Nanking atrocity, 1937-1938 - complicating the picture 2017030159, 2017030603, 9781785335976, 9781785336744, 9781785335969

Citation preview

THE NANKING ATROCITY, 1937-38

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:09 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:09 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

T he N a n k in g A t r o c it y , 1 9 3 7 -3 8 Complicating the Picture

Second Edition

Edited by Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi

berghahn NEW Y ORK • OX F ORD www.berghahnbooks.com

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:09 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

First published in 2007 by Berghahn Books www.berghahnbooks.com ©2007, 2008, 2017 Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi First paperback edition published in 2008 Second edition published in 2017 First edition published in 2007 in the series “Asia-Pacific Studies,” edited by J. S Eades and David Askew All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission of the publisher. Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi, 1950- editor, author. Title: The Nanking atrocity, 1937-38 : complicating the picture / edited by Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi. Description: Second Edition. | New York : Berghahn Books, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017030159 (print) | LCCN 2017030603 (ebook) | ISBN 9781785335976 (ebook) | ISBN 9781785336744 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781785335969 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945—Atrocities—China—Nanjing Shi. | Nanking Massacre, Nanjing, Jiangsu Sheng, China, 1937. | Nanjing (Jiangsu Sheng, China)—History—20th century. | Nanjing (Jiangsu Sheng, China)—History—20th century—Historiography. Classification: LCC DS797.56.N365 (ebook) | LCC DS797.56.N365 N38 2017 (print) | DDC 951.04/2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017030159 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78533-674-4 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-78533-596-9 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-78533-597-6 (ebook)

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:09 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

C ontents

Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition

vii ix

Wade-Giles to Pinyin Conversion Table

xii

Maps

xvi

Iris Chang Reassessed: A Polemical Introduction the Second Edition

xxi

Chapter 1. The Messiness of Historical Reality

3

Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi

Chapter 2. The Nanking Atrocity: An Interpretive Overview

29

Fujiwara Akira

Section One: W ar Crimes and Doubts Chapter 3. Massacres outside Nanking City

57

Kasahara Tokushi

Chapter 4. Massacres near Mufushan

70

Ono Kenji

Chapter 5. Part of the Numbers Issue: Demography and

Civilian Victims

86

D avid Askew

Chapter 6. The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate,

1971-75

115

Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi

Chapter 7. Radhabinod Pal on the Rape of Nanking: The Tokyo

Judgment and the Guilt of History Timothy Brook

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:46 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

149

Contents

Section Two: Agressors and Collaborators Chapter 8. Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted

to Nanking

181

Amano Saburo

Chapter 9. Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

196

Timothy Brook

Chapter 10. Westerners in Occupied Nanking: December 1937

to February 1938

227

D avid Askew

Chapter 11. Wartime Accounts of the Nanking Atrocity

248

Takashi Yoshida

Section Three: Another Denied Holocaust? Chapter 12. The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

267

Joshua A. Fogel

Chapter 13. A Tale of Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal of American

Historiography

285

Masahiro Yamamoto

Chapter 14. Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

304

Kasahara Tokushi

Chapter 15. Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

330

Kimura Takuji

Postscript Chapter 16. Leftover Problems

357

Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi

Appendix

394

Bibliography

399

Notes on Contributors

421

Index

423

vi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:46 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

the

P reface to S e c o n d Ed it io n

I am responsible for all flaws in this book but wish to express heartfelt apprecia­ tion to persons who helped produce it, beginning with the contributors, all of whom supported the idea of a second edition. Takashi Yoshida in particular took time to read my “Polemical Introduction” to it, as did a non-contributor, Ezra Fogel. As in the first edition, Masahiro Yamamoto and Takashi Yoshida are the only Japanese nationals whose names are rendered in the Western order of given name preceding surname. A special mention of thanks goes to Professors Colin Green, Tracey Kinney, and Alex Popovich of Kwantlen Polytechnic University for arranging lectures to help me clarify my ideas about history. In a quarter-century of teaching at York University, history department colleagues have wrenched me from the cozy confines of Tokugawa thought into directing a first-year survey course titled “War, Revolution, and Society in the Twentieth Century” covering Bismarck to the Intifada that enrolled 450 students annually at its peak. For years, I cursed this dragooned intellectual broadening but now see that it enabled me to discuss the Holocaust— “forgotten” or otherwise—with a semblance of insight. History also generously provides office space and staff support to facili­ tate research and writing in retirement. Yumiko Wakabayashi has endured me as a spouse for thirty-three years; only she knows the tribulations entailed. Megumi Wakabayashi took time from her graduate studies in Tokyo over several years to locate, copy, and send source materials that I requested for this and other research projects. Marion Berghahn felt the need for a second edition of this book, which never topped the best-seller list, to foster scholarly debate about what happened at Nanking eighty years ago. Chris Chappell and Rebecca Rom-Frank assiduously worked on my behalf as editors at Berghahn Books. To all of these kind people, I am exceedingly grateful. Our contributors reaffirm “the messiness of historical reality” and a need to convey it by “complicating the picture” at Nanking through rational argu­ ments anchored in empirical proof. We stand by our findings. My sole textual emendation was, in three instances, to replace “the First Sino-Japanese War” (1894—95) with “the Japan-Ch’ing War” for reasons stated in detail elsewhere.1

vii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:48 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Preface to the Second Edition

I focus this new introduction on the late Iris Chang and her followers, but due to space limitations, I paid little attention to her detractors in Japan. Lamentably, this resulted in a failure to achieve context, balance, nuance, and fairness, so I wish to emphasize here that her detractors also distort the past from ulterior political motives. They, however, have already received wide­ spread exposure and harsh criticism, not least in the first edition of this book. Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi York University

Note 1. Wakabayashi, review of Yang Daqing, et al., Toward a History beyond Borders, in Journal o f Japanese Studies 40:2 (2014), pp. 420—24.

viii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:48 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

P reface

to the

F ir s t Ed it io n

T h is v o lu m e p re se n ts a la rg e ly n o n -A m e ric a n p e rsp e c tiv e o n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ; o n ly tw o o f its te n c o n trib u to rs are U .S . n a tio n a ls , a n d b o th o f th e m resid e p e r m a n e n tly in C a n a d a . S everal c h a p te rs o rig in a te d as p a p e rs g iv e n at a c o n fe re n c e in M a rc h 1 9 9 9 fu n d e d b y th e D e p a r tm e n t o f H isto ry , F a c u lty o f A rts, a n d M c L a u g h lin C o lle g e a t Y ork U n iv e rs ity in T o ro n to . I d id n o t p u rp o s e ly s trin g th is p ro je c t a lo n g fo r e ig h t years, s c h e m in g to m a k e th e b o o k ’s p u b lic a tio n c o in c id e w ith th e s e v e n tie th a n n iv e rsa ry o f th e A tro city , b u t as th in g s tu r n e d o u t, I h av e c o m e p r e tty close. Y ang D a q in g , a g o o d frie n d a n d p a r tic ip a n t a t th e c o n fe re n c e , u rg e d m e to p u b lis h th e p a p e rs a fte r it e n d e d , b u t I w a n te d to so lic it a w id e r ra n g e o f essays a n d p r im a ry so u rce s th a t w o u ld m a k e o u r cov erag e m o re c o m p re h e n siv e . ( T h e issu e o f sex u al v io le n c e a g a in st w o m e n is o u r b ig g e st re m a in in g la c u n a .) S in ce m o s t o f th o se m a te r i­ als w ere in Ja p an e se , a g o o d d eal o f tim e c o n s u m in g tra n s la tio n w o rk a n d fo llo w -u p c o rre s p o n d e n c e e n s u e d . T h e d e a th o f m y m o th e r, p lu s a d m in is tra ­ tiv e d u tie s a t Y ork, f u r th e r d elay e d c o m p le tio n o f th e b o o k . I ap o lo g ize fo r th e laten e ss a n d th a n k th e a u th o rs fo r th e ir s a in tly p a tie n c e . S o m e are ju n io r sc h o lars w h o h a d h o p e d fo r a n ea rly p u b lic a tio n d a te th a t w o u ld fa c ilita te jo b h u n tin g a n d te n u re review s, y e t n o o n e ask ed to w ith d r a w h is c h a p te r fo r s u b m is s io n elsew h e re d e s p ite m y re p e a te d delays. I a m re sp o n sib le fo r all e rro rs a n d s h o rtc o m in g s in th is b o o k , b u t I w ish to express th a n k s to th e m a n y k in d p e rso n s w h o h e lp e d m y p ro d u c e it. F o rg iv e m e i f I leave a n y o n e o u t. K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i in tr o d u c e d m e to le a d in g J a p a n ­ ese sc h o lars in th e field , in c lu d in g th e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira a n d O n o K en ji, w h o se fin d in g s o n N a n k in g a p p e a r h ere fo r th e first tim e in E n g lish . P rofessor K a sa h a ra also p re s e n te d m e w ith b o o k s a n d a rticle s th a t s h a p e d m y u n d e r ­ s ta n d in g o f th e A tro c ity even w h e n w e d isag ree. I rely h e a v ily o n h im o n th e issue o f casu alties fo u n d in Ja p a n e se m ilita ry so u rce s a n d th a t o f th e A tro c ­ ity ’s d u r a tio n a n d sp a tia l e x te n t. T ak a sh i Y o sh id a allo w ed m e to re a d h is su p e rb w o rk , The M aking o f the “Rape o f N an kin g ” w h ile it w as in d is s e rta tio n fo rm . O n a n u n u s u a l n o te , I express g ra titu d e to id e o lo g ic a l ad v ersaries in th e N a n ­ k in g c o n tro v e rs y — H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ) o f A sia U n iv e rsity a n d K o m o ri Y o sh ih isa o f th e Sankei shinbun. B o th s e n t m e co p ies o f th e ir p u b liix

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:49 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Preface to the First Edition

cations knowing that I would publicize their flaws— although I have tried to point out their merits too. Gerald Jordan secured a conference venue and lodg­ ings for participants at York’s McLaughlin College in March 1999. Okamoto Koichi, now a professor at Waseda University, served as a discussant at that conference and secured the participation of Kimura Takuji from Japan. Attefa Salihi cheerfully solved my computer crises, often on short notice. David and Rie Askew sent me materials from overseas, as did Matsuura Masataka, Janice Matsumura, Honda Itsuo, Iwafuchi Masashi, Megumi Wakabayashi, Takagi Tsutomu, Vicky T ’ang, and Clark Taber. Joshua A. Fogel and Timothy Brook commented on drafts of chapters 1 and 16. Colin Green checked my romanization of Chinese terms. Yumiko, my long-suffering wife of 23 years, deserves a special mention. She has endured a life with books, papers, and newspaper clippings strewn about the house on the pretext that her (often irritable) hus­ band is doing research. Yumiko’s forbearance and other wonderful qualities have been priceless. Finally, few publishers today are willing to incur the costs and risks entailed by this large a collection of essays, so I am very grateful to Berghahn Books, and in particular, to Jeremy Eades, Marion Berghahn, Vivian Berghahn, Marilyn Silverman, and Melissa Spinelli. A number of chapters originally appeared elsewhere in radically different versions. Igarashi Akio of Rikkyo University helped me obtain permission to edit, amend, translate into English, and republish work originally under Japa­ nese copyright. But these chapters differ so much that they are, in effect, separate essays rewritten for a Western readership: Kasahara Tokushi, “Massa­ cres outside Nanking City” appeared as “Nankin kinko ni okeru zangyaku jiken” in Fujiwara Akira ed., N ankin jiken o do miru ka (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1998), pp. 16—32; Ono Kenji, “Massacres near Mufushan,” appeared as “Dai13 shidan Yamada shitai no Nankin daigyakusatsu” in Fujiwara Akira ed., N ankin jiken o do miru ka (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1998), pp. 43—70; Amano Saburo, “Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking,” appeared as “Amano Saburo gunji yubin” in Ono Kenji, Fujiwara Akira, and Honda Katsuichi, eds., N ankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita Kogun heishi tachi (Tokyo: Otsuki shoten, 1996), pp. 246—58; Masahiro Yamamoto, “A Tale of Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal of American Historiography,” appeared as “Amerika ni okeru ‘Nankin’ kenkyu no doko” in Higashinakano Osamichi (Shudo), ed., N ankin “Gyakusatsu” kenkyu no saizensen (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2003) pp, 143—92; Kasahara Tokushi, “Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial,” appeared as “Nankin gyakusatsu hiteiha no ‘Shin kishu’” in N ankin jiken to N ihonjin (Tokyo: Kashiwa shobo, 2002), pp. 156—201. Two chapters are republished from English-language publications in revised form: Timothy Brook, “Radhabinod Pal on the Rape of Nanking: The Tokyo Judgment and the Guilt of History,” appeared as “The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanking” in Journal o f Asian Studies 60:3 (August 2001), pp. 673—700; and Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, “The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, x

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:49 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Preface to the First Edition

1 9 7 1 —7 5 ” a p p e a re d as “T h e N a n k in g 1 0 0 -M a n K illin g C o n te s t D e b a te : W a r G u ilt A m id F a b ric a te d Illu sio n s, 1 9 7 1 —7 5 , ” in Journal o f Japanese Studies 2 6 :2 (S u m m e r 2 0 0 0 ), p p . 3 0 7 —3 4 0 . S u rn a m e s p re c e d e g iv e n n a m e s fo r Ja p a n e se n a tio n a ls in th is v o lu m e ex c ep t fo r M a s a h iro Y a m a m o to a n d T ak a sh i Y oshida, w h o se m a jo r w o rk s are p u b ­ lish e d in E n g lish . I u se d th e H e p b u r n sy ste m fo r r o m a n iz in g Ja p a n e se te rm s a n d fo llo w ed th e c o n v e n tio n o f o m ittin g d ia c ritic a l m a rk s o v er lo n g vow els in fa m ilia r p la ce n a m e s s u c h as T o k y o . F o r th e fo llo w in g re a so n s, I ch o se W a d e -G ile s over p in y in fo r r o m a n iz in g C h in e s e te rm s. W a d e -G ile s a p p e a rs in earlier h is to ric a l s c h o la rsh ip , in s ta n d a rd re fe re n c e w o rk s fo r n o n sp e c ia lists, a n d in p r im a ry so u rc e s re la te d to N a n k in g , m a n y o f w h ic h h av e b e e n r e p u b ­ lish e d a n d are n o w in w id e use. H o w ev er, W e ste rn e rs w h o le ft th o se so u rce s w ere in c o n s is te n t in th e ir r o m a n iz a tio n . T h e y o fte n tra n s lite ra te d n a m e s a c c o rd in g to lo cal d ia le c ts o r th e o ld C h in e s e p o s t office sy ste m ra th e r th a n a c c o rd in g to s ta n d a rd M a n d a r in p r o n u n c ia tio n . F o r ex a m p le , th e to w n r o m a n iz e d as J u r o n g in p in y in , w h ic h p r o m in e n tly fig u res in th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st, s h o u ld b e re n d e re d as C h u ju n g in W a d e -G ile s. B u t it a p p e a re d as K u y u n g in d o c u m e n ts a t th e tim e , o n e o f w h ic h h as b e e n re p ro d u c e d in a p o p u la r te x tb o o k b y J o n a th a n D . S p en ce . B y c o n tra s t, th e la te Iris C h a n g re n d e re d th e n a m e as K a ju n g in W a d e -G ile s a n d as K a ro n g in p in y in . H o w ­ ever, I hav e r e n d e re d b e tte r - k n o w n g e o g ra p h ic te rm s in p r o p e r W a d e -G ile s. T h u s , c o u n tie s th a t L ew is S y m th e lis te d as K ia n g n in g a n d K ia n g p u a p p e a r as C h ia n g n in g a n d C h ia n g p ’u in th is b o o k . In su m , I h av e trie d to b e fa ith fu l to h is to ric a l usage w h ile a v o id in g c o n fu s io n a n d in c o n siste n c y , a n d I h av e p r o ­ v id e d a c o n v e rsio n ta b le fo r th e tw o sy stem s.

xi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:49 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

W a d e - G il e s t o P in y in C o n v e r s io n Ta b l e

ai - ai ah — a a n — an ang — ang ao — ao c h a — zh a ch a i — zh ai chan —zhan chang —zhang ch ao — zh ao ch e — zhe chen —zhen cheng —zheng ch i — ji c h ia — jia c h ia n g — jia n g ch iao — jia o c h ie h — jie c h ie n — jia n c h ih — zh i c h in — jin c h in g — jin g c h iu — jiu c h iu n g — jio n g ch o — z h u o chou —zhou ch u — zhu c h u — ju ch u a —zhua

chuai — zhuai chuan —zhuan c h u a n — ju a n chuang —zhuang c h u e h — ju e ch ui —zhui chun —zhun c h u n — ju n chung —zhong c h ’a — c h a c h ’ai — ch ai c h ’a n — c h a n c h ’a n g — c h a n g c h ’ao — ch ao c h ’e — che c h ’en — c h e n c h ’e n g — c h e n g c h ’i — qi c h ’ia — q ia c h ’ia n g — q ia n g c h ’iao — q iao c h ’ie h — qie c h ’ie n — q ia n c h ’ih — ch i c h ’in — q in c h ’in g — q in g

c h ’iu — q iu c h ’iu n g — q io n g c h ’o — c h u o c h ’o u — c h o u c h ’u — c h u c h ’u — q u c h ’u ai — c h u a i c h ’u a n — c h u a n ch’ u an — q u an c h ’u a n g — c h u a n g c h ’u n — q u n c h ’u n g — c h o n g eh — e ei — ei e n — en eng — eng e rh — er fa — fa fa n — fa n g a n g — fa n g fei — fei fe n g —fe n g fo — fo fo u — fo u fu — fu ha —ha hai — hai

xii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:50 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wade-Giles to Pinyin Conversion Table

han —han hang —hang h a o — h ao h e i - h ei hen —hen heng - heng ho — he h si — xi h sia — x ia h s ie n — x ia n h s ia n g — x ia n g h siao — xiao h s ie h — xie h s in — x in h s in g — x in g h s iu n g — x io n g h s iu — x iu hsu —xu hsu an —xuan hsu eh —xue h su n —xun hu —hu hua —hua huai —huai huan —huan huang —huang hui —hui hung —hong i — yi ja n — ra n ja n g — r a n g ja o — rao je h — re je n — re n je n g — r e n g jih — ri ju n g — ro n g jo u — ro u j u — ru ju a n — r u a n ju i — ru i

ju n — ru n jo — ru o k a — ga k a i — gai k an — gan k an g — gang k a o — gao k ei — gei le m — g en k en g —geng k o — ge k u —gu kua —gua k u a i — g u ai kuan —guan k u e i — gu i ku n —gun kun g — gong kuo —guo k ’a — k ’ai — k ai k ’a n — k a n k ’a n g — k a n g k ’ao — k ao k ’e — ke k ’e n — k e n k ’e n g — k e n g k ’u n g — k u n g k ’u o — k u o k ’u — k u k ’u a — k u a k ’u a i — k u a i k ’u a n — k u a n k ’u a n g — k u a n g k ’u e i — k u e i k ’u n — k u n k ’u o — k u o la — la lai — lai la n — la n

la n g — la n g lao — lao le (lo) — le lei — lei le n g — le n g li — li lia — lia lia n g — lia n g liao — liao lie h — lie lie n — lia n lin — lin lin g — lin g liu — liu lo u — lo u lu — lu lu n g — lo n g lu a n — lu a n lu n — lu n lo — lu o lu — lu lu e h — lu e m a —m a m ai —m ai m an —m an m ao — m ao m ei —m ei m en —m en m eng —m eng m i —m i m ia o — m ia o m ie h — m ie m ie n — m ia n m in — m in m in g — m in g m iu — m iu m oh —m o m ou —m ou m u —m u na —na

xm

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:50 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wade-Giles to Pinyin Conversion Table

nal - nal nan —nan nang —nang nao — nao ne —ne n e l — n el nen —nen neng —neng nl —nl n la n g — n la n g n la o — n la o n le h — n le n le n — n la n n ln — n ln n ln g — n ln g n lu — n lu no —no u nu —nu nuan —nuan nuen —nun nung —nong nu —nu nueh —nue ou —ou p a — ba p a l — b al p an —ban pang —bang p a o — b ao p el — b el pen —ben pen g — beng p l — bl p la o — b lao p le h — ble p le n — b la n p ln — b ln p o — bo pu —bu

p ’a — p a p ’al — p al p ’a n — p a n p ’a n g — p a n g p ’ao — p a o p ’el — p e l p ’e n — p e n p ’e n g — p e n g p ’1 — p 1 p ’lao — p la o p ’ie h — p ie p ’le n — p la n p ’in — p in p ’in g — p ln g p ’o — p o p ’o u — p o u p ’u — p u sa — sa sal — sal sa n — sa n sa n g — sa n g sao — sao se h — se se n — sen se n g — sen g s h a — sh a sh a l — sh a l s h a n — sh a n sh a n g — sh a n g sh a o — sh ao sh e l — shel sh e h — sh e sh e n — sh e n sh e n g — sh e n g s h lh — sh l s h o u — sh o u sh u —shu shua —shua sh u a l — sh u a l s h u a n — sh u a n shuang —shuang sh u l — sh u l

sh u n — sh u n so — suo so u — so u ssu (szu) — si su — su su a n — su a n su l — sul su n — sun s u n g — so n g ta — d a ta l — d al ta n — d a n ta n g — d a n g ta o — d ao te h — de te l — d el tu e n — d e n te n g — d e n g tl — d l tle n — d la n tla o — d la o tle h — dle tln g — d ln g tlu — d lu to — d u o to u — d o u tsa — za tsal — zal ts a n — za n ts a n g — za n g tsa o — zao tse (tze) — ze tse n — zen ts e n g — ze n g tso — zo u ts u a n — z u a n tsu l — zu l ts u n — z u n ts u n g — z o n g tu — d u tu a n — d u a n tu l — d u l

xiv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:50 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wade-Giles to Pinyin Conversion Table

tu n — d u n tu n g — d u n g t ’i - ti t ’ie n — tia n t ’ie h — tie h t ’in g — tin g t ’o n g — to n g ts’u — cu ts’u a n — cu a n ts’u i — cui ts’u n — cuo ts’u n g — c o n g ts’o u — co u

t ’u n g — tu n g t ’u a n — tu a n t ’u i — tu i t ’u n — tu n t ’u — tu tz ’u — ci w a —w a w ai — w ai w an —w an w an g —w ang w en —w en w eng —w eng w o —wo w u —w u

y a — ya yen —yen y ang —yang y ao — yao y e h — ye y i — y i (i) y in — y in y in g — y in g y u n g —y u ng y u —you y u a n (y u a n ) — y u a n y u —yu y u eh —yue y u n (y u n ) — y u n

xv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:50 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

M aps Assault Routes to Nanking

H«ngc*0U B0y

Map 1.

xvi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:51 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Maps

Map 2.

Nanking Special Administrative District (NSAD)

xvii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:51 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Maps

Map 3.

NSAD and Yangtze Valley

XViii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:51 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Maps

Thirteenth Division and Yamada Detachment Assault Routes and Dates of

Map 4.

Capture

xix

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:51 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Maps

Map 5.

Mufushan-Nanking Environs

xx

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:51 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

I r is C h a n g R e a sse sse d A Polemical Introduction to the Second Edition Bob Tadashi W akabayashi

Prefatory Remarks T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity c o m p rise d m ass m u rd e r, rap e, a rso n , p lu n d e r, air raid s o n civilians, a n d th e a b d u c tio n o f m a n u a l a n d sexual la b o re rs b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s f ro m D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to ea rly M a rc h 1 9 3 8 in s id e th e w a lle d c ity a n d m o re im p o rta n tly , in its six a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s w h e re m o s t o f th e k illin g to o k place. W ith in th o se b ro a d te m p o ra l a n d sp a tia l c o n to u rs, th e re w ere m o re th a n 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 b u t less th a n 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 m assacre v ic tim s, a n d i f o n e lim its th e ev e n t to six w eeks in sid e th e w alled city as m o s t h isto ria n s d o , th e v ic tim to ta l w ill fall b e lo w 5 0 ,0 0 0 . A t o u r p re se n t stage o f research, q u a n tita tiv e p re c isio n is n o t p o ssib le b e y o n d su ch a d m itte d ly vag u e levels, especially w ith ra p e v ic tim s ro u g h ly e s tim a te d “in th e th o u s a n d s .” T h e N a n k in g A tro city , th e n , is u n d e n ia b le in fact, b u t its scale, its causes, its legal a n d m o ra l a m b ig u itie s, a n d o th e r th o r n y issues are o p e n to h o n ­ est d e b a te b y sch o lars o f g o o d fa ith b ased o n s c ru p u lo u s in q u ir y in to th e e m p ir­ ical evidence. In m y view, th e A tro c ity is b e s t u n d e rs to o d as a rev ersio n to siege w arfare in J a p a n p r io r to th e arriv al o f m o d e rn W e ste rn id eas a b o u t b a n n in g cru el acts in c o m b a t c o d ifie d in th e law s o f w ar. A ll to o m a n y officers a t N a n k in g ig n o re d th o se law s a n d allo w ed u n its to p u rs u e randori— p re d a to ry w arfare fo r b o o ty a n d w o m e n — as c o n d u c te d b y low ly fo o tm e n in m ed iev a l tim e s.1 G lim p ses o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ca n b e g a in e d in d ire c tly fro m th e Osaka natsu no jin zubyobu (S creen P a in tin g o f th e O sa k a S u m m e r C a m p a ig n ), w h ic h d e p ic ts th a t city ’s fate afte r its castle fell in 1 6 1 5 .2 T h is O sa k a A tro c ity w o u ld b e rep la y ed in 1 6 3 7 a g a in s t a n ti- T o k u g a w a in s u r g e n ts a t H a r a C a s tle a n d e lse w h e re in S h im ab a ra-A m ak u sa , as w ell as in 1 8 6 8 a g a in st p ro -T o k u g a w a lo y alist h o ld o u ts a t W a k a m a tsu C a stle a n d th e A izu re g io n . T h is p erspective, stressin g p re c e d e n ts in p re m o d e rn Ja p an e se h isto ry , sh ed s a t least fo u r in sig h ts in to ev en ts a t N a n k in g . F irst, th e u su al p ra c tic e fo r e n d in g a siege in m ed iev al J a p a n w as fo r a castle c o m m a n d e r to su rre n d e r, execu te m e m ­ bers o f his fam ily, a n d c o m m it ritu a l su ic id e w ith h is c h ie f re ta in e rs o n c o n d itio n xxi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

th a t th e a tta c k in g c o m m a n d e r w o u ld sp a re ra n k -a n d -file d e fe n d e rs as w ell as civilian to w n sfo lk .3 B u t in th e a b sen c e o f th is c o n v e n tio n a l su rre n d e r a rra n g e ­ m e n t, m u rd e r, rape, pillage, a n d th e a b d u c tio n o f m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h ild re n fo r slavery o fte n re su lte d — as a tta c k in g c o m m a n d e rs tu rn e d a b lin d eye to slake th e b lo o d lu st o f th e ir m e n . S eco n d , w e m u s t n o te th e p ra c tic e o f zantogari o r ochudogari— m o p p in g u p d e fe a te d strag g lers— w h o g o t n o q u a rte r even i f th e ir b e l­ lig e ren t sta tu s w as in q u e s tio n o r i f th e y w ere in c a p a c ita te d fro m w o u n d s .4 T h ir d , th e v icto rs u sed sw o rd s to sever h ead s, ears, a n d noses o f th e losers (d ea d o r alive), a n d p ic k led th ese tro p h ie s in b rin e as p r o o f o f b a ttle fie ld ex p lo its la te r to u te d to claim p ro m o tio n s a n d rew ard s. T h u s a n E a r M o u n d fo r c o n so lin g th e sp irits o f v ic tim s in T o y o to m i H id e y o s h i’s 1 5 9 2 a n d 1 5 9 7 in v a sio n s o f K o re a still sta n d s in K y o to today. F o u rth , o n e d o c u m e n t fro m th a t era cites 3 0 ,0 0 0 lo p p e d -o ff e n e m y h ea d s a n d facial a p p e n d a g e s.5 B u t it is g en e rally ag reed th a t e x p lo it-c la im a n ts, b o th in 1592 a n d 19 3 7 , ro u tin e ly p a d d e d h e a d c o u n ts to ex aggerate th e ir feats o f h ero ism , so h isto ria n s m u s t use su c h so u rces w ith g re a t care. W e ste rn jo u rn a lis ts o n th e g r o u n d in N a n k in g ex p licitly r e p o rte d th a t th e b e h a v io r o f Ja p an e se tro o p s in 1 9 3 7 called to m in d th ir te e n th - c e n tu r y M o n g o l m a ra u d ers; i.e., a n a ta v istic p re d a to ry m o d e o f w arfare. B u t I w o u ld arg u e th a t atav istic w arfare in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry w as n o t u n iq u e to th e Ja p an e se. In v ary in g degrees, it also p ersisted fo r C h in e se fig h tin g in civil w ars b e tw e e n c e n ­ tra l a n d reg io n a l g o v e rn m e n ts, w arlo rd s, a n d b a n d its u n til 19 4 9 , as w ell as fo r W e ste rn e rs fig h tin g a n ti-c o lo n ia l w ars in th e P h ilip p in e s, th e C h ’in g E m p ire , S o u th w e st A frica, th e C o n g o , I n d o c h in a , K en y a , A lg eria, M alay sia, a n d else­ w h ere. In su m , a tte m p ts to d e sc rib e a n d ex p lain th e N a n k in g A tro c ity b y lik e n ­ in g it to “th e H o lo c a u s t” are to o m isle a d in g to b e h e lp fu l o w in g to th e e m o tio n a l a n d id eo lo g ical bag g ag e c a rrie d o v er fro m N a z i G e rm a n y ; a n d , w o rse still, g rea t h a r m results w h e n w rite rs d ra w su c h c o m p a riso n s w ith cavalier d isd a in for th e n o rm a l rules o f sc h o larsh ip . I t is in th is p o le m ic a l v ein th a t I reassess th re e h is­ to ric al w o rk s b y th e la te Iris C h a n g (1 9 6 8 —2 0 0 4 ). I striv e to b e fair a n d ap o lo g ize i f I in a d v e rte n tly m is re p re se n t h e r views.

I. Chang and Her Trilogy The Rape o f Nanking. The Forgotten Holocaust ofWorld War I I is a re c o rd -b re a k in g b est seller th a t w o n p h e n o m e n a l p raise afte r a p p e a rin g in 1 9 9 7 . I t h as le ft an in d e lib le m a rk o n le a rn e d as w ell as p o p u la r a c c o u n ts o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity in E n g lish a n d C h in e se , w h ic h is to say, m o s t o f th e lite ra te w o rld .6 D is tin g u is h e d professors a t W e ste rn citad els o f le a rn in g , C h a n g n o te d , “to o k tim e to review m y b o o k b efo re p u b lic a tio n a n d to e n ric h it w ith th e ir im p o r ta n t sc h o larly sugges­ tio n s .” O th e r experts e n d o rse d it h e a rtily afte r p u b lic a tio n .7 N o o n e to m y k n o w l­ edge has re tra c te d th e e n d o rse m e n t. C h a n g rem a in s th e first p o in t o f referen ce for gen eral readers a n d s tu d e n ts w h o seek to u n d e rs ta n d th e to p ic , a n d sc h o o l textxxii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

b o o k s te n d to fo llo w h e r in te rp re ta tio n s .8 E m b le m a tic o f h e r N o r t h A m e ric a n ac a d e m ic sta tu re is a tw o -m e te r b ro n z e b u s t a t S ta n fo rd ’s H o o v e r In s titu tio n , a rep lica o f th e o n e d isp lay e d a t th e N a n k in g M a u s o le u m .9 The Rape re m a in s in p rin t, read ily available in b o o k sto re s a n d o n lin e . I t is cited b y w riters d e a lin g w ith W o rld W a r II, th e S in o -Jap an e se W a r ( 1 9 3 7 - 4 5 o r 1 9 3 1 - 4 5 ), th e H o lo c a u s t o f E u ro p e a n Jew s, co m p a ra tiv e g e n o c id e , a n d m e m o ry in its collective, social, a n d p u b lic fo rm s. F ew W e ste rn C h in a sp ecialists fin d fa u lt w ith th e b o o k . P ete r H a y s G ries observes th a t “th e W e ste rn p r in t m e d ia larg ely e ith e r a c c e p te d C h a n g ’s a c c o u n t u n c ritic a lly o r even actively a d v o c a te d h e r th e sis” a n d n o te s th a t “w a rtim e p ro p a ­ g a n d a a b o u t th e ‘Ja p s’ still reso n a tes in th e W e s t,” so “J a p a n b a s h in g c o n tin u e s to b e socially a c c e p ta b le .”10 T h u s , w ith o u t c itin g a so u rce, o n e W e ste rn jo u rn a lis t u n d e rsc o re d C h a n g ’s d e p ic tio n o f J a p a n as v io le n tly rig h t w in g b y w ritin g o f “d e a th th re a ts” issued to h e r.11 In th e re a lm o f w o rld p o litics, M a Y in g -jeo u , th e n p re s id e n t o f th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a (R O C ) in T aiw a n , p o s th u m o u s ly h o n o re d C h a n g w ith a m e d a l in A u g u st 2 0 1 5 . H e la u d e d th e b o o k as “a n im p o r ta n t d o c ­ u m e n t tellin g th e tr u th a b o u t resistan c e to J a p a n b y th e C h in e se p e o p le .” M a also p a rro te d o n e o f C h a n g ’s fav o rite d ia trib e s: “J a p a n is th e cause o f re g io n a l te n sio n s becau se it does n o t b eh a v e lik e G e rm a n y sin c e 1 9 4 5 .” 12 T h u s to th is day, C h a n g ’s view s o f 1 9 9 7 re m a in th e e stab lish ed co n sen su s fo r lay read ers, fo r m a n y i f n o t m o s t W e ste rn a c a d e m ic sp ecialists, a n d fo r p o litic a l lead ers in E a st A sia, m a in ly in th e P eo p le’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) a n d R e p u b lic o f K o re a (R O K ), th o u g h less so in T aiw an u n d e r th e p o s t-M a a d m in is tra tio n elected in 2 0 1 6 . C h a n g q u a s h e d th e p u b lic a tio n o f a Ja p a n e se tra n s la tio n a n d v o lu m e o f c o m ­ m e n ta ry m a d e b e tw e e n A u g u st 1998 a n d M a y 1 9 9 9 b y I n o u e H isa sh i a n d th e la te F u jiw ara A kira, w h o c o n trib u te d to th e p re se n t v o lu m e . T h e m a in re a so n fo r a b ro g a tin g th e p u b lic a tio n c o n tra c t w as n o t Ja p a n e se a c a d e m ic o b s tru c tio n is m o r th rea ts o f rig h t-w in g v io le n ce as re p o rte d in th e W e ste rn press. In ste a d , w h ile copies o f th e b o o k sa t in w areh o u se s a w a itin g d is trib u tio n , C h a n g o b je c te d to th e c o rre c tio n o f n u m e ro u s m a jo r fa c tu a l erro rs th a t, i f le ft u n to u c h e d , w o u ld h av e d a m a g e d th e sch o larly re p u ta tio n o f K ash iw a sh o b o , th e p u b lis h e r.1 In 2 0 0 7 , a n o th e r p u b lis h e r b r o u g h t o u t a n ew Ja p an e se tra n s la tio n a n d b o o k o f c o m m e n ­ ta ry th a t c o n ta in e d glosses, n o te s, a n d s u p p le m e n ta ry so u rce m a te ria l p ro v id e d b y th e tra n s la to r W u C h a o -h u n g , a se c o n d -g e n e ra tio n T aiw an ese b o rn a n d b re d in Ja p a n , p lu s a n a fte rw o rd b y Y am ad a M a say u k i, W u ’s Ja p an e se c o lla b o ra to r.14 T h is te n ac io u s p u s h to p u b lis h The Rape o f N anking in tra n s la tio n reveals th e s u p p o rt th a t C h a n g receives fro m Ja p an e se sy m p a th iz e rs a n d c o n fu te s h e r p re s u m p tio n s o f h o s tility a n d /o r d isin te re s t ro o te d in collective a m n e sia in J a p a n .15 H e r b o o k is n o t a b est seller th e re , b u t sig n ific a n t p o rtio n s o f th e re a d in g p u b lic d o seek to ju d g e its m e rits fo r th em selv es. In g en eral, C h a n g ’s su p p o rte rs in J a p a n a c c e p t h e r overall thesis fro m sh a re d le ftist c o n v ic tio n s b u t disav o w m o s t o f h e r sp ecific in d ic tm e n ts as unfair, la m e n t h e r co u n tless erro rs o f fact, a n d reje ct h e r a p p a llin g m isu se o f evidence. T h o s e s u p p o rte rs are w a n in g in n u m b e r a n d in flu e n c e as xxiii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Ja p an e se so ciety sh ed s its in g ra in e d ideas a b o u t u n q u a lifie d p a c ifism a n d its se n ­ sitiv ity to w a rd A sians. As N ish ik a w a M e g u m i a t th e lib e ral M ainichi n e w sp a p e r p u ts it, o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se a re n o t “tu r n in g to th e rig h tw in g ”; th e y y e a rn fo r “realism ” in w o rld affairs to b e c o m e “a ‘n o rm a l n a tio n ’”16— w h ic h h as h ith e r to b e e n a n exclusively rig h t-w in g slo g an . T h is m o re self-assertive sta n c e p e rta in s as w ell to h isto ric a l view s th a t n o n -Ja p a n e se m is c o n s tru e a n d p ejo ra tiv e ly m islab e l “re v isio n ism .” E ig h ty years afte r th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d tw e n ty sin c e th e d e b u t o f C h a n g ’s e p o c h -m a k in g b o o k , i t is tim e to rev ie w h e r claim s, reassess th e d isp u te s sh e p r o ­ v o k ed , ree x am in e w h a t effect th e se h av e h a d in th e w o rld , a n d re c o n sid e r so m e reasons fo r h e r o n g o in g m ass ap p e al. T o ach iev e th o se en d s, a n d also to see h o w h e r id eas ch a n g ed over a career c u t trag ically s h o rt b y su ic id e a t age tw en ty -six , w e m u s t rea d The Rape o f N anking (1 9 9 7 ) in ta n d e m w ith Thread o f the Silkworm (1 9 9 5 ) a n d The Chinese in America: A Narrative History (2 0 0 3 ). A c ritiq u e o f all th re e b o o k s w ill, fo r sta rters, re fu te th e c a lu m n y th a t C h a n g “to ld lies o u t o f p a tri­ o tis m ” fo r th e P C R . T h is charge, p o p u la r i n Ja p an e se rig h tis t circles, h as re c e n tly b ee n lo d g ed b y L in S su -y u n , a P R C e x p a triate fro m N a n k in g w h o lives a n d w rites in J a p a n .17 L in m a in ta in s th a t th e social p re ssu re to lie fo r a g o o d cause in fo rm s w h a t h e calls “th e pih u i (bihui) s y n d ro m e ,” a p o litic a l a n d c u ltu ra l tra it p e c u lia r to e th n ic H a n C h in e se a m o n g w h o m h e c o u n ts C h a n g .18 L in is w ro n g in several respects. “N o b le lies” fo r a g o o d cause, especially fo r o n e ’s polity, d a te fro m P la to ’s Republic.1 T h e y are fo u n d in all cu ltu re s a n d b e a r o n ly c o in c id e n ta l likenesses to L in ’s “p ih u i s y n d ro m e ,” re p u te d ly u n iq u e to C h in a . F u rth e rm o re , C h a n g selfid e n tifie d as a “C h in e se -A m e ric a n ,” ex p licitly called th e m “m y p e o p le ,”20 a n d strove to e n h a n c e th e ir e th n ic id e n tity to f u rth e r m u ltic u ltu ra lis t id e als i n th e U n ite d States. H e r a n im u s e x te n d e d b e y o n d th e Jap an ese, to w h ite A m e ric a n b ig ­ o ts o f co u rse, b u t also to C h ’in g -d y n a s ty (1 6 4 4 —1 9 1 1 ) M a n c h u s , w h o m sh e reviled as o p p resso rs o f H a n C h in e se . S h e criticiz ed th e K u o m in t’a n g (K M T )-le d R O C a n d th e C h in e se C o m m u n is t P a rty (C C P )-le d P R C , a n d sh e h e ld th a t its leaders su b je c te d N a n k in g v ic tim s to “ra p e ” fo r “a se c o n d tim e ” b y h o s tin g a Ja p an e se sta te v isit in 1 9 9 1 .21 E a rly in h e r career, sh e to o k to h e a rt lessons a b o u t fairness, b alan ce, o bjectivity, a n d critica l d is c e rn m e n t th a t sh e le a rn e d in jo u r n a l­ ism sch o o l b u t fo rso o k in w ritin g The Rape o f Nanking. Ja p an e se w riters, especially rig h tists, dism iss C h a n g as b e in g C h in e se . C h in e se w riters em b ra ce h e r as “a C h in e se w ith U S c itiz e n sh ip .”22 B u t to rep e at, sh e called h e rse lf “a C h in e se -A m e ric a n ,” n o t a C h in e se in A m eric a. T h is k ey n u a n c e is lo st u p o n E ast A sians, fo r w h o m U S m u ltic u ltu ra lis t p o litic s d o n o t register. C h a n g p r o d u c e d v itr io l to w a rd J a p a n la te r i n h e r career, w h ic h in v ite d u n fo re s e e n e x p lo ita tio n b y P R C « b e r-p a trio ts— a fo rtu ito u s o u tc o m e u n c o n n e c te d w ith h e r o rig in al in te n t to u p r o o t racial d isc rim in a tio n in th e U n ite d States. I f L in S su -y u n has a p o in t, i t is th a t C h a n g ’s allies p ro m o te h e r a n ti-Ja p a n e se in v e c tiv e th a t, d esp ite h e r g o o d in te n tio n s , in v ite s c h a u v in ist m is a p p ro p ria tio n b y n o n -A m e ri­ can H a n C h in e se o n th e o th e r sid e o f th e globe. xxiv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

II. History vs. Commemoration A fte r 1 9 9 4 —9 5 , C h a n g a ffirm e d th a t fa c tu a l a c c u ra c y a n d lo g ic al rig o r w ere ex p e n d ab le in th e p u r s u it o f h e r life w o rk — to c o m m e m o ra te p a st v ic tim iz a tio n o f “m y p e o p le ” a n d a ro u se g ro u p p rid e a n d e th n ic id e n tity n e e d e d fo r th e m to d efe at U S racism . H e r a g ita tio n reste d o n a n e th n ic fello w -feelin g a n tith e tic a l to d e ta c h e d scholarly analysis. The Rape o f Nanking b rin g s to m in d a ttrib u te s o f a lit­ era ry fo rm th a t N o rm a n G . F in k e lste in a n d R u th B e ttin a B irn call H o lo c a u s t (cap ital “H ”) lite ra tu re as d is tin c t fro m h o lo c a u st (sm all “h ”) sc h o la rsh ip in th e d isc ip lin e o f h isto ry .23 T h e y h o ld th a t w rite rs o f “H o lo c a u s t lite ra tu re ” th in k it a lrig h t to tw ist o r ig n o re facts, o r to in v e n t sto ries o u t o f w h o le clo th , i f it fu rth e rs w h a t th e y d e e m a n in d is p u ta b ly ju s t cause— to p o rtra y Je w ish su ffe rin g as viv id ly as p o ssib le a n d th u s sh a p e p u b lic o p in io n to m a x im a l effect. B ased o n th is ra tio ­ nale, so m e w riters m a k e u p d e a th -c a m p -su rv iv o r te stim o n ia ls o u t o f th in air, y et suffer n o cen su re fo r d is to rtin g h is to ry i f p u b lish e rs lab el th e ir w o rk s as fic tio n w ith in th e H o lo c a u s t lite ra ry gen re. B u t, F in k e lste in a n d B irn aver, D a n ie l G o ld h a g e n p re se n te d H itler’s Willing Germans as a w o rk o f e m p iric a l h is to ry d e sp ite in d u lg in g in th a t sa m e p o e tic licen se fo r p a rtisa n e n d s .24 C h a n g , I h o ld , evinces a few parallels to G o ld h a g e n . S h e fe lt fre e to stra y f ro m m e re facts i f it e n a b le d h e r b e tte r to co nvey th e h ig h e r m o ra l tr u th sh e k n e w a t h e a rt to b e rig h t. C o n ­ vey in g th is p r o fo u n d tr u th a lo n e is w h a t m a tte re d fo r her, a n d co n v e y in g it o n c e o r tw ic e d id n o t su ffice . S h e re la te d it in o v er fifty U S cities b e fo re la rg e ly C h in e se -A m e ric a n a n d C h in e se ex p a tria te g a th e rin g s in th e firs t seven m o n th s afte r p u b lic a tio n b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 7 a n d Ju ly 1 9 9 8 .25 F ru itfu l d ia lo g u e w ith C h a n g ’s su p p o rte rs is im p o ssib le b ec au se e m p iric a l h is­ to ry o n th e o n e h a n d a n d c o m m e m o ra tio n in m o ra l a g ita tio n o n th e o th e r are m u tu a lly exclusive en d eav o rs. H is to ria n s a d m it th a t to ta l o b je c tiv ity is a n u n a t­ ta in a b le “n o b le d r e a m ,” y e t th e y still e m b ra c e it as a d e fin in g a s p ira tio n .26 As su ch , th e y seek to d e sc rib e N a n k in g w ith in th e c o n te x t a n d a g a in st th e values o f 1 9 3 7 , n o t th o se o f today, as fu lly a n d fa ith fu lly as p o ssib le g iv en th e im p e rfe c t n a tu re o f e x ta n t sources. T h is m e an s, fo r ex am p le, try in g to rea ch a m o re , n o t a less, p recise e stim a te o f th e N a n k in g v ic tim toll; a n d , w h e n ac cu rac y c a n n o t b e h a d b e y o n d so m e p o in t, th e y se ttle fo r c itin g a n em p iric a lly v erifia b le ra n g e o f m o re th a n X b u t less th a n Y. I n c o n tra st, C h a n g ’s allies clin g to th e official P R C fig u re o f “over 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” as sy m b o lic o f v ic tim iz a tio n a t N a n k in g . Ju st to m e n tio n a low er estim a te is to “p la y th e n u m b e rs g a m e ,” w h ic h trivializes C h in e se p a in th a t m u s t b e m e m o ria liz e d a n d Ja p an e se evil th a t m u s t b e castig ated . W rite r Je ff K in g sto n la m p o o n s a n y o n e w h o in d u lg e s in “cav ilin g a b o u t” o r “q u ib b lin g over th e precise scale” o f th e A tro city .27 M ik e H o n d a , e x -m e m b e r o f th e H o u s e o f R e p ­ resen tativ es, n o rm a lly cites th e fig u re o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 c o m fo rt w o m e n fo r all o f A sia in th e e n tire war, b u t in Ju ly 2 0 1 5 to ld th e n -p re s id e n t M a Y in g -jeo u th a t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 w ere fro m T aiw a n a lo n e .28 I f o n e ’s goal is m o ra l a g ita tio n , sta tistica l im p re c isio n is im m a te ria l. C h a n g ’s v ic tim to ll fo r N a n k in g varies w id ely w ith in h e r b o o k covxxv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

ers, a n d th a t fo r th e w a r as a w h o le sp ik e d fro m 3 m illio n to 3 5 m illio n over th e b r ie f co u rse o f h e r career. S h e d e ftly ex p lo ite d th e p lu ra l “s”— in “th e h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s ”— so as to in fla te N a n k in g ’s refu g ee p o p u la tio n a n d th u s th e p o te n ­ tial n u m b e r o f m assacre v ic tim s. T h r o u g h th is p lo y sh e in sin u a te s “in th e h ig h six d ig its ,” w h e n th e fig u res ac tu a lly ra n g e d fro m 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 — th e least re q u ire d fo r a p lu ra l “s .” A rith m e tic erro rs a n d s e m a n tic d is to rtio n s d o n o t m a t­ te r fo r p erso n s w h o in v o k e h is to ry in th e service o f v irtu e . U n lik e a n c ie n t o r m e d iev a l tale-tellers, e m p iric a l h isto ria n s d is tin g u is h fa n c i­ fu l o r se m i-fa n cifu l a c c o u n ts fro m th o se fa ith fu l to th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd .29 T h e y a u th e n tic a te so u rces w ith care a n d d o n o t u se d u b io u s , m u c h less sp u rio u s, o nes. T h e y d o n o t a lte r sources w ith th e in te n t to deceive o r su p p ress p o rtio n s th e re in th a t cast d o u b t o n th e ir claim s. T h e y d o n o t m is re p re se n t view s a d v a n ce d b y experts in o rd e r to e n h a n c e th e c o g e n cy a n d a p p e a l o f th e ir o w n a rg u m e n ts. T h e y w elco m e re p u ta b le rev isio n ism th a t forces th e m to re w o rk th e ir claim s m o re in lin e w ith th e sources. T h e d isc o v ery a n d a u th e n tic a tin g o f n e w so u rces su c h as th e D e a d Sea S crolls a n d m e th o d o lo g ic a l ad v an ces su c h as th e d e c ip h e rm e n t o f h ie ro g ly p h ics n ecessita te rev isio n ism to re a p p ra ise th e a c c e p te d co n sen su s o n a to p ic . E very P h D d isse rta tio n is a rev isio n ist exercise certify in g th e c a n d id a te ’s cre­ d e n tia ls as a b o n a fid e scholar. R e v isio n ism is th e re fo re n e ith e r g o o d n o r b a d p e r se; th a t ju d g m e n t tu rn s o n th e logical rig o r a n d q u a lity o f ev id en c e d isp lay ed . G alileo w as a rev isio n ist in h is day; so w as Ie n a g a S a b u ro in his. C h a n g ’s m o ra l o u tra g e a n d re fo rm ist zeal w in s u p p o r t fro m th o se ste e p e d in n ih ilistic p o s tm o d e rn is m . I f n o asc e rta in a b ly o b je ctiv e facts really exist, every fact is as v alid as th e n ex t, a n d all in te rp re ta tio n s are eq u a lly tru e . T h e n , th e o n ly m e a n in g fu l q u e s tio n b eco m es: to w h ic h p u ta tiv e v ersio n o f th e t r u th sh o u ld w e co m m it? C h a n g w o u ld re p ly th a t h e rs w ill m a k e th e w o rld b e tte r b y e ra d ic a tin g racism , sexual v io le n ce a g a in st w o m e n , aggressive w arfare, a n d g e n o c id e — aim s th a t few o f us decry. S h e also s o u g h t to u p lift th e Ja p a n e se m o ra lly b y elev a tin g th e ir c o n tritio n levels c o m m e n s u ra te to th e G e rm a n s afte r 1 9 4 5 a n d U S s o u th ­ ern ers since th e 1 9 6 0 s civil rig h ts m o v e m e n t.30 H is to ria n s asp ire to m u c h less. A t m o st, th e y h o p e th a t te a c h in g h is to ry as p a r t o f a lib e ra l a rts e d u c a tio n w ill b e n ­ efit so ciety in c id e n ta lly b y p ro d u c in g critically a s tu te citizen s free o f p a ro c h ia l, p re se n tist bias. T h e y s tu d y th e p ast to u n d e rs ta n d th e p ast, w ith sc a n t c o n c e rn fo r its use-value in c u rre n t-d a y a ltru istic , m e lio rist agen d as. T h is o rie n ta tio n in v ites charges o f sterile fac t-fetish iz in g , a n tiq u a ria n irrelev an ce, in se n sitiv ity to h u m a n suffering, social irre sp o n sib ility , e th ic a l d efectiveness, a n d in th e eyes o f C h a n g ’s su p p o rte rs, H o lo c a u s t d e n ia l.31 As S tev en P in k e r sa rd o n ic a lly n o te s, “a real h is to ­ ria n is a b o u t as w elc o m e as a s k u n k a t a g a rd e n p a rty .”32 P ete r G ries c o n d e m n s P R C ch a u v in ists w h o ex p lo it C h a n g ’s p o le m ic s fo r a n ti­ Ja p an e se p u rp o ses, y e t h e d ec lin e s to re fu te “flaw s in C h a n g ’s a r g u m e n t” a n d chooses “n o t to q u e s tio n ” h e r m a th in ca lc u la tin g th e N a n k in g v ic tim toll. W h y , becau se h e says: “C h a n g n e v e r claim s to b e a h is to ria n ” a n d is “a sin cere y o u n g w o m a n en rag ed b y w h a t sh e le a rn e d ” a b o u t th e e v e n t.33 B a ra k K u sh n e r rejects xxvi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

C h a n g ’s p o rtra y a l o f N a n k in g as “th e fo rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t o f W o rld W a r I I , ” y et h e affirm s th a t th is d e s ig n a tio n is “a p e rh a p s a c c e p ta b le h y p e rb o le g iv e n h e r a im .”34 S u c h w e ll-in te n tio n e d to le ra n c e is m is g u id e d a n d su bversive o f h is to ry as a n ac a d e m ic d isc ip lin e. C h a n g w ro te th re e b o o k s re p u te d to b e h isto rie s, o n e o f w h ic h re m a in s e n o rm o u sly in flu e n tia l. As su ch , h e r w o rk s m u s t u n d e rg o s c ru p u ­ lous ap p ra isal a g a in st n o rm a l a c a d e m ic sta n d a rd s th a t g o v ern o u r p ro fe ssio n . N o o n e m a y claim th e m a n tle o f tr u th in h is to ry y e t h o ld its ru les in c o n te m p t a n d in c essa n tly b e ra te o th e rs fo r falsify in g it.

III. Journalistic History Y am a d a M a sa y u k i, a p ro fe s s o r a t O s a k a U n iv e rs ity o f E d u c a tio n , is o n e o f C h a n g ’s sta u n c h e st allies in J a p a n a lo n g w ith W u C h a o -h u n g , C h a n g ’s tra n sla to r in 2 0 0 7 . Y am ada h o ld s th a t p r o o f o f h e r sc h o larly w o rth lies in “th re e specialized ac a d e m ic stu d ie s .” T h e first, Thread o f the Silkworm, is a b io g ra p h y o f th e sc ien ­ tis t T s ie n H s u e - s h e n ( C h ’ie n H s u e h - s h e n /Q ia n X u e se n , 1 9 1 1 —2 0 0 9 ) th a t Y am ada “h ig h ly reg ard s as fo llo w in g th e m o d e l o f E rik E rik so n ’s Life History and the Historical M om ent .”35 E rik so n (1 9 0 2 —9 4 ) w o n ac c la im fo r c o n c e p ts su c h as “id e n tity crisis” in y o u th a n d fo r a p p ly in g F re u d ia n a n a ly tica l th e o ry to stu d y M a rtin L u th e r a n d M a h a tm a G a n d h i. B u t even in h is heyday, E rik so n ca m e u n d e r a tta c k fro m m a in s tre a m h isto ria n s, o n e o f w h o m in 1 9 6 7 w ro te th a t h e d o es n o t “c o n trib u te a n y th in g o f v alu e to a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f L u th e r o r his ag e.”36 H is to ria n s n o w g en e rally d is c o u n t th e usefu ln ess o f p sy c h o an a ly tic al th e ­ o ry in th e ir research; after all, its a p p lic a tio n req u ires d ire c t in te ra c tio n w ith a s u b ­ je c t w h o p erfo rc e is d e a d .37 C h a n g ’s m e th o d shares n o id e n tifia b le affin ities w ith E rik so n ’s Life History a nd the Historical Moment. S h e o n c e m e n tio n s s o m e th in g lik e a c h ild h o o d id e n tity , w ith o u t u sin g th e te rm explicitly, in re fe rrin g to T sie n ’s m e m o rie s o f H a n g c h o u a n d o f fa m ily le g en d s a b o u t d e s c e n t fro m ro y a lty th a t w o u ld “sh a p e a n d d e fin e h is life fo r years to c o m e .”38 B u t T sie n left H a n g c h o u a t age tw o b y W e ste rn c o u n tin g , b e fo re a m e m o ry o f it c o u ld s in k in , a n d C h a n g n ev er ag a in referre d to a n id e n tity s te m m in g fro m re p u te d b lu e b lo o d . C h a n g b ased h e r b o o k o n “o ra l h is to ry in te rv ie w s”39 to w h ic h Y am ad a a g a in le n t h is s u p ­ p o rt, th is tim e a g a in st o ld -sc h o o l critics w h o priv ileg e w ritte n over o ral sources: “A ttitu d e s th a t d e n y v alu e to o ral sources are n o t ten ab le ; to th e co n trary , research ce n te re d in o ral h is to ry b ased o n o ra l so u rces n o w flo u rish e s.”40 T ru e, b u t sk e p ­ tics a b o u n d also. H e r b e r t T. H o o v er, a n early p ro p o n e n t, n o te d in 1 9 8 0 th a t “o ral h is to ry rem a in s a n u n re fin e d te c h n iq u e ” w ith “se m ip ro fe ssio n a l sta tu s” a n d th a t “all b u t a sm all p e rc e n ta g e o f th e p ro je c ts a n d cen te rs n o w in o p e ra tio n in th e U n ite d S tates w o u ld receiv e lo w g ra d e s .”41 Y am ad a is r ig h t to n o te th a t o ral so u rces m a y h e lp s u p p le m e n t w ritte n d o c u m e n ts , b u t h e n e v e r d iscusses th e d raw b ack s in v o lv ed , n o d o u b t b ec au se o f h is eagerness to la u d C h a n g ’s sc h o larly cre d en tia ls w h ile d ism issin g th o se o f h e r critics. xxvii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

In 1991 a se n io r e d ito r a t B asic B o o k s ask ed C h a n g — th e n a self-d escrib ed “tw e n ty -tw o year o ld g ra d u a te s tu d e n t” a n d “u n k n o w n , u n te s te d w rite r”— to w rite T sien ’s bio g rap h y . S h e s p e n t “th re e years in research ” th a t in c lu d e d h e r “first trip to th e P R C ” in 1 9 9 3 .42 T h u s sh e m u s t h av e fin ish e d th e m a n u s c rip t in 1994, so th a t Thread o f the Silkworm a p p e a re d in 19 9 5 . The Rape o f N anking (1 9 9 7 ) a n d The Chinese in America (2 0 0 3 ) fo llo w ed in s h o rt o rd er. T o g eth er, th e se to ta l over 1 ,1 0 0 pages a b o u t to p ic s fo r w h ic h C h a n g h a d n o b a c k g ro u n d k n o w le d g e o r aca­ d e m ic tra in in g : ae ro n a u tic a l en g in e e rin g , ch em istry , je t p ro p u lsio n , physics, p o stb e llu m U S history, W o rld W a r II, th e C o ld W a r in A sia, th e tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry g en o c id e o f E u ro p e a n Jew s, a n d C h in e se m ig ra tio n fro m th e la te -C h ’in g th ro u g h th e p o s t-1 9 4 9 eras. E n g lish so u rces a b o u n d e d fo r T sie n ’s life in th e U n ite d States, b u t C h a n g a d m itte d h e r illiteracy a n d d e p e n d e n c e o n tra n sla to rs fo r th e p erio d s 1 9 1 1 —35 a n d 1 9 5 5 —2 0 0 9 w h e n “m u c h o f th e m a te ria l a b o u t h is life w as in C h i­ n e s e .”43 As w ell, T sie n m a d e h im s e lf “in accessib le” to C h a n g ,44 so sh e p erfo rc e relied o n in te rv ie w s w ith h is fam ily, a c q u a in ta n c e s, a n d co lleag u es in C h in a , w h ic h p ro v ed u n fru itfu l. H e r b r e a k th ro u g h ca m e w h e n “a sm all elite o f ro c k e t sc ien tists” agreed to ta lk o n c o n d itio n o f stric t a n o n y m ity , a n d so m e “p le ad e d w ith m e n o t to w rite a n y th in g th a t w o u ld o ffe n d T sie n fo r fear th a t th e y m ig h t b e p u n is h e d .”45 T h is te n se secrecy also o b ta in e d fo r in te rv iew s in C a lifo rn ia w ith h is A m e ric a n -b o rn so n , Y ucon, w h o g rew u p in th e P R C , serv ed in th e P e o p le ’s L ib e ra tio n A rm y, a n d r e tu rn e d as a U S citizen . Y u co n g ra n te d C h a n g o n ly th e “rare in te rv ie w ” b e y o n d e a rsh o t a n d ey esig h t o f o th e r C h in e se “in h is car a n d in a n e a rb y p a r k .”46 H e r h eav y re lian ce o n su c h in te rv iew s in e v ita b ly h a d m ix e d results, a n d sh e d u ly n o te d th e p ro v isio n a l n a tu re o f h e r fin d in g s: “S o m e sto ries can n ev er b e c o n firm e d ,” a n d “so m e q u e stio n s w ill forever re m a in u n a n s w e re d .”47 Thread o f the Silkworm h as m u c h m e rit b u t also h in ts d a rk ly a b o u t w h a t is to co m e. C h a n g ’s s u b je c t T sie n w o n th e e ste e m e d B oxer In d e m n ity S ch o la rsh ip in 1935, left C h in a to s tu d y a t M IT , stay ed o n in th e U n ite d S tates to te ac h , a n d b ec am e a w e ll-k n o w n sc ien tist, b u t h e fell u n d e r su sp ic io n , first o f b e in g a U S C o m m u n is t P arty m e m b e r a n d la te r o f b e in g a P R C spy. T h e U S g o v e rn m e n t su b je c te d h im to stric t su rv eillan ce, arre ste d a n d ja ile d h im b rie fly in 1 9 5 0 , a n d d e p o rte d h im in 1 9 5 5 — all w ith o u t so lid p r o o f o f its alleg a tio n s. B a ck in th e P R C , T sien g o t a h e ro ’s w elc o m e , w o n a p rize d g o v e rn m e n t p o st, b e c a m e a C C P m in io n , a n d w o rs h ip e d M a o . T sie n to o k a m a jo r ro le in b u ild in g P R C b allistic m issiles a n d space satellites, led w o rk o n th e S ilk w o rm M issile e x p o rte d fo r u se in th e Ira n -Ira q W a r a n d th e P ersian G u lf W a r a g a in st U S forces, a n d b u ilt ro ck e ts cap ab le o f h ittin g ta rg e ts in Ja p a n . C h a n g criticiz ed M a o ’s cru e l ab u ses d u r in g th e A n ti-R ig h tis t C a m p a ig n , G re a t L eap F o rw a rd , C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n , a n d T ’iena n - m e n S q u a re c ra c k d o w n .48 Yet sh e e x a m in e d c o n tra ry v ie w p o in ts o n c o n ­ te n tio u s issues. T h u s sh e an aly zed T sie n ’s in fa m o u s a rtic le o f M a y 1 9 5 8 th a t, d e s p ite all ab su rd itie s in v o lv ed , le n t cre d e n c e to C C P claim s a b o u t raisin g cro p yields “b y a fac to r o f tw e n ty .” X u L ia n g jin g , w h o m C h a n g calls a “d istin g u ish e d h is to ria n o f science a n d d e m o c ra c y a d v o c a te ,” reviled T sie n fo r th is fa w n in g a rtixxviii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

cle calcu lated to c a tc h M a o ’s eye d u r in g th e G re a t L eap F o rw a rd . W h e n a c te d o n , X u ch arg ed , it cau sed “3 0 to 7 0 m illio n p e o p le ” to d ie o f sta rv a tio n .49 C h a n g , th o u g h , w eig h ed a rg u m e n ts o p p o se d to th is h a rsh a lle g a tio n a g a in st T sie n b efo re te n ta tiv e ly c o n c lu d in g th a t “b la m in g h im . . . m a y b e g o in g to o fa r” a n d ca u ­ tio u sly a d m ittin g th a t th is “w ill n e v e r b e a n easy q u e s tio n to an sw e r.”50 C h a n g a p p lie d te c h n iq u e s o f so u rce critic ism to assess th e p ro b a tiv e v alu e o f d o c u m e n ts su c h as th e U S C o m m u n is t P a rty m e m b e rsh ip card o f 1 9 3 8 —3 9 th a t a u th o ritie s u sed to im p lic a te T sie n .51 S h e also u n co v e red facts th a t d e tra c t fro m h is cre d ib ility a n d se lf-p ro cla im e d in n o c e n c e ; e.g., w h ile u n d e r su sp ic io n o f spy­ in g fo r th e P R C , h e ask ed w e ll-p lace d relatives to fa c ilita te h is re p a tria tio n .52 M o s t n o tab ly , sh e e x te n d e d so u rc e c ritic ism to th e k e y issue o f m e m o ry a n d d eclared th a t T sien “c h a n g e d o r fa b ric a te d th e n a rra tiv e ” o f h is life in th e U n ite d S tates after r e tu rn in g to C h in a ; i.e., w h a t h e la te r recalled b e in g tru e d iffe red fro m w h a t h e actu a lly d id .53 F o r ex am p le, h e re m e m b e re d lo sin g th ir ty p o u n d s (1 3 .7 kg) d u e to physical ab u se in c lu d in g sleep d e p riv a tio n in flic te d b y U S officials d u r ­ in g a fifte e n -d a y ja il te rm in 1 9 5 0 ; b u t T sie n ’s A m e ric a n frie n d s a t th e tim e , w h o m C h a n g a p p ro a c h e d fo r c o n firm a tio n , sa id h e h a d b e e n “p e rfe c tly c o m fo rt­ a b le .” D u r in g th is re p u te d o rd ea l, T sie n m e t reg u la rly w ith h is law yer, a n d fa m ­ ily m e m b e rs v isited h im in ja il “a lm o st daily ,” so h is claim o f to rtu re -in d u c e d e m a c ia tio n w as p ro b a b ly in te n d e d to c u rry fav o r w ith P R C officials a fte r r e tu r n ­ in g h o m e . C h a n g c o n c lu d e d th a t his p riso n life w as “q u ie t a n d u n e v e n tfu l”; it w as “his p rid e th a t h u r t m o s t.”54 T h u s , early in h e r career sh e ev in ced sk e p tic ism a b o u t th e v alue o f “m e m o ry ” fo r a rriv in g a t tr u th a b o u t p a st events. C h a n g c o n tex tu a liz e d th e h o rro rs o f N a n k in g , i f in a d v erten tly , b y listin g d e a th tolls fo r o th e r g h astly ev en ts in m o d e rn C h in a : “th re e to fifte e n m illio n ” d e a d in W o rld W a r II, “3 0 -7 0 m illio n ” in th e G re a t L eap F o rw a rd , “fo u r h u n d r e d th o u ­ s a n d ” in th e C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n , a n d “m o re th a n seven h u n d r e d . k illed a n d th o u s a n d s w o u n d e d ” a t T ’ie n -a n -m e n .55 S h e d id n o t s h rin k fro m re la tin g C h in e s e -o n -C h in e s e atro c itie s; e.g., “o p iu m d e n s a n d b ro th e ls flo u rish e d ” in 1920s S h an g h ai, w h ere “w o m e n w h o h a d b e e n so ld in to p ro s titu tio n serv iced tw e n ty to th ir ty m e n a n ig h t.” O w in g to K M T w a rtim e fo o d re q u isitio n in g , sh e says, “m e n sold w ives o r c h ild re n fo r tw o p o u n d s o f rice a n d su b sisted o n leaves, b a rk — even h u m a n flesh .” P R C fam in es led to “p e o p le k illin g a n d e a tin g th e ir o w n b ab ies o r a b d u c tin g a n d k illin g c h ild re n a n d se llin g th e flesh fo r f o o d .”56 C h a n g calls N a n k in g “o n e o f th e w o rs t o rgies o f ra p e a n d m assacre in w o rld h is to ry ” w h ic h left “b e tw e e n tw o a n d th re e h u n d r e d th o u s a n d ” d e a d .57 Yet c o m p a re d w ith h e r o th e r d e a th figures a n d a tro c ity a c c o u n ts, th e Ja p a n e se d o n o t lo o k ex c ep tio n ally b a d . H e r b o o k calls to m in d th o se w ritte n in th e 1 9 4 0 s b y re p o rte rs su c h as G ra ­ h a m Peck, T h e o d o re W h ite , E d g a r Snow , a n d Ja c k B e ld e n , w h o id e n tifie d K M T c o r r u p tio n a n d in c o m p e te n c e as th e m a in cause o f su ffe rin g in w a rtim e C h in a . T h e y d escrib ed Ja p a n e se c ru e lty b u t d id n o t cite a n y extensive p o p u la r C h in e se a n im u s to w a rd J a p a n a t th a t tim e . T h is p o in t m o v e d J o h n K . F a irb a n k to ob serv e in a 1 9 6 7 preface to P eck ’s Two Kinds o f Time, “W h a t th e Ja p an e se in v a d ers d o to xxix

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

th e C h in e se in w arfa re is n o w o rse th a n w h a t th e C h in e se h a b itu a lly d o to o n e a n o th e r in peace tim e .”58 Thread o f the Silkworm falls in to th is W e ste rn tra d itio n o f jo u rn a lis tic h isto ric a l w ritin g a b o u t C h in a , w h ic h o b liq u e ly so ften s C h a n g ’s a n ti-Jap a n ese s e n tim e n t. Still, th is b o o k is m a rre d b y flaw s. O n e is C h a n g ’s m isu se o f a lite ra ry device th a t I call “se lf-p ro je c tio n th ro u g h a rtistic re c o n s tru c tio n ,” a p p lie d m o re skillfully b y N a ta lie Z . D av is in The Return o f M artin Guerre. As D av is a d m its in h e r p re f­ ace, “W h a t I a m o ffe rin g y o u h ere is in p a r t m y in v e n tio n ”; i.e., sh e w as s u b m it­ tin g “n o t pro o fs, b u t h isto ric a l p o ssib ilities” in ferred fro m o th e r c o n te m p o ra n e o u s sources a b o u t h o w G u e rre ’s w ife B e ttra n d e might have b e h a v e d .59 T h is in fe re n tia l m o d e o f p r o o f left D av is o p e n to ch arg es o f s p e c u la tio n o r re a d in g a “p re se n t-d a y fe m in ist b e lie f in th e s tre n g th a n d in g e n u ity o f w o m e n ,” b a c k in to six te e n th -c e n ­ tu r y F re n c h p ea sa n ts.60 O m ittin g D a v is’s u p -fro n t ca n d o r, C h a n g also re so rte d to im a g in a tiv e in fe re n c e o f th is so rt; sh e p ro je c te d h e r o w n h o p e s o n to T sien , m a k ­ in g h im th in k , say, a n d d o as sh e w ish e d . T h u s h is “d re a m ” w as to h e lp C h in a “d e fe n d its e lf a g a in st re p e a te d acts o f Ja p an e se ag g re ssio n .” H e first ch o se railro a d e n g in e e rin g as a n a c a d e m ic m a jo r to c o u n te r J a p a n ’s rail lin e fro m “P u sa n in K o rea to M u k d e n .” A fter Ja p an e se air raid s o n S h a n g h a i in 1 9 3 2 , h e sw itc h e d to av iatio n , fo r “o n e c a n n o t u n d e re s tim a te th e im p a c t o f th e b o m b in g o n T sien . It w as easily th e single m o s t d ra m a tic a n d frig h te n in g e p iso d e o f h is life .”61 C h a n g gives n o ev id en ce fo r th e se view s a ttr ib u te d to T sie n except, in so m e cases, in te r­ view s th a t readers can n e ith e r access n o r assess. Flaw s lik e th ese raise m a jo r d o u b ts a b o u t h e r n eu tra lity , fa m ilia rity w ith th e sources, a n d u se o f a rtistic re c o n stru c ­ tio n ; w h ereas th e c o m p a ra tiv e a b sen c e o f th e se su sp icio n s in D a v is’s b o o k m ak es it seem less em p iric a lly p ro b le m a tic . C h a n g ’s a n ti-Ja p a n e se bias, th o u g h m ild , p ro d u c e d d efects. W e all c o m m it errors o f fact, oversig h t, a n d in te rp re ta tio n , b u t th e se o c c u r ra n d o m ly in th e w o rk o f s c ru p u lo u s h isto ria n s. B y c o n tra st, C h a n g ’s m istak e s fall c o n siste n tly in o n e d ire c tio n — to m a k e J a p a n a n d th e Ja p a n e se lo o k b ad . A sm all s a m p lin g fro m Thread o f the Silkworm follow s. (1) C h a n g w rites th a t in 1 9 0 9 J a p a n w as C h in a ’s “o ld e st a n d p ro b a b ly still m o st feared en em y .”62 T h e re is m u c h Ja p an e se a n im o sity to w a rd m o d e rn C h in a fo r h is­ to ria n s to relate, a n d C h a n g is rig h t to d o so, b u t th e re are o th e r sides to th e story. Ja p a n w as n o t th e first im p e ria l p o w er to ravage C h ’in g a n d R e p u b lic a n C h in a a n d w as th e least ra p in e u n til th e T w e n ty -o n e D e m a n d s o f 19 1 5 , w h ic h it re tra c te d u n d e r pressure. Ja p a n re tu rn e d its c o n q u e sts in S h a n tu n g — m a d e after d e c la rin g w ar o n G e rm a n y in A u g u st 1 9 1 4 to c o m p ly w ith th e A n g lo -Jap a n ese A llian ce— a n d p u rs u e d p o lic ie s o f n o n - m ilita r y e c o n o m ic e n c r o a c h m e n t in th e 1 9 2 0 s, th o u g h u n d e r e x tra te rrito ria lity to b e sure. E ig h t th o u sa n d C h in e se s tu d e n ts w ere s tu d y in g in Ja p a n w h e n th e re v o lu tio n a ry T ’u n g -m e n g -h u i w as fo u n d e d in 1905. C h a n g ’s h e ro S u n Y at-sen fled to Ja p a n several tim es a n d stay ed a to ta l o f n in e years. H e g o t s u p p o r t fro m Ja p a n e se frie n d s su c h as U m e y a S h o k ic h i (1 8 6 6 — 1926), w h o d o n a te d over h a lf o f his w e a lth to S u n w ith o u t leav in g a n estate to his xxx

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

family, w o rk e d tirelessly fo r S in o -Jap an ese p eace in his la ter years, a n d w as b ra n d e d a tra ito r fo r his efforts.63 In h e r trilogy, C h a n g w rites n o th in g a b o u t Jap an ese g o o d ­ w ill o r aid o f this type. In stea d , h e r relentless teleology d ictates th a t “Ja p a n sp e n t decades tra in in g its m e n fo r c o m b a t,” in te n t o n a n “in ev ita b le w ar w ith C h in a .”64 (2) C h a n g asserts th a t “Ja p a n e se officers b le w u p a railw a y lin e o u tsid e M u k ­ d e n , a city s o u th [sic] o f th e b o rd e r o f M a n c h u r ia ,” a n d c o n q u e re d all o f it in 1931 becau se “G M T ” [recte: G M D o r K M T ] arm ies d id n o t resist.65 T h is e v e n t d id take place, b u t C h a n g m ista k e n ly lo cates th e k ey M a n c h u ria n city o f M u k d e n (n o w S h en y an g ) s o u th o f th e G re a t W all in C h in a p ro p e r as d e lim ite d in th a t era. H e r b o o k s are aw ash in erro rs o f fact, ro m a n iz a tio n , a n d h isto ric a l g eo g rap h y ; e.g., b y d es c rib in g th e M o n g o ls as b e in g in “w e ste rn C h in a .” In d e e d , sh e seem s to th in k th a t th e b o rd e rs o f “ C h in a ” h av e alw ays b e e n w h a t th e se are to d a y .66 (3) S h e states th a t Ja p a n e se p la n es b o m b e d S h a n g h a i in 19 3 2 , p ro d u c in g “six h u n d r e d th o u s a n d refu g ees” a n d le av in g th e city “s tre w n w ith corpses a n d th e ch a rre d ru in s o f te n e m e n t h o u s in g ,” w h ic h “s e n t sh o ckw aves th r o u g h o u t C h in a ” a n d “seared th e n a tio n a l co n sc io u sn e ss.”67 C h a n g se e m in g ly m ix e d u p th e assau lt o n S h a n g h a i p rio r to N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 w ith th e S h a n g h a i In c id e n t five years ear­ lier, fro m 2 8 J a n u a ry to 3 M a rc h 1 9 3 2 ,68 a n d sh e exaggerates th e scale a n d im p a c t o f th is 1 9 3 2 In c id e n t. J a p a n d id n o t to rc h th e e n tire city.69 C h a n g ’s civilian d e a th to ll— u n s ta te d in Thread o f the Silkworm — ro se to “te n s o f th o u s a n d s ” in The Rape o f N a n kin g 7 In fact, th e th irty -th re e -d a y S h a n g h a i I n c id e n t le ft 1 ,4 0 0 C h i­ nese civilians d e a d a n d 1 4 ,0 0 0 C h in e se m ilita ry casualties, m e a n in g d e a d a n d w o u n d e d .71 A lth o u g h se g m en ts o f C h in a ’s in te llig e n tsia a n d u rb a n classes w ere in te n se ly a n ti-Jap a n e se in 19 3 2 , m o s t o f its v ast ru ra l p o p u la c e k n e w little a b o u t th is In c id e n t a n d c o u ld h av e cared less. (4) C h a n g arg u e s th a t “J a p a n e m b a rk e d o n still a n o th e r series o f m ilita ry aggressions” to “ex p a n d th e te rrito ry ce d ed to th e m d u r in g th e T a n g g u T ru c e o f 1 9 3 3 a n d ta k e over all o f H e b e i p ro v in c e .”72 T h e M a y 1 9 3 3 tru c e fo rc ed th e Ja p an e se to w ith d ra w fro m th is p ro v in c e a n d o b se rv e a d e m ilita riz e d z o n e b o r­ d e re d o n th e s o u th b y th e G re a t W a ll.73 B u t C h in a d id n o t ced e te rrito ry to Ja p a n , a n d p a rtly b ecau se o f th e ceasefire th a t th is tru c e created , b ila te ra l re la tio n s im p ro v e d b e tw e e n 1 9 3 3 a n d 1 9 3 6 , p ro d u c in g h o p e s fo r lo n g -te rm peace. O n ly h in d s ig h t tells us th a t full-scale w a r w o u ld b re a k o u t in A u g u st 1 9 3 7 a t S h an g h ai, w h e re C h ia n g K a i-sh e k sw itc h e d th e a te rs o f o p e ra tio n h o p in g to g ain stra te g ic ad v a n ta g es.74 A n d it w as a b o tc h e d R O C air a tta c k , k illin g so m e 1 ,0 0 0 C h in e se a n d W e ste rn resid e n ts th a t set o f f h o stilitie s th e re . S till, th e overall th r u s t fo r w ar cam e fro m Ja p a n . Its civ ilian K o n o e c a b in e t a n d a rm y ex p a n sio n ists le a p t a t C h ia n g ’s b ait, b u t th e y en v isio n e d o n e k n o c k -o u t b lo w se ttlin g issues w ith C h in a , n o t a n eight-year full-scale c o n flic t th a t gravely in h ib ite d p re p a ra tio n s th e y w ere m a k ­ in g fo r a w ar w ith th e U S S R . (5) Thread o f the Silkworm c o n te n d s th a t th e Ja p a n e se a t N a n k in g “k illed b e tw e e n tw o a n d th re e h u n d r e d th o u s a n d C h in e s e .” C h a n g p re su m e s th a t th is fig u re— w h ic h a p p e a re d o n ly several years la te r— g o t “w o rld w id e coverage” in xxxi

This content downloaded from fff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

1 9 3 7 th a t “T sie n fo llo w e d clo sely ” in L os A n g e le s.75 H e r a n a c h ro n is tic n o n s e q u itu r la ter b ec a m e a d elu siv e fix a tio n . S o m e n e w sp a p e rs su c h as th e Chicago Tribune, New York Times, a n d Washington Post d id d e sc rib e a b a rb a ric “sack ” o r (sm all “r ”) “ra p e ” o f N a n k in g in D e c e m b e r 19 3 7 . R e p o rte rs c ite d helpless C h i­ nese m u rd e re d e n m asse b u t tre a te d th is as p a r t o f a w a r w ith k illin g o n b o th sides. T h e y calcu lated C h in e se b ellig e re n ts w h o d ie d in a c tio n p lu s civilians m u r ­ d e re d in cold b lo o d to e stim a te d e a th s in th e th o u sa n d s, n o t in six figures. M o s t o f all, th o se jo u rn a lists d id n o t lik e n th is ev e n t to a g e n o c id e o f Jew s, w h ic h h a d y et to occur, fo r n o o n e h a d a cry stal b all to d isclo se its o n se t several years later. In M a rc h 1 9 4 1 , h isto ria n s tell us, “3 3 ,0 0 0 Jew s in B e rlin w ere w o rk in g in arm s fa c to rie s,” a n d in “m id -M a rc h 19 4 2 , so m e 7 5 to 8 0 p e rc e n t o f all v ic tim s o f [w h at w e n o w call] th e H o lo c a u s t w ere still aliv e.”76 In Thread o f the Silkworm, C h a n g ’s an ti-Ja p a n e se bias ste m m e d m o re fro m h is­ to ric a l e rro rs th a n p e rs o n a l a n im u s , a n d sh e d id n o t f la u n t m u ltic u ltu r a lis t p o lem ics. S h e d id n o t p o rtra y T sie n m a in ly as a v ic tim o f a n ti-C h in e s e racism . S he ce n su red th e C h in e se -A m e ric a n c o m m u n ity in L os A ngeles fo r its “in d iffe r­ en c e” to h is fate a n d sta te d th a t sc ien tists fro m o th e r e th n o -c u ltu ra l g ro u p s su f­ fered w o rse p e rse c u tio n . H e r m a in c u lp rits w ere M c C a rth y -e ra b e a rb a itin g , C o ld W a r hy steria, a n d tu rf-p ro te c tin g b u re a u c ra ts. T h e s e w ere p o litic a l issues. S he p o se d th e k ey q u e s tio n : “W h o is to say th a t it c o u ld n ’t h a p p e n ag ain , w ith so m e ­ o n e o f a d iffe re n t e th n ic ity ? ” C h a n g ’s an sw e r w as q u ite u p b e a t: “I t isn ’t lik ely ” becau se “to d a y w e h av e a press th a t is m o re ad v ersarial to w a rd th e g o v e rn m e n t” a n d “A m eric an s are m o re sen sitiv e to issues o f race a n d e th n ic ity in th e 1 9 9 0 s.”77 H e r o p tim is m w o u ld p ro v e sh o rt-liv e d .

IV. Ethnic Awakening A fter C h a n g ’s d e a th in 2 0 0 4 , h e r close frie n d , P a u la K a m e n , revealed “th e Iris C o d e ” to u n lo c k secrets o f C h a n g ’s research m e th o d : “J u s t th in k big! . . . Ju st d e c id e w h a t y o u w a n t a n d g o g e t it. T o th e p o in t o f b e in g n a iv e .” K a m e n w e n t o n : “P a rt o f th e p o w e r o f h e r in te rv ie w in g w as th a t sh e h a d n o filters to b lo c k o u t a n y th in g th a t w as b e in g said to h er; I su sp e c t sh e d id n ’t even k n o w th a t p e o p le cam e w ith filte rs.” C h a n g h e rse lf said o f The Rape o f Nanking, “I w ro te it o u t o f a sense o f rage. I d id n ’t really care i f I m a d e a c e n t fro m it. I t w as im p o r ta n t to m e th a t th e w o rld k n e w w h a t h a p p e n e d in N a n k in g b a c k in 1 9 3 7 .”78 T h o u g h q u o te d o u t o f c o n te x t, th e se re m a rk s d iv u lg e k ey ele m e n ts in C h a n g ’s se c o n d b o o k — a b o u n d le ss g u llib ility a b o u t v ic tim s a n d a n a ll-c o n su m in g fu ry to expose v ic tim izers— in im ic a l to th e fairness, ob jectiv ity , a n d b a la n c e th a t sh e trie d to achieve in h e r first b o o k . W h a t ex p lain s th is change? I b eliev e th a t, b y e m b ra c in g a n e th n ic id e n tity in 1 9 9 4 —9 5 , sh e a ffirm e d a M a n ic h a e a n d u a lism o f b e a stly Ja p a n e se p re d a to rs versus in n o c e n t C h in e se prey, w ith n o th in g in b e tw e en .

xxxii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

A lth o u g h b o rn o n th e E a st C o a st in 19 6 8 , C h a n g g rew u p as a n assim ilate d A m e ric a n o f C h in e se a n c e stry in th e M id w e ste rn u n iv e rsity to w n o f U rb a n a C h a m p a ig n , Illin o is. S h e w rites: “I re m e m b e r d riv in g to C h ic a g o C h in a to w n w ith m y fam ily, b u t o n ly fo r th e sa m e rea so n A m e ric a n s o f o th e r e th n ic itie s w e n t th e re— fo r a p a rtic u la rly g o o d C h in e se m eal, n o t to s tre n g th e n a n y c o n n e c tio n to m y r o o ts .”79 F ro m th is a n d m u c h else in h e r w ritin g , I ju d g e th a t C h a n g w as fully a c c u ltu ra te d to U S so ciety a n d h a d n o d esire to d isco v er h e r C h in e se h e rita g e th ro u g h ac a d e m ic study. S h e says th a t p a re n ta l h o r ro r sto ries a b o u t th e w ar h a d alw ays b e e n w ith her, b u t sh e d isp lay e d n o u rg e to p u rsu e th is issue w ith th e la te L lo y d E a stm a n , a w o rld a u th o rity w h o ta u g h t in U rb a n a -C h a m p a ig n a t th e U n i­ versity o f Illin o is. C h a n g d id n o t im m e rse h e rse lf in C h in e se la n g u ag e , history, a n d c u ltu re a t th is m a jo r U S c e n te r fo r E ast A sia n S tu d ies; sh e to o k u p jo u rn a l­ ism th e re . I n a te llin g a n e c d o te , sh e reveals w ith c h a g rin th a t sh e a n d fellow e th n ics o f C h in e se d e s c e n t w ere “seen as fo re ig n ers in th e ir o w n la n d ” d e sp ite n ev er h a v in g b ee n to th e P R C o r R O C . T h e ir q u a n d a ry lay in “id e n tity issues: a sense o f feelin g d iffe re n t, o r alien , in th e ir o w n c o u n try ” th a t p r o d u c e d “a crisis o f c o n fid e n c e .” T h u s sh e w as “reg a rd e d as to o C h in e se to b e A m e ric a n ” b y m a in ­ strea m U S w h ites y e t “to o A m e ric a n to b e C h in e se ” b y re c e n t arrivals fro m C h in a , th e n derisively labelled “F O B s [fresh o f f th e b o a t] ” b y estab lish ed “A B C s” [A m er­ ic a n -b o rn C h in e s e ].80 C h a n g fo u n d h e r deus ex machina in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 4 a t age tw en ty -six , after sh e h a d m a rrie d a n d m o v e d to C a lifo rn ia . T h e re , sh e e x p e rien c ed a “single b lin d ­ in g m o m e n t” o f e th n ic rev e latio n a t a p h o to e x h ib it a n d co n fe re n c e o n N a n k in g h e ld b y a C h in e se -A m e ric a n “n e tw o rk o f ac tiv ists,” th e “G lo b a l A llia n ce fo r P re­ se rv in g th e H is to r y o f W o rld W a r II in A sia .”81 T h e ir m a jo r c o n c e rn w as to im p a r t a n e th n ic id e n tity — to “pass th e ir w a rtim e m e m o rie s d o w n to th e ir ch il­ d re n a n d g ra n d c h ild re n , fearfu l th a t assim ila tio n in to N o r t h A m e ric a n c u ltu re m ig h t cause th e m to fo rg e t th is im p o r ta n t p a rt o f th e ir h isto ric a l h e rita g e .”82 O n e w o n d e rs w h y m e m o rie s o f N a n k in g are a h e rita g e m o re w o rth y o f p re se rv a tio n th a n C o n fu c ia n th o u g h t, T ’a n g p o etry , o r S u n g p a in tin g — w h ic h e n h a n c e a p p re ­ cia tio n fo r w isd o m a n d b e a u ty in all o f us. I n a n y case, C h a n g e m b ra c e d a n e th ­ n ic g ro u p id e n tity lin k e d to a m e m o ry o f sh a re d v ic tim iz a tio n th a t h a d “slip p ed aw ay” d u e to a c c u ltu ra tio n in U S society. N o w , sh e recalled , h e r p a re n ts “n ev e r fo rg o t th e h o rro rs o f th e S in o -Ja p a n e se W ar, n o r d id th e y w a n t m e to fo rg e t.” “Q u iv e rin g w ith o u tra g e ,” th e y la b ele d N a n k in g “th e single m o s t d ia b o lic al in c i­ d e n t in a w ar th a t k illed m o re th a n 10 m illio n C h in e se p e o p le ” a n d d ec la re d th a t “th e Ja p an e se sliced b ab ies n o t ju s t in h a lf b u t in th ird s a n d fo u rth s ” so th a t “th e Y angtze R iv er ra n re d w ith b lo o d fo r d a y s.”83 C h a n g d id n o t se arch fo r e m p irica l ev id en ce to c o rro b o ra te h e r p a re n ts ’ rec o llec tio n s o r su b je c t co n fe re n c e p h o to s to so u rce c riticism in a n e ffo rt to c o n firm th e ir a u th e n tic ity a n d w eig h th e ir evi­ d e n tia ry value. O u t o f h a n d , sh e sh irk e d th e se a rd u o u s tasks o f v e rific a tio n in d is­ p en sab le to sch o larly p ro b ity . As sh e c a n d id ly a d m itte d , “N e ith e r o f m y p a re n ts

xxxiii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

h a d actu a lly w itn e sse d ” “th e R a p e ” b ec au se th e y w ere n o t in N a n k in g a t th e tim e; so, h e r m e m o ry o f it p e rfo rc e co n siste d o f h ea rsay a c c o u n ts th re e tim es rem o v e d a n d d re d g e d u p ov er h a lf a c e n tu ry later. A s A rth u r M . S ch lesin g er Jr. observes, “m ilita n ts o f e th n ic ity ” ex p lo it p se u d o -a c a d e m ic th e ra p ie s o f th is ty p e to “raise m in o r ity se lf-estee m ,” b u t th e ir rh e to ric “n o u rish e s p reju d ices, m a g n ifies d iffe r­ ences, a n d stirs a n ta g o n is m s.”84 C h a n g m o b iliz e d th is m e m o ry to valorize a g ro u p id e n tity d e fin e d so lely b y p a s t su ffe rin g , w h ic h f o m e n te d e th n ic r e s e n tm e n t to w ard a n o th e r e th n ic g ro u p , even i f th is w as n o t a n express a im o f th e co n fe re n ce organizers. T h is “b lin d in g m o m e n t” in la te 19 9 4 , early 1 9 9 5 w as decisive fo r C h a n g in m y view . T h e re a fte r, h e r n a s c e n t, re la tiv e ly m ild a n ti-J a p a n e s e o r ie n t a tio n b lo o m e d in to a fu ll-b lo w n co n sp ira c y th e o ry o f h isto ry . H e r assertio n s, especially in The Rape o f N anking (1 9 9 7 ), re q u ire d n o a c a d e m ic c re d en tia ls, ju s t a fertile im a g in a tio n , ro b u s t d istru st, a n d large doses o f ill w ill. I f ev id en c e fo r a c la im is lack in g , J a p a n su rely d e stro y e d o r co n c ea le d it a n d m u s t b e fo rc ed to c o m e clean. I f p lau sib le alte rn a tiv e e x p la n a tio n s exist, th e se ca n b e ig n o re d . W h e n n o evil o cc u rre d , th e Ja p an e se w ere p o ise d to m a k e i t h a p p e n b u t so m e h o w g o t foiled. T h e o n ly p ro p e r re sp o n se to C h in e se su ffe rin g b e c a m e a n in sa tia b le d esire to g et even. A few exam p les w ill illu strate . (1) O n e q u e s tio n arises: W h y w as n o large-scale b lo o d y rev en g e exacted after th e defeat, su rre n d e r, a n d d is a rm in g o f Ja p a n e se tro o p s a t w a r’s end? W h y d id N a n k in g v ic tim s o r th e ir k in n o t w re a k re ta lia to ry v en g e an c e in 1945 w h e n , o n e assum es, th is w o u ld h av e b e e n easy? C h a n g relies o n th e “m e m o ry ” o f so m e N a n k in g resid e n ts sh e in te rv ie w e d fo r “th e a n sw e r”— n o t “o n e an sw e r.” T h e y recalled h id in g a t h o m e , “to o fearfu l to even ce le b ra te in case n ew s o f a Ja p an e se d efe at tu r n e d o u t to b e n o t tr u e ,” a n d th a t th e Ja p a n e se “ev a c u a tio n w as sw ift.” T h u s in 1 9 4 5 , tra u m a p re v e n te d C h in e se v ic tim s fro m ex a ctin g v ig ila n te ju stice , a n d th e Ja p an e se m a d e a sp e ed y getaw ay.85 B u t a d iffe re n t m e m o ry c o m p lic ate s th e p ic tu re . T h e la te P rin c e to n h is to ria n F ritz M o te w as d o in g a u n iv e rsity deg ree in N a n k in g in 194 5 . H e recalls u n a rm e d Ja p an e se tro o p s a n d civilians w h o “safely w alk e d th e stre e ts,” fo r resid e n ts said it w as “u n re a so n a b le ” to a tta c k th e m sin ce th e y w ere n o t th e sa m e Ja p a n e se w h o p e rp e tra te d v io le n ce in 1 9 3 7 . M o te c o n ­ c lu d ed th a t th ese “su rv iv o rs b o re scars, b u t th e y h a d m o v e d o n w ith th e ir lives.” As a h isto ria n , h e lik e n e d th e m to C h in e se w h o lived u n d e r th e alien J u rc h e n J in d y n a s ty (1 1 1 5 —1 2 3 4 ). In b o th cases, few o rd in a ry C h in e se w ere “o bsessed w ith a n ti-J u rc h e n [anti-Jap an ese] fe e lin g .” T h e y a c c e p te d in v a sio n a n d o c c u p a tio n b y aliens as “little d iffe re n t fro m w arfare in flic te d b y C h in e se lead ers a n d a rm ie s,” so th e y h a rb o re d “v ery little e n d u rin g h a tre d o r irre d e n tis t s e n tim e n t.” N a n k in g res­ id e n ts in 1 9 4 5 , M o te w ro te , w ere “re silie n t,” “activ e in a d a p tin g to c h a n g e d cir­ cu m stan ces, rea d y to re b u ild a n d ca rry o n th e lives o f th e ir fam ilies a n d th e ir c o m m u n itie s ,” a n d q u ic k to “ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f n e w situ a tio n s to b e n e fit th e m ­ selves.”86 W e c a n n o t c o n c lu d e th a t C h a n g is to ta lly w ro n g a n d M o te to ta lly rig h t. S o m e w ill b a lk a t h is b o ld leap across ce n tu ries. O th e rs w ill n o te th a t, o w in g to xxxiv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

m assive m ig ra tio n in to a n d o u t o f th e city, N a n k in g resid e n ts in 1 9 4 5 w ere n o t th e sam e as th o se in 1 9 3 7 . S till o th e rs w ill p ro te s t th a t h is m e m o ry m u s t b e ch eck ed a g a in st re c e n t rese arch b y B a ra k K u sh n e r,87 w h o h a d access to in fo rm a ­ tio n th a t M o te as a y o u n g s tu d e n t la ck ed in 19 4 5 . E v en so, M o te offers in sig h ts lo st u p o n C h a n g w h o w as b e n t o n fin d in g o n ly fea rfu l e n m ity in N a n k in g resi­ d e n ts. H e r p o litica l a g e n d a w o u ld n o t le t th e m fo rb e a r i f n o t forgive, d isreg ard th e p a s t i f n o t fo rg e t it, a n d m o v e fo rw a rd w ith life. (2) B ased o n h ea rsay in th e P R C , C h a n g w rites th a t C h in e se sch o lars w h o travel to J a p a n fo r rese arch risk b o d ily h a r m o r d e a th fro m rig h t-w in g th u g s. T h u g s d o exist, a n d u g ly in c id e n ts o f h a te sp e ec h d o o ccu r, b u t v io le n t h a te crim es a g a in st C h in e se are a lm o st u n h e a rd o f in Ja p a n , w h e re C h in e se w h o d ev i­ ate fro m th e official P R C lin e o n a n y m a jo r issue e n jo y legal rig h ts a n d p e rso n a l safety d e n ie d to th e m a t h o m e . C h in e se ac ad e m ic s h o ld te n u re a t v irtu a lly all large Ja p an e se u niv ersities. O n e o f th e m , C h u C h ie n -ju n g (Z h u Jia n ro n g ), w as in d e fin ite ly d e ta in e d b y th e p o lic e in Ju ly 2 0 1 3 , b e in g d e p riv e d o f d u e process w ith o u t th e lay in g o f charges— n o t in Ja p a n w h e re h e w o rk s, b u t o n a trip h o m e to S h a n g h a i.88 P ro te sts fro m Ja p a n e se frie n d s h e lp e d secu re h is release in Ja n u a ry 2 0 1 4 . L ikew ise, based o n p h o n e tip s fro m activists, C h a n g sp in s a c lo a k -a n d -d a g ­ ger tale a b o u t re sc u in g th e R a b e d ia ry m a n u s c rip t fro m sin ister Ja p an e se clu tch es, a n d tells us th a t secret in c rim in a tin g d o c u m e n ts seized d u r in g th e A llie d O c c u ­ p a tio n ( 1 9 4 5 - 5 2 ) su ffe re d d e s tru c tio n afte r U S officials n aiv ely re tu rn e d th e se to Ja p a n . Im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s d id b u r n larg e a m o u n ts o f in c rim in a tin g d o c u m e n ts b efo re O c c u p a tio n forces arriv ed in th e s u m m e r o f 19 4 5 , b u t it is a b s u rd to in s in u a te th a t th is h a p p e n s today. As C h a n g h e rse lf argues, h isto ria n Y oshim i Y oshiaki m a d e p u b lic d o c u m e n ts a b o u t th e c o m fo rt w o m e n p reserv ed in Ja p an e se sta te arch iv es.89 (3) C h a n g insists th a t sh e fo u n d n o b o o k s a b o u t N a n k in g d u r in g h e r y o u th — a lth o u g h T im p erley , W hat War Means (1 9 3 8 ) a n d H s u , Documents o f the Nanking Safety Zone ( 1 9 3 9 ) w e re a v a ila b le — a n d c o n c lu d e s th a t th e “H o lo c a u s t” a t N a n k in g w as d elib e ra te ly c o n sig n e d to h isto ric a l o b liv io n th ro u g h p o litic a l c o n ­ niv an ce. F irst, “th e R a p e ” g o t w o rld w id e fro n t-p a g e coverage in 1 9 3 7 , b u t C h i­ nese v ic tim s suffered w a rtim e n eg lec t lik e th a t e n d u re d b y Jew s. S eco n d , Ja p an e se dailies h a d r e p o rte d a tro c itie s lik e th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st in d e ta il in 19 3 7 , b u t T o k y o sw ep t th is d ir t u n d e r th e ru g in c a h o o ts w ith a U S ally h o stile to th e P R C d u r in g th e C o ld W ar. T h ir d , th e p o stw a r C C P a n d K M T reg im es so ld vic­ tim s d o w n th e riv er b y a n g lin g fo r “a n allia n ce” w ith J a p a n to se cu re lu c ra tiv e d e v e lo p m e n t m o n ie s. C h a n g ’s su b title , th e n , sh o u ld re a d “th e th ric e -fo rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t,” w ith H a n C h in e se g u ilty th e th ird tim e a ro u n d . (4) C o n tra ry to C h a n g ’s claim s, th e re w as n o in te n tio n a l p o stw a r co v e r-u p o f th e N a n k in g A tro city ; rath e r, th e re w ere n o sp e c ia l-in te re st g ro u p s d e m a n d in g th a t d is p ro p o rtio n a te a tte n tio n b e p a id to it. T h is is w h y so few b o o k s w ere d e v o te d to N a n k in g — a n d th e r u b co m es h ere— as a s ta n d -a lo n e to p ic . W a rtim e W e ste rn field re p o rte rs su c h as W h ite , B e ld e n , a n d P eck h a d te n d e d to p o rtra y xxxv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

K M T -in flic te d h o rro rs as w o rse th a n th o se b y th e Ja p an e se, a n d p o stw a r h is to ri­ an s tre a te d th e A tro c ity as o n e h o rro r a m o n g m a n y in a b ru ta lly cru e l w ar. S im i­ larly, Jew s a n d G en tile s w ritin g a b o u t W o rld W a r II o r N u re m b e rg d id n o t tu r n a b lin d eye to “th e Ju d e o c id e ”— a te rm c o in e d in 1988 b y A rn o M a y er.90 H e re , to o , th e “o n e h o rro r a m o n g m a n y ” m o d e o f p o rtra y a l o b ta in e d , as seen in w o rk s b y jo u rn a lists su c h as W illia m S h ire r a n d h isto ria n s su c h as A la n B u llo ch , A . J. P. T aylor, a n d Jo a c h im F est.91 T ay lo r p o rtra y e d Slavs, n o t Jew s, as th e tra d itio n a l ta r­ gets o f G e rm a n “e x te rm in a tio n ” in The Course o f German History (1 9 4 5 ),92 a n d h e has n o in d e x en trie s fo r “a n ti-S e m itis m ,” “Je w s,” o r “th e H o lo c a u s t” in h is classic Origins o f the Second World War (1 9 6 1 ). Je w ish -A m e ric a n s d id n o t d e e m th e J u d e o c id e as c e n tra l to o r d e fin in g th e ir e th n ic id e n tity in th e 1 9 40s, 1 9 50s, a n d early 1 9 6 0 s.93 B o o k s exclusively d e d ic a te d to th e e v e n t d id n o t a p p e a r u n til th e 1960s, a n d “th e H o lo c a u s t” (w ith a d e fin itiv e a rtic le a n d c a p ita l “H ”) d id n o t assu m e p r o m in e n t usage as a h isto ric a l te rm u n til th e 1 9 70s. H is to ria n s ascrib e th is c h a n g e in Je w ish -A m e ric a n m e m o ry a n d id e n tity to th e 1961 E ic h m a n n tria l a n d th e J u n e 1 9 6 7 A ra b -Israe li W ar. Sim ilarly, Jew s h a d alw ays k n o w n a b o u t th e ro u g h ly 1 ,0 0 0 Israelites w h o k illed th em selv es ra th e r th a n su rre n d e r to R o m e a t M a sa d a in 7 3 A D , b u t th is in c id e n t d id n o t tra d itio n a lly call fo r ic o n ic c o m ­ m e m o ra tio n .94 T h a t is to say, M a sa d a d id n o t e n te r in to Je w ish -A m e ric a n m e m ­ o ry a n d id e n tity — w ith th e ritu a listic w a rn in g “n ev e r fo rg e t”— u n til th e p o stw a r sta te o f Israel felt th re a te n e d b y A ra b enem ies. T h u s , collective m e m o ry a n d m ass c o m m e m o ra tio n o f p a s t events d o n o t arise fro m th in air; a p o litic a l n e e d a n d social c o n te x t are alw ays a t w o rk . F o r N a n k in g , th e se to o k th e fo rm o f a fe e l-g o o d , lo c k -ste p C h in e se -A m e ric a n id e n tity a n d m e m o ry th a t em erg e d fro m th e m u ltic u ltu ra lis t m ilie u p e c u lia r to U S society, especially o n th e W e st C o a st, in re c e n t tim es. T h is ex p lain s th e d e a rth o f b o o k s exclusively d e v o te d to N a n k in g a n d th e sc a n t in te re s t d isp la y e d in it d u r in g C h a n g ’s y o u n g e r years. M o reo v er, e th n ic se lf-p o rtray al as h a v in g su ffered v ic tim ­ iz a tio n w as u n p a la ta b le fo r Jew ish , C h in e se , a n d o th e r g ro u p s in th a t m a c h o era, fo r it w o u ld hav e la in b are th e ir sh a m e in b e in g w eak . W e ak n e ss e a rn e d d e risio n , n o t e m p a th y , b a c k th e n w h e n less c o m p a s s io n a te c o d e s o f so c ia l c o n d u c t o b ta in e d . T o celebrate, o r m e m o rialize , o r c o m m e m o ra te h a v in g b e e n v ictim ize d , b u llie d , c o n q u e re d , m a ssa c re d , o r o th e rw is e h u m ilia te d w o u ld h av e se e m e d m aso ch istic. (5) In a se ctio n title d “T h e C o m fo rt W o m e n : T h e L egacy o f N a n k in g ,” C h a n g raises th e issue o f w a rtim e sexual v io le n ce a g a in st w o m e n . S h e declares th a t “th e first official c o m fo rt h o u s e o p e n e d n e a r N a n k in g in 1 9 3 8 ” w h e n “th e Ja p an e se h ig h c o m m a n d m a d e p la n s to c re ate a g ia n t u n d e r g r o u n d sy stem o f m ilita ry p ro s titu tio n — o n e th a t w o u ld d ra w in to its w eb h u n d re d s o f th o u sa n d s o f w o m e n across A sia” (again, n o te th e p lu ra l “h u n d r e d s ”). Specifically, “b e tw e e n e ig h ty th o u s a n d a n d tw o h u n d r e d th o u s a n d ” w o m e n w ere seized, m o stly in K orea; b u t “later, th e w o rld le a rn e d o f th is p la n ,” so J a p a n d e n ie d it u n til 1 9 9 1 , w h e n

xxxvi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

Y oshim i Y oshiaki u n c o v e re d in c rim in a tin g so u rces in sta te archives. A n d C h a n g asserts th a t “2 0 ,0 0 0 to 8 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e se w o m e n w ere ra p e d ” a t N a n k in g in six w eeks.95 As rela ted elsew here, I d o n o t d e p re c a te th e te rrib le su ffe rin g o f ra p e v ic tim s o r c o m fo rt w o m e n ; n o r d o I absolve w a rtim e Ja p a n e se o f a tro c itie s.96 B u t I suggest h e re th a t C h a n g ’s m a in c o n c e rn lay n o t w ith d isc u ssin g ra p e in w a r as a u n iv ersal g e n d e r issue, o r w ith N a n k in g a n d th e c o m fo rt w o m e n as h isto ric a l case stu d ies o f it. I f th a t w ere tru e , sh e w o u ld h av e sh o w n a t least so m e e m p a th y fo r n o n - C h i­ nese v ictim s. In ste a d , h e r a im w as to lash o u t a t Ja p a n , a n d o n ly a t Ja p a n , fo r c o n ­ d u c t th a t w as u n d e n ia b ly sh a m e fu l a n d w o rth y o f c o n d e m n a tio n . B u t sh e d id so in u n fa ir w ays— th ro u g h o n e -sid e d exag g erated claim s w ith o u t a d e q u a te e m p iri­ cal g r o u n d in g o r reg a rd fo r circ u m sta n c e s in th e p e rio d , a n d th ro u g h a d e lib e ra te silence a b o u t ap o lo g ies w ith c o m p e n s a tio n m a d e to v ic tim s b y p rim e m in iste rs a n d th r o u g h th e A sian W o m e n ’s F u n d set u p in 19 9 4 , w ell b efo re C h a n g ’s b o o k cam e o u t. T h e ad e q u a c y o f su c h effo rts a t p e n a n c e ca n b e d e b a te d , b u t it is in e x ­ cu sab ly d ish o n e st to lead rea d ers in to b eliev in g th a t J a p a n m a d e n o effo rts a t all. T o label th e c o m fo rt w o m a n in s titu tio n a fu rtiv e “u n d e rg ro u n d sy stem ” is lau g h ab le. E ven rig h t-w in g Ja p an e se n a tio n a lists w h o d e te st th e te rm “sexual slav­ ery” a ffirm th e c o m m o n k n o w le d g e th a t c o m fo rt sta tio n s o p e ra te d in p la in sig h t. T h e ac tu a l n u m b e r o f c o m fo rt w o m e n c a n n o t b e asce rta in e d , b u t it w as a fra c tio n o f th e 8 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 th a t C h a n g cites. A lth o u g h sc h o lars d e b a te th e ir b re a k ­ d o w n b y n atio n ality , w h ic h c h a n g e d o v er tim e , m o s t w ere Ja p a n e se to s ta rt w ith . A b o v e all, th e re is n o d ir e c t ca u sa l lin k b e tw e e n N a n k in g a n d th e c o m fo r t w o m e n . C o m fo r t sta tio n s lo n g a n te c e d e d th e 1 9 3 7 A tro city . A ll cities in Ja p a n w ith m ilita ry bases h a d c o m fo rt sta tio n s in licen sed re d -lig h t d istric ts d a tin g fro m p re m o d e rn tim es, a n d overseas c o m fo rt sta tio n s, r u n m o re v ic io u sly th a n th o se a t h o m e , existed fro m th e S ib e ria n In te rv e n tio n ( 1 9 1 8 -2 2 ) . T h e u n p re c e d e n te d scale o f m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s sta rtin g in A u g u st 1 9 3 7 , a n d a d esire to re d u c e rapes in th e S h a n g h a i-to -N a n k in g re g io n , d id give a m a jo r an c illa ry b o o s t to th e sys­ te m , b u t th is w o u ld h av e h a p p e n e d an y w a y as th e w a r e x p a n d e d in C h in a a n d spilled over in to th e P acific. T h e n u m b e r o f c o m fo rt sta tio n s th u s c o in c id e n ta lly in creased fro m 1 9 3 7 , a n d Ja p a n e se m ilita ry lead ers saw th is as a re fo rm m e a su re to red u c e rap es o f local w o m e n . C h a n g n ev e r p o se d th e k ey h isto ric a l q u e s tio n w h ic h , ironically, is th e m o s t a b o m in a b le fo r rig h t-w in g Ja p a n e se n a tio n a lists: W h y w ere im p e ria l a rm e d forces in c a p a b le o f dev isin g o th e r, less b ru ta l, re fo rm m easu res to f u rth e r th a t end? H is to ria n s o f E u ro p e p re se n t c o n tra stiv e in sig h ts in to C h a n g ’s tre a tm e n t o f Ja p a n e se rap e. G e rm a n w o m e n su ffered m o s t cru e lly fro m sexual v io le n c e in W o rld W ar II. As a w h o le, th e y le n t eager s u p p o rt to H itle r ’s reg im e, b u t th a t does n o t m e a n th e y d eserv ed th e ir fate; n o r d o es it p re c lu d e h isto ric a l c o m m ise ra tio n . F ro m eld erly w o m e n to sm all girls, th e ir o rd ea l b e g a n in O c to b e r 1 9 4 4 w h e n S oviet tro o p s e n te re d E a st P ru ssia, a n d it re a c h e d a cre sce n d o fro m 2 4 A p ril to

xxxvii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

5 M a y 1945 w ith th e siege o f B erlin . M ic h a e l K a te r rec k o n s th a t “u p to h a lf a m il­ lio n in B erlin alo n e (w h ic h w o u ld m e a n every th ird fe m a le )” w ere ra p e d in th o se tw o w eeks.97 A n th o n y Beevor, R ic h a rd J. Evans, a n d Ia n K ersh aw cite “ 1.4 m il­ lio n ” w o m e n rap e d , m a n y o f th e m m u ltip le tim es, in E a st P ru ssia, P o m eran ia, a n d S ilesia d u r in g th e S o v iet a ssa u lt fro m O c to b e r 1 9 4 4 to M a y 1 9 4 5 . T h is a m o u n ts to “ 18 p e rc e n t o f th e fem a le p o p u la tio n o f th o se th re e re g io n s,” a n d th e p erc en ta g es w ere p ro b a b ly h ig h e r in E ast P ru ssia. B eev o r arg u es th a t “a t least 2 m illio n ” G e rm a n w o m e n su ffered ra p e a n d gives a g ra p h ic d e s c rip tio n : d r u n k e n S oviet tro o p s, “u n a b le to c o m p le te th e a c t o f rap e, u sed th e b o ttle in ste a d w ith a p p a llin g effect.”98 Ja p a n e se rap es to o w ere a b h o rre n t a n d in so m e cases beastly; a n d , th e c o m fo rt w o m a n re fo rm m e a su re deserves c e n su re b y to d a y ’s m o ra l s ta n ­ d ard s. B u t, a t th e risk o f b e in g m isla b e le d a m iso g y n istic racist, I su g g est th a t rap es b y th e Ja p an e se a t N a n k in g w ere n o t u n iq u e in th e c o n te x t o f a cru e l w o rld w ar; a n d , a lth o u g h th e se d id o c c u r in th e th o u sa n d s, th e ir ra te o f in c id e n c e c a n ­ n o t b e precisely g a u g e d c o m p a re d w ith o th e r arm ies. K ersh aw lists “lu rid d e s c rip tio n s o f cru c ifix io n s” a n d o th e r g h a stly a c c o u n ts o f sexual v iolence. B u t h e s u b m its th e se to a critically d e ta c h e d analysis a n d d raw s d iscreetly te n ta tiv e c o n c lu sio n s: “S o m e te stim o n y , g iv en a few years a fte rw a rd , w h ic h left a la stin g m a rk o n th e g ru e so m e im a g e ry o f events, is o f d o u b tf u l v erac­ ity ” a n d “th e m o s t g ristly scenes m a y h av e b e e n a fa b ric a tio n ” b y G o e b b e ls’s P ro ­ p a g a n d a M in is try to w h ip u p h a tre d fo r th e fo e.99 C h a n g displays n o t a n in k lin g o f sk e p tic ism a b o u t alleg ed ly fie n d ish Ja p a n e se o u tra g e s th a t b o rd e r o n p o r n o ­ g ra p h ic sad ism . S h e sw allow ed w h a te v e r h e r tra n sla to rs a n d in te rv iew ee s to ld h e r h o o k , line, a n d sinker, a n d n ev e r im a g in e d th a t th e K M T , lik e all w a rtim e gov­ e rn m e n ts, to ld lies as a m a tte r o f p o lic y to m a k e p e o p le h a te th e enem y. K ita m u ra M in o r u ex am in es o n e so u rc e c ite d b y C h a n g c o n ta in in g scenes o f h o r rid sexual to rtu re a n d p erv e rsio n — K u o C h i (G u o Q i), Shen-tu hsu-liu-lu (R ec o rd o f B lo o d a n d T ears in th e F allen C a p ita l)— a n d sh o w s th a t it w as n o t K u o ’s o rig in a l d o c u ­ m e n t, w h ic h h a d far less lu rid c o n te n ts . In ste a d , th is w as a la tte r-d a y p u b lis h e d e d itio n altered to in c rim in a te w a r crim es su sp ects in c o u rt. K ita m u ra also fo u n d a referen ce to p o ssib le Ja p a n e se use o f p o iso n gas in th e C h in e se tra n s la tio n o f R a b e ’s d ia ry th a t do es n o t exist in th e o rig in a l G e r m a n .100 P ro b a b ly o n ly a m in o r ­ ity o f re p o rte d Ja p a n e se rapes a t N a n k in g w ere p ro d u c ts o f p ro p a g a n d a , d o c u ­ m e n t ta m p e rin g , o r fa u lty m e m o ry . B u t C h a n g h a d a d u ty to m a k e a tte m p ts a t v erify in g th e a u th e n tic ity a n d tru th fu ln e s s o f su c h a c c o u n ts, especially o ral testim o n ie s— a n d n o t to a c c e p t a n y th in g a n d e v e ry th in g th a t su ite d h e r p o le m ic a l p u rp o ses.

V. Holocausts Real and Imagined C h a n g ’s core thesis asserts th e im m o ra l eq u iv ale n ce o f im p e ria l J a p a n a n d N az i G erm an y , w ith each p e rp e tra tin g a H o lo c a u st. It tu rn s o n th e rev u lsio n fo r H itle r xxxviii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

a n d N a z ism th a t few p eo p le, G e rm a n o r n o n -G e rm a n , w o u ld d isa v o w today. B u t C h a n g read th is la tte r-d a y rev u lsio n , r o o te d in th e Ju d e o c id e o f th e 1940s, b a c k in to th e early a n d m id -1 9 5 0 s b efo re H itle r a n d G e rm a n y m o rp h e d in to avatars o f depravity. T h e N az is w ere n ev e r an g elic, b u t w h e n v iew ed in h isto ric a l co n tex t, th e ir 1935 N u re m b e rg Law s, fo r ex am p le, fell larg ely in lin e w ith J im C ro w leg­ isla tio n ex cep t fo r s trip p in g Jew s o f G e rm a n c itiz en sh ip ; a n d racial v io le n ce in G e rm a n y w as less th a n in th e s o u th e rn U n ite d S tates, in e a ste rn a n d so u th e a st­ e rn E u ro p e , in th e U S S R , o r in th e M id d le E ast a t th a t tim e .101 N az i-sty le a n ti­ S e m itism w e n t b y fits a n d starts: “Several th o u s a n d Jew s w h o h a d le ft th e c o u n ­ try in 1 9 3 3 h a d ac tu a lly re tu rn e d in th e fo llo w in g years as th e s itu a tio n in th e streets seem ed to ca lm d o w n .”102 H itle r p u t o n a d ec ep tiv ely v irtu o u s face. H e p u rg e d th e w o rs t h o o lig a n s a m o n g h is follow ers, su c h as E rn s t R o h m a n d th e B ro w n S h irts, in a b id to w in c re d ib ility as a re sp o n sib le ru lin g reg im e a n d also to b o o s t its im a g e b e fo re a n d d u r in g th e 1 9 3 6 B e rlin O ly m p ic G am e s. As Ia n K ersh aw p u ts it, B ritish co n serv ativ es w ere “m a k in g frie n d s w ith H itle r ” b ecau se th e y p referre d N az is to B olsheviks, a n d royals su c h as K in g E d w a rd V III o p e n ly a d m ire d G e rm a n y .103 C o lu m b ia , H a rv a rd , a n d o th e r p re stig io u s U S u n iv ersities sh o w ed s u p p o r t fo r th e N a z i sta te d e s p ite its a n ti-S e m itis m .104 G iv e n H itle r ’s revival o f fu ll e m p lo y m e n t a t h o m e a n d n a tio n a l p restig e a b ro a d , R e ic h citizens w ere, in general, fairly h a p p y u n d e r h is ru le u n til w ar b r o u g h t su ffe rin g , d e p riv a ­ tio n , a n d d e a th m a in ly fro m 1941 o n w a rd .105 H itle r ’s m a sk o f d e c e p tio n d id w ear th in in N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 8 a t K rista lln a c h t— a m assive p o g ro m th a t m a rk e d “a q u a lita tiv e c h a n g e ” in G e rm a n a n ti-S e m itis m fro m “legal a n d a d m in istra tiv e d is c rim in a tio n to ra w v io le n c e .”106 H is seizure o f r u m p C zech o slo v a k ia in M a rc h 1 9 3 9 p ro v id e d m o re g ro u n d s fo r n eg a tiv e re a p ­ praisal. B u t, as K e rsh a w stresses, even in 1 9 3 9 “H itle r w as w ith o u t d o u b t th e m o s t p o p u la r g o v e rn m e n t h e a d in E u ro p e .”107 V o lu m e 1 o f S au l F rie d la n d e r’s m a g isterial N a zi Germany and the Jews calls 1 9 3 3 —3 9 “years o f p e rs e c u tio n ,” b u t few b a c k th e n c o u ld fo re tell th e n e e d fo r a seq u el, “years o f e x te rm in a tio n ,” th a t w o u ld follow . A ccordingly, C h a n g ’s in s in u a tio n o f Ja p a n e se g u ilt th ro u g h c o m ­ p a riso n s w ith G e rm a n y — e.g., “even th e N a z is in th e c ity w ere h o rrifie d ” b y J a p a n ’s “b estial m a c h in e ry ”108— is a n a c h ro n is tic fo r th e years u p to a n d in c lu d in g 1937. A n d , h e r co re th esis a b o u t c o n g ru ity w ith H itle r ’s G e rm a n y in p lo ttin g a H o lo c a u s t is defectiv e in c o n c e p tio n a n d s u b s ta n tia tio n .

(A) Conception H is to ria n s d isag ree a b o u t th e tim in g , causes, a n d o th e r sa lie n t fea tu re s o f th e H o lo c a u st, b u t th e y e q u a te it w ith “th e F in a l S o lu tio n to th e Je w ish Q u e s tio n ” a n d w ith few ex cep tio n s a ssu m e th a t it d e n o te s a sta te p o lic y o f k illin g every Je w ­ ish m a n , w o m a n , a n d c h ild w h o fell w ith in G e rm a n grasp, w h ic h in th e o ry w as lim itless, so th a t n o Je w a n y w h e re w o u ld survive. J a p a n h a d n o p o lic y to m u rd e r xxxix

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

C h in e se o f all ages a n d b o th g en d e rs w h erev e r fo u n d , w h e th e r th e y resisted , col­ la b o ra te d , o r k e p t o u t o f th e way. T h is is, o n th e w h o le, also tru e fo r th e T h re e A ll p o lic y th a t C h a n g c ites.109 A rm ies c o m m o n ly e m p lo y a n ti-in s u rg e n c y tactics o f th is type, w ith n o g e n o c id a l in te n t, a g a in st g uerillas in c o n te ste d , as o p p o se d to secured, areas. J a p a n a rm e d C h in e se tro o p s to fig h t in p u p p e t arm ies a n d p a id C h in e se civilians to r u n p u p p e t reg im es, in c lu d in g th e p u r p o rte d ly “tr u e ” K M T g o v e rn m e n t set u p a t N a n k in g in M a rc h 1 9 3 8 as a n a lte rn a tiv e to C h u n g k in g . W h ile c itin g v iciou s o u tra g e s a g a in st helpless C h in e se , L lo y d E a s tm a n a d m itte d , “In areas w h e re th e Ja p a n e se h a d c o n s o lid a te d c o n tro l, life a n d la b o r w e n t o n m o re o r less n o rm a lly .”110 R e p e a te d claim s b y N ia ll F e rg u so n n o tw ith s ta n d in g , J a p a n h a d n o b lu e p rin t fo r lebensraum, o r “liv in g sp a ce”;111 i.e., to c o n q u e r a n d d e p o p u la te la n d s fo r stric tly Ja p a n e se h a b ita tio n ex cep t fo r a few n ativ es sp a re d to to il as h elo ts. N o th in g o f th is so rt to o k p la ce in fo re ig n la n d s u n d e r Ja p a n ’s m ili­ ta ry o c c u p a tio n o r c o lo n ia l c o n tro l. Im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t p ro p a g a n d a d e p ic te d M a n c h u r ia as a p ara d ise g o v ern e d b y M e n c iu s ’s K in g ly W ay w h e re “th e Five E th ­ n ic itie s” lived in h a rm o n y — n o t as a Ja p an e se volkstum clean sed o f in fe rio r breeds. C h a n g ascribes a N a z i-sty le “m a ste r-ra c e m e n ta lity ” to th e Ja p an e se. I t is tru e th a t th e Ja p an e se m ilita ry , lik e all w a rtim e m ilita rie s, d e h u m a n iz e d en e m ie s to w ea k en scru p les a g a in st k illin g th e m ; a n d m o s t Ja p a n e se in th a t d a y d e e m e d them selves s u p e rio r to fo reig n ers. U n lik e w ith g en o c id e , how ever, th is Ja p an e se k illin g in w ar w o u ld e n d w ith th e c o n c lu sio n o f peace. A n d feelings o f Ja p an e se su p e rio rity n ev e r p re su m e d a rig h t a n d m o ra l d u ty to a n n ih ila te so m e g ro u p , as p e r F rie d la n d e r’s “re d e m p tiv e a n ti-S e m itis m ”; i.e., even in p e a c e tim e , G e rm a n s h a d a sacred m issio n to save th e w o rld b y e lim in a tin g Jew s, lik e n e d to v e rm in o r bacilli th a t w o u ld d e s tro y civ iliz atio n i f le ft aliv e.112 T h is N a z i id e a o f racial a n n i­ h ila tio n as a p o sitiv e v irtu e d iffe red d ecisively fro m earlier c o n v e n tio n a l types o f a n ti-S e m itis m d eriv e d fro m relig io n , so c io e c o n o m ic s, a n d c u ltu re th a t larg ely h a d d ie d o u t w ith Je w ish assim ila tio n b e fo re H itle r ’s takeover. I n W o rld W a r I, 1 2 ,0 0 0 G e rm a n Jew s d ie d fo r th e S e c o n d R e ic h a n d 3 0 ,0 0 0 w ere d e c o ra te d fo r b ra v e ry .113 T h e lin e d iv id in g Jew s f ro m A ry a n s— p o ro u s in p re -N a z i d ay s— b ec am e w a te rtig h t u n d e r th e 1 9 3 5 L aw to P reserve G e rm a n B lo o d a n d H o n o r th a t b a n n e d in te r-m a rria g e a n d sex u al in te rc o u rs e . B y c o n tra s t, th e Ja p a n e se passed a law to preserv e th e ir kokutai, o r e m p e ro r sy stem , n o t th e ir “b lo o d a n d h o n o r .” K oreans, M a n c h u s, a n d C h in e se w h o m a rrie d Ja p an e se b e c a m e im p e ria l subjects, a n d th e Ja p an e se g o v e rn m e n t p e rsu a d e d fem ale im p e ria l h o u se m e m b e rs su c h as N a s h im o to M a sak o a n d Saga H ir o to w e d Yi- a n d C h ’in g -d y n a sty royalty. D is c rim in a tio n in J a p a n d id n o t en c o m p a ss “re d e m p tiv e a n ti-S in ic ism .” Ja p a n d id n o t m a k e A sian s w ea r stig m a tic e m b le m s lik e th e y ello w S ta r o f D a v id o r a d o p t eth n ic ity -sp e c ific n a m e s lik e “S ara” a n d “Isra el.” J a p a n d id p ressu re so m e A sians to a d o p t Ja p a n e se n a m e s. T h u s , th e fa th e r o f S o u th K o re a n ex -p re sid e n t P a rk G u e n - h y e , P a rk C h u n g - h e e , c a lle d h im s e lf T a k a g i M a s a o to fa c ilita te a d v a n c e m e n t as a n o fficer in th e im p e ria l arm y. S em i-fo rc e d a ssim ila tio n o f th is ty p e w a rra n ts c o n d e m n a tio n w h e n ju d g e d a g a in st p re se n t-d a y lib e ral d e m o c ra tic xl

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

ideals, b u t H o lo c a u s t h is to ria n D o n a ld B lo x h a m c o n stru e s th e p o lic y as “u n m ix ­ in g ” e th n ic elem e n ts in a sta te to “h o m o g e n iz e ” it, “m in im iz e h e te ro g e n e ity ,” a n d th e re b y th w a rt c o llu sio n w ith ex tern al en e m ie s o f th e sa m e e th n ic ity in case o f w ar.114 U n m ix in g o f th is ty p e is a t o d d s w ith U S -sty le m u ltic u ltu ra lis t to le ra ­ tio n today, b u t it w as a relativ ely m ild w ay b a c k th e n to “h o m o g e n iz e ” th e p o p u ­ la tio n o f im p e ria l Ja p a n ; a n d , th o u g h h a te fu l fo r th e A sians in v o lv ed , it w as a far cry fro m “clean sin g ” th ro u g h g e n o c id a l m u rd e r. Im p e ria l Ja p an e se racial a n d e th n ic biases la ck ed th e vile re p u g n a n c e fo u n d in N az ism . W e fin d n o th in g lik e Ju liu s S tre ic h e r a n d h is w eek ly Der Sturmer w h ic h , h e b o asted , w as “th e o n ly p a p e r H itle r rea d fro m cover to co v er” a n d rea c h e d a c irc u la tio n o f “over 7 0 0 ,0 0 0 .”115 R ic h a rd E vans d escrib es it as “fu ll o f sexual in n u e n d o , racist caricatu res, m a d e -u p ac cu sa tio n s o f ritu a l m u rd e r a n d titilla tin g , s e m i-p o rn o g ra p h ic sto ries o f Je w ish m e n s e d u c in g in n o c e n t G e rm a n g irls.”116 S tre ic h e r ’s ra g -s h e e t in s p ire d tw o f u ll- le n g th film s s h o t u n d e r th e aeg is o f G o eb b e ls’s P ro p a g a n d a M in is try in 1 9 4 0 . The Eternal Jew said th a t “ra ts are p a r­ asites a n d b acillu s-c arriers a m o n g a n im als, ju s t as th e Jew s o c c u p y th e sa m e p o si­ tio n a m o n g m a n k in d .” Jew Suss is th e s to ry o f a s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry u su re r h a n g e d in a cage fo r dev io u sly e x to rtin g m o n e y fro m h o n e s t G e rm a n s a n d h a v ­ in g “a b d u c te d a n d ra p e d a b e a u tifu l y o u n g G e rm a n g irl” afte r se d u c in g several o th e rs .117 In th e sa m e y ear o f 19 4 0 , Ja p an e se, C h in e se , a n d o th e r A sians flo ck e d in rec o rd n u m b e rs to see Shina noyoru (“C h in a N ig h ts ,” title d “S h a n g h a i N ig h ts ” in C h in a ). In th is m a u d lin tale, a n id e alistic sh ip c a p ta in (H aseg aw a K azu o ) based in S h an g h ai, eager to fo ster frie n d sh ip w ith C h in a , o v erc o m es all o b stacles to w in th e h e a rt o f a b e a u tifu l, ra b id ly a n ti-Ja p a n e se resistan c e fig h te r (Li H sia n g -la n ), w h o w eep s in c o n s o la b ly a fte r h e a r in g th a t fe llo w g u e rilla s k ille d h im in a n a m b u sh , o n ly to live h a p p ily ever afte r w h e n h e m ira c u lo u sly co m es h o m e alive. T h is p a n -A sia n ist love story, even as p ro p a g a n d a , is b e y o n d b e lie f fo r a Wehrmacht o r Einsatzgruppe o fficer a n d a fem a le Je w ish p artisa n .

The Rape o f N anking reflects th e s tru c tu re o f R a u l H illb e rg ’s Perpetrators, Vic­ tims, Bystanders118 w h o s ta n d fo r th e Ja p an e se, th e C h in e se , a n d u n c a rin g fo re ig n o n lo o k e rs except fo r h ero e s su c h as th e g o o d N az i, J o h n R a b e. B u t C h a n g ’s titu ­ lar categories u n rav e l w h e n e x a m in e d a g a in st k ey facts in th e 1 9 30s. S h e alleges a G e rm a n -Ja p a n e se c o n g ru ity d a tin g fro m 1931 w h e n J a p a n in v a d e d M a n c h u ria : “J u s t as H itle r ’s G e rm a n y w o u ld d o h a lf a d e c a d e la te r [1 9 3 6 ], J a p a n u se d a h ig h ly d ev elo p ed m ilita ry m a c h in e a n d a m a ste r-ra c e m e n ta lity to set a b o u t estab ­ lis h in g its r ig h t to r u le its n e ig h b o rs .” I n 1 9 3 6 , H itle r s e n t tro o p s in to th e R h in e la n d , a p a r t o f G erm a n y . T h is w as n o t fo re ig n ag gression, a lth o u g h it d id v io la te th e 1919 V ersailles Treaty. I n 1 9 3 8 , B rita in a n d F ra n c e a c c e p te d H itle r ’s Anschluss o r u n io n w ith A u stria a n d h is seizure o f th e S u d e te n la n d in C z ec h o slo ­ vak ia o n th e g ro u n d s th a t e th n ic G e rm a n s, w h o fo rm e d th e vast m a jo rity in th o se areas, h a d th e rig h t to jo in a G re a te r R e ic h i f th e y w ish e d , a n d m o s t fe rv e n tly d id . B rita in a n d F ra n ce d e e m e d H itle r ’s acts le g itim a te fo r re c tify in g th e u n ju s t p eace treaty they fo isted o n G e rm a n y in 1 9 1 9 a n d fo r b e in g in lin e w ith W ils o n ’s ideal xli

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

o f n a tio n a l s e lf-d e te rm in a tio n . A fte r all, 3 .2 5 m illio n G e rm a n s lived in th e S udete n la n d w h ereas 3 m illio n S lovaks lived in all o f C z ec h o slo v a k ia.119 O n ly in M a y 1945 d id th e w o rld w ak e u p to fin d th a t A u stria n s are n o t really G e rm a n s a n d th a t V ie n n a h a d b e e n th e first v ic tim im p a le d o n H itle r ’s fangs. A c c o rd in g to S teven Beller, th is w as th e Lebensluge o r “v ita l lie” to create th e “c o n v e n ie n t h is­ to ric al am n esia” th a t ab so lv ed V ie n n a o f w a r g u ilt a n d ju stifie d e x e m p tio n fro m re p a ra tio n s p a y m e n ts .120 N a z i G e rm a n y p ro v id e d g e n e ro u s a id to C h in a in th e fo rm o f m ilita ry h a rd w a re a n d ex p erts to u se it, p lu s a lo a n o f 100 m illio n m a rk s in 1 9 3 6 to fin a n c e C h in e se ex p o rts o f w ar m a te rie l su c h as tu n g s te n n e e d e d b y G e rm a n y . T h e la st G e r m a n m ilita ry ad v iso rs le ft C h in a in J u ly 1 9 3 8 , seven m o n th s afte r N a n k in g fell, a n d b ila te ra l tra d e in C h in e se w ar m a te rie l for G e r­ m a n w e a p o n ry c o n tin u e d u n til Ju ly 1 9 4 1 .121 K M T C h in a g a in e d sig n ific a n t m il­ ita ry a n d fin an cial b en e fits fro m N a z i G erm a n y , w h ic h b e c a m e a m ilita ry ally o f J a p a n o n ly in S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 0 . T h u s C h a n g ’s v ie w o f Ja p a n e se -G e rm a n co llu sio n fro m 1931 is a n a n a c h ro n is tic d e lu sio n .

(B ) Substantiation H is to ria n s are d iv id e d a b o u t w h e n N a z i G e rm a n y d e c id e d o n its F in a l S o lu tio n to m u rd e r all Jew s b ec au se less e x tre m e a tte m p ts a t e lim in a tin g th e m h a d failed a n d w a rtim e c o n d itio n s se em e d a p ro p o s. T h e c o m m o n ly a c c e p te d d a te is early 1942, d u r in g o r ju s t afte r th e W a n n se e C o n fe re n c e , b u t C h ris to p h e r B ro w n in g , fo r ex am p le, m a k es a s tro n g a rg u m e n t fo r O c to b e r 1 9 4 1 .122 I n a n y case, th e Ja p an e se in 1 9 3 7 h a d n o N a z i p ro to ty p e to follow , so C h a n g h a d to p ro v e th a t th e y m a d e th e sa m e d ec isio n fo r a H o lo c a u s t o n th e ir o w n . S h e seeks th is p r o o f in lo n g -d isc re d ite d w rite rs lik e D a v id B e rg a m in i a n d in sources lik e The Tanaka Memorial, lo n g -ex p o se d as sp u rio u s. A lth o u g h la m e n tin g th a t “u n fo rtu n a te ly , B e rg a m in i’s b o o k w as se rio u sly criticiz ed b y re p u ta b le h is to ria n s ,” C h a n g cited it eig h te e n tim es to s u p p o r t h e r claim s b ec au se sh e c o n c lu d e d th a t “in all fairness” it is a “valu ab le— even i f flaw ed a n d co n fu sin g — reso u rc e .” 123 S h e ru e fu lly a d m its th a t The Tanaka Memorial, w h ic h u rg e d c o n q u e s t o f th e w o rld s ta rtin g w ith M a n c h u ria , “is g en e rally co n sid e re d b y sc h o lars to b e a fo rg e ry .” S till, sh e m ak es it a p o in t to n o te th a t “m a n y C h in e se h is to ria n s ” still b eliev e it to b e a u th e n tic , a n d referen ce w o rk s as w ell as m e d ia o u tle ts in C h in a still cite it “as h isto ric a l fa c t.” W h y do es sh e n o t q u e s tio n th e re p u ta b ility o f th o se C h in a -b a se d h isto ria n s a n d m e d ia outlets? O r w o u ld sh e b e eq u a lly a p p ro v in g o f th e Protocols o f the Elders ofZ ion a n d to le ra n t o f th o se w h o in sist o n its a u th e n tic ity ? C h a n g seeks s o m e th in g a k in to a Ja p an e se F u h re r O rd e r — n o t fo u n d in G e r­ m a n y e ith e r— bec au se sh e is c e rta in th a t “th e te rm s o f s u rre n d e r e x o n e ra te d ” im p e ria l fam ily m e m b e rs so th a t th e se “c h ie f c u lp rits ” “n e v e r s p e n t a d a y in c o u r t.” N o su c h “te rm s ” are stip u la te d in th e P o ts d a m D e c la ra tio n o r in th e I n s tr u m e n t o f S u rren d e r, b u t H e r b e r t B ix to ld C h a n g b y p h o n e th a t “it is ‘in c o n xlii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

ce iv a b le’ th a t th e e m p e ro r H ir o h ito c o u ld n o t h a v e k n o w n ” a b o u t N a n k in g w h ic h , b y n o t g o in g in to sp ecific d etails, says little . So C h a n g re lu c ta n tly a d m it­ te d th a t “w e w ill p ro b a b ly nev e r k n o w exactly w h a t n ew s H ir o h ito received a b o u t N a n k in g as th e m assacre w as h a p p e n in g ,” b u t sh e h a s te n e d to a d d th a t “h e w as ex c ep tio n ally pleased b y i t . ” S h e cites “th e n o to rio u s K e m p e ita i” as “th e secret Ja p an e se m ilita ry p o lic e ”124— w ith “se cret” im p ly in g affin ities w ith th e G estap o . B u t th o se u n its o p e n ly w o re a rm b a n d s m a rk e d “ kenpei o r “M P ” in C h in e se characters. O b serv e rs in 1 9 3 7 as w ell as la te r h isto ria n s agree th a t o u tra g e s in N a n k in g w o u ld hav e d ecreased g rea tly i f m o re M P s h a d b e e n th e re to u p h o ld order. Ja p an e se le ftist h isto ria n s rig h tly h o ld th e S h o w a e m p e ro r cu lp a b le fo r w a rtim e atro cities, b u t th e y b a c k u p charges w ith evidence. L a c k in g p ro o f, C h a n g piles c o n je c tu re u p o n in n u e n d o to re a c h th e c o n c lu sio n sh e sta rte d o u t w ith . C h a n g lau d s R . J. R u m m e l, a u th o r o f Chinas Bloody Century (1 9 9 1 ), as “p e r­ h ap s th e w o rld ’s g rea test a u th o rity o n d e m o c id e ( . . . g e n o c id e a n d g o v e rn m e n t m ass m u r d e r ) ,” a n d sh e relies h ea v ily o n his w o rk . T h u s sh e w rites th a t th e to ta l C h in e s e d e a th to ll w as “in c re d ib le , b e tw e e n 1 ,5 7 8 ,0 0 0 a n d 6 ,3 2 5 ,0 0 0 . R . J. R u m m e l gives a p r u d e n t e stim a te o f 3 ,9 4 9 ,0 0 0 k illed , o f w h ic h all b u t 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 w ere civ ilian s.” T h is m u c h is a n a c c u ra te q u o ta tio n . T h e n C h a n g goes o n : “B u t h e p o in ts o u t th a t m illio n s m o re p e rish e d ___I f th o se d e a th s are a d d e d to th e fin al c o u n t, th e n o n e ca n say th a t th e Ja p a n e se k illed m o re th a n 19 m illio n C h in e se p e o p le in its w ar a g a in st C h in a .”125 In actu ality , R u m m e l gives a fin al c o u n t o f a b o u t 1 9 ,4 4 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e se w a r d e a th s, b u t h e b reak s d o w n th is ag g reg ate to read “6 ,1 5 7 ,0 0 0 ” in th e “K M T / C O M d e m o c id e ” a n d “3 ,9 4 9 ,0 0 0 ” in th e “J a p a n d e m o c id e ,” a n d h e ascribes th e re m a in in g 9 ,3 3 4 ,0 0 0 d e a th s to K M T -in d u c e d fam in es, w a rlo rd co n flicts, a n d “civilian w a r d e a d exclusive o f d e m o c id e .”126 In su m , C h a n g m a k es R u m m e l say th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s m u rd e re d all 1 9 ,4 4 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e se w h o d ie d in th e eig h t-y ear w ar, w h e n h e in fac t a ttr ib u te d 1 5 ,4 9 1 ,0 0 0 d e a th s in th a t to ta l— a b o u t th re e o u t o f fo u r— to th e C h in e se side. T h is is n o t a n iso la te d ex am p le. T h r o u g h o u t h is b o o k , R u m m e l gives statistics a n d m ak es sta te m e n ts c o n tra ry to , o r g rea tly a t o d d s w ith , C h a n g ’s. F o r in sta n c e , h e q u o te s a c o n te n tio n b y R O C w a r crim es p ro s e c u to r S h ih M e i-y u th a t “th e K e m p e ita i (secret p o lice) h a d re c o m m e n d e d to T o k y o th a t ‘J a p a n w ip e o u t all C h in e se fro m th e m a p ,’ a Ja p a n e se v ersio n o f H itle r ’s ‘fin a l s o lu tio n ’ fo r th e G y p ­ sies a n d Je w s.” B u t R u m m e l ex p licitly c o n fu te s S h ih : “M y re a d in g o f th e tr a n ­ sc rip t d o es n o t s u p p o r t his in te rp re ta tio n . In th e m a in , J a p a n ’s p o lic y to w a rd C h in a ap p e a re d a im e d a t m a k in g h e r a d o c ile m e m b e r o f a Ja p a n e se -d o m in a te d ‘c o -p ro sp erity sp h e re .’” T h u s R u m m e l n o tes: “It w as o fte n w ell e n o u g h i f th e C h i­ n ese b o w ed (as h u m ilia tin g as it w as) w h e n th e y saw a Ja p a n e se so ld ier a n d , in general, d id n o t ac t o r a p p e a r a n ti-Ja p a n e se .” 127 H e also asserts th a t “th e [K M T ] n a tio n a lists lik ely m u rd e re d so m e 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 m o re [th a n d id Ja p an ] d u r in g th e w ar, a n d th is to ll o r s o m e th in g lik e it is v irtu a lly u n k n o w n ___A p p a re n tly th e [K M T ] n a tio n a lists g o t aw ay w ith m u rd e r; resp o n sib le Ja p a n e se w ere trie d as w ar c rim in a ls .”128 A n d , “th e K h m e r R o u g e ’s m u rd e r o f 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e ir o w n C a m xliii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

b o d ia n c o u n try m e n in th e 1 9 70s received w o rld a tte n tio n a n d c o n d e m n a tio n . T h e [K M T ] n a tio n a lists d eserv ed as m u c h .” 129 R u m m e l’s m a in rele v an t c o n te n tio n s ca n b e s u m m e d u p as follow s. T h e J a p a n ­ ese d id n o t c o m m it a N a z i-sty le H o lo c a u s t in C h in a . T h e y w ere g u ilty o f tru ly h o rrib le m ass m u rd e rs in th e m illio n s. B u t th e y w ere d u ly p u n is h e d b y a c o u rt o f law a n d b efo re w o rld o p in io n . In c o n tra st, K M T forces k illed m illio n s m o re C h i­ nese. Yet th e w o rld re m a in s ig n o ra n t o f th e se k illin g s. T h is fa u lty m e m o ry is u n fa ir to J a p a n .C h a n g is n o t o b lig e d to fo llo w R u m m e l in all respects, b u t after c itin g h im as “p e rh a p s th e w o rld ’s g rea test a u th o rity o n d e m o c id e ” to s u p p o r t h e r o w n th esis, sh e is h o n o r b o u n d to sp e cify w h e re , how , a n d w h y th e y differ. In s te a d , sh e m a k e s h im a v e n tr ilo q u is t’s d u m m y s a y in g w h a te v e r sh e w a n ts becau se m e re facts d o n o t m a tte r so lo n g as sh e gets th e rig h t m essage across.

VI. A Forgotten Genocide? A s w ith Thread o f the Silkworm, The Chinese in America y ie ld s in s ig h t in to C h a n g ’s ideas u n a tta in a b le fro m The Rape o f N anking a lo n e. T h is la st b o o k in h e r trilo g y is p a r t h is to ry a n d p a r t A sia n -A m e ric a n e th n ic id e n tity stu d ies, a tra n s­ d isc ip lin a ry field th a t h as re c e n tly arise n fro m a d istin c tiv e acad e m ic , s o c io p o lit­ ical, a n d c u ltu ra l m ilie u o n th e W e st C o a st. Its a d h e re n ts e m p o w e r e th n ic g ro u p s in a m u ltic u ltu ra lis t A m e ric a b y th e ra p e u tic a lly n u r tu r in g self-esteem to o v er­ co m e rac ism a n d m a k e c o n trib u tio n s in so c iety w h ile re ta in in g a p r o u d g ro u p id e n tity , in th is case H a n C h in e se , d is tin c t fro m h e g e m o n ic w h ite A n g lo c u ltu re . C h a n g takes p rid e in re la tin g h o w in d iv id u a l C h in e se w o n success th ro u g h h a rd w o rk , ta le n t, th rift, a n d p ersev eran ce: “T h e A m e ric a o f to d a y w o u ld n o t b e th e sam e A m eric a w ith o u t th e a c h ie v em e n ts o f its e th n ic C h in e se .”130 S h e also stresses C h in e se g ro u p valo r in d e fy in g rac ist o p p re ssio n th ro u g h v io le n t v ig ila n te ju stic e i f n ee d b e .131 Yet sh e d isp lay s n o so lid a rity w ith K o rean s, V ietn am e se, F ilip in o s, a n d o th e r A sian A m e ric a n g ro u p s v ic tim iz e d b y im p e ria l Ja p a n , a n d n o n e fo r B lacks, In d ig e n o u s P eoples, C h ic a n o s, o r o th e r v isib le m in o ritie s p e rse c u te d b y w h ite A m e ric a n racists. C h a n g seeks to w rite a fa c tu a l n a rra tiv e h is to ry w h ile g iv in g v e n t to ac tiv ist p o le m ic s o n w h a t A m e ric a o u g h t to re p re se n t, a lo n g w ith n o rm a tiv e d e c la ra tio n s o f w h a t “m y p e o p le ” sh o u ld a sp ire to . C o n tra d ic tio n s resu lt. T h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f th e b o o k , sh e argu es th a t lu c ra tiv e e c o n o m ic in c e n tiv e s sp u rre d C h in e se im m ig ra tio n — fro m m id - n in e te e n th - c e n tu ry p ea sa n ts w h o crav ed th e rich es o f G o ld M o u n ta in to w o m e n in th e 1 9 9 0 s w h o b rav e d g a n g rap e , ro b b ery , a n d m u rd e r b y sn a k eh e ad s— fo r “o n e d o m in a n t reaso n : m o n e y .” “F o r n o m a tte r h o w b a d th in g s w ere in th e U n ite d S tates, th e o p p o r tu n ity to e a rn m o re m o n e y o u tw e ig h e d th e risk s.”132 B u t b y th e b o o k ’s en d , sh e w as w ritin g , “I t w as to escape th e o p p re ssio n o f g ro u p id e n tity — th e b u rd e n o f racial a n ta g o n ism s, in h e rite d b y b lo o d ”— th a t C h in e se ca m e to A m e ric a .133 In th e U n ite d S tates, w h e re “all m e n are created xliv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

e q u a l,” a n in clu siv e m u ltic u ltu ra lis t so c iety w o u ld w e lc o m e th e m as fu ll-fled g ed A m e ric a n s w h ile h o n o r in g th e ir C h in e s e e t h n o - c u ltu r a l i d e n tity a n d ev en e n h a n c e th is th ro u g h b ilin g u a l p u b lic sc h o o l in s tru c tio n a n d in u n iv e rsity e th n ic stu d ies p ro g ra m s. T h e ly n c h p in in C h a n g ’s g ro u p id e n tity is c o m m e m o ra tio n o f w a rtim e vic­ tim iz a tio n b y Ja p a n as e p ito m iz e d b y th e 1 9 3 7 R a p e o f N a n k in g . T h is is n o t a n id e n tity based o n k n o w le d g e o r skills th a t a n y o n e can a c q u ire b y d in t o f a p p lic a ­ tio n . I t is a H a n C h in e se p reserv e d e te rm in e d p a rtly b y D N A — sh e in c lu d e s off­ s p r in g o f in te r m a r ria g e s — b u t m a in ly b y s h a rin g s e n tim e n ts in a c o n triv e d m e m o ry ; “c o n triv e d ” b ec au se few N a n k in g su rv iv o rs live in A m eric a. C h a n g ’s c ritic s in J a p a n — in c lu d in g P R C n a tio n a ls s u c h as L in S s u -y u n — g o a s tra y becau se th e y see o n ly h e r a n ti-Ja p a n e se d ia trib e s a n d m iss h e r u n d e rly in g m u lticu ltu ra list a im to w in a u th e n tic tre a tm e n t as A m e ric a n s fo r “m y p e o p le ” in a so ci­ ety p u rg e d o f racism . T o ach iev e th a t a im , sh e p ra c tic e d h e r o w n rev isio n ist h is to ry to “d isp e l” th is o r th a t “still p ervasive m y th ” a lo n g w ith “o ffensive ste re o ­ ty p e s” th a t “lo n g p e rm e a te d th e U S n ew s a n d e n te r ta in m e n t m e d ia .” T h e s e m y th s a n d stereo ty p e s “d e h u m a n iz e d ” H a n C h in e se a n d “re d u c e d th e m to alien things”; a n d th is re d u c tio n ism , sh e in sisted , w as th e “first, essential ste p to w a rd . .. g e n o c id e ”134 th a t m u s t b e exorcised. I n sta rk c o n tra s t w ith h e r earlier o p tim is m a b o u t race rela tio n s in Thread o f the Silkworm, C h a n g n o w b eliev ed th a t, given p o p u la r h o stility to w a rd H a n C h in e se d u e to th e rise o f P R C pow er, g e n o c id e c o u ld h a p p e n again . A fte r all, w h ite racists in th e 1 8 8 0 s sp o k e o f “e x te rm in a tin g ” C h in ese th ro u g h aerial b o m b in g s, a n d “several C h in e se c o m m u n itie s in th e W e st” su ffe re d “c le a n sin g [o f] th e re g io n o f th e ir p re se n c e ” th r o u g h “v io le n c e th a t a p p ro a c h e d g e n o c id e .” 135 C h a n g stressed th a t “e p iso d es o f rac ism ” in th e U n ite d S tates “d o n o t o c c u r b y a c c id e n t, in a v a c u u m .” In ste a d , “th r o u g h o u t A m e ric a n h isto ry ” a n d in “m o s t so c ieties,” “th e ru lin g class h as carefu lly e x p lo ite d d iffe r­ ences in race a n d e th n ic ity as a m e c h a n is m o f c o n tro l— as a c o n v e n ie n t sm o k e screen to m a k e th e ir c o n tro l m o re p a la ta b le .”136 T h is w as e m in e n tly tr u e fo r th e C h ’in g ( Q in g ) M a n c h u r u lin g h o u s e (1 6 4 4 —1 9 1 1 ), u n d e r w h ic h “m y p e o p le ” su ffered a su p p re ssio n o f id e n tity a n d m ass m u rd e r. A fte r to p p lin g th e n a tiv e M in g dynasty, th e M a n c h u s e n a c te d d is­ c rim in a to ry law s to “g u a rd th e ir sta tu s as a p riv ile g ed class” a n d to “en fo rce th e s u b ju g a tio n o f th e H a n p e o p le .” 137 T h e M a n c h u s “o u tla w e d in te r m a r ria g e ,” “m a n d a te d th a t all H a n m e n w ea r lo n g , b ra id e d q u e u e s as a b a d g e o f th e ir h u m il­ ia tio n (to shave o n e ’s h e a d w as a co n sid e re d a sig n o f tre a s o n ),” a n d “fo rb a d e H a n m ig ra tio n to M a n c h u r ia ,” a n area n e e d e d as “th e ir o w n re g io n w ith in C h in a to w h ic h th e y c o u ld safely re tre a t in case th e y w ere o u ste d fro m p o w e r” b y n a tiv e secret societies c h e rish in g “th e g o al o f o n e d a y o v e rth ro w in g th e Q in g .” M a n c h u su sp ic io n s e x te n d e d to th e “C h in e s e isla n d o f T a iw a n ” as w ell as to th e area a ro u n d C a n to n , w h e re m o s t early C h in e se im m ig ra n ts o rig in a te d , w h ic h w as “n o to rio u s fo r its in d e p e n d e n c e ” a n d “p o w e rfu l leg acy o f a n ti- M a n c h u su b v e r­ s io n .” T h e s e reg io n s g ro a n e d u n d e r a M a n c h u p o lic y o f iso la tio n to d e b a r th e xlv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

“overseas C h in e s e ,” d e s c e n d a n ts o f M in g -e ra a d v e n tu re rs b e n t o n re v o lu tio n , fro m r e tu r n in g to rec laim th e ir h o m e la n d . F o r a n y H a n C h in e se w h o v io la te d th is iso la tio n ist policy, “th e p e n a lty w as d e a th b y b e h e a d in g .” “T h e m o s t effective w e a p o n in th e M a n c h u a rse n a l,” C h a n g c o n te n d s, w as th e im p e ria l e x a m in a tio n sy stem to re c ru it g o v e rn m e n t officials. “As a m e c h a n is m o f social o rd e r,” it “cre ate d th e illu sio n o f m e rito c ra c y ,” b u t in fac t fav o red th e ric h a n d e n tirely ex clu d e d so m e g ro u p s su c h as w o m e n . “As d esig n ed , d e fin e d , a n d d ic ta te d b y th e M a n c h u s ,” civil service exam s h a d “th e n e fa rio u s re su lt o f cre at­ in g a so ciety in w h ic h th e H a n c o n s ta n tly c o m p e te d a g a in st ea ch o th e r fo r favor w ith th e ru le rs.” T h is se t-u p w as “m o re p o te n t th a n a n y m ilita ry force, as th e p e o ­ p le them selves e m b ra c e d th is as a n in s tru m e n t o f th e ir o w n o p p re ssio n .” Years d e v o te d to assid u o u s s tu d y o f th e C o n fu c ia n classics, sh e o b se rv e d , “serv ed as a safe o u tle t” fo r H a n en e rg ie s th a t r e d o u n d e d to M a n c h u b e n e fit, fo r career a d v a n c e m e n t th r o u g h a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t p re c lu d e d “o p e n ly q u e s tio n in g a n d ch a lle n g in g th e sy ste m .” W o rse still, th is “tu r n e d th e m o s t ta le n te d so n s o f th e H a n C h in ese , w h o sh o u ld h av e b e e n th e ir leaders, in to ag e n ts o f th e o p p re sso r g r o u p .” C h in e se w h o p assed th e exam s a n d b e c a m e officials u n d e r M a n c h u aegis “o fte n ru le d th e ir d istric ts lik e to ta lita ria n d e s p o ts .” E a c h in fact “ was th e law .” T h e y en jo y ed im m u n ity fro m in d ic tm e n t a n d p ro s e c u tio n fo r crim es su c h th a t o n e o f th e m b o aste d , “I w o u ld ra th e r b e m a y o r in C h in a th a n P re sid e n t in th e U n ite d S ta te s.” T h e s e c o lla b o ra to r-a d m in istra to rs m ercilessly s e n t C h in e se c o m ­ m o n e rs to p riso n — th e “d e p th s o f c ru e lty ” u n d e r th e d y n a sty — fo r n o n -p a y m e n t o f taxes o r d eb ts. B u t n a tiv e H a n secret societies su c h as th e R e d T u rb a n s, T riads, a n d T ’a ip ’in g s h a d lo n g “p lo tte d th e o v e rth ro w o f th e M a n c h u g o v e rn m e n t,” a n d “a d e sp e ra te citiz e n ry ” jo in e d in v io le n t u p risin g s a g a in st C h ’in g ru le in th e 1850s. T h e M a n c h u s re sp o n d e d w ith “a b lo o d y rep risa l th a t b e h e a d e d so m e sev­ enty-five th o u s a n d su sp e cte d p a rtic ip a n ts” a n d sp a w n e d fra te rn a l w arfare b etw e en H a n C h in e se c u ltu ra l su b g ro u p s, th e P u n ti a n d H a k k a , w h ic h “k illed tw o h u n ­ d re d th o u s a n d p e o p le .” A sid e fro m k n ee -slap p e rs lik e c itin g R e d T u rb a n s (th e w ro n g d y n asty ), d e c la r­ in g h ea d -sh a v in g tre a so n o u s to w a rd th e M a n c h u s (th e co n v erse w as tru e ), a n d fin d in g “m a y o rs ” p lu s a “c itiz e n ry ” in th e C h ’in g e m p ire , C h a n g ’s s k e tc h o f M a n c h u - H a n rela tio n s is revealing. S h e c o n tra sts C h ’in g so c iety a g a in st th e m u ltic u ltu ra list, p lu ralistic , in clu siv e ideals th a t th e U n ite d S tates su p p o se d ly e m b o d ­ ied, y et casts M a n c h u s in a n evil lig h t fo r th e ir tw o -fa ce d eg a litarian ism . S in ce 1644, th e y h a d o p p re sse d H a n C h in e se th ro u g h th e stic k o f te rro r, th e c a rro t o f c o -o p ta tio n , a n d legalized fo rm s o f d isc rim in a tio n . A bove all, C h a n g c o n te n d e d , C h ’in g avenues o f u p w a rd social m o b ility q u a s h e d H a n id e n tity fo rm a tio n . T h is w as “th e o p p re ssio n o f g ro u p id e n tity — th e b u r d e n o f racial a n ta g o n ism s, in h e r ­ ite d b y b lo o d ” th a t C h in e se im m ig ra n ts h a d “s o u g h t to escape” b y le av in g fo r A m erica. C h a n g is selective in h e r e th n ic ity a rg u m e n ts. S h e tu rn s a b lin d eye to n o n - H a n m in o ritie s su c h as th e M o n g o ls, U ig h u r T u rk s, a n d T ib e ta n s w h o su f­ fered c o n q u e st a n d su p p re ssio n b y th e M a n c h u s as w ell, a n d sh e ig n o res eq u a lly xlvi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

o p pressive m is ru le b y n a tiv e H a n C h in e se d y n astie s th r o u g h id e n tic a l in s titu ­ tio n s. T h u s H a n sch o lar-o fficials ju stifie d c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e C h ’in g b y a rg u ­ in g th a t M a n c h u c o n q u e ro rs h a d rescu ed C h in e se c o m m o n e rs fro m m ise ry u n d e r a c o rru p t M in g reg im e in th e s e v e n te e n th cen tu ry . C h a n g ’s a c c o u n t sh a re s k e y p o le m ic a l p o in ts w ith v iru le n tly a n ti- M a n c h u trac ts p r o d u c e d b y la te -C h ’in g H a n re v o lu tio n a rie s. T y p ical o f th is g e n re w as Koming-chun ( T h e R e v o lu tio n a ry A rm y ), w ritte n b y a refu g ee s tu d e n t in Ja p a n , T so u J u n g (Z o u R o n g 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 0 5 ) .138 P rin te d versio n s first a p p e a re d in 1 9 0 3 a n d “p e rh a p s a m illio n copies w ere p u b lis h e d in th e e n s u in g y ea rs.”139 A c c o rd in g to T so u , alien M a n c h u b a rb a ria n s w ere th e cause o f C h in a ’s m isery, p a rtly b y in s id ­ io u sly e x p lo itin g th e e x a m in a tio n sy stem to su p p ress th e H a n m a jo rity a n d th u s b u y o f f its ed u c a te d elite w h o sh o u ld b e sp e a rh e a d in g resistance. T so u felt th a t th e alien M a n c h u s h a d little rig h t to b e in C h in a , a n d n o n e a t all to ru le o v er it. H e envisaged C h in a , w h ic h h e called b y v ario u s n a m e s in c lu d in g “S h in a ,” as a tr u n ­ cated m o n o e th n ic sta te c o m p risin g “e ig h te e n p ro v in c e s” b e lo w th e G re a t W all “w ith in th e [ S h a n h a ik u a n ] p a s se s,” w h e re o n ly d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e Y ellow E m p e ro r c o u ld live. B y c o n tra st, C h a n g trip le d T so u ’s la n d m ass b y a p p ly in g lateC h ’in g b o u n d a rie s a t th e ir fu rth e s t e x te n t to su b su m e reg io n s su c h as T ib e t, In n e r M o n g o lia, a n d T u rk e sta n in h a b ite d b y m u ltip le e th n ic m in o ritie s— w h ic h is w h a t th e rev o lu tio n arie s w o u ld d o afte r se izin g pow er. T so u also d iffe red fro m C h a n g b y a g ita tin g n o t o n ly to d ep o se th e C h ’in g re g im e p o litic a lly b u t also to era d ica te M a n c h u resid e n ts p h y sic ally b ec au se th e y w ere racially u n a ssim ila b le a n d also to avenge m assacres o f C h in e se th re e c e n tu rie s earlier p o rtra y e d in Accounts o f the Slaughter in Ch’ia-ting, Ten Days a t Yangchou, a n d o th e r a n ti- M a n c h u tracts. E arlie r h is to ria n s d ism isse d th is r h e to r ic o f a n n ih ila tin g M a n c h u s — w h ic h G o ld h a g e n w o u ld call a n “e lim in a tio n is t” id e o lo g y — b y a rg u in g th a t little racial v io len ce ac c o m p a n ie d th e 1911 R e v o lu tio n . R u m m e l, fo r ex am p le, said “n o m o re th a n 1,0 0 0 to 2 ,0 0 0 ” M a n c h u s d ie d .140 A c c o rd in g to M a ry W rig h t, fo r H a n C h i­ nese refo rm ers su c h as L ia n g C h ’i-c h ’iao, th e C h ’in g d y n a sty w as “n o m o re alien to its p e o p le th a n w as th e B ritish m o n a rc h y ,” th e G e rm a n H o u s e o f H a n n o v e r. E ven fo r H a n re v o lu tio n a rie s su c h as S u n Y at-sen, W rig h t said, “th e e th n ic issue w as largely irre le v a n t.” B u t sh e also o b se rv e d , “In so m e in stan c es, ‘m a ssac re’ m a y n o t b e to o s tro n g a w o rd to u se” fo r w h a t resu lte d in 1 9 1 1 .141 H is to ria n s n o w a ffirm W rig h t’s se c o n d s tra n d o f analysis. As P eter Z a rro w says, “th e m a in issue fo r th e re v o lu tio n a rie s w as a n ti-M a n c h u is m ”; th e y “p u t race a t th e core o f th e v isio n o f th e n a t io n .”142 Jo se p h E sh e ric k says th a t C h in e se m ass m u rd e rs o f M a n c h u s a t W u c h a n g “a p p ro a c h racial sla u g h te r.”143 E d w a rd R h o a d s h o ld s th a t a n ti- M a n c h u id e o lo g y “w as n o m e re rh e to ric a l flo u ris h .” H a n rev o lu ­ tio n a ries to o k p ain s to select th e ir ta rg e ts b y c h e c k in g fem a le fo o t sizes a n d h a ir­ styles a n d b y h o ld in g p r o n u n c ia tio n tests to c o n firm local d ialects th a t p ro v ed H a n e th n ic ity (M a n c h u s sp o k e o n ly w h a t is n o w called M a n d a r in o r s ta n d a rd C h in ese ). R h o a d s id e n tifie s te n cities w h e re m a jo r m assacres to o k p lace, a n d in five o f these, M a n c h u m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h ild re n p u t u p n o a rm e d resistan c e b u t xlvii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

still e n d e d u p as “v ic tim s o f g e n o c id e .” A lth o u g h R h o a d s d id n o t d e fin e th a t te rm o r give a v ic tim c o u n t fo r th e w h o le em p ire , h e p o in te d o u t th a t H a n in su rg e n ts sla u g h te re d h a lf o f all M a n c h u s liv in g in S ian — 1 0 ,0 0 0 o u t o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s— so th e ir d e a th to ll in th is o n e city w as “several tim e s th a t” o f th e 1 ,0 0 0 to 2 ,0 0 0 earlier es tim a te d b y R u m m e l fo r all o f C h in a . A n d , R h o a d s d ec la re d , m a le a n d fem ale M a n c h u s in N a n k in g w ere “all b u t w ip e d o u t d u r in g th e re v o lu tio n ” in sp ite o f th e ir passive n o n -re sista n c e . O f course, C h a n g d id n o t s u p p o r t e th n ic m assacres b y H a n C h in e se in 1911, b u t she d id n o t reveal th e ir o c c u rre n c e eith er. H e r n a rra tiv e d e p ic ts ev en ts in sq u eak y -clean term s: “S u n ’s re v o lu tio n a ry allia n ce w as ev e n tu a lly su ccessfu l” as “m u tin o u s tro o p s d e fe a te d im p e ria l forces in N a n jin g ” a n d “d ec la re d th e b ir th o f a n e w g o v e rn m e n t, th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a .” C h a n g u n c ritic a lly p a rro ts th e H a n C h in e se p a trio tic lin e b y p o rtra y in g S u n Y at-sen as a C a n to n e s e A b e L in c o ln a n d h is c o h o rts as b e in g in th ra ll to U S so c io p o litic a l ideals so th a t th e y to o k “A m e r­ ic an style d e m o c ra c y as th e ir m o d e l.”144 C ritic a l sc h o la rsh ip in E n g lish o n th is to p ic w as available w h e n sh e w ro te The Chinese in America b u t so m e h o w escaped h e r n o tic e. T h r o u g h o u t h e r trilogy, sh e gives ev id en ce o f C h in e se v io le n ce ag a in st o th e r C h in e se b u t n ev e r v io le n ce d ire c te d a t o th e r g ro u p s, su c h as th e ir racially in sp ire d re p u te d ly g e n o c id a l k illin g o f M a n c h u s in 1 9 1 1 . T h is , I w o u ld suggest, is becau se C h a n g ’s a p rio ri a g e n d a d ic ta te d th a t o n ly th e su ffe rin g o f “m y p e o p le ” w a rra n ts c o m m e m o ra tio n .

VII. Amulet and Cudgel P ete r Z a rro w relates th e a n g u ish felt b y 1911 H a n C h in e se re v o lu tio n a rie s: “P ain a n d h u m ilia tio n w ere expressed rep eated ly , a n d it m a y b e th a t th e y even ca m e to b e trea su red b y m a n y in te lle ctu als as p a r t o f th e ir id e n tity .”145 T h a t sa m e an g u ish , I s u b m it, fin d s h e a rty re so n a n c e in th e P R C today. P e te r G ries sim ila rly stresses th e c e n tra lity o f “ra p e ” in n a tio n a l n arrativ es o f su ffe rin g e n d u re d b y in n o c e n t a n d helpless C h in e s e .146 Yet h o w far d o th is id e n tity a n d m e m o ry reflec t o b je ctiv e rea lity b efo re a n d afte r C h in a ’s “c e n tu ry o f h u m ilia tio n ,” 1 8 4 0 —1949? B ased o n stu d ies b y th e self-d e scrib ed “a tro c ito lo g ist” M a tth e w W h ite , S tev en P in k e r lists so m e o f th e “W o rs t T h in g s P eo p le H a v e D o n e to E a c h O th e r ” sin c e th e fall o f R o m e. R a n k e d a m o n g h is to p te n are: (1) W o rld W a r II, (2) M a o T se -tu n g , (3) th e M o n g o l c o n q u e sts, (4) th e T ’a n g -e ra A n L u -sh a n re b e llio n , (5) th e fall o f th e M in g , a n d (6) th e T a ip in g re b e llio n , b u t A n L u -s h a n co m es in first p la ce after p r o p o rtio n a l a d ju s tm e n t fo r tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry p o p u la tio n .147 E x c lu d in g W o rld W a r II, w h ic h h a d m u ltip le g lo b a l acto rs, P in k e r’s w o rs t five relate to H a n C h in e se , th o u g h th e ir e th n ic ity is d is to rte d b y th e la tte r-d a y le n s o f n a tio n a lism . A reas n o w c o m p risin g in te g ra l p a rts o f c e n tra l a n d s o u th C h in a a n d th e p eo p les liv in g th e re w ere, fo r m o s t o f histo ry , d e e m e d alien a n d “b a rb a ria n ” p rio r to H a n assim ila tio n . A n L u -s h a n w as a S o g d ia n T u rk . T h e T ’a n g ru lin g xlviii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

h o u se a g a in st w h ic h h e reb e lled w as larg ely H s ie n -p e i in e th n ic o rig in a n d th u s, stric tly sp eak in g , n o n - H a n alien s lik e th e C h ’in g M a n c h u s. A lso, a h ig h p e rc e n t­ age o f C h in e se a n d K o rean s in v a d e d J a p a n in M o n g o l navies a n d arm ies. B u t su ch q u a lific a tio n s aside, P in k e r’s list show s th a t H a n C h in e se d ish e d o u t p le n ty o f m isery to o th e r g ro u p s w h e n v iew ed o u ts id e th e p o litic a lly w a rp e d co n fin e s o f 1 8 4 0 —1 9 4 9 . T h e y p e rp e tra te d m u rd e ro u s v io le n ce as m u c h as a n y o th e r p e o p le in h u m a n history, y e t th e n o tio n o f C h in a as p re d a to r fin d s n o p la ce in th e ir m e m o ry a n d id e n tity . As P re sid e n t H s i C h in - p ’in g (Xi Jin p in g ) p ro c la im e d in Ju ly 2 0 1 5 , “G e n e tic a lly sp e ak in g , th e re is n o th in g in th e b lo o d o f o u r C h in e se race to m a k e us c o n d u c t ag g ressio n o r ad v o c a te h e g e m o n y .”148 T h is a rb itra rily fo stere d , tactica lly e x p lo ite d fo rg e tfu ln ess q u alifies as h isto ric a l am n esia, w h ic h C h a n g re in fo rc e d . W ritin g fo u r d ecad es a fte r th e “c e n tu ry o f h u m ilia tio n ” w as over, sh e sta te d in Thread o f the Silkworm th a t P R C C h in a w as tra n sfe rrin g m issile -b u ild in g te c h n o lo g y a n d selling ro ck e ts to ro g u e states su c h as S au d i A rab ia, Ira n , Ira q , a n d N o r t h K o re a .149 P erh ap s se n sin g th a t read ers m ig h t lo o k ask an ce a t T sie n H s u e -s h e n ’s fid e lity to su c h a reg im e, sh e d e fe n d e d h im b y p ro te s tin g th a t “h e saw n o th in g im m o ra l in th is, n o th in g th re a te n in g to w o rld peace a n d security . T h e C h in a o f re c e n t h is to ry h a d n e v e r b e e n a n aggressor n a tio n ; it h a d alw ays b e e n th e ta rg e t o f co lo n ia list e x p lo ita tio n .” 150 As a n ew s rep o rter, C h a n g k n e w o r sh o u ld h av e k n o w n th a t th e P R C h a d c o n q u e re d E ast T u rk e sta n a n d T ib e t a n d h a d in v a d e d K orea, In d ia , a n d V ie tn a m ; th a t it gave g e n ­ erous fin an c ial a n d m ilita ry s u p p o r t to th e g e n o c id a l P ol P o t reg im e in C a m b o ­ dia; a n d th a t it th re a te n e d th e u se o f fo rce to ach iev e Anschluss w ith T aiw an . Ja p an e se a c tio n s a t N a n k in g w ere b a rb a ric a n d a t tim es b ea stly b u t c a n n o t b e ex p lain ed b y c o m p a riso n s to “th e H o lo c a u s t,” a n d C h a n g ’s a tte m p ts to d o so failed to m e e t m in im a lly ac c e p te d p ro fe ssio n a l sta n d a rd s o f h isto ric a l sc h o larsh ip . The Rape o f N anking is re p le te w ith eg reg io u s fa c tu a l erro rs, g ro te sq u e ly d is to rte d c o n te n tio n s , c o n s is te n tly o n e -s id e d biases, r o u tin e m is re p re s e n ta tio n s o f evi­ d en ce, a n d w illfu l ig n o ra n c e o f p o litica l, m ilita ry , a n d s o c io c u ltu ra l co n te x ts in w h ic h th e A tro c ity to o k p lace. C h a n g crossed th e lin e th a t d e m a rk s h is to ry fro m fable, a n d h e r follow ers to d a y d o g m a tic a lly s h u t d o w n re a so n e d d e b a te a b o u t co m p lex issues s u rro u n d in g N a n k in g fo r w h ic h a p lu ra lity o f ex p la n a tio n s sh o u ld b e en c o u rag ed . C o n tra ry to h e r a ltru istic in te n tio n s , th is a b u se o f h is to ry to c o m ­ m e m o ra te C h in e se v ic tim s h as d o n e n o th in g to lessen, a n d m u c h to w o rsen , e th ­ n ic a n d n a tio n a l an im o sity . H e r sim p listic, u n re le n tin g , o n e -d im e n s io n a l tale o f H a n suffering, a n d o n ly H a n su ffe rin g , h a n d s P R C le ad e rs a n a m u le t w ith b u iltin cudgel. T h e y clasp th e a m u le t to w a rd o f f critics a n d w ield th e cu d g e l to b lu d ­ g eo n rivals. Space h e re d o es n o t p e rm it extensive d isc u ssio n , b u t a t le ast th re e key assertio n s raised b y C h a n g in 1 9 9 7 w ere b e in g a ffirm e d a n d p lay ed o u t o n th e w o rld stage in M a y 2 0 1 7 as th is m a n u s c rip t w as g o in g to press. (1) O n 15 A u g u st 2 0 1 5 , e th n ic a c tiv ist g ro u p s in C a lifo rn ia c e le b ra ted th e o p e n in g o f a n “O v erseas H a ll to C o m m e m o ra te th e W a r o f R e sistan c e a g a in st J a p a n ” u n d e r th e d ire c to rsh ip o f F lo re n c e F u n g , a n ex p a tria te P R C b u sin e ss execxlix

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

utive, in S an F ran cisc o ’s C h in a to w n . T h is is th e first m e m o ria l h all o f its k in d p e r­ m a n e n tly estab lish ed o u ts id e m a in la n d C h in a , w h e re scores o f th e m exist. T h e H a ll b o asts so m e fifty p e rm a n e n t p a n e l a n d p h o to ex h ib its. S o m e d e p ic t “th e N a n k in g H o lo c a u s t,” as it is called, in g ra p h ic w ays th a t p e rm it n o o n e to b e m is­ led b y alte rn a tiv e p o rtra y a ls th a t d im in is h its h o r ro r s .151 C h a n g ’s 1 9 9 4 —9 5 e th n ic a w a k e n in g w as aro u se d a t a sim ila r ac tiv ist v e n u e . P R C sta te officials, in c lu d in g th e co n su l-g e n eral in S an F ran cisco , a tte n d e d th e o p e n in g to e n d o rse th is p ro je c t a n d its m a n d a te “to tell th e w o rld th a t C h in a w as th e real v ic to r in th e w a r.” T h is “C h in a as real v ic to r” thesis, as d e sc rib e d b y R a n a M itte r ,152 is h a rd to rec o n cile w ith its p rev a ilin g im a g e as p e n u ltim a te v ic tim in a c e n tu ry o f h u m ilia tio n , b u t th e P R C squares th is circle b y g lo ssin g “rea l” as b e in g sim ila r to th e U S S R . T h e U S S R h eld d o w n m u ltitu d e s o f G e rm a n tro o p s w h o c o u ld h av e b e e n d ep lo y ed w estw ard a g a in st th e A llies in E u ro p e , a n d C h in a d id likew ise in th e A sia-P acific th eater. F u rth e rm o re , th e U S S R , lik e C h in a , su sta in e d e n o rm o u s losses. H is to r i­ ans estim a te th a t 11 to 2 6 m illio n S oviet tro o p s d ie d , p lu s m illio n s m o re civilians, to ta lin g p e rh a p s 14 p e rc e n t o f th e S o v iet p o p u la tio n o v era ll.153 B u t a t th is p o in t th e an a lo g y b reaks d o w n . T h e U S S R rep e lled all in v a d in g arm ies— over 3 .5 m il­ lio n G e rm a n , A u stria n , H u n g a ria n , Ita lia n , a n d R o m a n ia n tro o p s— a n d singleh a n d e d ly c a p tu re d th e e n e m y c a p ita l o f B erlin . T h o s e b a ttle fie ld feats are w h a t w o n S talin a seat a t th e v ic to rs’ ta b le a n d th e rig h t to h e lp re d e sig n p o stw a r E u ro p e . C h in a d id n o th in g sim ila r in A sia, so i t d eserv ed n o eq u a l re c o g n itio n o r prerogatives. B u t, in o rd e r to p ro p a g a te its “real v ic to r” v ie w in O c to b e r 2 0 1 5 , th e P R C sta g ed a m assiv e s e v e n tie th -a n n iv e rsa ry v ic to ry p a ra d e a t T ’ie n -a n -m e n S q u a re , a n d in th a t year, s ta te film m a k e rs p r o d u c e d The Cairo Declaration w h e re in th e y p la ce d M a o T se -tu n g , n o t C h ia n g K ai-sh e k , alo n g sid e R o o sev elt a n d C h u rc h ill a t th a t N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 3 s u m m it.154 (2 ) C h a n g ’s “f o r g o tte n H o lo c a u s t” th e sis h in g e s o n r e p u te d “fa c ts ” sh e u n e a rth e d : D e s p ite “th re e h u n d r e d th o u s a n d m u rd e re d C h in e s e ,” th e “R a p e o f N a n k in g ” “d id n o t p e n e tra te th e w o rld co n scio u sn e ss in th e sa m e m a n n e r as th e H o lo c a u s t o r H iro s h im a ,” b u t “d e a th s a t N a n k in g far exceeded . . . th e tw o a to m ic b la sts,” a n d “a p o p u la r rev isio n ist v iew ” a m o n g Ja p a n e se is th a t, “in r e tu r n fo r its n o b le effo rts” to lib e ra te A sia, “J a p a n its e lf e n d e d u p as th e u ltim a te v ic tim a t H iro s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i.”155 In su m , N a n k in g w as far w o rse th a n a to m ic w arfare a g a in st Ja p a n , b u t goes u n re c o g n iz e d w h ile a “carefu lly cu ltiv a te d m y th ” em erg ed th a t “Ja p an e se w ere th e v ic tim s, n o t th e in stig a to rs o f W o rld W a r I I . ”156 C h a n g ’s thesis effectively w o n in te rn a tio n a l e n d o rs e m e n t in M a y 2 0 1 5 , w ith le g itim iz in g p o litica l im p lic a tio n s fo r th e P R C m ilitary . A t a c o n fe re n ce o f P arties to th e T reaty o n th e N o n -P ro life ra tio n o f N u c le a r W e a p o n s h e ld in N e w York, d eleg ates fro m th e n o n -n u c le a r sta te o f J a p a n su g g e sted in a d ra ft p ro p o sa l th a t w o rld leaders visit H iro s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i to see firs th a n d th e h o rro rs o f a to m ic w arfare, b u t th is n o n - b in d in g su g g e stio n w as d e le te d a t th e in siste n c e o f P R C d eleg a te F u T s’u n g , w h o said, “J a p a n is u sin g th is c o n fe re n c e ” to “d is to rt its [w artim e] ro le ”

l

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

a n d “co n ceal th e m is e ry it cau sed o th e r n a tio n s, w h ic h is u n a c c e p ta b le .” Ja p a n “sta rte d th a t w ar as th e aggressor b u t tries to m a k e its e lf th e v ic tim ” a n d “re p e a t­ edly d en ies atro c itie s p e rp e tra te d b y its arm ies in K orea, C h in a , a n d S o u th e a st A sia.” A sked b y Ja p an e se re p o rte rs i f C h in e se lead ers m ig h t v isit H iro s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i,” P R C sta te sp o k e sw o m a n H u a C h u n -y in g sh o t b ack , “L e t m e ask you: ‘W h e n are Ja p an e se lead ers c o m in g to N a n k in g ? ’” A m o n g n u c le a r p o w ers a t th is N e w Y ork n o n -p ro life ra tio n c o n fe re n ce, R u ssia a n d th e U n ite d S tates re d u c e d th e ir a to m ic w arh e a d s in 2 0 1 4 —15; C h in a in c re ased its n u c le a r w a rh e a d s w ith o u t m e e tin g o p p o s itio n .157 (3) U p to now , th e P R C h as sh o w n n o in te re st in th e c o m fo rt w o m e n issue, a n d b u sy as it w as p r o p p in g u p P y o n g y a n g , it v o ic ed n o so lid a rity w ith S eoul a b o u t it vis-a-vis T o kyo. B u t a v o lte -fa ce to o k p lace u n d e r H s i C h in - p ’in g (Xi J in ­ p in g ) a n d P a rk G eu n -h y e ; th e ir tw o p eo p les b e c a m e allies as c o m m o n v ic tim s o f Ja p an e se im p e rialism . H s i gave a le c tu re o n h is to ry a t S eo u l U n iv e rsity in Ju ly 2 0 1 4 a n d p r o n o u n c e d : “Ja p a n e se m ilita ris ts w ag e d savage w ars o f ag g ressio n a g a in st b o th K o re a a n d C h in a ; th e y a n n e x e d th e K o re a n p e n in s u la a n d o c c u p ie d h a lf [sic] o f C h in a .” T h e n , ig n o rin g th e K o re a n W a r o f 1 9 5 0 —5 3 b u t c itin g T oyo to m i H id e y o s h i’s in v a sio n in 1 5 9 2 , h e so le m n ly d eclared : “E v ery tim e in h is to ry th a t d a n g e r arose, o u r tw o n a tio n s h e lp e d o n e a n o th e r o v e rc o m e i t . ”158 A m o n th earlier, in J u n e 2 0 1 4 , th e P R C a p p lie d to reg ister so u rces o n N a n k in g a n d th e c o m fo rt w o m e n w ith U N E S C O ’s M e m o ry o f th e W o rld p ro g ra m . I n O c to b e r 2 0 1 5 , U N E S C O a n n o u n c e d its d e c isio n to a p p ro v e th o se o n N a n k in g , a n d th u s en d o rse th e official P R C v ie w o f it, b u t to v eto th o se o n th e c o m fo rt w o m e n , a n d p ro p o se d th a t a fu lle r d o ssier b e s u b m itte d w ith re le v a n t n a tio n s n e x t tim e in 2 0 1 6 . C iv ic g ro u p s in S eo u l im m e d ia te ly ag reed. C h u C h ’e n -sh a n , d ire c to r o f th e N a n k in g M a u so le u m , exclaim ed , “N o w th e w h o le w o rld shares o u r u n d e rs ta n d ­ in g [o f N a n k in g ] .”159 I t is h a rd to believe th a t C h a n g ’s b o o k p la y ed n o ro le in th ese d e v e lo p m e n ts. M e a n w h ile in O c to b e r 2 0 1 5 , B rita in ’s M a g n a C a rta , regis­ te re d in U N E S C O ’s M e m o ry o f th e W o rld six years earlier, w as a b ru p tly a n d w ith o u t e x p la n a tio n p u lle d fro m a m u s e u m in th e P e o p le ’s C h in a U n iv e rsity a t P ek in g w h e re it w as to go o n p u b lic d isp lay .160 A lso in O c to b e r 2 0 1 5 , a c o a litio n o f C h in e se a n d K o re a n activists, w ith s u p ­ p o r t fro m th e ir g o v e rn m e n ts, ere cte d a p a ir o f c o m fo rt w o m a n sta tu e s, o n e C h i­ nese a n d o n e K o re an , sid e b y sid e in a S eo u l p u b lic p a rk . In earlier years, sta tu e s o f K o re a n c o m fo r t w o m e n — all a p p a r e n tly ca st f ro m th e sa m e m o ld — w ere erected a t v ario u s sites in N o r t h A m e ric a a n d a t so m e fo rty sites in S o u th K orea, in c lu d in g in f ro n t o f th e Ja p a n e se E m b a ssy in S eo u l. T h is c o u p lin g o f sta tu e s w as rep licated in S h an g h a i a n d is sc h e d u le d to b e re p lic a te d in S an F ra n cisc o .161 T h e re is n o ab so lu te p r o o f th a t th is S in o -K o re a n lin k a g e resu lted fro m C h a n g ’s u n tr u th ­ fu l claim a b o u t th e v e ry first c o m fo rt s ta tio n in J a p a n ’s fu rtiv e sex slave sy stem b e in g set u p a t N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 , b u t ag a in it is h a rd to a ssu m e m e re h a p p e n ­ stance.

li

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

VIII. Ethnic Memory, Identity, and History T h is is a c a u tio n a ry tale a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n w e sto p c a rin g a b o u t, o r d e ri­ sively s m irk at, L e o p o ld v o n R a n k e ’s legacy o f ev id en c ed h isto ric a l sc h o la rsh ip in w h ic h fid elity to th e d o c u m e n ta ry re c o rd is o u r sole cate g o ric al im p e ra tiv e . As an ac a d e m ic d isc ip lin e r o o te d in e m p iric a l p ro o f, h isto ric a l s tu d y sits h ig h o n th e e n d a n g e re d species list larg ely b ec au se w e fail to d e fe n d it a g a in st so p h ists w h o fla u n t th e o riz e d casu istries a b o u t in d e te rm in a b le facts th a t d o n o t m a tte r, ag a in st m o ra l ag itato rs b e n t o n m a k in g th e w o rld b e tte r fo r o p p resse d m in o ritie s, a n d a g a in st g o v e rn m e n t lead ers u n c o n c e rn e d w ith te llin g th e t r u th as a m a tte r o f p rin c ip le . I f m e m o ria liz a tio n tru m p s fa c tu a lity in re la tin g p a st events, th e feel­ g o o d Y asukuni n arra tiv e o f J a p a n h a v in g lib e ra te d o p p resse d A sians is n o m o re false th a n a n y o th e r. E th n ic m e m o ry a n d id e n tity fa c ilita te su c h se lf-d e cep tio n s. I n 1 9 6 1 , th e d is tin g u is h e d m ilita r y h is to ria n M ic h a e l H o w a r d id e n tifie d “m y th ” in “n u rs e ry h isto ry ” as u sefu l a n d n e e d e d fo r “b re a k in g c h ild re n in to th e facts o f life .”162 B u t, h e said, th is fo rm o f h is to ry is m e a n t fo r ju v e n ile s w h o m u s t b e “d isillu sio n e d ” o f it i f th e y are to m a tu re in to a d u lts ab le to d isc e rn th e c o m ­ plexities o f real h is to ry in a d e m o c ra tic society. “In e v ita b ly ,” h e c o n c lu d e s, “th e h o n e s t h is to ria n discovers a n d m u s t expose th in g s th a t are n o t c o m p a tib le ” w ith m y th . F o llo w in g H o w a rd , I w o u ld a d d th a t th e falsity o f m y th is p a in fu l to a d m it, b u t a d m it it w e m u s t. E th n ic itie s a n d n a tio n s, th e Ja p a n e se in c lu d e d , ch e rish m y th s in te g ra l to m e m o ry - a n d id e n tity -b a s e d n u rs e ry h isto rie s b ec au se th ese th e ra p e u tic m e n ta l c ru tc h e s salve th e p a in o f h u m ilia tio n a n d sp u r effo rts to w a rd g re a te r g ro u p a c h ie v e m e n ts. B u t m e m o r y a n d id e n tity possess lim itle ss m a l­ le ab ility a n d in fin ite ex p lo itab ility . T h e r e in la y th e ir d an g ers. T h is h elp s ex p lain w h y Iris C h a n g ’s The Rape o f N anking enjoys e n o rm o u s p o p u la rity sin ce 1 9 9 7 a m o n g H a n C h in e se th e w o rld over. M ilita n ts o f H a n m e m o ry a n d e th n ic id e n tity in sist o n th e g ro u p ’s u n c o n d itio n a l d u ty to re m e m ­ b e r a n d c o m m e m o ra te p a st su fferin g ; for, to fo rg e t is a n u n fo rg e a b le b la sp h e m y to w a rd v ictim s. B u t serio u s p ro b le m s em erg e fro m th is a ttitu d e .163 F o rg e ttin g o cc u rs n a tu ra lly as tim e passes b u t re m e m b e rin g re q u ire s co n sc io u s e ffo rt b y g ro u p m e m b e rs w h o c a n n o t p o ssib ly recall all ev en ts in th e p a s t equally. H e n c e , p o litica l o r m o ra l a u th o rity figures d ic ta te w h ic h ev en ts m u s t b e re m e m b e re d a n d w h ic h , fo rg o tte n . F o r ex am p le, “th e R a p e o f N a n k in g ” e n jo in s c o m m e m o ra tio n w h ile th e G re a t L ea p F o rw a rd , G re a t F a m in e , a n d C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n — to say n o th in g o f e th n ic clea n sin g in E ast T u rk e sta n a n d T ib e t— m a y b e recalled o n ly in officially sa n c tio n e d b o w d le riz e d v ersio n s, i f a t all. F u rth e rm o re , in e x p lo itin g th e d u ty to c o m m e m o ra te , H a n C h in e se m ilita n ts o f m e m o ry ju stify d is to rtin g o r falsifying th e h isto ric a l re c o rd to m a k e th e ir g ro u p v ic tim iz a tio n se em m o re a c u te th a n th e facts w ill allow. S u ch p ro b le m s w ill d ecrease i f w e all a b a n d o n e d n u rse ry h isto ry , as p ro m o te d b y m ilita n ts o f e th n ic m e m o ry a n d id e n tity , m a n y o f w h o m a d v a n c e a ltru istic causes. H is to ria n s sh o u ld s tu d y th e p a s t fo r its o w n sake in o rd e r to d escrib e lii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

events in th e c o n te x t o f th a t age as a c cu rately as th e a d m itte d ly flaw ed sources w ill allow , a n d s h o u ld w e lc o m e r e p u ta b le s c h o la rly re v is io n is m th a t a d h e re s to ac ce p te d rules o f a c a d e m ic in q u iry . I f w e as h isto ria n s feel w e m u s t m a k e th e w o rld b etter, w e sh o u ld d o so as te ac h ers w h o n u d g e societies a n d eth n ic itie s p a in fu lly to w a rd e m o tio n a l a n d in te lle c tu a l m a tu rity . T o p a ra p h ra se th e E n lig h t­ e n m e n t p h ilo s o p h e r Im m a n u e l K a n t, “d a re to k n o w ” a n d leave b e h in d selfim p o s e d ad olescen ce. T h is m a y b e w h a t H a ta Ik u h ik o m e a n t to co n v ey w h e n , w ith his ty p ical d isd a in fo r savoir faire, h e called o n C h in e se to a “g ro w u p a little .”164

Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Fujiki, Shinpan: Zdhyd tachi no senjo,pp. 3—92. Osaka natsu no jin zu byobu, preserved in Osaka Castle. Kasaya, Sekigahara gassen to Osaka no jin , p. 281. Called haizanhei no so to in m odern Japanese. In addition to ibid., there are many studies. A classic is Okamoto, Osaka fuyu no jin natsu no jin , pp. 193—205. Fujiki, Oda-Toyotomi seiken, pp. 350—54; Ikegami, Shokuho Seiken to Edo bakufu, pp. 312—14. Journalist Charles Burress notes that Chang’s sales of 125,000 copies in four m onths marked a record for her publisher, Basic Books; Burress, “Wars o f Memory,” San Francisco Chronicle, 26 July 1998. Chang’s obituary in the N ew York Times (12 November 2004) says that the book stood atop its best-seller list for ten weeks and sold half a million copies within its first seven years. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 230, and personal endorsements on the cover and at the front of the book. These scholars include Carol Gluck, Christian Jessen Klingenberg, William C. Kirby, Rana Mitter, Beatrice S. Bartlett, the late Frederick Wakeman, Orville Schell, Ross Terrill, and others. A Japan specialist, Alvin Coox, wrote a critical review, “Waking O ld W ounds,” in Japan Echo 27:1 (2001). Joshua A. Fogel is also critical; see his review in Journal o f Asian Stud­ ies 57:3 (1998), pp. 818-20. Spence, Search for Modern China; Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions an d Encounters. Sankei shinbun (20 February 200 and 22 February 2007). Gries, China’s N ew Nationalism, p. 83 and p.91. August, “Rape of Nanking H aunted H er.” Sankei shinbun (25 August 2015). O n the first attem pt at publication in Japan, Yoshida, M aking o f “The Rape o f Nanking, ” pp. 173-76; also Fujioka and Higashinakano, Z a obu Nankin no kenkyu, pp. 222-69. The successful second attem pt was Wu, trans., Z a repu obu Nankin; Wu, ed., Z a repu obu Nankin o yomu.

15. Rape ofNanking, p. 14, p. 200, and p. 205. 16. Nishikawa Megumi in Mainichi shinbun (28 December 2012). 17. Kitamura and Lin, Nit-Chu senso, p. 244. The first edition of their book appeared in 2008 under a different title. Kitamura misquotes “Lin Ssu-yun” (pen name) using a different char­ acter for the man’s given name in an earlier work, Kitamura, “Nankin jik e n ” no tankyu, pp. 184-86. 18. Kitamura and Lin, N it-Chu senso, pp. 98-104 19. Plato, The Republic an d Other Works, trans. B. Jowett, p. 68 and p. 75. 20. Chang, Chinese in America, p. xv and p. 389. 21. Chang, Rape ofNanking, p. 183.

liii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking Atrocity

22. Sun, “N it-Chu senso kanjo to kioku no kozu,” p. 168. 23. T hat is, they designate “holocaust” as the actual historical event and “Holocaust” as its ideo­ logical distortion. 24. Finklestein and Birn, A Nation on Trial, pp. 87—100; Finklestein, Holocaust Industry, pp. 55-62. 25. Burress, “Wars o f Memory.” 26. Peter Novick admits that, although generations of US historians have fallen short of realizing that dream as an ideal, “the proposition that ‘truths’ are multiple and perspectival never had the corollary that there is no such thing as error or mendacity.” Novick, That Noble Dream, p. 153. 27. Kingston in Japan Times (17 October 2015). 28. Sankei shinbun, 25 July 2015 29. For classic statements, see Levine, Humanism a n d History, pp. 19-36, and Nelson, Fact or Fic­ tion, pp. 1-37. 30. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, pp. 13-14. 31. Chang, quoted in Wu, ed., Z a repuobu Nankin o yomu, p. 122. 32. Pinker, Better Angels o f our Nature, p. 640. 33. Gries, China’s N ew Nationalism, p. 84 and p. 169n51. 34. Kushner, Men to Devils, Devils to Men, p. 23 and p. 308. 35. Yamada, “Kaisetsu” in Wu, ed., Z a repu obu Nankin oyomu, p. 182. 36. Elton, Practice o f History, p. 205n11. 37. Barzun, Clio an d the Doctors, pp. 45-46; Handlin, Truth in History, pp. 273-74. 38. Chang, Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 2. 39. Interviews comprise fourteen of twenty-five endnotes to one chapter dealing with the key period of Tsien’s life in Shanghai (1929-34) just before he left for the United States. 40. Yamada, “Kaisetsu,” in Wu, ed., Z a repu obu Nankin oyom u, p. 178. 41. Hoover, “Oral History in the United States,” p. 403. 42. Chang, Thread o f the Silkworm, p. vii and pp. xiii-xv. 43. Ibid., p. xiv. She claimed “oral fluency.” 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid, pp. xv-xvi. 46. Ibid, p. xv. 47. Ibid., pp. xiv-xv and p. 231. 48. Ibid., pp. 236-54. 49. Ibid., p. 243. 50. Ibid., p. 244. 51. Ibid., p. 169. 52. Ibid., pp. 182-83. 53. Ibid., p. 151 54. Ibid., p. 163. 55. Ibid., p. 133, p. 243, and p. 255, p. 259, and p. 248. 56. Ibid., p. 26, p. 134, p. 242. 57. Ibid., p. 81. 58. Peck, Two Kinds o f Time, second edition, p. 3. 59. Davis, Return o f M artin Guerre, p. 5 and p. viii. 60. Evans, In Defence ofHistory, pp. 246-47, citing Robert Findlay. 61. Chang, Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 46, pp. 20-21, and pp. 32-33. 62. Ibid., p. 37. 63. Asahi shinbun (26 September 2009). 64. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 29. 65. Ibid., p. 28. 66. Chang, Chinese in America, pp. 1-4.

liv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

67. Thread o f the Silkworm, pp. 30—32. 68. Eguchi, Jugonen senso no kaimaku, pp. 143—54; Kuroha, Nit-Chu (1), pp. 123—57; Coble, Facing Japan, pp. 39—55. This event was retroactively labeled “the First Shanghai Incident” after 1937 to differentiate it from the one beginning in August of that year. 69. Jordan, China’s Trial by Fire, p. 77, pp. 100—5, p. 149; he calls Shanghai in 1932 “the world’s first large-scale bom bing of civilian urban targets”; p. 63, p. 236. He notes that “elusive C hi­ nese would fall back into villages, doff their uniforms, and pose as farmers, after which they would reenter the Chinese lines to fight again”; p. 143. 70. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 29. 71. Mitter, China’s War with Japan, 1937—1945, p. 57. 72. Chang, Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 39. 73. Shimada, “Designs on N orth C hina,” pp. 52—75. 74. Eastman, “Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937—1945,” pp. 547—52; Mitter, China's War With Japan, 1937—1945, pp. 92—95. 75. Chang, Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 81. 76. Evans, Third Reich a t War, p. 67; Browning, Ordinary Men, p. xv. 77. Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 263 and p. 197. 78. Kamen, “How ‘Iris Chang’ Became a Verb,” in Wu, ed., Z a obu Nankin oyom u, p. 143 and pp. 145—46. 79. Chang, Chinese in America, p. 262. 80. Ibid., p. xiii., p. xi, p. xv. 81. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, pp. 8—10. 82. Chang, Chinese in America, p. 9. 83. Ibid., pp. 7-8. 84. Schlesinger, D isuniting o f America, p. 22. 85. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 167. 86. Mote, Im perial China, pp. 265-68 and p. 994. 87. Kushner, Men to Devils, Devils to Men, pp. 32-36. 88. Four major national dailies in Japan— the Asahi, Mainichi, Yomiuri, and Sankei—carried this story on 24 January 2014. 89. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, pp. 52-53 90. Mayer, Why D id the Heavens N o t Darken?, p. vii. 91. Shirer, Rise an d Fall o f the Third Reich; Fest, Hitler, Bullock, Hitler, A Study in Tyranny; Taylor, Origins o f the Second World War.

92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105.

Taylor, Course o f German History, pp. 2-3. Novick, Holocaust in American Life, passim. MacMillan, Uses a n d Abuses o f History, pp. 51-52. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 6. Wakabayashi, “Com fort W omen.” Kater, H itler Youth, p. 241. Beevor, Fall o f Berlin, pp. 31-32, p. 409-10; Kershaw, H itler 1 9 3 6 -1 9 4 5 , p. 763; Evans, Third Reich a t War, pp. 710-11. Kershaw, The End, pp. 112-14. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 95; Kitamura, “Nankin jik e n ” no tankyu, pp. 126-31; Kitamura, Nit-Chu senso no “Futsugo no jijtsu, ”p. 6 and p. 152. Bloxham, Final Solution, pp. 70-105; Finklestein and Birn, A Nation on Trial, pp. 40-46. Evans, Third Reich in Power, p. 573. Kershaw, M aking Friends w ith Hitler, passim; Bell, Origins o f the Second World War in Europe, p. 120; “Queen Nazi salute film,” BBC news, 18 July 2015. Norwood, Third Reich in the Ivory Tower, passim. Bessel, Nazism and War, pp. 64-65.

lv

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking Atrocity

106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154.

Ibid., p. 80; Benz, A Concise History o f the Third Reich, p. 144. Kershaw, H itler 1 9 3 6 -1 9 4 5 , p.184. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 6. Ibid., pp. 215-16. Eastman, “Facets of an Ambivalent Relationship,” p. 296. Ferguson, War o f the World, pp. 281-85, p. 291, p. 298, p. 314, p. 465, p. 483, and p. 485. Friedlander, N a zi Germany an d the Jews: vol. 1 The Years o f Persecution, pp. 73-112. Burleigh, Third Reich, p. 264. Bloxham, Final Solution, p. 39, p. 59, p. 61. Burleigh, Third Reich, p. 210; Koonz, N a zi Conscience, p. 228. Evans, Coming o f the Third Reich, pp. 188-89. Evans, Third Reich a t War, p. 571; Friedlander, N a zi Germany an d the Jews: vol. 2, The Years o f Extermination, p. 99-110. Hilberg, Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders. Wiskemann, Europe o f the Dictators, p. 267. Beller, A Concise History o f Austria, pp. 249-53, p. 259; Bessel, Nazism and War, p. 208. Kitamura and Lin, Nit-Chu senso: “Futugo na shinjitsu, ” pp. 133-37. Browning with Matthaus, Origins o f the Final Solution, p. 318 and pp. 370-72. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 177 and p. 275n. Ibid., p. 203. Ibid., pp. 216-17. Rummel, China’s Bloody Century, pp. 149-50. Ibid., p. 116, p. 152. Ibid., p. 7. Ibid., p. 119. Chang, Chinese in America, p. 390. Ibid., pp. 62-63. Ibid., p. 19, p. 144, p. 378, pp. 382-85 Ibid., p. 403. Ibid., p. xv, emphasis in original. Ibid., pp. 125-26 and pp. 132-35. Ibid., p. 393. The following on late C hing M anchu-H an relations is in ibid., pp. 7-19, pp. 68-69. Lust, Revolutionary Army. Colin Green kindly directed me to this source. Zarrow, After Empire, p. 155. Rummel, China’s Bloody Century, p. 41. Wright, ed., China in Revolution, p. 21, p. 23. Zarrow, After Empire, p. 278. Esherick, Reform an d Revolution in China, p. 182. Chang, Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 6; Chinese in America, p. 160. Zarrow, After Empire, p. 280. Gries, China’s N ew Nationalism, pp. 47-49, p. 85. Pinker, Better Angels o f our Nature, p. 10 and pp. 194-97. Sankei shinbun, 15 July 2015. Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 202. Thread o f the Silkworm, p. 208 and p. 206. Coverage in N H K radio news, 16 August 2015; Sankei shinbun, 28 March, 16 August, and 29 August 2015. M itter in the N ew York Times (10 July 2014). Evans, Third Reich a t War, p. 707; Baker, Second World War on the Eastern Front, p. 104. Guardian (17 August 2015); Sankei shinbun (19 August 2015).

lvi

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Iris Chang Reassessed

155. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 6, p. 11, pp. 200—201. 156. Ibid., p. 15. 157. Coverage in N H K radio news (13 May and 16 June 2015); M ainichi shinbun (13 May and 22 October 2015); Yomiuri shinbun (13 May and 14 May 2015). 158. N ew York Times (4 July 2014); Yomiuri shinbun (4 July 2015). 159. News coverage began in June 2014: M ainichi shinbun, N H K radio news, and Sankei shinbun (4 June 2014), with other papers joining in, Asahishinbun (10 June 2014) and N ew York Times (13 June 2014). U N ESC O ’s acceptance of the Nanking-related sources took place in October 2015: M ainichi shinbun, N H K radio news, Sankei shinbun, and Yomiuri shinbun (10 October 2015). 160. N ew York Times (14 October 2015); M ainichi shinbun (17 October 2015) 161. N ew York Times, Yomiuri shinbun, Sankei shinbun (28 October 2015); Japan Times (29 O cto­ ber 2015). 162. Howard, “The Use and Abuse of Military History,” pp. 4—5. 163. For thoughtful treatments, see Todorov, “The Uses and Abuses o f History,” and Golson, “His­ tory and the ‘D uty to Memory’ in Postwar France,” both in Marchitello, ed., W hat Happens to History, pp. 11—22 and pp. 23—39. 164. Cited in Wakabayashi, ed., Nanking Atrocity, p. 389.

lvii

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

For two pioneers in critical Nanking historical scholarship:

Hora Tomio (1906-2000)

and

Fujiwara Akira (1922-2003)

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

1

T he M e ssin e ss o f H is t o r ic a l R e a l it y B ob Tadashi W akabayashi

A Sordid Squabble S ev en ty years, w ell o v er tw o g e n e ra tio n s , h av e p a s t sin c e th e N a n k in g A tro c ­ ity o f 1 9 3 7 —3 8 , b e tte r k n o w n in E n g lish as th e “ R a p e o f N a n k in g ” o r “N a n ­ k in g M a ssa c re .” Yet th e re is n o fru itfu l o r even civil d ia lo g u e a b o u t it b e tw e e n th e C h in e s e a n d Ja p an e se; in d e e d , v e n o m n o w flow s a t p e a k levels. T h is w as n o t alw ays so. D u r in g th e w ar, o f co u rse , th e C h in e s e le a d e r C h ia n g K a i-sh e k s o u g h t to w in s y m p a th y a n d a id fro m h is U .S . ally b y d e n o u n c in g Ja p a n e se “b a rb a ritie s ” a t h is ca p ita l w h ere, h e claim ed , “over 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilian s w ere m a s­ sacred w ith in o n e w e e k .” 1 B u t th is n e e d to v ilify a w a rtim e e n e m y e n d e d w h e n J a p a n s u rre n d e re d in A u g u s t 1 9 4 5 . T h e re a fte r, th re e fa c to rs m in im iz e d S in o Ja p a n e se h o s tility u n til th e 1 9 8 0 s. F irst, C h ia n g a n d h is K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) re g im e o r N a tio n a lis t g o v e rn ­ m e n t d id n o t revel in v ic to rs ’ ju stic e . T h e y w ere b e n t o n g e ttin g even w ith C h in e s e c o lla b o ra to rs, ca lle d Han-chien, o r “tr a ito rs to th e H a n ra c e ,” a n d o n w in n in g a civil w a r a g a in st C o m m u n is t rivals, a g a in st w h o m th e y m o b iliz e d so m e Ja p a n e se u n its . In 1 9 4 5 —4 7 , w h e n o v er a m illio n d e fe a te d Ja p a n e se w ere le ft in C h in a a t C h ia n g ’s m ercy, h is re g im e in d ic te d 3 8 ,2 8 0 C h in e s e fo r tre a ­ so n as o p p o s e d to 8 8 3 Ja p a n e se fo r w a r crim es; it se n te n c e d 1 5 ,3 9 1 C h in e se , as o p p o s e d to 5 0 4 Ja p a n e se , to d e a th o r im p r is o n m e n t o n th o se ch arg es; a n d , it refu sed to p ro s e c u te th o se Ja p a n e se re sp o n sib le fo r m a ssac res in n o r th e r n areas o f C h in a th a t w ere s y m p a th e tic to th e C o m m u n is ts .2 S e c o n d , so m e Ja p a n e se ac a d e m ic s s u c h as I n o u e K iy o sh i in th e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s u se d th e te rm Massive Butchery (daigyakusatsu o r ta-t’u-sha in C h in e se ) w h e n re fe rrin g to N a n k in g .3 O th e rs w ro te b estsellers th a t c ite d a d e a th to ll o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 , b u t q u a lifie d th e fig u re as d e n o tin g civ ilia n m a ssac re vic3

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

tim s a n d so ld iers k ille d in a c tio n over five m o n th s a lo n g a b a ttle fr o n t th a t ad v a n c e d 3 0 0 k ilo m e te rs fro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g . F o r th e c ity o f N a n k in g alo n e, th e y cited 4 2 ,0 0 0 C h in e se d e a th s w ith n o b re a k d o w n as to civ ilian s a n d b e llig e re n ts.4 T h ir d , th e C o m m u n is t P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ), th e re g im e th a t w o n th e civil w a r in 1 9 4 9 , p rio ritiz e d a n a n ti-K M T , a n ti-U .S ., a n tife u d a l, a n tire v o lu tio n a ry , a g e n d a . I t s o u g h t to d is c re d it C h ia n g a n d th e K M T , w h o h a d fled to T a iw a n b u t th r e a te n e d to re ta k e th e m a in la n d w ith U .S . h e lp d u r ­ in g th e C o ld W ar. T h u s th e P R C d e n o u n c e d K M T in c o m p e te n c e a n d co w ­ ard ic e as a n in d ir e c t cause o f tra g e d ie s s u c h as N a n k in g ; th a t is, C h ia n g , w h o h a d ap p eased Ja p a n fro m 1 9 3 1 , d e se rte d h is c a p ita l w h e n its fall w as im m in e n t, as d id h is c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , w h o v o w e d to d ie in its d efen se, o n ly to flee a t th e la st m o m e n t.5 T h e P R C in th e 1 9 5 0 s also in s in u a te d c o m ­ p lic ity b y U .S . re sid e n ts in N a n k in g w h o re p u te d ly “e n te r ta in e d th e m se lv es w ith w in e , so n g , a n d d a n c e , c e le b ra te d C h ris tm a s , a n d ate th e ir fill o f ro a st beef, ro a s t d u c k , sw ee t p o ta to e s a n d o th e r fre sh f o o d ” w h ile th e in v a d e rs ra n a m o k . T h e P R C also a c cu sed U .S . re sid e n ts o f c re a tin g a refu g ee area, th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ), so th a t C h in e s e c o u ld b e m o re easily k ille d .6 T oday, a d iffe re n t P R C lin e d e p ic ts th o se sa m e A m e ric a n s, p lu s N a z i P a rty m e m b e r a n d “g o o d G e r m a n ” J o h n R a b e, as h e ro ic frie n d s o f C h in a w h o res­ c u e d N a n k in g c itiz e n s fro m s la u g h te r.7 T h e K M T in 1 9 4 7 , a n d P R C in I 9 6 0 , c ite d “o v er 10 m illio n ” w a r d e a th s f ro m 1 9 3 7 to 1 9 4 5 . B o th re g im e s p re s u m e d th a t Ja p a n e se m ilita ris m h a d b e e n h atefu l, b u t v o iced little o v e rt critic ism o n th e g ro u n d s th a t o rd in a ry Jap an ese, lik e o rd in a ry C h in e se , h a d b e e n its v ic tim s . M e a n w h ile , a few Ja p a n e se h is ­ to ria n s u se d th e te rm “M a ssiv e B u tc h e ry ,” a n d several o f th e m c ite d N a n k in g d e a th to lls o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e C h in e s e a c c e p te d th o se fig u res a n d th e in c lu sio n th e re in o f tro o p s k illed in a c tio n over five m o n th s fro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g . T h u s , th e C h in e s e ta c itly a d m itte d th e key d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n “d e a th to lls” th a t in c lu d e d b e llig e re n ts k ille d in a c tio n a n d “m a ssa c re -v ic tim to lls” o f in n o c e n t n o n c o m b a ta n ts , a n d th e y a d m itte d th a t th e se d e a th s to o k p la ce in a w id e are a over several m o n th s . F inally, th e P R C fac ed o th e r p r o b ­ lem s: th e G re a t L eap F o rw a rd , th e G re a t F a m in e , a n d th e C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n . F o r classes b r a n d e d “th e b la c k five a n tire v o lu tio n a rie s ”— ca p ita lists, la n d lo rd s, in te lle c tu a ls, c rim in a ls , a n d K M T (rig h t-w in g ) sy m p a th iz e rs— th o se o th e r p ro b le m s w ere c e rta in ly m o re re c e n t th a n Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n a n d p ro b a b ly m o re p a in fu l to o . E v en fem a les w h o h a d b e e n ra p e d o r r e c ru ite d in th e w ar as “c o m fo rt w o m e n ” su ffe re d p e rs e c u tio n fo r alleg ed ly c o n s o rtin g w ith th e e n e m y .8 T h u s , fo r m o re th a n th ir ty y ears afte r th e w ar, C h in e s e o n b o th sides o f th e T aiw a n S tra it, b u t especially in th e P R C , d ire c te d m o s t o f th e ir w ra th a t “tra ito rs to th e H a n ra c e ” a n d class e n e m ie s— a t o th e r C h in e s e r a th e r th a n a t th e Ja p an e se. T e rrib le th o u g h it w as, as m assacres go in h isto ry , N a n k in g h a d b e e n largely f o rg o tte n . 4

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

T h in g s c h a n g e d b y th e 1 9 8 0 s. P R C le ad e rs c o n s o lid a te d th e ir re g im e , w h ic h d isp la c e d T aiw a n as th e sole re c o g n iz e d g o v e rn m e n t o f C h in a . To th e e x te n t th a t T aip ei a c c e p te d th is fac t, re g io n a l C o ld W a r te n s io n s eased. T h o u g h w ith a n eye to Ja p a n e se e c o n o m ic aid , th e P R C d r o p p e d its a n ti-K M T , a n ti-U .S ., “a n tib la c k five” lin e a n d fo c u se d b la m e fo r N a n k in g o n Ja p a n , w h e re it m o re rig h tly b e lo n g e d .9 R e fle c tin g th is c h a n g e d P R C th in k in g , A m e ric a n s a n d o th e r W e ste rn e rs fo rm e rly c a stig a te d as Ja p a n e se a c c o m p lic e s b e c a m e c o u ra g e o u s h u m a n ita ria n s . O n e w rite r h as th e m “w re s tlin g C h in e s e m e n aw ay f ro m exe­ c u tio n sites, k n o c k in g Ja p a n e se so ld iers o f f o f w o m e n , even ju m p i n g in f ro n t o f c a n n o n a n d m a c h in e g u n s to p re v e n t th e Ja p a n e se f ro m firin g .” 10 In Ja p a n , n o n a c a d e m ic s su c h as S u z u k i A k ira , Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i (a.k .a . Isa ia h B en D a s a n ), a n d o th e rs sa id th a t th e M assiv e B u tc h e ry w as a n illu s io n (maboroshi) b ecau se e x ta n t d o c u m e n ts d id n o t p ro v e th e a lle g a tio n . G iv e n th e ir p e c u lia rly Ja p a n e se use o f “illu s io n ,” th e re w as so m e t r u t h to th e claim , sin c e reliab le so u rces w ere still scarce. In 1 9 8 2 , sa n itiz e d te x tb o o k s in J a p a n d u b b e d w a r­ tim e c o n tin e n ta l ag g re ssio n a n “a d v a n c e ,” th o u g h it is u n c le a r i f th is re v isio n in te rm s to o k p la c e o n e x p lic it g o v e rn m e n t o rd ers. R e a c tin g to su c h Ja p an e se “d e n ia ls ,” th e P R C in 1 9 8 3 v e h e m e n tly p ro te s te d th a t th e M assiv e B u tc h e ry a t N a n k in g w as n o “illu s io n ”: “O v e r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 in n o c e n t c o m p a trio ts d ie d ; 1 9 0 ,0 0 0 co rp ses w ere c re m a te d o u t o f e x iste n c e a n d 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 w ere b u r ie d b y c h a rita b le so cieties. W h e n th e Ja p a n e se e n te re d th e city, th e y k ille d ev ery m a n a n d ra p e d every w o m a n th e y se t eyes o n . A fte r th e y fin ish e d ra p in g , th e y k illed th e w o m e n .” 11 T h e ta c it d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n “d e a th to lls” a n d “m assacrev ic tim to lls” d isa p p e a re d , so th a t “o v er 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” n o w s to o d fo r n o n b e llig e r­ e n ts m u r d e r e d in th e c ity a n d excluded tro o p s k ille d in a c tio n fro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g in A u g u s t to D e c e m b e r. P R C in siste n c e o n th is p o in t p ro v o k e d a fierce re a c tio n in Ja p a n . N o n a c a d e m ic s su c h as T a n a k a M a sa a k i c ite d th e ir o w n figures to arg u e th a t less than 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s w ere in N a n k in g w h e n it fell in D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , a n d th a t its p o p u la tio n w as rising b y M a rc h 1 9 3 8 . F o r T a n a k a , th e M assiv e B u tc h e ry o f ov er 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s — ra ise d to 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 in 1 9 8 3 — w as n o in n o c e n t “illu s io n .” It w as a p e rn ic io u s C h in e s e “m y th ” d e s ig n e d to sla n d e r a n d d e m o n iz e th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le . Finally, a sea c h a n g e in v alu es a n d se n sib ility — a v e rita b le re v o lu tio n in in d iv id u a l-b a s e d v ic tim s ’ rig h ts — b e g a n in th e U n ite d S ta te s d u r in g th e C iv il R ig h ts M o v e m e n t a n d V ie tn a m W ar, a n d h as sp re a d a ro u n d th e g lo b e to v a ry ­ in g d egrees. B y th e 1 9 8 0 s, A m e ric a n s h a d c o m e to feel th a t a n y a b u se or d e p riv a tio n o f in d iv id u a l rig h ts m u s t e n d — esp ec ially to w a rd n o n m a in s tr e a m racial, e th n ic , re lig io c u ltu ra l, g e n d e r, o r d isa b le d g ro u p s. In th e p a st, m e m ­ b ers o f m in o ritie s h a d a c c e p te d a b u se a n d d is c rim in a tio n as facts o f life to b e le ft b e h in d in th e ir q u e s t fo r a s sim ila tio n . N o w , su c h d e g ra d a tio n s b e c a m e g r o u p -d e fin in g ic o n s to b e p re se rv e d a n d fla u n te d as a sh a re d “m e m o ry ” in m u ltic u ltu ra l society. B lacks, e th n ic s , fem ales, n a tiv e p e o p le s, th e d isa b le d , h o m o se x u a ls, a n d o th e rs h a d a “c o m in g o u t” to re je c t c o n f o r m ity w ith d o m i- 5 5

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

n a n t c u ltu ra l n o rm s . D e m a n d in g “red ress n o w ” b y e x a ltin g p a s t v ic tim iz a tio n , th e se g ro u p s fo rg e d ac tiv ist id e n titie s to p u rs u e e m p o w e rm e n t th r o u g h agency. N o r t h A m e ric a n s o f Ja p a n e se d e s c e n t in 1 9 8 8 w o n $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 in in d iv id u a l c o m p e n s a tio n fo r w a rtim e in te r n m e n t d e e m e d la w fu l a t th a t tim e . T h r o u g h affirm ativ e a c tio n , p e rso n s in u n d e rre p re s e n te d ta rg e t g ro u p s n o w o b ta in c o m ­ p e n s a tio n fo r d is c rim in a tio n in h ir in g su ffe re d g e n e ra tio n s ago. T h e S u p re m e C o u r t o f C a n a d a ru le d in S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 5 th a t to b a c c o c o m p a n ie s c a n be su e d fo r s m o k in g -re la te d d e a th s a n d illn esses g o in g b a c k to 1 9 5 5 . In su m , it is n o lo n g e r g o o d e n o u g h to express re m o rse fo r p a s t w ro n g s a n d v o w n e v e r to tran sg ress ag ain . R e tro a c tiv e in d iv id u a l c o m p e n s a tio n is n o w d e m a n d e d o n h u m a n ita r ia n g ro u n d s , irre sp e c tiv e o f le g a lity a t th e tim e th a t th o se w ro n g s w ere c o m m itte d . T h is re v o lu tio n in in d iv id u a l-b a s e d v ic tim s ’ rig h ts h as d e c i­ sively c h a n g e d th e g r o u n d ru le s o n red ress fo r w a rtim e d am ag e s b y im p u g n ­ in g th e a d e q u a c y a n d le g itim a c y o f c o n v e n tio n a l s ta te -to -s ta te re p a ra tio n s ag reed to in p ea ce tre a tie s th a t T a iw a n , S o u th K o rea, th e P R C , a n d o th e r g o v ­ e r n m e n ts n e g o tia te d w ith Ja p a n . N o w , it is m a in ta in e d , th o se p o s tw a r g o v ­ e r n m e n ts n e v e r h a d th e m o ra l a u th o r ity to w aiv e th e ir c itiz e n s’ rig h ts to c o m p e n s a tio n fo r w a rtim e in ju rie s, losses, a n d in ju s tic e . H is to ria n s id e n tify U .S . Jew s a n d th e ir “m e m o ry ” as p iv o ta l to th is sea c h a n g e in valu es a n d s e n sib ility .12 O n ly in th e 1 9 7 0 s d id “h o lo c a u s t”— w h ic h , w ith a sm a ll h, h a d g e n e ric a lly d e n o te d c a la m itie s in v o lv in g fire— b e c o m e “th e H o lo c a u s t.” N o w , as a p r o p e r n o u n , w ith a c a p ita l H a n d d e fin ite artic le , it d e n o te s th e N a z is’ “ F in a l S o lu tio n to th e Je w ish p r o b le m .”13 To im p u g n th e m e m o ry o f d e a th -c a m p su rv iv o rs is d e e m e d in sen sitiv e, i f n o t d isre p u ta b le ; an d , in G e r m a n y it is illegal. “T h e H o lo c a u s t” b e c a m e a te m p la te fo r “th e Ta-t’usha ”— also u p p e r cased w ith a d e fin ite a rtic le — s ta n d in g fo r th e N a n k in g A tro city , a n d b y e x te n sio n , fo r Ja p a n e se w a r c rim e s in C h in a th a t d e m a n d p o s t h o c in d iv id u a l c o m p e n s a tio n .14 T h u s , in 1 9 9 7 th e la te Iris C h a n g s u b ­ title d h e r b estselle r “ T h e F o rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t o f W o rld W a r I I .” E arlier, in 1 9 9 2 , th e e d ito rs o f a s c h o la rly b o o k o n th e C h in a w a r d e d ic a te d it to “th e c o u n tle s s v ic tim s [o f] a n A sia n H o lo c a u s t, p r o b a b ly o n a n even g ra n d e r scale” th a n in E u ro p e .15 S in ce th e 1 9 9 0 s th e P R C h as im p lic itly lik e n e d N a n k in g to th e H o lo c a u s t in a n e d u c a tio n sy stem to fo ste r p a trio tis m , a n d d e n ie rs in J a p a n h av e p o u n c e d o n th is fac t to v a lid a te th e ir o w n e th n ic a lly b ia se d v ie w o f th e w ar. T h e y cite th e m e ta p h o r o f “g ra y h a ir 3 ,0 0 0 ch’a ng [6 ,7 5 0 m e ters] lo n g ”— d e riv e d fro m th e T ’an g p o e t Li Po (7 0 1 —6 2 )— as sy m b o lizin g a re p u te d C h in e se p e n c h a n t for ex a g g eratio n . T h u s , d e n ie rs arg u e , th e v ic tim c o u n t o f o v er 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 m u s t b e ta k e n w ith a g ra in o f s a lt.16 B u t s ta tistic a l im p re c is io n h o ld s tr u e fo r lite ra ry ex p ressio n s th e w o rld over; J a p a n ’s n in th - c e n tu r y M anyoshu o r “C o lle c tio n o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 O d e s ” h as o n ly 4 ,5 1 6 . D o th e Ja p a n e se also exaggerate? O th e r d e n ie rs p o in t to sim ilarities in N a n k in g m assacre a c c o u n ts a n d th o se fo u n d in th e th ird c e n tu r y San-kuo chih ( H is to r y o f th e T h re e K in g d o m s) o r in th e s e v e n te e n th 6

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

c e n tu r y Chia-ting t’u-ch’eng chi-lueh ( O u tlin e o f th e B u tc h e ry a t C h ia -tin g ). F ro m th ese sim ilarities, d en iers in J a p a n arg u e th a t c h ro n ic le rs in C h in a e m b e ll­ ish e d tr a d itio n a l n a rra tiv e s o f d y n a s tic d e c lin e w ith th e sty lize d tro p e o f a b u tc h e r y o r s la u g h te r in b e sie g e d cities, esp ecially w h e n fo re ig n in v a d e rs to o k p a rt. T h is tro p e o b ta in e d a t C h ia - tin g in 1 6 4 5 , w h e re 2 0 ,0 0 0 M in g lo y alists d ie d a t M a n c h u h a n d s .17 D e n ie rs p o s tu la te th a t p a tr io tic C h in e s e w rite rs a p ­ p lie d th is lite ra ry c o n v e n tio n to Ja p a n e se in v a d e rs a t N a n k in g ; a n d , as a re su lt, it n o w passes fo r a “f a c t” in C h in a . Iro n ically , th is d e n ia l a r g u m e n t fin d s fo r­ tu ito u s lim ite d s u p p o r t in W e s te rn sc h o la rsh ip o n la te -im p e ria l C h i n a .18 O th e r d e n ie rs e x h u m e th e “b la m e C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a n d T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih ” lin e to absolve J a p a n o f c u lp a b ility fo r C h in e s e m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l k ille d in a c tio n a t N a n k in g . ( T h e y r e p u d ia te c iv ilia n m assacres.) To w it, N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 w o u ld hav e fa re d as w ell as P aris in 1 9 4 0 i f C h ia n g a n d T ’a n g h a d n o t fled fo r th e ir lives. F ew d e a th s a n d little d a m a g e w o u ld h av e re s u lte d i f th e y h a d d e c la re d a n o p e n c ity a n d su p e rv is e d a n o rd e rly s u rre n d e r as d ic ta te d b y th e law s o f w ar a n d th e co d e s o f m ilita ry p ro fe ssio n a lism . L ik ew ise, d e n ie rs d o a d m it th e c u lp a b ility o f Ja p a n e se c o m m a n d e rs fo r th e o rg y o f ra p e a n d m u r d e r a t M a n ila in 1 9 4 5 .19 T h e r e is so m e v a lid ity o n th is p o in t. T h e m is ­ s io n a ry M in n ie V a u tr in — rig h tly ca lle d “a g o d d e ss o f m e rc y ” a t N a n k in g — re a c h e d th is sa m e c o n c lu s io n o n th e sc en e in 1 9 3 7 .20 A n d , th e P R C its e lf a d o p te d th is v ie w u n til th e 1 9 6 0 s. T h a t said , n a k e d ag g re ssio n is o n e th in g ; fa ilu re to s u rre n d e r in g o o d o rd e r is q u ite a n o th e r. So Ja p a n e se m o ra l c u lp a ­ b ility differs e x p o n e n tia lly f ro m th a t o f th e C h in e se . O n e h is to ria n sees h o p e fo r a “c o n v e rg e n c e ” in S in o -Ja p a n e se view s o n N a n k in g .21 T o m e , th a t seem s im p o s sib le to a m a jo r e x te n t a n y tim e so o n . T h e tw o p e o p le s ’ h is to ric a l ex p e rie n c e s, b a sic v alu es, a n d so c io p o litic a l sy stem s lie to o far a p a rt. B u t w e c a n h o p e fo r a m o re m o d e s t g o al— to b e g in a re a so n e d a n d c o u rte o u s s c h o la rly d ia lo g u e . F o r th is to h a p p e n , b o th sides m u s t a d m it th a t ra w p a ssio n s s ta n d in th e way, a n d th a t “m e m o r y ”— a lth o u g h v alu a b le fo r o th e r p u rp o s e s — c a n n o t s u b s titu te fo r e m p iric a lly v erifie d facts in h is to ry as a n a c a d e m ic d isc ip lin e . As a s ta rt, b o th sid es m u s t a b a n d o n w a rtim e e th ­ n ic slurs e q u iv a le n t to “Ja p ” a n d “C h i n k ” in E n g lish . (See th e a p p e n d ix to th is v o lu m e .) S u c h te rm s h av e n o p la c e in o u r p ro fe ssio n , ex c e p t in d ire c t q u o ta tio n s fro m p r im a ry so u rce s w h e n h is to ric ity m u s t b e p re se rv e d .22 Finally, v io le n c e o r th re a ts o f v io le n c e b a se d o n th e ra tio n a le th a t “a n y th in g is p e r ­ m issib le i f m o tiv a te d b y p a trio tis m ” (ai-kuo wu-tsui) are ev en m o re d e te sta b le . A d eg ree o f civ ility is re q u ire d b e fo re s c h o la rly in q u ir y c a n ta k e p lace.

