h owever, does n ot f ollow t he s ame pattern ( Figures 1 5, 1 6; Appendix 9 ). I n t he upper l evels i t i s a ssociated w ith t he manufacture o f l ine s inkers, palettes, bored s tones, a nd a n o ccasional ' spatula' ( Figure 5 2), whereas i n t he l ower l evels t he o nly s hale i tems a re p alettes a nd bored s tones. S hale s inkers make t heir appearance i n u nit 7 6, e stimated t o date t o a round 4 300 BP, a lthough t he i ncidence o f waste i s very l ow below u nit 6 6 ( estimated a t 4 100 BP). A lthough bored s tones a nd palettes a re very f ew l ower down i n t he s uccession, s hale waste p rovides a c learer i ndication o f t he manufacture o f s hale a rtefacts: A ppendix 9 a nd F igure 8 1 s how t hat f rom u nit 1 48 t o unit 1 20 ( c 5 890-5650 BP) s hale waste occurs even more a bundantly t han i n t he upper l evels. T he f act t hat b ladelet cores r eflect t he s ame v irtual a bsence a fter c 3 300 BP a s c halcedony cores i s n ot s urprising a s 16-s t bladelet cores r esult f rom t he u se o f t hat material; t hey merely a dd t o t he e vidence f or a c hange i n t radition a fter about 3 300 BP I nterestingly, h owever, t he c ut-out i s n ot a c lean o ne, f or t here i s a considerable amount o f i rregularity i n c halcedony f rom u nit 9 0 ( estimated a t 4 870 BP) t o unit 6 4 ( 3350 BP), while q uartz c uts out s harply a bove u nit 7 8 ( 4520 BP: F igure 2 0). T hus, t he evidence o f quartz a nd c halcedony cores t aken i ndependently s uggests a s omewhat more c omplex p icture t han t he evidence o f r aw materials f or t he F ormal Tools category ( Figure 1 6), a lthough when q uartz a nd c halcedony cores a re

2 75

c ombined t he i rregularities a re much r educed ( Figure 2 0) s uggesting, a s h as b een p roposed f or s mall s crapers, t hat t he two materials were i nterchangeable. T he i ncidence o f q uartzite c ores v iewed w ithin t he t ripartite g rouping o f u nits ( Table 1 1) i s i nteresting a s p ointing t o a s imilarity b etween t he l ower ( 148-135) a nd upper ( 62-22) g roups, i n t hat both h ave v ery much h igher p ercentages o f q uartzite t han t he i ntervening g roup ( 134-64), a nd n ear i dentical f requencies o f i rregular c ores ( which a re 8 0% q uartzite). S crapers ( Figure 3 2) g ive a m uch l ess equivocal p icture o f d iachronic c hange. Q uartz a nd c halcedony c ombined s how a s light amount o f i rregularity f rom u nit 1 48 ( 5890 B P) t o u nit 1 35 ( estimated a t 5 880 BP), b ut a r emarkable r egularity f rom t hen u ntil u nit 6 4 ( 3350 B P): t he f ew s crapers i mmediately a bove u nit 6 4 m ay well b e m isplaced s pecimens. T he q uartzite s crapers a re i nteresting a s i ndicating a c hange a fter u nit 1 27 ( estimated a t 5 760 B P), a lthough i n F igure 8 1 t he p ercentages a re c alculated f or u nits 1 48 t o 1 35. T he c hange i n t he f ortunes o f q uartzite s crapers a fter u nit 6 4 i s q uite d ramatic. I n t he Total U tilized c ategory ( hammerstones, h ammer/rubbers, r ubbers, g rindstones, palettes, p ieces e squillees, h eavy e dge-flaked p ieces, a nd utilized f lakes: e dge, s teep, n otched) t here i s a c lear i ncrease i n p ercentage f requency a bove u nit 6 3 ( Figure 2 3). I t may, h owever, b e m isleading t o h ave g rouped t hese d isparate o bjects t ogether a s a n a rtefact c ategory, f or t here i s n o r eason why t he i ndividual c lasses a nd s ub-classes s hould s how s imilar d iachronic t rends. I n f act t he i ncreased p ercentages r eflected i n F igure 2 3 a bove u nit 6 3 a re o verwhelmingly d ue t o p ieces e squillees a nd u tilized f lakes w ith s teep damage ( Table 1 9). B elow u nit 6 3 t he f airly u niform c urve c ompletely masks t he p osition o f u tilized f lakes: e dge damaged, 8 3.4% o f which ( Table 1 8) o ccur i n u nits 1 34-64. T he point o f i nflection a t u nit 6 3 i s i n a greement w ith t he f igure f or p ieces e squillees a nd u tilized f lakes: s teep damage, a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat a c umulative g raph ( either o f p ercentages, o r l ogs o f p ercentages) would c onfirm t he point o f i nflection a t u nit 6 3 a nd, v ery l ikely, i n a l ess positive way, a t u nit 1 35. H owever, i n t he a bsence o f s uch a c alculation i t c an a t l east b e s aid t hat t he f requencies p er u nit, a nd t he o verall i ncidence o f u tilized f lakes: e dge damaged, t end t o c onfirm t he t ripartite d ivision o f u nits b ased o n o ther d ata. U ntrimmed f lakes ( Figure 2 2 a nd T able 1 4) s how t he s ame g eneral p attern o f r aw material f requency a s f ormal t ools a nd c ores. T heir i ncidence ( Table 1 4) s hows a d ecline w ith t he p assage o f t ime, t hough t he drop f rom u nits 1 48-135 t o 1 34-64 i s more p ronounced t han b etween t he l atter a nd u nits 6 2-22, s uggesting, a gain, t hat u nits 1 48-135 ( or t hereabouts) a re, i n s ome way, d ifferent f rom u nits 1 34-64. T he d ifference i s b rought o ut e ven m ore c learly i n T able 1 6, which l ooks a t u ntrimmed f lakes a s a p ercentage o f

2 76

total

s tone a rtefacts.

Chips and c hunks, v iewed i n r elation t o u ntrimmed f lakes ( Figure 1 8) c onfirm t he c hange a bove u nit 6 4. F igure 1 8 a lso s uggests a s hift i n r elative f requency a bove a nd b elow unit 9 8 ( estimated a t 4 930 B P) a nd i f t he f igures a re r ecalculated t o t ake a ccount o f t his ( Table 1 0) u nits 9 4-64 a re s een t o r eflect s ignificantly h igher s cores i n a ll r aw material g roups f or t hat b lock o f u nits. Most o f t he i tems r epresented i n t he b lock o f c olumns o n t he r ight o f F igure 8 1 c all f or l ittle c omment. I tems c learly c haracteristic o f t he p eriod f rom a bout 3 300 B P i nclude p ieces e squillees, b one s patulae, b one t ubes, e ngraved bone, b one r ings, worked a nd u nworked t ortoise carapace, G lycemeris q ueketti v alves ( ? a s p endants), a nd Type 1 s haped p endants. T he c ase f or bone t ubes i s l ess c ertain a s J . D eacon ( 1978, f ig. 1 0) i llustrates o ne f rom Klein's I C u nit, a nd two f rom t he B SC. T he a pparent a bsence i n t he i ntervening u nits 1 48-62 c ould r eflect vagueries o f s ampling, but m ight r eflect t rue a bsence i n t hat t imer ange. S inkers m ake t heir a ppearance s omewhat e arlier ( unit 7 6), but a re, n one t he l ess, a f eature o f t he upper u nits, being evidently q uite a bsent b elow u nit 7 6. P ottery m ay be l imited t o t he l ast 1 ,200 y ears, b ut q uite p ossible i s present f rom a round 1 600 B P. T anged s tone points m ake a brief appearance 2 540 B P ( unit 1 8) a nd 2 450 B P ( unit 6 ). S egments, d rills, a nd T ype 3 s haped p endants a re f eatures o f t he c enturies b etween 5 890 a nd 5 320 BP, w ith d rills s eemingly l imited t o a n e ven s horter t ime-span w ithin t hat period. P erforated D onax s hells a re c oncentrated h eavily i n t he l ower l evels, f rom 5 890 t o a pproximately 4 400 B P. M iscellaneous r etouched p ieces a re c learly more a bundant before 3 300 B P t han l ater ( Figure 8 1 T able 4 2). Q uartzite i s t he dominant r aw material a nd t he mean p ercentage f requencies l end s upport t o t he s uggestion o f a d istinction between u nits 1 48-135 a nd 1 34-64. O nce a gain, t here i s a s uggestion o f a s imilarity b etween t he l owest g roup o f u nits a nd t hose a bove u nit 6 3. Bored s tones a nd r eamers, a nd g rinding e quipment a re more p roblematical. R eamers a re more a bundant t han bored s tones a nd, v iewed i n t erms o f both mean p ercentage f requency a nd per s quare f oot o f e xcavated d eposit t hey a re c onsiderably more abundant i n u nits 1 48-135 a nd 6 2-22 t han i n t he i ntervening u nits. Bored s tones a re m uch f ewer, b ut s how t he s ame general p attern w ith r ather h igher s cores f or t he l ower g roup o f u nits t han t he upper. T hese two i tems a re y et another e xample o f a pparently g reater s imilarity b etween t he l ower a nd upper g roups o f u nits t han e ither h as w ith t he m iddle g roup. G rinding e quipment ( Tables 2 7 a nd 2 8) o ccurs i n r ather s mall n umbers a nd, d espite t he i ndications, t he f igures p robably do n ot a llow a ny i nference o f d ifference i n

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o verall g rinding a ctivity a bove o r b elow u nit 6 3. T here i s, h owever, a n i nteresting d isparity i n t he o ccurrence o f s imple r ubbing s tones a s a gainst r ubber/hammers; t he f ormer p redominating a bove u nit 6 3 a nd t he l atter below ( Table 2 7). O chre, whether i n t he f orm o f p encils o r o f s taining o n a rtefacts, i s c learly more p rominantly a ssociated w ith u nits b elow 6 3 t han a bove, p articularly h aving r egard f or t he l arger a reas opened a bove u nit 6 1. B one awls ( Table 4 7) s eem t o h ave been i n u se w ith a pproximately t he s ame f requency t hroughout t he d eposit, b ut t here i s s ome s uggestion o f a g reater v ariety o f awls p ost 3 300 B P, a nd o f a s hift i n t he c hoice o f bone u sed f or t heir m anufacture ( Table 4 8): i n t he l ower l evels awls a re p redominantly o n m ammal b one, w hereas a bove unit 6 3 b ird b one p redominates. T he f igures s eem t o i mply s omething more t han a g radual d rift i n c hoice o f r aw m aterial. O strich e ggshell b eads a ppear t o b e l ess c ommon i n u nits 1 39-64 t han i n t he u nits a bove o r b elow, b ut t he p icture i s r eversed f or OES f ragments ( Table 5 2).

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1 5

i c

Faunal

R emains

F aunal r emains p resent a l ess c lear p icture t han most a rtefacts. For r easons g iven a bove ( section 1 0) t here a re no s hellfish s amples f or t he u nits a bove u nit 4 3. H owever, within u nits 1 48 t o 4 3 t here does s eem t o b e a c hange i n t he a pproach t o p rocurement a bove u nit 7 8 ( 4520 B P). The f ish r emains p resent a p icture s o i ntractable a s v irtually t o defy a s ummary, b ut s ome f eatures a re worthy o f n ote. T here s eem t o b e two e pisodes ( units 1 03-90 a nd 6 3-43: e st. 5 260-4870 B P a nd 3 300-2970 B P) when f ish e ntered t he c ave i n m uch r educed n umbers ( Figure 7 0). I t i s a lso notable t hat i n u nits 6 3-22 ( 3300-455 B P) t he weight o f f ish per s quare f oot o f e xcavated d eposit i s double w hat i t i s i n e ither o f t he u nderlying g roups o f u nits: t he mean n umber of s pecies p er u nit a lso i ncreases by two, c ompared w ith e arlier g roupings o f u nits. U nits 1 48-104 ( 5890- c 5 300 BP) s eem t o s tand apart f rom t he r est i n t heir emphasis o n P . s altatrix a nd R . 2 1obiceps ( Figure 7 1; T able 6 0) whilst u nits 6 3-22 s how a c orresponding emphasis o n S . L alandi, L . l ithognathus, a nd S . s alpa. ( Figures 7 1 a nd 7 2; T able 6 0). B ut t he f igures emerge w ithin p re-defined unit g roupings, a nd s harp i nflections a re n ot a pparent. Among the mammals u nits 6 2-30 ( 3270-2085 B P) s how t he l owest i ntensity o f mammal p rocurement, while u nits 2 9-22 ( 1930-455 B P) r eflect t he h ighest i ntensity. I n t he l atter case t he i ncrease i s d ue, i n v ery l arge measure, t o a s harp i ncrease i n s eal p rocurement. U nits 6 2-22 s eem a lso t o be marked by a s hift i n t he e xploitation o f s eals, r esulting i n t he t aking o f a f ar g reater p roportion o f very y oung s eals, yearlings o r y earlings p lus s econd-years. 1 5

i d

The S equence o f C hange

i n Material

C ulture

A lthough t he ' boundary' between t he ' Albany' a nd ' Wilton' i ndustries a t N BC i s p laced by J . D eacon ( 1978) b etween Klein's e xcavated u nits R B a nd RA ( between 8 000 a nd 6 000 BP, a pproximately) s he w arns ( ibid: 1 05) o f t he p roblem o f drawing boundaries i n what, i n s ome s enses, i s a c ontinuous s equence. T he p roblem o f boundaries ( or t ransitional periods) a t NBC i n t he t ime-range 9 000 B P t o 6 000 B P i s complicated by t he f act t hat t he deposits were e vidently excavated i n r ather more g ross u nits, t han t hose described i n t his r eport, a nd t hat t he k ey u nits ( IC a nd B SC) r epresent amalgamations o f e xcavated u nits ( J. D eacon 1 984 a : 6 0). T hus, f or t he 3 000 y ear p eriod o nly f our s tratigraphic u nits a re a vailable, w ith n ine r adiocarbon determinations. W e h ave a rgued a bove ( 12 i ) t hat B SC a nd I C are b roadly c ontemporary w ith o ur u nits 1 48-78, s o t hat t here i s n o s cope f or a r efined v iew o f w hat was h appening at t he s ite b etween o ur u nit 1 48 a nd K lein's u nit RB, d ated to 8 000-8500 B P. The n umber o f deposit r emains

s tone a rtefacts p er r emarkably c onstant,

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b ucket o f a t b etween

e xcavated 5 .5 a nd

7 .9, f rom u nit G SL ( c 1 1000 B P) t o R A ( 6070 BP) i nclusive, a fter which i t r ises s harply t o 3 6.0 i n B SC ( 5825 a nd 6 050 B P) a nd 2 9.7 i n I C ( 4860 B P). I n 9 0% o f t he 7 3 u nits f rom 1 48 t o 7 6 ( inclusive) t he s cores r emain above 2 7 a nd f requently r ise well a bove t he B SC s core ( Appendix 7 , a nd F igure 1 4). F rom u nit 7 5 t o u nit 6 1 ( the h ighest u nit f or w hich b ucket c ounts a re a vailable) t he f igures a re e rratic, v arying b etween 1 .3 a nd 2 6.5. T he p icture i s t he s ame f or untrimmed f lakes, u tilized p ieces, a nd f ormal t ools: t he n umber o f specimens p er b ucket r ises s harply f rom RA t o B SC ( J. D eacon, 1 984I:table 1 1). I f a bundance o f a rtefacts were t he s ole arbiter there would b e n o h esitation i n a ssigning a major c hange i n t echnological a ctivity a t t he c ave a fter u nit RA, a nd a t a bout 6 000 y ears a go. T he a rgument f or p lacing t he change e arlier, b etween R B a nd RA i s b ased p artly o n s hifts i n t he d imensions o f s tone a rtefacts, a nd p artly o n s hifts i n t he c hoice o f r aw materials. B ut i n t he l atter case ( in t he f ormal t ools c ategory a t l east) t he n umbers o f s pecimens a re small, a nd p ercentages a re i nfluenced i n an e xaggerated way by i solated s pecimens. G iven a f iner s eparation o f s tratigraphic u nits i t m ight h ave b een possible t o s ee more c ertainly what w as h appening i n t hese c rucial years. A fter f our t housand y ears o f b eing i n t he doldrums quartz c ertainly b egins t o a ssume a n ew i mportance between RB a nd RA, b ut i n t he c ase o f c halcedony t he t en-fold i ncrease i n u se c omes o nly a fter RA ( J. D eacon 1 984a: t able 1 1). Unless w e a re t o a ttribute t his appearance o f s taggered c hange t o t he m ixing o f a ssemblages t hrough e rrors i n excavation o r s imply t he k ind o f d ispersal o f material r eferred t o i n 4 i v a bove, we must s uppose t hat t he i nnovations r ecorded r esult f rom t he p iecemeal a ddition o f n ew e lements ( quartz, c halcedony, a nd t he i ntensification o f s tone-flaking a ctivity) t o t he e xisting r egime o f t echnological a ctivity ( ' Albany I ndustry') i n t he c ave. We h ave n o r eal way o f k nowing what was h appening i n t he c rucial y ears b etween 8 000 a nd 6 000 B P. Whilst we m ay a ccept RA a s r epresenting s tratigraphically earlier events t han B SC t he a ssociated r adiocarbon d ates s uggest t hat t he t ime i nterval i nvolved was e xtremely s hort, a nd t hat b oth RA a nd B SC r epresent t he i nception o f a very rapid b uild-up o f p redominantly a shy d eposits, c ontinuing i n o ur units 1 48-129. T here i s s ome j ustification, t herefore, f or c haracterizing t he s hift f rom w hat h as b een t ermed t he ' Albany' h omeostatic p lateau t o t he ' Wilton' plateau ( H. J . D eacon, 1 976: 8 1) i n t erms o f w hat w e c an s ee i n t he record f rom u nit 1 48 upwards. We h ave a lready s een ( 12 i i f inal p ara.) t hat t he c oastline moved c lose e nough t o t he c ave t o b ecome an e xploitable r esource z one a bout 1 0,000 y ears a go, a nd f rom t hat t ime o nwards f ish a nd s eals were t aken r egularly, t hough w ith s ome s hifts i n emphasis a nd i ntensity. B etween 1 0000 a nd 6 000 B P t here a re s ome c hanges i n t he r ange of t errestrial m ammals r epresented i n t he d eposits. K lipspringer, s outhern

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r eedbuck, e land, a nd r oan a ntelope d isappear f rom t he record, b ut f or t he most p art t he r ange o f a nimals r emains the s ame, t hough i n s ome c ases t here a re s hifts i n r elative f requency. A part f rom t he q uestionable s uggestion ( 7 i i above) t hat f ish g orges w ere i ntroduced i n t he A lbany, there i s n o r ecognisable r elationship b etween o bserved f aunal changes a nd m aterial c ulture, a nd, p rovisionally a t l east, t here i s s ome j ustification f or v iewing c hanges i n material c ulture ( stone, b one, a nd s hell t echnology a nd artefacts) i ndependently o f t he c ourse o f e vents i n o ther systems. Thus, by 6 000 B P t he ' Albany' t radition a t NBC, w ith i ts low d ensities o f s tone a rtefacts, o verwhelming emphasis o n t he u se o f q uartzite, a nd l imited r ange o f f ormal s tone tools ( scrapers a nd m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces), h ad undergone a metamorphosis i nvolving a n i ncrease i n t he range of f ormal s tone t ools ( scrapers, m iscellaneous retouched p ieces, s egments, d rills, p ieces e squillees, bored s tones a nd r eamers), a s harp i ncrease i n t he n umbers of f ormal s tone t ools a nd waste p roducts f rom t heir manufacture, a nd a positive s hift t owards a g reater u se o f quartz and c halcedony, a pparently i n c onnection w ith t he manufacture o f small s crapers, s egments, a nd d rills. W ith the e xception o f t he double-pointed s plinters o f bone, i nterpreted by J . D eacon a s f ish gorges, which o ccur i n some n umbers, t he i ncidence o f bone/ostrich e ggshell artefacts i s s ufficiently l ow t o make p recise s tatements about c hanges r ather u nreliable. T he bone beads a nd m ultir inged bone t ubes d escribed by J . D eacon ( 1978: f igs. 1 0 and 1 1; 1 984a: t able 6 2) a re n ot r ecorded w ithin t he l ast 1 0,000 years a nd o nly o ne double-pointed bone s plinter ( Plate 1 1 u nit 4 3) s imilar t o J . D eacon's ' fish gorges' occurs a fter u nit RA. B eyond t his i t s eems u nwise t o comment b eyond w hat h as b een s aid e arlier i n t his r eport about t he i ncidence o f bone/shell a rtefacts. For a c entury o r t wo a fter 6 000 B P a pproximatelV a t hird o f scrapers a re s till made o f q uartzite, t he r est being o f quartz a nd c halcedony ( smaller a nd more delicate t han quartzite) b ut t he f requency t hen d rops t o a round 4 % f or the n ext 2 ,500 y ears. A l ittle l ater, a round 5 ,650* b ored stones a nd t he r eamers u sed t o make t hem s how a marked decline i n popularity a nd by 5 600 B P d rills ( made w ithout exception o f c halcedony; b ut s ee 6 i v c ) h ave e ffectively ceased t o be u sed a t t he s ite. By 5 ,300 ( unit 1 05) two

* T he c hronology g iven h ere i s derived f rom F igure 8 1, a nd i t i s r ecognised t hat t his i s a c ompromise t hat m ay be misleading. The o rders o f a ge a re g enerally a cceptable b ut the e pisodic a ccretion o f o ccupation l ayers, a nd variable r ates o f a ccretion m ust c reate u ncertainties a bout t he chronology o f u nits n ot d irectly dated. I n f act, i t s eems h ighly l ikely t hat t he e vents r ecorded b etween u nits 1 29 ( 5860 BP) a nd 1 05 ( 5320 B P) l ie m uch c loser t ogether i n t ime t han i s s uggested b y F igure 8 1.

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o ther i tems, which make t heir a ppearance 6 ,000 y ears a go ( segments a nd t ype 3 s haped p endants) h ave a lso d isappeared, o r e ffectively s o, a nd t here i s a p ronounced f all i n t he n umbers o f s tone a rtefacts p er square f oot o f deposit ( Figure 1 4). I t a ppears, t hen, t hat a t, o r a l ittle b efore, 6 000 BP t he e stablished ' Albany' i ndustry w as s upplemented by, o r r eplaced by, a r ange o f a rtefacts a nd p ractices which c ompletely c hanged t he c haracter o f material a bandoned i n t he c ave. W ithin t wo t o f ive h undred y ears a n umber o f t hese material c ulture i nnovations h ad e ither b een c ompletely a bandoned, o r c ontinued i n s uch r educed numbers a nd i nfrequent appearance a s t o b e, a rchaeologically, a ll b ut i nvisible. O ne o ther i tem w hich a ppears t o be a n i nnovation a t 6 000 B P, p erforated D onax s hells, persists s omewhat l onger, t o a round 4 400 B P, a fter w hich o nly s poradic e xamples ( 7) o ccur, down t o about 2 100 B P. H owever, Donax a s a p art o f t he s hellfish spectrum v irtually d isappear a fter u nit 1 29 ( 5860 B P) ( Figure 6 7). T hus, a fter about 5 300 B P we a re l eft w ith a ssemblages which d iffer f rom ' Albany' a ssemblages mainly b y v irtue o f t he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f v ery small s crapers o f q uartz a nd c halcedony, a nd t he w aste p roducts a ssociated w ith t heir manufacture; a m uch h igher percentage o f m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces ( m ean o f 4 3% o f f ormal t ools) i n q uartzite ( 50%) a nd q uartz ( 7.8%) and c halcedony ( 42.1%); p erforated D onax s hells; a nd very o ccasional marine s hell p endants o f t ype 2 o r 2 a. T he early part o f t his period ( c 5 250 t o 4 870 B P) i s m arked by a p articularly l ow i ntake o f f ish ( Figures 7 0, 8 1). T he d rop i n d ensity o f t otal s tone a rtefacts n oted i n F igure 1 4 may i n p art r eflect t he c essation o f manufacture a t t he s ite o f s egments a nd drills. T he bow a nd c omposite a rrow a re v ery positively a ttested i n t he t ime-span 6 000 t o 3 300 B P, l ess s o l ater t han t his, b ut i nformation f or t he e arlier ( Albany) p eriods i s i nsufficient t o p ermit a ny o bservation a s t o w hether t here w as a ny s hift i n emphasis. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he bow a nd c omposite a rrow were k nown d uring a ll o r p art o f t he period 1 2000 B P t o 6 000 B P. A t a bout 4 500 BP, o r a l ittle e arlier, a h andful o f backed s crapers w ere i ntroduced t o t he s ite a nd f rom t he s ame t ime q uartz c ores c eased t o b e u sed a nd s hellfish a re exploited o n a more r egular b asis. A bout a c entury l ater ( on t he F igure 8 1 t ime s cale) p erforated D onax s hells d isappear f rom t he r ecord, a nd t he f irst s hale l ine-sinkers m ake t heir a ppearance. A t o r a bout 3 300 B P t here o ccur a s uite o f c hanges w hich c ompletely a lter t he c haracter o f t he material c ulture a ssemblages a nd a ppear t o b e r eflected a lso i n s ome o f t he f aunal e vidence. P erhaps t he c learest a nd most s ignificant s ignal o f t his c hange i s t he e ffective d isappearance o f

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s mall, n eatly made c onvex s crapers o f q uartz a nd c halcedony, s uch t hat t he s harply r educed n umbers o f s crapers a re n ow 9 1% q uartzite a nd, i ncidentally, q uite d ifferent i n s ize, d egree o f r efinement, a nd u ndoubtedly i n f unction ( Figure 3 2). T he overall density o f s tone a rtefacts p er s quare f oot d rops d ramatically ( Figure 14), a nd t he c essation o f small s craper manufacture i s c learly r eflected i n t he f igures f or r aw material ( Figures 1 5-18). T here i s a decline i n m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces a nd a n i ncrease i n u tilized f lakes: s teep damage ( Table 1 9), a ccompanied b y a d ecline i n u tilized f lakes: e dge damaged. P ieces e squillees a ppear, e ffectively a s a n ew t ype, i n q uartzite, a nd bored s tones a nd r eamers apparently a cquire a g reater i mportance. T he e vidence i s l ess u nequivocal t han o ne would l ike, b ut i t does a ppear t hat t he b ow a nd c omposite a rrows decline i n p opularity. A variety o f bone a nd s hell a rtefacts make t heir f irst appearance, o r a ssume f ar greater i mportance i n t hese upper l evels: t hey i nclude b oth worked a nd u nworked t ortoise c arapace, p erforated G lycimeris q ueketti s hells, a nd t ype 1 s haped p endants. T he period b egins w ith a nother e pisode o f l ow f ish i ntake ( for c 3 50 y ears) b ut, o verall, t he weight o f f ish p er s quare f oot o f deposit doubles i n c omparison w ith e arlier l evels. T he f irst p art o f t he p eriod ( c3300-2085 BP) r eflects t he l owest o verall p rocurement — o f m ammals, f ollowed by t he h ighest, p articularly i n t he f ield o f s eal p rocurement ( Figure 7 5). F rom 3 300 B P a c hanged a pproach t o s eal p rocurement r esults i n a h igh p roportion o f y earling/2nd y ear s eals. P ottery i s c ertainly p resent by c 1 150 BP a nd q uite p ossibly by 1 550 B P, a nd s heep a re k now b y 1 100 B P. T hese a re d ates by w hich o ne i s r easonably c ertain o f t he p resence o f s heep a nd pottery b ut, g iven t he u ncertainties s urrounding t he dating o f i ndividual s pecimens ( 4 i v a bove), i t would b e w rong t o a ssume t hat t hese d ates m ark t he e arliest a ppearance o f s heep a nd p ottery i n t he R obberg a rea. W ithin t he 6 ,000 y ear p eriod j ust r eviewed we h ave n oticed a n umber o f more o r l ess c oincident c hanges i n a rtefact g roups a nd f auna, s uch t hat t here a ppear t o b e t wo major p eriods o f c hange, a t a round 6 000 B P a nd 3 300 B P, a nd two l ess p ronounced c hanges a t a bout 5 300 a nd 4 400/4500 BP. F igure 8 1 s uggests s ome d iscrepancy i n t he t iming o f e vents, a nd i t m ay w ell b e t hat c hanges i n s ome p art o f t he s ystem h ad k nock-on e ffects o n o ther p arts, r ather t han e liciting i nstant r esponses. H owever, g iven t hat t here m ust b e g aps i n t he s equence, a nd t hat n ot e very e xcavated u nit c ould b e e xpected t o r eflect a ll a spects o f a n o ngoing o r c hanged s ystem, a nd t hat t here i s n o r eliable way o f c ontrolling f or t he d ating o f e vents b etween r adiocarbon d ated units, i t i s q uite l ikely t hat t he s catter s uggested i n F igure 8 1 i s e xaggerated, a nd t hat t he approximately r elated e vents w ere, i n f act, much more c losely r elated i n t ime. T his s eems p articularly l ikely f or t he c hange a t 3 300 B P a nd, i ntuitively, o ne s uspects t hat t he c ut-out o f s egments, d rills, a nd t ype 3 s haped p endants r epresents a

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u nified e vent, a nd t hat t hey a re i n s ome w ay l inked w ith s ome o f t he l ess s harply d efined e vents r ecorded b etween u nits 1 29 a nd 1 05. T he marked f all i n density o f total s tone a rtefacts f rom u nit 1 05 may i ndicate t hat t he r eal t iming o f t his c hange l ies a round 5 300 B P.

1 5

i i

1 5

i i

D ISCUSSION OF S ELECTED EVIDENCE a

S crapers

a nd

S egments

S craper a ttributes a nd f requencies h ave b een u sed i n a n umber o f s tudies ( J. D eacon 1 972, 1 984a; H . J . Deacon 1 976) t o c haracterise d iachronic c hange, a nd a s t hey d isplay d iachronic v ariation a t NBC i t i s worth considering w hat more c an b e s aid a bout t hem. B inneman ( in M . H all e t a l. 1 984: 1 43-151), o n t he b asis o f m icrowear s tudies o f s crapers f rom B oomplaas s ays t hat s crapers w ere f ormally designed f or s craping h ides, t hat most were s ide-hafted, b ut t hat s everal ' relatively l arge' s pecimens w ere h and-held. I n t he a bsence o f a ccess t o h is u npublished M .A. t hesis we h ave n o d etails o f t he s izes a nd r aw materials o f t he s pecimens h e e xamined, b ut h is r emarks ( ibid: 1 43 a nd 1 48) s uggest t hat h is a nalyses were l imited t o c halcedony, c hert, a nd h ornfels: q uartz a nd q uartzite, o n a ccount o f t heir t ranslucency, b eing l ess amenable t o s tudy. W e c annot, t herefore, b e s ure t hat a ll s crapers were d esigned f or h ide/skin d ressing, a nd i t may b e worth k eeping i n m ind C lark's ( 1958) s uggestion t hat some s crapers may h ave f unctioned a s a dzes, i n t he manner o f A ustralian t ulas. T he r emarks made a bove ( 6 i v a ) about q uartzite s crapers h aving a d ifferent f unction f rom t hose m ade i n q uartz a nd c halcedony r efer p articularly t o t he post- 3 300 B P s pecimens b ut may b e v alid f or s ome e arlier s pecimens. S ize a nd l ack o f r efinement o f t he working edges c ertainly a rgue f or a v ery d ifferent f unction f rom t he small s crapers o f q uartz a nd c halcedony. T he possibility t hat s ome were woodworking t ools m ay b e r eflected i n t he t otal a bsence o f a dzes ( identified b y B inneman, i bid, a s woodworking t ools) f rom N BC. I f l arge s crapers, s pecifically o f q uartzite, were u sed f or t asks o ther t han t hose f or which s mall s crapers o f f ineg rained m aterials were d esigned, i t m ay b e i nvalid t o group t he two i n t he s tudy o f t heir m etrical a ttributes, a s J . D eacon ( 1978 a nd 1 984a) h as done, a nd i t appears t hat t he t hought h ad i ndeed o ccurred t o h er, a s s he quotes d imensions f or both " Total s ample" a nd " Quartzite o mitted" i n h er 1 984a t able 3 6. T he p ossibility t hat l arge q uartzite s crapers a nd s mall, f ine g rained s crapers s erved rather d ifferent f unctions i s f urther s uggested by t heir f requency d istributions t hrough t ime. A t NBC, a lthough n umbers a re v ery s mall b efore RB ( c 8 000 B P) D eacon's t able 3 6 i ndicates t hat small a nd l arge s crapers o ccur t ogether i n t he R obberg ( 8-59 mm) a nd i n t he

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A lbany ( 19-101 mm i n J , a nd 8 -107 i n R B), a nd we h ave s een t hat t hey c ontinue s ide b y s ide f rom 6 000 BP t o 3 300 B P, w hen t he small q uartz a nd c halcedony s pecimens e nd a bruptly. What e ncourages t he v iew t hat t hey were n ot s haring t he s ame f unction i s t hat q uartzite s crapers do n ot i ncrease i n f requency w hen q uartz a nd c halcedony do, d ramatically, n or do t hey d iminish when q uartz a nd c halcedony s crapers e ffectively c ease ( Table 3 2). T hey a ppear t o h ave a n e xistence i ndependent o f small s crapers m ade i n f ine-grained r aw materials. P ublished f igures, w hilst l ess s pecific, s eem t o s uggest t he c o-existence o f s mall and l arge s crapers i n o ther s ites ( Deacon, J . 1 972, f igures 9 a nd 1 0; S chweitzer a nd W ilson, 1 982, f igure 1 7; D eacon, J ., 1 984a, t able 5 7). F rom around 1 6000 B P t o 6 000 B P a rtefact d ensities a t NBC a re extremely l ow ( J. D eacon, 1 984a, t able 1 1), a nd i t i s q uestionable whether t he l ithic a rtefact a ssemblages r eally r eflect a t rue p icture o f t he f ull r ange o f t he i ndustrial a ctivity o f t he c ave's o ccupants, o r whether t hey a re a typical, r eflecting t ransient, p erhaps s pecialised v isits t o t he s ite. I f t his w ere, i ndeed, t he c ase, i t m ight a ccount f or t he a bsence o f small s crapers i n u nits J t o G SL w hereas s crapers i n f ine-grained r aw materials, s ome o f t hem small, a re m uch m ore p ositively p resent a t Boomplaas i n t he t ime-range 1 0400 B P t o 8 /9000 B P ( J. D eacon, 1 984a, t ables 1 9 a nd 5 7). T his i s n ot t o deny t hat i n i ndustries d esignated ' Albany' t he r atio o f small s crapers t o l arge i s l ess t han i n ' Wilton' i ndustries, a nd p erhaps ' Robberg' i ndustries, b ut r ather t o p ress t he point t hat s mall s crapers o f f ine-grained r aw materials a re p resent f rom a t l east 1 4000 B P a nd t hat i t i s t heir f requency r elative t o l arge s crapers, w hich may r elate t o q uite d ifferent i ndustrial a ctivities ( albeit, c onceivably, o n s imilar r aw m aterials), t hat v aries. F luctuations i n a bsolute n umbers a re l ess e asy t o a ccount f or i n deposits w ith v ery l ow o verall d ensities o f a rtefacts. O n B inneman's e vidence ( 1984) small s crapers w ere r elated t o s kin-dressing. T he p rocesses i nvolved s eem t o h ave b een p ractised f rom a t l east 1 4500 B P, a re s trongly r epresented a fter 6 000 B P ( earlier i n s ome s ites), a nd a re a ttested s poradically b etween 1 0000 a nd 8 /9000 B P. I t s eems i mprobable t hat t he p rocess was e ver c ompletely l ost, a nd r e-invented i n t he s outhern C ape, a lthough o ne c an i magine t hat a p rocess o nce p ractised a t a l ow l evel o f i ntensity c ould, i n c ertain c ircumstances, a ssume a g reatly h eightened i mportance. T his s eems t o h ave h appened w ith small s crapers a t NBC a bout 6 000 B P, a nd r ather e arlier a t s ome i nland s ites ( Wilton ? b efore 8 000 B P; B oomplaas ? before 6 400 B P; M elkhoutboom b y 7 000 B P). J . D eacon ( 1984a: 2 24, t able 2 a) i ndicates dates o f b etween 9 000 a nd 8 000 B P f or a n umber o f i nland s ites w hose i ndustries a re " dominated by small c onvex a nd o ther s crapers, b acked b ladelets a nd s egments haped b acked m icroliths...." ( p. 2 24). O n t he a vailabe

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e vidence i t could be a rgued t hat a m arked i ntensification o f s kin-working w ith small, c onvex s crapers o ccurred s omewhere i n t he i nterior o f s outhern A frica b efore 8 000 BP, s preading r apidly i n t he i nterior, a nd reaching N BC s ometime between 8 000 a nd 6 000 B P ( the date h as to b e u ncertain b ecause RB c an o nly b e s aid t o b e younger t han 8 070 BP a nd o lder t han 6 070 BP. T he o nly r eason f or considering a date e arlier t han 6 000 BP i s t he u nsatisfactory date o f 7 750 BP f or L ayer C a t Matjes River: L ouw, 1 960; I nskeep 1 961). I f t here i s u ncertainty about a r etarded i ntensification o f small s craper u sage a t NBC, t here i s n o question a bout a n e arly c essation. By 3 300 B P small s crapers e ffectively c eased t o b e u sed a t NBC, whereas a t o ther s ites t hey continue i n u se u ntil much l ater ( Boomplaas to 1 700 B P; Melkhoutboom t o 2 50 B P; W ilton t o l ater t han 2 270 B P). T he e arly d isappearance o f s egments/backed b ladelets f rom NBC ( c 5 300 B P) i s a lso i n contrast t o a n umber o f s ites where t hey persist much l ater. A t B oomplaas ( Deacon, J . 1 984a: t able 5 7) t hey s till f orm a s ignificant p ercentage o f f ormal t ools i n t he l atest l evels a t 1 700 B P ( as d o d rills/borers), a nd while s egments decline i n f requency f rom 6 400 B P t he decline i s f ully compensated for b y i ncreases i n backed b ladelets a nd f lakes. T he s ame i s t rue f or M elkhoutboom ( H. J . D eacon 1 976: t able 1 0), where s egments/backed b ladelets, a nd borers ( drills) persist i nto t he s urface l evel a t 2 50 B P. A t B yneskranskop 1 s egments a re a lmost a s common i n t he p eriod 3 900-255 BP a s t hey a re f rom 6 540-3900 B P ( Schweitzer a nd W ilson 1 982: t able 7 ), a nd at D ie Kelders ( Schweitzer 1 979: t able 1 5) s egments a re f ive t imes a s abundant a s s crapers i n deposits more recent t han 2 000 BP. NBC t hus a ppears t o present u s with a generalised s equence t hat d iffers i n a n umber o f i mportant r espects f rom s equences i n t he s ame t ime-range i n other a reas. There i s l ittle d irect e vidence f or t he f unction o r manner o f u se o f backed m icroliths, t hough t here i s rather more, besides common s ense, t o i ndicate t hat t hey were set i n mastic a s parts o f c omposite t ools o r weapons. The r eapingk nives o f Neolithic E gypt ( Caton-Thompson, G . a nd G ardner, E . W . 1 934: p lates x xviii a nd x xx) a re well known, as a re t hose o f t he Natufian a t M ugharet E l-Wad ( Garrod, D . A . E . a nd B ate, D . M . A . 1 937: p late x iii). L ess well k nown a re t he s lotted bone k nife h andles f rom t he mesolithic o f D enmark, o ne r etaining t wo o f i ts s tone s ettings ( Clark, G . 1 975, f igure 4 2). T he possibility t hat s ome backed b ladelets/segments w ere h afted a s k nives i n t he L ater Stone A ge o f A frica cannot be d ismissed o ut o f h and: t he mastic o n t he specimen f rom u nit 1 34 ( Figures 4 0, 4 1) i s n ot i ncompatible w ith s uch a u se. Nor s hould we c ompletely i gnore t he c urious o bject r epresented i n p late v a nd f igure 5 d o f Breuil's ( 1955) p ublication o n t he B randberg ' White L ady' paintings ( the o bject depicted deserves closer s crutiny w ith t he a id o f modern t echniques). But m ore o ften

2 86

t hese small, b acked p ieces h ave b een s een a s h eads o r b arbs f or s pears o r a rrowheads. Examples a re i llustrated by G rahame C lark ( 1967, f igure 1 04; 1 975, f igures 1 2 a nd 4 3, a nd p late I II) f or n orth west E urope, while C lark, P hillips, a nd S taley ( 1974) h ave r eviewed t he e vidence f or a ncient E gypt. F rom e astern Z ambia P hillipson ( 1976: 2 151 8) describes a n umber o f b acked m icroliths r etaining mastic, s ometimes p reserving c asts o f s lots o r g rooves i nto w hich t he mastic w as moulded, a nd which h e c oncludes were u sed a s a rrow o r s pear barbs, a nd t ransverse a rrowheads. A nd C ooke ( 1958) h as i llustrated a rrows r epresented i n t he r ock paintings o f Z imbabwe, o ften w ith v ery e laborate h eads, some o f w hich h e r egards a s r epresenting m icrolithic s ettings. T hat s tone ( and more r ecently, g lass) i nserts w ere used t o t ip a rrows h as been demonstrated by G oodwin ( 1945) a nd e laborated more r ecently by J . D . C lark ( 1977 1 27-150). H . J . D eacon ( 1976: f igure 2 4) i llustrates t hree c ylindrical wooden s hafts w ith c ut g rooves which, i f not o riginally l arge e nough t o a dmit a b acked b ladelet o r s egment, may h ave b een i ntended t o g ive p urchase t o t he m astic which, i tself, r etained t he m icrolith. D eacon ( ibid. 6 9-70) a dopts a c autious v iew, b ut a t l east h ints a t t he p ossibility t hat s egments/backed b ladelets s erved a s a rrow a rmatures. None o f t his amounts t o p roof, b ut i t e ncourages t he v iew t hat t he N BC s egments ( and t he t en b acked f lakes/bladelets) m ay h ave b een p arts o f a rrows. T his s eems more l ikely t han t hat t hey f ormed t he c omposite b lades o f k nives, a s b etter a rguments c an b e m ade f or t he a bandonment o f s tone-tipped a rrows t han f or t he a bandonment o f c omposite k nives. Nor w ould spears s eem t o be a particularly s trong c ontender a s t he s pear i s n ot, among t he modern S an, a p rimary h unting w eapon, b ut r ather s omething u sed t o d ispatch a nimals a lready b rought d own w ith t he bow a nd p oisoned a rrow ( Silberbauer, 1 981: 2 15; L ee, 1 979: 1 39). I ndeed, i f t he s uggestion m ade e arlier ( 12 i i), t hat b uffalo a nd b ushpig w ere t aken i n p itfall t raps, i s c orrect, t he r ole o f both t he bow a nd a rrow, a nd o f t he s pear, would s eem t o h ave b een r ather l imited. 1 5

i i

b

S easonality

S easonality i ndicators i n t he NBC s uccession a re s cattered a nd s ometimes e quivocal. P lant r emains were r ecovered o nly i n t he l ast s eason, mainly f rom t he l owest ( ashy) l evels, a nd b irds h ave b een a nalysed f or o nly 1 2% o f t he u nits. I t i s a lso i n t he n ature o f s easonal e vidence t hat i t i s g enerally more a bundant f or t he s ummer months t hat f or w inter a nd, a s w ith o ther t hings, l ittle r eliance c an b e p laced on n egative e vidence. W hat evidence t here i s i s s ummarized i n F igure 8 2. Among t he f ishes e lf a nd y ellowtail a re l ikely t o i ndicate s ummer f ishing, a nd w hite s tumpnose a nd g aljoen w inter f ishing. W ith s ome g aps a ll f our a re p resent t hroughout t he s equence. T he r ecord f or w inter f ish s eems m ore c omplete

2 87

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t han f or s ummer, a nd i t r emains u nclear whether gaps i n t he r ecord r eally r eflect e pisodes o f r educed e xploitation i n t he r elevant s eason ( e.g. s ummer o ccupations i n t he c ase o f e lf a nd y ellowtail): t he c ontrast i n t he r ecords f or e lf and yellowtail a bove u nit 7 4 s uggest c aution, a nd f luctuations i n t he amplitude o f t he c urves s hould p robably be r ead a s v ariations i n f ishing a ctivity a nd/or availability r ather t han a s more o r f ewer o ccupations i n t he r elevant s eason. By a nd l arge t he e vidence o f f ish r emains s uggests t hat NBC was o ccupied i ntermittently b oth s ummer and w inter, t hroughout t he H olocene. T he watsonia corms confirm t he e vidence o f e lf t hat t he e arliest l evels, a round 5 900-5800 B P, a t l east i ncluded s ummer o ccupations ( October t o March). I n e ach o f t he g roups o f u nits s ampled t he b ird r emains i ndicate s ummer o ccupation, a nd i n t wo c ases ( c 3 000 B P a nd 5 800 B P) i nclude i ndications a lso o f w inter o ccupation. I n t he upper l evels, f rom a round 3 000 B P t he p resence o f considerable n umbers o f ' yearling' s eals ( despite P arkington's s trictures, i n 1 2 i ii a bove, i t i s l ikely t hat s ome, perhaps a m ajority o f K lein's s ample d ied a t + /- n ine months) i ndicate o ccupation " between t he b eginning o f J uly a nd t he e nd o f O ctober" ( Parkington 1 976: 1 12). D espite t he s hortcomings o f t he r ecord t he g eneral c onclusion t o be drawn f rom t he e vidence i s t hat t he c ave r eceived v isitors both s ummer a nd w inter t hroughout t he H olocene. 1 5

i i

c

Raw Materials

Nelson Bay C ave i s s ituated i n a n e nvironment o f q uartzitic r ocks and a ssociated s hale b eds, a nd a ny v ariations i n t he u se o f q uartzite o r s hale a s r aw materials m ust r eflect c hoice r ather t han a vailability. T he c ase f or q uartz a nd c halcedony i s l ess c lear. I n f act, w hilst t he t erm ' chalcedony' i s u sed h ere, a nd t he t erms ' silcrete' a nd ' chalcedony' a re c ommonly u sed by a rchaeologists i n t he s outhern C ape, t hey a re u sed i nformally. P etrologically i t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he material i n q uestion i s a v ariety o f s ilcrete, s pecifically " opaline a nd f ine-grained m assive f orms consisting o f o pal, c halcedony o r c ryptocrystalline s ilica l acking a ny d etrital c omponent" ( Summerfield, 1 983: 8 98). S uch s ilcretes a re a ssociated w ith d eep weathering p rofiles developed i n t he C ape c oastal z one, a nd o ccasionally a s s ilicified s and ( ibid: 8 96-97). No s ources a re known t o t he w riter f rom t he i mmediate v icinity o f Robberg a nd i t i s n ot k nown h ow n ear, o r f ar, t he n earest r esidual m asses a re. S till l ess c an b e s aid o f t he s ource, o r s ources o f t he q uartz ( ? mostly c rystals) employed. T he m atter i s o f c onsiderable i mportance, f or, i f t hey a re e ffectively l ocal, f luctuation i n t heir u sage i mplies deliberate d ecisions w ith r egard t o t he manufacture o f t hose a rtefacts f or w hich q uartz a nd c halcedony were t he s elected r aw materials. I f, o n t he o ther h and, t hey l ay b eyond t he r each o f p eople l iving i n t he c ave, i t b ecomes n ecessary t o s uggest a mechanism by w hich t hey were

2 89

i ntroduced t o t he c ave i n s ubstantial q uantity s ome 6 ,000 y ears a go, a nd t hen a bruplty t erminated 3 ,300 y ears a go. Whilst a m id-Holocene r ise i n s ea-level m ay h ave caused t ransient c hanges i n t he a bundance, o r r ange o f s pecies o f f ish, s hellfish, a nd possibly s ea-birds i t i s hard t o e nvisage t hese r esulting i n a ny major c hange i n t he l ifes tyle o f t he c ave's i nhabitants: s hifts i n emphasis w ithin t he g eneral r ange o f r esources available would s urely h ave b een a ll t hat was n ecessary. G iven t he a bsence of a ny e vidence f or more f ar-reaching c hange i n t he environment o r r esources o f t he c atchment a rea w e c an s ee n o external i nfluences t hat m ight a ccount f or t he t echnological changes o bserved, w hile t hose r ecorded a t a bout 3 300 BP a ppear t oo a brupt a nd f ar-reaching t o b e t he r ecord o f mere c hanges i n f ashion. T he h istory o f t echnology o bserved i n t he d eposits, i ncluding t he u se o f c halcedony a nd q uartz, c an b e b etter e xplained i f we v iew t he l atter a s occurring a t a s ubstantial d istance f rom t he c ave, a nd a s b eing c arried i n by p eople v isiting t he c ave, more o r l ess r egularly, o n a s easonal b asis, a nd i t i s t his p roposition that w ill b e developed i n t he f ollowing s ection. 1 5

i ii

E STABLISHING A MODEL

T he p resence o f marine a nimals, e specially s eals, i n t he d eposits i ndicates t hat NBC was e ffectively a coastal c ave f rom a bout 1 0,000 y ears a go, a nd t here i s no e vidence f or o ther t han m inor c limatic o r e nvironmental c hanges i n t he p ast 9 ,000 y ears. T he p robable e xpansion o f f orest a round 7 000 B P, a nd t he m id H olocene r ise i n s ea l evel s eem u nlikely t o u nderly t he c ultural c hanges e vident i n t he r ecord. E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge a rtefacts a re common i n t he a rea, both o n t he R obberg a nd i n t he v icinity, a nd N BC p resents u s w ith a r ecord o f more o r l ess c ontinuous p resence o f populations f rom a t l east 1 9,000 years a go. W e h ave, h owever, s uggested t hat f rom a round 1 6000 B P to 6 000 BP t he c ave may h ave b een v isited o nly s poradically, s uch t hat t he f ull c haracter o f t he l ithic material c ulture o f t hose i nvolved may n ot b e c learly r epresented. T hus, a lthough i t i s possible t hat t here i s a h iaitus i n o ccupation o f t he a rea p receding t he R obberg I ndustry ( Klein 1 974: 2 72) i t i s a n a rea w ith a v ery l ong h istory o f o ccupation a nd, more s ignificantly, o ne w hich h as enjoyed e ffectively u nbroken o ccupation s ince t he c oastline moved c lose i n a bout 1 0,000 y ears a go. A t t he p resent N BC i s s ituated i n a n e nclave b ordered b y t he s ea o n t he s outh, a nd by f orest t o t he east a nd t he w est. Twenty k ilometres t o t he n orth t he C ape Folded M ountains, l ess c ontinuously f orested ( Figure 8 ), r epresent a l and ward boundary, b ut apparently a more open o ne ( c.f. 2 i ii a bove, e specially L ichtenstein's p assage f rom t he B ay a rea). T he i ndications a re t hat, f or t he p ast 9 ,000 years a t l east, t he f ood r esources w ithin t his e nclave, e xploitable f rom t he c oast, h ave b een v aried and a bundant,

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a nd quite c apable o f s ustaining a small population continuously t hroughout t he s easons. We s uggest t hat t his e nclave h as e xisted i n more o r l ess i ts p resent s tate f or t he p ast 7 ,000 y ears ( 12 i i a bove). P rior t o t his i t may h ave b een l ess e nclosed by f orest t o e ast a nd west a nd, 8 , 9 , o r 1 0 t housand y ears a go t here m ay h ave been t he r emnants o f a dwindling c oastal s trip b elow t he l ine o f t he p resent c liffs. T he d ata r ecovered a s a r esult o f t he e xcavations described h ere s pan t he p ast 6 ,000 y ears, a nd c ommence a t, o r c lose t o, a period o f r apid c ultural c hange. I n o rder t o t ry t o u nderstand what w as h appening, a nd t o b e a ble t o a ttempt a n i nterpretation o f o ur own p art o f t he c ave's s equence i t s eems n ecessary t o d evelop a n a rgument c ommencing t wo o r t hree t housand y ears e arlier, i n what i s generally r eferred t o a s ' the A lbany'. I t i s a lso n ecessary t hat we s hould make s ome a ssumptions about t he s tatus q uo i n t he m illennia i mmediately p receding 6 000 B P. F or t his p urpose we c hoose a s a s tarting p oint a t hesis r ecently a rgued by P . J . M itchell i n t he c ourse o f h is s tudy o f t he S ehonghong m icroblade i ndustry ( Mitchell 1 987: 5 58-606*) which we may s ummarize a s f ollows. T he L ast G lacial M aximum was " a p eriod o f m arkedly r educed e cological d iversity a nd p roductivity i n S outh A frica"; a " time-stressed" e nvironment i n T orrence's ( 1983) t erminology. O ne r esponse t o t his, l ocally, was t he development ( or a doption) o f t he multi-barbed s pear, s et w ith untrimmed m icroblades. S uch a s pear would h ave h ad better p enetrating a nd holding p roperties t han a s imple s tone-tipped s pear. T he damage s uffered i n u se would b e l ess f ar-reaching t han f or t he s tone-tipped spear, a nd manufacture o f m icroblades t o r estore damage would t ake l ess t ime a nd l ess r aw material. T he small n odules o f f ineg rained r ock r equired f or m icroblade m anufacture c ould b e e asily c arried a round i n a h unter's s houlder b ag. The a doption o f t his t echnology, w hich l ed t o t he r eplacement o f ' MSA' t echnology b y ' LSA' t echnology, o ccurred s ometime b etween 2 5000 a nd 2 0000 BP i n t he s outhern p art o f A frica. A lthough t rends t owards t he c hange c an be i dentified i n s ome p re-Robberg a ssemblages M itchell ( ibid: 6 15) s ees t he c hange a s a pparently f airly r apid. T he s ubsequent t ransition f rom R obberg t o A lbany i s s hown t o b e l ess r apid t han h as been generally r epresented a nd r epresents " the s ummation o f a n umber o f t rends which a re a lready d iscernible i n t he l ater s tages o f t he R obberg i tself" ( Mitchell 1 987: 5 70). M itchell a rgues t hat o nly i n

* I t i s e xpected t hat t he s ubstance o f M itchell's doctoral t hesis w ill b e p ublished i n t he course o f 1 987 i n t he BAR I nternational S eries: o ne volume c o-authored w ith P . J . C arter o n t he S ehonghong e xcavations a nd t he m icroblade i ndustry, a nd a nother by M itchell o n t he L ate P leistocene m icroblade i ndustries o f s outhern A frica.

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s ome s ites i s t here b road c oincidence " with a s hift i n h unting patterns b rought a bout by t he i mpact o f e nvironmental c hange o n r esource a vailability". I n s ome a reas m icroblade a ssemblages d isappear w ithout a ny m ajor c hange i n t he c omposition o f a ssociated f aunal a ssemblages, w hile a t a n umber o f s ites t he t ransition f rom f aunas dominated by l arge, g regarious g razing a nimals, t o t hose i n w hich s mall b rowsers a nd m ixed f eeders a ssume d ominance, a ctually o ccurs well a fter t h R obberg/Albany t ransition. I f t he i nterpretation b ased o n t he a ppearance o f m icroblade i ndustries i s c orrect, t hen t heir d isappearance i mplies t he a bandonment o f t he multi-barbed s pear a s a p rimary h unting w eapon. M itchell ( ibid: 5 82) a rgues t hat t his h appened i n r esponse t o t he development ( or a doption) o f t he bow a nd a rrow a s a more e ffective p rojectile w eapon, a nd s ees t he b one points i n t he A lbany l evels a t N BC ( Deacon, J . 1 984a: 2 38) a nd a t B ushman R ock S helter, i n t he T ransvaal ( Plug 1 981 a nd 1 982) a s e vidence o f t his. J . D eacon ( 1984b: 2 43) h as s uggested t hat t he c hange r eflected t he r eplacement o f s tone a rmature o f a rrows ( Robberg) by bone ( Albany), b ut f ailed t o m ake a ny s uggestions a bout t he i ntroduction o f t he b ow i tself. M itchell's a rgument h as greater appeal, i f o nly b ecause i t l eaves a n iche f or t he i ntroduction o f backed b ladelets/flakelets i n t he e arly H olocene. We h ave s een, a bove, t hat t here a re s ubstantial a rguments f or v iewing a t l east s ome s egments a nd backed b ladelets/flakelets a s a rrow a rmatures, a nd Deacon's p roposal w ould t herefore require t he s lightly u nsatisfactory s ituation o f a bandoning t he u se o f s tone a rmatures i n f avour o f bone, o nly to r eturn t o t hem a f ew t housand y ears l ater. I f M itchell i s correct i n s uggesting t hat t he d emise o f m icroblade manufacture r eflects t he i nvention/adoption o f t he bow a nd a rrow we a re f aced w ith i nteresting q uestions a s t o t he n ature o f bows a nd a rrows a t a round 1 2000 BP, a nd t heir s ubsequent h istory. I f t he bow w as i nvented m ore t han o nce, a nd we h ave d eal w ith a l ocal i nvention i n s outhern A frica, i t would be l ogical t o s uppose t hat t he w eapon w as i nitially designed t o k ill o r wound by t he i mpact o f a s imple s elf-arrow, o r o ne t ipped w ith a h ard w ood o r b one p oint. I f, o n t he o ther h and, t he bow a nd a rrow r eached s outhern A frica f rom t he n orth, i t i s n ecessary t o a dmit t he possibility t hat t he l ight-weight bow a nd a rrow employed a s a d elivery s ystem f or p oison m ay h ave a lready e volved, a lthough a t a n e arlier s tage p oison may h ave b een i n u se w ith a h eavy bow a nd s imple a rrow f or a l ong t ime b efore t he r ealisation t hat poison c ould be e ffective w ithout a t raumatic wound, a nd c ould b e d elivered w ith m uch l ighter e quipment. A n i mportant c onsideration i s t he h igh p robability t hat i nitially we a re dealing w ith a h eavy bow a nd a rrow r elying o n t raumatic wounding r ather t han a l ight-weight b ow w ith c omposite a rrow a cting a s a delivery s ystem f or p oison a s a k iller. T his p ermits u s t o e nvisage a n e volutionary h istory

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i n w hich t he e ffectiveness o f t he i mpact weapon was i ncreased by t he a ddition o f s tone e lements ( segments/backed b lades) t o t he a rmature, s ome 8 ,000 y ears a go. The d evelopment o f t he l ight-weight bow a nd a rrow, used with posion, may h ave c ome l ater, b ut c ould h ave preceded t he a doption o f s tone a rmature. T he a rgument i s f avoured h ere a s a ccommodating t he e vidence f rom NBC ( and other s ites s panning t he e nd P leistocene/early H olocene), b ut h as a lso b een p roposed by M anhire e t a l ( 1985: 1 70-171) i n c onnection w ith e lements i n t he r ock a rt o f t he s outhwest C ape. H umphreys ( 1979: 3 66, q uoted by M anhire e t a l., i bid) h as apparently detected a n i ncrease i n bone a rrowheads c oincident w ith a decline i n backed b lade production i n t he i nterior o f s outhern A frica. T he a rchaeological d ebate a bout h eavy a nd l ight-weight bows makes h ighly p ertinent Vedder's o bservation t hat t he Bergdama p ossessed two t ypes o f bow: t he l ight-weight ( San) bow f or h unting, a nd a h eavy bow f or f ighting* ( Vedder 1 922). A nother e xample w hich e ncourages t he c oncept o f t he existence o f a n a ltogether h eavier bow i s t hat o f a n e ngraving a t S pringbokoog, a bout 1 00 km s outh o f Kenhardt, i n t he northern C ape. D uring a s eminar i n Oxford ( 15.v.87). D r. J . D eacon s howed s lides o f e ngravings a t t his s ite, i ncluding o ne o f a h unter h olding a bow, a nd h alf c rouched i n f ront o f a n e land i nto t he b reast o f which h e h as j ust s hot a n a rrow. What makes t he depiction i nteresting i s t he s cale o f t he bow: whereas bows i n p aintings a nd e ngravings a re g enerally d epicted a t a s cale, i n p roportion t o t he h uman f igure, w hich s uggests t he small, t raditional S an bow, this bow i s c arefully depicted a nd i s a lmost a s l ong a s t he h alf-crouched h unter. I nterestingly t he a rrow i s a lso d epicted a s m uch more massive t han o ther a rrows i n t he e ngraving. I t would b e unwise t o make t oo much o f t his example, b ut i t i s a n a dditional p iece o f c ircumstantial evidence i n f avour o f t he f ormer existence o f a h eavy bow a nd a rrow. A s cenario o f t his k ind i s u seful, n ot o nly a s a f ramework t o a ccommodate s ome o f t he t echnological data f rom N BC, b ut because i t a lso a llows u s t o i ntegrate t he e vidence w ith demographic considerations i n a n a ttempt t o v iew t he data i n t erms o f h uman s ocio-economic b ehaviour. We h ave s uggested t hat f rom a t l east 1 0000 BP t he c oastal s trip, e ither s ide o f t he R obberg p eninsula, r epresented, w ith i ts h interland, a n e nclave r ich i n f ood r esources, both p lant a nd a nimal, w ith a n e quable y ear-round c limate, c apable o f s upporting a small population t hrough a ll s easons o f t he y ear. We c an c onceive o f o ther e nvironments ( vide Parkington 1 972) i n w hich t here may h ave b een constraints t o m ove s easonally t o o ther a reas, b ut w e do n ot b elieve s uch c onstraints existed d uring t he p ast 1 0,000

* I am g rateful t o A di I nskeep f or drawing t his t o m y attention i n t he c ourse o f h er t ranslation i nto E nglish.

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r eference o f Vedder

y ears i n t he a rea w ith which we a re c oncerned. W e s uggest, t herefore, t hat t he population r epresented i n t he A lbany l evels a t NBC, a t l east s ince 1 0000 B P r epresents a s table, i f small, population which r emained p ermanently i n t he a rea t hroughout t he l ate P leistocene a nd t he Holocene. W e do n ot a rgue f or t otal i solation f rom populations t o east o r west, b eyond t he f orests, o r t o t he n orth, i n o r b eyond t he mountains, a nd whilst we c an s ee n othing i n t he f aunal r emains o r t he r egional e nvironmental evidence t hat might e xplain t he a brupt c ultural c hanges s ome 6 ,000 y ears a go, i t c annot b e denied t hat s uch c hanges could r eflect a cculturation s temming f rom contact w ith other p eoples f urther a field. We do n ot, h owever, f avour s uch a n e xplanation, i f o nly because o f t he abruptness o f t he c hanges a t a round 6 000 B P a nd a gain a t 3 300 BP. I t h as a lready been noted, a bove t hat t he b acked m icroliths a nd small, c onvex s crapers, which do most to d efine t he ' Wilton', appear e arlier i n a nd b eyond t he Cape Folded M ountains t han t hey do a t NBC a nd c ontinue l ong a fter t heir d isappearance a t NBC. We a re i nclined, t herefore, t o v iew t hem a s i tems t hat were i ntroduced t o t he R obberg c oastal r egion by s easonal v isitors, f or w hom t hey were c ustomary i tems o f equipment, whose v isits c eased a bout 3 ,300 years a go. S uch a n explanation would a ccommodate a n umber o f f eatures v isible i n t he H olocene s uccession at N BC, a nd s hould b e amenable t o t esting by f uture r esearch. I n t he f irst i nstance i t would p rovide a mechanism f or t he i ntroduction o f quartz c rystals a nd c halcedony f or n either o f which a re we aware o f l ocal s ources o f s upply. O ur l ack o f k nowledge o n t his i mportant i ssue i s c ertainly n ot proof t hat t hese r aw materials were not a vailable w ithin t he c atchment a rea o f t he c ave, o r by s hort expeditions beyond i t. B ut t he a bruptness w ith which t hese materials appear a nd d isappear i n t he r ecord a nd t he s udden d isappearance o f t he small, c onvex s crapers w ith w hich t hey are c losely, t hough not exclusively, a ssociated, s eem i ncompatible w ith t he n otion o f c hanges i n f ashion ( e.g. o f skin-dressing p ractices) r esulting i n t he a utochthonous l oss o f i nterest i n a l ocally available a nd much u sed r aw m aterial. I ntuitively t he evidence f its b etter w ith t he n otion o f q uartz a nd c halcedony b eing c arried i n small quantities, b y s easonal v isitors, f rom a n a rea i n w hich t hey were r eadily a vailable a nd by p eople who were t raditionally a ccustomed t o u sing t hem. We h ave noted B inneman's ( 1984) a ssertion t hat small, c onvex s crapers were made a nd u sed f or working s kins. W e h ave a lso a rgued above t hat t he a ssociated l arge, q uartzite s crapers s hould n ot be v iewed s imply a s l arge r epresentatives o f t he s ame c lass o f t ool, p erforming t he s ame f unction: i f t hey were a ssociated w ith skin-dressing i t i s c ertain t hat t he p rocesses were r adically d ifferent. T he p reparation o f s kins a s garments, b lankets, a nd c ontainers c an be a ssumed both f or t he period before 6 000 B P ( Albany) a nd f or t hat a fter 3 300 B P b ut t he o nly tools

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t hat can, w ith a ny c onfidence, be a ssociated w ith s kind ressing i n t hese p eriods a re t he s patulate bone p ieces w ith ground a nd worn e dges ( bone s patulae o f t his r eport, b one spatulates o f J . D eacon 1 978 f igures 1 0 a nd 1 1): p ossibly l arge s crapers a nd/or o ther s tone t ools were a lso i nvolved. However, t he t iny s ize, r efined f inish, a nd s pecialised method o f h afting ( Deacon a nd D eacon 1 980) o f t he small, convex s crapers i mply a n a ctivity very d ifferent f rom anything t hat s eems p ossible a t NBC p rior t o 6 000 B P o r s ubsequent t o 3 300 B P. T he a ppearance o f t hese small s crapers, a lbeit i n small n umbers, i n R obberg c ontext, a nd o ccasionally i n A lbany c ontexts, s uggests a l ong h istory b ut low i ntensity f or t he p rocesses t hey s erved, b ut o ne w hich a cquired a n e ntirely n ew s ignificance b etween 8 000 a nd 7 000 B P a t s ites i n t he mountains a nd t he i nterior, a nd a pparently much e arlier i n Namibia a nd Z imbabwe ( J. D eacon 1 984b: t able 2 a a nd page 2 49). B ut a t n one o f t hese s ites i s t he s tratigraphy r efined e nough t o r eveal whether t he p rocess o f a cquiring n ew s ignificance was r apid o r g radual. N or do we k now why t he p rocess s hould h ave s uddenly b lossomed. The i nference we draw f or NBC i s t hat t he p rocessing o f s kins w ith small, c onvex s crapers was i ntroduced t o N BC a nd t he a djacent a reas s ome 6 ,000 y ears a go, not a s a r esult o f ' culture c ontact' ( i.e. d iffusion o f t he i dea f rom a d istant s ource), b ut a s a r esult o f p eople, t o whom t he p ractice a nd t he a rtefacts w ere a n ormal p art o f l ife, a ctually v isiting a nd l iving a t t he c oast on a r egular basis. P recisely t he s ame a rgument would a pply t o s egments a nd b acked f lakes/bladelets v iewed a s c omponents o f a rrow a rmature. That s uch s tone c omponents c ould b e i ncorporated i n t he l ight-weight c omposite a rrows o f t he n ineteenth c entury s outhern S an h as been a dequately demonstrated ( Goodwin 1 945; C lark, J . D . 1 977; J . D eacon 1 984b), b ut i t i s l ess e asy t o i magine s ome o f t he c omplicated s ettings i llustrated by C ooke ( 1958), f rom t he r ock a rt i n Z imbabwe, b eing s ustainable o n s uch l ight a rrows. B ut t his i s n ot t o s ay that h eavy b ows a nd a rrows, w ith s tone s ettings, d id n ot exist. O f i nterest i n t he NBC c ontext i s t he f act t hat s egments e ffectively d isappear f rom t he r ecord w ithin a f ew c enturies o f t heir i ntroduction ( by c 5 300 BP) whereas i n o ther s ites b eyond o ur ' enclave' t hey p ersist f or m uch l onger; i ndeed, i nto t he n ineteenth c entury. T his must s urely r eflect t he u ser's p erception o f t he u sefulness o f t he technology, a nd t his m ight, i n t urn, r elate t o t he t errain a nd t he t ype o f game b eing h unted. W ithout embarking o n a d etailed a nalysis o f s ite l ocations a nd f aunal r emains, what i s n otable i s t hat most o f t he s ites p reviously r eferred t o ( Wilton, Melkhoutboom, Boomplaas, D ie Kelders a nd B yneskranskop 1 ) l ie o utside t he l imits o f t he Knysna f orest, whereas NBC ( and Matjes R iver) a re s ituated i n a n e nclave w ithin t he f orest. O akhurst, w hich o ffers i nteresting c omparisons a nd c ontrasts w ith N BC i s s ituated i n t he western e dge o f t he f orest, a t a point w here t he coastal p lain t o t he west w as p robably a lways a ccessible. I ts openness t o t he west i s p erhaps i ndicated