“Forever Be Contrite” W h a t m ig h t b e ca lle d th e o fficially s a n c tio n e d P R C v ie w o f N a n k in g e m e rg e d early in th e 1 980s, lo n g b e fo re C h a n g ’s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , w h ic h d re w o n a n d in 7

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

tu r n b o ls te re d i t .23 A lm o s t all C h in e s e w h o express a n o p in io n p u b lic ly to d a y w o u ld aver th a t n o ro o m fo r d e b a te exists o n th e A tro c ity o r o n a n y J a p a n ­ ese w a r crim es. T h e P R C c e n so rs d o m e s tic a n d tra n s la te d fo re ig n w o rk s to allo w few d e v ia tio n s f ro m its o fficial lin e .24 U ltra n a tio n a lis ts , o fte n e x p lo itin g th e a n o n y m ity o f cy b e rsp ac e, c a stig a te a n d ev en p h y sic a lly a tta c k p e rso n s w h o to le ra te Ja p an e se view s o r express a n a ffin ity fo r Ja p a n , a c c u sin g th e m o f b e in g “tr a ito rs to th e H a n ra c e ,” th a t w a rtim e te rm o f d e n ig ra tio n .25 W h ile d e ­ n o u n c in g su c h ex tre m ists, m o s t C h in e s e to d a y d e e m th a t Ja p a n e se w a r g u ilt w as s e ttle d a t w a r crim e s tria ls in T o k y o a n d N a n k in g — tw o o f th e E a st A sia n seq u els to N u re m b e rg — w h e re a to ta l o f sev en Ja p a n e se d e fe n d a n ts w ere exe­ c u te d fo r th e N a n k in g A tro c ity .26 A s s ta te d in A llie d in d ic tm e n ts a n d v e rd ic ts, J a p a n c o m m itte d h o rrific w a r crim e s a t N a n k in g to c o w K M T C h in a in to s u b m is s io n as p a r t o f a c o n s p ira c y to w ag e aggressive w ar, w h ic h c o n s titu te d a “c rim e a g a in st p e a c e .” T h e s e w a r crim e s in c lu d e d c a u sin g o r fa ilin g to h a lt rap es o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 to 8 0 ,0 0 0 w o m e n a n d m a ssac res o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e r­ so n s in sid e th e c ity w alls fo r 6 w eek s s ta rtin g o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . H is to ­ ria n s a t N a n k in g U n iv e rsity re c a lc u la te d th e d e a th to ll a t 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 in 1 9 7 9 , a n d th e P R C re c a lc u la te d it a t 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 in 1 9 8 3 , b u t th e k e y p ro v iso is “n o n ­ c o m b a ta n ts m u r d e r e d w ith in th e c ity in six w e e k s.” T h is “f a c t” is in c o n te s ta b le in C h in a , a n d its c o ro lla ry is th a t th e v ic tim s a t N a n k in g ex c ee d ed th o se in b o th n u c le a r a tta c k s o n J a p a n c o m b in e d .27 To ex e cu te a m e re sev en Ja p a n e se d e fe n d a n ts w as n o t su ffic ie n t p u n is h m e n t to fit th is c rim e , so th e C h in e s e feel th e y hav e a d u ty to sa n c tify th e ir “V ic tim s : 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ”— a p h ra se ca rv e d in s to n e a t a N a n k in g m a u s o le u m b u ilt in 1 9 8 5 to re fu te Ja p a n e se d e n ia l effo rts. T h is m a u s o le u m — p lu s s im ila r m e m o ria ls a t H a r b in fo r v ic tim s o f J a p a n ’s c h e m ic a l/b io lo g ic a l w a rfa re a n d a t M a rc o P o lo B rid g e w h e re J a p a n p ro v o k e d fu ll-scale w a r— are fo r th e C h in e s e w h a t Y ad V a sh e m is fo r Israelis a n d Jew s w o rld w id e . A s th is v ie w goes, p o s tw a r C h in e s e h av e w a n te d to fo rg iv e a n d fo rg e t; th a t is w h y N a n k in g w as a n o n is s u e fo r d ec ad e s. T h e K M T o n T a iw a n sig n e d a peace tre a ty w ith J a p a n in 1 9 5 2 . T h e P R C s ig n e d a j o i n t c o m m u n iq u e w ith J a p a n in 1 9 7 2 a n d a p e a c e tr e a ty in 1 9 7 8 . B o th re g im e s w a iv e d all rig h ts to official s ta te -to -s ta te in d e m n itie s . T h e y m a g n a n im o u s ly d e c lin e d d e s p e ra te ly n e e d e d m o n ie s, to w h ic h th e y w ere e n title d b y a n y s ta n d a rd o f ju stic e , d e s p ite s u ffe rin g 3 5 m illio n d e a th s a n d $ 6 0 0 b illio n in losses fro m 1931 to 1 9 4 5 , as ta b u la te d b y th e P R C in 1 9 9 9 .28 (T h is c o m p a re s w ith 10 m illio n d e a d offi­ cially a n n o u n c e d b y th e P R C in 1 9 6 0 .) T h e C h in e se , w h o su ffe re d im p e ria l­ ist ag g ressio n , re m a in e d m ire d in p o s tw a r d e s titu tio n fo r d ec ad e s w h ile th e ir im p e ria lis t v ic tim iz e rs u se d th e se sav in g s to b u ild J a p a n in to a n e c o n o m ic su p e rp o w e r. F u rth e r, as s tip u la te d in A rtic le X I o f th e S a n F ra n c isc o Peace T re a ty sig n e d w ith fo rty -e ig h t sta te s in 1 9 5 1 , J a p a n “ac ce p ts th e ju d g m e n ts ” a t A llie d w a r c rim e s tria ls, in c lu d in g te n h e ld in C h in a . In d e e d , th e Ja p a n e se te x t e n jo in s a c c e p tin g th e tria ls (saiban) th e m se lv e s as v a lid a n d b in d in g .29 8

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

A fte r 1 9 8 2 , Ja p a n e se g o v e r n m e n t-a p p ro v e d sc h o o l te x tb o o k s a d m itte d th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as a h is to ric a l fa c t— i f b e la te d ly a n d c u rso rily afte r d ip lo m a tic p ro te s ts fro m liv id A sia n n e ig h b o rs . A b o v e all, th e C h in e s e w o u ld say, N a n k in g is b u t a sm a ll p a r t o f a far la rg e r p ro b le m . W h y do th e Ja p a n e se refu se to express c o n tr itio n fo r th e ir w ars o f ag g ressio n th a t b e g a n in 1 8 9 4 , i f n o t 1874? M o re a n d m o re Ja p a n e se p e o p le d e p ic t th e ir h is to ry in p o sitiv e , i f n o t in g lo rifie d te rm s. O n e s tic k in g p o in t is re p e a te d v isits b y g o v e rn m e n t le a d e rs to Y a su k u n i S h rin e , w h e re th e so u ls o f 2 .5 m illio n w a r d e a d rest, in c lu d in g w a r c rim in a ls . In 1 9 7 9 , it b e c a m e p u b ­ licly k n o w n th a t, a y ea r earlier, Y asu k u n i p rie sts e n s h rin e d fo u rte e n A -class w ar crim es c o n v icts, th re e o f w h o m w ere im p lic a te d in th e A tro c ity .30 (B -class c rim in a ls w ere e n s h rin e d b e g in n in g in 1 9 5 9 .) B y v is itin g Y a su k u n i o n 15 A u g ­ u st, th e a n n iv e rsa ry o f th e w a r ’s e n d — o r a t a n y tim e o f th e year, fo r th a t m a t­ te r 31— h ig h s ta te officials h o n o r m e n g u ilty o f im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n a g a in st C h in a . T h e y in c lu d e m e n w h o c o m m itte d h e in o u s crim e s su c h as M a ts u i Iw a n e, c o m m a n d e r o f a ssa u lt fo rces a t N a n k in g , a n d tw o o ffic e r-sw o rd sm e n w h o sta g ed a 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st. Ja p a n e se le a d e rs re q u ite C h in e s e g e n ­ ero sity w ith a cru e l in s u lt b y e u lo g iz in g w a r c rim in a ls w ith th e h a c k n e y e d lin e , “p ro s p e rity a n d p ea ce are th e ir sa cred le g acy to u s .” In 2 0 0 1 , th e P R C h a lte d h ig h -le v e l sta te v isits to T o k y o , a n d “s te rn ly o rd e re d (o r cle a rly to ld ) ” P rim e M in is te r K o iz u m i J u n ’ic h iro n o t to v isit Y a su k u n i. In N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 , p re m ie r W e n C h ia -p a o (Jia b a o ) a n d p r e s id e n t H u C h i n - T ’ao (Jin ta o ) re fu se d to re su m e th o se v isits u n le ss K o iz u m i “ta k es p ro p e r a c tio n ,” a n d th is s itu a ­ tio n still o b ta in s in Ju ly 2 0 0 6 .32 A n o th e r s tic k in g p o in t lies in tw iste d p o rtra y a ls o f th e “W a r o f R e sistan c e to Ja p a n e se A g g re ssio n ” in w h ic h 3 5 m illio n C h in e s e d ie d , u su a lly d a te d Ju ly 1 9 3 7 to A u g u s t 1 9 4 5 in T a iw a n , a n d S e p te m b e r 1931 to A u g u s t 1 9 4 5 in th e P R C . T h e Japanese, it is claim ed , c o m m it a “se c o n d ra p e ” th ro u g h rev isio n ism th a t d e n ie s th e t r u t h a b o u t N a n k in g , o r th r o u g h te x tb o o k s th a t fail to re la te its h o r r o r in g r a p h ic d e ta il. T h is h o ld s fo r w o rk s o f a r t o r fic tio n as w ell, su c h as m o v ie s like Puraido: Unmei no toki (P rid e : M o m e n t o f F ate ). T h is 1 9 9 8 film p o r tra y e d th e A -class w a r c rim in a l T o jo H id e k i as a lib e ra to r o f A sian s d u r in g th e w ar, a n d I n d ia n Ju stic e R a d h a b in o d Pal as a ju r is t o f in te g r ity fo r h is b la n k e t “n o t g u ilty ” o p in io n a t th e T o k y o tria ls. N o Ja p a n e se p e rs o n m a y ren e g e o n th e S an F ra n c isc o Peace T re a ty b y re je c tin g o r ig n o rin g th e g u ilty ju d g m e n ts re n d e re d a t d u ly c o n s titu te d A llie d w a r crim es trials. T h e h isto ric a l t r u th a b o u t J a p a n ’s m ilita ris t ag g ressio n a n d im p e ria lism is u n d e n ia b le . F rie n d ­ sh ip a n d tr u s t are im p o s sib le u n til c o n tr itio n ta k es p la ce p ro p e rly — as o p p o se d to p e rfu n c to rily . T h is official C h in e s e v ie w p re su m e s c o n g ru itie s w ith Je w ish view s o f th e H o lo c a u s t a n d o f p o s tw a r G e rm a n a to n e m e n t fo r it. (1) G e rm a n y a n d J a p a n c o m m itte d in s u p e ra b ly m o n s tro u s atro c itie s. (2) G u ilty v erd ic ts at N u re m b e rg a n d T o kyo are tru e , b in d in g , a n d ab o v e re a sse ssm e n t. (3) A n y o n e w h o finds 9

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

fa u lt w ith th e se is a re v isio n ist o r d e n ie r b e y o n d th e p a le o f re p u ta b ility . It is illegal to cast d o u b t o n th e N u re m b e rg v e rd ic ts o r to d e n y th e H o lo c a u s t p u b ­ licly in G e rm a n y ; J a p a n s h o u ld fo llo w s u it b u t refu ses. (4) B o th sta te s c o n ­ d u c te d sy ste m a tic g en o c id e s; a n d , ev en th o u g h n o c e n tra lly d ire c te d w ritte n o rd ers hav e b e e n fo u n d , th is la c k o f d o c u m e n ta tio n m a y n o t b e c ite d as a la c k o f p ro o f. (5) A ll C h in e s e w h o d ie d in th e w a r w ere in n o c e n t v ic tim s . W h e th e r b e llig e re n ts o r civ ilian s, all m u s t e n te r th e v ic tim c o u n t: 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 a t N a n k in g p lu s 35 m illio n in th e w ar as a w h o le. T h e se figures, like th a t o f 6 m illio n Jews, are sa c ro sa n c t. (6) E te rn a l v ig ila n c e is n e e d e d to p re v e n t relap ses in to g e n o ­ cide. G e rm a n s a n d Ja p an e se m u s t c o n tin u e to a d m it g u ilt, ap o lo g ize, c o m p e n ­ sate v ic tim s , a n d e d u c a te n e w g e n e ra tio n s . (7) T o th a t e n d , Jew s a n d C h in e s e m a y c e n su re G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n to e n fo rc e c o m p lia n c e w ith d e m a n d s fo r ju s t c o n tritio n , even i f th is seem s to in te rfe re in th o se n a tio n s ’ in te r n a l affairs. (8) G e rm a n s hav e ap o lo g iz e d a n d d o n e p e n a n c e fa irly w ell; th e Ja p a n e se are b o th m o ra lly a n d m o n e ta r ily d e fic ie n t b y c o m p a riso n .

“What More Do They Want, Blood?” T h e Ja p a n e se n a rra tiv e c o n ta in s a m o re c o m p le x p lu r a lity o f v ie w p o in ts. U ltr a n a tio n a lis t th u g s d e n y a n y m o ra l w ro n g d o in g o n J a p a n ’s p a r t a n d th e y issue th re a ts o f d e a th o r v io le n t c o n f r o n ta tio n to silen c e a n y o n e w h o says o th ­ erw ise. S o m e a u th o rs in th is v o lu m e h av e rec eiv e d su c h th re a ts in th e m a il, over th e p h o n e , o r in p e rs o n a t p u b lic le c tu re s. B u t d e s p ite th is a b o m in a b le s itu a tio n , se rio u s a n d p ro d u c tiv e d e b a te s a b o u t N a n k in g a n d w a r g u ilt d o ta k e p lace. In b rief, le ftists tr y to a p p ro x im a te th e o fficial P R C v ie w w h e re a s c o n ­ serv ativ es— w h o m a y in c lu d e b u t are n o t alw ays id e n tic a l w ith “re v isio n ists” a n d “d e n ie rs ”— tr y to d isp ro v e th e C h in e s e v ie w a n d th e re b y lessen Ja p a n e se w a r g u ilt in v a ry in g degrees. R a n c o r b e tw e e n leftists, co n serv ativ es, a n d d en iers is so in te n s e th a t th e y m u s t e x c h an g e d ia trib e s in p r in t th r o u g h p a rtis a n p u b ­ lish ers r a th e r th a n h o ld d isc u ssio n s u n d e r th e sam e ro o f.33 Yet th e y n e v e rth e ­ less sh a re c e rta in p re m ise s. A ll p a rtie s c o n c u r th a t w a r c rim e s trib u n a ls a s su m e d u n a ssa ila b le legal fo rc e o n ly b y v irtu e o f A llie d fiat in th e fo rm o f a n u n c o n d itio n a l su rre n d e r e x tra c te d u n d e r th re a ts o f re n e w e d n u c le a r a tta c k , b u t th is fia t e n ta ile d n o a u th o r ity to e sta b lish h is to ric a l t r u t h fo r all tim e . U n lik e g o v e rn m e n t officials, sc h o la rs n e e d n o t a c c e p t A rtic le X I o f th e S an F ra n cisc o Peace T reaty, so re e x a m in a tio n a n d rev isio n o f th e w a r g u ilt issu e are b o th p e rm issib le a n d d e sira b le . “ C o n ­ serv ativ e re v isio n ists” re je c t g u ilty v e rd ic ts as p u n itiv e “v ic to rs ’ ju s tic e ” n e v e r a p p lie d to Ita lia n s in A b y ssin ia, R u ssian s in F in la n d , th e D u tc h in In d o n e sia , B rito n s in M alay sia, th e F re n c h in A lg eria, C h in e s e in T ib e t, a n d A m e ric a n s in I n d o c h in a . “L eftist rev isio n ists” u p h o ld th e g u ilty ju d g m e n ts in g en e ral, b u t b e m o a n th a t w a r crim e s trib u n a ls d id n o t go fa r e n o u g h ; fo r in sta n c e , b y n o t 10

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

h a n g in g th e S h o w a e m p e ro r (r. 1 9 2 6 —8 9 ), b y ex c u sin g c o lo n ia l e x p lo ita tio n o f K o rea, b y g r a n tin g im m u n ity to m e n g u ilty o f c h e m ic a l a n d b io lo g ic a l w arfa re, o r b y fa ilin g to in d ic t Ja p a n e se se rv ic e m e n fo r v io le n t c rim e s a g a in st A sian , as o p p o s e d to C a u c a sia n , “sex sla v es.” Im p e ria l P rin c e A sa k a Y asu h ik o , a n u n c le o f th e S h o w a e m p e ro r, c o m m a n d e d th e S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y (SEA ) o r S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry F o rc e (S E F ) th a t assa u lte d N a n k in g , a n d h e th u s h a d th e p o w e r to sto p o r p u n is h Ja p an e se tro o p s w h o c o m m itte d a tro c itie s th e re . U n lik e M a ts u i Iw a n e, h o w ev er, A sak a w as n e v e r s u b p o e n a e d to a c c o u n t fo r h is w a r crim e s o f o m is sio n . H e a n d th e e m p e ro r e n jo y e d ro u n d s o f g o lf in th e p o s tw a r era, b lith e ly o b liv io u s to th e ir s o rd id w a rtim e p a s ts .34 Ja p a n e se c o n serv a tiv e s p o in t o u t th a t th e K M T re g im e w as h a rd ly a p a ra ­ g o n o f m ercy. Its te n m ilita ry trib u n a ls ex e c u te d o r gave life s e n te n c e s to 2 2 8 Ja p a n e se o u t o f a to ta l 5 0 0 f o u n d g u ilty o f w a r crim e s in C h in a other than th e N a n k in g A tro c ity .35 To e x e cu te o n ly f o u r m e n fo r th is p a r tic u la r w a r c rim e suggests C h in e s e in d iffe re n c e to it o r a la c k o f e v id en c e to p ro v e it. C o n s e r­ v ativ es in J a p a n ask: W h y d id it ta k e u n til th e 1 9 8 0 s fo r th e A tro c ity to b e c o m e C h in a ’s p e n u ltim a te s y m b o l o f w a rtim e v ic tim iz a tio n ? L eftists r e to r t b y d e s c rib in g th e P R C ’s h u m a n e tr e a tm e n t o f Ja p a n e se w a r c rim in a ls ; it re p a ­ tr ia te d all b u t fo rty -fiv e o f 1 ,1 0 9 d e ta in e e s b y 1 9 5 6 . T h o s e fo rty -fiv e faced tria ls a t th e S h e n y a n g a n d T a iy u a n m ilita ry trib u n a ls , b u t n o n e rec eiv e d a se n ­ te n c e o f m o re th a n tw e n ty y ea rs’ im p r is o n m e n t a n d n o n e se rv e d h is te rm in fu ll. P R C le ad e r C h o u (Z h o u ) E n -la i in te rv e n e d to e x te n d le n ie n c y b a se d o n a b e lie f th a t m ilita rism , n o t th e Jap an ese p eo p le, b o re c u lp a b ility fo r w ar crim es; th u s , afte r th e g u ilty m e n in p ris o n co n fe sse d a n d a to n e d fo r th e ir sin s, th e y w ere fo rg iv e n a n d s e n t h o m e .36 A c c o rd in g to c o n se rv a tiv e s, p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se h av e n o t b e e n s tin g y a n d m e a n ; th e ir n aiv e g e n e ro s ity w ill le ad to in so lv e n c y i f c o n tin u e d . S in ce 1 9 7 9 , a y ear afte r n o r m a liz in g re la tio n s, th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t h as v o lu n ta rily g iv en th e P R C fin a n c ia l a id w o r th 3 to 6 trillio n y e n in lie u o f o fficial sta te re p a ra tio n s o r in d e m n itie s th a t th e P R C d e c lin e d w h e n it sig n e d its p ea ce tre a ty w ith J a p a n .37 B u sin esses h a v e c o n trib u te d trillio n s m o re in g ra n ts or lo a n s a t little o r n o in te re s t. T h is a id h e lp e d fin a n c e P R C e c o n o m ic g ro w th , in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d a rm s b u ild u p s in n u c le a r w e a p o n s a n d m issile system s; b u t P R C le a d e rs h id e th e so u rc e o f th is aid , p re fe rrin g to ta k e all cre d it them selves. Taxes fro m O sa k a citizens, fo r ex am p le, b u ilt th e in fra stru c ­ tu re th a t allo w ed B e ijin g to w in o u t in b id d in g fo r th e 2 0 0 8 O ly m p ic s .38 J a p ­ anese aid h e lp e d C h in a la u n c h a m a n in to o r b it in 2 0 0 3 — a fe a t re p le te w ith m ilita ry a p p lic a tio n s. T h u s th e c o n serv ativ e jo u rn a lis t K o m o ri Y oshihisa rese n ts P R C lead ers w h o feel e n title d to d e m a n d th is m o n e y o n th e g r o u n d s th a t th e ir p red e cesso rs d e c lin e d fo rm a l re p a ra tio n s in th e 1 9 7 0 s.39 C o n s e rv a tiv e s n o te th a t P R C a n d T aiw a n ese c itiz e n s e n jo y th e rig h t to su e th e Ja p an e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d c o rp o ra tio n s fo r in ju rie s su ffe re d in th e w ar, a n d s o m e tim e s w in . Li H s iu -y in g , a su rv iv o r o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , su e d M a t11

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

s u m u r a T o sh io fo r p o in tin g o u t in c o n s is te n c ie s in h e r o ra l te s tim o n ie s a b o u t it, a n d fo r su g g e stin g th a t sh e w as a n im p o s to r.40 M a ts u m u r a f u lm in a te d : “I f th e y ca n sue us fo r d e fa m a tio n ju s t b ec au se w e are s k e p tic a l [a b o u t re p u te d su rv iv o rs], n o o n e w ill b e free to w rite a n y th in g a b o u t th e m .”41 C o n se rv a tiv e s agree th a t J a p a n refu ses to p a y fo rm a l re p a ra tio n s o r in d e m n itie s , b u t th is refu sal is s a n c tio n e d b y in te r n a tio n a l la w in th e fo rm o f m u tu a lly b in d in g tre a tie s b e tw e e n so v e re ig n sta te s. T h e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t has, o n o cc asio n , p ro v id e d in fo rm a l h u m a n ita ria n c o m p e n s a tio n , first in 1 9 5 3 —5 4 , w h e n T o k y o p a id c o n d o le n c e m o n ie s to T a iw a n a n d Ita ly fo r th e w a rtim e d e te n tio n a n d /o r m u r d e r o f d ip lo m a ts .42 C h in e s e f o rm e r “c o m fo r t w o m e n ” w ere also p e r m it­ te d to a p p ly fo r n o n o ffic ia l c o m p e n s a tio n u n d e r th e n o w -d e fu n c t A sia n W o m e n ’s F u n d . H u m a n ita r ia n c o m p e n s a tio n to P R C c itiz e n s to o k p la ce m o s t re c e n tly in 2 0 0 3 , w h e n T o k y o gave 3 0 0 m illio n y e n to w o rk e rs w h o w ere in ­ ju re d , a n d o n e w h o d ie d , afte r h a n d lin g p o is o n gas c a n iste rs th a t th e im p e ria l a rm y h a d a b a n d o n e d in 1 9 4 5 .43 T h e ro a d to c o m p e n s a tio n is o p e n to C h i­ nese v ic tim s n o t o n ly in Ja p a n , b u t also in U .S . la w c o u rts sin c e passag e o f th e Ju ly 1 9 9 9 H a y d e n A c t in C a lifo rn ia , w h ic h allow s w a rtim e slave la b o re rs to seek c o m p e n s a tio n f ro m Ja p a n e se firm s th a t e x p lo ite d th e m . L eftists c o n te n d th a t th e se a rg u m e n ts a m o u n t to sh a m eless h y p o crisy . M o s t “a id ” to o k th e f o rm o f c a p ita l g ra n ts a n d lo a n s p lu s te c h n ic a l assista n ce n e e d e d fo r Ja p a n e se m a n u fa c tu re rs a n d tr a d in g firm s to fo rg e in ro a d s in A sia n m a r ­ k ets. J a p a n d isp e n se d a id in w ays th a t fu e le d its o w n e c o n o m ic g ro w th a n d e n s u re d c o rp o ra te p ro fits. W o u ld -b e p la in tiffs c o u ld n o t tra v e l to J a p a n fo r litig a tio n u n til 1 9 8 6 , a n d its ju d ic ia l sy ste m h a s g r a n te d n o c le a r-c u t v ic to ­ ries to C h in e s e se e k in g c o m p e n s a tio n . Li H s iu - y in g first la u n c h e d h e r la w s u it in 1 9 9 9 . T h e p a ltr y s u m o f 1.5 m illio n y e n g r a n te d in M a y 2 0 0 2 , a n d u p h e ld in A p ril 2 0 0 3 , w as h ig h ly an o m a lo u s. M a ts u m u ra T o sh io a p p e aled , a n d Li H siu y in g d ie d in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 a fte r filin g a s im ila r s u it in th e P R C a m o n th b e fo re .44 A p a rt fro m th e p o is o n gas cases m e n tio n e d above, th e T ok y o D is tric t C o u r t ru le d in S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 3 th a t ro u g h ly 1 9 0 m illio n y e n b e p a id to o th e r C h in e s e v ic tim s k ille d o r in ju r e d a fte r h a n d lin g a b a n d o n e d Ja p a n e se p o is o n gas shells. L eftists c la im th a t s u c h d e c isio n s are h o p e fu l sig n s b u t are ex c ep ­ tio n s th a t p ro v e th e ru le . C h in e s e v ic tim s c a n file la w su its in Ja p a n . G iv e n th e ir o ld age, p lu s th e in s titu tio n a liz e d s n a il’s p ac e o f J a p a n ’s ju d ic ia ry , th o se acts are b u t sy m b o lic p ro te sts, as L i’s case sh o w s. L aw su its filed in U .S . c o u rts hav e m e t w ith d e fe a t as w ell. C o n s e rv a tiv e s c o n te n d th a t, a p a rt fro m b e in g g ro ssly in fla te d , P R C claim s fo r w a rtim e losses— 3 5 m illio n d e a th s a n d $ 6 0 0 b illio n in d a m a g e s— o m it th e fac t th a t n o t all o f th e se losses re s u lte d fro m Ja p a n e se a c tio n s . M assiv e in te r ­ n e c in e w ars b e tw e e n w a rlo rd s, C h ia n g ’s K M T , a n d C o m m u n is t fo rc es s ta rte d b efo re 1931 a n d c o n tin u e d p a s t 1 9 4 5 . E v en th e le ftist K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i a d m its th a t T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , th e C h in e s e c o m m a n d e r a t N a n k in g , o rd e re d so m e o f h is u n its to s h o o t a n d k ill o th e rs th a t trie d to flee.45 D e n ie rs also cite p ro 12

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

C h in e s e w a rtim e W e s te rn jo u rn a lis ts w h o re p o r te d th a t m u c h o f th e d e a th a n d c a rn ag e h a d re su lte d fro m C h in e s e e a rth -s c o rc h in g a n d d y k e -b la s tin g ta c ­ tics, o r fro m K M T ra p a c ity th a t c a u se d m ass s ta rv a tio n .46 Less w e ll-k n o w n is th e fa c t th a t severe c o lla te ra l d a m a g e re su lte d fro m U .S . air raid s o n Ja p an e se ta rg e ts in C h in e s e cities, th e w o rs t o f w h ic h w as in D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 4 , w h e n e ig h ty -fo u r B -2 9 s in d is c rim in a te ly a tta c k e d H a n k o w w ith in c e n d ia ry b o m b s , c a u sin g fires th a t la ste d th re e d a y s.47 C o n s e rv a tiv e s arg u e th a t th is d e c a d e s-d e la y e d in d ic tm e n t o f J a p a n ’s w a r­ tim e c o n d u c t— w h ic h a s su m e d sp e cia l in te n s ity u n d e r C h ia n g T se -m in (Jia n g Z e m in ) — is a p r o p a g a n d a ta c tic to v ilify a n d iso la te J a p a n .48 F ig h tin g a n d k illin g e n d e d in 1 9 4 5 , b u t th e C h in e s e to d a y are re n e w in g th e w a r b y n o n ­ m ilita ry m e a n s to ach iev e fu rtiv e aim s: (1) to e x tra c t ever m o re aid th a t w ill b u ild C h in e s e e c o n o m ic h e g e m o n y in A sia; (2) to m a k e P R C c itiz e n s fo rg e t h o rro rs lik e th e G re a t L eap F o rw a rd , th e G re a t F a m in e , a n d th e C u ltu ra l R ev ­ o lu tio n cau sed b y th e ir o w n le a d e rs’ a b u se o f p o w e r; (3) to d efu se s e e th in g u n re s t sp a w n e d b y official c o r r u p tio n , b y su p p re ss e d civil rig h ts a n d p o litic a l fre e d o m s, a n d b y th e h u g e g ap b e tw e e n r ic h a n d p o o r c re a te d th r o u g h d is­ to r te d e c o n o m ic g ro w th ; a n d (4) finally, to d iv e rt fo re ig n c ritic is m fro m th e P R C ’s o w n p o licie s o f im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n c u m g e n o c id e a g a in st T ib e ta n s , U ig h u rs, a n d o th e r n o n - H a n e th n ic m in o r itie s .49 J a p a n h as w a g e d n o w a r to h a r m C h in a o r a n y o th e r c o u n try sin c e 1 9 4 5 , a n d ev en o u tla w s th e e x p o rt­ in g o f arm s a n d o th e r w a r-m a k in g m a te ria ls, b u t P R C g o v e rn m e n t te x tb o o k s to ta lly o m it th is p o stw a r p a c ifism w h ile ex a g g e ra tin g a n d d is to rtin g , i f n o t fa b ­ ric a tin g , w a rtim e a tro c itie s su c h as “th e M assiv e B u tc h e ry a t N a n k in g .”50 C o n s e rv a tiv e s an sw e r C h in e s e c ritic is m a b o u t Y a su k u n i S h rin e b y a sse rt­ in g th a t Ja p an e se so c ie ty h as c h a n g e d ; v irtu a lly n o o n e “w o rs h ip s ” th e re a n y m o re . V isits to Y asu k u n i b y sta te le ad e rs m a y lo o k th e sa m e as b efo re 1 9 4 5 o n th e su rface, b u t th e se are n o w m a d e fro m a d esire to m o u r n th e n a tio n ’s w ar d e a d — a u n iv e rsa l s e n tim e n t w h ic h , c o n serv ativ es say, w a rra n ts n o d e n u n c ia ­ tio n . T h e y also n o te th a t d e n u n c ia tio n s are a re c e n t p h e n o m e n o n . F ro m early in th e p o s tw a r era, m a n y p rim e m in is te rs a n d th e S h o w a e m p e ro r v isite d Y asu k u n i. M ik i T ak e o , O h ir a M a sa y o sh i, a n d N a k a s o n e Y asu h iro e a c h m a d e tw o to fo u r y ea rly v isits f ro m th e la te -1 9 7 0 s to th e m id - 1 9 8 0 s d e s p ite th e k n o w n fa c t th a t Y a su k u n i h a d e n s h rin e d A -class w a r c rim in a ls, y e t n o o n e in ­ c u rre d P R C w ra th u n til N a k a s o n e in 1 9 8 5 .51 T h e u p s h o t is th a t re a so n s o th e r th a n h u r t feelin g s o r fears o f re s u rg e n t Ja p a n e se m ilita ris m lie b e h in d P R C p ro te s ts . C o n se rv a tiv e s also arg u e th a t th e C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se v ie w th e ir d e a d d ifferen tly . T h e C h in e s e s p it o n sta tu e s o f “tra ito rs to th e H a n ra c e ” su c h as th e K M T c o lla b o ra to r W a n g C h in g -w e i (Jin g w ei) a n d ev en th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y p e a c e m a k e r C h i n K u ei ( Q i n G u i) — p lu s th o se o f th e ir w iv e s.52 T h is ste m s f ro m a b e lie f th a t evil p e rso n s re m a in evil a fte r d e a th , so th e y a n d th e ir k in d eserv e to b e rev iled fo re v e r.53 C o n s e rv a tiv e s in s is t th a t ev en i f w a r c rim ­ in als su c h as M a ts u i Iw a n e w ere evil, fo lk b eliefs in J a p a n h o ld th a t th e y are 13

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

b u d d h a s o r s h in to s p irits a fte r d e a th a n d s h o u ld b e sp a re d d erisiv e abu se. M o u r n in g (tsuito, aito) d iffers f ro m th e fo rm s o f w o rs h ip (suhai) o r h o n o r (kensho) in p re - 1 9 4 5 m ilita ris m .54 A n d , ev ery p e o p le s h o u ld h av e th e r ig h t to m o u r n its w a r d ea d in its o w n way. M o s t le ftists h av e b e g u n to to le ra te s u c h c o n se rv a tiv e view s, a n d n o lo n g e r call fo r a n o u tr ig h t d is e s ta b lis h m e n t o f Y asu k u n i. T h e y n o w arg u e th a t th e s h rin e s h o u ld re sp e c t th e w ish e s o f fam ilies w h o d o n o t w ish th e ir k in to b e e n s h rin e d th e re , o r th a t to e n s h rin e o n ly th o se w h o d ie d fo r th e e m p e ro r v io ­ lates th e tr a d itio n o f m o u r n in g frie n d a n d fo e alik e w h o fell in b a ttle , o r th a t fo re ig n d ig n ita rie s refu se to v isit as th e y w o u ld A rlin g to n N a tio n a l C e m e te ry , o r th a t n e ith e r th e S h o w a e m p e ro r n o r th e p re s e n t e m p e ro r v isite d Y asu k u n i afte r A -class w ar c rim in a ls w ere e n s h rin e d in 1 9 7 8 . L eftists c o n c lu d e e ith e r th a t A -class w a r c rim in a ls m u s t b e d is e n s h rin e d , o r th a t a n e w n a tio n a l in s ti­ tu ti o n m u s t b e se t u p fo r fo re ig n a n d Ja p a n e se w a r d e a d alike w ith o u t g iv in g o ffe n se .55 Iro n ically , f o rm e r P rim e M in is te r N a k a s o n e Y asu h iro — w h o p a id a n official v isit to Y a su k u n i o n 15 A u g u s t 1 9 8 5 — b e g a n to arg u e in 2 0 0 4 th a t a n e w p u b lic in s titu tio n p lu s th e d is e n s h r in e m e n t o f A -class w a r c rim in a ls are called fo r.56 (B u t th a t w ill n o t solve th e p r o b le m o f 1 ,0 0 0 o r so e n s h rin e d B -class w a r c rim in a ls .) A n u n d e rly in g a s s u m p tio n even a m o n g le ftists is th a t, six ty years afte r th e w a r ’s e n d , it is “n a t u r a l” fo r th e Ja p a n e se , a n d even p rim e m in iste rs, to m o u r n th e ir ra n k -a n d -file w a r d e a d — th o se d ra fte d in to service u su a lly a g a in st th e ir w ill.57 C o n serv ativ es r e to r t th a t, o w in g to d iffe re n t fo lk w ay s— ex a c e rb a te d b y a n ti­ Ja p a n e se P R C p a trio tic e d u c a tio n — th e C h in e s e w ill c o n tin u e to d e n o u n c e a n y v isits to Y asu k u n i. To p a ra p h ra s e th is a rg u m e n t: “T h e y w o n ’t b e h a p p y u n til w e re je c t all b eliefs, c u s to m s, a n d v alu es n o t to th e ir lik in g .” P o p u la r o p in io n seem s to b e m o v in g in th is d ire c tio n . A n a tio n a l p o ll d o n e b y th e d a ily Asahi shinbun in A p ril 2 0 0 4 sh o w e d th a t 4 2 p e r c e n t o f all Ja p a n e se fe lt “it is g o o d ” fo r th e c u r r e n t p rim e m in iste r, K o iz u m i J u n ’ic h iro , to m a k e m o re v isits to Y asu k u n i, w h e re a s 3 9 p e r c e n t sa id “h e s h o u ld s to p .” B u t 5 5 p e r c e n t o f m a les in th e ir tw e n tie s sa id “it is g o o d ” fo r h im to c o n tin u e .58 In D e c e m ­ b e r 2 0 0 4 , a n a tio n w id e su rv e y sh o w e d th a t Ja p a n e se w h o “feel frie n d ly ” to w a rd C h in a fell to 3 7 .6 p e rc e n t— th e lo w e st level sin c e fo rm a l r e s u m p tio n o f re la ­ tio n s in 1 9 7 8 — w h e re a s th o se “d o n o t feel frie n d ly ” ro se to 5 8 .2 p e rc e n t, u p f ro m 4 8 p e r c e n t in 1 9 7 8 .59 T h e s e tre n d s are c o n tin u in g in m id - 2 0 0 6 . Finally, in c e ssa n t ch arg es th a t J a p a n h a s “n e v e r a p o lo g iz e d ” are fa c tu a lly w ro n g .60 S ta te lead e rs a n d p riv a te in d iv id u a ls h av e re p e a te d ly d o n e so a n d a d m itte d c u lp a b ility fo r w a r crim es. A c c o rd in g to M a L ie h -c h ’en g , a P R C jo u r n a lis t fo rm e rly a t th e s ta te -r u n People’s Daily, J a p a n h as a p o lo g iz e d tw e n ty o n e tim e s sin c e 1 9 7 2 .61 J a p a n h as trie d to m a k e r e s titu tio n fo r its p a s t in m a n y w ays. T h r o u g h m e a su re s su c h as th e “c o n s id e ra tio n c la u se ” o f 1 9 8 2 , th e g o v e rn m e n t to o k p a in s to re fo rm te x tb o o k sc re e n in g in d e fe re n c e to th e vic-

14

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

tim s o f Ja p a n e se a g g re ssio n a n d c o lo n ia lism . A s a re su lt, te x tb o o k d e p ic tio n s o f N a n k in g b e c a m e g ra p h ic , a n d v ic tim to lls o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 a p p e a re d , a lth o u g h th e se hav e sin c e d isa p p e a re d fro m so m e tex ts. T h is d e p ic tio n o f th e A tro c ity cau sed o n e N a n k in g d e n ie r, T a n a k a M a sa a k i, to su e th e g o v e rn m e n t in 1 9 8 4 , c itin g e m o tio n a l d istre ss.62 A ll rh e to ric a l c a m p s in J a p a n agree th a t te x tb o o k s c re e n in g is d o n e fo r accuracy, fo r in te r n a l co n siste n cy , a n d fo r so m e p o liti­ cal c o n c ern s; b u t lo cal p u b lic sc h o o l b o a rd s are free to ch o o se a n y o f th e seven o r m o re te x tb o o k s th a t pass. A s a re su lt, to th e g re a t c h a g rin o f c o n serv ativ es, Atarashii rekishi kyokasho— th e n a tio n a lis tic m id d le sc h o o l h is to ry te x t c riti­ cized b y th e P R C a n d b y o th e r E a st A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts — g a in e d o n ly 1.2 p e r­ c e n t o f th e to ta l m a rk e t sh a re in 2 0 0 1 .63 B u t th e rea l issu e is: “W h a t is an a d e q u a te , p ro p e r a p o lo g y ? ” L eftists u p h o ld C h in e s e claim s th a t w h a te v e r p o s t­ w a r J a p a n h as d o n e is b e la te d , in sin c e re , a n d d e fic ie n t. C o n s e rv a tiv e s n o te th a t C h in a k ee p s ra is in g th e bar, a n d la m p o o n c o n c ilia to ry le a d e rs as “selffla g e lla tin g m o n k e y s ” w h o c o n d u c t k o w to w d ip lo m a c y .64 C o n s e rv a tiv e s w ill a d m it th a t J a p a n w a g e d a w a r o f ag g re ssio n , b u t h o ld th a t th e issue w as se t­ tle d th r o u g h peace tre a tie s d ec ad e s ago. J a p a n h as n o t h a rm e d C h in a sin c e 1 9 4 5 a n d h as p a id trillio n s o f y e n in lie u o f fo rm a l r e p a ra tio n s . S o m e 1 ,1 0 0 to 1 ,6 0 0 Ja p a n e se se rv ic e m e n su ffe re d e x e c u tio n as w a r c rim in a ls, m a n y o f th e m u n ju s tly in k a n g a ro o c o u rts. C o n s e rv a tiv e ire b o ils d o w n to : “W h a t m o re d o th e y w a n t, b lo o d ? H o w m a n y m o re g e n e ra tio n s m u s t w e b e g to b e fo rg iv e n ?”65

A Qualified Atrocity O n 12 Ju ly 2 0 0 3 , r ig h t-w in g D ie t m e m b e r E to T a k a m i m a d e tw o p o in ts a b o u t h isto ry : (1) J a p a n d id n o t use illeg al fo rc e to a n n e x K o re a in 1 9 1 0 ; “th e tw o sta te s sig n e d a tre a ty u n c o n d itio n a lly a p p ro v e d b y th e U . N . ” (2) “T h e c o n ­ c o c te d N a n k in g A tro c tiy o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le is a fa t lie .” O n 15 Ju ly Asahi shinbun, th e m o s t lib e ra l o f J a p a n ’s five n a tio n a l d ailies, re p o r te d p ro te s ts fro m th e P R C a n d S o u th K o rea. T h e P R C d e c la re d : “T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as a h o rrific c rim e fo r w h ic h th e re is in c o n tro v e rtib le p ro o f; th is is th e d e fin itiv e v ie w a c c e p te d b y in te r n a tio n a l society. A ll c h ic a n e ry to d is to rt o r d e n y th is h isto ric a l fa c t w ill fa il.” O n 15 a n d 16 July, Asahi shinbun e d ito ria lists sla m m e d E to fo r h is lo u tis h to n e a n d ig n o ra n c e : N e ith e r th e U N n o r its p red e cesso r, th e L eague o f N a tio n s , ex isted in 1 9 1 0 .66 B u t th e e d ito ria lists k e p t still a b o u t N a n k in g d e s p ite h a rs h d ip lo m a tic c ritic is m a n d a lo n g - s ta n d in g Asahi shinbun p o lic y o f u p b r a id in g p u b lic fig u res w h o d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , as E to clearly h a d . T h is tw o -d a y silen c e c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n m e re h a p p e n s ta n c e . It sig n a le d a queasy, q u a lifie d a d m is s io n th a t th e A tro c ity is a “h is to ric a l fa c t” fo r w h ic h “th e re is in c o n tro v e rtib le p r o o f ,” b u t th a t 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 -p lu s v ic tim s is

15

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

n o t “th e d e fin itiv e v ie w a c c e p te d b y in te r n a tio n a l so c ie ty .” T h is le ft-w in g v ie w w e n t u n s ta te d to av o id b la s p h e m in g th e le ss-th a n 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 y e t still h u g e n u m ­ b e r o f p e o p le w h o d id d ie a t N a n k in g , a n d to a v o id e n ra g in g P R C le ad e rs a n d sc h o lars w h o b r o o k n o q u e s tio n in g o f th e o fficial lin e . T h e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira — a f o rm e r im p e ria l a rm y o fficer w h o p e r p e tra te d ag g ressio n in C h in a o n th e Ic h ig o O ffe n siv e , a fiercely le ft-w in g h is to ria n , a n d a c o n tr ib u to r to th is v o lu m e — c o n c e d e d in 1 9 8 7 th a t N a n k in g v ic tim c o u n ts o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d a lle g a tio n s a b o u t th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t are “m o u n ta in s m a d e o u t o f m o le h ills to a n e x te n t.” In 1991 h e w ro te , “I t ’s easy to p o in t o u t in a c c u ra c ie s a n d c o n tra d ic tio n s in te s tim o n ie s b y C h in e s e [vic­ tim s ] .” T h u s h e g ra n te d th e v e ry p o in ts a b o u t w h ic h N a n k in g d e n ie r M a ts u m u r a T o sh io was su e d fo r m a k in g e ig h t y ears later. T h e d iffe ren ce is th a t leftists su c h as F u jiw a ra d e e m it u n c o n s c io n a b le fo r Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz e rs to h a rp o n su c h p o in ts to d ay , reg a rd le ss o f th e fa c ts.67 E v en H o n d a K a ts u ic h i d e n ie s th e ex isten ce o f over 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 m a ssac re v ic tim s w ith in th e tim e fra m e a n d g e o ­ g ra p h ic sc o p e th a t th e C h in e s e assert. B u t h e av o id s sa y in g th is p u b lic ly a n d d ee m s th a t all Ja p a n e se , even th o se b o r n d ec ad e s a fte r th e w ar, q u a lify as v ic ­ tim ize rs w h o m u s t d efe r to C h in e s e v ic tim s . T oday, h o w ev er, a g e n e ra tio n w ith n o sense o f h a v in g h a rm e d C h in a d o m in a te s p o litics, jo u rn a lis m , a n d sc h o la r­ sh ip in Ja p a n . T h e p o ssib ility o f “c o n v e rg e n c e ” in ad v ersarial view s o n N a n k in g a p p e ars g re a te st th e re , n o t b e tw e e n th e Ja p a n e se a n d C h in e se . Less d o c tri­ n aire , y o u n g e r Ja p a n e se o n b o th th e le ft a n d rig h t are s o fte n in g th e ir v ie w s.68 A s v o lu m e e d ito r, I h av e ask ed a u th o rs to u se th e te rm N anking Atrocity r a th e r th a n th e b e tte r - k n o w n N anking Massacre o r Rape o f Nanking. ( T h e sole e x c e p tio n is T im o th y B ro o k , w h o se c h a p te r sev en deals w ith th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, w h ic h u se d th e “ R a p e o f N a n k in g .”) “R a p e ” a n d “m a ssa c re ” express b u t tw o d im e n s io n s o f th e e v e n t a n d m isle a d re a d e rs th r o u g h a n in v id ­ io u s fo rm o f r e d u c tio n . D e n ie rs a rg u e th a t W e ste rn e rs called th is ev e n t a “ra p e ” a t th e tim e , a n d th a t th e C h in e s e a d o p t th e la b el to d a y a lo n g sid e th e “c o m ­ f o rt w o m e n ” issue to d e m o n iz e Ja p a n e se m a les as se x u al p re d a to rs in a tr a n s ­ h is to ric a l fa s h io n .69 T h u s I a v o id th is te rm . S o m e Ja p a n e se , even le ftists su c h as K asa h ara T o k u sh i a n d Y o sh id a Y utaka, use th e te rm N a n k in g Incident (jiken), so rea d ers s h o u ld n o t a u to m a tic a lly th in k o f it as a cy n ica l e u p h e m is m . A lso, a se p a ra te p r o b le m o f a m b ig u ity m a y arise, sin c e “in c id e n t” also c o n n o te s an a rm e d d is tu rb a n c e o f s h o r t d u r a tio n (jiken) su c h as th e N a n k in g In c id e n t o f 2 4 M a rc h 1 9 2 7 b e tw e e n C h in e s e a n d A n g lo -A m e ric a n fo rces, o r a n u n d e ­ clared fu ll-scale w a r (jihen) su c h as th e C h in a I n c id e n t o f 1 9 3 7 —4 5 . In th is v o lu m e , th e re fo re , “N a n k in g A tro c ity ” o r “th e A tro c ity ”— w ith a d e fin ite a r ti­ cle a n d c a p ita l A — w ill serve as th e o v erall d e s ig n a tio n fo r th is e v e n t f ro m la te 1 9 3 7 to early 1 9 3 8 , m a d e u p as it w as o f n u m e ro u s “s m a ll-a ” a tro c itie s.70 T h e se c o m p ris e d larg e-scale v io le n t, in h u m a n e acts in c lu d in g , b u t n o t lim ite d to , rap e , pillag e, to r tu r e , a rso n , m ass m u rd e rs o f p riso n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ) a n d civ ilian s, a n d air ra id s o n u r b a n p o p u la tio n ce n te rs. 16

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

M o s t o f th e se “s m a ll-a ” a tro c itie s w ere also war crimes, b u t b o th te rm s c o n ­ n o te slip p ery , p o litic a lly c o n tin g e n t c o n c e p ts th a t c h a n g e d o v er tim e a n d still evolve today. N o t all p a s t a tro c itie s w ere w a r crim es, a n d n o t all p a s t w a r crim es se em a tro c io u s a n y m o re . A s u b m a rin e a tta c k o n a m e rc h a n t sh ip w ith ­ o u t first s e c u rin g th e e v a c u a tio n o f its cre w w as a n a tro c ity th a t b e c a m e a w a r c rim e afte r W o rld W a r I, b u t it s to p p e d b e in g o n e in W o rld W a r II w h e n th e a c tio n b e c a m e n o rm a l. T h e aerial b o m b a r d m e n t o f cities w as d e e m e d an a tro c ity afte r a tta c k s o n C h in -c h o u , G u e rn ic a , S h a n g h a i, N a n k in g , B a rc elo n a, a n d C a n to n s h o c k e d w o rld o p in io n in th e 1 9 3 0 s. B u t th e se w ere n o t fo rm a l w a r c rim es u n le ss m ilita ry , in d u s tria l, o r a d m in is tra tiv e c e n te rs o f stra te g ic im p o r ta n c e w ere a b se n t; a n d , ev e ry c ity h a s so m e ta rg e ts th a t so qualify, or ca n b e p u r p o r te d to q u alify .71 T h e b o m b in g o f cities w ith in c e n d ia ry b o m b s b e c a m e n o r m a l in W o rld W a r II, y e t th e ir b o m b in g w ith a to m ic w e a p o n s is still n o t a w a r c rim e to d ay . M o re o v e r, “to ta l w a r ” as it ev o lv ed in th e 1 9 4 0 s le d to a n o - h o ld s -b a rre d e ffo rt to b re a k th e w ill to resist o f e n tire e n e m y p e o ­ ples. In to ta l w ar, f o u g h t to “u n c o n d itio n a l s u r re n d e r ” (a n o th e r W o rld W a r II c o n c e p t), th e sid e w h o se m a te ria l a n d h u m a n re so u rc e s w as first to b e ex­ h a u s te d lo st. C iv ilia n s w ere b o n a fid e m ilita ry ta rg e ts, a n d in so m e cases faced g re a te r d a n g e r a t h o m e th a n d id so ld ie rs o n activ e f ro n tlin e d u ty . T h u s , it seem s, i f e n o u g h p e o p le c o m m it w a r c rim e s fo r a lo n g e n o u g h tim e , th e se b e c o m e legal a n d lo se th e ir p o w e r to sh o c k . T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity b elies p o p u la r p e rc e p tio n s a n d rec eiv e d w is d o m in m a n y w ays. F o r e x a m p le , w h e n d id it start? O rd e rs to ta k e th e c ity d id n o t co m e u n til 1 D e c e m b e r, a n d tro o p s d id n o t b re e c h its w alls u n til 13 D e c e m ­ ber, b u t a tro c itie s b e g a n o n 15 A u g u s t w h e n th e im p e ria l n a v y la u n c h e d air raid s f ro m bases in J a p a n . H a w k s a n d doves tr a d e d places a t N a n k in g . Y am a­ m o to Iso ro k u — a H a rv a rd -e d u c a te d a d m ira l w h o o p p o se d w a r w ith th e U n ite d S tate s— in itia te d aerial strik e s o n C h in e s e cities to ju s tify n a v a l b u d g e t in ­ creases vis-a-vis th e arm y. S o m e 2 9 1 n a v y p la n e s d r o p p e d 3 3 .2 to n s o f b o m b s o n N a n k in g b y 25 S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 7 . Yet b y a c ru e l iro n y , o r p e rh a p s d e lib e r­ ate c a lc u la tio n , th e first a tta c k o n 15 A u g u s t to o k p la c e th re e h o u rs a fte r th e K M T re g im e p ro v id e d a tra in w ith a rm e d esco rts a n d tw o d ip lo m a tic offi­ cials to ev a cu a te Ja p a n e se civ ilia n s s tr a n d e d in th e city; th is, to p r o te c t th e m f ro m ira te N a n k in g c itiz e n s.72 T h e n th e re is th e fallacy o f a n a c h ro n is m . N o o n e to d a y suggests th a t W e ste rn e rs a b e tte d th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . B u t w ere th e y rea lly h u m a n ita ria n s w h o ro se ab o v e n a rro w n a tio n a l allegiances? W e re th e y allies o r en e m ie s o f J a p a n in D e c e m b e r 1937? G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n sig n e d a n A n ti- C o m in te r n P act in N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 6 , b u t it w as d ire c te d so le ly a t M o s c o w a n d w as n o t a fo rm a l m ilita ry a llia n ce. T h e U n ite d S tate s, B rita in , a n d G e rm a n y w ere in fac t n e u tra ls, b u t over se v en ty G e rm a n m ilita ry advisers fly in g th e sw astik a f o u g h t Ja p a n e se tro o p s in C h in a u n til e a rly -1 9 3 8 .73 As J o h n R a b e b o a s te d in O c to b e r 1 9 3 7 , th e se ad v isers “tra in e d th e [K M T ] tro o p s fig h tin g so b rav e ly n e a r S h a n g h a i” a n d s u p p lie d “flak b a tte rie s a n d a n tia irc ra ft 17

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

a rtille ry ” to s h o o t d o w n Ja p a n e se p la n e s .74 L egal e x p e rts in th e im p e ria l n a v y c o n s tru e d th e law s o f w a r as a llo w in g th e m to arrest, try, a n d p u n is h citiz en s o f n e u tra l sta te s w h o a id e d n a tio n s a t w a r w ith J a p a n .75 T h is m a y b e w h y A le x a n d e r v o n F a lk e n h a u s e n — h e a d o f th e G e r m a n m ilita ry m is sio n d ire c tin g K M T d efen ses— fled w ith C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a n d h is w ife five days b e fo re N a n k in g fell.76 L ike d efe n se c o u n se ls a t th e T o k y o tria ls, d e n ie rs to d a y e x p lo it th is v io la te d n e u tra lity in o rd e r to ju s tify J a p a n ’s a tta c k s o n th e Panay a n d Ladybird w h ic h fu rtiv e ly e s c o rte d C h in e s e tro o p s a n d w a r m a te rie l to sa fe ty u n d e r U .S . a n d B ritish co lo rs. D e n ie rs also reveal th a t th e U .S . D e fe n se D e p a r tm e n t in 1991 a d m itte d a d a m n in g w a rtim e alle g a tio n : 2 5 9 F ly in g T ig e rs, w h o f o u g h t in C h in a w h ile th e U n ite d S tate s re m a in e d n e u tra l, w ere a irm e n o n ac tiv e d u ty , n o t c iv ilia n v o lu n te e rs as c la im e d a t th e tim e .77 D e n ie rs c a stig a te th e “g o o d G e r m a n ” J o h n R a b e fo r a id in g C h in e s e b e llig e re n ts w h o d isc a rd e d th e ir u n i­ fo rm s a n d fled in to th e N a n k in g S a fe ty Z o n e (N S Z ), se t u p fo r g e n u in e re fu ­ gees. T h e Ja p a n e se s u sp e c te d th a t C h in e s e w e a p o n s w ere h id d e n in th e N S Z , w h ic h c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih h a d a g re ed to d e m ilita riz e . In fac t, th e Ja p a n e se f o u n d fo u r ta n k s, th ir ty h o w itz e rs, fo rty -six h e a v y a n d lig h t m a c h in e g u n s, 1 ,0 6 3 rifles a n d rev o lv ers, a n d 5 5 ,0 0 0 h a n d g re n a d e s p lu s 2 5 ,3 0 0 s u m ­ m e r u n ifo rm s a n d 2 ,3 0 0 sets o f c iv ilia n c lo th e s .78 T h is le ad s d e n ie rs to ch a rg e th a t u n la w fu l C h in e s e p la in c lo th e s tro o p s p o se d as refu g ee s a n d sc h e m e d to la u n c h in su rg e n c ie s fro m th e N S Z . H o w ev er, ev en th e c o n se rv a tiv e H a ta Ik u h ik o allow s th a t th e se a rm s m a y h av e b e e n s to re d th e re m u c h earlier, b e fo re a n y o n e k n e w th e N S Z w o u ld b e m a d e a refu g ee a re a .79 A n d , I w o u ld ad d , n o th in g p ro v es th a t th e s to re d c iv ilia n c lo th e s w ere m e a n t fo r g u e rrilla use. S till, it m a y b e re a so n a b le to su sp e c t W e ste rn e rs o f e x p lo itin g th e ru se o f n e u tra lity fo r p a rtis a n en d s. A s d e n ie rs arg u e , th e y saved C h in e s e lives, b u t d id so b y h e lp in g c o m b a ta n ts ev ad e in te r d ic tio n — to live a n d fig h t a n o th e r day.80 J o h n R a b e c a n d id ly w ro te th a t h e s h e lte re d “M r. L o h F u H s ia n , w h o se real n a m e is C a p ta in H u a n g K u a n g h a n ,” fo r over tw o m o n th s d e s p ite k n o w ­ in g th a t H u a n g w as “a n air fo rc e o ffic e r” w h o h a d “s h o t d o w n several J a p a n ­ ese a irc ra ft.” Yet, R a b e w ro te , “I w ill sm u g g le h im a b o a rd th e Bee [a B ritish sh ip ] as m y se rv a n t a n d th a t w a y h e c a n fin a lly escape fro m d a n g e r.” H u a n g d id escape to H o n g K o n g , a n d m a y h av e re jo in e d th e w a r la te r.81 B u t d e n ie rs p u s h th is a n ti-Ja p a n e se c o n s p ira c y th e sis m u c h to o far. R a b e w as d e s titu te in p o s tw a r G e r m a n y a fte r h is c o m p a n y S ie m e n s w as im p lic a te d fo r u s in g slave la b o r to b u ild d e a th -c a m p b a rra c k s a n d a fte r h is p e titio n fo r d e n a z ific a tio n w as re je c te d .82 Yet h e re fu se d K M T offers o f h o u s in g a n d a p e n s io n in r e tu r n fo r te stify in g a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials. B efo re h is d e a th , R a b e e x p la in e d w h y : “I d id n ’t w a n t to see a n y Ja p a n e se h a n g , a lth o u g h th e y d e se rv e d i t __ T h e r e m u s t b e so m e a to n e m e n t, so m e ju s t p u n is h m e n t; b u t in m y v ie w th e ju d g m e n t s h o u ld b e sp o k e n o n ly b y th e ir o w n n a t i o n . ”83

18

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

Aims of This Volume T h e te n a u th o rs in th is v o lu m e try to d ea l se n sitiv e ly y e t h o n e s tly w ith th e N a n k in g c o n tro v e rs y b y in tr o d u c in g n e w re se a rc h fin d in g s. W e c o n te n d th a t th e A tro c ity w as a sh a m e fu l v io la tio n o f la w a n d m o ra lity , b u t fin d ou rselv es in g ru d g in g a n d q u a lifie d a g re e m e n t th a t c e rta in in tra c ta b le facts b e tra y k ey p o in ts in th e official C h in e s e n a rra tiv e a n d in W e s te rn a c c o u n ts th a t fo llo w it. As e d ito r, I w ish to m a k e e x p lic it th o se c ritic ism s th a t h av e g o n e u n e x ­ p resse d u p to now . K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i, w h o c o n trib u te s c h a p te rs th re e a n d f o u rte e n , fo r ex a m p le , in a n o th e r w o rk calls th e N a n k in g v ic tim c o u n t o f over 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 a “C h in e s e n a tio n a l a n d e th n ic fa n ta sy ,” b u t uses “fa n ta sy ” in th e s c h o la rly sen se o f n o w b e in g u n v e rifia b le , y e t s u b je c t to a ffirm a tio n i f b e tte r ev id en c e co m es to lig h t.84 T h is view , b y a Ja p a n e se sc h o la r s y m p a th e tic to C h in a , d iffers decisiv ely f ro m r ig h t-w in g d e n ia l. M a sa h iro Y a m a m o to in c h a p ­ te r th ir te e n is a co n serv ativ e, b u t n o t a d isre p u ta b le , “rev isio n ist.” T h e d istin c ­ tio n tu r n s o n h o w o n e uses e v id en c e. A su rv e y o f s c h o la rsh ip o n th e causes o f W o rld W a r II in E u ro p e sh o w s th a t re v isio n ism h as p ro v id e d h e a lth y c o r­ rectives o n e m o tio n a l issues su c h as B ritish a p p e a s e m e n t. H is to ria n s n o w re je c t s im p le m o ra lis tic d e n u n c ia tio n s o f le a d e rs s u c h as N e v ille C h a m b e rla in , a n d a d m it th a t H itle r ’s te rrito ria l d e m a n d s , a t le a st u p to M u n ic h , w ere ju stifie d b y th e W ils o n ia n id e a l o f n a tio n a l s e lf- d e te r m in a tio n .85 T o su g g e st th a t a b ro a d ly p a ra lle l ro le m a y exist fo r re v isio n ism in stu d ie s o f th e C h in a w a r is n o t to deny, excuse, o r ju s tify J a p a n ’s n a k e d ag g ressio n . T h e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira p ro v id e s a n a rra tiv e o v erv ie w o f th e a ssa u lt o n N a n k in g a n d a tr e n c h a n t an aly sis o f th e A tro c ity ’s causes in c h a p te r tw o . H e also suggests th a t d e n ie rs p u rp o s e ly c re ate p o litic a l c o n d itio n s a t h o m e to fo s­ te r J a p a n ’s re e m e rg e n c e as a m ilita ry p o w e r u n in h ib ite d fro m w a g in g w ar. T h is c h a p te r, fin ish e d in tra n s la tio n in 2 0 0 2 , seem s p re s c ie n t g iv e n th e d is p a tc h o f a rm e d Ja p a n e se tro o p s to Ira q in J a n u a ry 2 0 0 4 a n d th e e x te n sio n o f th e ir m is ­ sio n in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 . T h e g o v e rn m e n t d e p lo y e d th e m u n d e r n o n e o f th e c o n s tra in ts to en su re n o n e n g a g e m e n t as im p o s e d b y th e 1 9 9 2 P e a c e k e e p in g L aw .86 N o r w ere th e re e x p lic it ru le s s tip u la tin g c o n d itio n s fo r w ith d ra w a l, a lth o u g h it to o k p la c e in Ju ly 2 0 0 6 . D e p lo y m e n t, h o w ev er, u n d e n ia b ly less­ e n e d o p p o s itio n to a re v isio n o f J a p a n ’s p a c ifist c o n s titu tio n . A m a jo r a rticle o f p o s tw a r le ftist fa ith is th a t J a p a n m u s t n e v e r ag a in b e a “n o r m a l” n a tio n th a t en jo y s th e r ig h t to w ag e w a r b ec au se Ja p a n e se a rm e d fo rces a t N a n k in g a n d elsew h ere p ro v e d th a t th e y c o u ld n o t b e tr u s te d to b e h a v e in a law fu l, h u m a n e , a n d re sp o n sib le m a n n e r. C h a p te r tw o is F u jiw a ra ’s fin al te s ta m e n t to th a t a rticle o f fa ith . S e c tio n O n e , “W a r C rim e s a n d D o u b ts ,” o p e n s w ith n a rra tiv e a c c o u n ts in c h a p te rs th re e a n d fo u r b y K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i a n d O n o K e n ji w h o d e sc rib e Ja p a n e se w a r crim e s outside o f N a n k in g city. T h e y p re s e n t n e w a n d im p o r ta n t

19

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

d im e n s io n s o f th e A tro c ity th a t fo rc e us to r e th in k th e P R C a c c o u n t a n d W e st­ e rn view s th a t fo llo w it o n tw o k e y p o in ts : w h e re th e lio n ’s sh a re o f k illin g s to o k place, a n d h o w m a n y C h in e se P O W s w ere m u rd e re d a t M u fu s h a n , n o r th ­ east o f N a n k in g . V e rd ic ts a t th e N a n k in g a n d T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, w h ic h a n c h o r th e official P R C view , h e ld th a t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e w ere k illed in six w eeks in sid e th e city. B u t K a sa h a ra arg u es th a t m o s t k illin g s to o k p la ce in o u tly in g ru ra l areas, a n d O n o p a in s ta k in g ly f o u n d n e w d o c u m e n ts s h o w in g th a t 1 4 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 P O W s d ie d a t M u fu s h a n . O n o th u s q u e s tio n s th e w a r crim es tria l v ic tim to ll o f 5 7 ,4 1 8 d e riv e d fro m o n e C h in e s e e y e w it­ ness, d isc re d its Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs w h o to ta lly ig n o re M u fu s h a n , a n d criticizes co n serv ativ es w h o a d m it th a t 1 ,0 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 P O W s w ere k ille d th e re , b u t o n ly in re sp o n se to le th a l p ro v o c a tio n .87 O th e r c h a p te rs in S e c tio n O n e , b y D a v id A skew , m y self, a n d T im o th y B ro o k raise d o u b ts a b o u t o th e r k e y p o in ts in th e official C h in e se view. In c h a p ­ te r five, A sk ew rev isits a p o in t m a d e in th e 1 9 8 0 s b y th e d e n ie r T a n a k a M a saa k i a b o u t N a n k in g ’s civ ilia n p o p u la tio n ju s t b e fo re th e a tta c k , sin c e th a t fig u re p la c e d o n e lim it o n th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w h o c o u ld b e m a ssa c re d . A sk ew e stim a te s a n in itia l p o p u la tio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 — w h ic h is less th a n th e p u ta tiv e to ta l o f 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s . H e arriv es a t a civ ilia n d e a th to ll o f “u p to 5 ,0 0 0 ” a n d a d m its — i f n o t as fo rc e fu lly as I w o u ld lik e — th a t C h in e s e tro o p s a n d P O W s k illed in v io la tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l la w m u s t b e a d d e d to re a c h a fin al v ic tim to ll. M a n y o f o u r a u th o rs re je c t A sk e w ’s s ta tistic a l fin d in g s. K asa­ h a ra , fo r ex am p le , elsew h e re e s tim a te s a n in itia l p o p u la tio n o f 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 b ased o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t refu g ee s fle e in g in to th e c ity o ffse t th e earlier loss o f ev acu e es.88 N e v e rth e le ss, A sk e w raises o u r aw a re n ess a b o u t th e v ex in g q u a n tita tiv e p ro b le m s th a t w e face. H e rig h tly says th a t m e re ly a d d in g u p th e n u m b e r o f co rp se s f o u n d in C h in e s e b u ria l re c o rd s w ill n o t y ie ld an a c c u ra te v ic tim to ta l; w e m u s t re a d th o se re c o rd s c ritic a lly to e lim in a te d o u ­ b le c o u n tin g , ex clu d e fa b ric a tio n s, a n d d is c o u n t e x a g g e ra tio n s. H is cav ea t m a y se em b a n a l ex c ep t th a t so m a n y w rite rs ig n o re it. A sk e w also n o te s th e n e e d to d iffe re n tia te C h in e s e so ld ie rs a n d p la in c lo th e s tro o p s k ille d in a c tio n , w h o w ere n o t A tr o c ity v ic tim s , fro m civ ilia n s m u r d e r e d in c o ld b lo o d , w h o w ere v ic tim s . T h is o m is sio n o f c o m b a ta n ts f ro m v ic tim s to lls is p a in fu l fo r th e C h i­ nese, w h o u n d e r s ta n d a b ly b e g to differ. In c h a p te r six, I a rg u e th a t th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t — piece de resistance a t th e N a n k in g w a r crim e s tria l— w as in d e e d “f a b ric a te d ” in so m e resp ects, b u t n o t fo r th e re a so n o r in th e w ay th a t d e n ie rs in sist. T h e k illin g c o n te s t w as b ased o n Ja p an e se n e w s p a p e r a rtic le s a t th e tim e th a t d e p ic te d tw o R a m b o ty p e o ffic e r-sw o rd sm e n k illin g e n e m y b e llig e re n ts in c o m b a t. B u t th e tw o m e n w ere c o n v ic te d o f B -class w a r crim e s a n d ex e c u te d b y th e K M T re g im e . I h o ld th a t th e y d id n o t c o m m it th is alleg ed c rim e . B u t u n lik e d e n ie rs, I arg u e th a t th e m a in sig n ific a n c e o f th is in c id e n t is th e p u b lic d e b a te th a t it k ic k e d o ff in J a p a n early in th e 1 9 7 0 s, w h ic h fo rc e d o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se to c o n f r o n t issues 20

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

o f c u lp a b ility fo r th e ir im p e ria lis t p a st. In c h a p te r seven, B ro o k discu sses h o w far Ju stice R a d h a b in o d Pal— g lo rified b y Jap an ese d en iers— m a y h av e b e e n rig h t to s u b m it a b la n k e t n o t- g u ilty o p in io n a t T o k y o . B ro o k c a u tio n s th a t Pal ag reed th a t a tro c itie s to o k p la ce , a n d th a t p ro s e c u to rs d id n o t fa b ric a te “th e R a p e o f N a n k in g ,” as th e y called it, b u t th e y d id m a k e it th e lin c h p in in a c o n s p ira c y th e sis to ju s tify in d ic tin g J a p a n fo r “crim e s a g a in st p e a c e .” T h u s , N a n k in g w as cru c ia l fo r lin k in g a tro c itie s le a d in g u p to P earl H a r b o r a n d th e “B a ta a n D e a th M a r c h .” B ro o k e n d s b y su g g e stin g th a t a t r u t h a n d c o n c ilia ­ tio n c o m m is s io n m a y b e o n e c o n s tru c tiv e w a y fo r th e C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se to re a c h c o m m o n e le m e n ts o f h is to ric a l u n d e r s ta n d in g w h ile re s p e c tin g ea ch o th e r ’s n a tio n a l s e n tim e n ts . S e c tio n T w o, “A ggressors a n d C o lla b o ra to rs ,” addresses o th e r sensitive issues. T h e le tte rs in c h a p te r e ig h t c o n v e y p ersp e c tiv e s o f th e C h in e s e h e ld b y A m a n o S a b u ro , a c u ltu re d reserv e o fficer c o n v e rs a n t in w ritte n C h in e se , a b ru p tly w re n c h e d fro m fa m ily life to p a c ify C h ’u a n -c h ia o c o u n ty across th e Y angtze f ro m N a n k in g .89 H is le tte rs p assed a rm y c e n so rsh ip a n d th u s reveal th e ty p es o f f ro n tlin e b e h a v io r th a t c o u ld b e re la te d to fa m ily m e m b e rs in Ja p a n . E q u a lly im p o r ta n t, th e y p u t a h u m a n , a n d n o t w h o lly a b o m in a b le , face o n m e n u n ifo rm ly cast as “Ja p a n e se d e v ils.” In c h a p te r n in e , T im o th y B ro o k ta c k ­ les th e p ric k ly issue o f p e rso n s w h o c o lla b o ra te d w ith A m a n o ’s o c c u p a tio n fo rces— a n ac t vilified in C h in e s e “p ra ise a n d b la m e ” n a rra tiv e s. B ro o k asks if N a n k in g re sid e n ts m a y n o t h av e b e e n b e tte r o f f b ec au se “tra ito rs to th e H a n ra c e ” su c h as J im m y W a n g assisted th e in v a d e rs. B ro o k d o es n o t ju s tify or excuse w a rtim e c o lla b o ra to rs; ra th e r, h e sta te s, th e y a c te d a m id c o n d itio n s th a t p e rh a p s m a d e th e ir c h o ic e se e m in e sc a p a b le o r ev en se n sib le a t th e tim e . T h u s , h e asks rea d ers to v e n tu re b e y o n d sim p le , id e o lo g ic a lly fixed ste re o ty p e s o f g o o d a n d evil. In c h a p te r te n , D a v id A sk ew re e x a m in e s a to p ic s o m e w h a t fa m ilia r to W e s te rn rea d ers— th e ro le p la y e d b y fo re ig n e rs in th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ), a refu g ee area. H e h o ld s th a t they, in c lu d in g th e N a z i P a rty m e m b e r J o h n R a b e, d isp lay e d a m o re m u n d a n e y e t n o -less h e ro ic fo rm o f h u m a n ita ria n is m th a n th a t p o r tra y e d u p to no w . T h e ir m o s t sig n ific a n t w o rk c o n s iste d o f a tte m p ts to b ro k e r a tru c e b e tw e e n Ja p a n e se a n d K M T a rm ies, to m a in ­ ta in m u n ic ip a l a d m in is tra tio n a n d p u b lic w o rk s a m id u tte r ch a o s, to p o lic e th e N S Z in o rd e r to p re v e n t ra p e a n d lo o tin g b y b o th sid es, to tre a t w o u n d e d C h in e s e tro o p s a b a n d o n e d b y th e ir o w n arm y, a n d to p ro c u re fo o d fo r h u g e n u m b e rs o f refugees. T h is is h o w th e y saved C h in e s e lives. In c h a p te r eleven, T ak a sh i Y o sh id a rela tes h o w jo u rn a lis ts , p ro p a g a n d is ts , a n d o th e r official sp o k e sp e rso n s in C h in a , J a p a n , a n d th e U n ite d S tate s p o r tra y e d th e A tro city , b o th as it w as u n f o ld in g a n d la te r in th e w ar. H e th u s p ro v id e s th e in f o rm a ­ tio n n e e d e d to see p a s t id e o lo g ic a l uses to w h ic h p o le m ic ists h av e p u t th e A tro c ity sin ce th e 1 9 8 0 s. Y o sh id a also ex poses a d e c e itfu l n o n s e q u itu r e m ­ p lo y e d b y d e n ie rs, w h o c la im th a t n o th in g b a d h a p p e n e d a t N a n k in g b ec au se 21

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

K M T g o v e rn m e n t officials d id n o t p r o te s t a g a in st a tro c itie s as th e se w ere ta k ­ in g p lace. H e sh o w s th a t p ro te s ts d id o cc u r, a n d th u s verifies th a t th e A tro c ­ ity w as n o t fa b ric a te d a t w a r crim e s tria ls, b u t also e x p la in s w h y th e w a rtim e C h in e s e resp o n se s w ere re la tiv e ly re s tra in e d . S e c tio n T h re e , “A n o th e r D e n ie d H o lo c a u s t? ”, ta k e s u p w h a t I call th e “N a n k in g -A u s c h w itz c o n g ru ity .” In c h a p te r tw elve, J o s h u a A . F o g el c o g e n tly asserts th a t comparisons with th e F in a l S o lu tio n h e lp to c o n te x tu a liz e a n d ty p o logize p a s t a n d p re s e n t m ass m u rd e rs , b u t comparisons to it are m o ra lly a n d aca­ d em ica lly in d e fe n sib le . J a p a n h a d n o sta te -sp o n so re d p ro g ra m to kill all C h in e se p e rso n s o r all m e m b e rs o f a n y ta rg e t g ro u p , b e it race, class, o r e th n ic ity . W h ile affirm in g th a t th e A tro c ity d id tak e place, Fogel ex p lain s th a t N o r t h A m e ric a n s o f C h in e se d e s c e n t a n d overseas C h in e se exag g erate its sc o p e in o rd e r to ex p lo it it as a p o w e rfu l s y m b o l o f sh a re d s u ffe rin g th a t cre ate s a n u n a ssa ila b le e th n ic id e n tity . As so m e su g g est, w e m ig h t d e fin e as a “ta rg e t g r o u p ” th o se C h in e s e w h o resisted O p e r a tio n B u rn A ll, K ill A ll, P lu n d e r A ll (jinmetsu soto sakusen) in c o n te s te d areas o f n o r th e r n C h in a la te r in th e w ar, a n d th is m ig h t q u a lify as g e n o c id e .90 B u t th a t ta ilo re d d e fin itio n w o u ld still ex c lu d e p a c ifie d areas. M o reo v e r, i f th e C h in e s e in th a t ta rg e t g ro u p w ere to s to p re sis tin g a n d c o l­ la b o ra te , th e y w o u ld n o t b e m u rd e re d , ex c e p t p e rh a p s b y o th e r H a n C h in e s e w h o d e e m e d th e m tra ito rs . In d e e d , J a p a n a rm e d w ell over a m illio n C h in e s e c o lla b o ra to rs in p u p p e t a rm ie s— s o m e th in g in c o n c e iv a b le fo r Jew s in E u ro p e . In c h a p te r th ir te e n M a sa h iro Y a m a m o to arg u e s th a t th e la te Iris C h a n g ’s im ­ m e n se a n d c o n tin u in g p o p u la rity s te m m e d f ro m tw o fa c to rs in N o r t h A m e r­ ic a n so ciety: la te n t b ia s a g a in st e th n ic Ja p a n e se a n d th e in a b ility o f a c a d e m ic h isto ria n s to co rrec t p u b lic m is p e rc e p tio n s cre a te d b y h e r bestseller. To s u p p o rt h is a rg u m e n t, h e c o n tra s ts th e rave rev iew s o f h e r b o o k w ith in te n s e c ritic is m d ire c te d a t s im ila rly flaw e d a tro c ity claim s in Ja m es B a c q u e ’s Other Losses— th a t A m e ric a n a n d F re n c h a rm e d forces d elib erately starv ed 1.4 m illio n G e rm a n P O W s to d e a th a t th e e n d o f W o rld W a r II. A lth o u g h so m e w ill fin d Y am a­ m o to overly sensitive to an ti-Ja p a n e se p re ju d ic e , h is view s a n d evid en ce w a rra n t a tte n tio n . C h a n g , a fte r all, fac ed n o th in g lik e th e s tu d ie d , s u s ta in e d c ritic is m th a t D a n ie l G o ld h a g e n e n d u re d fo r tw o b o o k s. A s a re su lt, h e a n d h is p u b ­ lish e r c o rre c te d fa c tu a l e rro rs a n d a m is la b e le d p h o to in o n e o f th e se, A Moral Reckoning; C h a n g a n d h e r p u b lis h e r n e v e r d id so fo r The Rape o f N anking?1 In c h a p te r fo u rte e n K a sa h a ra ex p o ses flaw s in th e w o rk o f H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ), th e m o s t p e rsu a siv e N a n k in g d e n ie r in Ja p a n , w h o rea ch es so m e c o n c lu sio n s s im ila r to th o se o f F o g el a n d Y a m a m o to ; fo r in s ta n c e , th a t C h a n g ’s b estseller lack s m e rit as a w o rk o f e m p iric a l h isto ry . K a sa h a ra in tr o ­ d u ce s H ig a s h in a k a n o as o n e o f m a n y r ig h t-w in g sc h o la rs w o rk in g to revise h is to ry te x tb o o k s a lo n g n a tio n a lis tic lin e s, a n d arg u es th a t, r a th e r th a n e x a m ­ in e ev id en c e a n d arriv e a t v ia b le c o n c lu sio n s, H ig a s h in a k a n o b e g in s fro m a “d elu siv e fix a tio n ” th a t th e A tro c ity n e v e r to o k p lace, d ism isses all c o n tra ry ev id en ce, a n d tw ists th e so u rc e s to f o rm ta u to lo g ic a l a rg u m e n ts th a t c o n firm 22

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

h is o rig in a l fix a tio n . In c h a p te r fifte e n K im u ra T a k u ji sh o w s th a t, c o n tra ry to C h in e s e a n d W e s te rn p e rc e p tio n s , o r d in a ry Ja p a n e se h av e d o n e p e n a n c e a k in to th e ir G e rm a n s c o u n te r p a r ts sin c e th e 1 9 8 0 s, b u t h e also ex p la in s w h y v e t­ eran s a n d w ar-b e re a v e d fa m ilie s fin d s p iritu a l su ste n a n c e a t Y a su k u n i S h rin e . W i th o u t b e in g a p o lo g e tic o r d efen siv e, h e sh o w s w h y th e se se g m e n ts o f J a p a n ­ ese so c iety s u p p o r t n o t o n ly co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists w h o d o w n p la y th e A tro c ­ ity, b u t also p o litic ia n s w h o to ta lly d e n y its basis in fa c t. K im u ra su g g ests th a t Y a su k u n i S h rin e is p e rh a p s less a d a n g e ro u s s y m b o l o f re s u rg e n t m ilita ris m th a n a so u rc e o f solace fo r m a rg in a liz e d , a lie n a te d so c ial g ro u p s. In th e P o stsc rip t, c h a p te r six tee n , I try to co n v e y su b tle sh a d e s o f n u a n c e in te rm s u se d to d e sc rib e th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , a n d ex p la in w h y Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs in s is t th a t C h in e s e view s o f it are illu sio n s o r m y th s . I r e p u d ia te a p re ­ s u m e d o r im p lic it N a n k in g -A u s c h w itz c o n g ru ity b y s h o w in g th a t v ic tim to lls o f 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 o r m o re c a n n o t b e e m p iric a lly v erified . I c o n c e d e th a t d e n ie rs m a k e so m e v alid p o in ts th a t fo rc e us to q u e s tio n a s s u m p tio n s a n d c o n c lu sio n s e m ­ b ra c e d all to o sm u g ly u n til now , b u t m a n y o f th e ir claim s are in im ic a l to aca­ d e m ic h onesty, so it is cru c ial to d isc ern w h a t th e y g e t rig h t fro m w h a t th e y g et w ro n g . F inally, I su g g e st th a t a m is p la c e d e m p h a sis o n N a n k in g m a k e s us o v e rlo o k Ja p an e se a tro c itie s la te r in th e w a r th a t m o re ju s tifia b ly d e m a n d c o n ­ d e m n a tio n a n d p o s t h o c c o m p e n s a tio n .

Scholarly Integrity H is to ria n s m u s t try, a t least, to rise ab o v e th e p e rso n a l, p o litic a l, a n d e th n ic biases th a t v irtu a lly all h u m a n b e in g s h a rb o r. B u t w h e n s tu d y in g th is p a r tic ­ u la r to p ic , th a t o b lig a tio n m u s t n o t le a d us to c o m m it a w o rse e rro r in th e o p p o s ite d ire c tio n — th e s o p h is try o f c h o o s in g a n d a rra n g in g facts in w ays th a t r id to o m u c h o f th e evil fro m Ja p a n e se a c tio n s. To u n d e r s ta n d w h y th e J a p a n ­ ese a c te d as th e y d id a t N a n k in g is n o t to abso lv e th e m o f g u ilt fo r h a v in g d o n e so. T h e a u th o rs in th is v o lu m e se ek to c larify th e n a tu re a n d e x te n t o f th a t g u ilt m o re precisely, a n d to id e n tify its causes a n d c o n te x ts m o re fairly. W e affirm th a t n a k e d Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n is th e m o s t c ru c ia l fa c t o f all. To e x p a n d im p e ria l p riv ile g es w o n sin c e 1 8 9 5 , im p e ria l J a p a n la u n c h e d a n u n p r o ­ v o k e d in v a sio n a n d c a rrie d o u t a b r u ta l o c c u p a tio n o f C h in a — n o t th e o th e r w ay a ro u n d . T ru e , th e Ja p a n e se are n o t th e o n ly p e o p le to c o n q u e r a n d e x p lo it fo re ig n la n d s, b u t th a t d o es n o t lessen th e p a in th e y ca u se d . T ru e as w ell, th e C h in e s e b e a r so m e re sp o n sib le fo r a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g , b u t th e y c o m m itte d far less, a n d d id so in d efen se o f th e ir h o m e s a n d fam ilies. O u r ta sk is to refin e, n o t reje ct, th e p re v a ilin g v ie w o f Ja p a n e se tu r p itu d e , C h in e s e v ic tim iz a tio n , a n d W e s te rn h u m a n ita ria n is m a t N a n k in g . B u t w e c o m p lic a te th a t p ic tu r e to m a k e it b e tte r c o m p o rt w ith h is to ric a l facts, so m e o f w h ic h w ere q u ite in c o n ­ v e n ie n tly e s ta b lish e d by Ja p a n e se d en ie rs. T h u s , w e h o p e to give re a d e rs a 23

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

m o re reliab le , less e m o tio n a lly d is to rte d basis fo r re a c h in g th e ir o w n c o n c lu ­ sio n s a n d m o ra l ju d g m e n ts a b o u t w h a t th is tra g ic e v e n t w as, a n d w h a t it w as n o t. A n y o n e w h o sp e ak s o r w rite s fo r th e p u b lic , w h e th e r in o r o u ts id e th e classro o m , is p e rfo rc e a te ac h er. A s te a c h e rs, w e h av e a d u ty to p ro v o k e th e critic a l e x a m in a tio n o f co n tro v e rsia l, se n sitiv e issues. B u t in d o in g so, w e m u s t n o t d eclare as tr u e a n y th in g p ro v e d o r even su sp e c te d to b e false, a n d n o t d e p ic t as false a n y th in g re a so n a b ly s h o w n to b e tr u e — n o m a tte r h o w m u c h th a t d e c e it m a y g ra tify o u r e th n ic o r p o litic a l lo y alties.

Notes 1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

7.

8.

9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

Chiang, speech, 14 February 1942, “O ne H alf of the W orld’s People,” p. 11. Tokyo saiban handobukku henshu iinkai, ed., Tokyo saiban handobukku, p. 219; Liu [Ryu], Kankan saiban, p. 178. Hayashi cites different figures for “Chinese traitors,” but makes the same general point and also points out that an estimated 1,000 Japanese were sentenced to death at kangaroo people’s courts in China but stressed that an accurate figure is impossible to arrive at; see Hayashi, BC-kyu senpan saiban, p. 109. O n the K M T using Japanese units against the Communists, see Ienaga, Taiheiyo senso: D ai-2 han, p. 295; also, Hayashi, BC-kyu senpan saiban, pp. 104—6. Inoue, Okonogi, and Suzuki, Gendai N ihon no rekishijo, p. 167. See Inoue, N ihon no rekishige, p. 193; Toyama, Imai, and Fujiwara, Showa shi, p. 125; Toyama, Imai, and Fujiwara, Showa shi: Shinpan, p. 152; Hashikawa, N ihon no hyakunen 4: A jia kaiho no yum e, p. 347; and Hayashi, N ihon no rekishi 25: Taiheiyo senso, p. 64. They cited either the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal or Snow’s Battle fo r A sia as evidence for these figures. Much o f the above derives from Kasahara, N a n kin jik e n to N ihonjin, pp. 221—43. Cited in Askew, “T he Nanjing Incident,” p. 2. The original source for this assertion is proba­ bly Fitch’s diary entries for 25 December 1937; see Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 95; for alleged U.S. complicity in creating the N SZ as a butchering pen, see Yoshida, M a kin g o f the “Rape o f N a n k in g ”, p. 68. T he original version of Rabe’s diary, edited by W ickert for German readers, is entitled D er gute Deutsche von N a n k in g (The G ood German of Nanking), but its English translation reads The Good M an of Nanking. T he different nuance speaks volumes for students o f modern European history. For the 10 million figure, see Kasahara, N ankin jiken to sanko sakusen, p. 76; on the persecution during the Cultural Revolution of antirevolutionary elements, Chinese former “comfort women” and Chinese women raped by the Japanese, see Kasahara, N ankin jiken to Nihonjin, pp. 231—34. For this view of PRC “KMT-bashing” early in the Cold War and its let-up after Taiwan lost international recognition, see H ata in Sakamoto et al., “Rekishi to rekishi ninshiki,” pp. 79—80. For an example of the toned-down criticism of T ’ang prevalent today, see Sun, “Causes of the Nanking Massacre,” pp. 4 3 ^ 5 . Chang, Rape o f N anking, pp. 138—39. I have found no basis in the sources for such a claim. Nankin-shi bunshiryo kenkyukai, ed., Kagami and Himeta, tran. Shogen: N ankin daigyakusatsu, p. 14. Novick, Holocaust in American Life; Finkelstein, Holocaust Industry. Thus in 1976 Remak cited Hitler’s resolve in 1933 to revise terms of the Versailles Treaty, and then commented with no hint o f giving offense to Jews: “but he [Hitler] added that he had no desire for another holocaust. In fact, he was ready to offer certain proposals toward disarma­ m ent.” See Remak, Origins o f the Second World War, p. 11.

24

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

14.

15. 16. 17. 18.

19.

20. 21. 22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Indeed, one Chinese-Canadian urges her compatriots to use this term for their own “unique” experience, and to avoid “Holocaust,” so that Jews would not feel “intruded upon.” See the GA Newsletter 5:1 (March 1988), p. 35. Hsiung and Levine, eds., China’s Bitter Victory. For but two of many examples of deniers who cite this metaphor, see Watanabe, Nihonshi kara m ita Nihonjin, p. 434; and Takemoto and Ohara, Saishin: N a n k in daigyakusatsu, p. 40. Brook mentions this incident as background to the Japanese massacre at Chia-ting in 1937. See Brook, “Pacification of Jiading [Chia-ding],” p. 52. See, for example, Takigawa Masajiro cited in Tanaka, N a n kin jik e n no sokatsu, pp. 240—53. Kobayashi and others have repeated the account. For a Western discussion of the massacre at Chia-ting based on the same late-Ming sources used by Takigawa and that cites the modern novelist H u Shan-yuan in a way that corroborates the Japanese denial claims, see Dennerline, Chia-ting Loyalists, p. 6. For the explicit hypothetical comparison o f Nanking to Paris being spared as an open city and Japanese culpability for rapes and massacres at Manila, see Watanabe, N ihonshi kara m ita N ihonjin, p. 438. Japanese writers who fix primary, as opposed to just secondary, responsibil­ ity on T ’ang would include Watanabe Shoichi, Kobayashi Yoshinori, Fuji Nobuo, Tanaka Masaaki, O i M itsuru, M atsum ura Toshio, Fujioka Nobukatsu, and Nakam ura Akira. See Shokun! ed. “Sanpa godo dai ankeeto,” pp. 66—67, 170, 172, 176, 179, 181, 183, and 185. Kasahara, ed., N a n kin jik e n no hibi, pp. 46 ^ 7. Yang, “Convergence or Divergence?” pp. 842—65; also, Yang, “Toward a Com m on Historical Understanding,” pp. 236—59. Tobe makes such a case for “Shina tsu, ”or “China experts” in the imperial army, but he uses the term within quotations marks. See Tobe, N ihon rikugun to Chugoku, pp. 8—12. See the appen­ dix for a critical discussion of these ethnic slurs. See Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography of the Nanjing Mas­ sacre,” pp. 11—69; also Fogel’s Chapter 12 in the present volume. An example of the Chinese official view in English is Zhang and Liu, A n Illustrated History o f China’s War o f Resistance Against Japan, pp. 35—42 and 51—56. M any colleagues have had publications in the PRC canceled or expurgated without notice. For example, Kasahara once had his victim toll deleted because it was less than 300,000; see Kasahara, N a n kin jik e n to N ihonjin, p. 223. A case that received far wider publicity is Hillary Clin­ tons L iving History; Chinese translators axed passages deemed offensive by the PRC regime. See the N ew York Times 24 September and 23 December 2003. O ne exception is M a Lieh-ch’eng formerly o f the People’s D aily In December 2002, M a argued that it was in China’s interests to stop bashing Japan over war guilt issues, but did not m ention the Nanking Atrocity specifically. See Ma, “Waga Chugoku yo, han-Nichi kodo o tsutsushime,” pp. 126—35. O ne victim of such physical assault and threats was the actress Ch’ao Wei. After she modeled a dress patterned after the wartime Japanese naval flag in 2001, she was pummeled, splattered with excrement, and threatened with death. For such incidents by PRC ultranationalist thugs see Seki [Shih], Chugoku: “A ikoku jo i no byori”, especially pp. 4^ 0; and Ma, “Waga Chugoku yo, han-Nichi kodo o tsutsushime” pp. 126—27. For a Western analysis of Chinese anti-Japanese ultranationalism from below, see Gries, China’s N ew Nationalism, pp. 69—98. These seven were executed specifically in connection with the Nanking Atrocity. T he three at Tokyo were Matsui Iwane, M uto Akira, and H irota Koki; the four at Nanking were Tani Hisao, Noda Tsuyoshi, Mukai Toshiaki, and Tanaka Gunkichi. O f course, more Japanese at the Tokyo, Nanking, and other tribunals received the death sentence for war crimes unrelated to Nanking. Also, Sasaki Toichi, a notorious brigade commander at Nanking, died in PRC detention at the Fushun Detention Center in 1955 after his arrest for other war crimes. See Tobe, N ihon riku­ gun to Chugoku, pp. 227—28. See Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 6; and also MacInnis, Foreword, p. ix—x.

25

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

28. 29.

30.

31. 32.

33.

34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Komori, N it-C h u yuko no maboroshi, p. 256. O n this controversy over wording, see Awaya, Tokyo saiban ron, pp. 182—91. For the English text, see Reischauer, U nited States an d Japan, p. 368; for the Japanese translation, see Kadoya, Showa jid a i, p. 311. For a recent expression of official Chinese displeasure about Yasukuni, see the article, “Nihon no shidosha no Yasukuni sanpai ni danko hantai” (Resolute opposition to Japanese leaders’ worship at Yasukuni) by the PRC Foreign Affairs Ministry, translated from the People'D aily in A sahi shinbun as web posted 12 February 2004. O n the previous day, the mythical national foundation day of 11 February, Japanese media reported Prime Minister Koizumi Jun’ichiro as saying that he had no inhibitions about visiting Yasukuni even though A-class war criminals were enshrined there, and he had no intention of changing his m ind owing to criticism from foreign nations; see A sahi shinbun, 11 February 2004. H e has repeated this statement in 2005. T he three A-class convicts implicated with the Nanking Atrocity are Matsui Iwane, Hirota Koki, and M uto Akira. Koizumi has visited Yasukuni on five different dates during his tenure: 13 August 2001, 21 April 2002, 14 January 2003, 1 January 2004, and 15 August 2006. A sahi shinbun, 16 March 2004, 1 December 2004, and 3 December 2004. Three year earlier, T ’ang Chia-hsuan (Tang Jiaxuan) had reportedly told Koizumi in Japanese genmei shita which, depending on the ideographs intended, could m eant either “sternly ordered” or “clearly told” him to stop visits to Yasukuni. Leftists write for publishers and publications such as Iwanami shoten, Akashi shoten, Aoki shoten, Otsuki shoten, Kashiwa shobo, A sahi shinbun, M ainichi shinbun, Ronza, Sekai, and Shukan kinyobi; conservatives, for Bungei shunju, Chuokoronsha, Kodansha, Tendensha, Shodensha, Shogakkan, Soshisha, PH P Kenkyusho, Sankei shinbun, Shokun!, and Seiron. The num ber of conservative publishing venues has increased since the 1990s. Irokawa, A ru Showa shi, pp. 64—6 and 69. Tokyo saiban handobukku henshu iinkai, ed., Tokyo saiban handobukku, p. 219 and p. 224. Wakabayashi, “Review: Japanese D e v ils , p. 432. For the 3 trillion figure, see editorials in the Yomiuri shinbun and Sankei shinbun, 17 October 2003; for 6 trillion, see Komori, N it-C h u y u k o no maboroshi, p. 237 and p. 253. Komori, N it-C h u saiko, pp. 4 7 ^ 8 . Komori, N it-C h u yuko no maboroshi, pp. 236—37. A sahi shinbun, 11 May 2002 and 11 April 2003. For M atsumura’s original comments on Li as an impersonator, see Matsumura, “N a n kin gyakusatsu”e no daigimon, pp. 158—63 and 363—65. Sankei shinbun, 10 May 2002. See A sahi shinbun, 24 December 2003. T he Japanese government first agreed to award 100 million yen, but raised the am ount to 300 million in the face o f official Chinese displeasure; see A sahi shinbun, 4 September 2003 and 17 October 2003. For an introductory treatm ent o f poison gas warfare in history, Japanese poison gas operations in W orld War II, and current-day compensation, see Tsuneishi, Kagaku heiki hanzai, especially pp. 109—86 and 217—53. A sahi shinbun, 24 November 2004 and 5 December 2004. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, p. 132. See W hite and Jacoby, Thunder out o f China, pp. 166—78. B-29s stationed at Chengtu made 9 raids on Japan proper, 9 on Manchuria (Northeast China), 1 on Taiwan, and 1 on Hankow. See Usui, Shinpan: N it-C h u senso, pp. 172—73. For a recent comprehensive study of this issue, see Shimizu, Chugoku wa naze “han-N ichi” ni natta ka, passim. Komori, N it-C h u yuko no maboroshi, passim; Kobayashi, “Shin gomanizumu sengen 110,” pp. 83-98. Komori, N it-C h u saiko, pp. 154-247.

26

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Messiness o f Historical Reality

51. 52.

53. 54.

55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

61. 62. 63. 64.

65.

66. 67. 68.

69. 70.

71.

72.

Editorial, Yomiuri shinbun, 15 August 2003 and 4 April 2004. A Japanese wartime account notes that the Chinese masses urinated on C hin Kuei’s statue; see Sasaki, Yasen yu binki, p. 240. For a photograph of the two statues, see Liu [Ryu] Kankan saiban, p. 245. See Komori, N it-C h u y u k o no maboroshi, pp. 262—70. See Shirokauer, B rie f History o f Chinese a n d Japanese Civilizations, p. 196 for this observation about C hin Kuei alone. This conservative argument is valid at a high level of generalization. But, for example, imper­ ial loyalists in the Bakumatsu era (1853—67) decapitated wooden statues of the Ashikaga shoguns— who revolted against the imperial line in the fourteenth century— and placed the heads on public display like those o f common criminals. Editorial, A sahi shinbun, 8 January 2004. A sahi shinbun, 16 February 2004. Editorial, A sahi shinbun, 8 April 2004. A sahi shinbun, 20 April 2004. A sahi shinbun, 19 December 2004. T he conservative Sankei shinbun claims that the People's Daily, a PRC government organ, admitted as much after a state visit by Chiang Tse-min (Jiang Zemin) in 1998; see the Sankei editorial, 17 October 2000. Ma, “N ihon wa Chugoku ni 21-kai shazai shita,” p.183. A sahi shinbun, 4 September 2001. Komori et al. ed., Rekishi kyokasho, p. 128. T he “self-flagellation” comes from jigyakuteki, or “masochistic,” which is the curse word of choice among conservatives. “Monkey” comes from hansei zaru, or “monekys who ‘reflect crit­ ically'” on sins committed not by themselves, but by other Japanese in the past. By doing that, conservatives claim, these leftists claim moral superiority to ordinary Japanese who do not. See Kamisaka, Tsugunai wa sunde iru, pp. 214—15. Among government leaders, Murayama Tomiichi (a Socialist), Miyazawa Kiichi, the late Hashimoto Ryutaro, and Kono Yohei have come in for especially harsh criticism. Hashimoto was derided as “Prime Minister Ashimoto” for bow­ ing on his hands and knees in apology at the feet (ashimoto) of Asians. See Kobayashi, Senso ron, p. 144. For the 1,100 figure, see Komori, N it-C h u yuko no maboroshi, p. 293. For the 1,600 figure (1,611 to be precise), see Kamisaka, Tsugunai wa sunde iru, p. 20. Based on Welfare Ministry records, Utusmi lists a figure of 984 B-class convicts sentenced to death and 920 actually exe­ cuted; see Utsumi, Chosenjin B-, C-kyu senpan no kiroku, p. 152. Recent example of the “how m any more generations” line are Endo, and former consul to H ong Kong, Sassa Atsuyuki; see Sassa, “Tsumi kyuzoku ni oyobu.. . ” p. 49. A sahi shinbun, 13, 15, and 16 July 2003. Fujiwara, Shinpan: N a n kin daigyakusatsu, p. 60; Fujiwara, “Nankin daigyakusatsu to kyokasho, kyoiku mondai,” p. 20; Fujiwara, “Nankin koryakusen no tenkai,” pp. 90—91. Note the critical self-reflection about an earlier book on Nanking recently made by left-wing historian, Yoshida Yutaka, Fujiwara’s protege at Hitotsubashi University. See Yoshida, N ihon no guntai, pp. 226—27. See, for example, Fujioka and Higashinakano, “Z a reepu obu N a n k in g ” no kenkyu, pp. 146—70; and Nishio and Fujioka, K okum in noyudan, pp. 220—60. But as Fujiwara and Kasahara show (chapters 2 and 3), even within the left-wing Japanese camp, there are disagreements about precisely when the Nanking Atrocity began in 1937 and when it ended in 1938. See Noam Chomsky’s rebuttal to Telford Taylor as to the illegality of U.S. air strikes in Viet­ nam; Chomsky, For Reasons o f State, pp. 212—22; Taylor, Nuremberg an d Vietnam, pp. 36—38 and 89. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, pp. 17—36.

27

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85.

86.

87.

For the figure “over 70” German military advisers, see Iriye, Origins o f the Second World War in Asia a n d the Pacific, p. 43. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 9. Kita, N it-C h u kaisen, pp. 24—29. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, p. 116. See Tanaka, Paru h a n ji no N ih o n m u za i ron, pp. 125—28; O i, Shikum areta "N ankin daigyakusatsu,”pp. 50—58; and Kobayashi, Senso ron, p. 133. Higashinakano, "Nankin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, pp. 184—85. H ata, Higashinakano, and M atsum oto, “M ondai wa ‘horyo shodan’ o do m iru ka,” pp. 135-36. Kobayashi, Senso ron, pp. 137-38; Higashinakano, "Nankin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, pp. 169-88; Watanabe and Komuro, F uin no Showa shi, pp. 73-76. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 203 and 206. Ibid., p. 251; on Siemens, see Rosenbaum, Prosecuting N a z i War Criminals, p. 80. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 256. See Kasahara, N a n kin jik e n to N ihonjin, pp. 204-23, especially pp. 213-14. Compare Owen, Guilty M en in 1940 with works that came after A. J. P. Taylor, Origins o f the Second World War, first edition in 1961. See also the brief survey of the literature in Mc­ Donough, Hitler, Chamberlain a n d Appeasement, pp. 77-86. These restrictions to preclude participation in combat and to ensure neutrality included bans on arms exports, plus stipulations that operations could take place only under U N authoriza­ tion and only after gaining express consent from the host nation. In addition to O no’s chapter 4, see O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n kin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi.

88. 89. 90. 91.

Kasahara, N a n kin jiken, p. 220; Kasahara, “Suji ijiri no fumo na ronso wa jittai kaimei o tozakeru,” p. 85. The original is in O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n kin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, pp. 245-58. For this view, see McCormack, “Reflections on M odern Japanese History in the Context of the Concept o f Genocide,” pp. 270 and 274. See the miscaptioned photograph in Goldhagen, M oral Reckoning, p. 117.

28

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:57 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

2

T he N a n k in g A t r o c it y : A n I n t e r p r e t iv e O v e r v i e w * Fujiwara A kira

Prelude M o d e rn J a p a n ’s ag g re ssio n a g a in st C h in a b e g a n w ith th e J a p a n - C h ’in g W a r o f 1 8 9 4 —9 5 , a n d c o n tin u e d w ith th e T w e n ty -o n e D e m a n d s o f 1 9 1 5 , th e S h a n ­ tu n g E x p e d itio n s o f 1 9 2 7 —2 8 , a n d th e M a n c h u r ia n I n c id e n t o f 1 9 3 1 —3 3 . B u t a n a ll-o u t w a r o f ag g re ssio n b e g a n w ith th e 7 Ju ly 1 9 3 7 a rm e d clash a t M a rc o P olo B rid g e o u ts id e P e k in g .1 C u lp a b ility fo r tu r n in g th a t m in o r sk irm is h in to a n a ll-o u t w a r lay w ith J a p a n — p rim a rily th e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t a n d c e n ­ tra l a rm y a u th o ritie s . A lth o u g h a lo c al tru c e s e ttle d th e affair o n 11 July, P rim e M in is te r K o n o e F u m im a ro ’s g o v e rn m e n t ex p re ssed “g rave reso lv e” in p a ssin g a c a b in e t r e s o lu tio n to se n d m o re tro o p s o n th a t sa m e day. K o n o e , a n im p e ­ ria l p rin c e , fla u n te d h is re g im e ’s b e llig e re n c e b y in v itin g m e d ia re p re se n ta tiv e s to h is official re sid e n c e a n d c a llin g o n th e m to fo ste r n a tio n a l u n ity . B ased o n th is c a b in e t r e s o lu tio n , c o m m a n d e rs h a s tily s e n t tw o b rig a d e s fro m M a n c h u r ia a n d a d iv is io n fro m K o re a to n o r th e r n C h in a , th e G e n e ra l S ta ff p re p a re d to se n d th re e d iv isio n s fro m Ja p a n , a n d th e A rm y M in is tr y h a lte d all d isch arg es. A t th a t tim e , tw o -y e a r re c ru its rec eiv e d a n ea rly d isc h a rg e in Ju ly — b efo re th e ir ac tiv e d u ty a c tu a lly e n d e d — to go h o m e fo r p e a k m o n th s o f fa rm w o rk w h e n th e la b o r o f y o u n g m e n w as so re ly n e e d e d . B y re s c in d in g th is p ro v isio n , th e g o v e rn m e n t sh o w e d th a t J a p a n w as g e a rin g u p fo r w a r in ea rn est. J a p a n ’s h a rd lin e c re a te d a sense o f crisis in C h in a . C h ia n g K a i-sh e k o f th e K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) re g im e o r N a tio n a lis t g o v e rn m e n t m e t w ith C h o u E n lai o f th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a rty (C C P ) o n 17 Ju ly to d iscu ss s te p p e d -u p effo rts fo r a u n ite d f r o n t a n d C h ia n g m a d e a sp e e c h o n th e n e e d fo r resolve in re sis tin g Ja p a n . T h e C h in e s e p e o p le ’s w ill to resist h e ig h te n e d as tw o m o re 29

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

a rm e d clashes b ro k e o u t in th e n o r th C h in a tin d e rb o x . By 2 7 July, re in fo rc e ­ m e n ts fro m K o re a a n d M a n c h u r ia h a d arriv ed , as d id n av a l air fo rc e u n its; a n d th e S h o w a e m p e ro r o r H ir o h ito , as h e is k n o w n in th e W e st, issu e d A rm y C h ie f o f S ta ff O r d e r 6 4 .2 I t rea d : “A lo n g w ith its p re s e n t d u tie s, th e C h in a G a rris o n A rm y (C G A ) sh a ll c h a stise C h i n k fo rces in th e P e k in g -T ie n ts in area a n d p ac ify [i.e., o cc u p y ] stra te g ic p o in ts .”3 T h e e m p e ro r u se d th e te rm chas­ tise th a t P rim e M in is te r K o n o e la te r m a d e fa m o u s. O n 2 7 July, th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t d e c id e d to se n d re in fo rc e m e n ts fro m J a p a n p ro p e r. C h ie f o f S ta ff O rd e r 6 5 , as issu ed b y th e e m p e ro r, called fo r s e n d in g th re e d iv isio n s a n d m o b iliz ­ in g a n o th e r 2 0 9 ,0 0 0 m e n p lu s 5 4 ,0 0 0 h o rse s.4 R eal fig h tin g b e g a n o n 2 8 Ju ly w ith a g e n e ra l o ffen siv e in th e n o r th th a t saw im p e ria l tro o p s o c c u p y P e k in g a n d T ie n ts in . T h is c o u rse o f ev e n ts w as th e c o n v e rse o f th a t w h ic h b e g a n th e M a n c h u r ia n I n c id e n t. In S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 1 , th e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t a n d c e n tra l a rm y a u ­ th o ritie s h a d w a n te d to se ttle th a t c o n flic t q u ic k ly w h e re a s field a rm ie s w ere in te n t o n e x p a n d in g it. N o w , in Ju ly 1 9 3 7 , it w as th e g o v e rn m e n t in T o k y o th a t esca late d th e w a r b y s e n d in g m assiv e r e in fo rc e m e n ts to n o r th e r n C h in a even th o u g h field arm ie s h a d re a c h e d a s e ttle m e n t o n 11 July. Ish iw a ra K an ji, C h ie f o f th e G e n e ra l S ta ff O p e r a tio n s D iv isio n , rev e rse d h is h a w k is h view s o f M a n c h u r ia n In c id e n t days, a n d w as n o w a n e x c e p tio n a m o n g c e n tra l a rm y a u th o ritie s in o p p o s in g th e e x te n sio n o f o p e ra tio n s to C h in a . M o re ty p ic a l o f th a t g ro u p w as A rm y M in is te r S u g iy a m a H a jim e , w h o sid e d w ith P rim e M in ­ iste r K o n o e , F o re ig n M in is te r H ir o ta K o k i, a n d o th e r civil g o v e rn m e n t h aw k s. E v en so, th e in itia tiv e fo r f u tu re a rm y d e c isio n m a k in g w o u ld u ltim a te ly lay w ith local c o m m a n d e rs w h o zealo u sly p u sh e d fo r esca latio n d esp ite th e ir gravely flaw ed g rasp o f c o n d itio n s in C h in a . B lin d to th e p a trio tis m fo rg in g n a tio n a l u n ity th e re , th e y p e rsis te d in d is p a ra g in g th e C h in e s e m ilita ry a n d p e o p le in th e b e lie f th a t “o n e te llin g b lo w ,” o r q u ic k decisive v ic to ry , w o u ld m a k e th e e n e m y sue fo r peace. In A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , n a v a l m a rin e u n its to o k th e w a r to S h a n g h a i o n th e p re ­ te x t o f p ro te c tin g Ja p an e se civilians ag a in st p o p u la r C h in e se u n re st. A rm y haw k s d ism isse d o p p o s itio n fro m m o re c a u tio u s e le m e n ts s u c h as Ish iw a ra K an ji, a n d b o ld ly e x te n d e d th e sc o p e o f o p e ra tio n s fro m n o r th e r n to c e n tra l C h in a . T h e S h o w a e m p e ro r ( H iro h ito ), as h e h im s e lf w o u ld re la te in 1 9 4 6 , s o u g h t to e x p a n d th e w a r a t th is tim e b y s e n d in g even m o re u n its f ro m M a n c h u ria . H e b e ra te d Ish iw a ra fo r w ea k n ess a n d w as in s tru m e n ta l in tra n s fe rrin g u n its fro m C h ’in g ta o in n o r th e r n C h in a to S h a n g h a i.5 T h u s th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t s ta rte d w h a t b e c a m e a fu ll-sca le w a r b y d is p a tc h in g h u g e a rm y u n its , b u t o ffe re d n o ju s tific a tio n w o r th y o f th e n a m e , sa y in g o n ly th a t im p e ria l fo rces w o u ld “c h a s­ tise th e u n r u ly C h in k s ”— a slo g a n th a t K o n o e issu ed in lie u o f fo rm a lly d e ­ c la rin g w ar. T h e r e w ere th re e m a in re a so n s fo r p u r s u in g th is c o n flic t as an “in c id e n t” ra th e r th a n as a w ar: (1) E v en a t th is la te d a te , a rm y a n d g o v e rn ­ m e n t lead ers fe lt c o n v in c e d th a t “o n e te llin g b lo w ” w o u ld e n d it; th e y d id n o t 30

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

d re a m th a t a m a jo r, lo n g - te rm c o n flic t w o u ld re su lt. (2) J a p a n h a d n o c o m ­ p e llin g re a so n fo r w ar. “C h a stise th e u n r u ly C h in k s ” w as h a rd ly a w a r a im th a t w o u ld w h ip u p p o p u la r s u p p o r t a t h o m e . (3) W i th th e p re m ie rs h ip o f H ir o ta K o k i fro m M a rc h 1 9 3 6 to F e b ru a ry 19 3 7 , th e a rm y a n d n a v y h a d b e g u n p u rs u ­ in g a r m a m e n t e x p a n sio n p ro g ra m s th a t re lie d o n im p o r ts o f s tra te g ic m a te rie l f ro m th e U n ite d S tate s, a n e u tra l po w er. J a p a n c o u ld n o t go o n im p o r tin g th ese k ey ite m s easily u n d e r in te r n a tio n a l la w i f it fo rm a lly b e c a m e a b e llig e r­ e n t sta te b y d e c la rin g w a r o n C h in a . C e n tra l a rm y lead ers in T o k y o h a d n o p la n to a tta c k C h in a ’s ca p ita l o f N a n ­ k in g w h e n th e y d isp a tc h e d tro o p s to S h a n g h a i in A u g u st; in th is, th e y d iffe red f ro m M a ts u i Iw a n e a n d Y an ag aw a H e is u k e , w h o la te r le d th e a ssa u lt o n N a n ­ k in g . In ste a d , lead e rs in T o k y o ex p e c te d a q u ic k lo cal s e ttle m e n t like th a t w h ic h h a d e n d e d th e S h a n g h a i I n c id e n t o f J a n u a ry to M a y 1 9 3 2 .6 T h is tim e , a S h a n g ­ h ai E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y (SEA ), o r S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry F orce (SE F ), w as assem b led o n 15 A u g u st 1 9 3 7 u n d e r M a ts u i’s c o m m a n d . It h a d stric tly lim ite d o rd ers: “to p r o te c t im p e ria l su b je c ts b y d e s tro y in g e n e m y fo rces in a n d a ro u n d S h a n g h a i a n d o c c u p y in g stra te g ic p o in ts to th e n o r t h . ”7 N a n k in g , it b ea rs n o t ­ in g , is ro u g h ly 3 0 0 k ilo m e te rs w est o f S h a n g h a i.8 T h e SEA ’s in itia l s tre n g th w as h a s tily se t a t tw o d iv isio n s, a n d a h e a v y a rtille ry u n it jo in e d w ith in tw o w eeks. T h re e a n d a h a lf m o re d iv isio n s jo in e d in S e p te m b e r, a n d o n e m o re in O c to ­ ber. T h u s th e S E A ca m e to c o m p rise th e T h ir d , N in th , E le v e n th , T h ir te e n th , S ix te e n th , O n e H u n d re d -f ir s t, a n d O n e H u n d re d -s ix te e n th d iv isio n s. T h e T e n th A rm y w as fo rm e d u n d e r Y anagaw a’s c o m m a n d in O c to b e r. It c o m p rise d th re e a n d a h a l f d iv isio n s: th e S ix th , E ig h te e n th , O n e H u n d r e d - f o u r te e n th , p lu s p a r t o f th e F ifth . T h is T e n th A rm y w as n o t su p p o s e d to a tta c k N a n k in g eith er. Its m is sio n , lik e th a t o f th e SEA , w as to d e s tro y C h in e s e a rm ie s a n d p r o te c t Ja p a n e se n a tio n a ls in th e S h a n g h a i area— n o th in g m o r e .9 T h e im p e ria l a rm y ’s fo re m o s t p r io rity th r o u g h o u t th e 1 9 3 0 s w as to p re ­ p a re fo r w a r w ith th e S o v iet U n io n . A rm y le ad e rs h a d n o w ish to c o m m it large forces in C h in a fo r th e lo n g te rm , a n d m o s t w ere c o n v in c e d th a t th is “in c id e n t” w o u ld e n d a fte r th e y sc o re d o n e m a jo r v ic to ry . B u t ev e n ts a t S h a n g ­ h a i s h o c k e d th e m . S h ells r a n p e rilo u sly low. B y 8 N o v e m b e r, c a su a ltie s h a d s k y ro c k e te d to 9 ,1 1 5 k ille d a n d 3 1 ,1 2 5 w o u n d e d . R e in fo rc e m e n ts , w h ic h h a d n e v e r b e e n a n tic ip a te d , w ere s e n t rep e ate d ly . T h e T h ir d a n d E le v e n th d iv i­ sio n s, fo r ex a m p le , h a d to b e to ta lly re p le n is h e d .10 A rm y le ad e rs s h ifte d th e w a r ’s m a in th e a te r fro m n o r th e r n to c e n tra l C h in a in O c to b e r a n d th e T e n th A rm y la n d e d b e h in d C h in e s e lin e s a t H a n g c h o u B ay o n 5 N o v e m b e r. O n ly th a t d a rin g m o v e b ro k e th e b lo o d y s ta le m a te a t S h a n g h a i, b u t C h in e s e u n its b e a t a h a s ty fu ll re tre a t to av o id e n c irc le m e n t a n d a n n ih ila tio n . Ja p a n , th e n , d id n o t deliver th e “o n e te llin g b lo w ” to w ip e o u t e n e m y forces, a n d th u s c o u ld n o t ach iev e v ic to ry in th is “in c id e n t .” O n 7 N o v e m b e r, tw o days a fte r th e T e n th A rm y la n d e d , it a n d th e S E A c o m b in e d to f o rm a C e n tr a l C h in a A re a A rm y (C C A A ) u n d e r M a ts u i’s over31

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

all c o m m a n d , w ith Im p e ria l P rin c e A sak a Y asu h ik o ta k in g over th e SEA . A t its h e ig h t, th is n e w ly -fo rm e d C C A A n u m b e re d a n e s tim a te d 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e n .11 T h e re o rg a n iz a tio n sig n ifie d th a t Ja p a n e se fo rces w ere n o t ju s t o n an e x p e d itio n to S h a n g h a i, b u t w o u ld o p e ra te in a b r o a d e r “c e n tra l C h in a a re a .” E v en so, th e C C A A w as still a n im p r o m p t u a m a lg a m a tio n (hengo), n o t a fo r­ m a l b a ttle fo rm a tio n (sento joretsu), as re fle c te d in its m is sio n . Its o rd e rs read : “D e s tro y e n e m y fo rces in th e S h a n g h a i area, b re a k th e ir w ill to fig h t, a n d th e re b y b r in g a n e n d to th e c o n flic t.” 12 T h e C h ie f o f th e G e n e ra l S ta ff also s tip u la te d a lin e o f d e m a rc a tio n : “in g e n e ra l, ea st o f th e S u c h o u - C h ia -h s in g lin e ” (see m a p 1). In o th e r w o rd s, th e C C A A w as o rd e re d to re m a in in th e area east o f L ake T ’ai; th a t is w h y it rec eiv e d n o s u p p o r t- a n d - s u p p ly u n its . A lso, six o f th e C C A A s te n a n d a h a lf d iv isio n s w ere “sp e cia l d iv is io n s ,” w e a k in firep o w er, lim ite d in m a n e u v e ra b ility , a n d m a n n e d b y s e c o n d - o r th ir d - p o o l reserv ists h a s tily asse m b le d . T h e y w ere n o t officers a n d m e n o n th e ac tiv e list, in th e fig h tin g p rim e o f th e ir ea rly tw e n tie s . T h e ir a b r u p t rec all to activ e d u ty cam e in th e ir m id - to la te -th irtie s , o r even th e ir e a rly -fo rtie s— lo n g a fte r th e y fe lt th e ir m ilita ry o b lig a tio n s w ere o v er a n d th e y h a d r e tu r n e d to civ ilia n life as b re a d -w in n e rs . H e n c e , m o ra le a n d a m e n a b ility to m ilita ry d isc ip lin e w ere o fte n p o o r. A m a n o S a b u ro , w h o se le tte rs are tra n s la te d in c h a p te r 8, m e n ­ tio n s th e se “o ld m a n tr o o p s ” a n d h in ts a t th e a n x ieties fe lt b y o ld e r reserv e officers fo rc e d to c o m m a n d m u c h y o u n g e r tro o p s y ears a fte r th e ir o w n tw elv e­ m o n th tr a in in g p e rio d h a d e n d e d .13 W h e n th e e n tire C h in e s e a rm y b e g a n to re tre a t, th e C C A A ig n o re d o rd e rs a n d gave chase w e stw a rd to w a rd N a n k in g . E g u c h i K eiich i cites S E A C h ie f o f S ta ff I in u m a M a m o r u ’s d ia ry to sh o w th a t, as ea rly as 18 A u g u st, S E A c o m ­ m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e a lre a d y a sp ire d to c a p tu re th e e n e m y c a p ita l a lth o u g h c e n tra l a rm y le ad e rs h a d n o s u c h p la n s, a n d even b e fo re th e C C A A ca m e in to b e in g . M a ts u i, d is g ru n tle d b y th e n a r r o w sc o p e o f S E A o p e ra tio n s , h a d to b e ch a stised : “o rd e rs fo r m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s are n o d iffe re n t fro m im p e ria l re ­ scrip ts; it is im p u d e n t to criticiz e th e s e .” B u t la te r th a t sa m e d a y M a ts u i o p e n ly d ec la re d : “W e m u s t reso lv e to o rd e r tro o p s in to a c tio n as n e e d e d b a se d o n o u r tr a d itio n a l s p ir it o f ‘in s ta n t e n g a g e m e n t, in s ta n t v ic to ry ’ b y s h iftin g o u r m a in forces fro m n o r th e r n C h in a to N a n k in g . W e c a n d e b a te th e issue o f w h ere b e s t to d eliv er th e k n o c k - o u t blow , b u t r ig h t n o w w e a b s o lu te ly m u s t m a k e N a n k in g o u r m a in ta rg e t.”14 A fte r th e C h in e s e flig h t b e g a n in N o v e m b e r, f ro n tlin e tro o p s c a m e to sh a re th e n e w ly p r o m o te d C C A A c o m m a n d e r M a ts u i’s a s p ira tio n s ; th e y crav ed th e g lo ry o f b e in g first to e n te r N a n k in g . T h e ir eg reg io u s fo rc e d m a rc h e s, ex acer­ b a te d b y th e absen ce o f s u p p o rt-a n d -s u p p ly u n its, m e a n t th a t th e ra n k -a n d -file h a d to rely o n p lu n d e r to su rv iv e e n ro u te . O n 2 0 N o v e m b e r, Im p e ria l H e a d ­ q u a rte rs (IH ) w as se t u p fo r th e first tim e sin c e th e 1 9 0 4 —0 5 R u sso -Ja p a n e se W a r— a decisive ste p b o th stra te g ic a lly a n d sy m b o lically . B e littlin g th e C h in a w a r as a m e re “in c id e n t,” y e t u n a b le to w in it, J a p a n h a d n o ch o ice . G iv e n de 32

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

fac to w a rtim e c o n d itio n s o f m ass tr o o p d e p lo y m e n t a n d n av a l s u p p o r t, th e c o o rd in a tin g o f th e tw o services’ ch a in s o f c o m m a n d re q u ire d a n I H u n d e r th e 1889 Im p e ria l C o n s titu tio n . U n lik e th e I H in w ars b e fo re th e S h o w a e m p e r o r ’s reig n , how ever, th is o n e w as a p u re ly m ilita ry b o d y in 1 9 3 7 . N o c iv ilia n c a b i­ n e t m e m b e r, n o t ev en th e p rim e m in iste r, c o u ld jo in its d e lib e ra tio n s. In ste a d , a n ad h o c lia iso n c o u n c il h a n d le d c o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d I H to en su re th a t c a b in e t acts o f state c o n fo rm e d w ith th e e m p e ro r’s su p rem e c o m m a n d .15 T h u s b e g a n th e m o s t e n o rm o u s, expensive, a n d d e a d ly w a r in m o d ­ e rn Ja p a n e se h is to ry — o n e w a g e d w ith o u t ju s t cau se o r c o g e n t rea so n .

The Atrocity Delimited O n 2 4 N o v e rm b e r 1 9 3 7 , I H a d m itte d re a lity a n d re sc in d e d its first lin e o f d e m a rc a tio n , th a t fro m S u c h o u to C h ia - h s in g east o f L ak e T ’ai; o n ly th e n d id it b e g in to th in k se rio u sly a b o u t a tta c k in g N a n k in g . I H n o w se t u p a se c o n d lin e o f d e m a rc a tio n c u ttin g across L ak e T ’ai f ro m W u h s i to H u c h o u , b e h in d w h ic h fo rces w o u ld re g ro u p b e fo re a d v a n c in g f u r th e r (see m a p 1). B u t f r o n t­ lin e u n its ig n o re d th is lin e to o , a n d p re sse d th e ir a tta c k .16 O n 1 D e c e m b e r, th e e m p e ro r’s A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff O r d e r 7 c o n v e rte d th e s to p g a p C C A A fro m a n im p r o m p t u a m a lg a m a tio n (hengo) in to a fo rm a l b a ttle fo rm a tio n (sento joretsu). O n th e sa m e day, th e e m p e r o r ’s A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff O r d e r 8 read : “C C A A c o m m a n d e rs sh a ll a ssa u lt th e e n e m y c a p ita l o f N a n k in g w ith s u p p o r t f ro m th e n av y .”17 T h u s , fo rm a l o rd e rs to a tta c k N a n k in g ca m e d o w n o n ly o n 1 D e c e m b e r. B ased o n A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff O r d e r 8, th e C C A A c o m m a n d e d th a t: (1) th e S E A la u n c h o p e ra tio n s o n 5 D e c e m b e r w ith its m a in fo rc e re a d y to m o v e to w a rd T a n y a n g a n d K u y u n g w h ile a su b s id ia ry fo rc e a tta c k e d th e e n e m y re a r o n th e n o r th sh o re o f th e Y angtze; a n d (2) th e T e n th A rm y s ta rt o p e ra tio n s o n 3 D e c e m b e r w ith its m a in fo rc e re a d y to m o v e to w a rd L ish u i a n d a su b s id ia ry fo rce, to w a rd W u h u (see m a p 1). In fac t, th e S E A w as alre ad y w ell p a s t C h a n g -c h o u o n 2 9 N o v e m b e r. It o c c u p ie d T a n y a n g o n 2 D e c e m b e r— s o m e th in g n o t sc h e d u le d to h a p p e n u n til th e se v en th . L ikew ise, th e T e n th A rm y h a d alre a d y ta k e n K w a n g te o n 3 0 N o v e m b e r. Its c o m m a n d e r, L t. G e n . Y anagaw a H e is u k e , p ro c la im e d a t th e h e a d o f h is tro o p s , “I w ill press th e a tta c k o n N a n k in g as I d e e m f it.” T h u s , n e ith e r th e S E A n o r th e T e n th A rm y b o th e re d to w a it fo r o rd e rs. T h e a im b e h in d A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff O r d e r 8 w as n o t to m a k e a n a ll-o u t r u s h fo r N a n k in g . B o th C C A A a rm ie s w ere to a d v a n c e a lo n g a b r o a d f ro n t, re g ro u p , e n c ircle C h in e s e d efe n se fo rces, a n d a n n ih ila te th e m . B u t g lo ry -h u n g ry , f ro n tlin e u n its lu ste d to b e first in th e e n e m y c a p ita l a n d sta g ed a m a d d a s h fo r it. T h u s th e a tta c k o n N a n k in g , lik e th a t o n S h a n g ­ h a i, w as o u t o f c o n tro l fro m th e sta rt. In d e te r m in in g th e n u m b e r o f C h in e s e v ic tim s in th e N a n k in g A tro city , w e m u s t first d efin e th e e v e n t’s tim e sp a n a n d area. T h e S E A a d v a n c in g fro m 33

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

S h a n g h a i, a n d th e T e n th A rm y afte r la n d in g a t C h in s h a n w e i in H a n g c h o u Bay, re p e a te d ly in d u lg e d in ra p e , a rso n , p lu n d e r, a n d m ass m u rd e r. In th a t sense, Y oshida Y utaka a n d H o n d a K a tsu ic h i are c o rre c t w h e n th e y arg u e th a t a n y stu d y o f th e A tro c ity m u s t in c lu d e th e se v ic io u s acts e n ro u te to N a n k in g , n o t ju s t th o se in a n d n e a r th e city .18 M a ssac re s to o k p la c e all th e w a y f ro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g , so in p rin c ip le , all p e rso n s k ille d e n ro u te s h o u ld e n te r in to th e to ta l. B u t in so fa r as w e call th is th e N anking A tro c ity — as o p p o s e d to th o se elsew h ere— I d e lim it th e e v e n t as la s tin g f ro m 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , w h e n I H a n d th e C C A A issu ed o rd e rs to a tta c k N a n k in g , to 5 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , w h e n th e im p e ria l a rm y fe lt th a t a m e a su re o f o rd e r h a d r e tu r n e d to th e city. A rea-w ise, th e A tro c ity to o k p la c e o n b o th sid es o f th e Y angtze, w e st o f th e C h a n g c h o u K w an g te lin e , w h e re th e tw o a rm ie s m e t o n 1 D e c e m b e r. N o te th a t th e te m ­ p o ra l sc o p e o f th e A tro c ity as I d efin e it is s h o r te r th a n K a sa h a ra T o k u s h i’s in c h a p te r 3, a n d th e g e o g ra p h ic area as I d e lim it it is w id e r th a n h is d e fin itio n . T h e S E A a n d T e n th A rm y m a in u n its a d v a n c e d to w a rd th e c a p ita l p a ra lle l to th e m a jo r ro ad s a n d rail lin e s, w h ile su b s id ia ry u n its fo rd e d th e Y angtze to m a rc h a lo n g its far b a n k u n d e r a rtille ry s u p p o r t b y th e E le v e n th B a ttle F leet. H a v in g le t C h in e s e a rm ie s ev ad e a n n ih ila tio n a t S h a n g h a i, th e Ja p a n e se n o w s o u g h t to e x p lo it g e o g ra p h y to p re c lu d e a se c o n d escap e b y p u s h in g th e m to w a rd th e Y angtze, w h ic h w ra p p e d a r o u n d a n d b e h in d th e c ity o f N a n k in g . A s K a sa h a ra d escrib e s elsew h ere, ill-a d v ise d C h in e s e p la n s to d e fe n d th e c a p ­ ita l a t all costs d e s p ite th e se d e trim e n ta l to p o g r a p h ic c o n d itio n s p la y e d in to Ja p a n e se h a n d s .19 T h e s e flaw ed d efe n se p la n s w ere a fa c to r th a t c o n trib u te d to th e A tro city , as d id th e fa c t th a t N a n k in g h a d a h u g e civ ilia n p o p u la tio n , w h ic h w o u ld b e tr a p p e d a lo n g sid e so ld ie rs in sid e c ity w alls.

Japanese Strategic Blunders T h e A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff h a d re p e a te d ly w o rk e d o u t p rec ise, d e ta ile d p la n s fo r w a r w ith th e S o v iet U n io n , b u t n e v e r se rio u sly th o u g h t a b o u t fig h tin g th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a , le d b y C h ia n g K a i-sh e k ’s K M T re g im e a fte r 1 9 2 7 , as a n a tio n a l en tity . T h u s , J a p a n h a d n o lo n g -ra n g e b lu e p r in t to c o n q u e r all o f C h in a . T h e G e n e ra l S ta ff rev ised its “G u id e lin e s fo r D e fe n se o f th e E m p ir e ,” its ta c tic a l h a n d b o o k s , a n d its tr o o p s tr e n g th levels in 1 9 1 8 , w h e n it n a m e d “R ussia, th e U .S ., a n d C h in a ” h y p o th e tic a l en e m ie s. A s e c o n d rev isio n to o k p la ce in 1 9 2 3 , w h e n th e lis t read , “th e U n ite d S tate s, R u ssia, a n d C h i n a .” H o w ev er, ju s t p la c in g C h in a o n th e lis t d id n o t m e a n th a t th e A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff m a d e carefu l p la n s to w ag e fu ll-sca le w a r a g a in st it as a u n ifie d n a tio n . S tra te g ic th in k in g re m a in e d tie d to th e n o tio n th a t C h in a w as a c o lle c tio n o f w a rlo rd sa trap ies; th u s , J a p a n n e e d e d o n ly to o c c u p y k e y areas as ta c tic a l n e e d s d ic ta te d . A th ir d rev isio n o f “G u id e lin e s fo r D e fe n se o f th e E m p ire ” a p p e a re d in J u n e 1 9 3 6 . T h e te x t o f its se c tio n o n “T ac tic s to w a rd C h in a ” h as b e e n 34

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

lo s t.20 B u t a c c o rd in g to a la te r a c c o u n t b y S h im a n u k i T a k e h a ru , th is sim p ly called fo r th e a rm y to a tta c k a n d d e stro y e n e m y forces in n o r th e r n a n d ce n tra l C h in a so as to o c c u p y k e y p o in ts th e re , a n d fo r th e n a v y to s u p p o r t a rm y o p e r­ a tio n s b y s in k in g th e C h in e s e fleet o n th e Y angtze a n d a lo n g th e se a c o a st.21 B ased o n th e se J u n e 1 9 3 6 “G u id e lin e s ,” th e G e n e ra l S ta ff in A u g u s t 1 9 3 6 d re w u p a p la n title d , “ S tra te g y fo r C h in a : 1 9 3 7 .” T h is s ta te d th a t five h y p o ­ th e tic a l d iv isio n s in n o r th e r n C h in a m ig h t b e b o ls te re d b y th re e m o re fo r use in th e five p ro v in c e s o f S u iy u a n , Je h o l, S h a n tu n g , H o p e i, a n d S h a n si. T h re e h y p o th e tic a l N i n t h A rm y d iv isio n s in c e n tra l C h in a m ig h t o c c u p y S h a n g h a i, a n d a T e n th A rm y m ig h t b e fo rm e d to la n d a t H a n g c h o u Bay. T h e s e N i n t h a n d T e n th a rm ies m ig h t m a rc h o n N a n k in g a n d seize a n d o c c u p y th e s tra te ­ g ic S h a n g h a i-H a n g c h o u - N a n k in g tria n g le , b u t in th a t case, n o o p e ra tio n s s h o u ld ta k e p lace elsew h e re in C h in a . In s o u th e rn C h in a , th e p la n w o u ld b e fo r th e d e p lo y m e n t o f o n e d iv isio n , w h o se m a in fo rc e m ig h t o c c u p y F o o c h o u a n d w h o se su b s id ia ry fo rces m ig h t o c c u p y A m o y a n d S w atow . A t th is tim e , J a p a n ’s C h in a G a rris o n A rm y, s ta tio n e d in th e P e k in g - T ’ie n ts in are a o f n o r t h ­ e rn C h in a , h a d o n ly re c e n tly rise n in s tr e n g th fro m 1771 to 5 7 7 4 m e n .22 T h is “S tra te g y fo r C h in a : 1 9 3 7 ” w as th e A rm y G e n e ra l S ta f f ’s first sp e cific p la n to o c c u p y p a rts o f n o r th e r n C h in a a n d to a tta c k N a n k in g . B u t, it m u s t b e stressed , th e “S tra te g y ” w as d ra w n u p o n ly in re sp o n se to th e H ir o ta g o v e rn ­ m e n t’s “S e c o n d G u id e lin e s fo r S e ttlin g th e C h in a S itu a tio n ” o f A u g u s t 1 9 3 6 . T h is la tte r d o c u m e n t e n v isio n e d a “ D e ta c h m e n t o f N o r t h C h in a ” th a t e n ­ tailed th e a rm y ’s h e lp to create a n a n ti- C o m m u n is t b u ffe r zo n e o f c o lla b o ra to r reg im es. L ikew ise, th e A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff d re w u p p la n s fo r s e n d in g tro o p s to S h a n g h a i in ce n tra l C h in a , b u t o n ly in resp o n se to stiffen e d C h in e se defenses. T h o s e p la n s, to o , d id n o t d eriv e fro m Ja p a n e se in itia tiv e . T h e “S tra te g y fo r C h in a : 1 9 3 7 ” d ra fte d in A u g u s t 1 9 3 6 , th e c re a tio n o f a S E A in A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , a n d a c tu a l a ssa u lt o n N a n k in g b y th e C C A A in D e c e m ­ b e r 1 9 3 7 , all s te m m e d f ro m a g rave m is re a d in g o f affairs in C h in a , w h ic h w as fast m o v in g to w a rd n a tio n a l c o n s o lid a tio n fed b y a n ti-Ja p a n e se n a tio n a lis m . T h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 6 S ia n I n c id e n t, w h ic h saw th e k id n a p p in g o f C h ia n g K aish e k b y h is o w n g en e rals, clea re d th e w ay fo r a se c o n d r o u n d o f K M T -C C P c o o p e ra tio n c u lm in a tin g in a u n ite d fro n t; it d id n o t s p lit C h in a as th e J a p a n ­ ese h a d h o p e d . T h e s e m o m e n to u s ev e n ts sp a w n e d a n a tio n w id e c o m m itm e n t to resist Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n a fte r th e Ju ly 1 9 3 7 M a rc o P olo B rid g e In c id e n t, w h ic h le d to fu ll-sca le h o stilitie s. In su m , d e s p ite n a m in g C h in a a h y p o th e t­ ical enem y, Ja p a n e se m ilita ry le ad e rs n e ith e r d e e m e d it a u n ifie d n a tio n - s ta te n o r d id se rio u s stra te g ic p la n n in g o n th a t p re m ise . T h is a rro g a n c e s te m m e d fro m th e o u td a te d n o tio n th a t J a p a n n e e d o n ly o c c u p y th is o r th a t k e y area in a s tric tly ta c tic a l fa sh io n . E v en in d ra w in g u p its “S tra te g y fo r C h in a : 1 9 3 7 ”— w h e n th e A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff fin a lly s ta rte d th in k in g a b o u t s e n d in g tro o p s to c e n tra l C h in a a n d N a n k in g — n o o n e d re a m e d th a t th is m o v e w o u ld le ad to a fu ll-scale, lo n g - te rm w ar. Ja p a n e se stra te g ists c o u ld n o t u n d e r s ta n d 35

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

b ro a d p o litic a l ra m ific a tio n s in a tta c k in g a n a tio n a l ca p ita l; th a t is w h y im p e ­ ria l a rm y u n its sp e d le m m in g -lik e o v er th e b r in k afte r th e y sa w th e C h in e s e a rm y b e a t a r e tre a t fro m S h a n g h a i. S u c h c o n s id e ra tio n s sh e d lig h t o n th re e m a jo r u n d e rly in g cau ses o f th e N a n k in g A tro city . F irst, c o n te m p t fo r C h in a as a m o d e rn n a tio n le d to a d efi­ c ie n t c o n c e rn fo r a p p ly in g in te r n a tio n a l la w to w a rd it. J u s t as se rio u s fig h t­ in g in n o r th e r n C h in a b e g a n , a n u n d e rs e c re ta ry in th e A rm y M in is tr y s e n t a n o tic e d a te d 5 A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 to th e C h in a G a rris o n A rm y ’s C h ie f o f S taff: “It is in a p p ro p r ia te to a c t s tric tly in a c c o rd a n c e w ith v a rio u s s tip u la tio n s in ‘T reaties a n d P ractices G o v e rn in g L a n d W a rfa re a n d O th e r L aw s o f W a r’.”23 S im ila r n o tic e s w e n t o u t to o th e r u n its as w ell. T h e m essag e c a n o n ly b e c o n ­ s tru e d as: “th e re is n o n e e d to o b ey in te rn a tio n a l law .” S eco n d , th is o v erw ee n ­ in g a ttitu d e d ilu te d c o n c e rn fo r p r o te c tin g C h in e s e civ ilia n s, as w ell as fo re ig n d ip lo m a ts a n d re sid e n ts, fro m th e h o rro rs o f w ar. T h e C C A A w as fo rm e d h a p ­ h a z a rd ly o n 7 N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . S in ce it w as n o t s u p p o s e d to m o v e far w e st o f S h a n g h a i, it h a d n o s u p p ly - a n d - s u p p o r t u n its to p ro v is io n tro o p s , w h o c o u ld o n ly rely o n p lu n d e r to s u sta in th e m se lv es en ro u te to N a n k in g . T h is in c re a se d th e ir fre q u e n c y o f c o n ta c ts w ith , a n d o p p o r tu n itie s fo r v io le n c e to w a rd , civilians. T h e S E A a n d th e T e n th A rm y h a d n o lia iso n s ta ff o r u n its tra in e d in d ip lo m a c y ; so th o se a rm ie s’ re la tio n s w ith Ja p a n e se d ip lo m a tic offi­ cials in C h in a w ere b a d , to say th e least. T ro o p s v ie w e d d ip lo m a ts as a th o r n in th e ir side; d ip lo m a ts w h o trie d to sto p a rm y b ru ta litie s e x p o se d th e m se lv es to d an g e r. A th ir d , re la te d u n d e rly in g cause o f th e A tro c ity la y in th e C C A A ’s d isre g a rd fo r u p h o ld in g tr o o p d isc ip lin e a n d m o ra lity . It h a d n o sp e cia liz ed m ilita ry p o lic e (M P ) u n its , a n d th e few in d iv id u a l M P s w h o w ere o n h a n d c o u ld n o t p o ssib ly m a in ta in o rd er. A s o n e a tta c h e d to th e T e n th A rm y b e ­ w ailed , “W i th less th a n 1 0 0 o f us to c o n tro l 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e n in several d iv isio n s, w h a t c o u ld w e d o ? ”24

POWs and the Assault T h e 1 D e c e m b e r o rd e r to a tta c k N a n k in g p re s c rib e d a th ir d lin e o f d e m a r­ c a tio n ; tro o p s w ere to re g ro u p a n d c o n s o lid a te a f r o n t f ro m th e M o - p a n g H ills to L ish u i (see m a p 1). F ro m th e re , th e y w o u ld face o f f ag a in st C h in e s e d e fe n d ­ ers. T h is d id n o th in g to d e te r th e S E A ’s N i n t h a n d S ix te e n th d iv isio n s o r th e T e n th A rm y ’s S ix th a n d O n e H u n d re d -f o u r te e n th d iv isio n s, w h ic h rac ed ab reast o f each o th er, in te n t o n b e in g th e first to scale th e w alls o f th e e n e m y ca p ita l. T h e C C A A la id d o w n a f o u r th lin e o n 7 D e c e m b e r, a “lin e o f re a d in e s s ,” b e ­ fore th e final p u s h fo r th e city; a n d , it issu ed in s tru c tio n s , “E ssen tials fo r A ssa u lt­ in g N a n k in g ,” lis tin g o rd e rly p ro c e d u re s fo r ta k in g it. C C A A c o m m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e ad v ised C h in e s e c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih to s u rre n d e r th e c a p ita l o n 9 D e c e m b e r, b u t rec eiv e d n o re p ly b y n o o n o n 10 D e c e m b e r. M a t36

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

su i th e re fo re o rd e re d th e a tta c k to re su m e a t 1 :0 0 p .m . F ro n tlin e u n its ig n o re d la s t-d itc h effo rts to c o n ta in th e c o n flic t, in c lu d in g th o se b y th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ), w h ic h e s ta b lish e d th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) d e s c rib e d b y D a v id A sk ew in c h a p te r 10. T h e SEA ’s S ix te e n th d iv is io n b e g a n to a ssa u lt P u rp le M o u n ta in ju s t o u ts id e N a n k in g to th e east o n th e te n th , a n d re a c h e d its s u m m it b y th e tw e lfth . (See m a p s 1 a n d 5). T h e SEA ’s N i n t h d iv isio n ru s h e d to w a rd th e c ity fro m th e so u th e a st. S o m e o f its u n its re a c h e d K u a n g h u a G a te in th e early h o u r s o n th e n in th , b u t m e t fierce re sista n c e fo r several days. T h e S E A p u lle d o n e re g im e n t, th e O n e H u n d r e d - t h ir d B rig a d e, o r Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t, in th e T h ir te e n th d iv isio n , th e n o n s ta n d b y a t C h e n -c h ia n g , a n d o rd e re d th is b rig a d e to a d v a n c e th r o u g h W u lu n g s h a n a n d M u f u s h a n o n th e rig h t w in g o f a b e e fe d -u p S ix te e n th d iv isio n . O n th e e le v e n th , th e S E A o rd e re d a r e g im e n t in th e T h ir d d iv isio n , th e n h e ld in reserv e, to a u g m e n t th e N in t h d iv is io n ’s le ft w in g as a n a d v a n c e ra id in g u n it. T h e T e n th A rm y ’s S ix th a n d O n e H u n d r e d - f o u r te e n th d iv isio n s, a d v a n c in g in p a ra lle l fro m th e s o u th , b ro k e th r o u g h C h in e s e f r o n t lin e s o n 8 D e c e m b e r a n d a tta c k e d th e F u -k u o e n c a m p ­ m e n t a t R a in F lo w er H e ig h ts s o u th o f th e c ity o n th e te n th . T h e T e n th A rm y th e n o rd e re d th e H ir o s h im a F ifth d iv is io n ’s K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t, o n lo a n f ro m its N i n t h B rig a d e, to fo rd th e Y angtze n e a r T z ’u - h u -c h e n ( T ’a ip ’in g ) a n d to ad v a n ce o n P ’u k ’o u . T h e T e n th A rm y also o rd e re d its E ig h te e n th d iv isio n , w h ic h h a d c a p tu re d W u h u o n th e te n th , to c o n c e n tra te its fo rces o n s ta n d b y fo r a n assau lt o n H a n g c h o u . T h u s th e N i n t h a n d S ix te e n th d iv isio n s m a rc h e d to w a rd N a n k in g f ro m th e east; a n d th e S ix th a n d O n e H u n d r e d - f o u r te e n th , fro m th e s o u th . O n 13 D e c e m b e r, th e T h ir te e n th d iv is io n ’s Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t (o r O n e H u n d re d th ir d B rig ad e) arriv e d fro m th e n o r th , a n d th e S ix th d iv is io n ’s F o rty -fifth R e g ­ im e n t, fro m th e s o u th . B o th h a d o rd e rs to p lu g C h in e s e escap e ro u te s b e tw e e n th e c ity ’s w e ste rn w all a n d th e Y angtze. F o r g o o d m e a su re , th e E le v e n th B a t­ tle F lee t p a tro lle d th e Y angtze, a n d th e F ifth d iv is io n ’s K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t ad v a n c e d o n its far b a n k to c u t o f f C h in e s e tro o p s tr y in g to escap e across th e river. A ll to ld , C C A A fo rces a s sa u ltin g N a n k in g n u m b e re d 5 7 in f a n try b a t­ ta lio n s or, as K a sa h a ra e stim a te s, b e tw e e n 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e n . T h e y receiv ed a rtille ry s u p p o r t f ro m th e se v e n te e n -sh ip E le v e n th B a ttle F lee t. E n c ir­ c le m e n t o f th e c ity w o u ld b e c o m p le te b y th e ea rly h o u rs o f 13 D e c e m b e r. A cross th e lines, c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih d id n o t o rd e r a r e tre a t u n til 5 :0 0 p .m . o n th e tw e lfth . T ’a n g w as th e v e ry first to flee, c ro ssin g th e Y angtze a t 6 p .m . T en s o f th o u s a n d s o f h is tro o p s — u n til th e n tr a p p e d in th e c ity w ith o rd ers to d e fe n d it a t all co sts— fled in ch ao s as th e ir c o m m a n d s tru c tu re to ta lly b ro k e d o w n . Jap an ese u n its le a rn e d o f th is re tre a t o n th e m o r n in g o f th e th ir te e n th . S k ir­ m ish e s b ro k e o u t in m a n y areas as sm a ll g ro u p s o f C h in e s e tro o p s o u ts id e th e city, n o w la c k in g a c h a in o f c o m m a n d , d e s p e ra te ly trie d to slip p a s t a d v a n c ­ in g Ja p a n e se forces. T h e n th e s u r re n d e r in g b e g a n . M o s t o f th e C h in e s e tro o p s 37

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

still in sid e N a n k in g ru s h e d to escap e h e lte r-s k e lte r th r o u g h P a -c h ia n g G a te , w h ic h le d to th e H s ia k w a n w h a r f area. F ro m H sia k w a n , th e y h o p e d to cross th e Y angtze b y b o a t, b y ra ft, o r b y c lin g in g d e s p e ra te ly to sc ra p s o f lu m b e r, o r th e y m a d ly ra n u p a n d d o w n th e riv e rb a n k , o n ly to e n c o u n te r Ja p an e se forces s e n t to c u t th e m off. H u g e n u m b e rs o f C h in e s e tro o p s b e c a m e p ris o n e rs o f w ar (P O W s) o n th e th irte e n th a n d fo u rte e n th a t H sia k w a n , M u fu sh a n , C h ia n g tu n g G a te , a n d H s ia o -h u a G a te . W i th n o a v e n u e o f escape, C h in e s e so ld iers lo st all w ill to fig h t. D e s p ite tr y in g to s u rre n d e r in d roves, m o s t w ere k ille d in th e p e ll-m e ll o f b a ttle . S ix te e n th d iv is io n c o m m a n d e r N a k a jim a K esa g o ’s d ia ry e n trie s o n 13 D e c e m b e r d e sc rib e th e c o n fu sio n : W e see prisoners everywhere, so m any that there is no way we can deal w ith th e m __ T h e general policy is: “Accept no prisoners!” So we ended up having to take care o f them lot, stock, and barrel. But they came in hordes, in units o f thousands or fivethousands; so we couldn’t even disarm th e m __ Later I heard th at the Sasaki U nit [the T h irtieth Brigade] alone disposed o f about 1,500. A com pany com m ander guarding T ’aip’ing G ate to o k care o f an o th er 1,300. A n o th er 7,0 0 0 to 8,000 clustered at H sienho G ate are still surrendering. W e need a really huge ditch to handle those 7,000 to 8,000, but we can’t find one, so som eone suggested this plan: “Divide them u p into groups o f 100 to 200, and then lure them to some suitable spot for finishing off.”25 T h ir tie th B rig ad e c o m m a n d e r M a j. G e n . S asak i T o ic h i w ro te in h is d ia ry o n 13 D e c e m b e r: T h e num ber o f abandoned enem y bodies in our area today was ten thousand plus thousands more. If we include those [Chinese] whose escape rafts or boats on the Yangtze were sunk by fire from our arm ored cars, plus PO W s killed by our units, our detachm ent alone m ust have taken care o f over 20,000. W e finished the m op-up and secured our rear at about 2:00 p.m. W hile regrouping, we advanced to H o-p’ing Gate. Later, the enem y surrendered in the thousands. Frenzied troops— rebuffing efforts by superiors to restrain them — finished off these PO W s one after another. Even if they aren’t soldiers [e.g., medics or priests], men w ould yell, “Kill the whole dam n lot!” after recalling the past ten days o f bloody fighting in which so m any buddies h ad shed so m uch blood.26 S u c h d ia ry e n trie s b y d iv is io n a n d b rig a d e c o m m a n d e rs a llo w us to g au g e th e ch a o s o f b a ttle , a n d th e e x te n t o f th e s la u g h te r o f P O W s . O ffic ia l b a ttle re p o rts exist fo r so m e Ja p a n e se u n its th a t v iv id ly d e sc rib e h o w th e y h a n d le d P O W s .27 T h e se so u rce s are h o u s e d in th e N a tio n a l I n s titu te fo r D e fe n se S tu d ­ ies, M ilita ry H is to r y D e p a r tm e n t L ib ra ry in T o k y o . M o s t are in c lu d e d in th e so u rc e c o lle c tio n , N ankin senshi shiryo shu, p u b lis h e d b y th e K a ik o sh a , a fra ­ te rn a l so c ie ty o f fo rm e r im p e ria l a rm y officers a n d c o n se rv a tiv e rev isio n ists. F o r in s ta n c e , th e T h ir ty - th ir d R e g im e n t’s b a ttle r e p o r t fo r 1 0 - 1 4 D e c e m b e r has a “B o o ty L ist” w ith an e n try fo r P O W s: “f o u rte e n officers p lu s 3 ,0 8 2 N C O s a n d tr o o p s .” U n d e r th e c o lu m n “R e m a rk s ,” it says, “d isp o s e d o f P O W s .” As 38

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

a ro u g h n u m b e r o f “a b a n d o n e d e n e m y c o rp se s,” it lists “ 2 2 0 o n th e te n th , 3 7 0 o n th e e le v e n th , 7 4 0 o n th e tw e lfth , a n d 5 ,5 0 0 o n th e th ir te e n th , fo r 6 ,8 3 0 all t o ld .” B u t, th is b a ttle r e p o r t goes o n , “th e fig u re fo r 13 D e c e m b e r in c lu d e s d e fe a te d e n e m y tro o p s w h o m w e e x e c u te d .” T h e T h ir ty - th ir d R e g im e n t to o k 3 ,0 9 6 P O W s o n 13 D e c e m b e r a n d “d isp o s e d o f ” th e m . T h e S ix ty -six th R e g ­ im e n t’s F irst B a tta lio n b a ttle r e p o r t says th a t it to o k “ 1 ,6 5 7 ” P O W s o u ts id e R a in F lo w er G a te fro m th e a f te rn o o n o f th e tw e lfth to th e m o r n in g o f th e th irte e n th . T h e a p p e n d ix in th e “ T h irty -e ig h th B a tta lio n B attle R e p o rt 1 2 ,” says th a t its T e n th C o m p a n y to o k “7 ,2 0 0 ” P O W s o n th e m o r n in g o f th e f o u r ­ te e n th n e a r H s ia o -h u a G a te . O th e r b a ttle re p o rts lis tin g n u m b e rs o f P O W s ta k e n are th o se fo r th e K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t’s F o rty -firs t R e g im e n t T w elfth C o m p a n y , w h ic h to o k “2 ,3 5 0 ” a t C h ia n g - h s in - c h o u f ro m th e n ig h t o f th e f o u r te e n th to th e m o r n in g o f th e fifte e n th ; th e T h ir ty - th ir d R e g im e n t S e c o n d B a tta lio n , w h ic h to o k “a b o u t 2 0 0 ” a t L io n H ill o n th e 1 4 th ; a n d th e S e v e n th R e g im e n t, w h ic h to o k “ 6 ,6 7 0 ” in th e N a k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ), se t u p b y W e ste rn e rs as a refu g ee area, f ro m th e th ir te e n th to th e tw e n ty -f o u r th . B a t­ tlefield d ia ries le ft b y Ja p a n e se u n its are a n o th e r f o rm o f o fficial so u rc e m a te ­ rial. O n ly a few are e x ta n t a n d are h o u s e d in D e fe n c e A g e n c y arch iv es. A m o n g th e se is th a t fo r th e T w e n tie th R e g im e n t’s F o u rth C o m p a n y , w h ic h says th a t it to o k 3 2 8 P O W s a t th e e a ste rn sid e o f th e N S Z o n th e m o r n in g o f th e f o u r ­ te e n th , a n d s h o t all o f th e m to d e a th . T h u s b a ttle re p o rts a n d b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s— official, p u b lic , Ja p a n e se m ili­ ta ry so u rce s— s u p p le m e n t a n d s u b s ta n tia te p e rs o n a l a c c o u n ts b y W e ste rn e rs a b o u t m ass e x e c u tio n s o f C h in e s e P O W s . Ja p a n e se so u rce s o f th is k in d re fu te th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n ’s c laim , fo rm e rly u se d in te x tb o o k sc re e n in g , th a t su c h k illin g s w ere th e acts o f a few h e a rtle ss so ld ie rs in th e h e a t o f b a ttle a n d d id n o t ta k e p lace in a n o rg a n iz e d w a y th r o u g h o u t th e a rm y as a w h o le . T h e se so u rces also expose th e fa lsity o f a rg u m e n ts b y Ja p a n e se c o n se rv a tiv e rev i­ sio n ists w h o , w ith s tu d ie d ig n o ra n c e o f in te r n a tio n a l law, in sist th a t th e k illin g o f P O W s w as a n e x te n sio n o f c o m b a t a n d th u s d o es n o t c o n s titu te a m a s­ sacre o r a n A tro city . Im p e ria l a rm y re c o rd s s h o w th a t Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs k ille d C h in e s e tro o p s w h o , h a v in g lo s t all d esire a n d a b ility to fig h t b a c k , w ere b e g ­ g in g to s u rre n d e r so th a t th e ir lives m ig h t b e sp a re d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e fa c t th a t b a ttle re p o rts fo r o th e r u n its are n o t e x ta n t d o es n o t m e a n th a t th e y d id n o t ta k e p a r t in m a ss k illin g s. O n e ty p ic a l o rg a ­ n iz e d m assacre o f P O W s o c c u rre d a t M u fu s h a n , n o r th e a s t o f N a n k in g . T h e re , th e T h ir te e n th d iv is io n ’s Y a m a d a D e ta c h m e n t o r O n e H u n d r e d - t h ir d B rig ad e, w h ic h in c lu d e d th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t (M o ro z u m i U n it), to o k c u s to d y a n d “d isp o s e d o f ” 1 4 ,7 7 7 p riso n e rs. O ffic ial, p u b lic a rm y re c o rd s d o n o t m e n tio n th is fact, b u t o th e r c o n te m p o ra n e o u s so u rce s do . T h e se in c lu d e n e w sp a p e rs su c h as th e Asahi shinbun a n d v o lu m e 1 o f th e A rm y G e n e ra l S ta f f ’s o w n w a rtim e official h isto ry , th e Shina jihen rikugun senshi. A n d , as O n o K e n ji re p o rts in c h a p te r 4 , p e rs o n a l d ia rie s a n d p riv a te n o te s b y su rv iv in g Ja p a n e se 39

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

so ld iers in th a t d e ta c h m e n t, b rig a d e , a n d r e g im e n t— p lu s o ral in te rv ie w s w ith th o se m e n — sh o w th a t m o re th a n 1 4 ,4 7 7 P O W s w ere m a ssa c re d .28 B ecause o f su c h d a m n in g so u rce s, even th e p o s tw a r D e fe n se A g e n c y ’s o fficial w a r h is ­ tory, th e Senshi sosho, a n d th e K a ik o s h a ’s N ankin senshi c a n n o t tu r n a b lin d eye to th is m assac re a t M u fu s h a n . T h e Senshi sosho s im p ly re g u rg ita te s a n ea r­ lie r a c c o u n t o f th e in c id e n t, n o w re fu te d . A c c o rd in g to it, th e Ja p a n e se u n its in q u e s tio n release d h a lf o f th e ir 1 4 ,7 7 7 m e n a n d in c a rc e ra te d th e o th e r 8 ,0 0 0 o r so, b u t h a lf esca p ed . T h e u n its th e n trie d to e s c o rt th e re m a in in g 4 ,0 0 0 P O W s across th e Y angtze in o rd e r to release th e m to safety, b u t th e P O W s a tta c k e d th e ir Ja p a n e se g u a rd s, so th e u n its h a d n o ch o ic e b u t to o p e n fire, k ill 1 ,0 0 0 in self-d e fe n se, a n d le t th e re st e sca p e.29 T h is a c c o u n t is to ta lly m a k e-b eliev e . T h e fo o t so ld ie rs’ p e rs o n a l d ia ries a n d o th e r p riv a te so u rce s th a t O n o u n e a r th e d — su c h as A m a n o S a b u r o ’s w a rtim e le tte rs, tra n s la te d in c h a p ­ te r 8— c o n c lu siv e ly p ro v e th a t th e Ja p a n e se u n its in q u e s tio n m a ssa c re d all o f th e P O W s h e ld in c u s to d y in a n o rg a n iz e d m a n n e r. T h u s w e ca n assu m e th a t m a n y o th e r Ja p a n e se u n its m u s t h av e ta k e n , a n d “ta k e n care o f ,” e n o rm o u s n u m b e rs o f P O W s — even th o u g h th is a s s u m p tio n c a n n o t b e v erifie d irre fu ta b ly b ec au se so few b a ttle re p o rts , b a ttle fie ld d iaries, o r o th e r “official” re c o rd s re m a in e x ta n t. T h e N ankin senshi a d o p ts th e p o s i­ tio n th a t k ille d C h in e s e P O W s m u s t e n te r th e v ic tim c o u n t w h e n “o ffic ia l” re c o rd s ex ist o r w h e n th e te s tim o n ie s o f ey ew itn esses a b o u n d , b u t in all o th e r cases, th e re is n o d e fin itiv e ev id e n c e to s u b s ta n tia te th e c la im th a t P O W s w ere ta k e n a n d k illed . T h is a rg u m e n t— w h ic h d isp arag es n o n o ffic ia l, p riv a te so u rces a n d o ral te s tim o n ie s — ste m s f ro m a d esire to lo w e r th e C h in e s e v ic tim to ll. S till a n o th e r co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ist a r g u m e n t is th a t n u m b e rs f o u n d in b a t­ tle re p o rts a n d in o th e r o fficial a rm y re c o rd s c a n n o t b e a c c e p te d a t face v alu e. A s th e N ankin senshi asserts, “u n its u n d o u b te d ly in fla te d fig u res u se d in re ­ p o rts to su p e rio rs so as to ex a g g erate th e ir ‘b a ttle fie ld e x p lo its’. ” O f c o u rse , sta tistic s in th e se so u rc e s are n o t to ta lly a c c u ra te , b u t w e c a n o n ly su sp e c t u lte rio r m o tiv e s w h e n h is to ria n s d is c o u n t th e ir v a lid ity so le ly to d efla te C h i­ nese v ic tim c o u n ts . T h e k e y p o in t h e re is th a t b o th o fficial a n d n o n o ffic ia l Ja p a n e se re c o rd s— le ft b y m e n w h o d id th e k illin g — aver th a t u n its “to o k care o f,” “d e a lt w ith , o r “d isp o s e d o f ” P O W s; a n d , in so m e cases, ex p ressly say, “s h o t th e m d e a d .” T h e m e n w h o le ft th e se d o c u m e n ts u se d su c h e x p re ssio n s o p e n ly b ecau se th e y la c k e d a n y id e a th a t th e k illin g o f P O W s w as a v io la tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l la w a n d a grave c rim e a g a in st h u m a n ity . In re sp o n se to c o n ­ serv ativ e m in im a lis ts , w e c a n ju s t as easily c o n je c tu re th a t e x e c u tio n s to o k p la ce w h e n th e so u rce s say o n ly th a t u n its “to o k ” p riso n e rs, a n d o m it e x p lic it referen c e to “d isp o s in g o f ” th e m o r “s h o o tin g th e m d e a d .” T h u s th e c la im th a t “th e re are n o irre fu ta b le re c o rd s, ergo th e re w ere n o m a ssa c re s,” a n d th e c o u n te rc la im th a t “m a ssac res o c c u rre d ev en th o u g h th e re is n o express re c o rd th e re o f,” offset ea c h o th e r — a lth o u g h n e ith e r is v a lid in a n d o f itself.

40

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

Organized Nature of the Massacres To re p e a t, o n 13—14 D e c e m b e r, Ja p a n e se fo rces e n c irc le d th e C h in e s e a rm y a n d c a p tu re d N a n k in g . C h in e s e so ld iers, la c k in g a c o m m a n d s tr u c tu re after b e in g a b a n d o n e d b y th e ir c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , lo st all w ill to resist a n d s u rre n d e re d en m asse o n ly to su ffe r s u m m a r y e x e c u tio n in a n o rg a n iz e d fa sh io n . A k ey issue in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , th e n , is to e x p la in w h y th e se illegal a n d u n ju s tifia b le e x e c u tio n s to o k p lace. O n e an sw e r is th a t th e im p e ­ ria l a rm y — a t le ast d u r in g th e 1 9 3 7 —4 5 S in o -Ja p a n e se W a r— la c k e d a n y id e a th a t e n e m y P O W s s h o u ld b e tre a te d in a h u m a n e fa sh io n . T h e id e a o f u n i­ versal h u m a n rig h ts sp re a d in m o d e rn W e s te rn sta te s a fte r th e F re n c h R e v o ­ lu tio n . L aw s g o v e rn in g la n d w a rfa re w ere c re a te d o n e a fte r a n o th e r to e n su re th e h u m a n e tr e a tm e n t o f p riso n e rs. T h o s e law s w ere c o n s o lid a te d in th e fo rm o f in te r n a tio n a lly a c c e p te d c o n v e n tio n s a t th e 1 8 9 9 a n d 1 9 0 7 H a g u e Peace C o n fe re n c e s . F ro m 1 8 6 8 to 1 9 1 2 — in th e M e iji a n d T aish o eras b e fo re th e S h o w a e m p e ro r’s re ig n — J a p a n c ra v ed r e c o g n itio n as a civ ilized , m o d e rn sta te e q u a l to th e a d v a n c e d W e s te rn p o w ers; so, it stro v e to e a rn th e ir re sp e c t b y o b e y in g in te r n a tio n a l law s o f w ar. T h a t is w h y th e M e iji a n d T aish o e m p e r­ ors in c lu d e d ex p lic it clau ses to th a t effec t in re sc rip ts d e c la rin g w a r o n th e C h ’in g E m p ire in 1 8 9 4 , o n c z arist R u ssia in 1 9 0 4 , a n d o n im p e ria l G e rm a n y in 1 9 1 4 . B u t th e S h o w a e m p e ro r issu ed n o re s c rip t d e c la rin g w a r o n th e K M T R e p u b lic o f C h in a in 1 9 3 7 , a lth o u g h th e scale o f th a t c o n flic t w as u n p re c e ­ d e n te d b y far. A s ju s t n o te d , th e re w ere p r a g m a tic re a so n s fo r c a llin g th is an “in c id e n t”: th e la c k o f a casus b elli th a t th e p u b lic w o u ld fin d a c c e p ta b le , a n d th e n e e d to im p o r t stra te g ic m a te rie l f ro m th e U n ite d S tate s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t a n d m ilita ry u n w ittin g ly esca late d th e u p - to - th e n lim ite d C h in a c o n flic t in to a d e fac to w a r in A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , b u t even w ith h o s tilitie s s p re a d in g in n o r t h ­ e rn C h in a , c e n tra l m ilita ry officials in T o k y o to ld th e C h in a G a rris o n A rm y G e n e ra l S ta ff o n 5 A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 th a t: “it is in a p p ro p r ia te to fo llo w all sp ecific clauses” in in te r n a tio n a l law s o f w ar, a n d “o u r e m p ire is n o t in a fu ll-sca le w a r w ith C h in a , so w e m u s t a v o id u s in g te rm s su c h as ‘p r is o n e r o f w a r ’ o r ‘p rize o f w a r ’ th a t m a y im p ly th e in te n t to s ta rt o n e .”30 T h e sa m e m essag e r e p e a t­ ed ly w e n t o u t to o th e r u n its later. T h e A rm y M in is tr y ’s p o s itio n w as: th e law s o f w a r d o n o t a p p ly to a n “in c id e n t,” so d o n o t u se w o rd s th a t c o n n o te a fo r­ m a l sta te o f w ar. T h is w as a m o m e n to u s c h a n g e fro m th e p a st, w h e n im p e r ­ ial re sc rip ts fo rm a lly d e c la re d w ars w ith th e s te rn o rd e r fo r officers a n d m e n to o b e y in te r n a tio n a l law. Im p e ria l a rm y a ttitu d e s a t th is tim e e x u d e d c o n te m p t fo r th e C h in e s e a rm y a n d p e o p le . A te x tb o o k fo r n o n c o m m is s io n e d officers ( N C O s ) issu e d in J a n ­ u a ry 1 9 3 3 d raw s a te llin g d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n W e s te rn sta te s a n d C h in a in a se c tio n title d , “T re a tm e n t o f P ris o n e rs” : “ T h e re is n o n e e d to se n d th e m to th e re a r fo r c o n f in e m e n t a n d w a it to see h o w th e w a r s itu a tio n c h a n g e s— as

41

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

w e w o u ld d o w ith n a tio n a ls o f o th e r [W e stern ] p o w ers. In th e a b sen c e o f sp e ­ cial c irc u m sta n ce s, it is a lrig h t to release th e m o n th e s p o t o r to tr a n s p o r t th e m elsew here fo r release. T h e C h in k s ’ d o m ic ile re g is tra tio n sy ste m is fu ll o f defects, a n d m o s t C h i n k so ld iers are th e s c u m o f society, so th e re is little w a y fo r a n y ­ o n e to c h e c k w h e th e r th e y are alive o r w h e re th e y are. T h u s , ev en i f y o u w ere to k ill th e m o r release th e m elsew h ere, n o o n e w ill b ro a c h th e iss u e .”31 In su m , c e n tra l a rm y officials in s tru c te d field arm ie s n o t to a p p ly in te r n a ­ tio n a l law s o f w ar. T o k y o d id n o t d e e m th is n o n a p p lic a tio n in C h in a to b e a w a r c rim e , so it is n a tu ra l th a t lo c al c o m m a n d e rs issu ed o rd e rs to “ta k e n o P O W s ” o r to “d isp o se o f ” th e m . M a n y v e te ra n s affirm th a t h ig h ra n k in g arm y a n d d iv isio n -lev e l c o m m a n d e rs gave s u c h o rd e rs d u r in g th e a ssa u lt o n N a n ­ k in g . T h u s L t. S aw a d a M a sa h is a o f th e I n d e p e n d e n t H e a v y A rtille ry ’s S e c o n d B a tta lio n F irst C o m p a n y sta te s: “c o m m a n d h e a d q u a rte rs o rd e re d us to s h o o t to d e a th o n s ig h t” 8 ,0 0 0 to 1 0 ,0 0 0 P O W s ta k e n a t H s ie n -h o G a te o n 14 D e ­ cem b er. (H e re , S aw a d a p r o b a b ly m e a n s S E A c o m m a n d h e a d q u a rte rs ; i f so, its c o m m a n d e r, Im p e ria l P rin c e A sak a Y asu h ik o , w o u ld b e c o m p lic it.) O r, a d ju ­ ta n t K o d a m a Y oshio o f th e S ix te e n th D iv is io n ’s T h ir ty - e ig h th R e g im e n t says th a t, w h e n h is u n it g o t to a p o in t o n e o r tw o k ilo m e te rs o u ts id e th e N a n k in g city w alls, th e d iv is io n ’s a d ju ta n t p h o n e d in a c o m m a n d to “a c c e p t n o C h in k so ld iers w h o tr y to s u rre n d e r; d isp o se o f th e m .”32 O ffic ial, p u b lic b a ttle fie ld d ia ries a n d b a ttle re p o rts lis t fo rm a l c o m m a n d s to “ta k e care o f ” P O W s . O n e fo r th e T h ir ty - e ig h th R e g im e n t c o n ta in s a n o rd e r fro m th e T h ir tie th B rig a d e d a te d “ 14 D e c e m b e r, 4 :5 0 a .m .” C la u se 7 rea d s, “all u n its are f o rb id d e n to ta k e P O W s u n til d ire c te d b y th e [S ix te e n th ] D iv is io n .” A S ix ty -e ig h th R eg i­ m e n t, T h ir d B a tta lio n d a ily c a m p le d g e r d a te d 16 D e c e m b e r read s: “H e r e ­ after, m a k e a c u rso ry su rv e y o f tro o p s ta k e n p ris o n e r; th e n u n its sh a ll s te rn ly d isp o se o f th e m .”33 T h e S ix ty -six th R e g im e n t’s F irst B a tta lio n to o k 1 ,6 5 7 C h i­ nese P O W s b e tw e e n 10 a n d 13 D e c e m b e r c o m p ris in g e ig h te e n h ig h - ra n k in g officers p lu s 1 ,6 3 9 ( N C O s ) a n d tro o p s. A b a ttle r e p o r t d a te d 13 D e c e m b e r re c o rd s in express d e ta il h o w th is u n it k ille d th e m . (8) Received the following order from our Regimental com m ander at 2:00 p.m. A. Kill all PO W s in accordance w ith [O ne H u n d red Twenty-seventh] Brigade orders. As a m ethod, we suggest tying them u p in groups o f less than tw enty and shoot­ ing them one by one. B. Collect their weapons and guard these until you receive instructions. C. W hile the m ain force o f our Regiment m ops u p inside the city, your duties are as outlined above. (9) Based on the above Regimental com m and, we [in turn] ordered th at the First, T hird, and Fourth Com panies collect, sort, and guard weapons. At 3:30 p.m ., we assembled all com panies and, after discussing how to deal w ith the POW s, decided on the following. W e divided them u p in 3 equal-sized units and assigned each o f our 3 com panies to oversee one o f these. Each com pany w ould place PO W s in a guard house to be led out in smaller groups o f fifty. T h e First C om pany led its group to a valley 42

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

south o f its camp; the T h ird Com pany, to a hilly area southwest o f its camp; and the Fourth Com pany, to a valley southeast o f its camp. Each com pany was then supposed to execute its PO W s by bayonet, b u t take pains to guard them heavily, so that none w ould notice [anything suspicious] when they were being led out. All com panies fin­ ished preparations and began the executions by 5:00 o'clock, so m ost were over by about 7:30 p.m . T h e First C om pany decided to change plans and instead tried to burn down its guard house. T his failed. T h e POW s, resigned to their fate, stuck out their heads before our swords and stood tall before our bayonets w ith no sign o f fear. Some o f them , however, wailed and pleaded for mercy, especially w hen u n it com m anders came by to make the rounds.34 O n ly a few official b a ttle re p o rts a n d b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s are e x ta n t, b u t w e hav e m a n y p e rs o n a l d ia rie s a n d re m in isc e n c e s te stify in g th a t s u m m a r y ex e cu ­ tio n s to o k p la ce o n c o m m a n d . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t th e se re fle c te d o rd e rs f ro m ab o v e a n d to o k p la ce sy ste m a tic a lly — n o t ju s t h a p h a z a rd ly . T h e o rg a ­ n iz e d n a tu re o f th e A tro c ity w as a fo ca l p o in t in Ie n a g a S a b u ro 's th ir d la w ­ s u it a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t in J a n u a ry 1 9 8 4 . T h e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n h a d trie d to d e n y th is fa c t b y fo rc in g h im to r e tra c t a n a c c o u n t o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity in h is h ig h sc h o o l Ja p a n e se h is to ry te x tb o o k . H e w o n th e s u it in O c to b e r 1 9 9 3 , w h e n th e T o k y o D is tr ic t H ig h e r C o u r t ru le d in h is favor, a n d th e S u p re m e C o u r t u p h e ld th is d e c isio n in A u g u st 1 9 9 7 . In su m , Ja p an e se law c o u rts a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t n o w affirm th a t m a ssac res to o k p la c e in a n o rg a ­ n iz e d way. O rg a n iz e d m a ss s la u g h te rs o f P O W s , s u c h as th a t b y th e O n e H u n ­ d re d T h ir d B rig ad e a n d S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t a t M u fu s h a n as s u b s ta n tia te d b y O n o K en ji in c h a p te r 4 , v io la te d in te r n a tio n a l law.

Defeated Stragglers and “Guerrillas” T h e a tta c k o n N a n k in g w as a classic e x a m p le o f e n c irc le m e n t. T h e SEA's N in th a n d S ix te e n th d iv isio n s p lu s th e T h ir te e n th d iv isio n 's O n e H u n d r e d T h ir d B rig ad e a d v a n c e d fro m th e east. T h e T e n th A rm y 's S ix th a n d O n e H u n d re d f o u r te e n th d iv isio n s a d v a n c e d f ro m th e s o u th e a s t. T h e F ifth d iv isio n 's K u n isaki D e ta c h m e n t a d v a n c e d a lo n g th e far b a n k o f th e Y angtze s u p p o r te d b y th e E le v e n th B a ttle F leet. C h in e s e c o m m a n d e r T 'a n g S h e n g -c h ih a t first m a d e n o p re p a ra tio n s to re tre a t, a n d in d e e d , o rd e re d th e c ity to b e d e fe n d e d to th e la st m a n . B u t C h ia n g K a i-sh e k th e n o rd e re d th e a rm y to escap e fo r fu tu re fig h tin g , a n d T 'a n g h a d a c h a n g e o f h e a r t as w ell; so h e o rd e re d a re tre a t at 5 :0 0 p .m . o n th e tw e lfth , b e fo re Ja p a n e se fo rces fu lly s u r ro u n d e d th e c ity in th e early h o u rs o f th e th ir te e n th . In g ross d e re lic tio n o f h is d u ty as d efe n se c o m m a n d e r, T 'a n g a n d h is s ta ff w ere th e first to flee across th e Y angtze River. A b a n d o n e d w ith o u t a c h a in o f c o m m a n d , T 'a n g 's tro o p s lo st all w ill to resist. H o rd e s o f th e m east a n d s o u th o f th e c ity w ere in ch a o s, w h ile th o se tr a p p e d in sid e th e c ity w alls fled fo r P a -c h ia n g G a te , th e ir so le escape h a tc h , 43

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

o n ly to fin d it s h u t. M asses o f d e fe a te d C h in e s e tro o p s a n d refu g ee s h a d g a th ­ ered at H sia k w a n w h a r f o n th e th irte e n th , w h e n th e E le v en th B attle F leet arrived a t 5 :0 0 p .m . A c c o rd in g to Ja p a n e se n a v a l so u rce s, th e fleet “fired fiercely o n d e fe a te d strag g lers w h o h o p e d to flee to th e far sh o re a n d c u t th e m to r ib ­ b o n s .”35 W i th th e ir escape ro u te b y w a te r c u t off, m asses o f C h in e s e tro o p s b e g a n m a d ly r u s h in g u p a n d d o w n th e Y angtze riv er b a n k , d e s p e ra te ly se ek ­ in g safety. V ic to ry w as a lre a d y d e c id e d ; v irtu a lly all o f th e d e fe a te d C h in e s e so ld iers la ck e d w e a p o n s a n d a n y w ill to resist. B u t th e im p e ria l a rm y a n d n a v y fired o n th e se h elp less tro o p s a n d also o n civ ilian s. It is clea rly w ro n g to call th is a c o m b a t o p e ra tio n ; it w as a sla u g h te r, a m a ssacre. A n “a n n ih ila tio n o f d e fe a te d e n e m y tr o o p s ”— p lu s g re a t n u m b e rs o f civ ilia n s m ix e d in — w as c o n ­ d u c te d b y th e S ix te e n th D iv isio n a t H s ia k w a n , P a -c h ia n g G a te , a n d M a c h u n ; a n d b y th e S ix th D iv isio n a t H sia k w a n , H s in - h o -c h e n , a n d C h ia n g - tu n g G a te . In fact, ea ch o f th e se a c tio n s w as s im p ly a tu rk e y s h o o t o f defen seless p e o p le . D e fe a te d re m n a n ts o f th e C h in e s e a rm y d isc a rd e d w e a p o n s, s trip p e d o ff th e ir u n ifo rm s , a n d slip p e d in to th e city, w h e re th e im p e ria l a rm y b e g a n m o p u p o p e ra tio n s o n 13 D e c e m b e r w ith o rd e rs to r o u n d u p a n y o n e su sp e c te d o f b e in g a so ld ier. T h e N i n t h d iv is io n h a n d le d areas s o u th o f C h u n g s h a n R o a d ; th e S ix te e n th d iv isio n , th o se n o r th o f it. O n th e f o u rte e n th , Ja p a n e se tro o p s fo ra y ed in to th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ), c la im in g th a t d e fe a te d C h in e s e strag g lers, d isg u ise d in c iv ilia n c lo th in g ; th a t is, g u e rrilla s, h a d ta k e n refu g e th e re in . T h e rea so n s fo r th is h a s te la y in th e C C A A ’s d e c isio n to h o ld a tr i­ u m p h a l e n try p ro c e ssio n in to N a n k in g o n th e s e v e n te e n th — m a d e d e s p ite S E A o b je c tio n s th a t th is w as to o ea rly to e n su re safety. N e w s p a p e rs a t h o m e h a d b e e n p la y in g u p th e c a p tu re o f th e e n e m y ca p ita l, so th e C C A A c o u ld n o t lose face b y se e m in g to d a w d le . O n to p o f th a t, L t. G e n . A sa k a Y asu h ik o — a n im p e ria l p rin c e a n d u n c le o f th e S h o w a e m p e ro r— w as to ta k e a le a d in g p a r t in th e c e re m o n y as S E A c o m m a n d e r. T h u s th e C C A A h a d to ta k e every p o ssib le p r e c a u tio n to p re v e n t h a r m fro m b e fa llin g h is ro y a l p e rso n a g e . T h e SE A ’s N i n t h D iv is io n S e v e n th R e g im e n t m o p p e d u p th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e f ro m th e th ir te e n th to th e tw e n ty -fo u rth , a n d its b a ttle r e p o r t re c o rd s “ 6 ,6 7 0 [C h in ese] k ille d b y b u lle t a n d b a y o n e t.” T h is r e g im e n t’s im m e d ia te s u p e rio r officer, B rigade c o m m a n d e r M a j. G e n . A k iy a m a Y o sh im itsu , s tip u la te d “ P o in ts to N o te in M o p U p ,” d a te d 13 D e c e m b e r. T h is d o c u m e n t ex p ressly said: “V ie w all y o u th s a n d a d u lt m a les as d e fe a te d strag g lers o r so ld iers d isg u ise d in civ ilia n clo th es; r o u n d u p a n d d e ta in all o f th e m .”36 T h is im p lie s th a t m a n y civ ilian s w ere lik e ly a m o n g th e 6 ,6 7 0 k illed . S e v e n th R e g im e n t c o m m a n d e r C o l. Isa K azu o , F irst C o m p a n y P riv a te F irstC lass M iz u ta n i So, a n d S e c o n d C o m p a n y L ance C o r. In o ie M a ta ic h i le ft diaries. Isa m a d e s im p le e n trie s su c h as “M o p p e d u p f ro m th e m o r n in g . T h e [N a n ­ k in g ] S afety Z o n e is in o u r area. It is sa id to h o ld a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 refu g ee s” o n th e f o u rte e n th , o r “w e s te rn ly d isp o se d o f a b o u t 6 ,5 0 0 o v er th re e days o f m o p

44

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

u p ” o n th e s ix te e n th . B y c o n tra s t, In o ie a n d M iz u ta n i w e n t in to m o re sp e ­ cific d e ta il. In o ie , fo r e x a m p le , w rite s: “W e se t o u t in th e a f te rn o o n as w ell a n d ca m e b a c k w ith 3 3 5 y o u n g ca p tiv es. W e fe rre te d o u t all m a les a m o n g th e refu g ees w h o lo o k e d lik e d e fe a te d strag g lers. M a n ! S o m e h a d fa m ily m e m b e rs th e re , a n d d id th e y ever w ail w h e n w e trie d to ta k e th e ir m e n fo lk away! T h e y ’d la tc h o n to o u r arm s a n d b o d ie s, p le a d in g w ith u s.... W e to o k th e se 3 3 5 d o w n n e a r th e Y angtze w h e re o th e r tro o p s s h o t th e m d e a d .”37 M iz u ta n i’s e n try fo r th e s ix te e n th reads: In the afternoon we w ent to the [Nanking] Safety Z one for m op up. We placed sen­ tries w ith bayonets at the intersections, blocked these off, and w ent about our work rounding up virtually all young m en we came across. W e roped them off, surrounded them w ith arm ed guards, tied them up in rows, and led them away so th at they looked like kids playing choo-choo train. O u r First C om pany clearly took less than other units, but we still got a h u n d red and several dozen. Lots o f w om en, no doubt their m others or wives, soon caught up w ith us to cry and beg for their release. Right away, we released those who clearly looked like civilians and shot thirty-six others to death. All o f them wailed desperately to be spared, b u t there was nothing we could do. Even if some unfortunate innocent victims were mixed in (we couldn’t tell for sure), it just couldn’t be helped. Killing some innocent victims was unavoidable. [CCAA] C om ­ m ander M atsui ordered us to clean out each and every anti-Japanese elem ent and defeated straggler, so we did that in the harshest possible m anner.38 T h e S E A S ix te e n th D iv is io n ’s T w e n tie th R e g im e n t also m o p p e d u p in th e S afety Z o n e . F o u rth C o m p a n y L an c e C o r p o r a l M a s u d a R o k u s u k e w ro te : “ 14 D ec em b e r. M o p U p . E n te re d th e [N a n k in g ] S afety Z o n e . C le a n e d o u t d e fe a te d stragglers m ix e d in w ith refu g ees. O u r F o u rth C o m p a n y a lo n e to o k care o f n o less th a n 5 0 0 ; w e s h o t th e m d e a d n e x t to H s u a n - w u G a te . I h e a r th a t all o u r u n its d id th e sa m e th in g .”39 In a n a c c o u n t w ritte n o n th e o rd e r o f h is c o m ­ p a n y c o m m a n d e r afte r e n te r in g N a n k in g , M a s u d a n o te d : O n the m orning o f the fourteenth we w ent to m op up the [Nanking] Safety Z one— run by some kin d o f international com m ittee. W e surrounded tens o f thousands o f defeated stragglers who had fiercely resisted us until yesterday. N o t a single one w ould escape now. T hey all fled into that Safety Zone. But we were determ ined to go in, search every nook and cranny, flush them all out, and exact revenge for our fallen b u d ­ dies. Each o f our squads looked over all males in those big, com plex C hink houses. In one o f these, Lance Corporal M aebara and his troops found a few h u n d red defeated stragglers changing into civvies. H earing o f this, we w ent to have a look. W h at a sight! N ext to them were tons o f rifles, revolvers, swords, and other weapons. Some o f those m en were still in uniform . Some were hastily changing into ordinary C hink clothes. O thers wore civvie shirts w ith arm y-uniform trousers. All o f the clothes were either unsuited to w inter or m ism atched as to shirts and pants, so the men obviously had grabbed and donned these in a big rush. W e led all o f them off, stripped them down, checked them out, and tied them u p w ith dow ned telephone wires.... W ith dusk

45

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

approaching, we m arched close to 600 o f these defeated stragglers over tow ard H suanw u G ate and shot them dead.40 To ex ecu te so ld ie rs la c k in g th e w ill a n d m e a n s to resist o n th e p re te x t th a t th e y are “d e fe a te d stra g g le rs” o r “c o m b a ta n ts d isg u ise d in c iv ilia n c lo th e s” is u n ju stifia b le , illegal, a n d in h u m a n e . W o rse still, it is a d o w n rig h t a tro c ity to s la u g h te r h u g e n u m b e rs o f c iv ilia n s in th e p ro ce ss w ith o u t m a k in g a n ef­ f o rt to a s c e rta in i f th e y in fa c t are m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l. E v en fo re ig n n a tio n a ls f ro m sta te s frie n d ly to J a p a n c o n c u rre d o n th is p o in t. O n 2 0 J a n u a r y 1 9 3 8 , th e G e rm a n B ra n c h C o n s u la te in N a n k in g s e n t th is r e p o r t to its F o re ig n M in is try : O u r few policem en could not stop vast num bers o f Chinese soldiers from fleeing into the [Nanking] Safety Zone. (Some h ad throw n away their arms, b u t even w hen this was not the case, they lacked any means to resist.) O n that pretext, the Japanese army began a massive search o f houses and hauled away all Chinese suspected o f being sol­ diers. T h e usual Japanese way o f determ ining w hom to seize was to check for abrasions or other tell-tale signs o f having w orn helm ets on their heads, carried rifles on their shoulders, or lugged knapsacks on their backs. Foreign witnesses say th at the Japanese tricked the Chinese by prom ising to give them w ork or to pardon them , b u t then led them away to be killed. T h e Japanese took no steps to declare m artial law or anything o f the sort. W h y should we expect any such pretensions on their part? T hey flout the conventions o f law in w artim e as well as the rules o f hum an decency?41 C o n s e rv a tiv e rev isio n ists in J a p a n to d a y d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity o r ju s ­ tify it b y c la im in g th a t m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s w ere c o n d u c te d a g a in st C h in e s e so ld iers d isg u ise d in civ ilia n clo th e s. T h e s e g u e rrilla s, o r w o u ld -b e g u errilla s, it is claim ed , p re te n d e d to b e p e a c e -lo v in g civ ilian s b u t a c tu a lly b o re c o n c ea le d w e a p o n s w a itin g fo r a c h a n c e to sn ip e a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s . T h a t f o rm o f c o m ­ b a t v io la te d in te r n a tio n a l law s o f w ar, so th o se C h in e s e c o m b a ta n ts fo rfe ite d all legal rig h ts th a t P O W s enjoy. A s th is a rg u m e n t goes, it w as a ju stifia b le ac t o f self-d efen se fo r Ja p a n e se u n its to k ill th e m , a n d it w as also p e rm issib le to c a p tu re a n d ex ecu te th e m fo r c o m m ittin g th e se acts, w h ic h w ere w a r crim es. R a id s in to th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ), it is h e ld , w ere le g itim a te c o m ­ b a t o p e ra tio n s to w ip e o u t e n e m y so ld ie rs d isg u ise d as civ ilia n s. In fac t, h o w ­ ever, C h in e s e so ld ie rs w h o fled in to th e N S Z la c k e d th e w ill to fig h t th a t w as n e e d e d to b e c o m e g u e rrilla s. T h e y h a d n o p la c e o f refu g e ex c e p t th e N S Z , a n d th e y c h a n g e d in to c iv ilia n c lo th e s s im p ly to av o id b e in g k ille d b y th e in v a d ers. It w as in d e fe n s ib le fo r Ja p a n e se tro o p s to k ill th e m o n th e s p o t w ith n o e ffo rt to a s c e rta in th e ir tr u e sta tu s, o r to e x e cu te th e m as w a r c rim in a ls w ith o u t b r in g in g th e m b e fo re m ilita ry trib u n a ls . F u rth e rm o re , it w as even less ju stifia b le to k ill larg e n u m b e rs o f in n o c e n t civ ilia n s b ased o n a r b itra ry c rite ­ ria su c h as h a v in g w h a t se e m e d to b e s h o u ld e r-s tra p o r h e lm e t a b ra sio n s, w h ic h p u r p o r te d “p ro v e d ” th a t th e y w ere so ld iers. 46

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

Atrocities against Civilians A s T ak a sh i Y o sh id a rela tes in c h a p te r 11, th e “R a p e o f N a n k in g ,” as it w as first called in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 , b e c a m e k n o w n th e w o rld o v er b e c a u se o f th e h u g e n u m b e r o f rap e s a n d m a ss m u rd e rs c o m m itte d a g a in st civ ilia n s. T h e s e a tro c ­ ities to o k c e n te r stag e a t th e T o k y o w a r crim e s tria ls w h e re C h in e s e v ic tim s a n d fo re ig n w itn e sse s te stifie d , a n d th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) e m ­ ph asizes th is issue to d a y b y se e k in g o u t ever m o re v ic tim s a n d w itn e sses. T h u s , crim es a g a in st th e g e n e ra l c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n re m a in s the k e y p o in t in th e d e b a te over N a n k in g . H o w ev er, c o n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists in J a p a n re m a in m u m o n th is p o in t, ig n o r in g all te s tim o n ie s b y C h in e s e v ic tim s , n e u tra l fo re ig n w it­ nesses, a n d even Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz e rs as b e in g u n c o r r o b o ra te d in b o n a fide p r im a ry so u rces. T h e se c o n se rv a tiv e s b e g ru d g e a t m o s t th a t: “ T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y d id c o m m it m is d e e d s a g a in st th e c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n . T h e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e p r o te s te d a g a in st th e k illin g o f 4 7 civ ilian s. N o t all o f th e se cases c a n b e s u b s ta n tia te d , b u t even i f th e y c o u ld , t h a t ’s a to ta l o f fo rty -se v e n — h a rd ly a b ig n u m b e r c o m p a re d w ith o th e r arm ies in h is to ry w h o c a p tu re d a n d o c c u p ie d fo re ig n ca p ita ls in w a r tim e .”42 T h u s , co n serv ativ e rev isio n ists d e n y th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s p e r p e tra te d larg e-scale a tro c itie s ag a in st C h in e s e civ ilia n s. B u t th e im p e ria l a rm y its e lf a d m itte d th is fac t a t th e tim e . O n 4 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , I H , in th e n a m e o f F ield M a rsh a l P rin c e K a n ’in K o to h ito , a n u n c le o f th e S h o w a e m p e ro r, issu ed a n u n p r e c e d e n te d s ta te m e n t to C C A A c o m m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e: “ I f w e lo o k a t a c tu a l c o n d i­ tio n s in th e arm y, w e m u s t a d m it th a t m u c h is less th a n b le m ish -fre e . I n v id ­ io u s in c id e n ts , esp ec ially as to tr o o p d isc ip lin e a n d m o ra lity , h av e o c c u rre d w ith in c re a sin g fre q u e n c y o f la te. H o w e v e r m u c h w e m a y w ish to d isb eliev e th is fact, w e c a n n o t b u t h av e d o u b ts .” T h o u g h h a rd ly b lu n t a n d d ire c t, th is im p e ria l p rin c e a d m o n is h e d a g a in st o n g o in g Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s. O th e r d o c u m e n ts clea rly s h o w th a t tro o p s w ere b e in g d is c ip lin e d fo r c rim ­ in a l acts at th e tim e . F o r ex am p le, o n e so u rce is a T e n th A rm y legal d e p a rtm e n t d a ily le d g er f ro m 12 O c to b e r 1 9 3 7 to 2 3 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 ; a n o th e r is a C C A A b a ttle fie ld c o u rts m a rtia l d a ily le d g e r f ro m 4 J a n u a ry to 6 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 . T h e a b s u rd ly sm a ll n u m b e r o f m ilita ry p o lic e o n h a n d c o u ld n o t c o n tro l a n in v a d ­ in g a rm y o f w ell over 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ; so w e c a n b e su re th a t o n ly th o se m e n c a u g h t fo r th e m o s t eg re g io u s o f crim e s w ere c o u rt-m a rtia le d , a n d th e y w ere p u n ­ ish e d o n ly as ex am p le s to d e te r o th e rs. S till, th e fo llo w in g fig u res in th e T e n th A rm y legal d e p a r tm e n t d a ily le d g e r p ro v e th a t ra p e s to o k p la c e — a lth o u g h th e se re p re s e n t th e tip o f a n ic eb e rg . O f th e 1 0 2 m e n c o n v ic te d as o f 18 F eb ­ r u a r y 1 9 3 8 , tw e n ty -tw o w ere fo r ra p e , tw e n ty -se v e n , fo r m u rd e r; tw o fo r rap e a n d -m u rd e r; a n d tw o fo r c a u sin g b o d ily in ju r y th a t re s u lte d in d e a th . O f th e six tee n m e n a w a itin g tria l o n th a t d a te , tw o w ere c h a rg e d w ith ra p e a n d o n e w ith m u rd e r. T h e o c c u rre n c e o f su c h h e in o u s crim e s is s u b s ta n tia te d as w ell b y a d irec tiv e issu ed o n 2 0 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 th a t in v e ig h s a g a in st th e h ig h 47 47

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

in c id e n c e o f ra p e in th e T e n th A rm y : “W e h av e to ld tro o p s n u m e ro u s tim e s th a t lo o tin g , rap e , a n d a rso n are f o rb id d e n , b u t ju d g in g fro m th e sh a m e fu l fac t th a t over 100 in c id e n ts o f ra p e c a m e to lig h t d u r in g th e c u r r e n t a ssa u lt o n N a n k in g , w e b r in g th is m a tte r to y o u r a tte n tio n y e t ag a in d e s p ite th e r e p e titio n .”43 C o m m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e h im s e lf n o te d th e re a lity o f ra p e in th e C C A A b a ttle fie ld c o u rts m a rtia l d a ily led g er. A n e n try fo r 2 0 D e c e m b e r reads: “It seem s th a t o u r tro o p s c o m m itte d acts o f ra p e a n d lo o tin g (m a in ly ite m s lik e f u rn itu re ) a t a b o u t 1 :0 0 p .m .; th e t r u t h is th a t so m e su c h acts are u n a v o id ­ a b le .” M a ts u i’s e n try in th e le d g e r fo r 2 6 D e c e m b e r read s: “I ag a in h e a rd o f lo o tin g a n d ra p e in a n d a ro u n d N a n k in g a n d H a n g c h o u .”44 In e x p la in in g th e se passages, th e N ankin senshis ( H is to r y o f th e N a n k in g C a m p a ig n ) p r o ­ te ctiv e a u th o rs c la im th a t M a ts u i “c o n s tru e d th e so -c a lle d ‘N a n k in g I n c id e n t’ as c o m p ris in g v io la tio n s o f fo re ig n rig h ts a n d p riv ile g es in C h in a a n d in c i­ d e n ts o f v io le n c e a n d lo o tin g a g a in st th e C h in e se . H e h a d n o id e a o f a n ‘A tro c ­ ity ’ th a t w o u ld arise as a p r o b le m la te r o n [at w a r c rim e s tria ls ].”45 I f th e re w as “a p r o b le m ,” h o w ev er, it lay p re c ise ly in th is la c k o f c o g n iz a n c e b y th e h ig h e s t r a n k in g Ja p a n e se c o m m a n d e r d u r in g th e N a n k in g c a m p a ig n . In d e e d , th e n , th e im p e ria l a rm y ’s u p p e r e c h e lo n s d id k n o w th a t tro o p s w ere p e r p e tra tin g ra p e a n d v io le n c e a g a in st C h in e s e civ ilia n s. L t. G e n . O k a m u r a Y asuji, w h o to o k o v er c o m m a n d o f th e T e n th A rm y b efo re its assau lt o n W u h a n in A u g u s t 1 9 3 8 , la te r rec alle d : “ I s u rm ise d th e fo llo w in g b a se d o n w h a t I h e a rd fro m S ta ff O ffic e r M iy a z a k i, C C A A S p ecial S erv ice D e p a r tm e n t C h ie f H a ra d a , a n d H a n g c h o u S p ecial S erv ice D e p a r tm e n t C h i e f H a g iw a ra a d a y o r tw o afte r I a rriv ed in S h a n g h a i. F irst, it is tru e th a t te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f acts o f v io le n ce , su c h as lo o tin g a n d ra p e , to o k p la c e a g a in st civ ilia n s d u r in g th e assau lt o n N a n k in g . S e c o n d , f ro n t-lin e tro o p s in d u lg e d in th e evil p ra c tic e o f e x e c u tin g P O W s o n th e p re te x t o f [lacking] r a tio n s .”46 R ap es w ere esp ec ially p re v a le n t a t N a n k in g , a n d w ere a fo c u s o f th e th ir d la w s u it th a t T o kyo U n iv e rs ity o f E d u c a tio n p ro fe sso r Ie n a g a S a b u ro b r o u g h t a g a in st th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t. In its 1 9 8 3 sc re e n in g o f h ig h s c h o o l h is to ry te x tb o o k s, th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n o rd e re d h im to d e le te a fo o tn o te th a t read : “T h e re w ere m a n y officers a n d m e n in th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w h o v io la te d C h in e s e w o m e n .” T h e M in is tr y d id a d m it th a t w o m e n w ere v io la te d , b u t in ­ sisted th a t: “T h is o c c u rre d o n all b a ttle fie ld s in all p e rio d s o f h u m a n h isto ry . H is [Ien ag a’s] s e le c tio n o f facts is p r o b le m a tic i f h e m a k e s th is p o in t o n ly in th e case o f th e Ja p a n e se a rm y .” R a p e is a n im m e a s u ra b ly tr a u m a tic ex p e rie n c e fo r th e fem ales in v o lv e d ; it leaves life lo n g e m o tio n a l scars. G iv e n th e sh a m e in d u c in g n a tu re o f th is c rim e , v ic tim s n a tu ra lly w ish to k ee p it se cret; so w r it­ te n c o n te m p o ra n e o u s so u rce s th a t d o c u m e n t it are v e ry rare. N e v e rth e le ss, rap e b y th e im p e ria l a rm y w as a m a jo r p r o b le m in th e e a rly stages o f th e 1 9 3 7 —4 5 S in o -Ja p a n e se W ar, esp ec ially a t N a n k in g , even w h e n c o m p a re d w ith b e h a v ­ io r in th e J a p a n - C h ’in g W a r a n d th e R u sso -Ja p a n e se W ar. 48 48

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

O n e so u rc e th a t sh e d s lig h t o n th is m a tte r is a d ire c tiv e issu e d in F e b ru ­ a ry 1 9 3 9 b y a n A rm y M in is tr y u n d e rs e c re ta ry to u n its r e tu r n in g h o m e fro m th e C h in a f ro n t. It s o u g h t to e n su re th a t so ld iers exercise d is c re tio n in ta lk ­ in g a b o u t th e ir ex p e rien c es; in o th e r w o rd s, th e y s h o u ld k ee p still a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d . A n a p p e n d ix to th e so u rc e lists th e fo llo w in g sp e cific ex a m p le s o f v erb a l s ta te m e n ts th a t th e a rm y w ish e d to su p p ress: (1) A t XX, we took four people captive— parents and daughters. W e played w ith the daughters as if they were whores and killed the parents because they kept on telling us to release the daughters. W e had our kicks un til the un it was ordered to leave; then we killed the daughters. (2) O ne com pany com m ander h in ted that rape was O K , saying, “M ake sure no problem s arise later on; after you’re finished, either pay them off or kill them outright.” (3) Every soldier who fought in the w ar m ust be a murderer, arm ed robber, or rapist. (4) N o one cared about rapes at the front; some guys even shot at MPs w ho caught them in the act. (5) T h e only skills I picked u p after h alf a year in com bat were how to rape and loot.47 T h e s e are d o c u m e n ts le ft b y th e p e rp e tra to rs . N e e d le s s to say, th e v ic tim s le ft m a n y as w ell. F o re ig n e rs also le ft te s tim o n ie s a n d c o n d u c te d su rv ey s. C o n ­ serv ativ e rev isio n ists say th a t th e se W e s te rn so u rc e s la c k c re d ib ility b ec au se B rito n s a n d A m e ric a n s w ere e n e m ie s w h o h a te d J a p a n a t th e tim e . B u t n a t io n ­ als o f frie n d ly sta te s s u c h as G e rm a n y , w h ic h sig n e d th e A n ti- C o m in te r n P act w ith J a p a n in 1 9 3 6 , also le ft d o c u m e n ts . I h av e alre a d y c ite d a m essag e s e n t b y th e G e rm a n B ra n c h C o n s u la te in N a n k in g . T h e re are also re p o rts to th e G e r m a n F o re ig n M in is tr y s e n t b y G e o rg R o se n o f th e G e r m a n C o n s u la te s ta ff a n d b y J o h n R a b e — a N a z i P a rty m e m b e r, S ie m e n s c o m p a n y em p lo y ee , a n d h e a d o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) th a t a d m in is te re d th e N S Z . E ven th e se n a tio n a ls frie n d ly to J a p a n c a n d id ly e x p o se d Ja p a n e se m isd e e d s. F o r ex a m p le , o n 2 4 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , R o s e n r e p o rte d : “ T h e m o s t d is g u s tin g acts b y Ja p a n e se so ld iers a g a in st C h in e s e civ ilia n s h av e c o m e to lig h t; th e se clearly w o rk a g a in st G e r m a n y ’s p o lic y o f th w a r tin g th e sp re a d o f C o m m u n is m .” O n 15 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , h e r e p o rte d : “ O v e r a m o n th h as p a sse d sin c e th e Ja p a n e se a rm y o c c u p ie d N a n k in g , b u t so ld ie rs are still a b d u c tin g a n d r a p in g w o m e n a n d g irls. In th a t sense, th e Ja p a n e se a rm y is e re c tin g a m o n u m e n t to its o w n d is h o n o r .”48 R o se n also n o te d th a t Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs w ere b re a k in g in to th e G e r m a n E m b a ssy a n d th e a m b a s s a d o r’s o fficial re sid e n c e d e m a n d in g w o m e n . J o h n R a b e ’s d ia ry d escrib es h o rrib le rap e s b y Ja p a n e se so ld iers. F o r e x a m ­ p le, o n 17 D e c e m b e r h e w rite s: “ O n e o f th e A m e ric a n s p u t it th is w ay: ‘T h e S afety Z o n e h as tu r n e d in to a p u b lic h o u se fo r th e Ja p a n e se s o ld ie rs .’ T h a t ’s v ery close to th e tr u th . L ast n ig h t u p to 1 ,0 0 0 w o m e n a n d girls are said to have b e e n ra p e d , a b o u t 1 0 0 g irls a t G in lin g G irls C o lle g e a lo n e . Y ou h e a r o f n o t h ­ in g b u t rap e . I f h u s b a n d s o r b r o th e rs in te rv e n e , th e y ’re s h o t. W h a t y o u h e a r a n d see o n all sides is th e b r u ta lity a n d b e s tia lity o f th e Ja p a n e se so ld ie ry .”49 O n 2 4 D e c e m b e r R a b e n o te d : “D r. W ils o n u se d th e o p p o r tu n ity to s h o w m e 49 49

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

a few o f h is p a tie n ts . T h e w o m a n w h o w as a d m itte d b e c a u se o f a m isc a rria g e a n d h a d th e b a y o n e t c u ts all o v er h e r face is d o in g fa irly w e ll.”50 T h is w o m a n is p r o b a b ly Li H s iu -y in g , o n e p la in tif f in a la w s u it o v er w a rtim e c o m p e n s a ­ tio n la u n c h e d b y C h in e s e v ic tim s in th e T o k y o D is tr ic t C o u r t. S u c h o b je c ­ tiv e c o n te m p o ra n e o u s re p o rts b y W e ste rn e rs c o n s titu te u n d e n ia b le e v id en c e th a t h u g e n u m b e rs o f rap e s to o k p la ce . A n d , I w ish to stress, th e se re p o rts w ere te n d e re d b y m e m b e rs o f a n a tio n a lity frie n d ly to Ja p a n , n o t b y C h in e s e v ic tim s o r b y A m e ric a n , A u stra lia n , a n d B ritish “e n e m ie s .” T h e im p e ria l a rm y re s p o n d e d to th o se c ritic is m s b y c re a tin g ty p ic a lly J a p ­ anese “c o m fo rt s ta tio n s ” sta ffe d b y so -ca lle d “c o m fo r t w o m e n .” A t a n in q u ir y p r io r to th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, a fo rm e r K w a n tu n g A rm y s ta ff officer, T a n a k a R y u k ic h i, gave th is a c c o u n t o f h o w th e in s titu ti o n ca m e in to b ein g : “ [C C A A S ta ff O ffic er] C h o Is a m u to ld m e th a t officers a n d tro o p s w ere r a p ­ in g to o m a n y w o m e n , so h e set u p b ro th e ls in N a n k in g to sto p th is .”51 E arlier, in th e S ib e ria n I n te r v e n tio n o f 1 9 1 8 —2 2 , Ja p a n e se tro o p s h a d u se d “c o m fo rt w o m e n ” to p re v e n t rap e s a n d th e sp re a d o f v e n e re a l disease. N o w , a la rm e d b y th e h ig h in c id e n c e o f ra p e a t N a n k in g , th e im p e ria l a rm y o rg a n iz e d g ro u p s o f su c h w o m e n to a c c o m p a n y tro o p s d u r in g th e la te r a ssa u lt o n W u h a n . T h e r e ­ after, th e a rm y o fficially re c o g n iz e d a n d se t u p c o m fo r t s ta tio n s w h e re v e r it w e n t. B ecause th e re w ere n o t e n o u g h Ja p a n e se w o m e n to m e e t th e in c re a se d d e m a n d , K o re a n w o m e n w ere se c u re d b y f ra u d o r fo rc e a n d s e n t to th e fro n t. R ap es o c c u rre d re p e a te d ly all th e w a y fro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g a n d also in th e c a p ita l afte r it fell. T h is w as a m a jo r w a r c rim e p e r p e tra te d b y th e im p e ­ ria l arm y ; in d e e d , th e e p ith e t “R a p e o f N a n k in g ,” as th e e v e n t w as called a t th e tim e , ca m e to s ta n d fo r th e A tro c ity as a w h o le . T h is w a r c rim e n o t o n ly le ft d e e p scars o n th e C h in e se , it also h as h a d m a jo r im p lic a tio n s fo r p r o b ­ lem s th a t p la g u e J a p a n ’s re la tio n s w ith N o r t h a n d S o u th K o rea. C o n s e rv a tiv e rev isio n ists in J a p a n d e n y th a t a N a n k in g A tro c ity to o k p la c e b y a s se rtin g th a t only th is o r th a t m a n y p e o p le w ere v ic tim iz e d , o r th a t e m p iric a l ev id e n c e fo r th e ir v ic tim iz a tio n is n o t iro n c la d . B u t w e w ill n e v e r c o m p re h e n d th e tru e n a tu re o f Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g i f w e tu r n a b lin d eye to th e te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f w o m e n re p u te d ly ra p e d th e re .

Historical Awareness T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity s y m b o liz e d J a p a n ’s w a r o f ag g re ssio n a g a in st C h in a . T h e r e w ere fo re ig n e m b assies a n d n e w s ag en cies in N a n k in g , th e n th e c a p i­ ta l o f C h in a , so re p o rts o f th e A tro c ity w e n t o u t to th e e n tire w o rld . T h e J a p ­ anese p e o p le alo n e , w ith few e x c e p tio n s, re m a in e d in th e d a rk b e c a u se o f severe w a rtim e ce n so rsh ip . T h u s th e g re a t m a jo r ity o f Ja p a n e se le a rn e d a b o u t th e A tro c ity o n ly d u r in g th e T ok y o W a r C rim e s T rials w h ic h , as T im o th y B ro o k sh o w s in c h a p te r 7 , first b ro a c h e d th e issue o f J a p a n ’s w a r g u ilt a n d c u lp a b il­ 50

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: A n Interpretive Overview

i t y F o re ig n p h y sic ia n s a n d m is sio n a rie s w h o h a d liv e d in N a n k in g , p lu s C h i­ nese p e rso n s v ic tim iz e d th e re , te stifie d a t T o k y o . O th e r ty p e s o f ev id e n c e in ­ c lu d e d so c io lo g ist L ew is S m y th e ’s su rv ey s o f d am ag e s, b u ria l re c o rd s le ft b y th e N a n k in g b r a n c h o f th e C h in e s e R e d C ro ss, th e R e d S w a stik a S ociety, a n d also th o se b y o th e r lo c al o rg a n iz a tio n s. As a re s u lt o f th is e v id en c e, C C A A c o m m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e rec eiv e d th e d e a th se n te n c e . T h e v e rd ic t re a d : “th e to ta l n u m b e r o f civ ilia n s a n d P O W s m u r d e r e d in N a n k in g a n d its v ic in ity d u r in g th e first six w ee k s o f th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n w as o v er 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 .” A r ti­ cle X I o f th e S an F ra n c isc o Peace T reaty, sig n e d in 1 9 5 1 , s tip u la te s: “J a p a n accepts th e v erd icts o f w a r crim es tria ls.” In su m , th e p o stw a r Ja p an e se g o v e rn ­ m e n t fo rm a lly a d m its th a t im p e ria l J a p a n w a g e d a w a r o f ag g re ssio n a n d th a t it m a ssac red over 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le a t N a n k in g . B u t u n lik e its fo rm e r ally G e rm a n y , J a p a n d id n o t m a k e a n a ll-o u t e ffo rt to p ro s e c u te w a r crim e s o r c rim in a ls la te r in th e p o s tw a r e ra a fte r th e A llie d O c c u p a tio n e n d e d . F o rm e r w a rtim e le ad e rs, ev en so m e w h o h a d b e e n c o n ­ v ic te d o f A -class w a r crim es, r e tu r n e d to p o s itio n s o f p o w er. S e n tim e n ts to affirm o r even g lo rify th e w a r b e c a m e in flu e n tia l a fte r th e S a n F ra n c isc o Peace T re a ty to o k effect a n d J a p a n re g a in e d so v e re ig n ty in A p ril 1 9 5 2 . A s se e n in th e Ien a g a la w su its b e g in n in g in 1 9 6 7 , th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n c e n so re d sc h o o l te x tb o o k s to b a n w o rd s su c h as “ag g re ssio n ” o r d e le te m e n tio n o f th e N a n k in g A tro city . M o reo v e r, co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists b e g a n to arg u e th a t th e A tro c ity w as a fa b ric a tio n o r a n illu s io n . F ro m th e 1 9 7 0 s o n w a rd , c o n tro v e r­ sies th r e a te n in g th e v e ry basis o f h is to ric a l fa c t h av e ra g e d in Ja p a n . In 1 9 8 2 , C h in a a n d S o u th K o re a fo rm a lly p r o te s te d a g a in st J a p a n ’s g o v e rn m e n t w h e n th e y le a rn e d o f c o n d itio n s s u r r o u n d in g te x tb o o k sc re e n in g . T h e S u z u k i Z e n k o reg im e, in p o w e r fro m Ju ly 1 9 8 0 to N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 2 , s e ttle d th is d ip lo m a tic rift b y h a v in g M iy a z a w a K iic h i, D ir e c to r o f th e C a b in e t S e c re ta ria t, p ro c la im th a t J a p a n “rea ffirm s th e s p irit o f se lf-c ritic ism e s p o u se d in th e [1 9 7 2 ] ‘S in o Ja p a n e se J o in t S ta te m e n t’ a n d [1 9 6 5 ] ‘J o in t C o m m u n iq u e ’ b e tw e e n J a p a n a n d S o u th K o re a ,” a n d also th a t “th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t w ill ta k e re s p o n s ib il­ ity fo r c o rre c tin g te x tb o o k p assa g e s.” A s K im u r a T a k u ji sh o w s in c h a p te r 15, h aw k s in th e r u lin g L ib e ra l D e m o c r a tic P a rty as w ell as o th e r r ig h t-w in g ele­ m e n ts la sh e d o u t a t C h in a a n d S o u th K o re a fo r alleg e d ly in te r v e n in g in J a p a n ­ ese in te r n a l affairs o n th is a n d o th e r issues; a n d , as a re su lt, d e b a te s over h is to ry flared u p ag a in , w ith d e n ie rs c o n te n d in g th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as a fic tio n o r a fa lse h o o d . In re sp o n se , w e fo rm e d th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t ( N a n k in k e n ) in 1 9 8 2 , a n d it h as c o n tin u e d p u b lis h in g s c h o la rly b o o k s a n d a rticle s to th is day. As m o re a n d m o re o f th e se stu d ie s a p p e a re d , m o s t asp ec ts o f th e A tro c ity h av e b e c o m e cle a rly k n o w n . T h e fata l s c h o la rly b lo w to th e co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ist cau se ca m e b e tw e e n A p ril 1 9 8 4 a n d M a rc h 1 9 8 5 w h e n th e K a ik o s h a e lic ite d te s tim o n ie s fro m m e m b e rs w h o h a d se rv e d a t N a n k in g fo r p u b lic a tio n in its m o n th ly , th e Kaiko. Its e d ito rs h o p e d th e y w o u ld se ttle th e c o n tro v e rs y o n c e a n d fo r all b y 51 51

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

p u b lis h in g g re a t n u m b e rs o f ey e w itn e ss te s tim o n ie s th a t d e n ie d m a jo r m is ­ d eed s. B u t c o n tra ry to th o se e x p e c ta tio n s, m a n y K a ik o s h a m e m b e rs s e n t in a c c o u n ts a ffirm in g th a t m assacres, rap e s, a n d o th e r acts o f w a n to n v io le n c e to o k p lace. To th e ir c re d it, th e Kaiko e d ito rs p u b lis h e d th e se m a te ria ls u n a l­ te re d , a n d C h i e f E d ito r K a to g a w a K o ta ro e n d e d th e series in M a rc h 1 9 8 5 w ith a n a rticle title d , “S u m m in g U p ,” in w h ic h h e a d m itte d th e fa c t o f ille­ gal k illin g s, a n d even o f m assacres. H e c ite d e s tim a te d v ic tim c o u n ts o f 3 ,0 0 0 to 6 ,0 0 0 te n d e re d b y U n e m o to M a sa m i, a n d o f 1 3 ,0 0 0 , b y I ta k u r a Y oshiaki; a n d K a to g a w a c o n c lu d e d th e series b y saying: W e Deeply Apologize to the Chinese People To repeat: 3,000 to 6,000 is a terrible figure; how m uch m ore so is 13,000. W hen we began com piling our history, we were prepared to accept that Japan was not innocent. Nevertheless, we can only reflect upon such huge num bers w ith deep sadness. N o m at­ ter w hat the conditions o f battle were, and no m atter how that affected the hearts o f m en, such large-scale illegal killings cannot be justified. As som eone affiliated w ith the form er Japanese army, I can only apologize deeply to the Chinese people. I am truly sorry. W e did horrible things to you.52 T h e K a ik o s h a p u b lis h e d a se m i-o ffic ia l h isto ry , th e N ankin senshi, p lu s a c o lle c tio n o f p r im a ry so u rce s, th e N ankin senshi shiryo shu. T h e s e tw o w o rk s list 1 5 ,7 6 0 civ ilia n ca su a ltie s a n d 1 6 ,0 0 0 P O W s s u m m a rily k ille d , b u t th e e d ito rs to o k a re a c tio n a ry ste p b y in s is tin g th a t n o t all o f th e se w ere illeg al o r ille g itim a te k illin g s, a n d th a t C h in e s e c o u n te rc la im s o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s are fa b ric a te d . E v en so, b y p u b lis h in g p r im a ry so u rc e s th a t c o n ta in th e facts a n d b y a d m ittin g th e A tro c ity ’s h isto ric ity , th e K a ik o s h a c o n c lu siv e ly re p u d ia te d false claim s th a t th e e v e n t n e v e r to o k p la c e o r w as a n illu sio n . In d e e d , several c o n trib u to rs to th e p re s e n t v o lu m e , m y s e lf in c lu d e d , c ite th e se K a ik o s h a p u b lic a tio n s in o u r c h a p te rs. T h u s , as a sc h o la rly a rg u m e n t, d e n ia l w as d ead . H o w ev er, as f u r th e r re la te d b y K im u ra T a k u ji in c h a p te r 15, th e 1 9 9 0 s b r o u g h t n e w d e v e lo p m e n ts. K o n o e F u m im a ro ’s g ra n d s o n , P rim e M in is te r H o s o k a w a M o rih iro , in 1 9 9 3 a d m itte d th a t “aggressive a c ts”— th o u g h n o t ag g ressio n its e lf— to o k p la c e in th e la st w ar. A n d , in 1 9 9 5 P rim e M in is te r M u ra y a m a T o m iic h i fro m th e J a p a n S o c ia list P a rty ex p re ssed s e lf-c ritic ism a n d so rro w fo r J a p a n ’s c o lo n ia l ru le a n d ag g re ssio n in A sia. T h o s e s ta te m e n ts p r o ­ v o k e d m o re r ig h t- w in g e ffo rts to affirm a n d g lo rify th e w a r a n d to d e n y h is ­ to r ic ity to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity — p r o p o s itio n s th a t h a d su ffe re d r e f u ta tio n in a c a d e m ic circles. O n c e m o re , b a ttle s o v er h is to ric a l aw a re n ess e r u p te d . T oday, th is is n o lo n g e r a d e b a te o v er facts o r e m p iric a l p ro o f, n o lo n g e r a m a tte r o f sc h o la rsh ip . C o n s e rv a tiv e re v isio n ists to d a y w h o in s is t o n d e n y in g th e N a n k in g A tr o c ity — d e s p ite all ev id e n c e to th e c o n tr a r y — d o so fo r p o litic a l rea so n s. T h e y w ish to sa n c tify a ro a d to f u tu re w ars b y g lo rify in g th e la st o n e. 52

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity: An Interpretive Overview

A c c o rd in g to th e m , J a p a n is a lre a d y a n e c o n o m ic p o w er; it n o w s h o u ld jo in th e ra n k s o f p o litic a l a n d m ilita ry p o w e rs to o . T h is m e a n s w in n in g a p e r m a ­ n e n t se at o n th e U N S e c u rity C o u n c il. T o d o th a t, th e y arg u e , J a p a n m u s t m a k e s u ita b le in te r n a tio n a l c o n trib u tio n s b y s e n d in g tro o p s overseas to jo in in c o m b a t roles as p a r t o f U N a rm e d fo rces. B u t b e fo re th a t c a n h a p p e n , th e Ja p a n e se m u s t a m e n d o r e lim in a te A rtic le IX o f th e ir p o s tw a r C o n s titu tio n so th a t th e ir n a tio n c a n o n c e ag a in use m ilita ry fo rc e to se ttle in te r n a tio n a l d isp u te s. S u c h c o n s titu tio n a l re v isio n c a n n o t ta k e p la c e u n til th e Ja p a n e se o v erc o m e th e ir av e rsio n to w ars in g e n e ra l, b a se d o n m is p e rc e p tio n s o f th e la st o n e th e y fo u g h t, a n d u n til th e y sto p th e ir a b je c t p ra c tic e o f “d ip lo m a c y b y a p o lo g y ” d u e to u n w a rra n te d fee lin g s o f w a r g u ilt. In s u m , as th e c o n s e r­ v ativ e re v isio n ist lin e goes, p a c ifism a n d se rv ility are fo o lish b ec au se W o rld W a r II w as a ju s t a n d g lo rio u s o n e fo r Ja p a n . T h is is th e n a k e d ly p o litic a l lo g ic m o tiv a tin g th o se co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists w h o go o n d e n y in g th e A tro c ­ ity ’s fa c tu a lity lo n g a fte r su c h claim s h av e b e e n ex p o sed as s c h o la rly b a n k r u p t.