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b y a s omewhat s tronger p resence o f b acked s crapers ( Goodwin 1 938; S chrire 1 962) which both Goodwin ( ibid: 3 07) a nd C lark ( 1959: 2 01) r ecognised a s c haracterising t he m ore w esterly r eaches o f t he s outh c oast, a nd t he s outh w est C ape. S egments a t O akhurst p ersist i nto t he pottery-bearing s urface l evels. T he c haracter o f t he f auna f rom t he H olocene l evels a t N BC i s s uch t hat, i f we a llow t he c orrectness o f t he s uggestion t hat b ushpig a nd b uffalo w ere t aken i n p itfall t raps ( 12 i i a bove), t here i s v ery l ittle t o e ncourage t he e xtensive u se o f bow a nd a rrow i n h unting. T he a rgument, h ere, i s t hat a rrows w ith backed s tone s ettings may h ave h ad a v aluable r ole t o play i n t he i ntermontane v alleys a nd t he i nterior, t hat t hey w ere b rought t o NBC, t ogether w ith o ther i tems o f t heir c ultural t ool-kit, by p eople w ho b egan v isiting t he coast, s easonally, s ome 6 ,000 y ears a go. R e-furbishing o f s uch a rrows would a ccount f or t he s mall n umbers o f backed p ieces e ncountered, b ut i n t he p articular e nvironment around P lettenberg B ay t he s cope f or s uch a w eapon was l imited a nd i t was e ffectively i gnored h ere i n f avour o f t he s imple b one-tipped a rrow f rom a round 5 300 B P. I t i s i nteresting t hat d rills ( borers) e ffectively d isappear a t t he s ame t ime a s s egments. B inneman ( 1984: 1 46) f ound h ide p olish o n t hree o f t he f ive s pecimens, f rom B oomplaas, e xamined by h im, b ut a dmits t hat more w ork i s r equired t o c onfirm t his. T he a bsence o f a ny u nfinished o strich e ggshell b eads a t NBC m ay b e u seful i n e liminating b ead d rilling a s a r aison d' être f or t he d rill p oints a t N BC. E qually t here i s n o c ompelling r eason f or a ssociating t hem w ith t he d rilling o f t ype 3 s haped p endants, which d isappear f rom t he r ecord a l ittle l ater, a s t he t ype 1 s haped p endants were e vidently d rilled w ithout t he a id o f s uch p ieces. T o a ccount f or t he a bandonment o f s uch a n a rtefact i t i s n ecessary t o a ssume e ither t hat t he p urpose f or which i t w as made c eased t o b e p racticed, o r t hat i ts f unction was t aken o ver by s ome o ther a rtefact. I f t he f unction w ere p iercing h ide o ne m ight e xpect a compensatory i ncrease i n bone awls, b ut t here i s n o s uch i ncrease. What does s eem c ertain i s t hat t he d rills, i f t hey were u sed o n h ide, were n ot l inked i n a n e ssential way w ith t he s kind ressing a ctivities r epresented b y t he small, convex s crapers. Were i t n ot f or t heir a pparently u nrelated f unctions i t would b e t empting t o l ink t hem i n s ome w ay w ith t he u se o f s egments. U ntil a c learer p icture emerges o f t heir p robable f unction t heir l imited t emporal d istribution a t NBC c an do l ittle t o h elp u s understand t he p rocesses a t w ork t here i n t he e arly t o m id H olocene. W ith t he d isappearance o f s egments a nd d rills a round 5 300 B P t he o nly c haracteristically " Wilton" a rtefacts r emaining a re t he s mall, c onvex s crapers which p ersist, i n a v ery p ositive way, f or a f urther 1 ,000 y ears ( to u nit 7 6, e stimated a t c 4 250 B P) a fter w hich t heir p resence b ecomes e rratic a nd r educed, u ntil t hey e ffectively disappear a t a bout 3 300 B P. T his i s a s harp r eminder t hat a rchaeological ' cultures' o r ' industries' a re n o more t han a ssociations o f

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a rtefacts, a vailable t o t hose c oncerned, s erving t he n eeds o f t heir makers/users w ithin a f ramework o f s pecific s ystems o f e nvironment, r esources, a nd s ocio-economic s trategies. Variability i n a ny o f t hese s ystems may b e r eflected i n dependent t echnologies ( as P arkington, 1 980, h as a rgued). We s ee t his k ind o f b ehavioural r esponse a s u nderlying t he d isappearance o f s egments a t N BC, a nd p robably o f d rills a lso, a nd t hey a re p resumably t he s ort o f t hing H . J . D eacon h ad i n m ind when h e s poke o f ' adjustments' w ithin a ' homeostatic p lateau' ( Deacon, H . J . 1 976: f igure 4 3). T he c hange i n t he f ortunes o f small s crapers a fter u nit 7 5 ( estimated a t 4 250 B P) c oincides a pproximately w ith s everal o ther f eatures ( Figure 8 1) f or w hich dates b etween 4 520 a nd 4 400 B P a re g iven o r e stimated. Q uartz c ores d isappear f rom t he r ecord ( Figure 2 0), a handful o f b acked s crapers a ppear i n t he s ite, s hale ' sinkers' make t heir f irst appearance, p erforated Donax s hells d isappear, a nd a period o f c hange, i ncluding g reater r egularity, i n t he e xploitation o f s hellfish ( Figure 6 7) i s i nitiated ( lack o f s amples a bove u nit 4 3 p revents u s f rom f ollowing t his t hrough t o more r ecent t imes). T he c ombination o f t hese i ndividually m inor c hanges h as t he a ppearance o f a nother ' period o f a djustment', b ut o ne f or w hich an e xplanatory h ypothesis i s l ess e asily d erived. T he i nflux/use o f q uartz a nd c halcedony do n ot c ease ( Figure 1 5, 1 6, 1 8, 2 0) a nd, o n t he h ypothesis a dopted h ere, w e a ssume t hat t his m eans t hat s easonal v isits by t he g roups r esponsible f or i ntroducing t he ' Wilton' e lements t o t he s ite had n ot c eased. T hey may, h owever, h ave b ecome l ess r egular, l eaving t he l ocality w ith a n o verall l ower p opulation d ensity a nd l eaving t he a boriginal i nhabitants w ith a g reater d egree o f f reedom i n t heir e xploitation o f r esources. T his may h ave r esulted i n t he a ppearance o f a m ore ' professional' a pproach t o s hellfish e xploitation ( or r ather t he r eduction o f d isturbing i nfluences f rom s easonally v isiting g roups), a nd t o t he d evelopment o f n ew a pproaches t o f ishing, i ncluding t he u se o f s hale s inkers. I t may a lso h ave b een r esponsible f or t he a pparent decline i n t he i ntensity o f o ccupation o f NBC s uggested by t he f igure o f 9 0 y ears p er u nit f or t he r ate o f a ccumulation g iven i n F igure 8 1. I n d iscussing t he p erforated Donax s hells ( 7 x ii a bove) we h ave s uggested t hat t hey m ay h ave s erved a s l eg r attles, s ubstituting f or d ried s pringbok-ear p ouches, o r c ocoon c ases, t raditionally u sed i n t he i nterior b ut i nappropriate o r u nobtainable a t t he c oast. I f w e a ssume t hat l eg r attles h ad l ess s ignificance f or t he a boriginal c oastal f olk ( Albany) a nd t heir d escendants, t he d isappearance o f p erforated D onax s hells m ight b e e xplicable i n t erms o f a s ignificant r eduction i n t he f requency o f v isits f rom i nland g roups. T his i s n o more t han a possible e xplanation based o n a n a ssumed f unction w hich may n ot b e a c orrect o ne. I n t he c ollection o f t he P itt R ivers M useum, a t O xford i s a f ishing n et f rom N ew G uinea w ith f loats o f l ight wood a long o ne e dge, a nd w eights o f s mall, p erforated s hells o f a s ize a nd s hape s imilar t o t he G lycimeris g ueketti s hells, d escribed a bove

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( 7 x i) a s p endants ( or b eads), a long t he o ther. P erforated Donax s hells may well h ave s erved s ome s uch u tilitarian f unction, b ut i f t hey w ere a f ishing a djunct i t w ould b e s urprising i f i t were n ot s hared w ith, o r even adopted f rom, o ur postulated p ermanent c oast dwellers a nd o ught t o h ave r emained i n u se. T hus f ar w e h ave s uggested t hat a n u nmistakably ' Wilton' m aterial c ulture was i ntroduced t o t he P lettenberg B ay a rea, o ccupied a t t hat t ime by ' Albany' p eoples, about 6 ,000 y ears a go, o r a l ittle e arlier. A fter a f ew h undred y ears b acked e lements, i ncluding drills, e ffectively d ropped o ut o f t he t ool-kit, l eaving a ' Wilton c ulture' t hat was r ecognisable o nly by i ts s mall, c onvex s crapers i n q uartz a nd c halcedony a nd i ts p ractice o f b urying w ith t he d ead, q uantities o f p ersonal e ffects ( Inskeep 1 986: 2 292 33). Notable among s uch e ffects a t O akhurst a nd Matjes R iver, w ere o strich e ggshell water-bottles which m ust h ave b een c arried i n f rom b eyond t he f orest. O ther t hings m ust h ave b een i nvolved, b ut a re n ot a pparent i n t he N BC r ecord. I n e ffect, what we a re d ealing w ith f rom 5 300 to 3 300 B P i s a h ighly l ocalised e xpression ( ' Robberg v ariant' p erhaps) o f t he ' Wilton c ulture', p resent, a s t hroughout t he H olocene, by v irtue o f s easonal v isits by g roups f rom t he i nterior, a nd d iluted, t hroughout t he H olocene, by s mall a dditions o f e ssentially ' Albany' m aterial contributed b y t he p ermanently r esident ( at t he c oast) A lbany g roups, o r t heir descendants. F rom a bout 4 500 B P t he c ontribution o f W ilton m aterial i s l ess r egular, a nd by 3 300 BP i t e ffectively c eases. F rom a round 3 300 B P t he descendants o f t he o riginal ( Albany) i nhabitants f ound t hemselves t he s ole o ccupants o f t his s tretch o f c oastline a nd i ts i mmediate h interland, a nd b egan a n ew p rocess o f a daptation. F igure 8 1 s uggests t hat t here w as a n i nitial p eriod o f a round 4 00 y ears w hen t he c ave was u sed m uch more f requently ( 21 y ears p er unit), f ollowed by a lmost a t housand y ears o f l owered f requency o f u se ( 34 y ears p er u nit), f ollowed i n t urn by 1 ,400 y ears o f v ery l ow i ntensity o f o ccupation ( 184 y ears p er u nit). A lthough t hese f igures a re l ikely t o b e d istorted both b y u nderestimation o f t he a ctual n umber o f o ccupation e pisodes ( including e vidence beyond t he l imits o f excavation), a nd b y l ack o f c hronological control b etween r adiocarbon dates, t hey a re p robably a t l east a cceptable a s i ndicators o f g eneral t rends. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote ( Appendix 7 , a nd J . D eacon 1 984a, t able 1 1) t hat a rtefact densities a fter 3 300 B P r eturn t o l evels very c lose t o t hose o f t he A lbany. I t i s a m atter o f r egret t hat w e c an o nly t race t he pattern o f s hellfish e xploitation t hrough t he f irst f ew c enturies o f t he p ast 3 ,300 y ears o f o ccupation. We can, h owever, d o b etter w ith o ther f aunal r emains. T hroughout t aken i s d espite a n

t he p eriod 3 300-500 B P t he mean weight o f f ish twice what i t w as i n e arlier l evels ( Table 6 0) i nitial p eriod o f 3 00 y ears when t he n umbers o f

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f ish taken were v ery l ow ( Figure 7 0). T here s eems t o h ave b een a n ew a pproach t o s ealing, r esulting i n t he c apture ( or collection) o f m uch h igher n umbers o f v ery y oung, p robably y earling, s eals. T he f irst 1 ,200 y ears o f t his n ew cycle o f o ccupation i s marked by t he l owest i ntensity o f p rocurement o f mammals s ince 6 000 B P, f ollowed d uring t he next 1 ,600 y ears by t he h ighest i ntensity o f p rocurement, w ith t he emphasis h eavily o n s eals ( Figure 7 5). I n f act, t his period o f h ighest m ammal p rocurement i s i nteresting n ot o nly b ecause i t depends h eavily o n s eal c arcases, b ut b ecause i t r eflects, t oo, a n i ncreased e mphasis o n hyraxes a nd what h as b een r eferred t o i n 1 2 i v a bove a s o pportunistic h unting o f a nimals s uch a s mongooses a nd porcupine ( Figures 7 6-78), a lthough t he upward t rend i s r eflected i n a t l east a dozen s pecies. O ne h as t he i mpression o f r elatively small g roups o f p eople r elying i ncreasingly, a nd w ith p rofessional command, o n t he e xploitation o f m arine r esources: e xpert f ishing a bilities c oncentrated h eavily o n t he l arge y ellowtail a nd t he s mall s trepie; a c arefully c ontrolled a pproach t o s hellfish c ulling; a nd s uccess i n o btaining s eal c arcases. Small m ammals w ere s hot o r t rapped when t he o pportunity p resented i tself, t raplines c ontinued t o b e s et f or s olitary a ntelope, a nd p itfalls were m aintained f or b uffalo a nd b ushpig. T here i s s ome e vidence f or c hange w ithin t he p eriod. P ottery w as i ntroduced t o t he s ite by 1 150 BP, a nd possibly 4 00 y ears e arlier, a nd s heep were c ertainly p resent by 1 100 B P. The q uantities o f pottery a nd s heep s uggest t hat both w ere obtained v ery o ccasionally by b arter o r t heft f rom p astoralists who h ad moved i nto t he B ay a rea. T he d ates g iven a bove a re c learly t o b e r egarded a s m inimum dates, a nd some r easons f or t his h ave b een s et o ut i n 7 i a nd 1 2 v a bove. B ut i n a ddition, i f t he i ndications i n F igure 8 1, a s t o t he f requency w ith w hich t he c ave was being u sed w ithin t he past 2 ,000 y ears a re t o b e b elieved, t here i s p lenty o f s cope f or e vents i n t he B ay a rea t o h ave e scaped r eflection i n t he c ave's r ecord. I n a ny c ase, w hether a t 1 150 B P, 1 450 B P, or s till e arlier, i t i s t empting t o s ee a l ink b etween t he evidence f or i ncreased l evels o f mammal p rocurement, p articularly s eals, d uring t he p ast 2 ,000 y ears, a nd t he a rrival o f pastoralists i n t he a rea. I t s hould be n oted t hat i f t he c hronology f or t he i ntroduction o f s heep a nd p ottery i s u ncertain, s o t oo i s t he d ate o f t he s hift i n i ntensity o f mammal p rocurement: t he b locks o f u nits a re, t o a l arge e xtent, a rbitrary, a nd t he boundary may b e s et t oo h igh o r t oo l ow. Were t he s amples l arge e nough t o t race t he change, u nit by u nit, i t would a lmost c ertainly a ppear a s a g radual, r ather t han a brupt c hange. T he c hange, p articularly i n s ealing, s eems t o c all f or s ome t rigger, a nd the most l ikely c andidate would s eem t o b e t he a rrival o f pastoralists o n t he s cene, a t whatever date t hat was, a nd the e stablishment o f s ome s ort o f barter s ystem i nvolving s kins a nd/or meat. T wo

i tems

o f

e quipment o f

i mportance a s d irectly

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r elated

t o

t he a cquisition o f f ood h ave n ot been d iscussed i n detail b ecause t he e vidence r elating t o t heir f requency o f u se i s l ess c lear t han f or s ome a rtefact c lasses. T hey a re t he bow a nd a rrow, a nd t he s tone-weighted d igging s tick. T he bow a nd c omposite a rrow were c learly k nown a nd u sed b y t he c ave's o ccupants d uring t he p ast 3 ,300 y ears, a s t hey were by t he e arlier Holocene i nhabitants, b ut t he e vidence, t enuous t hough i t i s, does s uggest t hat t he bow a nd a rrows f igure more p rominently i n t he p re-3300 BP l evels t han i n l ater t imes ( 7 i v above). T he e vidence i s n ot overwhelming, a nd may r eflect no more t han l oss o r a bandonment o f arrow p arts by two g roups o f p eople ( pre-3300 BP) r ather t han o ne ( post 3 300 B P). I t may, o n t he o ther h and, b e r eflecting a t ruly g reater r ole f or t his device a mong h unters f rom t he i nterior t han among c oastal dwellers i n t his p articular e nvironment. T he s ituation w ith bored s tones i s r ather t he r everse, a nd i t i s l ess e asy t o p ropose a n explanation. T hey a re apparently u nknown i n t he N BC A lbany l evels ( J. D eacon 1 984a, t able 1 3) a nd make t heir f irst appearance i n t he B rown S oil C omplex, 6 ,000 y ears a go. O ur own r ecords ( 6 i v d , a nd 6 i v e , a bove) s uggest t hat t hey were m uch more a bundant i n u nits 1 48 t o 1 20 ( perhaps o nly a century o r t wo) a nd a fter 3 300 B P t han i n t he i ntervening period. I t m ay b e t hat t he apparent l acuna i s f ortuitous and s imply r eflects t he o verall l ow density o f t he a rtefact ( although d ebitage a nd t he i ncidence o f r eamers t end to q uestion t his). I f t he a rtefact c ame a s p art a nd p arcel o f t he i ntroduced ' Wilton' c ulture i t i s d ifficult t o account f or i ts very l ow f requency i n u nits 1 20-62. A n a lternative e xplanation would b e t o r egard i t a s a dopted by t he A lbany i nhabitants a t a bout 6 000 B P, w ith i ts s ubsequent l ow v isibility d ue t o l ess i ntense u se o f t he c ave during i ts p eriod o f u se b y v isiting g roups f rom t he i nterior. T he model developed a bove s eems p lausible, a nd accommodates most o f t he o bserved f acts. I t does, h owever, r equire o ne more c omponent i n t he s equence, a nd t hat i s a t rigger f or t he movement t hat b rought p eople s easonally t o t he c oast. S uch a t rigger i s most l ikely t o h ave i ts o rigin i n m ovements s et i n t rain by c limatic s hifts e xerting p ressures t hrough c onsequent c hanges i n r esources, a nd p erhaps s imple h uman c omfort f actors ( extreme h eat o r c old). J . D eacon ( 1974) f irst p roposed s uch f actors t o a ccount f or a nomalies r evealed i n a n a nalysis o f r adiocarbon dates f or t he p ast 2 0,000 y ears i n s outhern A frica. Among o ther t hings s he concluded t hat i n r esponse t o i ncreasing d ryness d uring t he e arly t o m iddle H olocene " the l ater S tone A ge population o f s outhern A frica d ecreased i n t he d rier a reas o f t he i nland p lateau d uring t he period b etween 4 600 a nd 9 500 BP". S he s ubsequently ( J. D eacon 1 984b: 3 22) e xpressed s ome r eservations a bout h er o riginal p roposal, p ointing t o a m ore complex s ituation. B ut i n a n exhaustive r eview, w ith N . L ancaster ( J. D eacon a nd N . L ancaster, i n p ress) o f a ll t he a vailable data b earing o n c limate i n s outhern A frica h er o riginal v iew i s g enerally upheld. A t f ive s ites i n t he i nterior ( N. Cape a nd T ransvaal), a t B oomplaas i n t he C ape F olded M ountains

3 00

r ange, a nd a t G roenvlei o n t he c oast west o f R obberg t he period b etween 7 000 a nd 4 000 BP p roves t o b e t he warmest, a nd Boomplaas r egisters i ts w armest p eriod, i n a l ong s equence, a t a round 6 400 B P, when t he a rea was e xperiencing ' hot dry s ummers'.* I t s eems, t hen, t hat c onditions m ay h ave b een s uch t hat, i n t he early H olocene, movements t ook p lace f rom s ome d rier a reas o f t he i nterior t o p eripheral a reas, i ncluding t he C ape Folded M ountains, a nd t hat p eoples l ocated i n t he p eripheral a reas, w hose t erritorial r anges p erhaps e xtended i nto t he d rier i nterior, m ay h ave e xchanged t hese f or i ncreased i nterest i n t he a reas c oastward o f t he mountain r anges, a t l east i n s ome a reas. T he i dentification o f ' hot d ry s ummers' i n t he c entral p art o f t he s outhern C ape F olded M ountains t empts o ne t o s uggest t hat p eople moved a way to t he c oast d uring t he s ummer months, a nd i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he o ral t radition c ollected by H . J . Deacon ( 1969: 1 63), r ecording t he movements o f t he l ast B ushman b and i n t he mountains 8 0 km N .N.E. o f R obberg, h as t he band o ccupying " a s eries o f t hree c aves, o ne o n t he c oast f or s ome t wo months i n s ummer, a nother i n t he B aviaanskloof i n w inter a nd a t hird, t he l ocation o f w hich i s k nown i n a t ributary v alley o f t he Kouga R iver, d uring t he remainder o f t he y ear". T hat s ome f orm o f c ontact b etween t he mountains a nd t he c oast h ad existed f or a v ery l ong t ime i s i ndicated by t he o ccurrence o f w orked a nd u nworked marine s hell f ragments a t B oomplaas e xtending back a t l east 1 0,000 a nd p erhaps 1 2,000 y ears. S uch f ragments do n ot h ave t o i mply s easonal m ovement between mountains a nd c oast, a nd more p robably r eflect t he e xistence o f a n e xchange n etwork. T hey p robably d o mean, h owever, t hat s ome k ind o f k nowledge e xisted o f t he r egions t o t he s outh, w ith t heir g reat bordering o cean, a nd t his k nowledge, a nd t he e xchange n etwork, would h ave p layed a n i mportant r ole i n t he e stablishment o f more p ositive c ontacts w ith t he c oast. W e s uggest t hat i t was t he amelioration o f a dverse c limatic c onditions i n t he i nterior f rom a bout 4 000 BP ( Butzer 1 984, a nd J . D eacon a nd N . L ancaster, i n p ress) t hat p ermitted a g radual, a nd e ventually f inal, w ithdrawal f rom t he s ystem o f t ranshumance t hat h ad b rought i nland f olk, s easonally, t o the c oast. We h ave a lready s een t hat t he e vidence f or s easonality a t t he c ave i s c onfusing, w ith both s ummer a nd w inter i ndicators, b ut i f t he s ituation w ere a s s et o ut a bove, w ith s ummer ( ?) v isitors s haring t he c oast w ith a y ear-round r esident p opulation, t hat i s n o more t han would b e expected.

* I am g reatly i ndebted t o J anette D eacon a nd N . L ancaster f or a llowing m e a ccess t o t heir m anuscript i n a dvance o f p ublication.

3 01

As l ong a go a s 1 972 J . D eacon ( 1972: 3 8) s uggested, o n e vidence f rom t he W ilton t ype s ite, s upported by M elkhoutboom, " that t he c oastal c ontacts were i nterrupted o r n o l onger employed" f rom s ome t ime b efore 2 000 BP, a nd H . J . D eacon ( 1972: 3 8, 1 976: 5 2) p oints t o t he o ccurrence o f s hell m iddens a long t he banks o f t he F ish a nd S undays r ivers a s f urther e vidence o f " competition f or t he coastal h abitat". I t s eems a s a cceptable t o s uggest t hat t hese r esponses r eflect n ot c ompetition, b ut s imply a bandonment o f i nterest i n t he c oastal r esource z one.

3 02

1 5

i v

COMMENTS AND SOME ALTERNATIVES

I n c onstructing t he f oregoing model, which we may c all Model 1 , o thers w ere considered b ut r ejected a s l ess convincingly a ccommodating t he available e vidence. We t herefore s et o ut i n s ummary, below, t he f our models considered, i ncluding t hat a dopted a bove. Model

1

The N BC A lbany p eople were y ear-round r esidents a t t he coast, and t he ' Wilton' o ccupation ( quartz a nd c halcedony, segments a nd small s crapers) r epresents i nland dwellers i nduced by e nvironmental c onstraints i n t he i nterior ( vide Deacon, J . 1 974) t o begin a p attern o f s easonal movement t o the c oast a round 6 000 B P, where, f or perhaps a s l ittle a s two m onths a y ear, t hey s hared t he r esources w ith i ndigenous ' Albany' populations, u ntil 4 500 B P when, a s a result o f e nvironmental amelioration i n t he i nterior, t he need f or s easonal t ranshumance ( to t he c oast, a t l east) was reduced a nd t heir v isits b ecame l ess f requent, e ventually ceasing a ltogether a t a round 3 300 BP, l eaving t he c oast f or the s ole ( year-round) o ccupancy o f t he descendants o f t he original ' Albany' p opulation. T his a ccounts f or: i )

t he apparently a brupt i ntroduction o f ( segments a nd small s crapers).

i i)

t he c ontinued p resence o f a macrolithic quartzite i ndustry a longside t he ( essentially) m icrolithic W ilton.

i ii)

t he i ntroduction o f n ew b urial c ustoms i nvolving t he p lacing o f c ultural material, i n q uantity, i n g raves, i ncluding o strich e ggshell water-bottles, b rought f rom b eyond t he f orests.

i v)

t he a brupt c essation o f t hose c ultural e lements a ssociated w ith t he ' Wilton' ( most o bviously, s mall s crapers a nd b urial p ractices).

v )

p ossible p ost-3300

r educed emphasis B P l evels.

' Wilton'

o n bow a nd a rrow

c ulture

i n

t he

The model f ails t o e xplain ( if t he c ave was being s hared between 6 000 a nd 3 000 BP) w hy c ertain e lements ( notably type I s haped p endants) do n ot a ppear e arlier i n t he s equence; a lthough, a s t hey were n ot p resent i n t he p re6 000 B P A lbany t hey must h ave b een developed s ubsequently, and 3 300 BP i s a s good a t ime a s a ny; nor does t he model explain t he abrupt d isappearance o f t ype 3 s haped p endants. The a bsence o f s ome, r ather r are, bone i tems c haracteristic o f t he p ost-3300 B P l evels, f rom ' Wilton' . levels may reflect n o more t han a r educed r elative f requency i n t hose l evels: a ' dilution' i n t erms o f a ccumulated a nd s ampled deposit.

3 03

T he model a llows f or i nnovation o f e ssentially a rtefacts ( e.g. s hale s inkers) i n what, on t he i s e ssentially a W ilton m ilieu. Model

n on-Wilton f ace of i t,

2

T he A lbany occupants o f NBC were e ssentially c oastal dwellers w ith a p attern o f s easonal t ranshumance w hich took t hem i nland, a t l east a s f ar a s t he mountains, w here t hey c ame i nto c ontact w ith t he s preading ' Wilton' complex which t hey adopted a nd c arried back t o t he coast a t P lettenberg Bay. i )

This r equires e ither a r evision o f J . D eacon's ( 1978) c hronology f or t he A lbany/Wilton t ransition a t NBC ( which may be n ecessary, a nyway), o r an explanation o f why t here was s omething l ike a t housand year d elay i n a dopting p ractices w ith which t hey were r egularly i n contact i n t he i nterior/mountains.

i i)

The model r equires s ome explanation a s t o why a pattern o f t ranshumance s hould i nitiated a nd s ustained when, f or 1 0,000 l east, t he coastal h abitat would a ppear to capable o f s upporting a population a ll year

i ii)

I t r equires a n explanation f or t he change at 3 300 BP, which would p resumably i mply c essation o f the s easonal movement i nland a nd y ear-round r esidence at t he coast.

i v)

W ithin s uch a model i t i s d ifficult t o a ccount f or t he abandonment o f a valid t echnique of s kin-dressing which presumably c ould h ave b een continued ( in quartzite) e ven i n t he absence o f quartz a nd c halcedony, h ad t he w ill existed t o do s o.

v )

I t i s a model w ithin which i t i s d ifficult to p rovide a n explanation f or t he abandonment o f s egments which, i f not u seful i n t he c oastal e nclave, m ight h ave been expected t o h ave e njoyed a l onger h istory o f u sefulness, a s t hey d id i n s ites i nland and t o east a nd west.

v i)

The model f ails t o a ccount o ccupation a t t he coast i n

Model

when, a nd h ave been y ears a t h ave been r ound.

f or t he evidence s uggesting both s ummer a nd winter.

3

T he ' Wilton' occupants o f NBC were s easonal m igrants f rom t he i nterior who b egan v isiting t he c oast some 6 ,000 years a go, b ringing quartz a nd c halcedony w ith t hem as p art o f t heir ' Wilton' material c ulture. T hey opted t o s ettle a t t he c oast, year r ound, f rom a bout 3 300 B P. i )

I t i s possible t o s uggest r easons f or commencing such a pattern o f t ranshumance, a s we h ave done i n M odel 1 , a nd a n umber o f s ubsequent developments c ould b e

3 04

e xplained a s i n Model 1 , b ut i t i s more d ifficult t o s uggest why t he pattern s hould b e a ltered t o y earr ound r esidence a fter 3 300 B P. i i)

A s with Model 2 , i t i s n ot e asy t o a ccount f or e ither t he abandonment o f small s crapers, o r t he e vidence f or b oth s ummer a nd w inter o ccupation; u nless o ne r etains t he o riginal ' Albany' population, a s i n Model 1 .

i ii)

T he model d oes n ot a ccount f or what o riginal ' Albany' i nhabitants.

iv)

T he model i s very s imilar t o Model 1 , b ut r esists p lausible e xplanations t o a ccount both f or t he d ecision t o s ettle p ermanently a fter 3 300 B P, a nd f or t he f ar-reaching c hanges i n material c ulture t hat o ccur t hen.

Model

became

o f

t he

4

No t ranshumance i s i nvolved, a nd culture' i s s imply c hanged by t he ' Wilton c ulture'. a ccommodate t ransition.

t he

t he o riginal ' Albany i rresistible s pread o f

i )

T his m ight A lbany/Wilton

l ate

date

o f

t he

i i)

Whilst i t i s e asy t o a ccept t he a doption o f n ew t echnologies i t i s l ess e asy t o s ee why t here s hould, a pparently, b e a n a ccompanying c hange i n b urial p ractices.

i ii)

S uch a model would a ccount f or both s ummer a nd w inter o ccupation a t t he c oast, b ut e ncounters d ifficulties i n explaining t he marked p resence o f o strich e ggshell water bottles a t O akhurst a nd M atjes R iver i n t he t ime-range o f t he ' Wilton'.

i v)

The model c ould a ccount f or t he a bandonment o f s egments i n t he s ame way a s Model 1 , b ut i t i s l ess e asy t o a ccount f or t he d ramatic c hanges a t 3 300 B P.

H istorically, a nd a t t he p resent, c ultural c hange i s s een t o b e most c ommonly a r esult o f a dding t o existing c ultures, o ften w ith t he r esult o f c ausing a trophy i n o ther parts of t he c ultural s ystem. T he s orts o f t hings t hat s eem t o b e taken up m ost r eadily a re t ools a nd weapons t hat a re s uperior t o o r more e ffective t han e xisting t ypes, i tems o f personal a dornment ( whether i ntended a s s uch, o r n ot), a nd t hings, g enerally, t hat a dd t o p restige. T he t hings which appear more r esistant a re i deological s ystems ( religion, magic, s orcery, o ral t raditions, f olk-tales e tc.). P ractices r elating t o d isposal o f t he d ead possibly f all s omewhere between. R eplacements r esulting f rom t raumatic confrontation b etween d ramatically c ontrasting t echnologies a nd i deologies, s uch a s o ccurred d uring t he E uropean c olonial movements o f t he e ighteenth a nd n ineteenth

3 05

c enturies, o r t he Roman o r Mongol c onquests o f earlier t imes, o r t he s pread o f I slam, a re p robably rare i n human h istory, a nd mainly o f r ecent date. The k ind o f t hing w e h ave t o deal w ith i n t he past 1 0,000 years at N elson B ay C ave i s p robably better described by t he examples drawn t ogether by C . S chrire ( 1984) i n P ast a nd p resent i n h unter-gatherer s tudies; a nd we h ave c hosen t o t hink of t he e vidence i n t hose s orts o f t erms. New i deas a nd n ew t echnologies may appear t o spread i nexorably, b ut t hey do s o by t he w ill a nd s elf-interest o f t heir r ecipients, not by s ome i nnate power possessed by t he objects o r i deas t hemselves. Choices a re i nvolved, and w e believe t hat t hese c an be s een operating i n the Holocene r ecord o f NBC. I t i s part o f o ur t hesis t hat an a boriginal c oastal c ulture, t he A lbany, r emained e ssentially u naltered t hrough 2 ,700 years o f r egular, t hough not n ecessarily h eavily i nteractive, contact w ith a people whose culture was, i n many o f i ts a spects, d ifferent. P resumably many o f t he p ractices a nd possessions o f t he ' other people' w ere r egarded a s n ot s ufficiently p resitigious o r useful to b e worth t aking over a nd building i nto t heir own cultural r epertoire: what was l eft when t he v isitors no l onger c ame was n o more d ifferent f rom what i t h ad been before, t han o ne would expect a fter t he passage o f 2 ,700 years. C ertainly we do n ot t hink t he NBC H olocene record can b e r ead i n t erms o f ' culture s ystem o ntogeny' a s s et out by C larke ( 1968: 2 74-286) a nd applied by J . D eacon ( 1972) t o t he s uccession a t t he W ilton type s ite. I n f act t he concept o f c ulture s ystem o ntogeny s eems t o u s t o be a c onvenient way o f c haracterizing what may be observed to h ave h appened over a period o f t ime w ithout explaining how o r why i t h appened. I n d iscussing t he NBC Holocene evidence, a s we h ave done i n Model 1 above, we h ave a ttempted a n explanation w hich i s c ompatible w ith t he major f eatures o f t he data, without t rying t o draw generalisations f rom t he observed p henomena. C learly t he explanations o ffered m ust r emain w eak u ntil t hey h ave been t ested, b ut we believe t hat some, i f n ot a ll, o f t he more i mportant p ropositions a re c apable o f being r efuted a nd, t o t his extent, t he model m ay be a u seful g uide t o f uture f ieldwork. 1 5

v

TESTING THE CONCLUSIONS

T he h ypothesis s et out i n 1 5 i ii above would be m ost wisely t reated a s j ust t hat, a t l east until i t h as been t ested by f urther f ieldwork a nd a nalysis. There a re ample opportunities both o n t he Robberg p eninsula and i n the a rea g enerally f or a spects o f t he model t o be t ested ( Figure 8 3, a nd R udner, J . a nd I . 1 973), a nd f ieldwork o n t he c oast s hould, i deally, be complemented by i nvestigations on t he c oastal p lain a nd t he i ntermontane v alleys to t he north. I f t he model i s correct, t here o ught t o be s ites i n t he e nclave, most p robably i n t he coastal s trip, i n which t he c lassic e lements o f t he ' Wilton c ulture' ( small scrapers

3 06

R OBBERG : S he l l M iddens T he ' Gap '

-15

7

S e%

4

C C

I nC aves S : I n S he l te rs • I n T he O pen

C'

T he ' I s land '

F igure 8 3. w hich s hell

S ites o n a nd a djacent m iddens a re p resent.

t o R obberg

P eninsula

i n

a nd backed e lements) a re e ither a bsent, o r p resent i n s uch s mall q uantities a s t o s uggest c asual a cquisition, w ithin t he t ime-range 6 000 t o 3 300 B P. C ave o r s helter s ites m ight n ot be t he b est p laces t o l ook f or s uch e vidence a s t hey a re obvious f oci f or s ettlement a nd c ould b e e xpected t o s how t he s ame m ixture o f o ccupations i n t he c ritical t imer ange a s h ypothesized f or NBC. P ossible e xceptions t o t his m ight b e t he c aves s ituated f arther e ast o n t he R obberg ( Figure 8 3). Two c aves t ogether a s hort d istance e ast o f ' the Gap', a nd t wo c onsiderably f urther e ast, b eing l ocated f urther f rom t he h interland m ight b e t hought t o h ave a ttracted o ccasional s ettlement by s pecialised c oastal dwellers, b ut n ot by s hort-term v isitors f rom t he i nterior. I ntuitively o ne would e xpect t he l atter t o f avour s ites f rom which t he h interland r esources c ould b e more r eadily e xploited. T he excellent r eview o f e arly ' digging' i n c aves o n o r c lose t o t he Robberg, by J . a nd I . R udner ( 1973) i ndicates s ome o f t he possibilities, t hough i t makes s ad r eading i n t erms o f t he damage w rought. I t i s i nteresting t hat b urials a nd numerous b one t ools a re r ecorded f rom t he d iggings, b ut t here i s n o mention o f m icrolithic t ools. A t o ne o f t he t wo c aves i mmediately e ast o f ' the G ap' ( Cave 7 o f t he R udners's p aper) K lein ( personal c ommunication a nd h is 1 970 f ield n otes) c leaned up a t rench c ut e arlier b y t he l ate

3 07

D r. A . C . H offman, s ometime D irector o f t he National Museum o f t he O range F ree S tate, b efore r emoving t he r emnants o f s hell m iddens overlying a t l east 2 .5 m o f sterile s and. P lant r emains were well p reserved i n t he walls o f Hoffman's t rench a nd a g rab s ample a nalysed b y H . J . Deacon ( 1972: 3 7 a nd t able 2 ) p roved t o contain o nly Z ostera c apensis, p resumably u sed f or b edding. A d ate o f + 3 600-4000 BP i s q uoted b y D eacon, a nd i t i s i nteresting that Klein's f ield n otes mention b edding, s hells, a nimal bones ( mostly f ish a nd b ird), a nd " not much i n t he w ay o f a rtifacts", t hough t wo bone awls a re mentioned. I t s eems p retty certain t hat s mall s crapers a nd backed p ieces w ere n ot p resent, a s t hese w ould a lmost c ertainly h ave r eceived specific m ention. I t s ounds v ery m uch a s i f t he H olocene o ccupation i n t his c ave e quates w ith o ur u nit, 6 2 upwards, b ut i t would b e of v alue t o c onfirm t his a nd t o obtain a dequate s amples f or c omparison o f both c ontent a nd c hronology with t he N BC s amples. C onfirmation o r r efutation, o f t he l onger s equence c ould a lmost c ertainly b e obtained f rom s urviving d eposits a t M atjes R iver, despite t he l arge v olume o f material already r emoved. A nother p ossible c andidate f or a l ong s equence i s t he c ave d ue w est o f NBC, j ust o ff t he p eninsula. This s ite i s p robably b etter described a s a s helter, a nd l ies below a modern G riqua v illage. A n e normous h ole h as been dug, t o a depth o f t hree o r f our metres i n t he deposit b ut, l ike Matjes R iver, i t s eems p robable t hat a n adequate s ample c ould b e r ecovered f or c omparison w ith NBC, a nd i t s eems l ikely t hat t he deposits s pan a l ongish p eriod. T he c onclusions r eached h ere a bout t he movements o f people a nd t he c omposition a nd d ietary e conomy of p opulations r esident a t t he c oast i n d ifferent t ime r anges a re r emarkably s imilar t o t he c onclusions r eached by S ealy ( 1986: 8 9-90) f or t he s outh-western Cape o n t he basis o f s table c arbon i sotope a nalysis o f h uman s keletons f rom t he a rea s tudied. A s a t Robberg, i ntensive exploitation o f c oastal f ood s ources e xtends back a t l east 1 0,000 years. T hroughout t his p eriod " some i ndividuals l ived a lmost e ntirely o ff marine f oods.... [ others] a re t he r emains o f p eople w ho c onsumed m uch more t errestrial f ood". " In t he c ritical 4 000-2000 B P t ime p eriod, i nland dwellers consumed v ery l ittle marine-based f ood, w hereas coastal dwellers a te c onsiderable amounts". D espite c riticisms, t he results , p resented e lsewhere ( Sealy a nd v an d er M erwe 1 986: 1 35-150, i ncluding CA c oment), r eceive a g ood deal o f s upport. I f t he methodology were applicable i n t he p articular e nvironments o f N BC a nd O akhurst C ave i t would be o f c onsiderable i nterest t o examine t he s keletal r emains f rom t hese s ites, a nd p erhaps o ther s ites w ithin the v icinity o f R obberg. S keletons w ithin t he t ime-range 6 000 t o 3 300 B P m ight b e e xpected t o s how a m ixture o f r esults, b ut t hose l ater t han 3 300 B P would b e expected t o i ndicate o verwhelming dependence o n c oastal f ood r esources.

3 08

Whether o xygen i sotope a nalysis o f s hells ( vide S hackleton 1 973) could b e e xtended t o s hed f urther l ight o n s easons o f occupation i s a moot point. S hackleton's work h as b een quoted ( Deacon 1 984b: 2 66) a s i ndicating w inter o r e arly s pring occupation a t a round 6 000 B P. B ut t he two i dentified s hells u sed by S hackleton a re g iven a s c oming f rom m iddens j a nd C . J i s p resumably m idden J ake, w hich i s well down i n t he A lbany, a nd d ates t o 8 990 BP. T he s ample l abelled " C" cannot, o n t he p ublished i nformation, be p laced: i t may come f rom t he m idden " Chris", i ncluded by J . D eacon i n u nit RB ( in w hich c ase i t could be a lmost a ny a ge b etween 8 570 a nd 6 070 B P), o r a u nit called R ice C , i n w hich c ase i t s hould b e a t l east a s o ld a s 8 570 BP. Both s hells a re s aid t o c ome f rom ' Wilton' m iddens. The o ther f ifteen s hells t ested b y S hackleton a re not i dentified a s t o s ource, a nd t he i nformation t hat t hey c ome f rom ' Wilton' m iddens must c learly b e t reated w ith caution. There a re n o g rounds f or q uestioning S hackleton's conclusion t hat a ll t he s hells h e a nalysed w ere c ollected during t he w inter h alf o f t he y ear ( May-October) b ut, f or t he ' Wilton' l evels described i n t he p resent r eport, we c annot a ccept h is conclusion t hat t he evidence o f t he s hells ( if t hat i s where t hey come f rom) p oint, t o n onoccupation i n t he s ummer months: t oo many f actors m ilitate a gainst t his, s uch a s watsonia corms, s ummer f ish s pecies, a nd b irds. O nly P atella t abularis were u sed, a s t hese l ive a t, o r below, t he Spring Low T ide Z one, a nd a re n ot s ubject t o f actors t hat m ight d istort t he s easonality o f t heir i sotope r atios. T his r ather s pecialized h abitat m ight, h owever, h ave b een s omething e xploited by specialized coast-dwellers b ut n ot by t emporary m igrants f rom t he i nterior. Occupation o f t he c ave i n s ummer months by noncollectors o f P . t abularis m ight r esult i n a p ersistent w inter p attern f or s uch s hells e ntering t he c ave between + 6 000 BP a nd 3 300 B P. We s hould n ot, however, e xpect a s olely w inter d istribution i n t he A lbany l evels u nless t here were particular r easons f or e xploiting t his a nimal i n w inter o nly. H ence t he i mportance o f k nowing j ust w here t he f ifteen u nspecified s amples c ame f rom a nd, i ndeed, t he s ample l abelled " C". O ur own r ecords ( Figure 6 7) s how t hat P . t abularis w as t aken much more r egularly a fter 3 300 B P, a nd h as a r ather e rratic h istory b efore t his. S hackleton's w ork i s more v aluable a s a n i ndication o f t he p otential o f t he method t han a s a s atisfactory s tatement o n t he pattern o f s easonal u sage o f t he c ave. A g reatly e xtended p rogramme o f i sotope a nalysis, i ncluding P erna perna, w hich a re apparently s uitable, a nd p ossibly o ther s hells, m ight a dd much t o t he i nformation o n s easonality o f o ccupation, a nd t his c ould h elp i n t esting t he proposals m ade i n Model 1 . O ne can f oresee g reat v alue f rom a n extension o f t he p ioneer a pplication b y B inneman o f m icro-wear t echniques t o t he s tudy o f S outh A frican s tone a rtefacts. H is c onclusion t hat small s crapers w ere made a nd u sed f or working o n s kins

3 09

i s i mportant, b ut i t f ocuses a ttention o n t he question ' what t ools were u sed i n t he a bsence o f small s crapers?' W e h ave a lready s uggested a bove t hat t he small s ize of t he s crapers a nd t he peculiar method o f s ide-hafting a rgue f or a r ather s pecialized, a nd p erhaps d elicate use f or t hese a rtefacts, a nd o ne wonders i f t hey w ere u sed m ore i n t he d ecoration o f s kins a s i llustrated a nd d escribed by M . W ilman ( 1933: p late 2 , a nd c aption) r ather t han i n t he p rimary d ressing p rocess. I f t his w ere t he case i t becomes p ossible t o l ink t he small s crapers w ith c ultural behaviour w hich m ight b e more r estricted i n b oth t ime and s pace t han t he g eneral p ractice o f p reparing s kins f or c lothing o r c ontainers. T he i dentification o f t he t ools used f or t his l atter p rocess, i n d ifferent p eriods a nd g eographical c ontexts t hen b ecomes a matter o f c onsiderable i nterest, a nd m ight l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f the h istory o f s mall s crapers a t NBC a nd e lsewhere. T he e vidence o utlined e lsewhere ( Inskeep 1 986) as t o p ossible c ultural p atterning i n b urial p ractices deserves f urther c onsideration. What do b urial p ractices i n t he mountains a nd b eyond l ook l ike i n t he s ame t ime-ranges? I s t here s ubstance i n t he i mpression t hat b urials a re more a bundant i n c oastal a nd n ear-coastal c aves than i n t heir i nland c ounterparts, a nd a re b urials i n c oastal c aves m ore a bundant i n t he p eriod 6 000-3300 B P t han i n t he ensuing 3 ,000 y ears? D irect dating o f s keletons, w here t hey s urvive, m ight h elp i n t he r esolution o f t he l ast o f t hese q uestions; t he o thers may h ave t o await t he s low a ccumulation o f data f rom continuing f ieldwork. We h ave noted a bove ( 7 x i) t he e vidence i n t he form o f s hell o rnaments a nd p erforated Donax s erra for d irect o r i ndirect c ontact b etween t he mountains a nd t he c oast; h ere t here i s n o p roblem a s t o t he g eneral s ource o f t hese materials, e ven i f a p recise p rovenence c annot b e s uggested. I n t he c ase o f t he small, s quare pendant, bead, o r s equin w ith f our p erforations, f rom Meklhoutboom, t here i s a c ase f or i ncluding NBC i n t he n etwork i nvolved i n t he manufacture a nd movement o f s uch p ieces. We h ave a lso noted ( 7 x a bove) t he p resence o f o strich e ggshell b eads a nd b ottles which m ust h ave c ome f rom b eyond t he forest, m ost p robably f rom n orth o r e ast, a nd o f t ortoise carapace bowls w hich a re a lso l ikely t o h ave b een c arried i n directly, o r b y i ntermediate e xchange. K nowledge o f t he s ources of s uch m aterials m ight a lso p rovide s ome t est f or the model i f a nalyses were c apable o f d istinguishing s ources. I t h as b een s uggested a bove t hat t he e ggshell bottles ( notable i n ' Wilton' g raves a t O akhurst a nd M atjes R iver) c ame w ith s easonal m igrants f rom t he i nterior. T ortoise carapace bowls, h owever, a re more c ommon i n t he post-3300 B P l evels, a nd i t i s p redictable t hat t hese r eached NBC, by c oastwise movement, f rom t he e ast, a s t he n orth/south c onnections a ppear t o h ave c eased o r b ecome m uch r educed i n t his t imer ange.

3 10

Apart f rom t he n eed t o t est p ropositions f orming p art o f t he model, t here i s a n eed, a s well a s g reat potential, t o obtain more i nformation f rom NBC i tself. T he post-3300 BP l evels a re p robably a dequately s ampled, e xcept i n t he matter o f c harcoals f or s pecies i dentification, a nd possibly o ther p lant r emains which m ight o ccur i n a shy l enses. B ut t he o lder l evels a re much i n n eed o f s ampling o ver a l arger a rea. T he r ecovery o f p lant r emains i n t he l ower, a sh-dominated, l evels s uggests t hat f lotation would be well r ewarded. T here i s a lso t he n eed t o determine whether o r n ot t here a re f acies d ifferences i nvolved i n t he W ilton l evels, i ncluding s patial patterning, which may h ave d istorted t he s amples f rom t he r ather small a reas opened. T he s tratification e ncountered i n o ur 1 964/65 t est p it ( Figure 3 ) s uggests t hat t he A lbany i s c apable o f m uch g reater s ubdivision t han i t h as r eceived, a nd c areful e xcavation over a l arge e nough a rea, c loser t o t he mouth o f t he cave, w here t he l ight i s better, a nd i n t he i mmediately o verlying B rown S oil Complex, m ight s hed i mportant l ight o n t he i nternal d evelopment o f t he A lbany, a nd t he c rucial p roblem o f t he c hronology a nd ' replacement' by t he ' Wilton', whether e arly o r l ate, a brupt o r g radual. I n their d iscussion o f t he h afting, f unction a nd d istribution o f s mall, c onvex s crapers H . a nd J . D eacon ( 1980: 3 5) made a p lea f or " models o r e xplanatory h ypotheses w ith p redictive power t hat h ave a b asis i n t echnology, s ubsistence e cology o r d emography... t hat can b e used a s a s tarting point f or t he meaningful s tudy o f a rtefact variability a t a n i nter-industrial l evel". We h ope t hat, i n s ome s mall measure, i n o ur d iscussion o f t he NBC data, we h ave d elivered s uch a n h ypothesis. C ertainly we s ee what h as b een done a s a point o f departure f or f uture r esearch, r ather t han a c onclusion.

3 11

1 6 A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I n s uch a l arge u ndertaking, s pread o ver s o many y ears i t i s i nevitable t hat a very l arge n umber o f people h ave h elped i n many d ifferent ways. S ome h ave g iven much t ime a nd e xpertise, o thers much t ime a nd p atience to o ften h ard a nd boring work, while o thers h ave h elped for s horter s pells, o r w ith e xpert a dvice o r d iscussion, w ith h ospitality a nd e ncouragement. To a ll o f t hem I am deeply g rateful. T he Appendix 5 2 c ontains a l ist o f all t hose who h elped i n t he f ield, w ith t he e xcavation; i t i s a s c omplete a s my r ecords p ermit. I h ope I h ave n ot omitted a nyone a nd t rust I s hall b e f orgiven i f I h ave, o r i f I have got t he r ecord w rong by a w eek h ere o r t here. To a ll of t hese, a nd a ny I may h ave m issed I e xpress my m ost s incere thanks. T he work was c arried o ut u nder a p ermit i ssued by t he N ational Monuments C ouncil o f S outh A frica ( for excavation, a nd t emporary e xport o f s ome s pecimens), and b y k ind p ermission o f t he D ivisional Council o f K nysna, w ho a re r esponsible f or t he a dministration o f t he Robberg Nature R eserve, w ithin w hich t he c ave l ies. F unding came i n t he f orm o f r esearch g rants f rom T he U niversity o f Cape Town S taff R esearch F und, t he H uman S ciences R esearch C ouncil ( South A frica), T he Wenner G ren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch I nc. ( Grant No. 1 742), t he A nthropology a nd G eography F aculty o f t he U niversity o f O xford ( for f ieldwork a nd p hotography), T he Swan F und o f t he U niversity o f Oxford ( for f ieldwork a nd photography), t o whom g rateful a cknowledgement i s m ade. T he l ate M r. B asil B rown, o f P retoria k indly p aid f or t he walling up o f a small overhang a djacent t o t he c ave, a s a lock-up f or t ools a nd equipment. A lthough I h ave l isted h elpers i n A ppendix 5 2, and e xtended my t hanks t o t hem a bove, t here a re a f ew t o whom a s pecial w ord o f a ppreciation i s due. F irst, my w ife Adi, a s elfp rofessed c ity g irl who, n one t he l ess, s pent her f irst w edding a nniversary c atering, i n t he f ield, for a dozen p eople b ecause S outh A frica's s egregation l aws would n ot p ermit u s a ll t o d ine t ogether i n t he l ocal restaurants, a nd who doggedly p ut up w ith t hree s easons o f hard l abour a t t he c ave a nd i n t he k itchen. H er c ontribution was a g reat o ne, g reatly appreciated. F or t hree s easons C edric P oggenpoel was a t ower o f s trength, p hysically t ireless, a

3 12

s kilful excavator, a nd a g reat s ustainer o f morale. I don't k now a nyone who c ould h ave contributed q uite a s much. I n t he t hird a nd f ourth s easons we were l ucky e nough t o h ave t he a ssistance o f h is w ife Gwennie, who n ot o nly f ormed p art o f t he t eam a t t he c ave, b ut d id much i n t he k itchen t o i ncrease o ur a ppreciation o f t raditional C ape c ooking. C aroline C artwright j oined u s i n t he t hird s eason a s a s tudent f rom my own department a t t he U niversity o f C ape Town a nd i n t he f ourth, a s a c olleague f rom t he S ussex A rchaeological R esearch U nit a t t he U niversity o f L ondon. T he h ighly p rofessional s tandard o f r ecording i n t he f ield i n t hat l ast s eason w as e ntirely d ue t o h er expertise, r eliability, a nd t irelessness. My w ife a nd I owe a s pecial d ebt o f t hanks t o h er l ate c ousin Gene Naude, a nd h er h usband ( Professor) A ndy Naude f or warm a nd u nstinting h ospitality when we r eturned t o S outh A frica i n 1 974 t o work o n t he material excavated t o t hen, a nd a gain i n 1 979. T heir k indness a nd c heerful e ncouragement d id much t o c ompensate f or m uch o f t he h assle i nvolved i n s uch t rips. A nd t o S ybil a nd C onnell M aggs o f Constantia who, i n 1 974 t urned o ver t heir h ouse, dogs, a nd c ars f or o ur f ree a nd u nfettered u se, a nd M axon a nd E unice t o make good o ur deficiencies a bout t he h ouse, a nd who a lso k indly a ccommodated u s a fter t he 1 979 s eason, whilst we worked o n t he material r ecovered; o ur most s incere t hanks. I owe a p articular d ebt o f g ratitude t o a n umber o f c olleagues a nd f riends who h ave g iven g enerously o f t heir t ime, e xpertise, a nd a dvice i n r eports, l etters, a nd d iscussion, a nd whose e fforts f orm k ey p arts o f t his r eport. T hey i nclude P rofessors R . G . K lein ( Chicago: mammals), J . E . P arkington ( Cape T own: s eals), M . M . Smith ( Grahamstown: f ish), C edric P oggenpoel ( fish), D r. A lan Morris ( Cape T own: h uman r emains), D r. J . C . Vogel ( C.S.I.R. P retoria: r adiocarbon dates), G raham A very ( S. A . M useum, C ape T own: b irds) a nd P rofessor H ilary D eacon a nd A nton S choltz ( University o f S tellenbosch: p lant r emains). J ohn G reig a nd C hris S tuart o f t he P rovincial A dministration o f t he C ape o f Good H ope D epartment o f Nature a nd E nvironmental Conservation p rovided valuable i nformation o n t he b irds, mammals, a nd r eptiles o f t he Keurbooms a nd G oukama n ature r eserves. D r. C . J . Geldenhuys a nd c olleagues o f t he D epartment o f F orestry, S aasveld Forest R esearch S tation was most h elpful over t he l iving p lant r esources o f t he R obberg a nd a djacent a reas, a nd D r. B rian S chrire o f t he Royal Botanic G ardens, Kew, k indly updated t he t axonomy o f t he p lants i n A ppendix 1 . P at R iley k indly d rew f igures 5 1 a nd 5 2 a nd l ast, b ut n ot l east, G illian N aish t yped t he manuscript, i ncluding most o f t he t ables a nd appendixes, a nd Marian C obbold t ackled s everal o f t he more u nwiedly t ables a nd a ppendixes. To a ll t hese f riends, c olleagues, a nd h elpers I o ffer my s incere t hanks. T hey h ave g reatly a dded t o t he value o f t his work, t hough f or i ts s hort c omings o nly t he writer i s r esponsible.

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Nelson Bay Cave, Cape Province, South Africa The Holocene Levels

R. R. Inskeep with contributions by G. Avery, R. G. Klein, A. G. Morris, C. A. Poggenpoel and J. C. Vogel

Part ii

BAR International Series 357(ii) 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mea4, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B AR S357 (II), 1987: 'Nelson B ay Cave, Cape Province, South Africa' Part II © R.R. Inskeep, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388519 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388526 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544647 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346311 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544647 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

APPEND IXES , R EFERENCES AND P LATES

CONTENTS

Appendixes

314

References

472

Plates.

487

A ppendix 1 . L ist o f f orest f lora f or t he immediate v icinity o f Robberg a nd i n n earby f orests, s uch a s H arkerville f orest s ome 1 0 km t o t he west o f R obberg, k indly s upplied b y C . J . Geldenhuys o f t he S aasveld F orest R esearch S tation. A breviations: H abit; t ree ( t), s hrub ( s), f ern ( f), c limber ( c), b ulbous ( b), h erbaceous ( h): P lace; R obberg ( R), H arkerville ( H), K nysna D ivision ( Kn): U ses, e dible f ruit ( ef), e dible b ulb/corm ( eb), e dible v egetative p art ( ev), e dible s eed ( es), medicinal ( med): A uthorities; S aasveld ( Sa), Watt a nd B reyer-Brandwijk 1 962 ( W), P algrave 1 977 ( P), P almer a nd P itman 1 972 ( PP), S tory 1 958 ( S).

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s

R . u ndulata

N ov - F eb

e f

J

- J un

e f ( Phillipn

P

A pl

- A ug

e f

( So)

P

O ct,

N ov

e f

( So)

R

M ar - J un

e f

( Sa)

H

A pl

e f

( Sa)

K n

( Sa);fruitn h eavily ( P474)

1 931)

( W50)

A QUIFOLIACEAE I lex m itin

t

- J ul

( P492)

c ontinued... 3 14

A vail-

U ses a nd S ources

a bility P ODOCARFACEAE A l] . y ear

P odocarpus r alcatus P .

e f

( Sa)

l atifolius

A RACEAE Z antedeschin a ethiopica

e b,

e v

( Sa)

m ed

( W 6 96)

m ed

( W 6 89)

( W115)

L ILIACEAE C hlorcphytum A loe

c omosum

a rbor . ,s cens

A gapnnthus p raecox P rotasparagus

p lumosus

P . a ethiopicus P . r ubicundus

? R , H

M yrsiphyllum s candens M .

a sparogoldes

e f

, H

( So)

m ed

( W 6 90)

? R

m ed

( W 6 88)

? 1 ?,H

P oisonous

A MARYLLIDACEAE S cadoxuE,

p uniceus

( W 3 5)

S . s p.

D IOSCOREACEAE D ioscorea m undtii

I RIDACEAE D ietes

i ridioides

m ed

5 n4)

A ristea e nsifolia C hasmnnthe a ethiopica

P EPEROMIACEAE P eperomin

t etraphylla

? P

M YRICACEAE M yrica s errata

O ct.

3 15

e f:

y ields w axy o il

( p 9 5)

c ontinued...

A vail-

U ses

a bility

a nd S ources

U LMACHAE S ticks,

C eltis a fricana

s poons,

h uts

( W

1 032)

M ORACEAE F icus b urtt-davyi F .

C

s ur

A ug - M ar

e f

( Sa)

O ct - M ar

e f

( So

J ul Feb

e f

( Sa)

O ct,

e dible

:P 105)

f ire-sticks

S ANTALACEAR C olpoon

c ompressum

P OLYGONACEAE R umex s agittatus

R ANUNCULACEAE K nowltonia c apensis C APPARIDACEAE C apparis s epiaria M nerun

v ar.?

r acemulon

N ov

A ug - O ct

f lower b uds

e f(Sa),

e dible

( FP 2 204)

r oots

( PP2205)

C RAS ULACEAR C otyledon o rhiculata

m ed

C rassula s pp.

r oots

( W320) o f s ome

s pp.

e dib.(PP2205)

P ITTOSPORACEAE F ittosporum v iridif lorum

m ed

( W 8 47)

L EGUMINOSEAE S chotia a fro D i poc ion

var.?

? F t

O ct - M ar

e s

( P 2 75)

l ignopum

O XALIDACEAE O xalis s p.

3 16

c ontinued...

A vaila bility

U ses a nd S ources

I CACINACEAE A podytes d imidiata P yrenacantha s candens

S APINDACEAE A llophyllus d ecipiens

RHAMNACEAE S cutia m yrtina

F eb - A pl

e f

( So)

( P553)

R hamnus p rinoides

J an

- M ar

e f

( Sa);

m ed(W883);

( P555)

( W1059)

V ITACEAE R hoicissue d iritata

J an,

F eb

e f

( Sa);

m ed.,

R .

J an

- A pl

e f

( Sa);

r ope,baskets

J an

- M ay

e f

( Sa);

m ed,

O ct

- J an

e f

( PP 1 548)

t omentosa

r ope

( P563)

T ILIACEAE G rewia

o ccidentalis

s pears,bows(P576)

O CHNACEAE O chna

a rborea

F LACOURTIACEAE K iggelaria a fricana

t

? R

S colopia m undii

t

? R

S .

t

? R

t

? R

z eyheri

T rimeria g randifolia D ovyalis

r hamnoides

m ed

( W 4 47)

J an,

F eb

e f

( Sa);

D ec

- J un

e f

( Sa)

( W

44 0)

( P A 3q)

O LINIACEAE O linia

v entosa

T HYMELAEACEAE G nidia

d enudata

S truthiola s p.

? P

s tring ( Sa)

? R

s tring ( So)

P asserina s p.

s tring

3 17

( Sa)

( W 1 125)

continued...

C . ) r 1

c t ,

A vaila bility

U ses a nd S ources

U MAFILIFERAE R hyticarpus s p.

? R

P eucedanum c apense

? R

m ed

? R

a ssegai

1 040)

C ORNACEAE Ourtisia d entata

( W 3 10)

M YRSINACEAE m ed

( W 7 8?)

J ul - Jan

e f

( Phillips

A pl

e f + e d.

l eaves ( PP 2 ?05)

O ct - J un

e f

( Sa);

m ed

F eb - M ay

e f

( Sa)

v ar.?

F eb - S ep

e f ( Sa)

( pp 1 785 )

v ar.?

A pl - O ct

e f

( P 7 4)

M yrsine a fricnna R apanea m elanophloeos

S APOTACEAE S ideroxylon

i nerme

1 931)

( W 9 33 )

E BENACEAE E uclea c risp

s ubsp.?

?

E . n atalensis E .

p olyandra

E .

r acemosa

E .

s chimperi

E . u ndulata

- D ec

( Sa)

( W 3 9n)

( pp 1 783)

D iospyros g lahra D .

d ichrophylla

D .

w hyteana

- M ay

e f ( So)

C LEACEAE f oveolata

s ubsp.?

N ov - J ul

e f ( So)

e uropaca s ubsp.

a fricana

M ar - J ul

e f

F eb - S ep

e f ( Sa)

( W 8 18)

e f ( Ss)

m ed

C hionanthus O lea 0 .

c apensis

s ubsp.

c apensis

O .

c apensis

s ubsp.

m acrocarpa

O .

e xasperata

( Sa)

e dib.leaves,

m ed(PP1821)

( P 7 59)

( PP 1 827)

S ALVADORACEAE A zima

t etracantha

J an

3 18

- J ul

e f ( PP 1 837)

m ed ( P 7 61)

c ontinued...

A vail0 . .

U ses a nd S ources

a bility

A POCYNACEAE a rrow p oison;

' Acokanthera . o ppositifolia C arissa

M ay - O ct

b ispinosa ? R

G onioma k amassi

e f

e Sa)

w ood

m ed

( P 7 81)

( W 3 ()

t oxic

( W83)

A SCLEPIADACEAE C ynanchum e llipticum S arcostemma

e v ( S 40 ) p oisonous v ariety e xists

v iminale

S ecamone a lpinii T ylophora c ordnta

L ABIAT E S tachyn

m ed

n ethiopicn

( W 5 27)

S CROPHULARIACEAE H alleria

? R

l ucida

M ay - D ec

e f

( Sa),

m ed

( W 9 '3)

G ESNARIACEAE S treptocarpus

rexii

A CANTHACEAE D icliptera z eyinnica

h

H ypoestes v erticillaris

h

R

m ed

( W3)

R UBIACEAE B urchellia b ubalina

N ov - ? t

R othmannin c apensis

? H

C anthium m undinnum C . o bovatum

t

C .

t

i nerme

G alopina

C ircaeoides

var.?

H

e f m ed

( Ga) ( W 9 04)

N ov

- M ay

e f

( Ga),

M ar

- M ay

e f

( PP 2 103)

N ov

- M ar

e f

( Ga),

( PP2 0 9 7)

m ed

( W 8 97)

h

C UCURBITACEAE Z ehneria s cabna K edrostis , nana

? R v ar.?

m ed

3 19

( W 3 59)

continued...

A vnil-

U se a nd

a bility

s ource

C ELASTBACEAE M aytenus a cuminata M . h eterophylla M .

p rocumbens

P utterlickia p yracnntha P terocelastrus

t ricuspidatus

C assine a ethiopica

C .

p npillona

C .

p nrvifolin

C .

p eragun

C .

t etragona

C .

e ucleiformis

m astic J un

J ul

- J an

- S ep

A ug,

C . m aritimum

S ep

( W18 ‚4 )

( Sa); h andles,kerries,fue1,(W177) ( P509)

e f

( Sa)

e f ( 5a)

e f ( Sa)

COMPOSITAE V ernonia m espilifolia

Z YGOPHYLLACEAE Z ygophyllum m orgsnna

m ed

( W 1 076)

LOGANIACEAE B uddleja s alignn

m ed;

a ssegai

( W 7 27)

A RALIACEAE C ussonia

t hyr iflora

c ontinued...