Notes * 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Translated from Japanese by the editor. W hen Chiang Kai-shek established Nanking as the capital of the Republic of C hina in 1928, he renamed Peking “Peip’ing.” However, the city will be cited by its more familiar name, “Peking” in Wade-Giles rather than “Beijing,” as the city is now known. Translator’s note. The emperor issued three types of orders: rinsanmei, conveyed by Chiefs of the Army or Navy General Staff, tairikumei, conveyed through the Army General Staff, and daikairei, conveyed by the Navy General Staff. Usui et al., eds., Gendai shi shiryo: 9 N it-C h u senso II, pp. 19—20. Ibid., pp. 20—24. Terasaki and Terasaki Miller, eds., Showa tenno dokuhaku roku, pp. 36—37; Fujiwara, N ankin no Nihongun, pp. 11—12. Fujiwara, N a n kin no Nihongun, p. 18. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, p. 26. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, p. 72. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, p. 386. Fujiwara, N a n kin no Nihongun, p. 18. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, p. 79. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, p. 397. For more detail on these points, see Fujiwara, N a n kin no Nihongun, pp. 83—94; and Fujiwara, “Kaisetsu,” pp. ix—xxiv. Q uoted in Eguchi, “Shanhai sen to Nankin shingeki sen,” pp. 17—21. Fujiwara, N a n kin no Nihongun, pp. 16—17. Ibid. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, p. 422. Yoshida, Tenno no guntai to N a n k in jiken, pp. 69—99; Honda, N anjing Massacre, pp. 134—35. Kasahara, “Nankin boeisen to Chugokugun,” pp. 221—35. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: D aihonei rikugunbu 1, pp. 394—97. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, pp. 102—3.

53

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

Ibid., p. 103. The increase in the China Garrison Army came in April 1936; see Fujiwara, Showa no rekishi 5: N it-C h u zenm en senso, pp. 62—63. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikusgun sakusen 2, pp. 465-66. Kamisago, K enpeisanjuichi nen, p.175. Nankin senshi henshu iiankai, ed., “Nakajima Kesago nikki,” p. 326. Sasaki, “Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki,” pp. 377-78. These were the Seventh, Thirty-third, and Thirty-eighth Regiments; and the Forty-first Regi­ m ent Twelfth Company, the Sixty-sixth Regiment First Battalion, and the Sixty-Eighth Regi­ m ent First and T hird Battalions. See O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n kin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, p. 437. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikusgun sakusen 2, pp. 465-66. N.p., Tai-Shinagun sentoho no kenkyu, p. 74. Unemoto, “Shogen ni yoru N a n kin senshi (5),” p. 7. Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n kin senshi shiryo shu, p. 545 and p. 648. Ibid., pp. 673-74. Kaigunsho kaigun gunji fukyubu ed., “Shina jihen ni okeru teikoku kaigun no kodo (Hottan yori Nankin koryaku made)” document in National Defense Archives. Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n kin senshi shiryo shu, p. 630 and p. 551. Ibid., p. 476. Ibid., p. 502. Iguchi et al., eds., N a n k in jik e n Kyoto shidan kankei shiryo shu, p. 7. “Nankin jonai soto no maki,” in ibid., pp. 322-23. Document in former East German National Archives. Fujioka, “‘Nankin daigyakusatsu sanjuman’ no uso,” p. 565. Yoshida, Tenno no guntai to N a n k in jiken, p. 157. Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n kin senshi shiryo shu, pp. 22-24. Ibid., p. 51. Okamura, Okamura Yasuji taisho shiryo jo, p. 291. Hora, ed., N it-C h u senso shi shiryo 8: N a n kin jik e n I, pp. 336-37. Document in former East German National Archives. Wickert, ed., Good M a n o f N anking, p. 77. Ibid., p. 92. Awaya et al., eds., Tokyo saiban shiryo: Tanaka R yukichijinm on chosho, p. 257. Katogawa, “Shogen ni yoru Nankin senshi saishukai: ‘Sono sokatsuteki kosatsu’”, p. 18.

54

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:51:59 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Section One

W a r C r im e s

and

D oubts

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

3

M a s s a c r e s o u t sid e Na n k in g C it y * K asahara Tokushi

Definitions and Dimensions T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity is a g e n e ra l te rm d e n o tin g b a rb a ro u s acts th a t th e im p e ­ ria l a rm y a n d n a v y p e r p e tra te d in v io la tio n o f h u m a n ita r ia n la w a n d th e in te r ­ n a tio n a l law s o f w a r w h e n th o se fo rces a tta c k e d a n d o c c u p ie d N a n k in g , ca p ita l o f th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a , ea rly in th e S in o -J a p a n e se W a r o f 1 9 3 7 —4 5 . I w o u ld d e lim it th e N a n k in g A tro c ity g e o g ra p h ic a lly a n d te m p o ra lly as fo llo w s. A reaw ise, it to o k p la ce th r o u g h o u t th e b ro a d re g io n k n o w n as th e N a n k in g S p e­ cial A d m in is tra tiv e D is tr ic t (N S A D , see m a p 2 ). A t th a t tim e , th e N S A D c o m p ris e d n o t o n ly th e w a lle d c ity o f N a n k in g itself, b u t also six a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s (hsien): L iu h o , C h ia n g p ’u , K a o c h u n , C h ia n g n in g , L ish u i, a n d K u y u n g , a lth o u g h K u y u n g is n o w p a r t o f C h e n -c h ia n g city. T h e N S A D c o rre s p o n d e d w ith w h a t th e im p e ria l a rm y te rm e d its N a n k in g th e a te r o f o p e ra tio n s as w ell as w ith th e z o n e o f Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n a fte r th e c a p ita l c ity fell o n 13 D e ­ c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . T im e -w ise , th e A tr o c ity b e g a n a r o u n d 4 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , after th e C e n tr a l C h in a A re a A rm y (C C A A ) e n te re d th is th e a te r o f o p e ra tio n s u p o n re c e iv in g fo rm a l o rd e rs f ro m Im p e ria l H e a d q u a r te r s ( IH ) d a te d 1 D e c e m b e r 1937. Jap an ese field o p e ra tio n s ceased o n 14 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , w h e n I H re sc in d e d its d e s ig n a tio n o f th e C C A A as a fo rm a l b a ttle fo rm a tio n (sento joretsu), b u t m assacres a n d o th e r h id e o u s acts w e n t o n a fte r m id -F e b ru a ry . T h e re fo re , it is m o re a p p ro p ria te to d a te th e e n d o f th e A tro c ity o n 2 8 M a rc h 1 9 3 8 w h e n th e c o lla b o ra tio n is t “R e fo rm e d G o v e r n m e n t” u n d e r L ia n g H u n g -c h ih ca m e in to b e in g th r o u g h C C A A m a c h in a tio n s . P u b lic o rd e r th e n r e tu r n e d to N a n ­ k in g , a n d Ja p an e se acts o f ra p in e ceased. T h o s e acts o f ra p in e , w h ic h m a k e u p th e A tro city , fell u n d e r tw o b r o a d h e a d in g s: v io la tio n s o f life a n d lim b , a n d v io la tio n s o f p r o p e r ty rig h ts. 57

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

Violations o f Life and Limb I g n o rin g in te r n a tio n a l law s o f w ar, th e Ja p a n e se a rm y k ille d C h in e s e so ld iers a n d d e fe a te d strag g le rs w h o w ere w o u n d e d , in th e a c t o f s u rre n d e rin g , o r even in cu sto d y . A s p a r t o f th e ir c a m p a ig n to s u r ro u n d a n d e x te rm in a te th e foe, Ja p a n e se tro o p s a rb itra rily k ille d a d u lt m a les o r civ ilia n s d e e m e d to b e e n e m y so ld iers. T h u s th e y s ta b b e d o r s h o t to d e a th v a st n u m b e rs o f u r b a n d w ellers in th e w alled c ity o f N a n k in g as w ell as ru ra l re sid e n ts in its a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s o n th e p re te x t o f “h u n tin g d o w n ” o r “m o p p in g u p ” “d e fe a te d stra g g le rs” o n se arch a n d d e s tro y m issio n s. In sta n c e s o f ra p e a n d g a n g ra p e w ere also p r o m i­ n e n t; a n d , a lth o u g h a n ex a ct c o u n t c a n n o t b e m a d e , th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m ­ m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) e s tim a te d th a t th e se rap e s r a n in to th e te n s o f th o u s a n d s . A cts o f ra p e d id n o t ju s t in ju re w o m e n p h y s ­ ically, th e se also p ro d u c e d tr a u m a a n d c ru e l afte r-effec ts th a t m ig h t la st fo r a life tim e . S o m e ra p e v ic tim s e n d e d th e ir o w n lives, so m e w e n t in sa n e , so m e b e c a m e in v a lid s o w in g to th e v e n e re a l diseases th a t th e y c o n tra c te d ; a n d so m e , a c tin g fro m a sense o f sh a m e , m u tila te d th e ir b o d ie s in a tte m p ts to a b o r t u n ­ w a n te d p re g n a n c ie s.

Violations o f Property Rights T h e im p e ria l Ja p a n e se a rm y in s tig a te d p lu n d e r a n d a rso n to ta lly u n re la te d to th e n ee d s o f c o m b a t. T h e IC c o n d u c te d a su rv e y s h o w in g th a t 7 4 p e r c e n t o f all N a n k in g c ity b u ild in g s w ere lo o te d . M a n y areas in its c e n tra l b u sin e ss d is­ tr ic t re p e a te d ly su ffe re d r a n d o m acts o f p illa g e b y p a c k s o f so ld ie rs as w ell as o rg a n iz e d p lu n d e r th a t in v o lv e d th e u se o f a rm y tru c k s — o n ly to b e to rc h e d a fte rw a rd . A rs o n c o n tin u e d th r o u g h ea rly F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , a n d 2 4 p e r c e n t o f all N a n k in g c ity b u ild in g s w ere le v eled b y s u c h fires. Ja p a n e se tro o p s lo o te d fu rn itu re , c lo th in g , a n d ca sh fro m b u r n e d - o u t h o m e s. T h e y b u r n e d 4 0 p e r­ c e n t o f th e fa rm h o u se s in villages over w id e areas o f th e N S A D . T h e y p ilfe re d w h e a t as fo d d e r fo r a rm y h o rse s a n d sto le p ro d u c e f ro m a b o u t h a lf o f th e fields in K u y u n g a n d C h ia n g n in g c o u n tie s . T h e im p e ria l a rm y ju stifie d th is large-scale p lu n d e r o f fo o d , c ro p s, to o ls, s to re d g ra in , a n d b a rn y a rd an im a ls th r o u g h th e b a ttle fie ld im p e ra tiv e o f “s e c u rin g p ro v is io n s ” o r “f o ra g in g ” b e ­ cause it h a d n e g le c te d to p ro v id e a d e q u a te s u p p ly c o lu m n s to feed its tro o p s.

Estimates o f Chinese Victimization A t th is late d ate, se v en ty years afte r th e ev en t, it is v irtu a lly im p o ssib le to achieve a n accu rate C h in e se v ic tim c o u n t fo r th e A tro city , b u t w e can e stim a te th e loss o f life to a c e rta in e x te n t b a se d o n so u rc e s d isc o v e re d a n d re se a rc h c o m p le te d 58

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres outside Nanking City

u p to now . A lth o u g h th e d is tin c tio n is a d m itte d ly b lu rry , C h in e s e v ic tim s fall in to tw o categ o rie s: m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l a n d civ ilia n s. O n th e m ilita ry sid e o f th e ledger, m y o w n p r e lim in a r y re se a rc h to th is p o in t in tim e sh o w s th a t G e n . T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , c o m m a n d e r o f C h in e s e d efe n se fo rces in th e N a n k in g th e ­ a te r o f o p e ra tio n s , s to o d a t th e h e a d o f 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 tro o p s . O f th a t to ta l, ro u g h ly 2 0 ,0 0 0 d ie d in c o m b a t w ith Ja p a n e se fo rces, a n d th u s m u s t b e le ft o u t o f th e v ic tim c o u n t. O f th e re m a in in g 1 3 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e so ld iers, a b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 s u r­ viv ed . R o u g h ly 4 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e m re tre a te d elsew h e re to re g ro u p , a n d a b o u t a n ­ o th e r 1 0 ,0 0 0 fled o r w e n t m is sin g d u r in g th e ir re tre a t. T h e re m a in in g 8 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e so ld iers in th is th e a te r o f o p e ra tio n s w ere m a ssa c re d w h ile try in g to su rre n d e r, w h ile in ca p tiv ity , o r o n Ja p a n e se m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s. B y c o n tra s t, th e fa u lty n a tu re o f e x ta n t so u rce s d o e s n o t p e r m it us to d e te r­ m in e h o w m a n y C h in e s e civ ilia n s d ie d in th e A tro c ity . It is c e rta in , h o w ev er, th a t far m o re o f th e m d ie d in ru ra l c o u n ty to w n s a n d villages th a n in sid e th e w alled c ity o f N a n k in g itself. T h e G e r m a n n a tio n a l J o h n R ab e, c h a ir o f th e IC , e s tim a te d civ ilia n C h in e s e d e a th s w ith in th e w a lle d c ity a t a b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 . B ased o n su rv ey s m a d e in ea rly 1 9 3 8 b y D r. L ew is S. C . S m y th e , a n A m e ric a n so c io lo g y p ro fe sso r a t G in lin g C o lle g e (n o w N a n k in g U n iv e r­ sity ), I ca lc u late c iv ilia n d e a th s in th e a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s a t over 3 0 ,0 0 0 . T h u s a t th is stag e o f m y rese arch , I c o n te n d th a t th e to ta l n u m b e r o f C h in e s e m il­ ita ry a n d civ ilia n v ic tim s in th e A tro c ity r u n s far ab o v e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ; in d e e d , th e fin al fig u re a p p ro a c h e s 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d m a y a c tu a lly b e h ig h e r.1 H o w ev er, I w ill b e able to refin e th e se e s tim a te s in f u tu re rese arch , a fte r m o re Ja p a n e se p r i­ m a ry so u rce s are u n c o v e re d a n d m a d e p u b lic a n d m o re C h in e s e d a m a g e s u r­ veys are c o n d u c te d in s u r r o u n d in g c o u n ty to w n s a n d villages. In a n y case, tw o facts a b o u t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity are cry sta l-cle ar. F irst, it to o k p lace in th e e n tire N S A D , first in th e ru ra l se c tio n s p r io r to th e fall o f N a n k in g city o n 13 D e c e m b e r. S e c o n d , Ja p a n e se tro o p s m a ssa c re d far m o re C h in e s e so ld iers a n d civ ilia n s o u ts id e th e w a lle d c ity th a n in it. It is n e c e s­ sa ry to e m p h asize th e se p o in ts rep e ate d ly , ev en a t th e risk o f ta x in g th e read er, b ec au se th e m o re e x tre m e c o n se rv a tiv e rev isio n ists in J a p a n se ek to d e n y or m in im iz e th e A tro c ity b y d e lim itin g th e e v e n t as n a rro w ly as p o ssib le, b o th te m p o ra lly a n d g eo g ra p h ica lly . T h r o u g h th is clever sle ig h t o f h a n d , th e y re ­ d u c e th e ir v ic tim c o u n ts to in c lu d e o n ly th o s e C h in e s e k ille d in sid e th e w a lle d city im m e d ia te ly b e fo re a n d a fte r 13 D e c e m b e r w h e n it fell to Ja p a n e se forces. I seek to p la ce th e A tro c ity in its p r o p e r h is to ric a l c o n te x t b y s h o w in g th a t it m a in ly to o k p la ce o u ts id e th e w a lle d c ity b e g in n in g o n o r a b o u t 4 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , a n d e n d in g o n 2 8 M a rc h 1 9 3 8 — r o u g h ly a f o u r - m o n th p e rio d . T h u s , m y c h a p te r w ill serve to re fu te th e d is to rtio n s a n d false claim s m a d e b y u n ­ s c ru p u lo u s e le m e n ts in th e Ja p a n e se a c a d e m ic a n d jo u r n a lis tic c a m p s. In th u s d e fin in g th e A tro c ity , h o w ev er, I d iffe r fro m th e la te P ro f. F u jiw a ra A k ira in c h a p te r 2, w h o d a te s it m o re n a rro w ly fro m 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to 5 J a n u a ry 1938. 59

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

County Towns and Villages A s n o te d above, th e N S A D c o m p ris e d th e w a lle d c ity o f N a n k in g p lu s L iu h o , C h ia n g p ’u, L ish u i, K a o c h u n , C h ia n g n in g , a n d K u y u n g c o u n tie s . T h is b ro a d area covers a b o u t 8 ,4 0 0 sq u a re k ilo m e te rs o r 3 ,2 4 0 sq u a re m iles, w h ic h ro u g h ly eq u als th e m e tr o p o lita n T o k y o are a c o m b in e d w ith n e ig h b o rin g S a ita m a a n d K an ag aw a p refec tu re s. O n a N o r t h A m e ric a n scale, th is area w o u ld e q u a l a b o u t 1.5 tim e s th e sta te o f D e la w a re o r th e C a n a d ia n p ro v in c e o f P rin c e E d w a rd Isla n d . T h e p o p u la tio n o f th e six N S A D c o u n tie s in 1 9 9 7 ( in c lu d in g K u y u n g , th o u g h it is n o w u n d e r a d iffe re n t ju ris d ic tio n ) w as 3 .1 7 m illio n , a fig u re th a t o u ts trip p e d th e 2 .6 2 m illio n re sid e n ts o f N a n k in g c ity its e lf in th a t year, w h ic h co v ered a n area o f ro u g h ly f o rty sq u a re k ilo m e te rs . T h e s e ru ra l c o u n tie s h av e h isto ric a lly h a d a h ig h p o p u la tio n d e n s ity b ec au se th e y lie in th e fe rtile Y angtze R iv er ric e -g ro w in g area. T h e ra tio o f N a n k in g c o u n ty -to -c ity re s id e n ts in 1 9 9 7 w as q u ite s im ila r to th a t in 1 9 3 7 p r io r to th e Ja p a n e se assau lt. L ew is S m y th e ’s 1 9 3 8 su rv ey s o m it­ te d h a lf o f L iu h o a n d all o f K a o c h u n c o u n tie s o w in g to o b s tr u c tio n b y C h i­ nese a u th o ritie s . H o w ev er, S m y th e ’s su rv ey s sh o w th a t th e re m a in in g f o u r a n d a h a lf c o u n tie s in ea rly 1 9 3 7 c o n ta in e d 1 .2 0 to 1 .3 5 m illio n p e o p le c o m p a re d w ith 1 m illio n in th e w alled city.2 T h u s w e w o u ld g e t a to ta l ru ra l p o p u la tio n o f w ell above 1.5 m illio n in 1 9 3 7 i f w e to in c lu d e th e o n e a n d a h a lf c o u n tie s th a t S m y th e d e le te d fro m h is survey; a n d , th e e n tire N S A D p o p u la tio n , in c lu d ­ in g th e w alled city, w o u ld s ta n d a t o v er 2 .5 m illio n in ea rly 1 9 3 7 , a lth o u g h h u g e n u m b e rs o f p e o p le d id flee in th e s u m m e r a n d a u tu m n o f th a t y ear o w in g to Ja p a n e se air ra id s a n d in a n tic ip a tio n o f a n im m in e n t Ja p a n e se assau lt. T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity first u n fo ld e d in th e se 6 o u tly in g c o u n tie s , n o t in th e c ity itself. T h e C h in e s e a rm y ’s o u te r lin e o f d efe n se r a n th r o u g h th e se c o u n tie s , a n d its in n e r lin e o f fo rtific a tio n s r a n th r o u g h th e city. T h u s th e e n tire N S A D w as a th e a te r o f o p e ra tio n s, o r w a r z o n e , w h e re th e A tro c ity to o k p lace. W h e n th e im p e ria l a rm y ’s o n s la u g h t to w a rd N a n k in g b e g a n a t th e b e ­ g in n in g o f D e c e m b e r, over o n e m illio n C h in e s e re sid e n ts a n d refu g ees w ere e s tim a te d to re m a in in th e 6 c o u n tie s — w ith a n o th e r 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 in th e w alled c ity a n d its im m e d ia te e n v iro n s o u tsid e . (N o m o re th a n 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 to o k refu g e in th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) w h ic h co v e red ro u g h ly 3 .8 sq u a re k ilo m e te rs ). J a p a n ’s 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 -s tro n g C C A A a tta c k e d fro m all d ire c tio n s in its c a m p a ig n to e x te rm in a te th e en em y . A s a re su lt, C h in e s e tr a p p e d in sid e th e c ity fo u n d th e m se lv e s s u r ro u n d e d a n d su ffe re d h u g e losses.3 H e re , I w ish to in tr o d u c e a few sp e cific ex a m p le s o f th e b a rb a ro u s acts th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s p e r p e tra te d in th e six N S A D c o u n tie s ; for, to re p e a t, th is is w h e re th e A tro c ­ ity b e g a n . It is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t th e se e x a m p le s d o n o t d e riv e so lely f ro m C h in e s e o ral a n d w ritte n so u rce s, w h ic h Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs a n d c o n se rv a ­ tiv e re v isio n ists d ism iss o u t o f h a n d as fa b ric a te d o r ex a g g erated . In ste a d , th e se

60

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres outside Nanking City

ex am p les are b ased o n im p e ria l Ja p a n e se a rm y rec o rd s th a t m a tc h c o rre s p o n d ­ in g C h in e s e a c c o u n ts f o u n d in c o u n ty g a z e tte e rs f ro m th e N S A D .

Lishui County O n 19 N o v e m b e r th e im p e ria l n a v y receiv ed w o rd th a t th e C h in e se a rm y ’s g e n ­ eral h e a d q u a rte rs w as in th e c o u n tr y c a p ita l o f L ish u i, a n d asse m b le d a n air s q u a d ro n o f th irty -s ix b o m b e rs a n d fig h te rs to a tta c k th a t c ity a t a b o u t n o o n . L ish u i re sid e n ts c o o k in g lu n c h sa w th e ir c ity tu r n in to h e ll o n e a rth b ec au se o f th e b o m b in g s ; fires b ro k e o u t e v e ry w h e re a n d g re a t n u m b e rs o f h o m e s w ere d es tro y e d . T h e p a n ic -s tric k e n m asses fled , o n ly to su ffe r m o re b o m b in g s a n d strafin g . In th e e n d , th is h o u r -lo n g air ra id k ille d o v er 1 ,2 0 0 c iv ilia n re sid e n ts a n d d e s tro y e d sev eral th o u s a n d h o u s e s .4

Kuyung County A t 8 :4 0 a.m . o n 4 D e c e m b e r, a d v a n c e u n its o f th e S ix te e n th d iv is io n a ssa u lt­ in g T a n y a n g e n te re d th e N a n k in g th e a te r o f o p e ra tio n s w h e n th e y a tta c k e d th e v illage o f N i t ’an g , fifte e n k ilo m e te rs east o f K u y u n g city, th e c a p ita l o f K u y u n g c o u n ty , w h e re a n a rtille ry sc h o o l w as lo c a te d .5 T h u s it h a d im m e n se s tra te g ic im p o r ta n c e o n th e C h in e s e o u te r d e fe n se p e rim e te r a n d w as f o r ti­ fied b y a m a g in o t lin e o f p illb o x e s to its east. K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) a rm ie s h a d d e s tro y e d a b rid g e le a d in g w e stw a rd fro m N i t ’a n g to K u y u n g , so th e S ix te e n th d iv is io n ’s T w e n tie th R e g im e n t w as fo rc e d to e n c a m p a t N i t ’an g , w h e re its m e m b e rs c o m m itte d m assacres. A d u lt m a les h a d a lre a d y fled w h e n Ja p a n e se tro o p s arrived, b u t w o m e n , ch ild re n , a n d th e eld erly re m a in e d . O n h e a rin g g u n ­ fire, w o m e n a n d c h ild re n fled in to th e d a rk n e ss o r h id in n e a rb y areas. R esi­ d e n ts w h o c o u ld n o t escap e N i t ’an g , to g e th e r w ith p e rso n s fle e in g fro m o th e r areas— a b o u t fo rty in all— fell c a p tiv e to th e Ja p an e se tro o p s. T h e y fo rc e d th ese p e o p le in to in th e h o m e o f a v illag er n a m e d N i A n -je n , se t it o n fire, th u s k ill­ in g all forty. A t 8 :0 0 o r 9 :0 0 a .m . th e n e x t day, Ja p an e se tro o p s c a p tu re d e ig h ty refu g ees fro m a n o th e r v illage in c lu d in g K M T a rm y P O W s . T h e Ja p a n e se led th e se e ig h ty to a s p o t ju s t o f f th e T a n y a n g -K u y u n g h ig h w a y a n d m a c h in e g u n n e d th e m to d e a th . E ig h t Ja p an e se so ld iers th e n g a n g ra p e d a y o u n g w o m a n o n a re se rv o ir b a n k , a n d sh e la te r d ie d a fte r h a v in g lo st h e r m in d . B efo re leav­ in g th e v illage o f N i t ’an g , Ja p a n e se tro o p s se t it o n fire, so th a t all o f its e ig h ty s tru c tu re s w ere d e s tro y e d ex c e p t fo r p u b lic b u ild in g s — a sh rin e , a n o il facto ry , a n d a flo u r m ill. O v e r 1 2 0 p e rso n s in to ta l d ie d in th e se m assacres, b u t m o s t w ere refugees w h o h a d fled to N i t ’a n g fro m o th e r villages. N i t ’a n g n a tiv e s w ere o n ly seven in n u m b e r, o f w h o m tw o w ere fe m a le .6

61

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

A t a b o u t 8 :0 0 o r 9 :0 0 a .m . o n 5 D e c e m b e r, a Ja p a n e se a rm y u n it a rriv e d a t th e village o f P e n -h u n o r th o f K u y u n g to m o p u p a n d se cu re p ro v isio n s, b u t th e v illagers w h o v ie w e d th e m f ro m afar m is to o k th e m fo r K M T tro o p s. B e a rin g sp ears a n d sw o rd s, a b o u t th ir ty m e n b e lo n g in g to th e P e n -h u village d efen se co rp s asse m b le d in fo rm a tio n to w e lc o m e th e arrivals, o n ly to b e c a p ­ tu re d . T o g e th e r w ith te n o th e r C h in e s e m e n c a p tu re d n ea rb y , th e se th ir ty w ere p la c e d in th e v illag e ’s th re e -sto ry , th a tc h e d - r o o f b re w e ry th a t th e Ja p a n e se so l­ d iers th e n se t o n fire. T h e y s h o t a n y o n e w h o trie d to escape, in c lu d in g a few m e n w h o m a n a g e d to r u n o u t o f th e b re w e ry a n d dive in to a sm a ll n e a rb y p o n d to sq u e lc h th e ir b u r n in g clo th e s. T h u s all f o rty o f th e c a p tu re d m e n d ie d e x c ep t fo r W a n J e n -s h e n g , th e n a six te e n -y e a r-o ld la d , w h o w as ab le to d a sh fro m th e b u r n in g s tr u c tu re a n d h id e in sid e a h o llo w e d -o u t w a ll.7 C o m ­ m u n ic a tio n s in o u t-ly in g areas w ere e x tre m ely p o o r, so p e o p le in m a n y fa rm ­ in g villages s u c h as P e n -h u , far fro m h ig h w a y s o r m a jo r ro a d s, w ere c a u g h t u n aw a re s by Ja p an e se a tta c k s a n d su ffe re d th is s o rt o f tragedy.

Kaochun County A fte r I H issu ed its 1 D e c e m b e r g e n e ra l a ssa u lt o rd e rs, th e im p e ria l n a v y air co rp s b e g a n to c o o rd in a te a tta c k s o n 4 D e c e m b e r. It n o w d e p lo y e d its m a in fo rce in th e W u h u a n d N a n k in g areas. A lre a d y o n 3 D e c e m b e r, th e n a v y air co rp s h a d b u ilt a base a t C h a n g -c h o u , 1 4 0 k ilo m e te rs east o f N a n k in g , fro m w h ic h to ste p u p its a tta c k s in ta n d e m w ith a rm y u n its . O n 4 D e c e m b e r, th e n a v y air co rp s set a lo ft a fleet o f n in e te e n fig h te rs, b o m b e rs , a n d r e c o n n a is ­ san ce airc ra ft. K a o c h u n c o u n ty , a t th e s o u th e rn m o s t p a r t o f th e N S A D , w as a key s p o t c o n n e c te d w ith W u h u by w a te r a n d w ith N a n k in g city by la n d . T h e navy b o m b e d K a o c h u n city, th e c o u n ty seat, p lu s o th e r to w n s in o rd e r to d estro y b rid g e s a n d ca n als a n d th e re b y b lo c k th e K M T a rm y ’s r e tre a t to w a rd W u h u . W u h u c ity — a n d esp ec ially its p o r t o f T u n g h s ia n g lin k e d w ith S h a n g ­ h a i b y ca n a l— su ffe re d h e a v y d a m a g e f ro m th e air as w ell. N a v y b o m b e rs c o n ­ c e n tra te d th e ir a tta c k s o n th e m a in h ig h w a y r u n n in g th r o u g h T u n g h sia n g . C o rp se s w ere stre w n all over ro a d s o w in g to b o m b b lasts, a n d fires g u tte d m a jo r stree ts. O n th is o n e day a lo n e , e ig h ty b o m b s fell, w ell over 1 0 0 T u n g h sia n g re sid e n ts d ie d , a n d over 2 0 0 h o m e s tu r n e d in to r u b b le .8 T h e F ifth D iv isio n ’s K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t le ft K w an g te o n 2 D e c e m b e r a n d re a c h e d L a n g c h ’i o n th e th ird . A fte r p r e p a rin g fo r a m p h ib io u s o p e ra tio n s , th is u n it d e p a rte d fro m L a n g c h ’i o n th e six th . It th e n a d v a n c e d b y c a n a l th r o u g h S h u iy a n g c h e n a n d K a o c h u n , a n d c a p tu re d T a ip ’in g o n th e n in th . O n th e 6 th , how ever, th e K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t m a ssac red th irty -six v illag ers en ro u te fro m S h u iy a n g c h e n to S h u ip ic h ’iao village lo c a te d o n th e c o u n ty lin e ; a n d o n th e se v e n th , th is u n it o p e n e d fire o n to w n s p e o p le w h e n it c a p tu re d K a o c h u n city. In K a o c h u n , it k ille d o r w o u n d e d o v er 3 0 p e rs o n s .9 62

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres outside Nanking City

Chiangp’u County C h ia n g p ’u a n d L iu h o c o u n tie s lie o n th e n o r th e r n sid e o f th e Y angtze river, across f ro m th e N a n k in g w a lle d city. T h e C C A A s o u g h t to e n c irc le a n d a n n i­ h ila te th e e n e m y o n th is N a n k in g c a m p a ig n . T h u s f ro m th e v e ry s ta rt it s e n t u n its to c u t o f f C h in e s e tro o p s re tr e a tin g th r o u g h th e se tw o c o u n tie s . S h a n g ­ h a i E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y (SE A ) C h ie f o f S ta ff I in u m a M a m o ru ’s d ia ry e n try fo r 11 D e c e m b e r reads: “O n h e a rin g th a t th e K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t w as f o rd ­ in g th e Y angtze, H is E x ce lle n cy [SEF c o m m a n d e r] P rin c e A sak a [Y asuhiko] also w as a b it a n x io u s. H e ask ed , ‘C a n ’t w e g e t th e T h ir te e n th D iv is io n across q u ic k ly to sever th e T ie n ts in - P ’u k o u ra il lin e ? ’” T h e K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t cro ssed n e a r T z ’u - h u -c h e n n o r th o f T ’a ip ’in g , a d v a n c e d to w a rd N a n k in g p a r ­ allel to th e Y angtze, a n d a tta c k e d C h ia n g p ’u c ity a t 1 :0 0 p .m . o n th e tw e lfth . O n th e e le v e n th , o v er 2 ,0 0 0 m e n in th e K u n isa k i D e ta c h m e n t, w h o h a d c a p tu re d alre a d y W u c h ia n g c h e n , th e n b u r s t in to th e N a n k in g th e a te r. T h e y m a d e th e ir w ay to P ’u k ’o u in c o m b a t w ith th e K M T arm y, k illin g civ ilian s a n d b u r n in g h o u se s e n ro u te . In th is way, th ir ty fa rm e rs a n d refu g ees d ie d b efo re th is u n it to o k C h ia n g p ’u , a n d fo rty -fo u r fa rm e rs a n d fish e rm e n d ie d w h e n it a d v a n c e d f ro m th e re to P ’u k ’o u . A lso, th e H ir o s h im a F ifth d iv isio n w as w e ll-k n o w n fo r its m a rin e c o m b a t ca p a b ilitie s, a n d th e K u n isa k i D e ta c h ­ m e n t’s 1 ,0 0 0 -m a n a m p h ib io u s u n it u se d larg e a n d sm a ll assa u lt c ra ft to a tta c k th e sm a ll p o r t o f H s ic h ia n g k o u . T h e re , m e n fro m th is u n it k ille d th ir ty fa rm ­ ers, m e rc h a n ts , a n d c h ild re n ; th e y also d e s tro y e d o v er 1 0 0 c o m m e rc ia l vessels th ro u g h shell fire. W h ile b o a rd in g a n d se a rc h in g p riv ately o w n e d C h in e se b o ats, th e tro o p s d isc o v e re d a n d ra p e d over te n C h in e s e w o m e n .10

Wave Attacks D u r in g th e assau lt o n N a n k in g , th e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 - m a n im p e ria l a rm y s o u g h t to en c ircle a n d a n n ih ila te th e en em y. Ja p a n e se d iv isio n s, b rig a d e s, re g im e n ts , a n d b a tta lio n s ad v a n c e d in w aves to w a rd th e c ity fro m all sides. A t th e fo re fro n t w ere h e ll-b e n t-fo r-le a th e r u n its v y in g fo r th e h o n o r o f b e in g first to se t fo o t in th e e n e m y c a p ita l. B e h in d th e m c a m e se c o n d a n d th ir d w aves o f s u p p o r t u n its , a n d finally, r e p le n is h m e n t tro o p s . T h e s e s u p p o r t a n d re p le n is h m e n t u n its w ere o fte n o f a s to p g a p n a tu re , w ith a m b ig u o u s c h a in s o f c o m m a n d . M o reo v e r, th e y w ere m o s tly ta k e n fro m n o n re g u la r “sp ecial d iv is io n s ,” d is­ cu ssed b y th e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira in c h a p te r 2. H e n c e th e y su ffe re d f ro m ex­ tre m e ly lo o se d isc ip lin e . In early D e c e m b e r, m o re th a n 1.5 m illio n C h in e s e re sid e n ts w ere still in th e six N S A D c o u n tie s— a n area tra n sfo rm e d in to a w ar zone. V ery few h a d th e w h e re w ith a l to escape fro m th e N S A D b y car o r tra in afte r th e Jap an ese a tta c k ­ ers arriv ed . In fa rm villages, y o u n g e r p e o p le u su a lly le ft th e eld e rly b e h in d to 63

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

p r o te c t th e ir h o m e s. F ro m th e re , th e y o u n g fled fro m m a in ro a d s in to n e a rb y h ills, w h e re th e y w a ite d fo r th e Ja p a n e se to leave. A s a re su lt, o ld fo lk s le ft b e h in d , fa rm ers u n a b le to escape, a n d p e o p le c a p tu re d in th e h ills, all fell v ic ­ tim to th e Ja p a n e se a n n ih ila tio n c a m p a ig n . A s a S ix te e n th D iv is io n “R e p o rt o n C o n d itio n s ” d a te d 2 4 D e c e m b e r sta te s, “W e m a k e it a ru le fo r m e n a n d h o rses to live o f f th e la n d o n th is o p e r a tio n __ F o rtu n a te ly , th is is a lu sh ly r ic h area, so w e are g e n e ra lly w ell s u p p lie d .”11 In th is way, p lu n d e rin g in b o th u r b a n a n d ru ra l areas p ro c e e d e d ap a ce , as a n a p p ro x im a te to ta l o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 Ja p an e se in v a d e rs “liv ed o f f th e la n d .” H e n c e , losses in b a rn y a rd a n im als, crops, a n d s to re d g ra in w ere v ast. V ic tim s e m p lo y e d th e s a rd o n ic p u n , huang-chun, to b r a n d th e “im p e ria l a rm y ” a n “a rm y o f lo c u sts”— lik e th a t in th e film The Good Earth. T h is h u m a n huang-chun d e v o u re d e v e ry th in g in its p a th , le av in g n o th in g b u t d e s o la tio n w h e re v e r it w e n t. Ja p a n e se tro o p s , m a rc h in g fro m all d ire c tio n s to w a rd N a n k in g city, e x h ib ­ ite d ex tre m e ly lax m ilita ry d isc ip lin e . T h e y to rc h e d v illag e a fte r v illag e o u t o f a d esire to destroy, in o rd e r to v e n t p e n t-u p fru s tra tio n s , o r sim p ly fro m a p e r ­ v e rte d sense o f p le a su re . C o u n tle s s C h in e s e v illag ers, th e ir h o m e s r e d u c e d to r u b b le a n d ashes, p e rfo rc e b e c a m e v a g a b o n d s in areas w h e re th e ir villages u sed to exist. A s su c h , th e y w ere p rim e ta rg e ts fo r Ja p a n e se se a rc h a n d d estro y u n its eager to flu sh o u t a n d k ill “p la in c lo th e s tro o p s ” d e e m e d g u e rrilla s. T h e se h e lp ­ less v illagers h a d n o w h e re to escap e a n d w ere, so to sp e ak , fish c a u g h t in a n e t cast b y th e Ja p a n e se arm y. Ja p a n e se tro o p s r e q u is itio n e d C h in e s e m a les as p o rte rs a n d coolies, o r a rb itra rily called th e m “d e fe a te d stra g g le rs” to b e c a p ­ tu r e d a n d k ille d e n m asse. C h in e s e w o m e n , o n th e o th e r h a n d , su ffe re d ra p e o r g a n g ra p e , o fte n c o u p le d w ith m u r d e r in o rd e r to c o n c e a l th e ev id en c e. T h e s e u n sp e a k a b le crim e s w ere especially r a m p a n t in iso la te d ru ra l villages. C h in e s e fa rm h o u s e s — re m o v e d as th e se are fro m o n e a n o th e r a n d rim m e d by s to n e o r e a rth e n w alls— p ro v id e d ju s t th e p riv ac y n e e d e d fo r th is h e in o u s crim e. W h e n Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs f o u n d w o m e n h id in g in h ills o r fields, th e m e n h a d less in h ib itio n s th a n i f th e y w ere in to w n s o r cities, s u b je c t to p o ssib le o n lo o k ­ ers. F o r th is re a so n to o Ja p a n e se tro o p s te n d e d to m u r d e r ru ra l w o m e n w h o m th e y ra p e d all th e m o re readily. T h u s , C h in e s e v illag e w o m e n su ffe re d v io la ­ tio n tw ice, lo s in g th e ir h o n o r th e first tim e a n d th e ir lives, th e se c o n d .

“Defeated Stragglers” T h e N S A D c o n ta in e d th e C h in e se o u te r d efe n se p e rim e te r o f fo rtific a tio n s. In th a t sense, it w as e n e m y te rr ito r y fro m w h ic h d e fe a te d r e m n a n ts m ig h t la u n c h c o u n te ra tta c k s a t a n y m o m e n t. In th e eyes o f Ja p a n e se tro o p s , th e n , th is w as a w a r z o n e — th e N a n k in g th e a te r o f b a ttle — a n d th e y fe lt th e y h a d ev e ry rig h t to d e s tro y to w n s a n d villages o n th e w a y to th e e n e m y c a p ita l i f n e e d b e. T h e y

64

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres outside Nanking City

h a rb o re d few i f a n y in h ib itio n s a g a in st k illin g lo c al re sid e n ts w h o m th e y saw as in d is tin g u is h a b le a n d , in d e e d , in se p a ra b le fro m e n e m y forces. F ro m th e v ery s ta rt, th e C C A A ’s N a n k in g c a m p a ig n w as in te n d e d to e n tra p a n d a n n ih ila te th e C h in e s e arm y, a n d Ja p a n e se tro o p s la c k e d th e a b ility to te ll civ ilia n s a p a rt f ro m m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l. C h in e s e so ld iers in th e a c t o f s u rre n d e rin g , d e fe a te d stragglers, a n d P O W s all w ere fair g am e— as w as a n y m a le w h o m th e Jap an ese su sp e c te d as b e lo n g in g to th o se ca teg o ries. T h is w as q u ite sim p ly a kill-all. D u r ­ in g s e a rc h -a n d -d e s tro y m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s , d e fe a te d C h in e s e so ld ie rs m ig h t flee a n d m ix in w ith civ ilian s; th e n , b o th e n d e d u p g e ttin g sla u g h te re d . T h e w alled c ity o f N a n k in g fell o n 13 D e c e m b e r, a n d th e o c c u p y in g C C A A c o n d u c te d a n a ll-o u t se a rc h a n d d e s tro y m is sio n in n e a rb y c o u n ty to w n s a n d villages. O n e C a n to n e s e a rm y d e fe n d in g N a n k in g h a d a lre a d y b ro k e n lo o se f ro m th e Ja p a n e se e n c irc le m e n t a n d fo rm e d g u e rrilla u n its th a t h a ra sse d Ja p a n e se forces w h ile r e tr e a tin g to th e s o u th . T h is e x p e rie n c e se t th e C C A A o n edge, a n d m o tiv a te d it to w ip e o u t all d e fe a te d e n e m y r e m n a n ts in o u tly ­ in g to w n s a n d villages. L iu h o , C h ia n g p ’u , K a o c h u n , L ish u i, a n d K u y u n g c o u n ty g az ettee rs d e sc rib e m assacres, rap e s, a n d a rso n c o m m itte d b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s o n th is p re te x t— a tro c itie s n o d iffe re n t f ro m th o s e p e r p e tra te d in th e assau lt o n N a n k in g c ity itself. L ik e c o u n tle s s sta rs in th e n ig h t sky, villages lay sp re a d o u t all o v er th e N S A D , a n d Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s o c c u rre d in all o f th e m . T a k e n o n e b y o n e , th e se a tro c itie s m a y h av e b e e n sm a ll in sco p e; ta k e n to g e th e r, how ever, th e y a d d e d u p to a n e n o rm o u s n u m b e r. O n 2 2 D e c e m b e r C C A A c o m m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e le ft N a n k in g fo r S h a n g h a i, a n d m o s t Ja p a n e se u n its o c c u p y in g th e c ity w ere d e p lo y e d o n n e w m issio n s elsew h ere. H o w ev er, th e C C A A re ta in e d its S ix te e n th d iv is io n — w h o se la c k o f d isc ip lin e w as e g re g io u s— to m a in ta in its m ilita ry o c c u p a tio n o f N a n k in g c ity a n d a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s . A s a re su lt, th e to ta l n u m b e r o f a tro c ­ ities fell; b u t in sta n c e s o f m a ssacre, ra p e , p illag e , a rso n , a n d o th e r b a rb a ritie s w e n t o n n o n e th e le ss. A fte r th e m a in C C A A u n its d e p a rte d , M a j. G e n . S asaki T o ic h i, c o m m a n d e r o f th e S ix te e n th d iv is io n ’s T h ir tie th B rig a d e, w as n a m e d s e c u rity c o m m a n d e r fo r th e N S A D ’s w e ste rn se c tio n , in c lu d in g th e w alled city. S asaki la u n c h e d a s e a rc h -a n d -d e s tro y m is sio n to fe rre t o u t “d e fe a te d s tra g ­ g lers” f ro m a m o n g th e g e n e ra l p o p u la c e . H is d ia ry read s: “ 5 J a n u a r y [1 9 3 8 ]. E n d e d m o p - u p . A s o f to d a y w e flu sh e d o u t a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 d e fe a te d strag g lers in th e c ity .... W e go o n c a p tu r in g th o se w h o p e rsis t in th e ir in su rg e n c y , a n d w e g o t rid o f several th o u s a n d a t H s ia k w a n .”12 T h is passage co n c lu siv ely sh o w s th a t d e fe a te d C h in e se strag g lers w ere h a u le d aw ay to H s ia k w a n , ju s t o u ts id e th e w a lle d c ity o n th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze, w h e re th e y w ere e x e c u te d b y th e th o u s a n d s (see M a p 5). B u t m u c h th e sa m e th in g — p lu s ra p e , p illag e , a n d a rso n — to o k p la c e in villages a n d c o u n ty c a p ­ ita ls all over th e N S A D o n th e p re te x t o f “m o p p in g u p d e fe a te d s tra g g le rs.” H e re are a few ex a m p le s as re c o rd e d in c o u n ty g azetteers:

65

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Chiangp’u County. 27 December. Forty Japanese soldiers searched villages, killed seventeen farmers and refugees, and raped six w om en.13 Chiangning County. Last third o f December. Ten w om en at Shang-fang were raped and killed w ith iron rods thrust up their vaginas. O ver 100 civilians who had fled the country capital were killed on m op-up missions at Lu-lang village on 8 September 1938; at that tim e eight w om en were raped and had their abdom ens sliced open. T he locality o f C h’a-lu is a convenient spot close to N anking city, so Japanese troops often came “girl h u n tin g .” O ver 250 w om en were raped and m ost o f them killed. A t Shihm a village alone, over tw enty were violated and killed. Japanese troops attacked Ts’ao village three tim es and killed fifty people.14 Lishui County. December. After the Japanese arm y occupied C he-t’ang-chen for use as a base o f operations, farmers nearby were killed and wom en were raped. (D uring the [1937—45] Sino-Japanese War, tw enty-nine villagers were killed an d tw enty-eight w om en were raped.)15 Kaochun County. January 1938. Raiding Japanese troops burned down two villages. Soldiers on m op-up and girl-hunting expeditions raped w om en in the county seat and in various villages, killing m ost o f them . (D uring the [1937—45] Sino-Japanese War, several hundred w om en throughout this county were raped.)16

Smythe’s Surveys: Flaws Lew is S. C . S m y th e, a n A m e ric a n p ro fe sso r o f so c io lo g y at G in lin g C o lleg e (n o w N a n k in g U n iv e rsity ) a n d a k e y m e m b e r o f th e IC , w as th e a u th o r o f th e u rb a n a n d ru ra l s a m p lin g su rv ey s in War Damage in the N anking Area: December, 1 9 3 7 to March, 1938, p u b lis h e d in 1 9 3 8 .17 T o g e th e r w ith C h in e s e rese a rc h assistan ts, h e d id th e u r b a n su rv e y f ro m 9 M a rc h to 2 A p ril, a n d d id s u p p le ­ m e n ta r y w o rk fro m 19 to 2 3 A p ril. T h e y c o n d u c te d th e ru ra l su rv e y f ro m 8 M a rc h to 23 M a rc h , a n d m a d e a se p a ra te “b u ild in g in v e s tig a tio n ” f ro m 15 M a rc h to 15 J u n e . In h is u r b a n survey, S m y th e a rriv e d a t a c a su a lty fig u re o f 7 ,4 5 0 fo r p e rso n s liv in g in sid e th e w a lle d city. T h is n u m b e r b ro k e d o w n to “3 ,2 5 0 k ille d b y m ilita ry a c tio n ” p lu s a n o th e r “4 ,2 0 0 ta k e n aw ay ” a n d p re ­ s u m e d d e a d . T h is fig u re o f 7 ,4 5 0 v ic tim s reflects o n e h u g e lim ita tio n in h is m e th o d , w h ic h w as to su rv e y su rv iv in g fa m ilie s w h o re m a in e d in th e N S A D d u r in g th e assau lt a n d a fte r th e c ity fell, o r w h o r e tu r n e d to th e ir h o m e s s h o r tly after. S y m th e a n d h is aid es also m a d e a ca refu l s tu d y o f C h in e s e b u r ­ ial re c o rd s fo r N a n k in g c ity a n d fo r th e im m e d ia te v ic in ity o u ts id e its w alls, a n d h e a rriv ed a t a to ta l fig u re o f a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 k illed . O n th e o th e r h a n d , S m y th e ’s su rv e y o f fo u r a n d a h a lf c o u n tie s in th e N S A D (e x c lu d in g c o u n ty ca p ita ls) p ro d u c e d a fig u re o f 2 6 ,8 7 0 ru ra l p e rso n s k illed . T h is co m es to a n average o f 1 p e rs o n p e r 7 fa rm fam ilies. O f th a t n u m b e r, m a les c o n s titu te d th e g re a t m a jo rity a t 2 2 ,4 9 0 . E ig h ty -fiv e p e rc e n t o f th e m w ere y o u n g m a les u p to th e age o f fo rty -fiv e. T h is sh o w s h o w h a rs h Ja p a n e se m o p - u p c a m p a ig n s w ere in r u ra l areas. T h e d e a th o f th e se y o u n g m e n h a d 66

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres outside Nanking City

grave co n seq u e n ces fo r fa rm fam ilies w h o d e p e n d e d o n m a le la b o r fo r survival. A m o n g th e 2 6 ,8 7 0 ru ra l p e rso n s k ille d , S m y th e f o u n d th a t w o m e n a c c o u n te d fo r 4 ,3 8 0 . O f th a t fig u re, 85 p e r c e n t w ere ag ed fo rty -fiv e o r old er, a n d o f th a t 85 p e rc e n t, h a lf w ere eld e rly w o m e n o v er six ty y ears o f age. B ased o n th e ageo ld w is d o m o f life in ru ra l C h in e se villages, o ld e r m a rrie d w o m e n b eliev e d th e y h a d n o th in g to fea r fro m in v a d in g so ld iers, so th e y re m a in e d a t h o m e afte r y o u n g e r fa m ily m e m b e rs h a d fled, o n ly to su ffe r m a n y cases o f ra p e a n d m u r ­ d e r a t Ja p a n e se h a n d s . A s n o te d , S m y th e a n d h is asso ciates lim ite d th e ir su rv ey s to fam ilies w h o h a d re m a in e d in th e N S A D all a lo n g , o r w h o h a d r e tu r n e d to it b y M a rc h a n d A p ril o f 1 9 3 8 . A t th a t tim e , h e m a d e a s a m p lin g o f o n e in h a b ite d h o u se in every fifty h o u se s w ith in th e city, a n d o n e in h a b ite d h o u s e in ev ery te n h o u se s in ru ra l areas. T h e n h e m u ltip lie d h is fin d in g s b y fifty a n d te n re sp e c ­ tively, to arrive a t h is fin a l e stim a te s fo r u r b a n a n d ru ra l areas. S m y th e ’s fin d ­ in g s clearly w ere sk e w e d o n th e lo w sid e b e c a u se h is m e th o d o f s a m p lin g sk ip p e d over u n in h a b ite d h o u se s a n d p e rfo rc e o m itte d p re c ise ly th o se fa m i­ lies w h o h a d b e e n m o s t v ic tim iz e d — th o se a b s e n t fro m th e sc en e . T h e se w ere fam ilies in w h ic h all o f its m e m b e rs h a d d ie d , a n d th o se w h o b ro k e u p a n d d isp e rs e d in th e ch a o s o f w ar. P e rh a p s m o s t im p o rta n tly , as S y m th e h im s e lf expressly n o te d , “ [t]h e re is re a so n to ex p e c t u n d e r r e p o r tin g o f d e a th s a n d v io ­ le n ce a t th e h a n d s o f th e Ja p a n e se so ld iers, b e c a u se o f th e fea r o f re ta lia tio n f ro m th e a rm y o f o c c u p a tio n .” D e s p ite all o f th e se sig n ific a n t s h o rtc o m in g s , S y m th e ’s u r b a n a n d ru ra l su rv ey s are o f im m e n s e v a lu e to h is to ria n s o f th e N a n k in g A tro city . T h e s e w ere, a fte r all, th e o n ly a c a d e m ic , sy ste m a tic a lly c o n ­ d u c te d su rv ey s m a d e a t th e tim e o f th e e v e n t. M o re o v e r, th e y s u p p o r t m y c o n te n tio n th a t C h in e s e losses w ere far h e a v ie r in ru ra l se c tio n s o f th e N S A D th a n in th e w alled c ity itself. F u rth e rm o re , th e re su lts o f S m y th e ’s u r b a n a n d ru ra l su rv ey s fin d c o rro b ­ o r a tio n in b u ria l fig u res le ft b y th e N a n k in g b r a n c h o f th e R e d S w a stik a S o c i­ e ty (R S S), a C h in e s e c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a tio n c h a rg e d w ith b u r y in g co rp se s. Its figures s ta n d a t 1 ,7 9 3 fo r co rp ses b u r ie d in N a n k in g city, a n d a t 4 1 ,3 3 0 fo r th o se b u r ie d in its im m e d ia te e n v iro n s o u ts id e th e w alls. T h is gives a to ta l o f 4 3 ,1 2 3 d e a th s. A n o th e r C h in e se c h a rita b le society, th e C h u n g s h a n t’a n g (C S T ), s e p a ra te ly lists b u ria l fig u res o f 7 ,5 4 9 fo r N a n k in g c ity a n d 1 0 4 ,7 1 8 fo r ru ra l v illag e s.18 In Ja p a n , co n se rv a tiv e rev isio n ists c la im th a t th e C S T c o u n t fo r ru ra l villages is u n re lia b le b ec au se it ca m e u p th is fig u re in th e sin g le m o n th o f A p ril; so th is m u s t b e a n e x a g g e ra tio n . O f co u rse w e c a n n o t ta k e th is o n e m o n th C S T fig u re a t face v alu e. B u t w e m u s t re m e m b e r th a t r u ra l b u ria ls to o k p lace o n b a rre n la n d a n d in d e s e rte d fields; h e n c e w e c a n a ssu m e a m u c h h ig h e r ra te o f c o rp se d isp o sa l th e re th a n in cities. F u rth e rm o re , th e co rp se s o f C h in e s e so ld iers w h o d ie d in c o m b a t— a n d th u s , it m ig h t b e c la im e d , are te c h n ic a lly n o t v ic tim s o f th e A tro c ity — are also in c lu d e d in th e se b u ria l fig­ ures. B u t m y k e y p o in t is th a t, ev en d is c o u n tin g th o s e fa c to rs, v ic tim c o u n ts 67

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

in ru ra l se c tio n s o f th e N S A D w ere far h ig h e r th a n th o se w ith in th e w a lle d city o f N a n k in g itself.

Conclusion T h e C h in e se v ic tim c o u n t is o n ly o n e d im e n s io n o f th e A tro city . As I h av e re ­ p e a te d ly stressed, ra p e , a rso n , pillag e, to rtu re , b e a tin g s, p r o p e r ty loss, a n d o th e r im m o ra l, illegal fo rm s o f Ja p a n e se v io le n c e m u s t also b e fa c to re d in i f w e are to ach iev e a c o m p re h e n siv e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w h a t th a t e v e n t m e a n t. N e v e r­ th eless, th e v ic tim c o u n t is o n e im p o r ta n t e le m e n t in g a u g in g th e o v erall scale o f th e A tro city . A t th is p o in t in m y rese arch , I w o u ld te n ta tiv e ly s u b m it th a t th e to ta l n u m b e r o f C h in e s e v ic tim s; th a t is, th o se illeg a lly a n d u n ju s tifia b ly m a ssac red , w o u ld b re a k d o w n as fo llo w s. In th e e n tire N S A D , b o th in a n d o u ts id e N a n k in g city, so m e 8 0 ,0 0 0 m ilita ry d e a th s to o k p la c e in w h ic h C h i­ nese tro o p s w ere m a ssa c re d w h ile tr y in g to su rre n d e r, w h ile in ca p tiv ity , or o n Ja p a n e se m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s . In sid e th e w a lle d city, 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 civ il­ ia n d e a th s to o k place. In ru ra l se c tio n s o f th e N S A D , a n o th e r 3 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilian d e a th s to o k p lace. T h is y ie ld s a to ta l o f w ell over 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d a p p ro a c h in g 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e so ld ie rs a n d civ ilian s. M o reo v e r, w ith a d d itio n a l rese arch , w e m a y hav e to revise th is fig u re u p w a rd still fu rth e r. T h e re are a t least tw o rea so n s w h y C h in e se v ic tim iz a tio n w as so m u c h g reater in o u tly in g re g io n s o f th e N S A D th a n in th e w a lle d c ity itself. F irst, a t th e tim e o f th e Ja p a n e se a tta c k in ea rly D e c e m b e r, th e se o u tly in g ru ra l areas w ere h ea v ily p o p u la te d to b e g in w ith . W ell o v er 1 m illio n re sid e n ts a n d refu g ees are e s tim a te d to hav e re m a in e d in r u ra l se c tio n s o f th e N a n k in g th e a te r a fte r th e Ja p a n e se o n s la u g h t h a d b e g u n . T h is is far m o re th a n m a n y co n se rv a tiv e rev i­ sio n ists in J a p a n w ish to a d m it, fo r th e y c o u n t o n ly N a n k in g c ity re sid e n ts in th e ir estim a tes; a n d , th e y d o so o n a m in im a l basis b y lim itin g th e ir e s tim a te to th e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 refu g ee s w h o to o k refu g e in th e N S Z , o n th e as­ s u m p tio n th a t few o r n o p e o p le re m a in e d in th e c ity o u ts id e o f it. S e c o n d , W e s te rn re sid e n ts w h o c o m p ris e d th e IC v ig o ro u sly p r o te s te d to Ja p a n e se c o n ­ su la r a n d m ilita ry a u th o ritie s a g a in st m is c o n d u c t b y im p e ria l a rm y tro o p s w ith in th e w alled city; a n d , also, A m e ric a n , G e rm a n , a n d B ritish d ip lo m a tic staffs b e g a n r e tu r n in g to N a n k in g fro m th e m id d le o f J a n u a r y 1 9 3 8 . T h is o b ­ tru siv e W e ste rn p re se n c e h e lp e d c u rb Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s w ith in th e w a lle d city so m e w h a t. B y s ta rk c o n tra s t, h o w ev er, th e la w o f th e ju n g le g o v e rn e d s u r­ r o u n d in g ru ra l areas. T h e re , v ic io u s Ja p a n e se acts o f m u rd e r, ra p e , a n d p illag e c o n tin u e d o u ts id e o f fo re ig n e y e sh o t w ell b e y o n d M a rc h 1 9 3 8 . If, as I have arg u e d , w e a c k n o w le d g e th e g e n e ra l fac t th a t far m o re C h in e se m ilita ry a n d civ ilia n p e rs o n n e l d ie d in th e ru ra l areas o f N a n k in g th a n in th e w alled c ity d u r in g th e A tro c ity , w e still n e e d g re a te r d e ta il, clarity, a n d p re c i­ sio n to r o u n d o u t th e p ic tu re . T h a t d e ta il, clarity, a n d p re c isio n c a n o n ly b e 68

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres outside Nanking City

p ro v id e d afte r C h in e s e lo c al re se a rc h e rs c o n d u c t m o re su rv ey s o f r u ra l d a m ­ ages, a n d afte r Ja p a n e se re se a rc h e rs u n e a r th m o re im p e ria l a rm y re c o rd s in th e f o rm o f official b a ttle re p o rts p lu s p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s le ft b y tro o p s w h o p a r tic ip a te d in th e A tro c ity . In p a rtic u la r, th e p u b lic a tio n o f m o re su c h p r im a ry so u rces o n th e Ja p a n e se sid e w ill effectiv ely re fu te o n g o in g claim s b y co n serv ativ e rev isio n ists w h o assert th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity n e v e r to o k p lace, o r th a t it w as n a rro w ly lim ite d in sc o p e, a n d h e n c e w as n o d iffe re n t fro m s im ­ ila r ev e n ts in all w ars ev ery w h ere.

Notes * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Translated from Japanese by the editor. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, especially pp. 214—28. Smythe, ed., “Nankin chiku ni okeru senso higai,” pp. 211—77. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, pp. 220—28. Boeicho boei kenshusho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Chugoku homen kaigun sakusen 1, p. 509; Lishui hsien ti-fang-chih pien-kung-shih, ed., Lishui hsien-chih, pp. 650—51. “Iinuma Mamoru nikki,” in Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n k in senshishiryo shu, p. 206. Kuyung hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Kuyunghsien-shih, pp. 6 4 6 ^ 7 . Kuyung shih-shih pien-kung-shih, ed., “Jih-chun chun-Kuyung ch’i-chien pao-hang-lu,” pp. 4-5. Senshi sosho: Chugoku homen kaigun sakusen 1, pp. 510-11; Kaochun hsien ti-fang-chih pientsuan-hui, ed., Kaochun hsien-shih, p. 581. Boeicho boei kenshusho senshi shitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, pp. 150-56; Kaochun hsien-shih, p. 581. “Iinum a M amoru nikki,” p. 212; Chiangp’u hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Chiangp’u hsien-chih, pp. 550-55; Chungkung Chiangp’u hsien tang-shih tzu-liao shou-tsi pien-kungshih, ed., Chiangp’u kang-Jih feng-huo, pp. 16-17. Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n kin senshi shiryo shu, p. 577. Sasaki, “Sasaki Toichi shosho shiki,” pp. 381-82. Chiangp’u hsien-chih, p. 550. Chiangning hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Chiangning hsien-chih, pp. 15-16 and 659-60. Chiangsu wen-shih tzu-liao pien-chi-pu, ed., Hsing-fenghsueh-yu: Chin-huaJih-chun Chiangsu pao-hang-lu, p. 171. Kaochun hsien-chih, pp. 582-83. Smythe, “Nankin chiku ni okeru senso higai,” pp. 221-77 Ibid., pp. 270-76.

69

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:01 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

4

M assa c r e s

near

M u fu sh an *

Ono K enji

Introduction T h is c h a p te r fo cu se s o n th e T h ir te e n th d iv is io n ’s Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t. It in ­ c lu d e d th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t, also n a m e d th e “M o ro z u m i U n it” a fte r its c o m m a n d e r, C o l. M o ro z u m i G y o sa k u . F o r th e sake o f co n siste n cy , I w ill use th e te rm S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t. T h is r e g im e n t w as p a r t o f M a j. G e n . Y am ad a S e n ji’s O n e H u n d r e d T h ir d B rig a d e, s u b o r d in a te to L t. G e n . O g is u R y u h e i’s T h ir te e n th d iv isio n , w h ic h in tu r n c a m e u n d e r th e aegis o f th e S h a n g h a i E x­ p e d itio n a ry A rm y (SE A ), o r S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry F o rce (S E F ), c o m m a n d e d b y Im p e ria l P rin c e A sa k a Y asu h ik o . T h is S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t w as th e m a in fo rce in th e Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t, k n o w n fo r its ro le in th e m assive ta k in g a n d m assacre o f C h in e s e p ris o n e rs in m id - D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 n e a r M u fu s h a n , n o r th o f N a n k in g . T h e m assacres o c c u rre d a t Y u le iy in g o r T o rp e d o E n c a m p m e n t a n d a t T a w a n tz u , b o th lo c a te d o n th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze R iv er in th e T ’saoh s ie h -h s ia area, o p p o s ite T ’s a o -h sie h Isla n d (a.k .a . P a k u a Isla n d ) lo c a te d in th e m id d le o f th e river. (See m a p s 4 a n d 5). N o te , th o u g h , th a t th e re is sh a rp d is­ a g re e m e n t a m o n g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s over th e p rec ise lo c a tio n o f Y u le iy in g a n d T a w a n tz u in th e T ’s a o -h s ie h -h s ia r iv e rb a n k area a lo n g th e Y a n g tz e .1 T h e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t w as fo rm e d a t A iz u -W a k a m a ts u , F u k u s h im a P re­ fe c tu re . A lm o s t all o f th e m e n in it w ere n a tiv e to F u k u s h im a , as is also tru e o f m yself, a lth o u g h I a m o f th e p o s tw a r g e n e ra tio n b o r n in 1 9 4 9 . In 1 9 8 8 I b e g a n c o n d u c tin g in te rv ie w s w ith v e te ra n s f ro m th a t r e g im e n t still liv in g in F u k u s h im a as w ell as w ith th o se w h o h a d m o v e d to o th e r lo c a litie s su c h as T o k y o , N iig a ta , M iy a z a k i, a n d Ib a ra k i. F ro m th o se e ld e rly v e te ra n s, I co lle c te d a b o u t 2 0 0 o ra l te stim o n ie s, so m e re c o rd e d o n ta p e o r v id e o ta p e , p lu s tw e n ty f o u r w a r d iaries a n d o th e r p r im a ry so u rc e s d a tin g fro m 1 9 3 7 to 1 9 3 8 . O ts u k i s h o te n p u b lis h e d th e w ritte n d o c u m e n ts in 1 9 9 6 u n d e r th e title , N ankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi (Im p e ria l A rm y T ro o p s W h o R e70

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

c o rd e d th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ), a n d th is is th e so u rc e f ro m w h ic h I d ra w m o s t o f th e q u o ta tio n s c ite d in th is c h a p te r. N o te , h o w ev er, th a t m o s t o f th e p e r­ so n a l n a m e s th a t I e m p lo y w h e n c itin g th e se d o c u m e n ts — s u c h as “ S aito J ir o ,” “E n d o T a k a a k i,” o r “K a n n o Y oshio”— are p s e u d o n y m s . (O n e e x c e p tio n is A m a n o S a b u ro , w h o se w a rtim e c o rre s p o n d e n c e is tra n s la te d in c h a p te r 8 b y B o b T a d a sh i W a k a b a y a sh i.) T h is a n o n y m ity is n e e d e d to sh ie ld th e a u th o rs a n d th e ir fam ilies f ro m th re a ts, h a ra s s m e n t, a n d p o ssib le v io le n c e f ro m r ig h t­ w in g e le m e n ts in Ja p a n . T h e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t w as h a s tily assem b led o w in g to th e im p e ria l a rm y ’s ac u te n e e d fo r in c re a se d m a n p o w e r afte r th e sp re a d o f fig h tin g fro m n o r th e r n to c e n tra l C h in a th a t fo llo w e d th e M a rc o P o lo B rid g e I n c id e n t o f 7 Ju ly 1 9 3 7 . L ike o th e r “special u n its ,” discu ssed b y th e late F u jiw ara A k ira in c h a p te r 2, th is o n e c o m p ris e d s e c o n d - a n d th ir d - p o o l reserv ists in th e ir m id - to la te -th irtie s a n d even ea rly -fo rtie s— n o t c u r r e n t re c ru its in th e ir ea rly tw e n tie s w h o serv ed in “re g u la r” d iv isio n s, b rig a d e s, o r re g im e n ts . T h e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t’s m o b i­ liz a tio n as p a r t o f th e T h ir te e n th d iv is io n w as c o m p le te b y 18 S e p te m b e r, a n d th is 3 ,7 0 0 -m a n re g im e n t la n d e d a t a p o in t n e a r S h a n g h a i o n 1 O c to b e r. It th e n to o k p a r t in th e b lo o d y assau lt o n S h a n g h a i th a t c laim ed 1 ,7 2 0 casualties a m o n g m e n in th e u n it— 6 2 0 k ille d in a c tio n a n d 1 ,1 0 0 in c a p a c ita te d fro m w o u n d s o r illnesses. O n ly th e re p e a te d d is p a tc h o f r e p le n is h m e n t tro o p s allo w ed th e r e g im e n t to a tta c k th e C h ia n g y in B a tte rie s a n d m a rc h o n to w a rd N a n k in g . O n 6 D e c e m b e r a t C h e n -c h ia n g , th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t p a rte d w ays w ith th e m a in fo rce o f th e E le v e n th d iv isio n , w h ic h fo rd e d th e Y angtze, m a rc h e d a lo n g its n o r th e r n b a n k to c a p tu re Y a n g c h o u o n 14 D e c e m b e r, a n d th e re a fte r ad v a n c e d to w a rd C h ’u h s ie n . W h ile th a t to o k p la ce , th e r e g im e n t jo in e d fo u r e n g in e e rin g a n d a rtille ry u n its to f o rm th e Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t. A s th e m a in c o m p o n e n t o f th is d e ta c h m e n t, M o r o z u m i’s S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t m a rc h e d a lo n g th e s o u th e rn b a n k o f th e Y angtze w ith o rd e rs to c u t o f f d e fe a te d C h i­ nese strag g lers w h o m ig h t b e re tr e a tin g to w a rd T ’sa o -h sie h -h sia afte r flee in g f ro m th e elev a ted b a tte rie s o n W u lu n g s h a n a n d M u fu s h a n as w ell as fro m th e city o f N a n k in g . B y 14 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , o n e d a y a fte r N a n k in g fell, th e S ix ty -fifth R eg i­ m e n t re a c h e d a p o in t s o u th o f M u fu s h a n , w h ic h lies n o r th o f th e w a lle d city, b e tw e e n it a n d th e s o u th e rn b a n k o f th e Y angtze R iver. T h e fo llo w in g “E x tr a ,” p u t o u t b y th e Tokyo Asahi shinbun (n o w th e Asahi shinbun) o n 16 D e c e m ­ ber, d escrib es th e s itu a tio n th a t th e r e g im e n t fac ed . T h is w as th e first r e p o r t th a t F u k u s h im a re sid e n ts rec eiv e d a b o u t h o w th e ir m e n a t th e f r o n t to o k m a s­ sive n u m b e rs o f C h in e s e p riso n e rs: Special C orrespondent Yokota in N anking 15 December T h e M orozum i U nit [i.e., Sixty-fifth Regiment] advanced w ith vigor from C henchiang along the Yangtze River to capture elevated batteries on W ulungshan on the 71

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

thirteenth and those on C haom ushan [recte: M ufushan] on the fourteenth. T here the m en encountered a virtual avalanche o f 14,777 retreating enem y troops belonging to the Chinese Arm y’s E ighteenth and Eighty-eighth divisions as well as its Cadet Train­ ing Units. These enem y troops raised w hite flags and surrendered. W h a t a splendid m ilitary achievement! T h e vastly outnum bered m en in our M orozum i U nit captured intact well over 14,000 o f the foe. N a n k in g fell o n 13 D e c e m b e r, b u t F u k u s h im a re s id e n ts h a d b e e n eag erly a n tic ip a tin g th a t h is to ric e v e n t fo r several days. P a rtly in re sp o n se to “g u id ­ a n c e ” fro m m ilita ry a u th o ritie s , th e y h e ld la n te r n p a ra d e s a n d o th e r c e le b ra ­ to r y ev e n ts all over th e p re fe c tu re — in c lu d in g A iz u -W a k a m a ts u b a rra c k s— to m a rk th e c a p tu re o f th e e n e m y c a p ita l. J u s t a t th a t p o in t, o n th e fifte e n th , cam e n ew s th a t th e lo c al S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t h a d ta k e n th is h u g e n u m b e r o f th e e n e m y as p ris o n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ). A s m ig h t b e im a g in e d , th e F u k u s h im a p ress p la y ed u p th is jo y fu l e v e n t to th e fu lle st. F o r th e n e x t tw o days, h o w ­ ever, th e re w as n o n e w s a b o u t w h a t b e c a m e o f th o se p riso n e rs. T h e n , o n 17 D e c e m b e r, th e F u k u s h im a e d itio n o f th e Tokyo Asahi shinbun rele ase d a n ex­ clusive “E x tra ” b e a rin g th e h e a d lin e , “ T h e M o ro z u m i U n it C a p tu re s 1 5 ,0 0 0 . W h a t a T re m e n d o u s Feat! W h a t a G ra n d B attlefield A c h ie v e m e n t!” T h e article in p a r t read : “It w as so w o n d e rfu l to h e a r: ‘T h e y ra ise d w h ite flags a n d ca m e f o r th to s u rre n d e r.’ [ O u r boys] re a lly s h o u ld h av e s la u g h te re d th e m all. T h a t ’s h o w w e all feel— o ld a n d y o u n g , m a le a n d fem a le, alike. A n o v e rw h e lm in g sense o f glee a c c o m p a n ie s o u r c e le b ra tio n s to m a rk th e c a p tu re o f N a n k in g . Yet ag a in w e fin d o u rselv es d e lirio u s w ith g le e .” Sadly, I a m fo rc e d to c o n c lu d e , th e fate th a t b efe ll th e se C h in e s e P O W s w as ex actly w h a t th is Tokyo Asahi shinbun r e p o r te r h o p e d for, a lo n g w ith h is g le efu l F u k u s h im a rea d ers, n o d o u b t. T h a t is to say, h a v in g c a p tu re d th is h u g e n u m b e r o f p riso n e rs, th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t w e n t o n to “s la u g h te r th e m a ll.” To th e b e st o f m y k n o w le d g e , th e se m assacres n e a r M u f u s h a n c o n s titu te th e la rg e st in c id e n t o f m a ss m u r d e r in th e e n tire N a n k in g A tro c ity . T h e p r is o n ­ ers w ere d e ta in e d in 2 2 C h in e s e a rm y b a rra c k s lo c a te d to th e s o u th o f M u fu s h a n w h e re th e y a w a ite d w h a t tu r n e d o u t to b e th e ir e x e c u tio n . L ike o th e r im p e ria l a rm y u n its in C h in a , th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t re lie d o n “lo cal p r o c u r e m e n ts ” fo r a lm o st all o f its n e e d s o n th e m a rc h . In o th e r w o rd s , it s u p p lie d its e lf b y p lu n d e r in g fro m C h in e s e re sid e n ts. H e n c e it h a d few i f a n y ra tio n s to sp a re fo r fe e d in g th e se p riso n e rs. A c c o rd in g to o ral te s tim o n ie s b y v e te ra n s, ea ch C h in e s e P O W w as s u p p o s e d to receiv e o n e b o w l o f rice g ru el, b u t in t r u t h th e re w as n o t e n o u g h to go a ro u n d , so so m e w ere r e d u c e d to d r in k in g u rin e a n d e a tin g th e w ee d s th e y f o u n d o n b a rra c k g ro u n d s . In a n y case, th e Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t w o u ld h av e its h a n d s fu ll c o p in g w ith th e se P O W s u n til m o s t o f th e u n it w as o rd e re d to leave N a n k in g fo r a n o th e r m is ­ sio n o n 2 0 D e c e m b e r.

72

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

Previous Accounts T h e sh e er scale o f th e s la u g h te r in th e T ’s a o -h s ie h -h s ia riv e rb a n k area n e a r M u fu s h a n m a k es th is p a r tic u la r in c id e n t s ta n d o u t in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity as a w h o le . T h u s it c o m e s as n o su rp rise th a t th e re are p re v io u s a c c o u n ts , b o th in C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se . C h in e s e a c c o u n ts d a te fro m th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials a n d h o ld th a t 5 7 ,4 1 8 P O W s w ere m a ssa c re d . A c o n tro v e rs y o f s o rts— th o u g h h a rd ly sc h o la rly — h as b e e n a n d c o n tin u e s to b e w a g e d a b o u t th is in c i­ d e n t in J a p a n .2 T h e e a rliest Ja p a n e se a c c o u n t c o m e s f ro m a fo rm e r w a rtim e c o rr e s p o n d e n t n a m e d H a ta K e n su k e , n o re la tio n to th e p re s e n t-d a y h is to ria n H a ta Ik u h ik o . H a ta K e n su k e a c c o m p a n ie d th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t la te r o n in th e C h in a w ar, a n d p u b lis h e d “H o ry o n o c h i n i m a m ir e ta B y ak k o b u ta i” ( T h e W h ite T ig e r U n it s ta in e d w ith P O W b lo o d ) in 1 9 5 7 . T h e n ic k n a m e “W h ite T ig e r” h as e v o k e d p rid e ever sin c e th e 1 8 6 7 —6 8 R e s to ra tio n w ars in A iz u -W a k a m a ts u , w h e re a b a n d o f lo c al y o u n g sa m u ra i b y th a t n a m e fo u g h t h e ro ic a lly a g a in st fa r s u p e rio r S a ts u m a a n d C h o s h u forces; h e n c e th e lo c al reg ­ im e n t w e n t b y th a t u n o ffic ia l a p p e lla tio n . H a ta K e n su k e w as in a p o s itio n to ta lk d ire c tly w ith m e n w h o ea rlier h a d p a r tic ip a te d in th e M u fu s h a n in c id e n t, a n d h e also c o n s u lte d fo u r o f th e ir p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s b e fo re h e w ro te th is p iece. H is a rtic le c o n ta in s n u m e ro u s e rro rs o f fac t, b u t its o v era ll c o n ­ c lu sio n is q u ite rig h t: “W h a t a w a ite d th is e n d less s tre a m o f p ris o n e rs w as, m o s t assuredly, d e a th .”3 A c c o rd in g to a s e c o n d in te r p r e ta tio n — ex p ressly p r o ­ d u c e d to re fu te H a ta ’s— th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t a d m itte d ly fired o n a n d k illed a sm a ll n u m b e r o f C h in e s e p ris o n e rs n e a r M u fu s h a n . T h is a c c o u n t, h o w ev er, goes o n to e x o n e ra te th e F u k u s h im a r e g im e n t b y c la im in g th a t it to o k th e se a c tio n s o n ly in le g itim a te , u n a v o id a b le se lf-d e fe n se, a fte r th e C h in e s e h a d rio te d . M o re e x tre m e co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists in J a p a n to d a y , w h o in s is t th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity is ju s t a “f a b ric a tio n ” o r a n “illu s io n ,” ea g erly e m b ra c e , em b ellish , a n d e x p a n d o n th is th e sis o f “u n a v o id a b le k illin g in se lf-d e fe n se .” Finally, m e m b e rs o f th e le ft-w in g S o cie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t ( N a n ­ k in k e n ), in c lu d in g th e la te H o r a T o m io a n d F u jiw a ra A k ira , W a ta d a S u su m u , K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i, H o n d a K a ts u ic h i, Y o sh id a Y u tak a, a n d m y s e lf in s is t th a t th is r e g im e n t d id in fa c t p e r p e tra te m a ssac res o n a v a st scale in th e T ’saoh s ie h -h s ia riv e rb a n k are a n e a r M u fu s h a n . F o r th e m o s t p a r t, w e u p h o ld H a ta K e n su k e ’s o rig in a l 1 9 5 7 c o n c lu s io n , b u t c o rre c t fa c tu a l in a c c u ra c ie s in h is n a r ­ rativ e, a n d w e c o n te n d th a t th e rea l “fa b ric a te d illu s io n ” lies in th e c o n se rv a ­ tiv e re v isio n ists’ th e sis o f “u n a v o id a b le k illin g in s e lf-d e fe n se .” T h e c o n tro v e rs y th u s tu r n s o n th e v a lid ity o f th a t th e sis. W h e n a n d u n d e r w h a t sp e cific c ir­ c u m sta n c e s d id it first app ear? In D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 1 , th e e d ito rs o f a p re fe c tu ra l n e w sp a p e r, th e Fukushima shinbun, b e g a n a lo n g serial e n title d “K y o d o b u ta i s e n k i” (A c c o u n ts o f o u r local u n its in th e w a r). S u c h n a rra tiv e s d e s c rib in g th e w a rtim e ex p lo its o f lo c al reg-

73

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

im e n ts w ere u n d e rta k e n in all p a rts o f Ja p a n a ro u n d th a t tim e . In th is case, th e F u k u s h im a e d ito rs b e g a n th e ir p ro je c t in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e F u k u s h im a W a r B ereaved S o c ie ty p lu s p re fe c tu ra l b ra n c h e s o f th e J a p a n D is a b le d V e te r­ a n s’ S o c ie ty a n d th e J a p a n L o cal V e te ra n s’ S o c ie ty — ty p e s o f o rg a n iz a tio n s d is­ cu ssed b y K im u ra T a k u ji in c h a p te r 15. T h e p o r tio n o f “K y o d o b u ta i s e n k i” d e a lin g w ith th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t r a n to less th a n tw e n ty p ag es in th e o rig in a l, b u t th is serial as a w h o le w as la te r e x p a n d e d in to a 3 -v o lu m e w o rk p u t o u t b y th e sam e p u b lis h e r u n d e r th e title , Kyodo butai senki: Moesakaru tairiku, in 1 9 6 5 . A n 8 -v o lu m e v a ria n t fro m th is sa m e p u b lis h e r w as Fukushima: Senso to ningen (F u k u s h im a : W a r a n d p e o p le ), w h ic h a p p e a re d in 1 9 8 2 .4 T h is F u k u s h im a -ro o te d in te r p r e ta tio n h o ld s th a t th e Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t, w h ic h in c lu d e d th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t, c a p tu re d ro u g h ly 1 5 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e n e a r M u fu s h a n . I t rele ase d a b o u t h a lf o f th e m — th e sp e cific n u m b e r v aries— b ecau se th e y w ere n o n c o m b a ta n ts , a n d p la c e d th e re st in P O W c a m p s. H o w ­ ever, a fire b ro k e o u t a t n ig h t th a t allo w ed h a l f o f th e se r e m a in in g d e ta in e e s to escape. Finally, w h ile e s c o rtin g th o s e r e m a in in g P O W s — a b o u t a q u a rte r o f th e o rig in a l n u m b e r — across th e Y angtze to b e se t free, g u a rd s in th e d e ­ ta c h m e n t d re w e n e m y fire f ro m th e o p p o s ite sh o re . Q u ic k to e x p lo it th is ch a n ce , th e C h in e s e p riso n e rs sta g e d a rio t, so Ja p a n e se g u a rd s h a d n o c h o ic e b u t to s h o o t a n d k ill 1 ,0 0 0 ( 3 ,0 0 0 in so m e v e rsio n s) in se lf-d e fe n se. T h is ac­ c o u n t also c ite d th e w e ll-k n o w n “S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y O rd e rs ” fo r th e d e ta c h m e n t to “k ill th e m a ll.” B u t th e s p in p u t o n th is a r g u m e n t w as th a t, b y try in g to release C h in e s e P O W s to s ta rt w ith , th e r e g im e n t h a d d a re d to v io la te o rd e rs issu e d b y S E A c o m m a n d e r, L t. G e n . a n d Im p e ria l P rin c e , A sak a Y asuhiko. In su m , th is in te r p r e ta tio n w as d e s ig n e d to o v e rtu rn th a t b y H a ta K e n su k e w h ic h , F u k u s h im a lo c als c la im e d , h a d b la s p h e m e d lo c al so n s in th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t a n d Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t. A d v o c a te s o f th is “u n a v o id ­ able k illin g in se lf-d e fe n se ” th e sis aver th a t th e se m e n a c te d in a h u m a n ita r ­ ia n fa s h io n as far as p o ssib le g iv e n b a ttle fie ld ex ig en cies a n d in th e face o f o rd ers fro m above to m a ssac re h e lp le ss p riso n e rs. C o n s e rv a tiv e circles th r o u g h o u t J a p a n w e lc o m e d th is “u n a v o id a b le k illin g in se lf-d e fe n se” th e sis. F o r e x a m p le , th e N a tio n a l I n s titu te fo r D e fe n se S tu d ­ ies, a tta c h e d to th e D e fe n se A g e n c y in T o k y o , m a in ta in s a M ilita ry H is to r y D e p a r tm e n t th a t p ro d u c e d a m assiv e m u ltiv o lu m e o fficial h is to ry o f Ja p a n e se o p e ra tio n s in W o rld W a r II. N o t u n s u rp risin g ly , th e D e fe n se A g e n c y cites th is th e sis in its re le v a n t v o lu m e o n th e w a r a g a in st C h in a p u b lis h e d in 1 9 7 5 .5 T h e sa m e is tr u e fo r co n se rv a tiv e n o n f ic tio n w rite rs s u c h as S u z u k i A k ira in 1 9 7 3 a n d K o jim a N o b o r u in 1 9 8 4 , as w ell as fo r th e lo c al F u k u s h im a w rite r A b e T e ru o in 1 9 8 9 — i f to d iffe rin g deg rees. T h e K a ik o sh a , a n o rg a n iz a tio n o f fo rm e r im p e ria l a rm y officers a n d c o n se rv a tiv e rev isio n ists, also a d o p te d th is in te r p r e ta tio n in its 1 9 8 9 n a rra tiv e N ankin senshi ( H is to r y o f th e N a n k in g C a m p a ig n ).6 In 1 9 8 9 , th e K a ik o s h a ca m e o u t w ith its first v o lu m e o f p r im a ry so u rces to a c c o m p a n y th is h is to ric a l n a rra tiv e . 74

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

As re la te d in c h a p te rs 2 a n d 15 b y F u jiw a ra A k ira a n d K im u ra T a k u ji, th e K a ik o s h a b e g a n its p ro je c t o n N a n k in g w ith th e se lf-a ssu ra n c e th a t it c o u ld co llect irre fu ta b le ev id en c e, in th e fo rm o f te stim o n ie s fro m m e m b e rs, to p ro v e th a t n o A tro c ity ever to o k p la ce . As th e te s tim o n ie s ca m e in , h o w ev er, K a i­ k o s h a c o m p ile rs h a d to a b a n d o n th is a rtic le o f f a ith a n d g ru d g in g ly a d m it th a t so m e m assacres— i f sm a ll in sc o p e — d id ta k e p la c e a t M u fu s h a n a n d else­ w h e re in N a n k in g . C itin g th e d o c u m e n ts th e y h a d co lle c te d , p lu s te s tim o n ie s f ro m lo cal F u k u s h im a v e te ra n s, K a ik o s h a e d ito rs issu ed th e d isc la im e r th a t “o ra l te s tim o n ie s are v e ry v ag u e a n d th u s d o n o t fo rm a su re basis fo r e s ta b ­ lis h in g h o w m a n y C h in e s e P O W s th e Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t h a n d l e d .” B u t n ev e rth ele ss, th e e d ito rs w e n t o n to list: M ufushan: T he Yamada D etachm ent started out w ith 6,000 T h e N um ber [“taken care o f”]: A bout 3,000 Escaped: 3,000 L ater o n , in 1 9 9 3 , th e K a ik o s h a p u b lis h e d a se c o n d v o lu m e o f p r im a ry so u rce s re la te d to N a n k in g . In th e 4 y ears b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 , w h e n it p ro d u c e d N ankin senshi w ith its first v o lu m e o f so u rce s, a n d 1 9 9 3 , w h e n it ca m e o u t w ith th is se c o n d d o c u m e n t v o lu m e , I p u b lis h e d fu ll o r p a rtia l te x ts o f b a ttle fie ld d ia ries o b ta in e d fro m F u k u s h im a ra n k -a n d -file p lu s n o n c o m m is s io n e d officers (N C O s ) w h o to o k p a r t in m assacres n e a r M u fu s h a n , a lo n g w ith c ritic a l an aly ses o f th o se so u rc e s.7 P erh a p s in re sp o n se to m y fin d in g s, th e K a ik o s h a e d ito rs w ro te a n e x p la n a to ry essay in th e ir 1 9 9 3 d o c u m e n t v o lu m e . A se c tio n in th e essay w as title d , “O n D is p a tc h in g P riso n e rs n e a r M u fu s h a n : A C o m p re h e n s iv e O b s e r v a tio n .” In it, th e e d ito rs d e c la re d th a t “lo w r a n k in g officers, N C O s , a n d fo o t so ld iers te n d e d to re c o rd ru m o rs a n d s u p p o s itio n s ; h e n c e , a lth o u g h th e ir w ritin g s d o c o n s titu te p r im a ry so u rce s, th e h is to ric a l v e ra c ity o f th o se d o c u m e n ts is v irtu a lly im p o s sib le to s u b s ta n tia te to d a y [in 1 9 9 3 ], a lm o st six ty years afte r th e f a c t.”8 In o th e r w o rd s, th e K a ik o s h a c o m p ile rs o f th e co n se rv a tiv e N ankin senshi a d o p t a v ery q u e e r c r ite rio n in p rim a ry -s o u rc e c ritic ism ; th a t is, th e o n ly re li­ able w a rtim e d ia rie s are th o se w ritte n b y h ig h - ra n k in g officers w h o , i f still alive, w o u ld q u a lify to b e fe llo w K a ik o s h a m e m b e rs . B y c o n tra s t, d ia rie s o b ­ ta in e d fro m th e ra n k -a n d -file , N C O s , o r lo w er r a n k in g officers— th o se m e n w h o d id th e a c tu a l th e k illin g — are u n re lia b le . S tra n g e r y e t is th e c h a m e le o n ­ lik e c h a n g e in th e a ttitu d e o f N a n k in g rese arch e r, th e la te I ta k u ra Y oshiaki. U p to a t le ast 1 9 9 2 , h e h a d n e v e r m isse d a c h a n c e to sn ip e a t H o n d a K atsu ic h i o n th is M u fu s h a n issue. B u t b y A p ril 1 9 9 4 , I ta k u r a ca m e to a d m it th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity as a w h o le c la im e d “a t m o s t 1 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 ” v ic tim s. E v en so, h e in siste d , “th e re is n o decisive e v id en c e in th e p r im a ry so u rc e s” to s u p p o r t e ith e r le ft-w in g c o n te n tio n s a b o u t h u g e m a ssac res n e a r M u fu s h a n or th e co n serv ativ e K a ik o s h a fig u re o f 3 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s th e re .9 I ta k u r a s d e n ia l o f o u r le ft-w in g th e sis is u n d e rs ta n d a b le e n o u g h ; h e s im p ly refu ses to b eliev e th e

75

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

te s tim o n ie s a n d b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s o f m e n w h o a d m itte d to “k illin g a ll” p ris ­ o n ers. B u t h is s ta te m e n t vis-a-v is th e K a ik o s h a fig u re o f 3 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s seem s inex p licab le, since h e h im s e lf w as a k e y m e m b e r o f th e e d ito ria l te a m w h o c o m ­ p ile d th e v o lu m e th a t cites it as a h is to ric a l fact.

Numbers and Methods W h a t, th e n , w as th e a c tu a l n u m b e r o f C h in e s e v ic tim s n e a r M u fu sh a n ? W h e n I b e g a n m y rese arc h in 1 9 8 8 , I s im p ly a s su m e d th a t th e 15 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 Tokyo Asahi shinbun fig u re o f 1 4 ,7 7 7 P O W s r e p re s e n te d th e ir to ta l n u m b e r a n d th a t m o s t m e n in th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t also a c c e p te d th is fig u re as ac­ c u ra te . M a n y o f th o se w h o m I in te rv ie w e d , h o w ev e r, te stifie d th a t th e a c tu a l n u m b e r o f C h in e s e p riso n e rs w as 2 0 ,0 0 0 . O n th e o th e r h a n d , S a ito Jiro , w h o w as assig n ed to re g im e n ta l h e a d q u a rte rs a t th a t tim e , n o te d in th e m a rg in o f h is p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry : “ 1 4 ,7 7 7 m e n c a p tu re d ; o n th e f o u rte e n th , s u r­ veys b y b rig a d e h e a d q u a r te rs .”10 I f 1 4 ,7 7 7 w as th e a c tu a l n u m b e r o f p riso n e rs ta k e n o n 14 D e c e m b e r, th is h a d to hav e b e e n th e d a y w h e n th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t first a rriv e d in N a n ­ k in g . E v ery im p e ria l a rm y u n it r o u tin e ly c o n d u c te d m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s as a safety m e a su re b e fo re it o c c u p ie d a n area, so th is 1 4 ,4 7 7 fig u re w o u ld re p re ­ s e n t th e n u m b e r o f p ris o n e rs c a p tu re d o n th a t d a y d u r in g th is m o p - u p . I t is th e re fo re a d is tin c t p o ssib ility th a t th e r e g im e n t to o k even m o re p riso n e rs after 14 D e c e m b e r. T h is s u p p o s itio n is b o rn e o u t in th e p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry o f S u b lie u te n a n t E n d o T a k a a k i w h o b e lo n g e d to th e r e g im e n t’s E ig h th C o m ­ pany. E n d o ’s e n try fo r 15 D e c e m b e r read s: “w e n t [to m o p u p d e fe a te d s tra g ­ glers] a n d to o k 3 0 6 p r is o n e rs .” 11 M o reo v e r, P riv a te F irst C lass (P F C ) K a n n o Y oshio, assig n ed to a n a rtille ry c o m p a n y in th e re g im e n t, le ft a b a ttle fie ld n o te ­ b o o k th a t relates: “ 14 [D e c e m b e r]: D e p a rte d fo r [m o p u p ] a t 5 :0 0 a .m . F ro m a b o u t d a w n , w e to o k w av e a fte r w ave o f e n e m y tro o p s p r is o n e r__ W e p la c e d th e m in th e [C h in e se ] a rm y b a rra c k s a n d p o s te d se n trie s in fro n t. T h e p ris ­ o n e rs n u m b e re d 1 5 ,0 0 0 . 15 [D e c e m b e r]: W e c o n tin u e d ta k in g m o re p r is o n ­ ers to d a y ; th e y c o m e to a b o u t 2 0 ,0 0 0 .”12 T h u s th e re is n o d o u b t th a t th e n u m b e r o f p ris o n e rs h e ld b y th e Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t a n d th e S ix ty -F ifth R e g im e n t a fte r 14 D e c e m b e r a m o u n te d to m o re th a n th e Tokyo Asahi shinbuns re p o r te d fig u re o f 1 4 ,7 7 7 . E n d o , fo r ex­ a m p le , to o k h is c o u n t d o w n to th e la st m a n : “to ta l n u m b e r o f p ris o n e rs — 1 7 ,0 2 5 .”13 I e s tim a te th e to ta l to h av e b e e n so m e w h e re b e tw e e n 1 7 ,0 0 0 a n d 1 8 ,0 0 0 , b u t th e 2 0 ,0 0 0 fig u re c ite d b y m a n y o f th e m e n in th e ir te s tim o n ie s m a y w ell b e a c cu ra te . W e m u s t n o te , th e n , th a t th e 1 4 ,7 7 7 fig u re c ite d o rig ­ in a lly in th e Tokyo Asahi shinbun a n d in th e se m io fficia l K a ik o s h a 1 9 9 3 d o c ­ u m e n t v o lu m e , is fo r 14 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 alo n e; it d o es n o t in c lu d e C h in e s e P O W s w h o m th e Y a m a d a D e ta c h m e n t c a p tu re d a fte r th a t d ate. 76

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

T h e Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t a n d S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t m a ssa c re d th is h u g e n u m b e r o f p ris o n e rs — w h o se to ta l n u m b e r a p p ro x im a te d 2 0 ,0 0 0 — o v er tw o days: 16 a n d 17 D e c e m b e r. M o re co rrectly , w e s h o u ld say th a t th e u n it m a s ­ sacred all b u t th e h a n d f u l o f p ris o n e rs lu c k y e n o u g h to escape. P F C K a n n o Y oshio’s b attle fie ld n o te b o o k goes o n to state: “ 16 [D e ce m b er]: T h e re w as a fire in th e b a rra c k s a r o u n d n o o n , a n d a b o u t h a lf o f th e b u ild in g s b u r n e d d o w n . B e g in n in g th a t e v e n in g w e to o k so m e o f th e p riso n e rs to th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze a n d s h o t th e m to d e a th .” 14 K o n d o E ish iro , o f th e M o u n ta in A rtille ry N in e te e n th R e g im e n t’s E ig h th C o m p a n y , w ro te in h is p e rso n a l b a ttle fie ld diary: 16 [December]: ... T h e 20,000 prisoners com m itted arson. W e filled in for troops from the com pany who w ent to guard them . Finally, it was decided today that we w ould shoot to death 7,000, or one-third o f them , on the banks o f the Yangtze. W e w ent to provide an arm ed escort and finished taking care o f them . A ny who m anaged to survive, we stabbed or slashed to death w ith bayonet and sword. Bathed in the bright rays o f the m id-D ecem ber m oon th at hu n g over nearby hills, the prisoners’ ago­ nized cries o f death were indescribably horrific. O nly on the field o f battle will one encounter such a sight. Having witnessed a scene never to be forgotten in our lives, we returned at about 9:30.15 W e k n o w fro m th e se v e te ra n s’ p e rso n a l b a ttle fie ld diaries a n d fro m th e ir oral te s tim o n ie s th a t th e C h in e s e P O W s w ere m a ssa c re d o u ts id e Y u leiy in g , o r T o r­ p e d o E n c a m p m e n t, a K M T n a v a l fa c ility b u ilt o n th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze, o p p o s ite T ’sa o -h sie h -h sia (o r P ak u a) Isla n d , w h ic h lies in th e river. T h e F u k u s h im a tro o p s m o u n te d h e a v y m a c h in e g u n s in sid e th e e n c a m p m e n t a n d b o re d h o le s in its th ic k c o n c re te w alls th r o u g h w h ic h to a im a n d fire th e se w e a p o n s. T e stim o n ie s a n d w a r d ia rie s te ll us th a t so m e 2 ,0 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e p ris ­ o n e rs d o cilely o b e y e d th e ir Ja p a n e se c a p to rs w h ile b e in g b r o u g h t h e re . T h e e x e c u tio n s to o k p la c e u s in g lig h t a n d h e a v y m a c h in e g u n s, b u t th a t d id n o t k ill all o f th e p riso n e rs. T h u s th e o rd e r “c h a rg e ” w e n t o u t to tro o p s g u a rd in g th e p e rip h e ry . T h e y re s p o n d e d w ith b a y o n e t a n d sw o rd , m a k in g su re th a t n o P O W w as o v erlo o k e d . T h e p e rso n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry o f P F C K u ro s u T a d a n o b u , assig n ed to th e M o u n ta in A rtille ry T h ir d B a tta lio n Q u a rte rm a s te rs , d escrib es th e scen e as follow s: 16 December: Clear. At about 1 p.m ., tw enty m en from our Q uarterm asters headed for M afengshan [recto: M ufushan] on a search and destroy mission. Two or three days earlier we had taken about 5,000 o f the C hink soldiers w hom we held prisoner down to the Yangtze river bank and m achine-gunned them to death. Afterwards, we cut and slashed them w ith bayonet and sword to our heart’s content. I figured that I’d never get another chance like this, so I stabbed th irty o f those dam ned Chinks. C lim bing atop the m ountain o f corpses, I felt like a real devil-slayer, stabbing again and again, w ith all m y m ight. “Ugh, u g h ,” the C hinks groaned. T here were old folks as well as kids, but we killed them lot, stock, and barrel. I also borrow ed a buddy’s sword and tried to decapitate some. I’ve never experienced anything so unusual__ 16 77

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

A fte r o b ta in in g th is p a r tic u la r d o c u m e n t, I re a d a n d re re a d th is passag e tr a n s ­ fixed. It is in d e e d se lf-e x p la n a to ry . T h e re a lity o f w h a t th is F u k u s h im a a rtille ry so ld ie r sta rk ly rela tes w ill n o t b ro a c h d e n ia l, n o m a tte r w h a t k in d o f so p h is try o th e rs m a y in d u lg e in . F u rth e rm o re , th e se p r im a ry so u rce s th a t I u n c o v e re d give th e lie to o th e r im p o r ta n t p o in ts in th e co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists’ “u n a v o id a b le k illin g in self­ d e fe n se ” th esis. F o r ex a m p le , th e re w as n o release o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts b e fo re th e k illin g b e g a n , a n d th e fire b ro k e o u t in th e d a y tim e o n th e s ix te e n th , n o t a t n ig h t tim e o n th e f o u r te e n th o r fifte e n th , as c la im e d . P F C K a n n o ’s b a ttle ­ field n o te b o o k clearly states, “T h e re w as a fire in th e b arrac k s a t a ro u n d n o o n .”17 S u b lie u te n a n t E n d o ’s p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry also says th a t “A fire b ro k e o u t in th e b arra c k s h o u s in g th e p riso n e rs a t 1 2 :3 0 p .m ., so w e w ere o rd e re d to tak e a c tio n .”18 H e n c e it is clear th a t th e fire o c c u rre d a t a b o u t lu n c h tim e o n th e s ix te e n th . B u t eq u a lly im p o r ta n t, a p e ru sa l o f o th e r p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ries th a t I d isc o v ered m a k e s n o re fe re n c e to p ris o n e rs e sca p in g . To th e c o n tra ry , th e re are th re e p h o to g r a p h s o f P O W s s ittin g o n th e g r o u n d in g o o d o rd er. It is q u ite lik e ly th a t th e se are th e o n e s w h o w ere b u r n e d o u t o f th e ir b a rra c k s. A c c o rd in g to o n -s ite su rv ey s m a d e b y o u r re se a rc h te a m , th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t, sh a d o w s cast b y Ja p a n e se g u a rd s in d ic a te th a t th e se p h o to s w ere ta k e n s o m e tim e afte r th e n o o n h o u r o n a d a y in th e m id d le o f D e c e m b e r. A n d , o f co u rse , th e re is a g o o d p o ssib ility th a t th e C h in e s e m e n in th e p h o to g r a p h s w ere so m e o f th e p ris o n e rs m a ssa c re d o n th e s ix te e n th . U n d e r th e c o n d itio n s o b ta in in g in m id -D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , a n escape o f P O W s su c h as th a t p u r p o r te d b y th e c o n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists w as to ta lly im p o ssib le . To b e g in w ith , th e b a rra c k s w ere u n d e r h e a v y g u a rd a n d s tric t su rv e illa n c e . A c c o rd in g to th e “u n a v o id a b le k illin g in se lf-d e fe n se ” th e sis, th e C h in e s e p ris ­ o n e rs fired arm s a fte r a fire b ro k e o u t. B u t th e re is n o re c o rd o f Ja p a n e se g u a rd s b e in g k ille d o r w o u n d e d in m y so u rce s, n o r is th e re a n y m e n tio n o f escapees. T h e m o s t th a t c a n b e a rg u e d is th a t th e P O W s m a y h av e w ish e d to fire o n th e ir c a p to rs in o rd e r to escape, b u t w ere u n a b le to d o so b e c a u se o f th e s tric t su rv eilla n c e . W h a t, th e n , c a u se d th e fire? T h e m o s t lik e ly a n sw e r is th is. A n u m b e r o f m y in te rv ie w e e s sp o k e o f s ta g in g a “tria l e x e c u tio n ” o n 16 D e c e m b e r. H e n c e , w e m a y su p p o se th a t th e Ja p a n e se c a p to rs se t th is fire as a p re te x t in o rd e r to le ad p riso n e rs aw ay to th e ir e x e c u tio n . T h e co rp se s w ere flu sh e d d o w n th e Y angtze R iv er o n th a t v e ry sa m e day.

17 December T h e Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t c o n s id e re d th is “tria l e x e c u tio n ” o n th e s ix te e n th a success. So it to o k th e re st o f th e p riso n e rs d o w n to T a w a n tz u , o n th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze, to b e m a ssa c re d o n th e s e v e n te e n th . (H o w e v er, so m e o f th e p e r­ so n s I in te rv ie w e d n o te d th e p o s s ib ility th a t so m e C h in e s e P O W s w ere ta k e n 78

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

to th e sa m e b a rra c k s a t Y u leiy in g , o r T o rp e d o E n c a m p m e n t, to b e m a ssa c re d .) In h is p e rso n a l b a ttle fie ld diary, P F C K a n n o ex p lic itly w ro te : “ 17 [D e c e m b e r]: I to o k p a r t in th e u n p r e c e d e n te d , g ra n d sp e c ta c le m a rk in g o u r tr iu m p h a n t e n try in to N a n k in g . T h e c e re m o n ie s b e g a n a t 1:3 0 [p .m .]. T h e r e w as a rev ie w o f tro o p s b y H is M ajesty , L ie u te n a n t-G e n e ra l P rin c e A sa k a [Y asu h ik o ], a n d b y H is E xcellency, S u p re m e C o m m a n d e r M a ts u i [Iw an e]. W e s h o t to d e a th th e r e m a in in g 1 0 ,0 0 0 a n d so m e o d d - th o u s a n d p r is o n e r s .”19 T h e w a r d ia ry o f S u b lie u te n a n t M iy a m o to S h o g o , o f th e S ix ty -fifth R eg i­ m e n t’s F o u rth C o m p a n y , read s: “ 17 [D e c e m b e r]: L ig h t s n o w .... W e fin a lly se t o u t to d isp o se o f th e p ris o n e rs in th e la te - a f te rn o o n a n d e a rly -e v e n in g afte r c o m in g b a c k [fro m th e tr iu m p h a l e n try c e re m o n ie s]. E v en a llo w in g th a t th e y n u m b e re d over 2 0 ,0 0 0 , w e e n d e d u p m a k in g a fa ta l e rro r th a t to o k a to ll in casu alties a m o n g o u r c o m ra d e s .”20 M a n y m e n fro m th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t w ere assem b led in a c o m p a n y th a t to o k p a r t in th e c e re m o n ie s. B u t a lm o st all w h o d id n o t, w ere assig n ed to m assacre C h in e se p riso n e rs. In th e m o r n in g th e y tie d th e p ris o n e rs ’ h a n d s b e h in d th e ir b a c k s w ith w ire a n d also p la c e d th e m in lo n g c h a in -g a n g lin e s. T h e e x e c u tio n site w as a b ro a d b a n k o f th e Y angtze fe n c e d o ff b y b a rb e d w ire, w ith several h e a v y m a c h in e g u n e m p la c e m e n ts se t u p o n th e p e rim e te r p o in tin g in w a rd . O il w as re a d ie d to b u r n th e co rp ses, a n d p h o n e lin es w ere se t u p to lin k o n -s ite tro o p s w ith r e g im e n t a n d d e ta c h ­ m e n t h e a d q u a rte rs . T h e c h a in -g a n g e d P O W s w ere le d to th is site in th e a fte r­ n o o n , a n d all h a d a rriv e d b y th e tim e d u s k w as s e ttin g in . T h e trig g e rs w ere p u lle d ju s t like th e n ig h t b e fo re , b u t th e n u m b e r o f p riso n e rs s h o t d iffe re d . In th e fo llo w in g y ea r w h ile h e w as h o sp ita liz e d , L an c e C o r p o r a l T a n a k a S a b u ro o f th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t’s S e c o n d C o m p a n y d re w a s k e tc h o f th e m assacre site (see th e r e p r o d u c tio n ). H is e x p la n a to ry n o te to th e sk e tc h reads: [In the background] Yangtze River W e said we w ould transport them tem porarily to the island in the center [of the Yangtze], and assembled boats about halfway from shore. [But] after the boats pulled off, we fired on them from all sides at once to finish them off. In desperation, they clim bed up on one another trying to evade our fire. T hey w ould pile on top o f each other to a height o f about three meters, fall down, pile on top o f each other; and then repeat the process again.21 T h e p riso n e rs w ere lo c k e d in sid e a se m ic irc le o f b a rb e d -w ire fe n c in g w ith th e ir b ac k s to th e Y angtze, a n d several h e a v y m a c h in e g u n s w ere m o u n te d o n th e fe n c e ’s p e rim e te r p o in tin g in w a rd . In te rv ie w e e s w h o fired th e g u n s te stifie d th a t th e y e s ta b lish e d a n “allo w ab le ra n g e o f fire ” b e fo re h a n d in o rd e r to k eep f ro m s h o o tin g over o r th r o u g h th e m a ss o f p riso n e rs a n d th e re b y k illin g c o m ­ rad e s firin g fro m th e o p p o s ite sid e o f th e se m ic irc le . L arg e b o n fire s w ere se t u p as m a rk e rs a t th e tw o e n d s o f th e b a rb e d -w ire fe n c e th a t r a n in to th e riv e r’s edge. T h e g u n n e rs w h o m a n n e d e a c h m a c h in e g u n p la c e d a lo n g th e se m ic ir­ cle w ere o rd e re d to lim it th e ir fire to p o in ts “in b e tw e e n th e tw o b o n fire s ” so 79

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

80

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

as to av o id h itt in g fe llo w -g u n n e rs o n th e o th e r sid e b y a c c id e n t. T h is w as th e ir p re e s ta b lis h e d “allo w ab le ra n g e o f fire .” T h e “u n a v o id a b le firin g in se lf-d e fe n se ” th e sis also h o ld s th a t th e C h in e s e p ris o n e rs w ere e s c o rte d fo r th e p u rp o s e o f b e in g released . B u t as m y p r im a ry so u rces clearly show , th e P O W s in t r u t h w ere b e in g e s c o rte d to b e e x e cu ted . In h is w a r d ia ry e n try fo r 15 D e c e m b e r, M a j. G e n . Y am a d a S en ji, c o m m a n ­ d e r o f th e O n e H u n d r e d T h ir d B rig a d e, re ite ra te d S E A o rd e rs a n d w ro te : “T h a t m e a n s ‘k ill th e m a ll’. ”22 E n d o ’s p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry e n try fo r th e s ix te e n th reads: “F o llo w in g o rd e rs, w e to o k o n e - th ird o f th e p ris o n e rs d o w n to th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze R iv e r b e g in n in g in th e e v e n in g . T h e re , ‘[R o m a n n u m e ra l] I ’ s h o t th e m to d e a th .”23 “ [R o m a n n u m e ra l] I ” refers to th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t’s “F irst B a tta lio n ,” c o m p ris in g th e F irst M a c h in e G u n C o m p a n y a n d th e F irst to F o u rth I n fa n tr y c o m p a n ie s .24 T h u s , ju s t as o u r S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t su sp e c te d all alo n g , th e se p r im a ry so u rce s re c o rd o rd e rs c o m in g fro m th e SEA . A n d , th e y b e tra y co n serv ativ e re v isio n ist claim s th a t th e Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t a n d S ixtyfifth R e g im e n t w ere e s c o rtin g P O W s to b e se t free in v io la tio n o f o rd e rs issu ed b y a n im p e ria l p rin c e . L an c e C o r p o r a l T a n a k a S a b u r o ’s e x p la n a to ry n o te to h is sk e tch , w h ic h w as ju s t c ite d , e x p lic itly sta tes: “W e sa id w e w o u ld tr a n s ­ p o r t th e m te m p o ra rily to th e isla n d in th e c e n te r [o f th e Y a n g tz e ].” W i th o u t d o u b t, th is w as a p re te x t to le a d th e p riso n e rs aw ay to th e ir e x e c u tio n . T h e m a c h in e g u n n e rs c o u ld n o t “fin ish o f f ” all th e p riso n e rs, so th e o rd e r to “c h a rg e ” w e n t o u t, ju s t as o n th e n ig h t b e fo re . T a n a k a ’s e x p la n a to ry n o te c o n tin u e s : (Flushing T h em Away) W e killed them one after an o th er from night tim e u n til dawn th e next day. W e splashed oil on the corpses and burned these. W e used [forked] willow branches as hooks to drag the corpses over to the river one by one, where we flushed them down­ stream. O u r own u n it took care o f 13,500 corpses, b u t other m en were saying th at the total w ould com e to over 70,000 if all the units’ killings were added up. It was a totally inconceivable, unim aginable sight.25 A s a m a tte r o f co u rse , th e m e le e re su lte d a m id g re a t c o n fu s io n . It is n o w o n d e r th a t P O W s — fac ed w ith th e a b h o rre d p ro s p e c t o f d y in g — w o u ld resist to th e b itte r e n d . E v en w ith h a n d s tie d b e h in d th e ir b ac k s, th e y still n u m ­ b e re d over 1 0 ,0 0 0 ; a n d , so m e m a y w ell h av e fre e d th e m se lv e s d u r in g th e m a c h in e g u n n in g . T h e ir b a ttle w ith Ja p a n e se tro o p s c o n tin u e d en d lessly u n d e r cover o f d ark n e ss. Yet, sadly, th e re w as n o w ay fo r th e u n a r m e d to p re ­ vail over th e a rm e d , so th a t all w ere s ta b b e d o r sla sh ed to d e a th . In o rd e r to m a k e su re th a t all h a d d ie d , th e Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t p o u r e d o il o v er th e m ass o f co rp ses, set th e m o n fire, a n d c u t d o w n a n y s u rv iv in g P O W s w h o d a sh e d o u t o f th e b u r n in g h e a p , u n a b le to b e a r th e in te n s e h e a t. T h e se k illin g s la ste d 81

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

u n til th e m o r n in g o f th e e ig h te e n th , w ith s ta n d -b y tro o p s ta k in g tu r n s to h e lp . P F C K a n n o n o te s: 18 [December]: A light snow fell from the m orning. W e w ent to finish off those pris­ oners [not yet] taken care o f by m achine gunning. T h e smell was awful. 19 [December]: [O ur unit] w ent to take care o f the enem y soldiers again today, b u t I m yself did not go. 20 [December]: W e left at 10:00 a.m ., boarded ships at Chungshan W harf, and ended up cam ping out some 16 kilom eters from P ’uk’ou.26 T h e r e w ere so m a n y co rp se s th a t it to o k v irtu a lly th e w h o le Y am a d a D e ­ ta c h m e n t th re e day s— th e e ig h te e n th , n in e te e n th , a n d tw e n tie th — to fin ish flu sh in g all o f th ese d o w n th e Y angtze p a s t T ’sa o -h sie h Isla n d in th e m id d le o f th e river. A n d , even th e n th e tro o p s m a y h av e b e e n u n a b le to fin ish th e jo b . T h e D e ta c h m e n t w as o rig in a lly o rd e re d o n a n e w m is s io n o n th e n in e te e n th , b u t h a d to p o s tp o n e d its d e p a r tu re o n e day, u n til th e tw e n tie th , w h e n its m a in fo rce fin ally w as ab le to leave N a n k in g .

18 December T h u s , it is clear th a t th e Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t a n d S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t m a s ­ sacred th e 1 7 ,0 0 0 to 1 8 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e p riso n e rs c a p tu re d n e a r M u fu s h a n , a n d th a t th e se m assacres to o k p la c e o v er tw o d ay s a n d n ig h ts : th e s ix te e n th a n d s e v e n te e n th o f D e c e m b e r. T h e re are n o la te r p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry e n trie s o r te stim o n ie s a b o u t g u a rd in g th e b arrac k s w h ere th ese P O W s h a d b e e n h o u se d , so I a ssu m ed th a t all o f th e p ris o n e rs h a d b e e n e x e c u te d . B u t a fte r I a rriv e d a t a clear e s tim a te o f th e n u m b e r o f C h in e s e v ic tim s , a n o th e r rid d le su rfa c e d . T h is to o k p la ce w h e n I o b ta in e d th e p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry le ft b y L an ce C o r p o r a l M e g u ro F u k u ji, o f th e Q u a rte rm a s te rs , M o u n ta in A rtille ry B a tta l­ io n III. M e g u ro ’s e n trie s read : 16 December: Clear. O utside the walled city o f N anking.... At 4:00 p.m. we shot to death 7,000 prisoners taken by the Yamada U nit [Detach­ m ent]. T h e cliff on the Yangtze looked like a m ountain o f corpses for a tim e. T h at was truly an awful sight. 17 December: Clear. O utside the walled city o f N anking. W e left our encam pm ent at 9:00 a.m. to take part in the grand historic ceremonies m arking our com m ander’s triu m p h an t entry into the walled city o f N anking. A t 5:00 p.m ., we w ent to take up an assignment to execute about 13,000 enem y troops. Over 2 days, the Yamada U nit executed close to 20,000 o f them . It seems that each o f the units killed all the prisoners it held by gunfire.27 82

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

T h u s , M e g u ro ’s e n trie s fo r th e s ix te e n th a n d s e v e n te e n th m a tc h th o s e in o th e r p e rso n a l b a ttle fie ld d iaries. M o reo v er, h is p h ra se “th e c liff o n th e Y angtze” n o d o u b t refers a n are a n e a r Y u leiy in g , o r T o rp e d o E n c a m p m e n t. H is e n try fo r th e s e v e n te e n th — “ O v e r tw o days, th e Y am a d a U n it e x e c u te d close to 2 0 .0 0 0 o f th e m ”— leaves little d o u b t th a t th e d e ta c h m e n t fin ish e d k illin g all o f its p riso n e rs. H o w ev er, m o m e n to u s q u e s tio n s e m erg e f ro m M e g u ro ’s n e x t tw o en tries. 18 December: Clear. O utside the walled city o f N anking. It was w indy and rainy from about 3:00 a.m. U pon arising, we saw m ountains capped in the whiteness o f the season’s first snow. W e heard th at the num ber o f units concen­ trated in and around N anking am ount to roughly ten divisions. Break tim e. A t about 5:00 p.m . we shot to death 13,000 defeated stragglers. 19 December: Clear. O utside the walled city o f N anking. W e rose at 6:00 a.m. even though this was supposed to be a day off. U ntil 1:00 p.m ., we flushed the corpses o f enem y troops that we shot yesterday down the Yangtze— the num ber was 10,000 and several m ore thousand. W e prepared to depart in the after­ noon and perform ed guard duty at the com m and post.28 T h e d ates o f th e se e n trie s c a n n o t b e w ro n g . M e g u ro c o rre c tly cites th e tr iu m ­ p h a l e n try c e re m o n ie s h e ld o n 17 D e c e m b e r; a n d , fu rth e r m o re , lo c al w e a th e r re c o rd s c o rro b o ra te th e fa c t th a t th e first w in te r s n o w fell o n 18 D e c e m b e r. So, w h a t d o w e m a k e o f h is e n try fo r th e e ig h te e n th : “A t a b o u t 5 :0 0 p .m . w e s h o t to d e a th 1 3 ,0 0 0 d e fe a te d stra g g le rs.”? S h o u ld w e ta k e it a t face value? T w o p o ssib le e x p la n a tio n s s p rin g to m in d : M e g u ro d e s c rib e d th e sa m e m a s­ sacre tw ice, o r u n its o th e r th a n th e Y a m a d a D e ta c h m e n t c a rrie d th e se o u t. B u t o n th e n in e te e n th , M e g u ro w ro te : “ U n til 1 p .m ., w e flu sh e d th e co rp se s o f e n e m y tro o p s th a t w e s h o t y e s te rd a y d o w n th e Y angtze— th e n u m b e r w as 1 0 .0 0 0 a n d several m o re th o u s a n d .” T h e re fo re , th e m a ssac re h e m e n tio n s h a d to hav e o c c u rre d o n th e e ig h te e n th . Be th a t as it m ay, M e g u ro ’s n u m b e rs are m in d -b o g g lin g : “7 0 0 0 ” o n th e s ix te e n th , “ 1 3 ,0 0 0 ” o n th e s e v e n te e n th , a n d “ 1 3 ,0 0 0 ” o n th e e ig h te e n th , fo r a to ta l o f 3 3 ,0 0 0 . O n th e s e v e n te e n th , h e also n o te d v aguely : “It seem s th a t e a c h o f th e u n its k ille d all th e p ris o n e rs it h e ld b y g u n fire .” T h e se e n trie s su g g e st th a t a p lu r a lity o f m a ssac res— a p a rt f ro m th o s e a t Y u le iy in g a n d T a w a n tz u — to o k p la c e th r o u g h o u t th e e n tire T ’sa o -h sie h -h sia area, fo r w h ic h Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s h av e y e t to a c c o u n t. To d a te , M e g u ro ’s is th e o n ly p e rs o n a l b a ttle fie ld d ia ry I h av e f o u n d th a t m e n tio n s a m assac re o n 18 D e c e m b e r. T ry in g to e x p a n d m y se a rc h fo r so u rce s b e y o n d m e n in th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t, I lo o k e d fo r p e rso n a l b a ttle fie ld d iaries le ft b y f o rm e r m e m b e rs o f th e Q u a rte rm a s te rs , M o u n ta in A rtille ry N in e te e n th R e g im e n t, B a tta lio n III. I h av e b e e n u n a b le to lo c a te any, h o w ev er. O n th e o th e r h a n d , I o b ta in e d a few te s tim o n ie s fro m f o rm e r m e m b e rs o f th e S ixtyfifth R e g im e n t to th e effect th a t m assacres o f p riso n e rs to o k p la ce o n th e b a n k s 83

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

o f th e Y angtze a t sites o th e r th a n T a w a n tz u . F o r e x a m p le , o n e o f th e m e n sa id to m e: “A fter o u r S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t k ille d o ff o u r P O W s , I sa w a n o th e r u n it d o ex actly th e sa m e th in g a t so m e o th e r d e so la te s p o t o n th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze, b u t I d o n ’t k n o w w h ic h d iv is io n o r r e g im e n t it b e lo n g e d to . ” A n o th e r m a n re la te d to m e: “A t so m e o th e r s p o t n e a rb y o n th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze w h e re b u ild in g s s to o d — b u t in a lo c a tio n d iffe re n t fro m o u rs— a n o th e r u n it k illed P O W s in th e sa m e w a y th a t w e in th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t h a d d o n e . It w as so m e p la ce w h e re th a t u n it h a d ju s t p a sse d th r o u g h m o u n ta in s . W e in th e S u p p ly C o rp s also w e n t o v er th e re to lo o k a t th e c o rp se s.” I h av e ascer­ ta in e d th a t th is “p la c e w h e re th a t u n it h a d ju s t p assed th r o u g h m o u n ta in s ” is S h a n g y u a n m e n C ro ssin g . H o w ev er, a n o th e r o f th e m e n I in te rv ie w e d sa id th a t “p e rs o n n e l in th e h e a v y a rtille ry f ro m a n o th e r r e g im e n t jo in e d th e m a ssac re a t T a w a n tz u .” A ll o f th is raises th e u n d e n ia b le p o ssib ility th a t p a r t o f th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t w as r e c ru ite d to h e lp o th e r u n its m a ssac re p riso n e rs. T h e o th e r u n its s ta tio n e d o u ts id e th e w alls o f N a n k in g n e a rb y th e S ixtyfifth R e g im e n t w ere th e S ix te e n th d iv is io n ’s T h ir ty - th ir d R e g im e n t fro m T su in M ie P re fe ctu re, a lo n g w ith th a t d iv isio n ’s T h ir ty - e ig h th R e g im e n t fro m N a ra P re fe ctu re, b u t w e k n o w little a b o u t w h a t th e se tw o re g im e n ts d id in th e N a n ­ k in g c a m p a ig n . It is q u ite lik e ly th a t th e y p e r p e tra te d o th e r m assacres in th e T ’sa o -h sie h -h sia are a c ite d in C h in e s e a c c o u n ts d a tin g f ro m th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials. T h e se C h in e se a c c o u n ts are re m a rk a b ly sim ila r in n a tu re to th o se in m y so u rces, b u t p la c e th e n u m b e r o f v ic tim s in th is area a t 5 7 ,4 1 8 . O n ly th e u n e a r th in g a n d p u b lic a tio n o f o fficial b a ttle re p o rts a n d p e rs o n a l b a ttle ­ field d ia ries fo r th o s e tw o u n its w ill se ttle th is issue co n clu siv ely , h o w ev er.

Conclusion P erso n al b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s a n d o ra l te s tim o n ie s o b ta in e d fro m v e te ra n s in th e F u k u s h im a S ixty -fifth R e g im e n t— th e m a in fo rce in th e Y am ad a D e ta c h m e n t— p ro v e co n c lu siv ely th a t th e im p e ria l a rm y m a ssa c re d a n e s tim a te d 1 7 ,0 0 0 to 1 8 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e p ris o n e rs o u ts id e o f N a n k in g c ity n e a r M u fu s h a n in th e T ’sa o -h sie h -h sia area o n 16 a n d 17 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . T h e s u m m a r y e x e c u tio n o f P O W s over w h o m a rm e d fo rces h a d a c c e p te d c u s to d y is a n in e x c u sa b le atro c ity . I t is also a clear v io la tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l tre a tie s a n d law s o f w a r th a t im p e ria l J a p a n h a d p le d g e d to h o n o r. T h is w as n o im p u lsiv e o r a c c id e n ­ ta l ac t b y a sm a ll n u m b e r o f tro o p s su ffe rin g fro m b a ttle fa tig u e o r w a rtim e h y ste ria. T h e tw o larg e-scale m a ssac res a t T a w a n tz u a n d Y u le iy in g d e s c rib e d in m y so u rces w ere p r e m e d ita te d a n d w e ll-p la n n e d . A n d , ab o v e all, th e se m ass m u rd e rs w ere ex e c u te d o n o rd e rs f ro m L t. G e n . P rin c e A sa k a Y asu h ik o , w h o serv ed as s u p re m e c o m m a n d e r o f th e SEA . P re v io u s Ja p a n e se a c c o u n ts o f th is in c id e n t are d e m o n s tr a b ly false in lig h t o f th e p r im a ry so u rc e s in tr o d u c e d in th is c h a p te r. T h e Y a m a d a D e ta c h m e n t 84

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Massacres near Mufushan

a n d th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t n e v e r rele ase d h a lf o f th e ir e s tim a te d 1 4 ,7 7 7 p ris ­ o n e rs o n th e g r o u n d s o f b e in g n o n c o m b a ta n ts . T h e s e F u k u s h im a u n its n e v e r in te n d e d to e sc o rt th e re m a in in g h a lf to safety. T h e y n e v e r k ille d th e fin al o n e - q u a rte r in a re g re tta b le b u t u n a v o id a b le a c t o f se lf-d e fe n se th a t c la im e d o n ly 1 ,0 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 lives (v a ry in g fro m a c c o u n t to a c c o u n t). T h e s e u n its led 1 7 ,0 0 0 to 1 8 ,0 0 0 — a n d p e rh a p s 2 0 ,0 0 0 — p ris o n e rs to th e b a n k s o f th e Y angtze R iv er fo r th e express p u rp o s e s o f k illin g th e m a n d d is p o s in g th e co rp ses b y b u r n in g o r b y flu sh in g th e se d o w n s tre a m . C o n s e rv a tiv e re v isio n ­ ists in J a p a n w h o in s is t o n c lin g in g to th e ir n o w -d is c re d ite d , d e lu s o ry v e rsio n s o f w h a t h a p p e n e d a t M u fu s h a n d o so f ro m m o tiv e s o th e r th a n sc h o la rly in te g r ity a n d a se a rc h fo r h is to ric a l tr u th .

Notes * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Translated from Japanese by the editor. See H ora and Watada, “Bakufusan no horyo shokei ni kansuru ‘Shinsetsu’ hihan.” For another analysis, see Watanabe, N a n kin gyakusatsu to Nihonjin. Hata, “Horyo no chi ni mamireta Byakko butai.” T he relevant volumes are Fukushima minyu shinbun, ed., Fukushima: Senso to ningen, vol 1, Byakko hen; and Fukushima minyu shinbun, ed., Kyobutaisenki: vol. 1, Moesakru tairiku sensen. Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshishitsu, ed., Shina jih en rikugun sakusen 1, pp. 436—38. Suzuki, “N a n kin daigyakusatsu”no maboroshi; Kojima, N it-C h u senso, vol. 4, pp. 242-44; Abe, N a n kin no hisame, passim; Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n kin senshi, pp. 324-27. O no and Honda, “Bakufusan no horyo shudan gyakusatsu”; Ono, “Nankin gyakusatsu no kokei”; and Ono, “Mokugeki N ankin.” Kaikosha, ed., “Bakusan fukin de no horyo shobun ni tsuite.” Itakura, “Nanking daigyakusatsu: gyakusatsu wa ‘seizei’ 10,000-20,000.” O no, Fujiwara, and H onda eds., N a n kin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, p. 37. Ibid., p. 219. Ibid., p. 309. Ibid., p. 219. Ibid., p. 309. Ibid., p. 326. Ibid., pp. 350-51. Ibid., p 309. Ibid., p. 219. Ibid., p. 309. Ibid., p. 134. Ibid., pp. 376-77. In Kaikosha, ed., N a n kin senshi shiryo shu, p. 331. Ono, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n kin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, p. 219. However, we should note that the First Infantry Company was in fact deployed elsewhere at this time, so this statement is inaccurate in this respect. O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n k in daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, pp. 376-77. Ibid., p . 309. Ibid., pp. 373-74. Ibid.

85

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:02 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

5

Pa r t

of the N u m be r s Issu e : D em o graph y and C iv il ia n V ic t im s D a v id Askew

Introduction In th is c h a p te r, I h o p e to m a k e a m o d e s t b e g in n in g fo r f u tu re q u a n tita tiv e stu d ie s o f th e tra g ic N a n k in g A tro c ity , D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , b y e s tim a tin g h o w m a n y C h in e s e c iv ilia n s re m a in e d in th e c ity b e fo re it fell o n 13 D e c e m b e r, a n d a b o u t h o w m a n y d ie d o v er th e n e x t several w eek s a t J a p a n ­ ese h a n d s . Q u a n tita tiv e issues in th e A tro c ity are v e x in g in p a r t b ec au se o f th e p o litic a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l b ag g a g e th e y carry. W rite rs ch o o se v a stly d iffe r­ e n t tim e sp a n s (s h o rt o r lo n g ), g e o g ra p h ic areas ( n a rro w o r w id e ), a n d d e fin ­ itio n s o f “m a ssac re ” (w h e th e r o r n o t th o se k ille d w ere c o m b a ta n ts ) to arriv e a t n u m b e rs th a t w ill “p ro v e ” h o w m a jo r o r m in o r th e A tro c ity w as. T h r o u g h m a n ip u la tio n s o f th is so rt, th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) a n d its m o re zealo u s s u p p o rte rs in s is t th e re w ere n o less th a n 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s , a n d p e rh a p s over 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 ; in c o n tra s t, r ig h t-w in g Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs c la im th e re w ere zero to a few d o ze n . T h re e g ro u p s w itn e sse d th e A tro c ity : Ja p a n e se ag g ressors, C h in e s e v ic tim s, a n d W e ste rn resid e n ts. O n e iro n y is th a t m a n y p rim a ry d o c u m e n ts are in W e st­ e rn lan g u ag es, m a in ly E n g lish , sin c e th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ), w h ic h e s ta b lish e d th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ), w as th e o n ly real m u n ic ip a l a u th o rity le ft afte r th e c ity fell, a n d its m e m b e rs larg e ly w ro te in th a t lan g u ag e . In th is ch ap ter, I fo cu s o n official a n d p riv a te rec o rd s le ft b y th o se W e ste rn e rs. S u c h a tr u n c a te d fo c u s a n d lim ite d ra n g e o f so u rce s are tw o fa c to rs th a t serve to n a rro w m y o w n d e fin itio n o f th e A tro c ity ’s tim e sp a n a n d area, fo r m a n y W e ste rn e rs le ft N a n k in g a few w eeks afte r it fell, a n d th e ir p u rv ie w w as in a n y case lim ite d to th e c ity a n d its im m e d ia te e n v iro n s. In d e e d , th e y m a in ly w it86

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

n essed ev en ts in o r n e a r th e N S Z , a refu g ee area a b o u t o n e -e ig h th o f th e e n tire city. T h u s th e ir w ritin g s h av e h u g e lim ita tio n s fo r h is to ria n s se e k in g to re c o n ­ s tr u c t th e A tro c ity in its en tire ty . M y lim ite d fo cu s h as th e a d v a n ta g e o f clo sely fo llo w in g th a t a d o p te d at th e T okyo a n d N a n k in g W a r C rim e s Trials; th a t is, in a n d a ro u n d th e c ity fo r six w eek s s ta rtin g o n 13 D e c e m b e r. B u t it also h as th e d ra w b a c k o f b e in g far n a rro w e r th a n th a t a d o p te d b y r e n o w n e d h is to ria n s su c h as th e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira a n d K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i in c h a p te rs 2 a n d 3. D u e to th e p o o r statistica l d a ta a n d th e scarce official d o c u m e n ta tio n ju s t b efo re th e c ity ’s fall a n d d u r in g its o c c u p a tio n b y th e Ja p a n e se o v er th e se six w eek s o r so, I a m fo rc e d p la ce g re a t w e ig h t o n in d ir e c t p ie ce s o f ev id e n c e c u lle d fro m n o n o ffic ia l so u rce s su c h as th e W e s te rn e rs ’ d ia ries, le tte rs, a n d p riv a te p a p e rs. H o w ev er, m y m o s t g rie v o u s lim ita tio n is to e x c lu d e C h in e s e m ilita ry p e r­ s o n n e l fro m th is a c c o u n t even th o u g h h u g e n u m b e rs o f th e m su ffe re d a “m a s ­ sa cre” in th e sense o f b e in g k ille d in in h u m a n e Ja p a n e se acts o f v io le n c e th a t v io la te d in te r n a tio n a l law s o f w ar. T h u s it is cru c ia l to stress th a t m y esti­ m a te d C h in e s e d e a th to ll w o u ld b e far h ig h e r i f I w ere to: (1) d e fin e th e ev e n t in q u e s tio n m o re b ro a d ly as to tim e a n d area, (2) e x a m in e n o n -W e s te rn sources, su c h as w ritte n a c c o u n ts a n d o ra l te s tim o n ie s b y th e Ja p a n e se ag g resso rs a n d C h in e s e v ic tim s , a n d (3) in c lu d e C h in e s e m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l in m y c a lc u la ­ tio n s . In su m , I se ek to q u a n tify o n ly C h in e s e civ ilia n d e a th s, n o t all C h in e s e m a ssac red in th e A tro c ity . I realize th a t c ritic s m a y accu se m e o f d e fin in g “civ ilia n s” in a n o v erly n a rro w w ay a n d o f m a n ip u la tin g d a ta to arriv e a t a m in im a l d e a th to ll. T h u s , h u m ility o n m y p a r t is called fo r in th e b e lie f th a t o th e r le g itim a te in te r p re ta tio n s o f th e d a ta are p o ssib le , w h ic h a llo w h is to ri­ an s to re a c h h ig h e r v ic tim to ta ls. In th e se re sp e c ts, I ask th e re a d e r to ju d g e th is c h a p te r w ith a la rg e d o se o f in d u lg e n c e .

The Early and Later Population O u r s ta rtin g p o in t m u s t b e to e s tim a te th e p o p u la tio n o f N a n k in g in earlyD e c e m b e r, b efo re th e a ssau lt o n c ity w alls b e g a n . I t h a d a lre a d y p lu m m e te d d u e to re p e a te d b o m b in g s , th e a p p ro a c h o f a n in v a d in g arm y, a n d th e flig h t b y civil se rv a n ts a n d w e a lth ie r classes. T h o s e C h in e s e w h o sta y ed w ere, in J o h n R a b e ’s w o rd s, “th e p o o re s t o f th e p o o r ” w h o la c k e d th e m e a n s to flee. H e n o te d th a t 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e o rig in a l p o p u la tio n h a d le ft.1 S o m e W e s te rn jo u r ­ n a lists e s tim a te d th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le r e m a in in g a t c o n s id e ra b ly less th a n 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 . L ily A b eg g , w h o h e rs e lf le ft N a n k in g o n 2 9 N o v e m b e r, w ro te in a 19 D e c e m b e r Frankfurter Z eitung a rtic le th a t it w as 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e N ew York Times o n 16 D e c e m b e r sa id th a t th e N S Z “sh e lte rs 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 .” A r th u r M e n k e n w ro te o n 17 D e c e m b e r in th e Chicago Tribune th a t “ [m ]o re th a n 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h i­ nese s o u g h t refu g e in th e z o n e ,” a n d o n 18 D e c e m b e r, F. T illm a n D u r d in w ro te o f “u p w a rd o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 n o n c o m b a ta n ts ” in th e N S Z w ith “re sid e n ts, n u m b e r87

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

in g u p w a rd o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 w h o s o u g h t n o s a n c tu a ry in th e z o n e .” T h e se jo u r n a l­ ists b eliev ed th a t th e e n tire p o p u la tio n o f N a n k in g c ity w as a b o u t 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 — w ith 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 in sid e a n d 5 0 ,0 0 0 o u ts id e th e N S Z . O n e h i n t th a t e x p la in s th is lo w early e stim a te m a y b e G e o rg e F itc h ’s s ta te m e n t in th e Los Angeles Times o f 18 M a rc h 1938 to th e effect th a t th e IC in itia lly p la n n e d to feed a n d h o u se o n ly 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 refugees in th e Z o n e , b u t a la te ru s h in c re a se d th e n u m b e r to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e m o s t c o m m o n W e s te rn e s tim a te o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 is f o u n d in tw o v o lu m e s o f so u rces: H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y , e d ., W hat War Means (1 9 3 8 ) a n d H s u S h u h si, ed ., Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone (1 9 3 9 ). T im p e rle y , a n A u stra lia n jo u r n a lis t a n d se cret m e m b e r o f th e K u o m in ta n g [K M T ] g o v e r n m e n t’s I n te r ­ n a tio n a l P ro p a g a n d a D e p a r tm e n t, e d ite d th e first d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f a tro c i­ ties a t N a n k in g .2 H s u w as a “s o m e tim e A d v iso r to th e [C h in e se] M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A ffa irs.” A s I s h o w b e lo w in ta b les 1 a n d 2 , p r im a ry d o c u m e n ts in

Table 5.1.

Nanking Population, December 1937 to March 19383

Official Documents of the IC

Document No.

Date

Population

T6

H9

17 Dec. 1937

200,000

T7

H10

18 Dec.

200,000

T = Timperley (1938)

T9

H20

21 Dec.

200,000

H = Hsu (1939)

T14

H26

27 Dec.

200,000

T19

H41

14 Jan. 1938

250,000-300,000

T22

H43

17 Jan.

250,000

T24

H46 H 47

18 Jan. 19 Jan.

250,000 250,000

T26

H49 H54

22 Jan. 28 Jan.

250,000 250,000

H68

10 Feb.

250,000

Survey

Smythe

12 Dec. 1937 to 13 March 1938

221,150

Registration

Japanese authorities

24 Dec. 1937 to 5 Jan. 1938

160,000

Registration

Japanese authorities

Late Feb.

172,502

Registration

Japanese authorities

Late Mar.

235,056

Reports

USA Embassy Report (Espy)

13 Jan.

200,000-250,000

German Embassy Report (Rabe)

13 Jan.

200,000

Bates

29 July 1946

221,000

Evidence (Tokyo Trials)

88

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

Table 5.2.

Nanking Population as Recorded in Rabe’s Diary

Source

D a te

P opulation

W olf Schenke Telegram to Hitler Diary Telegram to Siemens Shanghai Office Chief o f Police, Wang Kopang Diary Letter to Japanese Embassy Letter to Japanese Embassy Diary Diary Chancellor Scharffenberg Letter to Siemens Management Diary Eduard Sperling Diary

23 25 25 25 28 10 17 18 25 26 13 14 17 22 12

200,000 Over 200,000 Over 200,000 Over 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 250,000 200,000 250,000

November November November November November December December December December December January January January January (?) February

th e se e d ite d v o lu m e s reveal th a t: (1) th e c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n w as a n e s tim a te d 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le , (2) it g re w to a b o u t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 b y m id -Ja n u a ry , a n d (3) th e v ast m a jo r ity o f th e se p e o p le w ere in sid e th e N S Z , n o t in th e re st o f th e city. G e ro g e F itc h , L ew is S m y th e , a n d o th e r IC m e m b e rs agree th a t, as S m y th e p u t it, “ [a]t th e tim e th e c ity fell (D e c e m b e r 12—13), its p o p u la tio n w as b e tw e e n 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ” o u t o f a n e s tim a te d o rig in a l “ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” p e o ­ p le. H o w ev er, official d o c u m e n ts d a tin g a fte r D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , s u c h as R a b e ’s le tte r o f 21 D e c e m b e r ( T 9 , H 2 0 ) to th e Ja p a n e se em bassy, c ite 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 civ il­ ia n s. T h e sole e x c e p tio n to th a t fig u re is in R a b e ’s le tte r to th e Ja p a n e se em b assy o n 14 Ja n u a ry : “W e u n d e r s ta n d th a t y o u re g iste re d 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w ith o u t in c lu d in g c h ild re n u n d e r 10 y ears o f age, a n d in so m e se c tio n s w ith ­ o u t in c lu d in g o ld e r w o m e n . T h e re fo re th e re are p r o b a b ly 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilian s in th e city. T o fee d th is p o p u la tio n o n n o r m a l r a tio n s o f rice w o u ld re q u ire 2 ,0 0 0 ta n [piculs] o f ric e p e r d a y (o r 1 ,6 0 0 b ag s p e r d a y ).”4 R a b e p r o b a b ly d eriv e d th is h ig h fig u re o f “ 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” f ro m a p u b lis h e d su rv ey b y S m y th e : “O n th e basis o f in c o m p le te re g is tra tio n s c a rrie d o u t b y th e [Japanese] m ilita ry a u th o ritie s b e tw e e n th e e n d o f D e c e m b e r a n d th e e n d o f Ja n u ary , m e m b e rs o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e e s tim a te d th e p o p u la ­ tio n o f N a n k in g a t th a t tim e to a p p ro a c h 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 , a fig u re d e c id e d ly ab o v e th e ir d e lib e ra te ly c a u tio u s guesses o f e a rlie r w eeks. S e m i-o ffic ia l C h in e s e c o n ­ je c tu re s r a n clo ser to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 .”5 In th is e x c e p tio n a l le tte r o f 14 Ja n u a ry , R a b e w as p le a d in g w ith th e Ja p a n e se a rm y fo r m o re fo o d b e c a u se m a n y refu g ees in sid e th e N S Z h a d n o n e a t all. T h u s it w as n a tu ra l th a t, in th is p a rtic u la r d o c u m e n t, h e s o u g h t to c la im th e ex iste n ce o f as m a n y C h in e s e refu g ee s as 89

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

p o ssib le. O n th a t v e ry sa m e day, h e w ro te to h is c o m p a n y S ie m e n s th a t th e IC “h as th u s far su c c e e d e d in fe e d in g th e c ity ’s 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 re sid e n ts p a c k e d in to o u r [N a n k in g Safety] Z o n e ,” a n d also re p o r te d to th e G e r m a n e m b a ssy th a t th e fig u re w as 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 .6 A s I s h o w la te r o n , th e “se m i-o ffic ia l C h in e s e c o n ­ je c tu re s ” o f “clo ser to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” n o te d b y S m y th e are w ro n g i f w e a c c e p t h is d a ta o n a g e -g ro u p d is trib u tio n . A s seen f ro m ta b le 1, th is in itia l p o p u la tio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ro se b e tw e e n 2 7 D e c e m b e r a n d 14 Ja n u a ry , p r o b a b ly d u e to th e Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n o f civ il­ ia n s, a n n o u n c e d o n 2 2 D e c e m b e r to b e g in o n th e tw e n ty -f o u r th . O n 17 J a n ­ uary, R a b e w ro te : “ E stim a te s o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n o f th e Z o n e are n o w a r o u n d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e in c re a se o f a b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 c o m es fro m th e r u in e d p a rts o f th e city .”7 A t first g la n c e , th is seem s to c o n tra d ic t h is s ta te m e n ts th a t p e o ­ p le w ere n o t liv in g o u ts id e th e N S Z , b u t th e c o n tra d ic tio n d isa p p e a rs i f h e w as re fe rrin g to C h in e s e so ld ie rs w h o h a d b e e n h id in g in th o se areas o f th e city. T h e Ja p a n e se fin ish e d re g iste rin g th e p o p u la tio n b y 14 Ja n u a ry , w h e n W e s te rn re s id e n ts first n o te d a n in c re ase , a n d so m e C h in e s e e x -so ld iers are k n o w n to hav e reg iste re d , so th e y p r o b a b ly a c c o u n t fo r p a r t o f th a t in c re ase . A lso, so m e re sid e n ts w h o h a d fled to th e s u r r o u n d in g c o u n try s id e b e g a n r e tu r n in g f ro m a b o u t 2 0 D e c e m b e r, a w e e k a fte r N a n k in g fell. T h u s , IC m e m ­ b ers c o n s is te n tly e s tim a te d th e p o p u la tio n a t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 u n d e r th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n .

Location of the Population O n 28 N o v e m b e r, R a b e n o te d , C h in e s e p o lic e c h ie f W a n g K o p a n g , “repeat­ edly d e c la re d th a t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e are still liv in g in the city” (ita lics a d d e d ) .8 T h is sh o w s th a t C h in e s e officials b eliev e d th e p o p u la tio n to b e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 in la te N o v e m b e r. R a b e ’s d ia ry c o n firm s w h e re th e p e o p le w ere. O n 1 D e c e m ­ ber, h e says th a t th e IC d isc u sse d w h e th e r to “o rd e r th e re m a in in g p o p u la c e o f N a n k in g in to th e n e u tra l z o n e [i.e., th e N S Z ] , ” a n o rd e r th a t w as e v e n tu ­ ally issu ed . M o reo v e r, th e m a y o r o f N a n k in g d e le g a te d “n e a rly all th e f u n c ­ tio n s o f th e C ity G o v e r n m e n t” to th e IC . So it m a k e s sen se th a t th e IC u rg e d civ ilian s to e n te r th e N S Z — a m o v e th a t fo re sh a d o w e d o rd e rs b y C h in e s e d e ­ fen se c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih la te r o n . R a b e cites C h a n c e llo r P. S ch arffe n b e rg , w ritin g to th e G e rm a n e m b a ssy th a t “th e s u b u rb s w ere b u r n e d d o w n a lm o st in th e ir e n tir e ty b y th e C h in e se , a n d th e c e n te r o f th e c ity h as larg e ly b e e n b u r n e d d o w n b y th e Ja p a n e se . N o o n e lives th e re now . T h e re st o f th e p o p u la tio n — circa 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 — is c o n fin e d to th e S afety Z o n e .... [T ]h e stre e ts o u ts id e th e Z o n e are d e s e r te d .”9 In a n a rtic le p u b lis h e d in O c to b e r 1 9 3 8 , S m y th e w ro te th a t th e p o p u la tio n w as 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 a n d th a t “ [b ]y th e n ig h t o f D e c e m b e r 1 2 th p ra c tic a lly th e e n tire p o p u la tio n le ft in N a n k in g h a d m o v e d in to th e Z o n e .”10 90

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

O ffic ial d o c u m e n ts in th e T im p e rle y a n d H s u so u rc e v o lu m e s s h o w th a t: (1) 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le a t first, a n d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le la te r o n , w ere in sid e th e N S Z ; a n d (2) th e rest o f th e c ity w as v irtu a lly d e s e rte d . O n e m e m o d a te d 2 2 J a n ­ u a ry 1 9 3 8 — afte r refu g ees h a d in fa c t s ta rte d to r e tu r n to th e ir h o m e s lo c a te d o u ts id e th e Z o n e — says th a t th e IC “is n o w o p e ra tin g as a re lie f c o m m itte e fo r th e w elfare o f th e 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e civ ilia n s liv in g in th e city. M ost o f these people (at least 9 0 percent) are still living within the Z o n e ”11 D o c u m e n ts le ft b y M in e r S. B ates, R ab e, o th e rs in T im p e rle y ’s v o lu m e , a n d Ja p a n e se so ld iers also c o rro b o ra te th e v ie w th a t “ [p ]ra c tic a lly th e w h o le p o p u la tio n o f N a n k in g m o v e d w ith in th is a re a ,” a n d “ [h ]a rd ly a n y o n e d ares live o u ts id e th e Z o n e ,” so “ [l]ife h a rd ly exists o u ts id e th e w alls, & little o u ts id e th e Z o n e .” T h e IC “e s tim a te d th a t a b o u t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le e n te re d th e Z o n e ” b u t “ [o ]n ly a re la ­ tiv e ly sm all n u m b e r, p r o b a b ly n o t m o re th a n te n th o u s a n d in all, re m a in e d o u ts id e .” 12 V erify in g th e e x iste n c e o f th e se 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le — w h o are u n m e n ­ tio n e d in o th e r d o c u m e n ts — a n d th e ir w h e re a b o u ts is a to p ic fo r f u tu re re ­ search . A sid e fro m th is o n e p o ssib le e x c e p tio n , th o u g h , m y p o in t is th a t th e IC b eliev ed th a t n o sig n ific a n tly la rg e g ro u p s o f C h in e s e civ ilia n s, n u m b e r ­ in g in th e te n s o r h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s , w ere liv in g in th e c ity o u ts id e o f th e N S Z . O th e r a c c o u n ts a t th e tim e s u p p o r t th is view . O n 6 D e c e m b e r, stre e ts w ere “p a tro lle d b y sm a ll b a n d s o f tro o p s w e a rin g y e llo w a rm b a n d s , s ig n ify in g th e e n fo rc e m e n t o f m a rtia l la w .” F. T illm a n D u r d in n o te d in th e N ew York Times o n 8 D e c e m b e r th a t C h in e s e c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih “d e c re e d th a t all n o n c o m b a ta n ts m u s t c o n c e n tra te in th e in te rn a tio n a lly su p e rv ise d sa fe ty z o n e ” a n d “ [m ]o v e m e n t o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts elsew h e re in th e c ity w ill b e b a n n e d ,” so all civ ilian s w ere to b e m o v e d o f f th e stre e ts as d efe n se fo rces p re p a re d to “fig h t to th e la st m a n .” T ’a n g ’s d ec ree a n d b a n , p r e p a ra tio n s fo r stre e t fig h t­ in g elsew h ere in th e city, a n d w id e s p re a d ru m o rs th a t it w as to b e to rc h e d as p a r t o f C h in a ’s s c o rc h e d e a rth policy, all p ro v id e d s tro n g in c e n tiv e s to e n te r th e N S Z . T h u s it is w ro n g to assert— as d o so m e w rite rs s u c h as ev en th e c o n s c ie n tio u s h is to ria n , H a ta I k u h ik o — th a t th e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le m e n tio n e d in early d o c u m e n ts , o r th e 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 in la te r o n es, refer to o n ly a p a r t o f N a n ­ k in g ’s p o p u la tio n .13 M a n y referen ces say th a t, as R o b e rt W ils o n w ro te o n 10 Ja n u a ry , th e “e n tir e ” p o p u la tio n o f “so m e 150 o r 2 0 0 th o u s a n d in d iv id u a ls ,” h a d “c ro w d e d in to th e z o n e .” M in e r B ates, M in n ie V a u trin , J o h n M a g ee , G e o rg e F itc h , a n d Ja m es M c C a llu m , all c la im e d v irtu a lly th e sa m e th in g . E m b a ssy re p o rts b y Ja m es E p sy to th e U .S . a m b a ssa d o r in H a n k o w , as w ell as th o se b y J o h n R a b e to th e G e r m a n em bassy, ec h o th is view . E p sy w ro te th a t “b e fo re th e fall o f N a n k in g , th e C h in e se a rm ie s a n d civ ilian s h a d b e e n ste a d ily g e ttin g o u t o f a n d aw ay fro m N a n k in g . In th e n e ig h b o u rh o o d o f fo u r-fifth s o f th e p o p u la tio n h a d fled a n d th e m a in b o d y o f C h in e s e tro o p s h a d b e e n w ith d r a w n ,” a n d 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 o u t o f th e o rig in a l p o p u la tio n re m a in e d b e h in d . E p sy ’s 91

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

c o u n try m a n , J o h n A lliso n , re p o rte d o n 10 J a n u a ry th a t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 w ere c o n c e n ­ tr a te d in th e N S Z . 14 O n 14 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , R a b e re p o r te d th a t N a n k in g ’s p o p ­ u la tio n o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts w as 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 . C h a n c e llo r P a u l S c h a rffe n b e rg w ro te several tim es a b o u t th e p o p u la tio n , as h e d id o n 13 a n d 2 0 Jan u ary , c itin g it as b e in g 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . K ro g e r w ro te th a t “all re sid e n ts w h o re m a in e d in N a n k in g , a b o u t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 in d iv id u a ls , fled to th e [S afety Z o n e ] .”15 O f co u rse , it is p o ssib le th a t civ ilia n s ig n o re d T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih ’s o rd e r a n d th e I C ’s p r o m p tin g s to m o v e in to th e N S Z , p re fe rrin g to sta y in th e ir h o m e s elsew h ere in th e city, b u t it is n o t p o ssib le th a t te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f th e m existed. T ’an g h a d b e e n p re p a rin g to fig h t to th e la st m a n , a n d th e re w ere w id e ­ sp re a d r u m o rs th a t h e p la n n e d to to r c h th e e n tire city. I f larg e g ro u p s o f p e o ­ p le w ere h id in g o u ts id e th e N S Z , Ja p a n e se u n its w o u ld h av e f o u n d th e m , b u t o n ly th o se u n its in th e S e v e n th a n d S ix te e n th d iv isio n s, th o se th a t se a rc h e d th e N S Z , filed re p o rts a b o u t c a p tu re d ex -so ld iers. F inally, th e Ja p a n e se n e v e r a tta c k e d th e N S Z , a n d n e w s o f th a t fa c t p r o b a b ly in d u c e d b o th C h in e s e civ il­ ia n s a n d ex -so ld iers o u ts id e o f it to e n te r as tim e p assed . In d e e d , it is k n o w n th a t so m e C h in e se ex -so ld iers d id h id e in th e N S Z . M a n y o f th e 1 6 ,0 0 0 tro o p s c o n s c rip te d ju s t b e fo re th e Ja p a n e se a tta c k m u s t h av e b e e n lo c al civ ilian s, a n d th o se w h o su rv iv ed it w o u ld h av e g o n e b a c k to th e ir h o m e s in th e c ity o r su b u r b s .16 T h e Ja p an e se , a t le ast so m e tim e s, rele ase d m e n su sp e c te d o f b e in g ex­ so ld iers, so th o se la s t- m in u te c o n s c rip ts w h o d id su rv iv e th e siege also h e lp e x p la in th e p o p u la tio n in c re a se f ro m 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 d e s c rib e d earlier.

Smythe’s “City Survey” A n o th e r k ey p r im a ry so u rc e is P ro f. L ew is S. S. S m y th e ’s Damage in the N a n ­ king Area, December, 1 9 3 7 to March, 1938, w h ic h c o m p rise s a g ric u ltu ra l a n d city su rv ey s th a t h e a n d h is tw e n ty o r so C h in e s e a s sista n ts m a d e u n d e r IC au sp ices d u r in g th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n in 1 9 3 8 . U p to no w , h is to ria n s h av e g iv en th is d o c u m e n t less a tte n tio n th a n o n e m ig h t e x p e c t it d eserv es. T h e “A g ric u ltu ra l S u rv e y ,” to o k p la c e o v er 2 ,4 3 8 sq u a re m iles in fo u r a n d a h a lf c o u n tie s s u r ro u n d in g N a n k in g , b u t h e re I fo c u s o n th e “C ity S u rv e y ” o f every fiftie th in h a b ite d h o u se , d e fin e d b y h o u s e n u m b e r, in “th e w h o le o f th e c ity in sid e th e w alls a n d th e areas ju s t o u ts id e so m e o f th e gates as w e ll.”17 S m y th e ’s su rv ey to o k p la ce f ro m 9 M a rc h to 2 A p ril 1 9 3 8 , w ith s u p p le m e n ta r y w o rk f ro m 19 to 23 A p ril. H is to r ia n K ita m u r a M in o r u n o te s th a t S m y th e rec eiv e d f u n d in g fro m th e K M T re g im e ’s I n te r n a tio n a l P ro p a g a n d a D iv isio n , a n d a rg u e s th a t h e su ita b ly in fla te d fig u res in h is “A g ric u ltu ra l S u rv e y .” 18 E v en i f w e w ere to g r a n t th a t c o n te n tio n as b e in g tru e , th e re is n o re a so n to b eliev e th a t S m y th e — a U n i­ versity o f C h ica g o P h .D . in so c io lo g y w ith p le n tifu l field ex p erien ce in C h in a — w o u ld hav e o v e rlo o k e d la rg e p o p u la tio n s o r d e lib e ra te ly m in im iz e d d a ta in sid e 92

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

th e city. As th e o n ly sc h o la rly e x a m in a tio n o f th e A tro c ity p u b lis h e d a t th e tim e , h is “C ity S u rv e y ” d eserves o u r re sp e c t a n d close a tte n tio n . S m y th e s tu d ie d 4 ,2 5 2 m e m b e rs o f 9 0 6 fa m ilie s in sid e th e c ity w alls ex c ep t fo r areas “n o t accessible to in v e s tig a to rs .” W i th th e im p o r ta n t p ro v iso th a t th is “n u m b e r w as p r o b a b ly 8 0 to 9 0 p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l r e s id e n ts ,” h e e s tim a te d th e city p o p u la tio n a t 2 1 2 ,6 0 0 . T h is m e a n s th a t h e th o u g h t th e to ta l fo r th e city to b e 2 3 6 ,0 0 0 to 2 6 6 ,0 0 0 . A s n o te d earlier, S m y th e also s ta te d th a t “ [a]t th e tim e th e c ity fell (D e c e m b e r 12—13), its p o p u la tio n w as b e tw e e n 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 .” N o te th a t ev en as la te as A p ril 1 9 3 8 , a larg e p r o p o r tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n w as still in th e N S Z (th e “R e fu g e e C a m p s ” in ta b le 3 w ere w ith in it). T h is fa c t ca n p e rh a p s b e e x p la in e d b y C h in e s e sc o rc h e d e a rth ta c tic s b e fo re N a n k in g fell a n d w id e s p re a d Ja p a n e se a rso n th e re a fte r, p lu s th e Ja p a n e se p re s­ en ce o u ts id e th e N S Z . S m y th e e x p lic itly w ro te th a t “areas o u ts id e th e w alls” w ere still d a n g e ro u s, a n d B ates c la im e d th a t “th e re h as la tte rly g ro w n u p in th e ru ra l areas a se rio u s b a n d itr y w h ic h c u rre n tly rivals a n d s o m e tim e s s u r­ passes th e r o b b e r y a n d v io le n c e b y Ja p a n e se s o ld ie rs .”20 S o m e h is to ria n s a c c e p t S m y th e ’s fig u re o f 2 1 2 ,6 0 0 as th e m o s t a c c u ra te e s tim a te o f N a n k in g ’s p o p u la tio n , b u t I c o n te n d th a t h is d a ta , c o m b in e d w ith re su lts o f re g is tra tio n b y th e Ja p a n e se arm y, le t us re a c h a n even clo ser esti­ m a te . T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y a n n o u n c e d th a t civ ilia n s h a d to re g iste r f ro m 2 4 D e c e m b e r in o rd e r to receiv e id e n tific a tio n p a p e rs— c ite d in W e s te rn so u rce s as “p a s s p o rts ,” “re g is tra tio n c a rd s,” “g o o d s u b je c t c e rtific a te s,” o r “g o o d citiz en

Table 5.3.

Families Studied and Estimated Population by City Sections19 Total F am ily

E stim a te d

N um ber o f

M em bers i f

Average

Total

Fam ilies

Fam ilies

S ize o f

N um ber o f

Total F am ily

Section

S tu d ie d

S tu d ie d

F am ily

Fam ilies

M em bers

A. Inside W all 1. Safety Zone 2. Refugee Camps 3. Cheng Hsi 4. Cheng Tung 5. Cheng Pei 6. Men Hsi 7. Men Tung 8. Garden

906 298 114 115 55 51 126 103 44

4,252 1,358 550 544 232 243 631 451 243

4.7 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.2 4.8 5.0 4.4 5.5

45,300 14,900 5,700 5,750 2,750 2,550 6,300 5,150 2,200

212,600 67,900 27,500 27,200 11,600 12,150 31,500 22,600 12,150

B. O utside Wall 9. Hsiakwan 10. Chunghwamen 11. Shuihsimen

43 13 16 14

171 46 79 46

4.0 3.5 4.9 3.3

2,150 650 800 700

8,550 2,300 3,950 2,300

All Sections

949

4,423

4.7

47,450

221,150

E stim a te d

93

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N a n k in g Atrocity

c e rtific a te s .” T h e a rm y also a n n o u n c e d th a t “ [t]h o se w ith o u t p a s sp o rts . . . are n o t allo w ed to resid e w ith in th e N a n k in g c ity w a ll[s].” R a b e ’s d ia ry o n 2 4 D e c e m b e r a n d R o b e rt W ils o n ’s le tte r o n 2 6 D e c e m b e r also m e n tio n th is J a p ­ anese d ecree. T h e a rm y d id n o t re g iste r all C h in e s e p e o p le ; it ex c lu d e d “c h il­ d re n u n d e r te n ” a n d “o ld e r w o m e n ” in N a n k in g , a t le a st in so m e cases. T h e n u m b e r o f th e se p a s sp o rts, th e n , is a m e a n s to h e lp e s tim a te th e p o p u la tio n , n o t a n ex act c o u n t o f it. T h e a rm y re g iste re d e ith e r 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 o r 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 p e o ­ p le (I ac ce p t 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 as o n ta b le 1). T h is w as far less th a n th e w h o le p o p u la ­ tio n , w h ic h th e Ja p an e se S p ecial S ervice A g en c y (SSA) e s tim a te d to b e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 in a J a n u a r y re p o rt, a n d to b e o v er 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 la te r o n , n o tin g th a t p e o p le h a d m o v e d in to th e N S Z b e fo re th e c ity h a d fallen . A s n o te d in ta b le 4 , S m y th e p ro v id e s p o p u la tio n b re a k d o w n s b y age a n d g e n d e r as o f M a rc h 1 9 3 8 ; 0 —4 y e a r-o ld s a c c o u n te d fo r 8 .4 p e rc e n t, 5—9 y earo ld s fo r 12.5 p e rc e n t, a n d 10—14 y e a r-o ld s fo r 1 1 .7 p e rc e n t. C h ild re n 9 -y earso ld o r u n d e r w o u ld h av e a c c o u n te d fo r 2 0 .9 p e rc e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n . I f 1 0 -y ea r-o ld s are in c lu d e d , th e fig u re is ro u g h ly 2 3 .3 p e rc e n t. I t is n o t as easy to ca lc u late th e n u m b e r o f “o ld e r fe m a le s .” T h o s e in th e 6 0 -p lu s age g ro u p a c c o u n te d fo r 1 1 .7 p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l n u m b e r o f fem a les— n o t o f th e w h o le p o p u la tio n . S in ce th e m a le -to -fe m a le ra tio a t th e tim e w as a b o u t 1 0 3 :1 0 0 , ro u g h ly 5.8 p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n (o n e - h a lf o f 1 1 .7 p e rc e n t) w ere

Table 5.4.

Age and Gender Breakdown of the Population21 Percent in Each Age G roup

A ge Group

M a le

Fem ale

M a le a n d Fem ale

G ender R atio

0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 and over Totals 0-14 15-49 50 and over Totals

8.1 12.5 12.3 8.6 6.6 6.1 5.6 6.1 7.8 8.4 5.8 3.9 8.2 100 33 49 18 100

8.7 12.5 11.1 8.2 6.5 6.4 6.4 6.0 7.2 5.3 5.8 4.2 11.7 100 32 46 22 100

8.4 12.5 11.7 8.4 6.6 6.2 6.0 6.1 7.5 6.9 5.8 4.0 9.9 100 32 48 20 100

96.8 103.3 114.0 108.4 105.7 100.0 89.3 105.3 112.1 163.5 104.8 95.6 75.2 103.4 105 111 85 103

94

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

fem ales above 6 0 . I f w e r o u n d th is o f f to 6 p e rc e n t a n d a ssu m e th a t “o ld e r w o m e n ” m e a n t all w o m e n o v er 6 0 , th e n “c h ild re n a n d [all] o ld e r w o m e n ” w o u ld a m o u n t to a t m o s t 2 9 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n . I f w e ta k e “o ld e r w o m e n ” to m e a n 5 5 o r ab ove, th is to ta l in c re ase s slig h tly to less th a n 3 2 p e r­ c e n t. S in ce th e 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le re g iste re d b y th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w ere th e re m a in in g 7 0 p e rc e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n , its to ta l w o u ld h av e b e e n close to 2 2 6 ,0 0 0 , w h ic h is a b o u t w h a t o th e r p r im a ry so u rce s su g g est. A t 3 2 p e rc e n t, th e to ta l w o u ld b e r o u g h ly 2 3 5 ,0 0 0 . N o te th a t th is assu m es th e Ja p a n e se d id n o t reg iste r any “o ld e r w o m e n ” in th o se age b ra c k e ts. T h e e s tim a te w ill fall to 2 1 7 ,0 0 0 i f h a lf o f th e w o m e n 6 0 -p lu s w ere re g iste re d , to 2 2 3 ,5 0 0 i f h a lf o f th o se 5 5 -p lu s w ere re g iste re d , a n d to 2 3 2 ,0 0 0 i f h a lf o f th o se 5 0 -p lu s w ere reg istered . T h is ca n b e d o u b le -c h e c k e d . U sin g S m y th e ’s d a ta o n th e g e n d e r ra tio a n d a s su m in g a p o p u la tio n o f 2 2 1 ,5 0 0 , w e c a n c a lc u la te th e n u m b e r o f m a les a n d fem ales in e a c h age g ro u p . I f all m a les a n d fem a les b e tw e e n 11 a n d 5 9 , a n d all m a les 6 0 -p lu s are a d d e d (th e re w ere 2 0 ,7 3 3 11—14 y e a r-o ld s), w e g e t a to ta l o f 1 5 7 ,5 0 8 . W e g e t 1 6 3 ,7 6 6 i f h a l f o f th o se fem a les 6 0 -p lu s w ere reg istered , a n d 1 6 1 ,5 0 1 i f h a lf o f th o se fem a les 5 5 -p lu s w ere re g iste re d . S m y th e m issed th o se p a rts o f th e p o p u la tio n in “d a n g e ro u s a re a s,” m a in ly o u ts id e th e c ity g ates, a n d h e c o lle c te d d a ta so m e w ee k s a fte r th e Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n e n d e d . N e v e rth e le ss, w e c a n a c c e p t h is d a ta fo r p u rp o s e s o f cal­ c u la tio n , a s su m in g th a t b re a k d o w n s in age a n d g e n d e r are c o n s is te n t a n d th a t p e rso n s in “d a n g e ro u s are as” w ere m a in ly m a les w h o , i f a n y th in g , w o u ld h av e serv ed to lo w er th e e stim a te s. F o llo w in g h is d a ta , th e to ta l p o p u la tio n fig u re w o u ld b e la rg e r i f w e in c lu d e d c h ild re n u n d e r te n a n d “o ld e r w o m e n ” n o t

Table 5.5.

Population Distribution by Age and Gender

D istrib u tio n o f p o p u la tio n , 1 9 3 8 (a ssu m ed p o p u la tio n : 2 2 1 ,1 5 0 ) A ge groups

%

N u m b e rs

G en d er ratio

M ales

Females

0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 and over Totals

8.4 12.5 11.7 8.4 6.6 6.2 6.0 6.1 7.5 6.9 5.8 4.0 9.9 100

18577 27644 25875 18577 14596 13711 13269 13490 16586 15259 12827 8846 21894 221,150

96.8 103.3 114.0 108.4 105.7 100.0 89.3 105.3 112.1 163.5 104.8 95.6 75.2 103.4

9137 14046 13784 9663 7500 6856 6259 6919 8766 9468 6564 4324 9397 112,683

9439 13598 12091 8914 7096 6856 7010 6571 7820 5791 6263 4522 12496 108,467

95

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

reg istered , b u t it w o u ld still o n ly b e a b o u t 2 1 7 ,0 0 0 to 2 3 5 ,0 0 0 . F ig u re s fro m th e Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n o f civ ilia n s, th e n , p ro v id e a basis fo r a c c e p tin g th e e s tim a te d ra n g e o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 f o u n d in W e ste rn p r im a ry so u rces, a n d also fo r a rg u in g th a t 2 2 4 ,5 0 0 is th e clo sest p o ssib le e s tim a te o f th e p o p ­ u la tio n . T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y c o u ld n o t h av e o v e rlo o k e d 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s, n o r c o u ld th e c ity o u ts id e th e N S Z h av e c o n ta in e d 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 u n re g iste re d “c h il­ d re n u n d e r te n ” a n d “o ld e r w o m e n .” T h u s b a se d o n W e s te rn so u rce s c o m b in e d w ith Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n fig­ ures, I c o n c lu d e : (1) even C h in e s e officials, su c h as th e N a n k in g p o lic e c h ie f W a n g K o p a n g , a c c e p te d a p o p u la tio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 in la te N o v e m b e r; (2) N a n ­ k in g ’s civ ilia n p o p u la tio n in e a rly -D e c e m b e r, b e fo re th e Ja p a n e se b e g a n to assau lt th e city, n u m b e re d 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r p e rh a p s ev en s o m e w h a t less— as fo r­ eig n jo u rn a lis ts b e lie v e d a t th a t tim e ; (3) b e tw e e n m id - D e c e m b e r a n d m id Jan u ary , th is n u m b e r seem s to h av e rise n to a b o u t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ; (4) th e m o s t a c c u ra te e s tim a te is a b o u t 2 2 4 ,5 0 0 — w h ic h I o b ta in e d b y u sin g S m y th e ’s fin d ­ in g s to g e th e r w ith Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n figures; a n d (5) v irtu a lly all o f th e se 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w ere in sid e , n o t o u tsid e , th e N S Z th a t o c c u p ie d a b o u t o n e -e ig h th o f th e to ta l city. I f th e se c o n c lu sio n s are v a lid , it is im p o s ­ sib le to agree w ith w rite rs s u c h as th e la te Iris C h a n g w h o , c itin g th e P R C sc h o la r S u n C h a i-w e i, arg u e s fo r a p o p u la tio n o f so m e 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 7 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le a t th e tim e N a n k in g fe ll.22 T h is p o in t is o f c ru c ia l im p o r ta n t b ec au se th e in itia l size o f N a n k in g ’s p o p u la tio n places o n e m a jo r lim it o n th e p o ssi­ b le n u m b e r o f C h in e s e civ ilia n s th e Ja p a n e se c o u ld h av e “m a ssa c re d ” d u r in g th e A tro c ity th a t w o u ld follow .

Civilian Casualties It is d iffic u lt to e s tim a te “c iv ilia n ca su a ltie s” b e c a u se IC m e m b e rs d id n o t a n d , in d e e d , c o u ld n o t, m a k e a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th re e g ro u p s o f C h in e se : civ il­ ia n s, so ld iers w h o c h a n g e d in to c iv ilia n c lo th e s as th e c ity fell (“e x -so ld ie rs” o r “fo rm e r s o ld ie rs” as c ite d in W e s te rn so u rc e s), a n d p la in c lo th e s tro o p s w h o w ere so ld iers m a s q u e ra d in g as civ ilia n s. T h u s m a n y p e rso n s a n d co rp se s id e n ­ tifie d b y th e W e ste rn e rs as “c iv ilia n s” in fa c t w ere, o r h a d b e e n , C h in e s e b e l­ lig e re n ts. T h e r e is n o d o u b t, h o w ev er, th a t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y d id a rre st a n d u n ju s tly ex ecu te h u g e n u m b e rs o f C h in e s e civ ilia n s a s su m e d to b e so ld ie rs. In a d d itio n to th a t o rg a n iz e d f o rm o f v io le n c e a n d m u rd e r, th e re is a b u n d a n t ev id en c e in th e p r im a ry d o c u m e n ta tio n a tte s tin g to r a n d o m acts o f ra p e a n d m u r d e r b y c o u n tle s s n u m b e rs o f Ja p a n e se tro o p s , e ith e r as in d iv id u a ls o r in sm a ll g ro u p s. As n o te d b y H a ta Ik u h ik o , a le a d in g h is to ria n o f th e N a n k in g A tro city , h u g e n u m b e rs o f Ja p a n e se so ld iers w ere s im p ly o u t o f c o n tro l.23 T h e IC d o c u m e n te d a n d re p o r te d 4 0 5 cases o f v io le n t d is o rd e r to th e J a p ­ anese em bassy, so m e o f w h ic h in v o lv e d m u ltip le v ic tim s . M a n y w ere n o t seri96

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

ous. F o r ex a m p le , “o n D e c e m b e r 1 4 th , Ja p a n e se so ld iers e n te re d th e h o m e o f M iss G ra ce B auer, a n A m e ric a n m issio n a ry , a n d to o k a p a ir o f fu r-lin e d gloves, d r a n k u p all th e m ilk o n th e ta b le , a n d s c o o p e d u p su g a r w ith th e ir h a n d s .”24 C ases w ere o fte n b ased o n hearsay, a n d IC m e m b e rs h u rrie d ly w ro te d o w n th e ir a c c o u n ts a m id th e p e ll-m e ll o f fig h tin g , so th e ir E n g lish w as o fte n a m b ig u o u s. I f o u r a im is to e s tim a te th e n u m b e r o f C h in e s e d e a th s a t Ja p a n e se h a n d s , th e p h rase s “s h o t d e a d ” a n d “s h o t b u t la te r re c o v e re d ” are clear, b u t a sim p le “s h o t” is n o t. B y m y re c k o n in g , th o se 4 0 5 cases re p o r te d b y th e IC in c lu d e d tw e n ty five in w h ic h fifty-five p e o p le w ere “m u r d e r e d .” H o w ev er, th e figures in ta b le 6 w ill d iffer slig h tly a c c o rd in g to h o w w o rd s a n d se n te n c e s are in te rp re te d . T h u s , M a sa h iro Y am a m o to e s tim a te s fo rty -six m u rd e rs ; I ta k u ra Y oshiaki, fifty -tw o .25 M o s t re c o rd e d in c id e n ts w ere s e c o n d h a n d a c c o u n ts fro m C h in e s e p e rso n s. F o r ex a m p le , IC m e m b e rs su c h as R a b e w ro te in h is d ia ry a n d p riv a te le tte rs th a t 1 ,0 0 0 w o m e n w ere ra p e d o n th e n ig h t o f 17 D e c e m b e r, b u t th e IC filed official re p o rts to th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy a b o u t tw elve cases in w h ic h m o re th a t e ig h te e n w ere ra p e d (so m e w ere m u ltip le rap e s). T h e IC v erifie d a t le ast so m e cases o f m u rd e r, ra p e , a n d o th e r fo rm s o f v io le n c e ; a n d it lo d g e d official p ro te s ts a b o u t th e se to th e Ja p a n e se em bassy. H e n c e Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs are w ro n g to d ism iss o u t o f h a n d all cases c ite d in W e s te rn d o c u m e n ts as “m e re h ea rsay .” A t th e sa m e tim e , cases n o te d in p riv a te so u rce s su c h as le tte rs a n d d ia ries m u s t b e tre a te d w ith so m e c a u tio n . C h in e s e d e a th to lls c ite d in T im p e rle y ’s e d ite d v o lu m e ra n g e fro m a h ig h o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 to a lo w o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 . O n e m a jo r p ro b le m , h o w ev er, is th a t th e se es­ tim a te s do n o t d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n civ ilia n s a n d m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l. M a n y C h in e s e so ld iers w ere f ig h tin g in c iv ilia n c lo th e s a n d y o u n g c h ild re n w ere c o n ­ sc rip te d to s u p p o r t th e m , so it w o u ld h av e b e e n im p o s sib le to d e te rm in e if th e co rp se o f a n a d u lt, le t alo n e a te n - to tw e lv e -y e a r-o ld boy, w as a b o n a fide civ ilian . A se c o n d p r o b le m is th a t T im p e rle y w as w o rk in g as a p a id p r o p a ­ g a n d is t in th e K M T I n te r n a tio n a l P ro p a g a n d a D iv isio n , a n d m a y h av e d e lib ­ e ra te ly ex a g g erate d h is e s tim a te s in o rd e r to p la y u p Ja p a n e se c ru e lty a n d C h in e s e v ic tim iz a tio n .26

Table 5.6.

Reported Cases of Disorder by Japanese Soldiers27

D a te

M u rd e re d

In ju r e d

Taken A w a y

R aped

12 Dec. — 18 Dec.

21

10

696

111 (3 cases of “many,” 2 o f “several”)

19 Dec. — 10 Jan.

2

11

33 (1 case o f several)

147 (2 cases o f several)

11 Jan. —7 Feb.

17

24

31 (1 case o f “several”)

84 (3 cases o f “several”)

Total

55

44

390

361

97

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

T h e h ig h e s tim a te o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 , T im p e rle y said , ca m e fro m a m e m o fro m a “fo re ig n m e m b e r o f th e U n iv e rsity fa c u lty ” w h o , o n close in s p e c tio n , tu rn s o u t to b e M in e r S. B ates. In h is m e m o d a te d 2 5 Jan u ary , B ates w ro te th a t “b u rials in d ic a te th a t close to 4 0 ,0 0 0 u n a rm e d p e rso n s w ere k ille d w ith in a n d n e a r th e w alls o f N a n k in g , o f w h o m so m e 3 0 % h a d n ev e r b e e n so ld ie rs.”28 T h is suggests th a t B ates believ ed th a t: (1) o n ly th e b u ria l to ta l b y th e R e d S w a stik a S o cie ty (R S S )— a C h in e s e c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a tio n c h a rg e d w ith b u r y in g co rp se s— w as a c c u ra te (its to ta l re a c h e d 4 3 ,0 7 1 ); a n d (2) th e 4 0 ,0 0 0 co rp se s in c lu d e d 2 8 ,0 0 0 so ld iers (7 0 p e rc e n t) a n d 1 2 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s (3 0 p e rc e n t). T h e se fig u res in c lu d e d d e a th s in b a ttle , so h is p h ra se , “4 0 ,0 0 0 u n a r m e d p e rs o n s ” is m is ­ le a d in g . M o reo v e r, to re p e a t fo r e m p h a sis, it w as im p o s sib le to d iffe re n tia te th e b o d y o f a c iv ilia n f ro m th a t o f a p la in c lo th e s so ld ier, o r th a t o f a civ ilia n fro m a so lid e r w h o h a d c h a n g e d in to civ ilia n clo th e s. T h e “ 1 2 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n s” c ite d in B ates’s 25 J a n u a ry m e m o , th e n , m u s t h av e m e a n t “ 1 2 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s in c iv ilia n c lo th e s” o r “ 1 2 ,0 0 0 su sp e c te d so ld iers e x e c u te d .” I f w e ac ce p t T im p e rle y ’s h ig h e stim a te o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 as b re a k in g d o w n to 2 8 ,0 0 0 d e a th s in b a ttle a n d 1 2 ,0 0 0 su sp e c te d so ld iers e x e c u te d , th e n h is lo w e s tim a te o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 is u n d e rs ta n d a b le . It c a m e fro m “o n e o f th e m o s t re sp e c te d m e m ­ b ers o f N a n k in g ’s fo re ig n c o m m u n ity w h o is n o te d fo r h is f a ir m in d e d n e s s .” A g ain , th is m a n is B ates, w h o h a d access to R SS re c o rd s, as th a t so c ie ty w as w o rk in g closely w ith IC m e m b e rs. B a te s’s m e m o o f 10 J a n u a ry states: “ [m ]o re th a n 1 0 ,0 0 0 u n a r m e d p e rso n s h av e b e e n k ille d in c o ld b lo o d __ T h e se w ere C h in e se soldiers w h o th re w d o w n th e ir arm s o r su rre n d e re d after b e in g tra p p e d ; a n d civ ilian s reck lessly s h o t a n d b a y o n e te d .”29 T h u s , T im p e rle y ’s lo w e r esti­ m a te clearly d o es n o t in c lu d e C h in e s e d e a th s in b a ttle . I f th is is tru e , th e d if­ feren c e b e tw e e n h is h ig h fig u re o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 a n d lo w fig u re o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 n a rro w s co n sid erab ly . E ith e r way, 1 0 ,0 0 0 to 1 2 ,0 0 0 so ld ie rs, p la in - c lo th e d so ld iers, a n d /o r civ ilian s w ere ille g itim a te ly e x e c u te d . M y o w n e s tim a te b a se d o n o th e r e x ta n t so u rce s is a b o u t 1 6 ,0 0 0 ille g itim a te ex e c u tio n s. In War Damage in the N anking Area, S m y th e c a lc u la te d C h in e s e d e a th s a n d in ju rie s a t N a n k in g , as w ell as th e n u m b e r o f th o se “ta k e n aw ay ” as la b o re rs, a n d p e rh a p s ex ecu ted . As p e r ta b le 7 , h is sa m p lin g su rv ey sh o w ed th a t 8 5 0 C h i­ nese “civ ilia n s” d ie d in m ilita ry a c tio n ; 2 ,4 0 0 d ie d o w in g to in d iv id u a l acts o f v io le n c e b y Ja p a n e se so ld iers, a n d a n o th e r 1 5 0 th r o u g h u n k n o w n causes— fo r a to ta l o f 3 ,4 0 0 . A n o th e r 3 ,3 5 0 w ere in ju r e d a n d 4 ,2 0 0 w ere “ta k e n aw ay.” S m y th e h as lim ita tio n s as a p r im a ry d o c u m e n t. F o r e x a m p le , esp ec ially in th e “A g ric u ltu ra l S u rv e y ,” h o w c o u ld h e h av e d e te r m in e d h o w m a n y d e a th s w ere a t Jap an ese, as o p p o se d to C h in e se , h an d s? If, as K ita m u ra M in o r u arg u es, th e K M T g o v e rn m e n t d id in d e e d fu n d S m y th e , h e m a y h av e d e lib e ra te ly sk e w e d h is re su lts to re in fo rc e n o tio n s o f Ja p a n e se b r u ta lity a n d C h in e s e v ic tim iz a ­ tio n — ag ain , in th e “A g ric u ltu ra l S u rv e y ” especially. Yet o n th e o th e r sid e o f th e ledger, th e n u m b e r o f d e a th s th a t S m y th e a ttr ib u te s to “u n k n o w n ” causes

98

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

Table 5.7.

Number and Cause of Deaths and Injuries30 Percent

D eaths B y

D a te 1 9 3 7 -8

A

K ille d a n d

K ille d

In ju r e d by

Taken

and

Soldiers’

Away

In ju red

V iolence

91

C

A

250

—

200

650 550

B

C

250

—

50 —

—

2000

150

—

2200

200

3700

4550

92

—

—

—

—

—

—

250

—

—

200

150 2400

50

600 3050

50 250

50 4200

1000 6750

75 81

00 o

600 50

WT

Before 12 Dec. 12-13 Dec. 14 Dec.13 Jan. 14 Jan.15 Mar. Date Unknown Total

B

Injuries By

Total

150

A = Military Operations (bombing, shelling, or bullets fired in battle) B = Soldiers’ Violence C = Unknown

seem s far to o low . I a c c e p t h is re su lts as th e y s ta n d , h o w ev er, a n d c o m p a re th e se w ith o th e r in f o rm a tio n th a t h e h as p ro v id e d . F irst, th e re su lts d o v e ta il fa irly w ell w ith th e 4 ,4 0 0 w o m e n w h o re p o r te d to h im th a t th e ir h u s b a n d s h a d “b e e n k ille d , in ju r e d o r ta k e n aw ay”— o f w h o m tw o -th ird s , o r 2 ,9 3 2 , w ere k ille d o r ta k e n away. S e c o n d , S m y th e ’s o th e r d a ta d e m o n s tra te th a t: (1) b ro k e n fam ilies o f w o m e n a n d c h ild re n ro se to 6 .6 p e rc e n t o f all fam ilies fro m th e 3 .4 p e r c e n t in 1 9 3 2 , (2) w o m e n a n d c h ild re n w ith relativ es rose to 6 .3 p e r c e n t f ro m 2 .6 p e rc e n t, a n d (3) w o m e n w ith re l­ atives rose to 2.1 p e rc e n t fro m 0 .1 p e r c e n t.31 S o, 8 .9 p e rc e n t o f all fam ilies se em to hav e lo s t th e m a le b re a d w in n e r. W i th a to ta l o f 4 7 ,4 5 0 fam ilies, th is in d ic a te s th a t 4 ,2 2 3 m e n w ere m issin g . T h is fig u re a lm o st ex a ctly m a tc h e s th e 4 ,4 0 0 m e n tio n e d ab o v e a n d r o u g h ly c o rro b o ra te s th e re p o r te d 3 ,4 0 0 k ille d p lu s th e larg e n u m b e r ta k e n away. T h e Ja p a n e se to o k m e n to w o rk as la b o r­ ers, so m e fo r s h o r t p e rio d s o f tim e , o th e rs fo r m u c h lo n g e r. S m y th e m e n tio n s o n e m o re fig u re th a t in d ic a te s h o w m a n y m e n w ere r o u n d e d u p as fo rc e d lab o r.

Among the 13,530 applicant families investigated during March by the International Committee’s Rehabilitation Commission, there were reported[ly] men taken away equivalent to almost 20 percent of all males of 16—50 years of age. That would mean for

99

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

the whole city population [of] 10,860 m en. T here may well be an elem ent o f exagger­ ation in the statem ents o f applicants for relief; b u t the m ajority o f the difference between this figure and the 4,200 o f the survey report is probably due to the inclusion o f cases o f detention or forced labor w hich the m en are know n to have survived.32 It m a y also b e th a t fam ilies w ith o u t a m a le b r e a d w in n e r w ere se e k in g aid , so g e n e ra liz a tio n s b ase d o n th e se fa m ilie s a lo n e w o u ld ex a g g erate th e n u m b e r o f m a les c o n s c rip te d . Yet th e re is n o d o u b t th a t th e Ja p a n e se r o u n d e d u p larg e n u m b e rs o f m e n fo r w o rk . E lsew here, S m y th e rep e ats B ates’s e stim a te o f 1 2 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n d ea th s: “ [a] ca refu l e s tim a te f ro m th e b u ria ls in th e c ity a n d in areas a d ja c e n t to th e w all in d ic a te s 1 2 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s k ille d b y v io le n c e .” S m y th e also c la im e d th a t “u n a rm e d o r d isa rm e d so ld ie rs are n o t c o n s id e re d in th e se lis ts ,” b u t h e is a lm o st surely w ro n g o n th is p o in t. As w ith Bates, it w as im p o ssib le to d e te rm in e w h e th e r a corpse in civilian clo th es w as th a t o f a so ld ier o r a civilian. S m y th e ’s re su lts c a n b e c o m p a re d w ith h is d a ta o n N a n k in g ’s age a n d g e n ­ d e r d is trib u tio n . H e says th a t th e fall in th e m a le -to -fe m a le g e n d e r ra tio fro m 1 1 4 :1 0 0 to 1 0 3 :1 0 0 is “a c c o u n te d fo r in p a r t b y th e w ith d ra w a l o f m a les n o t n a tiv e to N a n k in g b u t fo rm e rly w o rk in g h e re , a n d in p a r t b y th e k illin g o f m a le s .”33 A d ro p o f elev en p o in ts lo o k s e n o rm o u s , b u t w e c a n n o t k n o w ex actly w h a t it m e a n s in th e a b sen c e o f h a r d p o p u la tio n d a ta fo r b o th years. S in ce th e c h a n g es are in th e proportion o f m e n to w o m e n , it is th e o re tic a lly p o ssi­ b le th a t: (1) a n y d ro p c o u ld b e e x p la in e d b y la rg e n u m b e rs o f w o m e n m o v ­ in g in to th e city, n o t b y larg e n u m b e rs o f m e n d isa p p e a rin g ; (2) th e to ta l n u m b e r o f m e n w e n t u p , b u t th e n u m b e r o f w o m e n in c re a se d ev en m o re ; or (3) th e n u m b e r o f w o m e n fell w h ile th e n u m b e r o f m e n fell even fu rth e r. B u t w e k n o w th a t a d is p r o p o r tio n a te n u m b e r o f m e n d id d ie, so S m y th e ’s s p e c u ­ la tio n seem s p la u sib le . I f th e overall s h ift in th e m a le -to -fe m a le g e n d e r ra tio f ro m 114 to 103 w as a ttr ib u ta b le e n tire ly to few er m ales, i f th e fe m a le p o p u la tio n re m a in e d sta tic , a n d i f th e size o f th e o rig in a l p o p u la tio n o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 w as 2 2 1 ,1 5 0 — th e n th e 1 9 3 8 p o p u la tio n w o u ld h a v e b e e n 2 0 9 ,7 8 2 , c o n s is tin g o f 1 0 3 ,3 4 1 fem ales a n d 1 0 6 ,4 4 1 m a les. T h u s , th e n u m b e r o f m a les “m is s in g ” w o u ld hav e b e e n 1 1 ,3 6 8 o r 9 .3 6 p e rc e n t. S im ilarly , i f th e fe m a le p o p u la tio n re m a in e d m o re o r less sta tic , a n d th e d ro p is e x p la in e d b y a loss th r o u g h m a le m ig r a tio n o r d e a th ; a n d if, say, h a l f o f th e “m is s in g ” 1 1 ,3 6 8 m e n w ere m ig ra ­ to r y w o rk e rs o r in d iv id u a ls w ith n o fam ilies, w h o th u s c o u ld h av e le ft w ith relativ e ease, th e n th e re w o u ld b e 5 ,6 8 4 in d iv id u a ls u n a c c o u n te d for. O n e fac t n o tic e a b le f ro m th e ta b les is th a t th e ra tio o f m a les d r o p p e d fo r v irtu a lly all age g ro u p s, w ith th e in e x p lic a b le e x c e p tio n o f th e 4 5 —4 9 a n d th e 5 5 —59 ca te g o rie s. T h e d ro p is fa irly c o n s is te n t across th e ra n g e , a lth o u g h th e re are p a rtic u la rly ste e p d e c lin e s in th e 3 0 —3 4 , 2 5 —2 9 , a n d 5 0 —5 4 age g ro u p s. T h e b ig g e st d e c lin e — f ro m 1 2 3 .2 to 8 9 .3 m a les fo r ev e ry 1 0 0 fem a les— w as in th e 3 0 —3 4 y e a r-o ld g ro u p . I f w e c a n n o t e x p la in th is e n o rm o u s d iffe re n c e 100

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

Table 5.8.

Age and Gender Distribution (Males per 100 Females): 1932 and 193834

A ge Group

1932

1938

D ifference

0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 and over Totals 0-14 15-49 50 and over Totals

101.3 109.3 119.2 123.4 124.5 128.1 123.2 123.4 124.5 121.0 131.6 85.3 77.7 114.5 109 124 94 114

96.8 103.3 114.0 108.4 105.7 100.0 89.3 105.3 112.1 163.5 104.8 95.6 75.2 103.4 105 111 85 103

- 4.5 - 6 - 5.2 - 15 - 18.8 - 28.1 - 33.9 - 18.1 - 12.4 + 42.5 - 26.8 + 10.3 - 2.5 - 11.1 -4 - 13 -9 - 11

b y larg e n u m b e rs o f m e n b e in g c o n s c rip te d b y th e K M T a rm y a n d fo rc e d to leave th e c ity b efo re it fell, o r b y a la rg e n u m b e r o f m a les b e in g sin g le o r w ith fam ilies o u ts id e N a n k in g w h o le ft b e fo re th e c ity fell, th e n it m u s t b e th a t th is age g ro u p b o re th e b r u n t o f Ja p a n e se c o n s c rip tio n a n d /o r ex e c u tio n s. S m y th e sta te s e x p lic itly th a t “areas o u ts id e th e w alls” w ere still d a n g e ro u s, a n d th a t sin g le m e n h a d s ta rte d to r e tu r n th e re . T h is m a y p a r tly ex p la in th e d is­ c re p an cies in c e rta in age g ro u p s lik e m e n f ro m 3 0 —3 4 . O n th e o th e r h a n d , it is p u z z lin g w h y th e re w ere so few w o m e n ag ed 4 5 —4 9 c o m p a re d w ith m e n . P erh ap s w o m e n w ith y o u n g c h ild re n h a d c h o s e n to flee b e fo re 13 D e c e m b e r, le a v in g m e n b e h in d to p r o te c t th e ir h o m e s, o r p e rh a p s th e re w as a larg e in flu x o f sin g le m e n ag ed 4 5 —4 9 . It is in te re s tin g th a t ta b le 8 sh o w s h o w m a n y m a les th e re w ere in a lm o st every age g ro u p c o m p a re d w ith fem ales. E x istin g , a lb e it in fla te d , RSS b u ria l re c o rd s clea rly in d ic a te th a t th e v a st m a jo rity o f all co rp ses b u rie d w ere m a le .35 So th e large ra tio o f m a les c a n n o t b e e x p la in e d b y a larg e-scale m a ssac re o f fem ales. W e m ig h t th in k th a t th e re m u s t h av e b e e n a la rg e in flu x o f m a les in to th e c ity ju s t b e fo re it fell, a n d a s im ila r su rv e y fro m 1 9 3 2 sh o w s th a t th e re w ere even m o re m a les fo r ev ery age g ro u p e x c e p t 4 5 —4 9 , 5 5 —5 9 , a n d 6 0 -p lu s. F o r 1 0 - 1 4 y e a r-o ld s, fo r in s ta n c e , th e larg e fig u re o f 1 1 4 .0 fo r 1 9 3 8 w as a n ev en la rg e r 1 1 9 .2 in 1 9 3 2 , a n d th e 1 1 2 .1 fig u re fo r 4 0 - to 4 4 -y e a ro ld s w as 1 2 4 .5 in 1 9 3 2 . T h u s w e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t N a n k in g w as a c ity th a t a ttra c te d larg e n u m b e rs o f sin g le m a le m ig ra n ts even b e fo re th e w a r b e g a n .36 101

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Table 5.9.

Estimates Derived from Smythe

Source

Estimate

Notes

Sampling Survey

3,400 killed, 4,200 taken away

Wives

2,932 killed or taken away

Married men only: underestimate?

Data on Broken Families

4,223 men missing

Male breadwinners: underestimate?

Applicant Families

10,860 men conscripted

Overestimate?

Gender Ratio

11,368 men missing

Highly speculative: some (half?) fled

T ab le 9 s u m m a riz e s v a rio u s e stim a te s o f m e n k ille d o r c o n s c rip te d , as d ire c tly p ro v id e d b y S m y th e o r d e riv e d f ro m d a ta a p a rt fro m h is o v erall esti­ m a te o f 1 2 ,0 0 0 d e a th s. F o llo w in g h is s a m p lin g su rv e y (w h e re 4 4 p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l w ere k ille d ), I re c a lc u la te d th e fig u res in ta b le 10 to g e t a n id e a o f h o w m a n y civ ilia n s m a y h av e b e e n k ille d . T h e average o f th e e stim a te s is 3 ,2 6 6 , o r 3 ,2 3 2 e x c lu d in g th e s a m p lin g survey. H is d a ta th u s in d ic a te a p o s ­ sib le c iv ilia n d e a th to ll o f 3 ,2 0 0 to 3 ,4 0 0 ( in c lu d in g a n y civ ilia n s k ille d in m ilita ry a c tio n o r b y C h in e s e so ld iers). R a b e ’s e s tim a te s o f th e n u m b e rs k ille d v a rie d . O n 14 Ja n u a ry , h e re p o r te d to th e G e r m a n e m b a ssy th a t th e Ja p a n e se h a d “slay ed th o u s a n d s o f in n o c e n t c iv ilia n s.” Yet h e a p p e a rs to h a v e rev ised th is fig u re d o w n w a rd a f o r tn ig h t later. In a le tte r d a te d 2 8 J a n u a ry to th e B ritish e m b a ssy in N a n k in g h e sta te d , “th e re are m a n y h u n d re d s , i f n o t th o u s a n d s , o f cases w h e re th e [fam ily] w agee a rn e r h as e ith e r b e e n ta k e n aw ay o r k ille d .”37 F ro m th e c o n te x t, it seem s th a t h e is ta lk in g o n ly a b o u t m e n w ith in th e c ity w alls a fte r it fell, a n d th a t h e is d e lib e ra te ly e x c lu d in g th o se k ille d in fig h tin g u p to th e n , as w ell as th o se c a p ­ tu r e d a n d e x e c u te d o u ts id e th e w alls. H is e s tim a te o f “m a n y h u n d re d s , i f n o t th o u s a n d s ” o f p e o p le c o n s c rip te d as co o lies o r ex e c u te d c a n b e c o m p a re d w ith S m y th e ’s resu lts, w h ic h s h o w th a t 3 ,4 0 0 d ie d th r o u g h th e v io le n c e o f J a p a n ­ ese so ld iers a n d th a t 4 ,2 0 0 w ere “ta k e n aw ay.” R a b e d o es n o t e s tim a te th e

Table 5.10. 1 2 3 4 5 Average

Civilian Death Toll Derived from Smythe Sampling Survey Wives Data on Broken Families Applicant Families Gender Ratio

3,400 1,290 1,858 4,778 5,002 3,266

102

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

to ta l n u m b e r o f d e a th s in h is diary, b u t afte r r e tu r n in g to G e r m a n y in A p ril 1 9 3 8 , h e c la im e d th a t a to ta l o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s a n d m ilita ry p e r­ s o n n e l m a y hav e b e e n k ille d in sid e a n d o u ts id e th e w alls o f N a n k in g . T h is to ta l in c lu d e d th e b o d ie s o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e so ld iers w h o d ie d in f ig h tin g at H s ia k w a n a n d w ere, as o f 2 2 F eb ru ary , a w a itin g b u r ia l.38 H o w ev er, RSS re c ­ o rd s s h o w th a t ro u g h ly 3 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s w ere b u r ie d fro m H s ia k w a n a fte r th is d ate. I th e re fo re s u b tr a c t 2 7 ,0 0 0 to revise R a b e ’s e s tim a te to b e tw e e n 2 3 ,0 0 0 to 3 3 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n a n d m ilita ry d e a th s in c lu d in g d e a th s in a c tio n . E stim a te s b y o th e r IC m e m b e rs v a rie d (see ta b le 13). O n 19 D e c e m b e r, J o h n M a g ee w ro te th a t 2 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e se h a d b e e n k illed . O n 5 Ja n u ary , h e m e n ­ tio n s th e m u r d e r o f “d is a rm e d so ld ie rs a n d th o u s a n d s o f c iv ilia n s,” a n d la te r n o te d th o u sa n d s o f civilians “d o n e to d e a th .” O n 11 Ja n u ary , h e sta te d , “ [i]t is im p o s sib le to say h o w m a n y p e o p le h av e b e e n m u rd e re d ( in c lu d in g d isa rm e d so ld iers), b u t m y gu ess is 2 0 ,0 0 0 .” In a le tte r o n 2 9 D e c e m b e r, Ja m e s M c C a llu m w ro te th a t “th o u s a n d s h av e b e e n b u tc h e r e d in c o ld b lo o d — h o w m a n y it is h a rd to guess— so m e b eliev e it w o u ld a p p ro a c h th e 1 0 ,0 0 0 m a r k .” E rn e s t F o rste r w ro te o n th e sa m e d a y th a t “ [c ]o u n tle ss p e o p le , civil a n d m ilita ry , h av e b e e n d o n e to d e a th ,” a fig u re h e gave in a n o th e r le tte r to a frie n d o n 14 J a n ­ u a ry as “ [t]h o u s a n d s o f m e n w ere . . . e x e c u te d .” O n 9 Ja n u a ry , th e jo u r n a lis t T illm a n D u r d in , a lm o st c e rta in ly b a se d o n d a ta p ro v id e d by IC m e m b e rs, e s tim a te d th a t th e to ta l d e a th to ll w as 3 3 ,0 0 0 , o f w h ic h e x e c u te d so ld iers a c c o u n te d fo r 2 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e v a st m a jo rity o f th e re m a in in g 1 3 ,0 0 0 , it c a n b e assu m ed , w ere so ld ie rs w h o d ie d in b a ttle . In a r e p o r t c ite d in R a b e ’s d ia ry d a te 13 Jan u ary , C h r is tia n K ro g e r w ro te th a t th e Ja p a n e se m a d e a “rig o ro u s se arch ” to r o u n d u p larg e n u m b e rs o f su sp e c te d ex -so ld iers a n d p la in c lo th e s so ld iers, a n d “a p p ro x im a te ly 5 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w ere s h o t . [t]h a t n u m b e r is p r o b ­ ab ly to o lo w a n e s tim a te .” T h is a p p e a rs to b e a n a c c o u n t o f m e n le d f ro m th e N S Z a n d e x e c u te d — n o t o f to ta l d e a th s. S o m e civ ilia n s, a t le ast 1 3 6 p o lic e ­ m e n a m o n g th e m , w ere so r o u n d e d u p .39 O n 21 M a rc h , S m y th e re p o r te d “it is e s tim a te d th a t 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s w ere k illed in sid e th e w alls o f N a n k in g a n d a b o u t 3 0 ,0 0 0 o u ts id e th e w a lls,” a d d in g th a t civ ilian s c o m p ris e d 3 0 p e r c e n t o f th is to ta l. H e gives a lo w e r fig u re in an O c to b e r 1 9 3 8 article : “It to o k th e R e d S w a stik a S o c ie ty m o s t o f th e s p rin g to b u ry th e b o d ie s o f th e k ille d , a n d th e y re p o r te d b u r y in g 3 0 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s, o n e th ir d o f w h ic h w ere c iv ilia n s.”40 T h e first r e p o r t is o f g re a t sig n ific an c e; it suggests th a t th e I C m a y h av e c o u n te d th o se C h in e s e k ille d outside th e w alls as m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l a n d th o se inside as civ ilian s. T h e IC c e rta in ly a rg u e d th a t so ld iers w h o th re w d o w n th e ir w e a p o n s a n d c h a n g e d in to c iv ilia n c lo th e s s h o u ld b e tre a te d as civ ilia n s. T h e Ja p a n e se , o n th e o th e r h a n d , v ie w e d su c h m e n as g u e rrilla fig h te rs w h o h a d v io la te d in te r n a tio n a l ru le s o f w arfa re. T oday, a m a in p o in t o f d is p u te in c a lc u la tin g th e c iv ilia n d e a th to ll, as o p p o s e d to th e to ta l d e a th to ll, in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity d eriv es f ro m th is d iffe re n c e o f o p in io n . 103

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

T h e IC also c o lle c te d d a ta o n h u s b a n d s a n d so n s re p o r te d m issin g . T h e m is sio n a ry a n d teach er, M in n ie V a u trin , m e n tio n s th is d a ta a n u m b e r o f tim es. S he n o te d th a t 5 9 2 re p o rts o f m is sin g m e n h a d b e e n c o lle c te d as o f 13 J a n ­ uary, 5 6 8 re p o rts as o f 21 Ja n u a ry , 5 3 2 re p o rts as o f 2 4 Ja n u a ry , 7 2 3 re p o rts as o f 7 F eb ru ary , a n d 7 3 8 re p o rts as o f 8 F eb ru a ry . O n 2 6 M a rc h , sh e a g a in m e n tio n s th a t “m o re th a n 7 0 0 ” re p o rts h a d b e e n c o lle c te d .41 W h y h e r d a ta is lo w er th a n S m y th e ’s— w h o re p o r te d 2 ,9 3 2 m e n k ille d o r ta k e n aw ay — re m a in s to b e ex p la in e d . P e rh a p s sh e co lle c te d d a ta fro m o n ly a s u b g ro u p o f w o m e n . O r, p e rh a p s w o m e n w h o k n e w th e ir h u s b a n d s o r so n s w ere d e a d a p p e a r in S m y th e ’s d a ta b u t n o t in V a u tr in ’s. O n 21 M a rc h , B ates w ro te th a t th e civ ilia n d e a th to ll w as “a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 ” in a d d itio n to “2 5 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 ,0 0 0 u n a r m e d a n d p assive re m n a n ts o f th e C h i­ nese d efen se forces, k ille d w ith in o r n e a r th e w alled c ity afte r th e o c c u p a tio n .”42 T h e s e n u m b e rs su g g e st th a t th e RSS w as h is so u rc e , w h ic h ag a in m e a n s th a t B ates w as m is le a d in g h is rea d ers, fo r m u c h o f th e m ilita ry d e a th to ll m u s t hav e c o n s iste d o f so ld ie rs k ille d in a c tio n . T h u s IC m e m b e rs se e m in g ly b e ­ liev ed th a t b e tw e e n 1 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 4 2 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e d ie d in a n d im m e d ia te ly a r o u n d N a n k in g , a n d th a t 1 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 m a y h av e b e e n e x e c u te d . N o te th a t th e ir la rg e r fig u res, in th e 3 0 ,0 0 0 to 4 2 ,0 0 0 ra n g e , are b a se d o n RSS esti­ m a te s th a t in c lu d e d b o d ie s o f m e n w h o d ie d in b a ttle . A lso n o te th a t th e se e stim a te s do n o t alw ays id e n tify c iv ilia n casu alties. A lth o u g h th e ir in itia l e s tim a te s o f th e d e a th to ll w ere h ig h , IC m e m b e rs su c h as R a b e se em to h av e rev ise d th e se d o w n w a rd . O n 18 F e b ru ary , th e IC w as r e n a m e d th e N a n k in g I n te r n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m m itte e . Its “R e p o rt o f A ctiv itie s, N o v e m b e r 2 2 , 1 9 3 7 —A p ril 15, 1 9 3 8 ” lists “th o u s a n d s ” o f C h in e s e m u rd e re d , im p ris o n e d , o r a b d u c te d . In a p le a fo r c o n tr ib u tio n s fro m a b ro a d , th e R e lie f C o m m itte e w ro te : “W h e n th e g re a t loss o f th o u s a n d s o f fam ilies d u e to th e m u rd e r, im p r is o n m e n t, o r a b d u c tio n o f th e w ag e ea rn er, is a d d e d to th e tr e m e n d o u s e c o n o m ic loss w h ic h th e p e o p le ev e ry w h e re su sta in e d , re lie f fu n d s , ev en i f m u ltip lie d a h u n d r e d fo ld , w o u ld still b e in a d e q u a te .”43 S in ce th e n e w c o m m itte e m a d e th is e s tim a te in th e c o n te x t o f a p le a fo r m o n e ta ry d o n a tio n s , it c o u ld h av e c h o s e n to ex a g g erate th e scale o f a tro c itie s, so its d o w n w a rd rev isio n o f e s tim a te d civ ilia n d e a th s is d iffic u lt to e x p la in . T h is p ic ­ tu re is c o m p lic a te d by a le tte r W ils o n w ro te o n 7 M a rc h : “T h e R e d S w a stik a S o ciety h a d fo r th e la st m o n th b e e n fev erish ly b u r y in g b o d ie s f ro m all p a rts o f th e c ity o u ts id e th e z o n e a n d f ro m th e s u r r o u n d in g c o u n try s id e . A c o n ­ serv ativ e e s tim a te o f th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le sla u g h te re d in c o ld b lo o d is so m e ­ w h e re a b o u t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 [1 0 ,0 0 0 ? ], in c lu d in g o f co u rse th o u s a n d [th o u san d s?] o f so ld iers th a t h a d th r o w n d o w n th e ir a r m s .”44 U n fo rtu n a te ly , W ils o n ’s o rig in a l h as b e e n lo st; th is q u o ta tio n is ta k e n fro m a co p y m a d e d u r in g th e w ar. A s I su g g e st in b ra c k e ts, h e m a y h av e m a d e m is ­ tak es in th e o rig in a l o r th e se m a y h av e c ro p p e d in to th e copy. F irst, W ils o n ’s o w n e s tim a te o f N a n k in g ’s p o p u la tio n (1 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ) seem s in c o n sis104

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

te n t w ith 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 “p e o p le s la u g h te re d in c o ld b lo o d .” A ll o th e r c a su a lty esti­ m a te s a t th e tim e lis t e x e c u tio n s as a v e ry la rg e p e rc e n ta g e o f d e a th s. T h u s “th o u s a n d s ” o f so ld iers (w ith th e s) e x e c u te d in a to ta l d e a th to ll o f “ 1 0 ,0 0 0 ” ( n o t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ) m a k e s sense h e re . H is so u rc e is o b v io u sly th e R S S, e ith e r d ire c tly o r th r o u g h fello w I C m e m b e rs, w h ic h a t first e s tim a te d a to ta l o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s, a lth o u g h its o rig in a l b u ria l fig u re seem s to h av e b e e n a b o u t 3 2 ,0 0 0 . W e also h av e a U .S . m ilita ry a tta c h e r e p o r t fro m C h in a d a te d J u n e 1 9 3 8 , re p o rts s e n t to th e U n ite d S tate s a m b a ssa d o r in H a n k o w b y Ja m e s Espy, a n d tw o re p o rts s e n t to th e G e r m a n em bassy, o n e b y R a b e, th e o th e r a n a n o n y ­ m o u s “S ecre t R e p o rt” (see ta b le 13). T h e U n ite d S ta te s m ilita ry a tta c h e n o te d th a t “a reliab le fo re ig n in v e s tig a to r” c a lc u la te d th e d e a th to ll to b e 4 1 ,0 0 0 . A g a in th e so u rc e m u s t b e th e R SS, p e rh a p s th r o u g h B ates o r S m y th e . E sp y ’s r e p o rt, p re s u m a b ly b a se d o n d a ta s u p p lie d b y th e IC , e s tim a te d th a t “w ell o v er” 2 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e h a d b e e n e x e c u te d . A s n o te d ab ove, in h is r e p o r t to th e G e r m a n em bassy, R a b e e s tim a te d th a t, as o f m id - J a n u a r y (b y w h ic h tim e th e large-scale e x e c u tio n s w ere o v er), “th o u s a n d s o f in n o c e n t c iv ilia n s” h a d b e e n k illed . T h e “S ecre t R e p o rt” b y a G e r m a n ey e w itn e ss s e n t to B e rlin fro m H a n ­ k o w said th a t, as o f m id - J a n u a r y “th e Ja p a n e se [had] s h o t d e a d a t le ast 5 ,0 0 0 m e n .”45 I b eliev e th e se m e n w ere e x e c u te d so ld iers w h o h a d b e e n c a p tu re d w ith in th e N S Z , a n d th a t th is a c c o u n t d o es n o t in c lu d e p la in c lo th e s so ld iers c a p tu re d a n d e x e c u te d o u ts id e th e city. As w ith th e K ro g e r re p o r t, th e n , th is fig u re p ro v id e s a n e s tim a te o n ly fo r th o se c a p tu re d w ith in th e N S Z a n d s u b ­ s e q u e n tly ex e cu ted , n o t fo r th e to ta l n u m b e r o f e x e c u tio n s. T h e re c o rd s o f v a rio u s so c ieties o th e r th a n th e RSS th a t c la im e d to h av e d o n e b u ria l w o rk d o n o t d a te f ro m th e tim e o f th e A tro c ity . In ste a d , p o s tw a r C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t o fficials in th e K M T p r o d u c e d th e se fo r th e N a n k in g a n d T o kyo m ilita ry trib u n a ls as e v id en c e o f Ja p a n e se w a r crim es. In d e e d , o n e su c h so c ie ty in q u e s tio n , th e C h ’u n g -s h a n t ’an g , m a y h av e to ta lly fa b ric a te d its 1 1 2 ,2 6 6 b u ria ls. H e n c e , e x tre m e care m u s t b e u se d in e x a m in in g th e se p o s tw a r sta tistic s, a n d in m a n y cases th e se m u s t b e re je c te d as sp u rio u s . A ll p r im a ry so u rces d a tin g f ro m th e tim e o f th e A tro c ity m e n tio n a sin g le o rg a ­ n iz a tio n in v o lv e d in b u ria ls, th e R SS, w h ic h a fte r th e w a r c la im e d to h av e b u r ie d 4 3 ,0 7 1 b o d ie s. T h u s a n e x a m in a tio n o f R SS re c o rd s, w h ic h h is to ria n s a c c e p t as re a so n a b ly a c c u ra te , h e lp s us d ra w a n o b je c tiv e p ic tu r e o f b u ria ls in a n d a r o u n d N a n k in g . In a d d itio n to o th e r lim ita tio n s n o te d in th e n e x t sec­ tio n , w e m u s t n o te th a t th e RSS c o n tra c te d w o rk o u t, a n d sta tistic s fro m th o se o rg a n iz a tio n s a p p e a r in its re c o rd s as w ell. T h u s i f w e ca lc u la te fig u res fo r all su c h s u b c o n tra c to rs , p lu s th o se fo r th e R SS, as so m e w rite rs d o , m u ltip le ­ c o u n tin g w ill re su lt. B y c h e c k in g o rig in a l RSS d o c u m e n ts a g a in st o th e r c o n ­ te m p o ra n e o u s so u rce s, I fo u n d s tr o n g ev id e n c e th a t th e R SS a c tu a lly b u rie d 1 7 ,5 0 0 b o d ie s p lu s o r m in u s 2 ,5 0 0 ; a n d , also th a t th e o rig in a l b u ria l figures w ere to th e tu n e o f a b o u t 3 2 ,0 0 0 . 105

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

A lth o u g h n o t c o n c lu siv e, th is fig u re is a basis to e s tim a te th e m in im u m n u m b e r o f p e o p le k ille d a t N a n k in g . H o w ev er, I e m p h a siz e , th e c iv ilia n d e a th to ll o r n u m b e r o f A tro c ity “v ic tim s ” in th e A tro c ity is a se p a ra te m a tte r b ecau se, in a d d itio n to p e rso n s e x e c u te d b y th e Ja p a n e se , th e 1 7 ,5 0 0 b o d ie s p lu s o r m in u s 2 ,5 0 0 th a t th e R R S b u r ie d in c lu d e d m a n y g ro u p s o f C h in e s e “n o n v ic tim s .” T h e y in c lu d e d : (1) so ld iers k ille d in a c tio n ; (2) so ld ie rs a n d civ ilian s w h o d ie d o f w o u n d s , in fe c tio n s , o r disease; (3) r e tre a tin g so ld iers s h o t a n d k ille d b y K M T “S u p e rv isin g U n its ”; (4) civ ilia n s c a u g h t in cro ss-fires; (5) civ ilian s k illed b y d e fe a te d C h in e s e tro o p s as th e y d e s p e ra te ly s o u g h t civ ilia n clo th es; a n d (6) a t le ast so m e o f th e b o d ie s o f th e th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le w h o a tte m p te d to sw im across th e Y angtze to escap e f ro m th e J a p a n e se .46 In s h o rt, d e s p ite th e ir u n d o u b te d v alu e as h is to ric a l m a te ria ls, RSS b u ria l re c o rd s sh e d little lig h t o n th e k e y issu e o f w h a t p e rc e n ta g e o f th e co rp ses it c la im e d to hav e b u rie d w ere in d e e d c iv ilia n “m a ssac re v ic tim s .” As H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ) stresses, th e e s tim a te o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 d e a th s in B ates’s 25 J a n u a r y m e m o — q u o te d in T im p e rle y ’s W hat War Means — is a k ey issue th a t w e m u s t ad d ress. T h is larg e e s tim a te w as b a se d o n R SS figures a n d is o n e m a in basis fo r claim s th a t 4 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e d ie d in a n d a ro u n d N a n k in g . In h is o rig in a l m e m o , B ates d e sc rib e s h o w g ro u p s o f C h in e s e w ere le d aw ay to b e ex e c u te d a n d sta te s: “O th e r in c id e n ts in v o lv e d la rg e r n u m b e rs o f m e n th a n d id th is o n e . Evidences from burials indicate that close to 40,000

unarmed persons were killed within a nd near the walls o f Nanking, o f whom some 3 0% had never been soldiers. M y sp e cia l in te r e s t in th e se c irc u m sta n c e s is tw o fo ld ” (italics a d d e d ). To re p e a t, th e RSS b u rie d all C h in e s e d e a d , in c lu d in g so ld ie rs w h o d ie d in c o m b a t, so th e s u g g e stio n h e re th a t all o f th e d e a d h a d b e e n u n a rm e d is m is le a d in g . B u t th e m a in p r o b le m is th a t B ates p r in te d th is m e m o five tim e s, n o te d in ta b le 11 as B ates 1, B ates 2, B ates 3, B ates 4 , a n d B ates 5. B ates 1 a p p e a re d in T im p e rle y ’s W hat War Means. In all other fo u r p u b lic a tio n s , th e m e m o is r e p r in te d ex c e p t fo r th e ita lic iz e d s e n te n c e . W h y w as th is ita lic iz e d s e n te n c e — th e o n ly o n e in w h ic h B ates e s tim a te s th is h ig h a to ta l d e a th to ll— o m itte d ? H ig a s h in a k a n o h o ld s th a t B ates “w ith d r e w ” h is o rig in a l a c c u s a tio n o f 25 J a n u a ry th a t a m a ssac re o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 o c c u rre d a t N a n k in g , as q u o te d in

Table 5.11.

Bates Bates Bates Bates Bates

1 2 3 4 5

Bates on the Death Toll47

Source

D a te

Timperley, W h a t W ar M eans Hsu ed., The W ar C onduct o f the Japanese Hsu ed., A D igest o f Japanese W ar C onduct

1938 1938 1939 1939 1939

Chinese Yearbook 1 9 3 8 —3 9

Hsu ed., D ocum ents o f the N a n k in g Safety Z o n e

N um ber

(March) (April) (January) (March) (May)

40,000 omitted omitted om itted omitted

106

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

W hat War Means. A c c o rd in g to H ig a s h in a k a n o , B ates 2, B ates 3, a n d B ates 5 w ere p u b lis h e d in w o rk s e d ite d b y H s u S h u h si. A s a n o fficial o f th e K M T g o v e rn m e n t, H s u w o u ld n o t h av e p u b lis h e d d o c u m e n ts th a t c o n tra d ic te d its p o s itio n o n N a n k in g a t th a t tim e . H ig a s h in a k a n o also arg u es th a t B ates 4 a p ­ p e a re d in th e Chinese Yearbook, a n o th e r official K M T p e rio d ic a l, w h ic h w o u ld n o t p r in t in f o rm a tio n th a t b e lie d th e o fficial C h in e s e p o s itio n .48 W e m a y o r m a y n o t a c c e p t H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s e x p la n a tio n fo r B ates’s d o w n ­ w a rd rev isio n as re p re s e n tin g th e o fficial C h in e s e s ta tistic a l v ie w p o in t a t th a t tim e . B u t a d o w n w a rd re v isio n d o es se e m to h av e ta k e n p la ce , a n d its tim in g m a tc h e d th a t o f S m y th e , R ab e, a n d th e IC ; all o f th e m lo w e re d fig u re s b y A p ril 1 9 3 8 . W h y th e W e ste rn e rs rev ised th e ir e s tim a te s o f th e C h in e s e d e a th to ll d o w n w a rd is a m y stery , b u t p e rh a p s it is re la te d to th e c o m p le tio n o f RSS b u ria l effo rts in ea rly 1 9 3 8 , a b o u t w h ic h IC m e m b e rs h a d in sid e in f o rm a tio n . B ates’s fig u re o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 — as q u o te d b y T im p e rle y in W hat War Means — a n d p e rh a p s h is e s tim a te o f 3 7 ,0 0 0 to 4 2 ,0 0 0 d e a th s o n 21 M a rc h are im p o r ­ ta n t fo r a n o th e r re a so n . T h e s e fig u res a p p e a r to b e th e basis fo r E d g a r S n o w ’s c la im in The Battle fo r Asia (1 9 4 1 ) th a t th e Ja p a n e se k ille d a t le a st 4 2 ,0 0 0 p e o p le in a n d a r o u n d N a n k in g . H o w ev er, S n o w in v e rts B a te s’s b re a k d o w n , c la im in g th a t “a la rg e p e rc e n ta g e ” o f th o se k ille d w ere “w o m e n a n d c h ild r e n .” T h is m a n ip u la tio n b y S n o w w as o n e o f th e first in a lo n g h is to ry o f fa c tu a l d is to rtio n s a b o u t C h in e s e ca su a ltie s in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . B u t it p ales in c o m p a ris o n w ith th a t b y A g n es S m e d le y in th e Battle H ym n o f China (1 9 4 3 ). T h e re , she arg u e d th a t “ H u n d re d s o f sev erely w o u n d e d so ld ie rs w h o c o u ld n o t b e ev a cu a te d h a d b e e n le ft in N a n k in g in th e care o f C h in e s e d o c to rs a n d n u rse s ... w h e n th e Ja p a n e se A rm y o c c u p ie d th e city, th e y n o t o n ly p u t to th e sw o rd so m e tw o h u n d r e d th o u s a n d civ ilia n s a n d u n a r m e d so ld ie rs, b u t fell u p o n th e h o sp ita ls, s la u g h te rin g th e w o u n d e d , th e d o c to rs , a n d th e n u rs e s .”49 S m e d le y lists n o so u rc e fo r th is in f o rm a tio n a n d a t th a t tim e w as w ith th e C o m m u n is t E ig h th R o u te A rm y , far fro m N a n k in g . S m e d le y ’s in v e c tiv e is im p o r ta n t in th a t, far m o re th a n T im p e rle y o r Snow , sh e m a rk s th e s ta rt o f a p o litic a l c a m p a ig n to p ro p a g a n d iz e th e A tro c ity , a n d o f a c o n c e rte d p u s h to in fla te th e d e a th to ll. T h e o n ly m e d ic a l s ta ff w h o re m a in e d in N a n k in g a p p e a r to h av e b e e n tw o A m e ric a n s, W ils o n a n d C lif­ fo rd T rim m e r, tw o C h in e s e d o c to rs , a n d several n u rse s w h o w ere n o t reliev ed u n til early J u n e 1 9 3 8 .50 A ll b u t o n e o f th e 5 0 0 w o u n d e d C h in e s e so ld iers le ft in N a n k in g se em to h av e su rv iv e d th e o c c u p a tio n o r to h a v e d ie d d e sp ite Ja p a n e se m e d ic a l care. T h e r e is n o d o c u m e n te d a c c o u n t o f a n y n u rs e b e in g k illed a t N a n k in g , o r o f th e Ja p a n e se s la u g h te rin g w o u n d e d p a tie n ts th e re . S m e d le y ’s e s tim a te d d e a th to ll o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 “civ ilia n s a n d u n a r m e d so ld ie rs” is to ta lly u n a c c e p ta b le in th a t N a n k in g ’s e n tire c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n a t th e tim e w as 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 a t m o st. T h e lo c a tio n o f b o d ie s m a y p ro v id e a ro u g h e s tim a te o f c iv ilia n d e a th s. B efore N a n k in g fell, C h in e s e a u th o ritie s m o v e d civ ilia n s fro m s u r ro u n d in g 107

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N a n k in g Atrocity

Table 5.12.