3 20

4, • . 1 , r )

0 . ) 0 f r 1

A vaila bility

U ses a nd S ource

C OMFOSITAE T archonanthus

c amphoratus

t

m ed

R

( W294),

m ed,smoking,infusion

( PP 2 157) H elichrysum p etiolare

h

R

S enecio a ngulatus

c

P

S .

c

1 ' ,

C hrysanthemoides m onilifern s ubsp.?

s

P

G erbers c ordats

h

P

q uinquelobus

m ed O ct - J uly

e f

( W 2 97) ( Ga)

( W213)

O SMUNDACEAE f

T odes b arbers

? R

S CHIZAEACEAE M ohria

c affrorum

f

R

f

P

f

P

f

R

f

R

f

P

m ed

G LEICHFNIACEAE Gleichenin p olypodioides

D ENNSTAEDTIACEAE P teridium a quilinum •

A DIANTACEAE/ P TER1DACEAE C hpilanthrs v iridis

v ar.?

A SPLFYIACEAE A splenium r utifolium

A SPIDIACEAE/ D RYOPTERIDACEAE R umohre a dinntiformir ;

3 21

( W 1 087)

( PP 7 165)

N 1 • t 0 4. )

E ( 0

• -

( P

r a •

▪r -

c

C . ) W 0 — « 1 ▪ tn C . t y l•

•H X

C r 1

c l

I l l

( 2 4

•

c

U ) a ) 7 .

T S c ' N

a )r c r . .H N

0

40 / 1

• •

C ON 0 3 T 1

E 4 )H t : 1 4

a )

•

C

a )

t r i

, • • • •

•

a l

( i ) G . )

C D

. i t\ 0 c \ t

. . t c 0 \ 0

( 1 1

4 U )

. . . , 1 . , . • ( r ) a ) r a t

. , . c d

. . . . .

a )

P . .

S 4 c d

H

( i )

C H C I )

C D

0 U )

E N 1 0

> )

c s -

( ) I

A

W

• E 4 4 0 . ) • — 1 E

f r s 4 ) r 2 4 I •e

( C S C

c n

U )

•

N 1 • I 0 O C . ) X C i D —

• 0 C

0

( T i

• •

•H ▪

c e « I

5 : 1 4 >1 •H

40 / 1

—

C N 1

—

X

U 0

. 4

4

U )

E 4

c d P .

( . ) C I )

e i P .

a l P i

a l P i

c d

o

u

c . )

c . )

a . )

r i

c d

C D

C D

i n

i n

c d

I 4, U 0

I 4 > C . ) 0

Z I I ) U 0

c d i n I 4 ) U 0

a l i n I 4 ) U 0

4

. 4

. 4

4

. 4

( r )

E 1

4

C e 4 ) C d

c i ) H

— i

2 a ) a . a )

S 4 C e

a )

P 0 l i P . ,

5 .

1

• r i 1 1

. -.

a s H H 0

c d

g

, .4 . 9

c s )

c d a . c n

, Z P

4 . 0

c d C D g i 0 Z

E u ) a l

c u 0 a . ). , _ , + ) z . a . ) , 0 a l 4 1 )

4 >

V S 1 a i

0 i . , 0

U g i

a .

( p i

o

a l 0

o

. U

U ) a l • r 1 a .

c i ) 0 H

H C . ) ' . . , U

0 E 0 =

0

CT r e ) c zN

W C D O N 1 • . 1 4 O 0. s2 •

•

glabrata

▪

U )

E 0

Acalypha

I

O

a )

EUPHORBIACEAE

• . 1

O

▪

c d 4 ) P

▪ • •

c 0

1

W 0

0

u ) W

g t

c • \

C

E

U C

C H

4

PROTEACEAE

▪

W •

c r )

edulis

W C I )

4

Catha

4 1

e

t O H

J J ME ( ` ;

aethiopica

r 1 ( I )

M

Cassine

•H

1

C . )

( T i

c • •

g : ) . 4

0

P . ,

. . . ,

•

••

t—

1 . 1 C . )




>

C S -

C .

a )

a )

g I

4 M I

. 4

4

Z 1 , , a )

R I + > M I t e ) • H > ( 1 . ) M I

• i

( I )

• r l H 0 C H I • r l 0 1 H › , H g i › ,

4 1Z

0g

• H H

M

e l C O

4

. 0 . ( 1 )

U )

C M ' —

9 g

H g i ,(

P

0 4 0

0

H

. _ . . . , C )

a )

, C ) , a )

c d c D

. . 1 ]

a )

, *

. . . . > C I )

c-

, , c r ,

t n

v I 4 . . . 1 4

W

4,

c . ) 0

g i

. 4

M

J

4

. z

. . P i

R . u )

0 C-1 . . . ..

g • H

0 4 0

g

U )

0

f i H

• H C l )

5 : 2 4 < 4

0 . ) C 1 4

3 23


g l

g

4 )4 ) o t i E 4 c d

V 4 )

E ; Eu7

e

Q t

4 > ( 4 3A ) 04 o 4 . 14 )

Ch

1 42

1 86

1 50

8 0,6

1 33

8 8,6

8

5 ,3

1 43

5 52

4 72

8 5,5

4 20

8 8,9

4 1

8 ,6

1 44

5 13

4 21

8 2,0

4 04

9 5,9

1 0

2 ,3

7

1 ,6

1 45

1 74

1 42

8 1,6

1 26

8 8,7

1 3

9 ,1

3

2 ,1

1 46

3 69

3 23

87 ,5

3 03

9 3,8

1 3

4 ,0

7

2 ,1

1 47

1 62

1 52

93,8

1 47

9 6,7

1 ,9

2

1,3

1 48

1 199

9 73

8 1,1

8 69

8 9,3

7 4

7 ,6

3 0

3 ,0

1 49

3 10

2 52

8 1,2

2 18

8 6,5

1 4

5 ,5

2 0

7 ,9

1 50

11

9 2

8 2,8

8 3

-9 0,2

3 62

3

3

3 ,2

9 1

6

6 ,0 2 ,3

6 ,5

,

A ppendix 1 3. I ncidence o f t otal utilized c ategory, a nd t heir p ercentages i n r elation t o t otal s tone a retefacts. T he s ubclasses i ncluded a re h ammerstones, r ubbers, h ammer/rubbers, g rindstones, palettes, p ieces e squillees, h eavy e dge-flaked, a nd utilized f lakes ( edge, s teep, n otched).

2 2

4 40

2 3

3 9

2 4

6 5

2 5

9 9

2 6

8 0

2 7

1 85

1 0

5 ,4

2 8

4 67

1 8

2 9

1 64

3 0

3 61 2 84

2

1 7

3 ,8

1 7

3 17

6

1 98

1 8

3 08

5

1 ,6

4 ,6

1 9

1 00

4

4 ,0

1,1

2 0

6 6

3

4 ,5

2 ,5

2 1

1 2

3 1

9 93

3 ,8

3 2

2 28

1 ,2

3 3

3 4

4 2

1,6

3 4

5 26

1 4

4 ,9

3 5

14

3 6

4 6

3 7

3 1 2

2

3 0 9

3 0

3 ,0 3 ,9

0 ,5

1

0 ,8

1 45

1

0 ,6

3 8

1 27

6

4 ,7

3

4 ,5

1

1 ,3

6

2 25

8

3 ,5

3 9

6 6

7

1 3

-

-

4 0

1 3

8

3 4

2

5 ,8

4 1

7 4

-

-

4 2

8 78

2 2

2 ,5

1

6 ,6

4 3

7 88

7 2

9 ,1

9

2

1 0

1 5

1

4 1

4 4

1 91

1 2

2 9

4 5

1 6

1 3

3 4

4 6

3 7

1 4

16

4 7

5 5

1 5

1 63

5

3 ,0

4 8

1 37

1 6

3 14

2

0 ,6

4 9

2 44

3 63

8

4 ,1

2

5 ,4

2

1 ,4

1 4

5 ,7

c ontinued...

V 4 )

a

O C I ) 4, 4, V / 0

4, ” . 4

. a

1: 1

N

O

e . 4( 4 4 a l a ) 4 ) 4 . )

. A . 4

. H 4 ,

4 . i W 44

o ( -4 0 . ,

5 0

1 4

1

5 1

2 1

5 2

2 9

1

5 3

9 2

5 4

3 1

5 5

6 7

5 6

5 4

5 7

9

e

U ) 0 O 4 1 , 4 • , I

o 1 4 H M

; ,

a ) O O 0 ) p 4 . )

4 -, 9 i

a

7 ,1

H M 4, 0 H

0

0 r . 4

M

w 4 , 4 M

t o

0

eo

4, 0 0 r i ( 4 Q .

7 7

1 2 .5

7 8

1 074

3 ,4

7 9

1 : 32

4

3 ,0

3

3 ,2

8 0

4 66

7

1 ,5

1

3 ,2

8 1

3 75

8 2

6 5

8 3

2 46

-

1

1 ,8

-

-

8 4

2 11

-

8 5

3 4

8 6

3 96

8 7

3 18

1 2

-

5 9

2 6

3

6 0

1 3

-

6 1

4 1

2

4 ,8

8 8

1 23

6 2

3 3

5

1 5,1

8 9

9 0

-

, 1 . ' 4 )

C H

5 8

6 3

a ) N

1,5

1 5

1 ,3

1

0 ,4

6

1 ,5

-

-

9 0

1 216

-

9 1

1 42

1

0

4 8

3 ,9

6 4

1 78

-

6 5

5 8

, . ,

3 ,4

9 2

3 26

3

0 ,9

6 6

3 28

3

0 ,9

9 3

2 48

1

0 ,4

6 7

2 2

-

-

9 4

4 35

2

0 ,4

6 8

2 6

-

-

9 5

3 62

6 9

1 84

-

-

9 6

4 1

2

4 ,8

-

_

9 7

8 7

3

3 ,4

2

0 ,4

5

0 ,2

7 0

7

, 7

7 1

1 62

_

-

9 8

4 87

7 2

5 3

-

-

9 9

2 76

7 3

1 5

_

-

t oo

2 129

7 4

1 5

1

1 01

5 0

7 5

5 5

_

1 02

1 81

2

1 ,1

7 6

2 57

3

1 03

4 91

1

0 ,2

6 ,6 1 ,1

3 64

c ontinued...

1 04

1 47

1

0 ,6

1 33

9 9

1 05

285

2

0 ,7

1 34

2 15

_

1 06

3 03

4

1 ,3

1 35

3 54

3

0 ,8

1 07

6 45

1

0 ,1

1 36

8 44

7

0 ,8

1 08

7 44

6

0 ,8

1 37

8 39

3

0 ,3

1 09

1 7

1 38

1 453

9

0 ,6

1 10

5 08

5

0 ,9

1 39

3 21

6

1 ,8

1 11

241

8

3 ,3

1 40

261

2

0 ,7

1 12

1 05

1 41

2 92

3

1 ,0

1 13

1 94

1 42

1 86

3

1 ,6

1 14

1 53

1 43

5 52

5

0 ,9

1 15

330

0 ,3

1 44

5 13

4

0 ,7

1 16

6 16

1 ,9

1 45

1 74

1

0 ,5

1 17

76

5 ,2

1 46

3 69

2

0 ,5

1 18

229

1 47

1 62

2

1 ,2

1 19

6 4

1 48

1 199

1 20

3 692

1 21

605

1 22

1 18

1 23

1 410

1 24

870

1 25

3

1 1 2 L e

1 2 1

1 ,5

1 ,5 0 ,5

1

0 ,1

2

0 ,1

1 70

1

0 ,5

1 26

9 43

2

0 ,2

1 27

259

1 28

1 255

3

0 ,2

1 29

1 360

1 2

0 ,8

1 30

3 49

1 6

4 ,5

1 31

1 305

1 32

1 911

3 1 0

0 ,2 0 ,5

3 65

_

1 0

0 ,8

Appendix 1 4. D ata o n Utilized F lakes c lass. U nder ' raw material' Q = q uartz, Q t = q uartzite, C h = c halcedony, a nd S i = s ilcrete; u nder ' pre-form' c h = c hip o r chunk, f l = f lake; u nder ' notch c ondition' C = c lear, S = s carred. NR = n ot r ecorded.

Utilized

Edge

N

Flakes

Class

Notched

Steep

Raw

Raw

Raw

mat-

mat-

material

erial

N

erial

N

Not ch Preform

1

wil d ,- Class tion t otal

24

-

-

-

-

1

Qt

NR

NR

1

25

1

Qt

1

Qt

1

Qt

ch

S

3

27

-

-

1

Qt

-

-

-

-

1

28

-

-

1

Qt

1

Qt

ch

C

2

29

1

Si

3 0

8

Qt

2

2

Qt

1 5 1 6 1 7

1 1

1

3

Qt

fl

S

fl

S

ch

S

1

Qt

fl

S

3

1

Qt

ch

S

1

Qt

1

Q

3 1

1 6

32

1 1

Q t

5

Qt

fl

S

fl

S

NR

S

ch

S

fl

S

2

Qt

1

Qt

ch

S

1

Qt

ch

C

1 1

3

3 4

2

Qt

7

Qt

3 8

1

Qt

1

Ch

2

2

Qt

2

3 9 4 1 1 4 2

2

Qt

6

Qt

1

Qt

ch

C

5

Qt

fl

C

fl

S

1 0

1 1 3

continued... 3 66

Utilized

Edge

N

1 4 3

4 4

2

1

Flakes

Notched

Steep

Raw

Raw

Raw

mat-

mat-

material

erial

Qt

N

erial

1 9

Qt

Qt

N

1 1

1

4 . 6

2

Qt

4 9

4

Qt

5 9 6 1

Class

Qt

c ( andi- Class t ion t otal

ch

S

fl

S

ch

C

fl

C

ch

C

ch

S

ch

S

fl

S

ch

C

fl

S

fl

S

fl

C

ch

S

NR

NR

fl

S

2

Qt

2

Qt

6

ch

S

ch

S

fl

S

1

Qt

62

3 2

2

1 2

Qt

No tch Preform

2 1

Qt

1

Qt

NR

NR

2

6 5

2

Q t

2

6 6

1

Ch

1

74

1

Ch

1

7 8

1

Ch

3 67

1

Ch

NR

NR

6

Qt

ch

S

ch

S

ch

S

8

c ontinued...

Utilized

Edge

8 0

erial

2

Ch

1

Q

3

Qt

Notched

N

Raw material

8 4 8 6

9 0

4

Qt

2

Ch

1 9

Ch

4

Q

92

1

Ch

9 3

1

Qt

9 4

1

Qt

96

1

Qt

9 7

1

Ch

N

Raw material

Preform

Not ch a ind i- Class otal t ion t

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1

Qt

NR

NR

7

1

Qt

NR

NR

1

6

Qt

5

Class

Steep

Raw matN

Flakes

1

Qt

NR

NR

1

Ch

ch

S

29

2

1 1

Q

NR

NR

2

1

9 8

1

Qt

NR

NR

2

1

Ch

ch

S

1

1 00

4

Qt

4

1 02

1

Q t

2

1

Ch

1

Qt

1 03

1

1 05

1 06

1 08 1 10

2

Qt

1

Ch

1

Qt

1

Qt

fl

S

1

Ch

fl

S

2

3

2

Qt

1

Qt

fl

S

2

2

Qt

fl

S

4

continued... 3 68

Utilized

Edge

1 11

mat-

Raw mat-

Pre-

erial

erial

erial

form

3

1

1

Qt

1

Ch

1 1

1

Qt

16

3

1 20

Notched

Steep

Raw

Ch

1 17

Class

Raw mat-

3 1 13

Flakes

1

Q t

L t

Ch

2

Q

2

Ch

fl

S

fl

C

t otal

7

3

Qt

NR

NR

1 1

L t

4 7

t ion

Ch

1

3

Ch

No tch c undi- Class

3

Qt

fl

1

Ch

fl

C

1 5

Qt

1 21

1

Ch

123

1

Qt

1 1

Ch

fl

N F

2

1 25

1

Qt

fl

S

1

1 26

1

Qt

fl

C

1

1 28

1

Qt

1

Qt

ch

S

2

1 29

2

Ch

1

Qt

ch

Nf l

3

130

6

Q

1

Q

fl

NP

9

Ch

1

Qt

NR

NR

1

Qt

3

Qt

1

Qt

fl

NP

1

Ch 2

Qt

fl

NR

fl

NR

ch

NR

132

•

1 35

136

1

Qt

3

Q t

3 69

2

Qt

1 4

5

6

c ontinued...

Utilized

Edge

Flakes

Class

Steep

Notched I

N

Raw material

Raw N

material __ _

Raw N

material

Notch Preform

_ __: .fl

1 37

2

omdi- Class tlon t otal

Qt

1 38

C

1

Qt

ch

NR

3

Qt

ch ch

NR S

fl

NR

3 3

1 39

1

Qt

1

1 40

1

Qt

1

1 41

1

Ch

1

1 42

2

1 43

2

Qt

1 44

2

Qt

1

1

1

Qt

ch

NR

fl

S

fl

C

2

3 2

1 46

1 47

Qt

Qt

ch

S

Qt

1 1

1 48

2

1

3 70

Qt

Ch

fl

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

3

Appendix 1 5. D ata f or h eavy e dge-flaked p ieces. U nder R aw material Q t = q uartzite, Q = q uartz; u nder P re-form F = f lake, C h = c hunk, T = t ablet, R = r idged, P = p yramidal, a nd C = c obble. NR = n ot r ecorded. Other a ttributes a re L ength, W idth, W idth o f Retouch, H eight, a nd Weight.

U nit

R aw M ate rial

P ref orm

W

Wo R

H

W gt

24

Q t

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

2 5

Q t

T

9 0

6 6

5 7

2 6

1 85

2 5

Q t

R

9 4

7 7

5 9

3 8

245

2 8

Q t

P

4 0

9 2

9 1

3 5

1 09

3 0

Q t

T

7 7

8 1

5 5

4 2

3 53

3 0

Q t

T

l oo

9 3

8 5

3 0

3 15

3 0

Q t

R

1 40

7 6

7 2

4 1

3 78

Q t

T

18

10

9 2

4 9

6 24

1 0

Q t

P

8 5

5 6

5 6

3 0

18

1 5

Q t

T

7 9

7 8

7 8

2 0

1 75

1 7

Q t

R

19

6 9

6 9

4 4

4 09

1 8

Q t

R

7 8

8 9

6 5

3 7

2 00

1 9

Q t

T

7 4

7 8

6 8

4 2

2 87

2 0

Qt

T

1 17

131

1 10

4 8

1 058

3 1

Q t

R

9 3

5 4

4 1

4 3

N R

3 1

Q C

P

4 2

9 1

6 8

3 7

1 35

3 11

Q t

P

8 3

7 7

5 5

4 4

2 78

7 7

8 5

6 4

8 7

7 3 8 8

4 0

2 99

2

Q t 3 11

Q t

T

7 2

6 0 7 1

3 2

Q t

T

8 7

7 4

7 3

4 2

4 44

3 4

Q t

R

6 5

8 3

5 7

3 3

1 51

3 4

Q t

T

7 7

6 6

5 3

4 1

2 38

3 4

Q t

T

7 3

5 7

4 4

2 9

1 55

3 4

Q t

c

7 3

9 6

7 0

4 5

3 13

3 4

Q t

T

5 0

7 8

7 7

2 7

1 42

c ontinued... 3 71

Unit 3 4

Raw M ate rial

P ref orm

Q t

T

W

Wo R

11

7 8

6 3

8 9

12

6 1

H

W gt

5 3

4 78

4 2

Q t

T

9 6

7 7

6 3

2 7

2 94

4 2

Q t

C h

6 7

6 1

5 3

2 5

1 39

4 2

Q t

T

9 4

13

1 01

3 8

5 69

4 3

Q t

T

4 9

9 0

8 3

4 1

2 49

4 3

Q t

P

7 0

7 5

7 5

7 0

3 03

4 3

Q t

T

5 3

9 9

9 9

3 0

2 24

4 3

Q t

P

8 0

8 8

7 5

5 3

3 92

4 3

Q t

T

6 3

5 4

5 2

2 7

1 20

4 3

Q t

T

6 3

7 1

7 1

4 4

2 61

4 3

Q t

F

8 2

18

6 2

4 0

3 97

14

8 1

3 5

4 4

Q t

T

6 2

8 8

8 8

4 4

2 89

4 9

Q t

T

9 2

7 5

6 7

1 5

2 04

4 91

Q t

T

1 06

6 9

4 1

3 0

2 30

5 7

14

6 6

7 5

8 7

6 2

3 2

2 29

8 0

8 4

6 0

4 91

Q t

F

5 2

Q t

R

9 3

7 6

6 6

3 9

3 17

5 3

Q t

T

N R

N R

N R

2 3

2 16

5 3

Q t

T

6 0

7 1

5 7

3 4

1 82

5 3

Q t

R

8 3

6 0

4 6

4 0

2 24

8 5

6 7

4 6

6 2

Q t

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

7 8

Q t

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

7 8

Q t

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

7 8

Q t

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

N R

9 0

Q t

F

6 0

9 0

7 7

2 7

1 64

c ontinued...

3 72

Unit

Raw

Mat-

erial

Pre

:form

w

L

W o R

Wgt

H

90

Qt

Ch

52

94

78

37

219

90

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

90

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

96

Qt

F

61

87

7J

J4

215

97

Qt

Ch

J4

98

74

45

186

98

Ql

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

100

Qt

Ch

49

80

10

33

113

104

Qt

Ch

60

114

114

37

263

106

Qt

Ch

80

68

60

37

1J6

107

Q

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

108

Qt

Ch

45

56

54

27

110

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 11

Qt

F

96

143

58

38

J46

1 16

Qt

T

27

NR

NR

28

NR

119

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

120 120 129

Qt Qt Qt

NR NR R

NR NR

NR

87

_54

NR NR

48

NR NR

31

NR NR

129

Qt

Ch

38

106

87

42

14 .5

129

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

129

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1J 1

Qt

Ch

70

93

J6

2J7

1J 1

93

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1J2

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1J2

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

132

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

138

NR

NR

NR

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1J8

Qt

NR

NR

NR

139

NR

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

140

NR

NR

Qt

Ch

76

105

73

37

334

NR

88

143

continued ..• 373

Raw Uni t

Mater : ia1

Pre form

L

W

W o R

H

Wgt

1 41

Qt

T

6 2

8 6

8 1

3 1

1 62

1 43

Q t

Ch

78

76

6 2

3 3

2 27

1 41 1

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NP

1/ 46

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 48

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 48

Qt

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 48

Qt

T

4 9

9 0

8 1

3 5

2 17

3 74

Appendix 16. Data relating to Pieces Esquillees (Flake). NR not recorded; usually because the specimen was = incomplete. Where opposed damage is indicated for a specimen with only one edge recorded this indicates evidence of abrasion not positive enough to resemble an esquillee edge. Length is the maximum dimension of the piece in the general plane of the working edge or edges. Height is measured as the distance between two planes which enclose the specimen: in practice the surface on which the specimen would most naturally rest was taken as one of the planes and the height was the maximum height of the specimen above this plane. Width of retouch is measured as the shortest distance between the two ends of a working edge. Raw material: Qt = quartzite; Q = quartz; Ch = chalcedony; Ofg = other fine grained rock. Pre-form: F = flake; Ch = chip or chunk; C = core; ? = pre-form uncertain. As discussed in the text (6 iii c above) the small specimens in quartz and chalcedony are seen as bipolar cores rather than true pieces esquillees.

375

P ieces

Esquillees

: Flake

mm

W

H

c

z

2

, i ( 1 3 H

0

4 -)

mm

gms

4 i 0 . .0 U

Z

I a )

c e u a

V

.H

4 -)

c o C . . 1

( I )u ) AG ) E 0 )

H a

zw

a 0

C P H

u ) U )

ma

( 1 4

E IV

Qt

F

7 3,0

3 8,0

2 0,0

9 9,0

1

-

E IV

Qt

F

4 3,0

2 4, 7

1 7,0

2 3,0

2

1

-

2

E IIIA

Qt

• , 1 w a

w 0

r t ir ö C 4 Z

0 "

c r )

2

mm

E

-

F

a ) =

1 1,0

5 0,5

-

1 1,0

a )

-

1 2,0

2 6,0

6

1 9,0

1 9,0

2

2 4,0 1

1 5,0 1 2,0 1 5,0 1 6,0

„ 2

E IIIA

F

Qt

5 2,8

3 1,0

t

-

3 8,0

, 2

E IIIA

Qt

F

2 2,0

1 1,0

7 ,0

2 ,6

1

-

2

E IIIA

Qt

F

5 8,0

2 6,0

1 2,0

2 6,0

2

,

1 7,0 , 6

E IIIA

Qt

F

4 6,0

3 1,0

1 5,0

2 8,0

4

1 ,

2 0,0 , 1 5,0 17,0 6

E IV

Ofg

F

1 7,0

1 0,1

,

4 ,0

1 ,0

1

-

1

-

1

-

7

6

E IIIA

Qt

F

5 0, 7

1 9,8

1 2,0

2 3, 0

6

E II1A

Qt

F

5 2,5

2 2,7

1 3,0

3 3,0 1

6

E IIIA

Qt

?

3 5,0

2 5,8

9 ,0

NR

1 ,

1 5

E IV

F

Qt

6 9,0

3 9,1

2 0,0

97,0

2

1

1 7,0

2 2,0

3

1

7 ,0

1 ,3

1

-

, 4 3,5 , 1 6

E IV

Qt

F

4 6,0

2 3, 7 2 0,5 1 0, 7

1 7

E IV

Qt

F

1 7,9

8 ,1

continued...

3 76

a )

o f

4 , H

a >

M

c , 1 G

Pairs in oppositio

. 0

W S

Number Edges

W idth o f_ Retouch

4

r a r a

P re-form

S quare

H

c

, 4 ( c s , i

1 7

E IV

Qt

F

3 0,7

1 3,7

6 ,0

5 ,0

1

-

1 7

E IV

Qt

Ch

5 0,8

1 5,6

9 ,0

NR

1

1 7

E IV

Qt

F

4 5,0

2 4,6

1 6,0

2 6,0

1

_

1 8

E IV

Qt

F

3 1,0

17,3

1 3,0

1 4,0

1

_

1 8

E V

Qt

F

2 9,6

1 8,6

9 .0

4 ,5

1

_

1 9

E IV

Qt

F

5 3,6

27,0

1 1,0

2 7,0

3

-

8 ,0

6 ,0

1

-

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

3 7,9

1 0,0

2 6,0

2

1

1 5,3 1 8,5 2 2

A l

Qt

F

2 4

B II

Qt

F

2 5

A l

Qt

F

1 3,2

4 1,0 NR 6 1,0

3 9,1 2 5

A l

Qt

Ch

9 9,3

2 3,4

3 5,0

2 42,0

1

-

2 6

B-I

Qt

Ch

1 6,0

5 ,0

8 ,0

0 ,8

1

-

2 8

B I

Qt

F

3 8,4

2 1,6

1 1,0

1 4,0

3

1

2 0,0 1 6,4 2 8

B I

Qt

Ch

4 1,0

2 0,5

1 9,0

2 1,0

1

-

2 8

A O

Qt

F

4 4,0

2 6, 7

1 3,0

3 3,0

1

-

2 8

A O

Qt

F

5 0,4

3 8,5

6 ,0

1 1,0

1

-

3 0

A l

Qt

F

4 5,0

2 2,1

9 ,0

1 3,0

1

-

3 0

YO

Qt

Ch

1 15,0

5 6,0

3 2,0

2 20,0

1

-

3 0

Y I

Qt

F

5 8,9

2 3,5

1 7,0

3 8,0

1

-

3 0

YO

Qt

F

5 3,0

3 1,0

2 0,0

3 9,0

1

-

3 0

YO

Qt

F

4 1,3

1 5,8

1 3,0

1 8,0

2

1

2 4,3 3 0

YO

Q t

F

5 7,0

2 8,2

1 1,0

1 3,0

1

3 1

B II

Qt

F

4 9,5

4 6,6

1 8,0

3 4,0

2

-

3 0,8

continued...

3 77

c

t r

3

3 1

( / )

B I

a l f u

o f Width

g i r ö

+4 H

4 0,0

Retouch

F

U )

m m

3

3 Qt

( 0 H % 4 W 1 -)

Length

C G Z

Pre-form

, 1

9 ,6

gms 4 -1 Z C H

( 4 o

4 -1 Z C . H

a )

a )

=

g i W „ 0 E Z

( n 4 1 a ) 0

( f ) W C

( r ) g i . i

L i )

I : 1

1 : 5

4 -1 . , 1 U ) 0

a

M a 0

1 1,0

1 3,0

2

1

1 3,0

2 2,0

3

1

1 9,1 3 1

B I

Qt

F

4 3,9

3 1,4 2 5,3 27,2

3 1

CII

Qt

F

3 8,1

1 3,4

1 8,0

1 6,0

1

-

3 1

MI

Q t

F

4 0,0

2 6,5

1 6,0

2 4,0

5

1

1 8,0

4 4,0

4

1

2 0,3 1 1,2 2 0,5 1 4,5 3 1

C II

Qt

F

6 0,8

4 2,4 1 3, 7 1 5,1 2 8,0

3 1

B I

Ch

NR

NR

NR

NR

N R

N R

NR

3 1

D II

Qt

F

7 4,9

4 0,6

1 6,0

7 9,0

2

1

1 9,0

4 1,0

2

1

8 ,0

9 ,0

2

1

1 5,0

2 6,0

5

1

1 3,0

1 8,0

2

1

3 6,9 3 1

A II

Q t

F

5 3,5

2 3,2 2 2,3

3 1

B II

Q t

F

3 9,0

2 2,3 1 4,5

3 1

B II

Qt

F

4 9,8

2 1,4 1 6,2 1 1,4 1 8,0 27,3

3 2

BO

Qt

F

4 8,5

2 1,0 2 5,0

continued... 3 78

Pairs i n opposition

AO

Q

Ch

1 1,0

4 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,2

1

-

3 4

YO

Qt

F

2 2,0

1 2,3

8 ,0

2 ,5

1

-

3 4

C-I

Qt

F

3 9,4

1 6,0

1 0,0

1 2,0

2

-

2 0,0

4 5,0

2

-

4 J . c c

Height

i l R I ( Z X

W idth o f Retouch

w

L ength

P re-form

C D

1 m , i

o f

3 4

+ ,

S quare

Number Edges

3

3

B 3

3 3

gms

H W X

2 2,1 , 3 4

YI

Q t

F

5 5,0

1 2,8 3 1,4

3 4

B-I

Qt

F

3 2,0

2 8,0

1 0,0

9 ,0

1

-

3 4

CO

Qt

F

3 0,8

2 6,6

1 1,0

9 ,0

1

-

3 4

A-I

Qt

F

4 5,0

1 2,3

1 3,0

1 9,0

4

1

4 ,0

0 ,8

1

-

2 5,0

2 6,0

1

-

2 5,5 1 8,9 2 5, 7 F

1 6, 7

9 ,1

Qt

Ch

5 4,5

1 8,5

A II

Q t

Ch

1 36,0

3 2,0

NR

NR

1

-

3 9

A II

Qt

F

5 4,6

3 5,3

1 4,0

3 3,0

1

-

4 2

A II

Q t

Ch

3 2,0

1 5,2

2 0,0

1 2,0

1

-

F

7 8,0

3 1,4

1 5,0

9 0,0

1

-

3 5

CI

3 7

CIII

3 8

4 2

Y-III

Ch

Qt

_ . ,

1 4 2

YII

Q

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

4 3

Y-IV

Q t

F

8 5,0

4 0,0

1 8,0

9 9,0

2

1

2 1,0

4 9,0

1

-

2 0,0 4 3

A-IV

F

Qt

3 5,0

5 4,7

, 4 3

A-III

Q t

F

4 0,0

1 3,2

1 0,0

8 ,0

1

_

4 3

YIII

Q t

F

6 3,0

3 2,8

1 3,0

5 3,0

1

-

4 3

Y-IV

Q t

F

8 1,5

2 6,4

2 3,0

7 8,0

1

-

4 3

Y -III

Q t

F

1 02,9

4 0,5

3 3,0

2 65,0

1

-

4 3

CO

Qt

F

9 7,5

4 8,6

3 0,0

1 84,0

2

1

6 ,0

5 ,0

1

-

1 67,3 4 3

A-IV

Qt

F

1 6,0

3 0,4

c ontinued... 3 79

3

mm

mm

gms

( 1 )

c

a c a

a z

Length

, 4 -

Pre-f orm

4

4 3

Y-IV

Qt

F

8 5,0

3 2,5

2 6,0

1 07,0

1

-

4 4

Y-II

Qt

F

4 5,5

1 6,1

1 3,0

17,0

3

-

4 ,5

0 ,6

2

1

NR

3 ,5

NR

1

NR

c u 4, H

H

a l r u

r i

U

+ ,

C a

4 , o

H

a ) x a

a ) =

H

4,

C a,

. 4

a )

x

o 1 . 4

C D

4 1

H

( 1 , ) u ) a ) E C

( l ) u ) 0 • H a .

, n

a zc o

ma , a o

28,7 2 3,9 6 6

4

Q

F

1 2,9

3 ,4 3 ,4

7 8

3

Ch

F

7 8

3

Q

?

1 2,7

4 ,3

3 ,4

0 ,5

1

1

7 8

3

Ch

F

2 2,1

9 ,6

6 ,5

2 ,0

1

1

8 1

2

Q

Ch

1 3,0

8 ,5

4 ,5

0 ,5

1

-

9 2

3

Ch

Ch

2 0,0

9 ,6

1 1,5

2 ,9

1

-

9 3

1

Q

Ch

1 2, 7

7 ,6

5 ,0

0 ,5

2

1

5 ,0

0 ,6

2

1

3 ,0

0 ,3

2

1

5 ,0

1 ,1

2

1

NR

3 ,9 9 8

4

Ch

F

1 3,6

7 ,5 4 ,2

9 8

3

Ch

?