Bodies Buried Inside Nanking by the RSS51 N u m b e r o f Bodies

D a te

M en

22 Dec. 26 Jan. 2 Feb. 6 Feb. 7 Feb. 11 Feb. 14 Feb. 19 Feb. 20 Feb. 22 Feb. 27 Feb. Total

129 124 17 49 149 16 107 650 154 29 337 1,759

W om en

C hildren

1 2 2 4 2 2

20

1 8

26

T o ta l

129 125 19 49 151 20 109 672 154 30 337 1,793

areas in to th e city. T h e y th e n to rc h e d s u b u rb s o u ts id e th e w alls to d e n y th e in v a d e rs cover a n d m o v e d c iv ilia n s in to th e N S Z . T h u s , I w o u ld arg u e , m o s t i f n o t all b o d ie s fo u n d o u ts id e th e c ity w alls w ere o f C h in e s e so ld iers, a n d even th o se f o u n d w ith in th e w alls o u ts id e th e N S Z w ere n o t civ ilia n s. T h e RSS c la im e d to h a v e b u r ie d a b o u t 1 ,8 0 0 b o d ie s in sid e th e w alls. L arge n u m ­ b ers o f C h in e s e m e n — a t le a st 5 ,0 0 0 a n d p e rh a p s ev en 9 ,0 0 0 — w ere ro u n d e d u p a n d e x e c u te d b y th e Ja p a n e se S e v e n th a n d S ix te e n th d iv isio n s c le a rin g th e N S Z f ro m 13 D e c e m b e r u n til 5 Ja n u a ry . T h e to ta l n u m b e r o f d e a th s w ith in th e city w alls, o r o f p e o p le le d f ro m th e N S Z fo r e x e c u tio n o u ts id e th e city, is th u s 5 ,7 0 0 a t a m in im u m to 1 0 ,8 0 0 a t a m a x im u m . T h e o re tic a lly , all o r n o n e o f th e m c o u ld h av e b e e n civ ilian s, b u t I b eliev e th a t so m e m u s t h av e b e e n civ ilian s. If, fo r th e sake o f a rg u m e n t, w e a ssu m e th a t 5 0 p e rc e n t o f th o se k illed in sid e th e w alls w ere civ ilia n s, th e n th e civ ilia n d e a th to ll w as 2 ,8 5 0 to 5 ,4 0 0 . I b elieve th a t th e n u m b e r o f b o d ie s rec o v ered fro m th e c ity w as 7 0 0 to 1 ,0 0 0 a t a m inim um , a n d th a t th e n u m b e r ex e c u te d w as a t le a st 5 ,0 0 0 . A g ain , a s su m in g th a t h a l f o f th e m w ere civ ilia n s, th is w o u ld in d ic a te a m in im u m c iv ilia n d e a th to ll o f 2 ,8 5 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 . A lth o u g h h ig h ly sp e c u la tiv e , th e se fig­ ures se em to c o n firm m u c h o f w h a t is re c o rd e d in o th e r so u rces.

Quantitative Analysis A m o n g th e v a rio u s e stim a te s o f c iv ilia n d e a th s th a t a p p e a r in p r im a ry so u rces, B ates’s is th e m o s t p ro b le m a tic b ecau se h e a p p e ars to h av e w ith d ra w n it, as H ig a s h in a k a n o suggests. R a b e 2 a n d th e R SS fig u res m u s t b e tre a te d w ith cau 108

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

tio n to o . I n te r n a l e v id en c e su g g e sts th a t n u m b e rs w ere la te r a d d e d to th e RSS figures, so th e se m u s t b e ju x ta p o s e d a g a in st o th e r so u rce s o f th e tim e u n le ss a n o rig in a l RSS d o c u m e n t tu r n s u p . A p r o b le m w ith so m e o f th e se e stim a te s is th a t all d e a th s — in c lu d in g th o se in b a ttle as w ell as f ro m d ro w n in g , frie n d ly fire, legal a n d illeg al e x e c u tio n s, a n d civ ilia n s c a u g h t in cro ssfire— are lu m p e d in to a sin g le figure. E v en w h e n C h in e s e “c iv ilia n s” are e x p lic itly lis te d as su c h in a c e rta in b o d y c o u n t, it w o u ld h av e b e e n v e ry d iffic u lt fo r th e re c o rd e r to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n th e co rp se s o f civ ilia n s, e x -so ld iers in c iv ilia n clo th e s, a n d p la in c lo th e s so ld iers. T h e resu lts o f m y analysis are p re s e n te d in ta b le 13, in c h ro n o lo g ic a l o rd e r o f th e d o c u m e n ts . R a w d a ta in th e d o c u m e n ts are in th e th ir d c o lu m n . In th e f o u r th c o lu m n , I m a d e “R ev ise d E s tim a te s ” b a se d o n f o u r a d m itte d ly c o n ­ te sta b le a s su m p tio n s : (1) T h e v ag u e fig u re “th o u s a n d s ” u se d b y W e ste rn e rs s h o u ld b e e s tim a te d a t 5 ,0 0 0 . (2) O f th o se d e a th s sp e cifie d as “civ ilia n s” w h e n b ased o n a b o d y c o u n t, h a l f a t m o s t w ere in fa c t civ ilia n s a n d th e o th e r h a lf w ere m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l. (3) F o llo w in g B ates, o f all d e a th s u n sp e c ifie d as to civilians o r m ilita ry p e rso n n e l, o n e - th ird a t m o s t w ere in fac t civ ilian s. (4) T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y w as fa irly c o m p e te n t in id e n tify in g p la in c lo th e s so ld ie rs in th e N S Z , a lth o u g h th e re is v e ry little d a ta o n th is la st p o in t. M y rev ise d e stim a te s w ill not lo w er th e to ta l n u m b e r o f e s tim a te d d e a th s, th e se o n ly h e lp us to c o n ­ c lu d e w h a t p e rc e n ta g e o f th o se d e a th s m a y h av e b e e n civ ilian s; b u t th e se re ­ v ised e s tim a te s also w ill p ro d u c e a n in fla te d n u m b e r o f c iv ilia n c a su a ltie s a n d th e re b y re d u c e e stim a te s o f m ilita ry d e a th s. T h e I C ’s 55 c iv ilia n d e a th s w ere b a se d o n v erifie d re p o rts , so I a c c e p t th e se b u t revise th e n u m b e r to fifty -fo u r b ec au se a t le a st o n e o f th e e x e c u tio n s w as d e e m e d “le g itim a te .” B ased o n th e a s s u m p tio n s lis te d ab o v e, I revise M c C a llu m ’s “th o u s a n d s to 1 0 ,0 0 0 ” to 1 ,6 6 6 to 3 ,3 3 3 civ ilian s; in M a g e e 2 , I revise h is “th o u s a n d s ” to 5 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s, a n d in M a g e e 1 a n d M a g e e 3 , I revise th e “2 0 ,0 0 0 ” e x e c u te d to 6 ,6 6 6 . T h e “S ecre t R e p o rt” to th e G e r m a n e m b a ssy lists “ 5 ,0 0 0 e x e c u te d ” as p la in c lo th e s so ld ie rs, b u t th e y in c lu d e d so m e civ ilian s, so I revise th e e s tim a te to 2 ,5 0 0 civ ilian s. T h e so u rc e fo r R a b e 1, “th o u s a n d s ” o f c iv ilia n casu alties, w as p e rh a p s S m y th e , w h o d id tr y to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l a n d civ ilian s; so I a c c e p t it as it is. I a m n o t su re o f th e so u rc e fo r R a b e 2, “h u n d re d s , p e rh a p s th o u s a n d s .” T h e “h u n d r e d s ” m a y refer to g e n u in e RSS fig u res fo r b o d ie s co lle c te d in th e city, o r it m a y b e b a se d o n d a ta th a t V a u tr in c o lle c te d , b u t R a b e ’s so u rc e fo r “th o u s a n d s ” w as ag a in p e r­ h a p s S m y th e . T h u s , I rev ise d R a b e 2 to th e m in im u m fig u re o f a b o u t 7 0 0 b o d ie s th a t th e RSS co lle c te d a n d b u rie d in sid e th e c ity w alls (a fig u re th a t ro u g h ly m a tc h e s V a u trin ), a n d th e 6 ,7 5 0 ca su a ltie s g iv e n b y S m y th e . F ig u res c ite d in T im p e rle y 1 a n d T im p e rle y 2 are f ro m B ates, w h o h a d access to o rig ­ in a l R SS fig u res th a t are re a so n a b ly a c c u ra te . B u t B ates in T im p e rle y 1 gives o n ly a to ta l n u m b e r o f b o d ie s, so I a ssu m e th a t o n e - th ird w ere civ ilia n s. In T im p e rle y 2, B ates a lm o s t c e rta in ly v ie w e d th e “4 0 ,0 0 0 ” b o d ie s o f p la in 109

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Table 5.13.

The Civilian Death Toll52 E stim a te d N u m b e r

R evised

Source

D a te

o f Casualties

E stim a te

IC 1

15 Dec. 1937 7 Feb. 1938

55

54

Magee 1

19 December

20,000

6,666

McCallum

29 December 1937

thousands [5,000]-10,000

1,666 3,333

Magee 2

5 January 1938

thousands o f civilians [5,000]

5,000

Bates (Timperley 1)

10 January

more than 10,000 (soldiers and civilians)

3,330

Magee 3

11 January 1938

20,000

6,666

Secret Report to German Embassy

13 January 1938

5,000 executed

2,500

Kroger’s report

13 January 1938

5,000 executed

2,500

Rabe 1 (Embassy Report)

14 January 1938

thousands o f civilians [5,000]

thousands [2,500]

Forster

14 January 1938

thousands o f men [5,000]

1,666

Espy’s Report

24 January 1938

20,000 executed

6,666

Bates (Timperley 2)

25 January 1938

40,000, o f which 12,000 civilians

6,000

Rabe 2 (Letter)

28 January 1938

hundreds, perhaps thousands

700 6,750

W ilson (Letter)

7 March 1938

100,000 [10,000?]

[3,330?]

Smythe 1

21 March 1938

40,000 (30% civilians)

6,000

Bates 1

21 March 1938

37,000 - 42,000 (12,000 civilians)

6,000

Vautrin

26 March 1938

More than 700 men missing

738

IC 2

May 1938

thousands (murdered, imprisoned, abducted)

thousands [2,500]

US Military attache report

June 1938

41,000

13,333

Rabe 3 (Report to Hitler)

June 1938

50,000 - 60,000 [23,000 - 33,000]

7,600 11,000

Smythe 2

August 1938

3,400 - 6,750

3,400 6,750

Smythe 3

August 1938

12,000 civilians

6,000

Smythe 4

October 1938

10,000 civilians

5,000

Bates 2

November 1938

12,000 civilians

6,000

Red Swastika Society

1946?

43,071 [17,500]

5,800

110

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

c lo th es so ld iers as civ ilia n s, so I a ssu m e h a l f o f th e m w ere in fa c t ex -so ld iers, a n d revise th e fig u re to 6 ,0 0 0 civ ilian s. T h e sa m e h o ld s fo r S m y th e 1. T h e IC 2 e stim a te o f “th o u s a n d s m u rd e re d , im p ris o n e d , o r a b d u c te d ” m a y b e b ased o n S m y th e 2 a n d ec h o es R a b e 1, so I a ssu m e th a t u p to 5 ,0 0 0 m a y h av e b e e n m u rd e re d ; o f th o se , 2 ,5 0 0 o r h alf, w ere civ ilian s. R a b e 3, h is “ R e p o rt to H itle r ,” is m o re p ro b le m a tic . A s ju s t n o te d , th e o rig in a l e s tim a te o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 in c lu d e s 3 0 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s th a t se e m in fac t to h av e b e e n 3 ,0 0 0 ; so I s u b tr a c t 2 7 ,0 0 0 to revise h is o rig in a l e s tim a te to 2 3 ,0 0 0 —3 3 ,0 0 0 . T h is fig u re w as fo r all b o d ie s, in c lu d in g p e rso n s k ille d in b a ttle , so I assu m e th a t at most o n e - th ird c o u ld b e civ ilia n s a n d s u b tr a c t 3 3 .3 p e rc e n t, b u t th is leaves o n ly 1 5 ,0 0 0 to 2 2 ,0 0 0 fo r m ilita ry ca su a ltie s, w h ic h is to o low ; so I revise th e e s tim a te o f c iv ilia n ca su a ltie s u p w a rd to o n e -h a lf, to g e t 7 ,6 0 0 to 1 1 ,0 0 0 b y s u b tr a c tin g 5 0 p e rc e n t. I a c c e p t S m y th e 2 v e rb a ­ tim b a se d o n h is “C ity S u rv e y ” a n d a ssu m e th a t all o f th o s e “ta k e n aw ay ” m a y hav e b e e n ex e cu te d . H o w ev er, I a ssu m e th a t h a lf o f S m y th e 3, b a se d o n a b o d y c o u n t, w ere in fa c t C h in e s e so ld ie rs in c iv ilia n c lo th es; so I re d u c e “ 1 2 ,0 0 0 ” b y fifty p e r c e n t to g e t a n e s tim a te o f 6 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s. S m y th e 4, “ 1 0 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n s,” is b a se d o n a n e x a m in a tio n a n d c o u n t o f b o d ie s, so I h alv e it to 5 ,0 0 0 . Finally, a lm o st a d e c a d e a fte r th e A tro c ity , th e R SS c la im e d th a t it h a d d is­ p o se d o f 4 3 ,0 7 1 b o d ie s. C lo se e x a m in a tio n o f v a rio u s o th e r so u rc e s sh o w s th a t th is n u m b e r w as a lm o s t c e rta in ly in fla te d ; th e fig u re 1 7 ,5 0 0 p lu s or m in u s 2 5 0 0 is m o re a c c u ra te . O n c e m o re , I a ssu m e th a t at most o n e - th ird w ere civ ilian s, b u t ag a in th is leaves o n ly 1 0 ,0 0 0 to 1 0 ,7 0 0 m ilita ry casu a ltie s, w h ic h is to o low ; so I revise th e RSS fig u re fo r c iv ilia n ca su a ltie s to 5 ,8 0 0 . A n o th e r m e th o d to ca lc u la te th e d e a th to ll is to a d d u p th e sp e cific figures a n d d iv id e b y th e n u m b e r o f fig u res to g e t a n average. T h is gives a n e s tim a te o f 4 ,7 7 9 to 5 ,0 0 3 , o r r o u n d e d o f f to 4 ,8 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 .53 I f w e w a n t to c o m ­ p a re th is w ith th e fig u re d e riv e d fro m S m y th e ’s s a m p lin g survey, w e s h o u ld re c a lc u la te w ith o u t S m y th e 2 , w h ic h gives 4 ,7 6 2 . B u t th e d iffe re n c e is to o sm a ll to b e sig n ific a n t.

Conclusion I hav e e x a m in e d p r im a ry so u rc e s le ft b y W e ste rn e rs w ith in a n a rro w ly lim ite d g e o g ra p h ic a n d te m p o ra l d e f in itio n o f “N a n k in g ” in h e r e n t in th o se so u rces; th a t is, th e w alled c ity a n d its im m e d ia te e n v iro n s fro m b e fo re th e c ity fell in m id - D e c e m b e r th r o u g h th e 6 —7 w e e k Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n e n d in g in earlyF eb ru ary . I f o u n d th a t th e c ity ’s p o p u la tio n w as a b o u t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 o n th e eve o f its fall, a n d th a t it ro se to a b o u t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 in la te -D e c e m b e r to m id -Ja n u a ry . S m y th e ’s “ C ity S u rv e y ” a n d Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n fig u res, in p a rtic u la r, allo w ed m e to e s tim a te th e p o p u la tio n a t r o u g h ly 2 2 4 ,5 0 0 fro m 2 4 D e c e m b e r to 5 111

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Jan u ary . W e ste rn e s tim a te s o f th e c iv ilia n d e a th to ll a t th a t tim e are all w ith in a fairly n a rro w ran g e . T h e o n e b ased o n S m y th e ’s sa m p lin g su rv ey — 3 ,4 0 0 k illed a n d 4 ,2 0 0 c o n s c rip te d fo r la b o r— a n d th o se d e riv e d fro m o th e r d a ta th a t h e p ro v id e s— 1 ,3 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 k ille d — to g e th e r p ro v id e a so lid basis o n w h ic h to c o m p a re o th e r e stim a te s o f th e d e a th to ll. I su g g e st th a t sev eral W e ste rn e rs— R ab e, S m y th e , th e IC , a n d m o s t o f all B ates— a p p a re n tly rev ised th e ir esti­ m a tes d o w n w a rd early in 1 9 3 8 . F u rth e rm o re , I fo u n d th a t 4 ,8 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 seem s to b e re a so n a b ly a c c u ra te fo r th e ra n g e o f C h in e s e c iv ilia n d e a th s a tte s te d to b y W e ste rn e rs, a n d th a t ra n g e is c o n firm e d b y e x a m in in g th e lo c a tio n o f co rp ses. In th e la st an aly sis, th e b e s t p o ssib le e s tim a te ra n g e o f civ ilia n s d e a th s, s u p p o r te d b y all o f th e W e s te rn p r im a ry d o c u m e n ts e x a m in e d , is a lo w o f 3 4 0 0 to a h ig h o f 5 0 0 0 . H o w ev er, a fu lle r e s tim a te a n d m o re m e a n in g fu l c o n c lu s io n s m u s t c o n s id e r fa c to rs other than d e m o g ra p h y a n d th e civ ilia n v ic tim s; th a t is to say, in a d d i­ tio n , h o w m a n y m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l, ex -so ld iers, a n d s u rre n d e re d so ld ie rs w ere illeg ally k ille d a n d th u s massacred— a te rm re p le te w ith p o litic a lly la d e n d efi­ n itio n s . A t le ast u p to 5 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s w ere m a ssa c re d in a n y case. I s u b m it th e se fin d in g s as a s ta rtin g p o in t fo r f u r th e r re se a rc h th a t m a y w ell le a d to h ig h e r figures a n d to a m o re a c c u ra te h is to ric a l re c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity as a w h o le .

Notes 1. Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, pp. 4 and 17; Rabe, Good M a n o f Nanking, p. 51. 2. See Suzuki, Shin “N a n kin daigyakusatsu” no maboroshi, pp. 291—92. 3. Adapted from Itakura, Honto wa ko datta: N a n k in jiken, p. 56. In addition, statistics for “Reg­ istration” by “Japanese authorities” are from Inoue, ed., Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 148—69. 4. Rabe in Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, p. 254; Rabe, in Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone, p. 84. 5. Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, footnote to Table 1. 6. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 130. 7. Ibid., p. 135. 8. Ibid., p. 39. 9. Ibid., p. 131. 10. Smythe, “W hat Happened in Nanking,” p. 381. 11. Italics added; in Hsu, ed., Documents on the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 95—96. 12. In Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 414; also see pp. 417 and 432. 13. Hata, “Nanking Atrocities,” p. 51. 14. See reports by Epsy cited in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trials, vol. 2, p. 4568 and Allison, “Nankin no jokyo,” p. 108. 15. Rabe, “Report from the Germ an Foreign Office in C hina to the German Foreign Office in Berlin,” in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., Tokyo War Crimes Trials, vol. 2, pp. 4593—94; for other relevant documents sent to the German embassy, see Ishida, ed., Shiryo Doitsu gaikokan no m ita N a n kin jiken , pp. 52 and 111. 16. See Wilson, in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 210; and Askew, “Defending Nanking,” pp. 148—73.

112

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Part o f the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims

17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

53.

There were cases such as apartments where more than one family lived at a single address. Kitamura, “G M D [KMT] International Propaganda Division.” Compiled from appendices in Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area. Bates, Forward, to Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, p. ii. From Table 2 in appendexes of Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area. Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 100. Hata, N a n kin jiken, p. 179. In Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, p. 11. Yamamoto, N anking, p. 128; Itakura, Honto wa ko datta, p. 55. See Suzuki, Shin “N a n k in daigyakusatsu” no kenkyu, pp. 291—92; also, Kitamura, “G M D [KMT] International Propaganda Division.” Adapted from Itakura, Honto wa ko datta: N a n k in jiken, p. 55. Timperely, ed., W hat War Means, p. 59. Ibid., pp. 17, and 60—61. From Table 4 in appendexes of Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area. Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, p. 6. Ibid., p. 8, note 1. Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, p. 5. Compiled from Smythe, “Composition o f the Chinese Family,” p. 382; and Table 2 in appendexes of Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area. These RSS figures show 1,759 male, 8 female, and 26 child corpses inside the walls; and 41,183 male, 75 female, and 20 child corpses outside the walls. See also, Bloch, “Chinese Population Problems,” pp. 179—80. Rabe, “Reports from the German Foreign Office in C hina to the German Foreign Office in Berlin,” in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., Tokyo War Crimes Trials, p. 4594. Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 317; Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 212. Magee, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 172 and 186; McCallum, in ibid., p. 231; Forster, in ibid., pp. 124 and 152; Durdin, in N ew York Times, 9 January 1938; Kroger, in Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 144. Smythe, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 315; Smythe, “W hat Happened in Nanking or the Situation in the Occupied Territory in China, p. 382. Vautrin, in Zhang, ed., Eye-witnesses to Massacre, pp. 342 and 35. Bates, “Notes on German Atrocities in Belgium,” cited in Yamamoto, N anking, p. 189, note 74; also, Bates, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 42. In Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, p. 12. Wilson, in Brook, ed., Documents o f the Rape o f N anking, pp. 253—54. Reports cited in Yamamoto, N a n k in g pp. 112 and 126, note 104; in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., Tokyo War Crimes Trial, pp. 4569, 4594, and 4601. “Thousands, tens of thousands” of people died attempting to swin across the Yangtze; see Kasahara, N a n kin jiken, p. 137. From Higashinakano, “N ankin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, p. 328. Ibid., p. 339. Snow, Battle fo r Asia, p. 57; Smedley, Battle H ym n o f China, p. 151. Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eye-witnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, pp. 7 and 15. Yamamoto, N a n k in g p. 295, based on Shih-chieh Hung-wan-tsu-hui Nan-ching fen-hui chiuchi-tui yen-mai-tsu yen-mai shih-t’i chu-shu t’ung-chi-piao. T he Secret Report to the Germ an embassy was completed on 13 January, but not forwarded to Berlin until 16 February. Espys report was prepared between 15 and 24 January, but not mailed until 2 February. Magee 1 (6,666) + McCallum (2,500) + Magee 2 (5,000) + Bates (in Timperley 1) (3,330) + Secret Report (2,500) + Kroger Report (2,500) + Rabe 1 (2,500) + Forster (1,666) + Epsy

113

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

(6,666) +Bates (in Timperley 2) (6,000) + Rabe 2 (3,725) + Smythe 1 (6000) + Vautrin (738) + IC 2 (2500) + Military Attache Report (13,333) + Rabe 3 (9300) + Smythe 2 (5,075) + Smythe 4 (5,000) + RSS (5,800) + 19 = 4,779. If Vautrin is left out, this figure becomes 5003. Cases where the same author has repeated exactly the same figure have been used once only. I have left out both IC 1 (54) and W ilson (100,000), as both would serve to skew the data.

114

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:04 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

6

T h e N a n k i n g 1 0 0 -M a n Kil l in g C o n t e s t D e b a t e , 1971-751 B ob Tadashi W akabayashi

In 1 9 6 7 , th re e d ec ad e s a fte r th e e v e n t, H o r a T o m io (1 9 0 6 —2 0 0 0 ) p u b lis h e d a 1 1 8 -p ag e essay o n th e “N a n k in g I n c id e n t,” as h e th e n called it. T h is w as h is to rio g ra p h ic a lly e p o c h -m a k in g . In p re v io u s su rv e y h is to rie s th e re h a d b e e n p a s sin g referen c es to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , b u t n o t u n til 1 9 6 7 d id a p ro fe s­ sio n a l Ja p a n e se h is to ria n m a k e a n in - d e p th e m p iric a l stu d y . H o r a s p e n t h is te a c h in g career a t th e p riv a te W a se d a U n iv ersity , n o t a n elite n a tio n a l sc h o o l lik e th e U n iv e rsity o f T o k y o . H is p u b lis h e r, J in b u ts u o ra ish a , m a rk e te d p o p ­ u la r title s fo r h is to ry b u ffs; it la c k e d th e s c h o la rly sn o b a p p e a l o f a n Iw a n a m i s h o te n . In s h o rt, Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s p la c e d s c a n t v alu e o n N a n k in g as a re ­ se arch to p ic a t th a t tim e . W h a t ro u se d th e m fro m th is a p a th y w as a 1 9 7 1 —7 5 d e b a te a b o u t a 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t th a t re p u te d ly o c c u rre d d u r in g th e A tro city . T h e m e n w h o p ro v o k e d th is d e b a te la ck e d h ig h a c a d e m ic cre d e n tia ls o r u n iv e rs ity a ffilia tio n s. T h e y w ere H o n d a K a ts u ic h i (1 9 3 2 —), th e n a re p o r te r fo r th e lib e ra l Asahi shinbun, a n a tio n w id e d a ily w ith a c irc u la tio n o f e ig h t m illio n a t th a t tim e , a n d a c o n v e rt to Islam ; Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i (1 9 2 1 —9 1 ), a f o rm e r im p e ria l a rm y o fficer p o s in g as a Je w u n d e r th e p s e u d o n y m Isaia h B e n -D a sa n ; a n d Im a i A k io (1 9 2 9 —2 0 0 3 ), a fre e la n c e w rite r u sin g th e n o m de p lu m e S u z u k i A k ira . Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i w ro te in th e m o n th ly Shokun!, w h ic h w as a ffilia te d w ith th e co n se rv a tiv e B u n g e i s h u n ju m e d ia g ro u p . T h is d e b a te b e g a n o v er th e fa c tu a lity o f o n e in c id e n t, as d is p u te d b y lefta n d r ig h t-w in g fa c tio n s, a n d g re w in to a m a jo r o n g o in g c o n tro v e rs y a b o u t th e e n tire N a n k in g A tro c ity . B o th sid es d e p ic t th is h is to rio g r a p h ic ru m b le a lo n g p a rtis a n lin es, a n d n e ith e r c o n c e d e s d e fe a t.2 T h e le ft-w in g fa c tio n h o ld s a n d c o n tin u e s to h o ld th a t e n o rm o u s w a r crim e s to o k p la c e a t N a n k in g . T h e r ig h t­ w in g fa c tio n la te r d iv id e d in to d e n ie rs, w h o in sist th a t th e re w as n o A tro c ity 115

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

w o rth y o f th e n a m e , a n d m in im a lis ts , w h o c o n c e d e th a t m in o r o r m id -sc a le crim es o c c u rre d a t N a n k in g as in a n y w ar. D e n ie rs a n d m in im a lis ts b e lo n g to a b ro a d m o v e m e n t to w a rd “co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ism ” le d b y a c ad e m ic s, c rit­ ics o f so cial a n d p o litic a l affairs (hyoronka), jo u rn a lis ts , a n d p o litic ia n s . A s m y lab el im p lies, co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists se ek to b re a k w h a t th e y see as a le ft­ w in g s tra n g le h o ld o n th e h is to ric a l c o n se n su s in J a p a n a n d th e re b y fo ste r n a tio n a l p rid e b y r e f u tin g sh a m e fu l p a s t ev e n ts su c h as th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d o th e r h e in o u s w a r crim es. T h e 1 9 7 1 —7 5 d e b a te is sig n ific a n t fo r sev eral rea so n s. I t ra ise d k e y p r o to ­ ty p ic a l issues still in d is p u te a m o n g h is to ria n s o f N a n k in g su c h as ho w , o r w h e th e r, to d is tin g u is h th e le g itim a te k illin g o f c o m b a ta n ts a n d g u e rrilla s f ro m th e m assacre o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts a n d p ris o n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ). S in ce th e 1 9 8 0 s, w h e n v ic tim c o u n ts to o k o n p o litic a l im p o r t, v aria b les o f th is s o r t h av e serv ed to tilt th e ab a c u s as n e e d e d . T h e d e b a te also p re sa g e d a flo w e rin g o f sc h o la rsh ip o n m o d e rn a n d c o n te m p o r a r y J a p a n , as ty p ifie d b y H o ra ’s o w n w o rk . A p re -M e iji h is to ria n b e fo re 1 9 6 7 , h e g re w in to o n e o f J a p a n ’s le a d in g e x p e rt o n N a n k in g .3 R e p ly in g to s u s ta in e d a tta c k s b y c ritics, H o r a w ro te fo u r b o o k s a n d m a n y a rticle s o n th e to p ic . In M a rc h 1 9 8 4 , h e h e lp e d f o rm a S o c i­ e ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t ( N a n k in k e n ) w h o se m e m b e rs w e n t o n to p ro d u c e scores o f p u b lic a tio n s , as d isc u sse d b y K im u r a T a k u ji in c h a p te r 15. T h e y also e d ite d m a jo r d o c u m e n t c o lle c tio n s to m a k e C h in e s e a n d W e ste rn as w ell as Ja p an e se so u rce s accessible to in te re s te d re a d e rs in Ja p a n . S im ila r p u b lic a tio n effo rts d id n o t b e g in in th e W e st u n til th e la te 1 9 9 0 s. Finally, a d ec ad e before C h in e s e a n d K o re a n c ritic is m a b o u t J a p a n ’s w a r g u ilt, th e 1 9 7 1 —7 5 d e b a te raise d tw o k e y issues fro m th e Ja p an e se p ersp e ctiv e. O n e is senso sekinin : th e cu lp a b ility , re sp o n sib ility , o r a c c o u n ta b ility th a t o rd i­ n a ry Jap an ese b ear fo r w a rtim e sins. T h e o th e r is sengo sekinin: th e c o m p o u n d e d c u lp a b ility th a t ste m s fro m h a v in g ev a d ed th a t c u lp a b ility u n til to d ay . F o r le ft-w in g h is to ria n s , senso sekinin im p u te d m e a n in g to th e w ar, d e fin e d as a fifte e n -y e a r case o f im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n m a in ly a g a in st A sia n s f ro m 1931 to 1 9 4 5 . F o r h u m a n rig h ts ac tiv ists, sengo sekinin p ro v id e d ra tio n a le s to d e m a n d th a t th e ir n a tio n c o m p e n s a te b o th fo re ig n a n d d o m e s tic v ic tim s o f th a t ag g res­ s io n .4 T h e s e e th ic a l issues re m a in u n re so lv e d to th is day. L eftists d e n o u n c e th e ir c o u n try m e n fo r m o ra l s lo th a n d ca llo u s g re e d c o m p a re d w ith p o s tw a r G e rm a n s w h o , critic s c laim , h av e a d m itte d p a s t a tro c itie s a n d p a id fo re ig n v ic tim s e ig h ty tim e s m o re in c o m p e n s a tio n m o n e y .5 C o n s e rv a tiv e re v isio n ists r e to r t th a t y o u n g Ja p a n e se to d a y live se v e n ty y ears a fte r N a n k in g , in a p o s t­ b u b b le age o f p ro lo n g e d rec essio n , b r u ta l r e s tru c tu rin g , a n d b u r g e o n in g w e l­ fare costs; a n d , u n lik e th e ir C h in e se o r K o re a n accusers, th e y h av e n e v e r w ag e d a w a r o f aggression sin ce 1 9 4 5 . W h y m u s t th e y re m a in c u lp ab le fo r th e ir g ra n d ­ p a r e n ts ’ alleged m isd ee d s? A s o n e m in im a lis t re c k o n s, claim s fo r c o m p e n s a ­ tio n w ill c o m e to “a t le a st a n average o f tw o m illio n yen [a b o u t $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 ] p e r h o u s e h o ld — e n o u g h to k ee p o n e c h ild fro m a tte n d in g u n iv e rs ity .... A n d , if 116

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

v ic tim iz a tio n claim s are g r a n te d as d e m a n d e d , th e fig u re w ill b e 10 to 100 tim e s h ig h e r.”6 W e c a n n o t k n o w h o w Ja p a n e se in th e tw e n ty -first c e n tu r y w ill reso lv e th e se c u lp a b ility issues, m a n y o f w h ic h first aro se in th is 1 9 7 1 —7 5 d e b a te . B u t as I see it, H o n d a , H o ra , a n d th e ir le ftist allies m u s t a d m it th a t, a t le a st as th e y first d e p ic te d it, th e k illin g c o n te s t w as a n “illu s io n ,” a n d in o n e k e y sense it w as “f a b ric a te d ” as w ell. In th a t sense, th e y lo st th is early d e b a te , b u t it sp a rk e d a far la rg e r c o n tro v e rs y over th e A tro c ity as a w h o le th a t, o n th e w h o le , v in ­ d ic a te d th e ir s ta n d , a n d m o re im p o rta n tly , h e ig h te n e d p o p u la r aw a re n ess o f th a t e v e n t. T h is d elay e d v ic to ry fo rc e d p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se to c o n f r o n t th e ir c o l­ lectiv e p a s t as b u tc h e rs , n o t ju s t as v ic tim s , in a w a r o f ag g re ssio n th a t b e g a n a d ec ad e b efo re P earl H a rb o r. F o r su c h re a so n s, th e d e b a te w a rra n ts close e x a m in a tio n .

The Contest First Portrayed In h is 1 9 6 7 essay o n N a n k in g , H o r a e x a m in e d C h in e se , Ja p a n e se , a n d W e st­ e rn so u rces to sift r u m o r fro m fa c t a b o u t Ja p a n e se w a r crim es. H e n o te d “tw o s u b lie u te n a n ts w h o b e g a n a 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t a t K u y u n g ,”7 a n d q u o te d th e fo llo w in g s to ry f ro m a C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a rty ( C C P ) official, as c ite d in a 1 9 6 6 b o o k b y th e jo u r n a lis t O m o r i M in o r u : “T h e y c o m p e te d to see w h o w o u ld b e first to kill 100 m e n w ith m ilita ry sw ords. M u k a i sco red 89 a n d N o d a 7 8 b y th e tim e th e y re a c h e d th e s u b u rb o f T ’a n g s h a n , tw o k ilo m e te rs fro m th e city. T h e re , th e y re su m e d th e c o n te s t w ith p e rm is s io n f ro m a s u p e rio r offi­ cer. O n re a c h in g C h u n g - s h a n -lin g [th e D r. S u n Y at-sen T o m b ], M u k a i h a d 1 0 7 a n d N o d a 10 5 . B u t n e ith e r c o u ld p ro v e w h o k ille d 1 0 0 first, so th e y e x te n d e d th e c o n te s t b y s e ttin g a n e w g o al o f 1 5 0 .”8 H o ra said h e “k n e w o f th is c o n te st fo r a lo n g tim e .”9 B u t, to m y k n o w led g e , O m o r i in 1 9 6 6 w as th e first p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se to w rite a b o u t it. N e ith e r w e n t b e y o n d th is th u m b n a il sk e tc h . N e ith e r re la te d th a t th e I n te r n a tio n a l M ilita ry T rib u n a l fo r th e F ar E ast ( IM T F E ), b e tte r k n o w n as th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, released M u k a i a n d N o d a f ro m S u g a m o P ris o n a n d e x tra d ite d th e m to s ta n d tria l a n d su ffe r e x e c u tio n as B -class w a r c rim in a ls a t th e N a n k in g M il­ ita ry T rib u n a l ( N M T ) , o n e o f 10 th a t C h ia n g K a i-sh e k ’s K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) re g im e h e ld . C h in e s e first le a rn e d o f th is “k illin g c o n te s t” f ro m E n g lish la n g u a g e article s in th e Japan Advertiser o n 7 a n d 14 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y , a n A u s tra lia n r e p o r te r fo r th e Manchester Guardian, r e p r in te d th e se as “A p p e n d ix F: T h e N a n k in g ‘M u r d e r R a c e ’” in h is 1 9 3 8 d o c u m e n t c o lle c tio n , W hat War Means; a n d , f u rth e r -r e d a c te d a c c o u n ts o f th e c o n te s t a p p e a re d in th e 1 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 issu e o f th e China Weekly Review a n d o th e r w a rtim e C h in e s e p u b lic a tio n s , b o th N a tio n a lis t a n d C o m m u n is t. T h e s e Japan Advertiser articles read : 117

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

[7 D ecem ber 1937.] Sublieutenant Toshiaki M ukai and Sublieutenant Takeshi [recte: Tsuyoshi] N oda, both o f the Katagiri u n it at Kuyung, in a friendly contest to see which o f them will first fell 100 Chinese in individual sword com bat before the Japanese forces com pletely occupy N anking, are well in the final phase o f their race, running almost neck to neck. O n Sunday w hen their u n it was fighting outside Kuyung, the “score,” according to the Asahi [recte: Tokyo nichinichi shinbun], was M ukai 89, N oda 78. [14 D ecem ber 1937.] T h e w inner o f the com petition between Sublieutenants Toshi­ aki M ukai and Iwao [recte: Tsuyoshi] N oda to see w ho w ould be the first to kill 100 Chinese w ith his Yamato sword has not been decided, the Nichinichi reports from the slopes o f Purple M ountain, outside N anking. M ukai has a score o f 106 and his rival has dispatched 105 m en, b u t the two have found it impossible to determ ine w hich passed the 100 m ark first. Instead o f settling it w ith a discussion, they are going to extend the goal by fifty. M ukai’s blade was slightly damaged in the com petition. H e explained that this was the result o f cutting a Chinese in half, helm et and all. T h e contest was “fu n ,” he declared, and he thought it a good thing that b o th m en had gone over the 100 m ark w ithout know ing th at the other h ad done so. Early Saturday m orning, w hen the Nichinichi m an interviewed the sublieutenant at a point overlooking Dr. Sun Yat-sen’s tom b, another Japanese un it set fire to the slopes o f Purple M ountain in an attem pt to drive out the Chinese troops. T h e action also sm oked out M ukai and his unit, and the m en stood idly by while bullets passed overhead. “N o t a shot hits m e while I am hold­ ing this sword on m y shoulder,” he explained confidently.10 T h e Japan Advertiser a rtic le s— q u o te d b y T im p e rle y a n d c irc u la te d in C h in a — h e ld th a t a “m u r d e r ra c e ” to o k p la c e b e tw e e n K u y u n g a n d P u rp le M o u n ta in (T z u c h in s h a n ). T h e s e a rticle s w o u ld b e c ru c ia l as ev id e n c e in exe­ c u tin g N o d a T su y o sh i ( n o t T ak e sh i o r Iw ao) a n d M u k a i T o sh ia k i fo r w a r crim es a t th e N M T . In w o rk s still in p r in t as o f Ju ly 2 0 0 6 , th e la te Iris C h a n g , E rw in W ic k e rt, J o n a th a n D . S p en ce , a n d o th e rs cite th e se a rtic le s as h isto ric a lly fac­ tu a l.11 H o w ev er, w e s h o u ld n o te , N M T re c o rd s sta te th a t th e d e fe n d a n ts w ere ex e c u te d fo r a re c re a tio n a l k illin g c o n te s t h e ld e n tire ly o n P u rp le M o u n ta in . A lth o u g h b o th p le a d e d n o t g u ilty , N M T re c o rd s c o n tin u e , th is “b e a stly a n d w ic k e d k illin g ” o f in n o c e n t n o n c o m b a ta n ts a n d P O W s w as “u n p r e c e d e n te d in th e m o d e rn h is to ry o f h u m a n ity .” O n e d e fe n d a n t, N o d a , p r o te s te d th a t th e c o n te s t n e v e r even to o k p la ce . In ste a d , h e sa id , re p o rte rs fo r th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun — w h ic h r a n th e o rig in a l a rticle s la te r tra n s la te d a n d d ig e ste d in th e Japan Advertiser — fa b ric a te d th e s to ry a fte r th e o th e r d e fe n d a n t, M u k a i, h a d b ra g g e d a b o u t th e se im a g in a ry feats. F o r h is p a r t, M u k a i in siste d th a t h e n e v e r rea lly k ille d a n y o n e b u t b o a s te d th a t h e h a d , h o p in g th e p u b lic ity w o u ld a ttr a c t “a b e tte r w ife ” afte r h e r e tu r n e d to J a p a n .12 H o r a n e ith e r sa w th e se N M T re c o rd s, n o r d id h e m e n tio n “A p p e n d ix F ” d e s p ite c itin g a Ja p a n e se tr a n s la tio n o f T im p e rle y ’s b o o k , so h e p r o b a b ly d id n o t rea d th e Japan Advertiser s to ry b e fo re w ritin g h is 1 9 6 7 essay. A ctu a lly , h e o m itte d all o f th e se d e ta ils a n d d e v o te d less th a n h a l f a p ag e to th e “k illin g c o n te s t,” p r o b a b ly b e c a u se h e fe lt it r e p re s e n te d b u t o n e m in o r d im e n s io n o f 118

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Safffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

th e N a n k in g “I n c id e n t”— as h e th e n called th e A tro c ity . H is 1 1 8 -p a g e essay w as th e first e x te n d e d e m p iric a l s tu d y o f N a n k in g b ased o n Ja p an e se, C h in e se , a n d W e ste rn sources to a p p e a r an y w h e re . As w ith m o s t p io n e e rin g w o rk s, it h a d erro rs; fo r ex a m p le , th a t th e alleg ed k illin g c o n te s t s ta rte d a t K u y u n g . S till, le ft-w in g h is to ria n s su c h as Ie n a g a S a b u ro gave th e ir im m e d ia te sta m p o f a p ­ p ro v al b y c itin g it as e v id en c e fo r th e N a n k in g A tro c ity in th e ir o w n w o rk s .13

Backdrop to the Fray H o r a T o m io ’s la n d m a r k essay d id n o t p ro v o k e a d e b a te o r in s p ire m o re re ­ search . O fte n , it is ev e n ts in th e p o litic a l re a lm th a t s p u r p u n d its , a n d sc h o l­ ars, to ta k e u p th e ir cu d g e ls. I t w as th e V ie tn a m W ar, afte r all, th a t sp a rk e d re v isio n ist sc h o la rsh ip in th e U n ite d S tate s o v er w h o s ta rte d th e C o ld W ar. S o m e th in g like th is h a p p e n e d in Ja p a n . Hyoronka, o r “c ritic s o f so c ial a n d p o ­ litica l affa irs,” k ic k e d o f f a d e b a te a b o u t N a n k in g in 1 9 7 1 —7 2 , so m e years afte r H o ra s essay, a n d it w as th e ir a g ita tio n th a t p u lle d in a c a d e m ic h isto ria n s. T h u s , a b r ie f a c c o u n t o f th e so c io p o litic a l m ilie u a t th e tim e is n e e d e d to p la ce th e k illin g c o n te s t d e b a te a n d e n s u in g c o n tro v e rs y o v er th e A tro c ity in h is to ­ r io g ra p h ic c o n te x t.14 A fter sig n in g th e 1951 S an F ran cisco Peace Treaty, Ja p a n re g a in e d so v e re ig n ty u n d e r th e S h o w a e m p e ro r— k n o w n to W e ste rn e rs a n d d isre s p e c tfu l Ja p a n e se as H ir o h ito . B u t a M u tu a l D e fe n se P act, sig n e d a t th e sa m e tim e , fo rc e d J a p a n to v io la te A rtic le IX o f its o w n C o n s titu tio n a n d to sn u g g le in to th e U .S . o r b it d u r in g th e C o ld W ar. T h is a lig n m e n t e n ta ile d re c o g n iz in g T aip ei, n o t P ek in g . J a p a n also h a d to s u p p o r t A m e ric a n w ars in A sia b y s ta tio n in g a n d se rv ic in g U .S . a rm e d fo rces a n d b y se llin g th e m w e a p o n s a n d stra te g ic m a ­ teriel. B y 1 9 7 0 —71 th e V ie tn a m W a r h a d rea c h e d its h e ig h t, a n d leftists d eclared th a t J a p a n p ro fite d f ro m it th r o u g h sp e cia l m ilita ry -re la te d p r o c u re m e n ts . T h e U n ite d S tates w as s ta rtin g to a d ju s t its b a sic A sia n p o lic ie s to a d m it th e re a l­ ity o f m a in la n d C h in a a n d its o n e b illio n in h a b ita n ts . In Ju ly 1 9 7 1 , H e n r y K issin g er secretly w e n t to th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) a n d a rra n g e d fo r a v isit b y P re s id e n t R ic h a rd N ix o n . M e a n w h ile , th e U n ite d S tate s ex p e c te d a n d g o t fu ll Ja p a n e se s u p p o r t in a fu tile a tte m p t to b lo c k th e P R C ’s e n t r y in to th e U n ite d N a tio n s in O c to b e r 1 9 7 1 . N ix o n p a id h is v isit in F e b ru a ry 1 9 7 2 — ag a in w ith o u t te llin g Ja p a n e se le a d e rs— a n d a n n o u n c e d th a t T a iw a n was p a r t o f th e P R C . H is b o lt fro m th e b lu e re p u d ia te d th e v e ry C h in a p o lic y th a t A m e ric a h a d fo rc e d J a p a n to fo llo w sin c e 1 9 5 2 . T h is was h u m ilia tin g fo r th e p ro -T a ip e i L ib e ra l D e m o c r a tic P a rty (L D P ) re g im e o f S a to E isa k u w h o h a d s to u tly resisted p re ssu re f ro m b u sin e ss a n d in d u s tria l circles to n o rm a liz e re la ­ tio n s w ith P ek in g . U n a b le to d o th is n o w -re q u ire d a b o u t-fa c e , S a to s te p p e d d o w n in J u n e 1 9 7 2 afte r c la im in g c re d it fo r re g a in in g O k in a w a — a n ev e n t th a t h e to u te d as e n d in g th e w a r fo r Ja p a n . T a n a k a K a k u e i’s re g im e b e g a n 119

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

n o r m a liz a tio n w ith th e P R C . H e sig n e d a j o in t c o m m u n iq u e in S e p te m b e r th a t in c lu d e d a n o fficial a p o lo g y fo r th e w ar: “J a p a n k e e n ly feels c u lp a b ility a n d re m o rse fo r h a v in g c a u se d grave in ju r y to th e C h in e s e p e o p le ,” a n d in th e sa m e m o n th H ir o h ito b e g a n a 7 - n a tio n g o o d w ill to u r o f E u ro p e as J a p a n ’s titu la r h e a d o f sta te . T h e se ac h ie v em e n ts d id seem to m a rk a n e n d to th e w a r fo r m a n y Jap an ese, b u t o th e r ev en ts a t th e tim e b e tra y e d th e ir sense o f clo su re . In N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 0 , M is h im a Y ukio la u n c h e d a n u p ris in g a t Ja p a n e se “a rm y ” h e a d q u a rte rs ; w h e n it failed , h e c u t o p e n h is sto m a c h . In F e b ru a ry 1 9 7 2 , s tu d e n t ra d ic a ls fo u g h t a p itc h e d b a ttle w ith p o lic e o n M t. A sa m a . T h e le ad e rs w e n t d o w n fig h tin g a n d m u r d e r e d f o u rte e n fo llo w ers to k ee p th e m fro m s u rre n d e rin g . T h is b lo o d y clash p re sa g e d o v er 3 0 0 m o re b a ttle s b e tw e e n riv al s tu d e n t sects in th e n e x t tw o years. In M a y 1 9 7 2 , th e Ja p a n e se R e d A rm y F a c tio n la u n c h e d a su ic id e ra id o n T el A viv’s L o d A ir p o rt. P e rh a p s m o s t u n s e ttlin g o f all, th re e im p e ria l a rm y m e n w ere f o u n d to b e still a t w ar: Y okoi S h o ic h i, K o z u k a K in sh ic h i, a n d O n o d a H iro . Y okoi gave u p in J a n u a ry 1 9 7 2 , b u t a p o lo g iz e d to h is c o m m a n d e r in c h ie f H ir o h ito fo r fa ilin g to p e r f o rm h is d u ty in fu ll a n d p ro c la im e d , “I a m a s h a m e d to h a v e c o m e b a c k a liv e .” K o z u k a a n d O n o d a e x c h a n g e d g u n fire w ith P h ilip p in e p o lic e in O c to b e r 1 9 7 2 . K o z u k a d ie d in a c tio n ; O n o d a fled to th e ju n g le a n d re fu se d to give u p u n til M a rc h 1 9 7 4 w h e n o rd e re d b y h is f o rm e r c o m m a n d in g officer. T h e s e ev e n ts su g g e ste d th a t e m p e ro r-s ta te m ilita ris m w as alive a n d w ell. A lm o s t as i f in re sp o n se , C h in e s e le ad e rs ch o se to slo w d o w n n o r m a liz a tio n w ith a n a tio n w h o se e m p e ro r h a d o rd e re d m assive in v a sio n s o f th e ir so il fro m 1931 to 1 9 4 5 . P R C officials sa id re p e a te d ly th a t o n ly Ja p a n e se m ilita ris ts w ere c u lp a b le fo r th e w ar; th e J a p a n ­ ese p e o p le , lik e th e C h in e s e p e o p le , w ere v ic tim s. B u t d e s p ite T a n a k a ’s offi­ cial ap o lo g y in 1 9 7 2 a n d f u r th e r e ffo rts a t r a p p r o c h e m e n t, th e P R C d id n o t c o n c lu d e a fo rm a l p ea ce tre a ty w ith J a p a n fo r a n o th e r six years. In 1 9 7 0 —7 2 , fo u r issues d o m in a te d th e m e d ia in th is h ig h ly a g ita te d s itu ­ a tio n . F irst, aside fro m d is p u tin g H ir o h ito ’s legal p o s itio n as h e a d o f sta te , le ftists c e n su re d h is g o o d w ill to u r o f E u ro p e . In ste a d , th e y ra ile d , h e first s h o u ld hav e s h o w n g o o d w ill to A sia n p e o p le s s u c h as th e C h in e s e a n d K o re ­ an s w h o su ffe re d th e m o s t f ro m h is im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n a n d w ere s h u t o u t o f p o s tw a r s e ttle m e n ts . S e c o n d , le ftists also c ritic iz e d th e L D P ’s use o f h im as a d ip lo m a tic to o l to d iv e rt c ritic is m o f p o lic ie s a t h o m e . T h ir d , th e y rev iled th e lin g e rin g effects o f T o jo H id e k i’s 1941 Senjinkun, w h ic h e n jo in e d d e a th b efo re th e d isg race o f su rre n d e r. Y okoi, K o zu k a , a n d O n o d a k n e w th e w a r w as over b u t k e p t o n fig h tin g it anyw ay. E v en th e y o u n g M is h im a w as e n th ra lle d w ith th e sa m u ra i sw o rd a n d bushido, th e w a rrio r e th o s o n w h ic h Senjinkun w as b ased . F o u rth , all o f th is h a d im p lic a tio n s fo r S in o -J a p a n e se re la tio n s. W h a t d id th e C h in e s e rea lly m e a n b y s e ttin g m ilita ris ts a p a rt fro m o r d in a ry Ja p a n e se peo p le? D id th e P R C ’s re fu sa l to sig n a p e a c e tre a ty sig n ify g e n u in e fears th a t J a p a n still e m b ra c e d o r w as re v iv in g m ilita ris m ? J u s t w h a t w as 120

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

n e e d e d to ach iev e frie n d ly re la tio n s w ith th e o n e b illio n C h in e s e liv in g n e x t door? W a rtim e Ja p an e se so ld iers m a y h av e c o m m itte d atro c itie s, b u t h o w m a n y a p o lo g ies w o u ld it ta k e to s h o w th a t th e p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se h a d re p u d ia te d th e ir past? O r, w ere ap o lo g ies rea lly called for?

Round 1: Whose Culpability? P o litic al a n d d ip lo m a tic c o n c e rn s o f th is ty p e p ro v o k e d th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t d e b a te . It d id n o t arise fro m id le c u rio s ity o r f ro m a q u e s t fo r h is ­ to ric a l veracity. T h e first salvo c a m e fro m a re p o rte r, H o n d a K a ts u ic h i, o f th e Asahi shinbun. H e to u r e d th e P R C fo r fo rty days in 1971 to in te rv ie w v ic ­ tim s o f Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n , a n d p u b lis h e d g u t- w re n c h in g re p o rts a c c o m p a ­ n ie d b y p h o to g r a p h s in th is n e w s p a p e r f ro m A u g u s t to D e c e m b e r. T h is w as a to u r de fo rce in in v e stig a tiv e re p o rtin g . It e x p o se d in g ra p h ic d e ta il fello w Ja p a n e se w h o p e r p e tra te d h id e o u s a tro c itie s. M o re th a n a n y o n e else, H o n d a fo rc e d J a p a n to c o n f r o n t N a n k in g as a n e th ic a l issu e fo r th e first tim e sin c e th e I M T F E . In 1 9 7 2 h e r e p u b lis h e d th e se re p o rts in Chugoku no Nihongun ( T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y in C h in a ) a n d in Chugoku no tabi (Travels in C h in a ) . T h e la tte r b e c a m e a b e st-se lle r a n d a p p e a re d in p a p e rb a c k . A C h in e s e tra n s la tio n cam e o u t in 1 9 7 2 , b u t H o n d a h a d a n e g lig ib le im p a c t elsew h e re b e c a u se h is w ritin g s o n N a n k in g w ere n o t tra n s la te d in to E n g lish u n til 1 9 9 9 .15 O n e o f th e 17 c h a p te rs in Chugoku no tabi deals w ith N a n k in g . In it, C h ia n g K e n -fu , a C C P m e m b e r a n d lo c al official, d e s c rib e d a 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t th a t h e h a d p ic k e d u p fro m a n ey ew itn ess to th e ev e n t, W u C h a n g -te , w h o h a d te stifie d a t th e I M T F E . W u ’s a c c o u n t, as C h ia n g c o n v e y e d it, a p ­ p e a re d in th e Asahi shinbun o n 5 N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 1 : “T his famous episode was also reported in Japan at the tim e [1937].” C hiang then described a 100-m an killing contest by two Japanese soldiers. A superior officer egged on two sublieutenants, “A ” and “B,” into playing a game, saying, “I’ll give a prize to the one w ho is first to kill 100 Chinese on the ten-kilom eter route from Kuyung to T ’angshan outside N anking.” T h e two began this game w hich ended w ith a score o f eightynine for “A ” and 78 for “B.” O n reaching T ’angshan, th e superior officer issued another order: “Try killing another 100 on the 15-kilometer route from T ’angshan to Purple M ountain [Tzuchinshan].” It ended in a score o f “A” 106, “B” 105. T his tim e they did reach that goal, b u t the superior officer said, “You guys still can’t tell m e who did it first; so start over again. T his tim e, kill 150 on the eight-kilom eter route from Purple M ountain to N anking.” C hiang added th at this last leg took them through a heavily populated area close to the city, so it was very likely that they reached their goal; but the result was unclear.16 H o n d a lab eled th is a “g a m e ” a n d d id n o t sta te th e ty p e o f w e a p o n th a t th e tw o officers u sed . H e ca lle d th e m “A ” a n d “ B ” in th e Asahi shinbun a rtic le , a n d 121

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

“M ” a n d “N ” in Chugoku no tabi. H o n d a ’s r e p o r tin g c a rrie d a clear id e o lo g ­ ical sla n t, b u t h e w as n o t c ritic a l o n ly o f Ja p a n ; h e d e c la re d th a t “th e U S a rm y in V ie tn a m c o m m its far m o re fre q u e n t a n d h id e o u s a tro c itie s th a n d id th e Ja p an e se a rm y [in C h in a ] .”17 W h e th e r w ritin g a b o u t V ie tn a m e se p e a sa n ts, U .S . blacks, N o r t h A m e ric a n ab o rig in als, o r C h in e se at N a n k in g , h e c laim ed to sp e ak u p fo r “th e sid e th a t g o t k ille d ” b ec au se th e ir s to ry h a d b e e n m u ffle d b y “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g .” H o n d a ’s p o in t w as th a t th e t r u t h a b o u t Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n in C h in a w as su p p re ss e d fo r over f o rty y ears, first b y th e e m p e ro r sta te itself, a n d la te r b y A m e ric a n s w h o fo rc e d a C o ld W a r p o lic y o f h o s tility to th e P R C o n Ja p a n . T h is is w h y Ja p a n e se in 1971 d id n o t k n o w o r h a d fo rg o tte n a b o u t w h a t th e y d id in 1 9 3 7 . S elf-sty le d “p ro g re ssiv e m e n o f c u ltu r e ” w ax e d e lo q u e n t a b o u t p ac ifism in th e m e d ia , b u t d id so fro m a n a rro w sense o f Ja p a n e se w a rtim e v ic tim iz a tio n . T h e U .S . v o lte -fa c e o n C h in a n o w c re a te d a c h a n c e to r ig h t th o se w ro n g s . J o u rn a lis ts m u s t a d m it th e ir p a s t a n d p re s e n t lies, b u t even th e m o s t “p ro g re ssiv e” w e n t o n ly halfw ay. T h e y p ra ise d th e U .S . m e d ia fo r ex p o s­ in g M y L ai a n d o th e r a tro c itie s in V ie tn a m ; n o w th e y h a d a d u ty to a to n e fo r earlier sins b y e x p o s in g th e w a r crim e s th e y re fu se d to r e p o r t fo u r d ec ad e s b efo re. M ilita ris m a n d ag g re ssio n w ere n o t a b s tra c t id e as fo r th e C h in e se ; these sto o d fo r th e rap e a n d m u rd e r o f lo v ed o n es. P o stw ar Ja p an e se h a d to feel th a t p a in , w h ic h h a d n o t a b a te d w ith tim e . I f n o t, th e y c o u ld n e v e r ach iev e peace a n d frie n d s h ip w ith th e C h in e s e p e o p le o r c o m p re h e n d P R C ch arg es th a t e m p e ro r-s ta te m ilita ris m w as re v iv in g .18 H o n d a c e n su re d th e m e d ia fo r e v a d in g c u lp a b ility to w a rd C h in a b e fo re a n d afte r 1 9 4 5 . H is a im in r e p o r tin g ev e n ts lik e th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t w as to sh o w h o w C h in e s e v ic tim s p e rc e iv e d Ja p a n e se m ilita ris m . T h e p recise ac c u ra c y o f th e ir v ic tim c o u n ts a n d o f th e ir h is to ric a l m e m o ry d id n o t o v erly c o n c e rn h im . T h u s , in r e b u ttin g o b je c tio n s b y a s k e p tic a l Isa ia h B e n -D a sa n , h e sn a rle d , “H is re a s o n in g m a k e s m e p u k e . I f k illin g 100 w as n o t m a th e ­ m a tic a lly p o ssib le, m a y b e w e s h o u ld e x p e rim e n t to see i f k illin g fifty w a s.”19 R e te llin g Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz a tio n w as n o t p a r t o f H o n d a ’s aim . T h a t sid e o f th e le d g er w as m o re th a n filled in b y w a rtim e a n d p o s tw a r a c c o u n ts lik e th o se th a t d e s c rib e d th e C h in e s e m assacre o f Ja p a n e se civ ilia n s a t T u n g c h o u in Ju ly 1 9 3 7 , b e fo re th e o u tb r e a k o f fu ll-sca le S in o -Ja p a n e se h o stilitie s. Yet H o n d a ’s a ttitu d e se e m e d cav alier to m a n y J a p a n e se — n o t all o f th e m c lo set c h a u v in ­ ists— w h o fe lt th a t jo u rn a lis ts s h o u ld g e t th e ir facts a n d fig u res s tra ig h t a n d p re s e n t b o th sides o f th e story. C ritic is m over th e k illin g c o n te s t e m e rg e d fro m a se lf-p ro c la im e d Jew, Isa­ ia h B e n -D a s a n , w ith h e lp fro m a Ja p a n e se tra n sla to r, Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i. M a n y g u essed th a t th e y w ere th e sa m e p e rs o n , esp ec ially a fte r B e n -D a s a n le ft th e d e b a te in m id - 1 9 7 2 a n d Y a m a m o to to o k u p th e g a u n tle t in h is ste a d . A fo rm e r s u b lie u te n a n t h im se lf, Y a m a m o to h a d c a u se d th e d e a th o f P h ilip p in e civ ilian s th r o u g h in a d v e r te n t ab u se, h a d c u t o f f th e lim b o f a d e a d c o m ra d e 122

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

w ith a sw o rd , a n d h a d w itn e sse d c a n n ib a lis m a m o n g Ja p a n e se tr o o p s .20 T h u s h e w as a n u n tr ie d B -class w a r crim e s su sp e c t, w h o , u n lik e M u k a i a n d N o d a , c h a n c e d to escape tria l. B e n -D a sa n d rew o n a ric h sto re o f J u d e o -C h ris tia n k n o w le d g e a n d values to b a sh H o n d a a n d th e Asahi shinbun fo r c u ltu r e - b o u n d h y p o crisy . T h e y p re a c h e d th a t “all 100 m illio n Ja p a n e se m u s t r e p e n t” b y sa y in g gomen nasai o r “fo rg iv e m e ” to th e C h in e se . As B e n -D a s a n a rg u e d , th e c a b in e t o f Im p e ria l P rin c e H ig a s h ik u n i N a r u h ik o u se d th is sa m e ra tio n a le to s h ift r e s p o n s ib ility fo r lo s­ in g th e w ar f ro m th e e m p e ro r sta te to th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le b a c k in S e p te m ­ b e r 1 9 4 5 . T h r o u g h th is b o g u s lo g ic, in d iv id u a l Ja p a n e se a b so lv ed th e m se lv es o f g u ilt b y sa y in g th a t e v e ry o n e sh a re d it. T h e Asahi shinbun to o w as c o m ­ p o u n d in g its w a rtim e sin s th r o u g h th is clever f e in t— ex a ctly th e o p p o s ite o f w h a t H o n d a c la im e d to b e d o in g . A c c o rd in g to B e n -D a s a n , Ja p a n e se m o th ­ ers sc o ld e d th e ir c h ild re n fo r n o t sa y in g gomen nasai o r sumimasen ( I ’m so rry ) as th e o b lig a to ry ritu a l c o n d itio n to b e p a rd o n e d , b u t th a t w as n o t a tru e a d m is s io n o f g u ilt. B y J u d e o -C h ris tia n s ta n d a rd s , H o n d a a n d th e Asahi shinbun m u s t do th re e th in g s . F irst, th e y h a d to b a c k u p th e ir w o rd s w ith d ee d s to e n su re th a t J a p a n n e v e r ag a in e m b ra c e d m ilita ris m o r p u rs u e d im p e ria lism . S e c o n d , h a v in g ac cu sed “A ” a n d “ B ” o f w a r crim es, th e y h a d a re s p o n s ib ility to id e n tif y th o se m e n so th a t ju s tic e c o u ld b e d o n e . T h ir d , th e ra n k -a n d -file w h o c o m m itte d su c h a tro c itie s d id n o t go to C h in a w illin g ly ; th e y w ere d ra fte d to fig h t, k ill, a n d d ie th e re . J u s t as th e C h in e s e said , th e se tro o p s to o w ere v ic tim s o f Ja p a n e se m ilita ris m . So H o n d a a n d th e Asahi shinbun m u s t in d ic t th o se a t th e to p , th o se u ltim a te ly re sp o n sib le . In th is sly way, B e n -D a s a n d a re d H o n d a a n d th e Asahi shinbun to call H ir o h ito a w a r c rim in a l in p u b lic .21 H o n d a d e ig n e d to r e to r t th a t su c h v iew s w ere b a n a l. H e h a d a lre a d y p re ­ s e n te d th e m in Enpitsu, a n Asahi shinbun c o m p a n y n e w sle tte r, a n d in Gekkan Shakaito, a n o rg a n fo r w h a t w as th e n th e J a p a n S o c ia list P arty. H e k n e w th a t a p o lo g iz in g w as a w e ig h ty a c t overseas; it m e a n t a d m ittin g g u ilt a n d a c c e p t­ in g p o ssib le p u n is h m e n t. P ersonally, h e re fu se d to d o th a t to th e C h in e se . H e w as a m e re la d d u r in g th e w ar, h a d c o m m itte d n o a tro c itie s, a n d so h a d n o re a so n to ap o lo g ize . M o reo v er, fo rm u la ic ap o lo g ies lik e S ato E isa k u ’s o r T a n a k a K a k u e i’s d id n o t rea lly a to n e fo r J a p a n ’s w a rtim e cu lp a b ility . T h e C h in e s e w a n te d m e asu res to e n s u re th a t J a p a n h a d re n o u n c e d w ars o f ag g re ssio n , a n d th e y w a n te d th o se le ad e rs re sp o n sib le fo r th e la st o n e to face ju s tic e a t J a p a n ­ ese h a n d s . T h e n H o n d a to o k B e n -D a s a n ’s b a it. H e sa id th a t Ja p a n e se w h o k e p t still a b o u t H ir o h ito ’s w a r crim e s h a d n o b u sin e ss a p o lo g iz in g to C h in a . T h e s e w a r crim es, like th o se o f U .S . p re s id e n ts in V ie tn a m , d eserv ed th e u ltim a te p u n ­ is h m e n t. I f B e n -D a s a n w ere C h in e se , h e w o u ld c la m o r fo r H ir o h ito ’s ex e cu ­ tio n as m u c h as fo r A d o lp h E ic h m a n n ’s. H o n d a liv e d b y th a t c o n v ic tio n . Privately, h e h a te d J a p a n ’s s ta te -r u n b ro a d c a s tin g n e tw o rk , N H K , fo r la u d in g th e e m p e r o r ’s 1971 v isit to E u ro p e . N H K u se d th e m o s t h o n o rific la n g u a g e 123

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

fo r H ir o h ito , a n d it sig n e d o n a n d o f f d a ily w ith Kimigayo, th e ex tra leg a l n a tio n a l a n th e m a n d p a e a n to J a p a n ’s kim i o r so v e re ig n ru le r, w h ic h b la ta n tly v io la te d p o p u la r so v e re ig n ty as s tip u la te d in th e d e m o c ra tic p o s tw a r c o n s ti­ tu tio n . So H o n d a d id n o t p a y th e m o n th ly N H K s u b s c rip tio n fee a n d w ro te essays te llin g p e o p le h o w to s k irt legal p r o s e c u tio n fo r th is a c t o f d e fia n c e .22 P ublicly, to o , h is jo u r n a lis m e n lig h te n e d o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se a b o u t H ir o h ito ’s p rim itiv e , b a rb a ric n a tu re as a s h a m a n h ig h p rie st, a n d a b o u t h o w a b s u rd it w as to k eep o n w o rs h ip in g h im : “E v en th e n ativ es o f N e w G u in e a w o u ld s c o ff” a t s u c h b a c k w ard n e ss. H o n d a also e x p la in e d w h a t th e P R C m e a n t b y s e ttin g m ilita ris ts a p a rt fro m th e Ja p an e se p e o p le . M o s t Ja p an e se w ere p u z z le d b ec au se th e y d id n o t grasp th e k e y C h in e s e id e a o f class. W h a t th e C h in e s e w a n te d , h e said , w as a class allian ce fro m b e lo w th a t tra n s c e n d e d sta te b o rd e rs. It w o u ld b in d “th e sid e th a t g o t k ille d ”— th e c o m m o n p e o p le in b o th sta te s. A n d it w o u ld o v e rth ro w “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g ”— p o s tw a r re g im e s h e a d e d b y w a r c rim in a ls , H ir o h ito a n d C h ia n g K a i-sh e k .23 B e n -D a s a n r e to r te d th a t H o n d a w as e v a d in g c u lp a b ility . W a rtim e Ja p a n e se h a d excused th e ir sin s b y in v o k in g th e e m p e r o r ’s s a n c tio n ; n o w H o n d a d id th a t b y s a d d lin g h im w ith b la m e . L ik e a tw o -fa c e d “o ld w ife ,” h e flirte d w ith th e n e x t-d o o r n e ig h b o r b u t d id n o th in g to “g e t rid o f ” h e r o ld m a n afte r g o in g b a c k h o m e . H e w ro te d a m n in g essays in o b sc u re jo u rn a ls th a t few rea d ; th a t w as like cu rsin g b e h in d closed d o o rs. N o r d id n o n p a y m e n t o f N H K su b sc rip ­ tio n fees in d ic t H ir o h ito ’s w a r crim es. H o n d a s h o u ld p u t h is p e n w h e re h is m o u th w as a n d p u b lis h a n o p e n le tte r sp e c ify in g th e se as a ste p to w a rd H iro h ito ’s p ro s e c u tio n . I f th a t w ere im p o s sib le , H o n d a s h o u ld a t le ast n a m e n a m e s in th e k illin g c o n te st. B e n -D a s a n p ro te s te d th e im p o s s ib ility o f s u c h a “g a m e .” H e r e c k o n e d th a t so ld ie rs m a rc h a b o u t fo u r k ilo m e te rs a n h o u r, so th e offi­ cers’ 1 0 -k ilo m e te r tre k fro m K u y u n g to T ’a n g s h a n , as H o n d a d e s c rib e d it, w o u ld ta k e 2 .5 h o u rs. T o sco re e ig h ty -n in e kills a lo n g th a t ro u te , 1 k illin g h a d to take place every m in u te a n d th irty -six se co n d s— clearly an a b su rd pace. M o re ­ over, B e n -D a sa n asked, ju s t h o w d id ea ch officer ta b u la te a n d c o n firm n o t o n ly h is o w n , b u t also h is o p p o n e n t’s, score? T h e te rm “ 1 0 0 -m a n ” w as a n exag­ g e ra tio n , a C h in e s e rh e to ric a l flo u rish fo r “m a n y ” ; it c o u ld ju s t as w ell h av e b e e n “ 1 ,0 0 0 -m a n .”24 W h a t th e C h in e s e in f o r m a n t h a d o ra lly c o n v e y e d w as a le g e n d . I f H o n d a d id n o t p erc eiv e its fictiv en ess, h e w as in e p t; i f h e d id a n d re p o r te d it anyw ay, h e w as d is h o n e s t. I t w as o n e th in g to r e p o r t th a t th e C h i­ nese m is to o k a le g e n d fo r h is to ric a l fac t, q u ite a n o th e r to p re s e n t it as s u c h .25 T h u s , B e n -D a sa n m a d e th e cru c ial d istin c tio n , n o w o fte n ig n o re d o r d en ied , b e tw e e n fa c t a n d m e m o ry . In a n y case, h e said , H o n d a ’s re fu sa l to n a m e n a m e s p ro v e d th e n o n e x is te n c e o f th is e v e n t. H o n d a p re s u m e d h im s e lf to b e th e m o s t a d v a n c e d th in k e r in Ja p a n . H e e x u d e d c o n te m p t fo r h is b a c k w a rd c o u n ­ try m e n ; th a t is, ev e ry o n e else, w h o c lu n g to “a b s u rd a n d b a rb a ric c u s to m s ” th a t “even th e n a tiv e s o f N e w G u in e a w o u ld s c o ff a t .” T h is s lu rre d n o t o n ly p e o p le in J a p a n a n d N e w G u in e a . Jew s p ra c tic e d c irc u m c isio n , a c u s to m th a t 124

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

p re d a te d s h a m a n is m a n d se e m e d ev en m o re “a b s u rd a n d b a r b a ric .” H o n d a ’s lu s t to d e s tro y e v e ry th in g h e d islik e d r e m in d e d B e n -D a s a n o f N a z i m o tiv e s b e h in d th e H o lo c a u s t.26 P e d a n tic a lly g ra c in g h is p a r tin g s h o t w ith c ita tio n s f ro m a n c ie n t H e b re w classics, B e n -D a s a n d e liv e re d h is m o s t te llin g b lo w — o n e th a t Ja p a n e se le ftists re m a in u n a b le to c o u n te r to th is day. H o n d a in siste d th a t h is cause lay w ith “th e sid e th a t g o t k ille d ,” y e t d isa v o w ed a n y p e rso n a l c u lp a b ility fo r th e w a r b e c a u se h e w as a b o y a n d d id n o t c o m m it a n y a tro c ­ ities h im self. In re sp o n se , B e n -D a s a n a rg u e d th a t th e C h in e s e fea re d th is lin e o f re a s o n in g m o re th a n a n y th in g else. A c c o rd in g to it, v irtu a lly all Ja p a n e se so o n w o u ld b e lo n g to th e p o s tw a r g e n e ra tio n a n d b e ev en less g u ilty th a n H o n d a . In a few y ears, no Ja p a n e se w o u ld n e e d to b e a r any c u lp a b ility fo r w a rtim e d ee d s b ec au se th e y h a d n o t y e t b e e n b o r n a n d w ere n o t p e rso n a lly in v o lv e d . P o stw ar Ja p a n e se c o u ld th e n c la im all th e assets, y e t r e p u d ia te all th e lia b ilitie s, le ft b y th e ir fo re b e a rs. B e n -D a s a n d isp a ra g e d H o n d a ’s a ttitu d e b y c o n tra s tin g it w ith th a t o f W e st G e r m a n p re m ie r W illy B ra n d t, w h o rea lly d id ta k e “th e sid e th a t g o t k ille d .” B r a n d t h a d risk e d h is life b y o p p o s in g th e N az is in h is y o u th ; y e t h e a p o lo g iz e d o n h is h a n d s a n d k n ee s to Jew s in W a r­ saw fo r N a z i a tro c itie s. H e a c c e p te d re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e g u ilt o f fello w G e r­ m a n s, th o u g h w h o lly in n o c e n t h im se lf. T h u s B ra n d t, u n lik e H o n d a , e a rn e d th e m o ra l r ig h t to c e n su re fe llo w n a tio n a ls w h o h a d s in n e d .27 H o n d a r e to r te d th a t H ir o h ito w o u ld n e v e r a n sw e r a n o p e n le tte r, in v e ig h e d a g a in st d is c rim in a to ry e d ito ria l p o lic ie s a t Shokun! (w h ic h w as tru e ), a n d in ­ v o k e d a Je w ish S tu d ie s frie n d to d is c re d it B e n -D a s a n ’s c o m p e te n c e in a n c ie n t H e b re w .28 Finally, H o n d a d isc lo se d th e fo llo w in g o rig in a l w a rtim e n e w sp a p e r a rtic le — w ritte n b y A sa m i K az u o a n d S u z u k i Jiro in Ja p a n e se — w h ic h h e th o u g h t w as th e ace u p h is sleeve: Sublieutenants M ukai Toshiaki and N oda Iwao [recte: Tsuyoshi]— those intrepid spir­ its in the K atagiri U n it— began a novel 100-m an killing contest before entering N anking. O n the tenth, they reached a score o f 106 to 105 while assaulting Purple M ountain [Tzuchinshan]. At about noon on the ten th , the tw o faced each other w ith swords in hand, although these were dented, as m ight be expected. Noda: “I’ve (ore) got 105; how about you (kisama)?” Mukai: “I’ve (ore) got 106.” Both: “Ah, ha, ha. In the end, we didn’t fuss about w ho reached 100 first. Instead, we agreed, ‘Let’s call this one a draw. W ant to try another 150?’ and began a new quest for 150 on the eleventh.” T h a t’s how M ukai described their “draw” while rounding u p defeated Chinese on Pur­ ple M ountain directly overlooking Sun Yat-sen’s tom b [Chungshanling] on the after­ noon o f the 11th. “It’s great to find that we b o th got over 100 before we knew it. M y Seki no magoroku got dented when I sliced a Chinese in h alf down the middle, steel hel­ m et and all, like a hollow bam boo stalk (kara take wari). T h a t’s w hen I vowed to donate this sword to your paper when the war ends. At 3 a.m. on the eleventh we used novel tactics to flush out the enem y on Purple M ountain. But I got flushed out myself 125

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

and stood m y ground am id a hail o f bullets. W ith sword in hand, I cursed, ‘W h o gives a dam n!’ T h at nothing hits m e is due to this baby,” he said, pointing to the Magoroku that had just sipped the fresh blood o f 106 men. All o f this took place while we ignored the curtain o f enem y gunfire streaming at us. P hoto Caption: “Sublieutenants N oda Iwao [recte. Tsuyoshi], (right), and M ukai Toshiaki (left), w ho had a ‘100-m an killing contest’.” (Photo by Special Correspondent Sato [Shin]).29

T h is is th e o rig in a l J a p a n e se -la n g u a g e artic le , d a te d 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , o n w h ic h th e Japan Advertiser E n g lish -la n g u a g e d ig e st o f 14 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 w as b ased . H a v in g th u s n a m e d th e c u lp rits a n d c ite d th e o rig in a l so u rc e th a t d a m n e d th e m , H o n d a d e c la re d th a t h is tim e w as to o p re c io u s to w aste a rg u ­ in g w ith a ju v e n ile s m a rt aleck. C o n f id e n t th a t h e h a d c lin c h e d h is p o in t, h e b a d e Shokun! rea d e rs a c o n te m p tu o u s “sa y o n a ra ” a n d le ft th e d e b a te . I f H o n d a w as o p e n ly ab u siv e, B e n -D a s a n sa tiric a lly c o u c h e d h is d e risio n in d e fe re n tia l la n g u a g e . N e ith e r d isp la y e d m u c h c h a rm , b u t h e re w e s h o u ld reflect b riefly o n th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e ir r u n - in . B e n -D a s a n d e ftly e x p lo ite d th e ru se o f a fo re ig n id e n tity to “b a s h ” Ja p a n , a n d d id so fo r r ig h t-w in g ra th e r th a n le ft-w in g causes as is g e n e ra lly tru e to d a y . In 1 9 7 2 , h e c h id e d p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se b y c o n tra s tin g th e m w ith G e rm a n s w h e n it ca m e to a s su m in g c u l­ p a b ility fo r th e w ar. H e h in te d th a t H ir o h ito a n d o th e r Ja p a n e se w a r c rim i­ n als s h o u ld b e in d ic te d b y th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le th e m se lv e s, as th e G e rm a n s h a d trie d N azis. M o s t te llin g o f all, h e a c cu sed H o n d a o f s id in g w ith J a p a n ­ ese v ic tim iz e rs r a th e r th a n w ith C h in e s e v ic tim s . B e in g a c h ild o r n o t y e t b e in g alive in 1 9 3 7 d id n o t ab so lv e y o u n g e r Ja p a n e se fro m c u lp a b ility fo r w a r crim es a n d a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g . B e n -D a s a n said , in effect, th a t c h ild re n o f a fe lo n c o u ld n o t in h e r it h is ill-g a in e d f o rtu n e w ith o u t also o w n in g u p to h is crim es, a t least o n a m o ra l p la n e . H o n d a h a d re a so n to d o u b t B e n -D a s a n ’s sin c erity . A fe w y ears later, th is sam e m a n — w ritin g as Y am a m o to S h ic h ih e i— c h a n te d th e m a n tr a o f rig h t-w in g excuses to absolve H ir o h ito f ro m c u lp a b ility fo r th e w a r.30 Yet in h is a ssu m e d Je w ish p e rso n a , Y a m a m o to r ip p e d a p a rt th e c o c o o n o f illu sio n s w h e re in J a p a n ­ ese le ftists to o k cozy re fu g e. U n a b le to re fu te h is a rg u m e n ts , th e y w e n t o n to a d o p t th e se as th e ir o w n — p e rh a p s fu rtiv e ly a t tim e s, b u t u n k n o w in g ly fo r th e m o s t p a r t. In 1 9 8 5 , fo r ex a m p le , Ie n a g a S a b u ro h e ld th a t ev en g e n e ra tio n s b o r n afte r th e w a r b o re re s p o n s ib ility fo r it b e c a u se th e y in h e rite d p o sitiv e legacies le ft b y fo re b e a rs w h o c o m m itte d a tro c itie s .31 In o th e r w o rd s , y o u n g Ja p a n e se b e n e fite d f ro m in s titu tio n s b u ilt b y th e w a r tim e -to -p o s tw a r g e n e ra ­ tio n , su c h as sc h o o ls, h o sp ita ls, a n d th e ju s tic e sy stem . H a v in g a c c e p te d th e se assets, th e y m u s t b e a r th e a c c o m p a n y in g lia b ilitie s, s u c h as c o m p e n s a tin g fo r­ eig n a n d d o m e s tic v ic tim s o f th e w ar. L ikew ise, in a 1 9 9 7 essay o n N a n k in g , H o n d a re c k o n e d th a t p o s tw a r G e rm a n s sc o re d “ 5 0 o u t o f 1 0 0 ” w h e re a s J a p a n ­ ese ra te d “tw o o r th re e o u t o f 1 0 0 ” w h e n it ca m e to re p e n tin g a n d s e ttlin g p a s t a c c o u n ts .32 Yet a n o th e r p a ra d o x lies in H o n d a ’s refu sal to say gomen nasai 126

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

(forgive m e ). T h a t a ttitu d e lies a t th e h e a r t o f r ig h t-w in g th in k in g a b o u t J a p a n ’s n o n c u lp a b ility fo r th e w a r.33 Yet H o n d a ’s o p p o n e n ts in th e la te r c o n ­ tro v ersy over N a n k in g — H a ta I k u h ik o a n d even th e K a ik o s h a a rm y officers— hav e ap o lo g ize d to th e C h in e s e p e o p le .34

Round 2: Indicting the Media F o r academ ics, it is th e N u re m b e rg a n d T ok y o trib u n a ls th a t first sp rin g to m in d w h e n th e to p ic o f w a r crim e s tria ls arises. T h o s e tw o trib u n a ls w ere o f re v o ­ lu tio n a r y sig n ific a n c e in e s ta b lish in g th e p rin c ip le th a t civ ilized n a tio n s w o u ld n o lo n g e r to le ra te A -class c rim e s a g a in st p ea ce a n d h u m a n ity . N u re m b e rg a n d T o k y o set th e e th ic a l a n d legal p re c e d e n t th a t sta te le a d e rs w h o p la n a n d p u r ­ sue w ars o f ag g ressio n s h o u ld b e p u n is h e d — ev en i f in te r n a tio n a l la w m u s t b e a p p lie d re tro a c tiv e ly to c o n v ic t th e m . T h is p re c e d e n t h a d d u b io u s v a lid ity to s ta rt w ith , a n d it h as b e e n selec tiv e ly ig n o re d sin c e th e n . N o U .S . p re s id e n t, fo r ex a m p le , ever s to o d tria l fo r A -class w a r c rim e s in I n d o c h in a . T h e r e in lies m u c h o f th e in te r e s t fo r a c ad e m ic s. B y c o n tra s t, th e tria ls th a t jo lte d m o s t o r d in a ry p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se p e o p le w ere th o se fo r c o n v e n tio n a l B -class w a r c rim e s h e ld a t f o rty -n in e sites in A sia a n d th e Pacific. M a n y Ja p a n e se rec all th e d ra m a , Watashi wa kai ni naritai (I w a n t to b e re b o r n as a sh e ll-fish ) th a t d e p ic ts a n e n liste d m a n u n ju s tly c h a rg e d a n d e x e c u te d a t th e Y o k o h a m a tr ib u n a l fo r a b u s in g A llie d P O W s . I f in te r n a ­ tio n a l la w h a d b e e n c o n s is te n tly a p p lie d , Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i w o u ld h av e b e e n a B -class w a r c rim in a l. H e n e v e r a p p e a re d in c o u rt. B u t so m e 5 ,7 0 0 o th e r Ja p a n e se d id ; a n d w ell over 9 0 0 o f th e m rec eiv e d th e d e a th s e n te n c e , o fte n afte r w h a t ca n o n ly b e ca lle d trav e stie s o f ju s tic e .35 T h e e x e c u tio n o f a lm o st 1 0 0 0 ra n k -a n d -file c o n v ic ts h a d a g re a te r im p a c t o n far m o re Ja p a n e se th a n d id th e h a n g in g o f 8 A -class c o n v ic ts a t th e I M T F E . C o n s e rv a tiv e re v isio n ­ ists in J a p a n to d a y d e n o u n c e th e T o k y o tria l as “v ic to rs ’ ju s tic e ,” b u t few J a p ­ anese in 1 9 4 8 sh e d te ars o v er T o jo H id e k i a n d co m p a n y . In d e e d , T o jo fa m ily m e m b e rs c la im th e y w ere c ru e lly o stra c iz e d d u rin g , a n d fo r y ears after, th e I M T F E .36 M o s t Ja p a n e se w o rrie d a b o u t g e ttin g e n o u g h to eat everyday, a n d th e g e n e ra l m o o d w as th a t g u ilty v e rd ic ts w ere u n a v o id a b le sin c e J a p a n lo st th e w ar. Yet m a n y also fe lt th a t th e A -class c o n v ic ts g o t th e ir c o m e u p p a n c e — th o u g h n o t fo r c o m m ittin g a tro c itie s a g a in st fo re ig n e rs a t p la ce s su c h as N a n ­ k in g . In ste a d , it w as felt, th o se m e n s h o u ld b e m a d e to a n sw e r fo r reck lessly s ta rtin g a h o p eless w a r w ith th e U n ite d S tate s th a t c a u se d J a p a n u n to ld m is ­ e ry a n d d e a th . T h is is th e id e a o f haisen sekinin — “c u lp a b ility fo r lo s in g th e w a r.” T h e flip sid e, o f c o u rse , is th a t n o o n e w o u ld b e c u lp a b le i f J a p a n h a d p ic k e d o n a w ea k e r foe a n d w o n .37 In c o n s id e rin g h o w o r d in a r y p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se g ra sp e d th is issu e o f c u l­ p ab ility , w e m u s t e x a m in e th e ro le p la y e d b y th e m e d ia in th e w a rtim e -to 127

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

p o stw a r tra n s itio n . G e rm a n jo u rn a lis ts a n d n e w sp a p e rs w h o p ra ise d H itle r a n d th e N a z i w a r effo rt s to p p e d p u b lis h in g in th e p o stw a r era; Ja p an e se jo u rn a lis ts a n d n e w sp a p e rs th a t h a d p la y e d s im ila r ro les d id n o t. T h e y n e ith e r a d m itte d n o r a to n e d fo r w h ip p in g u p h a tre d a g a in st C h in a o r fo r s p re a d in g lies a b o u t th e w a r issu ed b y Im p e ria l H e a d q u a rte rs . T h o s e w a rtim e lies, fo r ex a m p le , h e ld th a t u sin g th e a to m ic b o m b sh o w e d h o w d e s p e ra te th e U n ite d S tate s h a d b e c o m e , o r th a t w e a rin g th ic k c lo th in g w o u ld p r o te c t p e o p le fro m ra d ia tio n in f u rth e r n u c le a r a tta c k s .38 A s S e n o K a p p a ’s b e s tse llin g se m ific tio n a l a u to b i­ o g rap h y , Shonen H , relates: “M o re th a n th e e n e m y w h o fire -b o m b e d us, I h a te d th o se [Japanese] w h o k e p t d e c e iv in g us b y ly in g o r h id in g th e t r u t h — th e g o v e rn m e n t, m ilita ry , a n d n e w s p a p e rs .”39 I t w as to th is s e n tim e n t— w id e ­ sp re a d a m o n g su rv iv o rs o f th e w a r— th a t Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i a n d h is tim e ly ally S u z u k i A k ira a p p e a le d . T h e y c h a rg e d th a t th e m a ss m e d ia av id ly p r o ­ m o te d im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n in th e n a m e o f p a trio tis m u p to 1 9 4 5 , b u t th e se sa m e jo u rn a lis ts , o fte n w ritin g in th e sa m e p a p e rs, n o w fo ste re d g o o d w ill to w a rd C h in a b y a to n in g fo r w a rtim e sins. A n d , th is n e w f o u n d taigi meibun, o r “u n assailab le ju s t c a u se ,” m e a n t re te llin g th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t w ith s u ita b le e m b e llis h m e n ts to m a k e M u k a i a n d N o d a sc a p e g o a ts fo r a se c o n d tim e . T h u s , r o u n d tw o in th e k illin g c o n te s t d e b a te c e n te re d o n tw o p o in ts . F irst, Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i s o u g h t to p ro v e th e se d e fe n d a n ts in n o c e n t, as if a t a N a n k in g re tria l. M o re im p o rta n tly , th o u g h , th e se tw o c ritic s e x p o se d th e s o rd id w a rtim e b e h a v io r o f p o s tw a r le ft-w in g re p o rte rs s u c h as A sa m i K azu o . H e w as th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun (la te r M ainichi shinbun) re p o r te r w h o m th e y accu sed o f fa b ric a tin g th e k illin g c o n te s t in 1 9 3 7 a n d re fu s in g to a d m it th a t in 1 9 4 7 — w h e n d o in g so w o u ld h av e sav ed M u k a i a n d N o d a fro m exe­ c u tio n a t th e N M T . S u z u k i a t first h e ld th a t th e re w ere illusions in th e N a n k in g m a ssa c re .40 A lth o u g h h is p o s itio n la te r c h a n g e d , h e d id n o t o rig in a lly c la im th a t th e w h o le N a n k in g A tro c ity was an illusion. H e a d m itte d th a t im p e ria l tro o p s p e r p e ­ tr a te d r a n d o m a n d in e x c u sa b le k illin g s a t N a n k in g s ta rtin g o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , b u t in s is te d th a t th e se c o u ld n o t b e a c c u ra te ly q u a n tifie d o w in g to th e d e a r th o f reliab le p r im a ry so u rce s. In A p ril 1 9 7 2 , h is av o w ed a im w as to sh o w th a t so m e e p iso d e s— s u c h as th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t— w ere “illu so ry .” To th a t e n d , h e q u o te d th e fo llo w in g Tokyo nichinichi shinbun r e p o r t o f th is c o n ­ te st d a te d 3 0 N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . I t sh o w e d h o w b a d ly m is ta k e n th e m e m o rie s o f H o n d a ’s C h in e s e in f o rm a n ts h a d b ee n :

U nit XX [identity disguised under w artim e state censorship], whose dem on-like assault from C h’angshu to W uhsi covered those 40 km in six days, now covered another forty from W uhsi to C h’angchou in three. T h eir attack was as swift as the gods and even m ore sweet. A t the front, two young officers in the Katagiri U nit are staging a 100-man killing contest. W e hear that one scored fifty-six and the other twenty-five soon after leaving W uhsi. Sublieutenant M ukai Toshiaki, age twenty-six, o f the Toyama [Takeo] 128

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

U nit, is from Kojiro Village, Kuga County, Yamaguchi Prefecture. N oda Takeshi [recte: Tsuyoshi], age twenty-five, o f the same U nit, from Tashiro Village, K im otsuki County, Kagoshima Prefecture. Setting off from W uhsi, M ukai advanced twenty-six or twentyseven kilom eters down a rail line, and N oda followed alongside until the tw o parted company. By the next m orning, N oda reached W uhsi H am let, about eight kilom eters outside W uhsi. Shouting out his nam e lest the enem y mistake it, N oda ferociously plunged tow ard a pillbox and cut down four men inside. O n hearing N oda’s war cry, M ukai plucked up his resolve, vowing not to be outdone. T h at night, M ukai and his m en swooped down on enem y defenses at H englinchen where fifty-five were felled. Later on, N oda cut down another nine at H englinchen, six at W eikuanchen; and, on tw enty-nine November, another six at C h’angchou Station, for a total o f twenty-five. M ukai later cut down four near the station. T h a t’s where we caught up w ith the two having a little encounter. Mukai: “At this rate, I’ll (ore) get 100 by the tim e we reach Tanyang; it won’t take me until N anking. A dm it it, Noda; you lost. M y blade sliced through fifty-six m en w ith only one dent to show for it.” Noda: “W e two (bokura) make it a rule not to cut down anyone who hightails it for dear life. I’m (boku) serving as an XX [XX o yatte iru], so it’s not easy to up m y n u m ­ bers. But you’ll see w hat a real record is by the tim e we reach Tanyang.41 W h e n ch e c k e d a g a in st th is o rig in a l J a p a n e se -la n g u a g e Tokyo nichinichi s to ry d a te d 3 0 N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , S u z u k i A k ira d e te c te d a n “illu s io n ” in all p re ­ v io u s a c c o u n ts th a t h a d d e p ic te d a g am e o r a m u r d e r race a g a in st help less n o n ­ c o m b a ta n ts . A s a w ritte n so u rc e c o n te m p o ra n e o u s to th e e v e n t in q u e s tio n , S u z u k i’s d o c u m e n t w as m o re re lia b le th a n s e c o n d h a n d E n g lish -la n g u a g e Japan Advertiser a c c o u n ts u se d b y H a r o ld J. T im p e rley , o r th e th irty -fiv e -y e a r-o ld m e m o rie s o rally c o n v e y e d b y H o n d a K a ts u ic h i’s C h in e s e in fo rm a n ts . T h is p r i­ m a ry so u rc e sh o w s th a t th e c o n te s t to o k p la c e in c o m b a t. H e n c e , it w as n o t a w a r crim e, fo r k illin g a rm e d e n e m y so ld ie rs in b a ttle is w h a t w a r is all a b o u t. H o n d a m ig h t r e to r t th a t su c h k illin g s w o u ld still c o n s titu te a w a r c rim e b e ­ cause th e officers w ere p a r t o f a n in v a d in g a rm y th a t v io la te d in te r n a tio n a l law. B u t even i f w e g r a n t h im th a t p o in t, im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t le ad e rs w h o o rd e re d th e in v a sio n w o u ld b e th e o n e s to s ta n d tria l fo r A -class w a r crim es. N o m a tte r h o w m a n y a rm e d C h in e s e so ld iers M u k a i a n d N o d a k ille d in c o m ­ b a t, th e y c o u ld n o t le g itim a te ly b e trie d fo r B -class w a r c rim e s a t th e N M T . A b o v e all, how ev er, S u z u k i stressed h o w a b s u rd it w as fo r a n y o n e to ta k e th is a rticle se rio u sly a t all— w h e th e r in 1 9 3 7 o r in 1 9 7 2 . A sa m i K az u o a n d th e o th e r w rite rs m a d e little a tte m p t to im b u e th e ir sto rie s w ith v e risim ili­ tu d e ; a n d , w e m u s t c o n c u r, th e to n e d o es re se m b le th a t o f kodanshi o r katsuben — tr a d itio n a l ta le -te lle rs o r n a r ra to rs in sile n t m o v ie s. T h is is clear fro m th e p h ra se , “slicin g a m a n in h a lf d o w n th e m id d le , ste el h e lm e t a n d all, lik e a h o llo w b a m b o o s ta lk ” (kara take wari).” A lso, N o d a c a llin g o u t h is n a m e b efo re b a ttle is a s to c k lite ra ry d ev ice d a tin g fro m m e d ie v a l w a r tales s u c h as th e H eiki monogatari. S u z u k i re a so n e d th a t A sa m i w ro te a p ro p a g a n d a -c u m 129

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

e n te r ta in m e n t p ie c e in a n era w h e n jo u rn a lis ts d id th a t as p a r t o f th e w a r effo rt. As c o m m o n sense w o u ld d ic ta te , n o s w o rd -w ie ld in g f o o t so ld ie r c o u ld live to b ra g a b o u t c h a rg in g h e a d lo n g at e n e m y p illb o x es e q u ip p e d w ith m a c h in e g u n s .42 As o u ts id e W e s te rn o b se rv e rs, w e m ig h t lik e n th e se s u p e rh u m a n h e r o ­ ics to th o se d e p ic te d in th e Ja p a n e se “th re e h u m a n b o m b s ” sag a fa b ric a te d d u r in g th e 1 9 3 2 S h a n g h a i I n c id e n t, to w a rtim e J o h n W a y n e m o v ie s, to th e im p o s sib le e x p lo its p o rtra y e d in th e 1 9 6 0 s te le v isio n series Combat or, m o re recen tly , to R a m b o film s. Yet a c c o rd in g to S u z u k i, p o s tw a r le ftists d is to rte d th is ta le a n d e x p lo ite d it as a s y m b o l o f Ja p a n e se b e s tia lity th a t d e m a n d e d c o n tin u in g ap o lo g ies in th e n a m e o f frie n d s h ip w ith C h in a . A n d , n o t b y c h a n c e , th e y lin e d th e ir p o c k e ts d o in g so. A sam i K az u o w as o n e su c h sin o p h ile . H e p ra ise d M a o T s e -tu n g a n d th e C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n in th e 1 9 7 0 s. B u t A sa m i w as in fa c t o n e o f th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun re p o rte rs w h o c o n triv e d th e 1 9 3 7 k illin g c o n te s t s to ry to in sp ire c o n te m p t fo r C h in a a n d to raise fig h tin g s p irits a t h o m e . A n d , n o t b y ch a n ce , h e h a d c u rrie d fav o r w ith th e a rm y to a d v a n c e h is w a rtim e career. In 1 9 7 2 A sam i w ro te fo r th e v e ry sa m e p ap e r, a lth o u g h it h a d b e e n r e n a m e d th e M ainichi shinbun in J a n u a ry 1 9 4 3 . T o S u z u k i A k ira , th e in te g r ity o f A sam i a n d o th e r “p ro g ressiv e m e n o f c u ltu r e ” se e m e d d u b io u s . C o n tr a r y to H o n d a , S u z u k i e x p lo re d th e issu e o f w a rtim e c u lp a b ility fro m “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g .” P a rtly th is w as to v in d ic a te M u k a i a n d N o d a w h o m , S u z u k i asserte d , th e K M T re g im e h a d u n ju s tly e x e c u te d as w a r c rim in a ls b a se d o n th e se n ew s re p o rts . A fte r n o tin g th a t th e re w ere few re lia b le p r im a ry so u rce s in Ja p a n e se o r C h in e se , S u zu k i critic a lly e x a m in e d th ir d - p a r ty so u rces su c h as E d g a r S n o w ’s Battle fo r Asia, A g n es S m e d le y ’s Battle H ym n o f China, a n d H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y ’s W hat War Means. S u z u k i re je c te d th e se as p r o d u c ts o f v ir u le n t w a rtim e a n ti-Ja p a n e se p r o p a g a n d a . H e th e n c o n te x tu a liz e d N a n k in g b y p la c in g it a m id th e m ass m u rd e r, ra p e , a n d p illa g e th a t h e sa w as c h a ra c te riz in g m o d e rn C h i­ nese h is to ry as a w h o le . C ritic s d isp a ra g e d th is ta c tic as m in im iz in g , relativ izin g , o r m a rg in a liz in g Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s th r o u g h irre le v a n t c o m p a riso n s. B u t in A p ril 1 9 7 2 , S u z u k i w as c o n s is te n t a n d e v e n -h a n d e d in u s in g it. H e h e ld th a t s im ila r Ja p a n e se a c c o u n ts o f C h in e s e a tro c itie s a g a in st Ja p a n e se res­ id e n ts a t T u n g c h o u in Ju ly 1 9 3 7 w ere ju s t as ex ag g erated a n d u n reliab le . In g e n ­ eral, h e said, v ic tim s o f a n y n a tio n a lity o v erstate th e ir su ffe rin g in w a rtim e ; h o w m u c h m o re so w h e n th e y rela ted 3 5 -y e a r-o ld m e m o rie s o f th e ir su ffe rin g . T h u s , fo r S u zu k i, th e t r u t h a b o u t N a n k in g w as d e s tin e d to b e s h r o u d e d fo re v er b y “illu s io n s ” like th e alleg ed k illin g c o n te s t th a t c o u ld n e v e r b e e m p iric a lly v e r­ ified. N e v e rth e le ss, h e c h a rg e d , H o n d a , A sa m i, a n d o th e r le ftists le ft-w in g ele­ v a te d th e se in to p o te n t sy m b o ls o f Ja p a n e se b e s tia lity fo r p a rtis a n re a so n s.43 E x p lo itin g th e te c h n iq u e s o f o ra l h isto ry , S u z u k i in te rv ie w e d p e rso n s w h o h a d k n o w n M u k a i T o sh ia k i a n d N o d a T su y o sh i; a n d h is fie ld w o rk tu r n e d u p n e w so u rces to “p ro v e ” th e ir in n o c e n c e . F ro m M u k a i’s w id o w C h ie k o , S u z u k i le a rn e d th e c irc u m sta n c e s o f h is a rre st a n d e x tra d itio n to T a iw a n in 1 9 4 6 . 130

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

M u k a i h a d in d e e d f o u n d a n e w w ife d u e to th e fa m e d e riv e d fro m A sa m i’s story. H e re m a rrie d as a n a d o p te d so n a n d to o k th e s u rn a m e K ita o k a . A fte r th e w ar, lo cal p o lic e ca m e to a rra ig n “M u k a i” T o sh ia k i o n U .S . O c c u p a tio n o rd ers. B u t a Ja p a n e se c o n s ta b le h e lp fu lly h in te d : “A fte r all, th is s u rn a m e is d iffe re n t f ro m y o u rs, so i f y o u ’re n o t th e m a n th a t th e [A m erica n ] m ilita ry p o lic e w a n t, ju s t say s o .”44 A m e ric a n officials in th e A llie d O c c u p a tio n relied o n h e lp fro m Ja p a n e se aid es to c a rry o u t th e ir m e a su re s. T h u s , n o fo llo w -u p effo rts w o u ld hav e re su lte d i f th e su sp e c t h a d c h o s e n to ta k e th e h i n t a n d sta y p u t. Yet h e tu r n e d h im s e lf in . C h ie k o fe a rfu lly su g g e ste d c o n n e c tio n s to th e “k illin g c o n te s t,” b u t T o sh ia k i sa id th a t th e n e w s s to ry h a d b e e n b a se d o n “e m p ty b o a s tin g ,” a n d “e v e ry o n e f ro m th e g o v e rn m e n t o n d o w n to ld s im ila r lies d u r in g th e w ar, so th e A llies w o u ld h av e to tr y all o f us J a p a n e s e .” T h e n sh e re p lie d , “ O h , so y o u lie d to deceiv e m e , d id y o u ? ” T h is d ia lo g u e sh o w s th a t w o m e n lik e C h ie k o in d e e d a sp ire d to m a rr y m e n o f M u k a i’s a c c o m p lis h m e n ts , a n d it p ro v es th a t sh e n e v e r d o u b te d th e v e ra c ­ ity o f A sa m i K a z u o ’s s to ry u n til 1 9 4 6 , a y ea r a fte r th e w a r e n d e d . C h ie k o to ld S u zu k i a b o u t m e m o irs b y K w a n tu n g A rm y s ta ff officer T su ji M a s a n o b u as w ell. S he said th a t, in effect, T su ji h a d w ritte n , “M u k a i w as a d a m n fo o l fo r g iv ­ in g h im s e lf u p .”45 S u z u k i th u s p o r tra y e d M u k a i as a n sim p le , h o n e s t m a n w h o tu r n e d h im s e lf in e x p e c tin g e x o n e ra tio n fro m A llie d c o u rts o f ju stic e , a n d d re w a n o b liq u e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n th e n a iv e g u llib ility o f M u k a i a n d th e w o rld ly g u ile o f T su ji— a far w o rse B -class w a r c rim in a l w h o n e v e r o w n e d u p to h is o w n c u lp a b ility a n d d e ftly e v a d e d p r o s e c u tio n b y h id in g o u t o n th e c o n tin e n t u n til it w as safe to r e tu r n h o m e , a fte r w h ic h h e w as e le c te d to th e D ie t.46 S u z u k i d isc o v ered th a t th e I M T F E in T o k y o ch o se n o t to p ro s e c u te M u k a i a n d N o d a , b u t th e K M T in s is te d o n th e ir e x tra d itio n fo r B -class w a r crim es. T h e N M T f o u n d th e m g u ilty b ec au se th e y s u b m itte d n o “p e rsu a siv e c o u n te r ­ ev id en c e to re fu te th e c h a rg e s.”47 S u z u k i c ite d N M T re c o rd s le ft b y M u k a i a n d N o d a . T h e se in s tru c te d th e ir k in to b e a r th e C h in e se p e o p le n o ill w ill, a n d d e c la re d th a t th e y h o p e d th e ir d e a th s w o u ld la y th e b ases fo r S in o -Ja p a n e se frie n d s h ip . C h ie k o s u p p lie d a c o p y o f a d efe n se s ta te m e n t th a t M u k a i T o sh iaki filed a t th e N M T to p r o te s t h is in n o c e n c e . I t sa id th a t: (1) th e I M T F E s u b p o e n a e d h im b u t to o k n o legal a c tio n a g a in st h im , (2) h e b e lo n g e d to an a rtille ry p la to o n n o r m a lly n o t e n g a g e d in f ro n tlin e c o m b a t, (3) h e saw a c tio n o n ly in a rtille ry sh e llin g a t W u h s i a n d T a n y a n g o n th e ro a d to N a n k in g , (4) h e h a d m e t w ith a n d ta lk e d to A sa m i o n ly a t W u h s i, (5) th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun re p o rte rs testified th a t n o n e o f th e m h a d seen a n y k illin g s, a n d (6) N o d a a n d h e p a r te d w ays a t T a n y a n g o n 1 D e c e m b e r a n d d id n o t m e e t ag a in u n til 16 D e c e m b e r. T h u s , M u k a i’s w ritte n s ta te m e n t c o n tra d ic te d all o f th e c ru c ia l ev en ts as re p o r te d b y A sa m i.48 S u z u k i also d isc o v e re d th a t, ju s t b e fo re M u k a i T o sh ia k i’s e x e c u tio n , h is o ld e r b ro th e r, M u k a i T ak esh i, h a d tra c k e d d o w n o th e r m e n w h o h a d serv ed in T o sh ia k i’s u n it, p lu s A sa m i K az u o h im se lf. M u k a i T o s h ia k i’s f o rm e r c o m ra d e s 131

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

gave o ra l s ta te m e n ts a n d w ritte n te s tim o n ie s in h is s u p p o r t. T o y a m a T ak e o , h is fo rm e r c o m m a n d in g officer, c e rtifie d th a t M u k a i w as in ju re d o n 2 D e c e m ­ b e r 1 9 3 7 a t T a n y a n g a n d rec eiv e d m e d ic a l tr e a tm e n t b e h in d th e lin e s fro m th e n u n til h e re jo in e d his u n it o n 15 D e c e m b e r a t T ’an g sh u i ( T ’a n g sh a n ). T h u s , M u k a i c o u ld n o t h av e k ille d a n y o n e o n th e days s ta te d in A sa m i’s sto ry .49 S u z u k i c ite d a n o th e r s ta te m e n t, th is o n e w ritte n b y a C h in e s e d e fe n se c o u n ­ sel a t th e N M T , th a t N o d a s m o th e r h a d p ro v id e d . It c o rro b o ra te d all o f th e p o in ts f o u n d in M u k a i’s s ta te m e n t.50 S u z u k i also c ite d a sig n e d te s tim o n y b y A sam i d a te d 10 D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 6 , o b ta in e d b y M u k a i T ak e sh i. A sa m i sw ore th a t: (1) h e n e v e r a c tu a lly sa w a n y k illin g s, (2) h e b ased h is a rtic le s o n in te r ­ view s w ith M u k a i, (3) M u k a i a n d N o d a c o m m itte d n o a tro c itie s a g a in st h e lp ­ less P O W s o r o th e r n o n c o m b a ta n ts , a n d (4) w a rtim e g o v e rn m e n t c e n so rsh ip w o u ld hav e su p p re ss e d a n y n ew s r e p o r t even re m o te ly s u g g e stin g th a t J a p a n ­ ese tro o p s c o m m itte d su c h a n a tro c ity .51 B u t w h e n S u z u k i a c tu a lly c o n fro n te d A sam i, th e la tte r re fu se d to a d m it h a v in g m a d e u p th e sto ry ; in ste a d , A sam i said h e h a d b ased it o n v e rb a l in f o rm a tio n th a t M u k a i s u p p lie d . In S u z u k i’s eyes, th is c o s t M u k a i a n d N o d a th e ir lives. S u z u k i A k ira also in te rv ie w e d p e rso n s o n T a iw a n , in c lu d in g f o rm e r c h ie f ju s tic e a t th e N M T , S h ih M e i-y u . S h ih in siste d , th o u g h erro n eo u sly , th a t th e K M T re g im e h a d trie d o n ly 2 ,0 0 0 o u t o f 1 m illio n Ja p a n e se in v a d e rs a n d exe­ c u te d b u t a few d o z e n . (In fac t, it trie d 8 8 3 Ja p a n e se a n d s e n te n c e d 2 3 2 to d e a th o r life im p ris o n m e n t.) T h e b a rb a rity o f th is k illin g c o n te st, S h ih in siste d , sy m b o liz e d th e e n tire N a n k in g A tro c ity ; y e t o n ly fo u r m e n w ere fo u n d g u ilty a n d ex e c u te d fo r it. S h ih sa id th a t th e N M T h a d M u k a i’s sw o rd as e v id en c e a n d th a t, w h e n S h ih p o in te d to a p ic tu r e o f M u k a i in a Ja p a n e se b o o k a n d ask ed “Is th is y o u ? ,” M u k a i re p lie d , “Yes.” F o r su c h re a so n s, th e n e w sp a p e r sto rie s a lo n e h a d n o t ca u se d h is e x e c u tio n . As S h ih stressed to S u z u k i, “T h e N a n k in g I n c id e n t w as e n o rm o u s . B y e x e c u tin g th e se m e n , w e fu lly in te n d e d to m a k e y o u u n d e r s ta n d w h a t it m e a n t to u s .” A lso, S h ih h in te d , C h ia n g K aish e k a n d h is d efe n se m in is te r H o Y in g -c h in h a d h a d a say in fix in g th e d e a th s e n te n c e fo r th e se d e f e n d a n ts .52 T h u s , S u z u k i’s a c c o u n t su g g ests th a t C h in e s e p o litic a l c o n s id e ra tio n s affec ted th e o u tc o m e o f th e N a n k in g trials. In th e m e a n tim e , im p o r ta n t n e w so u rc e m a te ria ls h a d c o m e o u t. A ttra c te d b y th e d e b a te , th e m ass w eekly, Shukan shincho, p u b lis h e d a n issue o n 2 9 Ju ly 1 9 7 2 th a t c a rrie d s h o r t a c c o u n ts b y p e rso n s w h o h a d re p o r te d th e w a rtim e “c o n te s t.” T h e y in c lu d e d S u z u k i Jiro (n o re la tio n to A k ira ), a n o th e r re p o r te r w h o co v ered th e sto ry , as w ell as S ato S h in ju , th e p h o to g r a p h e r w h o to o k th e s n a p s h o t o f M u k a i a n d N o d a a t C h ’a n g c h o u th a t a p p e a re d in th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 .53 T h e s e m a te ria ls p e r m itte d n e w b re a k ­ th r o u g h s in th e d e b a te . N o w w ritin g u n d e r h is o w n n a m e , th o u g h re fe rrin g to “B e n -D a s a n ” o n o cc a sio n , Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i d isc u sse d th e k illin g c o n ­ te st in th e m o n th ly p e rio d ic a l Shokun! fro m A u g u st 1 9 7 2 to A p ril 1 9 7 4 as p a r t o f a ra m b lin g a c c o u n t o f h is e x p e rie n c e s in th e im p e ria l arm y. T h is a c c o u n t 132

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

a p p e a re d in h a rd c o v e r in 1 9 7 5 , in p a p e rb a c k in 1 9 8 3 , a n d in a p o s th u m o u s c o lle c tio n o f h is w o rk s in 1 9 9 7 . T h u s , h is B u n g e i s h u n ju p u b lis h e rs p ro d u c e d th e v e ry sa m e a c c o u n t 4 tim e s w ith in 2 5 y ears— w ith o u t e d itin g o r c o rre c t­ in g o b v io u s e rro rs .54 T h e s e m u ltip le reissu es s h o w th a t m a n y Ja p a n e se c o n ­ tin u e p a y in g g o o d m o n e y to “b u y ” Y a m a m o to ’s view s. Y a m a m o to ’s b ig g e st c o n tr ib u tio n to th e d e b a te w as a n an aly sis o f th e w a rtim e s o ld ie r’s m e n ta l sta te b a se d o n firs th a n d e x p e rie n c e in th e im p e ria l arm y. T h e o b v io u s d ra w b a c k to th is a p p ro a c h is th a t its fin d in g s d o n o t p e r­ m it e m p iric a l te s tin g b y p e rso n s w h o la c k th a t ex p e rie n c e . Yet, Y a m a m o to e x h ib ite d sh re w d in te llig e n c e a n d ask ed p ie rc in g q u e s tio n s . In essence, h e d e fe n d e d M u k a i’s b e h a v io r b y e x p la in in g th e to r tu r e d w a rtim e p sy c h o lo g y th a t p ro d u c e d it, a n d h e im p u g n e d A sa m i’s in te g r ity b y e x p o s in g h is fo u r 1 9 3 7 Tokyo nichinichi shinbun a rticle s as sp e c io u s. Y a m a m o to sa id th a t h e w as re la tin g h is w a rtim e e x p e rie n c e s to a v o id a s e c o n d sin; th e first w as h is h a v ­ in g fo u g h t in th e w a r to s ta rt w ith . P o stw a r Ja p a n e se in th e 1 9 7 0 s, h e said, fell v ic tim to th e sa m e d u p lic ity e x h ib ite d u n d e r th e o ld e m p e ro r sy stem . M a n y rea d ers in 1 9 3 7 h a d p e rc e iv e d th e fictive n a tu re o f A sa m i’s s to ry b u t said n o th in g fo r fea r o f b e in g la b e le d tra ito rs . T h u s , its fa lsity w e n t u n e x p o s e d fo r so lo n g th a t it to o k o n e n o u g h p la u s ib ility to pass fo r th e tr u th . N o w , in th e 1 970s, th o se few Ja p a n e se w h o c o u ld see th r o u g h th o se o rig in a l lies k e p t still in d e fe re n ce to a n e w te n e t o f p o litic a l c o rre c tn e ss— frie n d s h ip w ith C h in a . Y a m a m o to a d m itte d th a t im p e ria l J a p a n h a d c o m m itte d ag g re ssio n in C h in a a n d elsew h ere, b u t a sse rte d th a t th is h a d n o t ju stifie d th e e x e c u tio n o f in n o c e n t B -class w a r c rim e s su sp e c ts. W o rse still, b y h e a p in g b la m e o n c o n ­ v e n ie n tly d e a d m e n , p o s tw a r le ft-w in g jo u rn a lis ts b lo c k e d e ffo rts to u n c o v e r w h a t rea lly h a p p e n e d a t N a n k in g a n d to ex p o se th o se tr u ly c u lp a b le .55 A c c o rd in g to Y a m a m o to , M u k a i d id b ra g a b o u t fictiv e b a ttle fie ld ex p lo its to A sam i, a n d d id d e fe n d h im s e lf a t th e N M T b y sa y in g h e h a d lie d to a ttr a c t “a b e tte r w ife .” B u t, Y a m a m o to in siste d , rea d ers s h o u ld n o t c a ric a tu re o r exco­ ria te M u k a i. In ste a d , th e y s h o u ld p la c e h is se e m in g ly d e sp ic a b le c o n d u c t in p ro p e r c o n te x t— th e a b n o rm a l sta te o f m in d p ro d u c e d b y b r u ta liz a tio n in th e im p e ria l arm y. T re a tm e n t th e re in w as su c h th a t, b y m o d e rn W e ste rn s ta n ­ d ard s, officers w ere g u ilty o f w a r crim e s a g a in st th e ir o w n m e n . T h e B a ta a n D e a th M a rc h w as n o “a tro c ity ”; it w as n o r m a l p ra c tic e . O w in g to ex tre m e p h y sic al a n d p sy c h o lo g ic a l ab u se over tim e , all Ja p an e se so ld iers e x h ib ite d m e n ­ ta l im b a la n c e to v a ry in g degrees; a n d b ra g g in g w as o n e w a y to p rese rv e sa n ­ ity. O n ly th e in f a n tr y c o u n te d as “real m e n ” in th e arm y, Y a m a m o to sta te d . T h o s e assig n ed to s u p p ly a n d tr a n s p o r t o r to d u tie s in th e re a r b e c a m e th e b u t t o f cru e l ta u n ts . A sa m i d isg u ise d N o d a ’s d u tie s, “s e rv in g as a n X X ,” as re q u ire d b y w a rtim e sta te c e n so rsh ip . In fac t, N o d a w as a n a d ju ta n t to a b a t­ ta lio n c h ie f a n d h e n c e saw little o r n o a c tio n . N o r w as M u k a i a n in f a n tr y ­ m a n ; h e le d a n a rtille ry p la to o n a tta c h e d to th e re a r o f a n in f a n try u n it. T h u s , n e ith e r w as a “real m a n ” w h o fo u g h t to o th a n d n a il a t th e fro n t; b o th e n d u re d 133

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

sh a m e a n d in fe rio rity fo r w h ic h th e y c o m p e n s a te d b y b ra g g in g . M o re o v e r, th e a rm y p h rase s, “I w a n t to fin d a n ic e w ife ” a n d “I w a n t to p e r f o rm filial p ie ty ,” w ere co d e la n g u ag e fo r “I w a n t a d isc h a rg e to go h o m e .” O w in g to im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t ce n so rsh ip o f d e fe a tis t s e n tim e n t, su c h c ry p tic ex p re ssio n s w ere th e o n ly w ay tro o p s c o u ld p u b lic ly v e n t th e ir tru e fe e lin g s.56 T h u s w e m ig h t n o te , th o se p h ra se s are lik e A m e ric a n sla n g ex p re ssio n s s u c h as, “T ell it to th e M a rin e s ” th a t c a n n o t b e ta k e n literally. Y a m a m o to th e n c ritic a lly an a ly z ed th e te x ts o f A sa m i’s sto rie s. F irst, h e said, im p e ria l a rm y m e n w o u ld n o t u se te rm s a n d id io m s th a t A sa m i a ttr ib u te d to M u k a i a n d N o d a . N o so ld ie r w o u ld c la im to b e “s e rv in g as a n X X ” (X X o yatte iru). A n y o n e w h o b lu r te d o u t boku o r ore in s te a d o f jib u n fo r “I , ” o r w h o u se d tetsukabuto in p la ce o f tetsubo fo r “h e lm e t,” w o u ld su ffe r “d isc ip lin e b y th e ir o n fist” b e fo re h e c o u ld s h u t h is m o u th . In Y a m a m o to ’s eyes, A sa m i clearly fa b ric a te d th e d ia lo g u e , so h e lik e ly fa b ric a te d th e s to ry as w ell. S ec­ o n d , n o officer w o u ld o ffe r a “p riz e ” to k ill th e e n e m y in a “c o n te s t” b ec au se th a t d e s e c ra te d a s o ld ie r’s d u ty to th e e m p e ro r. T h ir d , i f th e officers tr u ly d id stage th a t c o n te st, th e y w o u ld h av e b e e n p u n is h e d fo r a p p r o p r ia tin g th e e m ­ p e r o r ’s so ld iers— th e m e n u n d e r th e ir c o m m a n d — fo r p riv a te p u rp o se s. F o u rth , th e se officers serv e d b e h in d th e lin es, so a n y a c tio n a t th e f r o n t w o u ld e n ta il a b a n d o n in g th e ir p o sts w ith o u t a u th o riz a tio n . S u c h d e re lic tio n o f d u ty w o u ld s u b je c t th e m to c o u rts m a rtia l. T h is is w h y M u k a i sa id th a t h e w as “s h o c k e d a n d e m b a rra sse d ” to re a d A sa m i’s sto rie s as th e se la te r a p p e a re d in p r in t. M u k a i b ra g g e d to a ttr a c t “a b e tte r w ife ,” b u t h e n e v e r saw g alley p ro o fs a n d so c o u ld n o t k n o w ex actly h o w A sa m i w o u ld e m b e llish th a t b ra g g in g . I f M u k a i h a d k n o w n h e w o u ld b e p o rtra y e d aw ay w ith o u t leave (A W O L ), h e w o u ld h av e b e e n m o re r e tic e n t.57 N e x t, Y am am o to c laim ed th a t a n y o n e w h o h as a c tu a lly u sed a Ja p an e se sw o rd in c o m b a t w o u ld k n o w it c o u ld n e v e r c u t u p 1 0 0 m e n . U n lik e C h in e s e sw o rd s m a d e o f o n e p iece, Ja p a n e se sw o rd s w ere h e ld to g e th e r b y a lin c h p in in th e h ilt a n d w ere p r o n e to c o m e u n d o n e . A lso, b la d es w ere easily b e n t o u t o f sh a p e. In su m , th e y w ere to o w e a k to w ith s ta n d h e a v y use. In m e d ie v a l Ja p a n , w h e n w arfa re a c tu a lly to o k p la ce , w a rrio rs fa v o re d b o w s a n d sp ears. In th e fo llo w ­ in g E d o p e rio d (1 6 0 0 —1 8 6 7 ), a sa m u ra i c a rrie d sw o rd s fo r sh o w — n o t u s u ­ ally to k ill p e o p le . I f o n e d id k ill so m e o n e , h e n e e d e d a sw o rd s m ith to fix th e d a m a g e to h is b la d e . A n d , u n le ss h e w ere a h ig h ly sk ille d s w o rd sm a n , it w as v e ry h a rd to d is p a tc h a n a d v e rsa ry a t o n e stro k e . In v ariab ly , several c u ts w ere fo llo w ed b y a coup de grd.ce o r todome— a th r u s t, n o t a c u t, to so m e v ita l o rg a n . D e s p ite th is reality, a p erv a siv e m y th g re w u p in th e E d o p e rio d , w h ic h h e ld th a t th e sa m u ra i sw o rd w as th e w o rld ’s m o s t aw e so m e b la d e . T h e e m ­ p e ro r sta te to o k o v er a n d s a n c tifie d th is m y th as p a r t o f th e Ja p a n e se s p irit afte r 1 8 6 7 . A n d , b y th e 1 9 30s, a n y o n e w h o p u b lic ly q u e s tio n e d th a t m y th w as a tta c k e d as a tra ito r, so m o s t officers k e p t sile n t a lth o u g h th e y k n e w th e sw o rd s th e y lu g g e d in to b a ttle w ere useless. T o p ro v e th is p o in t, Y a m a m o to c ite d th e 134

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

e x p e rt w a rtim e o p in io n o f th e sw o rd s m ith N a ru s e K a n ji, w h o h a d d a m n e d th e Ja p a n e se sw o rd th r o u g h f a in t p ra ise in o rd e r to s k irt g o v e rn m e n t c e n so r­ ship. B u t, as w ith th e k illin g c o n te st itself, th is m y th o f th e sa m u ra i sw o rd w e n t u n d e b u n k e d fo r so lo n g th a t it n o w p assed fo r th e tr u th , esp ec ially a m o n g p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se w h o , u n lik e Y a m a m o to , h a d n e v e r u se d o n e to c u t th r o u g h flesh a n d b o n e .58 Finally, Y am a m o to asserte d th a t A sa m i ty p ifie d m a n y w a rtim e civ ilian s w h o , e x u d in g m ilita ris t ferv o r, trie d to a p p e a r m o re fe ro c io u s th a n rea l so ld iers. R e p o rte rs w ere n o t allo w ed to m ix w ith fro n tlin e tro o p s in th e h e a t o f b a ttle ; th a t w o u ld h av e b e e n p e rilo u s fo r b o th . I f A sa m i d id m e e t N o d a a n d M u k a i, it h a d to hav e b e e n a t so m e safe s p o t a t th e rear. M o re likely, h e ju s t u sed th e m as a c to rs in a d r a m a s c rip t to d e p ic t h im s e lf ris k in g life a n d lim b in v ic io u s c o m b a t. T h a t is w h y h e c o n triv e d h e ro ic lin e s s u c h as: “W e ig n o re d th e sh o w er o f e n e m y g u n fire s tre a m in g a t u s .” A sa m i’s s to ry w as p a te n tly false, b u t h e re fu se d to a d m it th a t w h e n M u k a i T ak e sh i b e g g e d fo r a sw o rn te s tim o n y to save h is b r o th e r ’s life a t th e N M T . Y a m a m o to th e re fo re d e c la re d th a t, in o rd e r to a to n e fo r th e ir w a rtim e c rim es, A sa m i a n d th e M ainichi shinbun s h o u ld r e tra c t ea rlier lies a b o u t th e k illin g c o n te s t— w h ic h n o w e n jo y e d c u rre n c y in th e E n g lish - a n d C h in e s e -s p e a k in g w o rld s. In a d d itio n , th e y s h o u ld issue a p u b lic ap o lo g y to th e v ic tim s ’ su rv iv o rs a n d p ay c o m p e n s a tio n fo r th e m e n ­ ta l a n g u ish th a t th e ir a c tio n s h a d cau sed . M u k a i’s d a u g h te r, in fac t, filed a law ­ s u it a g a in st th e M ainichi shinbun a n d th e Asahi shinbun, a n d a g a in st H o n d a K a ts u ic h i in A p ril 2 0 0 3 . It w as re je c te d b y th e c o u r t in A u g u s t 2 0 0 5 .59 B y 1 9 7 4 Y a m a m o to ca m e to c o n c lu d e th a t 3 ,0 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e m ili­ ta ry p e rs o n n e l d ie d a t N a n k in g . H e ex c lu d e d all b u t a few ca su a ltie s a m o n g civ ilian s a n d o th e r n o n c o m b a ta n ts f ro m th a t fig u re .60 Ito T a k a sh i, a n a u th o r ­ ity o n m o d e rn J a p a n th e n te a c h in g at th e U n iv e rsity o f T o kyo, la u d e d th is w o rk as “s p le n d id ; a p r im e r o n c ritic a l so u rc e -a n a ly sis in c o n te m p o r a r y h is to ry .”61 N o t to b e o u td o n e , S u zu k i A k ira w o n th e 1973 O y a S o ich i p rize fo r n o n fic tio n , issu ed b y th e co n se rv a tiv e B u n g e i s h u n ju m e d ia g ro u p . H e e a rn e d p la u d its n o t o n ly fro m rig h t-w in g circles a n d h is o w n p u b lish e r. E v en th e u ltra -ra d ic a l c ritic O d a M a k o to r e lu c ta n tly fo u n d h im s e lf p e rs u a d e d th a t th e k illin g c o n ­ te st— th o u g h n o t th e w h o le N a n k in g A tro c ity — w as a n “illu s io n .”62 S u z u k i’s th e sis h a d a v e ile d su b tle edge. H e d id n o t d e n y th a t a m a ssac re o f u n k n o w n m a g n itu d e X b e g a n o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 w h e n N a n k in g fell. H is illu s io n th esis in this first stage d iffe re d f ro m th a t o f la te r d e n ie rs, so w e s h o u ld v ie w h im as p re sa g in g th e m in im a lis ts w h o c o n c e d e th a t a sm a ll-sc ale m assacre d id occu r. H o w ev er, S u z u k i re fu se d to say h o w b ig o r sm a ll th a t u n k n o w n m a g n itu d e X w as. In ste a d , h e stressed th a t v e rific a tio n a n d p recise q u a n tif ic a tio n w ere im p o ssib le ; so h e trie d to sh o w th a t a t le a st th is o n e in c i­ d e n t in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as “ illu so ry .” T h e im p lic a tio n w as th a t, i f o th ­ ers ex p o sed m o re su c h illu sio n s, m a g n itu d e X w o u ld s h r in k to th e p o in t w h e re th e w h o le A tro c ity c o u ld b e d ism isse d as in c o n s e q u e n tia l. T o b e fair, h e d id 135

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

n o t say th a t to s ta rt w ith . E v en in m id - 1 9 7 5 , h e ex p re ssed u m b ra g e a t b e in g la b ele d a m e m b e r o f th e d e n ia l s c h o o l.63 H is ea rly p o s itio n w as th a t Ja p a n e se le ftists h a d elev ated th e k illin g c o n te s t in to a “s y m b o l” o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ­ ity fo r ta in te d reaso n s, so h e w o u ld expose th e falsity o f th is o n e ev e n t a n d le t o th e rs d ra w th e ir o w n c o n c lu sio n s. L ater, h o w ev er, h e d r o p p e d th e se r h e to r ­ ical c o m p le x itie s to c la im th a t th is o n e illu s io n d e n ie d su b sta n c e to th e w h o le p h e n o m e n o n it re p u te d ly sy m b o liz e d .

Round 3: Prosecutor’s Rally T h in g s lo o k e d b le a k fo r th e le ftists to w a rd th e e n d o f 1 9 7 2 . H o r a T o m io fo u n d h im s e lf fig h tin g a n u p h ill b a ttle , tr y in g to sh o w th a t th e lo g ic a n d e v id en c e th a t Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i a n d S u z u k i A k ira e m p lo y e d w ere flaw ed a n d u n ­ scholarly. F irst, H o r a re a ffirm e d th a t th e k illin g c o n te s t w as n o t ju s t a C h in e se “le g e n d ” as Isaia h B e n -D a s a n c la im e d . A sa m i K a z u o ’s 1 9 3 7 Tokyo nichinichi shinbun article s p ro v e d th a t M u k a i a n d N o d a d id exist, a n d th a t th e y sta g ed so m e so rt o f c o m p e titio n o n th e w ay to N a n k in g b efo re it fell o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . S e c o n d , H o r a d e fla te d a se e m in g ly c o g e n t p o in t m a d e b y Y a m a m o to — th a t it w as im p o s sib le to k ill 1 m a n ev ery o n e m in u te a n d th irty -s ix se c o n d s o n th e te n -k ilo m e te r, 2 .5 - h o u r ro u te fro m K u y u n g to T ’a n g s h a n . Y a m a m o to h a d erre d in a c c e p tin g th e C h in e s e o ra l a c c o u n t th a t H o n d a K a ts u ic h i h a d c ite d . It m is ta k e n ly h e ld th a t th e k illin g c o n te s t to o k p la c e fro m K u y u n g to T ’a n g s h a n .64 B u t H o n d a failed to c ite tw o a d d itio n a l Tokyo nichinichi shinbun articles, d a te d 4 a n d 6 D e c e m b e r 19 3 7 .65 T h e se m a d e a b ig d iffe re n c e . N M T re c o rd s h a d c la im e d th a t th e re p u te d k illin g c o n te s t o c c u rre d e n tire ly o n P u rp le M o u n ta in o u ts id e N a n k in g w h e re a s T im p e rle y a n d th e C h in e s e o ral a c c o u n ts c ite d b y H o ra , O m o r i M in o r u , a n d H o n d a h a d sa id th a t it first to o k p lace fro m K u y u n g to T ’a n g sh a n , a n d la te r w as e x te n d e d to P u rp le M o u n ta in . B u t w h e n rea d to g e th e r, H o r a ’s fo u r Ja p a n e se so u rce s sh o w e d th a t th e c o n te s t b e g a n a t W u h s i o n 2 6 N o v e m b e r a n d e n d e d a t P u rp le M o u n ta in o n 10 D e ­ cem b er. T h u s it o c c u rre d o v er a far lo n g e r d ista n c e th a n p re v io u sly th o u g h t— f ro m W u h s i, n o t fro m K u y u n g — u n til P u rp le M o u n ta in . A n d , it b e g a n far earlier— o n 25 N o v e m b e r, n o t o n 5 D e c e m b e r— b e fo re e n d in g o n 13 D e c e m ­ ber. B ased o n th e se m o re a c c u ra te w ritte n d o c u m e n ts , H o r a re c k o n e d th a t M u k a i a n d N o d a n e e d e d to average a b o u t se v en k ills p e r d a y o v er th is h a lf­ m o n th sp a n — h a rd ly a n im p o s sib le clip — to a tta in sco res o f 1 0 6 a n d 105, resp ectiv ely .66 H o r a h a d m o re tro u b le r e f u tin g Y a m a m o to ’s p sy c h o lo g ic a l in te r p re ta tio n s b ased o n a rm y life— ex p erien ces th a t H o r a la ck e d . A n d , as fo r th e m y th o f th e sa m u ra i sw o rd , H o r a u se d th e sa m e w a rtim e p u b lic a tio n b y N a ru s e K a n ji— p lu s a n o th e r a c c o u n t c ite d b y U n o S h in ta ro as c ite d b y a c e rta in K u m a z a w a K y o jiro in Tenno no guntai — to re d e e m th e h o n o r o f Ja p a n e se b la d e s.67 B u t 136

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

th is is rea lly a m o o t p o in t, a b it lik e s u g g e stin g th a t w e re d o U n it 7 3 1 v iv i­ se c tio n e x p e rim e n ts o n h u m a n s to c o n firm th e ir ac cu rac y ; a n d , th e m y th o f th e sa m u ra i sw o rd b e c o m e s im m a te ria l w h e n v ie w e d in th e b ro a d e r c o n te x t o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity as a w h o le , a p a rt fro m th e g u ilt o r in n o c e n c e o f M u k a i a n d N o d a as in d iv id u a ls . T h a t is to say, n e ith e r sid e in th is d e b a te to o k th e tr o u b le to n o te th a t b a y o n e ts, n o t sw o rd s, w ere th e b la d e o f c h o ic e fo r k illin g C h in e se . H o r a g ru d g in g ly p ra ise d S u z u k i A k ira fo r d e v e lo p in g in te rv ie w m e th o d s o f o ral h is to ry a n d fo r u n c o v e rin g n e w d o c u m e n t so u rce s. H e re , th e p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n relied o n a lre a d y -p u b lis h e d m a te ria ls w h e re a s th e a m a te u r f o u n d a n d e x p lo ite d n e w so u rce s. A lth o u g h re p ro a c h in g h im s e lf fo r th is ro le reversal, H o r a p resse d h is a tta c k to d is c re d it th e se v e ry so u rc e s th a t S u z u k i A k ira h a d d isc o v ered . F irst, H o r a c ite d a n a rtic le b y S u z u k i Jiro , A sa m i’s fe llo w re p o rte r: T h e articles came to the attention o f [IMTFE] prosecutors w ho used these to support their charge o f atrocities, and I got a sum m ons to appear as a witness. O f course they viewed this [contest] as an atrocity. T hey grilled us about its tru th or falsity, how we covered it, and w hat it m eant. But no reporter actually saw the tw o m en kill anyone w ith swords. T hey just said they had held the contest and related it as a tale o f battle­ field heroism , so we couldn’t say it was an “atrocity.” Based on the two m en’s w ord that they “make it a rule not to cut down anyone w ho high-tails it for dear life,” Asami and I independently told the prosecutors: “T his was not an atrocity because the two never killed anyone who ran away, only those enem y soldiers w ho came at them . T hey were true to the spirit o f bushido w hich says that com m on people should never be harm ed.” O u r testim ony certainly did not provide prosecutors w ith a strong case. W hen it finally came tim e for us to appear in court, Asami took the stand first. But as soon as he recited the oath, they excused h im on the grounds o f “flawed docum entation.” So he returned to the waiting room w ith a dejected face. Soon, a clerk showed up to say,” You guys don’t have to com e any m ore....” Later we heard th at the two officers were turned over to the Chinese K M T regime and executed despite our affidavit to clear them .68 H e re , S u z u k i Jiro claim s th a t A sa m i K az u o h a d u n d e rg o n e q u e s tio n in g a t th e I M T F E b u t w as d ism issed fro m f u rth e r in te rro g a tio n o n th e g ro u n d s o f “flaw ed d o c u m e n ta tio n .” Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i A k ira h a d u se d th is d o c u m e n t to assert e ith e r th a t th e I M T F E h a d fo u n d th e d e fe n d a n ts in n o c e n t o r released th e m fo r la c k o f e v id e n c e . B u t, H o r a r e to rte d , th e I M T F E h a d n o t d ism isse d M u k a i a n d N o d a b ec au se it la c k e d th e p r o o f to c o n v ic t th e m ; in ste a d , it d id n o t in d ic t th e m b e c a u se th e y w ere n o t c h a rg e d w ith th e A -class w a r crim es th a t fell u n d e r its ju r is d ic tio n . S o, th e I M T F E q u ite p r o p e rly s e n t th e m to face B -class w a r crim e s tria ls a t N a n k in g .69 T h u s , H o r a a rg u e d th a t Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i w ere g u ilty o f a n o n se q u itu r. S e c o n d , H o r a a sse rte d th a t th e M u k a i a n d N o d a d efe n se s ta te m e n ts , p lu s sw o rn te s tim o n y g iv e n b y M u k a i’s fo rm e r c o m m a n d in g officer, T o y a m a T ak e o , d id n o t a d d u p to a c o g e n t alib i. S u z u k i A k ira u se d th e se d o c u m e n ts to su b 137

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

s ta n tia te k ey c o n te n tio n s a b o u t M u k a i’s in n o c e n c e : (1) M u k a i b e lo n g e d to a u n it s ta tio n e d far fro m th e f r o n t a n d d id n o t en g ag e in close c o m b a t w ith th e foe; (2) h e saw a c tio n o n ly a t W u h s i w h e re h e fire d a rtille ry sh ells f ro m b e h in d th e lines; (3) h e m e t A sa m i b u t o n c e , a t W u h s i, n o t 3 tim e s as d e p ic te d in th e n ew s sto ries; (4) h e h a d n o c o n ta c t w ith N o d a b e tw e e n 1 a n d 16 D e c e m ­ b er; a n d (5) h e w as in ju re d o n 2 D e c e m b e r a t T a n y a n g , d id n o t r e tu r n to a c tio n u n til 15 D e c e m b e r a t T ’a n g s h u i ( T ’a n g s h a n ), a n d so c o u ld n o t h av e k illed a n y o n e d u r in g th a t in te rv a l. In d is p u tin g th e se claim s o f in n o c e n c e , H o r a p o in te d o u t th a t n o o fficial b a ttle re p o rts o r o th e r Ja p a n e se a rm y d o c ­ u m e n ts d a tin g f ro m th e tim e w ere e x ta n t. T h u s , n o b o n a fid e p r im a ry so u rce s c o r r o b o ra te d th e a f o re m e n tio n e d c o n te n tio n s . In ste a d , S u z u k i A k ira h a d u sed p o s t fac to so u rce s— th e tw o d e fe n d a n ts ’ d efe n se s ta te m e n ts a n d T o y a m a ’s te s­ tim o n y . T h e s e w ere p ro d u c e d a fte r th e N M T b e g a n in 1 9 4 6 , n o t in D e c e m ­ b e r 1 9 3 7 w h e n th e 2 m e n alleg e d ly c o m m itte d th e ir crim es. H o r a b eliev e d th a t M u k a i’s b r o th e r T ak e sh i ex p ressly u rg e d M u k a i, N o d a , a n d T o y a m a to create la tte r-d a y d o c u m e n ts d e s ig n e d to g a in a c q u itta ls .70 In p a rtic u la r, H o r a s o u g h t to d e s tro y M u k a i’s alib i a b o u t b e in g w o u n d e d a n d o u t o f a c tio n b e tw e e n 2 a n d 15 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . T o th a t e n d , H o r a c ite d te s tim o n y a p p e a rin g in th e 29 Ju ly 1 9 7 2 issue o f Shukan shincho w ritte n b y th e n ew s jo u r n a lis t S ato S h in ju , w h o p h o to g r a p h e d M u k a i a n d N o d a a t C h ’an g c h o u o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 .71 S a to sa id th a t h e sa w A sa m i ta lk in g w ith M u k a i a n d ta k in g n o te s a t C h ’a n g c h o u o n e d a y b e fo re — w h ic h w as a fte r M u k a i’s u n it le ft W u h s i. So S a to ’s s ta te m e n t d e m o lis h e d M u k a i’s alib i a b o u t b e in g h o s p i­ ta liz ed a n d also c o n tra d ic te d h is c la im o f h a v in g m e t A sa m i b u t o n c e , at W u h s i. T h e sk e p tic a l S a to also ask ed M u k a i a n d N o d a a b o u t h o w th e y ta b ­ u la te d th e ir scores— a p o in t th a t Y am a m o to S h ic h ih e i a n d S u zu k i A k ira claim ed w as im p o s sib le u n d e r b a ttle fie ld c o n d itio n s . A c c o rd in g to S a to , th e m e n re ­ p lie d th a t ea ch assig n ed a s u b o rd in a te to c o u n t th e o th e r ’s k ills. To H o ra , th a t d eg ree o f p r e m e d ita tio n d isp e lle d a n y d o u b t o n th is p o in t. H o r a also c ite d s ta te m e n ts in Shukan shincho b y S u z u k i Jiro th a t M u k a i a n d N o d a b ra g g e d to A sam i a t th e fo o t o f P u rp le M o u n ta in .72 F u rth e rm o re , S u z u k i Jiro d isc lo se d th a t “flu s h in g o u t ” th e e n e m y th e re to o k p la c e th r o u g h p o is o n gas, n o t sm o k e , as H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y m is ta k e n ly a d d u c e d fro m th e Japan Advertiser. (Y am a­ m o to S h ic h ih e i to o p e rc e iv e d f ro m th is a c c o u n t th a t Ja p a n e se fo rces u se d p o i­ so n gas a t P u rp le M o u n ta in , a n d sa id so re p e a te d ly in a m a tte r- o f- f a c t w a y th a t b e tra y s to ta l in d iffe re n c e a b o u t y e t a n o th e r w a r c rim e in C h in a .73) T h e Shukan shincho e d ito r c o n c lu d e d th a t A sa m i K az u o d id n o t m a k e u p re p o rts o f th e c o n te s t o n h is o w n . In ste a d , A sa m i b ased th e se o n th e b o a sts m a d e b y M u k a i a n d N o d a , w h o d id n o t rea lly d o w h a t th e y c la im e d . N e v e rth e le ss, th e e d ito r c o n c lu d e d , th e y d id m a k e b o a s tfu l s e lf-in c rim in a tin g a s se rtio n s, so th e y h a d o n ly th e m se lv e s to b la m e fo r th e ir tra g ic fa te .74 Finally, H o r a s o u g h t to e x o n e ra te A sam i, w h o se h o n o r Y a m a m o to a n d S u ­ z u k i A k ira h a d b e s m irc h e d . A sa m i in 1 9 4 6 , lik e S u z u k i Jiro in 1 9 7 2 , in siste d 138

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

th a t n o n e o f th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun re p o rte rs a c tu a lly sa w M u k a i or N o d a k ill a n y o n e . In H o r a ’s eyes, A sa m i w as far fro m a v illa in . To th e c o n ­ trary, A sa m i h a d trie d to h e lp M u k a i b y te stify in g th a t w a rtim e g o v e rn m e n t c e n so rsh ip w o u ld h av e su p p ressed a n y new s sto ry th a t even h in te d a t atro c itie s b e in g p e r p e tra te d a g a in st C h in e s e n o n c o m b a ta n ts . In tr u th , H o r a c o n c lu d e d , A sam i d id falsify h is 1 9 3 7 s to ry to deceiv e rea d ers. T h u s , H o r a a d m itte d th a t th e k illin g c o n te s t w as “f a b ric a te d ” in o n e c ru c ia l sense. B u t th is w as n o t th e sa m e falsity, d e c e p tio n , a n d f a b ric a tio n o f w h ic h Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i ac­ cu sed A sam i. N o r w as it th e s e m ifa b ric a tio n th a t th e Shukan shincho e d ito r a ttr ib u te d to A sam i. In s te a d , H o r a p ro c la im e d , A sa m i h a d falsified h is 1 9 3 7 s to ry in o rd e r to c irc u m v e n t im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t c e n so rsh ip b y p o r tra y in g M u k a i a n d N o d a k illin g a rm e d C h in e s e so ld ie rs in c o m b a t w h e n th e y h a d rea lly d e c a p ita te d h elp less P O W s .75 H o r a b a c k e d u p th is c la im w ith re fe re n c e to tw o so u rce s. O n e w as Tenno no guntai b y a c e rta in K u m a z a w a K y o jiro . It cites a rm y v e te ra n s su c h as U n o S h in ta ro w h o te stifie d th a t d e c a p ita tio n s b y sw o rd w ere a fre q u e n t o c c u rre n c e in C h in a . B u t H o r a ’s “c lin c h in g p r o o f ” c a m e fro m a 1 9 7 5 essay b y S h ijim e A k ira, a p o s tw a r la b o r le a d e r w h o h a d b e e n a p r im a ry sc h o o l p u p il d u r in g th e w a r in N o d a s h o m e p re fe c tu re o f K a g o sh im a . In 1 9 4 4 , N o d a gave a ta lk a b o u t th e k illin g c o n te s t th a t S h ijim e re c a lle d in 1 9 7 5 as follow s: I learned o f it w hen I was in prim ary school. T his was m y first experience w ith China. I’m sure it was in the spring o f 1944, one year before I graduated... I recall that sub­ lieutenant “N ” stood very relaxed in front o f us, not stiff and formal like m ost m ilitary m en. H e said serenely, “T h e newspapers call me a local hero and a valiant w arrior who killed 100 m en.... But in tru th I only killed four or five m en in actual hand-to-hand com bat.... W henever we took over a trench, we w ould shout “Ni, lai, lai” (Hey you, come, come). C hink soldiers are dam n fools, so they w ould com e out in hordes. W e w ould line them up and cut down every last one__ I got a reputation for slicing up 100 m en, but almost all o f them were in this m anner Two o f us h ad a killing con­ test, but later on people w ould ask me, “W asn’t it really an easy m atter?” A nd I w ould reply, “for me, it was nothing at all.”76 S u z u k i A k ira a n d Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i n e v e r re s p o n d e d to th is d o c u m e n t, p e r­ h a p s b ecau se th e y ch o se to w ish it away. B u t S h ijim e ’s s ta te m e n t a b o u t N o d a , th o u g h in c rim in a tin g , is n o t q u ite th e s m o k in g g u n th a t H o r a T o m io h e ld it to b e a n d H o n d a K a ts u ic h i still h o ld s it to b e. T h is is a h e a rsa y a c c o u n t o f th e c o n fe ssio n th a t N o d a re p u te d ly m a d e to s ix th -g ra d e rs in 1 9 4 4 , rec alle d b y S h ijim e 31 years later. T h e a c c o u n t w o u ld a ssu m e m u c h m o re c o g e n c y if o n e o r tw o o f S h ijim e ’s classm ate s w ere to v erify it, b u t is n o t in c o n tr o v e r t­ ib le ev id en c e b y itself. O n th e o th e r h a n d , K u m a z a w a K y o jiro ’s Tenno no gun­ tai— w h ic h cites a sim ila rly d a m n in g a c c o u n t b y U n o S h in ta r o — is re a lly a w o rk b y H o n d a K a ts u ic h i a n d N a g a n u m a S e ts u o .77 T h e d isg u ise d a u th o rs h ip m a y cast d o u b t o n its reliab ility . M o reo v e r, in th e a c c o u n t c ite d ab ove, S h i139

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

jim e says n o th in g a b o u t M u k a i. W h e th e r o r n o t M u k a i w as h o sp ita liz e d b e tw e e n 2 a n d 15 D e c e m b e r, h e w as n o rm a lly assig n ed to d u tie s b e h in d th e lin es, n o t in areas w h e re fro n t-lin e , h a n d - to - h a n d c o m b a t to o k p la ce . N o o n e ever saw M u k a i a c tu a lly k ill a n y o n e , a n d so m e p e rso n s w h o m S u z u k i A k ira in te rv ie w e d in siste d th a t M u k a i h a d n o t. A b o v e all, M u k a i’s w ife C h ie k o sta te d th a t h e tu r n e d h im s e lf in to th e A m e ric a n s to b e q u e s tio n e d fo r w a r crim es even th o u g h h e c o u ld h av e esca p ed w h e n th e Ja p a n e se c o n s ta b le assig n ed to arre st h im o ffe re d to tu r n a b lin d eye. A g u ilty m a n is n o t lik e ly to d o th a t. B e in g a b la b b e r m o u th , a n d th a t a lo n e , se ale d h is fate.

The Ramifications M o s t in c id e n ts th a t m a k e u p th e N a n k in g A tro c ity y ie ld m o re th a n o n e in te r ­ p r e ta tio n . T h e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st, it w o u ld seem , is e x c e p tio n a lly ric h in th is re g a rd . T h e re are six p o ssib ilitie s as th e se u n fo ld e d over tim e fro m 1 9 3 7 to th e p re se n t.

Factual/Guilty T h is c o n v e n tio n a lly a c c e p te d v ie w w as e sp o u se d b y H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y in 1 9 3 7 , th e K M T g o v e rn m e n t a n d N M T in 1 9 4 6 —7 , H o n d a a n d H o r a b e fo re 19 7 2 ; a n d th e la te Iris C h a n g , E rw in W ic k e rt, a n d J o n a th a n D . S p e n c e today. T h e y asserte d (o r c o n tin u e to assert) th a t th e 1 9 3 7 Japan Advertiser E n g lish la n g u a g e sy n o p ses p lu s p o s tw a r C h in e s e o ra l a c c o u n ts b a se d o n m e m o r y a c c u ­ ra te ly d e p ic t M u k a i a n d N o d a k illin g 2 1 1 h elp less n o n c o m b a ta n ts in a “g a m e ” o r a “m u r d e r ra c e ” a t o r n e a r P u rp le M o u n ta in o u ts id e th e w a lle d c ity o f N a n ­ k in g in D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . T h u s , th e tw o Ja p a n e se w ere g u ilty o f B -class w ar crim es. A t th e tim e o f th is c h a p te r ’s fin al e d itin g in Ju ly 2 0 0 6 , th e P R C c ite d th is in te r p r e ta tio n as a h is to ric a lly fa c tu a l in s c h o o l te x tb o o k s, a n d d isp lay s a n e x h ib it g ra p h ic a lly d e p ic tin g th e in c id e n t in its N a n k in g m a u s o le u m .78

Factual/Innocent F ro m 1 9 3 7 u n til 1 9 4 6 , M u k a i’s w ife C h ie k o , a lo n g w ith m a n y o th e r J a p a n ­ ese rea d ers in c lu d in g th e h is to ria n Iro k a w a D a ik ic h i,79 b e lie v e d th a t A sam i K a z u o ’s o rig in a l Ja p a n e se -la n g u a g e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun a c c o u n ts w ere lit­ erally tru e ; th a t is, th e tw o officers k ille d 2 1 1 e n e m y so ld iers in le g itim a te a rm e d c o m b a t. T h is w o u ld m a k e th e m w a rtim e h e ro e s, b u t th e y c o m m itte d n o w a r c rim e in th e sense o f m u r d e r in g h e lp le ss n o n b e llig e re n ts .

140

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

Semi-fabricated/Self-incriminated In Ju ly 1 9 7 2 , th e Shukan shincho e d ito r c o n c lu d e d th a t A sa m i K az u o m a d e u p h is 1 9 3 7 s to ry b ased o n v a in b o a s tin g b y M u k a i a n d N o d a a t th e tim e . N o k illin g s rea lly to o k p la ce , b u t th is to n g u e -w a g g in g sealed th e tw o m e n ’s fate a t th e N M T , a n d re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e ir e x e c u tio n s la y w ith n o o n e b u t th em selv es.

Fabricated/Innocent B e g in n in g in 1 9 7 2 , S u z u k i A k ira a n d Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i c o n te n d e d th a t th e b ra g g in g issue is irre le v a n t. A sa m i K az u o c o n c o c te d h is s to ry k n o w in g th a t n o k illin g s o c c u rre d o n o r o f f th e b a ttle fie ld , so h e w as re sp o n sib le fo r th e ex­ e c u tio n o f tw o in n o c e n t w a r crim es su sp e cts. In Ju ly 2 0 0 6 , th e se view s re m a in in p r in t in J a p a n a n d are e n d o rs e d b y M u k a i’s d a u g h te r, T a d o k o ro C h ie k o .

Deviously Fabricated/Guilty F ro m 1 9 7 5 — a n d as a d ire c t re s u lt o f d e b a tin g w ith S u z u k i A k ira a n d Y am a­ m o to S h ic h ih e i afte r 1 9 7 1 — H o n d a K a ts u ic h i a n d H o r a T o m io h a d to revise th e ir o rig in a l c la im o f fa c tu a l/g u ilty . A sa m i K azu o , th e y n o w ca m e to assert, m a d e u p th is s to ry fo r a sly p u rp o s e : to s k ir t w a rtim e sta te c e n so rsh ip b y p o r ­ tra y in g th e m u r d e r o f m a n y — th e p re c ise n u m b e r is im m a te ria l— h elp less C h i­ nese P O W s as i f M u k a i a n d N o d a h a d k ille d b e llig e re n ts in le g itim a te a rm e d c o m b a t. T h is is th e in te r p r e ta tio n th a t a p p e a rs, fo r e x a m p le , in H o n d a ’s 1 9 8 7 N ankin e no michi (T h e ro a d to N a n k in g ) a n d its 1999 E n g lish tra n s la tio n The

N anjing Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan’s N ational Shame.

A Split Verdict B ased o n S h ijim e A k ira ’s 1971 o ra l a c c o u n t, w e m ig h t c o n s tru e th a t M u k a i w as in n o c e n t a n d N o d a , guilty. H is to ria n s o fte n p la y ju d g e a n d ju ry , b u t th is a lm o st n e v e r in v o lv e s se n ­ te n c in g p eo p le to d e a th . In p e n a l p ro c e e d in g s, th e c rite ria fo r ju d g m e n t are far stricter, a n d th e co n se q u e n c e s o f e rro r are far graver, th a n in a c a d e m ic in q u irie s, so d ra w in g an alo g ie s to a c rim in a l tria l d is to rts th e n a tu re o f m y h is to rio ­ g ra p h ic analysis. D e s p ite th is cav eat, I c o n c lu d e th a t th e ev id e n c e u n c o v e re d in th is d e b a te d id n o t e sta b lish th e tw o m e n ’s g u ilt b e y o n d a re a so n a b le d o u b t. T h e c o n v e n tio n a lly a c c e p te d fa c tu a l/g u ilty view, as w ell as th e fa c tu a l/in n o c e n t

141

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

view , are b o th u n te n a b le . In ste a d , th e s e m i-fa b ric a te d /s e lf-in c rim in a te d a rg u ­ m e n t is p ro b a b ly clo sest to th e tr u th , a n d th e fa b r ic a te d /in n o c e n t a rg u m e n t is n e x t closest. In su m , I c o n c lu d e th a t th e tw o m e n w ere u n ju s tly ex e c u te d a n d th a t th e in c id e n t w as fictive, th o u g h n o t wholly fa b ric a te d , sin c e A sa m i’s a c c o u n t w as b ased o n b o a s tin g m a d e b y th e tw o officers to h im . T h is c o n c lu ­ sio n d o es n o t m e a n th a t th e e n tire N a n k in g A tro c ity w as fa b ric a te d , o r th a t th e im p e ria l a rm y is a b so lv ed o f w a r crim es. H o r a a n d o th e rs sin c e 1 9 7 5 h av e fo u n d a b u n d a n t p r o o f th a t c ru e l a n d s u m m a r y b e h e a d in g s o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts a n d P O W s to o k p la ce th r o u g h o u t C h in a . It is q u ite p o ssib le th a t M u k a i a n d N o d a d id th e sa m e th in g a t N a n k in g — even i f th e ir ta lly m a y h av e fa lle n s h o r t o f 2 1 1 . G u ilt b y a s so c ia tio n is im p e rm is s ib le in a c o u r t o f law, b u t h is to ria n s m u s t d ra w c o n c lu sio n s u n d e r far less s tr in g e n t c o n s tra in ts . H e n c e I re m a in fu lly o p e n to th e d e v io u sly fa b ric a te d /g u ilty a r g u m e n t as rev ised b y H o r a a n d H o n d a afte r th is d e b a te e n d e d . Yet, w h ate v er w e m a y c o n c lu d e a b o u t th e 1 9 7 1 —7 5 d eb a te , it d isclosed m a n y p o in ts o f g re a t v alu e. D is p u ta n ts o n b o th sid es w o rk e d th r o u g h a h y p o th e sis, a n tith e sis, a n d sy n th e sis. T h is p ro ce ss d iv e rsified re se a rc h m e th o d s , u n c o v e re d n e w d o c u m e n ta ry so u rces, h o n e d in te rp re tiv e a n a ly tic skills, in c re a se d o u r sto re o f fa c tu a l k n o w le d g e , a n d u n c o v e re d n e w av e n u es fo r re se a rc h . F o r ex a m p le , th e d e b a te d isc lo se d a n alleg ed w a r c rim e a t N a n k in g — th e use o f p o is o n gas— w h ic h still re m a in s la rg e ly u n h e a rd o f o u ts id e Ja p a n . Y a m a m o to a p p lie d in sig h ts fro m p sy c h o h isto ry , i f in a n o n s y s te m a tic way, a n d S u z u k i a n d H o n d a d e v e lo p e d in te rv ie w in g te c h n iq u e s n e e d e d fo r o ra l h isto ry . T h e y d id all o f th is a t a tim e w h e n n a rro w ly d o c u m e n t-b a s e d , m a in s tre a m a c a d e m ic h is to ria n s in J a p a n d e rid e d th o se a p p ro a c h e s as u n s c h o la rly o r fit o n ly fo r jo u rn a lis ts a n d critics o f s o c io p o litic a l affairs (hyoronka). N e w m e th o d s are n o t a n u n q u a li­ fied g o o d ; th e y h av e th e ir o w n p itfa lls. B u t in th is case th e y m a d e fo r a k e e n e r a p p re c ia tio n o f c o m p le x itie s a n d n u a n c e s in th e A tro city . A t th e e n d o f th e day, th e d e b a te u n e a r th e d n e w p r im a ry m a te ria ls th a t ex p o sed d efects in e a rlie r so u rc e s a n d th e fa lsity o f c o n te n tio n s b ased o n th o se d efects. T h u s w e c a n n o lo n g e r a ssert th a t 1 9 3 7 Ja p a n e se n e w s sto rie s, N M T p r o s e c u tio n ch arg es, p o s t h o c v ic tim iz a tio n te s tim o n ie s b a se d o n m e m o ry , a n d c u r r e n t- d a y P R C asse rtio n s a b o u t th e k illin g c o n te s t are tr u e a n d reliab le . W h a t th e C h in e s e v ic tim s in te rv ie w e d b y H o n d a in 1971 rec alle d f ro m “m e m ­ o ry ” w as a k illin g c o n te s t d is to rte d b y re fra c tio n th ro u g h : (1) th e ea rly Tokyo nichi nichi shinbun a rticle s (2) th e ir r e d a c tio n s in E n g lish in th e Japan Adver­ tiser, (3) A p p e n d ix F in T im p e rle y ’s W hat War Means, w h ic h q u o te d th o se re d a c tio n s ; (4) w a rtim e c o llo q u ia l C h in e s e n e w s a rticle s b ased o n A p p e n d ix F; a n d (5) th e p r o s e c u tio n ’s c h a rg es a t p o s tw a r w a r crim e s tria ls, th e N M T . It is u n lik e ly th a t a n y k in d o f k illin g c o n te s t to o k p la c e a t all, a n d c e rta in ly n o n e to o k p la ce in th e w ay th a t K M T p ro s e c u to rs c h a rg e d a t th e N M T . In th is k ey sense, th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st w as fictive, th o u g h th is te rm h as d if­ fe re n t m e a n in g s fo r d iffe re n t p e o p le . 142

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

T h e d e b a te k ic k e d o f f f u r th e r re se a rc h a n d u n c o v e re d even m o re p r im a ry so u rces in J a p a n th a t re m o v e d all d o u b t a b o u t th e fa c tu a lity o f th e 1 9 3 7 —38 N a n k in g A tro c ity as a w h o le . N o o n e to d a y c a n m a in ta in a c a d e m ic c re d ib il­ ity w h ile sa y in g th a t th is e v e n t in its to ta lity — as o p p o s e d to sp e cific in c id e n ts w ith in it— n e v e r o c c u rre d . T h e m o s t th a t w o u ld -b e d e n ie rs c a n d o is m in i­ m ize th e n u m b e r o f v ic tim s , cite e x te n u a tin g c irc u m sta n c e s to e x p la in it, or c la im th a t all arm ie s in all w ars c o m m it s im ila r a tro c itie s .80 T h e se are th e m a in co n serv ativ e re v isio n ist p o s itio n s to d ay . E v en T o k y o g o v e rn o r Is h ih a ra S h in ta ro , w h o in 1 9 9 0 v e h e m e n tly d e n ie d th e A tro c ity in to to , h as c o m e to a d m it: “I ’m n o t sa y in g i t ’s w h o lly u n t r u e , .. . a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le g o t k ille d .”81 T h a t is n o t a triv ia l co n c e ssio n . N e v e rth e le ss, h u g e areas o f u n c e r ta in ly re m a in as to th e fictiv e n a tu re a n d th e m e a n in g o f th is c o n te st. T h is ea rly d e b a te d isc lo se d fu n d a m e n ta lly d if­ fe re n t w ays o f as sig n in g p rim a c y to “t r u t h ” in h is to ry — w h e th e r th is b e alle­ g o rical o r em p irica l. T h e C h in e se resist ch arg es th a t th is c o n te s t is a n “illu sio n ” w ith o u t g r o u n d in g in fac t, b u t its fa c tu a lity rea lly d o es n o t m a tte r fo r th e m . In ste a d , th e c o n te s t is e m b le m a tic o f th e ir a c u te w a rtim e v ic tim iz a tio n a t J a p ­ anese h a n d s ; its real v alu e lies in c o m m e m o ra tin g v ic tim s a n d su rv iv o rs, b u t m o s t o f all, in co n v e y in g a lleg o ric al tr u th . In th e la st analysis, th e c o n te s t is p a ra b le ra th e r th a n h is to ry fo r th e C h in e se . H o w ev er, i f Ja p a n e se c ritic s o f S u ­ z u k i A k ira ’s s trip e su c c e e d in d is p ro v in g th e fa c tu a lity n o t o n ly o f th e k illin g c o n te st, b u t o f m a n y m o re in c id e n ts in th e N a n k in g A tro city , th e C h in e se w ill b e h a rd p u t to m a in ta in c re d ib ility b ec au se m o d e rn - d a y h is to ria n s w ill n o t ac­ c e p t n a rra tiv e s u n le ss th e se are c o n v in c in g ly s u p p o r te d b y e m p iric a l ev id en c e. T h e tw o Ja p an e se c a m p s in th e k illin g c o n te s t d e b a te d isp la y e d m a rk e d ly d iffe re n t a ttitu d e s o n th is e m p iric a l f ro n t. T h re e te sts o f s c h o la rly o r jo u r n a l­ istic in te g rity a p p ly h ere . O n e is fo r a u th o rs a n d p u b lis h e rs to c o rre c t m istak e s a n d to revise d u b io u s o r e rro n e o u s claim s w h e n c o n f r o n te d w ith s u p e rio r evi­ d e n c e . H o n d a K a ts u ic h i a n d H o r a T o m io d id th is in la te r e d itio n s o f th e ir w o rk . Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i d id n o t. H is a b s u rd C h in e s e d e a th to ll o f 3 ,0 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 — lim ite d to c o m b a ta n ts — p lu s o th e r b la ta n t e rro rs h av e b e e n r e p e a t­ ed ly r e p r in te d d o w n to th e p re s e n t. F o r tw o d ec ad e s, S u z u k i A k ira a rg u e d th a t h is “N ankin daigyakusatsu” no maboroshi s h o u ld s ta n d as a d o c u m e n t o f h is view s in 1 9 7 2 . B u t in 1 9 9 9 , S u z u k i p ro c la im e d a ffilia tio n w ith th e d e n ia l sc h o o l in a n e w b o o k a n d re fu se d to c o rre c t e rro rs in it as p o in te d o u t b y le ft-w in g h is to ria n s .82 T h u s fo r Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i a n d S u z u k i A k ira , th e ov erall m essag e to b e g o tte n o u t w as m o re im p o r ta n t th a n its fa c tu a l a c c u ­ rac y in d etails. A se c o n d te st o f s c h o la rly in te g r ity is to m a k e o n e ’s so u rce s p u b lic ly accessible a n d th u s a m e n a b le to e m p iric a l v e rific a tio n o r r e fu ta tio n . B e g in n in g in 1 9 7 3 , H o r a p u b lis h e d v o lu m e s o f p r im a ry d o c u m e n ts , m a n y tra n s la te d fro m E n g lish a n d C h in e s e in to Ja p a n e se . B y c o n tra s t, S u z u k i m a d e p u b lic n e ith e r th e ta p e d in te rv ie w s h e m a d e w ith N M T c h ie f ju s tic e S h ih M e i-y u , n o r th e so u rce s p ro v id e d b y th e M u k a i a n d N o d a fam ilies, c ite d as 143

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

k ey ev id en c e in h is first b o o k . T h is le d W a ta d a S u s u m u to c o n c lu d e — after in te rv ie w in g S h ih h im s e lf o n T a iw a n in 1 9 8 4 — th a t S u z u k i h a d n e v e r m e t th is m a n a n d h a d “f a b ric a te d ” h is a c c o u n t o f th e in te rv ie w .83 S u z u k i A k ira d ie d in 2 0 0 3 w ith o u t m a k in g h is ta p e s p u b lic , so W a ta d a ’s d o u b ts se e m ju s ­ tified . A th ir d te s t o f s c h o la rly in te g r ity is to a p p ly b o th c ritic ism s a n d excuses c o n s iste n tly ; th a t is, to w a rd o n e ’s ad v e rsaries a n d o n e s e lf alike. Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i p illo rie d A sa m i K az u o a n d th e Tokyo nichinichi shinbun (n o w called th e M ainichi shinbun) fo r fa ilin g to o w n u p to w a rtim e a n d p o s tw a r lies. Yet th e y n e v e r c o n f r o n te d th e ir p a tro n s a t B u n g e i s h u n ju p u b lis h e rs w ith th is ch arg e. T h a t ta s k fell to a m e m b e r o f th e e n e m y c a m p — T ak a za k i R y u ji.84 O th e r s in tu r n hav e ea g erly e x p o se d th e n o w -le ft-w in g Asahi shinbun s so rd id jin g o is tic ro le in w a r tim e .85 M u c k ra k in g is q u ite a c c e p ta b le , b u t d is p u ta n ts s h o u ld asp ire to d o it e v e n h a n d e d ly . T h e s e tests o f sc h o la rly in te g rity — w h ic h , in c id e n ta lly , e q u a lly o b ta in a lo n g th e C h in e se -Ja p a n e se e th n ic d iv id e — raise a tr o u b lin g q u e s tio n : W h a t i f so m e ­ o n e w h o fails th e m still m a k e s a c o g e n t p o in t? A g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th is m o ra l a m b ig u ity , th e 1 9 7 1 —7 5 d e b a te h a d s a lu b rio u s effects in J a p a n . T h is is b ec au se it w e n t b e y o n d w e ll-w o rn issues o f haisen sekinin — o r c u lp a b ility fo r lo sin g th e w a r— th a t n e v e r w e n t b e y o n d b la m in g g o v e rn m e n t le a d e rs o r face­ less m ilita ris ts fo r s ta rtin g a w a r th e y c o u ld n o t h o p e to w in , p u r s u in g it th r o u g h su ic id e ta c tic s, o r in v itin g n u c le a r h o lo c a u s t b y n o t s u r re n d e r in g early e n o u g h . B y c o n tra s t, c u lp a b ility as d is p u te d in th e k illin g c o n te s t d e b a te w as o f a m o re p r o fo u n d a n d se lf-c ritic a l so rt; th is d is p u te p o in te d th e fin g e r at c o m m o n , o r d in a r y p e o p le (minshu no senso sekinin). In 1 9 7 1 —7 5 , it b ea rs re ­ p e a tin g , th e official P R C lin e w as still th a t Ja p a n e se m ilita ris ts alo n e b o re r e s p o n s ib ility fo r th e w a r o f ag g ressio n ; “o r d in a ry Ja p a n e se ” w ere its v ic tim s a lo n g w ith “o r d in a ry C h in e s e .” T h u s , th r o u g h th is d e b a te , th e Ja p a n e se side, n o t th e C h in e se side, first b ro a c h e d th e p a in fu l issue o f w a r g u ilt b o rn e b y Ja p ­ anese m e n a n d w o m e n o n th e stre e t, n o t ju s t c o n v ic te d A -class w a r c rim in a ls. T h a t a n d re la te d issues h av e g a in e d re n e w e d fo cu s in re c e n t w ritin g s b y K ato N o r i h ir o .86 H e arg u es th a t th e re h as b e e n a series o f v ic io u s cycles in v o lv ­ in g J a p a n ’s p u b lic v ersu s p riv a te m e m o rie s o f th e w ar. O ffic ia l a p o lo g ie s fo r th e w ar h av e le d to fa u x p as b y p o litic ia n s , p ro te s ts b y A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts, b e g ru d g e d re tra c tio n s p lu s d ism issa ls fro m office, a n d m o re d is tru s t b ec au se th e a p o lo g ies la c k su b sta n c e a n d sin c erity . T h e re p e a te d v ic io u s cycle, K ato says, d erives f ro m a J e k y ll-a n d -H y d e sy n d ro m e th a t m a k e s m a n y , p e rh a p s m o s t, Ja p a n e se say o n e th in g p u b lic ly w h ile b e lie v in g o th e rw ise a t h e a r t.87 O r d in a r y Ja p a n e se in p riv a te life— lik e m o s t o r d in a r y p e o p le ev e ry w h e re— y e a rn to c h e rish th e m e m o r y o f d ec ea sed lo v e d o n es. T h e y find it u n b e a ra b le w h e n fo re ig n critic s o r Ja p a n e se “p ro g re ssiv e m e n o f c u ltu r e ” c a rp o n h o w th o se lo v ed o n es d id n o th in g b u t c o m m it a tro c itie s in a d irty , sh a m e fu l w ar. It is to o p a in fu l to a d m it th a t fa m ily a n d frie n d s a c te d lik e b ea sts. So th e y m a g n ify th o se lo v e d o n e s’ su ffe rin g a n d sacrifices, w h ic h to o are g r o u n d e d in 144

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

reality. T h u s , n o s o o n e r d o es a p u b lic fig u re ap o lo g ize fo r w a r c rim e s a n d say th a t th e p o s tw a r g e n e ra tio n m u s t b e a r so m e re sp o n sib ility , th a n s o m e o n e else p ro te s ts th a t J a p a n d id n o t p u rs u e im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n , th a t th e alleg ed a tro c itie s w ere “fa b r ic a te d ,” o r th a t le ft-w in g a c c o u n ts o f th e se are sk e w e d a n d o v e rb lo w n to d e p ic t J a p a n a lo n e as g uilty. H e re w e c a n g rasp th e w id e s p re a d a p p e a l o f co n serv a tiv e re v isio n ist a rg u m e n ts. K a to ’s in sig h ts o n a p o p u la r p sy c h o lo g ic a l level c o m p le m e n t claim s b y th e le ft-w in g h is to ria n Y o sh id a Y u ta k a o n th e p o litic a l level; th a t is, th e p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se s ta te h as a d o p te d a d e c e itfu l d o u b le s ta n d a rd o f a c c o u n ta b ility fo r th e w ar. In fo re ig n affairs, th e p u b lic sp h e re , it o fficially affirm s th e I M T F E v e rd ic ts a n d a d m its p a s t g u ilt fo r ag g re ssio n as s tip u la te d in A rtic le X I o f th e S an F ra n cisc o Peace T reaty. S ig n in g it, a fte r all, w as a p r e c o n d itio n fo r e n d ­ in g th e U .S . O c c u p a tio n a n d re g a in in g so v ereig n ty . B u t in d o m e s tic p o litic s a n d e d u c a tio n , th e p riv a te sp h e re , J a p a n d e n ie s r e s p o n s ib ility fo r ag g ressio n , g lo rifies its ro le in th e la st war, a n d re w a rd s th e p e rp e tra to rs o f th a t w ar w ith p e n s io n s a n d d e c o ra tio n s ra th e r th a n p ro s e c u te th e m — w h ile d e n y in g c o m ­ p e n s a tio n to th e A sia n v ic tim s o f th a t w a r.88 F ro m th is s ta n d p o in t, Ja p a n e se lib e rals c o n tra s t th e ir c o u n try m e n v e ry u n fa v o ra b ly w ith p o s tw a r G e rm a n s, th o u g h s o m e tim e s in su p e rfic ia l a n d u n fa ir w ays. T h e s e p o in ts w ere c e n tra l to th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t d e b a te . Y am a­ m o to a n d S u z u k i— n o less th a n H o n d a a n d H o r a — trie d to m a k e larg e seg­ m e n ts o f Ja p a n e se so c ie ty o w n u p to th e ir w a rtim e sin s a n d p o s tw a r d e n ia l o f th ese. T h a t w as th e ir m a in a im — a t le a st a t th e s ta rt. C a s tin g d o u b t o n th e c o n te s t’s basis in h is to ric a l fa c t was a m e a n s to ach iev e th a t e n d . B u t Y am a­ m o to a n d S u z u k i lo st s ig h t o f e n d s a n d m e a n s in th e h e a t o f d e b a te . A n d later, s ta rtin g in th e 1 9 8 0 s, th e y a n d th e ir fo llo w ers h av e d e n ie d n o t o n ly th e k illin g c o n te st, b u t m o s t, i f n o t all, o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . In e x tre m e cases, th a t ca te g o ric al im p e ra tiv e m a d e la te r d e n ie rs s u c h as T a n a k a M a sa a k i sto o p to a lte r d isa g re ea b le d o c u m e n ts .89 It also p ro d u c e d th e se lf-fu lfillin g , facile lo g ic d isp lay e d b y W a ta n a b e S h o ic h i: th e S h o w a e m p e ro r, H ir o h ito , m a k e s n o m e n tio n o f a N a n k in g A tro c ity in h is 1 9 4 6 m o n o lo g u e , th e Dokuhaku roku; th is is clear p r o o f th a t su c h a n e v e n t n e v e r to o k p la c e .90 H o w ev er, w h e n all is sa id a n d d o n e , th e real n u b o f th is d e b a te w as, “W h o v ic tim iz e d w h o m ? ” Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i fo c u se d o n C h in e s e w h o v ic tim ­ ized Ja p a n e se b y e x e c u tin g in n o c e n t w a r crim e s su sp e c ts, o r o n Ja p a n e se jo u r ­ n a lists w ho sp re a d lies to deceiv e a n d h a r m o th e r Ja p a n e se . H o n d a a n d H o ra , b y c o n tra s t, ex p o se d lies th a t co v e red u p o r g lo ssed o v er Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz a ­ tio n o f th e C h in e se . M u k a i’s w ife a n d d a u g h te r d e p ic t th e ir fa m ily as tra g ic v ic tim s o f b u lly in g b y H o n d a , th e le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se m e d ia , a n d fo re ig n Ja p a n -b a s h e rs s u c h as th e la te Iris C h a n g .91 In d e e d , as first su g g e ste d b y Y am a­ m o to S h ic h ih e i th re e d ec ad e s ago, M u k a i’s d a u g h te r h as su e d H o n d a , th e Asahi shinbun, th e M ainichi shinbun, a n d le ft-w in g p u b lis h e r K a sh iw a s h o b o over th is issue in 2 0 0 3 ; a n d , a fte r a n u n fa v o ra b le d e c isio n in 2 0 0 5 , sh e h as 145

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

la u n c h e d a n a p p e a l.92 Yet th e M u k a i fa m ily lo n g e d to b eliev e a c e rta in lie— th a t th e ir b elo v ed h u s b a n d a n d fa th e r T o sh ia k i v a lia n tly k ille d 1 0 6 C h in e s e so ld iers in b a ttle . It n e v e r d a w n e d o n th e m th a t h e d id so— i f h e rea lly h a d — as a n im p e ria lis t ag g resso r in a n age w h e n su c h c o n d u c t w as b e c o m in g h a rd to ju s tify b e fo re th e w o rld . In th is k ey sense, H o n d a ’s c ru sa d e o n b e h a lf o f “th e sid e th a t g o t k ille d ” is a ll- im p o r ta n t, d e s p ite Isa ia h B e n -D a s a n ’s rh e to ric a l c h ic a n e ry to o b sc u re it. T h e p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se p e o p le c o u ld b e g in to c o n f r o n t th e ir ig n o m in io u s p a s t o n ly afte r fe e lin g g e n u in e re m o rse fo r v ic tim s o f th e w a r o th e r th a n th e m selves— a n d ev en th o u g h , as c o n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists rig h tly in sist, C a u c a sia n im p e ria lis t aggresso rs still refu se to d o so.

Notes 1.

This chapter originally appeared as “T he Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate: War Guilt Amid Fabricated Illusions, 1977—75,” in Journal o f Japanese Studies 26:2 (Summer 2000), pp. 307-40. 2. See Kasahara, A jia no naka no Nihongun, pp.15—39; Yang, “Convergence or Divergence?” pp. 842—65; and Yoshida, “A Battle Over History” pp. 70—132. 3. O n Hora’s career and publications, see Shikan, no. 95 (March 1977), pp. 90—117. 4. For example, Awaya et al., eds., Senso sekinin, sengo sekinin; and Awaya, M iketsu no senso sekinin. 5. Asahi shinbunsha ed., Sengo hosho to wa nani ka, pp. 15—31 and 119—34. 6. Sakamoto, Rekishi kyoiku o kangaeru, p. 120 and p. 126. 7. Hora, K indai senshi no nazo, p. 161. 8. Ibid., p. 162; also, Om ori, Tenanmon enjo, pp. 186—87. 9. Hora, K indai senshi no nazo, pp. 161—62. 10. Timperley, W hat War Means, pp. 284—85. 11. Chang, Rape o f N anking, pp. 55—56; Wickert, ed., Good M a n o f Nanking, pp. 283—84; Cheng, Lestz with Jonathan D. Spence, eds., The Search fo r M odern China: A Documentary Collection. 12. Portions of the N M T records are reproduced in GA Newsletter 5:1 (March 1998), pp. 87—88. 13. Ienaga, Taiheiyo senso, pp. 214—15 and p. 315. 14. T he paragraphs below derive from Fujiwara, Taikei N ihon no rekishi 15: Sekai no naka no N ihon, pp. 282—84 and pp. 293—94; and Miyamoto, Showa no rekishi 10: K eizai taikoku zohoban, pp. 240 ^ 2. 15. In English we now have Honda, N a n k in g Massacre. 16. Honda, Chugoku no tabi, p. 234. 17. Reprinted in Honda, Korosu gawa no ronri, p. 23. 18. Ibid., pp. 120-30. 19. Ibid., p. 195. 20. Yamamoto, W atakushi no naka no Nihongun, ge, pp. 163-90. I have used a two-volume paper­ back edition. 21. Reproduced in Honda, Korosu gawa no ronri, pp. 101-9. 22. Ibid., pp. 126-29. Also, N K H jushinryo kyohi no ronri. 23. Honda, Korosu gawa no ronri, pp. 116-35. 24. Yamamoto, W atakushi no naka no Nihongun, jo, pp. 262-68. 25. Honda, Korosu gawa no ronri, pp. 149-52. 26. Ibid., pp. 136-65.

146

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate, 1971—75

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74.

Ibid., pp. 213-31. Ibid., pp. 232-82. Ibid., pp. 187-90. Yamamoto, Showa tenno no kenkyu, pp. 235-58 and pp. 285-306. Ienaga, Senso sekinin, pp. 308-11. In Nakamura, ed., Rekishi to shinjitsu, p. 160. For an example o f right-wing thinking, see Nishio, Kotonaru higeki. Hata, N a n kin jiken, p. 244; Kaiko (March 1985). Iwakawa, Koto no tsuchi to narutomo, p. 62. Iwanami, Sofu Tojo H id e k i“Issai kataru nakare, ”pp. 72-84. This book inspired the film “Pride: Unmei no toki” that cast Tojo in a heroic light. Gomikawa, Gozen kaigi, pp. 421-23; Ienaga, Senso sekinin, p. 223. A sahi shinbun, 8 August and 10 August 1945. Seno, Shonen H , ge, p. 110. Suzuki, “N a n k in daigyakusatu” no maboroshi. Ibid., pp. 14-15. Ibid., pp. 16-17. Ibid., pp. 11-56 and pp. 70-75. Ibid., p. 71. Ibid., p. 74. O n Tsuji, see Dower, Embracing Defeat, pp. 511-13. Suzuki, “N a n k in daigyakusatsu” no maboroshi, p. 97. Ibid., pp. 63-67. Ibid., pp. 96-97. Ibid., pp. 87-90. Ibid., p. 89 and pp. 95-96. Ibid., p. 112. Shukan shincho (29 July 1972), pp. 32-37. For example, John G. Magee is cited as “Magoo”; Watakushi no naka no Nihongun, ge, p. 316. Ibid., jo pp. 4-6 ; ge, p. 331. Ibid., jo , p. 325, pp. 327-28. Ibid., jo , pp. 215-19, pp. 227-28 and pp. 306-11; ge, p. 96. Ibid., ge, pp. 71-123. Ibid., jo , pp. 282-83; A sahi shinbun, web posted on 23 August 2005. Ibid., ge, p. 298. Q uoted in Hora, N a n kin daigyakusatsu: “M aboroshi”ka kosaku hihan, p. 76. Ibid., p. iv. A sahigeino (21 August 1975), p. 145. Hora, N a n kin daigyakusatsu: “M aboroshi”ka kosaku, pp. 26-29. Ibid., pp. 22-26. Ibid., p. 26. Ibid., pp. 91-104. Ibid., pp. 42-43. Ibid., pp. 110-16. Ibid., pp. 38-47. Ibid., pp. 3 4 ^ 5 , and pp.126-31; Shukan shincho (29 July 1972), pp. 34-35. Hora, N a n k in daigyakusatsu: “M aboroshi”ka kosaku hihan, pp. 35-36; Shukan shincho (29 July 1972), pp. 35-36. Yamamoto, W atakushi no naka no N ihongun, jo, p. 241; ge, p. 281, pp. 286-87, p. 303, p. 317. Hora, N a n k in daigyakusatsu: “M aboroshi”ka kosaku hihan, p. 36; Shukan shincho (29 July 1972), p. 36.

147

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82.

83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92.

Hora, N a n kin daigyakusatsu: "M aboroshi”ka kosaku hihan, p. 73, pp. 104—110. Ibid., pp. 49—50. H onda had also cited this source in his debate with Ben-Dasan. H onda and Naganuma, Tenno no guntai, p. 413, where H onda admits having used this pen name in the original edition. A sahi shinbun, 6 January 2000; Mukai, “‘Mujitsu da!’ Chichi no sakebi ga kikoeru” Seiron March 2000, p. 63-65. Irokawa, A ru Showa-shi, p. 61. Kasahara, N a n k in jik e n to sanko sakusen, pp. 43-71. A sahi shinbun, 20 April 1999. Suzuki, "N ankin daigyakusatsu” no maboroshi, pp. 2 95-96; Suzuki, Shin "N a n k in daigyakusatsu” no maboroshi, pp. 307-505; Seiron, July 1999, pp. 226-36; SAPIO, 14 July 1999, pp. 16-19. For errors in Suzuki’s book, see a review by Yoshida Yutaka in Shukan kinyobi, 27 August 1999, pp. 34-37. A sahi jaanaru, 28 September 1984, pp. 6-9. Ibid., pp. 16-19. Yasuda and Ishibashi, A sahi shinbun no senso sekinin. Kato, Haisengo ron, pp. 46-62; A sahi shinbun, 15 September 1997. This psychological analysis meets resistance from left-wing critics, including the clinical psy­ chiatrist Noda Masaaki; see A sahi shinbun, 11 December 1998. Yoshida, N ihonjin no sensokan, pp. 78-104. Tanaka Masaaki performed this document tampering on the M atsui Iwane taisho no jinchu nisshi in 1985. Watanabe, paraphrased from Shukan bunshun, December 1990, p. 43. Shukan bunshun 15 December 1988, pp. 166-70; Shokun! January 1989, pp. 40-55; Seiron, March 2000, pp. 60-67. A sahi shinbun, 29 April 2003; A sahi shinbun, webposted on 23 August 2005.

148

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

7

Ra d h a b i n o d Pa l o n t h e Ra p e o f N a n k i n g : T he T o k y o Ju d g m e n t a n d t h e G u il t o f H i s t o r y Timothy Brook

N othing w ould be achieved by seeking any prem ature escape from the guilt o f history. — R adhabinod Pal T h e r e w ere m a n y w a rtim e in c id e n ts in E a st A sia o n w h ic h th e I n te r n a tio n a l M ilita ry T rib u n a l fo r th e Far E ast (IM T F E ), b e tte r k n o w n as th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rial, w as called to a d ju d ic a te d u r in g its sessio n s in T o k y o . A m o n g th e m o s t n o to r io u s w as J a p a n ’s a ssa u lt o n N a n k in g in D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . Tw o o f th e tr ib u n a l’s c o n s titu e n ts b r o u g h t to th e c o u r t p a rtic u la r c o n c e rn s fo r w h a t th e p r o s e c u tio n a n d th e b e n c h re g u la rly re fe rre d to as th e “ R a p e o f N a n k in g ,” o r w h a t o th e r a u th o rs in th is v o lu m e call th e “N a n k in g A tro c ity .” C h in a re g a rd e d th e in c id e n t as th e m o s t a tro c io u s e v e n t o f th e w a r a n d h ig h lig h te d th e b ru ta litie s a t N a n k in g a m o n g th e cases th a t it s u b m itte d to th e U n ite d N a tio n s W a r C rim e s C o m m is s io n ( U N W C C ) b e tw e e n 1 9 4 4 a n d 1 9 4 6 .1 T h e U n ite d S tates, as I sh a ll o b se rv e la te r in th is c h a p te r, h a d a d iffe re n t c o n c e rn , w h ic h w as to use th e in c id e n t as a lin c h p in fo r its a r g u m e n t th a t th e le ad e rs o f J a p a n c o n s p ire d to c o m m it w a r c rim e s th r o u g h o u t th e re g io n a n d th r o u g h ­ o u t th e w ar. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is d o u b le in te re s t, tw o Ja p a n e se w ere c o n ­ v ic te d as A -class w a r c rim in a ls a n d e x e c u te d fo r “crim e s a g a in st p e a c e .”2 T h e m a jo r ity o n th e T o k y o b e n c h fe lt th a t, w ith in th e te rm s o f th e c h a r­ te r u n d e r w h ic h th e T o k y o tr ib u n a l w as c o n v e n e d a n d th e c h a rg es th a t th e p r o s e c u tio n la id b e fo re it, ju s tic e w as d o n e . P u b lic o p in io n h as b e e n less c o n ­ fid e n t. In a n a rticle p u b lis h e d in th e s u m m e r o f 1 9 4 7 , th e y o u n g S u n g -p e rio d h is to ria n Ja m es T. C . L iu o b se rv e d th a t th e tria l w as th e n re g a rd e d as a “sec­ o n d - ra te s h o w ,” h a v in g lo s t w h a te v e r p u b lic in te r e s t it m ig h t h av e ex c ite d w ell 149

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

b efo re it w as over.3 U n lik e N u re m b e rg , w h ic h ju d g e d G e rm a n le ad e rs ex p e­ d itio u sly , T o k y o d ra g g e d o n fo r tw o a n d a h a l f years. M o re to th e p o in t, T o k y o fell u n d e r th e s h a d o w o f th e C o ld W ar, tr y in g to d isp e n se ju s tic e a fte r th e p o litic a l a lig n m e n ts th a t h a d e n a b le d it to b e c o n v e n e d , h a d d isso lv e d .4 T h e v o lu m in o u s tra n s c rip ts w ere d e p o s ite d in p u b lic arch iv es b u t n o t p u b lis h e d , u n lik e N u re m b e rg , w h ic h a lo n e b e c a m e th e re p re se n ta tiv e ju d ic ia l a c t e n d in g th e w ar. T o kyo w as re g a rd e d as n o th in g m o re th a n a f o o tn o te to N u re m b e rg , a n d th o se w h o th o u g h t th e y w ere en g a g e d in b re a k in g n e w ju d ic ia l g r o u n d th e re h a d fallen s ile n t b y 1 9 5 3 .5 Ja p a n e se re lu c ta n c e to a c k n o w le d g e w a r re ­ sp o n sib ility , a n d C h in e s e w a r w ea rin ess, c o m p o u n d e d b y th e p o litic a l c o m ­ p lic a tio n s o f th e C o m m u n is t seizu re o f p o w er, c o n s p ire d f u rth e r to e ro d e th e a u th o r ity o f th e T o k y o ju d g m e n t. S c h o la rly assessm en ts sin c e th e 1 9 7 0 s h av e w o n d e re d w h e th e r T o k y o ac h ie v e d a n y th in g m o re th a n v ic to rs ’ ju stic e . T h is sense o f d is re p u te h as le d p o p u la r w rite rs m o re re c e n tly to c o n tin u e d is m a n ­ tlin g th e T o k y o ju d g m e n t, th o u g h b y a rg u in g in q u ite th e o th e r d ire c tio n : n o t th a t th e p o s tw a r v ic to rs ’ ju d g m e n ts o n J a p a n w ere to o h a rsh , b u t th a t th e y w ere to o w eak ; th a t J a p a n h as still to b e a r its “legal b u r d e n ,” p a rtic u la rly fo r w h a t h a p p e n e d in N a n k in g .6 D id th e T o kyo ju d g m e n t im p o s e to o little o n Ja p a n , o r d id it im p o s e to o m u c h ? S h o u ld th e R a p e o f N a n k in g b e s u b je c te d a n e w to ju d ic ia l sc ru tin y , o r d o es th is w ay o f d e a lin g w ith th e m e m o r y th a t h as p a sse d to th e n e x t g e n ­ e ra tio n create u n d e s ira b le effects? In th is c h a p te r I w ish to re e v a lu a te th e ju d i ­ cial s ta tu s o f th a t a tro c ity b y c o n s id e rin g h o w th e I M T F E in v o k e d , e x a m in e d , a n d in te r p re te d w h a t h a p p e n e d in N a n k in g . M y m e th o d o lo g y w ill b e to w o rk n o t ju s t w ith th e tr ib u n a l’s ju d g m e n t b u t a g a in st it as w ell, b y g iv in g p a r tic ­ u la r a tte n tio n to th e c o n te n tio u s d is s e n tin g o p in io n o f th e I n d ia n m e m b e r o f th e b e n c h , R a d h a b in o d P al (1 8 8 6 —1 9 6 7 ). O f th e fo u r ju d g e s w h o d iss e n te d f ro m th e m a jo r ity ju d g m e n t, P al w as th e m o s t u n c o m p ro m is in g in h is reje c­ tio n o f e v e ry th in g th e tr ib u n a l d id o r s to o d for. H e ex p ressed se rio u s d o u b t as to th e re lia b ility o f th e ev id e n c e th a t th e p r o s e c u tio n b r o u g h t fo rw a rd , q u e s­ tio n e d th e ju d ic ia l m e a n in g s th a t it a tta c h e d to N a n k in g , a n d re fu se d to c o n ­ d e m n a n y o n e fo r w h a t h a p p e n e d th e re . P al’s in te r p r e ta tio n s ta n d s in s ta rk c o n tra s t to o p in io n th e n , w h ic h g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d a t le a st o n e o f th e tw o c o n v ic tio n s o n th e ev id e n c e fro m N a n k in g , a n d also to o p in io n no w , w h ic h d o u b ts th a t tw o c o n v ic tio n s w ere e n o u g h . Pal d id n o t d e n y th a t th e in c id e n t o c c u rre d , th o u g h h e d id a t tim e s b e n d o v er b a c k w a rd to fin d d o u b t w h e re h is co lleag u es saw n o n e . B u t h e d o u b te d th a t th e v ic to rs h a d th e r ig h t to ju d g e , o r th a t th e losers h a d th e o b lig a tio n to a ssu m e g u ilt for, a n y a tro c itie s J a p a n ­ ese c o m m itte d d u r in g th e w ar, N a n k in g in c lu d e d . In P al’s view , as w e sh all see, th e g u ilt a d h e re d n o t to th e in d iv id u a ls w h o s to o d b e fo re th e b e n c h , b u t to h isto ry , specific ally th e h is to ry o f W e s te rn im p e ria lis m in A sia. U n til th a t legacy w as reso lv e d , W e s te rn n a tio n s h a d n o a u th o r ity to h o ld J a p a n re ­ s p o n sib le fo r evils c o m m itte d d u r in g th e w ar. 150

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

H o w e v e r c o n tro v e rs ia l P al’s a rg u m e n ts w ere a t th e tim e (th e y w ere), a n d h o w ev e r p a rtis a n th e p u rp o s e s to w h ic h th e y h av e b e e n p u t s u b s e q u e n tly (th e y hav e b e e n ) ,7 th e ir h ig h s ta n d a rd o f ju r is p r u d e n c e o b lig e s us to p ro c e e d c a u ­ tio u s ly w ith a rg u m e n ts th a t ju stic e h as n o t b e e n d o n e . It is essen tial to b e aw are o f th e p recise legal g ro u n d s o n w h ic h th e R a p e o f N a n k in g w as p ro s e c u te d , th e p ro c e d u ra l d isa g re e m e n ts a m o n g th e ju d g e s w h o sa t o n th e b e n c h , a n d th e d iv e rg e n ce s in th e f in d in g o f facts. O th e rw is e w e c a n n o t b e g in to assess w h e th e r th e T o kyo ju d g m e n t c o n s titu te d a p ersu a siv e h is to ry o f th a t A tro city , a n a p p ro p ria te a d ju d ic a tio n , o r a n a d e q u a te p ro c e d u re fo r its redress. P al’s c o u n ­ te ra rg u m e n t also p ro v id e s a u se fu l rev ie w o f th e d iffic u ltie s o f d e fin in g , assess­ in g , a n d assig n in g w a r g u ilt m o re g en erally . G iv e n th a t w e h av e n o t s to p p e d c o m m ittin g crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity , n o r fig u re d o u t h o w to b r in g th e se to sa tisfa c to ry ju d g m e n t, P al’s ca refu l d is c rim in a tio n s a n d h ig h c a u tio n m a y p ro v e to b e a v a lu a b le p o in t o f refe re n c e in d isc u ssio n s b e y o n d th o se c o n c e rn e d w ith re v isitin g Ja p a n e se re s p o n s ib ility fo r m ilita ry m is c o n d u c t in N a n k in g .

The IMTFE and the Rape of Nanking T h e T o k y o in d ic tm e n t co n sists o f fifty-five c o u n ts . T h e first th irty -s ix are g r o u p e d u n d e r “c rim e s a g a in st p e a c e ,” th e n e x t six te e n u n d e r “m u r d e r ,” a n d th e fin al th re e u n d e r “w a r c rim e s a n d c rim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity .” T h e p ro s e c u ­ tio n w ro te th e Ja p a n e se a tta c k o n N a n k in g in to th e in d ic tm e n t as a c h a rg e o f “m u r d e r ” in C o u n t 4 5 . T h is c o u n t c h a rg e d th a t tw elv e o f th e Ja p a n e se d e fe n ­ d a n ts “o n th e 1 2 th D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , a n d s u c c e e d in g days, b y u n la w fu lly o rd e r­ in g , c a u sin g a n d p e r m ittin g th e a rm e d fo rces o f J a p a n to a tta c k th e C ity o f N a n k in g in b re a c h o f th e T re a ty A rticles m e n tio n e d in C o u n t 2 h e r e o f a n d to s la u g h te r th e in h a b ita n ts c o n tra ry to in te r n a tio n a l law, u n la w fu lly k ille d a n d m u r d e r e d m a n y th o u s a n d s o f civ ilia n s a n d d isa rm e d so ld ie rs o f th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a , w h o se n a m e s a n d n u m b e r are a t p re s e n t u n k n o w n .”8 T h a t th e p r o s e c u tio n gave th is in c id e n t its o w n se p a ra te ch a rg e sig n als th a t it th o u g h t ev id en c e o f Ja p a n e se c o n d u c t in N a n k in g w o u ld se cu re c o n v ic tio n s, a n d it d e v o te d m u c h tim e to b r in g in g fo rw a rd re le v a n t ev id e n c e to im p lic a te th e tw elve d e fe n d a n ts n a m e d in C o u n t 4 5 . A s th e tria l p ro c e e d e d , th o u g h , th e ta rg e t n a rro w e d to tw o p e o p le : M a ts u i Iw a n e, th e o v erall c o m m a n d e r o f th e C e n tr a l C h in a A re a A rm y (C C A A ) u n til F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , a n d H ir o ta K o k i, th e fo re ig n m in is te r se rv in g a t th e tim e u n til M a y 1 9 3 8 . C o u n t 4 5 w as n o t th e o n ly c o u n t to w a rd w h ic h e v id en c e w as in tr o d u c e d a t th e tria l. In fact, C o u n t 4 5 so o n d isa p p e a re d fro m view , a n d th e b e n c h in th e e n d ch o se n o t to ru le o n it.9 B o th th e p ro s e c u tio n a n d th e b e n c h w ere m o re in te re s te d in a p ­ p ly in g ev id en ce fro m N a n k in g to th e g e n e ra l ch a rg e o f “c o n s p ira c y to c o m m it c o n v e n tio n a l w a r c rim e s a n d crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity ,” sp e cific ally C o u n ts 54 a n d 55. U n d e r C o u n t 5 4 , M a ts u i, H ir o ta , a n d o th e rs w ere c h a rg e d w ith “ h av 151

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

in g c o n s p ire d to o rd er, a u th o riz e o r p e r m i t” th e ir s u b o rd in a te s to “c o m m it breaches o f th e law s a n d c u sto m s o f w a r.” C o u n t 55 ch a rg ed th e m w ith h av in g “v io la te d th e law s o f w a r ” b y h a v in g “d e lib e ra te ly a n d reck lessly d isre g a rd e d th e ir legal d u ty to ta k e a d e q u a te ste p s to se cu re th e o b se rv a n c e a n d p re v e n t b rea ch es th e re o f.” 10 A lth o u g h n e ith e r c o u n t n a m e d N a n k in g , th e p ro s e c u tio n u se d ev id en c e f ro m th is a tro c ity as its basis fo r a rg u in g th a t M a ts u i a n d H ir o ta b e fo u n d g u ilty u n d e r th is se c tio n o f th e in d ic tm e n t. C o n v ic tio n s fo r th e R a p e o f N a n k in g w ere th u s a rg u e d o n g e n e ra l r a th e r th a n sp e cific g ro u n d s . T h e p r in c ip a l so u rc e o n w h ic h th e p r o s e c u tio n re lie d fo r e v id en c e re g a rd ­ in g th e R a p e o f N a n k in g w as Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone. T h e sixtyn in e d o c u m e n ts in th is b o o k w ere g e n e ra te d b y th e G e r m a n a n d A m e ric a n m e m b e rs o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ). D u r in g th e first tw o m o n th s o f th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n , th e IC s o u g h t to secu re th e sa fe ty o f th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n in N a n k in g . T h e b o o k w as p u b ­ lish e d in 1 9 3 9 a n d d is trib u te d w o rld w id e in th e h o p e o f s tim u la tin g in te r ­ n a tio n a l s u p p o r t fo r C h in a ’s stru g g le a g a in st Ja p a n . T h e e ffo rt w o u ld y ie ld u n e x p e c te d re su lts afte r th e w ar, fo r s u b s ta n tia l p o r tio n s o f th e b o o k w ere re a d d ire c tly in to th e w a r crim e s r e c o rd .11 T h e p r o s e c u tio n s o lic ite d a d d itio n a l evi­ d e n c e fro m so m e o f th e A m e ric a n m e m b e rs o f th e IC , w h o w ere ask ed to te s­ tify, e ith e r in p e rs o n o r b y w ritte n affid av it, a b o u t w h a t th e y k n e w a n d e x p e rie n c e d .12 T h e c o u r t’s re lia n c e o n th e ir te s tim o n y m e a n t th a t th e IC w as p iv o ta l in s h a p in g th e tr ib u n a l’s p e rc e p tio n o f Ja p a n e se c o n d u c t d u r in g th e c a p tu re o f N a n k in g . T h e b e n c h ’s re c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e e v e n t in its fin al ju d g ­ m e n t closely fo llo w s th a t a c c o u n t.13

Matsui’s Defense M a ts u i Iw a n e ’s d efe n se c o n s iste d o f a n affid av it re g a rd in g h is c o m m a n d o f th e C C A A , w h ic h w as re a d in to th e re c o rd o n 2 4 N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 7 , a n d h is cro ss­ e x a m in a tio n o n th a t d a y a n d th e fo llo w in g .14 In b o th , h e d e n ie d th e ch a rg e c o n ta in e d in C o u n t 5 4 th a t h e “o rd e re d , a u th o riz e d , o r p e r m i tte d ” h is tro o p s to d e s tro y th e c ity o f N a n k in g o r b u tc h e r its p o p u la tio n . T h is d e n ia l w as g e n ­ erally ac ce p te d . I t p ro v e d to b e th e easiest o f th e d e n ia ls h e w o u ld m a k e , h o w ­ ever, a n d w o u ld n o t b e su ffic ie n t to relieve h im , as th e o v erall c o m m a n d e r o f th e forces th a t to o k N a n k in g , o f re s p o n s ib ility fo r w a r crim es. F o r th e re w ere lesser b u t e q u a lly d a m n in g c h a rg es th a t h e h a d ta c itly allo w ed h is so ld ie rs to r u n a m o k , o r th a t h e h a d d o n e n o th in g to d isc ip lin e th e ir c o n d u c t. M a ts u i h a d tw o d efe n se stra te g ie s, a n d re lie d o n b o th a t d iffe re n t tim e s. T h e first w as to go o n th e o ffen siv e a n d d e n y th a t a tro c itie s h a d b e e n c o m ­ m itte d in N a n k in g , a n d th e re fo re a rg u e th a t h e c o u ld n o t b e h e ld re sp o n sib le fo r s o m e th in g th a t d id n o t o ccu r. A t c e rta in tim e s h e a tte m p te d to u se th is d efen se in a re s tric te d cap acity , as w h e n h e d e c la re d , “ I d o n o t k n o w o f a n y 152

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

fact o f C h in e se w o m e n a n d c h ild re n b e in g k illed w ith in th e w alls o f N a n k in g .”15 H is se c o n d d efen se stra te g y w as to a d m it th a t a tro c itie s m a y h av e h a p p e n e d , b u t th a t h e c o u ld n o t b e h e ld re sp o n sib le fo r th e m . T w o a lte rn a tiv e s tra n d s o f lo g ic s te m m e d f ro m th is se c o n d lin e o f d efe n se. T h e s tro n g e r o n e w as th a t a tro c itie s o c c u rre d , b u t th a t h e w as u n a w a re o f th e se a t th e tim e . T h e o th e r ta c k w as to a d m it th a t h e h a d so m e k n o w le d g e o f tr o o p m is c o n d u c t, b u t th a t h e la c k e d e ith e r th e o p p o r tu n ity o r th e c a p a c ity to sto p it. In e ith e r case, th e p o in t o f v u ln e ra b ility in h is d efe n se w as k n o w le d g e , n o t a c tio n : th e less h e knew , th e less h e m ig h t b e h e ld re sp o n sib le fo r w h a t to o k p la ce . T h is d efe n se stra te g y p u t M a ts u i in th e d iffic u lt p o s itio n o f d e c id in g h o w m u c h k n o w le d g e h e s h o u ld a d m it to , a n d re m a in in g c o n s is te n t in th a t a d m issio n . S lig h t k n o w l­ edge m ig h t m itig a te th e d eg ree o f h is re sp o n sib ility , as h e c o u ld n o t h av e a c te d effectively to sto p s o m e th in g a b o u t w h ic h h e k n e w little . Yet it w o u ld b e d if­ fic u lt to k n o w o n ly a little a b o u t s o m e th in g th is ex ten siv e, esp ec ially as M a t­ su i w as p re s e n t in N a n k in g in m id - D e c e m b e r w h e n th e a tro c ity w as in fu ll sw in g a n d w o u ld b e e x p e c te d to h av e h a d k n o w le d g e o f th e s itu a tio n a ro u n d h im . T h e fu lle r h is k n o w le d g e , h o w ev e r, th e m o re p e rsu a siv e th e p r o s e c u tio n ’s re a s o n in g th a t h e s h o u ld h av e in te rv e n e d m o re fo rc e fu lly th a n h e a p p a re n tly d id . M a ts u i’s d efe n se o sc illa te d a m o n g th e se c o n tra d ic to ry p o s tu re s o f n o , lit­ tle, o r so m e k n o w le d g e , th o u g h as m u c h as p o ssib le , h e s o u g h t to p riv ile g e th e lim its o f h is k n o w le d g e o v er th e e x te n t o f h is a c tio n . E v en h is d e c la ra tio n th a t n o w o m e n o r c h ild re n w ere k ille d w ith in th e w alls o f N a n k in g w as c o u c h e d as a n a s se rtio n a b o u t h is k n o w le d g e , n o t a b o u t w h e th e r s u c h k illin g s h a d a c tu a lly o c c u rre d . M a ts u i’s evasive r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f h is k n o w le d g e o f b rea ch es o f d isc ip lin e a ttra c te d th e close a tte n tio n o f th e p ro s e c u tio n , w h ic h d e v o te d a lm o st h a lf o f its c ro s s -e x a m in a tio n to try in g to s o rt o u t fo r th e re c o rd w h a t h e d id a n d d id n o t k n o w . U n d e r th e p re ssu re o f c ro ss-e x a m in a tio n , M a t­ su i c o n c e d e d th a t in c id e n ts m a y h av e o c c u rre d a n d th a t h e a c q u ire d so m e k n o w le d g e o f th e se a fte r first e n te r in g N a n k in g o n 17 D e c e m b e r. T h is in f o r ­ m a tio n d o es n o t a p p e a r in h is a ffid av it, h o w ev er. W h e n ask ed to e x p la in its ab sen ce, h e re s p o n d e d th a t h e p u t in it o n ly su c h in f o rm a tio n as h e h a d re ­ ceived in a n official capacity. “As far as I re m e m b e r,” h e sta te d , “n o re p o rts w ere m a d e in m y c a p a c ity as C o m m a n d e r - in - C h ie f [actually, o v erall c o m m a n d e r] o f th e C C A A , official o r u n o ffic ia l.” 16 N o r, h e said , d id th e c o n s u la r s ta ff in N a n k in g in f o rm h im th a t fo re ig n e rs o n th e IC w ere lo d g in g c o m p la in ts a lm o st d a ily a b o u t th e c o n d u c t o f th e Ja p a n e se a rm y .17 T h is b e c a m e y e t a n o th e r lin e o f defense: th a t h e w as o b lig e d to a d m it to , a n d act o n , o n ly official k n o w led g e . R u m o rs o f m is c o n d u c t, w h ic h w as all th a t h e a d m itte d h e a rin g , w ere n o t su f­ ficien t to re q u ire h im to act. T h e d e a th s th a t M a ts u i d id a c k n o w le d g e in h is affid a v it as h a v in g o c c u rre d d u r in g th e ta k in g o f N a n k in g w ere as a re s u lt o f m ilita ry e n g a g e m e n t w ith th e e n e m y — a n d a c c o rd in g ly n o t to b e c o n s tru e d as w a r crim es. H e allo w ed 153

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

in h is p re p a re d s ta te m e n t th a t “a g re a t n u m b e r o f C h in e s e so ld ie rs a n d civ il­ ia n s w ere k ille d o r w o u n d e d b y b o m b s , a rtille ry sh ells a n d rifle b u lle ts d u r ­ in g th e N a n k in g c a m p a ig n ,” b u t d e fe n d e d h im s e lf a g a in st th e c h a rg e o f c o m m ittin g w ar c rim e s b y d e n y in g th a t a m a ssac re h a d b e e n p la n n e d . “N o t h ­ in g ca n b e f u rth e r fro m th e t r u t h th a n th e s la n d e r th a t th e s ta ff o f th e J a p a n ­ ese A rm y o rd e re d o r to le ra te d th e ab o v e d e a th s .” 18 A s fo r C h in e s e civ ilian s, M a ts u i in siste d th a t h is k n o w le d g e w as b a se d e n tire ly o n w h a t h e le a rn e d fro m o n e c o n v e rs a tio n w ith refu g ees, w h ic h h e n o te d vaguely, to o k p la c e in a te m ­ p le o n th e to p o f a m o u n ta in h e c o u ld n o lo n g e r id e n tify .19 A la s t-m in u te q u e s tio n fro m th e b e n c h trie d to p ro b e h is k n o w le d g e o f c rim in a l b e h a v io r fro m a d iffe re n t d ir e c tio n b y in q u ir in g w h e th e r, a fte r th e e v e n t, h e h e a rd o f Ja p a n e se so ld iers b e in g c o u r t- m a rtia le d fo r th e ir m is c o n d u c t in N a n k in g . “ I d id h e a r a t th e tim e th a t tw o o r th re e cases w ere b e in g trie d in S h a n g h a i,” M a ts u i a d m itte d . T o w e a k e n th e im p lic a tio n th a t h e h a d failed to a c t re s p o n ­ sibly, h e a d d e d th a t w h e n h e trie d to fin d o u t m o re a b o u t th e se cases after b e in g reliev ed o f his c o m m a n d , h e d isc o v e re d th a t “as th e d o c u m e n ts in q u e s­ tio n h a d b e e n b u r n e d a n d w ere m issin g , I w as u n a b le to c a rry it a n y f u rth e r a n d I w as u n a b le to a s c e rta in th e a c tu a l fig u re s.” H e th u s in te rp o s e d o n e m o re layer o f ig n o ra n c e in s u la tin g h im s e lf fro m th e e v e n t.20 A t th is p o in t in th e p ro c e e d in g s, as th e a c tin g p r e s id e n t o f th e tr ib u n a l w as tu r n in g to o th e r m a tte rs, M a ts u i sp o k e u p o n h is o w n a c c o u n t to say th a t “th e offenses fo r w h ic h th e se m e n w ere trie d w ere ra p e , ro b b e ry , lo o tin g , o u tra g e s a n d m u r d e r .”21 It is n o t clear w h a t h e in te n d e d b y m a k in g th is u n s o lic ite d — a n d p o te n tia lly d a m n in g — in te rje c tio n . W as it to a c k n o w led g e th a t m is c o n d u c t d id o c c u r b u t th a t it w as d e a lt w ith a c c o rd in g to th e p ro c e d u re s o f m ilita ry law? W h a te v e r h is in te n tio n in v o lu n te e r in g th is in f o rm a tio n , h e w as n o t ask ed to e la b o ra te . M a ts u i th u s m a n a g e d to g e t th r o u g h h is te s tim o n y w ith ­ o u t ever m a k in g a n u n a m b ig u o u s s ta te m e n t a b o u t th e fu ll e x te n t o f h is k n o w l­ edge o f a tro c io u s c o n d u c t, s k a tin g d e x te ro u sly b e tw e e n th e claim s o f k n o w in g n o th in g o f w h a t w as g o in g o n a n d k n o w in g s o m e th in g — th o u g h n o t k n o w ­ in g a b o u t a n y th in g in su ffic ie n t d e ta il, o r in a n o fficial cap acity , to m a k e h im d u ty - b o u n d to in v e stig a te . H e a p p e a re d to b eliev e th a t h e c o u ld a d h e re to an y o f th e se p o s tu re s a n d still relieve h im s e lf o f lia b ility fo r h a v in g fa ile d to ac t effectively to h a lt th e a tro c itie s. In its la te r s u m m a tio n fo r th e d efe n se, M a ts u i’s c o u n s e l a rg u e d th a t th e a tta c k o n N a n k in g w as a d efe n siv e re sp o n se to a n “o ffen siv e c a m p a ig n ” th a t C h in a w as p r e p a rin g a g a in st le g itim a te Ja p a n e se in te re sts in K ia n g s u a n d C h e k ia n g p ro v in ce s. “ U n less th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p ie d th e N a n k in g base fo r th e tim e b e in g , it se e m e d d iffic u lt to m a in ta in p ea ce in C e n tr a l C h in a as a w h o le a n d secu re o u r in te re s ts th e re in . S u c h b e in g th e case, th e Ja p a n e se G o v e rn ­ m e n t, in o rd e r to re sto re p ea ce o f th e w h o le are a s o u th o f th e Y angtze, d e te r­ m in e d to a tta c k N a n k in g .” In o th e r w o rd s, th e a tta c k w as n o t aggressive, a n d n o t u n ju s tifie d . C o u n s e l also a rg u e d m itig a tin g c irc u m sta n c e s, o b se rv in g th a t 154

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

th e C C A A h a d to m o u n t th e a tta c k “in a h u r r y u n d e r m a n y d iffic u ltie s. B u t th is A rm y, b e in g o rig in a lly o rg a n iz e d to se cu re th e re g io n a r o u n d S h a n g h a i, w as in its s e tu p a n d m a in te n a n c e d e fe c tiv e .” T h is s u p p o r te d M a ts u i’s c la im th a t h e w as u n a b le to exercise fu ll d isc ip lin e . In a d d itio n , th e w ith d ra w a l o f C h ia n g K a i-sh e k ’s K M T a rm y c re a te d a n “u n c o n tro lla b le s itu a tio n ” th a t c o u ld n o t b e b la m e d o n th e Ja p a n e se fo rces. C o u n s e l also re ite ra te d a t so m e le n g th M a ts u i’s in siste n c e in h is a ffid a v it th a t h e gave o rd e rs th a t N a n k in g b e c a p ­ tu r e d in a n o rd e rly fa sh io n . W h e n h e e n te re d N a n k in g fo r th e first tim e , h e h e a rd o f “a few o ffe n d e rs o f b re a c h o f m ilita ry d isc ip lin e a n d m o ra lity a n d h e w as greatly h u r t, so th a t h e o rd e re d s tric t c o m p lia n c e w ith h is fo rm e r o rd e rs .” W h e n “th e r u m o r o f th e u n la w fu l acts o f th e Ja p a n e se A rm y in N a n k in g ” re a c h e d h im in S h a n g h a i, h is c o u n s e l n o te d th a t h e issu ed in s tr u c ­ tio n s callin g fo r p u n is h m e n t o f th e p e rp e tra to rs a n d c o m p e n s a tio n fo r th e v ic tim s . A c c o rd in g to h is o w n law y ers, th e n , M a ts u i h a d ex ten siv e k n o w le d g e o f th e d isa ste r in N a n k in g b u t av ailed h im s e lf o f every p o ssib le m e a n s to r ig h t th e s itu a tio n . In p re fe re n c e to M a ts u i’s c la im o f re la tiv e ig n o ra n c e , th e re fo re , h is co u n s e l re ste d its case o n re a so n a b le a c tio n . A p p a re n tly th e y d id n o t re g a rd th is s w itc h in d efe n se stra te g y as c o m p ro m is in g M a ts u i’s o w n in te r p re ta ­ tio n , fo r b e y o n d b o th alw ays s to o d th e m o re assertiv e a r g u m e n t th a t “M a ts u i’s o p e ra tio n s in S h a n g h a i a n d N a n k in g w ere w ith in th e c a te g o ry o f w a r in s e lf-d e fe n se .”22 N e a r th e e n d o f th e s u m m a tio n , M a ts u i’s c o u n s e l m a d e a s u rp ris in g m o v e to w a rd a n e w lin e o f d efe n se b y a s k in g th a t th e c h a rg es a g a in st M a ts u i b e se t in a b ro a d e r c o n te x t: “ T h e losses a n d d a m a g e s th e n in flic te d o n h u m a n lives a n d m a te ria l th in g s in N a n k in g , are a lm o s t in s ig n ific a n t w h e n c o m p a re d to th o se w h ic h th e p r in c ip a l cities o f J a p a n su ffe re d in c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e w ar. M o re so, w o u ld it b e, i f c o m p a re d to th e in d e s c rib a b le h o rro rs to w h ic h c o u n tle s s in n o c e n t Ja p a n e se w o m e n a n d c h ild re n a n d o th e r civ ilia n s in H ir o ­ s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i w ere su b je c te d b y th e a to m ic b o m b .”23 T h e rh e to ric a l d evice o f s e ttin g Ja p a n e se c iv ilia n losses a g a in st C h in e s e civ ilia n losses is h e re g iv en d ire c t s ta te m e n t in th e tra n s c rip ts o f th e I M T F E p ro c e e d in g s fo r th e first tim e , to m y k n o w le d g e . T h e d efe n se h a d a tte m p te d o n 3 M a rc h 1 9 4 7 to in tr o d u c e ev id en c e a b o u t th e a to m ic b o m b as p a r t o f its g e n e ra l su b m issio n s, b u t w as o v e rru le d .24 A lth o u g h th e tu quoque d efe n se o f u sin g a n a tro c ity o n o n e sid e to can cel o u t a n a tro c ity o n th e o th e r w as n o t allo w ed in th e c o n ­ te x t o f th e law g o v e rn in g th e tr ib u n a l, it w as a p o p u la r d ev ice, a t le a st in Ja p a n , fo r tr y in g to o ffse t th e losses th a t J a p a n in flic te d w ith th o se th a t it su f­ fered . A s i f se n sin g th a t th is a p p ro a c h m ig h t n o t w in M a ts u i a rep riev e , h is co u n s e l w e n t o n to o ffe r tw o b la n k e t d efe n ses sp e cific to th e R a p e o f N a n k in g . O n e w as th a t m u c h e v id en c e fo r a tro c itie s, b e in g b a se d o n fear, m is ju d g e ­ m e n t, a n d r u m o r, w as e x a g g erated a n d se n sa tio n a liz e d . T h e se c o n d , in so m e m e a su re o f c o n tra d ic tio n w ith th e first, w as th a t C h in e s e so ld iers b o re m u c h o f th e re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e v io le n c e a n d d e s tru c tio n th a t d id o cc u r. T h is 155

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

w o u ld in c lu d e C h in e s e w o m e n , w h o , c o u n s e l alleg ed , a p p ro a c h e d Ja p a n e se so ld iers fo r sex a n d c rie d ra p e la te r.25

Judging the Rape of Nanking G iv e n th e a lm o st u n iv e rsa l c o n d e m n a tio n o f J a p a n fo r th is atro c ity , M a ts u i’s co u n s e l faced grave d iffic u lty in m o u n ti n g a p ersu a siv e legal d efe n se. T h e ir c lie n t w as to o closely a sso cia te d w ith th e R a p e, esp ec ially in C h in e s e eyes, to b e ex cu sed fo r h is p a r t in th is in c id e n t. S u c h e x p e c ta tio n s m a y h av e c o m ­ p ro m is e d th e legal v ia b ility o f th e p ro c e d u re th a t f o u n d M a ts u i g u ilty . W h a t­ ever th e g e n e ra l h a d o r h a d n o t d o n e , o r w h a te v e r h is c o u n s e l d id o r d id n o t arg u e, w as u n lik e ly to d e fle c t th e tr ib u n a l fro m h o ld in g s o m e o n e a m o n g th o se a rra ig n e d as A -class w a r c rim in a ls fo r “c rim e s a g a in st p e a c e ” re sp o n sib le fo r w h a t h a p p e n e d in N a n k in g , a n d M a ts u i w as th e lik e lie st m ilita ry c a n d id a te to cast in th a t ro le. S o m e o f h is c o u n s e l’s a rg u m e n ts m a y h av e b e e n re s p o n ­ sib le fo r p e r s u a d in g th e b e n c h to d ism iss th e first e ig h t o f th e n in e c o u n ts a g a in st M a tsu i, b u t it c o u ld n o t d e fe a t C o u n t 5 5 . T h e b e n c h d id n o t h o ld th a t M a ts u i c o n s p ire d to w ag e crim e s a g a in st p ea ce o r ev en to c o m m it a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g , b u t it d id ju d g e th a t h e w as g u ilty o f fa ilin g to a c t in su c h a w a y as to p re v e n t th e ir o c c u rre n c e . “T h e T rib u n a l is sa tisfie d th a t M a ts u i k n e w w h a t w as h a p p e n in g ,” d e c la re d th e ju d g m e n t, s h o w in g th a t th e d efe n se o f p a r ­ tial k n o w le d g e h a d n o t w o rk e d . B u t, th e ju d g m e n t w e n t o n , M a ts u i “d id n o th ­ in g , o r n o th in g effective to a b a te th e se h o rro rs . H e d id issu e o rd e rs b e fo re th e c a p tu re o f th e C ity e n jo in in g p r o p rie ty o f c o n d u c t u p o n h is tro o p s a n d la te r h e issu ed f u r th e r o rd e rs to th e sa m e p u r p o r t. T h e se o rd e rs w ere o f n o effect as is n o w k n o w n , a n d as h e m u s t h av e k n o w n .”26 M a ts u i’s k n o w le d g e , c o m ­ b in e d w ith h is failu re to a c t c o m m e n s u ra te ly to th a t k n o w le d g e , a m o u n te d to c rim in a l n e g lig e n c e .27 O n th is c o u n t a lo n e , M a ts u i w as c o n d e m n e d . M a ts u i w as n o t alo n e in b e in g f o u n d c rim in a lly lia b le fo r fa ilin g to ta k e effective a c tio n . T h e I M T F E also c o n d e m n e d H ir o ta K o k i u n d e r th e sa m e C o u n t 55, a m o n g o th e rs. H ir o ta w as fo re ig n m in is te r a t th e tim e th e C C A A o c c u p ie d N a n k in g . T h e b e n c h ju d g e d th a t, as h e k n e w a b o u t th e R a p e o f N a n k in g , h e s h o u ld h av e in te rv e n e d m o re s tre n u o u s ly w ith th e A rm y M in ­ is try to c o rre c t th e p ro b le m . H is c o m p lic ity in th is m a tte r w as far less im p o r ­ ta n t to h is overall c o n v ic tio n , h o w ev er, th a n h is ea rlier ro le in c a b in e t d ec isio n s. F o r it w as H ir o ta w h o s te p p e d in as th e n e w p r e m ie r in th e w ak e o f th e a b o rtiv e m ilita ry c o u p o f 2 6 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 6 , w h ic h effectiv ely p u t th e a rm y in c o n tro l o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. (H e lo st h is p o s t w h e n th e a rm y w ith ­ d re w its s u p p o r t a y e a r la ter.) H ir o ta ’s c o n v ic tio n o n C o u n t 55 w as n o t u n a n ­ im o u s a m o n g th e m e m b e rs o n th e b e n c h .28 It also d re w so m e o p p o s itio n in d ip lo m a tic circles w h e n it w as a n n o u n c e d . R o b e rt C ra ig ie , w h o k n e w H ir o ta w h ile se rv in g as B ritish a m b a ssa d o r to Ja p a n , w ro te a t o n c e to th e F o re ig n 156

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

O ffice u rg in g th a t th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t in te rv e n e o n H ir o ta ’s b e h a lf. “It lo o k s to m e ,” h e s ta te d , “as if, th r o u g h R u ssia n a n d p o ssib ly C h in e s e m is ­ re p re s e n ta tio n , a se rio u s m isc a rria g e o f ju s tic e m a y o c c u r in th is case u n le ss im m e d ia te a c tio n is ta k e n .” C ra ig ie su sp e c te d th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t o f h a v ­ in g p re ssu re d th e I M T F E to se cu re m o re th a n o n e c o n v ic tio n fo r th e R a p e o f N a n k in g . T h e fo re ig n se c re ta ry re fe rre d th e a p p e a l to a m e m b e r o f h is sta ff fo r c o m m e n t. A fte r c o n s u ltin g w ith C o m y n s C a rr, th e B ritish a s sista n t p ro s ­ e c u to r a t T o k y o (w h o h a d m a n a g e d to g e t C ra ig ie ’s w ritte n te s tim o n y fo r th e d efen se th r o w n o u t e a rlie r th a t y ea r), h is s ta ff p e rs o n ju d g e d th a t H ir o ta h a d b e e n in tim a te ly in v o lv e d in w o rk in g o u t th e p la n fo r Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n d u r ­ in g h is te rm as p r im e m in iste r, as th e o th e r c o u n ts a g a in st H ir o ta alleg ed . T h e fo re ig n se c re ta ry a c c o rd in g ly saw n o p o in t in ra isin g H ir o ta ’s c u lp a b ility u n d e r C o u n t 5 5 , as h e fe lt ju s tic e w as p ro p e rly se rv e d o n o th e r g r o u n d s .29 T h e I M T F E ju d g m e n ts o n H ir o ta a n d M a ts u i w ere a m o n g th e in n o v a tio n s in in te r n a tio n a l la w th a t th e p o s tw a r trib u n a ls m a d e . In d iv id u a ls in p o s itio n s o f h ig h a u th o rity c o u ld h e n c e fo rth b e h e ld legally re sp o n sib le fo r m ilita ry a tro c ­ ities c o m m itte d b y sta te p e rs o n n e l, even i f th e se in d iv id u a ls d id n o t d ire c tly p la n o r o rd e r th e m to b e c a rrie d o u t. N u re m b e rg a d o p te d th e sa m e p rin c ip le o f in d iv id u a l re sp o n sib ility , b u t lim ite d its a p p lic a b ility to a c tu a l p a r tic ip a ­ tio n , w h ic h h a d to b e p ro v e d , ra th e r th a n a llo w p o s itio n a lo n e to im p lic a te a le ad e r.30 In te rm s o f in d ic ta b le o ffen ses, T o k y o e m p lo y e d th e c a te g o rie s u sed a t N u re m b e rg , w h ic h in a d d itio n to c o n v e n tio n a l w a r crim e s a n d “crim es a g a in st p e a c e ” (th e la tte r c o v e rin g a tro c itie s a g a in st civ ilia n p o p u la tio n s ) la id ch arg es o f “c rim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity ” as in tr o d u c e d in th e L o n d o n A g re e ­ m e n t.31 T o kyo w as d is in c lin e d , h o w ev er, to d e fin e o r p u rs u e “crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity ,” p re fe rrin g to lu m p th e se w ith “c o n v e n tio n a l w a r c rim e s” in th e fin al se c tio n o f th e in d ic tm e n t (a lo n g w ith C o u n ts 5 4 a n d 5 5 ) w ith o u t d e fin ­ in g o r a p p ly in g th e se “crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity ” in legal a rg u m e n t. W i th C o u n t 55 , h o w ev e r, T o k y o in tr o d u c e d a n im p o r ta n t in n o v a tio n . It en la rg e d th e c o n c e p t o f w a r crim e s to in c lu d e o m is sio n , o r m a k in g fa ilu re to p re v e n t w a r crim es, a w a r crim e itself.32 B. V. A . R o lin g , th e D u tc h ju stic e a n d co lleag u e m o s t s y m p a th e tic to R a d h a b in o d Pal, u n d e r s to o d th e c rim in a liz a ­ tio n o f o m is sio n as c ru c ia l fo r g a in in g c o n v ic tio n s a t T o k y o . T h is w as b ec au se, u n lik e a t N u re m b e rg , “h e re it w as less a q u e s tio n o f o rd e rs to c o m m it w ar crim es g iv en o n h ig h a u th o rity , b u t ra th e r o f c o n s ta n t c rim in a l p ra c tic e b o th o n la n d a n d se a.”33 T h e a r g u m e n t o f c o n s p ira c y th u s h a d to b e a r g re a te r legal w e ig h t a t T o k y o ,34 g iv e n th a t th e re w as n o H itle r, a n d n o c liq u e a r o u n d a H itle r, to w h o m m ilita ry ag g re ssio n c o u ld u n e q u iv o c a lly b e tra c e d . T h e e m ­ p e ro r H ir o h ito , o r S h o w a e m p e ro r, m ig h t h av e b e e n ca st as H itle r ’s fu n c tio n a l e q u iv a le n t in J a p a n , b u t th e A m e ric a n O c c u p a tio n a u th o ritie s k e p t H ir o h ito o u t o f th e tria l a n d e n s u re d th a t n o n e o f th e d e fe n d a n ts in c rim in a te d h im .35 E v en h a d h e b e e n in d ic te d , it w o u ld h av e b e e n d iffic u lt fo r th e p ro s e c u tio n to p re s e n t th e e m p e ro r H ir o h ito as a n o th e r H itle r, g iv e n th e c o n s titu tio n a l 157

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

lim ita tio n s o n th e e m p e r o r ’s p o w e rs a n d th e a m b ig u ity o f th e d o c u m e n ta tio n re g a rd in g h is ro le in d e c isio n m a k in g . T h e I M T F E ju d g m e n t th e re fo re a rg u e d th a t J a p a n ’s “fa r-re a c h in g p la n s fo r w a g in g w ars o f ag g re ssio n a n d th e p r o ­ lo n g e d a n d in tric a te p r e p a ra tio n fo r a n d w a g in g o f th e se w ars o f ag g re ssio n w ere n o t th e w o rk o f o n e m a n ,” a n d th u s h a d to b e c o n c e iv e d as “th e w o rk o f m a n y lead ers a c tin g in p u rs u a n c e o f a c o m m o n p la n fo r th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a c o m m o n o b je c t.”36 W i th n o fin a l “h ig h a u th o r ity ” a t th e to p o f th e s tr u c ­ tu re , th e tr ib u n a l w as h a rd -p re sse d to re ly o n c o n s p ira c y to c o n v ic t th e u p p e r lead ers. T h e c rim in a liz a tio n o f o m is sio n , u n d e r th e se a w k w a rd c o n d itio n s , w as th e re fo re essen tial fo r s e c u rin g c o n v ic tio n s .37

Pal’s Dissent A fter th e I M T F E h a d b e e n set u p , states o rg a n iz in g th e trib u n a l d e c id e d to in ­ v ite I n d ia a n d th e P h ilip p in e s — b o th v ic tim s o f Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n a n d b o th in th e p ro ce ss o f d e c o lo n iz a tio n — to a p p o in t re p re se n ta tiv e s to th e b e n c h a n d th e p r o s e c u tin g te a m . P al w as th e I n d ia n a p p o in te e (h is h o m e v illage to d a y lies o n th e B a n g la d e sh i sid e o f th e In d ia -B a n g la d e s h b o r d e r th a t r u n s th r o u g h B en g al). H e re a c h e d T o k y o o n 14 M a y a n d m a d e h is first a p p e a ra n c e a t th e tr ib u n a l th re e day s la ter, several w eek s in to th e p ro c e e d in g s .38 A s a la te c o m e r, Pal d id n o t reg a rd h im s e lf as b o u n d b y th e a g re e m e n t th e o rig in a l n in e ju s ­ tices m a d e b efo re h is a rriv al to d eliv er a u n a n im o u s ju d g m e n t, as th e b e n c h a t N u re m b e rg ch o se to d o . F o r h im to re je c t th is a g re e m e n t a t th e o u ts e t in d i­ cates th a t h e m u s t h av e g o n e to T o k y o w ith th e fo re k n o w le d g e th a t h e w o u ld d isag ree w ith th e m a jo rity . H is d e c isio n u n d id th e u n a n im ity a g re e m e n t a n d o p e n e d th e w ay fo r f o u r o th e r se p a ra te o p in io n s .39 Pal m isse d s u b s ta n tia l p o r ­ tio n s o f th e tria l to r e tu r n to C a lc u tta to care fo r h is a ilin g w ife, in c lu d in g th e c ro s s -e x a m in a tio n o f M a ts u i in N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 7 , b u t h e d id n o t re g a rd h is ab sen c e as d isq u a lify in g h im f ro m d e liv e rin g a ju d g m e n t.40 A n d th a t ju d g ­ m e n t w as severe. In h is d is s e n tin g o p in io n , w h ic h w as n u m b e re d to 1 ,2 3 5 pages b u t exceeds th a t to ta l, Pal la id o u t w ith care a n d in d e ta il a h o s t o f o b je c ­ tio n s to th e m a jo rity ju d g m e n t, a n d in d e e d to th e e n tire ju d ic ia l p ro ce ss. H e o b je c te d to th e c o n s titu tio n a n d ju r is d ic tio n o f th e tr ib u n a l, to th e c o n c e p ts o f aggressive w a r a n d o m is sio n , a n d to th e tr ib u n a l’s lo o se ru le s o f e v id en c e a n d p ro c e d u re . T h e se o b je c tio n s le d h im to fin d n o n e o f th e a c cu sed guilty. A t several p o in ts in h is d is s e n tin g o p in io n , P al ad d resses th e c h a rg es aris­ in g fro m th e R ap e o f N a n k in g , a n d it is o n th e se passages th a t I w ill fo cu s a tte n ­ tio n .41 H e d id n o t d e n y th a t Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs h a d a c te d ev illy in N a n k in g , n o tin g th a t “th e ev id e n c e is still o v e rw h e lm in g th a t a tro c itie s w ere p e r p e tra te d b y th e m e m b e rs o f th e Ja p a n e se a rm e d fo rces a g a in st th e c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n .” H e a c c e p te d th e fac t th a t in ju r y h a d b e e n d o n e . B u t h e d id n o t fin d th a t G e n ­ eral M a ts u i failed to re g u la te th e c o n d u c t o f h is tro o p s , n o r d id h e fin d fo r158

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

eig n m in is te r H ir o ta a t fa u lt fo r n o t in te r v e n in g w ith th e A rm y M in is tr y to sto p b ru ta litie s in th e field . M o re g en erally , P al w as d is tu rb e d b y th e r e tr o ­ sp ectiv e m o ra l uses to w h ic h th e p r o s e c u tio n p u t th e e v e n t, p r o m p tin g h im to d e c lin e to c a p ita liz e “r a p e ” a n d to in s ta ll th e w o rd in scare q u o te s w h e n h e u se d it. H e p re fe rre d to sp e a k in te rm s o f “th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t.” To u n d e rs ta n d h is re je c tio n o f th e c h a rg e o f crim in a l re sp o n sib ility fo r N a n ­ k in g , it is n ec essa ry to rev ie w so m e o f P a l’s legal o b je c tio n s to th e tr ib u n a l’s c o m p o s itio n , p ro c e d u re s, a n d legal re a s o n in g .42 W e tu r n to ea ch o f th e se now . 1. T h e I M T F E w as a m ilita ry tr ib u n a l o n w h ic h ju d g e s fro m th e c o u n trie s th a t h a d b e e n v ic to rio u s in w a r sa t in ju d g m e n t o v er th e d e fe a te d . O n ly J a p a n ­ ese w ere in d ic te d fo r th e ir m is c o n d u c t, a n d o n ly th e ir e n e m ie s c o u ld d e c id e w h e th e r th e y h a d m is c o n d u c te d th e m se lv es. T h is a rr a n g e m e n t m ig h t satisfy v ic to rs ’ ju stic e , b u t it w as n o t c o n g r u e n t w ith th e ju d ic ia l id e als th a t P al b e ­ liev ed s h o u ld b e in fo rc e a t th is m o m e n to u s p o in t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in te r ­ n a tio n a l law. “A s a ju d ic ia l tr ib u n a l,” Pal re m in d e d h is fe llo w ju d g e s in th e c o n c lu s io n to h is o p in io n , “w e c a n n o t b e h a v e in a n y m a n n e r w h ic h m a y ju s ­ tify th e fee lin g th a t th e s e ttin g u p o f th e tr ib u n a l w as o n ly fo r th e a tta in m e n t o f a n o b je ctiv e w h ic h w as e sse n tia lly p o litic a l, th o u g h c lo a k e d b y a ju d ic ia l a p p e a ra n c e .”43 B u t th a t is p re c ise ly w h a t th e tr ib u n a l w as: a d ev ice b y w h ic h th e c h ie f v ic to rs o v er Ja p a n , th e A m e ric a n s, s o u g h t to e sta b lish a n a rra tiv e o f w a r g u ilt fo r J a p a n th a t ju s tifie d th e ir n e w d o m in a n c e in th e P acific. P al w as n o t alo n e in d o u b tin g th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e b e n c h . S h o rtly a fte r th e tria l, R o lin g ex p ressed s im ila r a n x ieties. T h e n a tio n s fro m w h ic h th e ju d g e s w ere se lec ted h a d “a s tro n g in te re s t in u sin g a p o s t-w a r tria l to e sta b lish c e rta in ev en ts, to w h ite w a s h th e m se lv e s, to b la m e o th e rs .” A s h e rec alle d later, “it w as q u ite im p o s sib le to ach iev e th e d e ta c h m e n t o n e likes to o b se rv e in ju d g e s .” R o lin g w o u ld hav e p re fe rre d s h a rin g th e b e n c h w ith ju d g e s f ro m n e u tra l n a ­ tio n s . “T h e y w o u ld h av e b e e n a c o n s ta n t e le m e n t o f o b je ctiv ity , a n d o fte n d u r in g o u r d e lib e ra tio n s in c h a m b e rs, I re g re tte d th e ir ab sen c e, w h ic h w o u ld hav e p re v e n te d th in g s , w h ic h c o u ld , to o easily now , go u n c h a lle n g e d .”44 A t th e o u ts e t o f th e tria l, th e Ja p a n e se c o u n s e l fo r fo rm e r p re m ie r T o jo H id e k i a tte m p te d to c h a lle n g e th e im p a r tia lity o f all th e a p p o in tm e n ts to th e b e n c h o n th e a lle g a tio n o f p r io r in te r e s t.45 H e b e g a n w ith its A u s tra lia n p re s id e n t, W illia m W e b b , w h o h a d h e a d e d A u stra lia ’s n a tio n a l U N W C C office a n d as its w a r crim es c o m m is s io n e r h a d p e rs o n a lly in v e stig a te d w a r crim e s in N e w G u in e a in 1 9 4 5 , m a k in g h im b o th p ro s e c u to r a n d ju d g e .46 W e b b su m m a rily d ism isse d th e a rg u m e n t. T h e q u a lity o f th e b e n c h w as n o t e n h a n c e d b y th e q u a lific a tio n s o f its m e m b e rs. A lth o u g h th e y w ere v erse d in law, n o t all w ere a c q u a in te d w ith law re le v a n t to th is case, n o r d id a n y o f th e m h av e a r e p u ta tio n as a n in te r n a ­ tio n a l ju r is t.47 P o ssib ly th e le ast q u a lifie d fro m a legal p o in t o f v ie w w as th e se c o n d C h in e s e a p p o in tm e n t to th e T o k y o b e n c h , M e i Ju -a o . M e i h a d rec eiv e d h is legal e d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f C h ic a g o , b u t h e h a d n o t p ra c tic e d law 159

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

extensively, n o r h a d h e a n y p r io r ex p e rie n c e o n th e b e n c h . H e w as a p p o in te d b y th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t n o t fo r h is ju d ic ia l cap acity , b u t fo r h is lo y a lty to th e K M T p o litic a l le a d e rsh ip . It is d iffic u lt to su p p o se th a t M e i w o u ld h av e s u p p o r te d a ju d g m e n t th a t d id n o t p u n is h Ja p a n e se le ad e rs fo r th e R a p e o f N a n k in g . 2. F ro m th e fa u lty c o m p o s itio n o f th e tr ib u n a l fo llo w e d p ro c e d u ra l flaw s. M o s t se rio u s w as w h a t P al re g a rd e d as th e tr ib u n a l’s p r e d is p o s itio n to fin d g u ilt. T h e I M T F E w as m o u n te d o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t s o m e o n e s h o u ld b e m a d e re sp o n sib le fo r th e te rrib le d isa ste rs th a t th e w in n in g sid e h a d su ffe re d . R e v ie w in g th e h is to ry o f s c a p e g o a tin g sin c e W o rld W a r I, P al n o te d th a t p e o ­ p le o f h is g e n e ra tio n h a d c o m e to d e m a n d p u n is h m e n t w h e n a d e sp ise d m il­ ita ry le a d e r w as d e fe a te d .48 E v en i f th e a c cu sed w ere g u ilty , P al a rg u e d , th a t g u ilt h a d to b e p ro v e d r a th e r th a n a d d u c e d o n th e basis o f p r io r m o ra l re a ­ s o n in g o r a m is p la c e d id e a lism in th e c a p a c ity o f th e in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u ­ n ity to a d m in is te r ju stic e . A s h e ex p re ssed h is c a u tio n in a la te r p u b lic a tio n , “th e b u r n in g o f m a n y a J o a n [o f A rc] m a y th u s o n ly n e e d h a l f a n h o u r: b u t several c e n tu rie s w o u ld alw ays b e n e e d e d to fin d o u t th e t r u t h . ” S in g le -m in d e d p u r s u it o f w h a t a p p e a rs to b e th e t r u th w ith o u t d u e p ro c e d u ra l c a u tio n ca n u n d e r c u t th e p o s s ib ility o f a tta in in g it, fo r “ev ery tr u th , h o w e v e r tru e in itself, y et ta k e n a p a rt fro m o th e rs b ec o m e s o n ly a sn a re .” T h e g rea ter ta sk is n o t assign­ in g g u ilt, b u t “e n la rg in g th e h u m a n c o m m u n ity so th a t th e p rin c ip le s o f o rd e r a n d ju s tic e s h o u ld g o v e rn th e in te r n a tio n a l as w ell as n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity .” P al’s c o n c e rn th a t th e tr ib u n a l w as p re d is p o s e d to a c c e p t c u lp a b ility o n a sse rtio n , ra th e r th a n o n p ro o f, w as tie d to h is sense th a t th e b e n c h failed to u p h o ld th e h ig h e s t s ta n d a rd s o f e v id e n c e . H e fo u n d th e c o u r t to o re a d y to a d m it s e c o n d - a n d th ir d - h a n d te s tim o n y th a t c o u ld n o t b e c o rro b o ra te d . A rti­ cle X III o f th e T o k y o c h a rte r allo w ed th a t “th e T rib u n a l sh a ll n o t b e b o u n d b y te c h n ic a l ru les o f e v id e n c e ” a n d m ig h t “a d m it a n y ev id e n c e w h ic h it d ee m s to h av e p ro b a tiv e v a lu e .”49 P al w o rrie d th a t th is fre e d o m w ith re g a rd to evi­ d e n c e failed to filte r o u t d u b io u s te s tim o n y r e g a rd in g a tro c itie s, w h ic h c o u ld b e ex p e c te d to b e a n im a te d b y p o w e rfu l e m o tio n s th a t alw ays fa v o re d th e p r o s e c u tio n ’s case. “E x c ite d o r p re ju d ic e d o b se rv e rs,” as h e p u t it, m ig h t w ell b e te m p te d to rela te m o re th a n th e y a c tu a lly saw, o r to p re se n t it in h ig h ly co l­ o re d w ays. H e sin g le d o u t fo r p a rtic u la r c ritic is m th e te s tim o n y o f tw o N a n ­ k in g w itnesses b r o u g h t b efo re th e c o u rt, D r. H s u C h ’u a n -y in o f th e R e d S w astika S ociety, a c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a tio n in N a n k in g th a t b u r ie d m a n y o f th e v ic tim s o f th e m assacre, a n d J o h n M a g e e o f th e I C th a t e s ta b lish e d th e N S Z . “ B o th th e se w itn e sses h av e g iv e n us h o rrib le a c c o u n ts o f th e a tro c itie s c o m m itte d a t N a n k in g ,” Pal a c k n o w le d g e d . “It is, h o w ev er, d iffic u lt to re a d th is e v id en c e w ith o u t fe e lin g th a t th e re h av e b e e n d is to rtio n s a n d e x a g g e ra tio n s.” A fte r re v ie w in g w h a t h e c o n s id e re d in e x a c t te s tim o n y a b o u t ra p e s a n d su ic id e s b y w itn e sses w h o c o u ld n o t h av e se en th e m h a p p e n , P al c o m m e n ts : “ I a m n o t su re i f w e are n o t h e re g e ttin g a c c o u n ts o f ev e n ts w itn e sse d o n ly b y ex c ite d 160

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

o r p re ju d ic e d o b se rv e rs.” H e fe lt th a t th e ev id e n c e o f b o th w itn e sse s, b ased o n o b se rv a tio n s “o f th e m o s t fle e tin g k i n d , ” w as n o t s u ffic ie n tly s c ru tin iz e d fo r c re d ib ility . U n d e r th e c irc u m sta n c e s, “A ll th e irre le v a n c ie s o f ru m o u rs a n d c a n n y guesses b e c a m e h id d e n u n d e r a p re d is p o s itio n to b eliev e th e w o rs t, cre­ a te d p e rh a p s b y th e e m o tio n s n o r m a l to th e v ic tim s o f in ju ry .”50 W h ile th e se e m o tio n s w ere to b e e x p e c te d , th e b e n c h s h o u ld h av e b e e n m o re c a u tio u s in a c c e p tin g th e te s tim o n ie s th e y c o lo re d as e v id en c e o f w h a t a c tu a lly h a p p e n e d . 3. R a th e r th a n su m m a riz e P a l’s o b je c tio n s to th e tr ib u n a l’s legal re a so n in g , I p re fe r to p re s e n t h is o w n s u c c in c t sy n o p sis o f th o se o b je c tio n s in a b o o k o n in te r n a tio n a l law th a t h e p u b lis h e d 7 y ears a fte r th e trial: 1. T he C harter did not define the crime in question. 2. (a) It was not w ithin the com petence o f its author to define any crime. (b) Even if any crimes w ould have been defined by the Charter, that definition w ould have been ultra vires and w ould not have been binding on us. 3. It was w ithin our com petence to question the authority o f the C harter in this respect. 4. T he law applicable to the case m ust be international law as found by us. 5. T he Pact o f Paris did not affect the pre-existing legal position o f war in interna­ tional life. W ar in international life remains as before, outside the province o f law, its conduct alone having been brought w ithin the dom ain o f law. (a) T h e Pact o f Paris did not com e w ithin the category o f law at all and conse­ quently failed to introduce any change in the legal position o f a belligerent state or in the jural incidence o f belligerency. 6. N o category o f war became crim inal or illegal in international life either by the Pact o f Paris or as a result o f the same or in any other way. 7. T he individuals com prising the G overnm ents and functioning as agents o f that G overnm ent incur no crim inal responsibility in in ternational law for the acts alleged. 8. T he international com m unity has not as yet reached a stage w hich w ould make it expedient to include judicial process for condem ning and punishing either states or individuals.51 Pal f o rm u la te d th e se o b je c tio n s m a in ly in re sp o n se to A rtic le V (a) o f th e T o k y o c h a rter, w h ic h d e fin e d “crim e s a g a in st p e a c e ” as “th e p la n n in g , p r e p a ­ ra tio n , in itia tio n o r w ag in g o f a d ec la re d o r u n d e c la re d w a r o f aggression, o r a w a r in v io la tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l law, tre a tie s, a g re e m e n ts o r a ssu ra n ce s, o r p a r ­ tic ip a tio n in a c o m m o n p la n o r c o n s p ira c y fo r th e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f a n y o f th e f o re g o in g .”52 T h is artic le , ta k e n w ith m in o r re v isio n fro m th e N u re m b e rg c h a rter, o u tla w e d “aggressive w a r,” d e c la re d a w a r th a t v io la te d tre a tie s illegal, a n d m a d e c o n s p ira c y to w ag e s u c h a w a r c rim in a l. To ju s tify th e claim s o f th e 161

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

T okyo ch arter, th e p ro s e c u tio n o ffered th e P act o f Paris (o r K ello g g -B rian d Pact) o f 1 9 2 8 , w h ic h re n o u n c e d th e u se o f w a r as n a tio n a l p o lic y ex c ep t in selfd e fe n se .53 Pal w as n o t p e rs u a d e d th a t e ith e r th is, o r a n y o th e r in te r n a tio n a l a g re e m e n t in effect as o f 1 9 3 7 , sp ecifically d e c la re d w a r illegal; n o r d id h e fin d a n y d e fin itio n o f aggressive w a r e ith e r in p r io r ju r is p r u d e n c e o r ev en in th e T o k y o c h a rte r itself, h e n c e h is o p e n in g c o m p la in t th a t “th e C h a r te r d id n o t d efin e th e c rim e in q u e s tio n .” T h e re w ere s im p ly n o a d e q u a te law s o r p re c e ­ d e n ts o n w h ic h to m a k e ru lin g s a b o u t th e ille g a lity o f w ar, a n d th e T o k y o c h a rte r c o u ld n o t m a k e w a r c rim in a l a fte r th e fac t. S im ilarly , P al a rg u e d , in te r ­ n a tio n a l law h a d n o t y e t d e te r m in e d th a t c o n s p ira c y to w ag e w a r w as illegal. T h e s e legal d ifficu ltie s w ere in a n y case b e y o n d w h a te v e r e x tra p o la tio n s o n e m ig h t m a k e f ro m th e P a c t o f P aris, in a s m u c h as Pal ag re e d w ith th e d efe n se co u n sels’ claim th a t Ja p a n h a d w ag e d a w a r o f self-defense. O n th e sam e g ro u n d s h e h a d d ifficu lties w ith th e c h a r te r ’s a s s u m p tio n s th a t sta te s c o u ld b e fo u n d c rim in a lly lia b le fo r w a g in g aggressive w ar, a n d th a t in d iv id u a ls se rv in g th o se sta te s c o u ld b e p u n is h e d fo r th a t serv ice. A s P al a rg u e d in re g a rd to th e R a p e o f N a n k in g : “W a r is h ell. P e rh a p s it h as b e e n tr u ly sa id th a t i f th e m e m b e rs o f th e g o v e rn m e n t c a n b e trie d a n d p u n is h e d fo r h a p p e n in g s lik e th is, it w o u ld m a k e p ea ce also a h e ll.”54 P al d o u b te d th a t th e tr ib u n a l h a d a d e q u a te legal g r o u n d to fin d in d iv id u a ls re sp o n sib le fo r a c tiv itie s th a t, a t th e tim e o f th e ir c o m m issio n , h a d n o t b e e n d e fin e d as crim es. T riu m p h a n t m ilita rie s m ig h t ch o o se to ex ecu te th o se a g a in st w h o m th e y h a d f o u g h t, b u t a c o u r t c o u ld n o t p u t its e lf in th e sam e re la tio n sh ip to a n ac cu sed w h o m th e v ic to rs m ig h t ch o o se to b r in g b e fo re it.