1 2,6

4 ,4 2 ,9

1 00

3

Ch

C

1 5,0

6 ,4 4 ,4

1 03

4

Q

F

1 4,0

7 ,5

4 ,0

1 ,1

1

1

1 08

3

Ch

F

1 7,0

1 0,2

6 ,5

1 ,6

2

1

4 ,5 1 08

1

Q

F

1 2,0

NR

2 ,5

NR

1

-

1 08

1

Q

Ch

1 7,8

7 ,5

6 ,3

1 ,5

1

1

1 08

1

Ch

F

1 7,0

9 ,6

4 ,7

1 ,2

3

1

8 ,0 1 1,8 1 10

3

Ch

NR

NR

NR

N R

NR

N R

NR

1 13

5

Ch

NR

NR

NR

N R

NR

N R

NR

c ontinued... 3 80

o f

in Pairs

H

G 3

Opposition

H

W =

Edges

gms

Number

3

a

o f C

G . 1

mm

Retouch

Width

D

P re-form

C

Raw Material

H

S quare

mm

1 16

6

Q

Ch

1 7,9

5 ,9

7 ,2

1 ,6

1

1

1 15

6

Q

F l

1 6,5

1 0,4

4 ,9

0 ,8

1

1

1 18

6

Ch

F

2 0,0

9 ,2

4 ,0

1 ,1

1

1

1 20

5

Q

F

1 2,4

6 ,6

5 ,2

0 ,6

2

1

6 ,5 1 20

6

Q

F

1 4,4

6 ,0

3 ,4

0 ,4

1

-

1 20

6

Ch

F

1 7,5

7 ,9

3 ,8

0 ,8

1

1

1 20

6

Q

?

2 0,0

8 ,3

6 ,5

2 ,1

1

-

1 20

6

Ch

Ch

1 7,0

9 ,7

5 ,7

0 ,9

1

-

1 20

6

C h

F

1 7,0

1 0,3

3 ,1

0 ,5

1

-

1 20

6

Ch

Ch

NR

NR

NR

N R

1

-

1 24

5

Ch

?

1 8,4

1 0,5

5 ,0

1 ,1

2

1

5 ,2

1 ,8

2

1

H ,0

2 ,2

2

1

5 ,3

1 ,0

3

1

6 ,6

1 ,1

2

4 ,3

0 ,9

2

1

-

5 ,4 1 24

5

Q

F

2 0,3

1 2, 9 5 ,5

1 28

6

Ch

C

1 0,1

1 9,4

4 ,0 1 28

5

Q

F

1 5,0

7 ,8 , 6 ,1 8 ,7

1 28

5

Ch

Ch

5 ,5

1 6,0

5 ,8 , 1 29

5

Ch

F

1 0,1

1 6,5

1

5 ,6 -

1 36

6

Q

Ch

7 ,5

3 ,9

4 ,1

0 ,1

1 38

7

Q

F

1 7,4

7 ,3

4 ,2

0 ,8

1 38

7

Q

F

1 0,0

NR

3 ,2

NR

1 39

7

Ch

?

1 1,5

6 ,9

3 ,8

0 ,2

2

1

4 ,4

0 ,7

2

1

,

1

1 ,

3 ,0 1 40

7

Q

?

6 ,1

1 4,0

c ontinued... 3 81

Pairs of Opposites

8

Q

Ch

1 3,0

4 ,8

3 ,6

0 ,3

1

-

1 46

7

Q

?

1 2,0

3 ,9

3 ,9

0 ,3

1

-

1 47

7

Qt

Ch

3 5,9

1 5,1

1 3,7

8 ,1

1

-

1 47

7

Ch

Ch

1 5,5

1 1,2

6 ,0

0 ,8

2

1

Number Edges

Weight

1 43

M C C V )

Raw

Height

of

( I D 3

3 3

3

of

3

W idth

Retouch

3 3

Length

Pre-form

Material

W . 4, , I C D

5 ,5

6 ,0 1 48

8

Q

Ch

1 5,3

3 ,2

4 ,1

0 ,5

1

1

1 48

8

Qt

F

2 5,5

1 4,5

5 ,4

2 ,2

1

-

1 48

8

Q

Ch

1 3,3

5 ,3

8 ,9

1 ,2

1

1

1 48

8

Qt

F

3 7

9 ,3

9 ,0

7 ,3

1

NR

0

3 82

2

2 0,0

1 24,0

Pairs o f Opposition

o f

5 4,0

Number E dges

7 5,0

Weight

E IV

Height

W idth o f Retouch

n

Length

. 1 . -, . 1 C

S quare

A ppendix 1 7. Data r elating to P ieces E squillees ( Cortical). P rocedures a nd abbreviations a re a s g iven f or P ieces E squillees i n A ppendix 1 6. Specimens l isted a s ' Talus' a re u nstratified a nd unprovenanced. They were r ecovered i n c leaning down t he t alus s lope during t he t hird s eason o f e xcavation. A ll p re-forms a re f lake; a ll specimens o f q uartzite.

2

4 2,0 2 2

X0

4 4,8

3 1,0

8 ,0

1 5,0

2 2

X0

6 4,4

7 3,0

9 ,0

3 1,0

1

2 2

YI

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

2 2

Y I

3 4,0

2 0,0

6 ,0

7 ,0

1

2 2

A l

7 5,6

4 3,4

1 7,0

1 03,0

3

NR

1 8,8 3 5,0 2 2

X 0

7 0, 7

5 4,0

1 8,0

1 13,0

1

2 2

AO

8 0,4

4 6,0

2 2,0

1 58,0

1

2 5

A l

7 7,0

3 4,0

1 3,0

1 11,0

3

1,0

3 1,0

3

1 9,0

3 5,0

4

-

27,5 1 0,8 2 5

1 1-

r " 7

2 0,0

-

2 2,0 2 4,5 2 5

A l

6 3,5

2 3,0 2 0,5 1 6,0

continued... 3 83

z

m

c c a ) 1

1 7 u ]

o f

3

3

gms

Pairs o f Opposition

a

mm

z e n " 1 0 . )

Number • Edges

4 J . i C

W idth o f Retouch

mm

1 2,0

2 8,0

3

9 ,0

1 5,0

2

1

1 3,0

4 4,0

2

-

1 5,0

6 9,0

3

1

1 0,0

27,0

2

z t r . f ( 1 ) m

2 5,5 25

R I

4 6,2

1 5,0 2 8,0 2 8,0

2 6

AO

4 1,0

3 8,0 3 9,0

27

X0

6 5,1

2 4,4 17,8

27

AO

6 4,2

5 1,0 3 8,8 4 9,0

27

X0

5 0,0

3 2,1 1 8,0

27

YI

NR

4 4,0

2 0,0

N R

NR

N R

27

YI

6 6,0

3 7,5

1 2,0

5 2,0

2

1

1 0,0

3 9,0

2

1

2 1,0

2 18,0

2

1

2 0,0

1 38,0

3

-

1

-

3 8,4 27

YI

6 2,5

5 5,3 5 2,0

27

YI

1 01,9

4 8,4 2 8,5

27

X0

87,0

5 1,0 5 2,2 2 9,9

2 7

XO

9 2,4

4 5,0

2 2,0

1 66, 0

2 8

AO

4 8,5

3 2,9

1 2,0

2 7,0

2 8

A O

5 0,0

3 1, 8

8 ,0

1 8,0

1

2 8

AO

5 7,1

4 0,2

1 3,0

4 6,0

2

1 5,0

NR

1

' 1

-

3 7,1 2 8

AO

N R

NR

-

continued... 3 84

5 7,3

Pairs o f Opposition

Number Edges

Weight

o f

3 ( r ,

3

3

3

3

o f

1 2,0

Height

MI

Retouch

2 8

. 1 . . . 0 r _ 7, c w

W idth

. 0 4 c

S quare

mm

1 3,0

5 6,0

2

1

2 6,5 2 8

AO

9 5,3

5 5,8

1 9,0

1 74,0

1

-

2 8

AO

7 8,8

4 6,7

1 9,0

97,0

2

-

NR

3 4,0 3 0

A I

N R

NR

NR

NR

N R

3 0

A l

4 3,3

2 5,4

1 3,0

1 3,0

2

1 1,0

3 1,0

3

]

1 1,0

4 4,0

2

1

17,0

1 35,0

1

-

1 6,0 3 0

A l

4 9,4

2 4,0 2 8,1 3 3,6

3 0

AO

5 5,1

2 2,0 3 4,5

3 0

YI

8 9,9

7 5,6

c ontinued...

3 85

5 8,0

. 0 e

W =

W 3

2 2,0

7 2,0

2

1

1 4,0

5 9,0

2

-

1 4,0

9 7,0

3

1

1 7,0

8 3,0

4

-

1 3,0

7 0,0

5

1

1 5,6

Number

o f

Pairs i n Opposition

YI

. 0 e

gms

Edges

3 0

3

o f t i " ( 1 )

Retouch

M

W idth

Length

4

mm

1 9,5 3 0

YO+YI

6 3,0

2 3,0

r

3 3,8 3 0

YO+Y-I

8 0,2

1 7,5 2 4,8 3 9,1

3 0

YO+Y-I

6 3,9

2 8,9 1 9,2 1 8,5 27,5

3 0

Y-1

7 0,0

1 7,0 1 5,0 1 6,1 2 9,3 1 6,0

3 0

A l

7 3,3

3 0,5

1 4,0

5 0,0

1

_

3 0

A l

5 4,8

2 5,0

1 3,0

4 3,0

1

-

3 2

B-I

4 4,1

1 4,4

1 1,0

1 6,0

1

3 2

B -I

9 4,2

2 9,9

1 6,0

1 34,0

2

7 ,0

2 1,0

4

N R

NR

N R

-

5 8,4 3 2

B -I

4 4,4

1 9,8 2 1,8 1 6,8 1 8,2

4 3

Y-V

NR

NR

N R

4 3

Y-V

7 4,3

2 8,0

2 5,0

1 13,0

1

-

4 3

Y-V

7 4,0

6 2,5

1 5,0

7 1,0

2

-

1

3 1, 7

continued... 3 86

o f

3

Weight

3

4 3

Y-V

NR

NR

1 2,0

N R

1

-

4 3

Y-V

57,3

1 6,0

1 2,0

3 0,0

1

_

4 3

YIII

5 6,5

1 9,0

1 9,0

47,0

1

-

4 9

Y-I

6 9,0

4 7,0

1 4,0

6 2,0

1

-

7 5,2

4 4,6

1 2,0

7 3,0

2

-

( 1 ) . 4 li

r a

r 1

c

-

Talus

.Z 1 7

r I

c u

Number E dges

t r

W idth o f Retouch

3

P

C 0 C . .' 1 1, H

L ength

3 3

min

( f )

t O

5 4

0

H

a

m a

,

3 2,4 47,8

-

Talus _

2 4,4

1 4,0

3 4,0

3

1

1 6,0

1 42,0

3

-

1 6,0

5 8,0

3

1

3 1,3 2 6,9 9 3,1

-

Talus

4 9,2

,

4 3, 7 5 3,3 Talus

57,4

-

2 1,1

,

, 3 9,0

,

, 3 4,9

,

Talus

-

5 6,0

2 8,0

1 3,0

5 4,0

1

-

Talus

-

5 3,5

27,9

1 2,0

4 4,0

2

-

3 0,9

k

Talus

-

7 3,5

2 6,5

1 3,0

7 5,0

1

-

Talus

-

1 15,0

2 4,0

2 3,0

3 03,0

2

-

1 8,0

1 14,0

2

-

4 5,3 Talus

-

8 3,5

67,4 3 6,0

Talus

-

7 9,0

5 0,0

1 6,0

9 2,0

1

-

Talus

-

7 2,4

4 5,2

1 3,0

7 3,0

2

-

2 2,4 Talus

-

7 4,0

57,0

1 5,0

9 5,0

1

-

Talus

-

81,0

27,0

2 0,0

1 54,0

2

-

1 8,0

87,0

1

-

1 5, 4 Talus

-

6 6,0

2 6,5

3 87

Appendix 1 8. g rindstones. Unit

I ncidence

o f

Square

Y-II

whole

a nd

f ragmentary

Observations

Whole.

Base

of

t opsoil.

Oval,

waterworn

quartzite

block. 22

XO

Not

recorded

22

Y-I

Not

recorded

2 6

AO

Whole.

Waterworn

sandstone

block.

Face

down.

3 03 x 225mm. 28

Y-I/YO

Whole.

Waterworn

quartzite

block.

306

x 2 10mm.

28

Y-I/YO

Whole.

Waterworn

quartzite

b lock.

364

x 276

28

Y-I/YO

Whole.

Irregular,

l i ghtly

used.

3 81

Whole.

Large

tablet

30

YO

3 17

x

1 78

1 9

EIV

Fragment.

20

E IV

Fragment

3 1

A II

Fragment

34

BO

Fragment

34

BI

Fragment

3 7

BIII

Whole. Lying

face

YII

Fragment

4 2

cI

Whole. Lying

rounded, down.

Waterworn face

4 4

Y-II

Fragment

4 8

A-I

Fragment.

4 8

A-I

Fragment.

49

C III

Fragment.

4 9

c III

Fragment.

6 2

4

Fragment.

7 8

3

Fragment.

1 08

1

Fragment

7

of

spall.

Only

mm. quartzite.

Ochre

( c.

waterworn

283

x 203

Edges

flaked.

340

x 273

quartzite

block.

mm.

sub-angular

down.

quartzite

block.

mm.

stained.

75, 0%

subrectangular 139

x 237

roof/wall

mm.

Well

38

angular

mm.

of

original).

quartzite

Waterworn

block.

Fragment.

continued... 3 88

A ppendix 1 9.

I ncidence o f

Square

22

X0

1

22

AO

1

22

YO

2

E III

1

1 5

E IV

2

3 1

A II

1

3 4

AO

1

3 4

Y-III

1

3 4

YO

1

3 4

YI

1

42

CII

1

43

A-1II

1

43

A-I

1

4 3

ci /ii

1

43

1 31

1

43

B Il

1

43

CI

1

4 4

B-I

62

4

1

7 9

1

2

1 20

7

1

1 29

5

1

1 32

7

1

1 38

7

1

1 42

8

1

1 48

7

1

Total

a nd r ubber/hammerstones.

Rubber/ Hammer

Unit

2

Rubber

r ubbers

Central

dimple

in

grinding

1

1 9

1

Both

Ochre

1 1

3 89

pieces

on

ochre-stained

grinding

surface

surface

Appendix 2 0. h ammers t ones

Uni t

Hammer stones

I ncidence

o f

Rubber/ hammer s tones

h ammerstones

Unit

Hammer s tones

22

2

66

2

28

4

76

3

29

1

78

3

79

2

90

1

30

1 0

2

2 '

6

3

1 08

2

8

2

1 20

-

1 26

1

1 8

2

1 28

1

1 9

1

1 29

4

20

1

1 30

2

3 1

2

1 31

1

3 2

1

1 32

1

34

2

35

1

1 35

1

3 8

2

1 36

1

42

2

1 38

3

43

1 3

44

2 2

2 1

2 4 9

1 39 1 41 1 42

50

1

1 43

1

5 4

1

1 44

1

5 6

1

1 45

1

1 48

1

3

5 9 6 2

-

1

3 90

a nd

Rubber/ hammer stones

2

1

1

1

1

1

r ubber/

A ppendix 2 1. D ata r elating t o s crapers. I n t he r aw material c olumn Q = q uartz, Qt = q uartzite, S i = s ilcrete, C h = c halcedony a nd O fg = o ther f ine g rained material. I n t he p re-form column f l = f lake, ch = c hip o r c hunk, a nd P = p ebble. NR = n ot r ecorded. S pecimens w ith two o r more w orking e dges a re g iven multiple e ntries ( as i f two o r t hree separate s pecimens). 1 ( 1 $

c o 4 )

( d

00

4

a z ' ( i )

a+ ) n i Z

E 0 ( 4 7, s e 4

4 ) t o w

4 4 ) . v , f

c H 04 0 4 z 4 )0 v f io,

4 u o

4 u o

22

YO

Q

NR

1 4, 0

1 6, 0

1 2, 0

8 ,0

2 ,5

24

CII

Qt

NR

95, 0

6 4,o

6 2,0

2 6,0

2 04,0

2 4

cm

Q t

NR

6 4,0

9 5,0

5 7,0

2 6,0

2 04,0

26

BO

Qt

NR

6 8,0

7 0,0

5 4,0

3 5,0

1 92,0

27

AU

Ch

NR

9 ,0

1 2,0

1 1, 0

3 ,0

0 ,3

2 7

xo

Q t .

N it

3 1, 0

6 1, o

3 9, 0

20, 0

60, 0

28

Al

Qt

NR

5 6,0

8 2,0

6 9,0

4 7,0

2 09,0

28

A0

Qt

NR

45, 0

70, 0

60, 0

33, 0

1 20, 0

28

AO

Qt

NR

4 1, 0

72, 0

6 6,0

33, 0

1 20, 0

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9 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,2

93

4

Ch

fl

1 0, 0

13, 0

1 2,0

4 ,0

0,6

93

4

Ch

fl

1 5, 0

1 5, 0

1 2,0

5 ,5

1 ,1

93

5

Ch

fl

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

93

5

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

1 3, 0

13, 0

5 ,0

0 ,7

93

5

Ch

fl

1 1,0

1 2, 0

9 ,0

NR

0 ,5

94

2

Q

fl

1 2, 0

1 0, 0

6 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,3

, 3

c ontinued... 3 97

✓

4

1 e 4,

« I

-

1 f /

4 t e . r >4 r e a )

e 0

4, 4

c 4. 1 0 , 4

e t i n

e " . 4 e

4 )

4 . r )0

. c

. a

. e

• 4 .

. 4 4 U

t i t ) . 4 4

0 M

0 >

0

✓ 4 . ' ›

4 01

0 CZ

9 4

3

Q

fl

1 3, 0

1 2, 0

1 2,0

9 4

3

Ch

fl

NR

NR

9 4

3

Ch

fl

7 ,5

9 4

4

Ch

fl

94

1

Ch

9 4

1

9 5

4 .1

4 . 1

5 ,5

0 ,8

NR

NR

NR

1 0,0

9 ,5

3 ,5

0 ,4

1 1, 0

1 6,0

1 1,0

4

, 5

0 ,9

fl

1 5, 0

1 7,0

1 4,0

6 ,0

1 ,7

Ch

fl

14, 5

1 7, 0

1 1,0

6 ,0

1 ,7

3

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

1 4,0

1 4,0

4 ,0

0 ,8

9 5

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 1, 5

1 1, 0

3 ,0

0 ,4

9 5

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 2,0

1 0,0

6 ,0

0 ,8

9 5

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 0, 0

8 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,4

9 5

3

Ch

1 ' 1

8 ,5

1 2,0

1 1, 0

2 ,0

0 ,2

9 5

5

Ch

fl

9 ,0

1 2, 5

1 0,0

4 ,0

0 ,5

9 7

4

Ch

fl

13, 0

22,0

1 3, 0

3 ,

0

0 ,9

9 8

3

Ch

f l

1 2, 5

1 7, 0

1 6,0

3 ,0

0 ,6

9 8

3

Ch

fl

1 2,0

1 4, 5

1 2, 5

6 ,o

1 ,0

9 8

5

Ch

fl

13, 0

9 ,5

7 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,4

9 8

5

Ch

fl

13, 0

9 ,0

8 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,4

9 8

5

Ch

fl

14, 0

1 4,0

1 1, 5

8 ,0

1 ,4

9 8

5

Ch

fl

8 ,5

9 ,5

4 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,2

9 8

5

Ch

f l

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

9 8

4

Ch

fl

13, 0

1 3, 5

9 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,7

9 8

4

Ch

Li

1 2, 0

1 2, 5

1 0,0

4 ,5

0 ,8

9 8

4

Ch

f l

1 6,0

1 2, 0

1 0,0

4 ,0

0 ,7

9 8

4

Ch

fl

NR

NR

NR

N i t

NR

99

2

Qt

fl

75, 0

75, 0

35,0

1 9, 0

1 05,4

9 9

2

Ch

fl

1 1, 5

1 3, 0

9 ,5

4 ,0

0 ,7

9 9

3

Ch

fl

1 0, 0

1 2, 0

1 1, 0

5 ,0

0 ,9

9 9

5

Ch

fl

13, 5

1,5

9 ,5

5 ,0

1 ,1

9 9

5

Ch

Li

1 0, 0

1 3, 0

1 1,0

2 ,5

0 ,3

continued... 3 98

4 ( 1 3

E

W

• r i

f . 4

4

> 4

o

4 • . . ) 4

R : I 3

; . )

( f )

C.

C Z R I

4 W '

4 , d i

e Y .

P .

4 4

o. 0

f )

. 0

1N I )

0 . ) 2

. 0

0

. 0

4,

. 0

4,

• 4 c ; ,

4,

0

. , b i l

• , 1 r I D

• , I

• H

1 , )

W

W

1 00

1

Ch

f l _

1 0, 5

1 0, 0

8 ,5

3 ,0

0 ,4

1 00

1

Ch

f l

1 4, 5

20, 5

20, 5

4 ,0

1 ,2

100

2

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 4, 5

14, 5

4 ,0

0 ,5

1 00

2

Ch

fl

1 1, 5

1 5, 0

1 5, 0

4 ,0

0

1 00

2

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

1 7,0

1 5, 0

5 ,0

0 ,9

1 00

2

Ch

fl

13, 5

1 4, 5

1 2, 5

5 9

0 ,8

1 00

3

Ch

£1

NR

NR

NR

2 ,0

NR

1 00

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 5

1 7, 0

1 6, 0

3 ,0

0

1 00

3

Ch

f l .

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 00

3

Ch

fl

NR

1 6,0

1 1,0

3 ,5

NR

1 00

3

Ch

fl

9 95

1 4,0

1 1, 5

5 ,0

0 ,4

1 00

3

Ch

eh

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 00

3

Ch

fl

13, 5

1 1, 0

1 1, 0

3 ,5

0 ,3

um

3

Ch

fl

8 ,0

14, 0

1 3, 0

4 ,5

0 ,4

1 00

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

13, 0

1 1, 0

6 ,0

0 ,7

1 00

3

Ch

fl

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 00

3

Ch

fl

13, 0

1 5, 5

1 5, 5

4 ,0

0 ,5

1 00

3

Ch

fl

9 ,0

8 ,5

8 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,3

1 00

3

Ch

fl

1 5, 0

14,5

7 ,0

5 ,5

0 ,7

l oo

4

Ch

fl

1 0,5

9 ,0

9 ,0

5 ,0

0 ,5

1 00

4

Ch

fl

1 1, 5

9 ,0

8 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,6

l oo

4

Ch

fl

1 2, 5

1 5, 5

1 5, 0

4 ,0

1 ,0

1 01

5

Q

fl

14, 0

1 2, 0

1 2, 0

) 4 95

1 ,1

1 02

4

Ch

eh

1 1, 5

1 0, 0

9 5

8 ,0

0 ,9

1 03

3

Ch

eh

1 0, 0

1 0, 5

1 0, 0

5 ,5

0 ,6

1 03

3

Ch

eh

1 1, 0

1 2,5

7 ,5

7 ,5

1 ,1

1 03

3

Ch

fl

1 8,0

1 7, 0

1 5, 5

4 ,5

1 ,4

1 03

5

Ch

fl

9 ,0

1 0, 0

6 ,o

3 ,5

0 ,4

8

0

9 5

9 5

c ontinued... 3 99

4 • t i 4

s e 4 » . . I

C

4 t e 2

a ' u l

) e l C Z

4

E 4 o

e u

c « ,

e t X

1 4 a .

4,

4 »

4

1 04

6

Q

f _ l _

1 05

7

Ch

fl

1 06

6

Ch

1 06

6

1 06

• • 0

9 ,5

9 ,0

6 ,5

3 ,0

0 ,3

NR

NR

1 2,0

4 ,0

NR

f l _

1 0, 5

1 2, 0

8 ,0

4 ,0

0, 5

Ch

fl

22, 5

1 2, 0

1 0,0

7 ,0

2 ,3

6

Ch

fl

1 3, 0

1 6, 5

1 6,5

4 ,0

0, 8

1 07

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

9 ,5

6 ,0

3 ,0

0, 3

1 07

3

Ch

fl

9 ,0

1 1, 0

1 1, 0

3 ,0

0

1 07

5

Ch

fl

13, 0

1 4, 0

1 3,5

5 ,0

0 ,9

1 07

5

Q

fl

1 0, 0

1 3, 5

9 ,5

5 ,0

0, 7

1 07

5

Ch

fl

13, 5

1 2, 0

8 ,5

4

, 5

0 ,6

1 07

5

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 4, 0

1 0, 5

5 ,0

0 ,8

1 07

5

Q

fl

9 ,0

9 ,0

8 ,5

4 ,0

0 ,3

1 07

5

Ch

fl

13, 0

20, 0

20,0

4 ,5

1 ,2

1 07

5

Ch

f l

8 ,0

1 0, 0

9 ,5

3 ,0

0

1 07

5

Ch

fl

8 ,0

1 2, 0

1 2, 0

3 ,5

0 ,4

1 07

5

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 0, 0

1 0, 0

4 ,0

0 ,5

1 07

5

Ch

fl

1 2, 5

1 0, 5

7 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,3

1 08

1

Ch

L i .

8 ,5

1 1, 5

9 ,5

5 ,

0

0 ,4

1 08

1

Ch

fl

1 1, 5

1 3, 0

1 1, 5

6 ,0

0 ,9

1 08

1

Ch

1 1

1 5, 0

1 5, 0

9 ,0

4 ,5

1 ,0

1 08

1

Ch

fl

14, 0

1 4, 0

1 4, 0

7 ,0

1 ,2

1 08

1

Ch

f l _

NR

1 0,0

1 0, 0

3 ,0

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

2 ,0

0

,3

3 ,5

0

, 7

6 ,0

0 ,8

3 ,0

0 ,6

6 ,0

1 ,2

,

1 08

2

Ch

fl

NR

1 08

3

Ch

fl

9 ,5

14,0

9 ,5

1 08

3

Ch

fl

1 1, 5

1 3, 0

1 2,0

1 08

3

Ch

fl

13, 0

1 3, 0

1 1, 0

1 08

3

Ch

fl

1 4, 0

1 2,0

1 2, 0

1 08

3

Ch

fl

1 4, 0

1 5, 0

1 3, 0

4 00

,3

,3

c ontinued...

e

r d

. 1 M .

, >4 d0

. 4 a : . )

4 1 a . i n

1 : 4 4 -, m X ,

1 10

5

Ch

1 10

3

1 10

E 9 o 0 L .

e

t 4 o4 4 C) 1

O

e . 0 . , 4

fl

NR

NR

NR

Qt

fl

1 2, 0

30, 0

3

Ch

ch

8 ,5

1 10

3

Ch

fl

1 10

3

Ch

n o

3

n o

4 '

d o

.40 v ,

. 4

0 )

4 4 . )

u

4 4 . )

e

w

u

NR

NR

1 7,0

5 ,0

1 ,3

1 1, 0

1 0,5

7 ,0

0 ,6

1 2, 0

1 3, 5

1 1, 0

4 ,0

0 ,9

fl

13, 3

1 2, 0

9 ,5

4 ,0

0 ,9

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

1 5,5

1 1, 0

3 ,5

0 ,7

3

Ch

fl

9 ,3

1 1, 0

6 ,o

4 ,o

0 ,4

1 10

3

Ch

ch

1 0, 0

1 4, 0

1 0, 0

6 ,0

0 ,9

1 10

3

Ch

ch

6 ,0

1 0, 5

9 ,5

5 ,5

0

1 11

5

Qt

fl

66, 0

95, 0

94, 0

28, 0

1 97,8

1 11

5

Ch

fl

9 ,0

1 2, 5

1 0, 0

3 ,5

0 ,3

1 11

5

Q

fl

1 1, 5

1 0, 5

7 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,4

1 11

5

Q

f l

1 0, 5

9 ,5

6 ,o

/ 4, 5

0 ,4

1 12

6

Q

fl

1 1, 5

1 0, 5

8 ,5

4 ,0

0 ,4

1 12

6

Q

Li

1 1, 0

8 ,0

7 ,0

3 ,0

0

, 3

1 12

6

Q

fl

7 ,0

9 ,0

8 ,5

4

, 5

0

, 3

1 12

6

Ch

f l

25, 0

29, 0

26,5

6 ,5

4 ,1

1 13

5

Q

fl

1 2, 5

1 4, 0

8 ,5

4 ,5

0 ,6

1 13

5

Q

fl

7 ,5

1 2, 5

1 2, 0

4 ,5

0 ,4

1 13

5

Q

fl

1 0, 0

1 2, 0

1 1, 0

5 ,0

0 ,6

1 13

5

Q

fl

9 ,0

1 0, 0

9 ,5

4 ,0

0 ,4

1 14

5

Q

fl

7 ,0

1 1, 0

6 ,5

3 ,5

0 ,3

1 14

5

Q

fl

8

, 5

1 1, 0

9 ,0

3 ,0

0 ,4

1 15

3

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

9 ,0

9 ,0

4 ,0

0 ,4

1 15

5

Ch

fl

9 ,5

1 4, 5

1 3, 0

3 ,5

0 ,6

1 15

5

Ch

11

1 0, 0

1 2, 5

1 1, 5

4 ,5

0 ,4

1 15

5

Ch

fl

NR

7 ,0

6 ,0

2 ,5

NR

1 15

6

Ch

fl

25, 5

1 1,5

1 0, 0

8 ,0

1 ,6

1 15

6

Ch

fl

13, 3

1 6, 0

1 6, 0

3 ,5

0 ,9

1 15

6

Ch

fl

1 6, 0

1 3, 0

1 0, 0

3 ,0

0 ,8

4 01

, 3

c ontinued...

. d

, 4

e

4 3

. . 4

4 t d

A I ( 1 )

E ( 4

1 4

4 .

0 . 1 3

C 4 1 3

• a T 1 4 .,

1 4 . , 4 o ,

a )

. . 4

• . 1

f n

c z 4 e u 7 .

15

6

Ch

11

1 2, 0

1 9, 5

1 4, 0

5 ,0

1 , 3

1 16

5

Ch

fl

1 1,0

13, 5

1 3, 5

1 4 ,0

0 ,8

16

5

Ch

fl

13, 0

1 6, 5

1 6,5

6 ,0

1 ,5

16

5

Ch

fl

1 7, 0

1 5, 5

1 0,0

5 ,0

1 , 5

1 16

6

Ch

fl

1 2, 5

1 4, 0

1 2,0

3 ,0

0 ,4

1 16

6

Ch

ch

8 ,3

1 5, 0

1 5, 0

5 ,5

0 ,7

16

6

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 3, 0

1 3, 0

4 ,5

0 ,6

16

6

c h

ch

8 ,0

1 2, 5

1 2, 5

4 ,0

0, 4

1 16

6

Ch

fl

1 3, 5

1 3, 5

1 0, 0

5 ,5

0 ,8

1 16

6

Q

f l

7 ,0

1 0, 0

9 ,0

5 ,0

0 ,3

1 18

6

Ch

fl

NR

1 0, 5

1 0,0

2 ,5

NR

1 18

6

Ch

fl

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 18

6

Ch

r l

1 2, 5

1 8, 0

1 6, 0

6 ,0

1 ,2

1 18

6

Ch

fl

1 4, 0

1 7, 0

1 5, 0

5 ,0

1 ,3

1 18

6

Ch

fl

1 3, 0

1 4, 0

1 2, 0

7 ,0

1 ,4

1 18

6

Ch

fl

1 9, 0

1 8, 5

1 8, 5

8 ,0

2 ,7

19

6

Ch

fl

1 6, 0

1 8, 0

1 4, 0

7 ,0

1 ,6

1 19

6

Ch

fl

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

1 20

5

Q

fl

1 1, 0

1 3, 5

1 2,5

4 ,0

0 , 5

1 20

5

Q

fl

1 2, 0

1 1, 5

1 0, 0

4 ,5

0 ,6

1 20

5

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

20, 0

1 5, 0

5 ,0

0 ,7

1 20

5

Ch

fl

1 7, 0

1 4, 5

1 4, 5

4 ,0

1 ,2

1 20

5

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

2 1, 0

8 ,0

5 ,0

1 ,1

1 20

6

Ch

fl

1 0, 5

1 3, 0

1 3,0

1 4, 0

0 ,6

1 20

6

Q

fl

1 1, 0

7 ,0

6 ,5

3 ,

0

0 ,4

1 20

6

Ch

fl

1 6, 0

1 5, 0

1 1, 0

8 ,0

1 ,7

1 20

6

Ch

fl

9 ,5

1 4,5

1 4,0

1 4 ,0

0 ,6

1 20

6

Q

f l

7 ,0

1 5, 0

1 5, 0

3 ,0

0 ,

1 20

6

Q

fl

1 0, 5

1 2, 0

1 2, 0

3 ,0

0 ,4

a

: )

• c r

. A

a )

• t . i I o I D

a n

• , 4 W

3

continued... 4 02

, 4

4 . ,

c

: . )

0 1 4

l e

. , 4 ) 1 I

e

e x ,n )

a

« I

i n

X

e c . 0

( 4 , 1 4

c i .

, 6 4

o i l

e e

4 .