Pal on the Rape of Nanking P al’s f u n d a m e n ta l re je c tio n o f th e legal v ia b ility o f th e I M T F E le ft h im n o p o s itio n fro m w h ic h ev en to pass ju d g m e n t o n c o n v e n tio n a l w a r crim es, d e ­ fin e d in A rtic le V (b) as “v io la tio n s o f th e law s a n d c u s to m s o f w a r,” fo r w h ic h a d e q u a te la w d id exist. T h is re je c tio n m e a n t th a t h e h a d to d e c lin e th e a u th o r ­ ity th a t th e T o kyo c h a rte r gave h im to a d ju d ic a te o n th e c o n v e n tio n a l w a r crim es th a t o c c u rre d in N a n k in g , m o s t sta rk ly th e e x e c u tio n o f s u rre n d e re d tro o p s. T h e legal s h o rtc o m in g s o f th e p ro ce ss in w h ic h h e w as en g a g e d tr u m p e d a n y claim s o f in ju r y th a t m ig h t b e m a d e a g a in st th e ac cu sed . T o fin d Ja p a n e se lead ers g u ilty o f w a r c rim e s w o u ld b e, fo r h im , to s u c c u m b to th e p a r tia lity o f th e e n tire p ro c e e d in g s, tu r n la w in to th e d ev ice o f th e s tro n g e r ag ain st th e w eaker, a n d m a k e a m o c k e ry o f ju stice . I f it also m e a n t th a t n o ju d g ­ m e n t c o u ld b e p a sse d o n N a n k in g a t th is level o f w a r crim es, it w as a p ric e Pal d id n o t re g a rd as to o h ig h to pay. T h e s ta rtin g p o in t o f P a l’s d iffic u lty w ith th e p r o s e c u tio n ’s v ie w o f th e R a p e o f N a n k in g w as its c o n te n tio n th a t le ad e rs c a n alw ays exercise effectiv e co n 162

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

tro l over tro o p s in th e field . H e n o te d f ro m te s tim o n y th a t M a ts u i a n d o th e r m e m b e rs o f th e g o v e rn m e n t d id a tte m p t o n several o c c a sio n s to b r in g u n d is ­ cip lin e d soldiers to heel. M a ts u i’s failu re to b e effective Pal a ttrib u te d to a b re a k ­ d o w n in th e “m a c h in e ry ” o f m ilita ry o rg a n iz a tio n , n o t to th e g e n e ra l’s in a c tio n . T h e re s p o n s ib ility o f o th e r le ad e rs w as even m o re re m o te : “as m e m b e rs o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, it w as n o t th e ir d u ty to c o n tro l th e tro o p s in th e field , n o r w as it w ith in th e ir p o w e r so to c o n tro l th e m .” A le a d e r is “e n title d to re ly o n th e c o m p e te n c y ” o f h is field officers a n d s h o u ld n o t b e o b lig e d to b e a r legal re ­ s p o n s ib ility fo r ev ery a c tio n o f th e so ld iers u n d e r h is c o m m a n d , so lo n g — a n d th is is th e lim itin g c o n d itio n — as h e h a d fu lfille d h is “d u ty to ta k e su c h a p p ro p ria te m e asu re s as w ere in h is p o w e r to c o n tro l th e tro o p s u n d e r h is c o m m a n d .”55 Pal th u s sid e d w ith M a ts u i’s c o u n s e l’s a r g u m e n t th a t M a ts u i h a d k n o w n w h a t w as h a p p e n in g in N a n k in g , as w ell as w ith M a ts u i’s o w n a rg u ­ m e n t th a t h e h a d a c te d in su c h a w a y as to s h o w th a t a tro c itie s a g a in st civ il­ ia n s w ere n o t policy. T o h o ld M a ts u i o r H ir o ta re sp o n sib le b y o m is sio n fo r th e c o n tin u a tio n o f th o se a tro c itie s w as n o t ju s tic e b u t sc a p e g o a tin g . S eco n d ly , Pal o b je c te d to th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n th a t acts o f m is c o n d u c t h a d o c c u rre d in th e c o n te x t o f aggressive w ar. H e c o u n te re d th a t J a p a n h a d n o t w ag ed w a r aggressively as “n a tio n a l p o lic y ” b u t h a d a c te d in self-d efen se. W e st­ e rn p o w ers h a d b e e n p re s s u rin g A sia fo r d ec ad e s p r io r to th e o u tb r e a k o f w a r w ith su c h fo rce th a t J a p a n h a d to strik e b a c k to su rv iv e. M o re o v e r, h e d e e m e d , A n g lo -A m e ric a n in te rfe re n c e in th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n C h in a a n d J a p a n h a d b e e n “in d efia n ce o f th e th e o ry o f n e u tra lity a n d o f th e f u n d a m e n ta l o b lig a ­ tio n s th a t th e law o f n a tio n s still im p o s e s u p o n n o n - b e llig e re n t P o w e rs.”56 H o w e v e r m u c h J a p a n h a d b re a c h e d th e p rin c ip le o f so v e re ig n in v io la b ility in its c o n d u c t in C h in a , th a t b re a c h d id n o t ju s tify o th e r sta te s fro m b e c o m in g in v o lv e d . Pal g o t a r o u n d th e C h in e s e c la im th a t J a p a n h a d in te rfe re d w ith C h in a ’s so v e re ig n ty b y c h a ra c te riz in g th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e m as a n “in te r ­ n a l” m a tte r in w h ic h b o th sid es h a d le g itim a te in te re sts . In th is v ie w h e w as p r o fo u n d ly a t o d d s w ith th e re st o f th e b e n c h , a n d p o ssib ly even w ith h is o w n logic, w h ic h re q u ire d th e in v o c a tio n o f so v e re ig n ty as in v io la b le in o rd e r to c h a lle n g e th e p re se n c e o f W e s te rn n a tio n s in A sia. P al’s u n w illin g n e ss to assig n c rim in a l lia b ility fo r N a n k in g w as r o o te d m o s t d e e p ly in h is refu sal to fin d c o n s p ira c y in th e facts p re s e n te d b e fo re th e tr i­ b u n a l. T h e p r o s e c u tio n sta k e d its o v erall case a g a in st J a p a n ’s le a d e rs o n th is charge, th a t all o f Ja p a n ’s aggressive a c tio n s in E ast A sia b e tw e e n 1 9 2 8 a n d 1945 w ere lin k e d in a v ast a n d c o m p re h e n siv e c o n sp ira cy , in w h ic h ev ery a c t a n d d e c isio n c o n firm e d w h a t h a d p re c e d e d it a n d w h ic h le d in e x o ra b ly to th e n e x t. Pal w as u tte r ly c o n te m p tu o u s o f th is r e a d in g o f J a p a n ’s a c tio n s in w h a t h e ch o se to call “G re a te r E ast A s ia .” “T h e alleg ed c o n s p ira c y w h ic h th e p ro s e c u ­ tio n h as a tte m p te d to tra c e a n d d e sc rib e is o n e o f th e m o s t c u rio u s a n d u n b e ­ lievable th in g s ever s o u g h t to b e d ra w n in a ju d ic ia l p r o c e e d in g ,” h e d e c la re d . “A lo n g series o f iso la te d a n d d is c o n n e c te d ev e n ts c o v e rin g a p e rio d o f a t le ast 163

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

fo u rte e n y ears are m a rs h a lle d to g e th e r in a h o d g e p o d g e fa sh io n ; a n d o u t o f th is c o n g lo m e ra tio n th e p r o s e c u tio n asks th e T rib u n a l to fin d b e y o n d all re a ­ so n a b le d o u b t th a t a ‘c o m m o n p la n o r c o n s p ira c y ’ ex iste d to a c c o m p lish th e o b je ctiv es s ta te d in th e in d ic tm e n t.”57 In h is e s tim a tio n , th e ev id e n c e o f c o n ­ sp ira c y w as a t b est, a n d only, c irc u m s ta n tia l. As h e re m in d e d h is fe llo w ju d g e s, “fo r o u r p re s e n t p u rp o s e , it is n o t fo r us to see w h e th e r o r n o t th e ev e n ts a n d th e ir sp rea d c o u ld b e justified. W e are n o w o n ly to see w h e th e r th e h a p p e n in g s c o u ld b e explained o th e rw ise th a n b y th e ex iste n ce o f a c o n s p ira c y .”58 A n a lte r­ n a tiv e e x p la n a tio n w as in d e e d av ailab le i f o n e b e lie v e d th a t J a p a n ’s su rv iv al w as u n d e r th re a t. I n te r n a tio n a l p o litic s m a y h av e fo rc e d J a p a n in to a fo re ig n p o lic y th a t was c o n s is te n t, b u t th is d id n o t m e a n th a t th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn ­ m e n t was c o n s p ira to ria l in p u r s u in g it. T h e v ic to r n a tio n s s ittin g in ju d g m e n t w a n te d co n sp iracy , a n d b u ilt it in to th e lo g ic o f th e T o k y o c h a rte r as a n e t th r o u g h w h ic h n o n e o f J a p a n ’s h ig h e st p o litic ia n s, b u re a u c ra ts, o r officers c o u ld escape; it also ju s tifie d th e d e s p e ra te m e a su re s o f th e A m e ric a n to ta l-w a r re ­ sp o n se , fro m fire b o m b in g to a to m ic d e to n a tio n . M o reo v e r, th e ch a rg e o f c o n s p ira c y p la c e d u n d u e b u r d e n o n N a n k in g . In th e p r o s e c u tio n ’s n a rra tiv e o f w ar c rim in a lity , th is was a k e y ev e n t; it m a rk e d th e m o m e n t a t w h ic h Ja p a n e se m ilita ry d o m in a tio n o f E a st A sia s h ifte d fro m e n c r o a c h m e n t to atro c ity . E v ery a tro c ity a fte r N a n k in g c o u ld th e n b e d e riv e d f ro m th is m o m e n t, fo rg in g a c h a in th a t d e m o n s tr a te d co n sp ira cy . T h e p ro se ­ c u tio n w as u s in g N a n k in g n o t ju s t to g a in c o n v ic tio n s fo r M a ts u i Iw a n e a n d H ir o ta K oki, b u t also to c o n s tru e “sim ila r atro c itie s . . . p e rp e tra te d s u b se q u e n tly in several o th e r th e a te rs o f w a r” as c o n s p ira to ria lly tie d to J a p a n ’s refu sal to d o a n y th in g a b o u t th e “a tro c io u s c o n d u c t o f th e Ja p a n e se A rm y ” in N a n k in g .59 T h e R a p e o f N a n k in g w as th u s in s ta lle d as th e m o m e n t o f o rig in fo r a lo n g series o f “sim ila r a tro c itie s ” s tr e tc h in g across S o u th e a s t A sia a n d in to th e Pacific. T h e c o n tin u ity th a t th e p r o s e c u tio n alleg ed b e tw e e n N a n k in g a n d s u b s e q u e n t Ja p a n e se w ar crim e s p ro v e d th a t th a t m is d e e d s w ere c o n s is te n t a n d so m u s t h av e e m a n a te d c o n s p ira to ria lly f ro m th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e u n d e rly in g g o al o f th e A m e ric a n - d o m in a te d p r o s e c u tio n in a rg u in g fo r c o n ­ tin u ity , Pal believ e d , was to id e n tify th e m is tre a tm e n t o f A m e ric a n se rv ic e m e n in th e Pacific as b e in g o f th e sa m e c a te g o ry as th e b r u ta liz a tio n o f N a n k in g re sid e n ts. T h is c o n n e c tio n is b u ilt in to C o u n t 4 4 (d ire c tly p re c e d in g C o u n t 4 5 o n N a n k in g ), in w h ic h th e p ro s e c u tio n c h a rg e d th e accu sed w ith th e w h o le ­ sale m u r d e r o f b o th p riso n e rs o f w ar a n d civ ilia n s o f th e c o u n trie s o p p o se d to Ja p a n , th e re b y u n ify in g th e tw o c a te g o rie s o f v ic tim s , reg a rd le ss o f lo c a tio n o r n a tio n a lity o r sta tu s as c o m b a ta n ts , as a sin g le o b je c t o f ju d ic ia l ad d ress. C o n d e m n a tio n o f Ja p a n e se a c tio n s a g a in st C h in e s e civ ilia n s in N a n k in g th u s e n ta ile d e q u a l c o n d e m n a tio n o f a c tio n s a g a in st A m e ric a n c o m b a ta n ts in th e P acific. T y in g th e tw o to g e th e r was fo r P al a f a b ric a tio n o f lo g ic , n o t a lin k o f su b sta n c e . H e ca te g o ric a lly re je c te d th a t “s u c h offenses w ere c o m m itte d p u r ­ s u a n t to a n y g o v e rn m e n t policy. T h e re is n o ev id en c e, te s tim o n ia l o r c irc u m 164

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

sta n tia l, c o n c o m ita n t, p ro s p e c ta n t, re tro s p e c ta n t, w h ic h w o u ld in a n y w a y lead to th e in fe re n c e th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t in a n y w a y p e r m itte d th e c o m m issio n o f su c h o ffe n se s.”60 T h e r e w as n o c o n sp ira cy , a n d N a n k in g w as n o t th e p la ce to a n c h o r it. W h a t h a p p e n e d in th e P acific h a d n o n ec essary o r legal c o n n e c ­ tio n w ith N a n k in g : ea ch a tro c ity ch a rg e s to o d , a n d fell, o n its o w n m e rits.

Culture as the Redundancy of the Political? P al’s ju d g m e n t d id n o t c o m e as a h u g e su rp rise to h is fello w ju d g e s, b u t it d id a la rm th e ir g o v e rn m e n ts. A s so o n as th e d is s e n tin g o p in io n w as m a d e avail­ able, th e h e a d o f th e B ritish lia iso n m is sio n in T o k y o h u r rie d to fig u re o u t w h y Pal h a d b ro k e n ra n k s so c o m p le te ly w ith h is co llea g u es o n th e b e n c h . T h e C a n a d ia n ju stic e , S tu a r t M c D o u g a ll, to ld h im th a t Pal h a d d e c id e d a g a in st jo in in g in a n y c o n d e m n a tio n o f th e a c cu sed f ro m th e tim e h e first a rriv e d in T o k y o .61 T h e re w as d isc u ssio n a m o n g th e B ritis h as to w h e th e r th e g o v e rn ­ m e n t o f I n d ia h a d g iv e n Pal p r io r d ire c tio n , b u t all th a t In d ia ’s re p re se n ta tiv e h a d r e c o m m e n d e d d u r in g d ip lo m a tic c o n s u lta tio n s w ith th e B ritis h g o v e rn ­ m e n t p r io r to P al’s a p p o in tm e n t w as th a t n o d e a th se n te n c e s b e h a n d e d d o w n ; n o o th e r in s tru c tio n s w ere g iv e n .62 T h e h e a d o f th e B ritish lia iso n m is sio n s p e c u la te d th a t In d ia m a y h av e w a n te d P al to file a d is s e n tin g ju d g m e n t “fo r p o litic a l re a s o n s ,” p re s u m a b ly to e m b a rra ss e rstw h ile c o lo n ia l m a ste rs. T h is s u g g e stio n w as d ism isse d in th e fo re ig n office o n th e g r o u n d s th a t even V. K. K ris h n a M e n o n , C o n g re s s ’ n e g o tia to r in E u ro p e , w as re p o r te d to h av e fo u n d th e ju d g m e n t d is q u ie tin g .63 Yet w h ile B ritish p a r a n o ia o v er th e loss o f In d ia m a y hav e in d u c e d so m e e x a g g e ra tio n in th e ir r e a d in g o f P al’s d isse n t, th e p re s­ en ce o f a p o litic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g b e h in d h is o p in io n seem s u n d e n ia b le . T h e q u e s tio n w e m ig h t ask is th is: D id P al’s legal a n d p o litic a l th in k in g c o in c id e , o r w as o n e p re ssin g th e o th e r in to service? To an sw e r th is q u e s tio n , w e m ig h t first c o n s id e r P al’s o w n s c a th in g ev a lu ­ a tio n o f th e ro le o f p o litic s in th e tr ib u n a l. A s th e h e a d o f th e B ritish m is ­ sio n h im s e lf p u t it w h e n h e te le g ra p h e d th e n ew s o f P a l’s d is s e n tin g o p in io n b a c k to th e fo re ig n office, P al re g a rd e d th e I M T F E as “a n a tte m p t to ach iev e p o litic a l e n d s w ith th e a p p e a ra n c e o f legal ju s tic e .”64 A t th e r o o t o f P a l’s d is­ sa tisfa c tio n w as th e lim ita tio n o n th e I M T F E ’s ju r is d ic tio n to in v e stig a te o n ly o n e side o f th e c o n flic t a n d c o n fe r im p u n ity o n th e o th e r. H a d b o th sides b e e n a rra ig n e d , th e tr ib u n a l w o u ld h av e b e e n e m p o w e re d to e x a m in e a m u c h w id e r ra n g e o f issues. In h is o w n w o rd s , “ It h as b e e n sa id th a t a v ic to r ca n d isp e n se to th e v a n q u is h e d e v e ry th in g fro m m e rc y to v in d ic tiv e n e ss; b u t th e o n e th in g th e v ic to r c a n n o t give to th e v a n q u is h e d is ju stic e . A t least, i f a tr i­ b u n a l b e r o o te d in p o litic s as o p p o s e d to law, n o m a tte r w h a t its f o rm a n d p re te n se s, th e a p p re h e n s io n th u s ex p re ssed w o u ld b e real, u n le ss ‘ju s tic e is rea lly n o th in g else th a n th e in te r e s t o f th e s tr o n g e r ’. ”65 165

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

P al’s c o m p la in t a b o u t th e p o litic a l e n d s th a t th e tr ib u n a l se rv e d so o ffe n d e d th e F ilip in o ju d g e D e lfin Ja ra n illa th a t h e w ro te h is o w n c o n c u r rin g o p in io n to re a ffirm th e re a so n a b le n e ss o f th e legal lo g ic u n d e r p in n in g th e m a jo rity fin d in g s. I f Pal re fu se d to a c c e p t th e la w la id d o w n in th e T o k y o c h a rte r, specifically w ith re sp e c t to th e ille g a lity o f aggressive w ar, J a ra n illa re a so n e d , Pal n e v e r s h o u ld h av e ta k e th e o a th o f office u n d e r th e c h a rte r in th e first p lace. A n d , Ja ra n illa b lu n tly d ism isse d P al’s v ie w th a t in d iv id u a l le a d e rs c o u ld n o t b e a r re s p o n s ib ility fo r J a p a n ’s w a rtim e c o n d u c t as “a b s u rd .”66 T h e s tri­ d e n c y o f Ja ran illa’s re b u k e m a y h av e b e e n fu ele d b y th e fact th a t th e P h ilip p in e s h a d b e e n b ru ta lly o c c u p ie d b y Ja p a n , w h erea s B ritish In d ia h a d n o t. T h e re , a n ti­ im p e ria lis t a n g e r lo o k e d elsew h e re th a n a t Ja p a n . T h e m o s t in te re s tin g a tte m p t to d e c ip h e r th e lo g ic o f P al’s u n iq u e o p p o s i­ tio n to th e I M T F E h as c o m e fro m th e I n d ia n p sy c h o a n a ly st a n d so c ial c ritic A sh is N a n d y . In s y m p a th y w ith h is su b je c t, N a n d y h as s o u g h t to p ro b e P a l’s in te lle c tu a l a n d m o ra l fo rm a tio n as a la te -c o lo n ia l I n d ia n in te lle c tu a l to m a k e sense o f th e e x tra o rd in a ry p o s itio n h e to o k in T o k y o . T o th is in q u ir y N a n d y b rin g s h is o w n d esire to u n d e r s ta n d h o w c o lo n ia l a n d p o s tc o lo n ia l In d ia n s have a d a p te d to th e o p p re ssio n th a t th e ir tr a in in g in th e id eals o f W e ste rn civ­ iliz a tio n h as p la c e d o n th e m , a n d to c o n c eiv e o f w ays to b rid g e th e p o la ritie s th a t c o lo n ia lism h as im p o s e d .67 Pal th u s em erg es easily in to N a n d y ’s v ie w as a c u ltu re h e ro , w h o m h e ad d resses as su c h v ia a n im p lic it a n a lo g y w ith K rish n a . L o c a tin g Pal o n th e h is to ric a l cu sp b e tw e e n c o lo n ia l B ritish In d ia a n d p o s t­ c o lo n ia l in d e p e n d e n t I n d ia (a c u sp th a t in m o d ifie d f o rm N a n d y h im s e lf o c ­ cu p ies a g e n e ra tio n la te r), N a n d y a rg u e s th a t P al ju d g e d as h e d id b e c a u se h is th in k in g as a m o d e rn ju r is t c o e x isted w ith a n a tiv e H i n d u “w o rld v ie w th a t sh u n s b in a ry o p p o sitio n s.” H e perceives in Pal a u n ity b e tw e e n th ese w orldview s w h ere o th e rw ise th e re a p p e ars o n ly a sta rk b ifu rc a tio n b e tw e e n th e in te rn a tio n a l ju r is t w o rk in g a t th e In te r n a tio n a l L aw C o m m is s io n in G e n e v a in th e 1 9 5 0 s— w h ere Pal c o n tin u e d to d isp u te p rev a ilin g w isd o m s o f in te rn a tio n a l ju stic e as h e h a d d o n e in T o k y o — a n d th e H i n d u legal p h ilo s o p h e r d is tru s tfu l o f th e m o ra l s im p lic ity o f as sig n in g all b la m e o n o n e p a r ty in a d is p u te in v o lv in g tw o . T h e la tte r im p u ls e w o n o u t, a c c o rd in g to N a n d y , w h o h im s e lf desires to tra n s c e n d th e b ifu rc a tio n s im p o s e d b y liv in g p o stc o lo n ia lly in a g lo b a l c o n te x t. It w as n o t “th e c u ltu re o f m o d e rn in te rn a tio n a l la w ” th a t ex p lain s P al’s ju d g m e n t at T okyo, b u t “h is lo n g ex p o su re to th e tr a d itio n a l law s o f I n d ia .” P al’s m a n ip u la tio n o f th e la n g u a g e o f in te r n a tio n a l la w c a m o u fla g e d a v e ry d iffe re n t c o n c e p tio n o f law as re c o n c ilia tio n to ach iev e a n e n d to c o n flic t. N a n d y c o n c lu d e s th a t Pal w as “b o th a n I n d ia n a n d a V ic to ria n tr y in g to tra n s c e n d th e m o ra l d ic h o to m y o f th e a g e ,” b u t fo r w h o m th e I n d ia n tr a d itio n tr u m p e d w h a t o th e rw ise a p ­ p e a re d to b e a c o m m itm e n t to th e law s o f th e p o s t- E n lig h te n m e n t W e st.68 N a n d y ’s analysis s lig h tly c o n d e sc e n d s to w h a t h e reg a rd s as P a l’s c h a rm in g b u t m is g u id e d p ro g re ssiv ism , w h ic h in d u c e d P al “to p ro v id e a c o m p a ra tiv e p ic tu re a n d to ex p la in In d ia in W e s te rn te r m s .”69 B y e m b e d d in g P al in h is 166

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jon Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

n a tiv e c u ltu re , b y b ra c k e tin g th e in te r n a tio n a l w ith th e lo cal, N a n d y resto re s th e g r o u n d o f P al’s p e rs o n a l id e n tity , b u t it is a c u ltu ra l m o v e th a t m a k e s P a l’s a n ti-im p e ria lis t p o litic s a p p e a r r e d u n d a n t to a w o rld v ie w s h a p e d b y c u ltu re . T h is analysis n eg le c ts th e p a r tic u la r w o rld h is to ry th a t fu rn is h e d Pal w ith th e p e rsp e c tiv e f ro m w h ic h h e re n d e re d h is ju d g m e n t a t T o k y o , a w o rld h is to ry in te n s e ly p o litic a l in its c o n te n t a n d usage. P al’s ju d g m e n t d o es m o re th a n p u t th e W e st e q u a lly a t fau lt: it b la m e s th e W e st fo r th e w ar. In P al’s view, th e ch a rg e o f “aggressive w a r ” a g a in st J a p a n h a d to re b o u n d o n th e W e st, fo r W e st­ e rn n a tio n s h a d w a g e d aggressive w a r in A sia fo r c e n tu rie s . U n til th e leg acy o f W e s te rn im p e ria lis m w as b r o u g h t to a c c o u n t, “even ju s tic e ” fo r J a p a n w as im p o s s ib le .70 H is re fu sa l to a c c e p t th e tr ib u n a l’s ju d g m e n t th u s re ste d less o n a c u ltu ra l o b je c tio n , in m y view , th a n o n a p o litic a l o n e . W h a t m a tte re d w ere n o t p a r tic u la r acts o f th e w a r a n d h o w to red ress th e m , b u t th e h is to ric a l c o n ­ d itio n s th a t p ro d u c e d th e w a r a n d b lo c k e d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f w o rld peace. To a Ja p a n e se d efe n se la w y e r s e rv in g a t th e I M T F E , P al’s re fu sa l to jo in th e W e s te rn p o w ers in p u n is h in g J a p a n m a rk e d h im as th e o n ly ad v o c a te o f g e n ­ u in e w o rld peace o n th e trib u n a l.71 T h is o b se rv a tio n m a y have in v o lv e d its o w n “c u ltu r a l” log ic, b u t it to o w as e sse n tia lly a p o litic a l ju d g m e n t. A lth o u g h N a n d y ac k n o w le d g e s P al’s c o m m itm e n t to A sia n so lid arity , h e tre a ts P al’s a n ti-im p e ria lis t p o litic s as a s e c o n d -o rd e r e x p re ssio n o f h is c o n ­ sciousness, ra th e r th a n c re d it it as a firs t-o rd e r sig n o f th e c o m m itm e n ts a ro u n d w h ic h h e o rg a n iz e d h is life. N a n d y ’s d o w n g ra d in g o f P a l’s p o litic s is a n a ly ti­ cally c o n s is te n t w ith h is o w n u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t c o lo n iz a tio n fo rces a d is­ ju n c tio n b e tw e e n p o litic s a n d c u ltu r e .72 Yet b y a llo w in g th a t d is ju n c tio n to d o m in a te h is analysis, a n d so leave o u t P al’s p o litic s , N a n d y n e g le c ts a sig­ n ific a n t e le m e n t o f P al’s p a rtic u la r h isto ric a l exp erien ce. A g a in st N a n d y , I w o u ld arg u e th a t P al’s ju d g m e n t a t T o k y o w as s h a p e d b y p o litic s th a t d o n o t resolve a u to m a tic a lly in to h is H in d u c o n sc io u sn e ss, h o w e v e r m u c h th a t c o n s c io u s­ ness s h a p e d h is a p p re c ia tio n o f la w ’s m o ra l p u rp o se .

Politics and the Redundancy of the Legal? W h a t w as th a t po litics? B. V. A. R o lin g , w h o c o n tin u e d h is frie n d s h ip w ith Pal ev en afte r th e T o k y o tria l, n o te d in a la te r re m in isc e n c e th a t P al h a d a c c e p te d J a p a n ’s slo g a n o f “A sia fo r th e A sia n s” a n d re g a rd e d th e w a r as ju s t b ec au se it w as w a g e d “to lib e ra te A sia f ro m th e E u ro p e a n s .” R o lin g also re ­ called Pal la te r say in g th a t h e h a d s u p p o rte d th e I n d ia n N a tio n a l A rm y (IN A ).73 T h e I N A w as th e fo rc e th e Ja p a n e se re c ru ite d fro m I n d ia n tro o p s a fte r th e fall o f S in g a p o re in 1 9 4 2 a n d s e n t a g a in st th e B ritish o n th e In d ia - B u r m a b o r ­ d e r in 1 9 4 3 . As a n e d u c a te d C a lc u tta n w h o s u p p o r te d th e IN A , P al sh o w s h im s e lf to h av e b e e n a m o n g th e in flu e n tia l B e n g ali w h o fo llo w e d th e ra d ic a l I n d ia n n a tio n a lis t, S u b h a s C h a n d r a B ose. B ose, a p r o m in e n t le a d e r o f th e 167

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

I n d ia n N a tio n a l C o n g re ss, w as th e fig u re a r o u n d w h o m cry sta llize d ra d ic a l o p p o s itio n to M o h a n d a s G a n d h i’s m o d e ra te p o s itio n w ith in th e C o n g re ss. H e re g a rd e d G a n d h i as h o p e le ssly m ire d in c a p itu la tio n s a n d c o m p ro m is e s w ith th e B ritish , w h ic h , h e felt, w o u ld fo re v er k ee p I n d ia b a c k f ro m cro ssin g th e th re s h o ld o f in d e p e n d e n c e .74 A fte r W o rld W a r II w as w ell u n d e rw a y , B ose b ro k e w ith G a n d h i co m p le te ly . H e tu r n e d in 1941 first to G e rm a n y , th e n to Ja p a n , to seek s u p p o r t fo r a n a rm e d stru g g le fo r in d e p e n d e n c e fro m B rita in . H e h o p e d to see th e Ja p a n e se -o rg a n iz e d I N A b e c o m e th e r e v o lu tio n a ry fo rc e th a t w o u ld d riv e th e B ritish o u t o f In d ia , th o u g h h e d ie d in a n a irp la n e cra sh o f f T a iw a n b e fo re th e w a r e n d e d a n d th a t illu s io n w as s h a tte re d . H a d h e liv ed , th e B ritish w o u ld h av e a rra ig n e d B ose o n c h a rg es o f tre a so n , as th e y d id m a n y o f th e I n d ia n officers a n d so ld iers w h o jo in e d th e I N A o r th e sm a ll I n d ia n d e ta c h m e n ts th a t fo u g h t in E u ro p e alo n g sid e G e rm a n s. Still, I n d ia n o p in io n at th e w a r ’s e n d re g a rd e d B ose as a m a rty r fo r th e cause o f in d e p e n d e n c e ; m a n y rev ered h im as G a n d h i’s e q u a l.75 T h is b a c k g ro u n d s h o u ld a le rt th e re a d e r o n ly to th e o b v io u s: P al b r o u g h t to th e tr ib u n a l a p a rtic u la r o r ie n ta tio n to issues o f c o n flic t, o c c u p a tio n , a n d w a r th a t w as s h a p e d b y th e c o lo n ia l c o n te x t in w h ic h h e p ra c tic e d law. H is w illin g n ess to excuse all c h a rg es a g a in st Ja p a n e se le ad e rs m a y h av e b e e n leg ally a rg u e d , b u t it re ste d o n h is p r io r a c c e p ta n c e o f J a p a n ’s c la im th a t it h a d w ag e d w a r to lib e ra te A sia fo r A sia n s. A s sc a n d a lo u s as th is p o s itio n m a y strik e so m e o b serv ers today, it w as far less c o n tro v e rs ia l a m o n g e d u c a te d In d ia n s w h o d esire d to see th e e n d o f B ritish ru le in In d ia , a n d w h o s y m p a th iz e d w ith B o se’s d e s p e ra te a c tio n s to b r in g th a t a b o u t. As a n o fficial in th e B ritish fo re ig n office c a n d id ly rec o g n iz e d a t th e tim e , “th e re is n o d o u b t th a t M r. P al’s v iew s are re p re se n ta tiv e o f a larg e se c tio n o f I n d ia n o p in io n . M a n y I n d ia n p a p e rs h av e e n d o rs e d h is j u d g m e n t.”76 In d e e d , w ith in th e c o m in g year, legal o p in io n in In d ia w o u ld go even fu rth e r, d ism issin g th e T o k y o tr ib u n a l p u re ly as a w a r m e a su re a n d d o u b tin g th a t it c o u ld h av e a n y v a lid c o n s titu tio n in law. As a c a u stic c o m m e n ta to r p h ra s e d it, “to a m e re law yer, th e tria ls a p p e a r as c ru d e a n d in e ffec tiv e a tte m p ts a t c lo th in g th e sw o rd w ith s o m e th in g lik e a w ig , a n d h e s h o u ld le t su c h a tte m p ts pass w ith o u t f u r th e r c o m m e n ts .”77 A d ra m a tic a ffirm a tio n o f th e p o litic a l n a tu re o f h is ju d g m e n t, w h ic h c a n n o t b e c o n ­ firm ed , is th e s to ry th a t Pal v isite d th e c o n d e m n e d m e n in p ris o n a fte r th e tria l e n d e d . “Y ou w ere th e le ad e rs o f J a p a n ,” h e is alleg ed to h av e to ld th e m . “T h r o u g h th a t le a d e rsh ip A sia w as lib e r a te d .”78 A n d th is m u c h w as tru e : th e effect o f th e w ar w as to b re a k E u ro p e ’s c o lo n ia l h o ld o v er A sia. T h a t it d id so a t a n e x tra o rd in a ry c o st fo r A sia n s, p a rtic u la rly fo r C h in e se , d id n o t d e fle c t Pal fro m h is e n th u s ia s m fo r A sia n lib e ra tio n . T h e r e is a se c o n d e le m e n t to P al’s p o litic s th a t s h a p e d h is legal o p in io n — h is v ie w th a t th e d r o p p in g o f a to m ic b o m b s o n c iv ilia n ta rg e ts w as th e g re a t­ est a tro c ity o f th e w ar. P al o n ly o c c a sio n a lly m e n tio n s th e a to m ic b o m b in h is ju d g m e n t, as its e v a lu a tio n w as n o t p a r t o f th e tr ib u n a l’s m a n d a te , b u t it 168

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

casts a s h a d o w across m u c h o f h is te x t. P al first tre a ts it in th e c o n te x t o f a rg u ­ in g a g a in st th e c o n te n tio n th a t p r e p a ra tio n fo r w a r w as c o n s id e re d a c rim e b efo re th e S e c o n d W o rld W ar. D u b io u s o f th e p o p u la r h o m ily — p o p u la r in th e W e st, th a t is— th a t th e a to m ic b la sts h a d fo rg e d a u n ity o f all p e o p le a n d m a d e w ar u n th in k a b le , Pal a rg u e s th a t th o se w h o d r o p p e d th e b o m b s d id n o t sh a re th is u n d e r s ta n d in g . T h e y w ere s im p ly u sin g th e m to g a in a d v a n ta g e over th e ir e n e m y b y m e a n s o f a w e a p o n th a t h a d n o t y e t b e e n d e c la re d illegal. I do not perceive m uch difference between w hat the G erm an Em peror is alleged to have announced during the First W orld W ar in justification o f the atrocious m ethods directed by him in the conduct o f th at war and w hat is being proclaim ed after the Sec­ ond W orld W ar in justification o f these inhum an blasts. I am not sure if the atom bom bs have really succeeded in blowing away all the pre-war hum bug; we may be just dreaming. It is yet to be seen how far we have been alive to the fact th at w orld’s pre­ sent problem s are not merely the m ore complex reproductions o f those w hich have plagued us since 1914; that the new problem s are not merely old national problems w ith w orld implications, b u t are real w orld problem s and problem s o f hum anity.79 M u c h la te r in h is te x t, Pal re tu rn s to th is th e m e , a n d even to th e sam e ex a m ­ p le o f th e G e r m a n kaiser, to le ad in to a n an aly sis o f sp e cific w a r crim es, th e first o f w h ic h is th e R a p e o f N a n k in g . L ike M a ts u i’s c o u n sel, h e p its a tro c itie s a g a in st ea ch o th e r a n d fin d s th e “d e c isio n to use th e a to m b o m b ” th e w o rse o ffe n se .80 W h e n h e m o v e s o n to th e q u e s tio n o f th e m is tre a tm e n t o f d o w n e d A m e ric a n b o m b e r p ilo ts, h e a g a in p its th a t m is c o n d u c t a g a in st “th e h a v o c w h ic h ca n b e w r o u g h t b y th e in d is c r im in a te la u n c h in g o f b o m b s a n d p ro je c ­ tile s ,” b o th c o n v e n tio n a l a n d a to m ic , a n d ju d g e s th e A m e ric a n s as h a v in g in flic te d th e g re a te r d a m a g e . H e also slyly cites th e o p in io n o f th e A m e ric a n ju r is t E llery S to w ell th a t th e a to m ic b o m b , ra th e r th a n m a k e w a r u n th in k a b le , o n ly c h a n g e d its ru le s .81 B y e x c lu d in g th e a to m ic b o m b f ro m th e ju r is d ic tio n o f th e I M T F E , th e A m e ric a n s in T o k y o ru le d o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f th e tr i­ b u n a l u n d e r ta k in g a g lo b a l e v a lu a tio n o f th e w ar. I f th e tr ib u n a l h a d b e e n p re p a re d to face “th e im p lic a tio n s o f a to m ic e x p lo s io n ,” Pal o b serv es in th e c o n c lu d in g se c tio n o f h is ju d g m e n t, th e o u tc o m e o f th e tr ib u n a l w o u ld h av e b e e n c o m p le te ly d iffe re n t.82 T h e n it w o u ld h a v e m e a n t a ju d g m e n t n o t ju s t o n Ja p a n , b u t o n all p a rtie s. Pal m a d e h is o b s e rv a tio n in th e c o n te x t o f d e p lo rin g th e p o litic s in w h ic h th e tr ib u n a l w as fa ta lly ro o te d . “H a d w e b e e n o p e n ly called u p o n to d e c id e su c h p o litic a l issu e s,” Pal o bserves, “th e e n tire p ro c e e d in g s w o u ld h av e assu m ed a d iffe re n t a p p e a ra n c e a lto g e th e r, a n d th e sc o p e o f o u r e n q u iry w o u ld h av e b e e n m u c h w id e r th a n w h a t w e allo w ed it to a s s u m e .”83 B u t it w as n o t: th is w as a m ilita ry tr ib u n a l c o n v e n e d w ith in a p a r tic u la r p o litic a l e n v iro n m e n t to d isp e n se ju d g m e n t o n th o s e w h o h a d c o m m itte d ag g re ssio n a g a in st th o se w h o h a d w o n th e w ar. I t also e n d o rs e d a p a r tic u la r v ie w o f h isto ry , o n e w ith w h ic h Pal d isag reed . T h e I M T F E h is to ry n a r r a te d th e in ju r y d o n e b y Ja p a n e se to all 169

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

o f its P acific n e ig h b o rs sin c e 1 9 3 7 , in th e o p e n in g p h a s e o f w h ic h M a ts u i lo o m e d large. It w as a h is to ry th a t e n d e d in A u g u s t 1 9 4 5 a n d in w h ic h th e p re s e n t— th e e m e rg in g C o ld W ar, a to m ic w arfa re, a n d A m e ric a n h e g e m o n y in th e P acific— n ev e r a p p e a re d . P al’s h isto ry , in c o n tra s t, w e n t b a c k several c e n ­ tu rie s a n d fe a tu re d E u ro p e a n c o lo n ia lism as th e d e fin in g fe a tu re o f A sia in b o th th e p a s t a n d th e p re se n t. In th a t h isto ry , M a ts u i’s a c tio n s in C h in a w ere o f little c o n s e q u e n c e to la rg e r p a tte r n s . To h o ld th is g e n e ra l re sp o n sib le fo r crim es th a t th e W e st h a d c o m m itte d m a n y tim e s o v er w as to ev ad e th e real issue in A sia. It w as in th is c o n te x t th a t Pal m a d e th e re m a rk th a t a p p e a rs a t th e h e a d o f th is essay: “N o th in g w o u ld b e ac h ie v ed b y se e k in g a n y p re m a tu re escape fro m th e g u ilt o f h is to ry .”84 T h e in c o m p a tib ility o f th e se h isto rie s w as r o o te d in tu r n in th e in c o m m e n s u ra b ility b e tw e e n th e tw o p o s tc o lo n ia l fu tu re s th a t R a d h a b in o d P al a n d th e o th e r te n ju d g e s im a g in e d fo r A sia: o n e o u t of, a n d th e o th e r still in , th e s h a d o w o f W e s te rn im p e ria lism . I f P al’s d is a g re e m e n t w ith th e tr ib u n a l w as p o litic a l, are w e ju s tifie d in d is­ m is sin g h is legal re a s o n in g as r e d u n d a n t, e m p lo y e d m e re ly as s e c o n d -o rd e r o b je c tio n s in th e serv ice o f a d iffe re n t v isio n o f h o w th e w o rld s h o u ld be? P al’s e x o n e ra tio n o f M a ts u i c e rta in ly raises th is tr o u b lin g q u e s tio n . H is ju d g ­ m e n t suggests h is o w n u n e a se w ith c o m b in in g legal a n d p o litic a l re a so n in g . W h ile d e c lin in g to d ec la re a le a d e r legally re sp o n sib le fo r crim e s h e d id n o t order, Pal still fo u n d it necessary to n o te th a t M a ts u i a c te d to im p o se d isc ip lin e afte r h e le a rn e d o f h is tro o p s ’ m is c o n d u c t. L ik e M a ts u i, h e p la y e d b o th sides o f th is issu e— a n d c o n v e n ie n tly c o u ld fin d M a ts u i g u ilty o n n e ith e r. I su sp e c t th a t h e w o u ld hav e fo u n d a w ay to excuse M a ts u i even h a d h e b e e n u n a b le to d e m o n s tra te th a t th e g e n e ra l h a d ta k e n a p p ro p ria te a c tio n ; fo r h o w e v e r w ell Pal arg u ed th e legal lim its c o n c e rn in g a n overall c o m m a n d e r’s re sp o n sib ility over tro o p s in th e field, th e e x o n e ra tio n rests u ltim a te ly o n th e p o litic a l ju d g m e n t th a t J a p a n w as a c tin g ju s tly in A sia. G iv e n th is ju d g m e n t, a n y th in g M a ts u i d id w as o f o n ly c irc u m s ta n tia l relev an ce: M a ts u i d isa p p e a re d fro m ju d ic ia l sc ru tin y . T h e r e d u n d a n c y th a t P a l’s p o litic s seem s to im p o s e o n th e legal lo g ic o f h is d e c isio n is less d is tu rb in g i f w e ste p b a c k f ro m th e s u b s ta n tiv e v ie w o f law th a t prev ails in d isc u ssio n s o f th e R a p e o f N a n k in g a n d re c o g n iz e th a t law n e v e r o p e ra te s in d e p e n d e n tly o f p o litic s a n d h isto ry . To in s is t th a t it d o es w as a n im p o r ta n t illu s io n g o v e rn in g th e I M T F E , a n illu s io n th a t P al stro v e to ex­ p o se. L aw m a tte re d to P al to th e d eg re e th a t it o b se rv e d th e h ig h e s t sta n d a rd s o f p ro c e d u re , ev id en c e, a n d d e fin itio n ; b u t la w its e lf w as o n ly a to o l fo r o th e r th in g s , to w h ic h w e n o w b rie fly tu r n b y w a y o f c o n c lu sio n .

Truth and Reconciliation P al’s a rg u m e n ts, ho w ev e r p ersu asiv e separately, se em to ta n g le each o th e r in c o n ­ tra d ic tio n s w h e n th e y are c o m b in e d . W h ile u rg in g th a t Ja p an e se lead ers sh o u ld 170

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

n o t be h eld respon sib le fo r th e c o n d u c t o f th e ir soldiers, h e im p lies th a t leaders o n th e o th e r sid e s h o u ld h av e b e e n in d ic te d fo r th e c o n d u c t o f th e ir so ld iers. W h ile d e c lin in g to fin d J a p a n g u ilty o f w a g in g aggressive w ar, h e su g g ests th a t th e U n ite d S tates w as g u ilty o f c o m m ittin g ag g re ssio n in A sia. W h ile w a n t­ in g to p u t W e s te rn im p e ria lis m o n tria l, h e refu ses to c o n s tru e J a p a n ’s a c tio n s in A sia as a n o th e r f o rm o f im p e ria lis m . T h e p h ilo s o p h e r ’s d ista ste fo r assig n ­ in g g u ilt to o n ly o n e p a r ty g o es a g a in st th e ju r is t’s d u ty to d e te rm in e th e g u ilt o f th e p a r ty b e fo re h im ; th e ju r is t’s c o n v ic tio n th a t in s u ffic ie n t ev id e n c e h as b e e n p la c e d b e fo re h im to assig n g u ilt g o es a g a in st th e a n ti- im p e r ia lis t’s in sis­ te n c e th a t th e re is a m p le ev id e n c e to d a m n th e W e s te rn p o w ers; a n d th e a n ti­ im p e ria lis t’s d esire to b la m e th e W e st fo r th e w a r goes a g a in st th e p h ilo s o p h e r ’s d ista ste fo r b la m in g a n y o n e . P al’s d e ft a r g u m e n ta tio n , w h ic h alw ays se e m e d to g e t h im w h e re v e r h e w a n te d to go, b e c o m e s a lo g ic a l M o b iu s s trip fro m w h ic h th e re is n o ex it. A re w e e n title d th e re fo re to d ism iss P al’s p re v a ric a tio n s as p o litic a l o p p o r tu n is m a n d ru le th e m o u t o f th e c o u r t o f p u b lic o p in io n ? I w o u ld p re fe r to see h is p o s itio n as p o litic a l id e a lism . T h is is a ch a rg e Pal w o u ld d is p u te , fo r h e h im s e lf d ism isse d th e in n o v a tio n s o f th e I M T F E as e x p re ssin g a t b e s t a “c o m m e n d a b le ” b u t “u n re a liz a b le ” m o ra l id e a lism ; y e t h is id e a lis m /o p p o r tu n is m w as o f th e sa m e in te n s ity a n d sp ra n g f ro m th e sa m e desire a t th e e n d o f th e w ar to e lim in a te w ar. P al’s id e a lism u n d e rs to o d th a t th e p u rp o s e o f in te r n a tio n a l ju s tic e w as o n e o f “e n la rg in g th e h u m a n c o m m u n ity ” so th a t p e o p le w o u ld m o v e clo ser to “th e e sse n tia l s p ir it o f c o m m u n a l life .” H e d o u b te d th a t th is w as s o m e th in g a m ilita ry tr ib u n a l w as c a p a b le o f d o in g . It c o u ld m e te o u t p u n is h m e n ts , b u t it c o u ld n o t b r in g a b o u t th e re c o n c ilia ­ tio n o f all p arties, w h ic h is th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o n d itio n fo r w o rld peace. Pal d id n o t a p p ro v e o f J a p a n ’s m ilita ry v io le n ce ; h is ju d g m e n t s ta te d u n e q u iv o c a lly th a t “a tro c itie s w ere p e r p e tra te d ” in N a n k in g , a n d h e re g a rd e d th e m as “w ro n g ­ fu l a n d re p re h e n s ib le .”85 B u t th e ta s k h e fe lt th a t h e fac ed as a n in te r n a tio n a l ju r is t in 1 9 4 8 , w ith th e C o ld W a r h e a tin g u p a ro u n d A sia, w as n o t to assign re tro sp e c tiv e b la m e fo r a c o n flic t th a t w as over. It w as to fig u re o u t h o w b e s t to ad d ress d an g e rs th a t g re w b e y o n d th e w ar. W i th o u t a r e c o n s titu tio n o f th e in te r n a tio n a l p o litic a l o rd e r th a t re c o g n iz e d th e claim s o f th e lo sers as w ell as th e v ic to rs, p u n is h m e n t lo o k e d lik e n o th in g b u t v e n g e a n c e . W e m ig h t b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d P a l’s p o s itio n b y c o n s id e rin g th a t w h a t h e asp ire d to w as s o m e th in g th a t d id n o t exist a t th e tim e a n d h as o n ly e m e rg e d in th e p ra c tic e o f w a r c rim e s a d ju d ic a tio n sin c e th e 199 0 s; th a t is, t r u t h a n d re c o n c ilia tio n co m m issio n s. T h e se b o d ie s h av e b e e n e x p e rim e n te d w ith as s u p ­ p le m e n ts , a n d in so m e cases as a lte rn a tiv e s, to ju d ic ia l tr ib u n a ls in n a tio n s se e k in g to h ea l d e a d ly c o n flic ts a n d w o rk to w a rd d e m o c ra tic r e h a b ilita tio n . T h e y hav e b e e n c ritic iz e d b ec au se, as e x tra leg a l e n titie s, th e y c a n n o t im p o s e s a n c tio n s o n th o se w h o m c o u rts w o u ld o th e rw ise fin d g u ilty . O n th e o th e r h a n d , in co n flicts th a t at least o n e sid e su sta in s o u t o f fear o f p o s tc o n flic t legal reprisals, tr u th a n d re c o n c ilia tio n co m m issio n s h av e b e e n p ra ise d fo r p ro v id in g 171

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

exits th r o u g h w h ic h b o th p a rtie s c a n b a c k d o w n to re e sta b lish p e a c e .86 T h is is w h a t I g lim p se in th e c o n c lu d in g re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f P al’s ju d g m e n t. H e w a n te d a w id e n e d sc o p e o f e n q u iry w h o se m a n d a te w o u ld h av e b e e n to e x a m ­ in e “facts p e rh a p s h ith e r to u n d is c lo s e d ” th a t c o u ld b e u se d to a d d re ss “th e f u tu re th r e a t o f th e ‘p u b lic o rd e r a n d sa fe ty ’ o f th e w o r ld .” To d o a n y th in g less— w h ic h is ex a c tly w h a t h e fe lt th e I M T F E h a d d o n e — w as a n “in c ip ie n t failu re o f w ill a n d w is d o m ” th a t h e c o u ld n o t c o n d o n e a n d sa w n o re a so n to ac ce p t. “T h e n a m e o f Ju stic e s h o u ld n o t b e allo w ed to b e in v o k e d o n ly fo r th e p ro lo n g a tio n o f th e p u r s u it o f v in d ic tiv e re ta lia tio n . T h e w o rld is rea lly in n e e d o f g e n e ro u s m a g n a n im ity a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g c h a rity .”87 B y p re fe rrin g n a rro w v en g e an c e to fu ll d isc lo su re, th e T o k y o tr ib u n a l failed to p ro v id e e ith e r b o o n to th e p o s tw a r w o rld . A s alre a d y n o te d , R a d h a b in o d P al’s p o litic a l c h a lle n g e to th e m a jo rity ju d g ­ m e n t im p lie d a d iffe re n t v ie w of, a n d ro le for, h isto ry . T h e q u e s tio n w ith w h ic h I w o u ld lik e to c o n c lu d e th is c h a p te r is w h a t th a t p re se n c e o f d iffe r­ en ce signifies fo r o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f P al’s p ro je c t. In th e p ro c e ss o f d e te r­ m in in g w h o d id w h a t to w h o m a n d fo r w h a t rea so n s, ev ery ju d ic ia l b o d y w rite s a h is to ry o f w h a t h as h a p p e n e d . F o r a m ilita ry tr ib u n a l, th a t h is to ry n e e d satisfy o n ly th e sid e th a t c o n v e n e d th e tr ib u n a l. In th e case o f a tr u th a n d re c o n c ilia tio n c o m m issio n , h o w ev er, th e h is to ry o f th e c o n flic t h as to b e a r th e b u r d e n o f c o n s tru c tin g a p la u sib le a c c o u n t th a t, r a th e r th a n c e le b ra te th e v ic to rs ’ tr iu m p h o v er th e losers, d e sc rib e s th e h o n o ra b le p a th s th a t b o th sides to o k to g e t to th e exits. T h is o p e ra tio n is n o t a n easy o n e b e c a u se ea ch sid e h as alre ad y c o n s tru c te d a p re v io u s h is to ry th a t ju stifie s its p o s itio n a n d d en ies w h a te v e r h is to ry th e o th e r sid e offers. B le n d in g tw o c o n tra d ic to ry a c c o u n ts in to a sin g le h is to ry re q u ire s e a c h sid e to a c c e p t a p o r tio n o f th e o th e r ’s a c c o u n t a n d as w ell to s u rre n d e r e le m e n ts o f its o w n , th e re b y fa s h io n in g a c o m m o n h is to ry th a t b o th sid es c a n a c c e p t a n d re c o g n iz e as th e ir o w n . T h is rev isio n o f h is to ry m u s t in v o lv e f ra n k a d m issio n o f g u ilt a n d fu ll fo rg iv e n ess o f w ro n g s, co n c essio n s th a t b o th sid es w ill resist so lo n g as th e a d v a n ta g e s o f s u s ta in in g th e c o n flic t (e.g ., u sin g it to le g itim iz e a p a r tic u la r v e rsio n o f th e sta te o r to b o ls te r a n e th n ic id e n tity ) a p p e a r g re a te r th a n th e b e n e fits o f re c o n c ilia tio n . F ro m th is p e rsp e c tiv e , it b e c o m e s p o ssib le to su g g e st th a t th o se Ja p a n e se w h o , six ty years later, ch o o se to d e n y w a r re sp o n sib ility , a n d th o se C h in e s e w h o , a t s im ila r re m o v e fro m th e e v e n t, d e m a n d c o m p e n s a tio n , are en g a g e d in th e sam e o p e ra tio n : p r o m o tin g a h is to ry th a t c e le b ra te s d iv e rg e n c e a n d c o n ­ flic t so as to g a in a w in d fa ll in n a tio n a lis t o r e th n ic in te g rity . T h e c o n c e rn o n ea ch sid e is n o t to “t h in o u t” th e p a rtic u la ritie s o f id e n tity th a t se p a ra te th e ir tw o n a tio n a l g ro u p s, w h ic h is w h a t c o n te m p o r a r y h u m a n rig h ts d isc o u rse strives to d o in b a la n c in g th e claim s o f o n e g ro u p a g a in st a n o th e r .88 In ste a d , su c h effo rts “th ic k e n ” c o n c e p tio n s o f w h o th e y are b y p a c k in g th e e v e n t w ith p a rtic u la riz e d c u ltu ra l id e n titie s a n d exclusive co llec tiv e m e m o rie s th r o u g h 172

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

w h ic h th e y ca n h o n o r th e m se lv e s a n d d is d a in o th e rs. T h e s e are u n ila te ra l h is ­ to rie s, n o t h is to rie s o f re c o n c ilia tio n . B u t is th is w h a t P al to o h as d o n e in c o m p o s in g h is h is to ry o f th e w a r a n d s e ttin g it a g a in st th e m a jo rity ’s? C e rta in ly h is in te n se ly a n ti-im p e ria lis t p o s tu re d o es n o t re a d easily to d a y . I t falls u n d e r th e sw ay o f its o w n rh e to ric , sw in g ­ in g fa r fro m w h a t w e w o u ld re g a rd as a n a tu ra l s y m p a th y fo r th e v ic tim s o f atro c ity . H e argues th a t th e W e st, h a v in g g a in e d its a d v a n ta g e s in A sia b y “re c o u rse to th e s w o rd ,” s h o u ld give th e m u p .89 Yet h e d e c lin e s to su g g e st th a t J a p a n w as b o u n d to d o th e sa m e in C h in a . T h e h is to ry o f W e s te rn im p e ria l­ ism in A sia m a y w ell b e fu ll o f “sc a n d a lo u s sto rie s.”90 B u t so to o is th e h is to ry o f Ja p a n e se im p e ria lis m in C h in a . P a l’s v e rsio n o f t r u t h w ill p e rs u a d e few th a t th e f u n d a m e n ta l c o n tra d ic tio n d riv in g th e w a r in E a st A sia w as th e fissure b e tw e e n A sia a n d th e W e st, o r th a t th e le g acy o f c o lo n ia l d o m in a tio n c a n d is­ p la ce th e g u ilt fo r N a n k in g fro m rea l Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs o n to a n a b s tra c t W e st. I f Pal d e c lin e d to w rite a h is to ry th a t p ro v id e s exits fo r all p a rtie s, h e d id so b ec au se th e d o m in a n t p arty , th e U n ite d S tate s, n e v e r e n te re d th e a re n a. H is sole a lte rn a tiv e as a m e m b e r o f th e T o k y o b e n c h w as to give a n a c c o u n t o f th e w a r th a t c o n tra d ic te d th e g ra n d n a rra tiv e le a d in g in e lu c ta b ly fro m th e R ap e o f N a n jin g to th e A m e ric a n v ic to ry in th e Pacific, a n d th e n c e to th e h a n g ­ in g o f H ir o ta K o k i a n d M a ts u i Iw a n e. P al’s w as a u n ila te ra l h is to ry in w h ic h th e A m e ric a n s c o u ld n o t re c o g n iz e th e m se lv es, n o r p erc eiv e th e b u r d e n h e fe lt th e y s h o u ld bear. N o r c o u ld h e see h im s e lf in th e irs; a n d y et, b y h o ld in g u p a m ir r o r in w h ic h m o tiv e s a n d re sp o n sib ilitie s w ere rev e rse d , P al trie d to sh o w th a t th e m a jo rity h is to ry w as also a u n ila te ra l a c c o u n t, o n e th a t d id n o t p r o ­ v id e a h is to ry in w h ic h all p a rtie s m ig h t re c o g n iz e n o t o n ly th e m se lv e s b u t o th e rs as w ell. T h e h ig h ju d ic ia l s ta n d a rd to w h ic h P al w o rk e d s h o u ld c a u tio n us n o n e th e ­ less fro m ru s h in g to th e c o n c lu s io n th a t h e d iss e n te d fo r p u re ly p o litic a l re a ­ so n s. In fact, h is legal a n d c o n s titu tio n a l o b je c tio n s to th e I M T F E ta k e us closer to th e core p ro b le m s o f w a r c rim e s a d ju d ic a tio n th a n d o es th e b lith e a s se rtio n o f th e m a jo rity th a t ju s tic e h a d b e e n serv ed ; a n d h is c h a lle n g e to th e p r o s e c u tio n ’s n a rra tiv e o f a ju s t a n d a p p ro p ria te v ic to ry h e lp s us to re a d th e ir ju d g m e n t w ith a c ritic a l aw aren ess o f h o w th e R a p e o f N a n k in g w as u se d to w in c o n v ic tio n s, a n d w o u ld b e u n lik e ly to s ta n d u p in a w a r c rim e s tr ib u n a l today. T h e a d e q u a c y o f th e T o k y o fin d in g s o n N a n k in g c a n n o t b e assessed in te rm s o f th e n u m b e r o f c o n v ic tio n s it p ro d u c e d o r th e q u o ta o f r e tr ib u tio n it c o n fe rre d o n th o se w h o su ffe re d te rrib le losses in th e w ar. Ju stic e , as Pal su sp e c te d , is a m u c h m o re d iffic u lt p ro je c t. Its a d e q u a c y c a n b e m e a su re d o n ly in te rm s o f th e v a lid ity o f th e law s in v o k e d a n d th e success w ith w h ic h th e rig h ts o f th e d e fe n d a n ts w ere p ro te c te d . T h is is w h a t a c o u r t d o es, a n d w h a t th e I M T F E , in re tro s p e c t, failed to d o . T h o s e w h o a rg u e f ro m th e o p p o s ite p o in t o f v ie w th a t th e I M T F E d id n o t go far e n o u g h in p u n is h in g th o se re ­ s p o n sib le fo r th e R a p e o f N a n k in g see a d iffe re n t in a d e q u a c y in th e ju d g m e n t. 173

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

T h e d e b a te m a y n e v e r e n d , fo r ev ery f u tu re in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e h is to ry o f J a p a n ’s a rm e d in te r v e n tio n s in E ast A sia a n d th e P acific w ill su g g e st y e t o th e r g ro u n d s fo r rev isio n . T h is , o f c o u rse , is w h a t h is to ry d oes: n o t sit in ju d g ­ m e n t, b u t ask w h a t o th e r w ays w e m ig h t c o n s id e r in se e k in g a fu lle r a c c o u n t o f th e p a st. W h e th e r th e T o k y o ju d g m e n t w as a d e q u a te in la w w ill c o n tin u e to en g ag e legal sp e cia lists. B u t b y th e sa m e to k e n , w h a t a c tu a lly h a p p e n e d in N a n k in g in D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 w ill re m a in b e y o n d th e c a p a c ity o f a n y c o u r t to d e te rm in e o r resolv e. I f th e r e s o lu tio n w e se ek is re c o n c ilia tio n , o th e r m e a n s w ill b e n e e d e d to c o n s tru c t it.

Notes

1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

6.

7.

A different version of this chapter under the title, “T he Tokyo Judgm ent and the Rape of Nanking” appeared in the Journal o f Asian Studies 60:3 (August 2001), pp. 673—700. U N W C C , History o f the U nited Nations War Crimes Commission, pp. 121, 130, 151—53. Involvement in the incident also resulted in Japanese convictions at other military tribunals throughout East Asia, including Nanking; see Piccigallo, Japanese on Trial; Iwakawa, Koto no tsuchi to naru tomo . Liu, “Tokyo Trial,” p. 279. As one o f the prosecuting staff put it in 1950, the alliance that had made the trial possible was breaking apart as it ended. “New conflicts and new problems had arisen, and new alignments had been formed among the victors. It was therefore not surprising that in the darkening shad­ ows of current events there were added to the voices o f those who did not believe in the principl es of the trial and who could see no illegality in war regardless of its aggressive character, the warnings of those who saw in the principles of Nuremberg and Tokyo a dangerous precedent which could be applied to our own leaders regardless o f blame or guilt in the event we should lose a war”; Horowitz, “Tokyo Trial,” p. 574. See also Brode, Casual Slaughters a n d Accidental Judgments, p. 176 and p. 199. Several IM TFE participants published studies in the years during the tribunal and immediately afterward, for instance, Evans, “Trial of Major Japanese War Criminals”; Pal, “International Law”; Quentin-Baxter, “Task of the International Military Tribunal at Tokyo”; Horowitz, “Tokyo Trial”; and Roling, “Tokyo Trial and the Development of International Law.” Only in the 1970s would the IM TFE come back into the ken of jurists. For a bibliography of the liter­ ature on the Tokyo trial, see Lewis, Uncertain Judgment, pp. 139—45. Chang, The Rape o f N anking, p. 225. The quest for justice rides on considerable emotional dis­ turbance. Chang, for instance, characterizes her anxiety that the “oral history” o f the Atrocity she received from her parents might not survive their generation as “panic” (p. 10), and declares that the lack of a full published history of the incident causes her to feel “terrified” (p. 200). Such emotions hint at the degree to which the Atrocity has become implicated in the contem­ porary identity-formation of younger Chinese outside China. They may also betray an aware­ ness that an ethnically channeled memory can be a weak base from which to build an identity that can be projected beyond ethnic lines into the larger representational field of moral land­ marks such as Auschwitz and Kosovo. As soon as the American occupation of Japan came to an end in 1952, Tanaka published Japanese translations of Pal’s opinion, both partial (Nihon m uzairon: shinri no sabaki) and full (Zenyaku: N ihon muzairon), in an attem pt to overturn the authority o f the majority judgment. Pal continues to be lionized by extreme Japanese nationalists as the lone voice of impartial jus­ tice for Japan. T he 1998 movie Puraido: unm ei no toki (Pride: T he Fateful Moment), which

174

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

8. 9.

10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22.

23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

honors Tojo for bowing to execution rather than betraying the emperor and the state, casts Pal in a ympathetic role. IM TFE, “Indictm ent,” p. 11. IM TFE, “Judgm ent,” p. 49,771. C ount 45 was one of forty-five counts (including all the counts of “Murder”) on which the bench declared itself unable to rule. T he difficulty with C ount 45 was technical: it phrased the charge o f murder in terms of a conspiracy. T he tribunal reasoned that the Tokyo Charter “does not confer any jurisdiction in respect of a conspiracy to commit any crimes other than a crime against peace. There is no specification of the crime of conspiracy to commit conventional war crimes” (p. 48,451). T he specification of conspiracy with regard only to crimes against peace appears in Section II, Article 5(a) o f the charter. Ibid., p. 13. IM TFE, “Proceedings,” Exhibit No. 323, pp. 4,508—36, excerpting all or parts o f Documents No. 2, 7, 8, 10, 14—18, 20, 24, 29, 31, and 58. The book has been reproduced in its entirety as the first part of Brook, Documents on the Rape o f Nanking. Wilson, Bates, and Magee appeared before the bench as witnesses; Smythe, Fitch, and McCallum filed affidavits; see IM TFE, “Proceedings,” Exhibits No. 306, 307, and 309; pp. 1 9 4 6 ^ 8 , 4,456-63, and 4,467-79. Ibid., pp. 49,238-39; 49,604-12; 49,814—16; 49,855-56. These passages from the IM TFE’s judgm ent are reprinted in Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, pp. 257-67. IM TFE, “Proceedings,” pp. 33,811-921. Ibid., p. 33,866. For a lively description of Matsui on the stand, see Kuo, Tung-fang ta-shenp ’a n, pp. 172-86. Ibid., p. 33,879. Ibid., p. 33,851. O n the almost daily submission o f documentation regarding atrocities by the International Com mittee to the Japanese consulate, see Brook, Documents, pp. 6-7. IM TFE, “Proceedings,” p. 33,824, quoting from Matsui’s affidavit as it was read into the record on 24 November 1947. Ibid., p. 33,861. Ibid., p. 33,919. Matsui also insisted that his position in the chain of command over the two armies involved in the operation did not give him the power to investigate or intervene: “in the strict legal sense I did not conceive myself as having the power to give specific orders— orders in detail with regard to the maintenance of military discipline” (p. 33,883). Ibid., pp. 33,919-20. IM TFE, “Summation for Matsui, Iwane” (Defense D ocum ent No. 3096), pp. 37-38, 46, 56, 59. Matsui’s counsel consisted of Floyd Mattice assisted by two Japanese lawyers, Ito Kiyoshi and Jodai Takayoshi. T he language and logic o f the summation suggests that the Japanese were its principal authors, and that Matrices role was mainly to deliver it at the tribunal. Roling understood that in general the American lawyer assigned to each defendant determined his defense strategy, and that the Japanese lawyers were unable to raise issues outside that defense; Roling, “Tokyo Trial and the Development o f International Law,” p. 6. This seems not to have been the case with Matsui’s lawyers. IM TFE, “Summation for Matsui, Iwane,” p. 98. IM TFE, “Proceedings,” pp. 17,654-62. IM FTE, “Summation for Matsui, Iwane,” pp. 99 and pp. 101-8. IM TFE, “Judgm ent o f the IM TFE,” in Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 266. Cohen has charged that the Tokyo judgm ent failed to establish adequate tests to lim it individ­ ual criminal responsibility in the case of criminal activities that a leader knew about but was personally derelict in preventing or redressing. This charge appears to apply to the judgm ent on Hirota, on which he makes his point, but not to the Matsui judgment, which was careful to take account of the extent of his knowledge and the inefficacy of his actions; see Cohen, “Beyond Nuremberg,” pp. 78-85.

175

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

28.

29.

30.

31. 32.

33. 34. 35.

36. 37.

38. 39.

40.

41.

T he D utch justice, Roling, argued in his dissenting opinion both that H irota was too far removed from the chain of command to bear responsibility for the Atrocity, and that although the army sought to block the flow o f information coming out o f Nanking, he did in fact inter­ vene effectively, as evidence o f which he cited the recall of Matsui along with some eighty staff officers in February 1938; Roling, “O pinion of Mr. Justice Roling,” p. 209. For a concurring but differently argued interpretation, see Cohen, “Beyond Nuremberg,” pp. 62—65. Public Record Office (PRO), FO 371/69833, F16327/48/23: R. Craigie to O. Sargent, 18 November 1948; m inute by Cheke, 19 November 1948. Regarding Carr’s objection to the admissibility o f Craigie’s written answers to questions posed by the defense and introduced to challenge the charge of conspiracy, see IM TFE, “Proceedings,” p. 37,013. Cohen, “Beyond Nuremberg,” pp. 60 and p. 67. As pointed out in note 27, however, the Tokyo tribunal was not indiscriminate in denying defense claims that leaders could be unable to intervene to prevent war crimes about which they had knowledge. Beigbeder, Judging War Criminals, pp. 4 7 ^ 8 . T he concept of criminal liability in situations where there is a legal duty to act has gained con­ siderable ground since the Second W orld War and has been most prominently established in the provisions concerning victims of international conflicts in Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions (1977). For a recent review of the concept of “omission” in civil and inter­ national law, see Boulesbaa, U .N . Convention on Torture an d the Prospects for Its Enforcement, pp. 9-15. Roling, Introduction, to Roling and Ruter, Tokyo Judgment, vol. 1, p. xv. Cohen, “Beyond Nuremberg,” p. 61. Dower, Embracing Defeat, chap. 15. The extrajudicial decision not to charge the emperor with war crimes induced the tribunal’s president, William Webb, to argue in his own dissenting opinion that none of the accused should be executed, on the grounds that British law exempts criminals from capital punishm ent when the leader of the crime has been granted immunity; Webb, “Separate O pinion o f the President,” p. 18. IM TFE, “Judgm ent,” p. 768. MacArthur created the precedent for omission with the military commission he convened in Manila in October 1945 to try the Japanese commander in the Philippines, Yamashita Tomoyuki. Yamashita was convicted and executed not on the grounds that he had ordered offenses against American servicemen, or even known about them, but because he had been negligent in preventing the forces under his command from committing such offenses. As the American author of the standard study o f this trial notes with some force, “Never has a military leader been prosecuted for an incident when he has neither ordered, condoned, nor even been aware of the atrocity in question” (Taylor, Trial of Generals, p. 221). If the Yamashita precedent shaped the Tokyo indictment, it may have worked initially in Matsui’s favor by encouraging the Tokyo bench to demand unambiguous confirmation that Matsui did indeed know something of the atrocity for which he was being charged. Once knowledge was established, though, the Yamashita precedent of finding guilt by omission worked fatally against Matsui’s defense. PRO, FO 371/57424, U2331/5/73: “Inclusion of Indian Judge: Tokyo.” T he other justices who filed separate opinions were Henri Bernard of France, Delfin Jaranilla o f the Philippines, B.V.A. Roling o f the N etherlands, and W illiam Webb o f Australia. Beigbeder, Judging War Criminals, p. 73, argues that Pal’s decision to break ranks with the rest of the Tokyo bench “seriously weakened the value and impact of the tribunal’s findings and sen­ tences” on subsequent international law; on the other hand, it may have enriched case law. Section I, article 4(c) of the Tokyo Charter provided for such absence w ithout disqualification. T he provision of full transcripts made it possible for a judge to review the sessions from which he was absent. Pal, “Judgment o f the H on’ble Mr. Justice Pal,” pp. 1-2; 1,050-51; 1,060-61; 1,063-65; 1,069; 1,091-99; 1,108-18; 1,225-26; and 1,232-35. These passages are reprinted in Brook, Documents on the Rape of N anking, pp. 269-97.

176

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Radhabinod Pal on the Rape o f Nanking

42.

43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

48. 49.

50. 51. 52. 53.

54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61.

62.

63.

For evaluations of Pal’s dissenting opinion, see Minear, Victor'sJustice, pp. 63—70, 130—33, 155—58; Hosoya, Tokyo War Crimes Trial; Roling, Tokyo Trial a n d Beyond, pp. 28—32; and Kopelman, “Ideology and International Law.” Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 294. Roling, “Tokyo Trial and the Development of International Law,” p. 5. Evans, “Trial of Major Japanese War Criminals,” pt. 4, p. 323. U N W C C , History o f the U nited Nations War Crimes Commission, pp. 121, 154, and 387. Dower, Embracing Defeat, p. 465, suggests that Pal was the only judge appointed to the bench with significant experience in international law. I have found no evidence that Pal had such experience before the trial. H e came widely read in historical and legal issues, but appears to have acquired his understanding of international law in the course o f seeking to apply it at the Tokyo tribunal. Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 273. Section IV, Article 13(c), Subsection (1) permitted the admission of a state document “with­ out proof of its issuance or signature”; Subsection (4), of “unsworn statements” in a private doc­ ument. T he wording on rules of evidence was taken verbatim from Article 13 of M acArthur’s “Special Proclam ation” governing the M ilitary Com m ission in M anila that convicted Yamashita; see Taylor, Trial o f Generals, p. 137. M acArthur’s idea of justice, being military and retributive, was unconstrained by compunctions about cutting legal corners to expedite convictions. Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, pp. 277—78. Pal, Crimes in International Relations, pp. 186—87. Ginn, Sugamo Prison, p. 262. T he legal jurisdiction of the Kellogg-Briand Pact was a contentious issue in the early delibera­ tions of the U N W CC. C hina argued with Czechoslovakia and Australia, and against Britain and the U nited States, that the pact signaled a general understanding in international law that aggressive war was a criminal act; see U N W C C , History o f the U nited Nations War Crimes Com­ mission, pp. 182—83. Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 286. Ibid., pp. 286, 288. Pal, “Judgment of the H on’ble Mr. Justice Pal,” p. 978. Ibid., p. 354. Ibid., p. 980. Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 283. Ibid., pp. 285—86. Although McDougall concurred with the majority judgment, in his internal communications to Ottawa, McDougall was fiercely critical of the IM TFE for its procedural mistakes, ignorance of precedents, and overall lack of principled jurisprudence. H e asked to be taken off the bench, but was persuaded to remain so as not to embarrass Canada’s allies, notably the United States; see Stanton, “Canada and War Crimes,” pp. 392—94; also Brode, Casual Slaughters a n d Acci­ dental Judgments, pp. 198—99. After the trial, McDougall wrote privately to MacArthur asking that the sentences on Togo Shigemitsu (the Japanese ambassador to Britain, 1938—41) be reduced; his appeal was rejected (PRO, FO 371/69834, F16646). H e and Pal were among the five judges who m et with MacArthur on 23 November to ask that the death sentences be com­ muted; see Dower, Embracing Defeat, p. 628, note 34. It had been the G O I’s representative to the U N W C C ’s Enforcement Com m ittee who in August 1944, had proposed that supreme commanders be empowered to set up interim mili­ tary tribunals to handle war criminals expeditiously, exactly as MacArthur had done in Tokyo; see U N W C C , History o f the U nited N ations War Crimes Commission, p. 450. PRO, FO 371/69834, F17460: “Judgm ent and sentences delivered by the members of the IM TFE on the major Japanese war criminals,” 25 November 1948. Stein, A History o f India,

177

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74.

p. 404 has characterized M enon as “N ehru’s long-time friend, his delegate at the United Nations and perhaps his leftist conscience.” PRO, FO 371/69833, F15996: A. Gascoigne, “Major War Crimes Trials: Dissenting Judg­ m ents,” 13 November 1948. Ibid., p. 294. Jaranilla, “Concurring Opinion of Mr. Justice Jaranilla,” p. 31. See Nandy, Intim ate Enemy. Nandy, “O ther W ithin,” pp. 53—54, 71, 80. Ibid., p. 72. Pal, Crimes in International Relations, p. vii, and p. ix. Kondo Giichi’s preface to Pal, N ihon m uzairon: shinri no sabaki. Nandy, In ti-mate Self, p. 2. Roling, Tokyo Trial a n d Beyond, pp. 28—29. T he tension between Bose and Gandhi is interestingly portrayed, to Boses advantage, in Sen, Twin in the Twist.

75.

76.

77. 78.

79. 80. 81.

82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90.

T he Intelligence Bureau of the Government of India in the summer of 1945 reported several cases of Indian military personnel writing and chanting slogans honoring both Gandhi and Bose as the two great leaders of the Indian National Congress; British Library, Government of India, Hom e Departm ent, R /3/1/330, pp. 31, 103. Nandy (p. 65) suggests the same sense of unity between Gandhians and Boseans by noting that Nehru served as defense counsel at the trial of three Indian officers who defected from the British forces to serve in the Indian National Army. PRO, FO 371/69834, F17460: comm ent of W. B. Ledwidge, 17 December 1948, appended to Gascoigne, “Judgm ent and Sentences Delivered by the Members o f the International Mili­ tary Tribunal.” Basu, “Tokio Trials,” p. 30. Brackman, Other Nuremberg p. 344. Praising the condemned men for liberating Asia contin­ ues to be popular at the extreme edge of Japanese public opinion; see Kuo, Tung-fang ta shenp a n , p. 173. Pal, “Judgment of the H on’ble Mr. Justice Pal,” p. 138. Ibid., p. 1,090. Ibid., p. 1,202—03. To give his opposition to the atomic bomb greater prominence when he published his judgm ent in India five years later, he appended a damning gallery of photographs from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Jaranilla firmly rejected any appeal to the atomic bomb as a defense for the accused. In his view, what changed the nature o f war in this conflict was not the atomic bomb, but the total mobilization of a population for war, thereby legitimizing the destruction o f the home base. The bomb itself signified a difference only in the scale o f destruc­ tion, not in its quality; Jaranilla, “Concurring O pinion by M r Justice Delfin Jaranilla,” pp. 24-25. Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 296. Ibid., p. 294. Pal, Crimes in International Relations, p. viii. Ibid., pp. vii-viii. Beigbeder, Judging War Criminals, pp. 124-25; Hesse and Post, H um an Rights in Political Transitions, pp. 13-21; Neier, “Rethinking Truth, Justice and Guilt after Bosnia and Rwanda.” Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, pp. 294-95. Hesse and Post, H um an Rights in Political Transitions, pp. 30-31. Pal, “Judgment of the H on’ble Mr. Justice Pal,” p. 279. Pal, Crimes in International Relations, p. ix.

178

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:08 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Section Two

Ag g r e s s o r s a n d Co l l a b o r a t o r s

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

8

Le t t e r s f r o m a Re s e r v e O f f i c e r Co n s c r ip t e d to N a n k in g * Am ano Saburo1

Postmarked “Hiroshima Station Plaza, 22 November 1937”2 [To N a o k o , fro m H iro s h im a ], I arriv ed in H ir o s h im a in h ig h sp irits. I rea lly a p p re c ia te y o u r se ein g m e o ff so late a t n ig h t. I g o t h ere a t 1 0 :0 0 a .m . o n th e tw e n tie th ; d e p a rtu re is to m o r ­ row . I saw ev ery o n e in T o k y o , p lu s frie n d s a n d c o m p a n y p e o p le in N ag o y a . H ir o s h im a is a p r e tty city. T h e r e are th in c lo u d s in th e sky, a n d little o r n o b reeze. I f th is is a n y in d ic a tio n , th e G e n k a i S tra it [o ff K y u sh u ] w ill b e ca lm as w ell. I lo o k fo rw a rd to v ie w in g th e S eto I n la n d S ea to m o rro w .

Postmarked “Hiroshima Station Plaza, 22 November 1937” [To T atsu o ,] J u s t w h e n I th o u g h t I h a d s le p t m y la st n ig h t o n th e so il o f o u r h o m e la n d , w e g o t o rd e rs to d e la y e m b a r k m e n t u n til to m o rro w , so to d a y I to o k a d v a n ­ tage o f th is fine I n d ia n s u m m e r to v isit th e [Rai] S an y o M u s e u m . G e ttin g ac­ q u a in te d w ith his w ritin g s m a d e m e a p p re c ia te even m o re w h a t a g re a t m a n h e w as. I ’ll ju s t ta k e it easy fo r th e d a y a n d n o t m a k e th e tr e k o v er to M iy a jim a . S a b u ro H iro s h im a , 2 2 N o v e m b e r

181

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Postmarked “Ujina [Hiroshima Port], 24 November 1937” [To T a tsu o ], W e ’re n o w s ta rtin g to b o a rd sh ip a n d w ill b e o f f to o u r d e s tin a tio n . I ’ll co m e h o m e safe a n d so u n d ; d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t m e . T h e w e a th e r is g o o d , so th e tr ip b y sea s h o u ld b e ca lm . S a b u ro U jin a , F estiv al D a y o f T h a n k s g iv in g [23 N o v e m b e r]

Postmarked “Moji, 24 November 1937” [To T atsu o ,] I t ’s 1 1 :1 5 a .m . o n th e tw e n ty -f o u r th in M o ji [F u k u o k a P re fe c tu re ]. W e se t sail fro m U jin a a t 5 :4 5 p .m . o n th e tw e n ty -th ird a n d are n o w a n c h o re d in M o ji H a rb o r, b u t w o n ’t d o c k . I t ’s p r e tty c ro w d e d o n b o a rd ; th is is a 6 ,0 0 0 - to n h o s p ita l sh ip fo r tr a n s p o r tin g p a tie n ts . I t w ill b e a n o th e r f o rty to fifty h o u rs b efo re w e leave sh ip . A b o u t th re e m e n sleep p e r tatami m a t, a n d ev en h e re in th e officers q u a rte rs , i t ’s c ra m m e d . W h e re v e r y o u lo o k , th e re are tro o p s a n d m o re tro o p s ; so I a v o id g o in g ab o v e d e c k i f th e re are n o d u tie s to d isc h arg e. In ste a d , I rea d th e [m o n th ly ] Bungei shunju o r ju s t sleep in m y sp a re tim e . F ro m to m o r r o w o n w a rd , it w ill b e “lig h ts o u t . ”3 P lease c irc u la te m y le tte rs in m im e o g r a p h o r so m e o th e r f o rm s ta rtin g w ith th is o n e. S a b u ro

Postmarked “Moji, 2 December 1937” (2 4 N o v e m b e r) [To T atsu o ,] W e assem b led a t 1 1 :3 0 a .m . a t th e T ak e y a P rim a ry S c h o o l g ro u n d s , H ir o ­ s h im a city, a n d m a rc h e d o u t a t 1 1 :5 0 w ith th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t b r in g in g u p th e rear. A t 1:4 6 w e se t o u t b y ste a m b arg e . A ll w e c o u ld h e a r w ere r o u s ­ in g ch eers o f “b an z a i, b a n z a i.” T h e little flags b e in g w av e d o n sh o re g r a d u ­ ally re c e d e d in to th e b a c k g ro u n d as w e re a c h e d th e 5 ,8 7 2 .8 9 - to n Pacific M aru, a h o s p ita l sh ip , a n c h o re d in p o r t. C lim b in g th e la d d e r r u n g b y r u n g , w e b e ­ cam e se am e n . In f r o n t o f th e s h ip ’s “C e n tr a l E n tr a n c e ,” I tu r n e d a r o u n d fo r a la st lo o k a t th e flags b e in g w av e d a t us o n th e U jin a quay. W o n d e r in g if th is w ill b e th e la st w e ever see o f o u r h o m e la n d , w e w ere d ra w n in to th e s h ip ’s h o ld b y so m e stra n g e , p o w e rfu l fo rce. T h e e x c ite m e n t fin a lly d ie d d o w n . I b u sie d m y s e lf w ith th e task s o f assig n in g d a y w a tc h a n d se e in g to m ess p r e p a ­ ra tio n s . I c o m p o s e d c o m p a n y o rd e rs to o . T h e stic k ie st p r o b le m w ill b e p ro v i-

182

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

sio n s. C h o w seem s to b e over; i t ’s 5 :4 0 p .m . a n d th e w h istle s o u n d s o v erh e ad . T im e to se t sail. F arew ell, H iro sh im a ! W h a t p o in t is th e re in g o in g ab o v e d e c k to ta k e a fin al look? I ’ll tell y o u a b it a b o u t th e sh ip . T h e w h ite -p a in te d ste el c o lu m n in o u r o fficers’ q u a rte rs h as a sig n p a s te d o n it th a t says, “Pacific M aru, 5 ,8 7 2 .8 9 to n s , T a m a n o i C o m m e rc ia l S h ip p in g C o ., 3 2 A k a sh i, K o b e W a rd , K o b e city .” T h e “officers’ q u a r te rs ” are in n a m e only. S e v e n te e n o f us sh a re th is tw elvem a t tria n g u la r area w ith o n e c o rn e r a n d a ste el c e ilin g o v e rh e a d . W h ite c u r­ ta in s h itc h e d to a c o u p le o f p o sts is all th a t se p a ra te s us o ff fro m th e O n e H u n d r e d S ix te e n th R e g im e n t. T h is is a s tu rd y vessel, a fre ig h te r c o n v e rte d in to a h o s p ita l sh ip . T h e re is a b la n k e t sp re a d over o u r tatami m a ts a n d a d e sk se t u p in th e c e n te r o f th e area. T h is is w h e re w e d rin k , sm o k e , a n d w rite assem ­ b lag e re p o rts . S o m e o f th e se c o n ta in real k n e e -sla p p e rs . F o r in s ta n c e , o n e o f th e “o ld - m a n ” s u b lie u te n a n ts v isite d a b r o th e l in H iro s h im a . A fte r r e tu r n in g to b arrac k s, h e rea lize d th a t h e h a d le ft h is u n d e r p a n ts b e h in d , a n d it w as tim e fo r h is u n it to b o a rd sh ip . S in ce h e c o u ld n ’t go to fe tc h th e m , o n ly a d e s p e ra te la s t- m in u te p u rc h a s e in to w n sav ed th e day. T h e se are th e k in d s o f assem b lag e re p o rts th a t w e s u b m it. T h is sh ip h as m a d e several h a u ls to th e f r o n t a n d b a c k sin c e th e [C h in a ] I n c id e n t b eg a n . I t ’s a h o s p ita l sh ip ; so, o f co u rse , th e re are lo ts o f n u rse s. I t ’s w e ird to see w o m e n , m a y b e six ty o f th e m , o n a sh ip fo r m e n only. M o re th a n a n y th in g else, tr a n s p o r t officers are s tric t in th e e x tre m e a b o u t [p ro te c tin g ] th e se n u rse s, b u t t h a t ’s o n ly w h a t o n e w o u ld ex p e ct. S o m e b o d y ta p e d a c u te little p ic tu re to a p illa r; it sh o w s tw o little g irls v ie w in g th e m o o n over a ru s h co v ered riv e rb a n k . T h e r e is also a p h o to o f so m e fo re ig n m o v ie actress. (2 5 N o v e m b e r) A fte r w a k e -u p a n d a lo n g w ith th e ro ll call r e p o r t th is m o r n in g , I w e n t above d eck . T h e h ills o f K y u sh u are v isib le. I t ’s ta k in g a lo n g tim e to g e t m y sea legs. T h e tro o p s are d o cile today, n o d o u b t b ec au se th e ir sto re o f b o o ze h as r u n o u t. W e o n ly b r o u g h t a little w ith us a t b o a rd in g . W h e n w e a n c h o re d in M o ji, o th e r sh ip s p u lle d u p a lo n g sid e us, so w e w ere able to e x c h an g e m o n e y fo r b o o z e b y p a s sin g b a c k a n d f o r th b a sk e ts tie d to ro p e s. T h a t re p le n is h e d o u r s to c k fo r a tim e , b u t i t ’s n o w d e p le te d , so th e m e n are s u b d u e d . T h e S ixtyfifth is a q u ie t b u n c h . T h e O n e H u n d r e d S ix te e n th is fu ll o f ro w d ies. ( 2 6 th N o v e m b e r) T h e sea is ca lm to d a y to o . N o t a sin g le m a n is d r u n k . I h a v e n ’t sh a v ed sin c e leav in g H iro s h im a , so th e s tu b b le o n m y face is g ro w in g a n d i t ’s s ta r t­ in g to b o th e r m e . W e fin ally la n d to m o rro w . I w e n t ab o v e d eck ; th e re w ere lo ts o f n u rse s. T h e “o ld - m a n ” tro o p s w e a r caps to c a m o u fla g e th e ir b a ld in g h ead s; i f n o t, th e n u rse s w ill ig n o re th e m , o r a t le ast t h a t ’s h o w th e y see i t . 4

183

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

I h e a r th a t th e se n u rse s h av e m a d e th e J a p a n -S h a n g h a i tr ip several tim e s now . I also h e a r sto rie s o f so m e p itia b le so ld ie rs, b u t it w o u ld o n ly m a k e y o u w o rry i f I w ro te th e se d o w n , a n d I d o n ’t w a n t th a t, so I w o n ’t. I ’ll o n ly say th a t w e s o m e tim e s fin d b e d d in g w ith v iv id b lo o d sta in s, a n d th a t th e sh ip h as a m o rg u e fo r th e b o d ie s o f m e n w h o d ie in tra n s it. A m o n g officers o f th e S ixtyfifth , I a m th e o n ly b a c h e lo r o n b o a rd . A c tu a lly th e re is o n e m o re , th o u g h h e ’s e n g a g ed . B u t t h a t ’s fin e; it m e a n s I ’ve g o t n o cares in th e w o rld . I sa w th e su n set in to th e sea to n ig h t. S h a n g h a i is ju s t a s h o r t d ista n c e aw ay; th e re , m e n are fig h tin g to o th a n d n a il. In c o n tra s t, h o w p e a c e fu l th e su n s e t was! I a m o fte n s tr u c k b y th e s o le m n ity o f all th is. J u s t th e n , tw o sh ip s h e a d in g fo r M o ji c ru ise d p a s t o u r p o r t a t a d ista n c e o f o n e ri (fo u r k ilo m e te rs ).5 D u s k is n e a r­ in g ; b e a c o n s flash o n a n d o f f a lo n g th e C h i n k s h o re lin e .6 A ll o f o u r th o u g h ts re m a in u n c h a n g e d . H o w m a n y o f us se v e n te e n officers w ill r e tu r n h o m e safely? (F in ish e d w ritin g a t 9 :3 0 p .m . o n th e 2 6 th ) T h e o rd e r h as c o m e . A ll u n its m u s t s u b m it m ess k its fo r fillin g b e fo re 1 0 :0 0 p .m . a n d b e re a d y to a lig h t sh ip o n p a y in g a n c h o r in W u s u n g H a r b o r a t 2 :0 0 a.m . T h is is it; p re p a ra tio n s fo r b a ttle . W e p ass o u t a m m o a n d g e t re a d y to d ise m b a rk . B y 8 :3 0 p .m ., th o se p re p a ra tio n s are d o n e a n d th e tro o p s are asleep. In th e officers’ q u a rte rs , w e d ra w u p th e la st o f th o se assem b lag e re p o rts . I fin ish ed m in e q u ic k ly a n d w ro te th is le tte r. I t ’s n o w 9 :3 0 p .m . T h e r e p o r t is d o n e , a n d so is th is le tte r. F arew ell to all. P lease h o ld o n to th is o rig ­ in a l— w ritte n o n a b a m b o o t r u n k in lie u o f a d e sk — u n til th e d a y o f m y tr i­ u m p h a n t r e tu r n , i f th a t s h o u ld ever co m e . S o rry to tro u b le y o u , b u t fo r th e tim e b ein g , c o u ld y o u m im e o g ra p h co p ies a n d se n d th ese to [relatives in] T okyo, H o k k a id o , a n d H o so d a ? I ’ll w rite ag a in to m o r r o w i f I can . W e are s u p p o s e d to a lig h t e ith e r b e fo re th e lig h t o f d a w n , o r else in th e a fte rn o o n . T h e o rd e r read s, “a fte r 2 :0 0 a .m .,” b u t w h o k n o w s __

Postmarked “Ujina, 4 December 1937” S a b u ro a t W u s u n g , 2 7 N o v e m b e r R ig h t n o w i t ’s 2 :4 5 a n d th e re ’s still n o o rd e r to la n d . T h e fo o d o n b o a rd is a b o u t to r u n o u t. M a y b e th e re is e n o u g h fo r o n e o r tw o m o re m eals, so w e s h o u ld g e t th e o rd e r to la n d so o n . T h e re are a b o u t six ty vessels n e a r W u s u n g . (9 :0 0 p .m . o n th e 2 8 th ) T h e o rd e r ju s t ca m e fo r us to la n d to m o r r o w (in S h a n g h a i) a t a r o u n d n o o n . (2 9 N o v e m b e r) A t 6 :3 0 a .m ., th e sh ip se t o u t fo r X X [d isg u ise d u n d e r w a rtim e s ta te c e n ­ so rsh ip ] w h a r f in S h a n g h a i. 184

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

Postmarked “Ujina, 4 December 1937” S ab u ro , o n th e Pacific M aru o f f th e c o a st o f W u s u n g a t 7:00 p .m .; 28 N o v e m b e r To T atsu o , W e w ere s u p p o s e d to d is e m b a rk o n th e tw e n ty -six th , b u t are u n a b le to d o so today, th e tw e n ty -s e v e n th .7 I h o p e w e c a n d o so to m o rro w , th e tw e n ty e ig h th . T h is m o r n in g a b o a t ca m e to us fro m W u s u n g b r in g in g a th re e -d a y s to c k o f p ro v isio n s. V ie w e d th r o u g h b in o c u la rs, th e W u s u n g fo rtre sses lo o k to b e a n ab y sm al w re ck . T h is sh ip w as a n c h o re d h e re d u r in g th a t a rtille ry assau lt, a n d a c c o rd in g to th e c re w m e n , it w as a n aw e so m e sig h t. T w o o r th re e w a rsh ip s w ith th e ir n a m e s b la c k e n e d o u t are a n c h o re d h e re to o . E a rly in th e m o r n in g a se ap la n e m a d e a s p le n d id ta k e o f f fro m th e su rfa c e o f th e w a te r a n d flew o f f so m e w h e re . N o w a n d th e n h e a v y b o m b e rs , o u r o w n o f co u rse , fly by. W e are n o w in to o u r th ir d d a y o f b e in g a n c h o re d h e re a n d h av e y e t to see a n y th in g like a n e n e m y p la n e — o n ly a p a sse n g e r sh ip fly in g th e B ritish flag. A ll o th e r sh ip s are Ja p a n e se . A t a b o u t 2 :3 0 p .m ., th e Shanghai M aru — w h ic h p li es b e tw e e n N a g a sa k i a n d S h a n g h a i— le ft H u a n g - fu - c h ia n g o n its w ay b a c k to Ja p a n . T h e w a te rs o f th e Y angtze are rea lly m u rk y . W e c a n see th e h o riz o n w ay d o w n th e river. B o th its m o u th a n d u p p e r rea ch es n o w lie o n th e h o r i­ zo n ; o u r sh ip is a b o u t tw o to 2 .5 t h o u s a n d ___ f ro m th e W u s u n g fo rtre sse s.8 T oday, tw o tr a n s p o r ts fu ll o f tr o o p s — I d o n ’t k n o w w h a t u n it— e n te re d th e h a rb o r. T h e y to o re m a in a t a n c h o r. W e g e t n o n e w sp a p e rs. T h e r e ’s o n ly o n e ra d io ; i t ’s in th e c o n tro l ro o m . I ’m to ld th a t th e C h in k s ja m it w h e n e v e r Ja p a n e se n ew sc asts c o m e o n , so th e re ’s n o w ay to te ll h o w far th e a ssa u lt o n N a n k in g h as ad v a n c e d u p to now . I ’m p r e tty tire d o f th e b o r e d o m o n sh ip . B u t i f w e la n d to m o rro w , it w ill b e n o th in g b u t c o m b a t w ith th e en em y, so I c a n ’t le t m y g u a rd d o w n . (P lease se n d th e a p p lic a tio n to C h iy o d a L ife In s u r ­ an ce o r to its office in M ih a ru .) T h a t ’s it fo r tod ay . P lease c o p y th is in fo a n d c irc u la te it to e v e ry o n e. S ato k u n fro m M r. O g o s h i’s p la ce seem s w ell. D a w n co m es to S h a n g h a i a t 7 :0 0 a .m .; it g ets d a r k a t 6 :0 0 p .m . A t S h a n g h a i, N o o n , 2 9 N o v e m b e r (T h is p o s tc a rd w ill g e t to y o u a h e a d o f th e e a rlie r o th e rs.) W e c o m p le te d la n d in g a t n o o n a n d lo o k e d a b o u t n e a r th e w h arf. T o ta l d evastation! A re su lt o f b o m b s , artillery , a n d sm a ll a rm s fire. T h e r e is n o tra c e o f a n y o n e , o n ly C h in k p a tro lm e n , I n d ia n tra ffic co p s, a n d b e y o n d th a t, th e Ja p a n e se a rm y a n d B ritish a u to m o b ile s . T h e re are sh o p s in so m e places, b u t n o c u s to m e rs. T h e g uys fro m H a m a S tre et, w h o b e lo n g to m a rin e tr a n s p o r t u n its , g o t tra n s fe rre d h e re y es­ te rd a y fro m X X , so I w as ab le to m e e t a fo rm e r u p p e r c la ssm a n f ro m S o m a M id d le S ch o o l. T o m o rro w w e h e a d fo r C h a n g -s h u to c a tc h u p w ith th e M o ro z u m i U n it [S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t], b u t to n ig h t w e c a m p o u t in S h a n g h a i. T h e 185

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

tre k w ill ta k e a b o u t fo u r days o n fo o t. T h is m e a n s th e a ssa u lt o n N a n k in g . I m e t m y classm ate S h ib a n o -k u n . B o th O k i- k u n a n d Y o k o y am a [S h u ic h iro ]-k u n are w ell. A t S h a n g h a i, Y a n g -c h u -p ’o [p h o n e tic re n d itio n ], 10 a .m ., 1 D e c e m b e r, W e ’ve b e e n d elay e d fo r v a rio u s re a so n s. N o w w e ’re su p p o s e d to leave S h a n g h a i fo r N a n - h s ia n g o n th e a f te rn o o n o f 1 D e c e m b e r. T h a t ’s se v en ri [tw e n ty -e ig h t k ilo m e te rs ]. G iv e n o u r c u r r e n t e q u ip m e n t a n d m a rc h in g c a p a c ­ ity, ca n w e do it? O r w ill w e leave to m o rro w ? In a n y case, it w ill ta k e q u ite a few days to re a c h C h a n g -s h u , so I guess it w ill b e a to u g h go. M r. Y abuu c h i, a r e p o r te r fo r th e [Fukushima] M inyu-H ochi [shinbun] ca m e fo r a n in te r ­ v ie w yesterday, so I w as ab le to fin d o u t s o m e th in g a b o u t c o n d itio n s a t th e f ro n t. E n o u g h fo r now . 4 p .m ., 2 D e c e m b e r T h e r e h as b e e n a c h a n g e in p la n s sin c e m y la st le tte r. W e are n o w s u p ­ p o se d to trav el u p th e Y angtze b y b o a t a n d la n d o n th e c o a st n o r th e a s t o f C h a n g -s h u o n 2 D e c e m b e r. W e ju s t n o w re a c h e d th a t s p o t a n d aw a it la n d ­ in g c ra ft.9 W e ’re p u s h in g fo rw a rd m ig h tily to re a c h th e c a p ita l in tim e fo r th e assau lt. [E arlier] to d a y o n th e w h a r f in S h a n g h a i, I m e t H a s h im o to - k u n fro m M ih a ru , w h o w as d ra fte d a t th e sa m e tim e as m e . H e is assig n ed to X X d u tie s in S h a n g h a i.

Shanghai Expeditionary Army, Ogisu [Thirteenth] Division, Morozumi [Sixty-fifth] Regiment, Taira [Third] Battalion, Kinoshita [Ninth] Company S a b u ro , 12 D e c e m b e r I ’ve c o m p le te d a m a rc h r ig h t o u t o f th a t p o e m I le a rn e d fro m A k ik o o n th e w ay h o m e fro m H ig a s h iy a m a H o t S p rin g s in W a k a m a tsu : W e e n te r en d less p la in s th a t le ad to n o w h e re , a d v a n c in g ste el h e lm e ts, w ith th e R isin g S u n W e ’ve b ro k e n p a s t th e f o rty ri m a rk [1 6 0 k ilo m e te rs] sin c e c o m in g ash o re , a n d e n te re d C h e n -c h ia n g as d u s k a p p ro a c h e d th is e v e n in g .10 T h e E le v e n th d iv is io n m o v e d in th e n ig h t b e fo re . N o w , th e re is little m o re th a n o c c a sio n a l m a c h in e -g u n fire— n o rea l c o m b a t to sp e a k of. W e h e a r th e d is ta n t p ee l o f th e M is h im a h ea v y a rtille ry d iv is io n sh e llin g to w n s n o r th o f th e Y angtze fro m p o in ts s o u th o f it, p lu s th e d is ta n t ro a r o f o u r h e a v y b o m b e rs . T h e n ig h t still-

186

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

ness o f a n a b a n d o n e d c a p ita l!11 O n th e six th , I to o k c o m m a n d o f th e T h ir d P la to o n in th e N i n t h C o m p a n y (led b y S u b lie u te n a n t K in o s h ita ), u n d e r th e T h ir d B a tta lio n (T a ira U n it), o f th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t (M o ro z u m i U n it). W e hav e m a rc h e d fo u r d ay s sin c e th e n , p a s t C h ia n g y in c ity to re a c h C h e n c h ia n g o n th e te n th , to d ay . A lth o u g h I ’m su p p o s e d to b e a “p la to o n c o m ­ m a n d e r ,” th is u n it is d o w n to tw e n ty -se v e n m e n . T h a t gives y o u a n id e a o f ju s t h o w aw fu l th e fig h tin g h as b e e n . I t ’s a lre a d y elev en o ’c lo c k (Ja p a n tim e ). I ’ll w rite ag a in to m o rro w ; t h a t ’s it fo r today. I d id n ’t g e t a c h a n c e to m a il th e le tte r w ritte n th e o th e r d a y (th e tw e lfth ) a t C h ia n g y in , so I ’ve still g o t it. I t ’s b e e n o n e fo rw a rd m a rc h afte r a n o th e r ever sin ce. O n th e f o u rte e n th , th e S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t, le d b y B a tta lio n c o m ­ m a n d e r [M aj. G e n . Y am a d a S e n ji], to o k o v er th e M u fu s h a n [elevated] b a t­ teries a little over o n e ri [fo u r k ilo m e te rs] n o r th e a s t o f N a n k in g . ( T h e O n e H u n d r e d F o u rth is o n th e n o r th sh o re o f th e Y an g tze.) R ig h t no w , th e S ixtyfifth is m o p p in g u p d e fe a te d e n e m y strag g lers in th e area. P a rt o f i t le ft fo r N a n k in g to ta k e p a r t in to d a y ’s tr iu m p h a l e n try c e le b ra tio n s, b u t m o s t o f us are c h a rg e d w ith d e a lin g w ith P O W s . T h e S ix ty -fifth b y its e lf h a s ta k e n a n u m b e r a p p r o a c h in g 2 0 ,0 0 0 to d a te . W e h o ld th e m in th e C h i n k a rm y c o m ­ p o u n d b e n e a th th e ele v a te d b a tte rie s. P ro v isio n s are in a d e q u a te , so lo ts o f C h i n k tro o p s h av e g o n e w ith o u t fo o d o r w a te r fo r a w e e k a lre ad y .12 Y ester­ d a y m o r n in g , I w as a p p o in te d as a g u a rd o fficer a n d h av e y e t to b e reliev ed , so I c a n ’t leave th e c o m p o u n d to go an y w h e re . In ste a d , I k ee p a n eye o n th e C h in k s w h o s u rre n d e re d . A p a rt fro m th e ea rly m o r n in g , i t ’s m u c h w a rm e r h e re th a n b a c k h o m e , so d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t m e . It ra in e d w h ile w e w ere a b o a rd sh ip a n c h o re d o f f W u s u n g , b u t sin c e th e n i t ’s b e e n clear everyday. I ’ll b e re ­ liev ed o f th is p o s t to m o rro w , so I ’ll b e se e in g th e sig h ts in N a n k in g . In tw o o r th re e days, th e S ix ty -fifth w ill cross o v er to th e n o r th e r n b a n k o f th e Y angtze a n d jo in th e m a in fo rc e o f o u r d iv isio n . H o w ’s th is fo r s o m e th in g a b s u rd ? 13 A d e fe a te d C h i n k stra g g le r h id in g b e ­ h in d m y b u n k , u n k n o w n to m e fo r tw o n ig h ts , g o t c a u g h t a n d w as s h o t im m e ­ d iately ; in effect, w e w ere s le e p in g to g e th e r. I h av e n o id e a w h e re w e ’ll m a k e o u r n e x t th ru s t; y o u fo lk s b a c k h o m e m u s t h av e a b e tte r id e a o f h o w th e w ar is s h a p in g u p . W e le ft all o f o u r s u p p ly u n its b a c k in S h a n g h a i, so w e r u n o u t o f s tu f f o fte n a n d g e t b y th r o u g h re q u is itio n in g . N e ith e r I, n o r ev en m e n p re ­ s e n t f ro m th e s ta rt o f th e c a m p a ig n , h av e ever g o tte n a “c o m fo r t b a g ” fro m h o m e . I d o n ’t k n o w w h e n I ’ll g e t a c h a n c e to m a il th is, b u t I ’ve w ritte n it; so I ’ll h a n g o n to i t a n d m a il i t w h e n I can . S a b u ro , 17 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 A P O W fro m th e C h i n k a rm y h a n d e d m e th is d o c u m e n t in th e h o p e th a t I c o u ld h e lp th e m o u t. I a tta c h i t h e re fo r y o u r referen c e.

187

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Report To th e C o m m a n d in g O ffic e r o f G re a t Ja p a n : A fte r b e in g c u t o ff fro m o u r [re treatin g ] arm y, w e tu r n e d over o u r a rm s a n d s u rre n d e re d to th e m ilita ry fo rc es o f G re a t J a p a n , im p lo rin g y o u to a d o p t a p ­ p r o p ria te m e asu res o n o u r b eh a lf. T h re e days h av e p a sse d sin c e c o m in g h ere , y e t w e still h av e n o id e a o f h o w y o u w ill d eal w ith us. T en s o f th o u s a n d s o f p itia b le m e n h av e g o n e h u n g r y fo r o v er fo u r days. W e c a n n o t su rv iv e o n th in rice g ru e l alo n e; so o n w e w ill d ie o f s ta rv a tio n . O h , G re a t Ja p an ! T en s o f th o u ­ sa n d s [o f us] lie o n th e v erg e o f d e a th , y e t r e ta in h o p e fo r life. W e b e g y o u to save o u r lives. I f y o u s h o u ld g r a n t th is e n tre a ty , w e w ill s u b m it to y o u w ith all o u r h e a rts a n d re p a y y o u r k in d b le ssin g b y e n d u r in g fire a n d w a te r to serve G re a t J a p a n h e n c e fo rth . P lease, please, I b e se e c h y o u to b e s to w fo o d o n us so th a t w e m a y live. W e jo in in c e le b ra tin g th e E m p ire o f G re a t Jap an ! Banzai! M o s t re s p e c tfu lly s u b m itte d , Fu H o A d H o c R e p re se n ta tiv e fo r th e S u rre n d e re d A rm y

Shanghai Expeditionary Army, Ogisu [Thirteenth] Division, Morozumi [Sixty-fifth] Regiment, Taira [Third] Battalion, Kinoshita [Ninth] Company A m a n o S a b u ro D e a r F ath er, W h ile o n p a tro l to d a y (1 7 D e c e m b e r), I m e t a r e p o r te r fo r th e Tokyo Nichinichi [shinbun] a n d ask ed h im to m a il m y le tte rs. W e ’ve a d v a n c e d u n o p p o s e d ever sin c e la n d in g a t H u - p ’u -c h e n . W e to o k o v er th e M u fu s h a n [elevated] b a t­ teries a b o u t o n e ri [fo u r k ilo m e te rs] n o r th e a s t o f N a n k in g a t d a w n o n th e f o u rte e n th . W e to o k a b o u t 2 0 ,0 0 0 d e fe a te d strag g lers p r is o n e r n ea rb y , p la c e d th e m in a C h i n k a rm y c o m p o u n d b e lo w th e b a tte rie s, a n d k ee p close w a tc h over th e m a t p re se n t. T h o u g h u n s h a v e n a n d s u n b u r n e d , officers a n d m e n alike are in h ig h sp irits. I p la n to see th e sig h ts in N a n k in g to m o rro w . S o m e o f o u r m e n p r o u d ly to o k p a r t in th e tr iu m p h a l e n try in to N a n k in g to d ay , b u t I w as o n d u ty as a g u a rd o fficer h e re , a n d so c o u ld n o t jo in th e m . A s I said , to m o r ­ ro w I ’ll b e sig h tse e in g . In a few days, i t ’s b e liev e d , w e ’ll cross o v er to th e n o r th e r n riv e rb a n k . I ’ve s e n t le tte rs ( th ro u g h th is re p o rte r) to [th e fo lk s at] M ih a ru , so I th in k th e y w ill f o rw a rd th e se o r m im e o g r a p h co p ies f o r y o u . P lease h av e a lo o k . I m e t A b e a n d N iin u m a fro m N a k a m u r a to w n , as w ell as H a r a fro m T su k a b e , O n o village. T h e y are m e d ic s in m y co m p a n y . I a m v ery b u sy tr a n s p o r tin g p ris ­ o n ers, so m y h a n d w r itin g h as g o tte n sloppy. W e s h o o t th o s e w h o r u n away. I h e a rd g u n fire ju s t no w , so w e m u s t h av e k ille d so m e m e n . W e use revolvers sto le n fro m th e en e m y ; th e o rd e rs [for w e a p o n s th a t] w e p la c e d w ith th e reg188

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

im e n t d id n ’t arriv e in tim e . In th e d a y tim e , i t ’s w a rm e r th a n b a c k h o m e , b u t th e m o r n in g ch ill g ets to us. W e ’ve h a d n o ra in sin c e la n d in g . I t d o e s n ’t lo o k lik e th e w a r w ill e n d fo r s o m e tim e , b u t I ’ll g ird m y lo in s to s tic k it o u t, so d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t m e . O u r p la to o n h as tw e n ty -e ig h t m e n in c lu d in g m yself. I k eep th e m o n a tig h t re in , so th e re ’s n o n e e d to w o rry o n th is sco re eith er. T h e y ’re h a r d e n e d su rv iv o rs o f m a n y b a ttle s, rea lly a to u g h lo t. P lease se n d th is to U n c le [Jiro] in T o k y o , to K ik u -c h a n in M ih a ru , a n d to th e fo lk s in U ra w a, H o k k a id o , a n d elsew h e re b e c a u se I d o n ’t h av e tim e to w rite e a c h o f th e m se p ­ arately. T h a t ’s it fo r now . S a b u ro 17 D e c e m b e r, 4 :3 0 p .m . D e a r U n c le Jiro , W e ’re fin ally se t to fo rd th e Y angtze f ro m a p ie r n o r th o f N a n k in g to m o r ­ row , th e tw e n ty -first; o u r o b je c tiv e is C h ’u h sie n . T h e r e g im e n t’s m a in fo rc e is c ro ssin g to d a y ; o u r T h ir d B a tta lio n w ill fo llo w e a rly to m o r r o w m o r n in g . Yes­ terday, I w as n a m e d o fficer in ch a rg e o f lo a d in g th e b a tta lio n o n tra n s p o rts a n d a m n o w b u s y se e in g to th a t task . E a c h m a n is o rd e re d to c a rry sa n d b a g s i f p o ssib le, so w e m a y b e e n g a g in g a f o rm id a b le f o e .14 A s b e f ittin g th e e n e m y c a p ita l, N a n k in g h as m assiv e w alls; d efe n se p e rim e te rs in its e n v iro n s are p a r ­ tic u la rly s tro n g . I feel fo r th e C h i n k a rm y th a t h a d to a b a n d o n it w ith o u t a fig h t. I h e a r th a t o u r p la n e s b o m b e d th e c a p ita l m a n y tim e s, b u t i t ’s stra n g e to see h o w little d a m a g e th e y c a u se d . K u o m in ta n g g o v e rn m e n t b u ild in g s re m a in u n s c ra tc h e d , a n d th e S ix te e n th d iv is io n is g u a rd in g th e se; so, u n f o r ­ tu n a te ly , I c o u ld n ’t go in sid e . W h e re v e r I w e n t, th e re w ere s to u t-ro o fe d sh e l­ te rs th a t p e o p le w o u ld e n te r d u r in g air ra id s. T h is sh o w s ju s t h o w m u c h th e e n e m y fears b o m b in g a tta c k s a n d h o w m u c h o f a n a tio n a l e ffo rt it m a k e s to d e fe n d a g a in st th e se. I ca m e aw ay fe e lin g th a t Ja p a n e se air ra id d rills w ere c h ild ’s p la y in c o m p a r is o n .15 A ctually, I hav e a fav o r to ask. W h ile I w as in th e la trin e y e ste rd a y m o r n ­ in g so m e guy, p r o b a b ly f ro m a n o th e r u n it, sto le m y sw o rd sash. I o n ly b r o u g h t o n e w ith m e b ec a u se I d id n ’t w a n t to c a rry m o re g ea r th a n I h a d to . R ig h t n o w I ’m im p ro v isin g , b u t i t ’s a p a in . C o u ld y o u v isit th e K aik o sh a, b u y o n e s im ila r to th e la st tim e , a n d se n d it as so o n as y o u can? It w ill ta k e a b o u t a m o n th to re a c h m e . A “s w o rd sash ” is u se d to h o ld a n o ffic e r’s sw o rd ; T akac h a n s h o u ld k n o w w h a t it is. I ’m so rry to b o th e r y o u so o fte n . I t ’s tim e to go o n d u ty now , so I ’ll e n d h ere . S a b u ro 2 0 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , 9 :4 5 a .m . T o: M r. W a ta n a b e Jiro 1 -3 3 9 S h im o -O c h ia i Y o d o b a sh i-k u , T o k y o 16 189

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

(1) T o d a y w e e n te re d N a n k in g . I t ’s c lo u d y w ith q u ite a s tro n g , c h illy w in d ; b u t I ’m fe e lin g g re a t. S o o n w e w ill cross th e Y angtze, so I ste el m y s e lf fo r m o re fe ro c io u s fig h tin g . T h e fo lk s in M ih a r u a n d H o s o d a h av e n o d o u b t filled y o u in o n m y m o v e m e n ts; I d id n ’t h av e th e tim e to w rite to y o u . T h e r e sh o u ld b e a field p o s t office o p e n in g so o n ; I ’ll se n d th is le tte r th e n . (2) I f o rg o t to m e n tio n th is in m y la st le tte r, b u t I d o n ’t h av e e n o u g h gloves. I w o n d e r i f y o u c o u ld se n d m e f o u r o r five p a irs o f s tu r d y c o tto n a n d w o o le n o nes. K eep tra c k o f h o w m u c h th e se co st. I ’ll w rite [h o m e] to S o m a a b o u t th is, so se n d all o f th e re c e ip ts to th e m fo r r e im b u rs e m e n t. I ’ll b e h e re o n g u a rd d u ty fo r a m o n th h e re in C h ’u a n c h ia o , a n area across th e Y angtze, to th e w est a n d n o r th o f N a n k in g . T h is is w h e re w e w ill g re e t th e N e w Year. I ’ll w rite ag ain . 23 D ecem ber

Shanghai Expeditionary Army, Ogisu [Thirteenth] Division, Morozumi [Sixty-fifth] Regiment, Taira [Third] Battalion, Kinoshita [Ninth] Company A m a n o S a b u ro 23 D ecem ber W e e m b a rk e d fro m C h u n g - s h a n P ie r in H s ia k w a n P o rt ju s t o u ts id e N a n ­ k in g to fo rd th e Y angtze o n th e tw e n ty -first, as sc h e d u le d . W e a rriv e d h e re in C h ’u a n c h ia o c o u n ty la st n ig h t. I ’ll b e h e re fo r a m o n th o r m o re assig n ed to g u a rd d u ty , p eace p re s e rv a tio n , a n d p r o p a g a tio n o f th e Im p e ria l W ay; so th is is w h e re I ’ll g re e t th e N e w Year. T h e c ity [o f C h ’u a n c h ia o ] h a d a p o p u la tio n o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le , all o f w h o m fled , to b e re p la c e d b y m a n y refu g ee s fro m N a n k in g . I t ’s a sm a ll w a lle d city, ju s t w h a t y o u ’d e x p e c t to fin d o n th e C h in k la n d sca p e. O u r e m a c ia te d officers a n d m e n w ill n o d o u b t rec o v er th e ir s tre n g th e a tin g [foraged] c h ic k e n a n d p o r k everyday, b u t th e y all say th e y ’d love to g e t th e ir h a n d s o n so m e fre sh ly b re w e d N a d a sake. I ’ll b e O K fo r c lo th e s after th e tr a n s p o r t u n it sh ip s m y g ea r o v er f ro m S h a n g h a i; th a t s h o u ld b e so o n . F o r th e m o m e n t, I g e t b y o n lo c ally r e q u is itio n e d c ig a re tte s. S w eets are h a rd to c o m e by; a t o n e p o in t th e re w ere n o n e a t all. T h e o th e r day, so m e g u y sw ip e d m y sw o rd sash, so I ask ed U n c le Jiro in T o k y o to se n d m e o n e; b u t w o u ld y o u , eld e r b ro th e r, ask h im to o , e ith e r b y g e ttin g a p o s tc a rd o f f to h im o r ju s t b y c irc u la tin g th is lette r? A ll th e re s id e n ts h e re h a te C h ia n g K a i-sh e k . T h is c a n ’t ju s t b e a p lo y to g e t in g o o d w ith th e Ja p a n e se arm y. S o m e C h in k s even say th e y lo o k fo rw a rd to h a v in g J a p a n g o v e rn th e m — th e s o o n e r th e b e tte r. A s b efits a c u ltu re d n a tio n , every h o u se h as its h a n g in g scro ll, p a in tin g , o r sa m p le o f c a llig ra p h y o n d is­ play. I t ’s rea lly im p re ssiv e . T h e ir b e d d in g is far b e tte r th a n a n y th in g w e h av e in Ja p a n ; I su p p o se it reflects a C h in e s e n a tio n a l tr a it o f e n jo y in g a h e a rty 190

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

n ig h t’s sleep. E v ery d ay I e a t th e lo c al sp ecialty , N a n k in g p e a n u ts ; b u t I a b so ­ lu te ly h a te a n o th e r o f th e se, N a n k in g rice . J u s t tr y le a v in g it in y o u r m e ss k it o v e rn ig h t; th e g ra in s d r y u p a n d c o m e u n s tu c k th e n e x t day, so th e re ’s n o w a y it ca n ta ste g o o d . T o d a y w e fin a lly g o t a m e a l o f rice b r o u g h t f ro m Ja p a n . H a tr e d fo r J a p a n is esp ec ially s tr o n g s o u th o f th e Y angtze, w h e re re a d in g c h a rts h u n g in s c h o o l classro o m s are filled w ith n o th in g b u t a n ti-Ja p a n e se slo ­ g ans. Y ou h a rd ly see a n y th in g lik e th a t u p h e re , n o r th o f th e river. H a d w e le t th is s itu a tio n go o n fo r a n o th e r te n y ears, th e re su lts w o u ld h a v e b e e n te r ­ rify in g . Ja p an e se re sid e n ts in S h a n g h a i [last A u g u st] g o t a n g ry w h e n o u r n a v y s to o d b y id ly [d esp ite C h in e s e rio tin g ] fo r so lo n g , so I s h u d d e r to th in k a b o u t h o w m u c h f u tu re d a m a g e th e se p u p ils w ill cau se to J a p a n - C h in k re la tio n s. T w elve- a n d th irte e n -y e a r-o ld k id s, w h o d o n ’t k n o w a n y b e tte r, are to ld to s h o o t a n d k ill Jap an e se; so th e y sh o w u p o n th e fro n tlin e s . I t ’s th e sa m e w ith w o m e n , to o . W h e n I see b o th k id s a n d w o m e n fig h tin g a t th e b a ttle fr o n t, I th in k o f h o w h a p p y all o f y o u are b a c k in Ja p a n . M a n y k id s w ere m ix e d in w ith th e e n e m y tro o p s; th e y f o u g h t b ra v e ly o n th e f r o n t lin e s in b a ttle s n e a r N a n k in g . W h e n I sa w th e m , h a tre d w e lle d u p in sid e m e . Yet a t th e sa m e tim e , I fe lt a d m ir a tio n even th o u g h th e y are th e enem y. I ’m ju s t ra m b lin g . A b u d d y w ill b e g o in g to S h a n g h a i to m o rro w , so I ru s h e d to g et th e se th o u g h ts d o w n o n p a p e r so th a t I c a n ask h im to m a il th is le tte r. A fte r I ’m b a c k o n g u a rd d u ty (fo r 5 days afte r 10 o ff), I ’ll b e able to d escrib e th e s itu a tio n fo r y o u . A field p o s t office o u g h t to b e u p a n d r u n ­ n in g p r e tty so o n . W h e n y o u ad d re ss le tte rs o r p ac k ag e s to m e , i t ’s b e st to spell o u t in fu ll m y ra n k , s u rn a m e , a n d g iv e n n a m e . I f y o u se n d p ac k ag e s, p lease in c lu d e so m e n e w sp a p e rs o r a c o p y o f Bungei shunju [m ag a zin e ]. 2 3 D e c e m b e r, 8 :3 0 p .m ., J a p a n tim e

Correspondence Number 10—23 December, night D e a r M o th e r, W e cro ssed th e Y angtze o n 21 D e c e m b e r, as sc h e d u le d . A fte r a fo rc e d m a rc h e d o f over te n ri [fo rty k ilo m e te rs] yesterd ay , w e re a c h e d o u r p re s e n t p o s itio n , C h ’u a n c h ia o C o u n ty , ju s t as th e s u n set. I ’m h e re fo r a m o n th o n g u a rd du ty . A t th e sa m e tim e , th is is a m is sio n to p ro p a g a te th e Im p e ria l W ay. So I ’ll g re e t th e N e w Year h e re , a n d a m n o w b u sy p r e p a rin g fo r it. E v ery te n th day, I h av e five days o n [g u ard ] d u ty . I ’ll p r o b a b ly b e b u s ie r w h e n o n d u ty , th a n w h e n I ’m in b a ttle . T h e [T h irte e n th ] d iv is io n is a t C h ’u h s ie n , a b o u t six ri [tw e n ty -fo u r k ilo ­ m e ters] n o r th o f h e re . I f y o u s e n t m e s o m e th in g , I ’ll g e t it so o n . T h e tr a n s ­ p o r t u n it o u g h t to b e s h ip p in g m y g ear o v er f ro m S h a n g h a i, so I s h o u ld b e m o re o r less O K fo r c lo th es; b u t I ’d lik e to h a v e a lo n g -sle ev e u n d e r s h ir t to w ea r u n d e r m y w o o le n s h irt. I ’m m a k in g d o w ith r e q u is itio n e d cig a re tte s, so 191

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

I ’d su re a p p re c ia te it i f y o u s e n t m e so m e “B a t” o r c a n n e d “ H ik a r i” b ra n d s f ro m Ja p a n . S e n d m e so m e sw eets to o ; h a r d - ro c k c a n d y w o u ld b e g rea t, b u t n o ca ra m e l o r b o n b o n s . W i th th e arriv al o f a f o u r th b a tc h o f re p le n is h m e n t tro o p s, th is p la to o n n o w n u m b e rs th irty -s ix m e n , m y s e lf in c lu d e d . I ’d lik e to give th e m a ta ste o f J a p a n a n d p e a c e in th e N e w Year o f 1 9 3 8 . S o, I ’m so rry to b o th e r y o u , b u t c o u ld y o u se n d m e so m e th in g s? T h e r e is n o s o u n d o f s h o o tin g a t all r ig h t no w . N o r t h o f th e Y angtze h ere , th e re are lo ts o f refu g ee s f ro m s o u th o f th e river. T h e y h av e ta k e n o v er h o u se s v a c a te d b y th e locals w h o h a d fled earlier. T h e y ’re a su b m issiv e lo t w h o call C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a v illa in . T h a n k s to th e C h i n k la n g u a g e th a t I to o k fo r aw h ile b a c k in sc h o o l, w e c a n c o m m u n ic a te p r e tty w ell b y e x c h a n g in g w r it­ te n n o te s. L ate in to th e n ig h t b y a c a m p fire , o u r tro o p s sw ap sto rie s a b o u t th e ir h o m e to w n s a n d ta lk in c e ssa n tly a b o u t w h e n th e y ’ll b e able to m a k e a tr iu m p h a n t r e tu r n to Ja p a n . T h o u g h I ’m a n o fficer w h o is y o u n g e r th a n th e m , th e y o b e y m e e a rn e stly a n d p e r f o rm th e ir d u tie s fo r m e e n e rg e tic a lly [u n lik e in m a n y u n its ]. So d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t m e . I h a v e n ’t rec eiv e d a “c o m fo rt b a g ” y et. W a r ra n t O ffic e r Y o k o y am a S h u ic h ro , f ro m T a m u ra M id d le S c h o o l in M ih a ru , is h e re in th is c o m p a n y ; a n d a s tu d e n t a t [H ito ts u b a s h i] H ig h e r C o m m e rc ia l S c h o o l o n e y ea r ju n io r to m e h as a rriv e d w ith th e f o u r th b a tc h o f re p le n is h m e n t tro o p s . A b e Ic h iro is in th e T e n th c o m p a n y . I ’m in th e N in th , so h e ’s r ig h t n ea rb y . I t ’s n o w w in te r h o lid a y s fo r y o u , so y o u m u s t b e e n jo y in g th e m . A p o w d e ry s n o w fell th e o th e r day. T h e d a y tim e te m p e ra tu re is lik e early s p rin g b a c k h o m e . I t ’s c o ld in th e m o rn in g s , b u t d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t m e . T oday, I w e n t to a C h in k -s ty le p u b lic b a th h e re in to w n — fo r free o f co u rse . I ’ll w rite ag a in . C o u ld y o u p lease give m e th e a d d re sses o f K ik u -c h a n a n d o f Isa m u -sa n in H o k k a id o r ig h t away? G iv e m y reg a rd s to ev e ry o n e. S a b u ro P.S. S h o w th is le tte r to e ld e r sister T a k e n o . P lease le t [th e fo lk s in ] H o k k a id o a n d K ik u -c h a n k n o w th a t I ’m w ell a n d in f o rm th e m o f w h a t u n it I ’m in also. To M r. O g o s h i K in ji in M ih a r u to w n , B ack in Ja p a n y o u m u s t b e b u sy g e ttin g re a d y fo r th e N e w Year. I h o p e every­ o n e in y o u r h o u s e h o ld is w ell. F o rtu n a te ly , I to o h av e b e e n fin e ever sin c e la n d ­ in g a n d p e r f o rm in g m y d u tie s h e re s ta rtin g o n th e tw e n ty -s e c o n d , so p lease d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t m e . T h is d iv is io n lacks a field p o s t office, so I h av e to h a n g o n to th e le tte rs I w rite , w a itin g fo r a c h a n c e to m a il th e se. N e w Y ear’s D a y w ill see m e o n g u a rd d u ty ; I ’ll p r o b a b ly g re e t th e y e a r’s first s u n rise in a tre n c h so m e w h e re . Please give m y re g a rd s to ev e ry o n e. I t ’s p r e tty w a rm h ere . (F ro m C h ’u a n c h ia o C o u n ty ) To U n c le a n d T a k a -c h a n , T h is m a p gives y o u a n id e a o f th e ro u te I ’ve ta k e n sin c e la n d in g .17 I w ill re la te ea ch m o v e in d e ta il w h e n I w rite [h o m e] to S o m a . T h e y w ill fo rw a rd 192

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

th a t le tte r to [relatives in] M ih a ru , w h o in tu r n w ill se n d it to y o u . J u s t ask th e m fo r it. T o m o rro w th e r e g im e n t w ill c o n d u c t a m e m o ria l serv ice to h o n o r h e ro ic c o m ra d e s w h o d ie d o n c a m p a ig n s sin c e S h a n g h a i. R a in tu r n e d to sn o w a t a r o u n d n o o n to d a y a n d i t ’s fa llin g p r e tty h e a v ily r ig h t n o w , so th e re sh o u ld b e q u ite a b it o n th e g r o u n d b y to m o rro w . I h av e a b s o lu te ly n o id e a w h a t a c tio n w e w ill ta k e h e re a fte r. A t 3 :0 0 p .m . o n th e th ir tie th , th e d a y after to m o rro w , I ’ll h e a d fo r th e f r o n t to ta k e u p g u a rd d u ty w ith th e [T h ird ] b a t­ ta lio n . So I ’ll ce le b ra te th e N e w Y ear’s— a n d a d d o n e y ea r to m y age— in a tre n c h to g e th e r w ith d o z e n s o f tro o p s u n d e r m y c o m m a n d .18 W h a t g re a te r h a p p in e s s c o u ld a c c ru e to a m a n in th e Ja p a n e se em p ire! E a rly th is m o r n in g I le d th e m e n in m y p la to o n o n a tw o -li (e ig h t-k ilo m e te r) m a rc h o u ts id e o f to w n to b o o s t th e ir p h y sic a l s ta m in a as w ell as to d isp la y th e m ig h t o f o u r im p e ria l arm y. W e r e tu r n e d to b a rra c k s a t 2 :0 0 p .m . a m id ra in . [U n lik e m a n y c o m m a n d e rs ,] I ’m f o rtu n a te th a t th e se c o u ra g e o u s m e n — w h o h av e c h e a te d d e a th in all o f th e fierce b a ttle s sin c e S h a n g h a i— o b e y m y o rd ers. D id y o u g e t m y le tte r w ritte n th e o th e r d a y [23 D e c e m b e r] in w h ic h I ask ed y o u a b o u t th e sw o rd sash? P lease b u y o n e a n d se n d it to m e . T h e field p o s t office isn ’t u p y et, b u t I s h o u ld g e t a c h a n c e to m a il th is to m o rro w , so I w ro te it in a ru sh . T h e se n trie s o n g u a rd d u ty w ill h av e it co ld to n ig h t. W e g et [th e c o n tin e n ta l cycle o f] “th re e co ld a n d fo u r w a rm d a y s ,” a n d th e ch ill seem s to b e g a in in g s tre n g th . H o w is S a b u ro -s a n h ea lth -w ise ? I ’m sc rib ­ b lin g th is b e n e a th a d im la m p , so p lease try to d e c ip h e r m y scraw l. B y th e tim e it reach es y o u , y o u r N e w Year h o lid a y s w ill p r o b a b ly b e over. So m u c h fo r now . S a b u ro , 2 8 D e c e m b e r, n ig h t

MILITARY POST T o:

M r. A m a n o T a tsu jiro H o s o d a , N a k a m u r a to w n S o m a c o u n ty , F u k u s h im a p re fe c tu re F ro m : A m a n o S ab u ro K in o s h ita [N in th ] C o m p a n y , M o ro z u m i [S ix th -fifth ] R e g im e n t, O g is u [T h irte e n th ] D iv isio n , S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y 29 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7

[Chronology] A rriv e d in S h a n g h a i— 2 9 N o v e m b e r L a n d e d a t 1 0 :0 0 a .m .; c a m p e d o u t th re e n ig h ts in a C h i n k s p in n in g fac­ to r y h ere. 193

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

A rriv e d in H u - p ’u - c h e n — 2 D e c e m b e r, 6 :0 0 p .m . C h a n g e o f ro u te fro m la n d to sea. B o a rd e d a N is s h in ste am er. A d v a n c e d f ro m 6 :0 0 to 1 1 :0 0 p .m . a t n ig h t to re a c h M e i-li-c h e n . S everal ro u n d s o f rifle fire h e a rd . T h a t m o r n in g [3 D e c e m b e r], th e C h in k air fo rc e b o m b e d H u - p ’u -c h e n . A rriv e d in C h a n g s h u — 3 D e c e m b e r, 4 :0 0 p .m . E n ro u te , saw m o u n d s o f e n e m y co rp se s le ft s tre w n a b o u t, p lu s d e a d J a p a n ­ ese a rm y h o rses A rriv e d in W u h s i— 4 D e c e m b e r, 8 :0 0 p .m . S am e s ig h t e n ro u te as yesterd ay . C h a n g s h u a n d W u h s i b o th c o m p le te ly leveled b y shells a n d b o m b s . F ew to le ra b le p riv a te h o u se s le ft s ta n d in g [to c a m p o u t in ], a n d n o sig n o f in h a b ita n ts . D e fe a te d stra g g le rs a p p e a r a n d v a n ish o u t o f th in air. V ery d a n g e ro u s, m u s t d o d g e s tra y b u lle ts n o w a n d th e n . C h ia n g y in — F o rc ed m a rc h fro m W u h s i o n 5 D e c e m b e r s ta rtin g a t 1 0 :0 0 p .m . C o v e re d te n s o f ri in o n e fell sw o o p to c a tc h u p w ith th o se m e n in o u r re g im e n t o n th e v ery f r o n t lin es. A c c o m p lis h e d o u r tr a n s p o r t m is sio n w ith o u t lo s­ in g a sin g le m a n . C h e n -c h ia n g — A fte r d e p a r tin g C h ia n g -y in o n 7 D e c e m b e r, sev eral d ay s’ fo rc e d m a rc h re q u ire d to re a c h th e w a lle d c ity o f C h e n -c h ia n g , w h o se b a tte rie s o v e rlo o k th e Y angtze R iver, o n 4 D e c e m b e r.19 A n o th e r u n it c o n q u e re d th is c ity th e d a y b efo re. N o d e fe a te d e n e m y r e m n a n ts a ro u n d . S aw e le c tric lig h ts o n fo r th e first tim e sin c e la n d in g [at H u - p ’u -c h e n ], p r o b a b ly b e c a u se o u r o ffe n ­ sive le ft th e C h in k s w ith n o tim e to d e s tro y g e n e ra tin g p la n ts . A n A m e ri­ ca n flag flu tte rs ab o v e th e U .S . e m b a ssy o n a lo w -ly in g h ill; h a tre d w elled u p in sid e m e. F ro m C h e n -c h ia n g to N a n k in g — D e p a rte d C h e n -c h ia n g a t 1 1 :0 0 a .m . fo r th e a ssau lt fo r N a n k in g . T h e ru in s o f so m e to w n s a n d v illag es en ro u te clea rly sh o w e d th a t re tr e a tin g C h in k arm ies rav ag ed all o f th e se to th e ir h e a rts ’ c o n te n t. F in a lly e sta b lish e d assau lt f o rm a tio n s to a tta c k th e M u fu s h a n [elevated] b a tte rie s a t 1 1 :3 0 a .m ., o n 14 D e c e m b e r. L a te r h e a rd th a t a n o th e r u n it c a p tu re d th e W u lu n g b a tte rie s ea rlier th a t m o r n in g . A t 8 :0 0 a .m ., as th e s u n ro se, w e e n c o u n te re d th e e n e m y a b o u t o n e ri (fo u r k ilo m e te rs ) th is sid e o f th e M u fu s h a n b a tte rie s. S u ffe re d s lig h t losses; k ille d o r w o u n d e d 1 5 ,0 0 0 o f th e e n e m y a n d c a p tu re d m o u n d s o f w e a p o n s. C h ’u a n c h ia o C o u n ty — C ro sse d th e Y angtze f ro m H s ia k w a n o u ts id e N a n k in g ; g o t h e re a fte r a tw o d a y trek . A lm o s t n o sig n o f th e en em y . I n h a b ita n ts se e m fa irly a m ic a b le to w a rd th e im p e ria l arm y. S u c h e x tra v a g a n t p ro v isio n s n e v e r se en before! C h ic k e n s a n d p ig s m o re p le n tifu l th a n v eg e ta b les, so w e g o rg e o n [p lu n 194

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Letters from a Reserve Officer Conscripted to Nanking

dered ] m e a t everyday. S to n e m o r ta rs are av ailab le [to p o u n d mochi]. A lso, w e r e q u is itio n e d sw ee t g lu tin o u s rice fo r m a k in g N e w Y ear’s mochi. W ill b e h e re o n g u a rd d u ty fo r th e tim e b e in g . T h is is a c h ro n o lo g y o f m y m o v e m e n ts since la n d in g . P lease se n d it to th e folks in M ih a ru , a n d hav e th e m in tu r n fo rw a rd it to rela tiv e s elsew h ere. T h e la st p e rs o n s h o u ld tu c k it aw ay fo r sa fe k ee p in g .

Notes * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19.

Translated from Japanese by the editor. This is a translation o f “Amano Saburo gunji yubin,” in O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n kin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, pp. 246—58. Note that postmarked dates and dates of composition do not correspond for some o f the letters. Corrected from a m isprint in the transcribed text. Amano uses the English word “camouflage.” Amano, I assume, measures the unit as Japanese ri , or about 4 kilometers, rather than Chinese li, each of which would be 1.8 kilometers. Throughout his correspondence, Amano employs the pejorative terms Shina and Shinajin commonly used in Japan at the time. I retain his historical usage by rendering these as “Chink.” Also, see the appendix. Amano wrote some letters over 2 or more days; hence the discrepancies between dates; for instance, “W usung at 7:00 p.m.; 28 November” in the heading, and “today, the twentyseventh” in the body. T he unit of measure is missing, either in the original or due to an omission in transcription. As the Chronology indicates, this spot on the coast northeast of Changshu is H u-p’u-chen. As the Chronology indicates, Amano’s company passed through Mei-li-chen, Changshu, Wuhsi, and Chiangyin on this forced march of over forty li, or 160 kilometers, from H u-p’uchen to Chin-chiang en route to Nanking. However, in this letter, he records his entrance into Chenchiang as taking place on either the tenth or twelth, whereas in his Chronology, he records it as being on “4 December.” See note 19, below, however. Amano may be referring to the fact that Chenchiang had been established as a prefectural cap­ ital in the Sung dynasty (960—1279). If the POW s were taken on the fourteenth, this should be “3 days” rather than “a week already.” By contrast, the Chinese “Report” cited below states “over 4 days.” Amano uses the English word “nonsense,” which I render as “absurd.” T he im port o f this sentence is unclear. In August 1933, Kiryu Yuyu (1873—1941) said much the same thing in an article, “Derisive Laughter over the Great Kanto Air Raid Drill,” in the Shinano m ainichi shinbun. Kiryu was forced to resign for his offensive title and for describing the drill over Tokyo as a “puppet show.” See Iide, Teiko no shinbunjin, pp. 156—75; especially, pp. 167—70. Also, Kiryu, Chikushodo no chikyu, pp. 17—20. Yodobashi-ku was established in 1932 as one o f the then 35 ku, or “wards,” in the city of Tokyo. In 1947 it was merged to form what is now Shinjuku-ku. T he map is not included in the published volume that contains this group of letters. According to traditional East Asian custom, one calculated one’s age by adding a year on each New Year’s Day. T he date “4 December” is out of chronological order. Most likely, it should read “ 14 Decem­ ber.” This may be a mistake in the original or in the transcription.

195

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:12 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

9

C h in e s e C o l l a b o r a t i o n in N a n k i n g Timothy Brook

Introduction O n 2 2 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , L ew is S m y th e , a so c io lo g y p ro fe sso r a t N a n k in g U n iv e r­ sity, p a u s e d in h is r e p o r t o n th e c o m p lic a te d re lie f w o rk o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ). H e w ro te a b r ie f a c c o ­ la d e fo r tw o m e n w h o w ere m a k in g e x tra o rd in a ry e ffo rts to ease th e p lig h t o f th e 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 w h o m th e Ja p a n e se a rm y h a d tu r n e d in to refu g ee s in th e ir o w n city: “A s tirr in g s to ry c a n b e w ritte n so m e d a y a b o u t th e s tr e n u o u s e ffo rts o f M r. W a n g C h e n g -tie n (lo ca lly k n o w n as ‘J im m y ’), th e n e w F o o d C o m m is ­ sio n e r u n d e r th e S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t C o m m itte e , a n d th e h e a d o f h is tr u c k in g c o m m itte e , M r. C h a rle s R iggs (‘C h a rlie ’), w h o to g e th e r are m o v in g h e a v e n a n d e a rth to g e t th e Ja p a n e se to a llo w th e m to h av e m o re rice , flo u r a n d coal fo r th e p o p u la tio n a n d th e n to tr u c k it i n . ” 1 J im m y W a n g a n d C h a rlie R iggs, m a d e fo r a strik in g p air. C h a rlie R iggs w as a n A m e ric a n e m p lo y e d in th e A g ro n o m y D e p a r tm e n t a t N a n k in g U n iv e rsity w h o a c te d as th e asso ciate h o u s in g c o m m is s io n e r fo r th e IC , w h ic h fo re ig n ­ ers h a d o rg a n iz e d in N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , in a n tic ip a tio n o f th e Ja p a n e se c a p tu re o f th e city. A ssa u lte d o n sev eral o c c a sio n s b y Ja p a n e se officers w h e n h e in te r ­ v en e d o n b e h a lf o f th e C h in e se , R iggs w as active o rg a n iz in g re lie f o n u n iv e rsity ca m p u se s in sid e th e N S Z . T h is w o rk b r o u g h t h im in to close c o n ta c t w ith C h i­ nese re lie f w o rk e rs, in c lu d in g m e m b e rs o f th e R e d S w a stik a S o c ie ty (R S S ), a p r o m in e n t c h a rita b le g ro u p th a t b u r ie d m a n y o f th e v ic tim s o f th e A tro c ity .2 J im m y W a n g w as a local a u c tio n e e r o f d u b io u s re p u ta tio n w h o m fo reig n ers, L ew is S m y th e a m o n g th e m , re fe rre d to as “th e fa m o u s ‘J im m y ’” w ith “m a n y c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e u n d e r w o rld in N a n k in g .”3 W a n g e m e rg e d in th e se c o n d w e e k o f th e o c c u p a tio n as a m a n o f e x tra o rd in a ry e n e rg y a n d reso u rce s, a n d w as ta k e n o n as th e I C ’s b u sin e ss m a n a g e r w h ile a t th e v ery sam e m o m e n t engi-

196

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

n e e rin g fo r h im s e lf a p o s itio n as ad v iser to th e N a n k in g S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t C o m m itte e (Nan-ching tzu-chih wei-yuan-hui, o r S G C ), also called th e A u to n o ­ m o u s G o v e r n m e n t C o m m itte e . T h e S G C w as a c o lla b o ra tio n is t o rg a n th a t th e Ja p a n e se c o b b le d to g e th e r f ro m R SS ac tiv ists to c re ate th e illu s io n th a t th is w as a c h a n g e in a d m in is tra tio n , n o t a n o c c u p a tio n . W h e n th e o ld fiveb a rre d R e p u b lic a n flag w as ra ise d a t th e S G C ’s in a u g u ra tio n o n 1 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , it w as J im m y W a n g w h o ra ise d it. W a n g n o t o n ly g o t in to b o th c a m p s b u t m a d e h im s e lf in d is p e n s a b le to b o th , a n d w ith a n ease th a t in s p ire d c y n ­ ical b u t a m u se d c o m m e n ts fro m th e fo re ig n e rs. W h e n IC m e m b e rs le a rn e d five days la te r th a t h e h a d b e e n p u t in ch a rg e o f S G C fo o d s u p p ly o p e ra tio n s, a c c o rd in g to S m y th e , “T h e y all s n o r te d a n d S earle [Bates] said , ‘W e ll, rice m u s t b e g o in g to b e th e m o s t p a y in g p r o p o s itio n .’ B u t I re m a rk e d , ‘W e ll h e is th e o n e m a n in th e o u tf it th a t m a y g e t so m e rice m o v in g b e fo re M a rc h firs t’.” T w o days afte r th a t, th e se c re ta ry a t th e G e r m a n le g a tio n , G e o rg R o sen , re fe rre d to W a n g as “th e m o s t ac tiv e m e m b e r o f th e n e w sy s te m .”4 A s m o o th o p e ra to r w o rk in g f ro m n o o b v io u s m o ra l s ta n d a rd s , J im m y W a n g b e c a m e in d is p e n s a b le to all p a rtie s as a k e y fa c ilita to r fo r g e ttin g th in g s d o n e . S u c h a p e rs o n w o u ld n e v e r h av e f o u n d a p la c e in th e h is to ric a l re c o rd o f R e p u b lic a n C h in a w ere it n o t fo r th e c a la m ity th a t s tr u c k h is city, h is w illin g n e ss to ac t r a th e r th a n flee, a n d h is d e a lin g s w ith fo re ig n e rs w h o e n jo y e d w ritin g a b o u t su c h a d u b io u s b u t e n e rg e tic c h a racter. J im m y W a n g is a fig u re w h o c h a lle n g e s th e c a te g o rie s o f c o lla b o ra tio n a n d resistan c e. In th e h e ig h te n e d a tm o s p h e re o f d e n ia l a n d m o ra l o u tra g e th a t s u r­ ro u n d s th e m e m o r y o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , th e Ja p a n e se are all b a d guys, th e C h in e s e all p itia b le v ic tim s , th e W e ste rn e rs all sav io rs, a n d th e c o lla b o ra ­ to rs all evil tra ito rs . J im m y W a n g d o e s n ’t fit. H e s ta n d s o u t in th e first in sta n c e b ec au se h e w as n o t a v ic tim . H e lo o k s lik e a c o lla b o ra to r, h a v in g jo in e d th e p u p p e t a d m in is tra tio n th a t ca m e in to b e in g w h ile th e A tro c ity w as still g o in g o n . A n d y et, as th e G e r m a n c o n s u l P au l S c h a rffe n b e rg r e p o rte d , h e “h as a t le ast s h o w n c o u ra g e a n d to ld th e Ja p an e se: ‘I f y o u are a g a in st m e , th e n y o u ’d b e tte r s h o o t m e h e re a n d n o w ’!” F ixers su c h as J im m y W a n g c a n p la y p iv o ta l roles in crisis s itu a tio n s , as th e n o w w e ll-k n o w n case o f O s k a r S c h in d le r h as m a d e us aw are. B u t W a n g w as n o t th e s o rt o f p a ra g o n th a t C h in e s e h is to ri­ o g ra p h y o n th e A tro c ity lik es to c e le b ra te .5 O u r so u rc e s are to o m e a g e r to tell th e “s tu n n in g s to ry ” th a t L ew is S m y th e h o p e d o n e d a y w o u ld b e to ld ; J im m y W a n g h as slip p e d to o fa r in to th e p a st. F ra g m e n ts o f h is d o in g s c a n n o n e th e ­ less b e re trie v e d to sk e tc h h is ro le d u r in g th a t w in te r o f 1 9 3 7 - 3 8 a n d in tr o ­ d u c e a sh a d e o f a m b ig u ity in to ev e n ts th a t o th e rw ise se e m u n a m b ig u o u s . M y in te n tio n is n o t to o v e rru le th e m o ra l c o n d e m n a tio n th a t m o s t p e rso n s ch o o se to pass o n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , b u t to c o n s id e r w h a t else w as g o in g o n , a n d to ex p lo re th e pla ce s w h e re th a t ju d g m e n t m a y n o t e x te n d . O u r k n o w le d g e o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity h as b e e n th o r o u g h ly o rg a n iz e d w ith in th e c o n c e p ts o f in v a sio n , w a r crim es, a n d n a tio n a l h u m ilia tio n , w ith 197

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

th e la st o f th e se av ailab le to d o d o u b le d u ty fo r e ith e r C h in e s e o r Ja p an e se, d e p e n d in g o n w h o se h is to rio g r a p h y is in play. C o lla b o r a tio n is n o t a c o n c e p t th a t receives m u c h re fle c tio n . It is u n a ttra c tiv e w ith in C h in e s e h isto rio g ra p h y , w h ic h p raises th o se w h o re siste d as th e sole fig u res o f h o n o r, a n d d ism isses th o se w h o c o lla b o ra te d as m o ra lly u n fit. It is also d is tu rb in g fo r C h in e s e n a tio n a l id e n tity , w h ic h still relies o n a h e ro ic n a rra tiv e o f w a rtim e resista n c e to J a p a n to s u s ta in its e lf in th e face o f th e m a n y in d ig n itie s C h in a su ffe re d th r o u g h o u t th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . T h e c o n c e p t o f c o lla b o ra tio n is ev en m o re u n e x p e c te d in n a rra tiv e s o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . T h e A tro c ity is re g u la rly p la c e d w ith in a c a te g o ry o f h u m a n ex p e rie n c e to o e x tre m e to allo w th e sh a d es o f g ray th a t c o lla b o ra tio n casts b e tw e e n h e ro ic d efia n ce a n d a b je c t s u b je c tio n . S to ries o f b e tra y a l are r e m e m b e re d as m o m e n ts o f te rrib le d u ress, th e rare e x c e p tio n s th a t p ro v e th e o p p o site : th a t C h in e s e d id not c o lla b o ra te w ith th e Ja p a n e se in v a d ers. B u t “r u n n in g d o g s ,” to u se th e C h in e s e p h ra se , are n o t th e o n ly g u ise th a t c o lla b o ra to rs ca n assu m e. C o lla b o r a tio n c a n also b e a b o u t w o rk in g w ith in larg ely u n a lte ra b le c o n d itio n s to m a k e life to le ra b le fo r o th e rs as w ell as fo r oneself. U n til recen tly , th e h is to rio g ra p h y o f th is A tro c ity h e ld th a t su c h ro o m fo r m a n e u v e rin g d id n o t exist, a n d th a t it w as a n a th e m a to C h in e s e c u ltu re to u tilize it. F o r C h in e s e to su g g e st th a t o th e r C h in e s e c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e Ja p a n e se d u r in g th e w a r goes a g a in st th e th e m e o f ra c ia l a n d n a tio n a l u n ity th a t ru n s th r o u g h th is h isto rio g ra p h y . B y c o n tra s t, fo r Ja p a n e se to raise th is p o s s ib ility w o u ld b e to c o u r t c o n d e m n a tio n fo r try in g to o ff-lo a d m o ra l r e s p o n s ib ility fo r th e ir w a r crim e s a n d a tro c itie s to C h in e s e a g e n ts. Yet in N a n k in g , as m u c h as in a n y o th e r lo c a tio n w h e re th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n a p p e a re d to hav e a rriv e d as a fa c t o f life, so m e C h in e s e d id c o m e fo rw a rd to w o rk o u t w h a t a c c o m m o d a tio n s th e y c o u ld w ith th e n e w m a ste rs. E v en as th e A tro c ity w as u n d erw a y , so m e C h in e s e w ere ta k in g a c tio n s a n d m a k in g ch o ice s th a t fall in to n e ith e r c a te g o ry o f h e ro o r v ic tim . J im m y W a n g b e lo n g s w ith in th is u n m a rk e d re a lm , as d o e s th e p o litic a l a g e n c y h e ch o se to w o rk for, th e S G C . B y re c o n s tr u c tin g its b r ie f h is to ry b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 a n d A p ril 1 9 3 8 , I h o p e to b r o a d e n th e p re s e n t h is to rio g r a p h y s u r r o u n d in g th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d , b y so d o in g , c o m p lic a te a n d im p ro v e o n th e p ro b le m a tic a lly in e r t m o ra l ju d g m e n ts th a t e n c lo se it.

New Year’s Day, 1938 A t 2 :0 0 p .m . o n 1 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , a th o u s a n d C h in e s e w h o h a d su rv iv e d th e Ja p a n e se a rm y ’s ta k e o v e r o f N a n k in g s to o d asse m b le d in th e s u n s h in e a t th e D r u m T ow er. T h e y h a d b e e n o rd e re d th e re b y th e N a n k in g S p ecial S ervice A g e n c y (Tokumu kikan, o r S SA ), a p p o in te d to h a n d le civil affairs o n b e h a lf o f th e o c c u p y in g Ja p a n e se C e n tr a l C h in a A re a A rm y (Naka Shina homengun, 198

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

o r C C A A ). O n 3 0 D e c e m b e r, SSA a g e n ts h a d in fo rm e d le a d e rs o f th e refu g ee c a m p s a r o u n d th e c ity th a t ev e ry c a m p h a d to se n d a n a p p ro p ria te n u m b e r o f “re p re se n ta tiv e s” to th e u n v e ilin g o f th e n e w m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h is re g im e w as to b e in a u g u ra te d o n N e w Y ear’s D ay, a n d it n e e d e d a n a u d ie n c e . G e o rg e F itc h , a n A m e ric a n w h o h e a d e d th e N a n k in g Y M C A a n d se rv e d o n th e IC , called o n th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy th a t d a y ju s t as p re p a ra tio n s w ere b e in g o rd ered : T hey were busy giving instructions to about sixty Chinese, m ost o f them our camp managers, on how N ew Year was to be celebrated. T h e old five-barred flag is to replace the N ationalist flag, and they were told to make a thousand o f these and also a th o u ­ sand Japanese flags for th at event. Cam ps o f over a thousand m ust have tw enty repre­ sentatives present, smaller camps ten. At one o’clock N ew Year’s D ay the five-barred flag is to be raised above the D rum Tower, there will be “suitable” speeches and “m usic” (according to the program ) and o f course m oving pictures will be taken o f the happy people waving flags and welcoming the new regime.6 A s th e e v e n t called fo r a t le ast th e a p p e a ra n c e o f p o p u la r c e le b ra tio n , th e SSA also d is trib u te d th o u s a n d s o f fire w o rk s so th a t p e o p le c o u ld m a k e a p p r o p r i­ ate n o ise to ce le b ra te th e fo rm a tio n o f th e S G C . R e sid e n ts o f th e N S Z , h o w ­ ever, u se d th e irs to a n im a te a N e w Y ear’s c e re m o n y p r io r to th e in a u g u ra tio n to th a n k th e G e r m a n h e a d o f th e IC , J o h n R a b e, fo r h is p r o te c tio n . W h a t w as p la n n e d w as p re c ise ly w h a t h a p p e n e d . T h e D r u m T o w er w as d e c o ra te d w ith th e o ld flag o f th e C h in e s e R e p u b lic , w h ic h h a d n ’t b e e n flo w n fo r a d e c a d e sin ce it w as re p la c e d b y th e s u n -a n d -s k y ic o n o g ra p h y o f S u n Yatse n ’s N a tio n a lis t Party, th e K u o m in ta n g ( K M T ). C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se offi­ cials p a ra d e d in f r o n t o f th e assem bly. R e p re s e n tin g th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w ere C C A A C h ie f o f S ta ff I in u m a M a m o r u a n d M a j. G e n . S asak i T o ic h i, c o m ­ m a n d a n t o f th e N a n k in g G a rris o n . T h e n a v y w as re p re s e n te d b y its a tta c h e , N a k a h a r a S a b u ro , a n d th e fo re ig n m in is tr y b y V ic e -C o n s u l T a n a k a S u eo a n d S e c o n d S e c re ta ry F u k u i K iy o sh i. W i th th e m s to o d a sm a ll c ro w d o f C h in e s e p e o p le , m e m b e rs o f th e fle d g lin g S G C w h o w ere a b o u t to b e c o m e th e n e w m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e s e n io r fig u re d resse d in a tr a d itio n a l g o w n w as a w h ite -w h is k e re d la w y e r n a m e d T ’ao H si-sa n . J im m y W a n g w as th e re , as th e A m e ric a n su rg e o n D r. R o b e rt W ils o n re m a rk e d in a le tte r th a t day: “ O n e o f th e c h ie f m e n h as b e e n w o rk in g in a r a th e r s u b o rd in a te c a p a c ity u n d e r th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e a n d h as a lo n g re c o rd w ith m a n y c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e city u n d e rw o rld , a n d o th e r u n d e s ira b le c h a ra c te ristic s. H e is b y b u sin e ss a n a u c tio n e e r. T h e o th e rs h o ld v a rio u s p o s itio n s w ith th e R e d S w a stik a S o c i­ e ty a n d m o s t o f th e m h av e b e e n w o rk in g fo r th e C o m m itte e . I t c e rta in ly is a s e c o n d -h a n d c ro w d , b u t th e n th e re a re n ’t a n y first classers in to w n .”7 C h a rlie R iggs, W a n g ’s s o o n -to -b e p a r tn e r in fo o d su p p ly , p u n n e d , as d id W ils o n , o n th e m a n ’s a u c tio n e e rin g b u sin e ss b y o b s e rv in g th a t J im m y ’s ro le in th e in a u ­ g u r a tio n w as “v e ry f ittin g fo r a s e c o n d -h a n d g o v e r n m e n t.”8 199

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

S ta n d in g a t th e h e a d o f h is g ro u p , T ’ao H s i-s a n re a d o u t th e S G C ’s fivep o in t m a n ife s to . Its first p o in t c o m m itte d th e S G C to e n d th e K M T ’s o n e p a r ty ru le . T h e se c o n d a n d th ir d p o in ts d e c la re d th e re g im e ’s g oals to b e c o o p e ra tio n w ith J a p a n to ac h ie v e p e a c e in E ast A sia, th e p r o m o tio n o f a n ti­ C o m m u n is m , a n d p ro -J a p a n is m . F o u rth ca m e th e revival o f th e e c o n o m y a n d th e im p r o v e m e n t o f th e p e o p le ’s w elfare, a n d la stly th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f m e rito c ra c y a t th e c e n te r a n d s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t a m o n g th e p e o p le . T h e c o m ­ m itte e w as s e ttin g its e lf u p as th e a g e n c y th a t w o u ld fin a lly b r in g C h ia n g K aish e k ’s p e rio d o f fle d g lin g m o d e rn iz a tio n , k n o w n as th e N a n k in g D e c a d e (1 9 2 7 —3 7 ), to a n e n d . T h e air a t th e in a u g u ra tio n w as th ic k w ith m o re th a n ir o n y for, as J o h n R a b e n o te d , “w h ile th e o ra to rs o f th e n e w A u to n o m o u s G o v e rn m e n t [the S G C ] w ere sp e a k in g o f c o o p e ra tio n , several b u ild in g s to rc h e d b y th e Ja p a n e se w ere b u r n in g to th e r ig h t a n d le ft o f G u lo u [ D r u m T ow er] H o s p ita l w h e re th e c e re m o n y to o k p la c e .”9 G e o rg e F itc h n o te d th a t th e W e ste rn e rs w ere less c o n c e rn e d a b o u t a re g im e in a u g u ra tio n th a n a b o u t th e tw o d ay s’ h o lid a y th a t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w as g r a n tin g in its h o n o r, “fo r it m e a n s m o re d r u n k e n s o ld ie rs .” 10 A s p re d ic te d , m a n y o f th e m ch o se to c e le b ra te th e h o lid a y b y d r in k in g a n d lo o k in g fo r w o m e n . A c c o rd in g to so m e Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs’ d ia ries th a t su rv iv e, tro o p s s ta rte d th e d ay w ith a m o r n in g c e re m o n y in w h ic h th e y fac ed ea st a n d called o u t lo n g life fo r th e e m p e ro r. T h e n th e y h a d th e re st o f th e d a y o f f to go d r in k in g a n d “b u y ass,” to u se th e ir p h ra s e fo r s e c u rin g a p r o s titu te ’s services. O th e r s w ere w illin g to lin e u p a t th e m ilita ry b r o th e l. O n e d ia ris t m e n tio n s se ein g C h in e s e o n th e stre e ts w a v in g Ja p a n e se flags as h e h e a d e d over to jo in 5 0 0 o th e r so ld iers w a itin g to sh a re th e services o f se v e n ty p r o s titu te s .11 M a n y ch o se ra p e in th e ir p u r s u it o f s im ila r p le a su re . (IC re c o rd s id e n tify tw o o f th e v ic tim s as fo u rte e n -y e a r-o ld s , a n d tw o o f th e p e r p e tra to rs as m ilita ry p o lic e .12) O n e g a n g o f N e w Y ear’s rev elers ev en h a d th e te m e rity to sh o w u p a t J o h n R a b e ’s h o m e th a t e v e n in g w ith a tr u c k a n d ask h im to fill it w ith g irls, a re q u e s t h e d e c lin e d .

The Nanking Special Service Agency (SSA) T h e IC w as n o t p a r t o f th e Ja p a n e se p la n fo r r e h a b ilita tin g o c c u p ie d C h in a . T h is c o m m itte e h a d th re e strik e s a g a in st it: it h a d b e e n s p o n ta n e o u s ly o rg a ­ n iz ed ; it w as alre a d y f u n c tio n in g as a lo c al a u th o r ity w h e n th e Ja p a n e se a rm y arriv ed ; a n d , m o s t n o x io u sly , it w as c o m p o s e d o f W e ste rn e rs. T h e u su a l J a p a n ­ ese p la n , w h ic h h a d b e e n u n f o ld in g in c o u n ty to w n s across th e Y angtze d e lta in th e w ak e o f th e a rm y ’s w e stw a rd ad v a n ce , w as to se t u p a te m p o r a r y p ea ce m a in te n a n c e c o m m itte e (chih-an wei-ch’ih-hui) o f lo c al C h in e se . O n c e o rd e r w as re sto re d , th e S p ecial S erv ice D e p a r tm e n t (Tokumubu o r S S D ) in S h a n g ­ h a i w o u ld se n d o u t a p a c ific a tio n te a m (senbuhan) to ta k e ch a rg e o f lo c al civil 200

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

affairs. T h a t te a m w o u ld th e n reg u la rize th e p eace m a in te n a n c e c o m m itte e in to a s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t c o m m itte e ( tzu-chih wei-yuan-hui o r S G C ). F ro m th is la tte r c o m m itte e , u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f th e p a c ific a tio n te a m , w o u ld e m e rg e a n e w c o u n ty a d m in is tr a tio n .13 T h e p ro cess w as a lte re d fo r th e n a tio n a l ca p ita l, h o w ev er. T h e Ja p a n e se c o m m a n d saw N a n k in g as b o th a c h a lle n g e a n d a n o p p o rtu n ity . T h e o p p o r ­ tu n it y w as th a t its fall sig n a le d th e co llap se o f C h ia n g K a i-sh e k ’s m ilita ry o p e r­ a tio n s in c e n tra l C h in a a n d , it w as h o p e d , o f h is g o v e rn m e n t. T h e c h a lle n g e w as d e a lin g w ith th e h u g e refu g ee p o p u la tio n u n d e r th e w a tc h fu l eyes o f “th ir d - c o u n tr y ” ob serv ers, to use th e Ja p an e se p h ra se . C C A A c o m m a n d e r G e n . M a ts u i Iw a n e w as c o n s c io u s o f th e fo re ig n p re se n c e in N a n k in g a n d o rd e re d th e o c c u p y in g fo rc e n o t to in te rfe re w ith fo re ig n e rs o r th e ir p r o p e r ty w h e n ta k in g th e city. B u t h e d id n o t a n tic ip a te th e im p a c t th a t fo re ig n o b se rv a tio n o f h is tr o o p s ’ c o n d u c t w o u ld h av e o n w o rld o p in io n a t th e tim e , n o r c o u ld h e hav e g u essed th e p o w e r o f th e I C ’s d e ta ile d re c o rd , p u b lis h e d in 1 9 3 9 , to c o n d e m n h im a t h is w a r c rim e s tria l in 1 9 4 6 —4 8 . 14 M a ts u i h o p e d th a t th e o rd e rly fall o f th e n a tio n a l c a p ita l w o u ld p e rsu a d e th e C h in e s e p e o p le o f th e fo lly o f s u p p o r tin g C h ia n g ’s re g im e . In fac t, th e rio to u s c o n d u c t o f Ja p a n e se so ld iers ca n c e lle d o u t th e p o s s ib ility th a t N a n k in g ’s c a p tu re w o u ld le ad to c o m p a s s io n a te b e h a v io r to w a rd th e C h in e se , c o n v e y in g to th e p o p u la c e at large o n ly th a t th e o c c u p a tio n w o u ld b e v io le n t a n d u n c o m p ro m is in g . R eg ard less o f th e a rm y ’s c o n d u c t, th e ta s k o f p a c ific a tio n — re c o n s tr u c tin g lo cal o rd e r o n a n e w c iv ilia n f o o tin g — h a d to go a h e a d . A c c o rd in g to a rev ie w o f p a c ific a tio n w o rk in c e n tra l C h in a p ro d u c e d b y th e S h a n g h a i office o f th e S o u th M a n c h u r ia n R a ilw a y C o m p a n y (M a n te ts u ) o n 16 M a rc h 1 9 3 8 , th e o rig in a l p la n called fo r e ig h t b r a n c h p a c ific a tio n d e p a r tm e n ts across th e Y angtze D e lta . T h e o n e in N a n k in g w o u ld oversee fo u r te a m s, o n e in th e c ity a n d th ree o th e rs in th e s u r ro u n d in g c o u n tie s .15 T h is p la n w as n ev e r c a rrie d o u t. In ste a d , th e C C A A ’s S S D se t u p a d ire c t b r a n c h o p e r a tio n in th e ca p ita l. Its d e s ig n a tio n as a fu ll S p ecial S erv ice A g e n c y (Tokumu kikan, o r SSA) sig n a lle d h ig h e r sta tu s th a n a re g u la r p a c ific a tio n te a m . T h e first th re e m e m b e rs o f th e te a m w ere o n site as so o n as th e c ity fell: M a j. S a k a ta S h ig e k i as a g e n c y h e a d , assisted b y tw o M a n te ts u c iv ilia n e m p lo y ee s, M a ts u o k a Isao a n d M a b u c h i S eigo. W i th in tw o w eek s o f a rriv in g , S a k a ta a p p e a le d to S h a n g h a i fo r m o re m e n w ith s tro n g C h in a ex p e rie n c e . T h e S S D se le c te d f o u r m o re fo r th is task. T h e first to arriv e, o n 2 8 D e c e m b e r, w as M a ru y a m a S u s u m u . In th e se c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y S ato T su k ito , K o jim a T o m o , a n d K a w a n o M a sa n a o (tra n s ­ fe rre d fro m S u n g -k ia n g ) c a m e .16 T w o w eek s later, K a w a n o d isa p p e a re d , S a k a ta w as tra n sfe rre d away, a n d M a ts u o k a to o k over th e te a m . S a k a ta w as a m ilita ry officer w h o , it seem s, w as o n lo a n to h e lp se t u p th e ag e n cy r a th e r th a n to lead it in th e lo n g te rm . A t th e ir first a n d o n ly m e e tin g w ith M a j. S a k a ta o n 15 D e c e m b e r, IC m e m ­ b ers clearly u n d e r s to o d th a t h e h e ld m ilita ry r a n k .17 T h e m is ta k e n sense th a t 201

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

th e S SA w as p rim a rily a m ilita ry o rg a n w as still c u r r e n t in A p ril, w h e n C a b o t C o v ille, a v is itin g A m e ric a n c o n s u la r official, re fe rre d to th e SSA as “th e m il­ ita ry m is sio n ” a n d n o te d th a t “its c o n ta c t m a n w as a p le a s a n t officer, fo rm e rly a tta c h e a t O tta w a ( n a m e d H o n g o ? ) .” C o v ille u n d e r s to o d th a t H o n g o w as “q u ite w ith o u t a u th o r ity o r in flu e n c e , ju s t a fac ad e fo r p le a sa n tn e s s w h ile th e m ilita ry c o u ld p ro c e e d w ith th e ir o w n p u r p o s e s .”18 A t th e b r ie f m e e tin g b a c k in D e c e m b e r, S a k a ta u rg e d th e IC to tr u s t h is a rm y ’s “h u m a n ita r ia n a t titu d e ” w ith reg ard to “care fo r d isa rm e d C h in e se so ld ie rs.” W as th is a p u re fa b ric a tio n o n S ak ata’s p a rt, o r d id h e g e n u in e ly fail to a n tic ip a te th a t S SA so ld iers w o u ld b e e m p lo y e d to r o u n d u p d e fe a te d C h in e s e tro o p s , le a d th e m to th e Y angtze riv e rb a n k , a n d s h o o t th e m ? 19 T h e S SA s p r in c ip a l re sp o n sib ility , h o w ev er, w as to c re ate a C h in e s e a d m in is tra tio n fo r th e o c c u p ie d area. O n 21 D e c e m b e r, it c o n v e n e d a m e e tin g o f C h in e s e sy m p a th iz e rs a t th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy to ex p lo re th e p o s s ib ility o f f o rm in g a n e w m u n ic ip a l a d m in is tra tio n . In k e e p ­ in g w ith th e s e n io rity o f th e SSA, it b y p a sse d th e s ta n d a rd p ea ce m a in te n a n c e stage a n d p ro c e e d e d d ire c tly to se t u p o f a s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t c o m m itte e .20 T h e n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e se ta g -e n d s o f th e o ld N a n k in g elite p ro g re sse d sm o o th ly . T h e SSA w as able to call a se c o n d m e e tin g tw o d ay s la te r a t w h ic h a n S G C p r e p a ra to ry c o m m itte e w as stru c k . T h e “p a c ific a tio n ” o f N a n k in g w as a b o u t to b eg in .

The Red Swastika Society T h e n e tw o r k th r o u g h w h ic h th e Ja p a n e se w o u ld re c ru it p e rs o n n e l fo r th e S G C w as th e R e d S w a stik a S o c ie ty (H ung-wan-tzu hui o r R S S), a v o lu n ta r y o rg a n iz a tio n fo rm e d in im ita tio n o f th e R e d C ro ss, b u t re im a g in e d in a n o n ­ C h r is tia n fo rm . T h e C h in e s e B u d d h is t ic o n o g ra p h y o f th e sw a stik a w as a c o n ­ serv ativ e a s se rtio n o f th e e a ste rn p o le o f th e E a st-W e st d ic h o to m y w ith w h ic h so m a n y tr a d itio n - o r ie n te d in te lle c tu a ls fe lt b u r d e n e d in th e w a k e o f M a y F o u r th .21 N a n k in g h a d tw o R SS b ra n c h e s, b o th f o u n d e d in 1 9 2 2 , o n e in sid e th e c ity a n d o n e in H sia k w a n , N a n k in g ’s riv e r p o r t o n th e Y angtze a n d h o m e to so m e o f th e c ity ’s p o o re s t re sid e n ts. B efore 1 9 2 7 , w h e n th e c ity la c k e d w h a t c o u ld b e called a m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t, o rg a n iz a tio n s s u c h as th is p ro v id e d th e d e s titu te o f N a n k in g w ith c ru c ia l a id in h a r d seaso n s. T h e y also fu rn is h e d tr a d itio n a l elites w ith a p o s itio n a n d p u rp o s e in th e n e w u r b a n sp h e re . E ven afte r th e K M T re g im e m a d e N a n k in g its n a tio n a l c a p ita l a n d se t u p a fu ll m u n ic ip a l a d m in is tra tio n th e re , th e se b e n e v o le n t so c ieties, a n d th e p h ila n ­ th r o p ic elite th a t le d th e m , c o n tin u e d th e ir activ itie s, d is p e n s in g fo o d a n d c lo th in g in w in te r a n d b u r y in g a b a n d o n e d co rp ses. T h e RSS e n jo y e d close lin k s w ith th e n e w m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t, s ittin g o n th e b o a rd s o f g o v e rn ­ m e n t-o rg a n iz e d re lie f p ro je c ts a n d d o n a tin g m o n e y to th e se. It also c o o rd i­ n a te d its w o rk w ith m is s io n a ry e ffo rts in th e city. It th u s m a d e c o m p le te sense 202

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

th a t th e RSS w o u ld b e th e e n tity o rg a n iz in g re lie f d u r in g th e w in te r o f 1 9 3 7 — 38 as it h a d in p re v io u s w in te rs, esp ecially n o w th a t th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn ­ m e n t h a d d e c a m p e d .22 F aced w ith d isa ste r o n a scale th a t d w a rfe d th e w o rs t years o f th e 1 9 3 0 s, th e RSS e n la rg e d its m e m b e rs h ip to a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d se t to w o rk .23 T h e re lie f w o rk th a t th e R SS d id in th e ea rly m o n th s o f th e o c c u p a tio n , s u p p o r te d b y its tr a d itio n o f c o o p e ra tio n w ith C h in e s e p o litic a l re g im e s in th e city, b r o u g h t its m e m b e rs in c o n ta c t w ith th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n fo rce. T h is c o n ta c t b e c a m e th e c o n d u it th a t le d th e Ja p a n e se to T ’ao H si-sa n , th e RSS le a d e r w h o b e c a m e th e h e a d o f th e S G C . T ’ao d e c lin e d to serve in itially , th o u g h in a n y case h e w as n o t th e first ch o ic e o f th e Ja p a n e se sid e. T h e em bassy, th r o u g h S e c o n d S e c re ta ry F u k u i K iy o sh i, trie d first to w o o C h ’en Ju n g , a g ra d u a te o f H o k k a id o Im p e ria l U n iv e rs ity a n d h e a d o f th e F o re stry D e p a r tm e n t a t N a n k in g U n iv ersity . C h ’e n ’s flu e n c y in Ja p a n e se a n d E n g lish , as w ell as h is g o o d re la tio n s w ith th e em bassy, m a d e h im a n a ttra c tiv e c a n d i­ d ate, b u t h e resiste d a n d ch o se to w o rk in s te a d as a n in fo rm a l lia iso n b e tw e e n th e e m b assy a n d th e IC . T h e e m b a ssy th e n a p p ro a c h e d L o u H sia o -h si. L o u w as a N a n k in g b u s in e s s m a n w h o h a d s tu d ie d in J a p a n a n d w o rk e d as a n in te r ­ p r e te r in S h a n g h a i; m o re salien tly , h e h a d a c te d as a n in fo rm a l c o m m u n ic a ­ tio n c h a n n e l b e tw e e n th e K M T re g im e a n d th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy in N a n k in g . L o u a p p e ars to hav e b e e n w illin g , b u t th e S SA b lo c k e d h is c a n d id a c y o n th e g ro u n d s th a t h e w o u ld lo o k to o m u c h lik e a p u p p e t. RSS lead er T ’ao H si-sa n , w ith h is eleg a n t w h ite b e a rd a n d g o o d c o n n e c tio n s in to th e o ld official n e tw o rk s o f N a n k in g , w as th e th ir d c h o ic e .24 A llegedly, T ’ao d e m a n d e d as h is c o n d itio n to serv e th a t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y m a k e a c o m ­ m it m e n t n o t to k ill a n y m o re p e o p le . T h e Ja p a n e se sid e ag reed , b u t gave n o sig n o f in te n d in g to o b se rv e it. B y n o t re s ig n in g in p r o te s t a t th a t ea rly m o m e n t, T ’ao f o u n d h im s e lf in a c o m p ro m is e d p o s itio n fro m w h ic h h e c o u ld n e ith e r e x tricate h im s e lf n o r re n e g o tia te te rm s. W i th T ’ao lo c k e d in , th e SSA u se d th e R SS n e tw o r k to re c ru it o th e r m e n fo r th e S G C . V ic e -c h a ir S u n S h u ju n g , D r. H s u C h ’u a n -y in , a n d J im m y W a n g w ere k n o w n m e m b e rs, a n d it a p p e ars fro m R o b e rt W ils o n ’s c o m m e n t in h is le tte r o f 1 Ja n u a ry , q u o te d ea r­ lie r in th is c h a p te r, th a t m o s t o f th e o th e r c o m m itte e m e m b e rs h a d RSS ties as w ell. N o t all R SS m e m b e rs w ere w illin g to c o o p e ra te w ith th e Ja p an e se, how ever, a n d so m e fled th e c ity to a v o id e n ta n g le m e n t.25 T h e R e d S w astik a’s lo c al p re stig e as a p h ila n th r o p ic o rg a n iz a tio n m a d e it a n a ttra c tiv e e n tity fo r th e Ja p a n e se to w o rk w ith . It also p u t th e m in to u c h w ith th e few p e o p le a t th e lo w e n d o f th e c ity ’s elite w h o h a d sta y e d b e h in d . T h e s e te n d e d n o t to b e th e n e w K M T elite, b u t m e n w h o se d e e p ties in to N a n k in g so c iety a t all levels p re d a te d th e K M T seizu re o f p o w e r a n d c o u ld p ro v id e th e Ja p a n e se access to lo c al n e tw o rk s o f p a tro n a g e a n d b ro k e ra g e . T h e u b iq u ity o f th is o ld e lite ’s h a n d in N a n k in g s o c ie ty flashes in to v ie w in J o h n R a b e ’s d ia ry o n 2 6 D e c e m b e r. W h e n Ja p a n e se m ilita ry a u th o ritie s e n te re d 203

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

G in lin g W o m e n ’s C o lle g e to re c ru it w o m e n fo r b r o th e l service, th e A m e ric a n m is sio n a ry in ch arg e, M in n ie V a u trin , refu sed to c o o p e ra te . R a b e d escrib es th e scene: “S he is n o t g o in g to h a n d o v er ev en o n e o f th e m w illin g ly ; b u t th e n s o m e th in g u n e x p e c te d h a p p e n s . A re sp e c ta b le m e m b e r o f th e R e d S w a stik a S ociety, s o m e o n e w e all k n o w , b u t w o u ld n e v e r h av e su sp e c te d h a d a n y k n o w l­ edge o f th e u n d e rw o rld , calls o u t a few frie n d ly w o rd s in to th e h a ll— a n d lo a n d b eh o ld ! A c o n s id e ra b le n u m b e r o f y o u n g refu g ee g irls ste p fo rw a rd . E vi­ d e n tly fo rm e r p r o s titu te s , w h o are n o t a t all sa d to fin d w o rk in a n e w b o r ­ dello . M in n ie is sp eech less!”26 I f V a u trin w as ta k e n a b a c k b y th e c o n n e c tio n s th a t “a resp e cta b le m e m b e r o f th e R e d S w a stik a S o cie ty ” h a d w ith th e sex tra d e , R ab e w as m o re a m u se d th a n su rp rise d . T h e S G C in fa c t se t u p th re e b ro th e ls a t a b o u t th is tim e a n d r e c ru ite d w o m e n to w o rk th e re . C o lla b o ra to rs a c c e p te d th e p ro v is io n o f th is s o r t o f serv ice as a c o n c e ssio n th e y h a d to m a k e to p lease th e Ja p an e se, esp ec ially i f it g o t se x -sta rv e d so ld ie rs aw ay fro m o th e r w o m e n . T h e a c tiv ism o f th e R SS p ro v e d to b e a d o u b le -e d g e d sw o rd th a t c u t b o th its e lf a n d th e Ja p a n e se . T h e so c ie ty w as d is h o n o re d a n d d is b a n d e d a fte r th e w a r fo r b e in g to o v isib ly close to Ja p a n e se a u th o ritie s d u r in g th e o c c u p a tio n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e k n o w le d g e it th e re b y g a in e d o f Ja p a n e se a c tio n s a n d th e re c o rd s it k e p t w o u ld b e u se d a g a in st J a p a n a t th e I n te r n a tio n a l M ilita ry T rib u n a l fo r th e F ar E ast ( IM T F E ), c o n d u c te d in T o k y o a fte r th e w ar. For, b esid es its so u p k itc h e n s , th e o th e r sig n a l serv ice th a t th e RSS p e rfo rm e d w as b u r y in g th e d ea d . It k e p t a d a ily re c o rd o f b u ria ls, w h ic h it s u b m itte d ev ery ­ d a y to th e S G C d u r in g th e w in te r o f 1 9 3 7 —3 8 . T h e n u m b e r o f d e a d as o f early M a rc h w as 3 1 ,7 9 1 , a c c o rd in g to a n S SA r e p o r t in m id -M a rc h , b u t th a t n u m b e r k e p t g ro w in g . A n RSS p e titio n to th e S G C fo r fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t s ta te d th a t, as o f th e b e g in n in g o f A p ril, its m e m b e rs h a d d isp o s e d o f w ell over 3 0 ,0 0 0 co rp ses, m o s tly in th e la st th re e w eek s o f F eb ru ary , a fte r th e fin al w ave o f Ja p a n e se v io le n c e a g a in st c ity re sid e n ts h a d s u b sid e d . A la te r r e p o r t o f th e N a n k in g b r a n c h p u t th e to ta l n u m b e r o f b u ria ls b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 a n d A p ril 1 9 3 8 a t 4 3 ,1 2 1 .27 T h is is th e fig u re th a t RSS m e m b e r D r. H s u C h ’u a n -y in w o u ld re a d in to th e re c o rd a t th e T o k y o w a r crim e s tria l in 1 9 4 6 .28

The Nanking Self-government Committee T h e u n c h a rita b le a sse ssm e n t th a t R o b e rt W ils o n o ffe re d o n in a u g u ra tio n d a y o f th e p e o p le w h o m th e Ja p a n e se h a d d ra w n f ro m R SS m e m b e rs h ip to m a k e u p th e S G C w as h a rs h b u t n o t u n fa ir— “a s e c o n d -h a n d cro w d , b u t th e n th e re a re n ’t a n y first classers in to w n .” T h e se m e n h a d little real p u b lic s ta tu re , a n d n o ex p e rien c e in th e m a n a g e m e n t o f u r b a n affairs, as th e SSA ca u stic a lly p o in te d o u t in a c o n fid e n tia l J a n u a r y 1 9 3 8 r e p o r t.29 T h e o fficial n a rra tiv e o f th e f o u n d in g o f th e o c c u p a tio n sta te , p u b lis h e d in Ja p a n e se b y th e P ro p a 204

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

g a n d a B u re a u o f th e R e fo rm e d G o v e r n m e n t’s E x ec u tiv e Y uan in 1 9 4 0 , c o u ld n o t affo rd to b e so u n c o m p lim e n ta ry ; it calls th e m in s te a d “lo c al c a p a b le m e n .”30 N o t “first-c la sse rs,” p e rh a p s, b u t th e y w ere th e s o r t o f elites w h o o c c u ­ p ie d re sp o n sib le le a d e rsh ip n ic h e s in c o n se rv a tiv e e n titie s s u c h as th e R S S . To th e e x te n t th a t T ’ao H s i-s a n w as “c a p a b le ,” it w as n o t so m u c h h is n a tiv e ta l­ e n ts as h is d ee p ties in to N a n k in g so c ie ty th a t e n a b le d h im to g e t th in g s d o n e . E lderly, re sp e c te d , n o t in th e p o c k e t o f th e K M T , h e w as a “fin e o ld m a n ,” in th e w o rd s o f L ew is S m y th e . T ’ao a n d h is asso ciates o n th e S G C w ere n o t th e n e w in te lle c tu a ls o f th e era, n o r w ere th e y ac tiv ists tie d to th e K M T cause. I f a n y th in g q u a lifie d th e m fo r th is jo b , it w as th e ex p e rie n c e o f h a v in g b e e n d riv e n o u t in to th e p o litic a l c o ld b y th e K M T a fte r it to o k p o w e r in 1 9 2 7 . ( T h e sam e official n a rra tiv e e x p la in s th a t th e S G C h a d to b e se t u p in o rd e r to c o n tro l th e “u n e x p e c te d te rro ris t a c tiv itie s” o f K M T so ld ie rs a n d C o m ­ m u n is t ag e n ts h id in g in th e N S Z .) O rg a n iz in g a n S G C w as a n SSA task , b u t th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy h a d th e lo cal c o n ta c ts n e e d e d to id e n tify p o te n tia l c o lla b o ra to rs, a n d a t th e s ta rt it se e m e d to hav e th e u p p e r h a n d in f o rm in g th e c o m m itte e . G e o rg e F itc h w as even g iv e n to u n d e r s ta n d th a t th e S G C w as th e c re a tio n o f Ja p a n e se “C o n s u l G e n e ra l” T a n a k a S u e o .31 T h e S G C ’s M u s lim v ic e-ch a ir, S u n S h u -ju n g , fo r in s ta n c e , w as a n e m b a ssy e m p lo y e e — a n d fo r h is close re la tio n s w ith J a p a n ­ ese in N a n k in g , h e h a d b e e n p la c e d u n d e r ea rly s u sp ic io n b y th e K M T as a sp y b efo re th e c ity fell. T h e S SA d id n o t care fo r so m e o f th e p e o p le th e em b assy p u t fo rw a rd , h o w ev er. W i th in a d a y o r so, R a b e p ic k e d u p a r u m o r th a t “th e m ilita ry c o m m a n d h e re d o es n o t w a n t to re c o g n iz e th e Ja p a n e se C h in e s e C o m m itte e th a t th e Ja p a n e se le g a tio n h as p u t to g e th e r— o n e sim ila r to o u r c o m m itte e fo r th e S a fe ty Z o n e .” S SA a g e n t M a ru y a m a S u s u m u c h a r­ acterizes th e S G C in h is m e m o ir as “r a th e r o p p o s e d to th e Ja p a n e se a rm y .”32 T h is is a s e n tim e n t th a t m a y reflec t th e fe e lin g w ith in th e SSA th a t it d id n o t w a n t th e s o r t o f p e o p le th e e m b a ssy p u t fo rw a rd in lo c al s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t o rg an s. I f th e y w ere th w a rte d in th e ir e x p e c ta tio n s, th o u g h , th e y w ere n o d if­ fe re n t fro m Ja p a n e se p a c ific a tio n ag e n ts elsew h ere o n th e d e lta . H o w m o s t C h in e s e c o u ld n o t b e “r a th e r o p p o s e d to th e Ja p a n e se a rm y ,” in M a ru y a m a ’s fe lic ito u s p h ra se , is b e y o n d m y p o w e rs to im a g in e . T h e six o th e r m e m b e rs o f th e S G C w ere C h a o W e i-sh u , C h a o K u n g -c h in , M a H s i-h o u , H u C h ’i-fa, H u a n g Y u eh -h su an , a n d W a n g C h ’u n -s h e n g .33 H u a n g Y u e h -h su a n w as a n RSS ac tiv ist w h o se n a m e a p p e a rs a m o n g th o se w h o h a d sa t o n th e w in te r a id c o m m itte e th e p re v io u s y ea r.34 W a n g C h ’u n - s h e n g h a d b e e n a p o lic e officer b e fo re th e K M T to o k over N a n k in g in 1 9 2 7 , a fte r w h ic h h e r a n a h o te l a n d m in g le d w ith th e c ity ’s u n d e rw o rld . T h is n e tw o r k w o u ld serve h im in g o o d ste a d w h e n h e to o k c h a rg e o f th e S G C p o lic e fo rce, w h ic h w o rk e d w ith b o th th e S SA a n d th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry p o lic e th r o u g h J a n u a ry to r o o t o u t C h in e s e so ld ie rs w h o h a d ta k e n refu g e a m o n g th e c ity ’s re sid e n ts. W a n g C h ’u n - s h e n g h a d a p r io r c o n n e c tio n to Ja p a n , h a v in g rec eiv e d h is p o lic e 205

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

tr a in in g th e re . So to o d id several o th e r S G C m e m b e rs. T ’ao H s i-s a n w as a g ra d u a te o f H o se i U n iv e rsity in T o k y o .35 V ic e -c h a ir S u n S h u -ju n g h a d s p e n t tw o years in J a p a n a n d sp o k e g o o d Ja p an e se. C h a o K u n g -c h in h a d b e e n tra in e d as a m e d ic a l d o c to r in N a g a sa k i. C h a o W e i-s h u a n d th e c o m m itte e ’s secretary, W a n g C h u n g - t’iao , h a d also b e e n s tu d e n ts in Ja p a n . A m o n g th o se w h o w o u ld r u n th e d a y -to -d a y a d m in is tra tio n o f N a n k in g , it tu r n s o u t th a t a p r io r in ­ v o lv e m e n t w ith J a p a n w as a n im p o r ta n t fac to r. Five o th e r m e n w ere a p p o in te d to th e S G C as advisers: C h a n g N a n -w u , T ’ao C h u e h -s a n , C h a n J u n g -k u a n g , H s u C h ’u a n -y in , a n d J im m y W a n g . A t le ast th re e h a d p e rs o n a l ties to T ’ao H si-sa n : T ’ao C h u e h -s a n w as a k in s m a n , H s u C h ’u a n -y in a n RSS asso ciate, a n d C h a n J u n g -k u a n g , w h o r a n a p a te n t m e d ic in e sh o p in th e o ld c o m m e rc ia l d is tric t a r o u n d th e C o n f u c ia n T em p le, w as a p e rs o n a l frie n d . C h a n w as also flu e n t in Ja p a n e se , fo r M in n ie V a u trin id e n tifie s h im as “a n in te r p r e te r ” w h e n sh e a p p ro a c h e d h im o n 1 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 to see w h e th e r th e Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n o f m e n o n h e r c a m p u s c o u ld b e s to p p e d .36 F ro m th e re fe re n c e in h e r diary , V a u tr in se e m to h av e b e e n u n a w a re o f w h a t C h a n h a d d o n e th e p re v io u s day. A c c o rd in g to a C h in e s e h is to ry o f th e o c c u p a tio n , a n ey e w itn e ss h e a rd h im ad d re ss th e m e n w h o h a d s o u g h t refu g e in G in lin g C o lle g e o n 31 D e c e m b e r, a d v isin g so ld ie rs to id e n tif y th e m ­ selves to th e Ja p a n e se a n d p ro m is in g th a t th e y w o u ld receiv e le n ie n t tr e a tm e n t fo r d o in g so. C h a n c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n ig n o r a n t th a t th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t u r n ­ in g o n e s e lf in w as lik e lie r e x e c u tio n th a n m ercy, g iv e n w h a t w e n t o n five days ea rlier in th e refu g ee c a m p a t N a n k in g U n iv ersity . A c c o rd in g to h is to ry p r o ­ fesso r S earle B ates, “ C h in e s e u n d e r th e in s tru c tio n s o f Ja p a n e se o fficers” e n ­ c o u ra g e d C h in e s e so ld ie rs to c o m e fo rw a rd v o lu n ta rily . S o m e C h in e s e so ld iers c o m p lie d . T h o s e w h o d id w ere ta k e n o f f a n d e ith e r s h o t o r b a y o n e te d .37 C h a n J u n g - k u a n g h e lp e d re p e a t th a t h is to ry a t G in lin g C o lleg e . H s u C h ’u a n -y in p re se n ts a v e ry d iffe re n t figu re. E d u c a te d in th e U n ite d S tates, h e h a d a n e n g in e e rin g P h .D . f ro m th e U n iv e rsity o f Illin o is, a n d w as w e a lth y e n o u g h to h av e b o th a D o d g e a n d a p ia n o sto le n b y Ja p a n e se so l­ d iers. H s u ’s c o m m a n d o f E n g lish a n d h is so c ial c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e fo re ig n c o m m u n ity m a d e h im th e R S S ’s n a tu ra l ch o ic e to serve as its lia iso n w ith th e IC . H e o c c u p ie d n o d e s in m a n y n e tw o rk s: v ic e -c h a ir o f th e N a n k in g R ed S w a stik a c h a p te r, ad v iser to th e S G C , h o u s in g c o m m is s io n e r fo r th e N S Z , a n d IC lia iso n w ith th e Ja p a n e se em bassy. In th e ea rly w eek s o f th e o c c u p a ­ tio n , h e w as a c c o rd in g ly a p iv o ta l figure in k n itt in g to g e th e r th e m a n y n e t­ w o rk s th r o u g h w h ic h th e o c c u p a tio n s ta te w as c o n s tru c te d , a n d in k n o w in g h o w to cross fro m o n e to a n o th e r in o rd e r to g e t s o m e th in g d o n e . In m id ­ M a rc h , w h e n M in n ie V a u trin w as try in g to h e lp w o m e n se cu re th e ir h u s b a n d s ’ release fro m Ja p a n e se in c a rc e ra tio n , sh e s o u g h t ad v ice fro m H s u C h ’u a n -y in a b o u t w h o m to a p p ro a c h in th e re g im e . D e e p ly im p lic a te d in th e w o rk o f s h e p h e rd in g in th e n e w o rd er, h e w o u ld la te r re e m e rg e as a sta r w itn e ss a t th e T o k y o tria l in 1 9 4 6 to te stify a g a in st C C A A c o m m a n d e r G e n . M a ts u i Iw a n e. 206

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

T h e S G C w as n o t o f th e q u a lity th a t so m e o n th e Ja p a n e se sid e h o p e d for. W h a te v e r th e o b je c tio n s, th e S SA h a d reso lv e d b y 3 0 D e c e m b e r th a t th e in a u ­ g u r a tio n c o u ld go ah e a d , th o u g h it k e p t th e S G C o n a close re in fo r th e n e x t f o u r m o n th s . SSA c o n tro l o v er th e S G C w as o b v io u s to W e ste rn e rs in N a n ­ k in g , w h o re g a rd e d th e S G C a n d th e S SA as e sse n tia lly th e sa m e a u th o rity : c o sig n in g th e sa m e a n n o u n c e m e n ts , p u r s u in g th e sa m e p o lic ie s, a n d o p e r a t­ in g in a re la tio n s h ip o f re c ip ro c a l o b lig a tio n a n d s u p p o r t. A s a n A m e ric a n c o n s u la r official s c o rn fu lly n o te d in A p ril, ju s t p r io r to th e S G C ’s d is s o lu tio n , th e fin al re g u la tio n o f its p u b lis h e d c o n s titu tio n rea d : “W h e n th e se re g u la ­ tio n s are to b e c h a n g e d , p e rm is s io n m u s t b e o b ta in e d in a d v a n c e f ro m th e N a n k in g S p ecial S erv ice O rg a n [i.e., th e S S A ].”38 It w as also o b v io u s to th e W e ste rn e rs , esp ecially a fte r a m e e tin g a t th e e m b a ssy o n 19 D e c e m b e r, th a t th e ir o n ly p o te n tia l allies o n th e Ja p a n e se sid e, th e c o n s u la r staff, h a d zero in ­ flu en c e w ith th e arm y .39 It w as th e arm y, in th e g u ise o f th e SSA , n o t th e fo r­ eig n m in istry , th a t w o u ld sh a p e th e p ro ce ss o f p a c ific a tio n in N a n jin g . I f th e S G C w as h o p e le ssly tie d to th e Ja p a n e se SSA, th e b u r d e n o f c o n ­ n e c tio n w e n t th e o th e r w a y as w ell. T h e S SA n e e d e d th e S G C to u n d e rta k e a ra n g e o f a c tiv itie s b e n e fic ia l to th e Ja p a n e se in th e city. B u ry in g co rp se s a n d s u p p ly in g p ro s titu te s w ere o n ly th e b e g in n in g . T h e S SA n e e d e d th e S G C to assu m e th e im p o r ta n t re sp o n sib ilitie s o f c a rin g fo r th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n . T h e S G C ’s a b ility to d o so w o u ld b e th e m e a su re o f its su ccess vis-a-v is th e trip le p o litic a l b u r d e n it fac ed as a fle d g lin g a g e n c y o f c o lla b o ra tio n : m a in ­ ta in in g a n effectiv e re la tio n s h ip w ith th e Ja p a n e se , w o rk in g in c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e IC , a n d a s se rtin g a p la u sib le a u th o r ity o v er C h in e s e re sid e n ts o f th e city. M e e tin g th e se p o litic a l ch a lle n g es m e a n t h a v in g to o v e rc o m e ev en g re a te r lo g istic d ifficulties: p ro v id in g re lie f to te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f refu g ees over w h o m it cla im e d a u th o rity , p r o c u r in g g ra in n e e d e d to s u p p ly re lie f s ta tio n s , a n d re ­ e s ta b lish in g so m e m e a su re o f se c u rity a n d in f ra s tr u c tu re so th a t o r d in a r y p e o ­ p le c o u ld survive in th e tru ly a p p a llin g c o n d itio n s th a t th e Ja p an e se h a d cre ate d afte r th e C h in e s e a rm y h a d w ith d r a w n fro m N a n k in g . T h e S G C c o u ld n o t a c c o m p lis h th e se task s w ith o u t reso u rce s, b u t n o g o v ­ e r n m e n t fu n d s w ere le ft b e h in d w h e n th e p re v io u s m u n ic ip a l a d m in is tra tio n d e p a rte d . F u rth e rm o re , th e S G C h a d n o so u rc e o f in c o m e in itially , o th e r th a n th e fin a n c ia l a n d lo g is tic s u p p o r t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w as w illin g to give. T h is re lia n c e c o n s titu te d th e m o s t b a sic c o n d itio n o f S G C c o lla b o ra tio n . T h e fin a n c ia l u n d e r w ritin g o f th e S G C w as a m a tte r o f a n x ie ty fo r th e c o lla b o ra ­ to rs, n o t b ecau se th e y w ere all s q u e a m is h a b o u t a c c e p tin g Ja p a n e se m o n e y , b u t b ecau se th e o c c u p y in g C C A A w as in n o p o s itio n to h a n d over a b la n k ch eck . It w o u ld fu n d th e S G C o n ly in th e s h o r t te rm . F ifty -e ig h t p e r c e n t o f th e c o m m itte e ’s in c o m e fo r th e m o n th o f J a n u a ry (1 7 ,8 9 5 o f 3 1 ,0 8 5 y u a n ) cam e fro m th e sale o f c o n fisc a te d g ra in a n d flo u r th a t th e C C A A h a d p r o ­ v id e d as a w ay to k ic k -s ta rt its re v e n u e flow. T h a t a m o u n t ro u g h ly co v ered S G C salaries. A n o th e r th ir d o f th e S G C ’s J a n u a ry in c o m e (1 0 ,0 0 0 y u a n ) w as 207

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

a n o u tr ig h t g ift f ro m th e C C A A . T h e S G C w as able to g e n e ra te o n ly 3 ,1 9 0 y u a n , o r 10 p e rc e n t, o f its in c o m e o n its o w n , th r o u g h c o m m e rc ia l levies a n d a ric k sh a w tax. A fte r th is first m o n th , h o w ev er, th e re v e n u e h o lid a y w as over. T h e S G C w as fo rc e d to b e c o m e s e lf-s u p p o rtin g in F e b ru ary . D ire c t Ja p a n e se s u p p o r t— in th e fo rm o f a g ift fro m th e em b assy — w as c u t b a c k to a m is e r­ able 1 ,0 0 0 y u a n (tw o p e r c e n t o f its to ta l in c o m e o f 5 1 ,2 5 7 y u a n ). A few o th e r g ifts f ro m J a p a n ’s m ilita ry a rm fo llo w ed : 2 ,0 0 0 y u a n fro m th e F u jita u n it, a n d 5 0 0 y u a n fro m M a j. G e n . H a r a d a K u m a k ic h i, th e h e a d o f th e S S D in S h a n g ­ h a i. T h e s e a m o u n ts w ere n o t s u ffic ie n t to f u n d a la rg e c ity a d m in is tra tio n .40 O n c e in , th e S G C h a d to fin d its o w n m e a n s o f s u p p o rt.