4 . 0

< 1 . 4 3

. 4 D ig

. 4 4 ) ' . 9 C Z

0

4 . 1

U

( 1 ) M

a )

e DR

1 20

6

Q

ch

1 1, 5

1 7, 0

1 4,0

6 ,0

1 ,0

1 20

6

Ch

fl

1 3,0

14, 0

1 4, 0

5 ,0

0 ,9

1 20

6

Ch

fl

1 6, 5

13, 0

1 0, 5

4

, 5

0 .9

1 20

7

Qt

fl

44, 0

90, 0

55,

0

1 7,0

8 8,0

1 20

7

Q

fl

1 2, 0

1 5, 0

1 4,0

6 ,0

1 ,2

1 20

7

Q

Ch

1 3, 0

13, 0

8 ,0

7 ,5

0 ,9

1 20

7

Ch

fl

1 2, 0

13, 5

1 2,5

3 ,5

0 ,4

1 20

7

Q

ch

6 ,5

7 ,0

6 ,0

3 ,5

0 ,1

1 20

7

Q

fl

1 6,0

1 1,0

8 ,0

5 ,

0 ,9

1 21

7

Ch

fl

13, 0

14,5

1 3, 5

5 ,0

1 ,1

1 21

7

Ch

fl

1 3, 0

1 0, 0

9 ,5

3 ,0

0 ,5

1 21

6

Q

fl

8 ,5

13, 0

9 ,0

4 ,5

0 ,6

1 21

6

Q

fl

1 3, 0

1 0, 0

1 0, 0

4 ,0

0 ,4

1 21

6

Q

fl

1 5, 0

1 7, 0

1 7,0

6 ,5

1 ,4

1 21

6

Ch

fl

14,5

1 5, 0

1 3, 0

2 ,0

0

1 21

6

Ch

fl

20,0

1 7, 0

1 7, 0

5 ,5

2 ,1

1 23

5

Q

fl

13,0

1 1, 0

7 ,0

, 5

1 ,0

1 23

6

Q

f l

13, 0

14, 0

1 1, 5

7 ,0

1 ,5

1 23

6

Q

V I

8 ,5

, 5

8 ,0

1 4 ,0

0 ,4

1 23

6

Ch

fl

1 1, 0

1 7, 0

1 7, 0

6 ,0

1 ,0

1 23

6

Ch

ch

6 ,0

1 3,0

1 1, 0

4 ,5

0 ,4

1 23

6

Q

fl

1 2, 5

13,0

1 0,0

5 ,0

1 ,1

1 23

6

Q

fl

1 0, 5

1 0, 0

1 0, 0

3 ,5

0 ,3

1 23

6

Q

fl

1 2, 0

1 1, 5

1 1,0

4 ,3

0 ,7

1 24

5

Q

fl

1 0, 5

13, 5

9 ,0

4 ,5

0 ,7

1 24

6

Ch

fl

1 5, 5

1 5, 5

1 1, 5

5 ,5

1 ,7

1 24

6

Ch

fl

9 ,5

1,5

1 1, 5

3 ,5

0 ,5

1 26

6

Q

ch

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

8

4

0

, 7

c ontinued... 4 03

, m E

, t D

•

a

; )

i

a .

• , I

i :4

( i )

4'

t e

Z

e

4 . . 4.

.

.

• , 1 b o

• . I t I D

1

0

1 1

1 4 1,

( 3 )

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4 . 1

f l .

. 3

>

>

r Z

i .

0 P

C D

a )

=

>

1 27

6

C h

f l

1 5,5

2 0,0

1 7,0

5 ,5

1 ,9

1 27

6

Q t

f l

1 8,0

1 5,5

1,0

4 ,0

1 ,3

1 28

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D ata f or

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L

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continued...

4 10

I

Unit

Square

Raw Material

L

w

w

H

L

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100

Weight gms

1JO

6

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17,0

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44,70

0,3581

1J1

6

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11,3

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40,52

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39,41

O,J472

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0,2004

1JJ

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0,1080

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43,47

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33,33

0,2406

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8,3 16,5

4,2 6,o

1,8 4,o

50,60 36,J6

-

140

7

0,0709 O,J404 NR

Qt

37,3

18,o

11,0

146

48,25

7

Ch

1J,8

5,2875

5,2

2,0

37,68

o,1686

Mo

NR

NR

411

NR

A ppendix 2 5. D ata f or d rills. L ength i s t he maximum l ength o f t he p iece, f rom t he working t ip. W idth i s t he maximum d imension o f t he p iece a t r ight a ngles t o t he l ength axis.

i c d

a ) 0 .0

• , I 1 .,

2 1

. 1 )

4

0

2

' t

2 1

1 . )E E

• , 4

E

ä ) 4 9

, z

1

3 1

CI

Q t

3 2,0

1,5

2

3 ' 5

CI

Q t

3 6,0

1 0,7

3

6 5

2

C h

1 9,0

9 ,2

4

6 6

3

C h

1 7,0

5 ,0

5

7 6

C h

1 4,6

8 ,0

6

13

5

C h

9 ,9

5 ,2

7

13

5

C h

8 ,0

NR

8

16

5

C h

2 0,5

6 ,0

9

16

5

C h

1 5,5

5 ,5

1 0

16

5

C h

1 2,0

4 ,8

1

1 20

5

C h

9 ,0

5 ,2

1 2

1 20

6

C h

1 7,0

1 0,5

1 3

1 20

6

C h

1 3,0

5 ,0

1 4

1 22

6

C h

1 3,2

7 ,0

1 5

1 23

6

C h

2 1,5

9 ,0

1 6

1 24

6

C h

1,0

6 ,6

1 7

1 26

6

C h

1 6,0

6 ,o

1 8

1 26

7

C h

1 0,8

4 ,5

1 9

1 26

7

C h

1 4,0

7 ,7

2 0

1 26

7

C h

1 3,6

5 ,0

2 1

1 27

6

C h

1 3,0

8 ,0

2 2

1 28

5

C h

9 ,5

4 ,7

2 3

1 28

6

C h

1,4

5 ,7

C U

c n

continued...

4 12

2 4

1 29

5

Ch

1 5,5

8 ,0

25

1 29

6

Ch

1 3,5

7 ,4

2 6

1 30

6

Ch

1 3,2

5 ,5

2 7

1 31

5

Ch

1 9, 3

7 ,0

2 8

1 31

7

Ch

1 0, 5

5 ,0

29

1 31

7

Ch

1 4,0

7 ,0

3 0

1 32

7

Ch

24,5

8 ,0

3 1

1 32

7

Ch

1 2, 5

5 ,0

3 2

1 32

7

Ch

NR

3 3

1 32

7

Ch

1 5, 5

7 ,8

34

1 34

6

Ch

1 2, 3

5 ,0

3 5

1 37

7

Ch

1 2,2

8 ,1

4 13

NR

Appendix 2 6.

Details

o f

r eamers.

Wgt Whole gms

Unit

Sq

22

A -I

Whole

25

A I

Tip

25

A I

Medial

25

B I

Whole

26

A0

Tip

28

AI

Whole

28

BI

Tip

28

A0

D istal

28

A0

Tip

30

YI

Whole

30

YI

T i p missing

30

Y-I

Whole

3 37

30

YI

Whole

1 17

3 0

Y0

Whole

1 41

30

Y0

Media l

30

Y0

Whole

4 7

30

Y0

Whole

1 38

30

AI

Tip

E III

Tip

3 1

CI

Tip

3 1

A I

Tip

3 1

AI

Tip

3 1

yI

Tip missing

3 1

A II

Tip

34

B0

Whole

2

Max Diam o f ' Abrasion mm 1 3

piece

23 70

1 69

fragment

28

1 3

missing

portion

missing

25 1 18 43

portion

3 5

22 3 1

1 52

1 5

3 0

c ontinued...

4 14

Wgt Whole gi ns

Max Diam of Abrasion mm

Unit

Sq

34

BI

Tip

34

BI

NR

34

Y -1

Tip

34

YI

Whole

3 5

DI

Tip

4 1

B II

Whole

6 0

3 2

42

C II

Whole

1 02

20

42

A II

Tip missing

43

Y -I

Tip

43

Y- V

30

4 53

25

Tip

1 4 3

B II

Medial

43

Y III

Whole

1 34

4 4

B-I

Whole

9 7

4 4

Y-II

Tip

4 6

Al

4 8

A-III

Tip

4 8

A-III

Whole

225

4 8

Yo

Whole

1 03

5 1

D III

Medial

portion

5 3

BIll

Medial

portion

54

A III

Tip

54

A III

Whole

252

23

54

A III

Whole

1 08

20

54

A III

Tip

5 5

A I / II

Whole

63

27

portion

1 6

NR

90

4

NR

1 00

3

NR

1 08

1

Not

1 20

7

NR

certainly a reamer

continued... 4 15

Wgt Whole gms

U nit

Sq

1 26

6

NR

1 26

7

NR

1 42

8

NR

1 43

8

NR

1 48

8

NR

1 48

8

NR

4 16

Max Diam of Abrasion mm

Appendix 2 7 . D ata r elating t o m iscellaneous r etouched p ieces. T he p ercentages a re f or t he c lass a s p art o f t he f ormal tools c ategory. Q t = q uartzite, Q = q uartz, C h = c halcedony. The s pecimen i n u nit 6 6 i s o f s ilcrete.

Class

Class Unit

Qt

Q

Unit

Ch

Qt

Q

Ch

2 2

23,0

1 05

5 0,0

2 7

3 3,3

1 06

1 6,6

2 8

1 8,1

2

1 10

20,0

3 0

8 ,6

2

1 16

6 ,2

1 6,6

1 18

22,2

1

1 7

1 6,6

1 20

2 6,8

1

3 1

1 6,6

4

1 21

20,0

2

3 4

1 2,5

2

1 23

1 4,2

1

3 5

20, 0

1 24

3 3,3

3 8

3 3,3

1 26

2 5,0

3

4 3

1 3,5

5

1 28

2 1, 4

2

1

4 4

1 3,3

2

1 29

5 2,6

6

4

5 3

20,0

1 31

23,8

4

1

6 6

9 ,0

1 *

1 32

1 7, 3

3

1

6 7

1 00,0

1

1 34

1 2,5

1

6 8

1 00,0

1 35

5 0,0

2

7 8

22,2

3

1 36

3 3,3

1

8 1

1 3, 3

2

1 37

3 0,0

3

85

1 00,0

1 38

1 6,6

2

8 6

20,0

1 39

4 0,0

2

90

1 1,7

1 40

25,0

1

94

1 4,2

1 41

25,0

1

9 5

1 2,5

1 42

6 6,6

2

9 7

5 0,0

1 43

3 3,3

1

l oo

1,5

3

1 45

5 0,0

1

1 02

5 0,0

1

1 46

2 5,0

1

1 03

20, 0

1 48

3 1,2

5

6

3

2

4 17

2 1 2 1 1

5

5

1

3

1

A ppendix 2 8. I ncidence a nd weights o f t he s inkers. T he f igures i n t he ' fraction' c olumn a re a n e stimate of t he s urviving f raction o f i ncomplete s pecimens. I n s uch cases t he weights a re e xtrapolations f rom t he weight of t he s urviving f ractions.

a )

. . , o P

' , )

a i

z e m

0

a ) f i

.

e

P • r I

w

( Z S e ( f )

0 , 1 . P C . )

P

4

6 . 0« )

a i

i )l e l D

W

>

1 ,4

9 ,9

3 7

B III

1 ,0

3 7

B III

AI

1 4,1

3 7

c iii

1 ,2

3 0

Y -I

9 ,1

3 7

C III

1 ,0

3 0

AI

0 ,7

3 7

c iii

0 ,7

EI V

1 ,1

3 7

C III

1 ,2

1 8

EI V

9 ,9

3 7

C III

1 ,2

1 8

EI V

3 6,3

3 7

C III

1 ,2

3 1

1 31

1 ,1

3 7

c iii

0 ,8

3 1

BI

0 ,66

7 ,0

3 7

c iii

0 ,5

3 1

Al

0 ,75

1 8,7

3 7

c iii

1 ,3

3 3

A0

7 ,4

3 7

A II

1 ,1

3 4

CI

0 ,8

3 7

A II

3 4

Y O

0 ,8

3 8

B III

1 ,2

3 4

A O

1 ,0

3 9

A II

0 ,5

3 4

Y I

2 9,1

3 9

A l

0

3 4

Y I

0 ,7

4 1

B II

3 4

A II

1 ,1

4 1

B III

0 ,5

3 4

AI I

0 ,6

4 2

A II

0 ,4

3 4

BI

1 ,0

4 2

A O

0 ,5

1 2,0

3 4

BI

0 ,33

1 ,2

4 2

B I

0 ,5

1 ,0

3 6

C II

0 ,66

1 ,5

4 2

B IT

3 6

C II

0 ,66

1 5,0

4 2

B II

0 ,75

2 ,5

3 6

D II

0 ,8

4 2

B IT

0 ,66

2 ,8

3 7

B II

1 ,5

4 2

B II

0 ,5

1 ,0

i f .2

Of f

0 ,5

2 2

Y -I

2 8

1 3 1

3 0

2

0 ,5

0 ,5

0 ,66

0 ,5

o ,5

0 ,66

3 ,8

1 ,2

9 7

0 ,9

2 ,1

c ontinued... 4 18

4 . > • , 4

a ) g t c d 0

t : 7 ' C O

0 o • , 1 p u nj g 4

0 o

p

4 ,

ef D

• H

C D >

> , = )

f 1

a l

P

+ )

.

f r . 4

>

o ( e

Z

W

a w n • He

4 2

B III

0 ,5

4 3

ci i

0 ,8

4 2

B III

2 9,3

4 3

cI I

0 ,5

4 2

B III

7 ,0

4 3

B -I

1 ,3

4 2

C I

1 ,1

4 3

YI I

1 4,7

4 2

C II

0 ,9

4 3

C -I

0 ,6

4 2

C III

1 ,2

4 3

c -ii

0 ,75

0 ,8

4 2

C III

1 ,4

4 4

A -I

0 ,66

1 9,3

4 2

C III

0 ,8

4 4

AI

4 2

Y II

1 6,3

4 4

A -II

4 2

Y 1

1 ,5

4 4

B -I

4 2

Y I

0 ,8

4 4

B -I

0 ,5

4 2

Y I

1 ,0

/ 4/ 4

BI I

0 ,7

4 2

Y I

0 ,8

4 4

cI I

4 2

Y I

0 ,4

4 4

cI II

2 ,0

4 2

Y I

1 ,1

4 4

ci ii

1 ,4

4 2

Y I

1 ,8

4 5

EI II

1 ,9

4 2

A l

2 8,0

4 6

YI

0 ,5

4 3

B I

0 ,6

4 8

Y O

1 ,9

4 3

B I

1 ,1

4 9

co

1 ,7

4 3

B I

1 ,5

4 9

cI I

0 ,8

4 3

B I

2 0,9

4 9

ci ii

1 ,3

4 3

A -II

3 ,2

4 9

B -I

0 ,8

4 3 4 3 4 3

A -II A -I A III

1 ,1 3 ,3 0 ,9

4 9

C -II

0 ,75

1 3,2

0 ,33

4 9

c -ii

0 ,5

1 8,2

4 3

A III

0 ,3

1 ,2

5 1

DI II

1 4,7

4 3

B II

0 ,75

0 ,9

5 1

DI II

1 ,1

4 3

C I

0 ,5

1 ,0

5 2

DI I

0 ,8

4 3

C II

2 ,2

5 3

YI V

1 ,8

4 3

CII

1 ,0

5 3

c I II

1 ,8

0 ,75

0 ,5

0 ,75

0 ,5

0 ,5

2 0,7 o ,3 0 ,8

0 ,75

0 ,9

1 ,3

c ontinued... 4 19

a ) g i , 1

. , : -

0 H 4 ) ( . ) ( a

)e n

5 4

A III

( 2 ,5

54

A III

0 ,5

5 4

A II'

1, 6

5 5

B IV

0 ,8

56

C1

56

C II

2 ,4

5 6

B II

1 ,0

5 9

D II

0 ,8

5 9

c o

1 ,1

6 1

1

6 1

2

1 ,8

6 2

3

1 ,6

6 2

2

NR

NR

6 4

1

0 ,66

3 ,1

0 ,66

0 ,75

6 4

5 ,0

3 ,4

1 2,0

0 ,8

6 4

2

0 ,8

6 4

2

0 ,8

6 4

2

o ,4

6 4

3

6 4

3

6 4

4

6 4

4

0 ,7

6 6 6 6 6 6

1

2 1,2

I 2

1 0,2 0 ,9

6 6

2

0 ,6

72

2

7 5

1

1 ,0

7 6

4

2 ,2

0 ,5

1 ,8

6 ,5 0 ,8

0 ,5

4 20

1 ,7

1 ,3

Appendix 2 9. S inkers a s a percentage o f f ormal t ools. Mean p ercentage f requencies a re c alculated o n t he basis o f t he 3 4 units c ontaining s inkers, a nd o n t he 7 5 u nits ( 76-22) r epresenting t he t ime-span o f t he t ype.

1 ) . › : D

U ) 4 o I

m m

r i

r i

C l )

m 4 o I

4 . ›

m m c r-e i g

1

0

1

6 6,6

5 5

1

3 3,3

0

H C l )

H 0

22

1

25,0

4 1

28

1

9 ,0

4 2

2 5

8 3,3

5 6

3

6 0,0

30

3

1 3,0

4 3

1 9

5 1,3

5 9

2

6 6,6

1

25,0

4 4

9

6 0,0

6 1

2

6 6,6

1 8

2

3 39 0

45

1

1 00,0

62

2

1 00,0

3 1

3

1 2,5

4 6

1

5 0,0

6 4

9

8 1,8

3 3

1

1 00,0

4 8

1

20,0

6 6

4

3 6,3

3 4

9

5 6,2

4 9

6

7 5,0

7 2

1

1 00,0

3 6

3

7 5,0

5 1

2

6 6,6

7 5

1

1 00,0

1 00,0

5 2

1

5 0,0

7 6

1

1 2,5

2

3 7

1 4

2

m m

i . I

H 0

M

m 4 o

3 8

1

3 3,3

5 3

2

4 0,0

39

2

6 6,6

5 4

3

3 3,3

Mean Var S .dev

N = 34

N = 7 5

5 5,9

2 5,3

829,48

1 151,65

28,80

3 3,93

4 21

A ppendix 3 0. r ed o chre.

Unit

I ncidence o f

Ochre Pencils

22

1

30

1

Evidence

e vidence r elating

of

o chre

1 7

On unspecified

piece

1 8

On unspecified

piece

1 9

On

two

On

grindstone

On

chunk

4 8

On

grindstone

5 0

On quartzite

3 1

2

3 7

1

3 8

4 2

1

4 3

1

unspecified

t o t he use

staining etc.

pieces

fragment.

4 4

6 1

1

6 6 69

1

76

1

78

1

On

pebble

On

Perna

Plus

82

Ochre

98

On

1 00

2

1 03

1

1 05

1

1 06 1 07

one

flake

shell o chre

fragment

fragment.

large

large

fragment

chunk

flake

On quartz

with

spot

near edge:?part

of

painting.

flake

2

continued... 4 22

o f

1 08

On

11

On flaked pebble

16

1

1 30

1

1 31

1

1 32

1

1 34 1 37

t abular quartzite

On large

smooth

On

1 42

On hammer/rubber

1 48

stone.

1

1 40

1 45

fragment

?MSA f lake

and

on pebble.

1 On

two

flakes.

4 23

A ppendix 3 1. D etails o f t he various bone awl t ypes. T he d imensions g iven i n m illimeters r efer t o the s urviving l ength o f t he p iece, whether w hole o r i ncomplete.

Antelope

Cannon

Bone

28

B II

Whole.

85

1 9

E IV

Whole.

52

1 9

E IV

Whole.

52, 5

4 4

Y III

Part.

5 1

5 9

E III

Whole.

Bone 22

mm.

High

mm.

polish.

Incompletely

ringed

20

mm.

from

t i p.

mm.

mm

plus.

Articular

end missing.

5 7 mm.

Splinters Y-I

Bird. bone

Tip

fragment.

( P1. 11

Y-I

Bird.

Tip

22

A-II

Bird.

Whole.

22

AO

Mammal.

fragment.

22

XO

Bird.

Whole.

67

mm.

24

BII

Bird.

Whole.

65

mm.

27

Yi

Bird.

? Whole.

27

YI

?Mammal.

BO

Bird.

28

B-I

?Mammal.

23

mm.

5 3 mm.

Previously

decorated

shaping,

Retains

8 5 mm.

?Whole. (P1. 11

Whole.

Minimal

little

usage.

5 9 mm.

Whole.

28

mm.

) .

22

polished

26

67

Tip mm.

part

strongly Well

of

articular

shaped

shaped,

(Pl.

end.

1 1

highly

) . 62

mm

( P1. 11

Whole.

63

mm.

?Whole.

6 1

mm.

) .

Retains

part

of

articular

end. 2

E IV

Mammal. (Pl.

Strongly

shaped

at

tip

11).

2

E III

Bird.

2

E IV

Mammal.

2

E V

Bird.

Tip

fragment

Tip

fragment.

?Whole.

decorated

.

27

mm.

27

mm.

3 5 mm. Fine

sharp

awl

on

previously

bone.

continued... 4 24

2

E III

Bird.

Whole.

L . NR.

stork or

flamingo, ?Whole.

Very

ringed and

1 7

E IV

Mammal.

5 8

3 1

A II

?Mammal.

3 1

A II

Bird.

3 1

A II

NR.

3 1

B II

Bird.

3 1

C II

NR.

3 1

C III

Bird.

3 2

B-I

Mammal.

34

Y I

Bird.

34

Y I

Bird.

?Whole.

5 7 mm

3 4

Y I

Bird.

?Whole.

43 mm.

3 4

YO

Bird.

?Whole.

3 4

A-I

?Bird.

34

A I

Bird.

Fragment

34

BO

Bird.

Whole.

4 1

B II

Mammal.

43

Y III

Bird.

Whole.

Tip

7 1

mm.

27

mm.

?Whole.

6 1

mm.

?Whole.

62

mm.

( Pl.

near

4 2

( c

1 1

Very

2 mm)

missing.

) . s lender.

( P1

:1 1

) .

?Whole.

t ip.

20

mm.

mm. 49

mm.

4 6 mm.

Minimal

shaping and use

) . Whole.

63 mm.

43

Y-II

Bird.

Whole.

L . NR.

Bird.

Tip

shaped.

3 7 mm.

?Whole.

Bird.

Y-V

Well

63 mm.

A I

4 3

) .

3 9 mm.

5 5 mm.

4 3

Cape

mm.

1 9mm.

?Whole.

( P1.11

s lender.

( Pl..11

fragment.

?Whole.

possibly

snapped.

Very

4 2

Fragment.

Tip

bird,

mm.

fragment.

Fragment.

large

gannet

( Morus

Whole.

Very D istal

end

capensis),

L . NR.

Ulna

( Phalacrocorax

capensis),

4 9

B-II

Bird.

Whole.

L .NR.

5 9

BO

Bird.

Whole.

6 6 mm.

6 1

E III

?Mammal.

Whole.56

s lender.

Cape

of humerus

ringed and

of Cape

Minimal

snapped.

cormorant

ringed and gannet

of

snapped.

( Morus

capensis

shaping and use.

mm.

c ontinued...

4 25

6 1

E III

Bird.

Whole.

L . NR.

white-breasted ringed and 69

2

Mammal. all

76 76

1 1

78

3

2

ulna

juvenile carbo),

snapped. 62

marked

point.

mm.

Longitudinal

transverse

S light

Mammal.

Whole.

69

from use

( P1. 11

) .

Mammal.

Distal

Light

of

( Phalacrocorax

polish mm.

±

abruptly 4 mm at

Well

fragment.

striae

grinding on

face. ( P1. 11 ) . ?Mammal. ?Whole. 43 mm. Bird. ?Whole. 5 8 mm. Tapers fine

78

c ormorant

Whole.

faces;

Proximal

one

t o

a

t ip.

shaped marked

3 9,1

mm.

on

polish

Robus t specimen.

polish.

79

1

NR.

Distal

80

3

Mammal.

84

1

Bird.

fragment.

39, 4.

?Incomplete. Whole

( less

54,1

c 2 mm

Surface mm.

of

weathered.

High polish

t ip).

4 8

mm.

( p1 .11) Light

polish. 86

1

Mammal. Light

90

1

Proximal

polish

Bird.

Whole.

polished 90

1

?Mammal. point.

1 06

6

at

?Mammal.

f or

proximal 75 mm.

1 8

mm

Whole. L ight

fragment.

Robust.

end.

W ell

from

58,2 mm.

t ip

1 00 mm.

shaped. ( P1. 11 Tapers

Moderately ) •

t o

s lender

polish.

Medial

fragment.

50

mm.

Moderate

poli sh. 1 16

6

Mammal.

Medial

fragment.

grinding visible. 1 20

5

NR.

Whole.

striae. and

54 mm.

High

central

Very

of

l ittle

mm.

especially

shaft

Much

transverse

polish.

Transverse

polish,

part

3 8,2

( P1. 11

and at

longitudinal proximal

end

) .

c ontinued...

4 26

1 20

7

?Bird.

Distal

fragment.

3 7,8

mm.

S lender

and

highly polished. 1 20

1

Bird. t o

1 25

7

? Whole.

a f ine

?Mammal. pol ish

1 28

5

7

mm.

Tapers

point.

S light

Whole.

83,5 mm.

fairly abruptly

polish

4 mm at

for

S lender,

t ip.

with moderate

e specially medially and distal.

Mammal.

Whole.

especially 1 48

5 8

Mammal.

7 7 mm.

Highly

proximally,

Distal

as

fragment.

and grinding apparent.

if much used.

5 3 mm.

Moderate

Other Whole

Bone

and Miscellaneous

3 1

BII

Bird.

3 1

BII

NR.

43

BII

?Bird.

43

Y-III

NR.

D istal

fragment.

3 3 mm.

5 3

AIII

NR.

D istal

fragment.

45 mm.

6 1

EIII

Bird.

Whole. Medial

1 30 mm.

fragment.

3 1

mm.

5 7 mm.

NR.

Whole.

7 3 m m.

smoothed and polished,

( P1.11

4 27

Much polish.

s craping

Appendix 3 2. D ata r elating t o bone s patulas. Under ' Edge P lan' S = s quare, R = r ound, S /R = i ntermediate b etween s quare a nd r ound. D S14 i s a s pecimen, f rom t he A lbany l evels, r ecovered d uring t he c utting o f t he f irst s eason deep s ounding. The two s pecimens i ndicated a s U nst. a re u nstratified s pecimens a lmost c ertainly derived f rom t he upper u nits, 2 2-62. T he o ther e ntries a re d erived f rom J . D eacon 1 978, f igs. 1 0 a nd 1 1. B SC i s W ilton a nd t he r emainder A lbany. Measurements a re a pproximations derived f rom D eacon's d rawings.

› ,

4 ) 0

a ) 4 c d

e

u )

4 4 ) 4 1 )

E

, •4

E( i c ) i

E4

•

i — i 4 >

. 9E

« J . , ' x

E 4E P 1 -P • , 1 . , 1

d a , 1

4 L Ea l

9 1

g i

t . ,

1 W E WE 0 . , i 00 . 0

c . )

$ 4 ( 2 4

uf i

' C S , — I W g 14

2 4

BI

6 8

3 8

3 0

3 1

CI I

4 5

27

1 9

3 1

BI

7 4

4 0

2 0

3 1

BI

5 2

2 6

2 1

3 3

A0

1 39

3 3

2 1

3 4

AI I

6 5

-

-

3 4

AI

4 7

-

-

3 8

AI I

3 5

3 1

2 9

*

*

S

3 8

AI I

6 6

3 0

2 4

*

*

s

3 9

Al

5 9

3 2

1 7

*

*

S /R

4 2

YI

8 1

4 3

c i/cii

9 5

4 0

2 5

4 3

BI

7 0

3 1

2 2

*

4 3

1 3I I

5 0

2 5

2 0

*

4 3

AI

9 0

3 6

3 0

*

*

S i l l

4 3

YI II

8 2

3 7

1 6

*

*

s

4 4

A -II

4 7

4 3

2 8

*

*

R

4 9

B -I

6 7

3 4

2 0

*

*

S

5 3

YI V

1 28

4 4

2 5

5 6

AI II

9 0

4 7

4 5

311

3 1

2 6

*

3 6

2 6

*

1 00

3

1 39

7

1 74

-

S iR * *

*

s

*

R

*

S

* *

I vory

S /R *

-

-

* *

S *

s

*

S S

* *

4 28

S hale

R *

s

*

R R

c ontinued...

a ) 43

. H

a l

C

( I )

B SC

, Z

4 . ) U

•

g lE .9 2

E . E E

( 4 4

E

. 0 E

o • E

a )

XV

i c i4 ,

. 0

0g o Ea l

> 1 " . e• r i >

> • r tP • r : i 1

Z , 4

. r . t 2 r 4 g .

. -1

1)

11

4 6

RB

8 8

1 1

B SBJ

3 5

1 0

C S

1 23

1 3

C S

1 46

1 8

DS 1 4

P

P

3 7

1 7

1 3

Unst

EI I

7 4

3 6

2 5

Unst

DITI

9 0

3 2

3 1

4 29

› , . 4 , I

V « I

a ) E a .

oo

u

P r $ 1

Xt

g

( 1 : 4 1 f a I q

Appendix 3 3. Bone A rrowheads, L inkshafts a nd P oints. D imensions r efer t o s urviving l ength d iameter r espectively.

Hollow bone a nd maximum

Arrowheads Unit 28

Sq. BII

Small

piece

staining and

EIII

EIV

Medial

x 2mm

Medial

EIII

cross

oval

very

not

pointed,

have

removal 1 9

DIV

the of

Associated pelvis

( P1.22 ( c

Maximum

diameter

which

is

( Plate 13

2mm)

an

at

smoothed

long

the

1 ;

irregular

the

with

primary

section.

polish

but

not

gri nding.

The

being x 6mm.

fairly high Oval

A definite

conwhich

constriction does a preliminary

t o

( P1. 1 3 ).

except

from

for

Cross

proximal

point.

x 5 m.

shaping.

projecting

t ip

34mm

a bove t he end,

c 2mm

t ip.

from t o

smooth

break.

of

38mm

c

from here

in

Brown

( 5mm x 3 , 5mm).

of

Complete at

fi nely

longitudinal

rounded.

Burial

) .

portion

uniformly

sign

t ip.

with

of

worked

but

t ip.

Fairly high

finished,

appearance

the

tip.

section

( 6 x 4 mm) been

Shaft

finished,

Finely

little

from

3 mm ( wider end).

traces

cross

and

asymmetrical

near

Well

Sli ght

section

not

base.

(narrow . end),

striction has is

base

) .

from

Proximal p iece. polish;

at

( P1. 1 3

fragment.

Markedly

from

Sli ghtly

fragment

polished.

2

c 7mm

x 4 , 5mm

50mm 2

for

polished.

8 1mm i 2

missing

and 1 20mm

behind

a t iny

section end, to

round.

and

the

tapers

butt,

x 4 mm.

) .

c ontinued...

4 30

3 8

AII

Complete.

Less

specimens.

The

grinding marks

are

c learly visible

is

at

right

angles

on

some

high

of

3 , 0mm.

about

angles

of

Complete

except

Slender,

well

sli ghtly curved,

long

the axis.

of

shaft,

x

4 ,8mm.

well

but

as

The

base,

some maximum

which

Slight high

is

ground

polish

polish

Diameter

at

on

base

axis.

The

but

some

cutting)

is for

t iny

finished i ts

is

longitudi nal long

from

towards

and

at

right

angles

( P1. 13

to

off

with

is

x 3 ,5mm.

the

point.

moderate of

grinding,

Surface

markedly

base,

the

as

)•

survive.

the

shaping

main

warping.

which

is

axis.

9 9mm

) .

Traces

of

slight

s ection

visible,

post-depositional

taper

at

is

primary

Traces

axis

ground

94, 5mm

( P1.1 3

length.

The

of

polish.

specimen

is

Maximum

surface

still

splinter

no

and

traces

are

2 , 5mm.

i s

t ip,

point.

long

presumably

Complete.

sharp

the

base

and

to

which

etched.

x 3 ,5 m m

Cross

from

base,

throughout

transverse

at

end.

fairly high

at

polish

4 4 C III

distal

from

t o

Diameter

flat

the

1 8mm

and/or

traces

There

at mm

angular,

long axis)

as

tapered

corroded,

(grinding

A-III

the

shaft,

62mm

Finely

somewhat

43

- 6 eto

somewhat

the

the

points

is

some

( Pl. 13 ).

d i ameter

are

section

than

on

1 6

t o

base.

Complete.

right

about

finished

(30 °

striae

diameter

edges

BIII

cross

and

l ongitudinal

4 1

finely

tends

transverse

traces t o

be

of

grinding,

especially

longitudinal

flattened

in

grinding.

the

c ontinued...

4 31

proximal f or

c 25mm

4 ,7mm.

4 4 BIT

4 . t o

s ection

but is

x 5 mm

6 1, 3

very

flattish at

and

l ittle

6 7

Min

5 ,5

m m.

a ll

s ign

f inish awl.

of

suggests

was

long axis), have

69,

2

suffered

in

subsequent

7 9,

1

Recorded no

98,

5

over most

by

l ength

at

t ip.

of

3m m.

removes

not

1 3).

right

The

t o

unfinished,

1 6

an

specimen has

snapped.

The

angles and

removal

been

original t o t o

splitting during

" square".

of

apparently from

at

this.

t owards

high degree

( i.e. be

0 31.13

s traight

The

The

Tapers

s lightly rounded.

base

fragment,

of Smooth,

an arrowhead,

the

may have

mm x 5 mm .

primary record

sheets,

but

with no

but

with

detailed description.

in

primary record

subsequent

Complete.

cut

t he

completely

longitudinal

the

prompted

Recorded

out

and neatly

appears

grinding of been

at

of an arrowhead.

square

Cross

m m ( x 3 ,3 m m). ( pl.

cut-off

l ightly ringed base

i s

t ip.

except

Base

x

( P1. 1 3

grinding.

shaping.

this

mm x 4 ,0

50,9

base

mm.

s omewhat

primary

76mm

4 mm.

from of

taper

Strong traces

Very high polish

Deliberately the

chip

Diameter

portion,

base

polish

20

S light

rounded.

for most

real

lower

t ip.

above

transverse

for

the

i s

mid-point).

base

Medial

69,2

just

t o

X

which

for minute

l ongitudinal but

base,

Diameter

Complete

( 3

Slightly polished.

detailed description.

Longitudinal of

sheets,

surface;

striae

oblique

l ightly visible striae

only

over

a

continued... 432

very

small

Tapers

to

slightly

1 11,

5

area near base

less

and

circular.