The SGC and the International Committee T h e th ir d ite m in th e m a n ife s to re c ite d b y T ’ao H s i-s a n o n N e w Y ear’s D a y a d m itte d th a t “th e c o n c e p t o f re lia n c e o n E u ro p e a n d A m e ric a ” w as s tr o n g a m o n g th e p e o p le o f N a n k in g a n d th a t th is h a d to b e “c o rre c te d ” in J a p a n ’s favor. T h e c o n c e p t o f “re lia n c e o n E u ro p e a n d A m e ric a ” w as a p a r tic u la r o b ­ sessio n o f S S D p r o p a g a n d a , w h ic h s o u g h t to p ro je c t to C h in e s e p e o p le th e id e a th a t J a p a n h a d rele ase d th e m fro m th is h u m ilia tin g c o n d itio n . A t th e close o f its se c tio n o n p o litic a l w o rk , a c e n tra l r e p o r t o n p a c ific a tio n in M a rc h 1 9 3 8 av oids n o tin g th e ro le th a t Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s p la y e d in g e n e ra tin g th a t p o p u la r sense o f re lia n c e o n th e W e st b y p h r a s in g th is d ile m m a as a p re o c ­ c u p a tio n in flu e n c e : “ In p la ce s w h e re fo re ig n c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a tio n s o p e ra te refu g ee zo n es, su c h as S o u th C ity [in S h a n g h a i], N a n k in g , a n d W u h u , refu g ees hav e lo n g b e e n in flu e n c e d b y th e c o m p a ssio n o f fo re ig n c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a ­ tio n s. T h is h as d e e p e n e d th e ir re lian ce o n E u ro p e a n d A m e ric a a n d h as w o rk e d ag a in st th e in te n tio n s g u id in g p a c ific a tio n u n d e r th e Im p e ria l W ay. T h e se o rg a ­ n iz a tio n s m u s t b e ta k e n o v er a n d d isso lv ed as s p e e d ily as p o ssib le a n d p la c e d u n d e r th e d ir e c tio n o f th e s e lf-g o v e rn m e n t c o m m itte e s .”41 A s th e S S D r e p o r t sta te s, th e s o lu tio n p ro p o s e d in N a n k in g as w ell as in o th e r lo c a tio n s w as to m o b iliz e th e S G C as a n o rg a n iz a tio n a l c o u n te rw e ig h t to fo re ig n in flu e n c e . In its in te r n a l m o n th ly r e p o r t fo r Ja n u a ry , th e N a n k in g SSA c o m p la in e d th a t th e IC w as u sin g its in flu e n c e w ith th e p e o p le to f u r ­ th e r fo re ig n in te re sts a n d to b lo c k th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e S G C . In its in te r ­ n a l m o n th ly r e p o r t fo r F eb ru a ry , th e SSA c o n tin u e d to c o m p la in o f h o w d iffic u lt it w as to w in th e h e a rts o f th e p e o p le o f N a n k in g , a n d a ttr ib u te d th e ir p ro -W e s te rn a ttitu d e to th e w o rk o f th e IC , w h ic h w as a c tin g as J a p a n ’s m a in c o m p e tito r as a n o rg a n fo r lo c al o rd er. A p r io rity o f J a p a n , a n d o f th e n e w c o lla b o ra tio n is t re g im e , h a d to b e th e e lim in a tio n o f th is in flu e n c e . T h is, th e S SA w o u ld p u s h b y try in g to se t th e S G C a n d I C a g a in st ea ch o th e r.42 T h e IC first g o t w in d o f th is sc h e m e o n 31 D e c e m b e r, w h e n it le a rn e d th a t all m o n e y a n d fo o d sto c k s u n d e r its c o n tro l h a d b e e n p ro m is e d to th e S G C 208

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

b y th e em bassy, so its m e m b e rs h o p e d to p r e e m p t c o n fisc a tio n b y iss u in g a s ta te m e n t th re e days la ter, e x p la in in g th a t it w as a p riv a te re lie f o rg a n iz a tio n w h o se reso u rce s w ere h e ld in tr u s t a n d n o t tra n s fe ra b le .43 T h e S G C ’s re sp o n se th e fo llo w in g d a y w as to p o s itio n its e lf as th e I C ’s le g itim a te a lte rn a tiv e b y a n n o u n c in g th a t it w as a s su m in g fu ll care fo r th e refu g ees in th e N S Z . T h is w as not a n e m p ty d e c la ra tio n . O n th e n e x t d a y Ja p a n e se m ilita ry a u th o ritie s e n te re d th e N S Z to id e n tify , re m o v e , a n d e x e cu te so ld iers a n d a n y o th e r y o u n g m a les re g a rd e d as “a n ti-Ja p a n e se e le m e n ts .”44 W h a t is m o re , th e Ja p a n e se c la im e d th e r ig h t to d o so b e c a u se th e N S Z w as n o w u n d e r C h in e s e ju r is ­ d ic tio n . C o n tr o l o f refu g ees a t th is p o in t h a d n o th in g to d o w ith re g u la riz ­ in g a d m in is tra tio n a n d e v e ry th in g to d o w ith e x te rm in a tin g C h in e s e m a les o f m ilita ry age. T h e S G C ’s d e c la ra tio n o f re sp o n sib ility fo r refugees o n 4 J a n u a ry th u s a m o u n te d to c o m p lic ity in w a r crim es. T h is b lo ss o m e d in to p ro x y m a n ­ a g e m e n t as, over th e fo llo w in g w eek s, th e S G C ’s In v e s tig a tio n S u b c o m m itte e a n d W a n g C h ’u n - s h e n g ’s p o lic e fo rce h e lp e d th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry p o lic e ro u n d u p ex -so ld iers fo r e x e c u tio n . IC m e m b e rs u n d e r s to o d th a t th e S G C w as c re a te d to re p la c e it. In itia lly th e y a d o p te d a c o o l a ttitu d e , su s p e c tin g th e S G C o f a re so u rc e g ra b . A s J o h n R a b e n o te d 2 day s b e fo re th e N e w Y ear’s in a u g u ra tio n , “W e h av e n o th in g a g a in st th e ir ta k in g over o u r w o rk , b u t it lo o k s to us as i f th e y sim p ly w a n t to ta k e over o u r m o n e y . I ’ll n o t v o lu n ta rily h a n d o v er a n y th in g .” W i th in a d a y o f th e in a u g u ra tio n , V ic e -c h a ir S u n S h u -ju n g w as te llin g R a b e th a t h e w a n te d to o p e n a d isc u ssio n w ith th e IC . R a b e w as w illin g to h e a r o v e rtu re s b u t w as sk e p tic al, a n d w ro te th a t S u n “c o n d e s c e n d in g ly in fo rm s m e th a t h e m u s t sp e a k to m e v e ry so o n a b o u t a n im p o r ta n t m a tte r. P lease d o , I ’ve b e e n w a it­ in g fo r th is. I hav e a v e ry g o o d id e a o f w h a t y o u r in te n tio n s are!”45 I t q u ic k ly b e c a m e a p p a re n t, th o u g h , th a t th e SSA w as th e real fo rc e b e h in d th e S G C . W h e n A tta c h e F u k u d a T o k u y a su called o n R a b e o n 6 Ja n u a ry , it w as to in f o rm h im th a t “th e m ilita ry a u th o ritie s ”— b y w h ic h h e m e a n t th e SSA — h a d d e c id e d th a t th e I C s h o u ld dissolve its e lf a n d h a n d o v er its assets to th e S G C . T h e IC re s p o n d e d to th is d e m a n d th e n e x t d a y b y d e m a n d in g in tu r n th a t th e Ja p an e se lay o u t a p la n fo r r e s to rin g la w a n d o rd er. R a b e w as c a re fu l to m a k e clear th a t h e w as n o t o p p o se d to h a n d in g o v er th e a d m in is tra tio n o f N a n k in g to th e C h in e se . As h e w ro te in h is fo rm a l le tte r o f re p ly o f 7 J a n u ­ ary, th e IC w as eager fo r th e S G C to “a ssu m e as s p e e d ily as p o ssib le all th e u su a l fu n c tio n s o f a lo c al civic a d m in is tra tio n : p o lic in g , fire p r o te c tio n , sa n ­ ita tio n , et cetera. T h e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e h as, I a m q u ite c e rta in , n o d esire w h a ts o e v e r to c a rry o n a n y o f th e se a d m in is tra tio n d u tie s w h ic h are n o r m a lly as su m e d b y c o m p e te n t lo c al a u th o ritie s .”46 T h e issue w as n o t a d m in ­ is tra tio n in g en e ra l, b u t relief, a n d c o n c e rn th a t it b e d o n e re sp o n sib ly a n d effectively. T h e p r o b le m w as th e v irtu a l a b sen c e o f “c o m p e te n t a u th o ritie s .” In h is d ia ry th a t day, R a b e w ro te th a t th e S G C “h a s n ’t th e v a g u e st id e a h o w to ta ck le th e se p ro b le m s , even th o u g h th e y are b e in g ad v ised b y th e Ja p a n 209

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

ese. A ll th a t in te re sts th e m are o u r assets.”47 O n e w e e k in to its ex iste n ce, th e S G C h a d n o t y e t d e m o n s tr a te d m u c h c a p a c ity to m e e t th e c h a lle n g e o f h o u s ­ in g 6 2 ,5 0 0 p e o p le (th e average c a m p p o p u la tio n in J a n u a ry 48) a n d p r o v id in g fo o d aid to m a n y m o re . B u t R a b e ’s real ta rg e t in th is stru g g le w as th e SSA , w h ic h h e fe lt d id n o t d o a n y th in g fo r th e p e o p le in th e city. H e p h ra se s h is e x p e c ta tio n s o f th e S SA as g ra c io u sly as p o ssib le in a le tte r: “W e h o p e also th a t th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry a u th o ritie s w ill c o o p e ra te , ev en m o re lib e ra lly th a n th e y are n o w d o in g , w ith th e S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t A sso c ia tio n [i.e., th e S G C ] in th e p ro v is io n o f fo o d a n d fu e l fo r th e re fu g e e s.” T h e p o in t fo r R ab e, w h o h a d n o in te re s t in s e c u rin g fo r a n y o f th e p la y ers th e p o litic a l p r o te c tio n th a t so c o n s u m e d Ja p an e se a tte n tio n , w as n o t to fig h t o v er scarce g o o d s, b u t to e n su re th a t th e se d id n o t go to w aste, a n d to c o o rd in a te e ffo rts to d eliv er th e m . “ E v en so th e c o m b in e d e ffo rts o f all ag e n cies w ill scarcely o v e rta k e th e n e e d .” A r e c e n t m a in la n d C h in e s e h is to ry o f th e o c c u p a tio n c o n c lu d e s fro m th e ev id en ce o f te n sio n b e tw e e n th e tw o o rg a n iz a tio n s th a t, in its p a rtic u la r ja rg o n , “th e b o g u s S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t C o m m itte e a n d th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e w ere in o p p o s itio n fro m b e g in n in g to e n d .”49 T h a t w as c e rta in ly h o w th in g s lo o k e d fro m a d ista n c e , esp ec ially d u r in g th e first w e e k o f S G C o p e ra tio n s . In fac t, th o u g h , all s o rts o f fa c to rs e n c o u ra g e d q u ie t c o m p lic ity : crosso v er a p p o in tm e n ts , frie n d s h ip s , c o m m o n c o n c e rn s, a n d a r e c o g n itio n th a t re so u rc e s w ere lim ite d . T h e r e w as little th a t th e S G C w o u ld o r c o u ld “ta k e o v e r” w ith o u t first h a v in g w o rk e d o u t th e te rm s fo r d o in g so w ith th e IC , th o u g h th e S G C m a d e so m e e ffo rt to p lease th e Ja p a n e se b y m a k in g th a t re la tio n s h ip a p p e a r c o n flic tu a l. A s m o o th b e h in d -th e -s c e n e s re la ­ tio n s h ip w as f u r th e r g u a ra n te e d , sin c e so m e m e m b e rs o f th e tw o c o m m itte e s k n e w ea ch o th e r p r io r to th e Ja p a n e se arriv al; so m e , s u c h as H s u C h ’u a n -y in a n d J im m y W a n g , w ere activ e in b o th o rg a n iz a tio n s. T w o d ay s a fte r R a b e ’s o b je c tio n to th e SSA’s p la n s fo r tak eo v er, J im m y m a k e s h is first a p p e a ra n c e in R a b e ’s diary, a n d as w ell in th e I C ’s p u b lis h e d c o rre sp o n d e n c e , w h e re h e is re fe rre d to as “th e n e w F o o d C o m m is s io n e r .” H e d r o p p e d b y th a t m o r n in g to in f o rm R a b e th a t th e Ja p a n e se h a d d e c id e d n o t to close d o w n th e IC b y fo rce, as th e y h a d th re a te n e d . T h e n e w Ja p a n e se c o n d itio n , m o re m o d e s t, w as th a t th e S G C ta k e o v er th e sale o f rice to refu g ees. T h e I C a g re ed a n d su s­ p e n d e d rice sales th e fo llo w in g m o r n in g , th o u g h d o in g so b e fo re th e S G C h a d o rg a n iz e d its o w n d is tr ib u tio n sy ste m . B y th a t a fte rn o o n , h o w ev er, J im m y h a d o p e n e d a n o u tle t in sid e th e N S Z . T h e Ja p a n e se s o u g h t to m a k e th is a r r a n g e m e n t fin al b y c u ttin g o f f th e I C ’s s u p p ly o f rice a n d coal as o f n o o n th e fo llo w in g d a y a n d b y fo rb id d in g it f ro m h a u lin g th e se g o o d s. I n a s m u c h as th e IC h a d ag re ed to tr u c k ric e o n b e h a lf o f th e S G C , w h ic h la c k e d its o w n tr a n s p o r t, o n e p u rp o s e th u s d e fe a te d a n o th e r. A n d g iv e n th a t th a t rice w as c o m in g to th e S G C fro m th e Ja p a n e se , th e ir o n y o f th e b lo c k a d e w as all th e g re a te r.50 It w as in th is c o n te x t o f tr a n s p o r tin g g ra in fo r th e S G C th a t C h a rlie R iggs a n d J im m y W a n g fo u n d th e m se lv e s w o rk in g sid e b y side. 210

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

SGC Operations F ro m its office b e h in d th e D r u m T ow er, th e S G C b e g a n to p ro life ra te o rg a ­ n iz atio n ally . O n 10 Ja n u a ry , a p o lic e b u r e a u a n d th e first o f five w a rd offices w ere e s ta b lish e d . B y 21 J a n u a ry S G C e m p lo y ee s, in c lu d in g p o lic e, n u m b e re d 130, p lu s th ir ty fire fig h ters. W a rd -le v e l p o lic e s ta tio n s w ere also se t u p d u r ­ in g J a n u a ry in a b id to re e sta b lish n e ig h b o rh o o d se c u rity a n d to c o n v in c e p e o ­ p le th a t th e y c o u ld leave th e N S Z a n d r e tu r n to th e ir h o m e s. O n e o f th e re g im e ’s first p ro je c ts w as to c a rry o u t a c e n su s a n d to im p o s e n e ig h b o rh o o d w a tc h (pao-chia) re g is tra tio n , g r o u p in g ev ery five fam ilies in to a m u tu a l s u re ty u n it (wu-chia-lien). T h is ta s k w as g iv e n to W a n g C h ’u n - s h e n g ’s p o lic e fo rce. A c c o rd in g to th e SSA’s F e b ru a ry r e p o r t o n th e S G C , C h in e s e p o lic e o p e ra te d u n d e r su p e rv is io n b y se c u rity p e rs o n n e l f ro m th e SSA a n d Ja p a n e se m ilita ry p o lic e. T h e r e p o r t specifies th a t its p u rp o s e w as to e x p a n d th e w o rk o f th e m ilita ry p o lic e ’s A m a y a S q u a d in tra c k in g d o w n f o rm e r so ld iers a n d a n ti­ Ja p a n e se a c tiv ists.51 T h e in s ta lla tio n o f S G C p o lic e u n d e r m ilita ry p o lic e m a n ­ a g e m e n t w as re g a rd e d as th e th ir d a n d fin a l sta g e in th e p ro ce ss o f e s ta b lish in g se c u rity in o c c u p ie d te rrito ry . T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y c a rrie d o u t th e first stag e w h e n it d e fe a te d th e en e m y ; m ilita ry p o lic e to o k over th e se c o n d stag e, w h ic h w as to r o o t o u t a rm e d o r o rg a n iz e d o p p o s itio n ; a n d th e S G C w as g iv e n th e final stage, w h ic h w as th e m a in te n a n c e o f J a p a n e s e -im p o s e d o rd er. T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y eyed th e c a p tiv e N a n k in g p o p u la tio n as a d ee p p o o l o f free o r c h e ap lab o r. T h e S SA b e g a n d r a g o o n in g p e o p le fo r c o o lie la b o r, th o u g h b y its o w n re c o rd s it h a d le v ied o r h ire d o n ly a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le b e tw e e n ea rly -Ja n u a ry a n d th e e n d o f F eb ru ary . To im p ro v e access to th is p o o l, th e S G C b e g a n c o o p e ra tin g in th e p ro v isio n o f c o o lie la b o r to th e Ja p a n e se a rm y b y s e ttin g u p C o o lie R e c e p tio n ce n te rs in each o f th e five w ard s in early-F ebruary. T h e n u m b e rs o f la b o re rs e n g a g e d w ere n o t im p re ssiv e : th e r e c e p tio n c e n te rs fu rn is h e d o n ly a b o u t 5 0 0 m e n in F e b ru ary . T h e levies c o n tin u e d in M a rc h w ith g re a te r efficiency, it seem s, fo r th e SSA a n d th e r e c e p tio n c e n te rs to g e th e r a rra n g e d fo r a n o th e r 2 0 ,0 0 0 c o n s c rip ts to w o rk o n a d a ily basis. T h is p ro g ra m k e p t th e lu m p e n e le m e n ts o f N a n k in g u n d e r su p e rv is io n , a n d to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e u n e m p lo y e d b y p a y in g th e m , w h e n p a id a t all, o n ly in Ja p a n e se m ili­ ta ry scrip , w h ic h th e a rm y h o p e d w o u ld d riv e o u t K M T c u rre n c y .52 T h e g reater, a n d m o re im m e d ia te , o p e ra tio n a l ta sk fo r th e S G C w as to p r o ­ v id e relief. D is tr ib u tin g re lie f w o u ld p ro v e to th e refu g ee s th a t th e S G C h a d th e r ig h t to c la im a u th o r ity o v er th e m ; it w o u ld also d isp la c e th e fo re ig n e rs f ro m th e m o ra l h ig h g r o u n d th e y o c c u p ie d b y v irtu e o f h a v in g d o n e so m u c h to k eep th e re sid e n ts o f N a n k in g alive d u r in g th e first m o n th o f Ja p a n e se o c c u ­ p a tio n . T h e S G C d id n o t face a n u n c o o p e ra tiv e IC w h e n th e issue o f fo o d d is­ tr ib u ti o n w as in v o lv e d , as a lre a d y n o te d . Its b ig g e r p r o b le m w as fin d in g th e fo o d to d is trib u te . T h e S G C s ta rte d o u t w ith n o sto c k s o f g ra in in its p o s ­ session. J im m y W a n g in its first w e e k o f o p e r a tio n ask ed th e Ja p a n e se a rm y 211

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

fo r 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 tan, s u g g e stin g h a lf fo r free a n d h a lf b y sale (o n e tan o f lo w erm id d le g ra d e rice w e ig h e d 6 2 k ilo g ra m s). T h is e x tra v a g a n t p ro p o s a l th e a rm y tu r n e d d o w n flat, b u t it ca m e b a c k a fe w days la te r w ith a d e liv e ry o f 1 ,2 5 0 sacks fo r free d is trib u tio n , p lu s th e p ro m is e o f a n o th e r 1 0 ,0 0 0 sacks to sell (o n e sa ck w e ig h e d 7 7 .5 k ilo g ra m s). T h e o n e c o n d itio n w as th a t th e S G C d is­ tr ib u te th is rice o u ts id e th e N S Z as a n in d u c e m e n t fo r refu g ee s to leave. As o f th e e n d o f th e m o n th , 4 ,2 0 0 sacks o f rice h a d b e e n d e liv e re d — less th a n h a lf o f w h a t h a d b e e n p ro m is e d , a n d b a re ly th re e p e rc e n t o f W a n g ’s o rig in a l re q u e st. T h e a rm y also p ro m is e d 1 ,0 0 0 sacks o f flo u r (o n e sa ck w e ig h e d 2 2 .8 k ilo g ra m s), ag a in fo r d is tr ib u tio n o u ts id e th e N S Z , th o u g h n o flo u r w as d e liv ­ ered u n til F eb ru ary . U sin g th e I C c a lc u la tio n th a t o n e sa ck o f rice c o u ld feed 125 a d u lts fo r a day, a n d th e n re d u c in g th a t level to su b siste n c e ra tio n s , th e Ja p a n e se a rm y h a d g iv e n th e S G C in J a n u a r y e n o u g h g ra in to feed th e c ity fo r b a re ly th re e d a y s.53 F o rtu n a te ly , m a n y still h a d p riv a te sto c k s o f ric e to see th e m th r o u g h th e m o n th . A fte r b e in g fro z e n o u t o f fo o d d is trib u tio n , th e IC p e titio n e d th e J a p a n ­ ese em b assy several tim e s th a t it a rra n g e w ith th e a rm y fo r p e rm is s io n to re ­ cover 1 0 ,9 3 3 sacks o f ric e a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 sacks o f flo u r th a t sa t e m b a rg o e d in a fo rm e r g o v e rn m e n t w a re h o u se in H s ia k w a n . O n 2 8 J a n u a ry th e IC also filed a le tte r w ith th e S G C p ro p o s in g th a t “ i f th is rice is se c u re d , w e sh a ll b e g lad to c o o p e ra te w ith y o u in m a k in g it av ailab le fo r free d is tr ib u tio n to civ ilian s b o th o u ts id e a n d in sid e th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e S afety Z o n e .” W h e n th e J a p a n ­ ese e m b assy fin ally re s p o n d e d in th e first w e e k o f F e b ru ary , it d id so in f o r ­ m a lly th r o u g h J o h n M . A lliso n , th e r a n k in g o fficial a t th e A m e ric a n c o n su la te , w h o sp o k e Ja p an e se . C o u n s e lo r H id a k a S h in ro k u ro ask ed A lliso n w h e th e r th e IC w as w illin g to c o o p e ra te w ith th e S G C to d is trib u te th is fo o d — even th o u g h th is a ssu ra n c e h a d a lre a d y b e e n m a d e a n d p u t in to p ra c tic e several tim e s .54 T h e Ja p an e se , esp ec ially th e SSA, w ere still a n x io u s le st fo o d c o n fe r p o litic a l le g itim a c y o n th e W e ste rn e rs . H id a k a w a n te d to m a k e su re th a t if th e re w as a n y sy m b o lic c a p ita l a c c ru in g to th e release o f th e p re c io u s g ra in sto res, it w o u ld go to th e S G C . S ta r tin g in m id -Ja n u a ry , th e S G C b e g a n s e ttin g u p ric e sh o p s a r o u n d th e city. P o o r se c u rity m e a n t th a t th is p ro ce ss w as n o t s m o o th , h o w ev er. O n th e tw e n ty -first, its n e w ly o p e n e d rice sh o p o n S h e n - c h o u R o a d w as h e ld u p b y Ja p an e se so ld iers n o few er th a n th re e tim e s in o n e day. T h e se in c id e n ts in d u c e d th e S G C to se t u p a s o m e w h a t c o m p lic a te d a r r a n g e m e n t in v o lv in g th e issu ­ in g o f rice tic k e ts a t o n e office, th e p a y m e n t o f m o n e y a t a n o th e r, a n d th e d eliv ery o f rice a t a th ird . O n th e fo llo w in g d a y th e S G C trie d to o p e n a n o th e r rice s h o p o n P a o -t’ai S tre e t close b y its h e a d q u a rte rs , th o u g h it h a d d iffic u lty m a in ta in in g se c u rity a n d o rg a n iz in g tra n s p o r t. T h e a b ility o f S G C o p e ra tio n s to evade Ja p a n e se p r e d a tio n re m a in e d p re c a rio u s u n til a t le ast th e e n d o f J a n ­ uary. A w eek after th e first rice sh o p o p e n e d , fo r exam ple, soldiers sh o w ed u p at th e T ’ie n -m in b a th h o u s e o n E ast C h u n g - s h a n R o a d , w h ic h h a d b e e n re o p e n e d 212

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

a t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y ’s re q u e st. T h e y ro b b e d all th e e m p lo y e e s o f th e ir m o n e y a n d s h o t th re e , k illin g o n e .55 W i th th e im p r o v e m e n t in p u b lic o rd e r in F e b ru ary , th e S G C w as ab le to d is trib u te fo o d w ith less in te rfe re n c e . T ’ao H s i-s a n m o v e d to g e t ric e sh o p s in th e a b a n d o n e d re s id e n tia l areas r e o p e n e d b y b r in g in g g ra in across th e Y angtze in to N a n k in g a n d m a k in g it av ailab le to th e m a t b e lo w th e m a rk e t p rice . T h is stra te g y w o u ld h a v e h a d th e d o u b le effec t o f p ro v id in g p e o p le w ith fo o d a n d e n c o u ra g in g refu g ee s to r e tu r n h o m e . H is v ic e-ch a ir, S u n S h u -ju n g , sp o k e o u t a g a in st w h a t h e re g a rd e d as T ’ao ’s w a ste fu l lib e rality . S u n fe lt th a t all g ra in s h o u ld b e d is trib u te d fro m th e sh o p s th a t th e S G C h a d se t u p , b o th to p r o te c t S G C re v e n u e a n d to d e m o n s tr a te its im p o r ta n c e to th e Ja p an e se. S u n ev en tu r n e d to th e Ja p a n e se a rm y to s u p p o r t h is a tte m p t to o v e rtu rn T ’ao ’s in itia tiv e , b u t th e a rm y w as n o t in te re s te d in in te r fe rin g .56 It d id in te r ­ fere, how ever, w ith th e I C ’s p la n to b r in g b e a n s in to N a n k in g . T h is w as fo rm e d w h e n signs o f n u tr itio n a l diseases, in c lu d in g b e rib e ri, a p p e a re d ea rly in F eb ­ ru ary . T h e IC a rra n g e d fo r 1 0 0 to n s o f b e a n s to b e s h ip p e d f ro m S h a n g h a i to th e U n iv e rs ity H o s p ita l, w h e re it w o u ld b e m a d e in to to f u a n d so ld . It w as able to n e g o tia te s h ip m e n t w ith th e Ja p a n e se n a v y a t b o th en d s, b u t th e a rm y a t th e N a n k in g e n d re fu se d — a n d h a d its ra d io s ta tio n a n n o u n c e th a t th e s h ip ­ m e n t h a d b e e n b lo c k e d b e c a u se th e I C w as s h o w in g a “la c k o f c o o p e ra tio n ” w ith th e S G C . In d e e d , th e IC d id n o t w a n t to lo se c o n tro l o f th e b e a n s fo r fear th a t th e se w o u ld n e v e r re a c h th e h o s p ita l, b u t th e S SA d id n o t w ish to set a p re c e d e n t th a t w o u ld p e r m it a p riv a te in s titu tio n to c irc u m v e n t its s u p e r­ v isio n a n d c o n tro l fo o d stu ffs. T h e fac e-sav in g s o lu tio n w as fo r th e S G C to p ro v id e a cover fo r th e IC b y re c e iv in g th e b e a n s, s to r in g th e se, a n d th e n re ­ le asin g th e se o n ly o n th e I C ’s o rd er, w h ic h th e S G C w as c o n te n t to d o .57 T h e S G C ’s b est h o p e fo r ta k in g c o n tro l o f s u p p ly in g fo o d w as to m o n o p o ­ lize d is trib u tio n , a n d fo r th a t it h a d to re ly o n th e Ja p a n e se arm y. M o n o p o ly w as m a d e p o ssib le in th e first in s ta n c e b y th e C C A A ’s b lo c k a d e o f fo o d stu ffs in th e o c c u p ie d areas, a n d in th e se c o n d in s ta n c e b y lin k s th e SSA p ro v id e d w ith Ja p an e se tr a d in g c o m p a n ie s in S h a n g h a i. T h e S G C w as able to la y th e g ro u n d w o r k fo r its f o o d s tu f f o p e ra tio n s in th e la tte r p a r t o f J a n u a r y w h e n it s e n t o u t re p re se n ta tiv e s to n e ig h b o rin g c o m m e rc ia l c e n te rs o f C h e n k ia n g , W u h u , a n d Y an g c h o w to su rv e y c o m m o d ity m a rk e ts a n d to le a rn w h a t g o o d s w ere av ailab le a t w h a t p rice s. T h is in f o rm a tio n w as p r e p a ra to ry to s e ttin g u p th e C e n tr a l W h o le sa le M a rk e t o n 15 F eb ru ary , th r o u g h w h ic h th e c o m m it­ tee a im e d to achiev e a m o n o p o ly o v er c o m m o d ity c irc u la tio n in th e city .58 T h e S SA realized th a t th e rev iv al o f th e N a n k in g e c o n o m y d e p e n d e d o n m o re th a n h o g g in g w h o le sa le m a rk e ts in fo o d stu ffs a n d s im p le p ro c e sse d g o o d s, how ever. O th e r in itia tiv e s, esp ecially in p r o d u c tio n , w ere e n c o u ra g e d . T o th is e n d , o n 7 F e b ru a ry th e SSA re c ru ite d five p e o p le to sit o n y e t a n o th e r p re p a ra ­ to r y c o m m itte e , th is o n e to re e sta b lish th e C h a m b e r o f C o m m e rc e , w h o se fo r­ m a l in a u g u ra tio n d id n o t ta k e p la c e fo r a fu ll m o n th , th o u g h th e S SA in its 213

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

r e p o r t fo r M a rc h gives n o re a so n fo r th is delay. W e m ig h t guess th a t c h a m ­ b e r m e m b e rs w ere n o t y e t c o n te n t to b e se en c o o p e ra tin g w ith th e Ja p an e se. A s o f early 1 9 4 0 , th e c h a m b e r still h a d n o t b e e n fo rm a lly r e c o n s titu te d .59 P a rt o f th e ch allen g e o f d is trib u tin g fo o d in th e ca p ita l w as fin d in g th e m e an s to m o v e it. T h is is w h e re th e a s so c ia tio n b e tw e e n C h a rlie R iggs a n d J im m y W a n g co m es in to th e p ic tu re . V eh icles o f ev ery s o rt w ere in h ig h d e m a n d , as m o s t h a d b e e n e ith e r c o m m a n d e e re d o r d e s tro y e d in th e first w eek s o f th e in ­ v asio n . T h e c o s t o f a car in g o o d w o rk in g o rd e r w as r u n n in g in la te J a n u a ry as h ig h as $ 1 ,9 0 0 — th e p ric e fo r w h ic h s o m e o n e trie d to sell th e P a n c h e n L am a’s car to th e S G C . ( T h e P a n c h e n L a m a m a in ta in e d a re sid e n c e in N a n ­ k in g u n d e r th e K M T re g im e .) T h e S G C k n e w th a t th e m a n se llin g th e car h a d g iv en th e P a n c h e n L a m a ’s se rv a n t o n ly $ 2 0 0 fo r it, a n d w as u n w illin g to p a y h im a n y m o re th a n $ 6 0 0 .60 W e d o n o t k n o w i f th e sale w e n t th ro u g h , b u t w e do k n o w th a t th e S G C w as c o m p e tin g in th e sa m e p ro fite e rs ’ m a rk e t w ith ev e ry o n e else. W i th o u t fixers su c h as J im m y W a n g , th e S G C w o u ld h a v e b e e n in a n ev en w o rse s itu a tio n , w ith re c o u rse to th e ir Ja p a n e se b a c k e rs a n ever d w in d lin g o p tio n . ( T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y d id c o m e th r o u g h o n 8 F e b ru a ry w ith a g ift o f 2 ,0 0 0 g a llo n s o f gas fo r th e S G C ’s tru c k s to h a u l g ra in a n d c o a l.61) In th e ab sen ce o f fu lle r d o c u m e n ta tio n , it is d iffic u lt to g au g e th e e x te n t to w h ic h th e S G C f o u n d its fin a n c ia l feet, i f ever. T h e fa c t th a t it rec eiv e d a p e titio n f ro m th e R SS o n 4 A p ril fo r 5 0 0 sacks o f ric e a n d a cash g r a n t o f 5 0 0 y u a n to b u y fu el fo r m o rg u e tru c k s m a y in d ic a te th a t th e S G C ’s fin a n ­ cial affairs w ere in b e tte r o rd e r.62 O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e se re so u rc e s m a y s im ­ p ly hav e b e e n re a llo c a tio n s f ro m th e Ja p a n e se arm y. T h e S G C ’s o w n re v e n u e m e c h a n is m s in v o lv e d little m o re th a n th e im p o s itio n o f e x o rb ita n t c o m m e r­ cial taxes o n fa rm e rs a n d p e d d le rs w h o se L oyal S u b je c t C e rtific a te s p e r m itte d th e m to b r in g fo o d stu ffs in to th e city, a n d o n th e c o n fisc a tio n o f K M T c u r­ re n c y th e y f o u n d o n a n y o n e tr y in g to leav e.63

Return to Residences T h e fin al p r o o f th a t life in N a n k in g h a d r e tu r n e d to n o rm a l, a n d th a t th e S G C w as fu lfillin g its m a n d a te to o p e ra te a n o r m a l u r b a n a d m in is tra tio n , w as th e re lo c a tio n o f th e h u g e m asses o f refu g ee s b a c k to th e ir h o m e s w ith in a n d o u ts id e th e city. T h e S SA w as p a rtic u la rly eag er to g e t th e m o u t fro m u n d e r th e p r o te c tio n a n d in flu e n c e o f W e ste rn e rs in th e N S Z , w h ic h c o n tin u e d to gall th e arm y. As M a j. G e n . A m a y a N a o jiro ch o se to in te r p r e t th e s itu a tio n to th e assem b led fo re ig n d ip lo m a tic c o rp s o n 5 F eb ru a ry , “W i th o u t fo re ig n in te rfe re n c e , th e S in o -Ja p a n e se re la tio n s h ip in N a n k in g w o u ld h av e d e v e lo p e d h a rm o n io u s ly !”64 C lo s in g th e N S Z w o u ld e n d th a t e m b a rra ssin g ir rita n t. T h e S G C w as su p p o s e d to b e th e a g e n c y th r o u g h w h ic h th e c ity w o u ld r e tu r n to n o r m a l fu n c tio n in g , b u t it w as th e S SA a n d th e C C A A th a t w ere iss u in g L oyal 214

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

S u b je c t ce rtifica tes th a t e n a b le d p e o p le to pass th r o u g h th e c ity g ates. M o re p a rtic u la rly , th e S SA p re sse d th e S G C to revive th e w a rd -le v e l a d m in is tra tio n n ec essary fo r a llo w in g refu g ees to r e tu r n to th e ir h o m e s, g e ttin g th e S G C to d e s ig n a te w a rd b o u n d a rie s o n 10 Ja n u a ry , a n d g iv in g it u n til th e e n d o f th e m o n th to hav e ev ery w a rd office u p a n d r u n n in g . T h e n , o n 2 8 Ja n u a ry , ca m e o rd ers th a t th e refu g ee c a m p s w ere to close w ith in a w e e k a n d th a t all refu g ees w ere to r e tu r n to th e ir h o m e s. T h e S SA c o n fid e n tia lly a d m itte d th a t o v er h a lf o f th e h o u s in g in th e c ity h a d b e e n d e s tro y e d in D e c e m b e r a n d Ja n u a ry .65 B u t it m a d e n o p ro v is io n to ad d re ss th e p ro b le m . E ag er fo r I C le a d e rs to go a lo n g w ith th is p la n , th e S SA called th e m to a m e e tin g a t S G C h e a d q u a rte rs o n th e a f te rn o o n o f 2 8 Ja n u a ry . SSA le a d e r M a ts u o k a Isao gave n o in d ic a tio n o f h o w th e la c k o f h o u s in g w o u ld b e reso lv ed , o th e r th a n to e x p la in th a t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w o u ld h e lp to e m p ty th e c a m p s b y s e n d in g in so ld ie rs to d riv e o u t refu g ees. T h e p o p u la r re a c tio n w as h y s te ­ ria. T h e IC re s p o n d e d th e fo llo w in g d a y b y p e titio n in g th e S SA to e x te n d th e d e a d lin e a n d s u g g e stin g th a t th e S G C m a k e a first ste p to w a rd g a in in g c o n ­ tro l o f th e c a m p s b y ta k in g o v er refu g ee o p e ra tio n s in g o v e rn m e n t b u ild in g s. T h e SSA’s re sp o n se th e d a y a fte r w as to re p e a t w h a t M a ts u o k a h a d a n n o u n c e d o n 28 J a n u a ry : th e refu g ee c a m p s w ere to close, a n d th a t w as fin a l.66 T h e SSA’s le a d e rsh ip in d ic a te s th a t r e tu r n in g to re sid e n c e s w as in effec t n o t a tr a n s ­ fer o f a u th o r ity fro m fo re ig n e rs to C h in e se , w ith w h ic h th e IC w o u ld h av e b e e n h a p p y to oblig e , b u t fro m fo re ig n e rs to Ja p a n e se . T h e S G C d u tif u lly p u t th e SSA p la n in to o p e r a tio n b y p o s tin g n o tic e s in fo rm in g p e o p le o f th e 4 F e b ­ r u a ry d ea d lin e , a n d w a rn in g th e m th a t afte r th a t d a te th e te m p o ra ry s tru c tu re s in w h ic h th e y h a d b e e n liv in g w o u ld b e to r n d o w n . M a n y w ere eag er to r e tu r n h o m e a n d b e g a n to d o so. W h a t n o o n e a n tic ip a te d w as th e re a c tio n o f J a p a n ­ ese so ld iers to th is o rd er, w h ic h w as to p re y o n th e re tu rn e e s in a re n e w e d su rg e o f ra p e , a b d u c tio n , th e ft, a n d m u rd e r. T h is m a y h e m p e a k e d d u r in g th e first th re e days afte r th e n o tic e s w e n t u p , b u t c o n tin u e d fo r a w e e k .67 T h e so l­ d ie rs’ e x p e c ta tio n s w ere so a ro u se d w ith th e th o u g h t o f easy p ic k in g s, in fact, th a t a tru c k lo a d o f a rm e d so ld iers p u lle d u p to th e S G C h e a d q u a rte rs o n th e m o r n in g o f 2 F e b ru a ry “a n d d e m a n d e d a t le a st th ir te e n g irls o r as m a n y m o re as th e y c o u ld f in d ,” re p o rts J o h n M a g e e in a le tte r w ritte n th a t day. “T h e C h i­ nese trie d to sta ll th e m o ff b u t th e y s u r ro u n d e d th e p la ce a n d w ere still th e re th is a fte rn o o n . T h e C o m m itte e d id su c c e e d in fin d in g tw o p ro s titu te s b u t th e se w ere n o t e n o u g h .”68 N o t ev en th e S G C w as safe fro m th o se it w as s u p ­ p o se d to serve. O n ly afte r a w e e k o f th is r io t w as it feasible fo r refu g ees to live o u ts id e th e c a m p s w ith o u t h a ra s s m e n t. T h e p ro c e d u re b e c a m e m o re o rd e rly to w a rd th e e n d o f th e se c o n d w e e k o f F e b ru a ry . B y th e e n d o f th e m o n th , b y SSA c o u n t, 1 7 2 ,5 0 2 p e o p le h a d r e tu r n e d to th e ir h o m e s o r to o th e r m a k e s h ift d w ellin g s o u ts id e th e N S Z . T h e e x c e p tio n w as th e d e v a sta te d H s ia k w a n area, h o m e to N a n k in g ’s p o o re s t. O f all th e refu g ee s w h o r e tu r n e d h o m e , o n ly fo u r p e rc e n t w e n t b a c k to H s ia k w a n .69 W h e n th e A m e ric a n b io lo g is t A lb e rt S tew 215

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

ard p assed th r o u g h H s ia k w a n th e fo llo w in g D e c e m b e r, m o s t o f it re m a in e d a fla tte n e d w a ste .70

Aftermaths B y th e e n d o f M a rc h , several in d ic a to rs p o in te d to a m o d e s t re s ta b iliz a tio n o f life in N a n k in g . O n e w as th a t th e n u m b e r o f refu g ees w h o h a d b e e n re se t­ tle d w as u p to 2 3 5 ,0 5 6 . A se c o n d w as th e re n e w e d flo w o f c o m m e rc ia l rice in to th e c ity fro m th e re g io n a l w h o le sa le m a rk e t u p riv e r in W u h u , w h ic h w as ea sin g s u p p ly d iffic u ltie s a n d g iv in g th e S G C s o m e th in g to ta x (it h a d to g e t SSA a p p ro v a l to levy six ty c e n ts o n e a c h tan).71 A th ir d in d ic a to r, n o t as triv ­ ial as it m a y s o u n d , w as th a t th e n u m b e r o f fire a la rm s fell to tw e n ty -tw o fro m fo rty -e ig h t th e p re v io u s m o n th .72 D e s p ite th e se m o d e s t ste p s fo rw a rd , m u c h o f th e c ity re m a in e d a sh a m b le s. O n S u n d a y 2 4 A p ril, C a b o t C o v ille w e n t w ith several o th e rs in to th e b u sin e ss se c tio n o f th e city, w h e re h e w as s tr u c k b y th e e x te n t o f th e d a m a g e b u t p u z z le d b y its p a tte r n : “ T h e r e are few sig n s o f b o m b a rd m e n t; b u t in d iv id u a l sh o p s a n d o th e r b u ild in g s are g u tte d b y p illag e, lo o tin g , a n d fire. It is n o t th a t th e e n tire are a h a s b e e n sw e p t over b y a c o n fla g ra tio n . P laces le ft h e re a n d th e re s h o w su c h w as n o t th e case. O n e s h o p w ill b e u tte r ly b a rre n o f a n y c o n te n ts ; th e n e x t w ill b e a c h a rre d w re ck , set afire afte r th e re m o v a l o f m o s t o f its g o o d s a n d e q u ip m e n t. P h o to g ra p h s ta k e n n o w w o u ld b e c o m p le te ly d a m n in g .”73 C o v ille w as a n A m e ric a n c o n ­ su la r official b ased in J a p a n w h o se sy m p a th ie s te n d e d in th a t d ire c tio n . H is c o m m e n t w as m e a n t to im p ly th a t th e e v id en c e o f lo o tin g w o u ld b e d a m n ­ in g to th e C h in e se , a n d in d e e d m a n y h a d re s o rte d to lo o tin g . T h e b u r n in g , th o u g h , w as larg e ly th e w o rk o f Ja p a n e se so ld iers. P eo p le a t th e tim e w o n ­ d e re d w h y th e Ja p a n e se a rm y w o u ld ch o o se to en g a g e in w h a t L ew is S m y th e in h is r e p o r t id e n tifie d as “th e d e lib e ra te b u r n in g o f ex ten siv e c o m m e rc ia l a n d in d u s tria l se c tio n s” o f th e city. S o m e sp e c u la te d th a t it w as to h id e th e e x te n t o f th e ir lo o tin g ; o th e rs, to p u n is h th e C h in e se . It c e rta in ly d id n o t m a k e th e ta s k o f r e s to rin g th e c a p ita l to p r o p e r f u n c tio n in g a n y easier. C o v ille’s p a r ty th e n d ro v e o u tsid e th e c ity w alls. T h e re th e y w ere c o n fro n te d w ith m o re sh o c k in g ev id en c e o f w h a t N a n k in g h a d b e e n th ro u g h : “L ea v in g b y o n e o f th e c ity g ates w e sto p a n d w a lk in to th e o fficial re sid e n c e o f th e c h a ir­ m a n o f th e ex ecu tiv e y u a n . It is a w re ck . H u g e sh e ll h o le s p ie rc e th e b ric k w alls, glass a n d b ric k is all o v er th e p la ce , o n e c a n w a lk in a n d o u t an y w h e re . In th e c e n te r o f th e r e c e p tio n ro o m is th e carcass o f a h o rse . T h e r e are tre n c h e s in th e g a rd e n w ith e x p o se d C h in e s e b o d ie s. T h e S u n Yat S en m e m o ria l seem s u n h a r m e d . It is co v e red b y b a m b o o s c a ffo ld in g a n d s tra w m a ts. In th e p a rk b e lo w tre n c h e s r u n a b o u t w ith o u t m u c h p la n . T h e C h in e s e b o d ie s in th e m hav e n o t b e e n c o v e re d .”74 T h e tre n c h e s h a d b e e n p a r t o f C h in e s e p re p a ra tio n s

216

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

fo r w ith s ta n d in g th e Ja p a n e se a tta c k . T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y h a d fo u n d th e se u se­ fu l as m ass graves. T h e d e s tru c tio n C o v ille sa w in A p ril still m a rre d th e city sc ap e w h e n A m e r­ ic a n b io lo g is t A lb e rt S te w a rd v isite d in D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 8 . In th e s o u th e rn p a r t o f th e city, h e f o u n d th a t “th e d e s tru c tio n w h ic h h as b e e n w r o u g h t is b e y o n d c a lc u la tio n . T h e p e o p le are still few, a n d in m o s t places h o u se s o f b u sin e ss are still s c a tte r e d .” R e fe rrin g to L ew is S m y th e ’s su rv e y o f w a r d a m a g e , S te w a rd p ro p o s e d : “I f b o th sid es h a d c o o p e ra te d in g iv in g su c h p r o te c tio n to civ ilia n life a n d p r o p e r ty as w o u ld n o t h av e in te rfe re d w ith m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s , n o t over o n e o r tw o p e r c e n t o f th e a c tu a l loses n e e d to h av e o c c u r re d .”75 T h is is p rec isely th e s o r t o f ra tio n a lity th a t d id n o t e n te r Ja p a n e se c a lc u la tio n s a y ear earlier, w h e n th e lo g ic a t w o rk w as n o t p ro fit a n d loss, b u t v ic to ry a n d h u m ilia tio n . I f S te w a rd ’s h y p o th e tic a l is a re a so n a b le s u p p o s itio n as to w h a t c o o p e ra tio n m ig h t h av e a c h ie v ed , it is also re tro sp e c tiv e te s tim o n y th a t th e N a n k in g S G C a n d th e S SA fa ile d to ac h ie v e w h a t th e y w ere p u t in p la ce to p ro d u c e . T h e p e o p le o f th e c ity p a id th e p ric e fo r th is fa ilu re w ell b e y o n d th e in itia l o c c u p a tio n . As o f 1 9 3 9 , u n e m p lo y m e n t w as se v e n ty -th re e p e r c e n t a n d average e a rn in g s w ere six ty p e rc e n t b e lo w w h a t th e y h a d b e e n b e fo re th e o c c u p a tio n . M in o r S. B ates su m m a riz e s th e s itu a tio n in th e fin a l r e p o r t o n th e w o rk o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m m itte e , as th e IC w as re title d in F eb ru ary : T h e living standard o f the whole Chinese population o f N anking is very close to that o f the poorer groups selected in various Chinese cities for surveys by social workers before the war. T h e events o f the last two years have reduced the native population to that level, w hich means o f course that m any are on the m argin o f survival__ T he C om m ittee’s own experience and studies, as presented in this report, are crowded by a desperate poverty grossly abnorm al for this region. N o general economic im provem ent is in sight, while factors o f a m ilitary and governm ental nature continue to worsen the currency situation and potentially to endanger m uch else. It is n o t for us to assess the program o f the Japanese authorities or the attentions o f the Chinese; we are here merely observing the actual influences at w ork upon the people’s livelihood. F o r o r d in a ry p e o p le liv in g u n d e r th e o c c u p a tio n sta te , th e c o lla b o ra tio n e x p e r­ im e n t w as a failu re . “ P ro s p e rity a n d se c u rity se e m p itifu lly re m o te f ro m th e lo cal p e o p le ” w as B a te s’ d e s p o n d e n t c o n c lu s io n .76 S u n d ay , 2 4 A p ril 1 9 3 8 , th e d a y th a t C a b o t C o v ille w as to u r in g th e r u in e d city, w as b y c o in c id e n c e th e d a te o n w h ic h th e S G C in N a n k in g d is b a n d e d . Its fate w as tie d to p o litic s a t a h ig h e r level, fo r a n e w “n a tio n a l” re g im e , th e R e fo rm e d G o v e r n m e n t (Wei-hsin cheng-fu) o f th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a w as to b e in s ta lle d in N a n k in g six days later. F o r its in a u g u ra tio n , th e SSA m o b iliz e d th e S G C a n d its p o lic e fo rc e to g e t o u t 3 0 ,0 0 0 sp e c ta to rs w a v in g little flags o f th e n e w r e p u b lic .77 W i th a n e w re g im e in p la ce , a re o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e

217

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

c a p ita l a d m in is tra tio n fo llo w e d . T h a t S u n d ay , th e tw e n ty -f o u r th , th e S G C w as re p la c e d b y a n e w en tity , th e N a n k in g M u n ic ip a l C o m m is s io n , w h ic h w e n t b y th e u n w ie ld y C h in e s e title Tu-pan Nan-ching shih-cheng kung-shu ( Tu-pan b e in g th e o ld d e s ig n a tio n o f th e p ro v in c ia l m ilita ry g o v e rn o rsh ip p r io r to 1 9 2 7 ). T h is c h a n g e to o k m u n ic ip a l le a d e rsh ip o u t o f th e lo c al h a n d s in w h ic h it h a d b riefly re ste d fo r fo u r m o n th s a n d b r o u g h t N a n k in g b a c k u n d e r th e c o n tro l o f th e ce n te r. T h e n e w c ity h e a d , Je n Y u a n -ta o , w as a p o w e rfu l m e m ­ b e r o f th e n e w R e fo rm e d G o v e r n m e n t a n d its c o n c u r re n t m in is te r o f p a c ifi­ c a tio n (th e o rg a n th a t h a n d le d m ilita ry affairs, a n d to w h ic h th e N a n k in g p o lic e r e p o rte d ). N a n k in g w as o n c e ag a in s u b o r d in a te d to its n a tio n a l m a s ­ ter, ju s t as it h a d b e e n u n d e r th e K M T . Je n w o u ld give u p th e p o s t in a f u r ­ th e r re o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t five m o n th s la te r a n d h a n d th e m a y o ra lty o f f to h is v ic e -m in is te r, K ao K u a n -w u .78 C o n tr o l o f th e c ity w o u ld b e s e p a ra te d f ro m th e m ilita ry m in is tr y o n ly w h e n th e R e fo rm e d G o v ­ e r n m e n t d isso lv ed in M a rc h 1 9 4 0 to m a k e w a y fo r W a n g C h in g -w e i’s reg im e. G a o a t th a t tim e re lin q u is h e d h is m in is tr y p o s t a n d w as a p p o in te d fu ll-tim e h e a d o f th e o n c e -a g a in r e n a m e d N a n k in g S p ecial M u n ic ip a lity . D u r in g h is te n u re w ith th e N a n k in g S G C , T ’ao H s i-s a n ac h ie v ed little . A c c o rd in g to a C h in e s e a c c o u n t o f th e ea rly o c c u p a tio n o f N a n k in g , T ’a o ’s first u n d e r ta k in g as c h a ir w as to issu e th e n o tic e to C h in e s e so ld iers w h o h a d b e e n le ft b e h in d in th e c ity th a t th e y s h o u ld su rre n d e r, a n d th e y w o u ld b e ta k e n care of, even g iv e n m o n e y to p a y th e ir ex p en ses i f th e y ch o se to r e tu r n h o m e . W h e n over 3 0 0 c a m e fo rw a rd , th e Ja p a n e se s u m m a rily e x e c u te d all o f th e m a n d gave T ’a o ’s RSS th e ta sk o f b u r y in g th e b o d ie s .79 A Ja p a n e se d ia rist c o n firm s th a t th e S G C w as ac tiv e ly in v o lv e d in s e p a ra tin g so ld iers fro m civilia n s .80 S o m e h e ld a t th e tim e th a t T ’ao w as h o rrifie d b u t fe lt h e w as a lre a d y in to o d ee p w ith th e Ja p a n e se to b e ab le to p u ll o u t. O th e r s c o n d e m n e d h im as a n o u t- a n d - o u t tra ito r. T ’ao also fa c e d — a n d w as u n a b le to c o n tro l— d e b il­ ita tin g fa c tio n a l c o n flic ts w ith in th e S G C , n o ta b ly w ith h is v ic e -c h a ir S u n S h u -ju n g , w h o so o n o v e rsh a d o w e d h im . W h e n th e S G C w as o b lig e d to m e e t fo rm a lly w ith G e n . M a ts u i Iw a n e a t th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy o n 2 3 Ja n u a ry , it p re s e n te d a u n ite d a n d re sp e c tfu l fro n t, b u t th e n e x t d a y T ’ao s u b m itte d h is re s ig n a tio n , c itin g a d v a n c e d age a n d ill h e a lth . T h e Ja p a n e se re fu se d to a c c e p t it. To T ’a o ’s f u r th e r d ism ay , five d ay s la te r h is n e w re sid e n c e w as c le a n e d o u t . 81 A p o s tc a rd b e lo n g in g to a Ja p a n e se so ld ie r w as fo u n d o n th e scen e o f th e r o b ­ b e ry a n d T ’ao d e m a n d e d th a t th e S SA in v e stig a te , b u t it re p lie d th a t it h a d n o ev id en c e o n w h ic h to p ro c e e d . N o th in g w as ever d o n e . T ’ao n e v e r le a rn e d w h e th e r th e r o b b e ry w as a c h a n c e ev e n t— th is w as h a rd ly th e first b re a k -in th a t o c c u rre d in o c c u p ie d N a n k in g — o r a th r e a t d ire c te d a t h im p erso n a lly . H e c o m p la in e d a t th e tim e th a t h e w as n o w S G C c h a ir in n a m e only. T ’ao H s i-s a n m ig h t h av e tu r n e d b a c k b u t d id n o t, n e ith e r th e n n o r la te r w h e n th e S G C w as d isso lv ed . H e w as p r o m o te d to sin e c u re s in th e R e fo rm e d G o v e rn m e n t, first as v ic e -c h a ir o f its m ass o rg a n iz a tio n , th e G re a t P e o p le ’s 218

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

S o c ie ty (Ta-min-hui), a n d th e n as a m e m b e r o f th e L eg islativ e Y uan, th e la t­ te r o n th e re c o m m e n d a tio n o f its p re s id e n t, W e n T su n g -y a o . T ’ao th u s le ft th e a d m in is tra tio n o f N a n k in g b e h in d , a lth o u g h in 1 9 4 0 h is k in s m a n T ’ao C h u e h -s a n w as a p p o in te d as a c o u n c illo r to th e n e w S p ecial M u n ic ip a lity . W i th th e d is s o lu tio n o f th e R e fo rm e d G o v e r n m e n t in M a rc h 1 9 4 0 , T ’ao H sisa n w as g iv e n “a d v iso ry ” p o s itio n s u n d e r th e c o lla b o ra tio n is t W a n g C h in g -w e i reg im e. T h a t D e c e m b e r, h e fell u n d e r in v e s tig a tio n fo r c o r r u p tio n a n d h is p o litic a l career cam e to a n e n d . A p o s tw a r tr ib u n a l u n d e r th e K M T se n te n c e d h im to tw o y ears’ im p r is o n m e n t fo r c o lla b o ra tio n . It w as a m o d e s t p u n is h ­ m e n t, s u g g e stin g th a t h is case m u s t h av e s tr u c k th e tr ib u n a l ju d g e s, so m a n y years afte r th e S G C h a d b rie fly c o m e a n d g o n e , as a m in o r b it o f c o lla b o ra ­ tio n . T ’ao d ie d in N a n k in g in J u n e 1 9 4 8 , tw o m o n th s a fte r h is release. A few o f th e o th e r o rig in a l S G C m e m b e rs m a d e th e tr a n s itio n to th e n e w reg im es. O n e w as C h a o K u n g -c h in , w h o w as p r o m o te d fro m h e a d o f th e T ra n s p o r ta tio n D e p a r tm e n t to d ire c to r o f th e In d u s tr ia l B u re a u u n d e r b o th th e M u n ic ip a l C o m m is s io n a n d th e S p ecial M u n ic ip a lity , s u rv iv in g p o litic a lly u n til a t le ast 1 9 4 1 .82 I f m a n y o f th e o rig in a l S G C p e rs o n n e l d id n o t a p p e a r in la te r m u n ic ip a l lin e u p s it was b ec au se n e w p o litic a l elites m o v e d in to o v er­ ta k e th e m . B u t p o s t- 1 9 3 8 d o c u m e n ts s h o w th a t th e ir d isa p p e a ra n c e d id n o t sig n a l th e ir h a v in g fa lle n o u t o f th e c ity ’s elite. T h e y m a y h av e b e e n p u s h e d o u t o f m u n ic ip a l p o sts, b u t th e y c o n tin u e d to h av e a p u b lic p re se n c e . T h is at le ast is th e im p re s s io n o n e gets fro m a list o f th e h e a d s o f p u b lic o rg a n iz a ­ tio n s in N a n k in g p u b lis h e d in 1 9 4 0 . S everal S G C ac tiv ists a p p e a r th e re : fo r­ m e r v ic e -c h a ir S u n S h u -ju n g as th e m a n a g e r o f th e N a n k in g m o s q u e , th e h a te d C h a n J u n g - k u a n g as h e a d o f th e K ian g si P ro v in c ia l G u ild , H u a n g Y uehh s u a n r u n n in g th e B u d d h is t C h a rita b le O rp h a n a g e a n d th e L o d g e fo r S h a r­ in g G o o d n e ss ( T ’ung-shan t’ang), a n d p o lic e m a n W a n g C h ’u n - s h e n g h e a d in g a c h a rita b le o rg a n iz a tio n re g iste re d in A u g u s t 1 93 9 called th e L o d g e fo r S tim ­ u la tin g G o o d n e s s (Hsing-shan t’ang). T h e list also n a m e s M a y o r K ao K u a n w u a t th e h e a d o f th e J a p a n - C h in a B u d d h is t L eag u e, a n d n o n e o th e r th a n T ’ao H s i-s a n r u n n in g K u a n g -fe n g G ra n a ry , a n e w in s titu tio n re g iste re d in A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 (m a n a g in g th e g ra n a ry m a y b e w h e re th e c o r r u p tio n ch a rg e a g a in st h im o rig in a te d ). T h e se p o sts are ju s t th e p o s itio n s w h e re o n e w o u ld e x p e ct to fin d “lo c al c a p a b le m e n ,” as th e Ja p a n e se ca lle d th e m . T h e S G C elite was still so c ially in p lace. Yet it h a d lo st its p o litic a l tra c tio n . A sm a ll in d ic a to r o f th is loss is th e d e c lin e o f th e R S S ’s p o litic a l c lo u t. It tu r n s o u t th a t th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e N a n k in g b r a n c h o f th e R SS w as th e o n ly p u b lic p o s itio n T ’ao H s i-s a n m a n a g e d to h o ld o n to p a s t h is c o r r u p tio n d isg race. T h is su g g ests th a t its le a d e rsh ip n o lo n g e r tra n s la te d in to le a d e rsh ip elsew h ere. F u rth e rm o re , as o f S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 2 , th e o th e r fo u r m e m b e rs o f th e ex e cu tiv e w ere p o litic a l u n k n o w n s .83 T h e RSS w as n o lo n g e r th e te m p o r a r y b rid g e o f c o n v e n ie n c e b y w h ic h th e Ja p a n e se c o u ld m a k e c o n ta c t w ith lo c al elites, d is­ c a rd e d n o w th a t b e tte r c o n ta c ts h a d b e e n m a d e . 219

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

L ike th e w o u ld -b e p o litic ia n T ’ao, th e w o u ld -b e re g im e o f N a n k in g , th e S G C , w as tr a p p e d in a n a rro w defile b y c o n flic tin g p ressu res. Its g oals w ere b o th m o d e s t a n d g ra n d : m o d e s t in tr y in g to g e t a r u in e d c ity b a c k to so m e se m b la n c e o f o rd er, g ra n d in h o p in g to b u ild f ro m th a t r u b b le th e f o u n d a ­ tio n o f a h e a lth y civic re g im e , a lb e it o n e th e y h o p e d to c o n tro l. Its so u rce s o f assets w ere also in te r n a lly c o n tra d ic to ry : o n th e o n e h a n d , it h a d a fo re ig n a rm y o f o c c u p a tio n to tu r n to fo r fin a n c ia l a n d p o litic a l s u p p o r t in th e s h o r t te rm ; o n th e o th e r, it h a d a w e ll-o rg a n iz e d b o d y o f W e ste rn e rs b o th to c o m ­ p e te a n d c o o p e ra te w ith , w ith in c e rta in lim its. T h e W e s te rn p re se n c e , ra th e r th a n d is r u p t th e p ro c e ss o f c o lla b o ra tio n , c o m p lic a te d it b y d o u b lin g layers o f co m p lic ity . T h e S G C h a d to b e c o m p lic ito u s w ith th e Ja p a n e se w h o b r o u g h t it in to b e in g ; it h a d to b e c o m p lic ito u s w ith th e W e ste rn e rs w h o w ere p ro v id in g essen tia l s u p p o r t fo r th e re sid e n ts o f th e city; a n d it w as in d e b te d to th e w illin g n e ss o f th e p e rso n s a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s, s u c h as th e R SS, th a t f u r ­ n is h e d th e o rig in a l c o lla b o ra to rs b u t la te r c o u ld b e p u s h e d asid e. F inally, th e S G C h a d to acced e to its o w n d is s o lu tio n in fav o r o f a h ig h e r a n d m o re p o w ­ e rfu l c o lla b o ra tio n is t p ro je c t. G iv e n th e c o n tin u in g d is ru p tiv e p re se n c e o f th e Ja p a n e se a rm y in N a n k in g , it is d iffic u lt to d e te rm in e h o w m u c h th e S G C a c tu a lly ac h ie v ed d u r in g its fo u r m o n th s as th e m u n ic ip a l a d m in is tra tio n . I f N a n k in g d id creep b a c k to n o rm a lc y , it w as in p a r t b ec au se, as M a rk E y k h o lt h as p o in te d o u t, in d iv id u a ls e m e rg e d to scav en g e, b a rte r, a n d r e b u ild w h e r­ ever th e y c o u ld w ith o u t th e in te rfe re n c e o r s u p p o r t o f e ith e r Ja p a n e se o r p u p ­ p e t a u th o ritie s . T h e “p o p u la r o r d e r” th a t th e S G C g e n e ra te d la ste d o n ly fo u r m o n th s , b u t it h e lp e d p ro v id e a f o u n d a tio n fo r th e r e tu r n o f a m o re re s p o n ­ sib le a d m in is tr a tio n .84 A n d y e t th e re is a m b ig u ity ev en in th is a u to n o m y , fo r th is “p o p u la r o r d e r ” d e p e n d e d o n J a p a n ’s p re se n c e . O n e w ay to e a rn h a lf a y e n w as to scaven g e th e r u in e d c ity fo r a h u n d r e d ca ttie s o f scrap m e ta l a n d sell it to th e Ja p an e se . T h e o ffer w as a ttra c tiv e e n o u g h th a t Ja p a n e se b u y e rs w ere able to a c q u ire 7 0 0 to n s o f m e ta l b y th e e n d o f M a r c h .85

The Collaborator? M o s t a m b ig u o u s o f all is th e slip p e ry fig u re o f J im m y W a n g . O n th e o n e h a n d , h e w as a n ac tiv ist fo r th e c o lla b o ra tio n is t cause. O n e fin a l g lim p se o f h im in th is c o n te x t: A n e ld e rly C h r is tia n in te rv ie w e d in th e 1 9 8 0 s rec alle d a c o n ­ v e rsa tio n h e h a d w ith J im m y w h e n th e tw o o f th e m h a p p e n e d to h av e b e d d e d d o w n b esid e each o th e r in a n N S Z refu g ee c a m p . J im m y te m p te d th e m a n w ith a p o s t as th e h e a d o f a n S G C w a rd office. W h e n h e d e c lin e d , J im m y re ­ s p o n d e d , “W h y s h o u ld y o u m iss su c h a g o o d o p p o r tu n ity to m a k e a fo rtu n e ? ” J im m y th e n w e n t o n to ta lk a b o u t th e a d v a n ta g e s a n d d ra w b a c k s o f th e v a r­ io u s w ard s h e m ig h t w a n t to r u n . H e m ig h t n o t w a n t W a rd # 1 , w h ic h in c lu d e d th e o ld p le a su re q u a r te r b y th e C o n f u c ia n T e m p le , sin c e th a t w as “w h e re th e 220

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

Ja p a n e se w ill go fo r g irls” a n d w o u ld b e tro u b le s o m e to c o n tro l. B u t th e m a n h e ld firm . “Y ou d o n ’t k n o w h o w to a p p re c ia te fa v o rs,” J im m y g r u m b le d as h e ro lle d over to go to sle e p .86 O n th e o th e r h a n d , J im m y W a n g w as also a n ac tiv ist fo r th e IC : “a (secret) m e m b e r o f o u r o rg a n iz a tio n ” is h o w J o h n R a b e refers to h im in h is d ia ry .87 O n e la st g lim p se o f h im in th is o th e r c o n te x t: O n 8 F e b ru a ry , h e a c c o m p a ­ n ie d R a b e a n d th re e o th e r IC m e m b e rs to L o tu s L ake to in s p e c t th e site o f a g ro u p m u rd e r. H s u C h ’u a n -y in h a d g o n e to R a b e th e p re v io u s a f te rn o o n to tell h im th a t Ja p a n e se so ld iers h a d s h o t a n o ld m a n a n d th re e o f h is relativ es th e n ig h t b e fo re . T h e s to ry H s u g o t w as th a t th e m a n h a d b e e n try in g to re ­ triev e a ric k sh a w th a t h e h a d h id d e n n e a r h is h o u se . R a b e a n d th e A m e ric a n m is s io n a ry P lu m e r M ills h a d g o n e o u t to th e site th a t e v e n in g a n d d e c id e d to r e p o r t th e in c id e n t (case 4 2 5 in th e I C ’s d o c u m e n ta tio n o f Ja p a n e se m is ­ c o n d u c t) th e fo llo w in g m o r n in g to th e S G C . T h e S G C in tu r n in f o rm e d th e SSA. J im m y W a n g ch o se to jo in R a b e a n d fo u r o th e r fo re ig n e rs o n a se c o n d in s p e c tio n to u r. R a b e d escrib es th e ir v isit b rie fly in h is d ia ry : T h e four bodies had been w rapped in mats and lay ready to be buried on a little nearby hill. Jim m y h u n te d up a Chinese m an from the neighborhood, who gave us the following account o f the incident: “T h e old Chinese m an, allegedly trying to rescue his ricksha, had in fact been trying to bring tw o chairs from a thatch h u t to his house. It was on account o f these two chairs, looted or bought cheaply somewhere, th at the Japanese soldiers shot him . H e lay gravely w ounded in the field. W hen his wife (or sister?) came to his aid w ith two male relatives, hoping to take him away, they were all shot.”88 J im m y W a n g ’s n a m e d o es n o t a p p e a r in th e official IC r e p o r t o n th e L o tu s L ake m u rd e rs . T h e r e p o r t n a m e s G e o rg e R o sen , J o h n R a b e, E d u a rd S p e rlin g , a n d L ew is S m y th e , a n d says th a t th e y ta lk e d to “th e o n e m a n le ft in th e a re a ,” b u t it d o es n o t say w h o f o u n d th e m a n o r tra n s la te d w h a t h e said , a n d it care­ fu lly av oids n a m in g a n y C h in e s e .89 J im m y W a n g ’s w o rk w ith th e IC h a d to b e k e p t q u ie t, le st a n y o n e o f sev eral in te re sts c u t h im o u t o f th e ir c o n fid e n c e , even th o u g h h is p re se n c e th a t d a y w as essen tial fo r fin d in g th a t “o n e m a n ” w h o c o u ld te stify to th e s h o o tin g s. IC m e m b e rs h a v e b e e n la u d e d fo r th e ir w o rk o n b e h a lf o f th e p e o p le o f N a n k in g . W h a t a b o u t th e ir C h in e s e associates? T h e n a g a in , th e ir C h in e s e asso ciates w ere in v o lv e d in m a tte rs th a t so m e a t th e tim e f o u n d d ista ste fu l. It tu r n s o u t th a t J im m y W a n g w as th e k e y fig u re in g e ttin g C h in e se b ro th e ls b a c k in o p e ra tio n , as w e le a rn fro m a c o n fid e n tia l r e p o r t to th e G e r m a n fo re ig n m in is tr y fro m le g a tio n se c re ta ry G e o rg R o sen : A m ong Jim m y’s first official acts was the establishm ent o f bordellos, for w hich he was able to recruit the necessary workers am ong those females still residing in the old am usem ent district around the Confucius Temple. It is said that he provided the req­ uisite furniture free o f charge from his own inventories, bu t is dem anding paym ent for 221

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

furnishing similar institutions th at are to be outfitted w ith Japanese ladies w ho have been brought in. At any rate Jim m y has done a great service to his fellow Chinese in providing a less perilous means by w hich to satisfy the am orous needs o f the Japanese soldiery, w hich up u n til now has em ployed the Erl-King’s m ethod o f abducting the honest w om en o f N anking.90 It w as J im m y W a n g w h o w in k le d th e g irls a t G in lin g C o lle g e o u t fro m u n d e r M in n ie V a u tr in ’s n o se in o rd e r to m a k e p ro s titu te s av ailab le to Ja p a n e se so l­ d iers. H e h a d a n eye fo r th e f o rtu n e to b e m a d e in p ro v id in g services to th e Ja p an e se, b u t h e also th o u g h t th a t legal p r o s titu tio n w o u ld re d u c e th e in c i­ d e n c e o f rap e . C o lla b o r a tio n b rin g s g ain s a n d losses, a n d J im m y w as p re p a re d to d ea l in b o th . J im m y W a n g w as e v e ry th in g b u t n aiv e. A s L ew is S m y th e w rite s in a le tte r, “H e to ld us a b o u t ‘se lf-g o v e rn m e n t’: ‘W h e n th e Ja p an e se say “Yes,” w e d o i t ’!”91 I f w e ch o o se to c o n d e m n h im fo r h is ro le as a fixer w h o serv ed th e Ja p an e se, w e n e g le c t h is ro le as a fixer w h o se rv e d th e C h in e se . W e s h o u ld b e carefu l a b o u t ex actly w h a t it is th a t o ffe n d s us a b o u t J im m y W a n g ’s to u r o f d u ty a lo n g th e b o r d e r b e tw e e n g o o d a n d evil. J im m y w as s im p ly o n e o f th e b e s t— a n d p e rh a p s also o n e o f th e w o rs t— o f th o se w h o ca m e fo rw a rd u n d e r th e e x tra ­ o r d in a r y c o n d itio n s th a t g rip p e d N a n k in g in D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to p la y th e ro le o f c o lla b o ra to r. H e fits n o m o ra l m o d e ls, a n d o ffe n d s m a n y ; h e sa w o p p o r ­ tu n itie s w h ere o th e rs sa w o n ly h o r r o r a n d d efe at, a n d m a d e th e m o s t o f th ese; h e saved o th e rs, a n d in th e p ro ce ss g a in e d s o m e th in g fo r h im se lf. T o c o n d e m n h im o r th e S G C fo r h a v in g fa c ilita te d th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n o f N a n k in g m a y d e p e n d to o m u c h o n th e c o m fo r t o f h in d s ig h t, a n d n o t e n o u g h o n a r e c o g n itio n o f th e m o ra l a n d p h y sic a l e m e rg e n c y in w h ic h th e N a n k in g A tro c ­ ity p la c e d o r d in a r y p e o p le . T h is w as th e b u r d e n o f c o lla b o ra tio n , p a r t o f a w a rtim e h is to ry th a t w e c a n o n ly n o w b e g in to im a g in e h o w to w rite .

Notes 1.

2.

3. 4.

Smythe, “M emorandum on Relief Situation,” in Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 99. T he Hsu volume has been included in its entirety in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 24 and p. 43; Rabe, Good M a n o f Nanking, pp. 93—94. Ginling University was the site o f one of two soup kitchens operated by the Red Swastika, the other being Yung-ch’ing Monastery on W u-t’ai Hill; China Num ber Two His­ torical Archives, Nanking (CNT), Record Group 257, File 224: printed account of branch activities 1 9 3 7 ^ 2 , item 4. Yongqing Monastery hosted one o f the five winter soup kitchens in Nanking before the war, and was therefore a location to which refugees would have gone. Smythe diary, entry for 24 December 1937, reprinted in Zhang [Chang], ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 274; see also p. 275. Rosen, “Report from the Nanking Office o f the German Embassy to the Foreign M inistry” (20 January 1938), quoted in Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 146.

222

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

5.

6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

15. 16.

17.

18.

19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24.

Wang Ch’eng-tiens name appears w ithout comment in a list of regime personnel in Wang Hsikuang, “Jih-wei han-chien cheng-fu” p. 5; he gets no mention in Hsia Ch’iang, “Wei-hu tsochang ti tzu-chih wei-yuan-hui.” Nor does he appear in Chang, Rape o f Nanking, which focuses on the initial takeover, or in Eykholt, “Living the Limits of Occupation in Nanjing,” chapter 2, which examines the emergence of collaboration in 1938. Fitch, diary entry for 30 December 1937, reprinted anonymously in Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, p. 43; also reprinted in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 98. Wilson, letter of 1 January 1938, in Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 233. Lewis Smythe, letter o f 1 January 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eye-witnesses to Massacre, p. 284. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 109. A sahi shinbun reported on the inauguration 2 days later, proclaiming that the SGC was able to “unite with all pro-Japanese organizations” in the city, w ithout specifying what organizations those m ight be. Fitch, diary entry for 30 December 1937, reprinted anonymously in Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, p. 43; also reprinted in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 98. Iguchi et al., eds., N a n k in jihen: Kyoto shidan kankei shiryo shu, pp. 32, 75, and 310—11. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 62—63, and p. 66. Mantetsu Shanhai jimusho, “Naka Shina senryo ni okeru senbu kosaku gaiyo,” in Inoue, ed., Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 51. The stages of pacification are described in Brook, “Pacifica­ tion of Jiading.” O n Matsui’s order that his troops avoid interfering with foreigners, see his testimony at the Tokyo War Crimes Trial as cited by Pal in Brook, Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, p. 291—92. O n the use of the International Com mittee’s record of the Rape to condem n Matsui, see Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 16. Mantetsu Shanhai jimusho, “Naka Shina senryo chiku ni okeru senbu kosaku gaiyo,” in Inoue, ed., Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 50. T he personnel changes o f the SSA have been reconstructed principally on the basis of Maruyama Susumu’s memoir, “Watakushi no Showa shi— Nankin jiken no jisso,” particularly the fifth instalment in M antetsu w akabakai kaiho, no. 137 (8 September 2000), pp. 38 ^ 4. I am grateful to David Askew for giving me a copy. Occasional discrepancies with the SSA’s own report raise doubts that Maruyama has accurately recollected everything. “Memorandum of Interview with C hief o f Special Service Corps” (15 December 1937), in Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 6. At least Maruyama Susumu was a Mantetsu employee. Coville diary: Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University, (HIA): Stanley H ornbeck record group, Joseph C. Grew files, Box 185. H ong’s name does n ot appear in internal Japan­ ese pacification records that I have seen; he may simply have been a military officer seconded to the SSA because of his consular experience in an English-speaking country. As reported on 22 December in the Kitayama diary, reprinted in Iguchi, N a n kin jihen: Kyoto shidan kankei shiryo shu, p. 73. At his postwar trial, Wen Tsung-yao stated that he was a member of an early collaborationist entity called the Nanking Peace Maintenance Committee; Nan-ching shih tang-an-kuan, ed., Shen-hsun han-chien pi-lu, p. 344. I have found no other reference to such a body. Wen may simply have been confused in his memory of the SG C’s formal designation. Duara provides a brief introduction to the Red Swastika Society (RSS) and Society of the Way in “O f Authencity and W oman.” SGC and RSS member Huang Yuexuan had served on the 1936 winter aid committee; per­ sonal communication from Zwia Lipkin. A report of the activities of the Nanking branch of the RSS in this period is archived in CNT, Record Group 257, File 224: printed account of branch activities 1 9 3 7 ^ 2 , item 6. Yin Chi-chun, 1937, N an-ching ta-chiu-huan, pp. 176—79. Yin provides no sources for his account o f the Japanese attempts to recruit local leaders.

223

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

25.

26.

27.

28.

29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

36. 37. 38.

39.

40. 41. 42.

Cooperation between the RSS and the SGC is noted in an archived 1938 report of the Depart­ m ent o f Public Health, reprinted in C h in-hua jih -c h u n N an-ching ta -t’u-sha tang-an, ed. Chung-kuo ti-erh li-shih tang-an-kuan, p. 453. The report notes that the RSS did not clear all corpses, especially those in out-of-the-way areas. At least one prom inent RSS member resisted involvement in the SGC; see Lin Na, “Hsueh-lei hua chin-ling,” p. 143. Rabe, G oodM an o f N anking, p. 99. Vautrin was in fact willing to provide limited cooperation in arranging for prostitutes’ services, as noted in H u, American Goddess a t the Rape o f Nanking, p. 101, though no reference is made in that biography to this incident. Japanese figure: Nankin tokumu kikan report, p. 24, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 153. RSS figure: archived RSS document dated 4 April 1938, in Nan-ching t’u-shu-kuan, ed., C hin-hua Jih-chun N an-ching ta-tu-sha tang-an, p. 436. According to the RSS’s running tally of burials, the total at the end of February was 28,589; ibid., p. 433. T he internal RSS figure appears as item #6 in the printed account of branch activities for 1937—42 archived in CNT, Record Group 257, File 224. IM TFE, “Proceedings,” p. 2,574. Xu insisted that the figure of over 43,000 represented civil­ ians only, and that “the number is really too small. T he reason is [that] we [were] not allowed to give a true num ber of the people we buried.” For the tribunal’s invocation of the data in its judgment, see Brook, Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, p. 261. Nankin tokumu kikan January report, p. 6, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 149. Hsing-cheng-yuan hsuan-ch’uan-chu, Chuka m inkoku ishin seifu gaishi, p. 370. T he names of less im portant Chinese are frequently misprinted in the book, errors that are consistent with how Japanese writers who knew the Chinese names by Japanese pronunciation m ight miswrite the characters (e.g., on p. 371, T ’ao Hsi-san’s given name is miswritten as Hsi-shan, and Hsu Ch’uan-yin’s as Ch’uan-ying) and betray the book’s Japanese authorship. Fitch, diary entry for 24 December, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 95. Tanaka was in fact Vice-Consul. Maruyama, “Watakushi no Showa shi,” p. 39. SGC personnel are surveyed in Wang, “Jih-wei han-chien cheng-fu,” p. 5; Li, “Lun-ching wuyueh chi,” pp. 112—13; and Anon., “Shih-shou-hou ti Nan-ching,” pp. 153—54. I am grateful to Zwia Lipkin for bringing this fact to my attention. T ’ao may have had other connections to the Japanese. According to an anonymous source pub­ lished in 1938, T ’ao was a friend of Ch’i Hsieh-yuan during the years 1917—20, when C h’i was the military commissioner of Chiang-ning, where T ’ao practiced as a lawyer. Ch’i went on to be military governor of Kiangsu until 1924 with the support of Wu P’ei-fu. Fourteen years later, Ch’i was a prom inent figure in the N orth China collaborationist regime; Anon., “Shihshou-hou ti Nan-ching,” p. 153. Vautrin, diary entry of 1 January 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 369. Bates, “M emorandum on Aftermath of Registration of Refugees at Nanking University,” in Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 100. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 183; “M emorandum of Chancellor Scharffenberg for the Ger­ man Embassy in Hankow,” in ibid., p. 204. American consular official: Cabot Coville, Diary, entry for 25 April 1938 (HIA, Stanley Hornbeck Record Group, Joseph C. Grew files, Box 185). This perception of the 19 December meeting was shared by many, for example, Wilson, in Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 217; Fitch and Forster, in Zhang, Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 92 and p. 120. Nankin tokumu kikan report, p. 17 and p. 58, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 152 and p. 162. Mantetsu Shanhai jimusho, “Naka Shina senryo ni okeru senbu kosaku gaiyo,” p. 13, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 52. Nankin tokumu kikan February report, p. 10 and p. 19, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 150 and p. 152.

224

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Chinese Collaboration in Nanking

43. 44.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

53.

54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67.

68. 69.

Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 74. T he SSA in one of its reports to Shanghai chose to represent the declaration as a fact, stating: “O n New Year’s Day, the Nanking Self-Government committee under the leadership of T ’ao Hsi-san was founded, and at last on 5 January this committee took over the 200,000 refugees from the International Committee” (Nankin tokum u kikan January report, p. 4, in Inoue, Kachu senbu ksaku shiryo, p. 148). The report goes on to note that the following day the Japan­ ese army began the process o f weeding out soldiers and subversives from the refugees, and giving Loyal Subject Certificates to the rest, w ithout saying how those selected out were subsequently treated. By the end of February, the SSA had distributed 100,000 certificates, and the Nakajima Corps of the CCAA had issued 150,000 (February report, p. 22, in ibid., p. 153). Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 105 and p. 109. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 66—67. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 114. T he figure is that given by Bates in his “Report o f the Nanking International Relief C om m it­ tee,” p. 422. Sun, N an-ching ta-tu-sha, p. 476. Ibid., pp.118—20 and p. 122; Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 75. Nankin tokumu kikan February report, pp. 15—16, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 151. Ibid., p. 27 and p. 70, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 154 and p. 165. After receiving their pay in military scrip, Chinese were sold food at a rate of 10 yen for 1 bag of rice and 2.5 yen for a sack o f flour. These sales were made at Military Scrip Exchange Offices, which were operating in 4 o f the 5 city wards (Hsiakwan being the exception) as of 15 January. Information on food supply matters comes from Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 83, 91—93, 97, 110—11, 121, 137; Inoue #19, pp. 164; Timperley, W hat War Means, p. 205; and Smythe, diary entry for 9 January 1930, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 295. Equivalents for units of measure are taken from Bates’ “Report of the Nanking Interna­ tional Relief Com mittee,” in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 422. Letter to the SGC: Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 110—11; inquiry from Hidaka: Timperley, W hat War Means, p. 205. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 95, 120. T ’ao was a bathhouse owner; it is unclear if he owned this enterprise. Yin, 1937, N an-ching ta-chiu-huan, pp. 174—75 (Sun Shu-jung is misnamed as Sun Shu-yun). Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g pp. 195—96; Bates, letter o f 13 February 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eye­ witnesses to Massacre, p. 29. Nankin tokumu kikan February report, p. 17 pp. 29—30 and p. 58, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 152, 155, 162. Nan-chingshih-cheng kai-kuang 1939, p. 86. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 159. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 163. Archived RSS document dated 4 April 1938, in C hin-hua Jih-chun N an-ching ta-tu-sha tangan, p. 436. Lin, “Hsueh-lei hua Chin-ling,” p. 145. As reported in Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 178. Nankin tokumu kikan January report, p. 4, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 148. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 117—19. O n the surge of military misconduct at the end of January, see Brook, “Docum enting the Rape of Nanking,” pp. 8—9, also Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 122—33 and p. 141; the SGC notice is mentioned on p. 127. Magee, letter of 2 February 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 193. Nankin tokumu kikan February report, pp. 20—21, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 152-53.

225

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77.

78.

79. 80. 81.

82. 83.

84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91.

Steward, diary entry of 10 December 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 319. O n the reopening o f the rice trade from Wuhu, see Smythes notes o f 21 March 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 314. Nankin tokumu kikan March report, pp. 62, 65, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 163-64. Coville diary, entry for 23 April 1938. Ibid. Steward, diary entry of 10 December 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 333. Bates, “Report of the Nanking International Relief Com mittee,” p. 435 and p. 444. This inauguration is reconstructed in Brook, “Creation of the Reformed Government in Cen­ tral China, 1938.” For the SSAs role, see the Nankin tokumu kikan March report, p. 71, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 165. Hsing-cheng-yuan hsuan-ch’uan-chu, Chuka m inkoku ishin seifu gaishi, pp. 370-72. Kao became mayor on 14 September. As part o f this reorganization, the municipal office was moved to 216 Sun Yat-sen Road on 1 October 1938. Li, “Lun-ching wu-yueh chi,” p. 112. These burials have not been included in the RSS records reprinted in C hin-hua Jih-chun N an-ching ta-tu-sha tang-an, pp. 431-35. Uchida Yoshinao diary, in Nankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., N a n kin senshi p. 387; I am grate­ ful to David Askew for this reference. Eykholt’s suggestion that T ’ao was shot at appears to be based on a misreading of the account given by Wang Hsi-kuang. See Eykholt, “Living the Limits o f Occupation in Nanking,” pp. 68-69. Hsing-cheng-yuan hsuan-ch’uan-chu, Chuka m inkoku ishin seifu gaishi, p. 371 and p. 373; and Ts’ai and Sun, “M in-kuo ch’i-chien Nan-ching shih chih-kuan nien-piao,” p. 48. Wang, “Jih-wei han-chien cheng-fu,” p. 5. O n the 1942 executive o f the RSS, see the Nanking branch report o f 6 September 1942: CNT, Record Group 257, File 224. O n Chao, see Hsingcheng-yuan hsuan-ch’uan-chu, Chuka m inkoku ishin seifu gaishi, p. 371 and p. 373; Ts’ai Hung-yuan and Sun Pi-yu, “Min-kuo ch’i-chien Nan-ching shih chih-kuan nien-piao,” p. 48. Eykholt, “Living the Limits of Occupation in Nanjing,” p. 115. Nankin tokumu kikan March report, p. 66, in Inoue, Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, p. 164. Xu, LestW e Forget, pp. 117-18. Ibid., p. 198. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 184. Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 161-62. O n the Committee’s reluctance to name Chinese assisting in its work to protect them from reprisals, see p. 134. “Report from the Nanking Office of the German Embassy to the Foreign Ministry” (20 Janu­ ary 1938), in Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 146. Smythe, letter of 8 March 1938, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 307.

226

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:13 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

10

W e s t e r n e r s in O c c u p i e d N a n k in g : D e ce m be r 1937 t o F e b r u a r y 1938 D a v id Askew

Introduction T h e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N a n k in g S a fe ty Z o n e (N S Z ) c o m ­ p ris e d a c u rio u s m ix o f p e o p le : A m e ric a n m is sio n a rie s a n d a c a d e m ic s, C h i­ nese C h r is tia n a n d R e d C ro ss w o rk e rs, a G e rm a n N a z i b u s in e s s m a n , m e m b e rs o f th e R e d S w astik a S o c ie ty (R S S , a c h a rita b le b o d y ), a n d fig u res f ro m th e N a n k in g u n d e rw o rld . T h e I C h a d to d eal n o t o n ly w ith Ja p a n e se c o n q u e ro rs , b u t also w ith C h in e s e w h o su ffe re d u n d e r, c o o p e ra te d w ith , a n d ac tiv e ly resisted th e m . In S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 7 J o h n R a b e w ro te , “ [a]ll th e ric h o r b e tte ro f f C h in e s e b e g a n so m e tim e ago to flee u p th e Y angtze to H a n k o w ,” a n d in N o v e m b e r h e n o te d th e h e a v y tra ffic p o u r in g o u t o f th e city .1 Yet a sm a ll g ro u p o f W e ste rn e rs ch o se n o t to r e tu r n h o m e , b u t to re m a in a n d p r o te c t th o se C h in e s e to o p o o r to flee. T h e se W e ste rn e rs w o u ld fo rm th e n u c le u s o f th e IC , w h ic h w as in s p ire d b y a s im ila r c o m m itte e th a t F a th e r J a c q u in o t de B esange h a d set u p in S h a n g h a i. M a n y c re d it W . P lu m e r M ills as th e first to su g g e st c re a tin g a sa fe ty z o n e in N a n k in g . O n 17 N o v e m b e r, M ills, M in e r S. B ates, a n d L ew is C . S. S m y th e v isite d th e h o m e o f W illy s R. P eck, U .S . e m ­ b assy co u n selo r, to in f o rm h im o f th e ir p la n s to e sta b lish a refu g ee zo n e , a n d also ask ed fo r n e g o tia tio n s w ith Ja p a n e se a n d C h in e s e a u th o ritie s fo r its fo r­ m a l re c o g n itio n . M in n ie V a u tr in w ro te to th e e m b a ssy o n th e sa m e d a y to p ro p o s e a sa fe ty zo n e . O n 19 N o v e m b e r, R a b e n o te d , “A n I n te r n a tio n a l C o m ­ m itte e h as b e e n f o rm e d __ T h e y w a n t to tr y to c re a te a refu g ee c a m p , o r b e t­ ter, a n e u tra l zo n e in sid e o r o u ts id e th e city, w h e re n o n c o m b a ta n ts c a n ta k e refu g e in case th e c ity co m es u n d e r fire .”2 A t th is stag e, th e a im en v isag e d w as to p ro v id e a p la ce o f refu g e d u r in g th e a tta c k . O n c e th e c ity fell, h o w ev er, th e

227

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

IC h a d to ta k e o n o th e r d u tie s: to feed , h o u se , a n d p r o te c t th e c iv ilia n p o p ­ u la tio n fro m Ja p a n e se in v a d e rs. As M ills n o te d in la te Ja n u a ry , “th e c h ie f u se­ fu ln ess o f th e Z o n e h as b e e n in th e m e a su re o f p r o te c tio n it h a s a ffo rd e d to th e p e o p le sin ce th e o c c u p a tio n .”3 A n “I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e fo r E s ta b lis h in g a N e u tr a l Z o n e fo r N o n ­ c o m b a ta n ts in N a n k in g ” m e t o n 2 2 N o v e m b e r. A s a G e r m a n n a tio n a l w ith w h o m , it w as th o u g h t, th e Ja p a n e se w o u ld b e m o re w illin g to n e g o tia te , R a b e w as ele c te d ch a ir.4 T h is c o m m itte e s e n t a te le g ra m to th e Ja p a n e se a m b a ssa d o r in S h a n g h a i th a t re a d in p a rt, “A n in te r n a tio n a l c o m m itte e c o m p o s e d o f n a tio n a ls o f D e n m a r k , G e rm a n y , G re a t B rita in , a n d th e U n ite d S tate s, desires to su g g est to th e C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se a u th o ritie s th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a S afety Z o n e fo r C iv ilia n R efu g ees in th e u n f o r tu n a te e v e n t o f h o s tilitie s a t or n e a r N a n k in g .” T h e IC s o u g h t g u a ra n te e s f ro m C h in e s e a u th o ritie s th a t th is n e u tra l refu g ee zo n e , th e N S Z , “b e m a d e a n d k e p t fre e” o f “m ilita ry e s ta b ­ lis h m e n ts ” a n d “a rm e d m e n ” (o th e r th a n p o lic e ). It also sta te d th a t “passage o f so ld iers o r m ilita ry officers in a n y c a p a c ity ” th r o u g h th e N S Z w o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d .5 T h o u g h e stim a te s o f its size differ, th e N S Z m e a s u re d a b o u t o n e - e ig h th o f th e c ity in its n o r th w e s te r n p a r t.6 T h e site w as c h o s e n o n “th e ad v ice o f fo r­ eig n m ilita ry o b se rv e rs” su c h as M a j. [recte: C a p ta in ] F ra n k M . R o b e rts, assis­ ta n t m ilita ry a tta c h e a t th e U .S . em bassy, fo r h a v in g “th e le ast m ilita ry v a lu e .”7 N o t all C h in e s e a u th o ritie s w e lc o m e d th is id e a. J o h n R a b e ta lk e d w ith o n e m ilita ry officer w h o w as “v ery close to th e g e n e ra lis s im o ,” a n d m a y h av e re ­ flec ted C h ia n g K a i-sh e k ’s p o s itio n . T h is o fficer w as a b s o lu te ly o p p o s e d to th e N S Z , saying, “N a n k in g m u s t b e d e fe n d e d to th e la st m a n . . . [ w ith o u t th e Safety] Z o n e , p e o p le n o w flo o d in g in to th e Z o n e c o u ld h av e h e lp e d o u r so l­ d ie rs .” B u t o n 25 N o v e m b e r, C h ia n g a g re ed to th e sc h e m e , a n d 4 days later, N a n k in g m a y o r M a C h ’a o -c h u n fo rm a lly a n n o u n c e d th e fo rm a tio n o f th e I C .8 A fte r M a fled th e c ity o n 7 D e c e m b e r, th e IC w as le ft in ch a rg e o f th e re m a in in g c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n o f so m e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . O n 2 7 N o v e m b e r, R a b e te le g ra m m e d H itle r fo r h e lp in g a in in g re c o g n i­ tio n fo r th e N S Z , a n d th e I C ask ed th e Ja p a n e se fo r a q u ic k re sp o n se . O n 1 D e c e m b e r, F a th e r J a c q u in o t rela y ed th e ir rep ly in a le s s -th a n -p e rfe c t E n g lish tra n s la tio n : “Ja p an e se a u th o ritie s h av e d u ly n o te d re q u e s t fo r safety z o n e b u t re g re t c a n n o t g r a n t it. In th e e v e n t o f C h in e s e fo rces m is b e h a v io r to w a rd s civ ilian s a n d o r p r o p e rty c a n n o t a ssu m e re sp o n sib ility , b u t th e y th e m se lv es w ill e n d e a v o r to re sp e c t th e d is tric t as far as c o n s is te n t w ith m ilita ry n ecessity .”9 T h e Ja p a n e se d o u b te d th a t th e IC c o u ld k ee p th e N S Z d e m ilita riz e d , b u t th e I C w as p le a se d w ith th is an sw er, fin d in g it “g en e rally fa v o ra b le ,” a n d th e la st p a rt, “v e ry sa tisfa c to ry .” D e fe n se c o m m a n d e r, G e n . T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , how ever, re p o rte d ly a d m itte d to th e fo re ig n press o n 2 7 N o v e m b e r th a t “d is­ o r d e r ” w as in e v ita b le as d e fe a te d C h in e s e so ld iers w ere p u s h e d b a c k in to th e city. T h e Ja p a n e se c ite d th is “e x tra o rd in a ry a d m is s io n ” as p r o o f th a t “C h in e s e 228

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

g u a ra n te e s th a t th e m ilita ry w o u ld n o t p e n e tra te th e p ro p o s e d N a n k in g sa fe ty z o n e are p ra c tic a lly w o rth le s s .” E v en so, th e IC d e c id e d to p ro c e e d , n o tin g to F a th e r J a c q u in o t o n 3 D e c e m b e r, th a t “ [a]t th e p ro p e r tim e a n d a fte r in s p e c ­ tio n [we] w ill fo rm a lly n o tif y b o th C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se a u th o ritie s th a t [the] Z o n e is in o p e r a tio n .”10 O n 1 D e c e m b e r, “M a y o r M a v irtu a lly tu r n e d o v er to us th e a d m in is tra ­ tiv e re sp o n sib ilitie s fo r th e S afety Z o n e to g e th e r w ith a p o lic e fo rc e o f 4 5 0 m e n , 1 0 ,0 0 0 p ic u ls ( 2 ,0 0 0 to n s) o f rice, 1 0 ,0 0 0 b ag s o f flo u r, a n d so m e salt, also a p ro m is e o f C $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 in ca sh — C $ 8 0 ,0 0 0 o f w h ic h w as s u b s e q u e n tly re c e iv e d .”11 As n o te d in th e n e x t se c tio n , 3 0 ,0 0 0 p ic u ls o f rice w ere p ro m is e d as w ell, b u t th e IC se c u re d o n ly 1 0 ,0 0 0 . In a la te r le tte r a d d re sse d to th e Ja p a n e se em bassy, th e IC sp e lle d o u t its a d m in is tra tiv e re sp o n sib ilitie s in m o re d etail, to in c lu d e “p o lic e , su p e rv is io n o f e sse n tia l u tilitie s, fire d e p a r tm e n t, h o u s in g re g u la tio n , fo o d su p p ly , a n d s a n ita tio n .”12 T h e I C se t u p a n u m b e r o f s u b g ro u p s to d eal w ith th o se areas: fo o d , h o u s in g , a n d s a n ita tio n . A f o u rth s u b g ro u p th a t d e a lt w ith re h a b ilita tio n , w as a d d e d la te r.13 O n 4 D e c e m b e r, th e Ja p a n e se a m b a ssa d o r to C h in a re ite ra te d to h is U .S . c o u n te r p a r t th a t, b e c a u se o f “C h in e s e m ilita ry e s ta b lis h m e n ts in a n d a ro u n d th e said a re a ,” a n d b e c a u se th e IC c o u ld n o t p re v e n t C h in e s e tro o p s fro m u sin g th e N S Z fo r m ilita ry p u rp o se s, J a p a n c o u ld n o t p ro m is e n o t to a tta c k it, b u t a t th e sa m e tim e w o u ld re fra in f ro m d o in g so i f C h in e s e tro o p s d id n o t e n te r it fo r su c h p u rp o s e s .14 M a y o r M a h a d fled o n 7 D ec em b e r, so th e IC to o k over as N a n k in g ’s de facto g o v e rn m e n t th e n e x t day. As R a b e n o te d , h e w as “lik e a n a c tin g m a y o r.” T h e IC fac ed h u g e p ro b le m s: m o v in g C h in e s e refu g ees in to th e N S Z , a rra n g in g its fin an c es, p o lic in g it to k ee p o u t m ilita ry e le m e n ts, a n d p ro v id in g fo o d , h o u s in g , tr a n s p o r ta tio n , u tilitie s, a n d s a n ita ­ tio n . C h ia n g K a i-sh e k p ro m is e d th e IC $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 o n 2 9 N o v e m b e r. A c c o rd ­ in g to R ab e, $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 w as p a id o n 1 D e c e m b e r, a n d a n o th e r $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 o n 7 D e c e m b e r. T w o co lo n els, L u n g a n d C h o w , d e p o s ite d a f u r th e r C $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 o n 12 D e c e m b e r.15 D a v id M a g e e rec eiv e d $ 2 3 ,0 0 0 fo r th e R e d C ro ss o n 10 D e c e m b e r as w e ll.16 A ll so u rce s agree th a t, o f th e $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p ro m ise d , $ 8 0 ,0 0 0 w as receiv ed , so a n a d d itio n a l $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 m u s t h av e b e e n p a id to th e IC a t so m e p o in t in tim e . T h e IC p ro v e d a d e p t a t fu n d -ra is in g . It e n jo y e d a n in c o m e o f $ 4 5 4 ,0 0 0 f ro m 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to 31 M a y 1 9 3 8 , w ith a f u rth e r $ 9 6 ,0 0 0 f ro m 1 J u n e 1 9 3 8 to 3 0 A p ril 1 9 3 9 .17

Diplomacy O n e rela tiv e ly u n k n o w n s to ry is th e ro le th a t th e IC p la y e d in tr y in g to arra n g e a tru c e b e fo re th e c ity fell. T h is a tte m p t u ltim a te ly failed , b u t deserves r e c o g n itio n as a n ex a m p le o f g ra ssro o ts d ip lo m a c y . It w as clear th a t th e fo r­ eig n c o m m u n ity h a d a g o o d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e s itu a tio n as th e Ja p a n e se 229

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

ad v a n c e d o n N a n k in g . A c c o rd in g to Li T su n g -je n , w h o a tte n d e d th e m e e tin g w h e re C h ia n g d e c id e d to d e fe n d th e city, G e r m a n m ilita ry ad v isers h a d a rg u e d a g a in st m a k in g a s ta n d b ec au se th e c ity c o u ld n o t b e d e fe n d e d , b u t C h ia n g o v e rru le d th e m . W o rd o f th is le a k e d o u t. O n 2 8 N o v e m b e r, th e IC d e b a te d w h e th e r to u rg e th e C h in e s e to s u rre n d e r th e c ity p e a c e fu lly sin c e, “f ro m a m ilita ry p o in t o f v ie w a n y d efe n se o f N a n k in g is a b s u rd .”18 T h e IC d e c id e d to w a it b efo re c o m m u n ic a tin g th is to th e C h in e s e a u th o ritie s , b u t its o p in ­ io n re m a in e d u n c h a n g e d . O n 6 D e c e m b e r, R a b e w ro te th a t “G e n . v o n F alk e n h a u s e n a n d all th e G e rm a n ad v isers h av e p o in te d o u t th a t th is [defense] is h o p e le s s .” T h e C h in e s e m a y h av e rea lize d th a t th e y c o u ld n o t h o ld th e city, b u t w a n te d to in flic t d a m a g e o n th e Ja p a n e se a n d b u y tim e fo r o th e r m ilita ry u n its to escape. W . P lu m e r M ills, a t least, th o u g h t th is m ig h t h av e b e e n th e case. “It w as p e rfe c tly clear ... th a t th e C h in e s e c o u ld n o t h o ld th e city, th o u g h n o t so clear th a t th e y m ig h t n o t b e ab le to m a k e it s o m e w h a t co stly fo r th e J a p a n e s e .” It is th u s n o su rp rise th a t th e I C trie d to o rg a n iz e th e c ity ’s s u r­ re n d e r. A s ju s t n o te d , R a b e ask ed H itle r to in te rc e d e w ith th e Ja p a n e se to g a in r e c o g n itio n o f th e N S Z , a n d th e A m e ric a n s u se d d ip lo m a tic c h a n n e ls to u rg e th e m to re sp e c t i t . 19 O n 9 D e c e m b e r, th e Ja p a n e se sc a tte re d leaflets c a llin g fo r a p e a c e fu l s u r­ re n d e r. O n th e sa m e day, th e I C u rg e d G e n . T ’a n g to a b a n d o n p la n s to d e fe n d th e city. R a b e w ro te : “ To m y g re a t a m a z e m e n t, T ’a n g agrees to d o so i f w e ca n g e t th e p e rm is s io n o f G e n e ra liss im o C h ia n g K a i-s h e k .”20 T h is v o lte -fa c e b y c o m m a n d e r T ’an g , w h o h a d a d v o c a te d d e fe n d in g N a n k in g to th e la st m a n , w as re p o r te d in th e c o n te m p o ra ry p ress, a n d it is p o ssib le th a t th e I C d e lib ­ erately le a k e d w o rd o f th e p la n to b r in g in te r n a tio n a l p re ssu re o n th e C h i­ nese. O n 10 D e c e m b e r, th e London Times r e p o rte d , th e I C a p p e a le d fo r a th re e -d a y tru c e “as m a n y th o u s a n d s o f C h in e s e civ ilia n s are still in th e city b u t n o t in th e z o n e ,” a n d th e N ew York Times m is to o k th is as “to e n a b le th o u ­ sa n d s o f C h in e s e n o n c o m b a ta n ts c o n c e n tra te d w ith in th e z o n e to e sc a p e .”21 T h e I C ’s p la n w as a c tu a lly m o re a m b itio u s ; it h o p e d to a rra n g e a th re e -d a y tru c e , d u r in g w h ic h th e C h in e s e m ilita ry w o u ld leave N a n k in g a n d th e n h a n d over a n e u tra l c ity to th e Ja p a n e se . O n th e e v e n in g o f 9 D e c e m b e r, R a b e, M ills, a n d M in e r S. B ates b o a rd e d th e U S S Panay, a n d s e n t tw o te leg ram s: o n e to Ja p a n e se m ilita ry a u th o ritie s in S h a n g h a i, th e o th e r to C h ia n g K aish ek . T h e Ja p a n e se m a y h a v e b e e n h a p p y w ith th e id ea; it w as v ery close to th e p ro p o s a l th a t c o m m a n d in g g e n e ra l M a ts u i Iw a n e h a d m a d e th e sa m e day. B u t C h ia n g re je c te d th is o n 10 D e c e m b e r.22 T ’a n g n e x t a p p ro a c h e d th e IC o n 12 D e c e m b e r, a sk in g it ag a in to a rra n g e a 3 -d a y tru c e . T h is tim e it w as “tr a n s p a re n tly c le a r” to R a b e “th a t G e n e ra l T a n g w a n te d to c o n c lu d e a n a rm istic e w ith o u t th e g e n e ra lis sim o ’s c o n s e n t.” E d u a rd S p e rlin g ag re ed to w a lk th r o u g h th e lin e s c a rry in g a p ro p o s a l, b u t it w as n o w to o late. As F. T illm a n D u r d in n o te d , “G e n e ra l T a n g . . . in th e fin al days w as a lm o s t f ra n tic in h is e ffo rts to o b ta in a tru c e , b u t th e C h in e s e col230

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

lap se cam e to o q u ic k ly to p e r m it th e fo rm u la tio n o f a rra n g e m e n ts fro m th e C h in e s e s id e .” G e o rg e F itc h a n d R a b e also a g re ed th a t th is s e c o n d a tte m p t w as to o late, sa y in g th a t th e Ja p a n e se w ere a lre a d y a t th e g a te s.23 W h ile h e fra n tic a lly trie d to a rra n g e a tru c e , T ’a n g also m a d e p la n s fo r h is o w n escape. T h e c ity fell w h e n h e a b a n d o n e d h is tro o p s a n d fled . In d e e d , o n e m a jo r re a ­ so n fo r Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s in a n d a r o u n d N a n k in g w as th e la c k o f a fo rm a l s u rre n d e r a n d th e fa c t th a t C h in e s e tro o p s sh e d th e ir u n ifo rm s to h id e a m o n g civ ilian s in th e N S Z . T h e Ja p a n e se c o u ld n o t b e su re w h o w as a n ex -so lid er a n d w h o w as a civ ilia n , a n d th e IC re fu se d to h e lp th e m id e n tify C h in e s e m il­ ita ry p e rs o n n e l fo r o b v io u s re a so n s. T h e p o te n tia l th r e a t o f g u e rilla -ty p e resis­ ta n c e — in c lu d in g s n ip e r a tta c k s (esp e cia lly g iv e n th e p re se n c e o f Im p e ria l P rin c e A sak a Y asu h ik o ), sa b o ta g e o f k e y in s titu tio n s , a n d a tta c k s o n Ja p a n e se tro o p s — allo w ed th e Ja p a n e se to ju s tify th e ir e ffo rts to id e n tify C h in e s e fo r­ m e r so ld iers. S in ce m a n y o f th e m so id e n tifie d w ere e x e c u te d — m y e s tim a te in c h a p te r 5 is ro u g h ly 5 ,0 0 0 — th is e ffo rt in e v ita b ly ca u se d c iv ilia n casu a ltie s.

Policing and Neutrality D e s p ite c o n c e rte d a tte m p ts to re m o v e C h in e s e so ld iers f ro m th e N S Z , th e IC w as u n a b le to d o so even th o u g h it w as g iv e n a p o lic e fo rc e o f 4 5 0 m e n . L ater, th e IC p ro v e d to b e h elp less afte r th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p ie d th e city. In fac t, m a n y o f th e se p o lic e b e c a m e v ic tim s o f re le n tle ss Ja p a n e se search es fo r C h in e s e so l­ d iers. O n 16 D e c e m b e r, fifty u n if o rm e d p o lic e m e n a n d fo rty -six v o lu n te e rs w ere m a rc h e d off, a n d th e n e x t d a y a n o th e r f o rty u n if o rm e d p o lic e m e n w ere ta k e n . T h e I C n o d o u b t rig h tly a s su m e d th a t th e Ja p a n e se e x e c u te d th e se m e n , b u t so m e su rv iv ed , fo r L ew is S m y th e s ta te d th a t, as o f 2 2 D e c e m b e r “a b o u t h a lf o f th e [n in e ty u n ifo rm e d ] p o lic e h av e r e tu r n e d ,” a n d o n 9 J a n u a ry S m y th e also n o te d th a t 160 p o lic e w ere c o o p e ra tin g w ith th e N a n k in g S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t C o m m itte e (S G C ), s o m e tim e s also c ite d as th e A u to n o m o u s G o v e r n m e n t C o m m itte e , set u p b y th e J a p a n e se .24 O n 4 D e c e m b e r, R a b e fe lt g re a t fru s ­ tr a tio n a b o u t C h in e s e c o m b a ta n ts re fu sin g to leave th e N S Z , a n d re p o r te d th a t m o re w ere re p o r te d h id in g th e re th e n e x t day. T h is in a b ility to p o lic e th e N S Z m e a n t th a t, as th e Ja p a n e se h a d fea re d , its n e u tra lity c o u ld n o t b e g u a r­ a n te e d . T h e re w ere o th e r issues to o . O n 11 D e c e m b e r, C h in e s e p o lic e “n o m ­ in a lly u n d e r o u r c o n tr o l” a rre ste d a th ie f, a n d th e IC h a d to d e c id e w h a t to d o w ith h im . H e w as se n te n c e d to d e a th , p a rd o n e d , a n d o rd e re d in to tw e n ty f o u r h o u r s ’ c o n fin e m e n t, b u t rele ase d fo r la c k o f a ja il.25 T h e in a b ility to k eep C h in e s e tro o p s o u t o f th e N S Z gave th e Ja p a n e se a n excuse to g a th e r w e a p o n s, c o n d u c t m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s, a n d a rre st su sp e c te d so ld iers th e re in . T h e S e v e n th R e g im e n t, e n tru s te d w ith th is task , re p o r te d s e c u rin g 6 ,6 7 0 ex -so ld iers a n d , a m o n g o th e r th in g s , tw elve w a te r-c o o le d h e a v y m a c h in e g u n s, 133 lig h t m a ­ ch in e g uns, 5 5 ,1 2 2 h a n d gren ad es, 9 6 0 pistols, a n d fo u r tan k s. T h e “ex-soldiers” 231

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

w ere ex ecu ted , fo r as M a sa h iro Y a m a m o to n o te s, 6 ,6 7 0 a p p ro x im a te s th e 7 ,0 0 0 ro u n d s o f a m m u n itio n u se d f ro m 13 to 2 4 D e c e m b e r b y th e r e g im e n t.26 A fte r N a n k in g fell, W e ste rn e rs h e lp e d to p r o te c t th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n f ro m a g ro ssly u n d e r p o lic e d Ja p a n e se m ilita ry — th e re w ere in itia lly o n ly sev­ e n te e n m ilita ry p o lic e fo r th e 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 7 0 ,0 0 0 tro o p s in N a n k in g . A t th e sa m e tim e , c o lla b o ra tio n a n d re sista n c e e m e rg e d . M e m b e rs o f th e S G C h e lp e d th e Ja p an e se id e n tify C h in e s e ex -so ld iers, a n d th e re is e v id en c e th a t th e p o lic e p u n is h e d co llab o rato rs. O n 2 2 D e c e m b e r, S m y th e tells o f tw o C h in e se “cro n ie s” o f th e Ja p an e se “p u t . . . in safe k e e p in g .” T w o d ay s later, F itc h re p o r te d th a t th e se c o n d o f th e m , a sp y fo r th e Ja p a n e se , h a d b e e n c a u g h t: “ I ju s t saved h im fro m a b a d b e a tin g , so [I] lo c k e d h im u p in o u r b a s e m e n t a n d la te r tu r n e d h im over to th e C h in e s e p o lic e . W h a t w ill th e y d o to h im ? S tra n g le h im I s u p p o s e — b u t I hav e to ld th e m to b e c a re fu l [i.e., k ill h im q u ie tly ]!”27 F itc h a n d S m y th e are s ile n t a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d to th e o th e r m a n , b u t h e to o m u s t hav e b e e n k ille d q u ie tly . T h is is o n e a sp e c t o f th e IC th a t h is to ria n s h av e n e g le c te d to d ate. IC m e m b e rs fo u g h t to g u a ra n te e th e n e u tra lity o f th e N S Z , b u t failed in th e e n d b ec au se th e y c o u ld n o t p o lic e it. O n 3 D e c e m b e r, R a b e re p o r te d th a t th re e “n e w tre n c h e s a n d /o r fo u n d a tio n s fo r a n ti-a irc ra ft b a tte rie s are b e in g d u g in th e Z o n e .” H e th r e a te n e d to re sig n i f th is w o rk w as n o t im m e d ia te ly s to p p e d , a n d rec eiv e d w ritte n c o n firm a tio n th a t h is w ish e s w o u ld b e re sp e c te d . Yet o n 4 D e c e m b e r, h e la m e n te d , “ [s]o ld iers c o n tin u e to b u ild n e w tre n c h e s a n d in s ta ll m ilita ry te le p h o n e s in sid e th e S afety Z o n e .” T h e n e x t day, h e v isite d c o m m a n d e r T ’an g , w h o sa id th a t th e m ilita ry c o u ld n o t b e re m o v e d fo r a n o th e r tw o w eek s. “A n a s ty b lo w ,” R a b e w ro te : “ [i]t m e a n s th a t th e J a p a n ­ ese c o n d itio n th a t n o C h in e s e so ld iers are to b e allo w ed in th e Z o n e w ill n o t b e fu lfilled . F o r n o w a t le ast w e c a n n o t ev en th in k o f c la im in g to h av e a ‘S afety Z o n e ,’ a t m o s t i t ’s a ‘refu g ee z o n e ’.” R a b e w e n t o n , “ D r. [G eo rg ] R o se n curses th e C h in e s e m ilita ry ro u n d ly for, as h e d escrib es it, h a v in g s lu n k in to o u r Z o n e , b ecau se i t ’s safer n e x t to all th o se v a c a n t h o u se s w ith G e rm a n flags th a n it is o u ts id e th e Z o n e . I c a n ’t sw ear th a t i t ’s tru e . B u t th e fa c t is th a t G e n e ra l T ’a n g h im s e lf receiv e d us to d a y in a h o u s e in sid e th e refu g ee z o n e .” C h in e s e tro o p s w ere re p o rte d h id in g in th e N S Z o n 5 D e c e m b e r. T h re e days la te r R a b e w ro te , “w e m u s t d eal w ith e n d less e n c ro a c h m e n ts b y th e m ilita ry , w h o still hav e n o t le ft o u r Z o n e a n d a p p a re n tly are in n o h u r r y to d o s o ,” a n d “ [w]e are all close to desp air. C h in e s e m ilita ry h e a d q u a rte rs is o u r w o rs t p r o b le m .” O n 9 D e c e m b e r, th e IC d isc o v e re d “a ro w o f a n ti-a irc ra ft b a tte rie s w ith in th e s o u th w e s t b o r d e r o f o u r Z o n e .”28 T h e n e x t day, R a b e w ro te th a t it w as “a c ry in g sh a m e th a t th e E u ro p e a n w a r re p o rte rs w h o are still h e re c a n ’t tell th e w h o le tr u th . C e rta in p e o p le sh o u ld b e ex p o sed fo r n o t alw ays k e e p in g th e ir p ro m is e to rid th e Z o n e o f th e m ilita ry .”29 O n 11 D e c e m b e r, R a b e s ta te d , “th e re are still a rm e d so ld ie rs in s id e ” th e N S Z , so th e I C “c a n n o t te ll th e Ja p a n e se , as w as o u r in te n tio n , th a t th e 232

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

Z o n e is n o w free o f all m ilita ry .” L a te r th a t day, h e n o te d th a t tre n c h e s w ere b e in g d u g in sid e th e N S Z o u tsid e th e K u lo u ( D r u m F low er) H o sp ita l. T h e n e x t day, “ [a]ll over o u r Z o n e y o u still see C h in e s e tro o p s w ith y ello w a rm b a n d s a n d a rm e d to th e te e th w ith rifles, p isto ls, a n d h a n d g re n a d e s .” T h e p o lic e w ere a rm e d w ith rifles “ [c ]o n tra ry to all a g re e m e n ts .”30 T h u s th e N S Z w as n o t d e m ilita riz e d d e s p ite I C assu ra n ce s, y e t it is clear th a t th e Ja p a n e se n e v ­ erth e less stro v e to sp a re it fro m a rtille ry a tta c k s. D r. R o b e rt W ils o n a d m itte d th is, w ritin g o n 14 D e c e m b e r th a t “ [t]h e Ja p a n e se se e m e d to re sp e c t th e sa fe ty z o n e re m a rk a b ly w ith th e ir b ig g u n fire .”31 R a b e also w ro te th a t th e N S Z h a d b e e n sp a re d ex cep t fo r a tim e b e tw e e n th e e v e n in g o f 12 D e c e m b e r a n d 13 D e c e m b e r, a n d th a t th is a tta c k w as u n d e rs ta n d a b le g iv e n th e “v a rio u s c ir­ c u m s ta n c e s ,” re fe rrin g to th e W u ta is h a n a n tia irc ra ft b a tte r y o n th e s o u th e rn b o r d e r o f th e Z o n e . A r th u r M e n k e n also n o te d th a t “ [t]h e Ja p a n e se re fra in e d f ro m b o m b in g th e sa fe ty z o n e .” T h e I C ’s first le tte r to Ja p a n e se a u th o ritie s s ta te d , “ [w ]e co m e to th a n k y o u fo r th e fin e w ay y o u r a rtille ry sp a re d th e S afety Z o n e .”32 N o te , h o w ev er, th e p o litic s o f th e s ta te m e n t: th e d e c isio n to p o se as g ra te fu l s u p p lic a n ts m a y w ell h a v e b e e n a stra te g ic o n e , a n d d o es n o t n ec essarily m e a n th a t th e N S Z w as in fa c t sp a re d b y th e Ja p a n e se fo r h u m a n ­ ita ria n reaso n s.

Food T h e C h in e s e v ic tim iz a tio n n a rra tiv e o n N a n k in g em p h a siz e s th a t th e IC d e fe n d e d th e lives o f re s id e n ts fro m Ja p a n e se in v a d e rs o v er a n d ab o v e o th e r d u ite s, s u c h as h u m a n ita ria n w o rk in o b ta in in g a n d tr a n s p o r tin g p ro v isio n s to th e N S Z . IC m e m b e rs th e m se lv e s, h o w ev er, b eliev e d th a t th e real th r e a t o f large-scale civ ilian d e a th s d e riv e d m a in ly f ro m a la c k o f fo o d . R a b e sa id as m u c h to th e Ja p an e se e m b a ssy o n 17 D e c e m b e r: “I t is h a rd to see h o w s ta r­ v a tio n m a y b e p re v e n te d a m o n g s t m a n y o f th e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e civ ilia n s if o rd e r is n o t re s to re d a t o n c e a m o n g s t th e Ja p a n e se so ld iers in th e city .”33 A lth o u g h th is m ig h t b e se en as a n e x a m p le o f rh e to ric , p riv a te le tte rs a n d d ia ries reveal s im ila r fee lin g s. F o r R ab e, Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n w as less d a n g e r­ o u s fo r d ire c tly k illin g larg e n u m b e rs o f civ ilian s, b u t r a th e r fo r d is r u p tin g th e flo w o f fo o d , a n d th e IC as a w h o le sh a re d h is c o n c e rn . O n 3 0 N o v e m ­ ber, S m y th e in f o rm e d R a b e b y te le p h o n e th a t 6 0 ,0 0 0 sacks o f ric e w ere in N a n k in g , a n d a n o th e r 3 4 ,0 0 0 w ere a t H s ia k w a n o u ts id e th e c ity w alls. T h e n e x t day, th e IC w as p ro m is e d 3 0 ,0 0 0 sacks o f ric e a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 sacks o f flour, b u t la c k e d th e m e a n s to tr a n s p o r t it in to th e N S Z . R a b e n o te d th a t “larg e q u a n titie s ” o f th is p ro m is e d s u p p ly h a d b e e n p ilfe re d b y th e C h in e s e m ilita ry a n d th a t, a d ay la ter, “o n ly 1 5 ,0 0 0 sacks o f ric e ” w ere left. R a b e w as m o re d ip lo m a tic to w a rd H itle r, fo r h e d id n o t m e n tio n th e C h in e s e m ilita ry c o n ­ fisc a tin g fo o d , b u t sa id o n ly th a t th e IC la c k e d tru c k s to c a rry rice, so o n ly 233

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

a b o u t 9 ,0 0 0 sacks o f rice a n d 2 ,0 0 0 sacks o f flo u r w ere se c u re d . E lse w h e re, h e n o te s th a t n o flo u r w as se c u re d , a lth o u g h 1 ,0 0 0 b ag s w ere o b ta in e d fro m a se p a ra te so u rce , th e T a T u n g F lo u r M ill. O n 7 D e c e m b e r, R a b e w ro te th a t th e IC h a d m a n a g e d “a t b e s t to g e t a q u a rte r o f th e fo o d p ro m is e d us in to th e Z o n e .”34 T h is p e rh a p s e x p la in s w h y G e o rg e F itc h sa id th e IC w as p ro m is e d o n ly 1 0 ,0 0 0 p ic u ls o f rice. T h e IC k e p t th is in f o rm a tio n f ro m th e Ja p a n e se , la te r s ta tin g in a 2 7 D e c e m b e r le tte r th a t it “su c c e e d e d in m o v in g 1 0 ,0 0 0 tan [piculs] o f ric e a n d 1 .0 0 0 bags o f flo u r in to th e Z o n e . T h e r e m a in d e r w e h o p e d to g e t as so o n as th e fig h tin g w as o v e r.”35 T h e stra te g y w as as follow s: p r e te n d to b eliev e th a t rice w as w a itin g to b e p ic k e d u p a n d h o p e th a t th e Ja p a n e se w o u ld m a k e u p fo r a n y s h o rtfa ll. A s S y m th e said: “w e s h o u ld ju s t assu m e w e h a d a rig h t to th e r e m a in d e r o f th e 3 0 ,0 0 0 tan o f rice, a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 b ag s o f flo u r.” T h e sa m e le tte r also n o te d th a t th e C h in e s e m ilita ry h a d a n o th e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 tan o f rice “m o s t o f w h ic h fell in to y o u r h a n d s ,” b u t a close r e a d in g o f v a rio u s te x ts sh o w s th a t th e 3 0 ,0 0 0 tan o f ric e p ro m is e d to th e IC w as in c lu d e d in th e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 tan in a n d a r o u n d N a n k in g .36 I t is also clear th a t th e C h in e s e w o u ld h av e d e s tro y e d th is s u p p ly r a th e r th a n s u r re n d e r it to th e Ja p a n e se . T h is d e c e p tio n w as e x te n d e d to o fficials a t th e U .S ., B ritish , a n d G e r m a n em b assies. In a le t­ te r to th e m d a te d 2 6 Ja n u a ry , R a b e w ro te th a t, o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 b ag s o f rice a n d 1 0 .0 0 0 sacks o f flo u r, th e I C h a d rec eiv e d o n ly 1 0 ,0 0 0 b ag s o f rice, s ta tin g th a t “Ja p an e se a u th o ritie s ” h a d “c o n fis c a te d ” th e re st ( 1 0 ,0 0 0 b ag s o f rice at n in e ty -six k ilo g ra m s each , a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 sacks o f flo u r a t fifty p o u n d s each ), a n d ask ed fo r s u p p o r t f ro m th e em b assies in g e ttin g th e Ja p a n e se to m a k e u p th e d iffe re n c e .37 To H itle r, R a b e re p o r te d th a t a C h in e s e frie n d p ro m is e d h im tw o tru c k s a n d 1 ,0 0 0 sacks o f flo u r b u t o n ly o n e tr u c k a n d 100 sacks o f flo u r a c tu a lly arriv ed . H is d ia ry gave a slig h tly d iffe re n t v e rsio n : o n 2 3 N o v e m b e r h e w as o ffe re d “tw o tru c k s w ith 100 ca n iste rs o f g aso lin e a n d 2 0 0 sacks o f f lo u r” b y a C h in e s e frie n d o f o n e o f h is w o rk e rs. T h e b e n e fa c to r, it la te r b e ­ co m es clear, w as a M r. S u n g , th e p r o p rie to r o f th e I -H o - T u n g B ric k W o rk s, a n d w h a t in itia lly tu r n e d u p w as o n e e m p ty tru c k , even th o u g h R a b e la te r o b ta in e d all th e g aso lin e a n d tw e n ty sacks o f flo u r.38 T h e IC th u s se c u re d o n ly p a r t o f w h a t it w a n te d , a n d n e v e r h a d e n o u g h fo o d afte r th e c ity fell. O n 21 D e c e m b e r, W e s te rn n a tio n a ls in N a n k in g w ro te to th e Ja p a n e se em bassy, s ta tin g th a t th e I C “h as reserv e fo o d s u p p lie s to feed th e se 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le [th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n ] o n e w e e k o n ly .” O n C h r is t­ m a s Eve, F itc h w ro te to frie n d s th a t th e IC h a d “e n o u g h rice a n d flo u r fo r th e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 refug ees fo r a n o th e r th re e w eek s a n d co al fo r te n d a y s .”39 O n 2 6 D e c e m b e r, R a b e w ro te th a t it w as “g e ttin g m o re a n d m o re d iffic u lt to feed th e 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le ,” b u t h e w as “n o t th a t p e s sim is tic ” even th o u g h S m y th e e s tim a te d rice reserves w o u ld o n ly la st a w ee k . O n 6 Ja n u a ry , R a b e w ro te th a t th e Ja p a n e se h a d ag re ed to sell ric e a n d flo u r to th e IC , a n d th a t it h a d p u r ­ ch ased rice a n d coal. B y 10 Ja n u a ry , w h e n th e N a n k in g p o p u la tio n h a d rise n 234

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

b y 5 0 ,0 0 0 , “ [s]o m e 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 are h e re , a lm o st all in th e S afety Z o n e a n d fu lly 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 e n tire ly d e p e n d e n t o n th e I C fo r fo o d a n d s h e lte r.” O n 13 Ja n u ary , P a u l S c h a rffe n b e rg o f th e G e rm a n e m b a ssy sa id th a t fo o d w as “d a n g e ro u sly s h o r t,” a n d p e o p le h a d s ta rte d “to ea t h o rse a n d d o g m e a t.” O n 16 Ja n u ary , a n o th e r m e m b e r w ro te th a t “fo o d su p p lie s are v e ry s h o r t” a n d th a t th e IC h a d “rice o n h a n d fo r a b o u t th re e w e e k s.” S m y th e w ro te , “w e fac ed th e d a ily fear [ th a t]o u r rice w o u ld n o t h o ld o u t . ”40 T h e d isc re p a n c y b e tw e e n th e c la im to th e Ja p a n e se th a t fo o d w o u ld o n ly la st a w ee k a n d th e a d m issio n th a t 3 w ee k s’ w o r th w ere se c u re d is e x p la in e d b y a le tte r to th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy w h e re in R a b e sta te s, “ [i]f w e h a d to feed th e w h o le p o p u la tio n , o u r reserv e w o u ld n o t la st a w e e k .” A s o f 18 Ja n u ary , th e IC w as p ro v id in g 5 0 ,0 0 0 in d iv id u a ls w ith free ric e .41 S in c e th e IC c la im e d th a t it w as o n ly fe e d in g a b o u t a th ir d o f th e p o p u la tio n , su p p lie s s u ffic ie n t to la st th re e w eek s w o u ld o n ly la st o n e w e e k i f all w ere fed . S m y th e a n d F itc h m a d e ex actly th e sa m e p o in t: i f th e e n tire p o p u la tio n b e c a m e d e p e n d e n t o n th e I C ’s supply, “it w o u ld o n ly la st [for] th e 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le o n e w e e k .” T h e se referen c es su g g est a refu g ee p o p u la tio n o f 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 , fo r i f th e o n e - th ird b e in g fed re fe rre d to th e 6 5 ,0 0 0 to 7 0 ,0 0 0 in th e refu g ee c a m p s, th e e n tire p o p u ­ la tio n w o u ld b e 1 9 5 ,0 0 0 to 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 .42 Q u ite u n d e rs ta n d a b ly , th e IC m u s t hav e th o u g h t it b e s t to e m p h a siz e th e la c k o f fo o d , a n d n o t e x p lic itly te ll th e Ja p a n e se th a t su p p lie s m ig h t last o n ly th re e w eeks. O n 13 Ja n u ary , F itc h n o te d in a le tte r to th e a c tin g Ja p a n e se c o n su lgen eral F u k u i K iyo sh i th a t th e IC h a d p u rc h a se d 9 ,0 0 0 bags o f w h e a t a n d 3 ,0 0 0 o f rice fro m th e S h a n g h a i C o m m e rc ia l a n d S avings B a n k . T h e se fo o d stu ffs w ere lo c a te d , h e c laim e d , in a n d a ro u n d N a n k in g , a n d h e ask ed fo r p e rm is s io n to tr a n s p o r t th e se to th e N S Z . T h e Ja p a n e se a rm y w as u n a b le to lo c a te th e se s u p p lie s .43 T h e C h in e s e h a d d e lib e ra te ly sc o rc h e d s u b u r b a n areas a r o u n d N a n ­ k in g to d e n y th e Ja p a n e se co v er a n d to d e s tro y a n y th in g th a t m ig h t b e h e lp ­ fu l to th e m . L ater, th e C h in e s e a n d a v e ry h u n g r y Ja p a n e se a rm y lo o te d th e se areas. F u rth e rm o re , H s ia k w a n , w h e re th e ric e sto re s w ere lo c a te d , w as a n area th a t saw so m e o f th e fierce st fig h tin g w h e n th e c ity fell. B u t th e IC w as still tr y in g to g e t th e se su p p lie s a lm o st a w e e k la te r.44 It also u se d C h r is tia n n e t­ w o rk s to b r in g fo o d stu ffs fro m S h a n g h a i. O n 15 J a n u a ry R a b e to ld th e J a p a n ­ ese e m b assy th a t “a b o u t 6 0 0 to n s ” o f “s u p p le m e n ta r y fo o d s u p p lie s ” h a d b e e n se cu red , a n d ask ed fo r p e rm is s io n to sh ip th e se in to th e city. T h re e d ay s later, F itc h a n d th e IC ask ed S h a n g h a i fo r a n e x tra 1 0 0 to n s o f C h in e s e g re e n b e a n s to av e rt w id e s p re a d b e rib e ri (th e Ja p a n e se b lo c k e d a tte m p ts to h av e th is s h ip ­ m e n t b r o u g h t to th e city ). D e s p ite h u g e d ifficu lties, th e IC o b ta in e d e n o u g h fo o d to r u n so u p k itc h e n s th a t fed all n e e d y C h in e se in th e early w eeks o f th e o c c u p a tio n . A p a r t fro m a scare w ith b e rib e ri, n o diseases re la te d to n u tr iti o n b ro k e o u t.45 T h e en tire N a n k in g p o p u la tio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 w as cro w d ed in to th e N S Z , a n d r o u g h ly 6 5 ,0 0 0 to 7 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e m liv e d in refu g ee c a m p s th e re in . A ll o f th e m w ere d e p e n d e n t o n th e IC fo r fo o d , y e t n o o n e sta rv e d . 235

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

Medical Services A c c o u n ts o f th e n u m b e r o f m e d ic a l s ta ff in N a n k in g d iffe r slightly. A re p o rte r, A r th u r M e n k e n , says th a t “th e w o u n d e d w ere n o t c a re d f o r ” ex c e p t b y th re e A m e ric a n m is sio n a rie s.46 Yet th e IC w as clea rly k e e p in g a close eye o n th e s it­ u a tio n w ith re g a rd to m e d ic a l staff. O n 2 4 N o v e m b e r, R a b e n o te d th a t th re e C h in e s e d o c to rs h a d b o lte d , a n d “ [i]f th e A m e ric a n m is s io n a ry d o c to rs d o n ’t h o ld o u t, I d o n ’t k n o w w h a t w ill b e c o m e o f all th e m a n y c a su a ltie s.” T h e n e x t day, h e ex p ressed c o n c e rn a b o u t “th e d o c to r p r o b le m ,” a n d h is r e p o r t to H itle r s ta te d th a t th e o n ly m e d ic a l s ta ff w h o re m a in e d in th e c ity w ere D r. R o b e rt W ilso n , D r. C . S. T rim m e r, a n d tw o n u rses, G ra ce B a u er a n d Iva H y n d s . E rn e st F o rste r w ro te o n 12 D e c e m b e r th a t “o n ly th re e d o c to rs are le ft, W ils o n , T rim ­ m e r a n d a C h in e s e .”47 B u t W ils o n n o te d th a t, in a d d itio n to h im s e lf a n d T rim m e r, tw o C h in e s e d o c to rs w o rk e d in a h o s p ita l w ith in th e N S Z . T h e I n te r n a tio n a l R e d C ro ss C o m m itte e also c a re d fo r p a tie n ts in th re e m ilita ry h o s p ita ls a t th e K M T m in is trie s o f F o re ig n A ffairs, R ailw ay s, a n d W a r afte r C h in e s e d o c to rs a n d n u rse s h a d fled b e fo re th e c ity w as o c c u p ie d .48 A c c o rd in g to F. T illm a n D u r d in , as ea rly as N o v e m b e r: M any tim es m ore than 2,000 w ounded, after spending two to four days lying on straw in close-packed, jolting trucks or jarring freight cars en route to N anking, were left lying on concrete platform s at Hsiakwan railway station here in the bitter cold for two or three days and nights w ithout any dressings or sanitation whatever and often w ith­ out even drinking water and food__ T h e luckiest o f the w ounded on the concrete floors had a single straw m at and a sin­ gle cotton blanket while those on the un-walled station platform s— in some cases the roofs had been shattered— suffered u n to ld misery. T hey were exposed to sweeping rains. T heir clothes and bandages were soaking w et__ It is obvious that the few who can survive at all apparently are lacking sedatives and their m oans and cries are audi­ ble for blocks.49 A fte r th e c ity fell, all 5 0 0 o r so a b a n d o n e d C h in e s e m ilita ry p a tie n ts w ere m o v e d to th e m ilita ry h o s p ita l in th e M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A ffairs, w h e re J a p a n ­ ese d o c to rs cared fo r th e m . T h e Ja p a n e se a c te d o n a n IC r e c o m m e n d a tio n d a te d 14 D e c e m b e r: “ [i]f it is p o ssib le to p u t all th e w o u n d e d in it, w e su g ­ g est tra n s fe rrin g all th e C h in e s e w o u n d e d to th e M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A ffairs b u ild in g .”50 T h is h o s p ita l w as so o n d e c la re d o ff-lim its to th e fo re ig n c o m ­ m u n it y a n d C h in e s e s ta ff w ere n o t allo w ed in th e b u ild in g a t first, b u t R a b e h e a rd n o th in g b a d a b o u t c o n d itio n s th e re “e x c e p t fo r o n e esp ec ially c o ld ­ b lo o d e d in c id e n t .” A p a tie n t c o m p la in e d a b o u t h is fo o d , w as s la p p e d , a n d afte r v o ic in g f u r th e r c o m p la in ts , w as ta k e n o u ts id e a n d b a y o n e te d .51 T h e in ­ f o rm a n t w as a C h in e s e n u rs e w h o e ith e r sta y e d b e h in d o r w as r e c ru ite d afte r th e Ja p an e se to o k th e city. S in ce th e IC , th r o u g h th e I n te r n a tio n a l R e d C ro ss, 236

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

h a d in f o rm a n ts in sid e th e h o s p ita l, w e c a n a ssu m e th a t w o rd w o u ld h av e g o t­ te n o u t i f o th e r a tro c itie s h a d o c c u rre d . R a b e also w ro te w a rm ly o f a D r. H ira i, w h o sp o k e a little G e rm a n a n d w as in ch arg e o f Ja p an e se m ilita ry d o c to rs th e re , a n d Rev. J o h n M a g e e w e n t so far as to call th e ir tr e a tm e n t o f w o u n d e d C h i­ nese so ld iers “e x e m p la ry ,” e x p la in in g th is as h a v in g b e e n “d e lib e ra te ly p la n n e d fo r p r o p a g a n d a p u r p o s e s .”52 M e d ic a l s ta ff h a d v e ry h e a v y w o rk lo a d s. P e rm issio n fo r tw o d o c to rs a n d tw o n u rse s to c o m e to N a n k in g w as re fu se d u n til m id -F e b ru a ry , w h e n a D r. B rad y r e tu r n e d to th e city .53 A clea re r p ic tu re o f w o rk lo a d s em erg es f ro m D r. R o b e rt W ils o n ’s fa m ily le tte rs. O n 14 D e c e m b e r, h e w ro te “ I d id elev en o p e r­ a tio n s today, in c lu d in g th e in e v ita b le a m p u ta tio n . W e h av e c o n s id e ra b ly over 100 p a tie n ts n o w .” S o m e o f th e se o p e ra tio n s w ere d u e to in ju rie s s u s ta in e d b efo re th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n o f th e city. T h e n e x t day, “ [t]h e re w ere a b o u t th ir ty a d m issio n s to d a y a n d n o d isc h arg es. W e c a n ’t d isc h a rg e a n y p a tie n ts b ecau se th e y hav e n o p la c e to go [ ...] T o d a y I h a d te n o p e r a tio n s .” T h in g s im p ro v e d b y 19 D e c e m b e r, w h e n h e h a d 6 o p e ra tio n s a n d re m a rk e d w ith so m e relief, “ [a ]n o th e r d a y h as p a sse d w ith o u t a n a m p u ta t io n .” W r itin g to th e Ja p a n e se e m b assy th e sa m e day, h e n o te d th a t th e re w ere “o v er 1 5 0 p a tie n ts ” in th e h o sp ita l. O n 2 6 D e c e m b e r, h e sta te d , “ [t]h is a fte rn o o n I s ta rte d o f f w ith a n o th e r a m p u ta tio n a n d h a d a few cases.” Yet th e to ta l n u m b e r o f p a tie n ts in th e h o s p ita l in c re a se d . O n 2 8 D e c e m b e r, W ils o n w ro te th a t th e re w ere a b o u t 175 p a tie n ts in all, a n d o n 3 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , h e h a d 150 p a tie n ts (D r. T rim m e r w o u ld p e rh a p s hav e h a d a n e x tra tw e n ty o r so). O n 3 Ja n u a ry , W ils o n also re m a rk e d th a t h e h a d “h a d five o p e ra tio n s th is a f te r n o o n .”54 O n 2 2 Ja n u ary , th e “U n iv e rs ity H o s p ita l h as b e e n k e p t fu ll c a rin g fo r se rio u sly w o u n d e d civ il­ ia n s a n d n o w a n in c re a sin g n u m b e r o f m a te r n ity cases.” It c a n b e a ssu m e d th a t h ea v ily p r e g n a n t w o m e n w o u ld h av e b e e n r e lu c ta n t to flee fro m th e a d ­ v a n c in g Ja p an e se, a n d th u s th e re w o u ld h av e b e e n a la rg e r n u m b e r o f su c h w o m e n th a n th e size o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n (2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ) w o u ld o th ­ erw ise su g g est. O n 10 F eb ru ary , th e to ta l n u m b e r o f p a tie n ts h a d d r o p p e d to 1 5 0 .55 W ils o n ’s le tte rs a llo w us to d ra w a ro u g h p ic tu re o f th e s itu a tio n . D u r in g th e first w e e k o f th e o c c u p a tio n , th e re m a y h av e b e e n th ir ty a d m issio n s a day, w ith a h ig h o f elev en o p e ra tio n s a t th e s ta rt, d r o p p in g to six b y th e e n d o f th e w eek. T h e s e h ig h n u m b e rs are e x p la in e d a t le a st in p a r t b y m ilita ry a c tio n as th e Ja p a n e se c a p tu re d th e city. T h e n u m b e r o f p a tie n ts in c re a se d fro m over 100 a t th e s ta rt o f th e first w e e k to 175 b y th e e n d o f th e se c o n d , a n d b e g a n to d ec lin e b y F eb ru ary . W ils o n m a k e s it clear th a t h e d id n o t lik e to d isc h a rg e p a tie n ts , b u t h e m u s t h av e b e g u n to d o so, o r else th e n u m b e r o f n e w cases m u s t hav e fallen d ra m a tic a lly . O n 2 9 D e c e m b e r Rev. Ja m e s M c C a llu m w ro te th a t th e “h o s p ita l is fu ll a n d th e lig h te r cases fill th e U n iv e rs ity D o r m ito r y b u ild in g . S o m e w e c a n n o t d ism iss fo r th e y h av e n o p la c e to g o .” T h is sh o w s th a t so m e p a tie n ts w ere d isc h a rg e d . H e also n o te d th a t “fifte e n o r tw e n ty 237

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

b ab ies [w ere b o rn ] w ith in th e la st w e e k ,” w h ic h sh o w s th a t so m e o f th o se in th e h o s p ita l h a d c o m e fo r re a so n s o th e r th a n v io le n c e .56 T h e c o n c lu sio n s to b e d ra w n f ro m th is lim ite d d a ta are p e rh a p s s u rp ris ­ in g , a n d I m u s t e m p h a siz e th a t th is w as th e o n ly h o s p ita l in sid e th e N S Z . ( T h e o th e r h o s p ita l in N a n k in g w as o u ts id e o f th e N S Z , a t th e K M T M in ­ is try o f F o re ig n A ffairs, r u n b y th e Ja p a n e se fo r 5 0 0 o r so C h in e s e m ilita ry casu alties.) F irst, a d a ily in ta k e o f th ir ty p a tie n ts a n d five to te n o p e ra tio n s a day, as c ite d b y W ils o n , seem s u n b e lie v a b ly low. Is th is m u c h h ig h e r th a n o n e w o u ld ex p e ct fo r a p o p u la tio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 in p e a c e tim e ? S e c o n d , a lth o u g h W ils o n gives so m e tr u ly h o rrific cases o f Ja p a n e se b ru ta lity , th e v ic ­ tim s o f w h ic h e n d e d u p o n h is o p e ra tin g ta b le , th e n u m b e r o f p a tie n ts a d m it­ te d d o es n o t sq u a re w ith o u r im a g e o f la rg e-scale, in d is c rim in a te v io le n c e . T h is is n o t to say th a t larg e-scale Ja p a n e se v io le n c e d id n o t occu r, ju s t th a t W ils o n ’s le tte rs d o n o t s u b s ta n tia te it o n su c h a scale.

Housing O n 1 D e c e m b e r, th e I C d isc u sse d w h e th e r o r n o t to o rd e r th e p o p u la c e o f N a n k in g in to th e N S Z , a n d a p p e a rs to h av e d o n e so. T h e C h in e s e m ilita ry a u th o ritie s d e c la re d m a rtia l la w a n d o rd e re d civ ilia n s in to th e N S Z o n 8 D e c e m b e r. T h e se o rd e rs m a d e h o u s in g in th e N S Z a n u r g e n t issue. J o h n R a b e re p o r te d to H itle r th a t th e I C ’s first ste p w as to p u t p o ste rs o n c ity w alls ad v is­ in g th e p o p u la tio n to b r in g b e d d in g a n d fo o d a n d to m o v e in to th e h o u s e o f a n y frie n d w h o m ig h t b e re s id in g in th e N S Z . T h e n e x t ste p w as to h a n d over e m p ty h o u se s th e re in to N a n k in g ’s p o o re r re sid e n ts. T h e la st ste p w as to o p e n facilities a n d b u ild in g s in sc h o o ls a n d u n iv e rsitie s to lo d g e th e p o o re s t re si­ d e n ts. O n 18 D e c e m b e r it w as th o u g h t th a t th o se p u b lic b u ild in g s w o u ld h o ld o n ly 3 5 ,0 0 0 p e o p le , b u t th e se e v e n tu a lly ca m e to h o u s e a lm o s t d o u b le th a t n u m b e r b y 21 D e c e m b e r a n d fo r a n o th e r m o n th . T h e p o o re s t o f th e p o o r, R a b e e s tim a te d , n u m b e re d 6 5 ,0 0 0 a n d w ere fed 1 ,6 0 0 sacks o f ric e a day. O th e r e s tim a te s p u t th e n u m b e r a t 6 9 ,0 0 0 a n d “a p p ro x im a te ly 7 0 ,0 0 0 .” O n 2 2 Ja n u ary , w h e n th e se c a m p s still h e ld 6 0 ,0 0 0 , th e I C w as fe e d in g 5 0 ,0 0 0 daily, e ith e r in th e c a m p s th e m se lv e s o r th r o u g h s o u p k itc h e n s r u n b y th e R e d C ro ss a n d th e R S S ).57 T h e IC first b e lie v e d th a t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 — th e e n tire p o p u la tio n o f N a n k in g — m ig h t m o v e in to th e N S Z in a w o rst-c a se s c e n a rio .58 B u t th e n u m b e r p e a k e d a t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . C h in e s e so ld ie rs w h o su rv iv e d th e b a ttle fo r N a n k in g m u s t ac­ c o u n t fo r th e b u lk o f th is in crease. N ev e rth ele ss, th e IC m a n a g e d . Its p ro v isio n o f m e d ic a l services a n d h o u s in g , a lo n g w ith fin a n c e a n d fo o d , c o u n t as “su c ­ cesses,” w h erea s its p o lic in g a n d m a in ta in in g o f n e u tra lity w ere “fa ilu re s .” B u t in d e ed , it is in c re d ib le th a t th e IC co p e d as w ell as it d id given n ea r-im p o ssib le c irc u m sta n c e s: (1) th e s u d d e n co llap se o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d lo c al a d m in is tra 238

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

tio n , w h o se m e m b e rs all fled b e fo re th e c ity fell; (2) w id e s p re a d lo o tin g in N a n k in g b y Ja p an e se , C h in e se , o r (to a far lesser e x te n t) W e ste rn e rs: (3) larg e n u m b e rs o f h ea v ily a rm e d Ja p a n e se tro o p s a n d a t le a st so m e a rm e d C h in e se ; a n d (4) th e p o ssib le ex iste n ce o f a n ac tiv e C h in e s e re sista n c e m o v e m e n t.59 G iv e n th e se c o n d itio n s a n d th e I C ’s lim ite d reso u rce s, it d id far b e tte r th a n a n y o n e c o u ld hav e e x p e c te d .

Western Cooperation and Resistance C o o p e ra tio n w ith th e Ja p a n e se in o c c u p ie d N a n k in g is a to p ic th a t falls o u t­ sid e th e d o m in a n t n a rra tiv e o f W e s te rn h u m a n ita ria n is m to d ay , b u t it is clear th a t so m e W e ste rn e rs d id c o o p e ra te , a t le a st to a n e x te n t. T h u s , as d efe n se o f th e c ity co llap sed , th e IC d is a rm e d C h in e s e so ld ie rs ( b u t th e n h id th e m , a lb e it in a few cases). R a b e w o rk e d to g e t th e e le c tric ity w o rk s in H s ia k w a n u p a n d r u n n in g , g o in g to in s p e c t th e se as ea rly as 16 D e c e m b e r. T h e IC a c te d as a d is p a tc h service to p ro v id e la b o r to th e Ja p a n e se a n d also h e lp e d th e ir tro o p s reg iste r th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n . R a b e p ro v id e d a Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy official w ith a car; a n d th e N S Z m e c h a n ic , A . Z ia l, w o rk e d fo r th e Ja p a n e se em b assy fix in g cars.60 T h e p o litic s b e h in d th e d e c isio n to c o o p e ra te are clear; th e re w as n o a lte rn a tiv e . Yet, p a rtly b e c a u se o f th is lim ite d c o o p e ra tio n , th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t in th e p a s t w as v e ry c ritic a l o f th e IC . S c h o la rs a t N a n k in g U n i­ v e rsity in th e 1 9 6 0 s, fo r in sta n c e , u n fa irly c o n d e m n e d it fo r fa c ilita tin g J a p a n ­ ese a tro c itie s b y tu r n in g a b lin d eye w h ile fe a stin g o n C h ris tm a s d in n e r.61 H o w ev er, afte r th e C o ld W a r e n d e d , C h in e s e fears o f U .S . im p e ria lis m d im in ­ ish e d a n d J a p a n b e c a m e th e ta rg e t o f o fficial v itrio l. A cc o rd in g ly , C h in e s e view s o f th e IC c h a n g e d d ra m a tic a lly . In a w o rk f re q u e n tly b ased o n v iv id im a g in a tio n ra th e r th a n o n re lia b le p r im a ry so u rce s, th e la te Iris C h a n g claim s th a t IC m e m b e rs ju m p e d “in f r o n t o f c a n n o n s a n d m a c h in e g u n s to p re v e n t th e Ja p an e se f ro m firin g ” o n u n a rm e d civ ilia n s.62 T h is c la im is p u re fic tio n , b u t h u m a n ita r ia n w o rk b y th e IC is h ig h ly la u d e d in all se c o n d a ry so u rce s o n N a n k in g to d a y a n d is o n e o f th e few areas a b o u t w h ic h all re se a rc h e rs agree. IC m e m b e rs w ere realists w h o c o o p e ra te d w ith th e Ja p a n e se to a d egree. A s R a b e said , “w e h av e to g e t a lo n g p e a c e fu lly w ith th e Ja p a n e se h e re so m e ­ h o w .” S o m e m e m b e rs, th e A u s tria n m e c h a n ic R u p e rt H a tz , fo r ex a m p le , th o u g h t th e Ja p a n e se a c te d in w ays th a t c o u ld b e ju s tifie d . O th e r s , su c h as th e A m e ric a n G e o rg e F itc h , w h o w as h ig h ly c ritic a l o f th e Ja p a n e se , a t tim e s p re te n d e d to th in k in a sim ila r m a n n e r. F itc h w e n t o n S h a n g h a i ra d io o n 3 F eb ­ r u a r y as “v e ry m u c h a frie n d o f J a p a n .”63 T h e I C h a d n o ch o ic e b u t to assu m e th is p ose. It saw its e lf as re sp o n sib le fo r th e w elfa re o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e — w h o , it b e lie v e d , w ere u n a b le to lo o k a fte r th e m se lv e s w ith o u t a g u id in g , W e ste rn , p a tria rc h a l h a n d . Yet th e re w ere lim its to th a t p o se, a n d h in ts o f resistan c e o fte n u n d e rla y o v e rt acts o f c o o p e ra tio n . F o r in s ta n c e , A m e ric a n 239

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

m e m b e rs g o t th e Ja p a n e se to se n d a te le g ra m a sk in g fo r a d ip lo m a tic re p re ­ s e n ta tiv e to b e d is p a tc h e d to N a n k in g as so o n as p o ssib le; a n d , a c c o rd in g to L ew is C . S. S m y th e , R ab e: “u se d v e ry flo w ery G e rm a n to te ll R o se n [at th e G e r m a n em bassy] th a t h e w as d e lig h te d to say th a t tw o G e r m a n h o u se s in th e c ity p o sitiv e ly h a d n o t b e e n d a m a g e d , th a t R o se n ’s car, a lo n g w ith m a n y o th e r G e r m a n cars, w as r e n d e rin g ex c e lle n t service fo r th e Ja p a n e se M ilita ry , a n d th a t h e h o p e d h e w o u ld b e h e re fo r C h ris tm a s Eve b e c a u se b y th e n w e h o p e d to hav e e le c tric ity a n d te le p h o n e g o in g !”64 A s S m y th e c la im e d , th is w as “a m a s te rp ie c e ” o f su p e rfic ia l c o o p e ra tio n (re p o rtin g th a t tw o cars w ere n o t d a m a g e d ) a n d u n d e rly in g re sista n c e (im p ly in g th a t all o th e rs w ere d e stro y e d ). T h e d ro ll sense o f h u m o r also h e lp s to e x p la in w h y R a b e w as p o p u la r in th e W e s te rn c o m m u n ity . T h e IC resisted th e Ja p a n e se in m o re s u b s ta n tia l w ays as w ell. W o rk s e d ite d b y p e rso n s su c h as H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y a n d H s u S h u h si, b o th clo sely lin k e d to th e K M T reg im e , c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n p u b lis h e d w ith o u t c o o p e ra tio n fro m IC m e m b e rs. F ar m o re im p o rta n tly , th e I C as a w h o le h id a t le a st o n e h ig h r a n k in g C h in e s e air fo rc e officer, a n d R a b e h id a t le a st tw o officers. A ll th re e liv ed in R a b e ’s h o u se , so h e to o k c o n s id e ra b le risk s, esp ec ially i f th e y w ere en g a g ed in a n ti-Ja p a n e se a c tiv itie s, as w as likely. A p a rt f ro m th e se th re e offi­ cers, tw e n ty m o re p e o p le s m u g g le d th e m se lv e s in to R a b e ’s g a rd e n d u r in g th e Ja p a n e se re g is tra tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n o n 2 6 D e c e m b e r. T h e y w ere p ro b a b ly m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l to o . R a b e m e n tio n s a “h ig h o fficial o f th e fo rm e r C h in e s e g o v e r n m e n t” w h o sta y ed a t h is h o u s e a t le ast o n c e . (T h is m a n m ay, h o w ev er, hav e b e e n o n e o f th e th re e officers liv in g th e re .) T h e r e is e v id en c e th a t th e IC h id o th e r ex -so ld iers fro m th e Ja p a n e se fro m a v e ry ea rly stag e. R a b e n o te d o n 14 D e c e m b e r th a t th e IC f o u n d “ lo d g in g in so m e v a c a n t b u ild in g s fo r a g ro u p o f 125 C h in e s e refu g ees, b e fo re th e y fall in to th e h a n d s o f th e J a p a n ­ ese m ilita ry ,” a n d h e w as a lm o st c e rta in ly re fe rrin g to so ld ie rs.65 O n 15 D e ­ cem b er, th e IC to ld th e Ja p a n e se e m b a ssy th a t it h a d k e p t th e N S Z “e n tire ly free o f C h in e s e so ld ie rs” u n til 13 D e c e m b e r, w h e n “several h u n d r e d s o ld ie rs” e n te re d it. O n 18 D e c e m b e r, th e IC re p o r te d th a t “w e c a n safely assu re y o u th a t th e re are n o g ro u p s o f d isa rm e d C h in e s e so ld iers in th e Z o n e . Y our se a rc h in g s q u a d s h av e c le a n e d o u t all o f th e m a n d m a n y civ ilia n s a lo n g w ith th e m .”66 B o th s ta te m e n ts w ere d e lib e ra te ly a n d , o f co u rse , ju s tifia b ly m is ­ le a d in g . I C m e m b e rs k n e w fu ll w ell th a t far m o re th a n “several h u n d r e d ” C h i­ nese so ld iers w ere in th e N S Z lo n g b e fo re 13 D e c e m b e r a n d th a t th e Ja p a n e se h a d y e t to id e n tify all o f th e se so ld iers. A c c o rd in g to C h ia n g K u n g -i, E d u a rd S p e rlin g h e lp e d sm u g g le re p o rts b y C h in e s e m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l o u t o f th e c ity to b e fo rw a rd e d to C h in e s e a u th o r ­ itie s .67 O n e C h in e s e so u rc e claim s th a t R a b e p ro v id e d a C h in e s e in d iv id u a l w ith explosives a n d d ire c te d h im to d e s tro y in s ta lla tio n s th a t m ig h t p ro v e u se­ fu l to th e Ja p an e se . F itc h sm u g g le d th e n eg a tiv e s o f a film th a t d o c u m e n te d Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s— k n o w n as “J o h n M a g e e ’s F ilm ”— o u t o f th e c ity se w n in to 240

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

th e lin in g o f h is c o a t.68 O n r e tu r n in g to B e rlin , R a b e w ro te a lo n g le c tu re o n th e fall o f N a n k in g , w h ic h h e gave o n n u m e ro u s o c c a sio n s w h ile sh o w in g M a g e e ’s film . W h e n o rd e re d to sto p , h e m a ile d a c o p y o f h is le c tu re to H itle r. T h e IC w as th u s far fro m n e u tra l; so m e m e m b e rs, a t least, activ e ly h e lp e d in th e C h in e s e resistan c e.

The End of the Committee T h e IC w as o rig in a lly e s ta b lish e d to p r o te c t C h in e s e civ ilia n s f ro m a n in v a d ­ in g arm y. N e x t, it s h o u ld e re d th e task s o f fe e d in g a n d p r o te c tin g th e m fro m a n o c c u p y in g arm y. Lastly, it p ro v id e d re lie f to h e lp r e tu r n civ ilian s to n o rm a l life. B u t th e Ja p a n e se m o v e d q u ic k ly to u n d e r m in e th e I C ’s m o ra l a u th o rity a n d to rep la ce it w ith a c o lla b o ra tio n is t S e lf-G o v e rn m e n t C o m m itte e (S G C ). A c c o rd in g to F itc h , th is w as fo rm e d o n 2 2 D e c e m b e r a t th e in v ita tio n o f th e Ja p a n e se em bassy. O n th e sa m e day, R a b e le a rn e d th a t th e Ja p a n e se a u th o r i­ ties w a n te d to e sta b lish “th e ir o w n refu g ee c o m m itte e .” Its h e a d , T ’ao H si-sa n , also h e a d e d th e R SS, a n d w as th e c o lla b o ra tio n is t fig u re h e a d in o c c u p ie d N a n ­ k in g . T ’ao ’s h o u se a p p e a rs to h av e b e e n b u rg le d a t le ast tw ice d u r in g th e early w eeks o f th e o c c u p a tio n , a n d a b a th h o u s e th a t h e m a y h a v e o p e ra te d w as also ro b b e d a n d its s ta ff m e m b e rs k ille d . T h is m ig h t b e se en as a fo rm o f re p risa l f ro m th e C h in e s e m ilita ry a u th o ritie s still in th e city.69 As T im o th y B ro o k re ­ lates in c h a p te r 9, th e aim s o f th ese tw o b o d ie s, th e S G C a n d th e IC , m a y have b e e n sim ilar, a n d th e y ev en h a d so m e m e m b e rs in c o m m o n , b u t th e y c o m ­ p e te d a g a in st ea ch o th e r fo r th e h e a rts a n d m in d s o f N a n k in g citiz en s. T h u s , o n 3 0 D e c e m b e r, R a b e g lo o m ily n o te d in h is d ia ry th a t th e S G C “is to b e o u r re p la c e m e n t.” H e a d d e d , “ [w ]e h av e n o th in g a g a in st th e ir ta k in g o v er o u r w o rk , b u t it lo o k s to us as i f th e y s im p ly w a n t to ta k e o v er o u r m o n e y ,” a n d also n o te d , “I ’ll n o t h a n d o v er a n y th in g . I ’ll y ie ld o n ly u n d e r g re a te st p re s­ su re, a n d th e n o n ly u n d e r lo u d p r o te s t.”70 O n 1 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , R a b e iro n ic a lly n o te d th a t th e S G C w as “so le m n ly c o n s titu te d .” T h e n e x t day, h e g lo o m ily n o te d th a t “M r. S u n , w h o is th e vice c h a irm e n [sic] ” o f th e n e w S G C a n d “m e m b e r o f th e R e d S w a stik a S o c ie ty [w ho] sp eak s Ja p a n e se , c o n d e s c e n d in g ly in fo rm s m e th a t h e m u s t sp e a k to m e v ery so o n a b o u t a n im p o r ta n t m a tte r .” T h is h a d to d o w ith fin a n c e s. O n 6 Jan u ary , “M r. F u k u d a p a id m e a v isit to tell m e th a t b y d e c isio n o f th e m il­ ita ry a u th o ritie s o u r I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e is to b e d isso lv ed a n d o u r su p p li es a n d m o n ie s are to b e ta k e n o v er b y th e A u to n o m o u s G o v e r n m e n t C o m m itte e [i.e., th e S G C ] .” T h e IC re siste d th is m o v e , se e m in g ly b ecau se: (1) law a n d o rd e r n e e d e d to b e first re sto re d , a n d th e S G C h a d n o t “th e v ag u e st id e a ” a b o u t h o w to d o th is; a n d (2) it w as th o u g h t th a t th e S G C w as n o t u p to h a n d lin g all th e a d m in is tra tiv e ta sk s.71 M e m b e rs o f th e IC d id n o t th in k m u c h o f th e ir S G C C h in e s e su ccesso rs: “m o s t o f th e tra in e d , in te llig e n t 241

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

a n d active p e o p le . . . all m o v e d f u r th e r w e s t” b e fo re th e c ity fell. T h o s e C h i­ nese w h o re m a in e d w ere, in W ils o n ’s w o rd s, s e c o n d -ra te rs. M a ts u i Iw a n e, c o m m a n d e r o f Ja p a n e se forces, sh a re d th a t o p in io n , n o tin g o n 7 F e b ru a ry th a t th e S G C lin e u p “c u t a p o o r fig u re .”72 T h e IC trie d to b e c o n c ilia to ry ; R a b e w ro te to F u k u d a o n 7 Ja n u a ry , s ta tin g th a t it w o u ld b e “g la d ” to h av e th e S G C “assu m e as s p e e d ily as p o ssib le all th e u su a l fu n c tio n s o f a lo c al civic a d m in is tr a tio n .” H e also s ta te d th a t th e IC h a d “n o d esire w h a ts o e v e r to c a rry o n a n y o f th e se a d m in is tra tiv e d u tie s w h ic h are n o r m a lly a s su m e d b y compe­

tent lo c al a d m in is tra tio n s ” (ita lics a d d e d ) .73 B u t, R a b e c o n tin u e d , th e IC w as fo rm e d to care fo r civ ilia n s, a n d sin c e fu n d s a n d su p p lie s p ro v id e d to it w ere e n tru s te d fo r th a t p u rp o s e , it s h o u ld n o t give th e se u p to a n o th e r o rg a n iz a ­ tio n .74 T h e IC w as th u s w illin g to h av e th e S G C ta k e re s p o n s ib ility fo r a d m in ­ is tra tio n b u t u n w illin g to h a n d o v er its assets, a n d it to o k ste p s to g a in s u p p o r t f ro m th e n e w ly r e o p e n e d em b assies in th is re g a rd . In a le tte r o n 10 J a n u a ry to J o h n A lliso n , S m y th e ag a in m a d e it clear th a t th e IC w as u n w illin g to s u r­ r e n d e r its reso u rce s, b u t h a p p y to h av e th e S G C ta k e r e s p o n s ib ility fo r a d m in ­ is te rin g th e city.75 O n 9 Ja n u ary , J im m y W a n g to ld R a b e th a t th e IC w as n o lo n g e r allo w ed to sell rice to th e C h in e se . T h e IC s to p p e d se llin g it th e n e x t day. W a n g also to ld R a b e th a t th e Ja p a n e se w o u ld n o w sell rice a n d flo u r o n ly to th e S G C , w h ic h “o p e n e d a n o u tle t fo r ric e ” o n 10 Ja n u a ry . It seem s th a t th e S G C b e ­ cam e th e sole so u rc e o f fo o d th e re a fte r. O n 11 Ja n u a ry , R a b e n o te d th a t “ [t]h e Ja p a n e se h av e c u t o f f o u r rice s u p p ly to d a y .” D is p e n s in g fo o d to N a n k in g ’s p o o r o b v io u sly le g itim iz e d a n agency, a n d th e Ja p a n e se w a n te d th is to b e th e S G C . In re sis tin g th e se m o v es, th e IC w as fig h tin g a lo s in g b a ttle . O n 12 J a n ­ uary, R a b e re p o r te d th a t it w as also p r o h ib ite d f ro m h a n d lin g coal. T h e J a p a n ­ ese w a n te d th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n to leave th e N S Z , so th e y m a d e co al a n d fo o d av ailab le o u ts id e o f it in o rd e r to e n c o u ra g e p e o p le to r e tu r n to th e ir h o m e s .76 T h e lo w o p in io n th a t IC m e m b e rs h a d o f th e S G C w as q u ic k ly s u b ­ s ta n tia te d . O n 14 Ja n u a ry , th e S G C , u n a b le to c o p e w ith th e re s p o n sib ilitie s th r u s t o n it, ask ed th e IC to tr u c k su p p lie s o f rice. O n 17 Ja n u a ry , th e IC n o te d w ith a la rm th a t a rra n g e m e n ts to d is trib u te rice th r o u g h th e S G C h a d b ro k e n d o w n , a n d th a t th e re h a d b e e n n o re g u la r d is tr ib u tio n fo r a lm o st a w eek. A lth o u g h th e tw o c o m m itte e s w ere rivals, th e re is n o d o u b t th a t th e IC w as, in M in e r S. B a te s’s w o rd s , “in c a h o o ts w ith ” th e S G C .77 A g a in , W e st­ e rn e rs h a d n o ch o ic e i f th e y w ish e d to h e lp th e C h in e se , b u t th is e n ta ile d m o ra l a m b ig u itie s in c o o p e ra tin g w ith a c o lla b o ra tio n is t o rg a n iz a tio n . F o re ig n em bassies r e o p e n e d a t a b o u t th e tim e th a t th e Ja p a n e se c o m p le te d re g is tra tio n o f th e N a n k in g p o p u la tio n a n d th e S G C re p la c e d th e IC . T h e U .S . em b assy w as th e first, o n 6 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 , w h e n “M r. [Jo h n ] A lliso n , M r. [Jam es] E sp ey [recte: E sp y ], a n d M r. [A rch ib ald ] M c F a d y e n , a rriv e d h e re to d a y a b o a rd th e U S S Oahu fro m S h a n g h a i b y w ay o f W u h u .” T h e G e rm a n a n d B ritish em b assies fo llo w e d , o n 9 J a n u a r y o n th e H M S Cricket.7,8 T h e fo re ig n 242

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

c o m m u n ity g re w as e m b a ssy staffs r e tu r n e d a n d also c h a n g e d as so m e o rig i­ n a l s ta ff m e m b e rs left. C h r is tia n K ro g e r le ft fo r S h a n g h a i o n 2 3 Ja n u ary . G e o rg e F itc h a n d H . I. P rid e a u x -B ru n c e le ft o n th e H M S Bee fo r S h a n g h a i o n 29 Ja n u ary , ta k in g R a b e ’s d ia rie s (F itc h d id n o t r e tu r n u n til 12 F e b ru a ry ).79 In F eb ru ary , th e Ja p a n e se s ta rte d to close refu g ee c a m p s a n d in c re a se d e ffo rts to m a k e C h in e s e r e tu r n to h o m e s o u ts id e th e N S Z . W h e n h e le ft N a n k in g o n 23 F eb ru ary , R a b e e s tim a te d th a t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le h a d m o v e d o u t o f it. A M r. B ish o p ric w as allo w ed to r e tu rn to N a n k in g in late J a n u a ry — th e first W e st­ e rn e r a p a rt fro m d ip lo m a ts . B y 12 F e b ru a ry , a n o th e r W e ste rn e r, Ja m e s K e a r­ ney, a rriv ed ( if o n ly fo r th re e d a y s ).80 O n 18 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , in re c o g n iz in g th e se a lte re d circ u m sta n c e s, esp ec ially th e d isa p p e a ra n c e o f th e N S Z , th e IC c h a n g e d its n a m e to th e N a n k in g I n te r n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m m itte e .81

Conclusion A lm o s t all C h in e s e u n d e r IC care su rv iv e d th is k e y first sta g e o f th e Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n , w h e n th e N S Z b e g a n w ith a p o p u la tio n o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d e n d e d w ith 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 . A p a rt f ro m p e rh a p s 5 ,0 0 0 in d iv id u a ls id e n tifie d as C h in e s e m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l a n d ex e c u te d (as n o te d in m y c h a p te r 5), th e I C p r o te c te d th o se w h o m it s o u g h t to h e lp . In th e face o f im m e n s e d iffic u ltie s a n d d e sp ite h a rs h c ritic is m f ro m th e Ja p a n e se , W e ste rn e rs w h o ch o se to re m a in in N a n ­ k in g r a th e r th a n flee to sa fe ty ac h ie v ed th e ir h u m a n ita ria n aim s. T h e y w ere b y n o m e a n s n e u tra l in th e h o stilitie s, a n d th e y saved h u g e n u m b e rs o f C h i­ nese lives, a c tin g h e ro ic a lly u n d e r v e ry tr y in g circ u m sta n c e s. M o re o v e r, it is larg ely b ecau se o f th e p r im a ry so u rc e th e y w ro te th a t w e c a n r e c o n s tr u c t so m u c h o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ’s h isto ry . T h e ir s to ry is o n e o f th e few p o sitiv e asp ects in a g rim ly b le a k c h a p te r o f S in o -Ja p a n e se re la tio n s.

Notes 1. 2.

3. 4.

Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 4 and p. 22; Vautrin, “Review of the First M onth,” p. 332. O n the depopulation of the city, see Askew, “Nanjing Incident” pp. 2—20. Timperley ed., W hatW ar Means, p. 13; Mills, in Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses, p. 44, and Chang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 245. Rabe, 21 February speech to the IC staff, in Nankin jiken chosa kenkyukai, ed., A m erika kankei shiryo shu, pp. 185—87. Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 106 and pp. 254—55. Zhang [Chang], in Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. xix—xx, suggests that H ang Liwu was also behind the push to establish a zone. Memorandum 17 November, in A m erika kankei shiryo shu, pp. 122—23. Vautrin, in A m erika kankei shiryo shu, p. 124. Rabe, Good M an, p. 25. Mills, in Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses, p. 45; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to M assacre, p. 246. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 27; Rabe, “H itoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 298. Also, Kasahara, N a n kin nanm inku no hyakunichi, p. 69.

243

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

5. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 28. Also, A m erika kankei shiryo shu, pp. 125—26. 6. Woodhead ed., The China Year Book, 1939, says it was 2 x 1 miles, or 3.86 (sic) square kilo­ meters. Citing Yin and Yung, Bartlett says it “measured about 2 x 3 km. (about 1 square mile)” which is clearly wrong since 2 x 3 kilometers is over 2 square miles. See Bartlett, Introduction, p. vii. Kasahara, N a n kin nanm inku no hyakunichi, p. 72, says it was 8.6 square kilometers. 7. Smythe, in Smalley, ed., American M issionary Eyewitnesses to the N anjing Massacre, p. 300; A m erika kankei shiryo shu, p. 122. 8. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 57, 33, and 40. 9. Durdin, N ew York Times, 28 November 1937; Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 301; Good M a n o f Nanking; p. 46; Menken, London Times, 4 December 1937. 10. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 46; N ew York Times, 29 November 1937; Durdin, N e w York Times 28 November 1937. Rabe, Good M an o f Nanking, p. 47; Amerika kankei shiryo shu, p. 128. 11. Fitch, M y Eighty Years in China, p. 100. Timperley ed., W hat War Means, p. 24, Hsu ed., The War Conduct o f the Japanese, p. 155. Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre (p. 85) gives the 10,000 piculs of rice as “30,000.” Timperley gives the sums of money as “£100,000 in cash, £80,000 of which was subsequently received.” Also see “In Nanking To-day,” where $100,000 in cash, 2,000 tons of rice, and 10,000 bags of flour are mentioned. 12. Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, p. 217; Hsu ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 12. 13. “Report of the Nanking International Relief Committee,” in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to M as­ sacre, p. 414. On another commission, Finance, see the Vautrin diary in Okada and Ihara trans., N a n k in jik e n no hibi, p. 29. 14. Foreign Relations o f the U nited States: Diplomatic Papers, 1937, vol. 3, The Far East, pp. 757—58; also cited in Yamamoto, N anking, pp. 62—63. 15. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g pp. 42—54 and p. 64; Vautrin, N a n kin Jiken no H ibi, p. 29. 16. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 58. Vautrin heard from Bates that this was $50,000; see Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 357. Durdin, N ew York Times, 27 November 1937, claimed that the Nanking Christian War Relief Committee headed by Magee received an extra C$30,000. 17. Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 4 4 1 ^ 4 , and pp. 4 4 6 ^ 9 . 18. Tong and Li, M emoirs o f L i Tsungjen, pp. 326—28; Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 38. 19. Rabe, Good M a n o fN a n k in g p. 52; Mills, in Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses, p. 46; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 247. Rabe’s appeal to Hitler, “Hitoraa e no joshin­ sho,” p. 301, appeared in Durdin, N ew York Times, 28 November 1937. Also, Yamamoto, N anking, p. 62. 20. For the text of the leaflets, see Higashinakano, N a n kin gyakusatsu no tettei kensho, p. 65, and Matsui’s diary, 8—9 December, in N a n kin senshi shiryo shu, vol. 2, p. 139. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 56. 21. London Times, 11 December 1937; N ew York Times, 11 December 1937. 22. Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 307. Mills stated that he and Bates boarded the Panay; see Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 247. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 59. Foreign Rela­ tions o f the U nited States, 1937, vol. 3, The Far East, pp. 781, 784. Also Yamamoto, Nanking, p. 64 and p. 79, note 115. 23. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 63; Smythe, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 253; Durdin, N ew York Times, 19 December 1937, p. 38; Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 63, Fitch, in Zhang. ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 86. 24. Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 14 and p. 22; Smythe, in Zhang, ed., Eye­ witnesses to Massacre, p. 257; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 296. 25. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 61. 26. Higashinakano, “N ankingyakusatsu”no tettei kensho, p. 185; Yamamoto, N anking, p. 99. 27. Smythe, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 267—68; Fitch, M y Eighty Years in China, p. 113; Hsu, ed., War Conduct o f the Japanese, p. 171. 28. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, pp. 48—56.

244

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

29. 30. 31. 32.

33. 34.

35. 36. 37.

38. 39. 40.

41. 42.

43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

49.

Ibid., p. 58. Ibid., pp. 60—62. See W ilson letters, in Brook ed., Documents on the Rape o f N anking, pp. 207—10. Rabe, “Hitoraa e no Joshinsho,” p. 302; Rabe, Good M a n o f Nanking, p. 59; Menken, Chicago Daily Tribune, 17 December 1937, p. 4; Timperley ed., W hat War Means, p. 206, Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 1. Timperley, W h a t War Means, p. 223; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 12—18; Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 271. O n the situation with rice, see Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 42—53. H e also noted, “about 100,000 sacks” were in Nanking, “more than half” of which were stored outside the city walls. See “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” pp. 302—3. Mayor Ma wrote two letters confirming the promise. Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, pp. 2 4 2 ^ 3 ; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 56. Also see Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, p. 11; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 413, which says that “owing to difficulties in trans­ portation, only 9,067 bags were finally brought.” Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, p. 242; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone, p. 57. Smythe, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 279; Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, p. 243; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 57. Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, pp. 264—65; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 107—8. Although promised 30,000 bags, it appears that the IC only had written proof of promises o f 20,000, which explains why the figure of 20,000 was sometimes used in official documents. Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 303; Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 29, 32, 34, and 41. Timperley, ed., W h a t War Means, p. 236 and p. 22. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g pp. 98, 113, and 131; Timperley ed., W hat War Means, pp. 62 and 70; Smythe in Smalley ed., American M issionary Eyewitnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, p. 111 [3]; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 302. Timperley, ed., W h a t War Means, p. 243. Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, p. 111 [3]; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 302; Fitch and Rabe, in Timperley ed., W hat War Means, pp. 259 and 270—71; Askew, “Nanjing Incident.” Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, pp. 251—52 and p. 260; Hsu, ed., Documents o fth e N anking Safety Zone, pp. 81—82 and p. 91. Hsu, ed., Documents o fth e N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 90—93. Timperley ed., W hatW ar Means, pp. 251—52 and 255—59; Hsu, ed., Documents o fth e N anking Safety Zone, pp. 81—82; Rabe, Good M a n o f Nanking, pp. 136, 194—95, and 198. Menken, Chicago D aily Tribune, 17 December 1937. Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 305; Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 31, 32. Forster, in Zhang ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 148—50 and 116—18. O n 21 December, W ilson stated that he had a nursing staff of 20 or so, of whom only 4 had any training; see Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, pp. 207, 212, and 222. McCallum m entioned a hospital staff of 50, but this seems highly unlikely given the number of patients; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 241. O n 9 December, Rabe wrote: “there are no doctors, no nurses, no medics left [except at] Kulou Hospital with its couple of brave Amer­ ican doctors”; Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 57; Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 305. For an account by a Chinese doctor, see Nan-chng ta-tu-sha shih-liao pian-chi wei-yuan-hui and Nan-ching tu-shu-kuan eds., Chin-H ua Jih-chun N an-ching ta-tu-sha shih-liao, pp. 60—100. According to this account, there were originally 8 military hospitals but, as the staff fled and as patients were shipped out, these were consolidated into two hospitals in the Ministry of For­ eign Affairs and in the Ministry o f War on 12 December. Durdin, N ew York Times, 27 November 1937.

245

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

50.

51.

52. 53. 54.

55. 56.

57.

58. 59. 60. 61.

62. 63. 64. 65. 66.

Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, p. 208; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 3. Magee appears to have started to move patients from the m orning o f 13 December. See his diary, cited in Kasahara, N a n kin nanm inku no hyakunichi, p. 148. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 68 and p. 143; Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 305; Magee, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 170; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 94-95. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 148; Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 305. Magee, in Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 189. Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 96; Kasahara, N a n kin nanm inku no hyakunichi, p. 308. O n Wilson’s activities, see Brook ed., Documents on the Rape on N anking, pp. 212-13, 218, 228-29, and 235-36. The amputation was “a leg I had been trying to save for several weeks.” This seems to contradict Fitch, who wrote on Christmas Day that “Wilson reports that o f the 240 cases [of injuries due to bayonets] in the hospital three-quarters are due to Japanese vio­ lence since the occupation.” See Fitch, in Timperley, W hat War Means, pp. 43 ^ 44; and Hsu, ed., War Conduct o f the Japanese, p. 172. There is no evidence that there were ever as many as 240 patients in the hospital at any one time, but there may have been 240 in total from 13 to 25 December. The 175 on 28 December included “about 20” of Dr. Trimmer’s. Also, see Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 69; Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, p. 234; and Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 26. Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 96; Wilson, in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape ofN a n kin g , p. 250. McCallum, in Smalley ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, p. 34; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 229-30. Rabe had 300 women in his garden where there were 2 births; Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, pp. 317-18. O n the order to evacuate and housing problem, see Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 45; Rabe, “H itoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 300; A m erika kankei shiryo shu, pp. 131-32; and Kasahara, N a n kin nanm inku no hyakunichi, pp. 76-77. Compare with Rabe’s diary entry for 7 Decem­ ber, Good M a n o fN anking, p. 53. For a list of all public buildings used to house refugees, see Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, pp. 229-30; and Hsu, ed., Documents o fth e N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 19, 25, 45, and 96-97. As early as 18 December, the IC noted that these “buildings were originally listed to accommodate 35,000 people; now ... this has increased to 50,000.” Letter to Japanese embassy, in Timperley, ed., W hatW ar Means, pp. 224-29. By 21 December, this had increased to 68,000, and a m onth later was still 60,000. See Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, p. 240 (which mistakenly gives 77,000 instead o f 68,000). Smalley, ed., American M is­ sionary Eyewitnesses to the N a n k in g Massacre, pp. 11 and 311 [3]; and Zhang ed., Eye-witnesses to Massacre, pp. 302 and 414. Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 300. I briefly discussed the issue of looting by Westerners, the existence of armed Chinese, and the possibility of a resistance movement in Askew, “Nanking 1937-38.” Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, pp. 67, 75, 79, 83-87, 98, and 149; Smythe, in Zhang ed., Eye­ witnesses to Massacre, pp. 268 and 273. Gao Xingzu et al., “Riben giguozhuyi zai Nanjing datusha.” This was smuggled out o f China and translated by Robert Gray, www.cnd.org/njmassacre/njm-tran. Also Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography of the Nanking Massacre,” p. 25. Chang, Rape ofN anking, p. 139. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, pp. 134, 166-67, and 174. Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 265. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, pp. 97, 168-69 and 68-69. Timperley, W hat War Means, p. 211 and p. 227; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 4 -5 and 20.

246

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Westerners in Occupied Nanking

67. 68. 69.

70.

71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78.

79.

80. 81.

Chiang, “Hsian-ching san-yueh-chi.” Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 101. Fitch, in Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, pp. 42, 44; Hsu, ed., War Conduct o f the Japanese, p. 171; Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g p. 86; Brook, chapter 9 in this volume; and Hsu, ed., Doc­ uments o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, case no. 70. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 105. In a letter to Allison dated 10 January 1938, Smythe noted that, on 31 December and 1 January, “we were confidentially informed that the Japan­ ese Consul had informed the group organising the Tze Chih Wei Yuan Hwei [the SGC] that they could have the supplies and money that the International Committee had.” Hsu, ed., Doc­ uments o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 74. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 108—14. Matsui Diary, in N a n k in senshi shiryo shu, vol. 2, p. 169. Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, p. 246; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 66. Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, p. 247; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 66-67. Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, pp. 73-75. Rabe, Good M a n o f N a n k in g pp. 118-124; Rabe, “Hitoraa e no joshinsho,” p. 319. Timperley, ed., W hat War Means, pp. 253 and 258; Hsu, ed., Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone, p. 83 and p. 86; Bates, in Zhang ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 28-29. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 113; Wilson, in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, pp. 236-37. Rabe noted on 9 January that Dr. Rosen, Hurter, and Scharffenberg had arrived, together with two members of the British embassy, Consul Prideaux-Brune and Colonel LovatFraser; and, a Commander Walser was also present by 15 January. See Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 118 and 121. Fitch wrote that three representatives of the American embassy arrived on 6 January, followed by three from both the British and German embassies on 9 Jan­ uary; Timperley ed., W hat War Means, p. 49; Hsu, ed., War Conduct o f the Japanese, p. 178. Finally, see Wilson, in Brook, ed., Documents o f the Rape ofN anking, p. 241. Forster, in Smalley ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the N anjing Massacre, pp. 4 6 ^ 9 ; Zhang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, p. 132; Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 192, 160, and 162. Bates, in A m erika kankei shiryo shu, pp. 329-30; Zhang ed., Eye-witnesses to Massacre, pp. 382, 139, 143, 28, and 146. Rabe, Good M a n ofN anking, p. 200.

247

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:15 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

11

Wa r t i m e A c c o u n t s o f t h e N a n k i n g At r o c i t y * Takashi Yoshida

Introduction P re se n t-d a y Ja p an e se w h o d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity o f 1 9 3 7 —3 8 u se a n u m ­ b e r o f stra ta g e m s to c la im th a t it is a p o s tw a r fa b ric a tio n . O n e o f th e se is to allege th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a , th e K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) reg im e, d id n o t p r o te s t Ja p a n e se a c tio n s a t N a n k in g to th e L ea g u e o f N a tio n s d u r in g th e A sia-P ac ific W a r o f 1 9 3 1 —4 5 . F u rth e rm o re , th e se p re s e n t-d a y den ie rs claim , th e W e s te rn m e d ia in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 ra re ly m e n tio n e d Ja p a n e se m is ­ d ee d s a t N a n k in g . F inally, th e d e n ie rs c o n te n d th a t n o o n e in J a p a n ever h e a rd a b o u t th e se alleged a tro c itie s u n til th e p o s tw a r T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, fo r­ m a lly k n o w n as th e I n te r n a tio n a l M ilita ry T rib u n a l fo r th e F ar E a st ( IM T F E ), w h e re th e v ic to rio u s p ro s e c u to rs h a d a n ax to g rin d . In su m , th e a rg u m e n t goes, th e re is n o d o c u m e n te d p r o o f o f a N a n k in g A tro c ity th a t d a te s f ro m th e w a rtim e era w h e n it re p u te d ly to o k p lace; th e re fo re , th e e v e n t n e v e r rea lly o c c u rre d . T h is s tra ta g e m h as b e e n c e n tra l to th e claim s o f m a n y d en ie rs. S o m e o f th e m o re p r o m in e n t in c lu d e th e la te T a n a k a M a sa a k i, a p o p u la r critic; W a ta n a b e S h o ic h i, a n e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r a t S o p h ia U n iv e rsity ; F u jio k a N o b u k a tsu , a n e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f T o k y o ; a n d H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ), a p ro fe sso r a t A sia U n iv ersity . F u jio k a , fo r ex a m p le , claim s th a t W e s te rn o b se rv e rs o n th e sc en e lis te d o n ly 4 7 C h in e s e d e a th s, a fig u re w ell w ith in re a so n c o n s id e rin g o th e r w a rtim e m il­ ita ry o c c u p a tio n s in m o d e rn w o rld h isto ry ; th is w a rtim e fig u re, h e says, is n o w h e re n e a r th e “f a b ric a te d ” C h in e s e c la im o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 -p lu s v ic tim s o r th e * For more detailed analysis of the history and memory of the atrocities in Nanking, see my The M a kin g o f the “Rape o f N a n k in g ”: History a n d M em ory in Japan, China, an d the U nited States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). 248

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

“f a b ric a te d ” I M T F E c la im o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s , b o th o f w h ic h e m e rg e d afte r th e w a r e n d e d . T a n a k a a n d W a ta n a b e h o ld th a t W e ste rn e rs in N a n k in g a t th e tim e re p o r te d o n ly fo rty - n in e c iv ilia n d e a th s a t Ja p a n e se h a n d s , so m e o f w h ic h w ere le g itim a te e x e c u tio n s. T o give a n e x a m p le , th e y a n d F u jio k a refu se to ac k n o w le d g e as “v ic tim s ” so m e 2 0 0 C h in e s e w h o m th e W e ste rn e rs, o n o n e o cc asio n , re p o r te d as h av e b e e n ta k e n aw ay a n d g o n e “m is s in g .” H ig a s h in a k a n o asserts th a t th e k illin g o f C h in e s e strag g lers a n d s u rre n d e re d so ld ie rs— w h ic h th e W e ste rn e rs in d e e d p r o te s te d — d id n o t v io la te in te r n a tio n a l law b ec au se th e se m e n w ere c o m b a ta n ts w h o h a d fo rfe ite d th e ir rig h t to tr e a tm e n t as b o n a fide n o n b e llig e re n ts o r as p riso n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ). T h u s , p re s e n t-d a y Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs arg u e , claim s o f a “ R a p e ,” a “G re a t M a ssa c re ,” o r a n “A tro c ­ ity ” a t N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 a c tu a lly d a te fro m postwar I M T F E p ro c e e d in g s— w h e re p o s t-fa c to e v id en c e w as c o n c o c te d to o b ta in p re o rd a in e d g u ilty v erd ic ts a n d to d iv e rt a tte n tio n fro m A llie d w a r crim e s s u c h as H ir o s h im a a n d N a g a ­ saki. In o th e r w o rd s, th e d e n ie rs rh e to ric a lly q u e s tio n : I f th is alleg ed m e g a ­ m assacre in th e h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s a c tu a lly to o k p la ce , w h y d id C h in e se , W e ste rn e rs , a n d Ja p a n e se a t that time fail to d o c u m e n t it? 1 C o n tr a r y to th e se d e n ia l claim s, h o w ev er, th e K M T re g im e d id in fa c t b ro a c h th e issue o f Ja p a n e se w a r c rim e s— in c lu d in g th o se a t N a n k in g — a t th e L eague o f N a tio n s d u r in g th e A sia -P ac ific W ar. A lso, th e m ass m e d ia in C h in a , B rita in , a n d th e U n ite d S tate s d id r e p o r t Ja p a n e se w a r crim e s in th e N a n k in g re g io n a t th e tim e o r s h o rtly th e re a fte r. T h u s , as I w ill d e m o n s tra te , th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as a live issue lo n g b e fo re th e I M T F E . M o s t d e n ie rs m a k e tw o fallacio u s a s s u m p tio n s in th is reg a rd : th a t th e A tro c ity p r o d u c e d th e sa m e c o n scio u sn e ss a n d e m o tio n a l re sp o n se in e v e ry o n e a ro u n d th e w o rld , a n d th a t th e se resp o n se s re m a in e d th e sa m e o v er tim e . A s a re su lt, th e y fail to u n d e r ­ s ta n d w h y C h in e s e p ro te s ts a g a in st “a tro c itie s ” in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 p la c e d less e m p h a ­ sis o n N a n k in g th a n w o u ld o th e rw ise h av e b e e n th e case; a n d , w h a t is m o re , th e y d ism iss w a rtim e W e s te rn a n ti-Ja p a n e se p ro p a g a n d a as s im p ly ra c ist in n a tu re , w ith o u t c o n s id e rin g its o b se rv e d basis in w a r c rim e s a t places su c h as N a n k in g . In th is c h a p te r, th e n , I e x a m in e w a rtim e C h in e se , A m e ric a n , a n d Ja p a n e se in te r p re ta tio n s o f N a n k in g in th e p o litic a l a n d te m p o ra l c o n te x t o f th e ir d ay w ith a v ie w to stre ssin g th e ir d iffe re n c e s fro m ea ch o th e r a n d fro m c u r r e n t- d a y p e rsp e c tiv e s. S u c h a d isc lo su re , I c o n te n d , w ill d e b u n k so m e o f th e m o re p o p u la rly d is s e m in a te d c o n te m p o r a r y Ja p a n e se d e n ia l claim s.

Chinese Accounts In th e la te a u tu m n o f 1 9 3 7 , as th e im p e ria l Ja p a n e se a rm y a p p ro a c h e d N a n ­ k in g , re g io n a l C h in e s e n e w sp a p e rs su c h as th e H ankow Ta-kung-pao re p o r te d th e s itu a tio n in d etail. O n 2 4 N o v e m b e r, fo r ex a m p le , th is n e w sp a p e r in fo rm e d rea d ers o f th e p la n b y re s id e n t W e ste rn e rs to e sta b lish a n e u tra l in te r n a tio n a l 249

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

safety z o n e in N a n k in g , th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e , o r N S Z . O n 7 D e c e m b e r th e C h in e s e p ress re p o r te d th e im p o s e d c u rfe w in th e c ity a n d fo o d sh o rta g e s in th e N S Z . O n 8 D e c e m b e r, th e p ress h ig h lig h te d th e facts th a t in v a d in g Ja p a n e se tro o p s w ere a p p ro a c h in g th e c ity fro m th re e d ire c tio n s, th a t C h in e s e forces w ere th w a r tin g th e a tta c k , a n d th a t th e y h a d k ille d d o z e n s o f Ja p a n e se so ld iers. O n 9 D e c e m b e r, a C h in e s e c o rr e s p o n d e n t rev e ale d th a t so m e 3 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilian s fled in to th e N S Z in a fe w h o u r s o n th e p re v io u s m o r n in g , a n d th a t Ja p a n e se in v a d e rs h a d b e e n a tta c k in g th e c ity c o n tin u o u s ly fo r th re e d ay s.2 T h e to n e o f th e se C h in e s e re p o rts w as little d iffe re n t f ro m w a rtim e p a tr i­ o tic n ew s a c c o u n ts in o th e r n a tio n s . T h e s e re p o rts u n c ritic a lly s u p p o r te d C h in a ’s m ilita ry a n d p o litic a l le ad e rs, w h ile c h e e rin g th e d e a th s o f Ja p a n e se tro o p s a n d d e n o u n c in g Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s. O n 17 D e c e m b e r, th e first re p o rts o f r a n d o m Ja p an e se k illin g s a n d a rso n b e g a n to ap p e ar. T h e n , o n th e tw e n ty fifth , th e press c o n firm e d th e p re v io u s r e p o r t o f Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s in N a n ­ k in g , in c lu d in g ra p e a n d lo o tin g ; a n d , it e s tim a te d th a t 5 0 ,0 0 0 m a le refu g ees u n d e r f o rty years o f age h a d b e e n s la u g h te re d a fte r th e c ity h a d fallen . T h is C h in e s e n ew s w rite r stressed th a t Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s in N a n k in g h a d p ro d u c e d o u tra g e n o t o n ly in C h in a , b u t also a b ro a d ; a n d h e also p o in te d o u t th e h y p o c ­ risy o f th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h b o re g u ilt fo r k illin g o f te n s o f th o u ­ sa n d s o f in n o c e n t C h in e s e civ ilia n s w h ile c la im in g to fig h t to e sta b lish e te rn a l peace in E ast A sia .3 S im ilarly, o n 2 4 D e c e m b e r th e China Press, a n E n g lish -la n g u a g e n e w sp a ­ p e r p u b lis h e d a t S h a n g h a i, first re p o r te d Ja p a n e se o u tra g e s in N a n k in g . It h a d le a rn e d o f th e se fro m a rticle s in th e N ew York Times a n d th e Shanghai Evening Post, a n d stressed th e collapse o f d isc ip lin e a m o n g Ja p an e se tro o p s, w h o se “lo o t­ in g , r a p in g a n d o th e r u n p r in ta b le a tro c itie s ” su rp a sse d in sav ag ery th o se c o m ­ m itte d b y C h in e s e b a n d its .4 T h e se d e p re d a tio n s in N a n k in g re in fo rc e d in th e m in d o f th is China Press w rite r im a g es o f Ja p a n e se law lessn ess a n d b a rb a ris m th a t s te m m e d f ro m ea rlier n ew s re p o rts o f Ja p a n e se p la n e s h a v in g b o m b e d th e U SS Panay a n d H M S Ladybird a n d o f h a v in g c o n d u c te d in d is c rim in a te air a tta c k s o n o p e n cities su c h as C a n to n . C o n te m p o r a n e o u s C h in e s e re p o rts o f Ja p a n e se d e p re d a tio n s a t N a n k in g th u s re a ffirm e d a n d e x a c e rb a te d ea rlier im p re ssio n s o f Ja p a n e se rap a city . A s th e h is to ria n I n o u e H isa sh i sh o w s, b o th K M T a n d C h in e s e C o m m u ­ n is t P a rty ( C C P ) o fficials k n e w o f a tro c itie s in N a n k in g . O n 10 M a rc h 1 9 3 8 , th e K M T reg im e b ro a d c a s t in Ja p an e se a r e p o r t e n title d , “B a rb a ric A cts b y th e Im p e ria l A rm y ” th a t m o re o r less re p e a te d th e H ankow Ta-kung-pao re p o rts ju s t c ite d . C h ia n g K a i-sh e k d e n o u n c e d Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s in h is d ia ry in Ju ly 1 9 3 8 a n d also in a “D e c la ra tio n to th e Ja p a n e se P e o p le ” p u b lis h e d in th e sam e m o n th . A lth o u g h C h ia n g d id n o t sp e cific ally m e n tio n th e p ro p e r n o u n “N a n ­ k in g ” in th a t “D e c la r a tio n ,” th e re is little d o u b t a b o u t th e area to w h ic h w as h e re fe rrin g , sin ce n o h u g e -sc a le a tro c itie s o f th e ty p e h e m e n tio n s h a d y e t b e e n re p o r te d elsew h e re in C h in a . O n e o f th e e a rlie st C h in e s e c ita tio n s o f th e 250

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

N a n k in g A tro c ity a p p e a re d in a C C P w ee k ly p u b lis h e d a t H a n k o w , th e Ch’unchung, d a te d 1 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 . It re p o r te d , th o u g h in a h ig h ly g a rb le d fa sh io n , th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t m e n tio n e d in th e fo llo w in g se c tio n , a n d also d is­ cussed b y B o b T ad a sh i W a k ab a y ash i in c h a p te r 6. O n 14 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 8 — th e first a n n iv e rsa ry o f N a n k in g ’s c a p itu la tio n — th e C C P o rg a n , Central China News, d e c la re d th a t th e im p e ria l a rm y h a d k ille d “2 0 0 ,0 0 0 c o m p a tr io ts .”5 F u rth e rm o re , th e K M T g o v e rn m e n t d e n o u n c e d J a p a n ’s a c tio n s a t N a n k in g b efo re m e m b e rs o f th e L eag u e o f N a tio n s . O n 2 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , a t th e L eague C o u n c il’s s ix th m e e tin g o f its 100 th sessio n in G e n e v a — th e first se ssio n after N a n k in g fell— W e llin g to n K o o , o r K o o W e i-ju n , first d e le g a te o f th e R e p u b ­ lic o f C h in a , c o n d e m n e d J a p a n ’s “c ru e l a n d b a rb a ro u s c o n d u c t” in N a n k in g a n d elsew h ere. K o o d e c rie d J a p a n ’s in d is c rim in a te b o m b in g s o f o p e n cities. H is in f o rm a tio n a b o u t N a n k in g ca m e fro m th e N ew York Times b y w ay o f th e Times o f L o n d o n , a n d h e q u o te d fro m th o se re p o rts to accu se th e Ja p a n e se a rm y o f “w h o lesale lo o tin g , v io la tio n o f w o m e n , m u r d e r o f civ ilian s, e v ic tio n o f C h in e s e fro m th e ir h o m e s, m a ss e x e c u tio n s o f w a r p riso n e rs, a n d th e im ­ p re ssin g o f a b le -b o d ie d m e n .” K o o also re fe rre d to a se p a ra te a rtic le in th e Daily Telegraph and M orning Post to e s tim a te 2 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e c iv ilia n d e a th s a n d assau lts o n th o u s a n d s o f w o m e n . D e n o u n c in g Ja p a n e se law lessness, h e u rg e d th e c o u n c il to ta k e effectiv e m e a su re s to h a lt Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n a n d to p ro v id e m ilita ry a n d e c o n o m ic a id fo r C h in a . In th is sp e ec h , K o o stressed th a t J a p a n w as a th r e a t n o t o n ly to C h in a , b u t also to th e W e st. H e re m in d e d d eleg ates th a t J a p a n h a d s u n k th e Panay, d a m a g e d several o th e r A m e ric a n a n d B ritish sh ip s, a n d a ssa u lte d th e U S E m b a ssy in N a n k in g . H e c ite d th e 1 9 2 9 “T a n a k a M e m o ria l” to d isclo se J a p a n ’s a im to c o n q u e r C h in a , s u b ju g a te A sia, a n d fin ally d o m in a te th e w o rld . K oo in 1 9 3 8 th o u g h t th e “M e m o ria l” to b e a u th e n tic b ec au se J a p a n ’s re c e n t acts h a d ro u g h ly fo llo w e d th e a im m e n tio n e d th e re in .6 D e s p ite K o o ’s s tr o n g ap p e a l, th e c o u n c il a d o p te d a r e s o lu tio n th a t ex p ressed o n ly m o ra l s u p p o r t a n d r e c o m m e n d e d th a t m e m b e r sta te s re fra in f ro m ta k in g a c tio n s th a t m ig h t w e a k e n C h in a ’s resistan c e; it a d o p te d n o c o n ­ crete, v ig o ro u s m e a su re s o f th e k in d th a t C h in e s e d eleg a tes s o u g h t. O n 10 M a y 1 9 3 8 , a t th e o n e h u n d r e d - firs t se ssio n o f th e c o u n c il, K oo d e l­ iv ered a n o th e r sp e e c h re q u e s tin g effective m e a su re s to d e te r Ja p a n e se ag g res­ sio n . H e stressed th a t C h in e se forces h a d re c e n tly p rev a iled at T aierch w an g after d e s p e ra te fig h tin g a n d th a t th e tid e o f th e b a ttle w as n o w tu r n in g in C h in a ’s favor. Yet h e also e m p h a siz e d th a t th e Ja p a n e se in v a d e rs h a d b e c o m e m o re cru e l a n d b a rb a ro u s in th e ir d e s p e ra tio n . T h e w anton slaughter o f noncom batants by the indiscrim inate bom bing o f unde­ fended towns and nonm ilitary centers has been continuing unabated. T h e unprece­ dented violence to w om en and ruthlessness to children and the deliberate massacre of hundreds o f adult males am ongst the civilian population, including those removed from refugee camps under false pretenses, form the subject o f m any reports by im par­ tial foreign eyewitnesses. T h e cruel and barbarous conduct o f Japanese troops towards 251

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking Atrocity

the Chinese people in the occupied areas not only shows the w ant o f regard on the part o f the Japanese arm y for the accepted rules o f warfare b u t also betrays a disgraceful lack o f discipline in its rank and file.7 A bove all, K oo d isc lo se d J a p a n ’s use o f p o is o n gas in S h a n tu n g , stre ssin g J a p a n ’s c o n te m p t fo r in te r n a tio n a l law. H e d e m a n d e d th a t th e c o u n c il ca re fu lly c o n ­ sid e r effective a c tio n s to d ea l w ith th e F ar E a s te rn s itu a tio n .8 B u t th e c o u n ­ cil ag ain a d o p te d n o m e a su re s e x c e p t to express m o ra l s u p p o r t fo r C h in a . O n 16 S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 8 , in th e n in e te e n th se ssio n o f th e L ea g u e’s assem ­ bly, K oo o n c e m o re a p p e a le d to it a b o u t th e s itu a tio n in C h in a a n d u rg e d it to ta k e effective, c o n c re te ste p s a g a in st Ja p a n . H e ac c u se d Ja p a n e se fo rces o f m u r d e r in g m o re th a n 1 m illio n civ ilia n s o v er th e p a s t year, d e s tro y in g p ric e ­ less c u ltu ra l a n d h is to ric a l sites, a n d in flic tin g u n to ld m is e ry o n o r d in a ry p e o ­ p le. H e expressly re fe rre d to th e Ja p a n e se “re ig n o f te r r o r ” in N a n k in g a n d stressed th a t m a n y o th e r cities, to w n s, a n d villages fac ed s im ila r v io le n c e a n d law lessness. T h e K M T g o v e rn m e n t called J a p a n ’s use o f p o is o n gas a n d air raid s “th e m o s t in h u m a n ” o f all ty p es o f w a rfa re w a g e d a g a in st C h in a . Yet in h is ad d ress, K oo in s is te d th a t p o is o n gas w a rfa re w as m o re re p re h e n s ib le th a n in ­ d is c rim in a te aerial b o m b in g s b ec au se o f its n a tu re a n d effects. H e ac cu sed Ja p a n o f v io la tin g th e H a g u e c o n v e n tio n s o f 1 8 9 9 a n d 1 9 0 7 , w h ic h p ro h ib ite d th e use o f c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s, a n d w ith tra n sg re ssin g th e p rin c ip le s o f h u m a n ­ ity a n d civ iliz atio n . K o o la m e n te d th e fa c t th a t th e L eag u e h a d ta k e n n o effec­ tiv e m e a su re s a g a in st J a p a n s u c h as e m b a rg o e s o n w a r m a te rie l a n d fin a n c ia l cre d its. A bove all, h e re ite ra te d th a t th e p rin c ip le s o f la w a n d o rd er, a lo n g w ith th e p ea ce a n d se c u rity o f th e in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ity , w ere a t sta k e in th e o n g o in g S in o -Ja p a n e se c o n flic t.9 It w as essen tial fo r C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t le ad e rs n o t o n ly to sc o re m o ra l p o in ts , b u t also to se cu re p ra c tic a l a id f ro m a r e lu c ta n t L eag u e. T h is is w h y th e y s e n t a cable p r io r to th e a ssem b ly m e e tin g th a t in s tru c te d K o o to ta k e p a in s h ig h lig h tin g J a p a n ’s in h u m a n e assau lt. B u t th e y d id so in th e c o n te x t o f th a t day. T h u s , C h ia n g K a i-sh e k d e m a n d e d th a t K o o te n d e r a c o m m u n iq u e to th e L eag u e S e c re ta ria t fo r c irc u la tio n a m o n g m e m b e r sta te s in o rd e r to p u b ­ licize as w id e ly as p o ssib le J a p a n ’s use o f p o is o n gas. T h is te le g ra m a rriv e d o n 3 S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 8 a n d co n v ey s a feel fo r th e K M T g o v e r n m e n t’s p o s itio n : N ation wide meetings being organized support League dem and [for] effective mea­ sures. Generalissimo desires [that] you strongly emphasize in speeches forthcom ing Assembly and Council Japan’s inhum an m ethods warfare particularly [the] frequent use [of] poison gas and dem and effective measures. Same. Cabling you seperately [sic] authorative [sic] detailed account o f Japanese gas attacks please com m unicate same im m ediately [to the] League Secretariat for circulation am ong m em ber states [to] give [this] m atter widest possible publicity. C om pare para252

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

graph dealing w ith gas attacks cabled August 3 0 th w ith this account and revise para­ graph accordingly. W h en speaking before an assembly on [the] subject o f gas, call m em bers’ attentio n to the detailed seperate [sic] account. As regarding [the] gen­ eral statem ent o f facts cabled 30th[,] it is intended as basic material for your speech. W C P 10 T h e K M T re g im e n o t o n ly in s tru c te d K o o to a p p e a l to th e L ea g u e o n th is p o in t; it also s e n t le tte rs to th e se c re ta ry -g e n e ra l th a t d e ta ile d J a p a n ’s u se o f p o iso n gas a n d o th e r atro cities. F o r ex am p le, H o o C h i-ts a i, d ire c to r o f th e p e r­ m a n e n t office o f th e C h in e s e d e le g a tio n to th e L ea g u e o f N a tio n s , s e n t a le t­ te r d a te d 5 A u g u s t 1 9 3 8 th a t in c lu d e d a r e p o r t b y H . T a lb o t, a B ritish su rg e o n a t N a n c h a n g G e n e ra l H o s p ita l. T a lb o t e x a m in e d n in e te e n p a tie n ts o n 10 a n d 11 Ju ly 1 9 3 8 , a n d f o u n d th a t all h a d b e e n p o is o n e d b y a ty p e o f m u s ta r d o r c h lo rin e gas. In a n o th e r le tte r d a te d 5 S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 8 , H o o re q u e s te d th a t th e se c re ta ry -g e n e ra l c irc u la te th is d e ta ile d in f o rm a tio n o n J a p a n ’s p o is o n gas w arfa re a g a in st C h in e s e tr o o p s .11 O n 19 S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 8 , th re e d ay s a fte r h is ad d re ss to th e A ssem bly, K oo ap p e aled to th e co u n c il a t th e o n e h u n d re d -s e c o n d session. H e u rg e d th e L eague to re c o m m e n d th a t m e m b e r sta te s c o m m e n c e e m b a rg o e s o f w a r-re la te d m a ­ te rie l a g a in st J a p a n a n d th a t th e y se n d fin a n c ia l a n d m a te ria l a id to C h i n a .12 A t th is m e e tin g , h e fo rw a rd e d “S o m e R e c e n t D a ta C o n c e r n in g J a p a n ’s In v a ­ sio n o f C h in a a n d H e r C o n d u c t o f W a rfa re ” to th e se c re ta ry -g e n e ra l. T h is d o c ­ u m e n t s u m m a riz e d sp e ec h es th a t h e h a d d e liv e re d b e fo re th e asse m b ly o n th e six te e n th a n d o n o th e r o ccasio n s. A tro c itie s c ite d th e re in in c lu d e d th e o u tra g e a t N a n k in g , J a p a n ’s ae rial w a rfa re , a n d Ja p a n e se gas a tta c k s. A s o f S e p te m b e r 1 9 3 8 , C h in e s e le a d e rs d e s c rib e d N a n k in g m u c h as th e N a n k in g I n te r n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m m itte e h a d . T h is h u m a n ita r ia n o rg a n iz a tio n e s ta b lish e d b y A m e r­ ic an s a n d E u ro p e a n s a sse rte d th a t: It was the deliberate act o f violence by Japanese soldiers w hich was the direct cause o f the killing o f 74% out o f 3,250, and the w ounding o f 98% out o f 3,100 injured, under know n circumstances. T h e total num ber o f civilians killed, including those cases not yet verified, was estim ated at 20,000; 4,200 Chinese were forcibly taken away under m ilitary arrest, m ost o f w hom are believed to have been killed. T h e num ber o f the people thus affected by Japanese acts o f massacre and violence represents one per­ son in every tw enty-three or one in every five families. In N anking, 4,400 w om en had their husbands either killed, or w ounded, or carried off, while 3,250 fathers shared a similar fate regarding their children. T housands o f w om en and girls aged between 14 and 50 were outraged. As regards material losses, 88% o f the buildings in th at city suf­ fered damage or destruction at the hands o f Japanese soldiers ... while only 2% suffered from m ilitary operations.13 D e s p ite s u c h effo rts b y th e C h in e s e d e le g a tio n , th e L ea g u e a d o p te d n o c o n ­ f ro n ta tio n a l m e asu re s to w a rd J a p a n w h ic h , in a n y case, w as n o lo n g e r a m e m -

253

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

ber, h a v in g b o lte d in M a rc h 1 9 3 3 a fte r b e in g c e n su re d fo r its a c tio n s in “M a n c h u r ia ” or, m o re p ro p e rly , N o r th e a s t C h in a . A t th is p o in t, th e L eag u e m e re ly p ro p o s e d in v itin g J a p a n to d iscu ss th e o n g o in g h o stilitie s w ith C h i n a .14 O n ly afte r J a p a n ’s a tta c k o n P earl H a r b o r d id th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a receive sig n ific a n t assistan ce f ro m W e s te rn sta te s, a p a rt fro m th e S o v iet U n io n . M e a n ­ w h ile , th e K M T g o v e rn m e n t c o n tin u e d to a p p e a l to th e L eag u e a b o u t J a p a n ’s a tro c itie s in C h in a , b u t it stressed p o is o n gas w a rfa re ra th e r th a n a c tio n s at N a n k in g . H o w ev er, th is fa c t d o es n o t m e a n th a t C h in e s e le ad e rs re g a rd e d N a n k in g as in sig n ific a n t, n o r d o es it m e a n th a t th e A tro c ity d id n o t ta k e p la ce . In ste a d , C h in a ’s K M T reg im e h a d c o m p e llin g p o litic a l a n d ta c tic a l re a so n s fo r p la c ­ in g g re a te r e m p h a sis o n o th e r ty p e s o f Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s. W e s te rn p e o p le s w ere esp ecially sen sitiv e to p o is o n gas p e rh a p s b e c a u se o f th e ir p a in fu l ex p e­ rien ces in th e G re a t W a r o f 1 9 1 4 —18— o n ly tw o d ecad es b efo re. T h u s , C h in e se le ad e rs b eliev ed th a t th e issue o f Ja p a n e se c h e m ic a l w arfa re, w h e n e x p lo ite d as a p r o p a g a n d a to o l, w o u ld sh o c k th e c o n s c ie n c e o f le a d in g m e m b e r n a tio n s in th e L eague. M o re o v e r, th e lin e b e tw e e n acts o f w a r a g a in st c o m b a ta n ts a n d u n la w fu l acts o f v io le n c e a g a in st civ ilia n s w as n o t alw ays clear, w h e re a s th e d e fin itio n o f illegal c h e m ic a l w arfa re w as sp e lle d o u t in th e H a g u e c o n v e n tio n . H e n c e J a p a n ’s v io la tio n s o n th is sc o re w ere easier to e sta b lish a n d h a rd e r to excuse. A bove all, th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as o n ly o n e o f m a n y sim ila r in c id e n ts across w a rtim e C h in a . O n ly later, u n d e r th e p o s tw a r P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic , d id N a n k in g achieve u n iq u e sta tu s the e v e n t th a t s y m b o liz e d Ja p a n e se w a r crim es in C h in a p a r excellen ce.

Accounts of Westerners in Nanking K M T lead ers w ere c o n c e rn e d w ith C h in a o v erall ra th e r th a n N a n k in g a lo n e. In c o n tra s t are W e s te rn h u m a n ita ria n s su c h as m e m b e rs o f th e N a n k in g I n te r ­ n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m m itte e — th e su ccesso r to th e In te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ). T h e se W e ste rn e rs w h o re m a in e d in N a n ­ k in g ev en afte r K M T g o v e rn m e n t le ad e rs fled , w ere m o s t c o n c e rn e d w ith p r o ­ te c tin g th e lives a n d r e s to rin g th e liv e lih o o d s o f th e citiz en ry . D e v a s ta tio n in th e N a n k in g are a c o n tin u e d fo r w eek s a fte r th e c ity fell o n 13 D e c e m b e r. T h e R e lie f C o m m itte e ’s p rim a ry g o al w as to a p p e a l to th e w o rld a b o u t th e crisis th e re in o rd e r to g e t fin a n c ia l aid . F o r th is rea so n , its m e m b e rs w ro te o r b a c k e d th e p u b lic a tio n o f several b o o k s a n d p a m p h le ts fo r d is s e m in a tio n a b ro a d . T h e s e in c lu d e d L ew is S m y th e ’s War Damage in the N anking Area December, 1 9 3 7 to March, 1938; M in e r S. B a te s’s Crop Investigation in the N anking Area and Sundry Economic Data, a n d h is The N anking Population: Employment,

Earnings, a nd Expenditures.