5 ,0

( Pl.

Proximal

t ip.

Light

point

from

maximum

than half

section mm.

the

Base

polish.

striae

Oval

diameter

from base.

Cross

7 9,9 mm x

rounded.

) .

13

fragment.

transverse

way

polish.

Long itudinal clearly

cross

facetting

visible

despite

and high

4 ,4 m m x 5 ,0 m m

section.

( x 3 mm). 1 20,

5

Recorded

i n

subsequent 1 20,

5

Recorded

1 24,

7

in

5

Recorded

record

detailed

subsequent 1 20,

primary

record

detailed primary

Complete.

A finely made,

the of

base,

t o

polish all edges.

its

a sharp

1 1 0,1

Base

mm

x

with no

sheets,

but

straight

maximum

point.

striae

over.

but

with

no

description.

from

longitudinal

sheets

record

detailed

evenly,

with no

record.

subsequent

tapers

but

description.

primary

in

sheets

Only

light

mm

traces

Fairly high

square-cut ( 12

which

dimension near

visible.

5 ,5 mm

point

with from

rounded base).

(P1. 1 3 ).

1 24,

6

Proximal tudinal marks

1 25,

7

portion.

cross

section.

striae

predominate,

visible.

Fairly high

polish,

mm

( 16

distally.

43, 9

Specimen

recorded

in

Oval

fragments;

no

x in

5 ,5 m i n

with

very

mm

field notebook

subsequent

detail

Longifew

oblique

especially from as

base). recovered

recorded.

c ontinued...

4 33

1 32,6

Complete. striae end;

Made

on piano-convex

strongly marked

transverse

removed by high

than with f inish.

s triae

smoothing,

polish.

The

awls, Base

on

convex

near and

the

s ide

t ip.

the

specimen

on

splinter.

basis

Most

whole

i s

at

proximal

primary

included here, of

tool

surface has

its

marks

are

a very

rather

symmetry and

7 3,7 m m x 6 ,0

V-shaped.

Oblique

( x 3 ,5 mm)

( Pl. 13). 1 38,7

Medial

fragment,

much decayed.

1 45,8

D istal

fragment.

Symmetrical,

striae

visible.

Moderate

rather

than with

awls

1 2,0

Link 3 0,

mm

22,8 mm x 4 ,0 mm. and w ith

polish.

because

of

only

l ongitudinal

Included here symmetry

and

finish.

x 3 ,0 mm.

shafts Y-I

A elinter

of bone,

asymmetrical

in

oval

long axis,

Fairly highly polished the

two

ends.

The

Double-ended bone cut

around

are

reminiscent

have is

t he

a squared

on

of

all

over, is

grounds

point

oblique

( 2

t o

a s ingle The

and the

60 °

Interpretation as that

we

have

no

end.

t o

so

small

spiral

groove

symmetry and but

t he

the

latter

end.

long axis)

a fish

finish

maximum diameter

proximal

local

at

5 3

arrow head,

closer

each

and rather more

( Fig.

end.

a bone

s lightly

damaged by many

with

one

s ection,

pointed at

or rounded base

and

visible. t he

and

surface

t ip at

usually markedly

longitudinal are

cross

70,0 mm x 5 ,0dm m ) • .

etch-marks. 1 6 E IV

in

gorge

Some

s triations i s

rejected

e thnographic

c ontinued...

4 34

models, levels local

and t o

Hollow

Bone

2 9 YI

Distal

fragment

with

At

but the

a small

The

central

( Fig.

of

the

13 ) .

one

with

end,

corners.

at

The

t o

s ign

of striae

s ection

mm

one

some

round

s ection.

fragment.

marks,

in places. flat

but

is

x 3 ,5 mm.

oblique

at

) .

base

of

t he

probable

the

other.

with

talus,

bone

and

certain.

bevelled

t o

irregular break

a

at

the

longitudinally from

the

longitudinal

polish has

especially

striation.

75,0 mm x 4 , 0 mm.

( pl.

are

concavo-convex, canal.

4 35

Fairly 13

removed most

grinding marks

central

a fine

but not

grinding visible,

i s

t o

grinding

13

( ?bird?

transverse

e lliptical

is

split

section

cut

triangle

( Pl.

with an

is

High

Cross

and

the

43

of diagonal and

cross

from

end,

bone,

irregular break

of hollow

near point,

Distal

26,0

a s calene

unit

specimen

Marks

an

x 4 , 5 mm.

comes

fragment

point ,

base.

cross

( ?bird)

Transverse

5 5, 0 mm

assignation

other.

No

longitudinal

the

canal.

of hollow

specimen

Distal

end

fragment

t ip.

small

Holocene

part

bone.

straight

broken

section resembles

tool

mm.

( ?bird)

f ine

Cross

rounded

7 1,3

of hollow

at

fine

mm x 5 ,0

were

the

with unfinished base.

point

its

gorges

in

) .

Distal

near

or nothing

fish

86, 0

grinding,

(PI. 1 3

4 3 Y-V

that

an arrowhead

present.

oval,

AII

l ittle

Points

oblique

3 1

suggest

t echnology.

Possibly

are

there i s

28,5

) .

primary preserved

with a

mm x 5 , 3 mm.

A ppendix s urviving

Bone

1 .

3 4. Bone t ubes. T he m easurements r efer l ength, a nd maximum d iameter, r espectively.

Tubes.

22.

Y-II.

Both

(P1. 1 4

ends

snapping 2 .

22.

YII.

Both

3 .

2 7.

At

30.

5 .

6 .

2 .

) .

bone

14

(P1.14

Single,

small

and

and

at

one is

cut

lines

) .

x 5 ,0

and ul na.

mm.

and

as

76, 0 Ulna

the

of

x 8 ,0

shaft

60, 3 mm

of

mm. Cape

x 7 ,6

opposite

end.

Undecorated.

52, 4 mm

smoothed, The

not

to

with

end

encrusted.

consists by

two

opposite have

of

three

x

mm

rows of

jagged

finished. x 9 ,0

Decoration

rows

end.

5 ,3 mm

is

smoothed.

three

one

small

end

been

gannet.

mm.

near

cut

bone

ends.

at

Surviving

separated

end.

if

mm

Decorated. ) 52, 0

end.

each

ring-and-snap

adjacent.

) .

at

4 ,8 mm.

x

smoothing

cf.

Clear

end

somewhat

longi tudi nall y cross

mm.

ringing

mm.

outward

Undecorated.

appears

( P1.1 4

1 1, 0

No

smoothed.

One

cuts

specimen

x 5 ,0

cormorant

mm

technique

cut.

transverse

transverse

Broken

Cape

66, 0

burred

smoothed.

midpoint).

E .III.

c . f.

Undecorated.

) .

(P1.14

split,

is

when

) .

finely

end

6 1.

mm

ori ginal

Undecorated.

' green'

ends

Y-V.

of

Decorated.

r i ng-and-snap

Neither

43.

visible.

) .

the

( Pl.

EIII.

(at

7 .

end

very

Both

traces

29, 0

smoothed.

clear

Y-I.

but

still

(P1. 1 4

one

were

4 .

are

ends

Shows

Undecorated.

smoothed

(P1. 14

YI.

) .

mm.

The is

of

short,

arranged

crisstransverse

marks.

continued...

4 36

t o

8 .

6 1. One

EIV. end

Undecorated. slightly

surviving. the

Other

ring-and-snap

jagged, end

is

34, 3 mm

with possible unsmoothed and

t echnique.

4 37

x 7 ,4

remnant shows

mm of

r inging

c learly

A ppendix 3 5. D etails o f bone r ings. T he measurements i n e ach c ase a re e xternal d iameter, i nternal diameter, a nd t hickness ( at r ight a ngles t o t he p lane o f t he r ing), r espectively.

Unit

1 8

finely

Unit

or

1 9

DIV.

finished

29

YI

two

Unit

3 1

16

( Pl.

16

42

BIII

apparently on

the

Unit

42

mm

BIII

) .

edge

16

7 ,0

skull

or

retaining Unit

3

Al

Approximately

one

mm

specimen. one

c 1 ,7

specimen. 2 ,5 Unit

Unit

44

of

16

) .

between

mm

3 ,0

of

mm.

a finished

third

of

an

cancellous

t issue

carapace.

made

(probably

suture.

c

tortoise

1 0,5 two

into

two

from

a fragment

the

mm

carapace.

latter)

C 5 ,2

thirds

parts.

of

1 1, 0

mm

1 ,8 mm

a finished mm

8 ,0

mm

mm. 16

) .

apparently

of

tortoise

16

) .

B-I

c m

into

(pi. t hree

Unstratified, f inished of

t issue

broken

Apparently

Approximately

( Pl.

44

a fine,

?Tortoise

but

carapace

Apparently

a

mm.

Complete,

the

of

of

Shows

point.

thirds

mm.

third

c 8 ,0

mm.

tortoise

( pi.

mm

2 ,2

at

) .

part

one

two

2 ,0

cancellous

mm

Apparently unfinished. of

mm

Approximately half

mm

c 9 ,0

(Pl.

7 ,5

c 1 0, 0

unfinished

outer

c 1 4, 0

Shows

) .

1 0, 5

(P1.1 6

mm

Approximately

surfaces.

specimen. Unit

) .

Approximately

1 1, 0

specimen.

solid

BIII

) .

specimen.

( Pl.

finished

(P1.1 6

bone

Fragment

C0 ( Pl.

16

specimen. uncertain.

1 1, 5 ) .

an

unfinished

specimen;

carapace.

Finished

pieces.

of

mm

Well

Surface 13,6

mm

and

complete

8 ,5

mm

1 ,6

preserved, somewhat 9 ,0

mm

specimen,

broken

mm. complete,

etched. 1 ,5

Source

mm.

c ontinued... 4 38

Unit

6 6

Sq

cut

2 . from

from

a small

1 1,8

6 6

4 .

( Pl.

in

ivory.

so

in

from

on

right x 8 ,7

bone.

on

8 ,7

s ide the

only,

angles mm

t o

2 ,2

outer

bone

s tructure mm

2 ,7 and

and c lear surface the

t o

traces

fine

plane

of

3 ,3 m m.

4 39

on

traces inner

face.

mm. specimen

and markedly

been drilled, survive.

striae t he

Striae

the

finished

specimen has

specimen,

oval.

surface:

irregular in plan,

The

inner

finished

S lightly

Complete

S lightly

and

the

x 1 0,2

1 6 ) .

thickness. one

point

8 ,0

l imb

of original

x 1 3,0 mm

Sq

at

Complete

shaping r emain

suggestive

Unit

1 6 ) .

( Pl.

are

ring.

At

possibly one

visible 1 2,6

x 1 1,2 mm

A ppendix 3 6. utilization.

Details o f t ortoise s hell s howing Each e ntry commences w ith u nit

e vidence o f n umber a nd

s quare.

27A0. away

Carapace towards

fairly

2 8A0

drilled

29

Y-I

) .

from

internal

1 6

9 EV. ?Part

3 1

removed

Fragment

of

plate

of

or

bowl.

scoop

Carapace

polish

table on

AII.

Second

large

with

plate

and

two

3 , 5mm

two

holes

of

small

holes

diam).

with

fragment

bowl

or

rim. ground

One

of

derive

buchu

Y-III.

and

third

tortoise,

edges

they

rim.

( 4

mm

Part

of

diam)

one

tortoise,

drilled

?Buchu

highly

( 18, 0

x 20, 0

right

hand

from

polished

mm)

with the

container.

with

with

the from

the

plates

inner are

marginal

edge.

polish

surface

also

a palette-like

plates

ground

ground,

along

object

of

a

away.

The

suggesting

rather

than

a

container.

Two

fragments

appears

t o

have

of

marginal

had

t he

plates,

i nner

polished

surface

on

s craped

t he or

down.

BIII.

Small

fragment

of

inner

face

rim.

margin

with

on

4 2 Y I.

N uchal p late o f f airly l arge t ortoise,

t hickening r emoved, l arge b owl

and

carapace

polish

o f

gro und

margin.

that

42

Nuchal

and

proximal

34

Inner

surface.

( 3,0

CI.

very

) .

taurus

surface

inner

Fairly high

Fragment

inner

inner

3 1

mm).

bowl.

1 6

(Pl.

x 3 5

( 55

margin.

large

( 131 .

plate

very

high

w ith inner

p lus t hree c ontiguous p lates.

Part

( estimated 1 8,0 x 1 2,0 c m).

continued... 4 40

42

Y-III.

with

Three

inner

of

highly

43

Y-IV

(Pl.

43

16

fragments

partly

polished

completely one

plate

surface

of

removed,

a fairly and

one

large

short

tortoise,

section

edge.

) .

Disc

regul ar,

and

of

( c 14, 0

carapace

with

incomplete

mm

diam.),

perforation

not

from

s ide. Y II

shape, inner 43

and

with

Y III.

Carapace

incomplete

Fragment

fragment

drilled

partly

reduced

perforation

from

t o the

with

inner

surface

ground

through

t o

table.

A-IV.

edge

) .

surface.

inner 43

1 6

(Pl.

?4th

ground

costal

plate

smooth.

Part

with

of

distal

a bowl

margin

rather

and

than

inner

buchu

container. 43

Al.

one

43

Fragment

half

YO.

of

Two

4 4 C II. side, 7th

all

edges

ground

away. Two

inner

partially

4 8 YO. canal of

with

and

7th

ground, Part

surfaces hole

edge

of

x

8 ,0

and

marginal and

contiguous

drilled

6th

bony

1 0,0 mm

mm)

retaining

diameter.

inner

surface

plates

of

protrusion

ground.

right on

hand

inside

of

a bowl. plates

ground.

and

one

One

small

on

outer

surface

plate

from

or

7th

neural

removed,

and

showing high

small

plate

( Pl.

16

carapace,

polish

fragment,

on high

with ) .

with

neural

points.

?Part

bowl.

5 3 AIV . both in

6th

( 20, 0

perforation,

fragments

with

with

carapace

drilled

5 th,

4 4 Y-III.

of

Incomplete

ends

several

5 9 DI M.

missing.

? costal Inner

directions.

Plate

with

x 1 8 ,0m m )

plate

( 50, 0

mm

surface

shows

extensive

?Part

ground

of

and

fairly

polished

4 41

large

edge.

w it h

striation

bowl.

A ppendix 3 7. O ccurrences o f s howing n o s igns o f u tilisation. u nit n umber a nd s quare.

34 Y-III.

34

YO.

One

34 A-III.

43

Y-V.

43

Y-II.

4 4 Y-III.

4 4 A-II.

47

Y-I.

4 8 A-II.

Two

costal

marginal

One

plates

plate

? costal

?4th

costal

of

4th

costal

and

One

Two

?4th

one

indetermi nate.

( ?lst).

plate.

small

one

indeterminate

costal

plate

tortoise.

indeterminate.

plate.

and

?3rd

costal

plate.

plates

and

CII.

Three

49

Y-I.

Two

one

thirteen

indeterminate.

fragments.

p lates.

4 9 B-II.

Three

plates.

5 1

Three

whole

5 3 AIV.

and

fragments.

49

DIII.

t ortoise s hell f ragments E ach e ntry commences w ith

Small

plates

fragment

of

and

plate.

4 42

three

fragments.

A ppendix n umbers),

3 8. I ncidence o f o strich e ggshell beads a nd o strich e ggshell f ragments ( by weight).

Unit

Beads

22

1 20

2 3

24

Fragments OES g ins

Beaus

Fragments OES g ins

4 2

4 1

1 0, 4

43

23

33,2

4 4

1 1

1 0,1

Unit

0 ,6

2 4 2 3

8

4 6

2

2 6

8

49

3

27

94

1 ,5

5 2

28

1 7

1 ,3

5 3

2 9

9

5 9

6

3 0

l t

6 1

5

1 3, 3

2

2

6 4

2

5 , 1 4

6

2

6 5

1 3

1

6 6

1 6

1

6 7

1 8

1

6 8

1 9

1

69

1

7 1

2

7 5

1

0 ,2

3 1

3 2

1 9

1 ,5

1

6

3 3

1 0

1 ,3

76

1

1 ,6

3 4

1 6

0 ,7

78

1

7 ,2

80

1

0 ,4

8 4

3

3 ,3

8 6

2

3 ,8

8 9

0 ,9

94

3 5

2

3 6 3 7 3 8

1 6 3

3 9 4 0 1 4 1

3

0 ,7

( by

0 ,4 0 ,3

1

1 00

2

1 03

1

c ontinued... 4 43

Unit

Beaas

1 03

Fragments OES gms

1

1 04

0 ,4

1 05

3 ,0

1 06

0 ,2

1 08

2

1 11

1 ,0

1 12

0 ,7

3

1 15 1 17

0

9 3

0 ,9

1 18

2

1 19

1

1 20

4

2 ,3

7 ,7

1 21

5 ,2

1 22

0 ,3

1 23

3

1 26

1

1 28

3

1 29

1

1 30

1

1 31

3

3 ,2

1 32

4

0 ,5

1 33

8 ,6

0 ,1

1 34

1

1 36

1

1 37

1

1 38

8

1 39

0 ,1

4 ,7

1 1

1 44

1

1 48

1

4 44

0 ,6

Appendix

3 9.

I ncidence

1 Unit

P erf

o f

2 a

t he various

2 b

U nperf

3 F inished

2 2

pendant

types.

G lycimeris

Unfinis hed P erf 3 6

2 3

7

2 4

1

2 5

9

2 6

2

2 7

3

2 8

1

1

2

1 0

1

4

8

2

1 0

3

1

2

1 2

1

1 3

1

1 4

1

1 5

1 1

1

7

1 7

1 3

1 8

5

1 9

1

2 0

1

3 1 3 2

9 9 2

3 3 3 4

4

1 6

7

1 6

1 0

9

, , . 6

U nperf

3

1

3

continued... 4 45

3 5

1

3 7

1

3 8

2

3 9 4 1 4 2

1 3

1

3

4 3

3

4 4

1

5 9

1

6 5

1

3 2

8 4 c 1 0 1 00

1

1 2

1 05

3

1 06

2

1 12

1

1 16

1

1 18

1

1 20

1

1

2

2

2

3 3

1 21

1

1

1 22

1

5

1 23

1

8

2

8

1 24

1

1 26

4

1 28

1

1 29

1

1

1

1 30

1

1 31

1

3 2

1

5

1 32

2

2

1 33

2

1

continued... 4 46

1 P erf

Unit

2 a

2 b

3 F inished

U nperf

1 35

1

1 38

1

1 40

1

G lycimeris

UnfiniP erf s hed

U nperf

, ,

1

1

1 43

, 8

4 2

T otal

A ppendix

4 0.

2 1

6

6

7 7

1 9

1 70

I ncidence o f perforated Donax s erra valves.

N

Unit

N

Unit

2

1

1 00

4

1 28

7

1

1 05

,

1 29

2 5

1

1

1 07

5

1 30

1 9

1 4

1

1 08

7

1 31

1 8

20

2

1 09

1

1 32

1 5

6 8

1

14

1

1 35

1

15

1

1 37

4

Unit

7 8

1

3

8 4

1

16

2

1 38

8 6

4

18

2

1 39

2

8 7

6

1 20

7

1 40

2

8 9

1

1 21

4

1 4 1

2

9 1

1

1 23

3

1 43

4

9 2

1

1 24

2

1 44

7

9 8

2

1 26

2

1 45

1.

9 9

2

1 27

1

1 47

1

4 47

1

Appendix 4 1. C ranial measurements measurements a re i n mm; mir e stimated.

f or b urials 1 t o = m irror image;

5 . A ll e st =

B urial N o. 1 M aximum C ranial L ength M aximum C ranial B readth B asibregmatic H eight B iasterionic B readth F rontal S agittal A rc P arietal S agittal A rc O ccipital S agittal A rc F rontal S agittal C hord P arietal S agittal C hord O ccipital S agittal C hord T ransverse A rc F oramen M agnum L ength F oramen M agnum B readth M astoid H eight L east F rontal B readth B ifrontal B readth B izygomatic B readth B imaxillary B readth U pper F acial H eight N asion-basion L ength P rosthion-basion L ength B imaxillary S ubtense N aso-frontal S ubtense i nterorbital B readth ( Dac.) O rbital B readth O rbital H eight N asal H eight N asal B readth L east Nasal B readth M axillo-alveolar L ength M axillo-alveolar B readth P alatal L ength P alatal B readth P alatal H eight

1 72 1 32 1 19 1 05 1 28 1 11 1 21 1 0 .5 1 03 9 6 2 84 3 5 2 7est 1 8 8 9 8 3 1 02est 7 9 5 2 8 6 8 3 2 2 1 4 1 9 3 4 3 0 2 7 2 1 7 4 5 5 4 3 6 3 1 5

4 48

2 1 35 1 10 1 09 1 00 2 88mir 2 5 1 00mir 1 18mir 9 1mir 5 8est 3 7 3 3 3 9 2 5 5 8 3 2 1 0

3 1 63 1 32 1 15 9 6 1 20 1 19 1 18 9 5 1 07 9 3 3 02 3 6 2 7 1 6 8 5 7 9 7 0 4 1 7 9 7 9 2 0 1 3 1 7 3 1 2 7 2 7 1 9 4 3 6 4 6mir 3 2 2 4mir -

4

5

1 78 1 34 1 24 1 17 1 09

1 28 1 01 1 35 1 19

2 8 9 5 9 6 1 23 9 4 5 5 2 6 2 0 2 5 3 8 2 7 4 1 2 8 1 2 5 7 6 2 4 6 3 6est 8

9 0mir

Appendix 4 2. M andibular measurements f or b urials A ll m easurements a re i n mm; e st = e stimated.

1 t o

5 .

B urial No. 1 B icondylar B readth B igonial Breadth B imental B readth P roj. H eight o f R amus P roj. L ength o f Corpus P roj. L ength o f M andible L ength o f Condyle S igmoid Notch S ubtense M inimum W idth o f R amus S ymphyseal H eight Corpus H eight a t M 2 Mandibular A ngle ( degrees)

Appendix 4 3. 4 , a nd 6 .

2

8 8 7 1 3 8 3 5 5 8 7 9 1 2 7 3 0 2 8 1 27

L ong bone

1 22est 8 7est 4 2 3 5 6 7 9 5 1 8 1 0 3 1 2 8 2 1 1 29

l engths

( in mm)

3

4

8 5 6 2 3 3 2 4 4 5 6 3 1 1 7 2 6 2 3 1 31

5

1 14est 8 3 4 4 4 2 8 4 9 6 1 2 3 3 2 9 2 0 1 20

f or b urials

4 4 6 7est 3 3 2 4 -

1 ,

2 ,

B urial No. 1

2

3

d iaphyseal

H umerus R adius U lna F emur T ibia F ibula

4

6

d iaphyseal

d iaphyseal

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

R

L

1 68 1 27 1 41 2 55 2 04 -

1 71 1 28 1 42 2 54 2 05 1 99

-

2 40 1 88 2 01 -

1 21 9 1 1 04 1 41 1 31

1 23 9 1 1 04 1 68 1 39 1 33

2 86 2 23 2 35 4 32 3 58 3 34

2 26 2 40 4 34 3 57 -

6 3 5 1 5 8 7 5 6 6 6 1

4 49

R 6 3 5 8 7 5

3 ,

Appendix a )

4 4.

NBC

2 D ISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS

C ranial D iscrimination Measurements U sed - i n o rder o f d iscriminatory power Nasal Breadth Cranial Breadth Nasal Height Maxillo-alveolar Breadth Mastoid Height Parietal Sagittal A rc B iasterionic Breadth Multivariate D istance of NBC

Mahalanobis Negro Khoisan Caucasoid

b )

( FEMALES ONLY)

D 2

2 t o: probability o f exclusion f rom g roup

1 8.4 3 .7 1 9.3

. 001 . 999 . 000

Mandibular D iscrimination Measurements U sed - i n order o f d iscriminatory M inimum w idth o f Ramus Symphyseal Height P rojective Height o f Ramus Mandibular Angle Multivariate D istance o f NBC

Mahalanobis Negro Khoisan Caucasoid

D2

4 .3 3 .0 1 5.7

2 t o: p robability o f exclusion f rom g roup . 340 . 659 . 001

4 50

power

Appendix a )

4 5.

NBC

4 D ISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS

Cranial D iscrimination Measurements Used - i n order Nasal B readth Upper F acial Height B imaxillary Breadth Maxillo-alveolar Breadth Orbital Height Cranial Length Palatal Height Nasal H eight Multivariate D istance

M ahalanobis Negro Khoisan Caucasoid b )

o f NBC

D 2

( MALES

ONLY)

o f discriminatory power

4 to: probability o f exclusion f rom group

2 2.8 1 1.4 4 1.1

. 003 . 997 . 000

Mandibular D iscrimination Measurements Used - i n o rder o f d iscriminatory power Mandibular A ngle Projective Height o f Ramus Symphyseal Height Minimum Width o f Ramus B icondylar Breadth Multivariate D istance o f NBC

Mahalanobis Negro Khoisan Caucasoid

D 2

1 2.2 3 .9 2 6.3

4 to: probability o f exclusion f rom group . 015 . 985 . 000

4 51

Appendix 46. Identification and location of plant remains recovered during the 1979 field season. Identifications are by H. J. Deacon (seeds and corms) and Anton Scholtz (charcoals), both of the Department of Archaeology, University of Stellenbosch. Seeds

ro � ro (.)

H Q)

a> �

o h

Q)

h

ro ;:'.j

'O ·r-f ·r-f

cr4 (/)

78

>
u ) u ) ( U — C ) 4 C C r l u l -4 C 4 4 U ) Q . ) 4 4

I • C ) C 1 ,4 C W > 4 W 4 W Z. 0 0 4 . 4 . c o u o 4 4

s . .' • • *

[ L i m c t • c C Z u ) 4 4 C 4 --4 Q ) 4 X C I , < ( U

4 t c l u ) O C 0 • •O G 0 ( 1 ) C Z I ‘ 1 4 C 4 I : 14 G L 4 4 1 4 1 : 4 2 1 4 C r, N

n i

01 / 4

C

( 1 ) 4 ) C 0 U E. 4 4 0 0 u ) . 4 • •'

( 0

. . . ( r ) C s . 4 W 4 )

0

• •'

( 1 ) •• '4 0

C ) 4 o — . 1 E W 1 4 ( L ) O U — ( ) • . I . 4 ) U ) w t . ) c

4 , 3 4 t 1 4 1 — \ C ) 4 ) • c 0 c o x — c ° co a ) , 4 c r S 4 0 --l c ( U 4 -1 1 . 4 4 . r ) C C 0 ) Z 0 .4 1 ( 4 s 4 u ) • C r, U ( I ) 4 E • 4 4 -1 0 4 — 0 C C . ) 0 .C ' a U ) r i l r c l U 0 . . 1 4 n i 1 4 ( 4 3 < ( ! ) n : 4 U ) C r c l C G 1 4 4 4 0 C C 1 4 a . 1 4 ) -I K e ( U 4 ) W W C 4 E l . 0 •4 1 i t 4 ) •. 4 ) < 0 C s 4 g : 4 0 4 ( / ) 0 1 U ) 4 E4

4 69

SPECIES

j ( 1 ) /I

c a m t r 3 W C l i 0 4 0 . 0 u $ 4

C 0 U ) • . I . 0 U C . ) ^ ' a . I Q ) ) -I Q S 4 -4 . 4 ) 4 1 ) . 4 ) U 4 . 0 — u ) I 4 . 0 r d s c 0 . 1 ( U 3 3 ^ W ( 1 ) 4 c 1 U ) — 1 4 II1) •• 1 . 4 •• C 4 4 — 4 n r c l W r c i . 0 J O 4 1 M I C ^ 0 3 c r ) a ) 4 ) 3 ( 1 ) a ) C X ) 0 ' 1 1 4 C . N e — c c.C ( U )c cc i n l z a l l c U c o — c c u ) 3 c e — C c 1 4 ( 4 3 C 1 4 4 ) W ( 0 W m r e 1 4 W 4 0 a l . 0 0 — 4 4 4 ) • rn u 1 C• .4 . 4 ) . 0 4 4 0 1 E ( 1 ) — c o 0 . 4 ) — 0 3 V 0 U 0 .4 1 0 4 1 ). .0 1 . 44 1 ) 0 0 — E 4 u l 1 4 1 . 4 0 S 4 u ) X 4 -4 0 0 • ( lc C ( U X ) u ) 0 ( . ) • ( U • • • I t 0 4C . ) 1 I ( 1 ) 0 C 0 1 4 1 4 C 4 ) X — 4 : 1 C L 4 C • • • r 4 • 01 u ) 0 — c i — E 4 e 1 0 . 4 W 0 W u ) 0 4 -) 0 W ( C I > ( 4 ) < • X C W - C C: 1 ( 1 ) 4 t i C 1 4 1 4 C 4 4 C C U ) 0 3 U l 4 4 W 0 • r d•4 C C] 4 -4 41 CZ al C n E • •I -I • H • I t C C O I ) 4 4 < 0 ( : 0 o .c ro o 4 ( . ) s 4 r t , r a 0 3 • 4 C I 4 2 , 4 c-4 4 ( . ) 0 4 I 4 r c 5 1 4 C > 4 4 - 4 t i l cn ce rd m i cn C ra W E.0 0 4 4 C f l ( . ) C 4 -4 ( . ) 1 - 0 4 C 0 4 4 1 4 4 ) ( 1 ) H 1 4 C • •4 : 4 0 . 0 • a l . 4 ) • L I ) C l i a c ( : 1 4 C 1 4 4 1 4 A + ‘ 2 4 ( 1 4 ( . ) 4 U ) C / 1

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A ppendix 5 2. e xcavation, i n

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who

WEEKS 1 964/65 I nskeep, R . R . I nskeep, A . v i aggs, T . M 0 1C . H endey, Q . B . J oigt, E . S tanley L ombard B one, E . D eacon, H . D eacon, J . S eddon, D . 2 oppen, G . J on Maltitz, E . H epner, W. H epner, R . Amm, B . R udner, J . P oggenpoel, C . P oggenpoel, G . R ogers, J . W elbourn, R . H umphreys, A . J . B . F lemming, G . v an der Wyck P elteret, D . : artwright, C . J oseph ' C airns, P . J acobson, L . A very, G. A ndries I saak P arkington, J . E . P arkington, J . 4 ilner, B . F ussell, A . S eely, J . B uchanan, W . R iley, R . F . H orwitz, L . S chirma, J . H endricks

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4 85

PLATE

V iew o f cave f rom r ocks a t s horeline. A small marks t he western e nd o f t he cave mouth

Dune r ock ' island' f rom ( Hoffman's cave) i s v isible, l eft o f t he ' island'

tent

NBC. E ast guanogat beyond t he gap, t o t he

1

PLATE

Work

at

G eneral s eason

t he mouth o f

v iew o f

t he cave

c utting

at

i n

t he

t he s econd

c lose o f

s eason

t he

t hird

2

G eneral

PLATE

3

PLATE

V iew o f c utting. r ight

east and south f aces o f The f illed-in d isturbance i s

East f ace o f squares AO a nd A l. Note o f a sh s preads a nd s hell deposits

f irst v isible

season at t he

i nterdigitation

4

PLATE

c i

West face o f 1 979 dominated by a sh

b

squares

I

6 ,

7 ,

I

and

1

C MS Q uartzite bladelet/flakelet

core

8 ,

h eavily

5

PLATE

6

. 1 1(7 , 1

4 .3 c j f le

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e squillees, actual s ize

cortical.

The

specimens

are

s hown

about

PLATE

S hale palettes

b

o i

s CMS .

7

PLATE

Two

f laked grindstones

D impled

Undersides

o f

8

two quarzite

r ubbing

s crapers

stone

PLATE

9

C MS CMS e. I•

••••

1 8

1 6 »

Me

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CMS 1 . . i

3 0

PLATE

a

CMS A rrow

1 0

straighteners

S hale

1 1 1 1 1,

Four

CMS

cannon-bone

awls

with

scrape

marks

PLATE

Various

b one awls

11

PLATE

1 2

a l. .

r

-

« I I I

» BM

1 00

Bone

spatulae

4 3

PLATE

1 3

1 6

2 9

Bone

a rrowheads

and

' bird

bone

points'

PLATF ,

I MO

I MP

4 1 • 1••

1» l e

a f l , «la>

Bone

tubes

IM B

1 4

PLATE

15

4 3 4 3

3 4

I

i

1

I

i

I

i

I

I

I

6 4

6 4 Decorated

bone

PLATE

T a lus

1 8 / 19

3 1

4 3

4 4

I 4 2

4 4

4 3 29

u ns t ra t 1

i

I

i

i

i

2 8 1

4 6 Bone

r ings,

tortoise

carapace,

and

cut

bone

1 6

PLATE

a

a

a

a

1 7

•

B u r ia ls 4 & 5

I vory p laque,

2 7

e ggshell

beads,

a nd G lycimeris

s hells

PLATE

3 7 3 3

4

Type

1 shaped

pendants

1 8

PLATE

1 6

1 2 9

1 8

1 20

1 6

9 0

CMS

1 20

1 3 3

1 30

1 32

1 20 S hell

p endants,

various

19

PLATE

1 8 130

6 4

8 4

7 9

2 0

1 48

4 1 1 1• 11. 1 .

4 8

1 8

M IM I »

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M

1 40

1 20

U ns trat S hell

I

1

i

pendants/beads/sequins,

i a nd

2 8 perforated Donax

PLATE

Gourd

r esonator

f or

' hand

piano'

( Venda)

CMS

I ron

plate

2 1

PLATE

e l i

. ..

d amm•R I P

C i . 3 L

0 3

2 2

PLATE

B ur ia l 5 h eadband

Burial

5 small

f inds

2 3

PLATE

n u

f ronta

b asal i s

N orma

Burial

l ateral

1 .

Skull

( l eft)

2 4

PLATE 25

\c t t "nj1

rin.1

V• rt i \