254

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

S m y th e , a n A m e ric a n p ro fe sso r o f so c io lo g y a t N a n k in g U n iv ersity , a n a ­ lyzed h o w th e b a ttle s fo r N a n k in g c ity h a d affec ted p e o p le in th e s u r ro u n d in g re g io n . B ates, a n A m e ric a n p ro fe sso r o f h is to ry a t th e sa m e u n iv e rsity , w ro te th e fo re w o rd to S m y th e ’s b o o k , w h e re in h e u n d e rs c o re d th e c o m m itte e ’s p o lit­ ical sta n ce : “T h e N a n k in g I n te r n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m m itte e h e re m a k e s k n o w n th e results o f its in q u irie s p rim a rily fo r th e in fo rm a tio n o f th o se c o n c e rn e d w ith th e p ra c tic e a n d th e s u p p o r t o f re lie f w o rk in th is a n d o th e r areas; s e c o n d a r­ ily, fo r th e w id e r p u b lic w h ic h is o r s h o u ld b e c o n c e rn e d w ith th e ravages o f w arfa re a m o n g civ ilia n s, in w h a te v e r c o u n try . O u r o w n p o s itio n is h u m a n i­ ta ria n , w ith o u t re g a rd to th e n a tio n a lity o f w a r v ic tim s .” 15 B ates e m p h a siz e d th a t losses to life a n d p r o p e r ty fro m a c tu a l c o m b a t ac­ c o u n te d fo r b u t 1 o r tw o p e r c e n t o f th e to ta l d e v a sta tio n ; i f C h in e s e a n d J a p ­ anese tro o p s h a d g iv e n p r o p e r c o n s id e ra tio n to th e w elfare o f civ ilia n s, th e re st o f th e d a m a g e c o u ld h av e b e e n a v o id e d . C h in e s e in th e re g io n first ex p e­ rie n c e d se rio u s h a r m a t th e h a n d s o f th e ir o w n d e fe n d e rs, h e w ro te ; K M T arm ies sacrificed th e p ro p e rty o f local citizen s in th e n a m e o f m ilita ry n ecessity th r o u g h sc o rc h e d e a rth ta c tic s a n d th e lik e . L a te r o n , h o w ev er, d e s tru c tio n as­ s u m e d a n ev en g re a te r scale u n d e r Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n .16 A fte r in v e s tig a tin g b o th th e w alled c ity o f N a n k in g a n d m o s t o f its five n e ig h b o rin g c o u n tie s , S m y th e e s tim a te d th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s h a d k ille d a t le a st 1 2 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s (ex­ c lu d in g d isa rm e d so ld iers) in th e city, a n d th a t 3 0 ,9 5 0 civ ilia n s h a d p e ris h e d in o u tly in g areas b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 a n d M a rc h 1 9 3 8 .17 B ates e m p h a siz e d d iffe re n t d im e n s io n s o f th e s itu a tio n . H is Crop Investi­ gation in the N anking Area a nd Sundry Economic Data, lik ew ise p u b lis h e d in 1 9 3 8 , d escrib es in d e ta il a g ric u ltu ra l c o n d itio n s in a n d a r o u n d N a n k in g a n d p ro v id e s in f o rm a tio n a b o u t th e p ro b le m s o f fo o d , fu el, a n d c lo th in g . H e d id h is field re se a rc h in Ju ly 1 9 3 8 a n d h is fin d in g s to ld a g rim sto ry . W a r a n d flo o d s h a d d am ag e d cro p s severely, a n d th e 1 9 3 8 h a rv e st w as ex p e cted to b e far b e lo w average. D e s p ite g re a t n e e d , th e c o tto n in d u s tr y a n d tra d e w ere sc a n t. N e a rly h a lf o f th e N a n k in g p o p u la tio n liv e d in d e s titu tio n , a n d e m p lo y m e n t w as h a r d to fin d . A lth o u g h C h in e s e fa rm e rs, w o rk e rs, a n d m e rc h a n ts im ­ p resse d B ates w ith th e ir s p irit a n d re so u rc e fu ln e ss in d e a lin g w ith d ifficu lties, h e c o n c lu d e d th a t “th e life o f th e c o m m u n ity [is] p re c a rio u sly m a in ta in e d o n a d istre ssin g ly lo w le v e l.”18 In The N anking Population, B ates an a ly z ed w o rk in g c o n d itio n s in th e w alled city b ased o n in v e s tig a tio n s c o n d u c te d b e tw e e n N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 8 a n d J a n u a ry 1 9 3 9 . H e f o u n d th a t th e c ity h a d rec o v e re d a n d w as able to ac h ie v e lo w lev­ els o f so cial a n d e c o n o m ic v ita lity , b u t th a t c u r r e n t e c o n o m ic p o lic ie s a lo n g w ith m ilita ry a n d p o litic a l c o n d itio n s p re c lu d e d f u rth e r im p ro v e m e n t. A lth o u g h th e p o p u la tio n w as in c re a sin g , m o s t o f th is in c re a se d e riv e d f ro m refu g ee s flee­ in g to N a n k in g fro m th e c o u n try s id e . M a le s b e tw e e n th e ages o f fifte e n a n d f o rty -n in e c o m p ris e d o n ly tw e n ty -tw o p e r c e n t o f th e e n tire p o p u la tio n . O f

255

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

th o se in th a t c a te g o ry b efo re th e w ar, less th a n a th ir d re m a in e d . A lth o u g h th e e m p lo y m e n t ra te h a d s ig n ific a n tly im p ro v e d sin c e th e ea rly o c c u p a tio n , o n ly tw e n ty -se v e n p e rc e n t o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n h a d jo b s, m a n y in c ru d e la b o r a n d m e a g e r p e d d lin g . O v e r h a lf o f th e p o p u la tio n in th e c ity re p o r te d b e in g p a r tly o r w h o lly u n a b le to live o n th e ir c u r r e n t e a rn in g s .19 In a d d itio n to p u b lis h in g th e se su rv ey s, W e ste rn e rs in th e c ity w ere th e p rim e fo rce b e h in d e s ta b lish in g th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) in N o v e m ­ b e r 1 9 3 7 . B e tw ee n D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 a n d M a y 1 9 3 8 , th e y e s tim a te d th a t a b o u t 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 refugees e n te re d th is N S Z fo r sh e lte r, fo o d , a n d fu e l.20 W e s te rn h u ­ m a n ita ria n s w h o r e m a in e d in N a n k in g o c c a sio n a lly filed p ro te s ts w ith th e J a p ­ anese a u th o ritie s in o rd e r to p r o te c t a n d im p ro v e th e liv e lih o o d s o f refu g ees in th e N S Z .21 T h e se h u m a n ita ria n s also s e n t m a n y d ia ry -lik e le tte rs to frie n d s a b ro a d a n d in o th e r p a rts o f C h in a th a t h ig h lig h te d Ja p a n e se o u tra g e s in N a n ­ k in g . T o give o n e e x a m p le , th e C h in e s e -b o r n G e o rg e F itc h , w h o se rv e d as a d ire c to r o f th e N S Z , b e g a n a le tte r as follow s: X ’mas Eve, 1937. W h at I am about to relate is anything b u t a pleasant story; in fact, it is so very unpleas­ ant that I cannot recom m end anyone w ithout a strong stom ach to read it. For it is a story o f such crime and horror as to be almost unbelievable, the story o f the depreda­ tions o f a horde o f degraded criminals o f incredible bestiality, w ho have been, and now are, working their will, unrestrained, on a peaceful, kindly, law-abiding people. Yet it is a story w hich I feel m ust be told, even if it is seen by only a few. I cannot rest until I have told it, and perhaps fortunately, I am one o f a very few w ho are in a position to tell it. It is not com plete,— only a small part o f the whole; and G od alone knows when it will be finished. I pray it m ay be soon— bu t I am afraid it is going to go on for m any m onths to come, not just here b u t in other parts o f China. I believe it has no parallel in m odern history.22 F itc h ’s frie n d s in c lu d e d W e llin g to n K o o a n d H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y , a n A u s­ tra lia n c o rr e s p o n d e n t fo r th e Manchester Guardian in S h a n g h a i. T im p e rle y re ­ ceived th e le tte r a n d in c lu d e d it in h is exp o se, W hat War Means, th o u g h h e c o n c ea le d F itc h ’s id e n tity . T h is b o o k w as p u b lis h e d in c o u n trie s su c h as B rita in , th e U n ite d S tates, C h in a , F ra n c e , a n d even J a p a n — a lth o u g h im p e ria l g o v e rn ­ m e n t ce n so rsh ip p re v e n te d o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se fro m re a d in g i t . 23 F itc h a n d th e o th e r h u m a n ita ria n s w itn e s s in g Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 —38 c o u ld n o t p ro p h e siz e a b o u t th e levels o f m ass v io le n c e a n d m u r d e r th a t w o u ld b e in flic te d o n c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n s la te r o n in th e w a r— in c lu d in g th e H o lo ­ c a u st o f E u ro p e a n Je w ry a n d th e n u c le a r a tta c k s o n Ja p a n e se cities. T h e re fo re , th e y c o u ld n o t co n c eiv e o f e x p lic itly lik e n in g N a n k in g to su c h la te r a tro c i­ ties. N e v e rth e le ss, th e se W e s te rn h u m a n ita ria n s a sse rte d th a t Ja p a n e se v io le n c e in N a n k in g h a d “n o p a ra lle l in m o d e rn h is to ry .” To W e s te rn o b se rv e rs o n th e scen e su c h as D r. R o b e rt W ils o n , a su rg e o n a t th e U n iv e rsity H o s p ita l, J a p a n ­ ese b r u ta lity w as “a lm o st b e y o n d b e lie f.”24 256

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

Accounts in the United States T h e o u tra g e in N a n k in g d id n o t ach iev e sy m b o lic s ta tu s in e ith e r J a p a n o r C h in a d u r in g th e w ar. In Ja p a n , m o s t p e o p le w h o le h e a rte d ly s u p p o r te d th e w a r e ffo rt a n d c e le b ra te d th e c a p tu re o f N a n k in g ; a n d in C h in a , N a n k in g w as b u t o n e o f m a n y Ja p an e se atro c itie s. B y c o n tra s t, how ever, in th e U n ite d S tates, a n d esp ecially afte r P earl H a rb o r, th e N a n k in g A tro c ity b e c a m e a s y m b o l o f Ja p a n e se b a rb a ris m a n d e th n ic a lly e n c o d e d cru elty . In flu e n tia l d a ily n e w sp a ­ p ers su c h as th e N ew York Times a n d Chicago Daily News re p o r te d im p e ria l a rm y b r u ta lity in N a n k in g d u r in g a n d im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e e v e n t to o k p lace. O n 18 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , th e N ew York Times p r in te d a n a rtic le b y T ilm a n D u rd in , w h o w as in N a n k in g w h e n it fell. H e to ld o f Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s su c h as m ass e x e c u tio n s o f C h in e s e m e n a n d c ity w id e lo o tin g .25 D u r d i n ’s se c o n d r e p o r t in th e Times a p p e a re d o n 9 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 ; it d e ta ile d d a y -b y -d a y o b se r­ v a tio n s b e tw e e n 6 a n d 13 D e c e m b e r. D u r d i n e s tim a te d th a t a t le a st 3 3 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e d ie d d u r in g th is e ig h t-d a y in te r lu d e a n d stressed th a t Ja p a n e se b r u ­ ta lity w as c o m p a ra b le o n ly to “v a n d a lis m in [the] D a r k A ges in E u ro p e o r th e m e d ie v a l A sia tic c o n q u e r o rs .”26 As ju s t n o te d , T im p e rle y p u b lis h e d W hat War Means in B rita in in 1 9 3 8 , b u t th is sa m e b o o k ca m e o u t th a t y ea r in th e U n ite d S tate s u n d e r th e title The Japanese Terror in China. In its fo re w o rd , T im p e rle y stressed th a t h is g o al w as n o t “to s tir u p a n im o s ity a g a in st th e J a p a n e s e ,” b u t in s te a d “to give th e w o rld as a c c u ra te ly as p o ssib le th e facts a b o u t th e Ja p a n e se A rm y ’s tr e a tm e n t o f th e C h in e s e c iv ilia n p o p u la tio n in th e 1 9 3 7 —8 h o s tilitie s .” T im p e rle y in c lu d e d a n o n y m o u s le tte rs w ritte n b y ey ew itn esses to th e Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s, th u s p r o ­ v id in g rea d ers w ith v iv id im a g e s o f th e h o rro rs in N a n k in g a n d o th e r areas. M o reo v e r, h e in c lu d e d a n e s tim a te b y o n e fo re ig n ey e w itn e ss th a t th e w a r cau sed a t least 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 m ilita ry ca su a ltie s p lu s a n o th e r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n ca su ­ alties in c e n tra l C h in a . In th e b o o k ’s c o n c lu s io n , h e u rg e d A m e ric a n a n d B ritish rea d ers to give C h in a a rm s o r fin a n c ia l a id .27 In 1 9 4 2 , th e y ea r a fte r P earl H a rb o r, T im p e rle y p u b lis h e d Japan: A World Problem in th e U n ite d S tate s. C o n tr a r y to h is ea rlier 1 9 3 8 v o lu m e , w h ic h care­ fu lly a v o id e d d e m o n iz in g th e e n tire Ja p a n e se p e o p le , th is b o o k e x p la in e d Ja p a n e se ag g ressio n a n d a tro c itie s th r o u g h a n alleg ed “n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r.” H e stressed th a t d e e p -ro o te d p sy c h o lo g ic a l fo rces h a d d riv e n th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le as a w h o le to lu s t a fte r w o rld c o n q u e st: “H is to r y d e m o n s tra te s th a t m e g a lo m a n ia c a l id eas h av e b e e n w o rk in g in th e b lo o d o f th e Ja p a n e se , n o t m e re ly fo r g e n e ra tio n s b u t fo r c e n tu rie s , a n d th a t th e m in d s o f th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le hav e b e e n d e lib e ra te ly w a rp e d b y th e ir m ilita r y m a ste rs. O b v io u s ly th e re ca n b e n o d u ra b le p ea ce in th e F ar E ast, o r fo r th a t m a tte r in th e w o rld a t large, u n til th e p o w e r o f th e m ilita r y o lig a rc h y th a t n o w ru n s J a p a n h a s b e e n fin a lly b r o k e n .”28 T im p e rle y d id n o t a c k n o w le d g e th e c o n c lu sio n th a t w o u ld se em to flo w lo g ic a lly f ro m th e se p rem ises; n am ely , th a t th e re w o u ld b e n o p e a c e in 257

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

A sia u n le ss “th e Ja p a n e se ”— s u p p o s e d ly aggressive a n d b r u ta l b y th e ir g e n e tic n a tu re — w ere to ta lly liq u id a te d . B rad fo rd S m ith , a n A m e ric a n w h o h a d ta u g h t a t T okyo Im p e ria l U niversity, p re s e n te d s im ila r v iew s in h is a rticle , “Ja p a n : B e a u ty a n d B e a st.” S m ith to o e m p lo y e d th e n o tio n o f a “n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r” to e x p la in w h y fa m ily -lo v in g , o rd in a ry Ja p an e se m e n c o u ld c o m m it b a rb a ro u s acts. T o h im , “th e ra p e o f N a n ­ k in g , w h e n 5 0 ,0 0 0 Ja p a n e se tro o p s w ere le t lo o se in th e c ity a n d 4 2 ,0 0 0 in n o ­ c e n t C h in e s e w ere m u r d e r e d ,” w as “o n e o f th e m o s t b a rb a ro u s m a ss-m u rd e rs in h is to ry .” S m ith a rg u e d th a t Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs a c te d as th e y d id in N a n k in g o w in g to n in e facto rs in th e ir “racial b a c k g ro u n d ”; th a t is, th e ir m o ra l tra in in g lim ite d to fa m ily a n d n a tio n a l loyalty, n o tio n s o f d iv in ity th a t se t th e m a p a rt fro m th e rest o f h u m a n ity , a n in fe rio rity psychosis, fear a n d h a tre d o f in d iv id ­ u alism , d isreg a rd fo r th e v alu e o f h u m a n life, u n b rid le d sexuality, a b a c k g ro u n d o f h e a d - h u n tin g , a release fro m c ra m p e d so c ial re s tric tio n s , a n d th e la c k o f a religious literatu re b ased u p o n eth ical a n d sp iritu a l p rin c ip le s w o rth y o f re sp e c t.29 Ja m es Y oung, a n A m e ric a n jo u r n a lis t w h o also h a d liv e d in J a p a n , p u b ­ lish e d Our Enemy, a tw e n ty -fiv e -c e n t p a p e rb a c k in 1 9 4 2 — lo n g a fte r H itle r ’s d e p re d a tio n s a g a in st th e Jew s in E u ro p e h a d b e c o m e p u b lic k n o w le d g e . Y o u n g d e n o u n c e d J a p a n ’s “n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r” as b e in g in h e re n tly aggressive a n d b a r­ b a ro u s. H is b o o k ’s co v er sh o w s a n o m in o u s ly sla n t-e y e d , b u c k - to o th e d J a p a n ­ ese so ld ie r w e a rin g glasses a n d a N a z i-lik e u n ifo rm . In h is r ig h t h a n d , a k n ife d rip s b lo o d ; in th e o th e r is a to r n U .S . flag. Y o u n g c la im e d th a t: “In tric k ­ ery, th e b re a k in g o f p ro m ise s, th e v io la tio n o f civ ilized p rin c ip le s, th e re is n o lim it. Ja p a n e se w ays o f th in k in g are n o t o u r w ays o f th in k in g , n o r is J a p a n ­ ese h o n o r o u r h o n o r. A m e ric a n s w h o h av e b e e n in th e F ar E a st fo r a n y le n g th o f tim e hav e seen d e m o n s tr a te d , in K o rea, M a n c h u r ia a n d C h in a , th e fa c t th a t th e Ja p a n e se h av e s tu d ie d a n d im p ro v e d o n all th e b ru ta litie s w h ic h E u ro ­ p e a n c o n q u e ro rs o f th e p a s t h av e e m p lo y e d . T h e se Ja p a n e se k n o w th e m se lv es q u alified to d u p lic a te all N a z i b ru ta litie s, exceed th e m , a n d a d d a w h o le sa ta n ic ra n g e o f th e ir o w n p e c u lia r c r u e ltie s .”30 To Y oung, “th e b lo o d y , v ic io u s re c o rd o f N a n k in g ” w as “a c rim e so g re a t, p e rh a p s th e g re a te st sa c k o f a c ity in [the] w o rld ’s h is to ry .” H is m is tru s t a n d h a tre d p r o b a b ly d e riv e d f ro m a tw o - m o n th p e rio d o f im p r is o n m e n t in J a p a n in 1 9 4 0 . To h im , ev en U .S .- b o r n Ja p a n e se A m e ric a n s w ere ag e n ts o f im p e ria l J a p a n p re p a rin g to aid Ja p a n e se tro o p s w h e n th e y la n d e d o n A m e ric a n sh o re s.31 W o rk s su c h as th ese p u b lis h e d in th e U n ite d S tates after Pearl H a r b o r stressed th a t th e Ja p an e se “n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r” w as u n iq u e a n d u tte r ly d iffe re n t fro m th a t o f A m e ric a n s. In 1 9 4 3 , th e e d ito rs o f Amerasia, a le ft-lib e ra l jo u rn a l, ex p ressed c o n c e rn a b o u t th e n u m e ro u s b o o k s th a t p o p u la riz e d th is m o n o lith ic n e g a tiv e im a g e o f th e Ja p a n e se . In its A p ril 1 9 4 3 issue, fo r e x a m p le , th e e d i­ to rs c a rrie d a rev ie w a rtic le , “ Is T h e re A n o th e r Ja p a n ? ” I t e x a m in e d G u sta v E c k ste in ’s In Peace Japan Breeds War, Jesse S te in e r’s Behind the Japanese Mask, a n d A le x a n d e r P e r n ik o ff ’s Bushido: The Anatom y o f Terror. E c k ste in , a b io g ra 258

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

p h e r o f th e h u m a n ita r ia n Ja p a n e se b a c te rio lo g is t N o g u c h i H id e y o (1 8 7 6 — 1 9 2 8 ), h e ld th a t th e la c k o f e th n ic m in o ritie s in J a p a n h a d p ro d u c e d a h o m o ­ g e n e o u s c u ltu re w h e re in b lin d o b e d ie n c e a n d s u b m is s io n w ere in s tin c tiv e a n d se c o n d n a tu re to th e Ja p a n e se . S tein e r, a so c io lo g ist, also stressed a m o n o lith ic Ja p a n e se p e o p le w h o s tro n g ly h a te d th e W e st a n d b e lie v e d in th e ir d iv in e lin ­ eage fro m th e S u n G o d d e ss th r o u g h th e im p e ria l lin e . P e rn ik o ff, id e n tifie d as a s e n s a tio n a lis t b y th e jo u r n a l e d ito rs, h a d w ritte n a “b lo o d c u rd lin g s to ry ” a b o u t th e Ja p a n e se tr e a tm e n t o f W h ite R u ssian s in M a n c h u r ia . To th e Amerasia e d ito rs, th is s te re o ty p in g ig n o re d th e d iv e rsity o f Ja p a n . T h e y u rg e d re a d ­ ers to re je c t ste re o ty p e s th a t p r o n o u n c e d all Ja p a n e se as u n ite d b y d re a m s o f w o rld c o n q u e s t a n d p o in te d o u t th a t th e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t h a d to e m p lo y p o lic e to silen ce d e m o c ra ts , so cialists, a n d c o m m u n is ts w h o o p p o s e d th e w a r e ffo rt.32 In N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 3 , Amerasia c a rrie d y e t a n o th e r re v ie w a rtic le th a t c h a l­ le n g e d th is w ave o f a n ti-Ja p a n e se lite ra tu re in th e U n ite d S tate s. T h is tim e , th e e d ito rs rev iew ed th re e b o o k s, tw o o f w h ic h a tta c k e d th e Ja p a n e se c h a ra c ­ te r as b e in g fixed g e n e tic a lly a n d p sy c h o lo g ic ally . In o n e o f th e se b o o k s, Japan Fights fo r Asia (1 9 4 3 ), J o h n G o e tte , a jo u r n a lis t a n d a fo rm e r re p re se n ta tiv e o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l N e w s S erv ice, e m p h a siz e d th a t th e “e m p e ro r, g en e rals, ju n io r officers, so ld iers, civ ilia n m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h ild re n , a n d th e R isin g S u n flag are [a] u n ity .” S im ilarly , S y d n e y G re e n b ie , le c tu re r a n d a u th o r, a rg u e d in h is Asia Unbound (1 9 4 3 ) th a t “It is n o t th e g en e rals, o r ev en th e m ilita ry cliq u es, o f J a p a n w h o are th e tru e d a n g e r. It is th e p e o p le . T h e p e o p le h av e b e e n m a d e lite ra te — n in e ty - e ig h t p e rc e n t o f th e m — b u t th e y h av e n e v e r u sed th e ir h ead s. T h e y sim p ly d o n o t k n o w h o w to th in k . T h e y are foggy. T h e y are s e n tim e n ta l. T h e y are h y ste ric a l a n d m y s tic a l.” In c o n tra s t, T aro Y ash im a’s The N ew Sun (1 9 4 3 ) w o n th e e d ito rs ’ a p p la u se b y p ro v in g th a t ra c ia l a n d p sy ­ ch o lo g ica l th e o rie s w ere in a c c u ra te . Y ash im a, a J a p a n - b o rn le ftis t a rtis t, w ro te o f h is ex p e rien c es in Ja p a n e se jails, w h e re h e m e t e th n ic m in o ritie s as w ell as Ja p an e se socialists a n d c o m m u n is ts , all o f w h o m th e p o lic e im p ris o n e d as b e in g h a r m f u l to th e e m p ire . T h is rev ie w a rtic le u rg e d re a d e rs n o t to ig n o re m e n lik e Y ashim a, w h o m th e U n ite d S ta te s c o u ld u se to b u ild a new , p e a c e fu l J a p a n afte r th e w ar e n d e d .33 Amerasia w as h ig h ly e x c e p tio n a l in b e in g a h ig h -b ro w , le ftist p u b lic a tio n . In g en e ral, th e A m e ric a n m e d ia p a id s c a n t a tte n tio n to Ja p a n e se lik e Y ash im a afte r P earl H a rb o r. In ste a d , a m o n o lith ic im a g e o f th e Ja p a n e se as b e stia l b a r­ b a ria n s, w h o c o m m itte d b u tc h e r y in N a n k in g , b e c a m e in c re a sin g ly p o p u la r in th e U n ite d S tate s. T h a t im a g e ju s tifie d n o t o n ly A m e ric a ’s w a r e ffo rt a g a in st im p e ria l J a p a n a n d Ja p a n e se m ilita ris m , b u t also th e m ass m u r d e r o f J a p a n ­ ese civ ilian s b y th e fire b o m b in g o f m a jo r cities across th e a rc h ip e la g o , e n d ­ in g w ith th e a to m ic b o m b in g o f H ir o s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i. D u r in g th e P acific W a r (1 9 4 1 —4 5 ), th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as o n e o b je c tiv e p ie ce o f “e v id e n c e ” th a t rac ially b ia se d A m e ric a n a u th o rs u se d to “p ro v e ” th e ir p o in t. 259

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

Japanese Accounts J a p a n ’s a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g a n d elsew h e re d id n o t a p p e a r in Ja p a n e se offi­ cial h isto rie s o r in th e m ass m e d ia d u r in g th e A sia-P acific W a r (1 9 3 1 —4 5 ). T h e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t ju stifie d its w a r e ffo rt in p a r t b y m a in ta in in g th a t th e o n ly a tro c itie s in C h in a w ere p e r p e tra te d b y C h in e s e a g a in st Ja p a n e se n a t io n ­ als— o fte n civilians, su c h as th e o n e a t T u n g c h o u , n o te d below . A rm y a n d g o v ­ e r n m e n t cen so rs b a n n e d all a c c o u n ts th a t even h in te d a t th e p o ssib ility th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s w ere c o n d u c tin g a tro c itie s, in c lu d in g w o rk s o f fic tio n su c h as Ish ik aw a T a tsu z o ’s Ikite iru heitai (L iv in g so ld ie rs).34 T h u s , u n lik e in th e U n ite d S tates, w h e re article s se e m in g ly s y m p a th e tic to th e Ja p a n e se e n e m y m ig h t a p ­ p e a r in jo u rn a ls s u c h as Amerasia, o n ly g o v e rn m e n t-a p p ro v e d a c c o u n ts c o u ld leg ally b e p u b lis h e d o r c irc u la te d in w a rtim e Ja p a n e se society. F or exam ple, as stressed in th e state-p rescrib ed six th -g rad e h isto ry te x tb o o k o f th e tim e , J a p a n s e n t tro o p s “to re c tify m is ta k e n C h in e se id eas a n d to estab lish a p e r m a n e n t p ea ce in th e E a s t.”35 Ja p a n e se n e w sp a p e rs a n d o th e r g o v e rn m e n ta u th o riz e d m e d ia p la y e d u p C h in e s e b r u ta litie s , p a rtic u la rly afte r th e M a rc o P olo B rid g e In c id e n t o f 7 Ju ly 1 9 3 7 a n d its a fte rm a th , w h e n im p e ria l a rm e d forces e x p a n d e d h o s tilitie s to c e n tra l C h in a . O n 4 A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 , fo r ex a m p le , th e Tokyo Asahi shinbun d e ta ile d k illin g a n d lo o tin g b y C h in e se tro o p s in T u n g ­ c h o u , n e a r P e ip in g (as P e k in g w as th e n c a lle d ). I t c o n d e m n e d C h in e s e “sav­ ag ery ” a n d ex p ressed o u tra g e a t th e m u r d e r o f so m e 2 0 0 Ja p a n e se a n d K o re a n re sid e n ts, in c lu d in g w o m e n , c h ild re n , a n d in f a n ts .36 O th e r m a jo r d a ily n e w s­ p ap e rs at h o m e h ig h lig h te d C h in e se b a rb a ris m a t T u n g c h o u as p a r t o f c o n c e rte d c a m p a ig n s to stir u p a n ti-C h in e s e s e n tim e n ts a m o n g o r d in a r y J a p a n e se .37 A s Ja p a n e se tro o p s m a d e th e ir fin a l a d v a n c e o n N a n k in g , n e w sp a p e rs e n ­ th u siastica lly p re d ic te d a d ra m a tic c o n q u e st, w h ip p in g u p n a tio n a lis m to a fever p itc h . T h e Tokyo nichi nichi shinbun, fo r e x a m p le , re p o r te d a “k illin g c o n te s t” b e tw e e n tw o s u b lie u te n a n ts th a t re p u te d ly to o k p la c e o n 3 0 N o v e m b e r a n d o n 4 a n d 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . T h e c o rre s p o n d e n t p ro u d ly re p o rte d th e m c o m p e t­ in g to see w h o c o u ld first c u t d o w n 1 0 0 C h in e s e c o m b a ta n ts .38 O n 8 D e c e m ­ ber, th e Yomiuri shinbun a p p la u d e d th e v ic to rio u s im p e ria l a rm y a n d stressed th a t th e ca p tu re o f N a n k in g w as im m in e n t.39 W h e n Ja p an e se tro o p s su rro u n d e d th e w alled city, th e p ress p la y e d u p J a p a n ’s g e n e ro sity a n d rig h te o u sn e ss. To save th e lives o f C h in e s e so ld iers as w ell as h is to ric a l sites in N a n k in g , c o m ­ m a n d e r M a ts u i Iw a n e o f th e C e n tra l C h in a A re a A rm y (C C A A ) u rg e d h is C h i­ nese c o u n te r p a r t, T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , to su rre n d e r, a n d w a ite d a fu ll d a y b efo re la u n c h in g h is a ll-o u t a tta c k . B u t, as th e Tokyo Asahi shinbun p u t it, T ’a n g “r u d e ly ig n o re d M a ts u i’s g e n e ro u s a ttitu d e o f bushido [th e sa m u ra i e th o s ] ” a n d fo rc e d th e im p e ria l a rm y to a tta c k th e city, th e re b y c a u sin g n e e d le ss d e a th a n d d e s tru c tio n .40 In su m , official a c c o u n ts a n d n ew s re p o rts c ite d n o Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t c e n so re d all p r in te d m a te ria ls a n d ra d io p ro g ra m s in o rd e r to b a n 260

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

any a c c o u n ts th a t m ig h t s tir u p a n tiw a r s e n tim e n t a m o n g th e Ja p a n e se p e o ­ p le. N e v e rth e le ss, d e s p ite th e se h ig h ly re stric tiv e c irc u m sta n c e s, n o n o ffic ia l, u n a u th o riz e d a c c o u n ts th a t d isc lo se d Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s— in c lu d in g th o se a t N a n k in g — d id c irc u la te . O n e ex a m p le is th e essay, “F assho k y o i n o N ih o n ” (Ja p a n u n d e r th e T h r e a t o f F ascism ) in Kyokuto senso nyusu (F a r-E a ste rn W a r N e w s), a Ja p a n e se n e w sp a p e r p r in te d in S e a ttle . T h is essay su m m a riz e d a New York Times artic le a b o u t N a n k in g , th e re b y in f o rm in g Ja p a n e se re a d e rs o f th e w h o lesale a tro c itie s th e re .41 S im ilarly , Ja p a n e se n a tio n a ls s u c h as K aji W a ta ru , w h o le ft J a p a n fo r C h in a a n d w o rk e d fo r th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t, tra n s la te d T im p e rle y ’s W hat War Means in to Ja p a n e se in o rd e r to d e sc rib e th e o u tra g e th a t to o k p la ce in N a n k in g .42 A p p a re n tly , a s u rp ris in g n u m b e r o f Ja p a n e se a t h o m e g a in e d access to a n d re a d th e se s m u g g le d d o c u m e n ts , so th e a u th o r i­ ties aggressively su p p re sse d th e se w o rk s w h e n e v e r p o ssib le. T h u s , th e p o lic e co n fisc a te d th re e co p ies o f “ F assho k y o i n o N ih o n ” in F eb ru ary , te n c o p ies in M a rc h , a n d th re e co p ies fro m A p ril th r o u g h J u n e o f 1 9 3 8 . A s w ell, in F e b ru ­ a ry 1 9 3 9 th e y c o n fisc a te d elev en co p ies o f th e Ja p a n e se tra n s la tio n o f W hat War Means fro m a n A m e ric a n m is s io n a ry liv in g in J a p a n .43 H o w ev er, as c o n te m p o r a r y N a n k in g d e n ie rs c laim , it is tr u e th a t th e J a p a n ­ ese p u b lic in g e n e ra l d id n o t d isc o v er th e v ast p a t te r n o f a tro c itie s th a t th e im p e ria l a rm y p e r p e tra te d in A sia, in c lu d in g th e o n e a t N a n k in g , u n til th e I T M F E c o n v e n e d a fte r th e w a r e n d e d . O n ly th e n d id th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le as a w h o le realize th a t m illio n s o f lives h a d b e e n d e s tro y e d b o th a t h o m e a n d a b ro a d in th e n a m e o f th e e m p e ro r. B u t th is w a rtim e ig n o ra n c e re s u lte d fro m s tric t g o v e rn m e n t c e n so rsh ip — n o t b ec au se th e ev e n ts d id n o t ta k e p la c e or fo r a la c k o f d o c u m e n ta ry ev id en c e.

Conclusion D u r in g th e A sia-P acific W a r o f 1 9 3 1 —4 5 , e th n o c e n tris m , n a tio n a lis m , n a tio n a l in te re sts , a n d d e m o n iz a tio n o f th e e n e m y h e a v ily in flu e n c e d A m e ric a n , C h i­ nese, a n d Ja p an e se view s o f atro c itie s in N a n k in g . In w a rtim e C h in a , th e K M T g o v e rn m e n t d id n o t re g a rd th e o u tra g e in N a n k in g as the s y m b o l o f Ja p a n e se w a rtim e cru elty , as th e p o s tw a r P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic h a s c o m e to d o . In ste a d , C h in e s e th o u g h t o f N a n k in g as b u t o n e o f in n u m e r a b le Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s in C h in a a t th e tim e . A lth o u g h C h in e s e d eleg a tes to th e L eag u e o f N a tio n s d id m e n tio n N a n k in g e x p lic itly in p r o te s tin g Ja p a n e se w a r crim es, th e y ch o se to e m p h asize J a p a n ’s use o f c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s a n d air ra id s o n o p e n cities b ec au se th ese types o f atro c itie s, th e y re c k o n e d , w o u ld m o re lik e ly w in w o rld sy m p a th y a n d aid. In w a rtim e A m e ric a , th e “ R a p e o f N a n k in g ,” as it w as p o p u la rly called th e n , e n jo y e d w id e c irc u la tio n , first as a h is to ric a lly u n p re c e d e n te d a tro c ity p rio r to th e N az i H o lo c a u s t o f E u ro p e a n Jew s, a n d la te r (after Pearl H a rb o r) as th e n e g a tiv e ic o n o f a m o n o lith ic “n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r” e x p lo ite d to d e m o n iz e 261

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le . In w a rtim e J a p a n , g o v e r n m e n t-a u th o riz e d a c c o u n ts o f fig h tin g a t N a n k in g a n d in C h in a as a w h o le n ev e r d iscu ssed m ass m u rd e r, rap e, a n d lo o tin g b y im p e ria l a rm e d forces fo r fear th a t th e tr u th w o u ld d a m a g e th e ir im a g e a n d call in to q u e s tio n J a p a n ’s p u ta tiv e w a r aim s o f lib e ra tin g A sia n s a n d c re a tin g a p e a c e fu l c o p ro s p e rity sp h e re in th e re g io n . N e v e rth e le ss, so m e illic it d o c u m e n ts p e r ta in in g to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity d id slip th r o u g h th e n e tw o r k o f sta te ce n so rsh ip a n d w ere av ailab le to a few Ja p a n e se rea d ers. S o, in su m , o n e o f th e m a in d e n ia l a rg u m e n ts fa sh io n a b le a m o n g e th n o c e n tric Ja p a n e se sch o lars to d a y — th a t n o d o c u m e n ta ry ev id en ce o f th e A tro c ity existed in C h in a , th e W est, o r J a p a n a t th e tim e o r s h o r tly th e re a fte r— is p a te n tly false. M o re d isturbing ly , how ever, th e a rg u m e n ts p u t fo rth b y c o n te m p o ra ry Ja p a­ nese d en iers o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity are essen tially th e sa m e as th o se expressed in w a rtim e p ro p a g a n d a a n d g o v e r n m e n t-a u th o riz e d a c c o u n ts . T h e s e d e n ie rs stress Ja p a n e se ju s tic e a n d C h in e s e in ju s tic e , a n d th e y v alu e h u m a n lives d if­ fe re n tly b a se d o n e th n ic ity a n d n a tio n a lity . T h e d e n ie rs also c la im th a t th e y are “p a tr io tic ” w h e re a s th o se Ja p a n e se w h o c h a lle n g e th e m are tr a ito ro u s le ft­ ists in leag u e w ith C h in e s e le a d e rs o u t to s u b v e rt Ja p a n . F u jio k a , W a ta n a b e , a n d H ig a s h in a k a n o are fo rm e r o r c u r r e n t u n iv e rsity p ro fe sso rs. A s te a c h e rs, th e y s h o u ld re m e m b e r th a t im p e ria l J a p a n h a d m a n y “p a trio ts ” lik e th em selv es, a n d th a t th o se p a trio ts h e lp e d d e s tro y m illio n s o f lives in A sia a n d th e P acific b y s u p p o r tin g th e im p e ria l a g e n d a . Is it n o t p o ssib le th a t th e sa m e n a tio n a l p rid e m a y le ad to s im ila r re su lts again? It is to b e h o p e d th a t e d u c a to rs su c h as F ujioka, W a ta n a b e , a n d H ig a sh in a k a n o w ill n ev e r h av e to sin g th e elegiac so n g w ritte n in th e early 1 9 5 0 s b y a n o th e r e rstw h ile a c a d e m ic p a trio t, a te a c h e r n a m e d T a k e m o to G e n ji: To M y Students W h o D ied at W ar Students w ho will never come back, M y hands are smeared w ith your blood. I held one end o f the rope that choked you to death. Ah! A nd I was a teacher. H ow can I excuse m yself by claim ing that “we were bo th deceived?” H ow can I atone for m y sin? You will never be alive again. I now wipe tears from m y eyes, wash m y blood-soaked hands, and promise you, “Never again! 44 44

Notes 1. Tanaka, W h a t Really H appened in N a n k in g pp. 76—78; Tanaka, N a n kin jik e n no sokatsu, p. 174 and 114—21; Higashinakano, “N a n kin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, pp. 191—226, 3 4 0 ^ 2 , and 362; Fujioka and Nishio, K okum in no yudan, pp. 209—14 and 213; Watanabe, N ihonshi kara m ita Nihonjin: Showahen, pp. 4 1 2 ^ 3 .

262

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wartime Accounts o f the Nanking Atrocity

2. In Nankin jiken chosa kenkyukai (Nankin ken), N a n kin jik e n shiryoshu, vol. 2, pp. 10—14. 3. Ibid., pp. 24—25. 4. “Collapse of Discipline of Japanese Forces in Nanking Is Revealed by N.Y. Times,” The China Press, 24 December 1937, p. 1 and p. 8. 5. Inoue, “Senso toji Chugoku de mo mondai ni sarete ita,” pp. 60—71. 6. League of Nations, Official Journal 19:2 (February 1938), p. 122. Although some Japanese at the time may have dreamed of world conquest, the “Memorial” is now confirmed as a forged document. See, for instance, John Stephan, “Tanaka Memorial (1927), pp. 733—45. 7. League of Nations, O fficialJournal,19:5-6 (May—June 1938), p. 307. 8. Ibid. 9. League of Nations, Official Journal, Special Supplement, no. 183 (1938), pp. 52—55. 10. Wellington Koo Collection, Box 36, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. 11. League of Nations, Official Journal, 19:8—9 (August—September 1938), pp. 665—668. 12. Ibid., 19:11 (November 1938), p. 864. 13. Ibid., 19:12 (December 1938), p. 1133. 14. Ibid., 19:11 (November 1938), p. 865. 15. Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, p. i. 16. Ibid., pp. i—ii. 17. Ibid., p. 8 note 1, 17, Table 25 (page number unknown). 18. Bates, Crop Investigation in the N a n k in g Area an d Sundry Economic Data, p. 1. 19. Bates, N a n k in g Population, pp. 1 and 21—23. 20. The Nanking International Relief Committee, Report o f the N a n k in g International R elief Com­ mittee, November, 1 9 3 7 to A p r il30, 1939, pp. 413—15. 21. See, for example, Hsu, Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone. 22. Wellington Koo Collection, Box 25, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. 23. SeeJapanese Terror in China ; La Guerre Telle qu elle Est: La Terreur Japonaise en Chine ; Waiguoren m uduzhongzhi Rijun baoxin; and G aikokujin no m ita Nihongun no boko. 24. See Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 214. 25. Durdin, “U.S. Naval Display Reported Likely Unless Japan Guarantees Our Rights; Butchery Marked Capture of Nanking,” N e w York Times, 18 December 1937, pp. 1 and 10. 26. Durdin, “Japanese Atrocities Marked Fall of Nanking After Chinese Command Fled,” N ew York Times, 9 January 1938, p. 38. 27. Timperley, Japanese Terror in China, pp. 10, 15, and 139. 28. Timperley, Japan: A World Problem, pp. vii—viii. 29. Bradford Smith, “Japan: Beauty and the Beast,” Amerasia 6:2 (April 1942), pp. 86—94. 30. Young, O ur Enemy, p. 10. 31. Ibid., p. 10 and pp. 102—03. 32. Amerasia, ed., “Review Article: Is There another Japan?” pp. 35—42. 33. Amerasia, ed., “Review Article: The Nature of Our Enemy, Japan,” pp. 389—92. 34. For a study in English, see Cook, “Reporting the ‘Fall of Nanking’ and the Suppression of a Japanese ‘Memory’ of the Nature of a War,” pp. 121—53. 35. “Shogaku kokushi jinjoka yo gekan,” vol. 2, reprinted in N ihon kyokasho taikei kindai hen, vol. 7, pp. 559—60. 36. Tokyo A sahi shinbun, 4 August 1937. 37. See, for example, Shinbun taimusu sha, Shina jih en senshi, vol. 1, pp. 264—88. 38. Tokyo nichi nichi shinbun, 30 November, 4 December, and 6 December 1937. 39. Yomiuri shinbun, 8 December 1937. 40. Tokyo A sahi shinbun, 11 December 1937. 41. “Fassho kyoi no Nihon,” Kyokuto senso nyusu, no. 4 (10 January 1938); this was included in Tokko gaiji geppo, (February 1938), pp. 12—13. 42. Hora, N it-C h u senso: N a n k in daigyakusatsu jik e n shiryoshu, vol. 2, pp. 4—5.

263

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

43.

44.

See Tokko gaiji geppo (February 1938), 12; (March 1938), 10; and (June 1938), 14; also Hayashi, “Shina jihenka ni okeru fuon kodo to sono taisaku ni tsuite,” reprinted in Shakai mondai sosho, 1:79, p. 185. Included in Runesansu, a newsletter of the Japan Teachers’ Union, Kochi Prefecture, published on January 30, 1952. See Tokutake, Kyokasho no sengo shi, pp. 73—74.

264

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:17 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Section Three

A n o t h e r D e n ie d H o lo c au st ?

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

12

T h e N a n k i n g At r o c i t y a n d C h in e s e H i s t o r i c a l M e m o r y Joshua A. Fogel

Introduction S erio u s sc h o lars w ill c o n tin u e to d e b a te m a n y asp ec ts o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ­ ity p e r p e tra te d b y th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry fro m m id - D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to earlyF e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 . W h y d id it ta k e place? H o w d id Ja p a n e se m ilita ry d isc ip lin e b re a k d o w n ? H o w m a n y C h in e s e w ere m a ssa c re d a n d rap e d ? T h e se a n d o th e r q u e s tio n s re m a in o p e n to s c h o la rly d e b a te . B u t n o se rio u s h is to ria n o f a n y n a tio n a lity d o u b ts o r d e n ie s th a t th e A tro c ity d id ta k e p lace. I stress th is p o in t a t th e o u ts e t b ec au se of, a m o n g o th e r th in g s , th e g ro ssly u n in f o rm e d tr e a t­ m e n t th is issue h a s rec eiv e d o v er th e p a s t d e c a d e in th e A m e ric a n n e w s m e d ia . T h e A tro c ity h a s n o t ac h ie v ed its fu ll p la c e in th e c a ta lo g o f w o rld a tro c itie s d e s p ite th e g re a t s u ffe rin g th a t to o k p la c e d u r in g th o se te rrib le w eek s in N a n k in g , th e C h in e s e c a p ita l city. O f co u rse , th e sa m e c a n b e sa id fo r o th e r g re a t acts o f m ass m u r d e r in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , su c h as m assacres o f A rm e ­ n ia n s u n d e r th e re g im e o f th e Y o u n g T u rk s d u r in g W o rld W a r I, o r th e P o rra jm o s o r G y p sy g e n o c id e b y th e N a z is d u r in g W o rld W a r T w o. B u t th is h a rd ly sta n c h e s th e p a in fe lt b y su rv iv o rs o f N a n k in g a n d b y th e ir d e s c e n d a n ts. O v e r th e p a s t d ec ad e , th e re h a s b e e n a d r a m a tic su rg e o f in te re s t in N a n k in g a n d o th e r a tro c itie s c o m m itte d b y th e Ja p a n e se in w a rtim e C h in a . T h is h a s ta k e n p la ce b o th in th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) a n d in C h in e s e d ia sp o ra c o m m u n itie s, especially in N o r t h A m eric a. T h e re is even a jo u rn a l p u b lis h e d in C h in e s e in th e U n ite d S tate s ex p ressly d e v o te d to th e to p ic , th e Jih-pen ch’inH uayen-chiu (S tu d ie s o f Ja p an e se A g g re ssio n a g a in st C h in a ), a n d th e re are n o w m a n y w eb sites fo c u se d o n N a n k in g a n d s im ila r Ja p a n e se w a rtim e a tro c itie s .1 O rg a n iz a tio n s s p o n s o rin g th e jo u r n a l a n d w e b site s h a v e h e ld m a n y c o n fe r­ ences a n d o th e r c o m m e m o ra tiv e ev e n ts, su c h as a m a jo r s y m p o s iu m a t P rin c e 267

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

to n U n iv e rsity in N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 7 , a n d a n u m b e r o f re c e n t b o o k s b y y o u n g C h in ese n atio n alists have h ig h lig h te d th e N a n k in g A trocity. In 2 0 0 7 , th e seven­ tie th a n n iv e rsa ry o f th a t e v e n t, it is im p o r ta n t to e x a m in e th e m o tiv e s b e h in d th e se h ig h ly p o litic iz e d a c tiv itie s, w h ic h s h o w little o r n o sig n o f a b a tin g . M o s t sig n ifican tly , in 1 9 9 7 th e la te Iris C h a n g p u b lis h e d h e r b estseller, The Rape o f Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust o f World War II.2 N o t o n ly h as it so ld several h u n d r e d th o u s a n d co p ies a n d b e e n tra n s la te d in to a h o s t o f la n g u ag e s, C h a n g h e ld n u m e ro u s e x tre m e ly su c ce ssfu l b o o k sig n in g s a n d a p p e a re d at m a n y s c h o la rly c o n fe re n c e s b e fo re h e r d e a th . In h e r b o o k a n d le c tu re s, sh e m a d e th e s ta rtlin g c la im th a t, n o t o n ly are th e a c tio n s o f th e Ja p a n e se m ili­ ta ry in N a n k in g c o m p a ra b le to th e N a z i H o lo c a u s t a g a in st th e Jew s o f E u ro p e ; in fact, w h e n p r o p e rly c a lc u la te d , th e N a n k in g d e a th c o u n t a c tu a lly exceeds th e “S h o a h ,” as th a t e v e n t is k n o w n in H e b re w .3 A lth o u g h e x p lic it referen c es to th e H o lo c a u s t in th e P R C have b e e n rare u n til v ery recently, y o u n g C h in e se d e m o n s tra to rs d id seize u p o n th e sw a stik a to v e n t th e ir a n g e r a t th e U n ite d S tates afte r th e M a y 1 9 9 9 N A T O b o m b in g o f th e C h in e s e e m b a ssy in B el­ g rad e . W h y are s u c h c o m p a ris o n s b e in g m a d e b o th in th e P R C a n d ab ro a d ? A n d w h y now ? W h y is it th a t y o u n g g e n e ra tio n s o f C h in e s e b o th a t h o m e a n d in th e d ia s p o ra overseas tr y to seize c e n te r sta g e fro m th e e sta b lish e d h is ­ to ric a l p ro fe ssio n s in th e P R C , in T a iw a n , a n d in H o n g K ong? W h y d o th e y fe rv e n tly seek to p re s e n t th e p a in , su ffe rin g , a n d v ic tim h o o d to th e re st o f th e w o rld o n b e h a lf o f all C h in ese ?

The Nanking Atrocity and Postwar China(s) F ro m D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , a t th e a c tu a l tim e o f th e ev e n t in a n d a ro u n d N a n k in g , few C h in e s e w ere in a p o s itio n to c o m p re h e n d th e e n o r ­ m ity o f th e m ass m u r d e r g o in g o n a r o u n d th e m ; a n y w h o trie d to g a th e r d a ta o f th is s o rt w o u ld h av e b e e n in im m e d ia te m o r ta l d a n g e r. Ja p a n e se so ld iers w h o m ig h t hav e b e e n ab le to r e p o r t th e scale o f th e k illin g s o b v io u sly h a d n o m o tiv a tio n to d o so. Ja p a n e se jo u rn a lis ts o n th e scen e w ere su b je c t to g o v e rn ­ m e n t ce n so rsh ip , o r fo r th e m o s t p a r t th e y su p p ressed th e sto ry v o lu n ta rily . T h e sm a ll W e s te rn c o m m u n ity in N a n k in g w as liv in g in a c o m p o u n d , th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) se t u p in la te -N o v e m b e r. A lth o u g h th e se m e n a n d w o m e n h a d so m e sense o f w h a t w as g o in g o n a n d h av e le ft us w ith v a lu a b le rec o rd s, th e y c o u ld n o t see o r h e a r a b o u t w h a t w e n t o n th r o u g h o u t th e e n tire c ity a n d in areas o u ts id e o f it u n til m u c h la te r.4 A fte r th e w ar, th e In te r n a tio n a l M ilita ry T rib u n a l fo r th e F ar E ast ( IM T F E ), b e tte r k n o w n as th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, c o n v e n e d f ro m 1 9 4 6 to 1 9 4 8 ; a n d a n u m b e r o f Ja p a n e se , C h in e se , a n d fo re ig n e rs in N a n k in g a t th e tim e w ere called as w itn e sse s. T h e I M T F E ca m e u p w ith a fig u re o f a t le ast 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e m u rd e re d a t N a n k in g . O n e Ja p a n e se c o n v ic te d o f w a r crim e s a t N a n 268

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

k in g a n d se n te n c e d to d e a th w as G e n . M a ts u i Iw a n e, th e c o m m a n d e r o f J a p ­ anese forces, w h o h a d n o t ev en b e e n in N a n k in g u n til 17 D e c e m b e r. M a ts u i w as aw are o f th e b r u ta l acts c o m m itte d in th e c ity a n d c o n d e m n e d h is m e n fo r th e ir savage excesses, h a v in g e a rlie r d e m a n d e d th a t C h in e s e p riso n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ) n o t b e e x e c u te d . B u t a t h is tria l in T o k y o h e d e n ie d th a t a n y ­ th in g like a w h o le sa le m a ssac re h a d ta k e n p la ce . N e v e rth e le ss, th e I M T F E fo u n d h im g u ilty fo r n o t h a v in g p re v e n te d th e crim e s c o m m itte d b y m e n u n d e r h is c o m m a n d , a n d h e w as h a n g e d in 1 9 4 8 . B y th a t tim e , h o w ev er, th e tria ls h a d b e c o m e e n g u lfe d in m o re p re ssin g c o n c e rn s o f th e C o ld W ar. T h e re w as c o n s id e ra b le c la m o r a m o n g le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se a n d a m o n g so m e e le m e n ts o f th e g e n e ra l p u b lic to b r in g a m u c h lo n g e r lis t o f th e ir o w n w a rtim e le a d ­ ers to th e d o c k , b u t G e n . D o u g la ss M a c A rth u r, th e c o m m a n d e r o f A llie d O c c u p a tio n forces, d id n o t w a n t to a lie n a te c o n serv ativ e Ja p a n e se elites b y p r o ­ lo n g in g th e trials. T h e C h in e s e K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r C h ia n g K a i-sh e k h e ld m u c h h a rs h e r p o s tw a r tria ls. T h e s e e sta b lish e d th e d e a th to ll a t 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d as a re su lt, a n u m b e r o f im p lic a te d Ja p a n e se w ere e x e c u te d . C h in a a t th is tim e , how ever, w as in th e th ro e s o f a se c o n d civil w ar th a t th e C h in e se C o m m u n is ts u n d e r M a o T s e -tu n g w o u ld so o n w in . S h o rtly a fte r its o u s te r fro m th e m a in ­ la n d , th e K M T d ro p p e d all claim s to re p a ra tio n s fo r w a r d am ag es. C h ia n g w as c o n c e rn e d a b o u t d ip lo m a tic is o la tio n a n d a lie n a tin g th e Ja p a n e se , a n d h e n e e d e d E ast A sia n allies in th e C o ld W a r as h e e s ta b lish e d a n e w re g im e o n T a iw a n . W h e n th e C o m m u n is ts ca m e to p o w e r o n th e m a in la n d , th e y to o re fu se d w a r r e p a ra tio n s as p a r t o f a p o lic y o f “s e lf-re lia n c e ,” a n d th u s fo re sw o re th e P R C ’s a b ility to p u s h th a t d e m a n d in th e fu tu re . (C h in e s e in d iv id u a ls , how ever, ca n a n d d o c o n tin u e to su e th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d b u sin e sse s fo r c o m p e n s a tio n .) T h u s , in th e im m e d ia te p o s tw a r p e rio d , th e w o rld d id in effect rec o g n ize th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , b u t o n ly a h a n d f u l o f Ja p a n e se w ere ex ecu ted fo r th e ir roles in it, a n d th e Ja p an e se g o v e rn m e n t its e lf n ev e r trie d a n y alleged w a r c rim in a ls . M o re im p o rta n tly , th o u g h , n o th in g w as im p le m e n te d to k eep th e A tro c ity in th e p u b lic m e m o r y — su c h as a m o n u m e n t o r a n n u a l c o m m e m o ra tio n . T h a t s itu a tio n o b ta in e d u n til th e im p re ssiv e s to n e m e m o r ­ ial w e n t u p in N a n k in g o n 15 A u g u s t 1 9 8 5 . T h e first p o s tw a r P R C g e n e ra tio n p r o d u c e d little se rio u s s c h o la rsh ip o n th e A tro city , in p a r t b e c a u se th e y d e e m e d it b u t o n e a sp e c t o f a h o rrific w a r­ tim e ex p e rie n c e in te r p re te d in lig h t o f th e s u b s e q u e n t C o m m u n is t v ic to ry a n d th e C o ld W ar. A s M a o T s e -tu n g p u ta tiv e ly d e c la re d o n th e f o u n d in g o f th e P R C , “ C h in a h as s to o d u p !” T h e C o m m u n is ts saw th e m se lv e s, n o t th e K M T , as v ic to rs in th e w ar, a n d th e y h a d far b ig g e r s o c io e c o n o m ic p ro b le m s to c o n ­ te n d w ith th a n se e k in g g lo b a l r e c o g n itio n o f Ja p a n e se w a r c rim es. M o s t sig­ n ific an tly , th e P R C h as alw ays h a m p e re d se rio u s s c h o la rsh ip o n h is to ry in o rd e r to c o n tro l th e in te r p r e ta tio n o f it. T h e P R C g o v e rn m e n t also s tra te g i­ cally ex p lo its h is to ry a g a in st in te r n a tio n a l en e m ie s, a n d d ep lo y s it to in sp ire 269

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

sh a m e in p o te n tia l tr a d in g p a r tn e r s .5 F o r e x a m p le , it u se d th e A tro c ity as an id eo lo g ical, a lb e it irra tio n a l, a n ti-U S s u rro g a te d u r in g th e K o re a n W ar. In 1 9 5 2 th e P R C re g im e trie d to im p lic a te A m e ric a n s in th e A tro c ity b y c la im in g th a t th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e ( IC )— a n o rg a n iz a tio n o f W e ste rn e rs w h o a c tu ­ ally saved m a n y th o u s a n d s o f C h in e s e civ ilia n s in th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e ( N S Z ) — w as a g a n g o f W e s te rn im p e ria lists c o m p lic it w ith th e Ja p a n e se in ­ v a d e rs.6 T h e P R C w o u ld ag a in use th e A tro c ity d u r in g th e 1 9 6 0 s to c riticiz e th e U .S . ro le in b u ild in g u p bases in Ja p a n . B o th o f th e se d e p lo y m e n ts o f th e A tro c ity h e lp e d escalate th e C o ld W ar. Yet a t th e sa m e tim e , th e P R C re g im e h as b e e n carefu l to c o n tro l its c ritic is m o f th e A tro c ity o w in g to th e im p o r ­ ta n c e o f S in o -Ja p a n e se tra d e . E v en b e fo re d ip lo m a tic n o r m a liz a tio n in 1 9 7 2 , th e tw o c o u n trie s h a d b e e n e n g a g e d in tra d e th a t h as g ro w n to a m assiv e v o l­ u m e to d ay . P R C g o v e rn m e n t le ad e rs lik e to r e m in d th e ir Ja p a n e se c o u n te r ­ p a rts o f J a p a n ’s h e in o u s w a rtim e acts, u su a lly a t fa c e -to -fa c e m e e tin g s, a n d th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t u su a lly ac q u ie sce s in th e in te re sts o f c o n tin u in g th is m a m m o th b ila te ra l tra d e . In o rd e r to m a in ta in th is s tra te g ic ca rd , th e P R C re g im e h as trie d to k eep th e N a n k in g issue fro m im p lo d in g a m o n g its p o p u la c e , p o te n tia lly in ju r in g th e se lu c ra tiv e Ja p a n e se c o n ta c ts. S till far fro m a d em o crac y , th e C h in e s e g o v ­ e r n m e n t ca n exercise su c h p re ro g a tiv e s. I t ex p lo its th e issu e b o th to k ee p th e Ja p an e se in th e ir p la ce a n d to sh o w its o w n p e o p le h o w it h as g a in e d th e u p p e r h a n d in S in o -J a p a n e se re la tio n s, b u t it n e v e r m o b iliz e s th e m asses to th e p o in t o f se rio u sly d a m a g in g tra d e . To b e effective, th e n , th e P e k in g re g im e h as to w a lk a th in lin e . It m u s t c o n tro l p u b lic ex p re ssio n s o f a n ti-Ja p a n e se s e n tim e n t b y o rc h e s tra tin g d e m o n s tr a tio n s a g a in st J a p a n o n o th e r se le c te d issues, su c h as th e te x tb o o k c o n tro v e rs y o f th e ea rly 1 9 8 0 s, w h e n th e Ja p a n e se press le a k e d w h a t p ro v e d to b e in a c c u ra te sto rie s o f th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n ’s p la n s to s o fte n th e d e s c rip tio n o f Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n in W o rld W a r II.

Why Diaspora Chinese and Why Now? M a in la n d C h in e s e h av e u n til v e ry re c e n tly h a d th e ir h a n d s tie d b y th e ir g o v ­ e r n m e n t. O v ersea s C h in e se , h o w ev er, h av e b e e n m u c h m o re active, n o t ju s t in w ritin g a b o u t N a n k in g a n d o th e r w a rtim e a tro c itie s, b u t also in p u s h in g fo r a w h o lesale c o n d e m n a tio n o f J a p a n a n d its alleg ed n o n p a y m e n t o f c o m ­ p e n s a tio n . T h e y b eliev e th a t th e Ja p a n e se , a n d o th e r fo re ig n p e o p le s, h av e n o t a c c o rd e d th e 1 9 3 7 —3 8 A tro c ity th e im p o r ta n c e th a t it w a rra n ts in m o d e rn w o rld histo ry , a n d th a t th e Jap an ese g o v e rn m e n t h as n o t ap o lo g ize d sufficiently. A t a n u m b e r o f in te r n a tio n a l s c h o la rly c o n fe re n c e s I h av e a tte n d e d , C h in e se A m e ric a n sc h o lars h av e v o c ife ro u sly a tta c k e d Ja p a n e se ac a d e m ic s a n d c a sti­ g a te d fello w C h in e s e fro m th e m a in la n d fo r b e in g “s o ft” o n Ja p a n . O v ersea s C h in e s e — a n d n o t ju s t sc h o la rs— are ju s tifia b ly a n g e re d b y th is o r th a t rig h t270

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

w in g Ja p an e se g ro u p o r in d iv id u a l w h o p e rio d ic a lly d e n ie s th e v e ra c ity o f th e A tro c ity — a lth o u g h h ig h -le v e l Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t officials are fo rc e d to re ­ sig n w h e n e v e r th e y d o th is. B u t u n lik e C h in e s e liv in g in th e P R C , w h o c a n ­ n o t easily d e m o n s tr a te th e ir d isp le a su re o n su c h o cc asio n s, d ia s p o ra C h in e s e are free to express th e ir o p in io n s o penly. R ecently, ex p re ssio n s o f o u tra g e a m o n g overseas C h in e s e a b o u t ev e n ts in N a n k in g th a t o c c u rre d se v e n ty y ears ago h av e b e c o m e in tric a te ly tie d to th e c o m p le x issue o f C h in e s e id e n tity . J a p a n h a s in e v ita b ly p la y e d a c ru c ia l ro le in th is id e n tity fo rm a tio n g iv e n th e close c u ltu ra l a n d h is to ric a l re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e tw o c o u n trie s a n d th e k e y ro le th a t J a p a n h a s p la y e d in C h in a ’s o w n m o d e rn iz a tio n sin c e th e la te - n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . D e s p ite th e c o m p le x ity a n d g e n e ra l a m ic a b ility o f th is c e n tu rie s -lo n g h isto ry , th e A tro c ity h as b e c o m e the d e fin in g ev e n t in h o w m a n y C h in e se p erceiv e J a p a n — to th e e x te n t o f ov er­ sh a d o w in g over a m ille n iu m o f p re v io u s re la tio n s. E v en so m e g ifte d C h in e s e h is to ria n s a ttr ib u te n o t ju s t W o rld W a r II, b u t p r e - tw e n tie th c e n tu r y J a p a n ­ ese b eh a v io r, to a n aggressive a n d e x p a n s io n is t Ja p a n e se “n a t u r e ,” u su a lly c o n ­ n e c te d w ith bushido (th e sa m u ra i e th o s). A s a s y m b o l o f Ja p an -as-ag g resso r, th e n , th e A tro c ity h as b e c o m e p r o fo u n d ly e n tw in e d w ith c o n te m p o r a r y C h i­ nese id e n tity . T h is issue h as c o m e to th e fo re a m o n g overseas C h in e s e o n ly in th e re c e n t p ast. O th e r im m ig r a n t p e o p le s h av e fo rg e d id e n titie s w ith in a d ia s p o ra se p a ­ r a te d fro m th e ir h o m e la n d s o v er m a n y c e n tu rie s . U n lik e th e m , h o w ev er, th e overseas C h in e s e e x p e rie n c e d id n o t re a lly s ta rt u n til th e m id - n in e te e n th c e n ­ tu ry , a n d it h as b e c o m e se rio u sly p o litic iz e d o n ly in th e la st 5 0 y ears o r so. T h is p o litic iz a tio n la rg e ly re s u lte d f ro m th e p o s t- 1 9 4 9 P R C -T a iw a n rift, w ith g ro w in g n u m b e rs o f e th n ic C h in e s e liv in g in S o u th e a s t A sia, A u stra lia , th e U n ite d S tates, a n d C a n a d a . W h e re a s th e overseas C h in e s e c o m m u n ity w as o n c e s tric tly s p lit b e tw e e n s u p p o rte rs o f T a iw a n a n d th e P R C , it n o w re v e r­ b e ra te s w ith a m u ltip lic ity o f voices. M o reo v e r, in c re a sin g n u m b e rs o f th e se e th n ic C h in e s e w ere n o t b o r n a b ro a d . E sp ec ia lly sin c e th e 1 9 7 0 s, n e w m o d e s o f tr a n s p o r ta tio n — in c lu d in g ju m b o je ts a n d c h e a p air fares— h av e c h a n g e d th e v e ry n a tu re o f im m ig ra tio n . P eo p le n o w m o v e a b o u t b e tw e e n n a tio n s w ith c o n s id e ra b ly m o re ease, b u t p e rh a p s iro n ic a lly th is h as h e ig h te n e d th e ir in d i­ v id u a l sense o f e th n ic ity .7 N e w im m ig r a n ts f ro m T a iw a n as w ell as h ig h ly e d u c a te d P R C C h in e s e h av e b r o u g h t n e w ex p e rie n c e s a n d a s p ira tio n s to th e fo re to c re ate n e w fa u lt lin es w ith in th e overseas C h in e se c o m m u n ity . O n e o f th e m o re v o cal g ro u p s o f ov er­ seas C h in e s e n o t b o r n a b ro a d h as b e e n th e sc h o la rly c o m m u n ity . S in ce th e la te -1 9 8 0 s , far m o re C h in e s e s tu d e n ts a n d ac a d e m ic s h av e b e e n s tu d y in g a n d te a c h in g in W e s te rn in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g th a n ever b e fo re . T h e W e st h as a ffo rd e d th e m m o re fre e d o m , n o t o n ly fo r a c a d e m ic p u rs u its , b u t fo r th e ir g ra d u a lly e m e rg in g p o litic a l g o als as w ell. T h is d e v e lo p m e n t h as allo w ed m a n y C h in e s e fro m th e m a in la n d to b e less d ire c tly b o u n d b y th e ir h o m e la n d th a n 271

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

w as tru e earlier. T h e w o rld w id e w eb h as also fa c ilita te d th e ex p re ssio n o f n e w voices b y s im p lify in g d o m e s tic a n d in te r n a tio n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n to a n u n ­ p re c e d e n te d e x te n t, a n d b y p ro v id in g a f o ru m in w h ic h all v iew s c a n b e fre ely av erred . T h e P R C g o v e rn m e n t is d e s p e ra te ly tr y in g to c o n tro l th is p h e n o m ­ e n o n , b u t it is im p o s sib le to d o s o .8 A s v a rio u s C h in e s e c o n s titu e n c ie s w ith in th e d ia s p o ra seek to a sse rt th e m se lv e s in th e a c a d e m ic c o m m u n ity a n d over th e in te r n e t, th e y se a rc h fo r issues o n w h ic h to g r o u n d th e ir id e n titie s . T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity h as b e c o m e th e m o s t p r o m in e n t o f th e se. T h u s , th e re are n o w m o re vo ices c la im in g to a rtic u la te C h in e s e id e n tity th a n ever b efo re, b u t p a ra d o x ic a lly th e re is also a w e a k e r basis o n w h ic h to b u ild th a t id e n tity . O n e b y - p ro d u c t o f th e m o d e rn era h as b e e n a k in d o f c u l­ tu ra l d e ra c in a tio n . D e s p ite its o b v io u s m e rits, th e N o r t h A m e ric a n m e ltin g p o t h as h a d a n u n f o r tu n a te re su lt: few o f us are so lid ly g r o u n d e d in th e c u ltu re s, la n g u ag e s, a n d h is to rie s th a t are re p u te d ly o u r o w n . A s overseas C h in e s e — b o th th o se b o r n in C h in a a n d a b ro a d — se a rc h fo r a n id e n tity in th is th e era o f id e n tity p o litic s , th e y o fte n fin d th a t th e y la c k th e to o ls n e e d e d to a c q u ire o n e. C u ltu ra l d e ra c in a tio n fo r th e C h in e se in C h in a its e lf h as b e e n ex a ce rb a te d b y th e tr e n d to w a rd ic o n o c la s m in m o d e rn h is to ry w ith its se lf-c o n sc io u s, o fte n v io le n t, re je c tio n o f C h in a ’s lo n g c u ltu ra l h e rita g e . T h is b e g a n in th e N e w C u ltu re M o v e m e n t o f th e 1 9 1 0 s th a t b la m e d tr a d itio n a l c u ltu re fo r all o f C h in a ’s p o litic a l, social, a n d e c o n o m ic ills; a n d it c u lm in a te d in th e G re a t P ro le ta ria n C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n o f th e la te -1 9 6 0 s a n d e a rly -1 9 7 0 s . A s a re su lt, n o t o n ly A m e ric a n - o r C a n a d ia n - b o rn e th n ic C h in e se , b u t ev en m a in la n d C h in e s e w h o e m ig ra te , are o fte n ig n o r a n t o f th e ir c u ltu re a n d h isto ry . E n te r ­ in g th e h o t- h o u s e a tm o s p h e re o f N o r t h A m e ric a n id e n tity p o litic s , th e y la c k p o sitiv e m a te ria ls w ith w h ic h to fo rg e th e ir id e n tity .9 It is th e re fo re te m p tin g fo r th e m — like m a n y o th e r e th n ic g ro u p s — to la tc h o n to m a jo r n e g a tiv e in ­ stan ces in th e ir h is to ry in o rd e r to fo rg e th a t id e n tity . F o r ex a m p le , m o s t N o r t h A m e ric a n Jew s n o lo n g e r k n o w th e ir o w n la n g u a g e s, relig io u s te x ts, a n d c u l­ tu ra l tr a d itio n s in w ays th a t th e ir g ra n d p a re n ts o r g re a t-g ra n d p a re n ts d id as a m a tte r o f co u rse . So th e y h av e fa ste n e d o n to th e sta te o f Israel a n d o n to th e s a n c tity o f th e H o lo c a u s t— th e tw o are d e e p ly in te rw o v e n — as b a sic to th e ir Je w ish id e n tity . M a n y C h in e s e in th e d ia s p o ra e m b ra c e th e A tro c ity , “th e Tat’u-sha, ” in th e sam e w ay .10 W h y ch o o se a n e g a tiv e in s ta n c e — a h o rrific c a ta s tro p h e in w h ic h so m a n y o f o n e ’s p u ta tiv e fe llo w e th n ic s d ie d — as b a sic to o n e ’s id e n tity ? T h is is, I b elieve, b ec au se s u c h a n e v e n t re p re se n ts s o m e th in g u n a ssa ila b le a n d irre ­ p ro a c h a b le ; it im m e d ia te ly lin k s all m e m b e rs o f a n e th n ic g ro u p in v ic tim h o o d a n d b o n d s th e m in a w a y th a t c a n n o t b e q u e s tio n e d . T h is a sp e c t o f id e n tity fo rm a tio n is e le m e n ta l to th e re c e n t tre n d s to w a rd r e trib a liz a tio n a n d to w a rd th e n e w s a n c tity o f “d iffe re n c e ,” esp ecially in th e U n ite d S tate s a n d C a n a d a . Jew s th e re hav e “r e m e m b e r e d ” a n d u se d th e H o lo c a u s t in a s im ila r w ay. F o r 2 d ec ad e s afte r th e e n d o f th e w ar, m e m o r y o f th e S h o a h w as f a in t as it w e n t 272

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

th r o u g h a lag p e rio d , b u t to o k o f f d ra m a tic a lly f ro m th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s. B y th e la te -1 9 7 0 s , H o lo c a u s t im a g e ry w as ev e ry w h e re in N o r t h A m e ric a n Je w ­ ish c u ltu re — p e rio d ic a lly p u n c tu a te d w ith e x c la m a tio n m a rk s su c h as th e fa m o u s e p o n y m o u s T V m e lo d ra m a , th e K lau s B a rb ie tria l in F ra n ce , th e tria l o f J o h n D e m ja n ju k , a n d m o s t re c e n tly th e tria ls o f M a u ric e P a p o n a n d P au l T o u v ie r.11 O v ersea s C h in e s e h av e e x p e rie n c e d a s im ila r lag, a n d m a n ife s te d a s im ila r resp o n se , to w a rd th e N a n k in g A tro city .

The Fourth Generation on the Chinese Mainland A n e w g e n e ra tio n in th e P R C h as also b e g u n to d e c ry Ja p a n e se w a rtim e b e h a v ­ ior. Its m e m b e rs d id n o t a c tu a lly e x p e rie n c e Ja p a n e se a g g re ssio n in th e 1 9 3 0 s a n d 1 9 4 0 s. M o reo v e r, th e y are to o y o u n g to h av e liv e d th r o u g h th e C o m m u ­ n is t v ic to ry over C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a n d th e K M T in 1 9 4 9 , o r to h av e su ffe re d th r o u g h th e v a rio u s C o m m u n is t c a m p a ig n s o f s u p p re ss io n th a t c u lm in a te d in th e C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n . In th e ir m id - to la te -th irtie s now , th e y g re w u p w ith in th e C o m m u n is t re g im e a n d u n d e r its e d u c a tio n sy stem , so th e y a c q u ire d an a c c u ra te a p p re c ia tio n o f th e ir o w n h is to ric a l c u ltu re w ith g re a t d ifficu lty , i f at all. U n lik e th e ir im m e d ia te fo re b e a rs, th e se y o u n g p e o p le n o lo n g e r ascrib e C h in a ’s m a n y p re -1 9 4 9 defeats to th e w eaknesses o r failings o f p r e - C o m m u n is t reg im es, su c h as th e C h ’in g , th e w a rlo rd s, o r th e K M T . N o r are th e y c o n te n t to fo cu s o n C h in a ’s w a rtim e resista n c e to J a p a n as a so u rc e o f n a tio n a l id e n ­ tity a n d p rid e . In ste a d , th e y w a n t to fo cu s o n C h in a ’s v ic tim iz a tio n at th e h a n d s o f fo re ig n e rs .12 In o n e sense th e v iew s o f th is F o u rth G e n e ra tio n (ti-ssu-tai-jen) m a tc h th o se o f th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a rty ( C C P ) re g im e , a lth o u g h th e se th ir ty - s o m e ­ th in g s are n o t all C C P h ac k s. T h e y cla im th a t C h in a su ffe re d e x p lo ita tio n in th e p a s t b ec au se it was w eak, so its first n a tio n a l p r io r ity is to s tre n g th e n its e lf vis-a-vis J a p a n a n d th e W e st. A m o n g m a n y p u b lic a tio n s , th e y h av e a u th o re d tw o b e st-s e llin g b o o k s th a t ex u d e n a tio n a lis m a n d u n v a rn is h e d a n tifo re ig n ism — Chung-kuo k’o-shuo p u ( C h in a C a n S ay N o ) a n d its seq u el, Chungkuo hai-shih nengshuopu ( C h in a C a n S till S ay N o ). B ecause th e se y o u th s h av e su ffe re d n o n e o f th e h a rd s h ip s th a t th e ir g ra n d p a re n ts a n d p a re n ts d id — a n d so m e hav e ex p ressed a p e rv e rse e n v y o f th e ir eld ers in th is re g a rd — th e y also hav e n o h is to ric a l e x p e rie n c e f ro m w h ic h to f o rm a m e a n in g fu l id e n tity . So, th e y v o c ife ro u sly striv e to a ssert C h in a ’s d e se rv e d b u t u n re c o g n iz e d in te r n a ­ tio n a l g rea tn ess. T h is e n ta ils a n e m b itte re d a ssa u lt o n a n y o n e w h o p re v e n te d C h in a fro m a s su m in g its d u e glory, a n d J a p a n is th e p r e e m in e n t c u lp rit in th e ir eyes. In su m , m e m b e rs o f th is g e n e ra tio n h av e c h a m p io n e d C h in a ’s sta tu s as a v ic tim in o rd e r to c o m p e n s a te fo r th e v e ry in s e c u rity p ro d u c e d b y th e ir la c k o f a n y th in g s u b s ta n tiv e o n w h ic h to b u ild a n id e n tity . A s th e C h in a sc h o la r 273

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

P ete r G ries argues, its m e m b e rs ’ sense o f v ic tim iz a tio n h as b u t tw o aim s: “q u a n tif y in g th e p a in a n d p re s e n tin g th e C h in e s e case to th e w o r ld .” 13 T h u s , th e ir w ritin g s a b o u t th e w a r d o n o t fo c u s o n C h in a ’s h e ro ic re sista n c e to a n d u ltim a te v ic to ry o v er J a p a n , b u t r a th e r o n th e h o rrific losses in c u rr e d — w ith u n u s u a lly in fla te d sta tistic s. T h u s th e y all cite a fig u re o f at least 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 C h i­ nese d e a th s in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , th e fig u re e n g ra v e d in s to n e o n th e m e m o ria l in th a t city. T h is e ffo rt to g a in th e m o ra l h ig h g r o u n d is g e a re d to silen ce a n y o n e w h o d isagrees, fo r th e n u m b e r o f v ic tim s is s im p ly n o t o p e n to d e b a te , e x c ep t fo r u p w a rd rev isio n . A n y o n e w h o d isag rees is a tta c k e d o r s h o u te d d o w n in p u b lic v e n u e s. Ja p a n e se p ro fe sso r H a ta Ik u h ik o , w h o h as w ritte n ex ten siv ely a b o u t th e A tro c ity fo r m a n y y ears, c o n c lu d e s th a t 4 0 ,0 0 0 p lu s C h in e s e d ie d in N a n k in g asid e fro m p ris o n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ). B u t h e w as s h o u te d d o w n b y th e la rg e ly C h in e s e a n d C h in e s e -A m e ric a n a u d ie n c e w h e n h e trie d to p re s e n t h is v iew s a t a n in te r n a tio n a l c o n fe re n c e a t P rin c e ­ to n U n iv e rsity in 1 9 9 7 . S im ilarly , th e la te Iris C h a n g , w h o w as o f th e sa m e g e n e ra tio n , b ased h e r p le a fo r in te r n a tio n a l r e c o g n itio n o f th e A tro c ity o n w h a t she p re se n ts as irre fu ta b le n u m b e rs . S h e p o in te d o u t in a n in te rv ie w o n A m e ric a n te le v isio n — re p e a te d in a San Francisco Chronicle in te rv ie w — th a t th e fig u re o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s su rp asses th e c o m b in e d d e a th to ll in th e H ir o ­ s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i a to m ic b o m b in g s .14 H e r im p lic it a im h e re is to esta b lish a h ie ra rc h y o f v ic tim h o o d w ith C h in a o n to p , esp ecially b ec au se m o s t W e st­ e rn e rs crin g e b e fo re th e n u m b e r o f civ ilia n lives lo s t in n u c le a r a tta c k s o n th o se Ja p a n e se cities. B u t w h y n o t c o m p a re th e d e a th to ll a t N a n k in g w ith th o se o f S ta lin g ra d o r L e n in g ra d , w h e re ev en m o re civ ilia n s w ere k illed? T h e sa m e m o ra l h ie ra rc h y s im p ly d o e s n o t h o ld fo r C h a n g . T h e F o u rth G e n e ra tio n ra n k le s a t y e t a n o th e r th o u g h t. T h e Ja p a n e se — w h o received th e ir h ig h e r c u ltu re fro m C h in a fo r c e n tu rie s b efo re v ic tim iz in g C h in a in th e w a r— to d a y e n jo y g re a t e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l s ta tu re in th e w o rld , a n d m a n y p r o fit h a n d s o m e ly b y in v e s tin g in C h in a ’s b u r g e o n in g ec o n o m y . T h a t h as o fte n le d th e se C h in e s e th ir ty -s o m e th in g s to c ritic iz e th e ir o w n g o v ­ e r n m e n t. In th e ir n e w f o u n d n a tio n a lis m , th e y fin d it g a llin g th a t C h in a d e ­ p e n d s o n Ja p a n e se in v e s tm e n t o r aid , a n d th e y express th e ir ire b y c o n s ta n tly a p p e a lin g to th e m e m o r y o f C h in e s e v ic tim iz a tio n . T h e ir a n g e r is, h o w ev er, n o t d ire c tly solely a t Ja p a n , b u t a t th e e n tire w o rld — a n d esp ec ially a t th e U n ite d S tates. As w as tr u e w ith C h a n g , m e m b e rs o f C h in a ’s y o u n g e r g e n e ra ­ tio n d o n o t w o rk ju s t to v ilify Ja p a n ; th e y se ek to m a rs h a l w o rld o p in io n a g a in st it. T h a t, first a n d fo re m o st, m e a n s ta rg e tin g th e U n ite d S ta te s— J a p a n ’s n u m b e r o n e tr a d in g p a r tn e r a n d p o litic a l ally in A sia. Y o u n g C h in e s e are tr y ­ in g to p re ssu re A m e ric a n s to m a k e th e J a p a n issu e a c o m p le te mea culpa— a s u p re m e ap o lo g y fo r th e w a r o u td o in g all p re v io u s o n es, w h ic h th e y re g a rd as in s u ffic ie n tly p ro s tr a te — a n d also to p a y c o m p e n s a tio n fo r th e w ar. T h a t th e A m e ric a n p e o p le a n d g o v e rn m e n t a p p a re n tly refu se to p la y th is ro le an g ers th e m fu rth e r. 274

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

Genocide? A Forgotten Holocaust? T h e F o u rth G e n e ra tio n in C h in a fo cu se s a tte n tio n o n n u m b e rs a n d v ic tim ­ iz a tio n , b u t its m e m b e rs are still to o re m o v e d f ro m W e s te rn d isc o u rse to fra m e th e ir c ritiq u e in te rm s o f th e H o lo c a u s t. T h is is n o t tru e o f C h a n g , W u T ie n w ei (w h o fo u n d e d th e a n ti-Ja p a n e se jo u r n a l, Jih-pen ch’in-H ua yen-chiu, a n d is a n e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r a t S o u th e r n Illin o is U n iv e rsity ), a n d o th e r e th n ic C h i­ nese liv in g in th e W e st. T h e s u b title o f C h a n g ’s b o o k is The Forgotten Holo­ caust o f World War II, a n d sh e in sists th a t w h a t tra n s p ire d a t N a n k in g w as w o rse th a n th e H o lo c a u s t o f E u ro p e a n Jew ry. W u h as p u t fo rw a rd th e even m o re h y p e rb o lic c la im th a t w h a t tr a n s p ire d in N a n k in g m a k e s “th e A u sc h w itz gas c h a m b e rs a p p e a r h u m a n e .” 15 It is su re ly safe to say th a t th e se lin e s are larg ely fo r s h o c k v alu e. C h a n g ’s c la im re m a in s g ro ssly u n p ro v e n in h e r b o o k . W u ’s is n o t o n ly p r o fo u n d ly in se n sitiv e , a n d even v u lg a r; it is w h o lly u n n e c ­ essary to h is p o in t. In a n y e v e n t, th e se tw o s h o u ld n o t o v erly d e ta in us. A t th e d iscu rsiv e level, th e te rm the Holocaust ca m e to b e u se d fo r th e Ju d e ic id e so m e tim e in th e e a rly 1 9 6 0 s. A m o n g m a n y o th e r th in g s , it w as a w a y o f sp e cia lly h o n o r in g th o se w h o p e ris h e d in w h a t m a n y ag re ed w as th e w o rs t m ass m u r d e r in h isto ry . B u t, sadly, th o s e o n th e le ft a n d r ig h t alik e h av e fre­ q u e n tly a b u se d th e te rm to a d v a n c e th e ir o w n a g e n d a s .16 B y th e sa m e to k e n , m a n y e th n ic g ro u p s h av e seized o n th e te rm sin ce th e 1 9 6 0 s to h o n o r th e ir o w n p e o p le w h o fell v ic tim in larg e n u m b e rs to so m e g re a t m a n -m a d e calam ity . E a c h g r o u p ’s a im h as b e e n to b r in g its s u ffe rin g to w o rld a tte n tio n , to g a rn e r th e u n iv e rsa l s y m p a th y th a t th is te rm elicits, to se t its m is fo rtu n e a t a level b e y o n d c ritic is m , a n d th u s to a c c o rd its e lf s a c ro sa n c t sta tu s. H e n c e th e re are A rm e n ia n , R o m a a n d S in ti (G y p sy ), A fric a n -A m e ric a n , U k ra in ia n , C a m b o ­ d ia n , a n d N a tiv e -A m e ric a n h o lo c a u sts. F inally, w e n o w h av e a C h in e s e h o lo ­ cau st. T h e Je w ish H o lo c a u s t sh o w s th a t su c h v ic tim h o o d c a n serve to sh ie ld o n e ’s g ro u p a g a in st all m a n n e r o f c ritic is m a n d strik e sh a m e a n d e m b a rra ss­ m e n t in th e h e a rts o f g o v e rn m e n ts . O f all m o d e rn g e n o c id e s, o n ly th e Ju d e ic id e seem s to hav e a c q u ire d th is v e n e ra te d , in v io la b le sta tu s. A few p e o p le still d e n y th e ex iste n c e o f gas c h a m b e rs a t A u sc h w itz a n d o th e r asp ec ts o f th e H o lo c a u s t, b u t th e y are g e n e ra lly tre a te d as p a ria h s. In s ta rk c o n tra s t, it is p o ssib le to d e n y o th e r g e n o c id e s a n d n o t b e so stig m a tiz e d . O n e c a n , fo r ex­ a m p le , b e little o r d o w n p la y th e T u rk ish m assacres, as th e T u rk ish g o v e rn m e n t its e lf re g u la rly does, a n d go o n w ith life m o re o r less u n in te r r u p te d . T h e w a r­ tim e a n d c o n tin u in g s u ffe rin g o f th e R o m a a n d S in ti (th e G y p sie s) are re g u ­ la rly ig n o re d o r d e te rm in e d ly re le g a te d to a se c o n d a ry p o s itio n . T h e rig h t-w in g c ritic D in e s h D ’S o u z a re c e n tly w e n t o u t o f h is w ay to tease p o sitiv e sid eeffects o u t o f th e lo n g h is to ry o f A fric a n -A m e ric a n slavery. A n d , as th e h is ­ to ria n D a v id S ta n n a rd h as re c e n tly n o te d , sc h o la rs o f th e le ft, rig h t, a n d c e n te r hav e all n o te d p o in te d ly th a t e ra d ic a tin g th e N a tiv e A m e ric a n w ay o f life u lti­ m a te ly b e n e fite d su rv iv in g N e w W o rld I n d ia n s .17 A p p re c ia tio n o f th e N a n 275

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

k in g A tro c ity lies so m e w h e re a m id th e se o th e r “h o lo c a u s ts .” S o m e in J a p a n d e n y it, in c lu d in g so m e acad em ics a n d th e o cc asio n al p o litic ia n . B u t u n lik e T u r­ key, th e Ja p an e se g o v e rn m e n t h a s a c k n o w le d g e d th e A tro c ity , a n d Ja p a n e se sc h o lars are th e w o r ld ’s m o s t ac tiv e a n d p ro d u c tiv e in re se a rc h in g it. C h in e s e a n d C h in e se -A m e ric a n s— lik e A rm e n ia n s a n d o th e r e th n ic g ro u p s elsew h ere— w o u ld lik e to see th e ir p a r tic u la r tra g e d y e lev a ted to s a c ro sa n c t sta tu s; th e n , o n ly frin g e e le m e n ts c o u ld re je c t o r d isp a ra g e its veracity. N o r is th e id e a o f a “f o rg o tte n ” h o lo c a u s t o rig in a l to C h a n g a n d o th e rs lik e her. A n g u s Frazer u sed it in h is 1 9 9 2 w o rk , The Gypsies, re fe rrin g o f co u rse to th e N a z i g e n o c id e a g a in st th e m . H e h a d b o rro w e d th e te rm fro m th e F re n c h sc h o la r C h r is tia n B e rn a d a c , w h o a u th o re d a 1 9 7 9 b o o k e n title d L ’H olocaust Oublie: Le Massacre des Tsiganes. T h e r e is a 1 9 8 6 b o o k b y R . C . L u k as e n ti­ tle d , Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation, 1939—1944. In a n im p o r ta n t 1981 stu d y , Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, Leo K u p e r called th e T u rk ish m a ss m u rd e rs o f A rm e n ia n s th e “f o rg o tte n g e n o ­ cide o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .” R. J. R u m m e l, c a ta lo g e d th e g re a t m ass m u r ­ ders o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry in a 1 9 9 4 article, “ D e m o c id e in T o ta lita ria n S tates: M o rta c ra c ie s a n d M e g a m u rd e re rs .” R e fe rrin g to th o se k ille d b y th e Ja p a n e se in W o rld W a r II, h e w ro te , “T h is is su re ly th e fo rg o tte n d e m o c id e ”— “d e m o c id e ” b e in g a n e o lo g is m th a t h e c o in e d to m e a n th e g o v e rn m e n t-s p o n s o re d m u rd e r o f p erso n s o f a specific g r o u p .18 Finally, th e re is a 1 9 9 9 article e n title d , “T h e C ircassian s: A F o rg o tte n G e n o c id e .” T h u s , u s in g th e w o rd “f o rg o tte n ” as a m o d ifie r h as a h is to ry o f its o w n , a n d it u su a lly c o n s titu te s e ffo rts b y th e a u th o r to sh o c k re a d e rs in to a lte rin g lo n g -h e ld a s su m p tio n s . W h a t n e e d s to b e ask ed , h o w ev er, is th is: d o e s it h e lp to assess th e N a n k in g A tro c ity b y th e sta n d a rd s o f co m p a ra tiv e g e n o c id e a n d H o lo c a u s t research? C a n w e b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d th is e v e n t b y p la c in g it a lo n g sid e o th e r m in d - b o g g lin g m assacres? I p re v io u sly re siste d c o m p a ris o n s o f th is so rt. B u t, o n re fle c tio n , I hav e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e y n e e d n o t e sta b lish a h ie ra rc h y o f p a in , n o r n e e d th e y d e tra c t f ro m th e u n iq u e n e s s o f a p a r tic u la r ev e n t. E v ery a c t o f g e n o c id e a n d m ass m u r d e r is u n iq u e , a n d n o n e im p lie s ex clu siv ity ; th u s “d is tin c tiv e n e s s ” is a b e tte r w o rd in th is c o n te x t. N o g ro u p h a s m o n o p o liz e d su ffe rin g u n to itself, a n d its r h e to r ic is o ffen siv e o n ly w h e n it fla u n ts its v ic tim h o o d to d e n ig ra te th e su ffe rin g s o f o th e r g ro u p s. B ased o n th e in t e n t o f th e m u rd e re rs , th e n u m ­ b e r o r p e rc e n ta g e o f th e ta rg e t p o p u la tio n k ille d , th e c irc u m sta n c e s o f th e k illin g s, a n d o th e r c rite ria , sc h o la rs h av e m a d e c o m p e llin g cases to d e e m m ass m u rd e rs o f th e G y p sie s b y th e N a z is, o f th e A rm e n ia n s b y th e T u rk s in 1 9 1 5 , a n d o f th e n a tiv e in h a b ita n ts o f N o r t h a n d S o u th A m e ric a b y E u ro p e a n im m i­ g ra n ts, as b e in g ju s t as h o rrific as th e F in a l S o lu tio n a g a in st th e Jew s. A c c e p tin g c o m p a ris o n as a v ia b le m e a n s o f a p p r o a c h in g g e n o c id e , le t us ta k e a lo o k a t c rite ria th a t sc h o la rs h av e d ev ised to e x a m in e it. R a p h a e l L em k in c o in e d th e te rm genocide in 1 9 3 3 , a n d e x p la in e d it elev en y ears la te r as “th e d e s tru c tio n o f a n a tio n o r a n e th n ic g ro u p . T h is n e w w o rd , c o in e d b y 276

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

th e a u th o r to d e n o te a n o ld p ra c tic e in its m o d e rn d e v e lo p m e n t, is m a d e fro m th e a n c ie n t G re e k genos (race, trib e ) a n d th e L a tin cide (k illin g ), th u s c o rre ­ s p o n d in g in its fo rm a tio n to su c h w o rd s as ty ra n n ic id e , h o m ic id e , in fa n tic id e , e tc .”19 F iftee n years later, in 1 9 4 8 , th e n e w ly f o rm e d U n ite d N a tio n s p assed its fa m o u s C o n v e n tio n o n G e n o c id e th a t g e n e ra lly fo llo w e d L e m k in ’s d e fin i­ tio n . H e offers a s u c c in c t c o n c e p tu a l fra m e w o rk , b u t n o g u id e lin e s o n th e size o r scale th a t a m ass m u r d e r m u s t re a c h b e fo re it is “g e n o c id a l.” In th a t v ein , th e so cial s c ie n tis t H e n r y R . H u tte n b a c h w ro te : “ H o w d o w e p re v e n t o u r ­ selves f ro m m o v in g g lib ly fro m A u sc h w itz to H ir o s h im a a n d b a c k , f ro m th e D e a th C a m p s to th e G u la g , fro m g e n u in e g e n o c id e to n o n -g e n o c id e , fro m lu m p in g v ic tim s o f bona fid e e x te r m in a tio n to g e th e r w ith v ic tim s o f m a s­ sacres?”20 N o t all acts o f m ass m u r d e r are g e n o c id a l, a n d n o t all g e n o c id e s m a y b e p la c e d o n a p la in w ith th e H o lo c a u s t. H is to r ia n M ic h a e l R . M a rru s h as m a d e p e rh a p s th e b e st a r g u m e n t fo r d is tin g u is h in g th e H o lo c a u s t fro m o th e r larg er-scale m a ss m u rd e rs in th e sim p le , te rrib le fa c t th a t th e N a z is ta r ­ g e te d fo r m u r d e r e a c h a n d ev ery Je w th r o u g h o u t th e w o rld .21 H u tte n b a c h offers h is o w n s u c c in c t a n d u se fu l d e fin itio n : “ [G ]e n o c id e is th e d e s tru c tio n o f a sp ecific g ro u p w ith in a n a tio n a l o r ev en in te r n a tio n a l p o p u la tio n . T h e p recise c h a ra c te r o f th e g ro u p n e e d n o t b e sp e lle d o u t . ” To see i f a n a c t d e ­ serves to b e called g e n o c id a l, h e su g g e sts o n e k e y c o n d itio n ; w e m u s t ask, “Is th is a n ac t th a t p u ts th e v e ry ex iste n ce o f a g ro u p in je o p a rd y ? ”— a n d n o t ju s t a case o f e x tre m e h a rd s h ip o r larg e -scale k illin g s .22 T h e r e is n o sin g le p ro ce ss to g e n o c id e . O f te n it in v o lv e s sa d istic , c ru d e m e th o d s o f m ass e x e c u tio n — d e s p ite a re a d y su p p ly o f a m m u n itio n — as a m e a n s o f f u r th e r te rro riz in g a s u b je c t p o p u la tio n . In th e 1 9 7 5 —7 6 L eb a n ese civil w ar, fo r ex a m p le , se x u al m u tila tio n (o fte n c o m m itte d b y w ell e d u c a te d , o th e rw ise r a tio n a l m e n ) w as c o m m o n ly p e rfo rm e d b y all levels o f society, to g e th e r w ith v ic io u s acts o f ra p e , d e s e c ra tio n , to r tu r e , a n d m u rd e r. W h e th e r th is ro se to a level c o m m e n s u ra te w ith g e n o c id e re m a in s to b e p ro v e n , h o w ­ ever. A t o th e r tim es, m u rd e rs are c o m m itte d m o re discretely, o u t o f p u b lic view, a n d o fte n in a w ay th a t se p a ra te s th e in s tig a to rs o f m a ss d e a th f ro m th e a c tu ­ ally killers. T h e H o lo c a u s t d id n o t im m e d ia te ly b e c o m e w h a t w e n o w k n o w it as— th e ro u tin iz e d m ass m u r d e r b y effic ie n t m e a n s th r o u g h in d u s tria liz e d , reg u la rize d , b u re a u c ra tic a lly le g itim a te d te c h n iq u e s . B efo re K ris ta lln a c h t in N o v e m b e r 19 3 8 , th e N az is relied o n th e p o g ro m m o d e l. A n d , u ltim a te ly a b o u t o n e - th ird , o r fu lly tw o m illio n , o f th e Jew s w ere sla in b y th e Einsatzgruppen, m o b ile k illin g u n its se t lo o se in to E a s te rn E u ro p e ea rly in th e w ar, a id e d b y lo cal c o lla b o ra to rs su c h as th e R o m a n ia n v o lu n te e rs .23 It w as n o t u n til th e N az is e stab lish ed d e a th c a m p s, p rim a rily in P o la n d in th e early 1 9 4 0 s, th a t th e H o lo c a u s t to o k o n its m o s t te c h n o lo g ic a lly a d v a n c e d fo rm — in s u la tin g th e killers fro m th e acts o f k illin g , a n d m a k in g th e v ic tim s in v isib le th r o u g h ever m o re so p h is tic a te d w ea p o n s. T h is p rocess w as h o rrific a lly illu stra te d b y th e p r o ­ g ressio n fro m th e Einsatzgruppen to Z y k lo n B, th e p o is o n gas u se d to asp h y x 277

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

ia te m a n y th o u s a n d s o f v ic tim s . Z y g m u n t B a u m a n asks h o w it is th a t p e o p le w h o w ere n o t “m o ra l d e g e n e ra te s” c o u ld c o m m it m a ss m u r d e r o n th e scale o f th e H o lo c a u s t. A n d , h e re sp o n d s, th e H o lo c a u s t sh o w s th a t m a n y n e v e r even faced m o ra l choices: “m o ra l asp ec ts o f a c tio n s are n o t im m e d ia te ly o b v io u s o r are d e lib e ra te ly p re v e n te d f ro m d is c o v e ry .... In o th e r w o rd s , th e m o ra l c h a r­ a c te r o f a c tio n is e ith e r in v isib le o r p u rp o s e fu lly c o n c e a le d .”24 W h a t f o rm o f v io le n c e d id th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry use a t N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 — 38? In th is in s ta n c e , th e m u rd e re rs a c te d as i f en g a g e d in a c o n tin u o u s , b e s­ tia l p o g ro m . T h e r e w as so m e re g u la rity to th e k illin g s, b u t th e re w as n o p re ­ co n c eiv ed m a s te r p la n o f m ass m u rd e r; a n d th e p e rp e tra to rs w ere ca stig a te d fo r th e ir b r u ta lity a n d la c k o f d isc ip lin e b y th e ir o w n c o m m a n d e r, M a ts u i Iw a n e, w h e n h e a rriv e d o n th e sc en e a t N a n k in g . M o s t o f th e p e rp e tra to rs w ere im p o v e ris h e d m e n w h o h a d le d e x c e e d in g ly h a r d lives u p to c o n s c rip ­ tio n a n d th e w ar. M o reo v e r, th e ir ex p e rie n c e s in th e m ilita ry a n d o n ca m p a ig n s— p a rtic u la rly th e b a ttle o f S h a n g h a i b e fo re a rriv in g in N a n k in g — w ere ex tre m e ly h a rs h . T h e y w ere n o t ev en s u p p o s e d to h av e a tta c k e d N a n k in g , b u t w ere d riv e n o n b y o v erz ealo u s s u p e rio r officers. T h e y w ere n o t th e re fin e d , w e ll-e d u c a te d m ass m u rd e re rs w h o p e o p le d th e G e s ta p o o r se rv e d as d e a th c a m p c o m m a n d a n ts , a lth o u g h so m e Ja p a n e se w ere n o t u n lik e m a n y d e a th a n d c o n c e n tra tio n - c a m p g u a rd s o r ev en so m e o f th e Einsatzgruppen. W h e re a s th e H o lo c a u s t o f E u ro p e a n Je w ry fe a tu re d ra tio n a l p la n s o f m u r d e r e n m asse w ith b u re a u c ra tic reg u la rity , th e N a n k in g A tro c ity c a n b e m o re a c c u ra te ly d e s c rib e d as a scen e o f m a ss m u r d e r r u n v ic io u sly a m o k . W as th e re a n id e o lo g y c o m p a ra b le to a n ti-S e m itis m o r a n ti-G y p s y s e n ti­ m e n t b e h in d th e Ja p a n e se w a r m a c h in e in C h in a ? W as th e re a p erv asiv e id e o lo g y th a t so d e n ig ra te d C h in a o r d e m o n iz e d th e C h in e s e th a t it c o u ld le g itim a te o r p av e th e w a y fo r m ass m u r d e r — a n o th e r tr a it fo u n d in g en o c id e ? T h e r e w as c e rta in ly a w id e s p re a d fe e lin g th a t th e C h in e s e w ere a w e a k a n d c h a o tic p e o p le in c a p a b le o f r u n n in g th e ir o w n c o u n try a n d in n e e d o f u r g e n t h e lp . B u t th e re w as n o th in g c o m p a ra b le to a n id e o lo g y fo r s u s ta in in g m ass m u rd e r, a n d th e re w as m o s t assu re d ly n o th in g c o m p a ra b le to th e N a z i slo g a n th a t th e Jew s a n d G y p sie s w ere “lives n o t w o r th liv in g .” In th e Ja p a n e se tr e a t­ m e n t o f C h in a u n d e r o c c u p a tio n , th e re w as n o t ev en a n y th in g c o m p a ra b le to th e d is c rim in a to ry N u re m b e rg L aw s o r th e so c ial is o la tio n in g h e tto s th a t s u b ­ s e q u e n tly n e c e s sita te d , in th e d ise ase d m in d s o f N a z is, p h y sic a l se g re g a tio n o f Jew s a n d G y p sies in to c o n c e n tra tio n - a n d d e a th -c a m p s . T h e C h in e s e w ere p itie d o r p a tro n iz in g ly lo o k e d d o w n o n , b u t th e y w ere n e v e r d e m e a n e d to a p o in t ju s tify in g w h o le sa le m u rd e r. O f co u rse , in all w a rtim e s itu a tio n s th e e n e m y h as to b e d e e m e d w o rth y o f d e a th — i f o n ly to m o tiv a te th e tro o p s — esp ecially in cases o f fo re ig n ag g re ssio n o r to ta l w ar. H o w ev er, th e re w as n o Ja p a n e se p la n to a n n ih ila te ev e ry C h in e s e m a n , w o m a n , a n d c h ild , as th e re w as fo r th e Jew s fo llo w in g th e W a n n se e C o n fe re n c e o f early 1 9 4 2 in N a z i G e r­ m an y . N o r w as th e re th e w e ll-c ra fte d p la n o f m u r d e r ea rlier in th e tw e n tie th 278

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

c e n tu r y w ith re sp e c t to A rm e n ia n s in T u rk ey . E v en a m o n g th e m o s t r e tr o ­ g rad e , u n a ttra c tiv e e le m e n ts o f th e e x tre m e Ja p a n e se r ig h t-w in g a n d m ilita ris t cliq u es, o n e w o u ld b e h a rd -p re sse d to lo c a te su c h s e n tim e n ts , le t a lo n e p o in t to th e se as a n o v e rrid in g id e o lo g y in th e 1 9 3 0 s a n d 1 9 4 0 s. T h e o n ly fra m e w o rk in J a p a n a p p r o a c h in g a n id e o lo g y b e h in d th e N a n k in g A tro c ity was th a t o f th e e m p e ro r state w hich, fro m th e 1930s, effectively d ee m e d a n y o n e w h o defied th e im p e ria l in s titu tio n as u n fit to live. T h is m ig h t b e m a r­ sh a le d as a p o ssib le ra lly in g call fo r Ja p a n e se tro o p s in th e field to a tta c k C h i­ nese w h o resisted , b u t it w as b y n o m e a n s d ire c te d so lely a t C h in a a n d th e C h in e se . In d e e d , it a p p lie d w ith eq u a l fe ro c ity to Ja p a n e se C o m m u n is ts , w h ic h is o n e reaso n th a t so m a n y o f th e m u n d e rw e n t tenko o r a su d d e n re o rie n ta tio n o f th e ir view s to a b a n d o n le ftism a n d e m b ra ce th e e m p e ro r sy stem , u su a lly w h ile in ja il o r in a n tic ip a tio n o f b e in g a rrested . R a c ism o r e th n ic h a tre d , u n d e rs to o d in th e b ro a d e s t sense, w as a n e sse n tia l c o m p o n e n t o f th e H o lo c a u s t a n d m a n y acts o f g e n o c id e — a g a in st N e w W o rld In d ia n s , G y p sie s, A rm e n ia n s , v a rio u s p e o p le s in A frica, a n d U k ra in ia n p e a sa n ts. B u t it d o es n o t a p p e a r in a n y m a jo r w ay in Ja p an e se c o n s tru c tio n s o f C h in a a n d th e C h in e se . In fac t, o n e fe a tu re o f la te -n in e te e n th a n d tw e n tie th c e n tu ry E ast A sian h is to ry h as b e e n a co llap s­ in g o f th e C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se in to a “y ello w ra c e ” to c o m b a t th e w h ite race. It is tru e th a t th is n o tio n m a y h av e b e e n u se d to m a s k Ja p a n e se desires to “g u id e ” th e C h in e s e in a p a rtic u la r d ire c tio n , o r to “c h a stise ” th e m fo r fa ilin g to go alo n g , b u t it re fle c te d a c e rta in id e o lo g ic a l s o lid a rity v is-a-v is th e W e st. M o v in g fro m th e level o f a n id e o lo g y c o n s tru c te d o n th e p u ta tiv e basis o f a sh a re d rac ial id e n tity to v isceral ra c ism , d id th e la tte r p la y a sig n ific a n t p a r t in Ja p a n e se fo rm u la tio n s o r view s o f th e C h in e se ? C a n w e d e te c t a visceral Ja p a n e se h a tre d o f th e C h in e s e as a p e o p le b e c au se o f w h o th e y were? T h e re was c e rta in ly m u c h b e littlin g o f th e C h in e s e in J a p a n a t th e tim e . B u t w h a t e n ra g e d Ja p a n e se so ld iers e n r o u te to a n d in N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 a n d w h a t d ro v e th e m to acts o f m a ss m u r d e r h a d n o th in g to d o w ith p re s u m e d C h i­ nese w eak n esses o r e n d e m ic failin g s. Q u ite to th e c o n tra ry , Ja p a n e se so ld iers w ere s tu n n e d a n d o u t fo r rev e n g e p re c ise ly b e c a u se o f th e u n e x p e c te d s tr e n g th a n d p e rse v eran c e o f th e C h in e s e th e y h a d c o n f r o n te d in th e b a ttle o f S h a n g ­ h a i m o n th s earlier. T h is b a ttle was o f h o rrific p ro p o rtio n s , se c o n d a t th e tim e o n ly to th e b a ttle o f V e rd u n in te rm s o f ov erall n u m b e rs k ille d , in w h ic h m a n y Ja p a n e se lo s t c o m ra d e s. A s o n e Ja p a n e se fo o t so ld ie r la te r rec alle d in a n in te r ­ v ie w w ith th e fa m e d jo u r n a lis t H o n d a K a ts u ic h i: “ [T ]h e a ssau lt o n N a n jin g to o k p la ce as a n e x te n sio n o f th is fig h tin g [in a n d a ro u n d S h a n g h a i]. It ju s t w a sn ’t th e k in d o f a tm o s p h e re in w h ic h y o u ’d im m e d ia te ly fo rg iv e a n d release y o u r p riso n e rs, m e re ly b ec au se th e y h a d s u rre n d e re d to y o u . T h e m o o d w as o n e o f a v e n g in g y o u r d e a d c o m ra d e s .”25 F o u rth G e n e ra tio n C h in e s e arg u e th a t ra c ism — b y w h ic h th e y m e a n th e Ja p a n e se tr o o p s ’ d e h u m a n iz a tio n o f th e C h in e s e p e o p le — w as in d e e d a n essen ­ tia l p a r t o f th e assa u lt o n C h in a . T h e p ie c e o f e v id en c e u su a lly c ite d is th e 279

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

in fa m o u s 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st, in w h ic h tw o Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs alleg e d ly v ie d to see w h o c o u ld first slay 1 0 0 C h in e s e e n r o u te to N a n k in g . M a n y h av e q u e s tio n e d th e v e ra c ity o f th is sto ry , a n d n o t o n ly a rc h rig h t-w in g e rs in Ja p a n . See B o b T a d a sh i W a k a b a y a sh i’s c h a p te r 6 in th e p re s e n t v o lu m e . B u t th e Ja p a n e se p ress in N o v e m b e r-D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 d id give th e s to ry c o n s id e ra b le play, th e so ld iers d id receive d e a th s e n te n c e s a t th e p o s tw a r N a n k in g W a r C rim e s T rib u n a l; so, as a re su lt, a n ti-Ja p a n e se C h in e s e b eliev e th e s to ry today. B u t d e s p ite th e g u ilty v e rd ic t, to a c c e p t th is s to ry as tru e a n d a c c u ra te re q u ire s a leap o f fa ith th a t n o b a la n c e d h is to ria n c a n m a k e .26 I f w e in te r p r e t th e s to ry o n a n o th e r level, as s y m p to m a tic o f th e ca llo u s w a y in w h ic h Ja p a n e se tro o p s a c te d o n th e w a y to N a n k in g , th e n w e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t d e h u m a n iz a tio n w as e le m e n ta l to th e ir e x p e rie n c e . B u t th is is still n o t ra c ism . A n d , w h e n F o u rth G e n e ra tio n m e m b e rs go even fu rth e r, to th a t c la im th e s la u g h te r in a n d a ro u n d N a n k in g was n o t o n ly d e lib e ra te b u t o rd e re d b y th e e m p e ro r, th e y stra y far fro m th e h is to ric a l re c o rd in a n e ffo rt to fin d ev id e n c e fo r Ja p a n e se v ic ­ tim iz a tio n o f C h in a . W h a t is m o re , th e y o fte n p u s h th is h is to ry o f v ic tim ­ iz a tio n b a c k to th e ea rly M e iji era. F o r o b v io u s rea so n s, g e n o c id e s u su a lly o c c u r w h ere th e ta rg e te d g ro u p is in a m in o rity . T h is is n o t to say th a t th e m u rd e re rs n e c e ssa rily are th e m a jo r ­ ity, b u t th e m u r d e r e d are u su a lly a m in o rity , o fte n in tim e s o f w a r o r m ili­ ta ry o c c u p a tio n . T h u s th e Jew s a n d G y p sie s w ere u su a lly in th e m in o rity , even i f th e N a z is w ere n o t th e m a jo rity in P o la n d , L ith u a n ia , a n d elsew h e re in ea st­ e rn a n d c e n tra l E u ro p e . S im ilarly, A rm e n ia n s liv in g o n T u rk ish te rr a in w ere a m in o rity . O n e e x c e p tio n to th is g e n e ra liz a tio n m ig h t b e n a tiv e p e o p le s o f th e N e w W o rld w h o w ere e n slav e d a n d m u r d e r e d b y sm a lle r g ro u p s o f w h ite settle rs. In 1 9 3 7 —3 8 , b y c o n tra s t, th e C h in e s e w ere th e o v e rw h e lm in g ly g re a t m a jo r ity a t N a n k in g , a lth o u g h th e y h a d b e e n a b a n d o n e d b y th e ir arm y. I f we fo llo w H e n r y R. H u tte n b a c h ’s d e fin itio n o f g e n o c id e as a n a c t th a t “p u ts th e v e ry ex isten ce o f a g ro u p in je o p a rd y ,” Ja p a n e se a c tio n s in C h in a fall far s h o rt, i f o n ly b ecau se th e C h in e s e p o p u la tio n was so h u g e . F re q u e n tly th e p e r p e ­ tra to rs o f g e n o c id e use o th e r e th n ic g ro u p s to c o m m it m u r d e r b y proxy. T h u s , th e N az is u se d a p p a re n tly w illin g U k ra in ia n s a n d o th e r c o lla b o ra to rs as g u a rd s in m a n y o f th e d e a th c a m p s. In fac t, th e N a z is ’ a b ility to se p a ra te th e m se lv es fro m th e k illin g w e n t so far as to g e t Je w ish c o m p lic ity th r o u g h th e Sonderkommandos a n d th r o u g h v a rio u s Je w ish g h e tto c o u n c ils (Judenratter).27 A l­ th o u g h th e re w ere C h in e s e c o lla b o ra to rs, sim ila r a c tio n s d id n o t ta k e p la ce at N a n k in g ; in ste a d , Ja p a n e se m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l d id all th e k illin g . “Modern genocide is genocide with a purpose, ” n o te s Z y g m u n t B a u m a n . “The end itself is a grand vision o f a better a nd radically different society. ” B ecause th e v ic tim g ro u p d o es n o t fit in to th is v isio n , it m u s t b y w e e d e d o u t. I n a s m u c h as th e m o d e rn b u re a u c ra c y h as n o m o ra l c o m p o n e n t, b u t is so le ly d ire c te d a t in c re a se d efficiency, it was th e id e a l in s t r u m e n t to o rc h e s tra te a n e ffic ie n t “g ard e n in g ”— as m u c h fo r S ta lin a n d o th e rs as fo r H itle r .28 A g ain , th is w as n o t 280

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

tru e fo r th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . A n o v e ra rc h in g p u rp o s e w as m issin g . T h e re w as nothing p o litic a l, m ilita ry , id e o lo g ic a l, o r e c o n o m ic to b e g a in e d b y c o m ­ m it tin g th is m ass m u rd e r. A n d , th e re w ere n o c o n c e n tra tio n - o r d e a th -c a m p s , n o e la b o ra te sy ste m to d ista n c e th e k illers fro m th e k illin g , a n d n o b u r e a u ­ c ra tic o rg a n iz a tio n fo r it e x c e p t o f th e m o s t p rim itiv e ad h o c so rt. T h e R w a n ­ d a n a n d C a m b o d ia n “g e n o c id e s” o f re c e n t y ears also la c k e d th e b u re a u c ra tic efficien cy o f th e H o lo c a u s t. T h e re w as a v isio n o f a “ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t so c i­ ety ” in th e case o f C a m b o d ia , b u t th e to r tu r e a n d k illin g la c k e d th e N a z i d e a th m a c h in e ’s b u re a u c ra tic efficiency, even i f th e n u m b e rs o f v ic tim s w as u ltim a te ly q u ite h ig h . A g ain , th is in n o w a y m in im iz e s th e su ffe rin g o f C a m b o d ia n s in th e 1 9 7 0 s o r o th e r g ro u p s; it ju s t d istin g u ish e s th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f m ass m u r ­ d e r in d iffe re n t in sta n c e s. In su m , th is r u d im e n ta r y ty p o lo g y sh o w s th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as n ev er a n e n d in itself. R a th e r, it w as a n in sta n c e o f im p r o m p tu , large-scale, m ass m u r d e r p e r p e tra te d in th e c o n te x t o f J a p a n ’s b r u ta l w a r o f ag g re ssio n a g a in st th e C h in e s e a n d o th e r p e o p le s in E a st a n d S o u th e a s t A sia. T h u s th e A tro c ity in so m e resp e cts re se m b le s o th e r ev e n ts in A frica, C a m b o d ia , a n d th e N e w W o rld th a t hav e a c q u ire d th e la b e l “g e n o c id a l.” H o w ev er, it fell far s h o r t b o th in n u m e ric a l c o u n t a n d p e rc e n ta g e o f p o p u la tio n sla in , a n d it la c k e d th e id e ­ o lo g ical im p e tu s a n d b u r e a u c ra tic efficien c y th a t s p u rre d o n m a n y o f th e se o th e r g en o c id e s. T h e A tro c ity , th e n , w as a lto g e th e r d iffe re n t f ro m th e S h o a h , th e P o rra jm o s, o r th e A rm e n ia n e x p e rie n c e in T u rk e y d u r in g W o rld W a r I. I w o u ld u ltim a te ly h av e to agree w ith Ju stic e R a d h a b in o d Pal, th e I n d ia n ju d g e a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, w h o n o te d : “ [T ]h e case o f th e p re s e n t ac cu sed b efo re us c a n n o t in a n y w a y b e lik e n e d to th e case . . . o f H itle r .”29 C h ie f Ju s­ tice W illia m W e b b effec tiv e ly c o n c u rre d : “ [T ]h e crim e s o f th e G e rm a n s ac­ cu sed w ere fa r m o re h e in o u s , v a rie d a n d ex ten siv e th a n th o se o f th e Ja p a n e se a c c u s e d .” T h is d im in is h e d asse ssm e n t in n o w a y slig h ts th e su ffe rin g o f v ic ­ tim s a t N a n k in g ; n o r does it m a k e th e A tro c ity less h e in o u s. It m e re ly is an a t­ te m p t to u n d e r s ta n d th e se g re a t h u m a n tra g e d ie s in a c o m p a ra tiv e p e rsp e c tiv e . C h in e s e v ic tim s h av e a se rio u s case to m a k e , b u t u s in g th e w o rd “H o lo c a u s t” d o es n o t h e lp us u n d e r s ta n d th e N a n k in g A tro city , n o r d o es it sh e d lig h t o n g e n o c id e s m o re generally. It h as b e e n m o re m y ta sk to e x a m in e th e sp ecific c o n te x ts in w h ic h claim s o f g e n o c id e h av e b e e n m a d e th a n to ta lly n u m b e rs o r c o m p a re v ic tim h o o d . W h y d id th e issu e se e m less im p o r ta n t to th e C h i­ nese in th e 1 9 4 0 s a n d 1 9 5 0 s th a n it h a s b e c o m e sin c e th e 1990s? T h is q u e s­ tio n in v o lv es th e c o m p le x ro le o f m e m o r y in id e n tity fo rm a tio n . To b e su re, th e N a n k in g A tro c ity d eserv es o u r s o le m n a c k n o w le d g m e n t, n o t o n ly so th a t th e w o rld w ill n o t fo rg e t, a n d n o t o n ly b e c a u se w e n e e d to affirm u n e q u iv o ­ cally th a t a g re a t m a ssac re w as p e r p e tra te d a g a in st th e C h in e s e p e o p le , w h ic h a h a n d f u l o f frin g e e le m e n ts in J a p a n c o n tin u e s to w h ite w a sh . H a v in g sa id th a t, p a s t in ju s tic e s c o m m itte d a g a in st a p e o p le d o n o t lic en se th e m a n d th e ir d e s c e n d a n ts to d e n ig ra te o th e rs. V ic tim h o o d d o es n o t c o n fe r s a in th o o d . 281

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

Context, Memory, and Identity In th is ch a p te r, I h av e trie d to d e m o n s tr a te th e im p o r ta n c e o f c o n te x t in th e w ays th a t p e o p le p erc eiv e a h is to ric a l e v e n t to f o rm n a tio n a l o r e th n ic id e n ­ tities. C o n te x t is in tric a te ly tie d to m e m o r y ( c o n s tru c te d o r o th e rw ise ), a n d sh a re d m e m o r y is e sse n tia l to id e n tity . In th is re sp e c t, C h in a a n d J a p a n h av e b e e n cru c ial to ea c h o th e r fo r m a n y c e n tu rie s . C h in a w as fu n d a m e n ta l to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f Ja p a n e se id e n tity fro m a t le a st th e six th c e n tu r y o n w a rd , a n d J a p a n h as b e e n c ru c ia l to C h in a ’s sin c e th e e n d o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . In th e J a p a n - C h ’in g W a r o f 1 8 9 4 —9 5 — a w a r fo u g h t w h e n th is tu r n a b o u t b e g a n — th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry c o m m itte d h o rrific a tro c itie s a g a in st C h in e s e civ ilian s. T h e C h in e s e sch o la r-o ffic ia l C h e n g K u a n -y in g b rie fly c a ta lo g u e d th e se a t th e tim e , a lth o u g h h e seem s to h av e b e e n re c o u n tin g ev e n ts lis te d in th e fo re ig n p ress ra th e r th a n p e rs o n a lly w itn e sse d : W hen the Japanese occupied Lushun, the entire tow n was massacred. Pregnant women in H ai-ch’eng were cut open__ W hen N iu-chuang was occupied,... our w om en were tied up and raped. Even innocent children could not escape. Japanese soldiers stabbed their bayonets into the children’s anuses and then held up the body on their bayonets for fu n __ W hen Japanese ships passed Teng-chou, they opened fire on villagers for no reason, and the hom es o f ordinary people were destroyed__ W hen they attacked Jungch’eng, they also opened fire everywhere, even at the houses o f residents. People lost their hom es and had to sleep outdoors in the fields. At th at tim e, it was snowing heav­ ily, and m any died from cold and h u n g e r . . It was so miserable and vicious th at even the sky and sun w ould sigh. O h, how brutal it was!30 W h y hav e th e se n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y a tro c itie s b e e n b u rie d in h is to ric a l o b ­ liv io n w h erea s th o se o f N a n k in g in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 c o n tin u e to b e c ite d ro u tin e ly ? T h e p r in c ip a l re a so n lies p re c ise ly in th e issue o f c o n te x t. W o rld W a r II is c ru c ia lly im p o r ta n t to th o s e w h o m a k e th e case fo r a “N a n k in g H o lo c a u s t” b ecau se o f g u ilt b y a s so c ia tio n im p u g n e d to J a p a n w h ic h , a fte r all, la te r b e ­ cam e allied to N a z i G e rm a n y . F o r th e h is to ric a l re c o rd , a fo rm a l m ilita ry allia n ce— as o p p o s e d to th e A n ti- C o m in te r n P act— w as n o t f o rm e d u n til S e p ­ te m b e r 1 9 4 0 , w ell a fte r th e m a ss m u rd e rs a t N a n k in g to o k p lace. B u t th is h as n o t s to p p e d th e lik es o f Iris C h a n g , W u T ie n -w e i, a n d o th e rs fro m c la im in g th a t im p e ria l J a p a n a n d th e T h ir d R e ic h w ere fu ll-fle d g e d allies in 1 9 3 7 . In d e e d , J o h n R a b e ’s in v e ig h in g a g a in st w h a t h e w itn e sse d — w h ic h , to h e r c re d it, C h a n g h as b r o u g h t to o u r a t te n tio n — is tra n s fo rm e d in a n e w sp a p e r in te rv ie w to : “So sic k e n in g w as th e sp e c ta c le th a t ev en th e N a z is in th e c ity w ere h o r rif ie d .”31 T h is s ta te m e n t is a b it o f a s tre tc h . C h a n g a n d W u lin k J a p a n w ith p e rh a p s th e w o rs t m u r d e r o u s re g im e in o u r tim e , n o t ju s t b ec au se o f th e s u b s e q u e n t a llia n c e w ith N a z i G e rm a n y , b u t also b e c a u se w e h av e c o m e to re g a rd th e E u ro p e a n H o lo c a u s t as th e m o s t h o rrific a c t o f g e n o c id e in re c e n t h u m a n h isto ry . 282

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

The Nanking Atrocity and Chinese Historical Memory

T h e c u r r e n t o u tra g e over ev e n ts c o m m itte d in N a n k in g se v e n ty y ears ago is n o t d ire c te d a t J a p a n a lo n e , h o w ev er. S in o -J a p a n e se re la tio n s h a v e ta k e n o n a n e w c h a ra c te r sin c e W o rld W a r II. G lo b a liz a tio n p lu s in c re a se d C h in e s e ex­ p o su re a n d e m ig ra tio n to th e W est, especially over th e p a s t tw o o r th re e decades, re q u ire th a t th e e n tire w o rld — w h ic h o fte n m e a n s th e W e st or, m o re sp e cifi­ cally, th e U n ite d S ta te s— v e rify C h in a ’s v ic tim h o o d . C h a n g , fo r ex a m p le , w as less in te re s te d in c h a n g in g Ja p a n e se o p in io n s — a b o u t w h ic h sh e k n e w n e x t to n o th in g in a n y case— th a n in b r in g in g th e A tro c ity to A m e ric a n a tte n tio n . T h is is a n o th e r re a so n fo r h e r to tally th e d e a th to ll in N a n k in g h ig h e r th a n th o se fo r th e tw o Ja p a n e se cities ta rg e te d b y U .S . a to m ic b o m b s . T h u s , lik e th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n in C h in a , p e rso n s su c h as C h a n g are w o rk in g — a n d successfully, it s h o u ld b e n o te d — to m a rs h a l th e W e s te rn m e d ia a g a in st Ja p a n . T h is h as sadly b e c o m e c e n tra l to th e ir id e n titie s . T h e p h ilo s o p h e r A v ish ai M a rg a lit n o te s S ig m u n d F re u d ’s d e s c rip tio n o f a “n e u ro tic p e rso n ’s d is p ro p o rtio n a te a c tio n s .” F re u d referre d to a L o n d o n e r w h o , lo o k in g a t a m o n u m e n t to th e g re a t fire o f 1 6 6 6 , m o u r n e d a lo u d th e d e ­ s tr u c tio n o f th re e c e n tu rie s ea rlier r a th e r th a n feel jo y o r re lie f a b o u t th e c ity ’s re silie n c e .32 A p a ra lle l n e u ro sis o f re m e m b e rin g p la g u e s C h in e s e -A m e ric a n a n d C h in e s e g ro u p s d isc u sse d ab o v e. T h e jo u r n a lis t Ia n B u r u m a re c e n tly re ­ c o u n te d r e a d in g a p ie c e by Iris C h a n g in w h ic h sh e to ld o f a n in c id e n t th a t fo llo w ed a le c tu re sh e h a d g iv e n a b o u t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . A C h in e se A m e ric a n w o m a n ca m e fo rw a rd w ith te ars in h e r eyes a n d sa id to C h a n g , “Y ou m a k e m e p r o u d to b e C h in e s e .” O n e w o u ld th in k th a t 5 0 0 0 y ears o f a r e s p le n d e n t w o rld c u ltu re m ig h t suffice.

Notes 1. See, for example, the following websites: www.Nanking1937.org/;www.smn.co.jp/gallery/ Nanking/; www.cnd.org/njmassacre/;www.skycitygallery.com/japan/japan.html;china.muzi.net/ news/topics/massacre.html; www.cernet.edu.cn/history/www.ar ts.cuhk.hk/NankingAtrocity /NM.html 2. The website is: china.muzi.net/news/topics/massacre.shtml. 3. This argument is repeated at: www.skycitygallery.com/japan/japan.html. 4. See Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking; Smalley ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the N anking Massacre; Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking; and Zhang [Chang], ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre.

5. This view has been noted by Japanese and Westerners alike. See, for example, Kojima, “NitChu kankei no ‘atarashii hatten dankai’.” I would not go so far as to argue, as Newby does, that the Japanese play along out of a sense of guilt. See Newby, Sino-Japanese Relations: China’s Per­ spective, p. 13. See also Gries, “Face Nationalism,” chapter 4. Gries argues convincingly that this is not merely a phenomenon of the Communist Party dictating policy to the Chinese people, but that there is much popular support for anti-Japanese policies in China. 6. Yang, “Sino-Japanese Controversy,” p. 16; also, Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chi­ nese Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre,” pp. 24—25. 7. See Hirano, “Transnational Flows of People and International Exchanges,” pp. 97—98. 283

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

Buruma, “C hina in Cyberspace,” pp. 9—12. I tried some years ago to describe the disbelief o f one great Japanese sinologue, Naito Konan (1866—1934), in the 1920s when he witnessed the assault by young Chinese on their own tra­ ditions. It make little or no sense to him and left him highly frustrated. See Fogel, Politics and Sinology, pp. 239—51. Buruma has made a similar remark en passant in “Afterlife of Anne Frank,” p. 7. Novick, “Holocaust Memory in America,” pp. 159—65, citation on p. 163. O ne line of analy­ sis that Novick does not pursue is the role of the sharp decline in the popularity o f Marxism and other leftist causes, together later with the collapse o f the socialist states in Eastern Europe. M any Jews had invested their energies in socialist and other causes of social justice as a kind of secular religion, only to find either their non-Jewish fellows unsympathetic to the cause of Israel or their movement dissolve from within. Witness, for instance, the prominence of Jewish intel­ lectuals among the “new-conservatives,” virtually all of whom had been liberals or leftists prior to their “conversions” in the 1970s and 1980s. See Gries, “Face Nationalism.” Ibid, p. 21. News H our w ith Jim Lehrer, 20 February 1998; Burress, “Wars o f Memory.” Wu, Preface, p. iii. See Marrus’s excellent piece, “Is There a New Anti-Semitism,” pp. 172—74 and p. 177. Concerning the Armenian genocide and its denial, see Dadrian, “Comparative Aspects of the Armenian and Jewish Cases o f Genocide,” pp. 101—35; and Smith, Markusen, and Lifton, “Professional Ethics and the Denial of Armenian Genocide,” pp. 1—22. O n the Roma and Sinti, see Hancock, “Responses to the Porrajmos,” pp. 39—64; and Lutz and Lutz, “Gypsies as Victims o f the Holocaust,” pp. 346—59. Concerning the “good” to be derived from black slav­ ery, see D ’Souza, E n d of Racism: Principles for a M ultiracial Society. O n Native Americans, see Stannard, “Uniqueness as Denial,” pp. 163—208. Kuper, Genocide, p. 105; Rummel, “Democide in Totalitarian States,” p. 34. Cited in Kuper, Genocide, p. 22. Huttenbach, “Locating the Holocaust on the Genocide Spectrum,” p. 291. Marrus, Holocaust in History, p. 23 and p. 28. Huttenbach, “Locating the Holocaust on the Genocide Spectrum,” p. 259, p. 297 and p. 298. Marrus, Holocaust in History, pp. 39, 79. Bauman, M odernity a n d the Holocaust pp. 24—26, 74, and 89—90. Honda, N a n jin g Massacre, p. 240. Also see Wakabayashi, “The Nanking 100-Man Killing Contest Debate,” pp. 3 0 7 ^ 0 . Bauman, M odernity a n d the Holocaust, pp. 22—23, with obvious nods in the direction of H an­ nah Arendt. Ibid., pp. 91—92, 102—6. Italics in the original. Cited in Dower, Embracing Defeat, p. 459. Cheng, “Chung-Jih chiao-chan hsi-wen-pao chi Jih-ping t’u-ch’eng ts’an-k’u t’u-shou hsu,” pp. 486-87. Burress, “Wars of Memory.” Margalit, Ethics of Memory, p. 4.

284

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:19 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

13

A Ta l e o f T w o A t r o c i t i e s : Cr it ic a l A p p r a is a l o f Am e r ic a n H is t o r io g r a p h y 1 M asahiro Yamamoto

Introduction T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity h as b e e n in te n s e ly d e b a te d in th e U n ite d S tate s sin c e th e p u b lic a tio n o f Iris C h a n g ’s bestseller, The Rape o f Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust o f World War II, in 1 9 9 7 . B u t th e d e b a te fails to fo cu s o n tw o c ru ­ cial issues. F irst, c o m m e n ta to r s h av e n e g le c te d th e fa c tu a l h is to ry o f th e ev e n t a n d c o n c e n tra te d o n its h isto rio g ra p h y . S e c o n d , th o se h is to rio g r a p h ic stu d ie s hav e d e a lt w ith Ja p a n e se a n d C h in e se , b u t n o t A m e ric a n , w rite rs. T h e s e fail­ in g s are ex e m p lifie d b y The N anjing Massacre in History and Historiography (2 0 0 0 ), e d ite d b y J o s h u a A . F ogel. T h e v o lu m e e x a m in e s h o w p o litic a l c o n ­ tex ts affected p o s tw a r s c h o la rly a n d m e d ia tr e a tm e n ts o f th e A tro c ity in J a p a n a n d C h in a , b u t th e c o n trib u to rs d e v o te d little sp a ce to th e a c tu a l h is to ry o f th e A tro city , a n d n o n e o f th e m ad d re sse d a c ru c ia lly im p o r ta n t issue: w h y A m e ric a n s d e b a te d th is in c id e n t so in te n s e ly in th e w a k e o f C h a n g ’s b o o k . G iv en th a t th e A tro c ity h as b e e n k n o w n in th e U n ite d S tates sin ce 1 9 3 7 , th a n k s to m e d ia coverage b y jo u rn a lis ts s u c h as F. T illm a n D u r d in a n d A rc h ib a ld T. S teele, fo llo w ed b y ex ten siv e d isc u ssio n s in h is to rie s o f m o d e r n C h in a a n d Ja p a n , th e e x tre m e s e n s a tio n ca u se d b y C h a n g deserv es close a tte n tio n , esp e­ cially b ec au se A m e ric a n s w ere n e ith e r v ic tim s n o r v ic tim iz e rs in th e in c id e n t. M a rk E y k h o lt, a c o n tr ib u to r to F o g e l’s v o lu m e , su g g ests o n e re a so n : th e A tro c ­ ity is a n “in te r n a tio n a l s y m b o l” o f su ffe rin g th a t u n ite s all e th n ic C h in e s e in th e p o s tw a r era .2 T h is , h o w ev er, d o es n o t fu lly e x p la in th e “C h a n g b o o m ” b ec au se th o se w h o e x to l h e r b o o k are n o t lim ite d to C h in e se -A m e ric a n s. M y analysis a ttr ib u te s th e p o p u la rity o f C h a n g ’s b o o k in A m e ric a to tw o in te r tw in e d facto rs: e th n ic p re ju d ic e a n d th e w id e g ap in in te r p re ta tio n s o f

285

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

th e A tro c ity b e tw e e n p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s a n d th e g e n e ra l p u b lic . T h e p r o ­ fessio n al h is to ria n s ’ la c k o f fa c t-fin d in g so lid ifie d th e o r d in a ry p e o p le ’s im a g e o f th e A tro city , alre a d y c re a te d b y a m a te u r h is to ria n s , a n d re in fo rc e d p o p u la r e th n ic p re ju d ic e . R e g a rd in g fa c tu a l h isto ry , I p re s e n te d m y o w n in te r p r e ta tio n in Nanking: Anatomy o f an Atrocity (2 0 0 0 ), a m o n o g r a p h th a t ad v a n ce s a “rev i­ s io n is t” th e sis in c o n tra s t to th e o n e p re s e n te d b y C h a n g a n d se e m in g ly ac­ c e p te d b y a m a jo rity o f A m e ric a n s. T h e la b el “r e v is io n is t” m a y raise su sp ic io n s th a t I a m s im ila r to H o lo c a u s t “d e n ie r s ,” b u t c a refu l re a d e rs w ill fin d th a t m y b o o k e m p h a siz e d th e c o n te x t o f th e S in o -J a p a n e se W a r in w h ic h th e A tro c ­ ity to o k p lace, a n d sq u a re ly b la m e d th e Ja p a n e se arm y, a lth o u g h to a far less e x te n t th a n u su a lly re c o g n iz e d . T h e h is to ria n Y ang D a q in g , a n o th e r o f F o g e l’s c o n trib u to rs , sta te s th a t: “T a k e n o u t o f th e c o n te x t o f J a p a n ’s ag g re ssio n in C h in a , th e N a n k in g M a ssac re [A tro city ] w o u ld b e c o m e a m e re a c c id e n t o r an an e c d o te in th e an n a ls o f m ilita ry o p e ra tio n .”3 B u t I c o n te n d th a t, as far as th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f Ja p a n e se c o m m a n d e rs is c o n c e rn e d , th e A tro c ity w as a n ac ci­ d e n t, a lb e it a te rrib le o n e. C ritic s m a y still fin d a p a ra lle l w ith H o lo c a u s t d e n ia l b y a rg u in g th a t m y w o rk d o w n p la y s th e “p e r p e tra to r -v ic tim p e rs p e c tiv e .”4 B u t n o t ev ery a tte m p t to d o w n p la y a n a tro c ity is e q u iv a le n t to H o lo c a u s t d e n ia l. A m e ric a n a n d W e st­ e rn h is to ria n s re fu te d ch a rg es o f a n a tro c ity alleg e d ly c o m m itte d b y A m e ri­ cans o n a scale th a t p u ta tiv e ly e q u a liz e d o r su rp a sse d th a t o f th e N a z is, b u t th e y w ere n ev e r d a m n e d as H o lo c a u s t d en iers. Specifically, I refer to th e d e b a te over Ja m es B a c q u e ’s Other Losses: A n Investigation into the Mass Deaths o f Ger­

man Prisoners at the Hands o f the French a nd Americans after World War I I (1 9 8 9 ). F irst p u b lis h e d in C a n a d a , it b e c a m e a b e stse lle r in th e U n ite d S tate s a n d w as tra n s la te d in to sev eral la n g u a g e s. B a c q u e c a u g h t m e d ia a tte n tio n in to th e early 1 9 9 0 s, b u t p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s fa m ilia r w ith th e to p ic so o n a r­ riv ed at a p ersu asiv e c o u n te rth e s is. T h e B a cq u e p h e n o m e n o n p re se n ts s trik in g s im ila ritie s to , a n d b a fflin g c o n tra s ts w ith , th e c o n tro v e rs y o v er C h a n g ’s b o o k . In th is ch a p te r, I e x a m in e th e d e b a te s o v er th e se tw o b estsellers: b o th c h a l­ len g e p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s to d ea l w ith n a rra tiv e s w ritte n b y a m a te u rs fo r m ass a u d ie n c e s in a m e d ia age. T h e issu e is h o w sc h o la rs a n d sp e cia lists can, o r c a n n o t, in flu e n c e o r re sh a p e p o p u la r a ttitu d e s a b o u t th e p a st. M o re im p o r ­ tan tly , th o u g h , I a rg u e th a t th e c o n tra s tin g a c a d e m ic a n d p o p u la r re a c tio n s to th e se tw o b o o k s u n d e rlin e la te n t e th n ic p re ju d ic e a g a in st a p a rtic u la r n a tio n in th e U n ite d S tates.

Bacque and His Critics T h e c e n tra l th e sis o f Other Losses is th a t th e A m e ric a n s a n d F re n c h — a c tin g u n d e r o rd ers fro m G e n . D w ig h t D . E isen h o w er, c o m m a n d e r o f S u p re m e H e a d ­ q u a rte rs , A llie d E x p e d itio n a ry F o rce (S H A E F )— d e lib e ra te ly sta rv e d to d e a th 286

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

800,000 to o n e m illio n G e rm a n p riso n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ) in cu sto d y . B a cq u e re a c h e d h is ra d ic a l n e w c o n c lu s io n b y r e in te r p re tin g p r im a ry so u rc e s a n d b y in te rv ie w in g eyew itn esses. H e p la c e d th e b la m e o n E ise n h o w e r, w h o se p e r­ so n a l “feelin g s a g a in st th e G e rm a n s g re w s tro n g e r th e m o re d e s p e ra te ly th e y fo u g h t, [and] th e m o re h e saw o f th e h o rro rs o f th e c o n c e n tra tio n ca m p s, u n til h e fe lt a s h a m e d th a t h e b o re a G e rm a n n a m e .” U n d e r h is o rd e rs, th e m ilita ry c o m m a n d c h a n g e d th e sta tu s o f G e rm a n P O W s to th a t o f a “d isa rm e d e n e m y fo rc e ” (D E F ) in o rd e r to k ill th e m en m asse b y re d u c in g th e ir ra tio n s b e lo w levels s tip u la te d b y th e G e n e v a c o n v e n tio n ev en th o u g h fo o d su p p lie s w ere p le n tifu l in p o stw a r E u ro p e . To s u p p o r t h is claim , B a cq u e p o in te d to th e ite m “o th e r losses” in a d o c u m e n t e n title d “W e e k ly P ris o n e r o f W a r a n d D is ­ a rm e d E n e m y F orces R e p o r t.” “O th e r L o sse s,” h e said , w as a e u p h e m is m s im ­ ila r to th e N a z is ’ “fin a l s o lu tio n .”5 T o u n d e rs c o re h is claim s, B a c q u e q u o te d eyew itnesses: W olfgang Iff said th at in his sub-section o f perhaps 10,000 people at Rheinberg, 30 to 40 bodies were dragged out every day. A m em ber o f the burial com m ando, Iff was well placed to see w hat was going on.... Some o f the corpses were dead o f gangrene follow­ ing frostbite suffered on the freezing nights o f April. A dozen or m ore others, includ­ ing a 14-year-old boy too weak to cling to the log flung across the ditch for a latrine, fell off and drow ned__ Sometimes, as m any as 200 died each day.6 F u rth e rm o re , B acq u e c ite d th e n W e st G e r m a n c h a n c e llo r C o n r a d A d e n a u e r ’s re m a rk s in 1 9 5 0 th a t 1 ,4 0 7 ,0 0 0 G e r m a n so ld ie rs w ere still u n a c c o u n te d for, ch a rg ed th a t m o s t o f th e m h a d d ie d in A llie d cap tiv ity , a n d a rg u e d th a t S H A E F c e n so rsh ip e x p la in e d w h y su c h a h o rrib le e v e n t w e n t u n n o tic e d a fte r V E D ay. B acq u e f o u n d h u m a n ita ria n s w h o trie d to save s ta rv in g G e r m a n P O W s a m id th e h o rrib le atro c ity . T h e s e h e ro e s in c lu d e d Je a n -P ie rre P ra d e rv a n d , h e a d o f th e d e le g a tio n s o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e o f th e R e d C ro ss in F ran ce; Ja cq u e s F au v et, w h o c o n tr ib u te d a s to ry o f G e r m a n P O W s to Le Monde; a n d V ic to r G o lla n z , a B ritish p u b lis h e r fa m o u s fo r b r in g in g o u t H a r o ld J. T im p e rley’s W hat War Means in 1 9 3 8 a n d w h o la te r w ro te a p a m p h le t c ritic iz in g A llie d h a n d lin g o f G e r m a n P O W s . Finally, B a cq u e h e ld th a t p o s tw a r G e r ­ m a n s n e v e r raise d th is issue b ec au se th e y w a n te d th e ir fo rm e r e n e m ie s to fo r­ g e t a b o u t N a z i a tro c itie s .7 B acq u e h ire d 3 lite ra ry ag e n ts to “sell” h is m a n u s c r ip t in th e U n ite d S tates, b u t over th ir ty p resses re je c te d it. In th e p ro ce ss, th e la te S te p h e n A m b ro se , a r e n o w n e d U .S . h is to ria n o f W o rld W a r II, m a d e so m e c a u tio u s ly p o sitiv e re m a rk s o n it. E ven so, A m b ro se d ism isse d its m a in th e sis— th a t E ise n h o w e r d e lib e ra te ly cau sed th e d e a th o f so m a n y G e r m a n P O W s — a n d su rm is e d th a t it w as th is flaw ed th e sis th a t h a d le d p u b lis h e rs to re je c t th e m a n u s c r ip t.8 A fte r th e b o o k a p p e a re d , a few rev iew ers a c c e p te d its claim s, b u t w ith re se rv a tio n s. R o la n d G re e n said , “T h is b o o k a rg u e d p e rsu a siv e ly th a t m a n y th o u s a n d s o f fo rm e r G e rm a n so ld iers d ie d u n n ec essarily w h ile in A llie d c u s to d y im m e d ia te ly 287

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

afte r W o rld W a r I I , ” b u t a d d e d , “B a c q u e d o es n o t e sta b lish b e y o n d a re a ­ so n a b le d o u b t th a t th e se d e a th s w ere c a u se d d e lib e ra te ly .”9 MacLeans m a g a ­ zin e in C a n a d a sa id th a t “a t le a st so m e A m e ric a n a n d F re n c h c o m m a n d e rs w ere ‘s in k in g to w a rd th e evil w h ic h w e h a d all su p p o s e d w e w ere fig h tin g ’, ” y e t re m a in e d s k e p tic a l a b o u t th e ta b u la te d d e a th to ll.10 A c a d e m ic h is to ria n s rev ie w ed th e b o o k in a v e ry c ritic a l m a n n e r fro m th e s ta rt. A r th u r L. S m ith Jr. o f C a lifo rn ia S ta te U n iv ersity , Los A n g eles, sa id in a n e w sp a p e r review , “T h e b o o k n e e d s to b e p u t in p e rsp e c tiv e ; it is th e w o rk o f a n o v e list a n d s h o u ld n o t b e c o n s tru e d as h is to ry .”11 T h e n a g ro u p o f h is ­ to ria n s la u n c h e d a w h o le sa le c o u n te r a tta c k a g a in st B a cq u e in Eisenhower and the German POWs: Facts against Falsehood, a v o lu m e e d ite d b y G u e n te r B isc h o f a n d S tev en E. A m b ro se . C o n tr ib u to r s to it a rg u e d th a t B a cq u e ig n o re d th e h is to ric a l c o n te x t th a t c re a te d c o n d itio n s le a d in g to th e s ta rv a tio n o f G e rm a n P O W s a n d civilian s: “ [T ]h e re w as, th e n , a v o la tile m ix in G e r m a n y in M ay, 19 4 5 : a n g ry G Is, f ru s tra te d re c ru its a n d rev e n g e se e k in g Je w ish officers, a n d fo rm e r slave la b o re rs a n d G e rm a n so ld iers p a c k e d in to o p e n c a m p s. T h e re su lt w as u n b e a ra b le c o n d itio n s o n a m assive scale in a fe w o f th e larg e a n d g ro ssly o v e rp o p u la te d h o ld in g c a m p s o n th e R h in e R iver. T h e re is s im p ly n o e v id en c e th a t it w as p a r t o f a n o rg a n iz e d , sy ste m a tic A llie d e f f o rt.”12 B ria n L o rin g V illa a rg u e d th a t E ise n h o w e r h a d to r e p o r t to h ig h e r a u th o r ­ ities a n d th u s w as in n o p o s itio n to d ic ta te p o lic ie s o n P O W s .13 Ja m e s F. T e n t re fu te d o th e r a s s u m p tio n s , fo r e x a m p le , th a t fo o d w as a b u n d a n tly available, as w ell as th e im p lic it lo g ic th a t p e o p le d ie o f m a ln u tr itio n as so o n as th e ir fo o d in ta k e b e g in s to fall b e lo w a m in im u m d a ily c a lo ric r e q u ir e m e n t.14 A lb e rt E. C o w d re y p re s e n te d h is o w n e s tim a te o f s lig h tly o v er 5 6 ,0 0 0 d e a th s a t m o st, o r a b o u t 1.1 p e r c e n t o f all G e r m a n P O W s in A llie d h a n d s .15 R u e d ig e r O v e r­ m a n s c o m p u te d ev en sm a lle r e stim a te s o f 5 ,0 0 0 to 1 0 ,0 0 0 a t A m e ric a n , a n d over 2 1 ,0 0 0 a t F re n c h , c a m p s. H e also q u o te d fin d in g s fro m th e B o n n g o v ­ e r n m e n t’s M a sc h k e C o m m is s io n , se t u p in 1 9 5 7 to w rite a h is to ry o f G e r ­ m a n P O W s in W o rld W a r II. D ra w in g o n its re p o r t, O v e rm a n s c o n c lu d e d th a t w h a t B a cq u e c la im e d to b e th e “m is sin g m illio n ” m e n tio n e d b y A d e n a u e r w as larg ely c re a te d o n th e R u ssia n , n o t th e W e ste rn , fro n t. B ased o n th e a b ­ sen ce o f co rp ses in lo c a tio n s w h e re P O W c a m p s u se d to b e, O v e rm a n s also d is c re d ite d B a c q u e ’s a lle g a tio n o f m a ss d e a th s .16 In o rd e r to d isp ro v e B a c q u e ’s in te r p r e ta tio n o f “o th e r lo sse s,” c ritic s c ite d th is passage in a U .S . m ilita ry d o c u m e n t: “A n a d d itio n a l g ro u p o f 6 6 3 ,5 7 6 are lis te d as ‘o th e r losses’, c o n ­ sis tin g larg ely o f m e m b e rs o f th e Volkssturm [p e o p le ’s m ilitia ] rele ase d w ith ­ o u t fo rm a l d isc h arg e .”17 T h e critics c o n d u c te d th e ir o w n in te rv ie w a n d o b ta in e d a r e c a n ta tio n fro m 9 1 -y e a r-o ld fo rm e r C o l. P h ilip S. L a u b e n — w h o se c o n fe s­ sio n a b o u t th e m e a n in g o f “o th e r losses” B a c q u e h a d s e n sa tio n a lly p re s e n te d in h is b o o k ’s in tr o d u c tio n .18 Finally, th e y q u e s tio n e d th e o rig in a lity o f B a c q u e ’s m o n o g ra p h : B a cq u e n e g le c te d to refer to so m e c ru c ia l p r im a ry a n d s e c o n d a ry so u rces th a t to u c h e d o n th is iss u e .19 288

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

D e s p ite s u c h c ritic ism s, th e se h is to ria n s d id a d m it th a t d e p lo ra b le c o n d i­ tio n s ex isted a t so m e A llie d P O W c a m p s in G e rm a n y .20 N o r d id th e y d is p u te ey ew itn ess a c c o u n ts b y G e rm a n fo rm e r P O W s as q u o te d in Other Losses: “B a c q u e ’s six ey ew itn e sses fa irly a c c u ra te ly reflec t th e a p p a llin g c o n d itio n s in th e R h in e m e a d o w c a m p s __ T h e re c a n b e little d o u b t th a t c o n d itio n s in th e w o rs t o f th e c a m p s w ere h o rrific — in th e first w eek s o f M ay, even in h u m a n .” B ischof, th o u g h , sa id th a t s u c h sto rie s d o n o t c o rro b o ra te th e d e a th ra te a n d d e a th to ll th a t B a cq u e alleg ed : “to se lec t o u t o f five m illio n G e r m a n P O W s in A m e ric a n h a n d s six m e n w h o w ere h e ld in th re e o r fo u r o f th e v e ry w o rs t ca m p s is su rely n o t th e w a y to arriv e a t th e m o s t re p re se n ta tiv e sa m p le fo r m a k ­ in g a p ersu a siv e case c o n c e rn in g th e P O W e x p e rie n c e in A m e ric a n h a n d s .”21 In like m a n n e r, O v e rm a n s criticiz ed B a cq u e’s fa u lty rea so n in g ; th a t is, to assu m e th a t a c o n d itio n e x istin g in a few lo c a tio n s p re v a ile d e v e ry w h e re .22 T h e b a la n c e sh e e t fav o rs th o se c ritic s.23 I to o fin d th e m c o n v in c in g . B u t th e y w ere n o t c o m p la c e n t a b o u t th e ir a c h ie v e m e n t. G u n th e r B is c h o f sa id th a t “p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s . . . w ill alw ays fin d it d iffic u lt to re fu te c o n v o lu te d c o n ­ sp ira c y th e o rie s th a t are a p p e a lin g to a la y a u d ie n c e .”24 H is im p lic a tio n is th a t th e g e n e ra l p u b lic is n o t u su a lly a ttra c te d to ca re fu lly re se a rc h e d w o rk s o f h isto ry , a n d th a t a c a d e m ic h is to ria n s are s o m e tim e s lo sers in th e re a lm o f c o m ­ m e rc ia l p u b lic a tio n . In s u m , B a c q u e ’s Other Losses w o n o v er m a ss rea d ers o w in g to its se n s a tio n a l ch a rg e o f a m o n s tro u s a tro c ity c o m m itte d b y th e A llies. A s o n e c ritic la m e n te d : “ It [h isto ric a l tr u th ] c a n n e v e r b e f o u n d b y a n y o n e w h o fails to se t o u t ca refu lly th e c o n te x t, w h ic h is to b e f o u n d in a m ass o f d o c u m e n ts . B u t th a t w o u ld ta k e y ears o f re se a rc h a n d w o u ld h a rd ly p ro d u c e b e s tse lle rs.”25

The Rape o f Nanking Compared T h e la te Iris C h a n g d e ta ile d Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s in N a n k in g , in p a r t b y d ra w ­ in g o n h e r d isc o v e ry o f th e d ia ry o f J o h n R a b e, c h a ir o f th e I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ). H e r b o o k im m e d ia te ly b e c a m e a b estselle r a fte r a p p e a rin g in la te 1 9 9 7 a n d h as rec eiv e d la rg e ly p o s ­ itiv e review s, esp ec ially fro m n o n h is to ria n s . As Ja m e s B a c q u e ’s case sh o w s, ho w ev er, bestsellers are n o t n e c e ssa rily c a re fu lly w ritte n s c h o la rly m o n o g ra p h s th a t s ta n d u p to a c a d e m ic sc ru tin y . F ew c ritic s d o u b t th e a u th e n tic ity o f in d i­ v id u a l a tro c ity cases d e ta ile d in R a b e ’s d ia ry as re la te d b y C h a n g , ju s t as B a c q u e ’s critics d id n o t d e n y th e tru th fu ln e s s o f h is in d iv id u a l ey ew itn ess a c c o u n ts. B u t th e re is a m p le r o o m to q u e s tio n h e r o n la rg e r c o n te x tu a l issues: h o w a n d w h y d id th e A tro c ity o cc u r, a n d w h a t w as th e a c tu a l e x te n t o f h u m a n losses? C h a n g h a d a few ea rly c ritics. In N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 7 , Kirkus Reviews sa id , “th is slig h t a c c o u n t w ill b y n o m e a n s b e th e last w o rd ” a n d c o n c lu d e d th a t sh e “ru sh es 289

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

to sim p lify c o m p le x ev e n ts a n d to u n iv e rsa liz e w h a t h a p p e n e d a t th e ex p e n se o f carefu l, c o m p re h e n siv e a p p re c ia tio n o f a w o rld v io le n tly d e s tro y e d .”26 T h e la te R ic h a rd B. F in n o f A m e ric a n U n iv e rs ity ca st d o u b t o n h e r h ig h e stim a te s o f th e d e a th to ll— 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to o v er 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 — b y c a llin g a tte n tio n to R a b e ’s o w n e s tim a te o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 .27 D a v id M . K e n n e d y o f S ta n fo rd U n iv e r­ sity to o k critic a l n o te o f th e c o n s p ira c y th e o ry im p lic it in C h a n g ’s b o o k b y p o in tin g to h e r fre q u e n t re feren c es to D a v id B e rm a m in i’s la rg e ly d isc re d ite d b o o k , Japans Imperial Conspiracy.28 T h e s e c ritic ism s su g g e st th a t C h a n g ’s w o rk sh a re s so m e e le m e n ts th a t m a d e B a c q u e ’s Other Losses p o p u la r a m o n g th e o r d in a r y p u b lic , a n d c a refu l a n a ly ­ sis in d e e d reveals so m e c o m m o n tra its. F irst, lik e B a cq u e , C h a n g ’s c la m o r fo r o rig in a lity is c o n s p ic u o u s even th o u g h m a n y o f h e r so u rc e s h av e lo n g b e e n av ailab le to , a n d u se d by, sc h o lars. F o r e x a m p le , sh e claim s to h av e “u n ­ e a r th e d ” a c o u r t e x h ib it fro m th e I n te r n a tio n a l M ilita ry T rib u n a l fo r th e Far E ast (IM T F E ), b e tte r k n o w n as th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, fo r u se in ta b ­ u la tin g th e N a n k in g v ic tim c o u n t. Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s , h o w ev er, h av e n o t o n ly m e n tio n e d th e so u rc e c o u n tle s s tim e s, b u t also rev ie w ed its a u th e n tic ity a n d c re d ib ility extensiv ely .29 C h a n g ’s d isc o v e ry o f R a b e ’s d ia ry s h o u ld b e c re d ite d as a jo u r n a lis tic a c h ie v e m e n t, b u t even C a ro l G lu c k o f C o lu m b ia U n iv ersity , a b itte r critics o f Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs, says th a t it o n ly c o rro b o ra te s in f o rm a tio n f ro m e x istin g so u rc e s.30 S e c o n d , d e s p ite C h a n g ’s rese rv e d s ta te m e n t a b o u t th e e m p e ro r’s ro le in N a n k in g , h e r eag ern ess to p in re s p o n s ib ility o n th e to p e c h ­ e lo n o f Ja p a n e se le ad e rs sh o w s u p in h e r c o n je c tu re s th a t h e k n e w a b o u t a tro c ­ ities th e re .31 S u c h a n im p lic it re s o rt to c o n s p ira c y th e o ry fin d s a p a ra lle l w ith B a c q u e ’s Other Losses, a n d m o s t lik e ly h as serv ed to in c re a se th e p o p u la rity o f C h a n g ’s w o rk . C o m m e n tin g o n th is sh a re d tra it, T h o m a s B aker, in a c h a p te r in Eisenhauer and the German POWs: Facts against Fiction, c ite d “th e g e n e ra l p u b lic ’s p e re n n ia l re c e p tiv ity to ch a rg es o f c o n s p ira c y ” as “th e b a sic in g r e d i­ e n t o f a c o m m o n re c ip e fo r w ritin g b e s tse lle rs.”32 T h ir d , C h a n g a n d B a cq u e e m p h asize th e n u m b e r o f v ic tim s in o rd e r to illu s tra te th e m a g n itu d e o f th e alleged atro c itie s. O p e n ly o r im p lic itly , b o th call th e se ev e n ts e q u a l to o r w o rse th a n o th e r m ass k illin g s in h is to ry in c lu d in g a to m ic w arfa re. T h u s B a cq u e says th a t “b y th e e n d o f M a y [1 9 4 5 ], m o re p e o p le h a d d ie d in th e U .S . [P O W ] c a m p s th a n d ie d in th e a to m ic b la st a t H ir o s h im a ,” a n d C h a n g says th a t h e r h ig h - e n d e s tim a te o f 3 7 7 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s a t N a n k in g “su rp asses th e d e a th to ll fo r th e a to m ic b la sts a t H ir o s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i c o m b in e d .”33 F o u rth , C h a n g a n d B acq u e b o th te ll sto rie s o f h e ro e s a m id trag ed y , effectiv ely h ig h lig h tin g th e v ic tim iz e rs’ m a lic io u s c h a ra c te r. Lastly, b o th a u th o rs assail c o llec tiv e in d if ­ feren c e to th e ir cases. B a cq u e says, “N o t a w o rd re a c h e d th e p re ss” a fte r h e re fe rre d to th e n u m b e r o f A -b o m b v ic tim s fo r c o m p a ris o n p u rp o se s. C h a n g to o says, “T h e R a p e o f N a n k in g w as fro n t-p a g e n e w s across th e w o rld , a n d y e t m o s t o f th e w o rld s to o d b y a n d d id n o th in g w h ile a n e n tire c ity w as b u tc h e r e d .”34 290

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

Dual Standards and Perceptions T h u s , s e n s a tio n a lis m is s trik in g in b o th b o o k s, b u t r e c e p tio n s d iffe re d . F ro m th e sta rt, B a c q u e ’s c ritic s q u e s tio n e d h is e s tim a te d d e a th to ll a n d p o s tu la te d m o tiv e b e h in d th e alleg ed m ass k illin g . O n e re v ie w n o te d th e “in tr in s ic im ­ p o s s ib ility th a t so v a st a n a tro c ity c o u ld so lo n g h av e b e e n u tte r ly h id d e n .”35 T h e r e n o w n e d m ilita ry h is to ria n M ic h a e l H o w a rd e c h o e d : “th e id e a o f g e t­ tin g a m illio n p ris o n e rs sta rv e d to d e a th , w ith o u t a n y o n e sa y in g a w o rd a b o u t it, fo r n o re a so n ex c e p t th a t E ise n h o w e r d islik e d G e rm a n s , ta k es so m e sw al­ lo w in g .”36 In s ta rk c o n tra s t, Iris C h a n g ’s rev iew ers, w ith few e x c e p tio n s, sw al­ lo w ed h e r claim s w h o le o r o p te d fo r h e r h ig h e r e s tim a te s o f ca su a ltie s. O rv ille S ch ell o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a lifo rn ia , B erkeley, said: “e x p e rts n o w b eliev e th e n u m b e r to b e over 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 ” a n d ca lle d it “a n e x tra o rd in a ry fig u re .”37 S u c h review ers ig n o re d th e c o m m o n s e n s e a p p ro a c h a d o p te d b y B a c q u e ’s critics; th a t is, to d o u b t a fig u re p re c ise ly b e c a u se it is e x tra o rd in a ry . N o r d id th e y re a so n as d id J o h n H . B oyle in h is co lleg e te x tb o o k o n m o d e rn Ja p a n : “O n e fa c t su g ­ g e s tin g th a t th e C h in e s e e stim a te s are to o h ig h is th a t re m a rk a b ly little n o tic e o f th e in c id e n t w as ta k e n b y e ith e r C h in e s e o r th e W e s te rn p o w e rs a t th e tim e .”38 E ven th e sc h o la rly c o n trib u to rs to Jo su a A . F o g el’s e d ite d v o lu m e , The N anking Massacre in History a nd Historiography— w h ic h c o u ld h av e p la y e d a ro le s im ila r to B is c h o f a n d A m b ro se , Eisenhower and the German POWs: Facts against Falsehood— ch o se n o t to e x a m in e fa c tu a l d etails su c h as h o w m a n y p e o p le a c tu a lly d id d ie .39 P o p u la r c o m m e n ta to r s a c c e p te d C h a n g ’s ch a rg e o f co llectiv e, w illfu l a m n e sia b y th e Ja p a n e se to th is day. T h u s G e o rg e F. W ill title d h is rev iew o f h e r b o o k , “B re a k in g a S in iste r S ile n c e .”40 S o m e review s o p p o s e d th e se m a in s ta y o p in io n s , b u t th e se w ere a m in o r ity a n d a p p e a re d o n ly later, larg ely in sp e cialized p e rio d ic a ls th a t o rd in a ry citizen s d o n o t re a d .41 A ll o f th is c o n tra s ts w ith th e B a cq u e d e b a te : c ritic a l review s o f Other Losses a p p e a re d im m e d ia te ly in m ass m e d ia so u rce s, m o s t n o ta b ly th e N ew York

Times.42 O n e c a n n o t o v e rlo o k th e o d d ity , i f n o t a d o u b le s ta n d a rd , in th e tw o b o o k s ’ re c e p tio n s . A fter c a re fu l sc ru tin y , B a c q u e ’s rev iew ers re je c te d h is th e sis th a t a d e lib e ra te p o lic y o f s ta rv in g G e rm a n s re s u lte d in fa ta litie s m a tc h in g th e n u m ­ b e r o f a to m ic b o m b v ic tim s , w h e re a s before o r w ithout a s im ila r p ro b e o r in v e s­ tig a tio n , C h a n g ’s review ers larg e ly a c c e p te d h e r sim ila r th e sis as to th e Ja p an e se in te n t a n d C h in e s e d e a th to ll a t N a n k in g . R e g re tta b ly , e th n ic p re ju d ic e m a y b e a fa c to r e x p la in in g C h a n g ’s p o p u la rity . W h e n I w as a g ra d u a te s tu d e n t at th e U n iv e rsity o f A la b a m a , T u sca lo o sa , several y ears b e fo re C h a n g ’s b o o k ca m e o u t, I ta lk ed in fo rm a lly a b o u t N a n k in g w ith an A m e ric a n s tu d e n t a n d said th a t I d o u b te d th e o f te n - q u o te d C h in e s e d e a th fig u re o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 . H e r re sp o n se d u m b f o u n d e d m e: “T h e n , th e Ja p a n e se tro o p s k ille d even more!” A lth o u g h a fo rm e r 1-year ex c h an g e s tu d e n t in J a p a n w h o h a d fa v o ra b le im p re ssio n s o f it, sh e still w as n o t im m u n e to th is p re ju d ic ia l w a rtim e view. 291

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

M o s t critics n e g le c t to d w ell o n th is issu e. F o g e l’s su p e rb c o lle c tio n o f essays is a case in p o in t. H is c o n trib u to rs sp e a k o f Ja p a n e se ra c ism o r c h a u v in is m .43 B u t th e y lim it th e ir an aly sis to d e p lo ra b le Ja p a n e se a n d , to a lesser e x te n t, C h in e s e a ttitu d e s w h ile ig n o r in g a s im ila r A m e ric a n m in d s e t. T h e y m a y r e to r t th a t th e U n ite d S ta te s lies o u ts id e th e ir p u rv iew , b u t g iv e n th e h e ig h te n e d e m o tio n s s u r r o u n d in g N a n k in g th e re , a n d th e w o rld w id e im p a c t th a t A m e r­ ic a n o p in io n s h av e, fa ilu re to ad d re ss th e issue o f a n ti-Ja p a n e se s e n tim e n t is a se rio u s o m is sio n o r flaw. T h u s , even th o se p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s w h o d o criticize C h a n g ’s b o o k u n d e re s tim a te A m e ric a n a n ti-Ja p a n e se p re ju d ic e . T h e y also u n d u ly d isre g a rd th e v ast g ap in s c h o la rly a n d p o p u la r r e c e p tio n s o f th e b o o k s in q u e s tio n , w h e re a s B a c q u e ’s c ritic s w ere k e e n ly aw are o f th a t g ap . A rev iew b y F ogel o f Iris C h a n g ’s b o o k th u s n o te s, “h a d a w h ite p e rs o n w ritte n th is c h a p te r [o n Ja p a n e se m a rtia l m e n ta lity ], I c a n im a g in e sc re am s o f ra c ism r in g in g through the halls o f academe ” (ita lics a d d e d ) .44 U n fo rtu n a te ly , a se e m ­ in g ly rac ially m o tiv a te d s ta te m e n t b y a w h ite m a le outside o f academe a p p e a re d a n d , as far as I k n o w , h a s g o n e u n c ritic iz e d . R u ssell Je n k in s w rites: consider that the U nited States, on all fronts, lost 323,000 in the four years o f W orld W ar II. O r that at Auschwitz the Nazis killed on average 350,000 every tw o m onths. T h e Japanese killed roughly the same num ber in a few m onths w ithout the benefit o f the technology o f mass m urder available to the Nazis and w ithout the advantage o f concentration cam ps__ W h a t’s more, the Japanese troops weren’t “specialized”: no th ­ ing com parable to the Einsatzgruppen existed in their military. These were the boys next door.... the Rape o f Nanking reminds us how recently Japan emergedfrom its medieval age; a scant 140 years ago, less than 100 at the time ofthe Rape.45 (italics added) R ussell Je n k in s w as n o t a lo n e . G e o rg e F. W ill, in th e Washington Post, w ro te , “Ja p an e se so ld iers m u rd e re d te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f su rre n d e re d C h in e se so ld iers, a n d a lm o s t c e rta in ly m o re th a n 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 n o n c o m b a ta n ts . (C iv ilia n d e a th at H ir o s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i to ta le d 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 . B rita in a n d F ra n c e su ffe re d a c o m ­ b in e d to ta l o f 1 6 9 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n d e a th s fro m 1 9 3 9 to 1 9 4 5 .) ”46 D o n a ld M a c In n is , in a fo re w a rd to Z h a n g K a iy u a n ’s Eyewitnesses to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing, closely ech o es C h a n g : “E stim a te s o f so ld ie rs a n d n o n c o m b a ta n ts k ille d ra n g e fro m 2 6 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 — m o re th a n th e c o m b in e d d e a th to ll o f b o th th e a to m ic b o m b s d r o p p e d o n J a p a n (1 4 0 ,0 0 0 a n d 7 0 ,0 0 0 ) .47 W ill, M a c In n is , a n d o th e r n o n ­ sp e cia list c o m m e n ta to r s d id n o t m a n ife s t ra c ist o v e rto n e s as e x p lic itly as J e n k ­ in s. Yet o n e c a n n o t b u t w o n d e r i f th e y u n c ritic a lly a c c e p te d C h a n g ’s d e a th to ll o f “over 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 ”— w h ic h defies c o n v e n tio n a l w is d o m — b e c a u se o f th e alleged p e r p e tra to r s ’ n a tio n a lity . T h is im p re s s io n g ro w s s tro n g e r w h e n w e c o n ­ tra s t th e ir c o m m e n ts w ith th e sk e p tic is m o f B a c q u e ’s c ritic s to w a rd h is alle­ g a tio n s a b o u t G e rm a n v ic tim s. S in ce m o s t la y p e rso n s in N o r t h A m e ric a d o n o t re a d b a la n c e d a c a d e m ic o p in io n s , th e ir im p re s s io n o f N a n k in g w ill lik e ly re m a in th e o n e a c q u ire d 292

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

f ro m C h a n g ’s b o o k — s o m e th in g v isu a l a n d g ra p h ic r a th e r th a n a n a ly tic a n d e m p iric a l. T h e p e r c e p tio n g ap b e tw e e n p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s a n d g e n e ra l rea d ers— a n issue ad d re sse d b y B a c q u e ’s c ritic s— is far m o re a c u te re g a rd in g N a n k in g , p e rh a p s o w in g to th is e th n ic fac to r, a n d is ex a c e rb a te d b y th e n e g le c t o r failu re b y A m e ric a n a n d W e s te rn h is to ria n s to in v e stig a te h is to ric a l facts in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . F o g el e x p lic itly s ta te d in h is in tr o d u c tio n to The N anjing Massacre in History a nd Historiography th a t c o n trib u to rs w o u ld n o t delve in to m in u te fa c tu a l d e ta ils o f th e A tro c ity itse lf.48 E x c e p t fo r m y o w n m o n o g ra p h , la te r a rtic le s a n d b o o k s p u b lis h e d in E n g lish o n N a n k in g h av e m a in ly d e a lt w ith h isto rio g ra p h y , a n d v e ry few w ith h is to ry .49 A p o ssib le e x p la n a tio n fo r th e sc a rc ity o f e m p iric a l re se a rc h is th a t A m e ric a n a n d W e st­ e rn h is to ria n s hav e a lre a d y so lid ifie d a n im a g e o f th e A tro c ity a n d are re lu c ­ ta n t to re c o n s id e r it critically. A n y c h a lle n g e to th e c o n se n su s is lik e ly to b e seen as “rev isio n ism ” w o rth y o f th e c o n d e m n a tio n sh o w n to H o lo c a u s t d en iers. F o g el’s in tr o d u c tio n th u s sta te s, “W e ta k e fo r g r a n te d th a t th o se claim s [o f N a n k in g d e n ia l in Ja p a n ] h av e b e e n m a d e fo r a n a s s o rtm e n t o f u n sa v o ry p o lit­ ical rea so n s o r m is g u id e d e m o tio n a l o r n a tio n a lis tic o n e s .”50 L ik ew ise, C a ro l G lu c k id e n tifie d Ja p a n e se sc h o la rs a n d jo u rn a lis ts w h o in g e n e ra l agree w ith th e official C h in e s e in te r p r e ta tio n o f “ 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r m o r e ” v ic tim s as sp e a k in g “fo r h o n e s ty .”51 T h e im p lic a tio n is th a t a n y o n e w h o o p p o se s th e le ft-w in g J a p ­ anese v ie w deserves c o n d e m n a tio n fo r “d is h o n e s ty .”

“Revisionists” Revisited Yet is it fair to c o n c lu d e o u tr ig h t th a t N a n k in g “re v isio n ists” re p re s e n t d is­ h o n esty ? B a c q u e ’s c ritic s fu lly a ffirm th a t c o m p a ra tiv e d eg rees o f su ffe rin g a n d m is e ry in flic te d o n v ic tim s c a n n o t b e m e a su re d , m u c h less c a n o n e a tro c ity b e u se d to can cel o u t a n o th e r, b u t th e ir m a in c o n te n tio n w as th a t c o m p a ra ­ tiv e d eg rees o f evil in p e rp e tra to rs can b e m e a su re d . I f th is lo g ic is v alid , it is in c o n s is te n t to d ism iss s im ila r lo g ic w h e n a p p lie d to th e Ja p a n e se a t N a n k in g . T h is p o in t b ears r e p e a tin g b ec au se so m a n y in s is t th a t N a n k in g w as a n E ast A sia n H o lo c a u s t, a n d C h a n g ’s d e a th to ll fo r it seem s d e s ig n e d to h ig h lig h t Ja p a n e se ev il.52 T h u s , it is u n fa ir to la b el all Ja p a n e se w h o q u e s tio n th e p re ­ v a ilin g A m e ric a n in te r p r e ta tio n o f A tro c ity “N a n k in g d e n ie rs ” a n a lo g o u s to th o se w h o refu se to a d m it th e H o lo c a u s t’s h isto ric ity . T h o s e w h o a d v a n c e th e ir th eses in a n a c a d e m ic m a n n e r— as w as tr u e w ith B a c q u e ’s c ritic s— s h o u ld b e tre a te d as “re v isio n ists” in th e tr u e sense. C lassify in g th e se “re v isio n ists” is tricky, h o w ev er. E v en le ft-w in g h is to ria n s fit th e c a te g o ry i f th e y se ek to “rev ise” c u r r e n t in te r p re ta tio n s o f th e I M T F E ru lin g . T im o th y B ro o k in c h a p te r 7 ta k es issue w ith v irtu a lly all sc h o la rs to d a te w h o o v e rlo o k th e a w k w a rd fa c t th a t b o th th e b e n c h a n d p ro s e c u tio n d r o p p e d ch arg es o f c o n s p ira c y a t th e I M T F E , a n d in s te a d s e ttle d fo r G e n . 293

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

M a ts u i Iw a n e ’s g u ilty v e rd ic t in a c rim e o f o m is sio n , n o t c o m m issio n . In o th e r w o rd s , th e I M T F E fo u n d th a t M a ts u i fa ile d to sto p m e n u n d e r h is c o m m a n d f ro m c o m m ittin g w a r crim es, n o t th a t h e p la n n e d o r o rd e re d th e s e .53 L e ft­ w in g h is to ria n s also a rg u e th a t th e I M T F E a n d N a n k in g m ilita ry tr ib u n a l w ere in s u ffic ie n t o r flaw ed b e c a u se th e tr u e c u lp rits esca p ed leg al r e tr ib u ­ tio n o r d ie d p r e m a tu re ly o f n a tu ra l ca u se s.54 B u t th e se a tte m p ts also seek to “rev ise” th e p re v a ilin g in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e I M T F E . C o n v e rsely , c o n se rv a ­ tiv e “re v isio n ists” striv e to re fu te o r lo w e r th e e n o rm o u s ly h ig h d e a th figures c la im e d a t th e T o k y o a n d N a n k in g trib u n a ls , as c ite d b y C h a n g a n d b y o th e r c o m m e n ta to rs . W h e th e r rev isio n is lib e ra l o r co n se rv a tiv e , le ft-w in g o r rig h t-w in g , th e b a sic g u id in g p rin c ip le in h is to ric a l s tu d y is, as Y ang D a q in g sta te s, “v ig o ro u s [recte: rig o ro u s] e m p iric a l re se a rc h , c ritic a l e v a lu a tio n o f e v id en c e, a n d re s p o n ­ sib le re a p p ra is a l.”55 P itfalls lie in b o th d ire c tio n s . T ak a sh i Y oshida, a n o th e r o f F o g el’s c o n trib u to rs , criticiz es co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists fo r “d is c re d itin g e n tire a c c o u n ts b y stre ssin g p a rtia l in a c c u ra c ie s .”56 T h is p o in t h as m e rit: so m e rev i­ sio n ists d o re je c t w h o le d o c u m e n ts o r te s tim o n ie s as w o rth le ss o w in g to p ic a ­ y u n e erro rs. B u t th e o b v erse is e q u a lly fallacio u s; it is w ro n g to e x p a n d o n th e p a rtia l accu rac y o f o n e p ie c e o f ev id e n c e to e x tra p o la te claim s th a t it c a n ­ n o t s u p p o r t. O n e o f Ja m e s B a c q u e ’s c ritic s says: “W h e re is th e c e n tra l m is ­ ta k e in B a c q u e ’s a rg u m e n t? E ssen tially , h e assu m es th a t th e c o n d itio n s th a t a d m itte d ly p re v a ile d in six te e n o f th e 2 0 0 c a m p s fo r a c e rta in p e rio d (A p ril to J u n e o r July, 1 9 4 5 , a c c o rd in g to c a m p ) in fa c t e x te n d e d to all 2 0 0 A m e r­ ic a n ca m p s fo r th e w h o le p e rio d 1 9 4 5 —1 9 4 6 , a basis o f p ro c e d u re th a t c a n b e p ro v e d false .”57 W ittin g ly o r n o t, C h a n g c o m m its th is fallacy w h e n sh e cites th e S ix ty -six th R e g im e n t’s o rd e r to e x e cu te C h in e s e P O W s s u m m a rily as an ex a m p le o f Ja p an e se a rm y p o lic y .58 T h is im p lie s th a t ev e ry Ja p a n e se u n it issu ed th e sa m e o rd e r ev en th o u g h o th e r so u rce s, p lu s ey e w itn e ss a c c o u n ts b y a fo r­ m e r C h in e s e so ld ier, su g g e sts th a t a rm y -w id e tr e a tm e n t o f P O W s w as in c o n ­ s is te n t a n d in fa c t v arie d w idely. T h e so u rce s sh o w th a t a t le ast o n e u n it released large n u m b e rs o f P O W s o n th e s p o t, w h e re a s a n o th e r in te r n e d P O W s in h o ld ­ in g ca m p s in sid e th e city .59 A n o th e r c ritic is m a g a in st Ja p a n e se co n se rv a tiv e “re v isio n ists” is th a t th e y m a n ip u la te sta tistic s to g o o d a d v a n ta g e . H e re a g a in , th e o th e r sid e is g u ilty to o . C h a n g declares, “Ja p a n e se tr e a tm e n t o f th e ir P O W s su rp a sse d in b r u ta l­ ity ev en th a t o f th e N a z is. O n ly o n e in tw en ty -fiv e A m e ric a n P O W s d ie d u n d e r N a z i cap tiv ity , in c o n tra s t to o n e in th re e u n d e r th e J a p a n e s e .”60 T h e se d e a th rates m ay b e a c c u ra te in a n d o f th e m se lv es, b u t C h a n g to ta lly ig n o re s th e N a z is’ ra c ist p o lic y th a t a c c o rd e d p re fe re n tia l tr e a tm e n t to A n g lo -S a x o n P O W s , w h o n u m b e re d a b o u t 9 0 ,0 0 0 , a n d w h o lly ex clu d es fro m c o n s id e ra ­ tio n th e 3 .7 m illio n R u ssia n P O W s ( o u t o f a to ta l 5 .7 m illio n c a p tu re d ) w h o d ie d in G e r m a n c a m p s— to say n o th in g o f six m illio n Jew s in th e H o lo c a u s t.61

294

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

T h u s C h a n g lim its N a z i c o n d u c t o n b e n ig n tr e a tm e n t o f U .S . P O W s b u t d escrib es Ja p a n e se c o n d u c t in w ays d e s ig n e d to im p re ss re a d e rs w ith Ja p a n e se g e n o c id a l in te n t. L e ft-w in g sc h o la rs also allege th a t, in o rd e r to g e t a lo w er v ic tim c o u n t, co n serv ativ e “re v isio n ists” p u rp o s e ly lim it th e sp a tia l are a o f “N a n k in g ” to th e w alled c ity a n d im m e d ia te v ic in ity a n d also s h o r te n th e A tro c ity ’s tim e sp a n to th e six w eeks im m e d ia te ly afte r th e city fell.62 A “p r o p e r ” set o f p a ra m e te rs, le ftists say, re q u ire s a d d in g several c o u n tie s a d ja c e n t to th e w a lle d c ity a n d le n g th e n in g tim e sp a n to th re e o r fo u r m o n th s . F u jiw a ra A k ira a n d K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i d o th a t in c h a p te rs 2 a n d 3 o f th is v o lu m e , a n d th is le ts th e m re a c h m u c h h ig h e r v ic tim c o u n ts . B u t h e re , it is th e le ft-w in g , n o t th e rig h t-w in g , c a m p th a t is b e in g “r e v is io n is t.” E ver sin c e th e I M T F E , th e “tra d itio n a lly ” ac­ ce p te d p a ra m e te rs o f th is ev e n t have b e e n th e w alled city a n d its e n v iro n s w ith in a tim e sp a n o f six w eeks. S o m e c o m m e n ta to r s c a n also b e c h a rg e d w ith u lte rio r m o tiv e s in th e ir “m a n ip u la tio n ” o f tim e a n d space; b y sev erely lim itin g th e are a a n d tim e sp a n in v o lv e d , th e y p la y u p th e scale a n d in te n s ity o f Ja p a n e se b a rb a rity . T u a n Yuep ’in g , a m a in la n d C h in e s e h is to ria n , c a lc u la te d th e average n u m b e r o f v ic tim s in N a n k in g p e r d a y a t a n a s to u n d in g 8 ,0 9 5 o n th e a s s u m p tio n th a t w ith in six w eeks “th e Ja p a n e se m ilita ry a p p a ra tu s h a d s la u g h te re d m o re th a n 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e P O W s a n d c iv ilia n s.”63 S h e th e n declares, “T h e fa c t th a t su c h a larg e n u m b e r o f p e o p le w ere s la u g h te re d w ith in s u c h a s h o r t p e rio d o f tim e is an ex tre m e ly rare e v e n t in h u m a n h is t o r y ..., th e d a ily d e a th ra te w as o n e o f th e h ig h e s t th r o u g h o u t W o rld W a r II. F o r e x a m p le , in A u sc h w itz , th e in fa m o u s d e a th c a m p in P o la n d , N a z i b u tc h e rs e x te rm in a te d 1.5 m illio n p e o p le in 56 m o n th s (Ju n . 1 9 4 0 —Ja n . 1 9 4 5 ), a n average o f 8 7 9 p e o p le p e r d ay .”64 T u a n ’s c o n te n tio n is b a se d o n fa ta lly flaw ed d a ta . A s D a v id A sk e w arg u es in c h a p te r 5, th e re w ere less than 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e tro o p s a n d civ ilia n s in th e w alled c ity a n d its im m e d ia te v ic in ity p r io r to th e Ja p a n e se a s sa u lt.65 S o, in th is reg a rd , th o se Ja p a n e se co n se rv a tiv e “re v isio n ists” w h o in s is t o n th e “tr a d itio n a l” lim ­ ita tio n s o n sp ace a n d tim e h av e a v a lid p o in t. A re la te d p r o b le m o f n u m e ric a l e v id en c e arises w h e n le ftist sc h o la rs c la im th a t p o s t h o c I M T F E e v id en c e is m o re c re d ib le a n d h as m o re p ro b a tiv e v alu e th a n th a t available e ig h t to te n y ears earlier, a t th e tim e o f th e e v e n t in D e c e m ­ b e r 1 9 3 7 o r s h o rtly a fte r.66 T h is is a c ru c ia l issue th a t d iv id e s th e tw o c a m p s in th is d e b a te . A p a rt fro m tr u e d e n ie rs w h o tu r n a b lin d eye to a n y in c rim i­ n a tin g ev id en ce, co n se rv a tiv e “re v isio n ists” d e e m c o n te m p o r a n e o u s e v id en c e m o re reliab le th a n th a t u se d to a tte s t a la rg e r-sc ale m a ssac re la te r o n a t th e I M T F E . Yet, d e s p ite e n d o rs in g th e I M T F E ’s ru lin g , M a rk E y k h o lt a d m its th a t a t least o n e p ie ce o f I M T F E e v id en c e w as h ig h ly d u b io u s — te s tim o n y b y a N a n k in g citiz en , L u S u, a b o u t th e m a ssac re o f 5 7 ,4 1 8 C h in e s e n o n b e l­ lig e re n ts a t M u f u s h a n .67 E y k h o lt’s p o s itio n is in tr ig u in g b e c a u se th e b e n c h ’s

295

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

m a jo r ity o p in io n in fa c t a d o p te d L u ’s fig u re in its ru lin g , a lo n g w ith several o th e r d u b io u s pie ce s o f e v id en c e, to c re a te c u rre n tly a c c e p te d v ic tim s c o u n ts o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 .68 H o w ev er, th e p o in t h e re is th a t, i f d is p u tin g th e p ro b a tiv e v alu e o f I M T F E ev id e n c e is p e rm issib le to E y k h o lt, th e sa m e ac t s h o u ld n o t b e d a m n e d as a c u n n in g “d e n ia l” ta c tic b y Ja p a n e se c o n se rv a tiv e rev isio n ists. Finally, le ftists su c h as Y ang D a q in g accu se Ja p a n e se c o n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ­ ists o f “m is g u id e d e m p iric is m ” w h e re b y th e y p riv ile g e th o se p r im a ry so u rce s th a t la c k referen ces to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity in o rd e r to d e n y its basis in fa c t.69 A n o ta b le sp ecific case is th a t o f th e la te T a n a k a M a sa a k i, w h o a rg u e d th a t n o A tro c ity to o k p la ce b ec au se H o Y in g -c h in , C h in e s e d efe n se m in is te r a t th e tim e , said n o th in g a b o u t it in h is 1 9 3 8 m ilita ry r e p o r t.70 In o u e H isa sh i, a n o th e r le ft-w in g c ritic , d ism isse d th is d o c u m e n t, a rg u in g th a t it is o n ly n a t­ u ra l th a t m ilita ry re p o rts d id n o t d iscu ss a tro c itie s irre le v a n t to th e ir m a in th e m e — th e c h ro n ic lin g o f m ilita ry o p e r a tio n s .71 Iro n ic ally , I n o u e ’s p o in t w o u ld c a rry e q u a l w e ig h t w h e n u se d to d is p u te c h a rg es b y Y ang a n d H o n d a K a ts u ic h i th a t th e Ja p a n e se D e fe n se A g e n c y h is to ry o f th e w a r in C h in a is a flaw ed so u rc e b ec au se it d e v o te s o n ly tin y sp a ce to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . In o th e r w o rd s, th e D e fe n se A g e n c y ’s a im w as to d iscu ss m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s , n o t to d escrib e a tro c itie s, so its s c a n t re fe re n c e to th e A tro c ity d o es n o t c o n s titu te a c o v e r-u p .72 S in ce ea ch h is to ria n h as a field o f sp e cia l in te re s t a n d c a n n o t co v er all as­ p e c ts o f a n ev e n t, it is u n fa ir to assign b la m e fo r ig n o rin g a p a rtic u la r p e rsp e c ­ tive. F o r ex a m p le , C h a n g n o te d w ith a m a z e m e n t th a t W in s to n S. C h u rc h ill d id n o t m e n tio n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity in h is m e m o ir o n W o rld W a r II. A p ­ p are n tly , sh e w as u n a w a re th a t in th e sa m e m o n o g r a p h , h e o n ly to u c h e d o n p re w a r N a z i p e rs e c u tio n s o f Jew s in G e r m a n y le a d in g to th e g e n u in e H o lo ­ c a u s t.73 H e d id so, w e c a n assu m e, b ec au se b o th a tro c itie s la y o u ts id e h is m a in fo cu s o f in te re s t. M a n y W e s te rn m ilita ry h is to ria n s d e v o te little sp ace to th e N a z i H o lo c a u s t in stu d ie s o f W o rld W a r T w o. Basil H . L id d e ll- H a rt’s classic History o f the Second World War h a rd ly discu sses d e a th c a m p s o r th e m o b ile k illin g u n its , th e Einsatzgruppen. J. F C . F u lle r d e v o te d b u t a fe w se n te n c e s to th e H o lo c a u s t in a g e n e ra l se c tio n o n a tro c itie s .74 O b v io u sly , th a t d o es n o t m a k e th e m H o lo c a u s t d e n ie rs. In th e sa m e m a n n e r, s c a n t m e n tio n o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity d o e s n o t n e c e ssa rily m e a n th a t Ja p a n e se m ilita ry h is to ria n s d e n y o r d ism iss it as a n illu sio n . E v en so m e p o s tw a r C h in e s e w o rk s allo c a te little o r n o space to th e A tro c ity . K ’a ng-chan chien-shih a n d Chung-Jih chanchen-shih lueh, p u b lis h e d b y th e T a iw a n D e fe n se M in is tr y in T aip ei, d e v o te a b o u t eleven ch a ra c te rs to th e A tro c ity . T h e sa m e is tr u e o f C h ia n g W e i-k u o ’s Kuo-m in ke-ming chan-shih .75 F. F L iu ’s s ta n d a rd A M ilitary History o f M od­ ern China: 1924—1949 m a d e n o m e n tio n o f th e A tro c ity in h is n a rra tiv e o f th e N a n k in g c a m p a ig n .76 O b v io u sly , n o n e o f th e se a u th o rs d e n ie d th e A tro city . 296

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

Propositions S o m e sc h o lars e m p h a siz e a n e e d to e sta b lish c o m m o n h is to ric a l u n d e r s ta n d ­ in g th a t tra n s c e n d s n a tio n a l a n d e th n ic b o u n d a r ie s .77 T h is is c e rta in ly a d e s ir­ able aim , a n d o n e c a n d e te c t a p o sitiv e sig n c o n d u c iv e to th is goal: th e re are so m e in d ic a tio n s o f c o n v e rg e n c e in th e view s o f Ja p a n e se , C h in e se , a n d W e st­ e rn p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s .78 A s in te r e s t o n N a n k in g grow s, N o r t h A m e ric a n s ca n p la y a p iv o ta l ro le in a c h ie v in g th is g o al sin c e th e y are a th ir d p a r ty to th is h is to ric a l ev e n t. B u t g e n e ra l tre n d s in th e U n ite d S ta te s d o n o t se e m to b e m o v in g in th a t d ire c tio n . It is tru e th a t, sw ay ed b y c h a u v in is m , so m e J a p ­ anese p e o p le m a k e p re p o s te ro u s a rg u m e n ts th a t c a n h a rd ly b e a c a d e m ic . Yet re a c tio n s to C h a n g ’s The Rape o f N anking in th e U n ite s S ta te s s tro n g ly im p ly th e ex isten ce o f s im ila r tw iste d fo rm s o f n a tio n a lis m th e re as w ell. In sp ite o f s c h o la rly analyses b y J o s h u a A . F o g el a n d h is co llea g u es, o r d in a ry A m e ric a n s se em b e s e t w ith n e g a tiv e e th n ic fa c to rs a n d se n sa tio n a lism . T h u s , th e h o r i­ z o n ta l c o n v e rg e n c e e m e rg in g across n a tio n a l b o u n d a rie s is n o t y e t effectiv e in n a rro w in g th e g ap in p e rsp e c tiv e s b e tw e e n ac a d e m ic s a n d th e g e n e ra l p u b lic— a v e rtic a l g ap in a sense. Sadly, th e le ss-in fo rm e d s o m e tim e s e x p lo it illegal m e a n s to a d v a n c e th e ir cause. E arly in 2 0 0 0 , T o k y o m e tr o p o lita n g o v e rn m e n t c o m p u te rs w ere in ­ tr u d e d b y “N a n k in g H a c k e r s ,” lik e ly C h in e se -A m e ric a n s ju d g in g fro m th e ir m essages, w h o also trie d to access Ja p a n e se c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t sites w ith o u t a u th o riz a tio n . T h e y le ft m essages in E n g lish a n d C h in e s e g iv in g th e ir v ie w o f th e A tro c ity p lu s a n o te sa y in g , “Jap an ese? A s all p e o p le k n o w , i t ’s a fo lk th a t h as n o co u ra g e to face th e t r u t h o f h isto ry . I t ’s th e d isg race o f A sia!”79 T h is in c id e n t, reg rettab ly , s u b s ta n tia te s E y k h o lt’s v ie w th a t C h in e s e a n d C h in e se A m e ric a n “k n o w le d g e o f th e M a ssac re [N a n k in g A tro c ity ] co m es fro m fa m ­ ily sto rie s, sc h o o l lesso n s, a n d n e w sp a p e r a c c o u n ts. T h e ir in f o r m a tio n u su a lly co m es w ith o u t m u c h o f th e w a rtim e c o n te x t o r th e w o rld s itu a tio n a t th e tim e , a n d th e feelin g s are p a tr io tic a n d e m o tio n a l, w h ic h in tu r n in sp ire h a tre d o f J a p a n a n d te n d to ig n o re th e c o m p lic a te d s itu a tio n s u r r o u n d in g th e M a s­ sacre a n d its p o s tw a r m e ta m o rp h o s is .”80 Ja p a n e se c ru e lty in W o rld W a r T w o fo rg e d e m p a th y in th e U n ite d S tates fo r e th n ic C h in e s e .81 S till, th e U n ite d S tate s w as a th ir d p a r ty to th e A tro c ­ ity a n d th e re h as b e e n a m p le o p p o r tu n ity fo r o r d in a r y A m e ric a n s to in itia te a m e a n in g fu l a n d re a so n a b le d ia lo g u e a b o u t it. Yet a m id th e c u r r e n t a g ita te d e n v iro n m e n t, w e are in n e e d o f so m e g u id in g p rin c ip le s in th e d e b a te over N a n k in g . I p ro p o s e tw o , a im e d m a in ly a t p ro fe ssio n a l h is to ria n s , a lth o u g h n o t n ec essarily lim ite d to th e m . 1. Recognize a multiplicity o f views a nd adhere to universally accepted schol­ arly standards. Ja p a n e se co n se rv a tiv e “r e v is io n ,” th o u g h p o s tu la tin g a sm a lle r n u m e ric a l ra n g e o f v ic tim iz a tio n , d iffers fro m “d e n ia l.” F o r e x a m p le , I o ffer a ra n g e o f 1 5 ,0 0 0 to 5 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s .82 H is to ria n s p r o b in g in to th e N a n k in g 297

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

A tro c ity are ad v ised a t le a st to re c o g n iz e th e s c h o la rly le g itim a c y o f su c h “re v i­ sio n ists” as lo n g as th e y w o rk w ith in th e ru le s o f a c a d e m e . O f c o u rse , th is d o es n o t m e a n th a t h is to ria n s m u s t a b a n d o n h ig h e r e stim a te s. A ll th e y h av e to do is “agree to d isa g re e ”— a c o m m o n a ttitu d e n o t o n ly in a c a d e m ic d e b a te s, b u t also in o th e r re a lm s o f p e a c e fu l h u m a n activity. I a d v a n c e th is p r o p o s i­ tio n b ecau se th e N a n k in g d e b a te h as a p o la riz e d “all o r n o th in g ” n a tu re ; o n e a lm o s t h as to a c c e p t th e 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 fig u re o r b e d a m n e d as a “d e n ie r .” Y ang cites a n exam ple. Tw o Jap an ese sch o lars e q u iv o c a te d w h e n a n A m e ric a n h is to ria n d e ­ clared: “T h e q u e s tio n a b o u t th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t a t th is p o in t is ... w h e th e r to rec o g n ize it. A t th e p re s e n t, it is n o t n e c e ssa ry to a d m it w h e th e r th e re w ere 3 0 ,0 0 0 o r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s .”83 A lth o u g h th is is p u re s p e c u la tio n , it m a y b e th a t th e y fe lt tr a p p e d . I f th e y sa id “n o , ” th e y w o u ld b e c ritic iz e d fo r la c k in g m o ra l c o m p a ssio n ; b u t i f th e y sa id “y e s ,” th e ir an sw e r m ig h t b e p lu c k e d o u t o f c o n te x t as affirm in g a m assacre o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 . A b e tte r q u e s tio n to p o se is: “ D o y o u rec o g n ize a m a ssac re o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 , o r d e n y b o th e n tire ly ? ” L e ft-w in g sc h o la rs m a y d ism iss m y re a s o n in g as a s o p h is tic n u m b e rs g am e. H e re ag ain , th e p a ra lle l to Ja m e s B a c q u e is e n lig h te n in g . H is c ritic , R u e d ig e r O v e rm a n s , ta b u la te d d e a th s in th e A llie d P O W c a m p s a n d said , “it is ce r­ ta in ly p o ssib le th a t so m e a d d itio n a l te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f d e a th s o c c u rre d , b u t a f u r th e r 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 are n o t re c o n c ila b le w ith th e fa c ts”84 M y p o in t is th is: th e g ap b e tw e e n B a cq u e a n d h is c ritic s alters th e d e b a te ’s w h o le d im e n ­ sio n s. I f h is critics w ere to a c c e p t h is ra n g e , th e y w o u ld h av e n o ch o ic e b u t to e m b ra c e h is c o n c lu s io n as w ell; th a t is, G e r m a n P O W s w ere sta rv e d to d e a th intentionally. T h e ir o w n n u m e ric a l ra n g e , h o w ev er, fits th e ir c o n c lu s io n th a t th e d e a th s m a in ly s te m m e d fro m h a rs h c irc u m sta n c e s in th e w ak e o f N a z i G e r m a n y ’s fall. It is n o te w o r th y th a t n e ith e r sid e sa w th e n u m e ric a l g ap as ju s t a m a rg in o f e rro r; in ste a d , th e y v ie w e d it as a c ru c ia l in d ic a to r o f r a d i­ cally d iffe re n t in te rp re ta tio n s . A lth o u g h F ogel a n d h is co lleag u es e sc h e w n u m e ric a l analysis, th e y to o se em tie d to a n allo w ab le n u m e ric a l ra n g e u n d e r th e ir in te r p re ta tio n . F o g el says, “w h e th e r 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le w ere k illed o r 2 4 0 ,0 0 0 d o es n o t a lte r th e d im e n sio n s o f h o r r o r .”85 W h y d o es h e ex c lu d e Ja p a n e se “c o n s e rv a tiv e ”— w h e th e r in th e sense o f id e o lo g ic a l o r n u m e ric a l— e stim a te s o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 o r less? O n e c a n re a ­ so n th a t it is b ecau se h e a n d h is c o n trib u to rs b asica lly agree w ith th e I M T F E r u lin g o f 2 0 ,0 0 0 rap e s a n d 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 k ille d in a n d a r o u n d th e c ity in 6 to 7 w eeks. S everal in d ic a tio n s s u p p o r t th is re a so n in g . T h e b o o k ’s d u s t-ja c k e t s u m ­ m a ry c o n ta in s th e se n u m b e rs . T ak a sh i Y o sh id a c o rre c ts Iris C h a n g ’s m is q u o ta ­ tio n o f th e I M F T E ’s ru lin g , w h ic h im p lies h is close a tte n tio n to o r e n d o rse m e n t o f it. M a rk E y k h o lt refers to m u c h lo w e r in itia l e stim a te s o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 m a d e b y W e ste rn e rs in N a n k in g a t th e tim e s u c h as J o h n R a b e, b u t clearly states: “th e se in itia l e stim a te s p ro v e d w h o lly in a d e q u a te as w a r crim e s tria ls a n d b u ria l rec o rd s d o c u m e n te d d e a th to ta ls th a t exceed 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d p o ssib ly exceed 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 .”86 T h e ir u n d e rly in g im p lic a tio n is th a t a fig u re as lo w as 298

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

4 0 ,0 0 0 w ill “a lte r th e d im e n s io n s o f h o r r o r ” u n a c c e p ta b ly . A s in th e B a cq u e d e b a te , th e n u m e ric a l g ap is to o w id e to b e d ism isse d as ju s t a m a rg in e rro r: it reflects tw o f u n d a m e n ta lly o p p o s e d in te r p re ta tio n s . T h u s , sc h o la rs s h o u ld p a y m o re a tte n tio n to th e issu e o f n u m b e rs r a th e r th a n d ism iss it as a “g a m e .” T h a t w ill allo w fo r re c o g n iz in g m u ltip le p o s itio n s o n th e A tro c ity in s te a d o f a b ip o la r “m o ra l h ig h g r o u n d o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” o r “th e d a m n a b le d e n ie rs ’ z e ro .” 2. Banish the terms H o lo c a u s t and g e n o c id e from this controversy. O n e m a y arg u e th a t holocaust is n o t se n sa tio n a l: it is a g e n e ric te rm fo r a n y k in d o f a tro c io u s o r tr a u m a tic ev e n t. B u t a t p re s e n t, th e sa m e w o rd s ta rtin g w ith an u p p e rc a se le tte r m e a n s th e N a z i g e n o c id e o f Jew ry. A s C h a n g ’s s u b title , T h e F o rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t o f W o rld W a r II, a n d p assages in h e r b o o k su g g est, sh e eq u a te s Ja p a n e se w ith N a z i c o n d u c t: “J u s t as H itle r ’s G e r m a n y w o u ld d o h a lf a d ec ad e later, J a p a n u se d a h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d m ilita ry m a c h in e a n d a m a ste rrace m e n ta lity to se t a b o u t e s ta b lish in g its r ig h t to ru le its n e ig h b o rs ,” o r “a n o th e r lesso n to b e g le a n e d f ro m N a n k in g is th e ro le o f p o w e r in g e n o ­ c id e .”87 Ja co b H e ilb r u n n rig h tly c ritic iz e d h e r: “ T h is is u n f o r tu n a te sin c e th e m assacre w as n o t— fo r all its m u r d e r o u s h o r r o r — a n a tte m p t to w ip e o u t th e C h in e se as a ra c e .”88 In c h a p te r 12 o f th e p re s e n t w o rk , F ogel e lo q u e n tly arg u es th is p o in t in d etail. T h e im p a c t o f “th e H o lo c a u s t” is p r o fo u n d w h e n tr a n s m itte d verbally. N o n sp e c ia lists— w h o c a n n o t tell i f its first le tte r is in th e u p p e r o r lo w er case— w ill v isu alize c o n c e n tra tio n c a m p s, gas c h a m b e rs, a n d m o b ile k illin g u n its (Einsatzgruppen) o w in g to th e w id e ly p r o life ra tin g in f o rm a tio n o n th e g e n ­ u in e H o lo c a u s t. T h e re su lt w ill b e to p la c e th e N a n k in g A tro c ity o u ts id e o f its p ro p e r h is to ric a l c o n te x t. A g a in , B a c q u e ’s c ritic s p ro v id e a n a p t w a rn in g . B ria n L o rin g V illa w rite s: “s e n s a tio n is th e m o s t easily ac h ie v ed b y sim p ly w re n c h in g a s u b je c t o u t o f its c o n te x t a n d d isc a rd in g , ig n o rin g , o r d is to rtin g th a t c o n te x t. N o v e l th eses, s trik in g re v e la tio n s, a n d h o rrific c r im in a lity are easily ach iev ab le b y su c h m e a n s __ C o n s p ira c ie s h av e ta k e n p la c e in h isto ry , b u t th e y a b o u n d u n n a tu ra lly in a m a te u r h is to ric a l w ritin g b e c a u se th e ir a u th o rs are u n w illin g o r in c a p a b le o f e x a m in in g th e h is to ric a l c o n te x t.”89 A case in p o in t w as le ft o n th e I n te r n e t b y a n A m e ric a n f ro m M a ssa c h u se tts b efo re C h a n g ’s b o o k ca m e o u t: “T h e Ja p a n e se k ille d m illio n s o f C h in e s e fo r rac ial p u r ific a tio n __ T h e Ja p a n e se f o u g h t a w a r o f ag g re ssio n , b a se d o n th e ­ ories o f racial a n d e th n ic p u r ity .”90 It is n o t d iffic u lt to im a g in e th a t C h a n g ’s s u b title w ill m is g u id e su c h u n in f o rm e d p e rso n s ev en fu rth e r. T h e careless use o f se n s a tio n a l v o c a b u la ry m a y p ro d u c e , o r h as a lre a d y p r o ­ d u c e d , h ig h ly u n d e s ira b le effects o n la y a u d ie n c e s. F irst, it m a y in te n s ify p re j­ u d ic e a g a in st Ja p a n e se a n d e th n ic Ja p a n e se . Im m e d ia te ly a fte r C h a n g ’s b o o k a p p e a re d , th e S ta te A sse m b ly in C a lifo rn ia — w h e re a n ti-Ja p a n e se m o v e m e n ts b e g a n in th e la st c e n tu ry — p assed a r e s o lu tio n d e m a n d in g th a t T o k y o c o m ­ p e n s a te N a n k in g A tro c ity v ic tim s . S e c o n d , b e c a u se o th e r a tro c itie s in h is to ry also m a y im p r o p e rly b e lik e n e d to th e Je w ish H o lo c a u s t, its sig n ific a n c e can 299

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

n o t b u t b e slig h te d .91 T h is is exactly w h a t H o lo c a u s t d e n ie rs w a n t. T h e y are b e ­ g in n in g to e x p lo it N a n k in g as a riv al “h o lo c a u s t” to rela tiv iz e th e a c tu a l o n e, c la im in g th a t w h a t th e N a z is d id w as n o d iffe re n t fro m o th e r w a rtim e tra g e ­ d ies.92 T h ir d , a co n s p ira c y th e o ry re p le te w ith s e n sa tio n a list te rm s is sp a w n in g a c o u n te r -th e o r y in k in d . S o m e Ja p a n e se allege th a t th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a a n d th e C h in e s e C o m m u n is t P a rty are b a c k in g C h a n g ’s fo llo w ers in a sch em e “to drive a w ed g e in to th e Ja p a n -U .S . A llian ce, w h ic h is a n ob stacle o n th e ro a d to h e g e m o n y .”93 S u c h p o litic iz e d a c c u s a tio n s a n d c o u n te ra c c u s a tio n s are h ig h ly d e trim e n ta l to a c o n s tru c tiv e d ia lo g u e to w a rd h is to ric a l tr u th .

Conclusion A s Y ang D a q in g arg u es, “h is to ria n s alo n e c a n n o t a d e q u a te ly c o p e w ith su c h a n e v e n t o r b r in g a n e n d to th e d iv e rg e n c e o f view s o r th e e m o tio n a l c o n te n t o f th is s u b je c t.”94 U n d e r lin in g th is view , H o n d a K a ts u ic h i h as e n e rg e tic a lly striv e n to co llec t p r im a ry so u rc e s a n d to d e e p e n o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e A tro city , a lth o u g h I a m m o re o r less c ritic a l o f h is c o n c lu s io n s .95 C h a n g ’s d is­ co v ery o f J o h n R a b e ’s d ia ry s h o u ld also b e p ra ise d as a jo u r n a lis tic ac h ie v e­ m e n t. Yet in c lu d in g n o n a c a d e m ic s in th is d e b a te allow s th e ex p re ssio n o f e x tre m e a n d s o m e tim e s e g re g io u sly m is ta k e n o p in io n s . T h e h is to ria n E d w a rd D re a q u o te s in tr ig u in g re m a rk s b y a d is tin g u is h e d jo u rn a lis t, M a rv in K alb, a b o u t re p o rts o f a n alleg ed U .S . a rm y m a ssac re o f K o re a n civ ilia n s in th e K o re a n W ar: “W h e n jo u rn a lis ts go b a c k te n y ears a n d th e n f o rty a n d fifty years, th e y ta k e o n th e to o ls o f a h is to ria n . T h a t re q u ire s a sp e cia l k in d o f skill, w h ic h th e y d o n ’t h a v e .”96 P ro fessio n al h is to ria n s s h o u ld ta k e n o te . In o rd e r to n a rro w th e g ap b e tw e e n o u r o w n a d m itte d ly v a rie d p e rsp e c tiv e s o n th e N a n ­ k in g A tro c ity a n d th o se h e ld b y th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n , w e m u s t striv e to c o r­ re c t u n h e a lth y , ir ra tio n a l re se a rc h a n d re m a rk s b y u n in f o rm e d c o m m e n ta to rs .

Notes 1. I would like to thank Dr. Daniel Metraux of Mary Baldwin College, who encouraged me to write a preliminary essay, later published in the Virginia Review o f Asian Studies (Fall 2000), pp. 39—73, on which this chapter was originally based. The Southern Japan Seminar invited me to give a paper condensed from that essay in Atlanta on 27 April 2001. The Japan “Nanking” Society invited me to speak on the same topic in Tokyo on 16 March 2002. A Japanese version of the present chapter appeared in “N a n k in ”kenkyu no saizensen (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2003), pp. 141-92. 2. Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography of the Nanking Massacre,” p . 57. „ 3. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre,” p. 154. 4. Ibid., pp. 153-58; Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 221. 5. Bacque, Other Losses, pp. 1-2, 24-26, 34, 51, 55-56, 64, 164, and 175-86.

300

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16.

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

38. 39. 40.

Ibid., pp. 45-46. Ibid, pp. 67, 70, 84-85, 93-97, 99-101, 103-5, and 158. Los Angeles Times, 3 May 1990. Green, review in Booklist, 15 June 1991. MacLeans, 13 November 1989, p. 70. Los Angeles Times, 13 May 1990. Bischof and Ambrose, eds., Eisenhower an d the German POWs, p. 18. Villa, “Diplomatic and Political Context of the PO W Camps Tragedy,” pp. 53-61. James F. Tent, “Food Shortages in Germany and Europe,” pp. 95-112. Albert E. Cowdrey, “Question o f Numbers,” p. 92. Cowdrey compared this rate to the overall death rate o f 0.7 to 1 percent among Allied POW s in Axis hands. A possible problem is that he ignored the time factor; many of the Germ an POW s died over several m onths whereas the less-than 1 per cent of Allied PO W deaths occurred over the entire period of W orld War Two. Overmans, “German Historiography, the War Losses, and the Prisoners o f War,” pp. 149, 151, and 16-68. As for corpses, he said, “Bacques 726,000 dead would mean roughly 3,600 dead per kilometer, or 5,800 per mile— better than one corpse per foot. Yet despite the widespread construction work carried out after the war, not a single one of these legions o f dead was found.” Bischof and Ambrose, eds., Eisenhower an d the German POWs, p. 23. Cowdrey, “Question of Num bers,” p. 84. Villa, “Diplomatic and Political Context,” p. 53; Bischof, “Bacque and the Historical Evi­ dence,” p. 199. Cowdey, “Question o f Numbers,” p. 92. Bischof, “Bacque and Historical Evidence,” p . 222. Overmans, “German Historiography” p. 169. Ibid. Bischof, “Bacque and Historical Evidence,” p. 222. Villa, “Diplomatic and Political Context of the PO W Camps Tragedy,” p. 77. Kirkus Reviews, 1 November 1997, p. 1,618. Finn, letter to editor, Washington Post, 5 March 1998. Chang m entions Rabe’s estimate but seemingly dismisses it as unreliable: “John Rabe ... never conducted a systematic count and left Nanking in February, before the slaughter ended.” Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 100. If we fol­ low her logic, m ore people were massacred after Rabe departed in February 1938, but this con­ tradicts her allegation that the “Rape o f Nanking continued for months, although the worst of it was concentrated in the first six to eight weeks.” Ibid., p. 159. Kennedy, “Horror.” Chang, Rape o f N anking pp. 101-02; for my own analysis, Yamamoto, N anking, pp. 110-13. Gluck, “Rape o f Nanking.” Chang, Rape o f N anking, pp. 178-79. Baker, “British Variety of Pseudohistory,” p. 196. Bacque, Other Losses, p. 68; Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 101. Bacque, Other Losses, p. 68; Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 105. Economist, 25 November 1989. Howard, “A Million Lost Germans,” Times Literary Supplement, 14-20 September 1990. Schell, review in N ew York Times Book Review, 14 December 1997. O ther reviews that uncrit­ ically accepted the higher estimate include Publishers Weekly, 27 October 1997, and Booklist, 1 December 1997. William J. Davis in M arine Corps Gazette, September 1998, says that he changed his earlier view of Nanking to accept Chang’s claim o f 300,000 “civilians” killed. Boyle, M odern Japan, p. 189. Fogel, Introduction, p. 5. Will, Washington Post, 19 February 1998.

301

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N anking A trocity

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

46. 47. 48. 49.

50. 51. 52.

53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74.

For example, see Finn’s letter in Washington Post, 5 March 1998; Fogel’s review in Journal o f Asian Studies, August 1998; and Kennedy’s in A tlantic Monthly, April 1998. Ambrose, “Ike and Disappearing Atrocities,” N ew York Times Book Review, 24 February 1991. Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography” p. 17; Yang, “Challenges of the Nanking Massacre,” p. 159. Fogel, review in Journal o f Asian Studies, August 1998. Jenkins, “The Japanese Holocaust.” O ne can infer the absence o f criticism from the fact that the same article is still posted on an internet web page (http://www.nationalreview.com/ 10nov97/jenkins111097. html) as of late November 2006. Washington Post, 19 February 1998. MacInnis, Foreword, p. ix. Fogel, Introduction, p. 5. Two possible exceptions are Honda, The N a n jin g Massacre, and H u, American Goddess at the Rape o f N a n k in g However, the former is a translation from Japanese, and the latter is focused on a personality rather than on the incident itself and it contains many factual errors. Fogel, Introduction, p. 5. Gluck, “Rape of Nanking.” Chang called the Nanking Atrocity the “Pacific Holocaust” at a meeting with Japanese guests in Flushing, New York on 28 June 1998; see Yoshida, “A Battle over History in Japan,” pp. 131—32, note 191. Will, Schell, Green, Jenkins, and Davis all accept Chang high-end death count of 300,000 or even more. For the details of the IM TFE deliberations, see Yamamoto, N anking, chap. 6, and also, p. 217 for the change in the prosecution’s strategy. For example, see Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography,” pp. 18—24. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre,” p. 147. Yoshida, “Battle over History in Japan,” p. 107. Overmans, “German Historiography,” p. 169. Chang, Rape o f Nanking, p. 41. O n Japanese army treatm ent of Chinese POWs, see Yamamoto, N anking, pp. 93—109. Chang, Rape o fN a n k in g p.173. Her note on pp. 273—74 cites Ken Ringle, “Still Waiting for an Apology,” Washington Post, 16 March 1995; and Gavan Daws, Prisoners o f the Japanese, pp. 360—61 and p. 437. She obviously accepts these analyses uncritically. For the numerical data on Russian POW s in German hands, see Dallin, German Rule in Rus­ sia 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 5 , p. 427. Yoshida, “Battle over History in Japan,” p. 104; Yang, “Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre,” p. 149. Cited in Li, “Unforgivable Atrocity.” Ibid., p. 17. For estimates o f Chinese troop strength and population, see Yamamoto, N anking, pp. 46-48 and p. 65. Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography,” p. 69, note 154. Ibid., p. 52. IM TFE, Proceedings, 1 9 4 6 -1 9 4 8 , p. 49 and p. 607; for other questionable Chinese evidence, see Yamamoto, N anking , pp. 190-94 and 206. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanking Massacre,” pp. 146-47. Tanaka, N a n kin gyakusatsu no kyoko, pp. 55-58. Inoue, “Nankin jiken to Chugoku kyosanto,” pp. 168-69. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre,” p. 154; Honda, N anjing Massacre, p. 139. Chang, Rape o fN a n kin g , p. 7; Churchill, SecondW orld War, vol. 1, p. 139. Liddell-Hart, History o f the Second World War; its index includes neither “Holocaust” nor “Jews”; Fuller, SecondW orld War 1 9 3 9 -4 5 ; pp. 407-8.

302

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

A Tale o f Two Atrocities: Critical Appraisal o f American Historiography

75.

76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96.

Kuo-fang-pu shih-cheng chu, ed., H a n g -chan chien-shih p. 52; Kuo-fang-pu shih-cheng chu, ed., C h ungJih chan-chen-shih lueh, p. 198; Chiang, Kuo-m in ke-m ing chan-shih Ti-3-pu K ’angJih yu -w u , vol. 4, p. 75. Liu, M ilitary History o f M odern China, pp. 198—99. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanking Massacre,” pp. 162—68. Yang, “Convergence or Divergence?” Japan Times International, 1—15 February 2000. Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography,” p. 59. Yamamoto, N anking, pp. 178—81. Ibid., p. 115. Ibid. Overmans, “German Historiography,” p. 167. Fogel, Introduction, p. 6. Eykholt, “Aggression, Victimization, and Chinese Historiography,” p. 69, note 154. Chang, Rape o f N anking, pp. 2 ^ and p. 220. W all Street Journal, 20 December 1997. Villa, “Diplomatic and Political Context of the PO W Camps Tragedy,” p. 52. See Joseph Edward Nemec, 8 September 1995, in Tokyo Kaleidoscope, “Decision of Dropping the A-Bomb in 1945 was right?” http:www.smn.cojp/square/bomb.htn-d. Thus the historian John H ope Franklin called slavery “America’s own Holocaust” in Newsweek, 8 December 1997. For details, see Yamamoto, Nanking, p. 264. Takemoto and Ohara, Alleged “N a n k in g Massacre, ” p. 140. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanking Massacre,” p. 172. Yamamoto, N anking, p. 249. Drea, “Dispatches,” p. 2.

303

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

14

H ig a sh in a k a n o O s a m ic h i: T h e La s t W o r d in D e n i a l * K asahara Tokushi

Introduction A sia U n iv e rs ity p ro fe sso r H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ) h as n o t alw ays b e e n J a p a n ’s p re m ie r d e n ie r o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . In fac t, h e w as v irtu a lly u n k n o w n in h is o w n field o f Ja p a n e se so c ial th o u g h t b e fo re 1 9 9 5 w h e n h e b e g a n to fin d fa u lt w ith le ft-w in g h is to ria n s o f N a n k in g su c h as m y self. H ig a ­ s h in a k a n o ow es h is e m in e n c e as th e d e n ia l fa c tio n ’s n e w e st s ta n d a rd -b e a re r to h is close c o lla b o ra tio n w ith F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u , th e n a U n iv e rs ity o f T o k y o e d u c a tio n p ro fesso r, w h o sp e a rh e a d s “te x tb o o k re fo rm ” in a c ru sa d e a g a in st tra ito rs w ith in a n d e n e m ie s a b ro a d . In th e p iv o ta l y ea r o f 1 9 9 5 , J a p a n c o m ­ m e m o r a te d th e fiftie th a n n iv e rsa ry o f its d e fe a t in th e w ar, a n d th e c o a litio n g o v e rn m e n t h e a d e d b y so c ia list P rim e M in is te r M u ra y a m a T o m iic h i p ro p o s e d a c a b in e t r e s o lu tio n to express c ritic a l se lf-re fle c tio n a b o u t J a p a n ’s w a r o f im p e ­ ria list ag g ressio n . C o n s e rv a tiv e n a tio n a lis t e le m e n ts in p o litic s a n d so c ie ty re a c te d w ith a sense o f crisis. As s h o w n b y K im u ra T a k u ji in c h a p te r 15, th e ir p ressu re ta c tic s su c c e e d e d in g re a tly to n in g d o w n th e fin a l d o c u m e n t.1 T a k ­ in g h e a r t in th is “tr i u m p h ,” co n se rv a tiv e n a tio n a lis ts sa llie d f o rth to a tta c k h is to ry te x tb o o k s u se d in sc h o o ls a t th a t tim e . T h is se t th e sta g e fo r F u jio k a a n d H ig a s h in a k a n o .

Traitors Within F u jio k a fo u n d e d th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y (Jiyushugi shikan kenkyukai) in 1 9 9 5 in o rd e r to free sc h o o ls fro m w h a t h e calls th e “ C o m ­ in te r n ” a n d “T o k y o W a r C rim e s T ria l” view s o f Ja p a n e se h isto ry . T h e se , h e 304

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

claim s, in sp ire “m a s o c h is tic ” le ft-w in g e d u c a to rs to w rite te x tb o o k s th a t d e p ic t J a p a n ’s p a s t as o n e d a r k age afte r a n o th e r, c u lm in a tin g in alleg ed w a r crim es lik e th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d se x u al slav ery in th e im p e ria l a rm e d fo rces. T h e C o m in te r n view , h e h o ld s, g re w o u t o f th e b ia se d in te r p r e ta tio n o f Ja p a n e se h is to ry d ic ta te d b y M o sc o w a n d a d o p te d in th e 1 9 3 2 J a p a n C o m m u n is t P a rty p la tfo rm . T h is v ie w d e fin e d M e iji J a p a n as a sy ste m o f e m p e ro r s ta te a b so ­ lu tis m to b e o v e rth ro w n b y r e v o lu tio n a ry stru g g le . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rial v ie w p ro c la im s th a t all c u lp a b ility fo r th e la st w a r lay w ith th e c rim in a l s ta te o f Ja p a n . It w as p u ta tiv e ly fo iste d o n th e d e fe a te d n a tio n b y a n a ll-m ig h ty U .S . a rm y o f o c c u p a tio n th r o u g h a b ra in w a s h in g p o l­ ic y o f sh re w d in d o c tr in a tio n . A n d , it p la y e d u p J a p a n ’s c rim in a lity in th e N a n k in g A tro city , a n in c id e n t th a t A m e ric a n s a n d C h in e s e “f a b ric a te d ” a t th e p u n itiv e T o k y o tr ib u n a l. F u jio k a in sists th a t th e se tw o fo re ig n -im p o s e d view s o f th e p a s t n o w f o rm th e co re o f Ja p a n e se e d u c a tio n in h is to ry w h o se a d h e r­ e n ts aid a n d a b e t fo re ig n n a tio n s in d e n y in g a n y w o r th o r d e c e n c y to Ja p a n . P re se n tly u se d te x tb o o k s c o n v e y “m a s o c h is tic view s o f th e p a s t th a t p o r tra y o u r n a tio n as u tte r ly tre a c h e ro u s a n d ev il.”2 In J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 F u jio k a fo u n d e d a n e w g ro u p , th e S o c ie ty to C re a te a N e w Ja p a n e se H is to r y T e x tb o o k , a n d b e c a m e its v ic e -c h a ir w ith N is h io K a n ji as ch a ir.3 T h is so c ie ty s o u g h t to cre ate , a n d g a in g o v e rn m e n t c e rtific a tio n for, te x tb o o k s th a t g lo rify J a p a n ’s w ar o f im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n . Its “S ta te m e n t o f P u rp o s e ” d eclared : “P o stw a r e d u c a tio n in h is to ry h as n o t ju s t ig n o re d c u ltu re a n d tr a d itio n th a t m u s t b e p a sse d o n to th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le ; it h as s trip p e d th e m o f all p rid e in b e in g Ja p a n e se . T h e h is to ry o f m o d e rn a n d c o n te m p o ­ ra ry J a p a n in p a r tic u la r is p o rtra y e d in w ays th a t fo rc e c h ild re n to v ie w th e m ­ selves as c o n v ic te d fe lo n s b o u n d b y fa te to ap o lo g ize fo r p a s t sin s u n til th e y die. E v en th e ir c h ild re n , g ra n d c h ild re n , a n d g r e a t-g ra n d c h ild re n to o m u s t c o n tin u e to b e g fo r fo rg iv en ess. S u c h m a s o c h is tic tre n d s in e d u c a tio n in te n ­ sified afte r th e C o ld W a r e n d e d , so th a t te x tb o o k s n o w in u se p re s e n t w a rtim e e n e m y p r o p a g a n d a as h is to ric a l fa c ts.” T h is so c ie ty ’s “ D e c la ra tio n o f F o u n d a ­ tio n ” reads: “W e sh a ll c re ate a n d d iss e m in a te a te x tb o o k to h a lt th e d iss o lu ­ tio n o f h ig h p rin c ip le s a m o n g o u r p e o p le th a t ste m s fro m h a v in g b e e n d e p riv e d o f a n a tio n a l h isto ry . T h is te x t w ill o n c e ag a in p re s e n t a n o fficial h is ­ to r y o f o u r n a tio n , o n e th a t w ill c o n v e y g o o d sen se a n d se lf-c o n fid e n c e to th e n e x t g e n e r a tio n .”4 A fte r f o u n d in g th is society, F u jio k a w as n o lo n g e r b o u n d to p u b lis h o n ly in th e re la tiv e ly o b sc u re jo u r n a l th a t serves as th e m o u th p ie c e o f h is earlier S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H isto ry . H e n o w g a in e d access to c o n serv ativ e m a ss p u b lis h in g h o u se s su c h as B u n g e i s h u n ju , S h o g a k k a n , a n d th e Sankei shinbun — a n a tio n a l d a ily n e w sp a p e r. T h e Sankei shinbun c o n ­ n e c tio n is p a rtic u la rly sig n ific a n t b ec au se its su b sid iary , th e F u so sh a , in 2 0 0 1 p u b lis h e d th e “n e w ” te x tb o o k th a t h is so c ie ty s o u g h t “to c re a te .” F u jio k a gave H ig a s h in a k a n o access to th e se m a s s -m a rk e t p u b lis h e rs in o rd e r to p u b lic iz e th e ir view s o n N a n k in g . 305

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

H ig a s h in a k a n o re s p o n d e d b y w ritin g a c ritiq u e o f J o h n R a b e ’s diary, w h ic h h a d b e e n tra n sla te d in to Ja p an e se a n d p u b lis h e d in 1 9 9 7 . T h is a p p e a re d in th e r ig h t-w in g m o n th ly Seiron p u t o u t b y th e S a n k e i p u b lis h in g h o u s e .5 H ig a ­ s h in a k a n o also w ro te a s h o r t p ie c e o n “ T h e N a n k in g I n c id e n t” in th e Sankei shinbun as p a r t o f its te x tb o o k c a m p a ig n . In it, h e d e c la re d : “ T e x tb o o k a u ­ th o rs . . . d ra w c o n c lu sio n s b a se d o n ly o n p r o s e c u tio n claim s in th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials. U n til a u th o rs fin d reliab le re c o rd s a n d p h o to g r a p h s d e fin ite ly p ro v in g th a t a n ‘A tro c ity ’ to o k p lace, th e y sh o u ld n o t p re s e n t it as a h isto ric a l fa c t.”6 L ater, h e c o n tr ib u te d a fiv e -p a rt a rtic le to th e Sankei shinbun e n title d “‘N a n k in ’ n o s h ijits u ” (H is to ric a l facts o n “N a n k in g ”) d e n y in g th a t a n y th in g lik e a “m assive b u tc h e r y ” (ta-t’u-sha o r daigyakusatsu as th e C h in e s e a n d le ft­ ists in J a p a n call it) o c c u rre d . S in ce F u so sh a , a Sankei su b sid iary , w as to p u b ­ lish th e n e w te x tb o o k , it w as u n e th ic a l a n d c o u n te r to e s ta b lish e d p ra c tic e s fo r th e p a r e n t c o m p a n y to c ritic iz e te x tb o o k s p u t o u t b y o th e r p u b lis h e rs.

Enemies Abroad In D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 7 , th e la te Iris C h a n g , a C h in e s e -A m e ric a n jo u r n a lis t, p u b ­ lish e d The Rape o f Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust o f World War II, a n d it b e c a m e a b e st seller w ith im m e d ia te sales o f 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 co p ies. T h e a d m itte d ly “p a n ic -s tric k e n ” H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a c o u n te re d in m id - 1 9 9 9 w ith “Z a

reepu obu N a n kin ” no kenkyu: Chugoku ni okeru “johosen” no teguchi to senryaku (S tu d ies o f The Rape o f Nanking: T rick s a n d S tra ta g e m s in C h in a ’s “P ro p a ­ g a n d a W a r”). In th e ir p refac e, th e y r e d u n d a n tly carp : “ H e r b o o k is q u in te s ­ se n tia l C h in e s e p r o p a g a n d a — o n e d e m a g o g ic lie a fte r a n o th e r. T h is is w a rtim e C h in e s e p ro p a g a n d a re c a st six ty y ears la te r to w ag e a n e w p r o p a g a n d a w a r.” I f we ig n o re th is b o o k , “we w ill b e a t th e ir m e rc y a n d su ffe r y e t a n o th e r ‘p o s t­ w a r’ era th a t d e n u d e s us o f all p r id e __ I f w e tu r n th e o th e r ch e ek , h e r s p u ­ rio u s p iece o f ‘h a te -J a p a n ’ p ro p a g a n d a w ill tu r n in to a d a m n in g ‘b la c k b o o k o f m y th s ’.” So, th e y d e c la re d , “W e rise u p to c o u n te r a tta c k C h a n g ’s p r o p a ­ g a n d a __ T h is b o o k re c o rd s o u r s tru g g le .”7 A c c o rd in g to H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a , a fo re ig n c o n s p ira c y is a t w o rk . C h a n g b ased h e r c la im o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 N a n k in g v ic tim s o n te stim o n ie s a n d v e rd ic ts a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials. T h o s e a c c o u n ts w ere c o n c o c te d in a n A llied p r o g ra m o f “m in d c o n tr o l” to d u p e p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se in to b e lie v ­ in g th a t im p e ria l J a p a n was irre d e e m a b ly evil a n d th u s h a d to e m b ra c e r a d i­ cal re fo rm s im p o s e d b y alien c o n q u e ro rs p o s in g as lib e ra to rs. H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a are n o t a lo n e in c itin g C h a n g ’s b e st-se lle r s ta tu s overseas as re fle c t­ in g th e re e m e rg e n c e o f w a rtim e a n d O c c u p a tio n -e ra h a tre d s . F o r ex a m p le , th e rig h t-w in g N ih o n se in e n k y o g ik a i (Ja p a n y o u th c o u n c il) d e v o te d a special e d itio n o f its p e rio d ic a l Sokoku to seinen ( T h e fa th e rla n d a n d y o u th ) e n title d : “T h u s F o rm e d a n I n te r n a tio n a l A n ti-Ja p a n e s e R in g o f E n c irc le m e n t.”8 Its edi306

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

to rs w ro te pieces su c h as “Iris C h a n g : H e ro in e fo r In te r n a tio n a l A n ti-Ja p a n e se O rg a n iz a tio n s ” a n d “ C h in e s e M a c h in a tio n s to S p lit J a p a n a n d A m e ric a : W h a t L u rk s B e h in d th e Rape o f N anking C a m p a ig n .” L ik ew ise, th e o n c e -lib e ra l m a ss-p u b lish e r S h o g a k k a n ’s w ee k ly SAPIO d e v o te d a n issue to “W h y A re T h e y O u t to G e t U s N o w ?: M a c h in a tio n s in th e Rape o f N anking C a m p a ig n .” It c a rrie d su b m issio n s b y d e n ie rs, o ld a n d new , fo re ig n a n d d o m e stic : “T h e C h i­ nese G o v e r n m e n t b e h in d S u p p o rt fo r M a d a m e C h a n g ” b y H a m a d a K a z u y u k i, “T h e n C h in a C re a te d th e ‘R a p e o f N a n k in g ’ C a rd to C o n ta in J a p a n ” b y S u ­ z u k i A k ira a n d Iza w a M o to h ik o , a n d “ C h in a S c h e m e s to E m a sc u la te J a p a n th r o u g h a W a r G a m e ; T h e n It W ill R u le A sia” b y R oss H . M u n r o .9 C h a n g b a s h in g m u s t b e v ie w e d in th e la rg e r c o n te x t o f r ig h t-w in g p o litic a l m a n e u ­ vers to re a rm Ja p a n . In N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 8 P re s id e n t K ia n g T s e -m in (Jia n g Z e m in ) v isite d J a p a n a n d alleg ed th a t th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d p e o p le w ere n o t su ffic ie n tly r e p e n ta n t fo r th e ir w a rtim e ag g re ssio n . H is s ta te m e n t serv ed as o n e m o re p re te x t fo r rig h t- w in g m e d ia ap p e als to th e effec t th a t, in th e face o f a th r e a t fro m C h in a , th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le m u s t ta k e p rid e in th e ir a n c e s to rs’ a c h ie v e m e n ts, re je c t m a s o c h is tic te x tb o o k s, a n d a lte r o r d e le te A r ti­ cle IX o f th e ir C o n s titu ti o n so th a t J a p a n c a n leg ally m a in ta in a rm e d fo rces a n d exercise th e ir u se as a so v e re ig n rig h t o f th e sta te . In su m , r ig h t-w in g n a ­ tio n a lis ts a im to m a k e J a p a n in to w h a t th e y call a “n o r m a l n a tio n ”— o n e th a t ca n w age w ar. T h e tim in g o f K ia n g ’s (J ia n g ’s) s ta te m e n t a n d o f C h a n g ’s b o o k , w ith in m o n th s o f e a c h o th e r, w o rk e d to th e ir ad v a n ta g e .

To Win Hearts and Minds T h e r e is a n o th e r re a so n th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a w e lc o m e d C h a n g ’s Rape o f Nanking. L e ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s sh a re C h a n g ’s c o n c e rn s, b u t even th e y n o te th a t it is fa ta lly flaw ed as a w o rk o f e m p iric a l s c h o la rs h ip .10 B esides c o m m ittin g c o u n tle s s gross e rro rs o f fac t, sh e h a d sc a n t re g a rd fo r te x t c ritiq u e in th e use o f p r im a ry so u rce s. To s u p p o r t h e r claim s, sh e m a rsh a le d a n y a n d all m a teria ls, in c lu d in g lo n g -d is c re d ite d p h o to g ra p h s . S h e also p la y e d in to th e h a n d s o f H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a in 1 9 9 9 b y b lo c k in g th e p u b ­ lic a tio n o f a Ja p a n e se tr a n s la tio n o f h e r b o o k .11 T h is allo w ed th e m to w in g lo ry a t h o m e b y e x p o s in g h e r in n u m e r a b le flaw s. B u t m o re im p o rta n tly , in h o p e s o f s ta g in g a n in th - in n i n g ra lly in th e N a n k in g d e b a te , th e y d e p ic t th e w o rk o f b o n a fide Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s w h o a c k n o w le d g e th e A tro c ity as b e in g o n th e sa m e level as C h a n g . A m o n g th e ir p lo y s is th e p a te n tly d e m a g o g ic c la im th a t a le ft-w in g fifth c o lu m n aids a n d a b e ts fo re ig n e rs in s u b v e rtin g J a p a n b y ly in g a b o u t w h a t to o k p la c e in N a n k in g . In J u n e 1 9 9 8 , F u jio k a , H ig a s h in a k a n o , P ro f. N a k a m u r a A k ira o f D o k k y o U n iv ersity , a n d P ro f. K o y a m a K a z u n o b u o f K a n a g a w a U n iv e rsity h e ld a n ew s c o n fe re n c e in T o k y o fo r th ir ty re p o rte rs a t th e F o re ig n P ress C o r r e s p o n d e n ts ’ 307

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

C lu b . In a n E n g lish -la n g u a g e leaflet, th e y w e n t b e y o n d c ritic iz in g C h a n g ’s b o o k fo r tw is tin g h is to ric a l facts a n d u s in g flaw ed p h o to s ; th e y also a rg u e d , “th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t is a n illu s io n .” 12 B u t H ig a s h in a k a n o re a lly ca m e in to h is o w n a t th e c o n fe re n c e , “Nankinggyakusatsu” no tettei kensho (A th o r o u g h ly critic a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e “N a n k in g M a ssa c re ”), h e ld b y th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y a t th e U n iv e rsity o f T o k y o in A u g u s t 1 9 9 8 . T h e re , h e la m b a s te d C h a n g fo r h e r a n ti-Ja p a n e se p r o p a g a n d a . B u t m o re im p o rta n tly , o ld -tim e n o n a c a d e m ic d e n ie rs su c h as T a n a k a M a sa a k i a n d I n u k a i S o ic h iro a tte n d e d th is co n fe re n c e a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f T o k y o , J a p a n ’s m o s t p re stig io u s c ita d e l o f le a rn in g , a n d p in n e d th e ir h o p e s o n H ig a s h in a k a n o to p u ll o f f a c o m e - fr o m - b e h in d v ic to ry in th e N a n k in g d e b a te . T h e re a fte r, H ig a s h in a k a n o h e ld c o n fe re n c e s a n d sy m p o s ia to “c o u n te r a t­ ta c k th is s p u rio u s a n ti-Ja p a n e se tr a c t.” In S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 8 , h e a n d I n u k a i le c­ tu r e d o n a “T o ta l R e fu tin g o f The Rape o f N a n kin g ’ a t a c o n fe re n c e h e ld at S an se id o H a ll— o w n e d b y a m a jo r a c a d e m ic p u b lis h e r— in T o k y o . S p o n so re d b y th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H isto ry , th is c o n fe re n c e d e s c rib e d H o w The Rape o f N anking Falsifies H isto ry . T h e s o c ie ty h e ld y e t a n o th e r c o n fe r­ en ce, th is o n e a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f T o k y o ’s G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n c a m p u s at K o m a b a in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 8 . T h e re , H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a d e c la re d th e ir d e te r m in a tio n to “jo in th e in f o rm a tio n w ar; th a t is, p ro p a g a n d a w ar, b y d e n y ­ in g th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ” a n d th u s th w a r t th is a n ti-Ja p a n e se p lo t b y th e P eo ­ p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) a n d th e U .S . S ta te D e p a rtm e n t. O n 31 Ju ly 1 9 9 9 th e tw o m e n fe te d th e p u b lic a tio n o f “Z a reepu obu N a n kin ” no kenkyu (S tu d ies o f [C h a n g ’s] The Rape o f Nanking) b y h o ld in g a c o n fe re n c e a t K u d a n H a ll n e a r Y asu k u n i S h rin e in T o k y o . R e p o rte d ly a tte n d e d b y a b o u t 1 0 0 0 p e o ­ p le, it w as d e d ic a te d to “D e b u n k in g th e G re a te s t Lie o f th e T w e n tie th C e n ­ tu ry : T h e ‘M assiv e B u tc h e ry a t N a n k in g ’.”13 T h u s th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y a n d S o c ie ty to C re a te a N e w Ja p a n e se H is to r y T e x tb o o k — b o th le d b y F u jio k a a n d H ig a s h in a k a n o — b e c a m e ac tiv ist a n d aggressive a fte r th e a p p e a ra n c e o f C h a n g ’s b o o k , w h ic h th e y saw as p a r t o f a fo re ig n p lo t to d e s tro y J a p a n th r o u g h p r o p a g a n d a w a r­ fare. F o r ex am p le, in F e b ru a ry 1 9 9 8 th e se tw o m e n s ta rte d a R e se a rc h U n it o n P ro p a g a n d a P h o to s w ith in th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y to “an aly ze th e sta g e d a n d fa k e d p h o to g r a p h s u se d in [b o o k s o n] th e N a n k in g M a ssa c re .” Its m is s io n is “to s tu d y e m p iric a lly p h o to g r a p h s a n d illu s tra tio n s c o n c o c te d b y th o se w ith a n ti-Ja p a n e se o r m a s o c h is tic biases, a n d fo rc e a n y a u th o rs a n d e x h ib ito rs w h o cite o r d isp la y su c h m a te ria ls to c o rre c t th e ir m is ­ ta k e s .” T h is u n it w o rk s h a n d -in -g lo v e w ith th e N e tw o r k o f P re fe c tu ra l C o u n ­ cillo rs to R e c tify B iased W a r M u s e u m s — a p o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n f o rm e d in F e b ru a ry 1 9 9 8 m a in ly b y c o n se rv a tiv e L ib e ra l D e m o c r a tic P a rty m e m b e rs. T h e s e g ro u p s d e n o u n c e p u b lic m u s e u m s in J a p a n th a t d isp la y p h o to s o r p ic ­ tu re s o f im p e ria l a rm y a tro c itie s a n d fo rc e th e c a n c e lla tio n o f th e se d isp lay s. A lo n g w ith m e m b e rs o f th e r ig h t-w in g N ip p o n k aig i (Ja p a n C o u n c il), F u jio k a 308

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

a n d m e m b e rs o f th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y fo rm e d a T o k y o C itiz e n s’ G ro u p to C o n te m p la te Peace. W ith s u p p o r t fro m th e Sankei shinbun, it sta g ed p r o te s t rallies a g a in st th e o p e n in g o f a T ok y o M e tro p o lita n Peace M u ­ se u m , th e n b e in g p la n n e d , o n th e g ro u n d s th a t it w as o v erly c ritic a l o f J a p a n ’s ro le in th e w ar. E ver sin c e 1 9 9 9 , w h e n N a n k in g d e n ie r Is h ih a ra S h in ta ro b e ­ cam e g o v e rn o r o f T o k y o , p la n s to o p e n th is m u s e u m h av e b e e n sta lle d . T h e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y h as se t u p a U .S .-E u ro p e U n it w ith in its O v ersea s I n fo r m a tio n G ro u p to w ag e th e in f o rm a tio n w ar. T h is u n i t ’s m is sio n is to su rv e y W e s te rn -la n g u a g e p u b lic a tio n s , p e rio d ic a ls, a n d m e d ia coverage o n N a n k in g , Ja p a n e se w a rtim e a tro c itie s, a n d re la te d su b je c ts. In a n a ll-o u t e ffo rt to “k n o w y o u r e n e m y ,” th is u n it p u b lis h e s its fin d in g s in th e so c ie ty ’s o rg a n a n d o n its h o m e p a g e u n d e r th e h e a d in g “ O v e rse a s M e d ia W a tc h .” B o th so cieties h av e o rg a n iz e d th e ir m e m b e rs in n a tio n w id e g ra ssro o ts o rg a n iz a tio n s to f u r th e r th e ir cause. T h u s th e C h ib a P re fe c tu ra l A sso c ia tio n to G e t a t th e T ru th o f th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t p re ssu re d K a sh iw a C ity to c a n ­ cel a s c re e n in g o f N anking 1 9 3 7 — a C h in e s e film p ro d u c e d in 1 9 9 5 b y W u T z u - n iu — th a t a c itiz e n s’ g ro u p h a d sc h e d u le d fo r O c to b e r 1 9 9 9 . A t a c o m ­ m e rc ia l th e a te r in Y o k o h a m a , r ig h t-w in g th u g s la u n c h e d lo u d s p e a k e r tru c k s o u ts id e to in tim id a te w o u ld -b e v iew ers a n d b lo c k e d th e film ’s s h o w in g b y slic­ in g th e sc re en to pieces. S in c e th e n , c itiz e n s’ g ro u p s h av e e n c o u n te re d h a ra ss­ m e n t a n d v io le n c e w h e n e v e r th e y s h o w th is film a t p u b lic v e n u e s in Ja p a n . S im ila r d a n g e rs c o n f r o n t g ro u p s th a t in v ite le ft-w in g sc h o la rs to le c tu re . I w as a g u e s t sp e a k e r a t a n O c to b e r 1 9 9 9 s c re e n in g o f N anking 1 9 3 7 in Y am ag ata, b u t h a d to b e u sh e re d in to a n d o u t o f th e b u ild in g u n d e r p r o te c tio n b y r io t p o lic e. S eek in g to g e t even, th e Y am a g ata P re fe c tu ra l A sso c ia tio n to G e t at th e T r u th o f th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t in v ite d H ig a s h in a k a n o to le c tu re a t th e sa m e v e n u e in F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 0 . T h e S a ita m a P re fe c tu ra l A sso c ia tio n to T h i n k a b o u t th e N a n k in g In c id e n t sp o n s o re d th e c o n fe re n c e , “R e fu tin g th e N o w -A c c e p te d T h e sis: A T h o ro u g h ly C ritic a l E x a m in a tio n o f th e ‘N a n k in g M a ssa c re ’” a t w h ic h H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d F u jio k a w ere b ille d as “in v in c ib le sc h o la rs w h o w ill p u t a n e n d to th e d e b a te .” T h e leaflet a d v e rtis in g th is e v e n t sta te d : A lthough the last war ended fifty-five years ago, elements who clam or about “Japan’s war guilt” are now provoking the Chinese and Koreans, and even some U.S. State legislatures, to file law suits against us seeking indem nities. These elements always flaunt the so-called N anking Incident as a symbol o f our putative war guilt. They exploit this Incident to obstruct Japan’s diplom atic and other state policies, thereby gravely harm ing our national interests. In order to break this deadlock, we comrades in Saitama m ust critically establish the facts and p u t an end to the debate once and for all. H ig a s h in a k a n o p ro v o k e d th e u ltim a te c o n f r o n ta tio n o n 2 3 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 0 b y h o ld in g th e c o n fe re n c e , “A C r itiq u e o f th e G re a te s t L ie in th e T w e n tie th 309

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

C e n tu ry : T h e R a p e o f N a n k in g .” In c o n te n t, it d iffe re d little fro m its p re d e ­ cessors; its sig n ific a n c e lay in th e v e n u e . T h e o rg a n iz e rs h e ld it a t th e O sa k a I n te r n a tio n a l Peace C e n te r, c o m m o n ly k n o w n as “ Peace O s a k a .” T h is c e n te r w as b o r n a m id le ft-w in g fe rv o r th a t p re v a ile d in th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s w h e n large cites su c h as T o k y o , O sa k a , a n d K y o to h a d so c ia list g o v e rn m e n ts. “Peace O sa k a ” h a d alw ays h e ld a n tiw a r rallies a n d sp o n s o re d e x h ib its th a t e x p o sed a n d h a rs h ly critic iz e d Ja p a n e se w a r crim e s s u c h as N a n k in g . T h a t H ig a s h in a k a n o s h o u ld seek a n d g a in a p p ro v a l to h o ld a d e n ia l c o n fe re n c e in th a t v e n u e sig n ifie d a sea c h a n g e in v alu es to m a n y Ja p a n e se , a n d even to so m e fo re ig n o b serv ers, in c lu d in g re p o rte rs a t th e N ew York Times.14 T h e P R C g o v e rn m e n t also to o k n o te . It ex p re ssed grave c o n c e rn o v er th e Peace O s a k a c o n fe re n c e , c a llin g th is “a n a n ti-C h in e s e g a th e rin g to d e n y th e R a p e o f N a n k in g a n d r e p u d ia te J a p a n ’s h is to ry o f im p e ria lis t a g g re ssio n .” B ased o n c o n c e rn s fo r o v erall S in o -Ja p a n e se re la tio n s, th e C h in e s e F o re ig n M in istry , its e m b a ssy in T o k y o , a n d its c o n s u la te g e n e ra l in O s a k a called o n th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t, a n d th e O s a k a m u n ic ip a l a n d p re fe c tu ra l g o v e rn ­ m e n ts to h a lt th e o p e n in g o f th is c o n fe re n c e . T h is call w e n t u n h e e d e d , so th e C h in e s e lo d g e d v ig o ro u s p ro te s ts , s u c h as th e o n e b y P R C fo re ig n m in is te r T ’a n g C h ia -h s u a n , lo d g e d w ith J a p a n ’s a m b a ssa d o r to C h in a T a n in o S ak u ta ro . In essence, T ’a n g h e ld th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t o f J a p a n h a d c ritic a lly re ­ flec ted o n its ag g re ssio n a g a in st C h in a in th e “S in o -Ja p a n e se J o in t S ta te m e n t” o f N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 8 a n d in la te r official d ip lo m a tic d o c u m e n ts . M o reo v e r, re c e n t Ja p a n e se p rim e m in is te rs h av e c ritic a lly re fle c te d o n , a n d o ffic ia lly a p o l­ o g ized for, c o lo n ia l ru le a n d ag g re ssio n in C h in a b a se d o n th e 15 A u g u s t 1 9 9 5 “M u ra y a m a C a b in e t R e s o lu tio n a n d S ta te m e n t” m a rk in g th e fiftie th a n n iv e r­ sa ry o f th e e n d o f th e w ar. B u t all o f th a t, T ’a n g c h a rg e d , h a d b e e n m e re lip service: O nce again, we strongly dem and that the Japanese governm ent dem onstrate true sin­ cerity by unm istakably assuming responsibility [for war crimes], by firmly halting reac­ tionary right-wing elements from reviving m ilitarism and repudiating their history o f imperialist aggression, and by correctly instructing Japanese youth in th at history— all in an effort to uphold the political bases o f Sino-Japanese relations. O nly in this way will the Japanese government win the trust o f its Asian neighbors. O nly in this way will it w in the trust o f peace-loving Japanese nationals as well as th at o f all peoples in nations throughout the world. O n 2 4 J a n u a ry 2 0 0 0 , so m e 5 0 0 C h in e s e fro m all w alk s o f life b ra v e d th e s n o w to h o ld a p r o te s t in f r o n t o f th e M a u s o le u m fo r F ello w C h in e s e V ic ­ tim s o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . T h e y d e c la re d : “M o v e m e n ts in J a p a n th a t d e n y th e h is to ric ity o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d o f Ja p a n e se im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n a g a in st C h in a grav e ly h u r t C h in e s e p o p u la r s e n tim e n ts a n d also b asica lly d e s tro y frie n d ly S in o -Ja p a n e se r e la tio n s .” 15 The People’s Daily a n d o th e r C h i-

310

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

nese m e d ia o u tle ts , in c lu d in g te le v isio n , re p o r te d th e Peace O s a k a c o n fe re n c e as “a g a th e rin g to d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity .” T h e N e w C h in a N e w s A g e n c y ask ed th e n fo re ig n m in is te r K o n o Y o h ei fo r a s ta te m e n t, a n d h e is re p o r te d to hav e re p lie d , “It is a n u n d e n ia b le fa c t th a t lo o tin g a n d th e k illin g o f n o n ­ c o m b a ta n ts o c c u rre d afte r J a p a n ’s a rm y e n te re d N a n k in g .”16 O n 28 O c to b e r 2 0 0 0 H ig a s h in a k a n o fo u n d e d a n d b e c a m e c h a ir o f th e J a p a n N a n k in g S tu d ie s A sso c ia tio n c e n te re d in A sia U n iv ersity . T h e asso cia­ tio n ’s le aflet states: “O u r S o c ie ty w ill fa c ilita te a n e x c h an g e o f a c a d e m ic o p in ­ io n s th a t tra n s c e n d s d iffe re n c e s o f id e o lo g y .” B u t a g la n ce a t its 2 4 advisers a n d d ire c to rs is in s ig h tfu l fo r tw o re a so n s. F irst, th ir te e n o f th e m are u n iv e r­ sity p ro fe sso rs a n d fo u r are re tire d o r v is itin g p ro fe sso rs. T h is u n d e rsc o re s a tr e n d in N a n k in g stu d ie s o v er th e p a s t tw o o r th re e d ec ad e s. T h a t is, ea rlier d e n ie rs w ere n o n -a c a d e m ic s s u c h as Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i, S u z u k i A k ira , A ra K e n ’ic h i, a n d T a n a k a M a sa a k i; b u t to d a y m a n y are p ro fe ssio n a l a c ad e m ic s, a lth o u g h n o t n ec e ssa rily h is to ria n s . S e c o n d , m o s t officers in th is J a p a n N a n ­ k in g S tu d ie s A sso c ia tio n b e lo n g to th e d e n ia l ca m p . T h is p o litic a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l s la n t in p a r t reflects th e n a tu re o f A sia U n i­ v e rsity itself. It w as fo u n d e d in 1 9 5 5 b y O t a K o z o — a w e ll-k n o w n p re w a r u ltr a n a tio n a lis t a n d w a rtim e m in is te r o f e d u c a tio n , w h o w as a rre ste d as a w a r crim es su sp e c t a n d p u rg e d u n d e r th e O c c u p a tio n . A sia U n iv e rs ity ’s c u r r e n t B o a rd o f D ire c to rs is c h a ire d b y fo rm e r Im p e ria l H e a d q u a r te r s s ta ff o fficer S e jim a R yuzo, w h o su p e rv is e d ta c tic a l p la n n in g fo r m a jo r o p e ra tio n s in th e A sia-P acific W a r o f 1 9 3 1 —4 5 , a n d is c u r r e n tly a n ex e cu tiv e o fficer in th e Ito C h u c o n g lo m e r a te .17 A sia U n iv e rs ity ’s ro o ts go b a c k to 1941 w h e n it w as cre­ a te d as K o -A S e n m o n G a k k o ; its m is sio n w as to te a c h s tu d e n ts h o w to “d e ­ v elo p A sia” fo r Ja p a n e se p u rp o se s. T o d a y th is u n iv e rs ity p ro v id e s fin a n c ia l assistan ce in s u p p o r t o f H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s J a p a n N a n k in g S tu d ie s A sso c ia tio n , fo r h is o w n rese arc h , a n d fo r th e d is s e m in a tio n o f h is fin d in g s. W h a t is m o re , it tak es th e h ig h ly u n u s u a l ste p o f a llo w in g o n e o f its d e p a r tm e n t h e a d s to serve as c h a ir o f th e a s so c ia tio n ’s S te e rin g C o m m itte e as w ell as o n its B o a rd o f D ire c to rs . A t th e a sso c ia tio n ’s in a u g u ra tio n , th e n e w ly in s ta lle d c h a ir H ig a s h in a k a n o d e c la re d : “ [Jap an ese d e fe n d a n ts] rec eiv e d g u ilty v e rd ic ts w ith re sp e c t to th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials fifty -tw o years ago, b u t th e m o re th a t I re a d in th e so u rce s, th e m o re d o u b ts I ’ve c o m e to e m b ra c e . T o clarify th e t r u t h a b o u t th e I n c id e n t, w e m u s t re-a n a ly z e m o u n ­ ta in s o f e x istin g d o c u m e n ts , u n c o v e r n e w o n es, a n d r e c o n s tr u c t th e In c id e n t as a w h o le in a n a c c u ra te m a n n e r .” A b o u t six ty m e m b e rs a tte n d e d th is in a u ­ g u ra tio n , in c lu d in g N ih o n U n iv e rs ity p ro fe sso r H a ta I k u h ik o w h o is a m in i­ m a lis t in th e N a n k in g c o n tro v e rs y .18 H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s a s so c ia tio n p u b lis h e s its fin d in g s in its o rg a n , th e N ihon “N an kin g ”gakkai nenpo (Ja p a n N a n k in g S tu d ­ ies A sso c ia tio n A n n u a l R e p o rt) as w ell as in o th e r b o o k s a n d a rticle s, b o th a c a d e m ic a n d p o p u la r.

311

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

Higashinakano’s Background L et us, th e n , e x a m in e H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d h is sc h o la rsh ip . In th e p o s ts c rip t to h is “Z a reepu obu N a n kin ” no kenkyu, h e relates “o n e h u g e fa c to r th a t d re w m e, a m e re la y m a n in th e field , to b e g in re se a rc h o n N a n k in g .” In A u g u s t 1 9 9 2 , w h ile o n a tr ip to w o rs h ip a t S h o in jin ja — a s h in to s h rin e in th e c ity o f H a g i d e d ic a te d to R e sto ra tio n m a rty r Y oshida S h o in — H ig a s h in a k a n o v isited a eld erly m a n n a m e d M o rio M ig a k u w h o liv ed n e a rb y in S h im o n o s e k i. H ig a s h in a k a n o d escrib es M o rio as “a m a n o f ste rlin g c h a ra c te r” w h o h a d serv ed a t N a n k in g as a c a p ta in in th e S ix te e n th D iv isio n a n d a v e rre d th a t h e “n e ith e r sa w n o r h e a rd o f a ‘M a ssa c re ’ th e r e .” A b o v e all, th e n o rm a lly s o ft-s p o k e n M o rio f u m e d th a t h e “c o u ld n o t s to m a c h h a v in g th e t r u t h d is to r te d .”19 U p to th e n , H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s area o f sp e c ia liz a tio n h a d b e e n in social th o u g h t o r Ja p a n e se th o u g h t r a th e r th a n in h is to ry p e r se. B io g ra p h ic a l o u tlin e s c o n ­ ta in e d in h is p u b lis h e d w o rk s te ll us th a t h e w as b o r n in 1 9 4 7 a n d th u s h as n o p e rso n a l ex perien ce o f th e w ar. H e e a rn e d a B.A. in W e ste rn h is to ry a t K ag o ­ s h im a U n iv ersity , a n d a P h .D . a t O s a k a U n iv ersity . H e ta u g h t Ja p a n e se in te l­ le c tu a l h is to ry as a v is itin g p ro fe sso r a t W e s te rn W a s h in g to n U n iv e rs ity in 1 9 8 5 a n d w as a v is itin g fello w a t th e U n iv e rsity o f H a m b u r g in 1 9 8 8 . H e is n o w a p ro fe sso r a t A sia U n iv ersity , te a c h in g th e h is to ry o f so c ial th o u g h t. H is b o o k s are Shakai shiso no rekishi 18 ko (A H is to r y o f S ocial T h o u g h t: E ig h te e n L ectu res) in 1 9 8 8 , Higashi Doitsu shakaishugi taisei no kenkyu (S tu d ie s o n th e E ast G e r m a n S o c ia list R e g im e ) in 1 9 9 2 , a n d Kokka hasan: Higashi Doitsu shakaishugi no 4 5 nen (B a n k ru p tc y o f th e S tate: F o rty -fiv e Years o f S o cialism in E ast G e rm a n y ) in 1 9 9 2 .20 J u d g in g fro m th e la st tw o title s, I in itia lly a ssu m e d th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o sp e cia liz ed in E a st G e rm a n so c ialism . So I c o n s u lte d sev­ eral h is to ria n s o f m o d e rn G e rm a n y , b u t n o o n e h a d h e a rd o f h im . A b io ­ g ra p h ic a l sk e tc h fo u n d in h is first b o o k sh o w s th a t h e h as w ritte n essays a n d tra n s la tio n s d e a lin g w ith Y o sh id a S h o in a n d h as p u b lis h e d d ic tio n a ry article s o n Hagakure, a 1 7 1 6 tre a tise b y Y a m a m o to T s u n e to m o th a t g lo rifies d e a th fo r th e sa m u ra i. T h is , p lu s H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s 1 9 9 2 v isit to S h o in jin ja , le d m e to su rm ise th a t h is ex p e rtise lay in rig h t-w in g Ja p an e se th o u g h t, esp ecially bushido (th e sa m u ra i e th o s). Yet h is m a in p u b lic a tio n s w ere d ic tio n a ry articles; th is p ro b a b ly explains w h y h e w as u n k n o w n to Ja p an e se in te lle c tu a l h isto ria n s. H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s first b o o k , Shakai shiso no rekishi 18 ko, is a c o u rse te x tb o o k th a t s tu d e n ts use to s u p p le m e n t h is u n d e r g r a d u a te le c tu re s. H e w ro te it a lo n g w ith Kokka hasan: Higashi Doitsu shakaishugi no 4 5 nen p r io r to h is fo ra y in to N a n ­ k in g stu d ie s, so a n an aly sis o f th e se tw o w o rk s s h o u ld sh e d lig h t o n h o w h is in te lle c tu a l a n d sc h o la rly b a c k g ro u n d affec ted h is la te r view s o n th e A tro city . F irst w e s h o u ld n o te H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s o ld -sty le kana (sy llab ary ) usag e in h is te x tb o o k o n Ja p a n e se th o u g h t. T h is is e x tre m e ly ra re to d a y ev en fo r p e rso n s b o r n b e fo re 1 9 4 5 . U n lik e th e m , h e d id n o t le a rn th is o ld -sty le usag e in sc h o o l; in ste a d , h e w e n t o u t o f h is w a y to a c q u ire it. T h e Ja p a n e se la n g u a g e c a n n o t 312

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

b e p h o n e tic a lly tra n s c rib e d p re c ise ly u n d e r th is o ld -sty le kana usage. H e n c e c o n te m p o r a r y rea d ers, a n d c e rta in ly y o u n g u n iv e rs ity s tu d e n ts , w o u ld fin d it q u a in tly alien — m u c h as A m e ric a n s tu d e n ts to d a y fin d S h a k e sp e a re . W h a t is m o re , th e few Ja p an e se w rite rs w h o in sist o n u sin g th is lite ra ry fo rm to d a y d o so as a m o d e o f p ro te s t. B y c lin g in g to it, th e y im p ly th a t th e Ja p a n e se la n ­ guage as fo rc ib ly re fo rm e d b y U .S . O c c u p a tio n officials c a n n o t fu lly c o n v e y th e tru e b e a u ty o f tr a d itio n a l th o u g h t, c u ltu re , a n d v alu es. T h is re a c tio n a ry a tti­ tu d e b e tra y s affin ities w ith r ig h t-w in g n a tiv ism . S e c o n d , H ig a s h in a k a n o p e p p e rs h is te x tb o o k a n d o th e r w ritin g s w ith th e p e jo ra tiv e te rm s Shina a n d Shinajin. T h e se w ere fo rm e rly u se d to in s u lt th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t a n d p e o p le , a n d m a y b e lik e n e d to th e E n g lish te rm Jap fo r J a p a n o r th e Ja p a n e se . (See th e a p p e n d ix in th e p re s e n t v o lu m e .) C h in e se g o v e rn m e n t officials a n d p riv a te in d iv id u a ls fro m 1 9 3 0 re p e a te d ly p ro te s te d a g a in st th e use o f th is d e ro g a to ry te rm , sa y in g th a t Chuka, Chugoku, a n d Chugokujin w ere th e p ro p e r fo rm s o f ad d re ss. B u t th e Ja p a n e se s ta te a n d p e o p le a rro g a n tly ig n o re d th o se p ro te s ts u n til fo rc e d to s to p b y th e v ic to rio u s C h i­ nese afte r 1 9 4 5 . T oday, a p a rt fro m gross b o o rs o r eld erly p e rso n s w h o g re w u p w ith th o se te rm s, Ja p a n e se s h u n th e use o f Shina a n d Shinajin. T h e y d isp la y th is d e fe re n ce to w a rd C h in e s e fee lin g s fro m a se lf-c ritic a l re a liz a tio n th a t th e p re ju d ic e b o u n d u p in su c h d is c rim in a to ry te rm s w as a d ire c t cause o f im p e r ­ ialist aggression. B u t b y fla u n tin g th e se e p ith e ts, n o rm a lly n o t u se d in p o lite c o m p a n y , H ig a s h in a k a n o d isp lay s a n o v e rw e e n in g w a rtim e style o f n a tio n a l­ ism th a t sees n o th in g w ro n g a b o u t w h a t Ja p a n e se a rm ie s d id in C h in a . T h ir d , in c o n tra s t to th is c o n te m p t fo r th e C h in e se , H ig a s h in a k a n o pays u n d u e a d u la tio n to fig u re s in J a p a n ’s p a st. In w ritin g a b o u t P rin c e S h o to k u (5 7 4 —6 2 2 ), fo r ex a m p le , th e te x tb o o k e m p lo y s h ig h ly h o n o rific fo rm s o f la n ­ g u ag e th a t th e m ass m e d ia reserv e fo r im p e ria l fa m ily m e m b e rs to d ay . T h is is aty p ic a l in a c a d e m ic w ritin g . It le ad s us to b eliev e th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o reveres th e im p e ria l lin e a n d a d h e re s to th e g o v e rn m e n t-s p o n s o re d p re -1 9 4 5 v ie w o f J a p a n ’s p a s t k n o w n as kokoku shikan. T h is u ltr a n a tio n a lis tic v ie w h e ld th a t th e m a in p r in c ip le b e h in d Ja p a n e se h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t w as th e u n f o ld in g o f p o p u la r lo y a lty to w a rd th e im p e ria l h o u s e d e s c e n d e d f ro m th e S u n G o d d e ss A m a te ra s u . T h is te x tb o o k d e v o te s a fu ll c h a p te r to S aigo T a k a m o ri (1 8 2 7 —7 7 ), w h o m H ig a s h in a k a n o calls “th e M e iji R e sto ra tio n ’s m o s t m e rito rio u s a rc h ite c t.” H e w rites: “S a ig o ’s w o rd s , ‘E u ro p e a n n a tio n s are b a rb a ric , a n d n o t civilized sta te s’, re m a in alive even to d a y — a n d w e m u s t n e v e r le t th e se d ie .” H ig a s h in a k a n o arg u es th a t le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s — p o is o n e d b y th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s a n d C o m in te r n view s o f h is to ry — “m a lig n S a ig o ’s id e a o f ‘o p e n in g K o re a to tra d e a n d d ip lo m a c y ’” b y c a llin g it a p la n to “c o n q u e r K o re a” as th e first ste p in M e iji im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n .21 I t is u n u s u a l to assig n a w h o le c h a p ­ te r to S a ig o ’s th o u g h t in a su rv e y te x tb o o k . H ig a s h in a k a n o m a y h a v e d o n e th is p a r tly b ec au se h e h ails fro m K a g o sh im a P re fe c tu re , S a ig o ’s h o m e . In a n y case, h e ig n o re s th e p o s tw a r s c h o la rly c o n se n su s a b o u t S a ig o ’s triv ia lity as a 313

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

th in k e r. H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s id io s y n c ra tic a c c o u n t ste m s fro m a su b je c tiv e fix a tio n w ith S aigo th a t b ro o k s n e ith e r c ritic is m n o r c o m p ro m is e ; it d o es n o t d eriv e f ro m a s c ru p u lo u s s tu d y o f th e e x istin g sc h o la rsh ip . F o u rth , th is te x tb o o k o n Ja p a n e se th o u g h t ex u d e s a sense o f e th n o c e n tric su p e rio rity . In d e s c rib in g P rin c e S h o to k u ’s “id e a l o f h a r m o n y ,” fo r ex a m p le , H ig a s h in a k a n o says th a t “Ja p a n e se h is to ry h as n e v e r p ro d u c e d a d ic ta to r. S h o ­ to k u ’s th o u g h t b e c a m e Ja p a n e se p o litic a l th o u g h t its e lf.” “ [S h o to k u ’s] id e a l o f h a r m o n y ” in c o n s e n su a l d e c is io n -m a k in g “ is n o w p ra c tic e d b y Ja p a n e se b u s i­ ness firm s a b ro a d a n d is e x to lle d as ‘Ja p a n e se -sty le m a n g e m e n t’.” Ja p a n e se style m a n a g e m e n t is n o w th e b u t t o f jo k e s, b u t th is is lo st o n H ig a s h in a k a n o . In th is sa m e c h a p te r, h e la u d s “Ja p a n e se w is d o m ” as s h o w n in “th e fa c t th a t th e re w ere n o e x e c u tio n s fo r 3 4 7 years, fro m 8 1 0 to u n til th e [1 1 5 6 ] H o g e n W ar. T h is “fa c t” su p p o s e d ly p ro v e s th a t J a p a n is e x c e p tio n a l in w o rld h is to ry fo r c o n d e m n in g v io le n c e , a n d th a t th is c o n d itio n o b ta in s ev en to d ay . S u c h Ja p a n e se “w is d o m ,” H ig a s h in a k a n o ex claim s, “w as first ev in c e d in P rin c e S h o to k u ’s id e a s .” T h is a c c o u n t is p a te n tly u n h is to ric a l. D u r in g S h o to k u ’s life tim e , th e re w as n o sta te called “J a p a n ” a n d n o p e o p le c o n s c io u s o f th e m se lv e s as “J a p a n e s e .” To im p ly th a t th e re w ere, su g g e sts th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o su b sc rib e s to th e o ld u ltr a n a tio n a lis tic kokoku shikan v ie w o f h isto ry . T h is h e ld th a t “th e n a tio n o f J a p a n is g o v e rn e d b y a n u n b r o k e n im p e ria l lin e coeval w ith H e a v e n a n d e a rth ”; th a t is, e te rn a l in n a tu re . O n a m o re b a sic level, th is a c c o u n t lacks a n y sense o f h is to ric a l p e rio d s. S h o to k u trie d to c o n s o lid a te th e a n c ie n t e m ­ p e ro r sta te w h e n h e b e c a m e re g e n t in 5 9 2 . H is “id e a l o f h a r m o n y ” p ro p e rly b e lo n g s to th a t era. H ig a s h in a k a n o , h o w ev er, cites it to “p ro v e ” Ja p a n e se excel­ le n ce to d ay . F u rth e rm o re , d u r in g th e y ears 8 1 0 to 1 1 5 6 , th e re w ere several revolts a m o n g ru lin g elites, a n d th e w a rrio r a n d c o m m o n e r classes also la u n c h e d n u m e ro u s u p risin g s. T h is p e rio d w itn e sse d th e a n c ie n t e m p e ro r s ta te give w a y to c o u rtie r ru le u n d e r th e F u jiw a ra , a n d th e n to w a rrio r ru le u n d e r th e T aira. It is a n o n s e q u itu r to a rg u e th a t a p u ta tiv e la c k o f ex e c u tio n s p re d isp o s e d “th e n a tio n to c o n d e m n v io le n c e ,” a n d th a t th is c o n s titu te s “Ja p a n e se w is d o m .” M o reo v e r, th a t p re m ise its e lf is o p e n to q u e s tio n b e c a u se so m a n y p r im a ry so u rces are lo s t to us. H ig a s h in a k a n o th u s m a rsh a ls o n e p u ta tiv e “fa c t”— th a t n o e x e c u tio n s to o k p la c e fo r 3 4 7 y ears— to m a k e a s im p listic , sw ee p in g , n o n ­ e m p iric a l, u n h is to ric a l a s se rtio n — th a t th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le b y n a tu re h av e alw ays a b h o rre d v io le n c e . As w e sh a ll see, h e o fte n e m p lo y s th e co n v e rse o f th is p o le m ic as w ell— th a t o n e d is c re d ite d C h in e s e te s tim o n y d e n ie s h is to ric ­ ity to th e e n tire N a n k in g A tro city . H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s re p o rta g e , Kokka hasan: Higashi Doitsu shakaishugi no 45 nen, reveals o th e r ch a racteristics fo u n d in h is la te r stu d ie s o f N a n k in g . T h e b o o k re s u lte d fro m a 1-year sta y in W e st G e r m a n y a n d a 2 - m o n th v isit to E a st G e r­ m a n y ju s t b efo re th e B e rlin W a ll co llap sed . It p re se n ts a n in s tru c tiv e id e o ­ lo g ic al c o n tra s t to H o n d a K a ts u ic h i’s Doitsu minshu kyowakoku ( T h e G e rm a n

314

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

D e m o c ra tic R e p u b lic ) w ritte n a t a b o u t th e sa m e tim e a n d o n ro u g h ly th e sam e to p ic .22 ( H o n d a h as b e e n a m a jo r p a r tic ip a n t in th e N a n k in g c o n tro v e rs y sin c e early in th e 1 9 7 0 s.) H o n d a seeks h is to ric a l e x p la n a tio n s fo r w h y th e E a st G e r ­ m a n g o v e rn m e n t sy ste m — b o r n a m id s u c h g o o d in te n tio n s — w e n t o n to fall. H e d id n o t w rite h is b o o k to p ra ise W e st G e rm a n y ; it is p a rtly a le sso n a b o u t th e fate th a t c a p ita list, as w ell as so c ialist, so c ieties m a y suffer. M o reo v e r, H o n d a rec o g n ize d a n e e d to s tu d y th e “fa ile d ” e a ste rn p a r t o f G e rm a n y in la te r su rv ey s afte r u n ific a tio n w as c o m p le te . B y c o n tra s t, H ig a s h in a k a n o u n c o n d i­ tio n a lly d e n o u n c e s M a rx is m as a re lig io n “w h o se v a c u o u s in c a n ta tio n s g o t sh o v e d d o w n p e o p le ’s th r o a ts .” H e w rite s: “ M a rx is t-L e n in is t d ic ta to rs fo rc e d o r th o d o x M a rx is m o n th e e n tire g lo b e as a w o rld w id e d ic ta to rs h ip .” Yet, h e c o n tin u e s , th e y b r a n d e d in te r n a l d iss id e n ts h e re tic a l “e n e m ie s o f th e p e o p le .” T h e se cret p o lic e o p p re sse d su c h en e m ie s, p u t th e m in c o n c e n tra tio n ca m p s, a n d ev en e x e c u te d th e m . T h u s th e “ 1 2 -y ea r N a z i R e ic h a n d th e 4 5 -y e a r [E ast G e rm a n ] C o m m u n is t d ic ta to rs h ip w ere n o d iffe re n t in b e in g d ic ta to ria l.” T h e B e rlin W all im p ris o n e d th e p e o p le ju s t as N a z i c o n c e n tra tio n c a m p s h a d . E ast G e r m a n “fie ld -ta n k C o m m u n is m ” c ru s h e d p e o p le w h o y e a rn e d fo r fre e d o m a n d d em o cracy . E a st G e r m a n y w as “a sta te p ris o n ” b o a s tin g “th e w o rld ’s fo re ­ m o s t secret p o lic e .” “C o m m u n is t P a rty aristo c ra ts” lived in “red villages” w h e n c e th e y ru le d over a “c o n te m p o r a r y slave so c ie ty .” B u t in “th e P eac efu l R e v o lu ­ tio n o f N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 9 , ‘th e p e o p le ’— w h o w ere c ru e lly v ic tim iz e d b y lies a n d c o n tra d ic tio n s in h e r e n t in so c ia lism — ro se u p to ach iev e th e g re a te st re v o lu ­ tio n in E u ro p e a n h is to ry — n o , in all o f w o rld h is to ry .” T h u s , H ig a s h in a k a n o c o n c lu d e s, th e fall o f E a st G e r m a n y m a rk e d th e fin a l d e fe a t o f so c ia lism a n d th e to ta l b a n k r u p tc y o f M a rx is m .23 H o n d a ’s h isto ric a lly -b a se d , m u ltifa c e te d , e m p iric a l analysis a d m its m a n y g ray areas. B y c o n tra s t, H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s a c c o u n t d isp lay s a s im p le b la c k -a n d w h ite d u ality . T h e g o o d g uys tr iu m p h e d ; th e b a d g uys g o t w h a t th e y d eserv ed . W e st G e r m a n y w as a d e m o c ra c y d e s tin e d to th riv e ; E a st G e r m a n y w as a so c ialist d ic ta to rs h ip b o u n d to fall. T h is e ith e r-o r m o d e o f th in k in g — u n c o n ­ d itio n a l g o o d o r u n m itig a te d evil, a b s o lu te re a lity o r p u re fic tio n , a n u n e q u iv ­ o cal “yes” o r a n in d is p u ta b le “n o ”— p re d is p o s e d H ig a s h in a k a n o to e m b ra c e c e rta in fix atio n s th a t sp a w n e d h is d e n ia l th e sis. A lso, h is u ltra n a tio n a lis tic , e m p e ro r-w o rs h ip in g v ie w o f h is to ry p ro d u c e d a n in to le r a n t h a tre d o f M a rx ­ ism , so c ialism , a n d c o m m u n is m — d o c trin e s th a t o p p o s e d th e im p e ria l in s ti­ tu ti o n in J a p a n b e fo re 1 9 4 5 . H is a p rio ri, e m o tio n a l h a tre d o f c o m m u n is m rese m b le s th a t o f p re s e n t-d a y r ig h t-w in g circles. It p re c lu d e s a n o p e n - m in d e d , s c h o la rly analysis o f h is to ric a l re a so n s to e x p la in h o w so c ia list sta te s in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry em e rg e d , w h a t p o sitiv e ro le th e y p la y ed , a n d w h y th e y fin ally c o llap sed . In ste a d , H ig a s h in a k a n o e m b ra c e s a p h o b ia a b o u t so c ia list states; th a t is, th e y are evil n a tio n s o u t to “g e t” J a p a n b y e x p lo itin g th e so -ca lle d N a n k in g A tro c ity in p r o p a g a n d a w arfa re.

315

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

A Delusive Fixation C o n s e rv a tiv e rev isio n ists rav e over H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s la te s t b o o k , “N ankinggyakusatsu” no tettei kensho (A T h o ro u g h ly C ritic a l E x a m in a tio n o f th e “N a n k in g M a ssa c re ”), c a llin g it th e la st w o rd o n th is su b je c t. T h e c a rto o n is t K o b ay a sh i Y o sh in o ri— o n c e a w a lk in g a d v e rtis e m e n t fo r th e S o c ie ty to C re a te a N e w J a p ­ anese H is to r y T e x tb o o k — re m a in s o n e o f H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s m o s t e n th u s ia s tic m im ic s a n d v o cife ro u s s u p p o r te r s .24 K o b a y a sh i says, “T h is is th e la te st, m o s t reliab le h is to ric a l stu d y ; i f y o u c a n ’t re fu te it as a h is to ria n , y o u m ig h t as w ell close u p s h o p .” T h e Sankei shinbun c o lu m n is t Ish ik a w a M iz u h o sta te s th a t “ex c ellen t sc h o lars h av e e m e rg e d fro m th e ‘illu s io n fa c tio n ’ o f la te; H ig a s h in a k a n o is o n e o f th e b e s t.” B u t p e rh a p s th e u ltim a te p la titu d e c o m es f ro m U n i­ v e rsity o f T o k y o e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u : “H ig a s h in a k a n o s p e n t e ig h t years c o m p le tin g th is w o rk __ B ased o n a w id e -ra n g in g s tu d y o f th e so u rces, h e c o n c lu d e s w ith im p e c c a b le lo g ic th a t ‘th e re w as n o A tro c ity .’ T h e a p p e a ra n c e o f th is b o o k h as ra ise d th e s tu d y o f N a n k in g to n e w h e ig h ts. It fo rm s th e sch o larly b e a c h h e a d fro m w h ic h to re p u d ia te w ith fin a lity Iris C h a n g ’s The Rape o f N anking.” In d e e d , H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s “th o r o u g h ly c ritic a l e x a m in a ­ tio n ” raise d F u jio k a s o w n s tu d y o f N a n k in g to n e w h e ig h ts. W h e re a s h e o n ce fo llo w ed H a ta I k u h ik o ’s m in im a lis t th e sis, F u jio k a is n o w a to ta l d e n ie r.25 A ctually, th e re is n o t m u c h n e w in H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s th esis; it is la rg e ly a re h a sh o f o ld e r a rg u m e n ts b y th e d e n ia l a n d illu s io n fa c tio n s. L e ft-w in g h is ­ to ria n s in th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t ( N a n k in k e n ) h av e p u b ­ lish e d “N ankin daigyakusatsu hiteiron” 13 no uso ( T h ir te e n Lies to D e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ), w h ic h ex p o ses th e lo g ic a l in c o n siste n c ie s in th o s e a rg u ­ m e n ts a n d th e d e a r th o f e m p iric a l d o c u m e n ta tio n to s u p p o r t th e m . H e re , I lim it m y critic a l an aly sis to H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s m o re e g re g io u sly m is ta k e n m e th ­ od s a n d c o n te n tio n s . A ll s te m fro m a c o m m o n so u rce : h is d elu siv e a p rio ri fix a tio n th a t p re c lu d e s e m p iric a l an aly sis a c c o rd in g to e s ta b lish e d ru le s o f h is ­ to ric a l in v e s tig a tio n . In th e a fte rw o rd t o “Z a reepu obu N a n kin ” no kenkyu, w h ic h h e c o a u th o re d w ith F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u , H ig a s h in a k a n o c o n c ise ly re ­ lates h is m e th o d : As to w hether there “was” or “wasn’t” a N anking Atrocity, it’s very hard to prove that there “wasn’t.” In fact it’s virtually impossible to find direct evidence o f this or any other negative proposition. C an anyone directly prove th at there are no invisible men or aliens from outer space?... [But] there is one indirect way to prove th at they do not exist. Let’s say some m an claims th at these entities do exist. T h en we m ust examine, down to the last m inute detail, his every oral testim ony and piece o f w ritten evidence in an effort to ascertain th at these are absolutely reliable. If there is a speck o f doubt as to the logic o f an oral testim ony or the reliability o f a w ritten piece o f evidence, we m ust reject that m an’s claim. Logically speaking, this is the only proof—albeit indi­ rect— that invisible men and aliens from outer space do not exist. T his is the approach I take to the study o f N anking.26 316

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

In s h o rt, H ig a s h in a k a n o b e g in s fro m th e p re m ise , o r d elu siv e fix a tio n , th a t th e re w as n o A tro c ity ; th e n , h e d ire c ts all o f h is e ffo rts to c o rro b o ra te it. T h e s c h o la rly ru le s o f h is to ric a l in v e s tig a tio n o p e ra te d iffe ren tly . A h is to ­ r ia n first g a th e rs p r im a ry d o c u m e n ts a n d o ra l te s tim o n ie s d ilig e n tly ; th e n , h e o r she stu d ie s th e se co m p re h e n siv e ly , to arriv e a t “fac ts” th a t c a n b e in d u c ­ tiv e ly s u b s ta n tia te d . B u t H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s a p p ro a c h to N a n k in g is a p e rv e rsio n o f th is s ta n d a rd m e th o d . A d m itte d ly , h e c a n n o t “fin d d ire c t e v id e n c e ” th a t th e A tro c ity n e v e r h a p p e n e d . S o, in ste a d , h e “e x a m in e [s ]— d o w n to th e la st m in u te d e ta il— ev e ry o ral te s tim o n y a n d p ie c e o f w ritte n e v id e n c e ” c ite d in le ft-w in g se c o n d a ry s tu d ie s in o rd e r to p ic k o u t “a sp e c k o f d o u b t as to th e lo g ic . . . a n d re lia b ility ” th e re in . W h e n h e fin d s a few, h e claim s th a t “th is c o n ­ s titu te s th e sole p r o o f — a lb e it in d ir e c t— ” th a t th e A tro c ity n e v e r to o k p lace. T h is is a n e g a tiv e exercise a t b e st. B o n a fid e h is to ria n s h av e ta k e n g re a t p a in s a n d g o n e to g re a t ex p e n se to g a th e r o ra l te s tim o n ie s a n d w ritte n d o c u m e n ts in C h in a a n d J a p a n u p o n w h ic h to r e c o n s tr u c t a c o m p re h e n siv e p ic tu re o f w h a t h a p p e n e d a t N a n k in g . B u t H ig a s h in a k a n o , th e se lf-sty led “m e re la y m a n in th is fie ld ,” a rb itra rily rak e s th r o u g h th e se p r im a ry so u rc e s w ith h is fineto o th c o m b , g le efu lly fin d s a few sp e ck s o f v ag u e n ess o r in c o n siste n c y , a n d p r o u d ly claim s th a t th e se h is to ria n s “d iss e m in a te p r o p a g a n d a w ith n o basis in fact. [T ]h e y create th e ir n a rra tiv e s b y u n c ritic a lly c itin g f o u r th - a n d fifth -ra te s o u rc e s.”27 A s w ith all to p ic s o f h is to ric a l rese arch , N a n k in g y ie ld s a w h e a t- a n d - c h a f f array o f w ritte n d o c u m e n ts a n d o ral te stim o n ie s; so m e c a n n o t b u t b e in a c c u ­ ra te o r e rro n e o u s . T h e sa m e p e rs o n m a y w rite p a rtia lly in c o n s is te n t a c c o u n ts in d iffe re n t d o c u m e n ts , o r m a y say slig h tly d iffe re n t th in g s to d iffe re n t in te r ­ v iew ers. A h is to ria n culls th r o u g h th is m u d d le d h e a p o f so u rc e s to sift th e reliab le f ro m th e less re lia b le o r u n re lia b le . E v en a c c o u n ts th a t se e m u n re li­ able a t first m a y y ie ld v a lu a b le in sig h ts w h e n c h e c k e d a g a in st o th e r a c c o u n ts to fin d c o m m o n th re a d s a n d re m o v e in c o n siste n c ie s. It is th is c o m p re h e n siv e , critic a l w e ig h in g o f in n u m e r a b le so u rc e s o f u n e v e n q u a lity th a t p ro d u c e s an in d u c tiv e re c o n s tr u c tio n o f so m e p a s t e v e n t. T h a t is h o w a h is to ria n “p ro v e s” th a t th e e v e n t to o k p la ce . B y c o n tra s t, H ig a s h in a k a n o w ittin g ly o r u n w ittin g ly rejects th e lo g ic b e h in d th is s ta n d a rd p ro ce ss o f h is to ric a l v e rific a tio n . H e co a ts h is N a n k in g stu d ie s w ith a m e re tric io u s v e n e e r o f s c h o la rsh ip th a t le n d s cre d e n c e to h is w o r k — esp ec ially to p e o p le w h o la c k th e tr a in in g o r a c u m e n n e e d e d to perceiv e h is flaw s, b u t w h o p a r r o t h is c o n c lu sio n s fo r p o litic a l o r id eo lo g ical reasons. H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s flaw is to s ta rt fro m th e delusive fix a tio n — th a t n o A tro c ity to o k p la ce . I say “d e lu siv e ” o r ev en “d e lu s io n a l” b e c a u se th e fix a tio n is so d e e p -se a te d th a t h e ig n o re s m assiv e d o c u m e n ta tio n a ffirm in g th e A tro c ity ’s h isto ric ity . A s o f 2 0 0 2 , th e re are n in e v o lu m e s o f p u b lis h e d so u rce s av ailab le to h im in Ja p a n e se , y e t h e tu r n s a b lin d eye to a n y d o c u m e n ts ex c ep t th o se th a t y ie ld “sp eck s o f v ag u e n ess a n d in c o n s is te n c y .” T h e se , h e m a rsh a ls to s u p p o r t a n o u tla n d is h ly c o n triv e d th e sis. 317

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

It is a n e s ta b lish e d fa c t th a t th e A tro c ity to o k p lace; th is is p a r t o f th e sc h o l­ arly co n se n su s in Ja p a n . T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity is r e c o u n te d n o t o n ly in sc h o l­ arly b o o k s o n C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se h isto ry , b u t also in s ta n d a rd refe re n c e w o rk s su c h as h is to ric a l d ic tio n a rie s a n d e n c y c lo p e d ia , as w ell as in w o rld a n d Ja p a n e se h is to ry te x tb o o k s. A n y d e b a te o v er N a n k in g s h o u ld d e p a rt fro m th is c o m m o n referen c e p o in t. W h a t H ig a s h in a k a n o asserts is lik e sa y in g , “th e e a rth is fla t.” T h is ca n o n ly s te m fro m a d elu siv e fix a tio n . I f s h o w n p h o to s o f a sp h e ric a l e a rth s h o t f ro m o u te r sp ace, h e w o u ld n o d o u b t re in fo rc e h is fixa­ tio n b y r e to rtin g : “T h is h as to b e a fa b ric a te d c o m p u te r - g ra p h ic im a g e, n o t a g e n u in e p h o to . N A S A m u s t b e c o n s p irin g to h id e th e t r u t h fro m u s .”28 H ig a s h in a k a n o seizes o n a n y flaw ed C h in e s e p h o to , te stim o n y , o r d o c u m e n t to c la im th a t it w as “f a b ric a te d ” as p a r t o f a sin iste r a n ti-Ja p a n e se p lo t. T h e se so u rces, h e says, “p ro v e ” th a t th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t a n d p e o p le are c o n ­ s p irin g w ith tr a ito ro u s Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s a n d e d u c a to rs to d is s e m in a te a C o m in te r n o r T o k y o W a r C rim e s v ie w o f h is to ry in o rd e r to c ru sh J a p a n in a p r o p a g a n d a w ar. H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s p r e - N a n k in g w ritin g s s h o w w h y h e c a m e to in d u lg e in th is d elu siv e fix atio n . F irst, h e e m b ra c e s a sen se o f e th n ic s u p e rio rity a n d in te r ­ p re ts Ja p a n e se h is to ry in lin e w ith th e o ld kokoku shikan th a t g lo rifies th e re p u te d ly d iv in e im p e ria l lin e . T h u s , h e c a n n o t b r o o k th e p o s s ib ility th a t J a p a n fo u g h t a n u n ju s t w a r o r th a t th e e m p e ro r’s so ld iers c o m m itte d u n s p e a k ­ ab ly evil d eed s. In d e e d , a “m a n o f ste rlin g c h a ra c te r” lik e fo rm e r c a p ta in M o rio M ig a k u avers th a t h e “n e ith e r sa w n o r h e a rd o f a n ‘A tro c ity ’ o r a ‘M a ssa c re ’” a t N a n k in g , a n d in d ig n a n tly d eclares h e “c o u ld n o t s to m a c h h a v in g th e t r u th d is to r te d .” So, H ig a s h in a k a n o w rite s, M o rio “e tc h e d th e se w o rd s in m y m e m ­ o ry ,” a n d h e v o w e d to v in d ic a te M o r io ’s h o n o r a lo n g w ith th a t o f o th e r so l­ d iers lik ew ise m a lig n e d . As n o te d ab o v e, th is e n c o u n te r w ith M o rio is w h a t s p u rre d H ig a s h in a k a n o to b e g in h is re se a rc h o n N a n k in g .29 S e c o n d , H ig a ­ s h in a k a n o believes th a t A llie d n a tio n s — esp ec ially C h in e s e a n d A m e ric a n s— fa b ric a te d th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials as a n ex te n sio n o f w a rtim e p r o p a g a n d a th a t b r a n d e d th e im p e ria l a rm y as a c rim in a l o rg a n i­ z a tio n a n d J a p a n as a ro g u e sta te . H e also believ es th a t th e P R C n o w uses th is p u ta tiv e ly fictive A tro c ity as a p o te n t w e a p o n in its p r o p a g a n d a w a r to c o n ­ v in c e th e w o rld th a t th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le a n d g o v e rn m e n t h a v e a n e n d u r in g c rim in a l n a tu re .

Fallacious Contentions P sy ch o lo g ists use th e te rm paranoid reaction as follow s: “ [S u ch q u e s tio n th e rig h tn e ss o f th e h y p o th e tic a l fix atio n o n w h ic h th e ir T h e y n o t o n ly ex p la in p re s e n t c o n d itio n s b a se d o n it, th e y also p a s t p h e n o m e n a b a se d o n it, so as to assert its v alid ity . In th is 318

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

p e o p le ] n e v e r p a ra n o ia rests. r e in te r p re t all way, it g ra d u -

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

ally b e c o m e s e n tre n c h e d a n d s y s te m a tiz e d .”30 H ig a s h in a k a n o sta rts f ro m th e fix a tio n th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity d id n o t ta k e p lace. T h e n , in o rd e r to v ali­ d a te it, h e “r e in te r p re ts ” all a c c o u n ts o f th e A tro c ity as b e in g lies, fakes, e rro rs, o r p lo ts . T h is p ro d u c e d th e e n tre n c h e d , s y ste m a tiz e d p a r a n o ia m a n ife s te d in h is “o p u s ,” “Nankinggyakusatsu” no tettei kensho. “R e in te rp r e tin g ” ev id e n c e is c e n tra l to H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s m e th o d a n d to h is e m e rg e n c e as th e n e w s ta n d a rd b e a re r in th e d e n ia l cau se. H e a p p e a re d a t a c ru c ia l tim e fo r th a t c a m p , afte r its a rg u m e n ts h a d lo s t c re d ib ility . In n u m e r a b le b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s a n d o th e r so u rce s le ft b y Ja p a n e se m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l w h o v ic tim iz e d th e C h in e s e h a d alre ad y a p p e a re d in p r in t. A lso, b ec au se o f lim ite d d e m o c ra tiz a tio n in th e P R C , C h in e s e v ic tim s w ere b e c o m in g ab le to sp e a k o u t a b o u t th e ir e x p e ri­ ences a n d ev en la u n c h la w su its in J a p a n . Ja p a n e se c itiz e n g ro u p s ac tiv e ly aid e d th e m in a d d itio n to ca llin g o n th e ir o w n g o v e rn m e n t to ap o lo g ize a n d p a y c o m p e n s a tio n . T h u s d e n ie rs lo s t th e d e b a te b ec au se it w as im p o s sib le to go o n cla im in g : “th e re are n o p r im a ry s o u rc e s,” “th e re is n o h a r d e v id e n c e ,” o r “th e C h in e s e th e m se lv e s n e v e r c o m p la in e d a b o u t a n ‘A tro c ity ’ in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 .” H ig a s h in a k a n o e m e rg e d a t th a t p o in t, a n d d e n ie rs n o w c o u n t o n h im to c lin c h a w ild -c a rd p la y -o ff s p o t b y a d v a n c in g fro m th e lo se rs’ d iv isio n . F aced w ith rea m s o f o ral a n d w ritte n so u rce s s u b s ta n tia tin g th e sc h o la rly co n se n su s th a t a n A tro c ity d id ta k e p lace, th e y c a n n o lo n g e r c la im th a t so u rc e s d o n o t ex ist.31 N o w , ta k in g th e ir cu e fro m H ig a s h in a k a n o , th e y r e in te r p re t n e w te s­ tim o n ie s to b e u n re lia b le , a n d n e w d o c u m e n ts to b e “u n a u th e n tic a te d f o u rth a n d f ifth -ra te ” so u rce s. W h e n p ro p e rly r e in te rp re te d , th e y c laim , th e se sh o w th a t “a c c o u n ts o f m assacres are in e rro r,” th a t “th e C h in e s e rea lly d id th e se th in g s b u t b la m e d u s ,” o r th a t “w h a t th e C h in e se call ‘m assacres’ are really c o m ­ b a t d e a th s s a n c tio n e d b y in te r n a tio n a l la w .” Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs— w h o c lin g to th e ir d elu siv e fix a tio n a n d refu se to a d m it d e fe a t in sc h o la rly d e b a te s— n o w tu r n to H ig a s h in a k a n o as th e ir n e w h o p e . B elow , I c ritic a lly e x a m in e fo u r o f h is m a in c o n te n tio n s .

A “Fake”Eye-witnesses In N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , a 7 1 -y e a r-o ld la d y w h o su rv iv e d th e A tro c ity la u n c h e d a la w s u it in N a n k in g a g a in st H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d h is p u b lis h e r, T e n d e n sh a . T h is lady, n a m e d H s ia S h u -c h in , s o u g h t 21 m illio n y e n in c o m p e n s a tio n a n d a p u b lic a p o lo g y fo r h a v in g d e fa m e d h e r as a “fake ey e w itn e ss” to th e ra p e a n d m u r d e r o f relativ e s a n d a n e ig h b o rin g fa m ily b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s . A C h in a F u n d to A d v a n c e H u m a n R ig h ts— le d b y th e h is to ria n Je n C h i-y u — fo rm e d a s u p p o r t g ro u p fo r H s ia th a t in c lu d e d le ad e rs o f th e A ll- C h in a L aw y ers’ A sso ­ c ia tio n a n d th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e H is to r y o f th e W a r o f R e sista n c e a g a in st Ja p a n . O n 28 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , th e y h e ld a n e w s c o n fe re n c e to d e c la re th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s “N anking gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho a n d M a ts u m u r a T o s h io ’s 319

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

“N ankin gyakusatsu” e no daigimon ( b o th p u b lis h e d b y T e n d e n sh a ), “d e n ie d th e t r u t h o f th e A tro c ity , d e fa m e d s u rv iv in g w itn e sses, a n d th u s e x e rte d a b a n e ­ fu l in flu e n c e o n Ja p a n e se so c iety .”32 H ig a s h in a k a n o b lu n tly re p lie d , “ I f sh e rea lly w a n ts to d iss e m in a te th e ‘t r u t h ’ a b o u t th e ‘N a n k in g A tro c ity ’, h e r first jo b s h o u ld b e to d isp e l th e d o u b ts w e ra ise d — n o t su e u s .”33 A s so m e fo re ig n critics claim , th is crass d e n ia l to d a y c o n s titu te s a c ru e l “s e c o n d r a p e .” In D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , H s ia S h u -c h in w as e ig h t sui b y E ast A sia n re c k o n in g o r sev en -y ea rs-o ld b y W e s te rn c o u n tin g . S h e b e lo n g e d to a n in e -p e rs o n fa m ­ ily, seven o f w h o m Ja p a n e se tro o p s b r u ta lly ra p e d a n d /o r m u rd e re d . S h u -c h in h e rs e lf su ffe re d a v ic io u s b a y o n e t w o u n d . A lth o u g h sh e rec o v e re d m ir a c u ­ lously, th e a tta c k le ft h e r o r p h a n e d w ith o n ly o n e rela tiv e , a fo u r-y e a r-o ld sis­ ter. T h e H sia s w ere liv in g in a c o m p o u n d w ith a n o th e r fa m ily a t th e e n tra n c e to H s in - lu . T w o w eek s a fte r th e a tta c k to o k p la ce , S h u -c h in w as b r o u g h t to th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) w h e re sh e to ld J o h n M a g e e a b o u t h e r o rd ea l. H e im m e d ia te ly w e n t to th e site a n d c a p tu re d o n s ix te e n -m illim e te r film th e v ic tim s ’ b o d ie s w ra p p e d in s tra w m a ttin g . M a g e e h e a rd th e s to ry d ire c tly fro m S h u -c h in , w h o h a d b e e n in th e h o u s e w h e n th e ra p e s a n d m u rd e rs to o k p lace. H e c o n firm e d th e s to ry w ith a n e ld e rly la d y w h o re sid e d in th e area a n d w h o h a d f o u n d S h u -c h in h id in g a fte r th e tw o -w e e k in te rv a l. M a g e e also c o n firm e d th e s to ry w ith S h u -c h in ’s u n c le , th e n ta k in g refu g e in th e N S Z . L ew is S m y th e cites M a g ee o n th e in c id e n t: “M r. J o h n M a g e e h as a n a c c o u n t o f a fa m ily in S o u th C ity o f 13, o f w h ic h elev en w ere k ille d , w o m e n ra p e d a n d m u tila te d , o n D e c e m b e r 13—14 b y Ja p a n e se so ld iers. T w o sm a ll c h ild re n su rv iv e d to tell th e s to ry .” H s u S h u h s i la te r q u o te d th is a c c o u n t in h is Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone, p u b lis h e d in 1 9 3 9 .34 M a g ee w e n t in to m o re d e ta il in h is d iary . H e w ro te th a t th e e ig h t-y e a r-o ld g irl’s se v en ty -six -y e a r-o ld g ra n d fa th e r, h e r se v e n ty -fo u r-y e a r-o ld g ra n d m o th e r, h e r m o th e r; a n d h e r 16-, 14-, a n d o n e -y e a r o ld sisters h a d su ffe re d ra p e a n d /o r m u rd e r. F u rth e rm o re , M a g e e w ro te , a o n e -y e a r o ld c h ild o f th e ir “la n d lo r d ’s fa m ily ” also d ie d in th e a tta c k ; also, H s ia S h u -c h in a n d “a fo u r- o r th re e -y e a r o ld s is te r” fled in to th e n e x t r o o m w h e re th e ir m o th e r h a d b e e n ra p e d a n d slain . T h e re , th e y c o n c e a le d th e m se lv e s u n d e r b e d d in g fo r tw o w eek s in fear o f Ja p a n e se tro o p s w h o o c c a sio n a lly ca m e b a c k to se a rc h th e c o m p o u n d . T h e girls su rv iv ed o n w ell w a te r a n d kuo-pa, a k in d o f b u r n e d rice, u n til th e eld e rly fem a le n e ig h b o r — w h o h a d fled to th e N S Z te m p o ra rily — r e tu r n e d to h e r res­ id e n c e a t th is site a n d re sc u e d th e m .35 G e o rg R o se n s u b m itte d a n even m o re d e ta ile d r e p o r t o f th is in c id e n t to th e G e rm a n e m b a ssy a lo n g w ith th e M a g e e ’s film th a t in c lu d e d e x p la n a to ry c a p tio n s . R o se n d a te d th e rap e s a n d m u rd e rs as o c c u rrin g o n 13 D e c e m b e r, a n d h e id e n tifie d th e la n d lo rd fa m ily ’s s u rn a m e as “M a .” R o sen n o te d th a t th e M a c o u p le ’s sev en - o r e ig h t-y e a r-o ld d a u g h te r h a d b e e n k ille d as w e ll.36 In 1 9 8 7 , H o n d a K a ts u ic h i p u b lis h e d a n o ral a c c o u n t o b ta in e d f ro m H s ia S h u -c h in th a t re p e a ts th is s to ry m o re fully. H e also p r o ­ v id e d a s k e tc h o f th e c o m p o u n d w h e re sh e liv ed , c lea rly s h o w in g w h e re each 320

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

c o rp se w as lo c a te d , a n d h e in c lu d e d a p h o to g r a p h o f S h u -c h in w ith h e r sta b w o u n d s .37 Finally, R o b e rt W ils o n a n d J o h n R a b e c ite d b r ie f a c c o u n ts o f th e in c id e n t in th e ir d ia ries a t th e tim e . T h u s H s ia S h u -c h in ’s p lig h t h as b e e n d o c ­ u m e n te d in a p lu ra lity o f ac co u n ts, a n d I h av e a rg u e d elsew here th a t th e ir n u m ­ b e r a n d s im ila rity m a k e fo r v irtu a lly a n iro n -c la d case.38 H o w ev er, H ig a s h in a k a n o in sists th a t th e w o m a n w h o to d a y claim s to b e H s ia is “a n im p o s te r” b ecau se “ ‘th e 8-year o ld g irl’ [in q u e s tio n ]” w as n o t a ch ild o f th e H s ia o r th e M a c o u p le . H e w ill n o t b u d g e fro m th is s ta n c e ev en th o u g h a n a c c u ra te tr a n s la tio n a n d a p r o p e r re a d in g o f R o se n ’s c o n s u la r r e p o r t— w h ic h h e h im s e lf q u o te s in h is b o o k — w o u ld p ro v e th a t th e g irl w as H s ia S h u c h in .39 A s w e hav e se en , H ig a s h in a k a n o p re su m e s th a t “i f th e re is a sp e c k o f d o u b t as to th e lo g ic o r c o n s iste n c y ” in re le v a n t a c c o u n ts, w e s h o u ld re je c t th e se as u n re lia b le . H e re h e p o in ts o u t th a t, d e p e n d in g o n w h ic h a c c o u n t w e go by, e ith e r elev en o r th ir te e n p e o p le w ere re p o r te d k ille d , a n d th a t S h u c h in ’s s u rv iv in g siste r w as sa id to b e e ith e r th re e o r fo u r y ears o f age. T h u s h e in isists th a t “i f H s ia S h u -c h in w ere g iv in g us th e a c tu a l facts, th e re c o u ld b e n o in c o n siste n c ie s o f th is ty p e .”40 T h is p r e s u m p tio n v io la te s th e h is to ria n ’s m e th o d . H s ia S h u -c h in d id n o t w rite th e so u rces th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o c ritic a lly c o m p a re s; M a g ee , R o sen , R a b e, a n d W ils o n d id . L ik ew ise, H s ia s in te rv ie w e r tra n s c rib e d th e o ral te s tim o n y th a t she s u b m itte d in 1 9 9 8 . T h e re fo re , it is o n ly n a tu ra l th a t th e a c c o u n ts d o n o t m a tc h to a tee. S in ce th e m a in p o in ts o f h e r s to ry are th e sa m e, slig h t d is­ c re p an cies o f th is ty p e s h o u ld m a k e n o d iffe re n c e . A ll a c c o u n ts c o n firm th a t: (1) m o re th a n te n p e rso n s in th e tw o fam ilies w ere ra p e d a n d /o r k illed ; (2) th e e ig h t-y e a r o ld H s ia S h u -c h in su rv iv e d a b a y o n e t w o u n d to th e n e c k ; a n d (3) sh e a n d h e r y o u n g e r sister ag ed th re e o r fo u r w ere th e o n ly su rv iv o rs. B u t H ig a s h in a k a n o in sists th a t th e re c a n b e n o in c o n s is te n c ie s w h a tso e v e r; i f th e re are, w e s h o u ld re je c t H s ia S h u -c h in as a n u n re lia b le w itn e ss to th e A tro city . T h e fallacy o f h is c o n te n tio n is clear to a n y h is to ria n w h o h as d o n e field in te rv ie w s. In Ju ly 1 9 9 8 , fo r in s ta n c e , I q u e s tio n e d se v en su rv iv o rs o f th e 12 Ju ly 1 9 4 5 air ra id o n U ts u n o m iy a city, n o r th e a s t o f T o k y o . T h e ir re p lie s d if­ fered greatly. S o m e sa id th a t th e n ig h t o f th e a tta c k w as “c lo u d y .” S o m e sa id it w as “p o u r in g r a in .” S o m e sa id it w as a “m is ty r a in .” S o m e sa id th e y h e a rd a w a rn in g siren . O th e r s sa id th e y d id n o t. S till o th e rs sa id th a t th e s ire n ca m e afte r th e ra id b e g a n . T h e y d isa g re e d a b o u t th e s o u n d m a d e b y fa llin g b o m b s . S o m e said it w as h ig h -p itc h e d ; o th e rs, lo w -p itc h e d . S o m e sa id th e b o m b s m a d e n o s o u n d a t all. A b o v e all, n o t o n e o f th o se se v en p e o p le sa id th a t h e o r sh e saw a n y o n e d ie in th e ra id ev en th o u g h re c o rd s lis t 5 2 1 v ic tim s .41 B u t i f w e fo llo w ed H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s m e th o d o lo g y , th is air ra id n e v e r to o k p lace; it h as to b e a n illu s io n , a m y th , o r a fa b ric a tio n , b e c a u se th e re are so m a n y c o n ­ tr a d ic to r y a c c o u n ts. T h e s e o ra l a c c o u n ts y ie ld far m o re th a n “a sp e c k ” o f v ag u en ess o r in c o n siste n c y , so th e d o c u m e n ts th a t cite 521 v ic tim s m u s t b e “f o u rth - o r fifth -ra te s o u rc e s .” 321

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

The Chinese Really D id It A n o th e r p lo y u se d b y d e n ie rs su c h as T a n a k a M a sa a k i a n d H ig a s h in a k a n o is to b la m e th e C h in e s e fo r a n y m is d e e d s th a t d id ta k e p la c e in th is p u ta tiv e ly n o n - e x is te n t N a n k in g A tro c ity . A ll evil acts, T a n a k a first w ro te in 1 9 8 7 , w ere th e w o rk o f K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) co v e rt o p e ra tio n s u n its lu rk in g in th e N S Z .42 H ig a s h in a k a n o e la b o ra te d o n th is a r g u m e n t in 1 9 9 8 .43 T h o s e u n its , h e said, re p u te d ly n u m b e re d so m e 2 0 ,0 0 0 m e n d isg u ise d as Ja p a n e se tr o o p s .44 T h e y p e r p e tra te d acts o f lo o tin g , ra p e , m u rd e r, a n d a rso n a g a in st h elp less civ ilian s o r refugees in f ro n t o f W e ste rn e rs o n th e In te r n a tio n a l C o m m itte e (IC ) fo r th e N S Z . In o th e r w o rd s, th o se u n d e rc o v e r K M T u n its d u p e d fo re ig n o b se rv e rs in to r e p o r tin g C h in e s e crim e s to th e o u ts id e w o rld as th e w o rk o f Ja p a n e se forces. A g ain , d e n ie rs c o m m it a “s e c o n d r a p e ” b y f o b b in g J a p a n ’s w a r crim es o f f o n to C h in a , th u s re fle c tin g th e e th n ic b ia s th e y h a rb o r. H ig a s h in a k a n o gives free re in to h is c o n s p ira to ria l im a g in a tio n . T ru e , so m e K M T officers a n d m e n m a sq u e ra d e d as refugees in th e N S Z , a n d so m e d e s titu te C h in e se civilians lo o te d g o o d s fro m a b a n d o n e d h o u se s to sell o n th e b la c k m a rk e t. B u t H ig a ­ s h in a k a n o a ttr ib u te s to K M T c o v e rt o p e ra tio n s u n its ex a ctly w h a t th e J a p a n ­ ese S p ecial S ervice A g e n c y (SSA) w ere in fa c t d o in g . T h a t is, th e S SA w as en g a g ed in a c a lc u la te d , c o v e rt p r o p a g a n d a c a m p a ig n to p in r e s p o n s ib ility o n C h in e s e e le m e n ts so th a t they, r a th e r th a n th e im p e ria l arm y, w o u ld b e a r th e b r u n t o f in te r n a tio n a l c e n su re fo r w a r crim e s a t N a n k in g . W e s te rn p r im a ry so u rce s, fu lly av ailab le in Ja p a n e se tra n s la tio n , expose H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s fra u d . F o r e x a m p le , S e c re ta ry G e o rg R o s e n in th e N a n k in g O ffice o f th e G e r m a n e m b a ssy s e n t a m e m o o n “Ja p a n e se P ro p a g a n d a M e th ­ o d s” to th e fo re ig n m in is tr y in B e rlin . I t sa id th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s lo o tin g th e F re n c h e m b assy th r e a te n e d g u a rd s to m a k e th e m “r e p o r t th is as th e w o rk o f C h in e s e .”45 T h a t is w h y R o se n fe lt a n e e d to c o n firm a n d re c o rd cases o f w a n ­ to n Ja p an e se pillag e , a rso n , a n d d e s tru c tio n o f G e r m a n p r o p e r ty b e fo re h is em b assy c o u ld d e m a n d c o m p e n s a tio n . L ik ew ise, P ro f. M in e r S. B ates o f N a n ­ k in g U n iv e rs ity to o k g re a t p a in s to d o c u m e n t A m e ric a n losses re s u ltin g fro m Ja p a n e se p illa g e .46 In o th e r w o rd s, th e W e ste rn e rs w h o e x p o sed im p e ria l a rm y a tro c itie s a n d lo d g e d fo rm a l p ro te s ts w ith Ja p a n e se a u th o ritie s d id so k n o w ­ in g fu ll w ell th a t th e S SA w as g e n e ra tin g false re p o rts d e s ig n e d to re fu te o r d e n y su c h a tro c itie s, o r to accu se th e C h in e s e o f p e r p e tra tin g th e se, so as to evade legal cu lp ab ility . W e ste rn o b serv ers in N a n k in g w ere n o t as facile as H ig a s h in a k a n o p o rtra y s th e m . M o reo v e r, a b it o f c a refu l th in k in g reveals th e c o n triv e d n a tu re o f H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s claim . R ig h t a fte r th e fall a n d o c c u p a tio n o f N a n k in g , so m e K M T tro o p s d id v io la te in te r n a tio n a l la w b y fle e in g in to th e N S Z . T h e y d isc a rd e d th e ir u n ifo rm s to m a s q u e ra d e as refu g ees a n d h id th e ir w e a p o n s a n d a m m u n i­ tio n . B u t th e irs w as a v ery p re c a rio u s existence. T h e y w ere alre ad y b e in g h u n te d d o w n b y Ja p an e se m o p - u p p a tro ls; h e n c e th e y s o u g h t to re m a in as in c o n sp ic 322

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

u o u s as p o ssib le. F u rth e rm o re , th e re w ere p le n ty o f c o lla b o ra to rs — called Han chien o r “C h in e s e tr a ito rs ” b y th e C h in e s e — w h o e x p o sed th e w h e re a b o u ts o f su c h K M T tro o p s fo r a fee. C h in e s e refu g ee s in th e N S Z also ta ttle d o n th e se u n d e r g r o u n d K M T tro o p s fo r fea r o f in d is c rim in a te r e ta lia tio n i f th e y sh o u ld b e d isc o v ered . M o s t o f all, th e re w ere less th a n tw e n ty W e ste rn e rs le ft in N a n ­ k in g , a n d th e Ja p a n e se a rm y h a d c u t o f f v irtu a lly all m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a ­ tio n w ith th e o u ts id e w o rld . T h u s , K M T tro o p s b e in g h u n te d d o w n in th e N S Z h a d n o re a so n to h o p e fo r w id e s p re a d overseas m e d ia co v erag e. W h y , th e n , w o u ld th e y ris k re v e a lin g th e ir w h e re a b o u ts b y e n g a g in g in th e se u n d e r ­ cover acts? In su m , H ig a s h in a k a n o c o m m its a n a n a c h ro n is m u n b e c o m in g a h is to ria n . W r itin g in 1 9 9 8 , h e k n o w s fo r a fa c t th a t so m e W e ste rn e rs jo u r ­ n a lists a n d re sid e n ts in N a n k in g d id r e p o r t Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s— as w ell as a few C h in e s e a tro c itie s c a m o u fla g e d as J a p a n e se — to th e o u ts id e w o rld . H e also p re su m e s th a t u n d e r g r o u n d K M T tro o p s in th e N S Z k n e w th a t fa c t as w ell. F ro m th e se p rem ise s, h e re tro a c tiv e ly c o n je c tu re s th a t th e se d isg u ise d K M T tro o p s c o m m itte d a tro c itie s in f r o n t o f W e ste rn e rs so as to deceiv e th e m in to r e p o r tin g th a t Ja p a n e se fo rc es w ere th e rea l g u ilty p a rty .47

“Law ful”P O W Executions A s n o te d above, in n u m e r a b le Ja p a n e se b a ttle fie ld d ia rie s a n d o th e r p r im a ry d o c u m e n ts hav e b e e n u n e a r th e d a n d p u b lis h e d over th e p a s t tw o d ec ad e s to s h o w u n e q u iv o c a lly th a t th e im p e ria l a rm y ex e c u te d C h in e s e p riso n e rs en m asse. T h e s e so u rc e s— le ft b y th e v e ry Ja p a n e se w h o c o m m itte d m a ssac res— are a k ey fa c to r th a t e x p o se d d e n ia l a rg u m e n ts to b e b a n k r u p t. To o v e rc o m e th is facto r, H ig a s h in a k a n o id io s y n c ra tic a lly “r e in te r p re ts ” th e 1 9 0 7 H a g u e C o n v e n tio n C o n c e r n in g L aw s a n d C u s to m s o f W a r— in effec t re p e a tin g a rg u ­ m e n ts m a d e b y T a n a k a M a sa a k i in 1 9 8 7 — to c la im th a t th e se k illin g s w ere “le g a l.”48 A c c o rd in g to H ig a s h in a k a n o , th e H a g u e C o n v e n tio n — to w h ic h im ­ p eria l J a p a n w as b o u n d as a sig n a to ry — s tip u la te d th a t m ilitia o r v o lu n te e r co rp s h a d to m e e t c e rta in c o n d itio n s b e fo re th e y c o u ld e n jo y th e rig h ts o f c o m b a t­ a n ts u n d e r in te r n a tio n a l law, in c lu d in g th e p r o te c tio n s h o w n to p ris o n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ). F irst, m ilitia o r v o lu n te e r g ro u p s h a d to b e c o m m a n d e d b y an officer resp o n sib le fo r ov erseein g th e ir b eh av io r. S eco n d , th e y h a d to w ea r fixed, d istin c tiv e e m b le m s s e ttin g th e m a p a rt f ro m n o n c o m b a ta n ts re c o g n iz a b le a t a d ista n c e . T h ir d , th e y h a d to c a rry w e a p o n s o p en ly . F o u rth , th e y h a d to c o n ­ d u c t o p e ra tio n s a c c o rd in g to th e law s a n d c u s to m s o f w ar. So far, so g o o d . B u t H ig a s h in a k a n o a p p lie s th e se s tip u la tio n s — in te n d e d fo r m ilitia a n d v o l­ u n te e r co rp s n o t in u n if o rm — to re g u la r C h in e s e tro o p s so as to d e n y th e m p r o te c tio n as P O W s u n d e r th e law s o f w ar. H e arg u es th a t th e C h in e se a t N a n ­ k in g v io la te d all fo u r s tip u la tio n s . T h e ir c o m m a n d e r, T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , h a d fled a n d th u s w as d e re lic t in h is d u ty to oversee th e m a n d th e ir s u rre n d e r; th is 323

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

c o n tra v e n e d th e first c o n d itio n . T h o s e tro o p s h a d ca st o f f th e ir u n ifo rm s a n d ta k e n refu g e in th e N S Z w h e re th e y h id th e ir w e a p o n s a n d a m m u n itio n ; th is v io la te d th e se c o n d a n d th ir d c o n d itio n s . F inally, th o se a c tio n s ip so fac to tran sg re ssed “th e law s a n d c u s to m s o f w a r.” T h u s , H ig a s h in a k a n o says, C h i­ nese tro o p s fo rfe ite d a n y r ig h t th a t th e y w o u ld o th e rw ise h av e e n jo y e d as c o m ­ b a ta n ts . T h e Ja p a n e se sid e c o u ld th e n refu se to a c c e p t th e ir s u rre n d e r a n d in s te a d k ill th e m ; a n d , th is w o u ld c o n s titu te “le g a l” b a ttle fie ld a c tio n s sa n c ­ tio n e d b y th e H a g u e C o n v e n tio n . E v en i f w e w ere to g r a n t h im th is p o in t fo r th e sake o f a rg u m e n t, H ig a ­ s h in a k a n o ig n o re s o th e r k e y article s in th e c o n v e n tio n . O n e o f th e se s tip u ­ la te d th a t m ilita ry trib u n a ls b e h e ld b e fo re a n y k illin g o f P O W s m ig h t b e d e e m e d “le g a l.” A n o th e r r e q u ire d s ig n a to ry sta te s to e d u c a te th e ir a rm e d forces a b o u t s tip u la tio n s in th e c o n v e n tio n a n d th e n e e d to o b e y it as p a r t o f in te r n a tio n a l law .49 B u t th e im p e ria l a rm y n e v e r h e ld m ilita ry tr ib u n a ls fo r c a p tu re d C h in e s e tro o p s , a n d it in s tru c te d officers a n d m e n to ig n o re in te r ­ n a tio n a l law. H ig a s h in a k a n o p a rro ts th e a rg u m e n t th a t w a rtim e Ja p a n e se field c o m m a n d e rs h a d u se d to ju s tify th e ir m assacres, th u s u n d e rs c o rin g th e ir a rro ­ g an ce. H is “r e in te r p re ta tio n ” o f th e H a g u e C o n v e n tio n — p lu s h is u se o f p e jo rativ es s u c h as Shina a n d Shinajin — p re s e n t w a rtim e Ja p a n e se p re ju d ic e in liv in g color. In effect, h e says th a t J a p a n d id n o t n e e d to o b e y in te r n a tio n a l law w h e n a t w ar w ith th e C h in e s e b ec au se th e y w ere d e sp ic a b le , in fe rio r e n titie s. N a n k in g d e n ie rs su c h as K o m u ro N a o k i a n d W a ta n a b e S h o ic h i a p p la u d H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s lo g ic, b u t e n c o u n te r tro u b le w h e n th e y a p p ly it to th e P acific th e a te r. T h e y c o n c u r th a t, in o rd e r fo r c o m b a ta n ts to s u rre n d e r u n d e r in te r ­ n a tio n a l law s o f w ar, “th e ir re sp o n sib le c o m m a n d in g o fficer m u s t fo rm a lly re q u e s t h is c o u n te r p a r t o n th e o th e r sid e to a c c e p t th e su rre n d e r. I f c o m b a t­ a n ts tr y to s u rre n d e r o n th e ir o w n , e ith e r sin g ly o r in g ro u p s, th e o p p o s in g c o m m a n d e r m a y refu se to ta k e th e m b ec au se h e h as n o w a y to e n su re th a t th e y rea lly w ill s u rre n d e r [an d n o t a m b u s h u n s u s p e c tin g w o u ld -b e c a p to rs]. A fo rm a l s u rre n d e r is lik e a c o n tra c t; b o th sides m u s t agree to i t . ”50 T h u s , lik e H ig a s h in a k a n o , K o m u ro a n d W a ta n a b e a ffirm th a t th e Ja p a n e se a rm y c o u ld “leg ally ” s la u g h te r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih ’s m e n b ecau se h e, as th e ir re sp o n sib le c o m m a n d in g officer, h a d fled th e scen e. As su c h , T ’a n g c o u ld n e ith e r re q u e s t a fo rm a l s u rre n d e r n o r e n su re th a t h is m e n w o u ld c o m p ly w ith its te rm s. B u t th e se N a n k in g d e n ie rs also n o te :

W e usually hear th at Japanese troops in the South Pacific died a glorious death, fight­ ing to the last m an. But in fact GIs killed almost all those who surrendered. Japanese captives who knew English were spared, to be exploited as a source o f intelligence. But the rest got killed because GIs found them burdensom e. T h e GIs slaughtered them and bulldozed the bodies into the ground. T hose captives m ay n o t exactly qualify as “PO W s,” but the fact that they suffered this fate is duly recorded in U.S. docum ents.51 324

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

A s Y o sh id a Y u tak a p o in ts o u t, th e se n a tio n a lis ts w o u ld love to c a stig a te A m e r­ ic a n tro o p s fo r th e ir w a r c rim e s b u t c a n n o t d o so w ith o u t re p u d ia tin g H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s “r e in te r p re ta tio n ” o f in te r n a tio n a l law .52 Yet th a t p e rfo rc e w o u ld d e p riv e th e m o f a n a r g u m e n t n e e d e d to d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . P erh ap s, th e n , it is th e y w h o h av e b e e n b ra in w a s h e d in to e s p o u sin g a “m a s o c h is tic ” “T o k y o W a r C rim e s ” v ie w o f J a p a n ’s p ast.

Faulty Text Critique H ig a s h in a k a n o disp lay s y e t a n o th e r q u ir k o f lo g ic to c o n firm h is d elu siv e h y p o ­ th e tic a l fix atio n . H e c o n te n d s th a t, i f a la te r “o ffic ia l” d o c u m e n t d elete s a n y referen c e to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity o r to a sp e cific v ic tim to ll in it, th is “p ro v e s” th a t earlier a c c o u n ts h a d n o basis in reality. F o r e x a m p le , h e cites a North China D aily News a rtic le d a te d 2 2 J a n u a ry 1 9 3 8 th a t lists 1 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s , a n d co m p a re s th is a g a in st th e 1 9 3 8 China Yearbook, p u t o u t b y th e sa m e p u b ­ lisher, th e N o r t h C h in a N e w s a n d D a ily H e ra ld , b a se d in S h a n g h a i. T h e Year­ book, h e claim s, is a “first-class s o u rc e ” sin c e it is a n “o fficial d o c u m e n t” issu ed b y th e C h in e s e g o v e rn m e n t. H e n c e , it ta k e s p re c e d e n c e o v er th e “n o n o ffic ia l” North China D aily News — clea rly a f o u rth - o r fifth -c lass so u rc e . T h e p refac e to th is e d itio n o f th e Yearbook is d a te d 2 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 . C h a p te r 19 o n “S in o Ja p a n e se H o s tilitie s ” says o n ly th a t “th e Ja p a n e se a rm y o c c u p ie d N a n k in g o n 13 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 .” F ro m th is , H ig a s h in a k a n o c o n c lu d e s th a t, sin c e th e a u th o rs w ere w ritin g in la te -J a n u a ry a n d e a rly -F e b ru a ry o f 1 9 3 8 , th e y c o u ld n o t h av e failed to n o tic e a n y th in g lik e a m e g am a ssa cre; a n d , sin c e th e y d id n o t m e n tio n it, th e K M T re g im e re je c te d th e v ic tim c o u n t fo u n d in th e “n o n o ffic ia l” North China Daily News a rtic le . T h is , h e p r o u d ly d e d u c e s, is m o re p r o o f th a t th e A tro c ity n e v e r o c c u rre d . H is c la im rests o n ig n o ra n c e a b o u t w h a t y e a rb o o k s are a n d h o w th e y are p r o d u c e d . L ike all su c h w o rk s, th e China Yearbook ca m e o u t ea rly in Ja n u ary . W rite rs h a d to fin ish m a n u s c rip ts b y la te -N o v e m b e r o r e a rly -D e c e m b e r a t th e v e ry la te s t in o rd e r fo r e d itin g , p r in tin g , a n d b in d in g to ta k e p la c e b y th e e n d o f th e y ear in tim e fo r p u b lic a tio n . S in ce Ja p a n e se o rd e rs fo r th e fin a l assau lt o n N a n k in g d id n o t c o m e u n til 1 D e c e m b e r a n d th e w a lle d c ity d id n o t fall u n til 13 D e c e m b e r, w e c a n n o t re a so n a b ly ex p e c t a d e ta ile d n a rra tiv e o f th e A tro c ity in th e Yearbook. M o reo v e r, all stages o f p r o d u c tio n w ere d elay e d o w in g to th e Ja p a n e se in v a sio n o f c e n tra l C h in a th a t b e g a n a t S h a n g h a i in A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 . T h e e d ito r o f th e Yearbook, G . W . W o o d h e a d , h as a p refac e d a te d 2 F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 , b u t it d o e s n o t in d ic a te th e la st sta g e o f m a n u s c rip t p r e p a ra tio n . R a th e r, it m e a n s th a t th e p a g e p ro o fs w ere re a d y fo r b in d in g at th a t tim e . T h u s th e e n try , “th e Ja p a n e se a rm y o c c u p ie d N a n k in g o n 13 D e ­ c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 ” w as th e m o s t d e ta ile d th a t c a n re a so n a b ly b e e x p e c te d in th e se circ u m sta n c e s. T h e Yearbook is also s ile n t a b o u t h o w m a n y W e ste rn e rs d ie d 325

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

in th e 12 D e c e m b e r s in k in g o f th e U S S Panay, a n issu e w as o f h u g e c o n c e rn to E n g lish -la n g u a g e re a d e rs in C h in a . T h e Yearbook w as a re fe re n c e w o rk , a c o m p e n d iu m o f g e n e ra l in f o rm a tio n a b o u t C h in a . Its 5 9 3 -p a g e 1 9 3 8 e d itio n c o m p rise s tw e n ty -n in e c h a p te rs o n g eo g rap h y , c lim a te , h isto ry , c u ltu re , c u s to m s, e c o n o m ic s, p o litic s , re c re a tio n , h e a lth a n d w elfare, a n d so o n . In o th e r w o rd s , it w as n o t d e v o te d ju s t to m il­ ita ry o r p o litic a l affairs. So th e fa c t th a t it allo ts o n ly th irty -o n e p ag es to “S in o Ja p a n e se H o s tilitie s ” is n o t a t all su sp e c t. S u c h re fe re n c e w o rk s are h a rd ly th e ty p e o f “first-class s o u rc e ” th a t H ig a s h in a k a n o claim s, b u t i f h e w a n ts to fin d c o r r o b o ra tio n o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity in s u c h w o rk s, h e s h o u ld c o n s u lt an e n try e n title d “T h e B a ttle fo r N a n k in g , D e c e m b e r 4 to 13, 1 9 3 7 ” fo u n d in th e M a c M illa n China Handbook: 1937—1945. I t rela tes th a t, a fte r th e J a p a n ­ ese in v a d e rs o c c u p ie d N a n k in g , th e y c u t o ff all m e a n s o f tr a n s p o r ta tio n a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e o u ts id e w o rld a n d b e g a n a n o rg a n iz e d , sy ste m a tic lo o tin g o f th e city. F u rth e rm o re , it says, th e in v a d e rs ’ h u g e m assacres, rap es, a n d m u rd e rs , p lu s th e ir g e n e ra l a tro c itie s a n d p illa g e w ere u n p a ra lle le d in m o d e rn h is to ry .53 O n e m o re ex am p le o f H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s flaw ed te x t c ritiq u e o f p rim a ry sources is rev ealin g . H e co m p a re s tw o e d ite d v e rsio n s o f a le tte r o rig in a lly w ritte n b y M in e r S. B ates. F irst, o n th e d u s t ja c k e t o f “Nankinggyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, H ig a s h in a k a n o p r o m in e n tly q u o te s th e fo llo w in g passag e f ro m B a te s’ le t­ te r as H a r o ld T im p e rle y r e p r o d u c e d it in h is 1 9 3 8 w o rk , W hat War Means: ...in g N anking. O th er incidents involved larger num bers o f m en than did this one. Evidences from burials indicate th at close to forty thousand unarm ed persons were killed w ithin and near the walls o f N anking, o f w hom some 30 per cent had never been soldiers. M y special interest in these circumstances is twofold: first, because__ H ig a s h in a k a n o a d d e d th e u n d e rlin e to e m p h asize th a t th is se n te n c e is la c k in g in a n o th e r y ea rb o o k , th e Chinese Yearbook: 1938—39, w h ic h w as “p re p a re d fro m official so u rces b y th e C o u n c il o f I n te r n a tio n a l A ffairs u n d e r th e d ire c to rs h ip o f H s u S h u h s i.”54 T h e n , ju s t b e lo w th e first q u o ta tio n o n h is b o o k ’s d u s t ja c k e t, H ig a s h in a k a n o q u o te s th e sa m e passag e f ro m H s u ’s e d ite d v o lu m e : .o c c u p y in g N anking. O th er incidents involved larger num bers o f m en than did this one. M y special interest in the circumstances is twofold: first, because o f the gross treachery o f t h e . F ro m th e d e le te d u n d e r lin e d se n te n c e , H ig a s h in a k a n o arg u es th a t c o n s c ie n ­ tio u s K M T e d ito rs su c h as H s u re je c te d th e “f o rty th o u s a n d ” v ic tim to ll as g ro u n d le ss . H s u sh o w e d s c h o la rly in te g r ity ev en to w a rd h is w a rtim e Ja p a n e se enem y. N o t o n ly H s u ’s Chinese Yearbook: 1938—39, b u t 3 o th e r “o fficial d o c ­ u m e n ts ” e d ite d u n d e r th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a im p rim a tu r, le ft o u t th is d a m n 326

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

in g s e n te n c e . B y c o n tra s t, H ig a s h in a k a n o im p lie s, T im p e rle y ’s d o c u m e n t c o l­ le c tio n , W hat War Means, is a “f o u rth - o r fifth -c lass s o u rc e ” even th o u g h it a p p e a re d rela tiv e ly so o n afte r th e ev e n t; h e n c e w e s h o u ld d ism iss it a n d th e u n d e r lin e d v ic tim c o u n t as p r o d u c ts o f w a rtim e a n ti-Ja p a n e se p r o p a g a n d a .55 B u t c o m m o n sense te lls us th a t, u n le ss B ates (w h o w ro te th e o rig in a l le t­ ter) o r H s u (w h o e d ite d th e K M T so u rc e c o lle c tio n s) e x p licitly sta te d th a t o n e o f th e m d e le te d th e v ic tim c o u n t b ec au se it w as false, w e s h o u ld a ssu m e th a t th is d e le tio n to o k p la c e fo r o th e r re a so n s, p r o b a b ly e d ito ria l in n a tu re . F o r ex a m p le , a lth o u g h th is c a n n o t b e c o n c lu siv e ly p ro v e d , it is m o re lo g ic a l to su rm ise th a t th e Chinese Yearbook: 1938—3 9 h a d to s h o r te n m a te ria ls q u o te d th e re in , w h erea s T im p e rle y fac ed n o su c h c o n s tra in ts o f sp ace in W hat War Means. In a n y case, n o se n sib le h is to ria n w o u ld h a s tily c o n c lu d e th a t th is p a s­ sage d isa p p e a re d in la te r e d ite d w o rk s b ec au se th e e v e n t in q u e s tio n n e v e r h a p p e n e d , o r b ec au se th e ea rlier re p o r te d d e a th to ll w as u n re a l. I f w e to o k H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s c la im to its lo g ic al c o n c lu s io n , w e w o u ld h av e to arg u e th a t ea ch n e w e d itio n o f a n a n n u a l p e rio d ic a l r e p u d ia te s w h a t w as w ritte n th e y ear b efo re. H ig a s h in a k a n o ju m p s to th is c o n c lu s io n in all e a rn e stn e ss b e c a u se h e clings to a h y p o th e tic a l fix a tio n th a t th e A tro c ity n e v e r h a p p e n e d . T h is forces h im to seize a n y sh re d o f e v id e n c e , w h e th e r s o u n d o r n o t, to s u s ta in a n d sys­ te m a tiz e th a t d e lu s io n .56

Conclusion H ig a s h in a k a n o O sa m ic h i (S h u d o ) enjoys e m in e n c e as a n e w h o p e a n d sta n d a rd b e a re r a m o n g a d h e re n ts o f d e n ia l. H e h as e a rn e d th is s ta tu s m a in ly b a se d o n h is o p u s, “N ankin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, a n d “Z a reepu obu N anking” no kenkyu — th e la tte r w o rk h e c o -a u th o re d w ith F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u . In fact, how ever, H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s c re d e n tia ls as a h is to ria n are su sp e c t, a n d h is c o n ­ te n tio n s a b o u t N a n k in g are b a n k r u p t— as d e m o n s tr a te d ab ove. T w o o m in o u s p o in ts are n o te w o rth y , th o u g h . O n e is th e c h a n g e d n a tu re o f th e d e n ia l fac­ tio n th a t acclaim s H ig a s h in a k a n o . T w o o r th re e d ecad es ago, d e n ia l w as a so m e ­ w h a t s o rd id a c tiv ity lim ite d to n o n a c a d e m ic s su c h as c ritic s o f s o c io p o litic a l affairs (hyoronka) o r fo rm e r m ilita ry m e n . B u t d e n ia l to d a y seem s to h av e g a in e d resp e cta b ility , a n d th e fa c tio n c o u n ts a m o n g its ra n k s m a n y u n iv e rs ity p r o ­ fessors w h o te a c h a t so m e o f J a p a n ’s fin e st u n iv e rsitie s, in c lu d in g th e U n iv e r­ sity o f T okyo. S ec o n d , th e p u b lic a tio n o f Iris C h a n g ’s The Rape o f N anking as th e expose o f a p u ta tiv e ly “f o rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t” h as g iv e n d e n ie rs th e o p p o r ­ tu n it y to stage a c o m e -b a c k th a t th e y h av e lo n g s o u g h t. T h e y e x p lo it h e r flaws b y d e m a g o g ic a lly p o r tra y in g le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s w h o affirm N a n ­ k in g ’s h is to ric ity as b e in g o n th e sa m e u n s c h o la rly level as C h a n g a n d h e r s u p ­ p o rte rs . O r, th e y even go so far as to call b o th p a rtie s e n e m ie s o f th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le in a p ro p a g a n d a w ar. C learly, th e s itu a tio n calls fo r g u a rd e d p essim ism . 327

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

Notes * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

25.

26. 27. 28. 29.

Translated from Japanese by the editor. See also, Kasahara, N a n k in jik e n to sanko sakusen, pp. 20—37. Fujioka, Kin-gendaishi kyoiku kaikaku, pp. 1—2. Fujioka suffered demotion to the Board of Directors in July 1999, but returned as Vice Chair in October 2001 after the resignation of Chair Nishio. These quotations are from Atarashii kyokasho o tsukurkai, ed., Atarashii N ihon no rekishi ga hajimaru, p. 314 and p. 320. See “Aratamete Rabe no n ikki o tettei kensho suru.” See Sankei shinbun, 26 October 1999. Fujioka and Higashinakano, “Z a reepu obu N a n k in ”no kenkyu, pp. 1—3. In Sokoku to seinen, September 1998. SAPIO, 14 July 1999. Tawara, et al., “Kokusai mondai no akujunkan o tatsu tame ni,” pp. 10—15; Inoue, “Fuseikakusa yue ni hiteiha no hyoteki to naru, pp. 16—17. The Kashiwa shobo publishers bought Japanese translation rights to Chang’s book and had pre­ pared a translation. However, Chang refused to allow a chapter of commentary and revisions to her numerous errors of fact, and blocked publication on these grounds at the last minute. The publisher did receive threats from right-wing elements, but this was not the main reason for canceling publication. See Haga, “Z a reepu obu N a n kin hoyaku chushi no keii, ” p. 17. Later, in March 1999, they published a Japanese pamplet based on that leaflet, but Nakamura had parted company with the other three because he continued to hold a “minimalist” position about the Atrocity whereas Fujioka and the others had come to deny it totally. For a more detailed account of their activities in the Atarashii kyokasho o tsukuru kai, see Tawara, “Kyokasho kogeki-ha no saikin no doko.” N ew York Times, 20 January and 23 January 2000. Pei-ching chou-hao, 1 February 2000, pp. 8—10. M a in ich i shinbun, 24 January 2000. Sejima is also known as the model for Yamazaki Tomoko’s protagonist in her novel, Fumo chitai (Zone of Barrenness). Sankei shinbun, 29 October 2000. Fujioka and Higashinakano, “Za reepu obu N a n k in ” no kenkyu, p. 272. The publishers are, respectively: Ajia shobo shuppanbu, Nansosha, and Tendensha. Higashinakano, Shakai shiso no rekishi 18 ko , pp. 95, and 128—30. In H onda Katsuichi shu vol. 29. Higashinakano, Kokka hasan, p. 166, p. 183, p. 377, p. 389, p. 71, and p. 409. Kobayashi left the society owing to differences of opinion and personality, but in October 2001, after Nishio resigned as chair, Kobayashi resumed his status as an “acting director,” yet publicly announced his noninvolvement directly in the society’s activities. O n his original position supporting Hata, see Fujioka, K in-gendaishi kyoiku kaikaku: Z endam a-akudam a shikan o koete, pp. 23, 33, and 35; for his change after reading Higashinakano, see Fujioka, “Nakamura Akira shi no ‘Nankin jiken 1-mannin gyakusatsu setsu’ o hihan suru,” passim. Fujioka and Higashinakano, “Za reepu obu N a n k in ” no kenkyu, p. 273. Ibid., p. 362. See Nakayama, N ihonjin wa naze tajujinkaku na no ka, p. 206. Morio in fact is an unreconstructed militarist who labels former fellow-officers such as histo­ rian Fujiwara Akira “minions of the Chinks” for affirming that the Nanking Atrocity took place after “being wined and dined for a week” in China. See Kasahara, N a n kin jiken to N ihonjin, pp. 188-90. 328

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 f:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Higashinakano Osamichi: The Last Word in Denial

30. 31.

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

Sotobayashi et al. eds., Seishin: Shinrigaku jiten, p. 432. For example, see the battlefield diary o f Sixteenth division commander Nakajima Kesago in Kaikosha, ed., N a n k in senshi shiryo shu. Also see battlefield diaries left by the rank and file in the Yamada Detachment, Thirteenth Division in O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N ankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishitachi. A sahi shinbun, 29 November 2000. Matsumura is being sued in the Tokyo District Court. I

subm itted a personal opinion to it attesting to the unscholarly nature of M atsumuras book. In Hata, Higashinakano, and Matsumoto, “Mondai wa ‘horyo shodan o do miru ka,” p. 144. Reproduced in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, p. 121. Kasahara, N a n k in nanm inku no hyakunichi, pp. 254—55. Ibid. Honda, N a n jin g Massacre, pp. 154—58. Kasahara, N a n k in nanm inku no hyakunichi, pp. 249—56. Higashinakano, “N a n k in g gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, pp. 2 4 1 ^ 2 . Compare this with the accurate translation by Ishida, ed., Shiryo: Doitsu gaikokan no m ita N a n kin jiken, p. 176. Higashinakano, Tettei kensho, pp. 2 4 6 ^ 8 . Interviews at “Utsunomiya kushu no taiken o kataru kai,” sponsored by the Utsunomiya heiwa kinen kaikan wo tsukuru kai, 31 July 1998. Tanaka, N a n kin jik e n no sokatsu, pp. 109—13. Higashinakano, Tettei kensho, pp. 274—78. For the figure 20,000, see for example, Kobayashi, Sensoron, p. 45. Ishida, ed., Shiryo: Doitsu gaikokan no m ita N a n kin jiken, p. 180. Nankin jiken chosa kenkyu, ed., N a n kin jik e n shiryo shu 1: A m erika kankei shiryo hen, ” p. 219. For a more detailed discussion, see Kasahara, “Moso ga umidashita ‘Han-Nichi kakuran kosaku tai’ setsu,” pp. 198—215. O n putative Chinese violations of the Hague Convention, see also Tanaka’s earlier work, N a n kin jik e n no sokatsu, pp. 114—16. See Yoshida, “Kokusaiho no kaishaku de jiken o seito dekiru ka,” p. 162, and p. 175. Komuro and Watanabe, F uin no Showashi, p. 150. Ibid., p. 72. Yoshida, “Kokusaiho no kaishaku de jiken o seito dekiru ka,” p. 170. China Handbook: 1937—1945, p. 303. Higashinakano, Tettei kensho, p. 357. Ibid., pp. 355-62. For a more detailed discussion, see Kasahara, “Riaru taimu de sekai kara hinan o abite ita Nankin jiken,” pp. 52-56.

329

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

15

N a n k i n g : D e n ia l a n d At o n e m e n t in C o n t e m p o r a r y Ja p a n * K im ura Takuji

Introduction T h e r e are th re e m a in o b je ctiv es in th is c h a p te r. F irst, I b rie fly rev ie w th e c h a n g in g a rg u m e n ts b y w h ic h co n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ists in J a p a n h av e trie d to d e n y o r m in im iz e th e N a n k in g A tro c ity sin c e th e 1 9 7 0 s. S e c o n d , I d e sc rib e th e ir p o litic a l activ itie s a n d an a ly z e th e ir so c ial bases o f s u p p o r t. T h ir d a n d m o s t im p o rta n tly , I e x a m in e h o w Ja p a n e se le ft-w in g h is to ric a l s c h o la rsh ip o n W o rld W a r I I — a n d p a rtic u la rly th e A tro c ity — h av e s p u rre d th e e m e rg e n c e o f n u m e ro u s c itiz e n -le d m o v e m e n ts f ro m th e 1 9 8 0 s in to th e 2 0 0 0 s a im e d a t e d u ­ c a tin g th e g e n e ra l p u b lic a b o u t im p e ria l Ja p a n e se w a r c rim es. In d e e d , th e se civic g ro u p s go so far as to ta k e legal a c tio n in a tte m p ts to fo rc e th e ir o w n g o v e rn m e n t to assu m e r e s p o n s ib ility fo r w ar crim e s b y p a y in g m o n e ta r y c o m ­ p e n s a tio n to C h in e s e a n d o th e r fo re ig n v ic tim s. P o stw ar Ja p a n e se a c a d e m ic re se a rc h o n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity b e g a n in e a rn ­ est w ith th e ap p e a ra n c e o f tw o p u b lic a tio n s: H o r a T o m io ’s c h a p te r-le n g th essay “N a n k in jik e n ” in 1 9 6 7 , w h ic h w as e x p a n d e d a n d p u b lis h e d in b o o k fo rm u n d e r th e sam e title in 1 9 7 2 , a n d H o n d a K a ts u ic h i’s “C h u g o k u n o ta b i,” w h ic h w as se rialized in th e Asahi shinbun in 1971 a n d a p p e a re d as a sin g le v o lu m e in 1 9 7 2 . B u t Ja p an e se sc h o la rsh ip o n N a n k in g rea lly to o k o ff fro m a b o u t 19 8 4 , o n e y ear afte r le ft-w in g h is to ria n s a n d jo u rn a lis ts h a d f o u n d e d a g ro u p k n o w n as N a n k in k e n , th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t. L arg ely o w in g to its sc h o la rly w o rk , Ja p a n e se s tu d e n ts o f th e A tro c ity c a n n o w r e c o n s tr u c t its b a sic facts in a fairly c o m p re h e n siv e n a rra tiv e s tru c tu re . O n th e o th e r h a n d , co n serv ativ e re v isio n ists in J a p a n h av e o p p o s e d th e se le ft-w in g e ffo rts b y w ag­ in g a th irty -fiv e y e a r p ro p a g a n d a c a m p a ig n to triv ia liz e th e A tro c ity .1 J o u r330

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

n alists, critics o f so c ial a n d p o litic a l affairs, a n d so m e ac a d e m ic s b e lo n g to th is r ig h t-w in g c a m p . T h e y h a v e tw iste d so u rce s to fit th e ir th esis, ig n o re d evi­ d e n c e c o n tra ry to it, a n d en g a g e d in o th e r u n s c h o la rly p ra c tic e s th a t in c lu d e d o c u m e n t- ta m p e r in g — all in a n a tte m p t to re fu te th e h is to ric a l facts o f th is e v e n t a n d o th e r Ja p a n e se w a r crim es. T h u s th e le ft- a n d r ig h t-w in g c a m p s in J a p a n h av e en g a g e d in a m a jo r b a ttle th a t its e lf h as b e c o m e th e o b je c t o f n u m e ro u s h is to rio g ra p h ic a l stu d ie s. O n e ex a m p le o f a n o n -J a p a n e s e sc h o la r w h o an a ly z ed th e c o n tro v e rs y s u r r o u n d in g th e N a n k in g issu e is Y ang D a q in g , a p ro fe sso r o f Ja p a n e se h is to ry a t G e o rg e W a s h in g to n U n iv ersity . Y ang h as a rg u e d th a t it is p o ssib le to arriv e a t a sh a re d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th is h ig h ly tr a u m a tic e v e n t th r o u g h c o lla b o ra tiv e e ffo rts b y Ja p a n e se , C h in e se , a n d W e st­ e rn sc h o lars. H e h o ld s th a t a c o m m o n s to c k o f h is to ric a l facts a n d k n o w le d g e is f o rm in g o n w h ic h w e c a n b e g in a d ia lo g u e to o v e rc o m e n a tio n a l o r e th n ic d iffe ren ce s b e tw e e n th e Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz e rs a n d C h in e s e v ic tim s .2 H o w ev er, Y ang’s tr ip a rtite an aly sis o f th e d e b a te a lo n g m a in ly n a tio n a l lin e s— Ja p a n , C h in a , a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s— d o e s n o t fu lly a c c o u n t fo r d iffe re n c e s o f v ie w ­ p o in t b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s Ja p a n e se ca m p s; n o r d o es it a d e q u a te ly e x p la in th e co n serv ativ e re v isio n ists’ te n a c io u s sta y in g po w er. B y c o n tra s t, th e Ja p a n e se h is to ria n H a ta Ik u h ik o ca te g o riz es fa c tio n s in th e c o n tro v e rs y over N a n k in g in J a p a n as: (1) a le ft-w in g “g re a t m a ssac re f a c tio n ,” (2) a n “illu sio n fa c tio n ” ( w h o m I call th e “f a b ric a tio n ” fa c tio n ), a n d (3) “m o d ­ era tes” o r “m id d le -o f-th e -ro a d e rs ” su c h as H a ta h im s e lf (w h o m I call “m in im iz e rs,”).3 H a ta ’s cre d e n tia ls as a n a c a d e m ic h is to ria n are b e y o n d d o u b t. A lth o u g h a d h e rin g to a m in im a lis t a rg u m e n t, h e h as p ro d u c e d a n ex c ellen t s tu d y w h e re in h e analyzes s tr u c tu ra l fa c to rs in th e im p e ria l a rm y th a t p r e c ip ita te d th e A tro c ity .4 B u t H a ta ’s analysis o f its h is to rio g r a p h y seem s to p la ce th e th re e a d v e r­ sarial ca m p s o n a n eq u a l fo o tin g w h e n in fa c t th o se w h o m h e lab els th e illu sio n fa c tio n , a n d ev en so m e m o d e ra te s , p re s e n t several se rio u s p ro b le m s. T h e y ig ­ n o re in c o n v e n ie n t p ie ce s o f e v id en c e, m a n ip u la te so u rc e s in a rb itra ry w ays, a n d fla u n t o th e r u n sc h o la rly p ra c tic e s. A lso, th e y re p e a t th e ir h a c k n e y e d claim s over a n d over, ev en th o u g h th e se h av e b e e n effec tiv e ly r e fu te d in s c h o la rly c ir­ cles. In ste a d , it is m o re a c c u ra te to say th a t m a n y in th e m in im iz e r a n d fa b ­ r ic a tio n fa c tio n s — b a c k e d b y m a ss p e rio d ic a ls s u c h as Bungei shunju, Shokun, Seiron, Sankei shinbun, a n d o th e r sm a lle r r ig h t- w in g p u b lis h e rs — are in leag u e w ith co n serv ativ e e le m e n ts w h o se ek to r e in v e n t p re w a r in s titu tio n s a n d to r e b u ild J a p a n in to a g re a t p o w e r b y re in s tillin g n a tio n a lis tic v alu es d a tin g fro m th e im p e ria l era a m o n g th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le to d a y .5 Ja p an e se co n serv ativ e rev isio n ists a d h e re to a th e sis th a t affirm s th e “G re a te r E ast A sia W a r.” T h e b a sic p o in ts in th is a r g u m e n t d eriv e f ro m w a rtim e im p e ­ ria l g o v e rn m e n t p r o p a g a n d a as r e fo rm u la te d in th e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s b y th o se w ho w ish ed to d is m a n tle th e A llie d O c c u p a tio n ’s re fo rm p o lic ie s. T h is n a t io n ­ alistic c a m p h o ld s th a t im p e ria l J a p a n c o u ld n e v e r h av e p e r p e tra te d a n y th in g lik e a N a n k in g A tro c ity b e c a u se it fo u g h t a ju s t w ar to lib e ra te A sia. I f in fa c t 331

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

a n y th in g re s e m b lin g su c h a n e v e n t d id o cc u r, th is h a d to h av e b e e n a “n o r ­ m a l” atro city , n o d iffe re n t fro m th o se th a t ta k e p la c e in all w ars in all ages. H e n c e , J a p a n alo n e s h o u ld n o t h av e b e e n d e m o n iz e d a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials a n d s h o u ld n o t c o n tin u e to b e d e m o n iz e d o n th e in te r n a tio n a l stag e today, p rim a rily a t th e in s tig a tio n o f C h in e se a n d , to a lesser e x ten t, A m e ric a n s a n d E u ro p e a n s . T h is G re a te r E a st A sia W a r th e sis refu ses to see J a p a n as a n aggressor. I t is b ased o n e m o tio n , n o t e v id e n c e . T h u s , n o m a tte r h o w s c h o la rly b a n k r u p t it is p ro v e n to be, its p r o p o n e n ts w ill go o n d e n y in g o r m in im iz in g th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d o th e r sh a m e fu l c h a p te rs o f th e r e c e n t Ja p a n e se p a st. H o w ev er, it is u n d e n ia b le th a t th is th e sis fin d s a d eg re e o f p o p u la r a c c e p ta n c e a n d p o lit­ ical p a tro n a g e to d a y b ec au se c e rta in lim ite d se g m e n ts o f p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se so c iety a rd e n tly s u p p o r t it. F ro m th is p ersp e ctiv e, I e x a m in e p o litic a l ac tiv ities o f th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s (Eirei ni kotaeru kai) a n d its s u b ­ g ro u p s th a t c o m p rise v e te ra n s a n d w a r-b e re a v e d fam ilies. It is th e ex iste n ce o f th is society, p lu s its m e m b e rs ’ lin k s w ith co n se rv a tiv e p o litic ia n s a n d b u r e a u ­ crats, th a t h elp s to e x p la in w h y se em in g ly larg e n u m b e rs o f c u rre n t-d a y J a p a n ­ ese refu se to ac k n o w le d g e re sp o n sib ility fo r w a r crim e s s u c h as a t N a n k in g . A b o v e all, ho w ev e r, m y p u rp o s e is to d e sc rib e th e s o c io p o litic a l im p a c t th a t le ft-w in g Ja p an e se h is to ria n s o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity h av e h a d sin ce th e 1 9 80s. A fte r th e fu ro r th a t b ro k e o u t o v er te x tb o o k s c re e n in g in 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 — w h e n n e ig h b o rin g A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts p ro te s te d a g a in st th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n ’s (n o w th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n a n d S cie n ce ) w h ite w a s h in g o f issues su c h as N a n k in g a n d th e so -c a lle d c o m fo r t w o m e n o f W o rld W a r II — m a n y Ja p a n e se sc h o lars a n d civ ic g ro u p s h av e v ig o ro u sly e x p o se d a n d p u b lic iz e d th e ir n a tio n ’s c u lp a b ility fo r w a rtim e ag g re ssio n . T h e a f o re m e n tio n e d S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t its e lf e m e rg e d in 1 9 8 4 ; a n d , a c c o rd in g to o n e o f its m o s t p r o m in e n t y o u n g e r m e m b e rs, it b e g a n its a c a d e m ic a n d so c io p o litic a l u n d e r ­ ta k in g s w ith a sense o f crisis in th e h is to ric a l p ro fe s s io n .6 In th e w ak e o f fo r­ eig n d ip lo m a tic p ro te s ts a n d c o n se rv a tiv e Ja p a n e se a tte m p ts to revive w a rtim e p ro p a g a n d a a b o u t N a n k in g , th e so c iety n o t o n ly c o n v in c in g ly p ro v e d th a t th e e v e n t actu ally to o k p la ce , it also h e lp e d la u n c h c itiz e n -le d e d u c a tio n a n d red ress m o v e m e n ts o n b e h a lf o f C h in e s e v ic tim s. As a resu lt o f th is le ft-w in g sc h o la rsh ip a n d so c io p o litic a l activ ism , tru ly m o ­ m e n to u s ch a n g es to o k p la c e in th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t w ith in fifte e n years. F o r o n e th in g , te x tb o o k s a p p ro v e d fo r use in sc h o o ls by th e M in is try o f E d u ­ c a tio n ca m e to in c lu d e m e n tio n o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d o th e r r e p u g n a n t w a r crim es. F u rth e rm o re , in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 8 th e M in is tr y o f F o re ig n A ffairs, a n d in A p ril 1999 C h ie f C a b in e t S e c re ta ry N o n a k a H ir o m u , to o k th e u n p re c e ­ d e n te d ste p o f offic ia lly c o n c e d in g th a t th e A tro c ity to o k p la ce . C h in e s e v ic ­ tim s a n d th e ir o ffs p rin g are n o t likely to receiv e an y sig n ific a n t m o n e ta ry c o m p e n s a tio n fo r d a m a g e s f ro m th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t, b u t its re c o g n itio n o f th e e v e n t as a h is to ric a l fa c t is a m o m e n to u s rev ersal o f p o s itio n . A n d , it 332

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

w as p rim a rily a c a d e m ic w o rk b y le ft-w in g g ro u p s su c h as th e S o cie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t— p lu s s p in -o ff effects in citiz en s’ m o v e m e n ts fo r e d u c a ­ tio n a n d red ress— th a t fo rc e d th e Ja p a n e se sta te to m a k e th is v o lte -fa ce .

Deniers and Downplayers T h e r e h av e b e e n th re e stages in c o n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ist e ffo rts to d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro city . T h e illu s io n th e sis a p p e a re d in th e 1 9 7 0 s, th e fa b ric a tio n th e sis in th e early 1 9 8 0 s, a n d th e m in im a lis t th e sis in th e la te 1 9 8 0 s.7 Y am a­ m o to S h ic h ih e i (Isa ia h B e n -D a sa n ) a n d S u z u k i A k ira (b o th n o w d eceased ) w ere th e m a in ad v o c a te s o f th e illu s io n th e sis. T h e y d id n o t e x p lic itly d e n y th e A tro c ity b u t im p lie d th a t it d id n o t h a p p e n . B e tw ee n 1971 a n d 1 9 7 5 , th e y en g a g ed th e le ft-w in g H o n d a K a ts u ic h i a n d th e la te H o r a T o m io in a d e b a te over th e t r u th o f a 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te s t th a t alleg e d ly to o k p la c e as p a r t o f th e A tro c ity .8 A s d e s c rib e d b y B o b T a d a sh i W a k a b a y a sh i in c h a p te r 6, Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i h e ld th a t th e c o n te s t w as fictiv e— a w a rtim e p r o p a ­ g a n d a s to ry rev iv ed b y th e le ftist p o s tw a r m e d ia in J a p a n to c u rry fav o r w ith th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ). Y a m a m o to a n d S u z u k i trie d to cast d o u b t o n th e e n tire A tro c ity b y p ro v in g th e “illu so ry ” n a tu re o f th is o n e in c i­ d e n t th a t re p u te d ly e p ito m iz e d it. S u z u k i also c la im e d th a t n o reliab le p r i­ m a ry so u rces ex iste d to s u b s ta n tia te th e A tro c ity ; th o u g h , n e e d le ss to say, h e d id n o t go fa r afield to fin d m a n y n e w o n es. N o r d id h e fu lly ta k e in to a c c o u n t e x ta n t so u rces. M o re o v e r, S u z u k i’s a rtfu l a r r a n g e m e n t a n d p r e s e n ta tio n o f o ral te s tim o n ie s p r o m p te d le ft-w in g c ritic s s u c h as W a ta d a S u s u m u to accu se h im o f m a n ip u la tin g th e se in a d is h o n e s t w ay.9 T h e d e b a te over N a n k in g d ie d d o w n in th e la te -1 9 7 0 s , b u t flared u p a g a in afte r th e 1 9 8 2 —83 te x tb o o k f u ro r ju s t n o te d . In S e p te m b e r 1 9 8 3 N a n k in g d e n ie r T a n a k a M a sa a k i p u b lis h e d a n artic le , la te r e x p a n d e d in to a b o o k , th a t h e ra ld e d th e fa b ric a tio n th e s is .10 W h e re a s S u z u k i a n d Y a m a m o to in th e 1 9 7 0 s o n ly h in te d th a t th e A tro c ity as a w h o le la c k e d reality, T a n a k a a v e rre d o u t­ r ig h t th a t “th e so -c a lle d ‘N a n k in g A tro c ity ’ is a to ta l f a b ric a tio n c o n c o c te d fo r p o litic a l re a s o n s .” In su m , h e h e ld , p ro s e c u to rs a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T ri­ als n e e d e d a n issu e c o m p a ra b le in b a r b a rity to A u sc h w itz ; so th e y m a d e u p th e N a n k in g lie in o rd e r to e sta b lish “a th e o ry o f c rim in a lity r u n n in g th r o u g h ­ o u t Ja p an e se h is to ry .”11 T h is a sse rtio n sp a rk e d n e w h e ig h ts o f ac rim o n y . T a n a k a u se d as h is m a in so u rc e th e b a ttle fie ld d ia ry o f G e n . M a ts u i Iw a n e w h ic h h e d isc o v ered . T h is w as a k e y n e w so u rc e , sin c e M a ts u i w as c o m m a n d e r o f th e S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y (SE A ) a n d la te r o f th e C e n tr a l C h in a A re a A rm y (C C A A ) d u r in g th e a ssa u lt o n S h a n g h a i a n d N a n k in g fro m A u g u s t to D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 . T a n a k a a rg u e d th a t, b ec au se M a ts u i trie d to u p h o ld m ilita ry d isc ip lin e afte r tro o p s e n te re d th e c ity a n d b ec au se h is d ia ry la c k e d a n y m e n ­ tio n o f a n A tro city , th is p ro v e d th a t n o n e h a d o c c u rre d . A lso, T a n a k a stressed 333

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

d efects in C h in e s e m ilita ry d efe n ses s u c h as c o m m a n d e r T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih ’s la s t- m in u te flig h t a n d a b a n d o n m e n t o f h is m e n — w h ic h w ere n o t u n tr u e . B u t T a n a k a stressed th e se C h in e s e d efe cts so m u c h th a t, in effect, h e w as c la im ­ in g th a t th e C h in e s e sid e w as re sp o n sib le fo r a n y m a ss k illin g s th a t d id ta k e p lace, a n d th a t th is a b so lv ed th e Ja p a n e se sid e fro m c u lp ab ility . B o th th e illu s io n a n d fa b ric a tio n fa c tio n s w ere d is c re d ite d in th e la te 1 9 8 0 s fo r 3 m a in re a s o n s .12 O n e w as th e d isc o v e ry o f irre fu ta b le e v id en c e le ft b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s w h o p a r tic ip a te d in th e A tro c ity . F o r e x a m p le , th e d ia ry o f N a k a jim a K esago, c o m m a n d e r o f K y o to ’s S ix te e n th d iv isio n , ca m e o u t in 1 9 8 4 .13 It re c o rd s e x p lic it o rd e rs to e x e cu te p ris o n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ). A s a re s u lt o f th is d ia ry a n d o th e r n e w ly -fo u n d p r im a ry so u rc e s, th e K a ik o sh a , an o rg a n iz a tio n o f fo rm e r h ig h -ra n k in g im p e ria l a rm y officers, rev ersed its avow ed a im o f p ro v in g th e A tro c ity to b e false. R a th e r, th e K a ik o s h a c o n c e d e d th a t th e e v e n t to o k p la c e a n d th e c h ie f e d ito r o f its o rg a n , K a to g a w a K o ta ro , a p o l­ o g ized to th e C h in e s e p e o p le in M a rc h 1 9 8 5 .14 T h u s , a co n se rv a tiv e a n d n a tio n a lis tic o rg a n iz a tio n o f fo rm e r im p e ria l a rm y officers g ru d g in g ly a d m it­ te d th a t a n A tro c ity to o k p la c e a t N a n k in g . T h is a c tio n s y m b o liz e d th e b a n k ­ r u p tc y o f th e illu sio n a n d fa b ric a tio n fa c tio n s. A se c o n d re a so n w as th a t T a n a k a in 1 9 8 6 w as fo u n d to h av e d o c to re d M a ts u i’s b a ttle fie ld d ia ry in r o u g h ly 9 0 0 places w h e n h e tra n s c rib e d it fo r p u b lic a tio n .15 O n e o f its m a in ex p o sers w as I ta k u ra Y oshiaki, a se e m in g ally o f T a n a k a ’s. T h is in fa m o u s in c id e n t p ro v e d th a t th e A tro c ity ’s fa c tu a lity c o u ld b e d e n ie d o n ly b y f ra u d u le n t m e a n s. T h ir d , a n d p e rh a p s m o s t im p o rta n tly , th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t b e g a n p u b lis h in g s c h o la rly fin d in g s to re fu te th e d e n ie rs ’ assertio n s. T h u s b y th e la te 1 9 8 0 s, p e rso n s w is h in g to d e n y th e A tro c ity ’s h isto ric a l facts h a d n o ch o ic e b u t to a d o p t th e m in im a lis t p o s itio n first in tr o d u c e d b y I ta k u ra in 1 9 8 4 .16 Ita k u ra — w h o a lo n g w ith H o r a h a d e x p o sed T a n a k a ’s d o c ­ u m e n t ta m p e r in g in 1 9 8 6 — a d m its th a t m a ssac res b y th e im p e ria l a rm y d id ta k e p la ce a t N a n k in g . H o w ev er, in d e fin in g w h a t a n a tro c ity is, in d e lim it­ in g its te m p o ra l a n d g e o g ra p h ic e x te n t, a n d in id e n tify in g ty p e s o f p e rso n s w h o w ere a n d w ere n o t its v ic tim s — th a t is, th e legal k illin g s o f c o m b a ta n ts v ersu s th e illegal k illin g s o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts — I ta k u r a a n d h is fo llo w ers striv e m ig h tily to d o w n p la y th e sc o p e o f Ja p a n e se w a r crim es. T h e s e m in im a lis ts stress th re e p o in ts . T h e first d eals w ith n u m b e rs . A s I ta k u ra p u t it: Any so-called N anking “Atrocity” has to be defined as an event wherein huge massacres in the tens o f thousands took place— as symbolically stated in the verdicts at the Tokyo W ar Crimes Trials and in the N anking “A trocity M ausoleum ” th at opened in August 1985. T hus som eone like myself, w ho holds that illegal killings at N anking num bered from about 10,000 to 20,000, can legitim ately say that a N anking “Incident” took place, but that it was not an “Atrocity.”17 I ta k u ra ’s a im is to triv ia liz e th e A tro c ity o r to p o r tr a y it as a n a c c id e n ta l b a ttle ­ field o c c u rre n c e a n d th u s w a te r d o w n im p e ria l J a p a n ’s c u lp a b ility fo r w a rtim e 334

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

ag g ressio n . F ro m p o litic a l m o tiv e s, h e I ta k u r a a n d h is co llea g u es lim it th e ir d isc u ssio n to th e n u m b e r o f v ic tim s a n d th e re b y ig n o re q u a lita tiv e issues th a t s h o u ld b e ad d re sse d in th e d e b a te su c h as ra p e , a rso n , lo o tin g , to r tu r e , a n d s tr u c tu ra l d efects in th e im p e ria l a rm y th a t gave b ir th to all o f th e se sh a m e ­ fu l w ar crim es. A s e c o n d flaw is th a t th e m in im a lis t fa c tio n d o es n o t c o u n t as v ic tim s d e fe a te d C h in e s e so ld ie rs w h o , la c k in g th e w ill a n d m e a n s to resist (sin ce th e y h a d d isc a rd e d th e ir w e a p o n s), fled in to th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ) w h e re th e y w ere s u m m a rily e x e c u te d b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s . M in im a lis ts in s is t o n v ie w ­ in g su c h C h in e s e as so ld ie rs m a s q u e ra d in g in c iv ilia n c lo th in g , th a t is, as g u e r­ rillas w h o c o u ld le g itim a te ly b e e x e c u te d as p a r t o f c o m b a t o p e ra tio n s . In fact, th e im p e ria l a rm y k ille d h u g e n u m b e rs o f a c tu a l civ ilia n s m is ta k e n fo r C h i­ nese g u errilla s. B u t m o re to th e p o in t, s u c h a rg u m e n ts m a s k th e m in im a lis ts ’ d esire to le g itim iz e e x e c u tio n s b y e x p lo itin g th e d efe ctiv e c h a ra c te r o f in te r ­ n a tio n a l la w as it ex iste d in 1 9 3 7 a n d th u s m a x im iz e th e n u m b e r o f “le g al” k illin g s b y th e im p e ria l arm y. A s Y o sh id a Y u tak a c o n te n d s , in te r n a tio n a l law in th a t era fu n c tio n e d as a n id e o lo g ic a l to o l to s tr e n g th e n a n d le g itim iz e c o lo ­ n ia l c o n tro l b y A m e ric a n a n d E u ro p e a n im p e ria l p o w ers; h e n c e th e law s o f w a r a ffo rd e d g u e rrilla s m in im a l p r o te c tio n . Yet ev en w ith in th o se s tric t d is­ c r im in a to r y lim its, in te r n a tio n a l la w in 1 9 3 7 still r e q u ire d th a t m ilita ry tr i­ b u n a ls e s ta b lish th e g u ilt o f P O W s in o rd e r fo r th e m to b e leg ally ex e c u te d as g u errilla s, a n d th e im p e ria l a rm y in v a ria b ly failed to c o m p ly w ith th is r e q u ir e m e n t.18 T h ir d , m in im a lis ts refu se to c o u n t m u r d e r e d C h in e s e o n th e g ro u n d s th a t th e y d ie d o w in g to s p o n ta n e o u s ly g e n e ra te d o u tb u r s ts o f h a tre d th a t “c a n ’t b e h e lp e d ” in b a ttle fie ld s itu a tio n s .19 T h u s m in im a lis ts ch o o se n o t to ex a m in e fa c to rs in Ja p an e se s o c ie ty a n d in th e im p e ria l a rm y th a t sp a w n e d s u c h ex­ tre m e h a tre d fo r C h in e s e in th a t p e rio d . I ta k u r a w rite s, “th r o u g h re se a rc h o n th is tra g ic in c id e n t, w e m u s t u n c o v e r e x a c tly w h a t w e Ja p a n e se d id a n d w h e re o u r d efe cts lay [d u rin g th e w a r], a n d w e m u s t u se th e fin d in g s as a basis fo r critic a l s e lf-re fle c tio n .”20 A t first g la n ce , th is seem s to b e a sin c e re a n d e a rn e st a ttitu d e , b u t h is a c tu a l m e th o d s veil p o litic a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l m o tiv e s. Ita k u ra a n d o th e r m in im a lis ts in effect re d u c e th e d e b a te over N a n k in g to tw o issues— a d e fla te d e s tim a te o f v ic tim s a n d th e le g a lity o r ille g a lity o f P O W ex e c u tio n s. T h e ir p u rp o s e is to d e n y th a t a n A tro c ity to o k p lace, o r to assert th a t it w as n o d iffe re n t fro m th o se p e r p e tra te d b y all arm ie s in all w ars.

Sources of Conservative Support T h e illu sio n , d e n ia l, a n d m in im a lis t fa c tio n s p re s u m e th a t J a p a n fo u g h t W o rld W a r II e ith e r in self-d efen se o r to lib e ra te fello w -A sian s fro m W e ste rn c o lo n ia l o p p re ssio n . As n o te d ab ove, th is th e sis to affirm th e “G re a te r E a st A sia W a r” 335

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

is a d o g m a tic re h a sh o f w a rtim e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t p r o p a g a n d a d e s ig n e d to c o n c ea l Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n u n d e r th e c lo a k o f p a n -A sia n stru g g le fo r e m a n ­ c ip a tio n . T h is re a c tio n a ry v ie w ig n o re s h is to ric a l rea litie s a n d w o u ld g a in n o a c c e p ta n c e fro m a n in te r n a tio n a l re a d e rsh ip , b u t a few se g m e n ts o f Ja p a n e se so c iety e m b ra c e it o n e m o tio n a l g ro u n d s ; a n d , w h a t is m o re , it e n jo y s p o lit­ ical in flu e n c e th r o u g h th e a c tiv itie s o f th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s. T h is u m b re lla o rg a n iz a tio n o f v e te ra n s a n d w a r-b e re a v e d fa m ilie s fo rm e d in 1 9 7 6 to lo b b y th e g o v e rn m e n t to revive official s ta n d in g fo r Y a su k u n i S h rin e , a s a n c tu a ry o f p re -1 9 4 5 m ilita ris m . T h e ex iste n ce o f th e se v e te ra n s a n d w arb ere av ed fam ilies e x p la in s th e ad n a u s e a m e ffo rts m a d e b y c o n se rv a tiv e rev i­ sio n ists to d o w n p la y o r d e n y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity even th o u g h su c h claim s la c k sc h o la rly cred ib ility . In 1 8 6 9 th e n e w ly fo rm e d M e iji g o v e rn m e n t c re a te d Y a su k u n i S h rin e to h o n o r th e sp irits o f th o se w h o d ie d o n th e lo y a list sid e in th e R e s to ra tio n w ars, a n d th e s h rin e c o n tin u e d to in s till a v ir u le n t f o rm o f m ilita ris m in th e J a p a n ­ ese p e o p le u n til 1 9 4 5 .21 Y a su k u n i s to o d a to p a n a tio n w id e n e tw o r k o f p refe c tu ra l a n d lo cal sh rin e s th a t d eified a n d h o n o r e d th e h e ro ic so u ls (eirei) o f p e rso n s w h o d ie d fa ith fu lly fo r th e e m p e ro r. B y m a k in g all Ja p a n e se w o rs h ip a t Y asu k u n i, th e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t fo ste re d th e id e a th a t d y in g in J a p a n ’s w ars w as a cause fo r su p re m e p rid e a n d h o n o r. A fte r th e d e fe a t in 1 9 4 5 , Yasuk u n i ch a n g ed fro m a sta te - to p riv a te ly -ru n in s titu tio n , b u t differs little o th e r­ w ise. In th a t sense, it is a p o te n tia lly d a n g e ro u s relig io u s e n tity th a t m a y serve as th e ra lly in g p o in t to revive m ilita ris m . M o v e m e n ts to re e sta b lish official s ta n d in g a n d sta te s u p p o r t fo r Y a su k u n i failed f ro m th e 1 9 5 0 s to th e 1 9 7 0 s. A fte r th a t, v a rio u s g ro u p s h av e trie d to p e rsu a d e c a b in e t m in is te rs to w o rs h ip th e re in th e ir official ca p acities. N ee d less to say, i f Y asu k u n i w ere ag a in to co m e u n d e r sta te m a n a g e m e n t o r to sp o n s o r o fficial v isits b y c a b in e t m in is te rs o r p rim e m in iste rs, th a t w o u ld v io la te th e p rin c ip le o f se p a ra tin g g o v e rn m e n t fro m re lig io n as e n s h rin e d in J a p a n ’s p o s tw a r d e m o c ra tic c o n s titu tio n . T h e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s c o m p rise s sev eral g ro u p s d ire c tly d e s c e n d e d fro m th e o ld im p e ria l a rm e d fo rces. T h e s e in c lu d e a rm y v ete ra n s, fo rm e r a rm y ca d ets (th e K a ik o sh a ), f o rm e r n av a l c a d ets, a n d fa m ilie s w h o se k in w ere m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l k ille d in a c tio n (th e J a p a n W a r-b e re a v e d F am ilies o r N ihon izokukai).22 T h e se m e m b e r g ro u p s in s is t th a t “J a p a n ’s p e a c e a n d p ro s p e rity ” to d a y d eriv e fro m th e sacrifices o f th o se w h o d ie d in p a s t w ars, so all Jap an ese sh o u ld offer th a n k s a n d resp ect, a n d th e sta te sh o u ld d isp lay u tm o s t d efe re n ce, to h e ro ic so u ls e n s h rin e d a t Y a su k u n i. T h e s e g ro u p s d e m a n d a p p re ­ c ia tio n fo r loved o n es w h o m th e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t fo rc e d to d ie in a c tio n — n o t a to n e m e n t fo r a n y evils th e y m ig h t h av e c o m m itte d . M o reo v e r, th is d e m a n d is p re m is e d o n th e v ie w th a t th o se lo v e d o n es d ie d h e lp in g to lib e r­ ate A sia as w ell as to d e fe n d J a p a n . T h is is w h y th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s to o k o u t a fu ll-p a g e ad in th e Sankei shinbun, a co n se rv a tiv e n a -

336

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

tio n w id e daily, o n 2 7 M a rc h 1 9 9 7 p ro c la im in g : “J a p a n w as n o t a n ag g resso r state! N o r d id o u r h e ro ic so u ls w ag e a w a r o f ag g re ssio n !” T h e p o litic a l a c tiv itie s o f th is so c ie ty are n o te w o r th y in tw o w ays. F irst, ever sin c e its in c e p tio n in 1 9 7 6 , th e o rg a n iz a tio n h as se t u p p re fe c tu ra l a n d o th e r lo cal b ra n c h e s w ith th e g o al o f a tta in in g 2 .5 m illio n m e m b e rs. T h is large a n u m b e r, it c o rre c tly re c k o n s, creates th e im p re s s io n th a t its ap p e a ls to p re fe c tu ra l assem b lies e n jo y b ro a d g ra ssro o ts s u p p o r t. S e c o n d , m a n y o f its c o m p o n e n t g ro u p s b o a s t p o te n t lin k s w ith co n se rv a tiv e D ie t m e m b e rs .23 F o r ex a m p le , th e J a p a n W a r-b e re a v e d F am ilies seeks h e lp f ro m p o litic ia n s to raise its m e m b e rs ’ sta te p e n s io n s , to g a in g o v e rn m e n t s u p p o r t fo r Y asu k u n i, a n d to legalize w o rs h ip th e re b y g o v e rn m e n t officials. In r e tu r n fo r th o se b e n e fits, th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s m o b iliz e s its m e m b e r g ro u p s to c a m ­ p a ig n fo r a n d elec t th o s e p o litic ia n s . In sev eral w e ll-k n o w n cases p r io r to th e 2 0 0 0 s, r ig h t-w in g D ie t m e m b e rs o r c a b in e t m in is te rs h a v e h a d to re sig n fro m th e ir p o sts afte r v o ic in g o p in io n s su c h as, “w e fo u g h t to lib e ra te A sia ,” o r “th e ‘N a n k in g A tro c ity ’ w as fa b r ic a te d .” P e rso n a l c o n v ic tio n s asid e, th e se reckless s ta te m e n ts reflec t a d esire to c u rry fav o r w ith th is so c iety .24 S u c h co n serv ativ e p o litic a l lin k s h e lp ex p la in c e rta in k e y ev e n ts in 1 9 9 5 . In th a t year, th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e to M a rk th e F iftie th A n n iv e rsa ry o f th e W a r’s E n d w as fo rm e d , m a in ly b y p e rs o n n e l f ro m th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s. A t th a t tim e , a c o a litio n g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r th e so c ia list P rim e M in is te r M u ra y a m a T o m iic h i p le d g e d to e n a c t a C a b in e t R e s o lu tio n o f A p o l­ o g y a n d C ritic a l S e lf-R e fle c tio n to m a rk th e h a lf- c e n tu r y sin c e J a p a n ’s d e fe a t in 1 9 4 5 . T h e co n se rv a tiv e a n d n a tio n a lis tic N a tio n a l C o m m itte e , h o w ev er, p r o m p tly o p p o s e d M u ra y a m a ’s e ffo rt b y d r a f tin g a D ie t p e titio n o f p r o te s t sig n e d b y so m e 5 .0 6 m illio n p e o p le . D ie t m e m b e rs f ro m th e L ib e ra l D e m o ­ c ra tic P a rty a n d th e N e w P ro g ressiv e P a rty fo rm e d o rg a n iz a tio n s (h e a d e d b y O k u n o S eisu k e a n d O z a w a T a tsu o , resp ectiv ely ,) to b a ttle M u ra y a m a ’s p r o ­ p o se d C a b in e t R e s o lu tio n o f A p o lo g y a n d C ritic a l S e lf-R e fle c tio n .25 T h u s , lin k s b e tw e e n th e S o cie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s a n d c o n s e rv ­ ative p o litic ia n s g re w stro n g e r. A ll m e m b e rs o f th e N e w P ro g ressiv e P arty a n d m a n y f ro m th e L ib e ra l D e m o c r a tic P arty a b s ta in e d f ro m v o tin g o n 9 J u n e 1 9 9 5 , w h e n th e lo w e r h o u se p assed th e c a b in e t r e s o lu tio n fo rm a lly e n title d , A R e s o lu tio n to R e a ffirm O u r V o w to P ro m o te Peace b y L e a rn in g f ro m H is ­ tory. A lth o u g h th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e failed to s c u ttle th e r e s o lu tio n to tally , it d id fo rce th e lo w er c h a m b e r to in s e rt a k e y clau se s ta tin g th a t n o t o n ly Ja p a n , b u t E u ro p e a n n a tio n s a n d th e U n ite d S tate s as w ell, w ere g u ilty o f ag­ g ressio n a n d c o lo n ia l ru le . T h a t clau se to n e d d o w n J a p a n ’s c u lp a b ility fo r th e w a r to a degree u n im a g in e d by th e r e s o lu tio n ’s o rig in a l d ra fte rs. N o t to b e c o n te n t, th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e th e n trie d u n su c ce ssfu lly to o b s tr u c t passage o f th e r e s o lu tio n in th e u p p e r h o u se ; a n d , in p ro te s t, w e n t o n to sp o n s o r R es­ o lu tio n s to O ffe r T rib u te a n d G ra titu d e to O u r W a r D e a d in p re fe c tu ra l

337

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

assem blies, s ta rtin g w ith S h ig a. O n ly a m o n th la ter, b y th e e n d o f Ju ly 1 9 9 5 , 2 6 o f J a p a n ’s 4 7 p re fe c tu ra l assem b lies h a d p a sse d su c h p r o te s t r e s o lu tio n s .26 Yet d e s p ite th e ir a ll-o u t effo rts, th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e a n d S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s c o u ld a c c o m p lis h o n ly so m u c h , a n d th e se lim ita ­ tio n s are ex e m p lifie d b y th e R e s o lu tio n C o n c e r n in g T rib u te to O u r W a r D e a d a n d to E te rn a l Peace p a sse d in th e T o k u s h im a p re fe c tu ra l assem bly. O n the occasion o f this, the fiftieth year since the w ar’s end, we in the Tokushim a pre­ fectural assembly resolve to offer tribute and gratitude to victims o f that war— includ­ ing 30,000 persons from Tokushim a— w ho laid down their precious lives at hom e and abroad, praying for the peace and security o f our ancestral land. W h at is more, in light o f the innum erable acts o f colonization and aggression that m ark m odern w orld his­ tory, we wish to express profound critical self-reflection about the enorm ous suffering endured by m any peoples in Asia and all over the globe w ho were victimized by the horrors o f war. W e hereby solemnly pledge to heed the key role played by politics and to learn the lessons o f history w ith humility, so that we will never again [perpetrate] the horrors o f war, and thus contribute to an everlasting peace. So resolved on this fifteenth day o f July in the seventh year o f Heisei Tokushim a Prefectural Assembly27 T h is r e s o lu tio n d o e s in d e e d “o ffer tr ib u te a n d g r a titu d e ” to Ja p a n e se “v ic tim s o f th e w a r,” b u t it also m a n a g e s to in c o rp o r a te th e le ft-w in g v ie w o f th e w a r as h a v in g b e e n fo u g h t fo r aggressive aim s. As th is w o rd in g sh o w s, d e s p ite in ­ te n se lo b b y in g b y th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e , th e T o k u s h im a A sse m b ly d id n o t a d o p t th e co n serv a tiv e re v isio n ist th e sis th a t u n c o n d itio n a lly affirm s J a p a n ’s ro le in W o rld W a r II as h a v in g sa crifice d its e lf to lib e ra te A sia n s fro m W e st­ e rn c o lo n ia l o p p re ssio n . In o th e r w o rd s, w e c a n c o n c lu d e , th a t re a c tio n a ry v ie w o f th e w a r d o es n o t fin d w id e s p re a d a c c e p ta n c e in c u r r e n t- d a y Ja p a n e se society. Yet th e fa c t re m a in s th a t th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s a n d its c o n s titu e n t g ro u p s h o ld g re a t a ttr a c tio n fo r m a n y v e te ra n s a n d b e re a v e d fa m ­ ilies. T h is allu re ste m s fro m th e a c u te m is tru s t a n d d is g r u n tle m e n t th e y b e a r to w a rd Ja p a n e se so c ie ty — th is, d e s p ite th e fin a n c ia lly p riv ile g e d tr e a tm e n t th e y e n jo y c o m p a re d w ith fo re ig n v ic tim s o f th e w a r a n d ev en w ith Ja p a n e se civ il­ ia n v ic tim s w h o , u n lik e fo rm e r m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l, receiv e n o sta te p e n s io n s o r b en e fits. T h e re are d e e p -se a te d re a so n s fo r th e se g ro u p s ’ m is tru s t a n d disg r u n tle m e n t. A fte r lo sin g h o m e s in air ra id s a n d su ffe rin g d e s titu tio n a n d h u n g e r, m o s t o rd in a ry Ja p a n e se sin c e 1 9 4 5 h av e felt th a t they, a n d n o t fo re ig n p eo p les, w ere th e v ic tim s o f th e w ar. T h u s , o r d in a ry Ja p a n e se re a c te d w ith d isg u s t a n d e n m ity to w a rd so ld ie rs o r sailo rs w h o a b u s e d th e ir p riv ile g e d p o si­ tio n to fe a th e r th e ir o w n n e sts b y p ilfe rin g m ilita ry fo o d stu ffs a n d su p p lie s in th e w ak e o f J a p a n ’s d e fe a t.28 A lso, th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials la id b a re th e tre a c h e ro u s a n d b a rb a ric w a rtim e b e h a v io r o f m ilita ry le ad e rs w h o m o r d in a ry p e rso n s h a d b e e n ta u g h t to h o ld in th e h ig h e s t estee m . O n th e o n e h a n d , b y 338

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

b o o s tin g p o s tw a r p a c ifism a n d fo ilin g c o n se rv a tiv e a tte m p ts to revise A rtic le IX o f th e n e w C o n s titu tio n , th is w id e s p re a d d isg u s t a n d e n m ity to w a rd fo r­ m e r so ld iers h as p la y e d a p o sitiv e ro le in th w a r tin g e ffo rts to re m ilita riz e p o s t­ w a r Ja p a n . B u t o n th e o th e r h a n d , th a t d isg u s t a n d e n m ity h av e also le d m a n y Ja p a n e se to v ilify a n d o strac iz e v e te ra n s a n d b e re a v e d fam ilies, o r a t le a st to evade th e p r o b le m o f h o w th o se g ro u p s s h o u ld b e tre a te d . A s a resu lt, m a n y v e te ra n s a n d b e re a v e d fam ilies feel a lie n a te d fro m , a n d h o stile to w a rd , p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se so c ie ty in g e n e ra l, a n d le ft-w in g in te lle c tu ­ als in p a rtic u la r. T h e s e s e n tim e n ts are u n d e rs ta n d a b le a n d , in d e e d , w a rra n te d to a n e x te n t. In d e e d , m a n y p r o m in e n t p o s tw a r in te lle c tu a ls e m b ra c e d th e ir le ft-w in g creed o n ly afte r a c ro b a tic a lly d is o w n in g th e u ltr a n a tio n a lis m th a t th e y a rd e n tly sp e w e d f o r th u n til 15 A u g u s t 1 9 4 5 . A s B o b T a d a sh i W a k a b a y ash i sh o w s in c h a p te r 6 , th is m is tru s t o f p o s tw a r lib e ra ls fo r th e ir se e m in g d u p lic ity a n d la c k o f m o ra l in te g r ity d id m u c h to fu e l s u p p o r t fo r Y a m a m o to S h ic h ih e i a n d S u zu k i A k ira early in th e N a n k in g c o n tro v e rsy d u r in g th e 1 9 70s. F o r ex am p le, th e w e ll-k n o w n w rite r A g aw a H iro y u k i, a n a w a rd -w in n in g b io g ­ r a p h e r o f th e M e iji n o v e list S h ig a N a o y a (1 8 8 3 —1 9 7 1 ), ty p ifie s th is ra n c o ro u s a lie n a tio n . A s a fo rm e r n av a l c a d e t in tr a in in g w h o su rv iv e d th e w ar, A g aw a h as th is to say th is a b o u t p o s tw a r le ft-w in g ap o sta te s: M any “progressive” scholars and critics in the postwar era say the same thing; [that is, kamikaze pilots died for nothing]. It’s one thing for the pilots themselves— as they took off on their one-way missions— to em brace doubts as to w hether they were dying in vain. But it’s quite another for this bunch o f “progressive” scholars— from their safe havens now— to snort, “T hose dum b saps died a worthless dog’s death.” Well, I for one, refuse to accept that those m en died for nothing. T his is the m ain reason I don’t believe a w ord that those “progressives” say. In fact, I find them utterly despicable.29 T oday, Y asu k u n i a n d its n a tio n w id e n e tw o r k o f p re fe c tu ra l sh rin e s, th e gokoku jinja, are th e o n ly in s titu tio n s th a t m itig a te th is d e e p -se a te d a lie n a tio n . Y a su k u n i c o n tin u e s to p ro c la im th a t d y in g in J a p a n ’s w ars w as a n h o n o ra b le ac t— n o t a trag ic, p itia b le , o r w o rth le ss o n e . T h u s in th e a b sen c e o f o th e r s ta te -r u n in s titu tio n s th a t sh o w a c o n c e rn fo r th e w a r d e a d , Y a su k u n i em its s tro n g a p p e a l fo r v e te ra n s a n d b e re a v e d fam ilies. D e s p ite its m ilita ris tic tr a p ­ p in g s, Y a su k u n i e n s h rin e s a n d h o n o r s th e so u ls o f d ec ea sed lo v e d o n e s o r o f c o m ra d e s w h o fell in b a ttle .30 Finally, a n d re la te d to th is la st p o in t, th e p o s tw a r le ft-w in g h is to ric a l e s ta b ­ lis h m e n t m u s t b e a r a sh a re o f th e b la m e . T h e “p ro g re ssiv e s c h o la rs ,” w h o m A g aw a so th o r o u g h ly d e te sts, h av e p r o d u c e d s p le n d id e m p iric a l stu d ie s to lay b are th e m e c h a n ic s o f m o d e rn Ja p an e se ag g ressio n a n d its re s u ltin g w a r crim es. L e ft-w in g sc h o lars h av e s h o w n in d e ta il h o w th e F ifteen -Y ear W a r (1 9 3 1 to 1 9 4 5 ) as w e call it, w as a n im p e ria lis t fo lly fro m s ta rt to fin ish ; a n d , th e y h av e d o c u m e n te d h o w a tro c itie s su c h as th e o n e a t N a n k in g s te m m e d fro m b r u ta l­ ity b u ilt in to th e im p e ria l a rm e d fo rces. B u t n o m a tte r h o w im p e c c a b le th e ir 339

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

a c a d e m ic cre d e n tia ls, th e se le ft-w in g “p ro g re ssiv e sc h o la rs” ig n o re tw o k ey issues: h o w o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se so ld ie rs sa w th e m se lv e s d u r in g th e w a r a n d h o w w e s h o u ld tr e a t th e m to d a y in th e ir d u a l ro les as b r u ta l v ic tim iz e rs a n d b r u ­ ta liz ed r e c ru its .31 I f a Ja p a n e se v e te ra n o r officer, su c h as a K a ik o s h a m e m b e r, s u b sc rib e d to le ft-w in g h is to ric a l sc h o la rsh ip a n d a d m itte d th a t th e la st w ar in A sia a n d th e Pacific w as n o th in g m o re th a n im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n , h e w o u ld p e rfo rc e d e n y a n y m e a n in g to th e id e als o f h is y o u th . W o rse still, h e w o u ld c ru e lly b e tra y fallen c o m ra d e s, th o se m e n w h o m h e s e n t o u t o n m is sio n s to die, a n d th e fam ilies le ft b e h in d b y th o se m e n .32 Yet, b y e v a d in g su c h k e y aca­ d e m ic a n d h u m a n issues, th e p o s tw a r le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ric a l e s ta b lish ­ m e n t h as ex p o sed its e lf to a tta c k s fro m c ritic s su c h as A g aw a H iro y u k i a n d f ro m co n serv ativ e rev isio n ists.

A “Liberated” View M e m b e rs o f th e S o c ie ty fo r a L ib e ra te d V ie w o f H is to r y (Jiyushugi shikan kenkyukai), f o rm e d in J a n u a ry 1 9 9 5 b y F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u , th e n a p ro fe sso r a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f T o k y o , h av e a d d e d y e t a n o th e r d im e n s io n to th e d e b a te over N a n k in g .33 T h e ir v ie w o f Ja p a n e se h is to ry is n o t “lib e ra l” as a lite ra l tra n s la ­ tio n o f th e title w o u ld su g g e st. T o th e c o n tra ry , th e y b o ld ly esp o u se a v ie w o f h is to ry “lib e ra te d ” fro m w h a t th e y d e e m to b e th e s tra ig h tja c k e t o f le ft-w in g h is to ric a l o r th o d o x y th a t p e rv a d e s th e m e d ia a n d s c h o o l sy stem . T h is b a n e ­ fu l le ft-w in g o rth o d o x y , th e g ro u p in sists, is o ffe n siv e to v e te ra n s a n d b e re a v e d fam ilies. It d erives fro m th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, w h e re A llie d p ro s e c u ­ to rs s o u g h t to d e m o n iz e th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le as ag g resso rs n o d iffe re n t fro m th e N az is. H e n c e , it is a rg u e d , fo r th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le to a d o p t th a t e n e m y v ie w o f h is to ry a m o u n ts to tre a so n . H o w ev er, th is g ro u p la m e n ts , so m a n y Ja p a n e se “m a so c h istic a lly ” s u b sc rib e to th is v ie w b e c a u se th e y w ere first d e ­ ceived b y p r o p a g a n d a u n its in th e U .S . O c c u p a tio n , w ere la te r d ec eiv ed b y th e M a rx is t Ja p an e se h is to ric a l p ro fe ssio n , a n d c o n tin u e to b e d ec eiv ed b y th e alleg ed ly C o m m u n is t- in s p ire d J a p a n T e a c h e rs’ A s s o c ia tio n .34 F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u , N is h io K an ji, Ito T ak a sh i, th e la te S a k a m o to T ak a o , N a m ik a w a E ita , O k a z a k i H is a h ik o , K o b a y a sh i Y o sh in o ri, a n d m a n y o th e rs s y m p a th e tic to th is g ro u p , c o n d e m n h is to ry te x tb o o k s a p p ro v e d fo r use b y th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n (n o w th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n a n d T e c h n o lo g y ). It is n o te w o r th y th a t F u jio k a , Ito , a n d S a k a m o to ta u g h t a t p re s tig io u s n a tio n a l u n iv e rsitie s s u c h as T o k y o a n d G a k u s h u in . T h e y c la im th a t, a fte r c o m in g u n d e r c ritic is m fro m A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts in th e 1 9 8 2 —83 T e x tb o o k C o n t r o ­ versy, th e M in is tr y cav ed in to a d o p t le ft-w in g te x tb o o k s s h o t th r o u g h w ith a n ti-Ja p a n e se b ias. T h e m o v e m e n t s p e a rh e a d e d b y th is g ro u p to o k c o n c re te sh a p e in J a n u a r y 1 9 9 6 , w h e n its m e m b e rs b e g a n se ria liz in g “ T h e H is to r y N o t T a u g h t in T e x tb o o k s” in th e Sankei shinbun. T h is sa m e Sankei p u b lis h in g 340

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

g ro u p cam e o u t w ith p a p e r a n d h a rd c o v e r b o o k e d itio n s o f th e serial in a d d i­ tio n to p u b lic iz in g it in th e m o n th ly Seiron. In D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 6 , th e se fig u res e s ta b lish e d a S o c ie ty to C re a te N e w a J a p ­ anese H is to r y T e x tb o o k c h a ire d b y N ish io ; a n d in A u g u st 1 9 9 7 F u jio k a p e n n e d a n U rg e n t A p p e a l fo r th e M in is tr y to “d e le te d e p ic tio n s o f ‘a rm y c o m fo rt w o m e n ’ fro m m id d le s c h o o l te x tb o o k s .” S in c e th a t tim e , th is so c ie ty h as b e e n fev erish ly d e n o u n c in g te x tb o o k s a p p ro v e d b y th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n b ec au se th e se alleg e d ly e n c o u ra g e n a tio n a l m a s o c h is m a m o n g s tu d e n ts , a n d th e so c iety h as b e e n h o ld in g sy m p o s ia th r o u g h o u t th e n a tio n in o rd e r to w in p u b lic s u p p o r t.35 M o reo v er, te x tb o o k s p ro d u c e d b y th e g ro u p fo r m id d le sc h o o l co u rses in civics a n d Ja p a n e se h is to ry w o n g o v e rn m e n t a p p ro v a l in 2 0 0 2 a n d in 2 0 0 5 , a n d are b e in g u se d in p u b lic sc h o o ls— a lth o u g h in less th a n 1 p e r­ c e n t o f th e se in s titu tio n s . F u jio k a , N is h io , N a m ik a w a , a n d K o b a y a sh i su b sc rib e in v a ry in g deg rees to th e r e a c tio n a ry G re a te r E a st A sia W a r th e sis th a t, as n o te d ab ove, h o ld s th a t J a p a n sacrificed its e lf to lib e ra te A sia n s th r o u g h o u t m o d e rn h isto ry . F u jio k a ’s g ro u p d o g m a tic a lly p ro p a g a te s th is “J a p a n uber alles” v ie w th r o u g h sc h o o l c u r­ ric u la d e s ig n e d to fo ste r a n tifo re ig n n a tio n a lis m in y o u n g p e o p le . T h is is w h y m e m b e rs c o n d e m n o th e r te x tb o o k s th a t m e n tio n b a rb a ric Ja p a n e se acts su c h as th e sex u al e n s la v e m e n t o f K o re a n w o m e n a n d th o s e o f o th e r n a tio n a litie s d u r in g W o rld W a r II. O n th e issue o f N a n k in g , th e y s im p ly re g u rg ita te th e d e n ia l, illu sio n , a n d m in im a lis t p o s itio n s d is c re d ite d b a c k in th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s.36 B u t th e y d o so to g o o d effec t b y h o ld in g la rg e c o n fe re n c e s su c h as th a t o n 31 Ju ly 19 9 9 in T o k y o . A s re p o r te d in th e Sankei shinbun o n th e fo l­ lo w in g day, F u jio k a le c tu re d o n “D e fla tin g th e N a n k in g A tro c ity : T h e B ig g est Lie o f th e T w e n tie th C e n tu r y .” O n th is o c c a sio n F u jio k a also a n n o u n c e d p la n s to fo rm a J a p a n S o c ie ty fo r N a n k in g S tu d ie s w ith in a y ea r th a t w o u ld “tell th e real t r u t h a b o u t th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t.” H e c a rrie d o u t th e se p la n s in 2 0 0 0 , a n d th is so c ie ty h as p u b lis h e d n u m e ro u s a rticle s a n d b o o k s, in c lu d in g v o lu m e s o f c o n fe re n c e p a p e rs a n n u a lly sin c e 2 0 0 2 . H o w ev er, co n se rv a tiv e rev isio n ists h av e n o t e n jo y e d s m o o th sa ilin g in all re sp e c ts .37 In Ju ly 1 9 9 7 , fo r e x a m p le , F u jio k a a n d N a m ik a w a re sig n e d as v ic e ­ c h a irs o f th e S o c ie ty to C re a te a N e w Ja p a n e se H is to r y T e x tb o o k . T h is in d i­ cates th a t sig n ific a n t d isc o rd b rew s u n d e r th e su rfa ce . T h e p u b lic a tio n o f ch a ir N is h io ’s lo n g - a n tic ip a te d Kokum in no rekishi, a “p ilo t te x t” o f th e s o c ie ty ’s h is ­ to r y te x tb o o k , m e t w ith several delay s b e fo re it fin a lly w e n t o n sale in N o v e m ­ b e r 1 9 9 9 . M e m b e rs to u t it as a r e c o rd -b re a k in g b est-seller, b u t th a t is b ec au se s y m p a th e tic g ro u p s in a n d o u t o f lo c al g o v e rn m e n ts b u y th e b o o k in b u lk a n d d is trib u te free co p ies to sc h o o l b o a rd s a n d in d iv id u a ls — in c lu d in g J a p a n ­ ese re s id in g overseas. S la c k sales o f th e so c ie ty ’s m o u th p ie c e , “ K in g e n d a ish i n o ju g y o k a ik a k u ,” in d ic a te th a t m e m b e rs m a y b e r u n n in g o u t o f fre sh id eas. T h e g ro u p also m a y b e a t p a in s to m a in ta in a c o h e re n t v ie w o f th e N a n k in g A tro city . Its m o s t p r o m in e n t sp e cia list o n th is to p ic , A sia U n iv e rsity p ro fe sso r 341

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i, a t first p ro c la im e d a fig u re o f fo rty -se v e n C h in e s e v ic tim s in J u n e 1 9 9 6 .38 B u t, as re p o r te d in th e Sankei shinbun o n 1 A u g u s t 1 9 9 9 , h e revised th e fig u re to 1 5 ,0 0 0 in a le c tu re d e liv e re d a t th e so c iety sp o n s o re d co n fe re n c e o n 31 July, o rg a n iz e d to “d e fla te ” th e “lie ” o f th e A tro c ­ ity. H ig a s h in a k a n o ’s le c tu re w as sla te d to b e p u b lis h e d in th e c o n se rv a tiv e m o n th ly Seiron a n d w as su p p o s e d to re p re s e n t th e c o n se n su s o f th e J a p a n S o c ie ty fo r N a n k in g S tu d ie s, b u t d u e to o p p o s itio n fro m o th e r c o n fe re n c e p a r tic ip a n ts , it h a d to b e sc ra p p e d . B y c o n tra s t, F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u m a y h av e a b a n d o n e d h is ea rlie r s u p p o r t o f H a ta I k u h ik o ’s m in im a lis t (o r “m o d e ra te ”) p o s itio n o f “over 4 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s . In a 1 9 9 9 b o o k c o -a u th o re d w ith H ig a s h in ­ a k a n o , F u jio k a seem s to h av e a p p ro a c h e d o u tr ig h t d e n ia l. (See K a sa h a ra T o k u s h i’s c h a p te r 14.)

Left-Wing Nanking Studies T h e S o c ie ty to S u rv e y a n d S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t c o m p rise s h isto ria n s, jo u rn a lis ts , a n d also in te re s te d c itiz e n s w h o sh a re tw o aim s. F irst, th e y seek to s h o w o b je c tiv e ly w h a t h a p p e n e d a t N a n k in g fro m a v a rie ty o f sc h o la rly p ersp e ctiv es in o p p o s itio n to th e illu s io n , fa b ric a tio n , a n d m in im a lis t fa c tio n s w h o r u n ro u g h s h o d o v er facts to s u it th e ir o w n a g e n d a . S e c o n d , th e m e m ­ b ers w ish to a p p ly th e h is to ric a l lesso n s o f N a n k in g in fo s te rin g tr u e frie n d ­ sh ip b e tw e e n J a p a n a n d C h in a b y p r o m p tin g o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se to d ev e lo p a co n scio u sn ess o f th e ir c u lp a b ility fo r th e la st w a r.39 B ased o n th e se sh a re d aim s, m e m b e rs m e e t m o n th ly a n d several h av e u n d e r ta k e n trip s to N a n k in g in se arch o f d a ta a n d m a te ria ls w ith w h ic h to p r o d u c e e m p iric a l s tu d ie s .40 M e m ­ b ers also seek to u n c o v e r n e w p r im a ry so u rce s w ith in Ja p a n , su c h as w a rtim e d ia ries a n d te s tim o n ie s b y v e te ra n s w h o to o k p a r t in th e N a n k in g c a m p a ig n . M o reo v e r, m e m b e rs e n d e a v o r to o b ta in a n d tra n s la te re c o rd s a n d te s tim o n ie s o n th e C h in e s e sid e, a lo n g w ith d o c u m e n ts le ft b y W e ste rn e rs in N a n k in g d u r in g th e Ja p a n e se a rm y ’s a ssa u lt o n a n d o c c u p a tio n o f th e c ity in 1 9 3 7 —3 8 .41 G e n e ra lly sp e a k in g , m e m b e rs o f th is so c ie ty a d o p t th re e a p p ro a c h e s . T h e first strives to g a in a n o v erall p ic tu r e o f th e A tro c ity b y s h o w in g h o w im p e r ­ ial tro o p s ra p e d , p illa g e d , b u r n e d , m a ssa c re d P O W s , m u r d e r e d civ ilia n s, a n d in flic te d d a m a g e o n o th e r fo re ig n n a tio n a ls in a d d itio n to th e C h in e s e th a t in c u rr e d in te r n a tio n a l c e n su re . K a sa h a ra T o k u s h i ex em p lifies th is a p p ro a c h in N ankin jiken a n d N it-C hu zenmen senso to kaigun, b o th p u b lis h e d in 1 9 9 7 . N ankin jiken is th e m o s t c o m p re h e n siv e su rv e y o f th e A tro c ity b y a Ja p a n e se h is to ria n , a n d is th e s ta n d a rd b y w h ic h f u tu re stu d ie s w ill b e ju d g e d . It sh e d s lig h t o n ev e n ts fro m a v a rie ty o f p e rsp e c tiv e s, in c lu d in g o n e th a t le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s h a d lo n g a v o id e d fo r p o litic a l rea so n s; th a t is, h o w C h i­ nese tro o p s w ere o rd e re d to fire o n a n d k ill o th e r C h in e s e tro o p s d u r in g th e ir d is o rd e rly re tre a t. A t h is c u r r e n t p r e lim in a ry stag e o f rese arch , K a sa h a ra says 342

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

th a t th e n u m b e r o f C h in e se v ic tim s in th e N a n k in g S p ecial A d m in is tra tiv e D is ­ tr ic t (see m a p 2) “r u n s w ell o v er 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ; in d e e d , th e fin a l fig u re a p p ro a c h e s 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d m a y ev en b e h ig h e r.”42 A k e y c h a ra c te ris tic o f K a sa h a ra ’s a n a ly ­ sis is to stress th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity to o k p la c e m a in ly o u ts id e th e w a lle d city, as ty p ifie d in C h a p te r 3 o f th is v o lu m e . In N it-C hu zenmen senso to kaigun, K a sa h a ra to o k u p a n o th e r issu e ig n o re d u p to th e n ; n am ely , th e im p e r ­ ial n a v y ’s ro le in th e A tro c ity th r o u g h air ra id s o n c iv ilia n ta rg e ts o rd e re d b y th e s u p p o s e d ly p ac ifist a d m ira l Y a m a m o to Iso ro k u . T h is is a p io n e e r in g s tu d y o f th e n a v y ’s c u lp a b ility fo r e sc a la tin g th e C h in a w a r in 1 9 3 7 a n d su g g e sts its lin k s to th e Pacific W a r th a t b e g a n in 1 9 4 1 . T h e se c o n d a p p ro a c h a d o p te d b y so c ie ty m e m b e rs is to an aly ze s tru c tu ra l e le m e n ts in th e im p e ria l a rm y th a t tra n s fo rm e d so ld iers in to a b a n d o f b u tc h ­ ers o n th e m a rc h f ro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g . H e re , th e o b je ctiv es are to id e n ­ tify th o se so cial a n d h is to ric a l fa c to rs th a t p re d isp o s e d Ja p a n e se fo rces to c o m m it th e A tro c ity in a sy ste m a tic a n d o rg a n iz e d fa sh io n . T h is a p p ro a c h is clearly a t o d d s w ith th e c o n se rv a tiv e re v isio n ist v ie w th a t N a n k in g w as a fo r­ tu ito u s , s p o n ta n e o u s o u tb u r s t o f w a rtim e e m o tio n th a t “c o u ld n ’t b e h e lp e d .” T h e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira ex em p lifies th is a p p ro a c h in c h a p te r 2 o f th e p re s e n t v o lu m e a n d , in ric h e r d e ta il, in h is 1 9 9 7 N ankin no Nihongun. H e trac es th e im p e ria l a rm y ’s a c tio n s o n th e m a rc h to N a n k in g a n d id e n tifie s five rea so n s fo r th e A tro c ity : (1) th e e x tre m e c o n tro ls ex ercised o v er so ld ie rs in th e b a r­ rack s p lu s in s u b o r d in a tio n b y m id d le -g ra d e s ta ff officers b a se d o n a n irra tio n a l f a ith in “fig h tin g s p ir it,” (2) a n e d u c a tio n a n d tr a in in g sy ste m th a t p ro d u c e d s ta ff officers o b liv io u s to — in d e e d , c o n te m p tu o u s o f— th e law s o f h u m a n ity a n d in te r n a tio n a l law s g o v e rn in g w ar, (3) a n overall d e te rio ra tio n in tro o p q u a l­ ity o w in g to u n p re c e d e n te d large-scale m o b iliz a tio n s, (4) a re s u ltin g d e c lin e in m o ra le a n d d isc ip lin e , a n d (5) th e c o r r u p tio n o f th e ra n k -a n d -file w h o n e v e r k n e w w h a t th e y w ere fig h tin g fo r in C h in a . Y o sh id a Y u tak a, F u jiw a ra ’s d o c ­ to ra l s tu d e n t, fo llo w e d th is le a d b y a n a ly z in g th e so c ial a n d h is to ric a l ro o ts o f Ja p a n e se w a r crim e s d u r in g th e N a n k in g A tro c ity .43 H e n c e f o rth le ft-w in g h is ­ to ria n s can b e ex p e cted to c o m p le te still m o re in - d e p th stu d ies o f th e im p e ria l Ja p an e se so c iety a n d m e n ta lity th a t p ro d u c e d a n d s u p p o r te d su c h a rm e d forces. T h e th ir d a p p ro a c h — w h ic h c o n tra s ts s o m e w h a t w ith th e s e c o n d — deals w ith th e A tro c ity in re la tio n to th e im p e ria l a rm y ’s “T h re e ‘A lls’ O p e r a tio n s .” T h is refers to a rm y ta c tic s a d o p te d a g a in st C o m m u n is ts in n o r th e r n C h in a : to “k ill all, b u r n all, a n d d e s tro y a ll.” Ja p a n e se re se a rc h o n th e “T h re e ‘A lls’ O p e r a tio n s ” h as la g g ed far b e h in d th a t o n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity itself, w h ic h is d e e m e d th e e p ito m e o f c o n te m p tib le Ja p a n e se ag g re ssio n . H o w ev er, w ith E g u c h i K e iic h i’s 1 9 8 8 “ C h u g o k u se n se n n o N i h o n g u n ,” K a sa h a ra T o k u s h i’s 1 9 9 9 N ankin jiken to sanko sakusen, a n d K a sa h a ra ’s 2 0 0 2 N ankin jiken to N ihonjin, th e p ic tu re h as b e g u n to c h a n g e . A c c o rd in g to E g u c h i a n d K asa h ara, Jap an ese tro o p s c o m m itte d n u m e ro u s o u trag e s a n d m assacres o f C h in e se P O W s a n d civ ilian s o n th e ro a d fro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g ; a n d th e y w o u ld agree 343

This content downloaded from ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

w ith F u jiw a ra th a t a few o rd e rs to th a t effec t w ere issu e d a t th e d iv isio n a l o r a rm y levels. H ow ev er, all th re e sch o lars in sist th a t th e sy ste m a tic e x te rm in a tio n o f v irtu a lly all C h in e s e — w h e th e r c o m b a ta n ts o r n o n - c o m b a ta n ts — w as not th e im p e ria l a rm y ’s c o n c e rte d a im in th e c e n tra l a n d s o u th C h in a th e a te rs . In s ta rk c o n tra s t, how ev er, th a t p o lic y was th e a rm y ’s express o b je c tiv e in C o m ­ m u n is t resistan c e areas th r o u g h o u t n o r th e r n C h in a , a n d th is p o lic y to o k c o n ­ crete fo rm in its “ T h re e ‘A lls’ O p e r a tio n s .” T h is la st p o in t ta k e s o n g re a t sig n ific a n c e vis-a-v is th e m in im iz e rs ’ e ffo rts to d o w n p la y J a p a n ’s w a r o f ag g re ssio n in C h in a b y a s se rtin g th a t th e A tro c ­ ity w as “a c c id e n ta l,” “s p o n ta n e o u s ,” a n d “u n a v o id a b le ” in n a tu re — as i f N a n ­ k in g h a d b e e n a n iso la te d o c c u rre n c e , o r as i f s im ila r a tro c itie s ta k e p la c e in all w ars. In su m , th e p a u c ity o f le ft-w in g re se a rc h u p to n o w o n th e “T h re e ‘A lls’ O p e r a tio n s ”— a n d , to a lesser e x te n t, o n Ja p an e se atro c itie s in C h in a o th e r th a n N a n k in g — h as p e r m itte d m in im iz e rs to g e t aw ay w ith th e ir so p h istry . M o reo v e r, as J o s h u a A . F o g el a n d M a s a h iro Y a m a m o to d e p lo re in c h a p te rs 12 a n d 13 o f th is v o lu m e , m a n y C h in e se a n d W e ste rn critics m istak e n ly , sim p listically, o r m a lic io u sly lik e n N a n k in g to th e H o lo c a u s t. N e v e rth e le ss, as K asah a ra arg u es, i f w e w ere to a tte m p t to d ra w a p a ra lle l to th e N a z is ’ sy ste m a tic s la u g h te r o f E u ro p e a n Jew ry, it w o u ld h av e to b e f o u n d in th is “T h re e ‘A lls’ O p e r a tio n s ”— n o t in th e N a n k in g A tro city . S till, th e re are several p ro b le m s a n d la c u n a e in le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se rese a rc h o n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a p a rt fro m a la c k o f s y m p a th y s h o w n to v e te ra n s a n d to th e w a r-b e reav e d , as n o te d ab o v e. F irst a n d fo re m o st, le ft-w in g sc h o la rs are a t p a in s to ex p la in w h y v irtu a lly n o se rio u s a n d s u s ta in e d re se a rc h to o k p la ce f ro m 1 9 4 5 u n til th e fo rm a tio n o f th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t in 1 9 8 3 . O n e re a so n fo r th is b e la te d s ta rt is th a t p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s p re s u m e d th a t th e y h a d to ta c k le “s tr u c tu r a l”— th a t is, th e o re tic a l M a rx is t— p ro b le m s su c h as th e n a tu re o f th e e m p e ro r sy stem o r w h a t stage o f h is to ry th e M e iji R e s to ra tio n re p re se n te d as a w o rld w id e re v o lu tio n a ry ev en t. To stu d y th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as ju s t n o t “p ro p e r sc h o la rsh ip ” in th e ir m in d s; it w as so m e ­ th in g th a t so cial a n d p o litic a l affairs c ritic s (hyoronka) d id .44 A n o th e r ex p la­ n a tio n fo r th is p a u c ity o f re se a rc h w as th e la c k o f a fre e d o m o f in f o rm a tio n law in J a p a n b efo re 1 9 9 9 . T h is w as, a n d to a d eg ree still re m a in s, c o u p le d w ith th e D efen se A g en c y ’s d is in c lin a tio n to d eclassify d o c u m e n ts — w h ic h a m o u n te d to its v irtu a l m o n o p o ly o n sources. U n til th e 1980s, it w as v ery h a rd to g ain ac­ cess to d o c u m e n ts h e ld in a g e n c y arch iv es u n le ss o n e w ere a fo rm e r im p e ria l a rm y sta ff officer e m p lo y ed th e re , o r unless o n e received a le tte r o f in tro d u c tio n fro m a n accep tab le; th a t is, n o n -le ftis t, so u rce . N e e d le ss to say, su c h h ig h ly re ­ s tric te d access to k e y p rim a ry so u rces m a d e it v e ry d ifficu lt fo r critical scholars to d o rese arch o n th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d o th e r s o rd id asp ects o f th e w a r.45 P erh ap s th e m o s t im p o r ta n t ta sk n o w b e fo re le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s o f N a n k in g is, as Y ang D a q in g p o in ts o u t, to arriv e a t u n iv e rsa lly a p p lic a b le lessons th r o u g h th e ir re se a rc h .46 In su m , th is m e a n s b e in g ab le to ex p la in 344

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

a tro c itie s in g en e ra l, n o t ju s t Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s s u c h th e o n e th a t o c c u rre d a t N a n k in g . H o w ev er, th e r u b c o m es in tr y in g to d o so w ith o u t fa llin g in to th e s o p h is try th a t th e A tro c ity w as s im ila r to — a n d h e n c e , n o w o rse th a n — o th e r a tro c itie s in h isto ry . A lth o u g h T a n a k a T o sh iy u k i (Y uki T a n a k a ) d o e s n o t deal w ith N a n k in g p e r se, h e p ro v id e s so m e im p o r ta n t le ad s in th is re sp e c t. T a n a k a e m p lo y s a b ip o la r a n a ly tic a l fra m e w o rk o f “p a rtic u la rity ” to a c c o u n t fo r p e c u ­ lia ritie s in th e Ja p a n e se im p e ria l a rm y as w ell as fo r th e “u n iv e rsa lity ” o f w a r crim es elsew h ere in th e w o rld d o w n to th e p r e s e n t.47 H e also in sists o n th e n e e d fo r e x a m in in g th e se to p ic s f ro m a m u ltip lic ity o f p e rsp e c tiv e s. B y a n a ­ ly z in g in d e ta il w a r crim e s c o m m itte d b y th e Ja p a n e se in c o m p a ris o n to , a n d in c o n tra s t w ith , th o se b y o th e r n a tio n a litie s , h e su g g e sts th e n e e d to arriv e a t c o n c lu sio n s th a t are u n iv e rsa lly v a lid . Is h id a Y uji, a y o u n g Ja p a n e se h is to ­ r ia n w o rk in g o n th e T h ir d R e ic h , p re s e n te d a n im p o r ta n t p a p e r a lo n g th o se lin e s a t a m e e tin g o f th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g In c id e n t in S e p te m ­ b e r 1 9 9 9 .48 A c c o rd in g to Ish id a , th e re are m a n y p o in ts in c o m m o n b e tw e e n a tro c itie s b y th e im p e ria l a n d N a z i arm ies. F o r e x a m p le , h e arg u e s th a t N a n k in g a n d th e n o r th e r n C h in a “T h re e ‘A lls’ O p e r a tio n s ” c a n p ro d u c tiv e ly b e c o m p a re d to th e N a z i a rm y ’s m a ss m u rd e rs o f S erb civ ilia n s in v io la tio n o f in te r n a tio n a l law, o r to its p o lic y o f c re a tin g n o - m a n ’s -la n d s in o c c u p ie d W h ite R u ssia n areas. A s re se a rc h in J a p a n b y h is to ria n s o f m o d e rn J a p a n a n d G e r m a n y c o n tin u e to d ev e lo p , w e c a n ex p e c t c o m p a ra tiv e stu d ie s o n a tro c i­ ties to em erg e as a n in d e p e n d e n t field.

Social Ramifications L e ft-w in g rese arch o n N a n k in g sin c e th e 1 9 8 0 s h as h a d a n u m b e r o f h ig h ly p o sitiv e re su lts fo r Ja p a n e se so c ie ty a t la rg e , tw o o f w h ic h m a y b e n o te d h ere . O n e area lies in th e u n e a r th in g o f n e w a n d c ru c ially im p o r ta n t p r im a ry sources. H e re , th e w o rk o f O n o K e n ji is ex em p lary . A n o r d in a ry c o m p a n y e m p lo y e e a n d c u r r e n tly a m e m b e r o f th e S o c ie ty to S tu d y th e N a n k in g I n c id e n t, O n o p a in sta k in g ly collec te d a n d p u b lis h e d a k e y se t o f d o c u m e n ts th a t led to a b re a k ­ th r o u g h in research . A fte r r e tu r n in g f ro m a c itiz e n s’ to u r o f C h in a in 1 9 8 8 to su rv ey th e A tro c ity , O n o q u ie tly w e n t a b o u t g a th e rin g b a ttle fie ld d ia ries a n d o ral te s tim o n ie s fro m fo rm e r lo w -ra n k in g officers a n d m e n in th e T h i r ­ te e n th d iv is io n ’s S ix ty -fifth R e g im e n t, w h ic h h a ile d fro m h is h o m e p re fe c tu re o f F u k u s h im a .49 T h is re g im e n t, also ca lle d th e “Y am a d a D e ta c h m e n t,” w as lo n g alleged to hav e m u rd e re d so m e 1 4 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e P O W s a t M u fu s h a n ju s t afte r th e fall o f N a n k in g . O n o ’s u n p r e te n tio u s y e t te n a c io u s e ffo rts in d is p u ­ ta b ly v erified th is lo n g -h e ld su sp ic io n . H e p u b lis h e d th o se so u rc e s as N ankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishitachi (Im p e ria l A rm y M e n W h o R e­ c o rd e d th e N a n k in g A tro c ity ) in 1 9 9 6 . S o m e fru its o f h is la b o rs c a n also b e fo u n d in E n g lish in c h a p te r 4 o f th e p re s e n t v o lu m e . 345

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

A se c o n d area o f p o sitiv e so c ial ra m ific a tio n s lies in th e g ro w th o f ev e n ts su c h as th e K y o to E x h ib itio n o n W a r fo r th e S ake o f P eac e.50 H e ld e a c h s u m ­ m er, th is e la b o ra te e x h ib itio n a ttr a c te d a to ta l o f 1.3 m illio n p e o p le b e tw e e n 1981 a n d 1 9 8 9 . U n til th e n , d isp lay s o f th is ty p e te n d e d to c o n d e m n w a r a n d te a c h th e v alu e o f p ea ce b y u n d e rs c o rin g th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le ’s o w n s u ffe rin g a n d v ic tim iz a tio n o w in g to air ra id s o r n u c le a r a tta c k s. T h e K y o to E x h ib itio n o n W a r fo r th e Sake o f Peace— w h o se o rg an iz ers in c lu d e d le ft-w in g h isto ria n s o f N a n k in g su c h as Ig u c h i K azu k i, K isak a J u n ’ic h iro , a n d S h im o sa to M a sa k i— w e n t fu rth e r. T h e se c itiz e n s’ g ro u p s c re a te d a n e v e n t th a t e x p lo re d th e issue o f w h y im p e ria l J a p a n la u n c h e d th e A sia -P ac ific W a r in C h in a a n d d e p ic te d o rd in a ry Jap an ese, in c lu d in g so ld iers, as v ic tim iz e rs as w ell as v ic tim s. D u rin g th e ir f o u r th a n n u a l e x h ib itio n in 1 9 8 4 , o rg a n iz e rs m o u n te d a d isp la y a b o u t th e K y o to S ix te e n th d iv is io n m a ssa c rin g o v er 2 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e P O W s o n its m a rc h to N a n k in g . W h ile p la n n in g th is e x h ib it, th e o rg a n iz e rs le d b y Ig u c h i, d isc o v ered several d ia ries le ft b y fo rm e r so ld iers fro m K y o to th a t v iv id ly d e ­ sc rib e d th e ir ro le in th e A tro c ity — p re c ise ly a t a tim e th a t th e fa b ric a tio n fac­ tio n w as lo u d ly d e n y in g its fa c tu a lity . A s w ith O n o ’s m a te ria ls, th e se p r im a ry so u rce s— w ritte n b y m e n w h o a c tu a lly to o k p a r t in th e A tro c ity — c o n firm its h is to ric a l fa c tu a lity b e y o n d a n y d o u b t. W h a t is m o re , b y p u b lis h in g th e se d ia ries a n d o th e r re la te d so u rc e m a te ria ls s u c h as N ankin jiken: Kyoto shidan kankei shiryoshu in 1 9 8 9 , th e e x h ib itio n ’s o rg a n iz e rs fa c ilita te d f u tu re rese a rc h o n th e A tro city . L e ft-w in g h is to ric a l re se a rc h o n N a n k in g s h o u ld b e v ie w e d in re la tio n to su c h c itiz e n -le d m o v e m e n ts . W h e th e r b y g a th e rin g n e w ev id e n c e o r b y e d u ­ c a tin g th e p u b lic , th e se in d iv id u a ls a n d civ ic g ro u p s striv e to c o n d e m n J a p a n fo r its c u lp a b ility in th e p a s t w a r— a m a jo r th e m e sin c e th e 1 9 8 0 s.51 T h e se m o v e m e n ts d eriv e fro m a grave sense o f crisis th a t e m e rg e d a g a in st th e b a c k ­ d ro p o f g o v e rn m e n t e ffo rts to g lo rify im p e ria l J a p a n . T h o s e e ffo rts to o k c o n ­ crete fo rm in th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n ’s te x tb o o k sc re e n in g th a t le d to th e 1 9 8 2 —83 T e x tb o o k In c id e n t a n d in P re m ie r N a k a so n e Y asu h iro ’s 1 9 8 5 official v isit to w o rs h ip a t Y a su k u n i S h rin e — b o th o f w h ic h d re w lo u d p ro te s ts fro m A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts . In a sense, th e se a n d o th e r a la rm in g p o litic a l d e v e lo p ­ m e n ts in th e 1 9 8 0 s p r o m p te d o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se su c h as O n o a n d o rg an iz ers o f th e K y o to e x h ib itio n to p o n d e r a n e w th e in te rre la te d issues o f w a rtim e ag g ressio n in A sia a n d h o w p o s tw a r g e n e ra tio n s in J a p a n re fu se d to m a k e a m e n d s fo r it. F o r e x a m p le , o n e g ro u p o f c itiz e n s tra v e le d to N a n k in g in M a y 1 9 8 6 to p la n t 5 0 0 0 trees in m e m o r y o f th e A tro c ity v ic tim s a n d th u s e s ta b ­ lish S in o -J a p a n e se frie n d s h ip . T h e c itiz e n s w ere m o tiv a te d b y “d ee p re m o rse a n d a k e e n sense o f re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e im m e n s e d a m a g e in flic te d o n th e C h in e s e p e o p le .”52 T h is e v e n t sy m b o lic a lly sh o w s th a t, w h e n p re s e n te d w ith th e fru its o f N a n k in g sc h o la rsh ip , m a n y Ja p a n e se w ill ta k e se rio u sly th e c u l­ p a b ility th a t th e ir p a re n ts o r g ra n d p a re n ts b e a r fo r w ar crim es. In a sim ila r vein, a n A sso c ia tio n to C o n s id e r P o stw a r C u lp a b ility to w a rd A sia w as f o rm e d in 346

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

1983 in o rd e r to w in c o m p e n s a tio n fo r K o re a n s a b a n d o n e d o n S a k h a lin (K arafu to ) afte r J a p a n ’s s u rre n d e r; a n d , as n o te d below , th is a s so c ia tio n la u n c h e d legal p ro c e e d in g s fo r th a t v e ry p u rp o s e in A u g u s t 1 9 9 0 . A n A sso c ia tio n to C o n s id e r W a r V ic tim s in th e A sia -P ac ific a n d In sc rib e T h e ir S u ffe rin g o n O u r H e a rts ca m e in to b e in g in 1 9 8 5 . I t a ttr a c te d 9 0 0 m e m b e rs in O s a k a a n d s im u lta n e o u s ly h e ld s im ila r rallies in 10 cities all over J a p a n o n 15 A u g u s t 1 9 8 6 , th e fo rty -firs t a n n iv e rsa ry o f th e w a r’s e n d . T h e “A sso c iatio n to In sc rib e S u ffe rin g ” se t u p a P o stw ar R ed ress F o ru m in th e A siaP acific th a t p r o m p te d A sia n w a r v ic tim s to su e th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d Ja p a n e se c o m p a n ie s fo r c o m p e n s a tio n in 1 9 9 1 . T h e sa m e a s so c ia tio n p r o ­ m o te d a n I n te r n a tio n a l H e a rin g o n J a p a n ’s P o stw a r C o m p e n s a tio n in 1 9 9 2 , a n d th is le d to th e c re a tio n in 1 9 9 3 o f a C e n te r fo r R e se a rc h a n d D o c u m e n ­ ta tio n o n Ja p an e se W a r R esp o n sib ility . T h is rese arch ce n te r, sta ffe d b y le ft-w in g scholars, serves as th e c e n tra l o rg a n p r o m o tin g rese a rc h o n Ja p an e se w a r crim es. A s w ell, th e A sia n W o m e n ’s F u n d w as c re a te d to c o lle c t p riv a te d o n a tio n s in lie u o f fo rm a l g o v e rn m e n t c o m p e n s a tio n to fo rm e r “c o m fo rt w o m e n ,” o r sex slaves, o f K o re a n a n d o th e r n a tio n a litie s . O d a te c ity in A k ita P re fe c tu re sp o n s o re d a m e m o ria l in 1 9 8 5 fo r v ic tim s o f th e H a n a o k a In c id e n t o f 1 9 4 5 in w h ic h C h in e s e slave la b o re rs fo rc ib ly b r o u g h t to J a p a n la u n c h e d a n u p ris in g to p r o te s t in h u m a n w o rk in g c o n d i­ tio n s o n ly to su ffe r to r tu r e a n d d e a th in re ta lia tio n . T h is m e m o ria l sp a rk e d n e w in te r e s t in th e issue o f th e fo rc e d w a rtim e re lo c a tio n o f C h in e s e to J a p a n as slave lab o r. In 1 9 8 7 a n A sso c ia tio n to P o n d e r C h in e s e S lave L a b o r a n d an A sso c ia tio n to P re p a re C o m m o n e r s ’ C o u r ts to T ry J a p a n fo r W a rtim e C u lp a ­ b ility to w a rd A sia w ere fo rm e d . In D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , th e la tte r o rg a n iz a tio n h o s te d a m o c k tria l b y in te r n a tio n a l w o m e n ’s g ro u p s in T o k y o m o d e le d o n a s im ila r tria l h e ld b y B e rtra n d R u ssell d u r in g th e V ie tn a m W ar. A lth o u g h th is tr ib u n a l la c k e d th e fo rc e o f law, it p r o n o u n c e d th e la te S h o w a e m p e ro r (H iro h ito ) a n d o th e r Ja p a n e se m ilita ry le a d e rs g u ilty o f w a r crim e s a g a in st A sia n w o m e n fo r m a k in g th e m sex slaves. A lso, f ro m 1 9 9 3 to th e s ta rt o f 1 9 9 5 , a U n it 7 3 1 E x h ib itio n w e n t o n d isp lay in six ty -o n e Jap an ese cities, w h e re 2 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le v isite d it. T h e e x h ib itio n in tr o d u c e d th e b io lo g ic a l e x p e rim e n ts th a t U n it 7 3 1 c o n d u c te d o n h u m a n g u in e a p ig s e u p h e m is tic a lly te rm e d “lo g s” (maruta), w h ic h e n d e d in th e d e a th a n d m u tila tio n o f so m e 3 ,0 0 0 p e o p le , m o s t o f th e m C h in e se . O n e o f th e m o s t n o te w o r th y so c ial d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e 1 9 9 0 s w as real, n o t ju s t sy m b o lic , la w su its b r o u g h t a g a in st th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t to w in c o m p e n s a tio n fo r A sia n v ic tim s o f th e w ar. T h e se la w su its b e c a m e p o ssib le b ec au se Ja p a n e se c itiz e n -le d m o v e m e n ts g a in e d im p e tu s d u e to th e e n d o f th e C o ld W ar, w h ic h p ro d u c e d lib e ra liz a tio n a n d d e m o c ra tiz a tio n in fo rm e rly a u th o rita r ia n a n ti- C o m m u n is t reg im es su c h as S o u th K o re a, T a iw a n , a n d th e P h ilip p in e s . U n til th e n , g o v e rn m e n ts th e re a n d in o th e r A sia n c o u n trie s s u p ­ p resse d d e m a n d s fo r c o m p e n s a tio n b y th e ir o w n p e o p le s fo r fea r o f a n ta g o 347

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

n iz in g J a p a n a n d th u s lo sin g a lu c ra tiv e so u rc e o f e c o n o m ic a id fo r d e v e lo p ­ m e n t. N o w , th e se A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts saw fit to sto p th is s u p p re ss io n a n d in so m e cases even e n c o u ra g e d th e ir n a tio n a ls to la u n c h la w su its as in d iv id u a ls in Ja p a n , w h e re th e y g o t h e lp f ro m s y m p a th e tic Ja p a n e se c itiz e n g r o u p s .53 F o r ex am p le, g ro u p s o f K o re a n s w ere re lo c a te d u n d e r im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t o rd ers to w o rk o n S a k h a lin , w h ic h w as Ja p a n e se te rr ito r y d u r in g th e w ar. B u t im p e ria l a rm e d fo rc es a b a n d o n e d th e m th e re in 1 9 4 5 w h e n th e S o v iet U n io n to o k over, a n d m a n y re m a in e d s tr a n d e d u n til th e la te 1 9 9 0 s. O n 2 9 A u g u s t 1 9 9 0 , so m e o f th e K o re a n s w h o h a d b e e n ab le to r e tu r n h o m e su e d th e J a p a n ­ ese g o v e rn m e n t fo r d a m a g e s in th e T o k y o D is tr ic t C o u r t. A lso, so m e w a rtim e K o re an s— as Ja p an e se im p e ria l su b je c ts— se rv e d as so ld ie rs, as g u a rd s in P O W cam p s, a n d in o th e r p a ra m ilita ry capacities. S o m e o f th e m w ere k illed in ac tio n ; or, afte r th e w a r e n d e d , so m e w ere ex e c u te d o r se n te n c e d to p e n a l se rv itu d e as Ja p a n e se w a r c rim in a ls fo r h a v in g m is tre a te d A llie d P O W s . T h e s e m e n a n d th e ir k in w ere u n ila te ra lly s trip p e d o f Ja p a n e se c itiz e n sh ip in 1 9 5 2 ; a n d al­ th o u g h th e y c o n tin u e d to live a n d p a y taxes in J a p a n as re s id e n t alien s, th e y lo st all rig h ts to sta te p e n s io n s a n d so c ial w elfa re b e n e fits, su c h as m e d ic a l tr e a tm e n t fo r w o u n d s su ffe re d in th e w ar, b ec au se th o se rig h ts w ere lim ite d to Ja p a n e se citiz en s. O n 12 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 1 , a g ro u p o f s u c h re s id e n t-a lie n K o re ­ ans su e d th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t fo r d am ag e s. In D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 1 , w e sh o u ld n o te , th e first g ro u p o f K o re a n fo rm e r “c o m fo rt w o m e n ” la u n c h e d a la w s u it a g a in st th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t fo r th e ir sex u al e n s la v e m e n t b y th e im p e ria l a rm y d u r in g th e w a r.54 Yet a n o th e r la w s u it w as la u n c h e d to c o m p e n s a te w a rtim e H o n g K o n g res­ id e n ts w h o h a d b e e n p a id w ages in Ja p a n e se m ilita ry sc rip , a n d w ere fo rc e d to d e p o s it th e se in Ja p a n e se fin a n c ia l in s titu tio n s , o n ly to fin d th e sc rip a n d th e ir savings to b e w o rth le ss a fte r J a p a n s u rre n d e re d in 1 9 4 5 . L a te r in th e 1 9 9 0 s, still m o re la w su its w ere la u n c h e d a g a in st th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d Ja p an e se c o m p a n ie s o n b e h a lf o f C h in e se a n d K o re a n w o rk e rs fo rc ib ly b r o u g h t to J a p a n fo r slave la b o r d u r in g th e w ar, a n d o n e o f th e se la w su its e n d e d w ith a n o u t- o f- c o u rt s e ttle m e n t in N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 0 w h e n K a sh im a C o r p o r a tio n ag reed to aw a rd d a m a g e s to fo rm e r C h in e s e la b o re rs a n d th e ir o ffsp rin g . As o f 2 0 0 3 , th e re are so m e fifty la w su its o f th is ty p e b e in g trie d o r a p p e a le d in Ja p a n e se c o u rts o f law. A sia n v ic tim s w ill n o t lik e ly w in sig n ific a n t m o n e ta r y c o m p e n s a tio n b ec au se T o k y o in sists th a t p e a c e tre a tie s c o n c lu d e d w ith fo r­ eig n g o v e rn m e n ts s tip u la te d th a t J a p a n p a y o n ly s ta te -to -s ta te re p a ra tio n s , a n d th a t a n y f u r th e r claim s fo r in d iv id u a l d am ag e s b e w aiv e d . Ja p a n e se la w c o u rts a lm o st in v a ria b ly u p h o ld th is legal a rg u m e n t to d isa llo w p a y m e n t o f c o m ­ p e n s a tio n to fo re ig n in d iv id u a ls o n a s ta te -to -p e rs o n o r a c o m p a n y -to -p e rs o n basis. N ev erth eless, th e k ey p o in t h ere is th a t v ic tim s h av e m a d e serio u s a tte m p ts a t red ress, a n d n o n e o f th e se c o u ld h av e ta k e n p la c e w ith o u t ac tiv e c o o p e ra ­ tio n f ro m Ja p a n e se c itiz e n s w h o , o w in g to le ft-w in g s c h o la rsh ip a n d p u b lic re la tio n s ac tiv itie s, feel a k e e n sense o f a c c o u n ta b ility fo r w a r c rim e s co m 348

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

m itte d 7 0 -p lu s years ago. S u c h d e v e lo p m e n ts w o u ld h av e b e e n b a re ly c o n ­ ceivable p r io r to th e s u s ta in e d m o v e m e n ts fo r e d u c a tio n a n d red ress th a t em e rg e d fro m th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d c o n tin u e in th e 2 0 0 0 s. T h e s e m o v e m e n ts h av e fo u r im p o r ta n t p o in ts in c o m m o n .55 F irst, a n d ab o v e all, th e y p ro v e th a t o r d in a ry Ja p a n e se are in fa c t o w n in g u p to th e c u l­ p a b ility th a t they, th e ir p a re n ts, o r th e ir g ra n d p a re n ts b e a r fo r th e d am ag e s a n d s u ffe rin g in flic te d o n A sia n s d u r in g th e w ar. S e c o n d , b y la u n c h in g la w ­ su its ag a in st th e ir o w n g o v e rn m e n t to w in c o m p e n s a tio n fo r v ic tim s o f th e w ar, th e se Ja p a n e se c itiz e n s are c u ltiv a tin g b o n d s o f s o lid a rity w ith th o se A sian s. T h ir d , y o u n g e r Ja p a n e se h av e in g e n e ra l b e e n th e p rim e fo rc e b e h in d th e se en d e av o rs. F o u rth , th e re h as b e e n a c o n c o m ita n t d e c lin e in in flu e n c e e n jo y e d b y co n serv a tiv e g ro u p s su c h as th e S o c ie ty to H o n o r O u r W a r H e ro e s. T h is is e p ito m iz e d b y th e fa c t th a t o n e g ro u p o f d is s id e n t b e re a v e d fam ilies b o lte d fro m th e J a p a n W a r-B e re a v e d F am ilies in 1 9 9 6 in o rd e r to f o rm th e ir o w n A sso c ia tio n o f P acifist W a r-B e re a v e d F am ilies, w h ic h p u rsu e s goals in fo rm e d b y ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t p rin c ip le s .56 In su m , c itiz e n -le d m o v e m e n ts h av e p la y e d a m a jo r ro le in e d u c a tin g o rd i­ n a r y Ja p a n e se p e o p le a b o u t th e t r u t h o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a n d o th e r h id e o u s w a r crim es. W h a t is m o re , th e se m o v e m e n ts fro m b e lo w h av e fo rc e d v a rio u s b ra n c h e s o f th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d ju d ic ia ry to ac k n o w le d g e th a t t r u t h — th o u g h w ith g re a t re lu c ta n c e . F o r e x a m p le , in c o n c lu d in g th e th ir d Ie n a g a te x tb o o k la w s u it o v er th e c o n s titu tio n a lity o f th e g o v e r n m e n t’s sy stem o f te x tb o o k sc re e n in g , th e T o k y o H ig h e r D is tr ic t C o u r t ru le d in O c to ­ b e r 1 9 9 3 th a t, a lth o u g h th e s c re e n in g sy ste m its e lf w as c o n s titu tio n a l, th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n illeg a lly a b u s e d th a t sy ste m b y fo rc in g te x tb o o k a u th o rs to o m it o r to n e d o w n passages m e n tio n in g im p e ria l a rm y c o m p lic ity in p r o c u r in g c o m fo r t w o m e n .57 It is n o te w o r th y th a t all Ja p a n e se s e c o n d a ry sc h o o l h is to ry te x tb o o k s issu ed d u r in g th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s m e n tio n e d th e N a n k in g A tro city . S everal re la p se d in to d o w n p la y in g o r o m ittin g th e A tro c ­ ity in th e ir 2 0 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 1 e d itio n s, b u t th a t tr e n d h as b e e n p a r tly rev e rse d sin c e 2 0 0 3 . It is n o c o in c id e n c e th a t, in re sp o n se to a r e p o r te r ’s q u e s tio n re g a rd in g a la w s u it b r o u g h t a g a in st A z u m a S h iro , a re p u te d ey e w itn e ss to th e A tro c ity , a M in is try o f F o reig n A ffairs official sp o k e sp e rso n o n 2 5 D e c e m b e r 1998 averred: “th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t rec o g n ize s th a t th e re are n u m e ro u s w ays to in te r ­ p r e t th e ‘N a n k in g A tro c ity ,’ b u t it is a n u n d e n ia b le fa c t th a t m ass k illin g s or m assacres o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts d id ta k e p la ce afte r th e im p e ria l a rm y e n te re d th e w alled city o f N a n k in g .”58 In o th e r w o rd s, ev en th o u g h tw o successive c o u r t d ec isio n s ru le d a g a in st A z u m a b y c o n c lu d in g th a t h e fa b ric a te d a n a c c o u n t o f o n e p a rtic u la rly c ru e l in c id e n t in th e A tro c ity , th e g o v e rn m e n t c o n c e d e s th a t th e A tro c ity as a w h o le d id ta k e p la ce . In A p ril 1 9 9 9 , C h ie f C a b in e t S ecre­ ta ry N o n a k a H ir o m u e c h o e d th is s ta te m e n t w h e n h e p u b lic ly re p u d ia te d a d e n ia l o f th e A tro c ity m a d e b y T o k y o g o v e rn o r Is h ih a ra S h in ta r o .59 Ish ih a ra 349

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

h im s e lf la te r c o n c e d e d th a t th e e v e n t to o k p la c e — th o u g h o n a scale th a t ac­ co rd s w ith a m in im a lis t d e fin itio n . T h e se d e v e lo p m e n ts p ro v e th a t d e n y in g th e h is to ric a l fa c t o f th e A tro c ity is b e c o m in g less a n d less a c c e p ta b le in p re se n td a y Ja p a n e se society. K ey d e v e lo p m e n ts h av e ta k e n p la ce in ju d ic ia l circles as w ell. F o r ex a m p le , th e T o k y o D is tr ic t C o u r t o n 2 2 S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 9 c o n c lu d e d a la w s u it la u n c h e d over U n it 7 3 1 , th e N a n k in g A tro c ity , a n d I n d is c rim in a te A ir R a id s.60 Its d e c i­ sio n d id n o t o rd e r th e g o v e rn m e n t to c o m p e n s a te C h in e s e v ic tim s , b u t it d id affirm th a t, ev en b y th e s ta n d a rd s o f 1 9 3 7 —4 5 , th e S in o -Ja p a n e se W a r w as an in d e fe n s ib le ac t o f im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n a n d c o lo n ia lis m th a t in flic te d im ­ m e n se s u ffe rin g o n e n o rm o u s n u m b e rs o f C h in e s e p e o p le . A s to N a n k in g , th e D is tr ic t C o u r t ex p lic itly c o n c e d e d th a t “fro m several te n s o f th o u s a n d s to as m a n y as 3 0 0 th o u s a n d ” C h in e s e w ere m a ssac red ; a n d as to U n it 7 3 1 , it d e ­ clared th a t th is u n i t ’s ex isten ce a n d its b io lo g ic a l e x p e rim e n ts o n h u m a n b ein g s are facts b e y o n d a n y d o u b t. F inally, th e D is tr ic t C o u r t ’s d e c isio n a sse rte d th a t th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t s h o u ld ap o lo g ize to th e C h in e s e p e o p le in a sin c ere a n d h e a rtfe lt m a n n e r .61 A g a in , a lth o u g h n o t o rd e rin g th e g o v e rn m e n t to p a y m o n e ta r y c o m p e n s a tio n , th e T o k y o D is tr ic t a n d T o k y o H ig h e r D is tr ic t c o u rts in 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 3 u p h e ld a 1 9 9 9 d e fa m a tio n la w s u it la u n c h e d b y a N a n k in g survivor, Li H siu -y in g , a g a in st th e N a n k in g d e n ie r M a ts u m u r a T o sh io a n d T en d e n s h a , th e p u b lis h e r o f h is N ankin gyakusatsu e no daigimon.

Altered Views of the War H o w hav e o r d in a ry Ja p a n e se p e o p le ’s view s o f th e w a r c h a n g e d as a re s u lt o f le ft-w in g h is to ric a l sc h o la rsh ip a n d c itiz e n -le d m o v e m e n ts fo r e d u c a tio n a n d redress? O n 7 a n d 8 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3 , th e Asahi shinbun p o lle d 3 ,0 0 0 elig ib le v o te rs (citize n s 2 0 y ears o r o ld e r) n a tio n w id e a b o u t h o w J a p a n s h o u ld deal w ith d e m a n d s fo r p o s tw a r c o m p e n s a tio n m a d e b y fo re ig n n a tio n a ls . O f 2 ,3 1 9 p e rso n s w h o ag reed to b e in te rv ie w e d , 51 p e rc e n t an sw e re d th a t “w e s h o u ld r e s p o n d ” to th o se d e m a n d s , w h e re a s 3 7 p e r c e n t sa id “w e d o n o t n e e d to re ­ s p o n d .” T h is su rv e y is n o te w o r th y in th a t ro u g h ly 7 0 p e rc e n t o f th e re s p o n ­ d e n ts in th e ir tw e n tie s re s p o n d e d in th e p o sitiv e . A s fo r w h e th e r J a p a n s h o u ld p a y c o m p e n s a tio n to fo rm e r c o m fo r t w o m e n , fifty -o n e p e r c e n t o f all th e re s p o n d e n ts sa id “y e s,” w h e re a s th ir ty - th r e e p e r c e n t sa id “n o . ” H e re to o , over se v en ty p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts in th e ir tw e n tie s re s p o n d e d “y e s .” As th e se s u r ­ veys show , ho w ev e r, th e o v erall level o f s u p p o r t fo r p a y in g c o m p e n s a tio n re m a in e d a t a b o u t fifty p e rc e n t. A n analysis o f th e se p o lls in d ic a te th a t th e re w as still c o n s id e ra b le s u p p o r t in 1 9 9 3 fo r th e v ie w th a t v io la tio n s o f h u m a n rig h ts are u n a v o id a b le in w a r to a d eg ree. H o w ev er, th e id e a th a t s u c h v io la ­ tio n s are in to le ra b le ev en d u r in g w a r w as g a in in g g r o u n d , p a rtic u la rly a m o n g th e y o u n g .62 C o n t r ib u t in g to th e g ro w th o f s u c h d is s id e n t view s w as th e p ro 350

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

life ra tio n o f citiz e n -le d p r o te s t m o v e m e n ts sin c e th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d th e larg e n u m ­ b e r o f la w su its ov er p o s tw a r c o m p e n s a tio n th a t b e g a n in th e 1 9 9 0 s. In th a t sense, so cial m o v e m e n ts to fo rc e th e Ja p a n e se sta te a n d p e o p le to face u p to th e ir c u lp a b ility fo r w a rtim e evils h a v e in d e e d b e e n efficacio u s. In 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 4 , a n d 2 0 0 0 , J a p a n ’s n a tio n a l b ro a d c a s tin g c o rp o ra tio n N H K c o n d u c te d p o lls to g au g e h o w th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le m a d e sen se o f th e ir m o d e rn h isto ry . In O c to b e r 1 9 8 2 , N H K c o n d u c te d a n a tio n w id e su rv e y o f 3 ,6 0 0 p e rso n s ag ed 16 y ears a n d over, o f w h o m 7 2 .9 p e r c e n t r e s p o n d e d . In O c to b e r 1 9 8 7 , 6 9 .4 p e r c e n t o f 3 ,6 0 0 p e rso n s re s p o n d e d to a s im ila r survey. In D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 4 , N H K e x te n d e d th e n a tio n w id e su rv e y to in c lu d e 1 ,8 0 0 p e rso n s 2 0 years o f age a n d over, o f w h o m 6 4 .2 p e r c e n t r e s p o n d e d . In M a y o f 2 0 0 0 , N H K su rv e y e d 2 ,0 0 0 p e rso n s 16 y ears o r old er. In O c to b e r 1 9 8 2 , fifty -o n e p e rc e n t o f th e re s p o n d e n ts ag re ed th a t “th e 5 0 -y e a r h is to ry o f J a p a n f ro m th e [1 8 9 4 —9 5] S in o -Ja p a n e se W a r to th e [1 9 4 1 —45] P acific W a r w as a h is to ry o f ag g ressio n a g a in st n e ig h b o rin g A sia n p e o p le s .” In O c to b e r 1 9 8 7 , th a t fig u re d ip p e d slig h tly to fo rty -e ig h t p e rc e n t, b u t in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 4 it re ­ b o u n d e d to fifty -tw o p e rc e n t. A n d , in 2 0 0 0 it re m a in e d a t fifty -o n e p e rc e n t. A s fo r th e av o id a b le o r u n a v o id a b le n a tu re o f th a t ag g re ssio n , in O c to b e r 1 9 8 2 , fo rty -fiv e p e r c e n t o f th e re s p o n d e n ts re p lie d th a t “r e s o u rc e -p o o r J a p a n h a d n o ch o ice b u t to a d v a n c e m ilita rily in to o th e r c o u n trie s i f it w ere to s u r­ v iv e” d u r in g th is fifty -y e ar p e rio d ; so “ [aggression] c o u ld n ’t b e h e lp e d .” In O c to b e r 1 9 8 7 , th is fig u re fell to f o rty p e rc e n t; a n d in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 4 , it fell even fu rth e r, to th irty -tw o p e rc e n t. A lso, in O c to b e r 1 9 8 2 , tw e n ty -se v e n p e r­ c e n t o f th e re s p o n d e n ts re p lie d th a t th e se fifty y ears re p re s e n te d a “h is to ry o f ag g ressio n ” th a t “w as not s o m e th in g th a t ‘c o u ld n ’t b e h e lp e d ’. ” T h is fig u re re ­ m a in e d a t te w n ty -six p e rc e n t in O c to b e r 1 9 8 7 , 2 7 p e r c e n t in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 4 , a n d th ir ty p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 0 .63 O v e ra ll, th e n , th e N H K su rv ey s in d ic a te th a t m o s t Ja p a n e se fro m 1 9 8 2 to 2 0 0 0 a d m itte d th a t th e ir fo re b e a rs w a g e d w ars o f ag g re ssio n b e tw e e n 1 8 9 4 a n d 1 9 4 5 , b u t th a t th e se w ars w ere u n a v o id a b le ; it w as th e o n ly w ay fo r th e ir re s o u rc e -p o o r n a tio n to su rv iv e in th e w o rld a t th a t tim e . L o o k in g a t th e fig­ ures in a p o sitiv e lig h t, w e c a n say th a t v e ry few Ja p a n e se a c c e p t th e c o n s e r­ v ativ e re v isio n ists’ re a c tio n a ry v ie w th a t im p e ria l J a p a n f o u g h t a n d sacrificed its e lf to lib e ra te A sia n s d u r in g th o se fifty years. Yet it is ju s t as im p o r ta n t to n o te th e o p in io n th a t w ars fro m 1 8 9 4 to 1 9 4 5 “c o u ld n ’t b e h e lp e d .” T h e p e r­ sisten c e o f th is v ie w disclo ses a tr o u b lin g d im e n s io n ; th a t is, th e Ja p a n e se p e o ­ p le still fin d it r a th e r h a r d to face u p to th e ir w ars o f a g g re ssio n , o r th e y d o n o t w ish to le a rn fro m th is h isto ry . As Y oshida Y u tak a n o te s, i f m o s t Ja p an e se b eliev e th a t th e w ars “c o u ld n ’t b e h e lp e d ” ev en as th e y a d m it th a t th e se w ere “w ars o f a g g re ssio n ,” th is m e a n s th a t th e y feel a n e e d to ap o lo g ize o r to m a k e a m e n d s o n ly in a fo rm a lis tic sense. In o th e r w o rd s, th e y are n o t tr u ly c ritic a l o f m o d e rn J a p a n ’s p o lic ie s to w a rd A sia a n d la c k a g e n u in e sense o f w ro n g d o in g .64 H o w ev er, th e 2 0 0 0 N H K su rv e y d e m o n s tr a te d th a t fifty p e r c e n t o f all 351

This content downloaded from 142.103.ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

re sp o n d e n ts, a n d sixty p e rc e n t o f th o se b o r n in 1 9 5 9 o r later, said th a t th e p o s t­ w a r g e n e ra tio n o u g h t to “reso lv e th e u n s e ttle d issues le ft o v e r” fro m w a rtim e ; th a t is, d isc h arg e re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e w ar. B y c o n tra s t, th ir ty - tw o p e rc e n t o f all re s p o n d e n ts , a n d tw e n ty -se v e n p e r c e n t o f th o se b o r n in 1 9 5 9 o r later, fe lt th a t th e p o s tw a r g e n e ra tio n d id n o t n e e d to d isc h a rg e th a t r e s p o n s ib ility o r b o re n o n e a t all. T h e re m a in in g e ig h te e n p e r c e n t a n d th ir te e n p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts “d id n o t k n o w ” o r e n te re d o th e r an sw e rs.65

Conclusion L e ft-w in g Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s o f th e N a n k in g A tro c ity h a v e h a d a n im p o r ta n t so c io p o litic a l im p a c t in th re e k e y areas. F irst, th e ir a c a d e m ic fin d in g s h av e d o n e a g re a t d ea l to c larify th e o v erall n a tu re a n d e x te n t o f th e A tro c ity . S ec­ o n d , th e y hav e d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly p r o m o te d b ro a d ly b a se d c itiz e n s’ m o v e ­ m e n ts th a t fo rc ed th e M in is tr y o f E d u c a tio n to p e r m it m e n tio n o f th e A tro c ity a n d o th e r Ja p a n e se w a r crim e s in sc h o o l te x tb o o k s. T h ir d , th e y c u rre n tly assist A sia n v ic tim s o f th e w a r w h o se ek c o m p e n s a tio n fo r d am ag e s fro m th e J a p a n ­ ese g o v e rn m e n t a n d b u sin e ss firm s. A s a re s u lt o f th e se en d e a v o rs, th e g o v ­ e r n m e n t, as w ell as th e m a jo r ity o f o r d in a r y Ja p a n e se p e o p le , h av e c o m e to a c c e p t th a t: (1) im p e ria l J a p a n w a g e d w ars o f ag g re ssio n in A sia sin c e 1 8 9 4 , (2) th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le c o m m itte d h e in o u s w a r c rim e s b e tw e e n 1931 a n d 1 9 4 5 o f w h ic h th e A tro c ity w as b u t o n e, a n d (3) th e p o s tw a r g e n e ra tio n o u g h t to b e a r so m e re s p o n s ib ility fo r m a k in g a to n e m e n t. It is tr u e th a t a m in o r ity o f p e o p le in J a p a n c o n tin u e to d e n y th is h is to ry o f ag g ressio n , are in te n t o n c la im in g th a t th e N a n k in g A tro c ity w as fa b ric a te d o r g ro ssly o v e rb lo w n , a n d r e p u d ia te a n y n e e d fo r a to n e m e n t. T h e c o n tin u e d ex isten ce o f th is m in o r ity is in d e e d la m e n ta b le . H o w ev er, it is u n lik e ly th a t th o se p e rso n s w ill e x e rt a g re a t d eal o f p o litic a l in flu e n c e in th e fu tu re , as th e w a rtim e g e n e ra tio n is to ta lly re p la c e d b y p e rso n s b o r n a fte r th e w ar. In th a t sense, b o th fo re ig n c ritic s su c h as th e la te Iris C h a n g a n d h e r fo llo w ers, a n d Ja p a n e se su c h as A z u m a S h iro (n o w ex p o sed as h a v in g fa b ric a te d tales o f a tro c ­ ities a t N a n k in g ) g ro ssly m is re p re s e n t c o n te m p o r a r y Ja p a n e se so c ie ty w h e n m a k in g b la n k e t c o n d e m n a tio n s o f th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le fo r w illfu l ig n o ra n c e a b o u t th e ir h is to ry o f a g g re ssio n .66 In fac t, le ft-w in g h is to ria n s in J a p a n fu lly sh a re th o se c ritic s’ g oals o f e x p o s in g th e b a rb a ric a c tio n s o f im p e ria l Ja p a n e se tro o p s d u r in g th e A tro c ity in o rd e r to d ra w le sso n s fro m it, a n d also to w in m o n e ta r y c o m p e n s a tio n fo r fo re ig n v ic tim s. B u t th e re a so n th a t so m a n y o th ­ erw ise s y m p a th e tic Ja p a n e se sc h o la rs feel p e r tu r b e d b y th e p u b lic a tio n s a n d jo u r n a lis tic a c tiv itie s o f th o se “J a p a n b a s h e rs” lies p re c ise ly in th e o v e rsim p li­ fic a tio n s a n d d is to rtio n s o f p re s e n t-d a y J a p a n th a t th e y in s is t o n m a in ta in in g a n d p r o p a g a tin g .67

352

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking: Denial and Atonement in Contemporary Japan

Notes * 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35.

Translated from Japanese by the editor. Kasahara, A jia no naka no Nihongun, pp. 15—39. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre,” pp. 133—79. Hata, “‘Rabe koka o sokutei sum ,” pp. 8—25. Hata, N a n kin jiken, passim. Kasahara, A jia no nanka no N ihongun, p. 19. Yoshida, “Kenkyukai meguri,” pp. 76—77. Kasahara, A jia no nanka no N ihongun, p. 21. Suzuki, “‘Nankin daigyakusatsu’ no maboroshi,” pp. 177—91. Watada, “Suzuki Akira shi no ‘shuzai’ o shuzai sum ,” p. 194. Tanaka, “N a n kin daigyakusatsu ” no kyoko, passim. Tanaka, “‘Nankin daigyakusatsu’: Matsui Iwane no jinchu nisshi,” pp. 64—79. Kasahara, A jia no naka no Nihongun, p. 28. Nakajima, “Nankin koryakusen: N akajim a dai-16shidancho n ikki,” pp. 252—71. Kimijima, “‘Nankin jiken’ no kotei to ‘Nankin daigyakusatsu’ no hitei,” pp. 105—20; Kaiko, (March 1984), p. 18. Hora, “Matsui taisho jinchu nisshi kaizan atogaki,” pp. 55—66; Itakura, “Matsui Iwane nikki no kaizan ni tsuite,” pp. 187—94. Itakura, “‘30-man gyakusatsu’ kyoko no shomei,” pp. 50—54; Itakura, “‘30-man gyakusatsu’ kyoko no shomei, zoku: ‘Nankin jiken no sujiteki kenkyu,” pp. 4 0 ^ 6 ; and Itakura, “Nankin jiken no sujiteki kenkyu 3: Nankin de ittai nani ga atta no ka,” pp. 3 6 ^ 3 . Itakura, “Matsui Iwane nikki no kaizan ni tsuite,” p. 190. Yoshida, “ 15-nen sensoshi kenkyu to senso sekinin mondai,” pp. 36—55. Ibid., p. 47. Itakura, “Matsui Iwane nikki no kaizan ni tsuite,” p. 194. O n Yasukuni, see Murakami, Irei to shokon; and Oe, Yasukuni jinja. Zenkoku senyu rengokai, ed., Senyuren ju n en no ayumi. Hata, “Izoku to seiji,” p. 195, and p. 228. Kasahara, N a n kin jik e n to sanko sakusen , p. 299; Sengo 50-nen shimin no fusen sengen iken kokoku undo, ed., “Sengo 5 0 -n e n ”aratamete fusen de iko. Shusen gojunen kokum in iinkai, ed., Shusen gojusshunen kokum in undo kiroku shu. Sengo 50-nen shimin no fusen sengen iken kokoku undo, ed., “Sengo 50 -n en ”aratamete fusen de iko, p. 195. Ibid., p. 219. Wada, Sengo N ih on no heiwa ishiki, passim. Agawa, “‘Aa, doki no sakura’ ni yoseru,” pp. 112—24. Yoshida, “Senso no kioku,” pp. 99—117. Yoshida, “Nankin jiken no zenyo ga semaru rekishi ishiki,” p. 65; Kasahara, N a n kin jik e n to sanko sakusen, p. 60. Hosaka, “Chu-Kan no ‘tai-Nichi hihan’ ga okoru toki,” p. 101. Critical studies o f the group include: M orita and Fujiwara, eds., Kingendaishi no shinjitsu wa nani ka; Kyokasho kentei sosho o shien suru zenkoku renrakukai, ed., Kyokasho kara kesenai senso no shinjitsu; Yoshida, “N ihon kindaishi o do toraeru ka,” pp. 238—53; Ogushi, “‘Dai-3-ji kyokasho kogeki’ no shinbu ni aru m ono,” pp. 15—26; Oguma, “‘Hidari’ o kii suru popyurarizumu,” pp. 94—105. Typical of Fujioka’s many publications are “Jigyaku shikan” no byori and Ojoku no kingendaishi. Tawara has m onitored the groups’ activities since 1997 in his hom e page, “Kodomo to kyokasho zenkoku netto 21” found at: http//:www.asahi-net.co.jp/~prly-twr/

353

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

36.

37. 38. 39. 40.

41.

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63.

64. 65. 66. 67.

See, for example, Higashinakano, "Nankin gyakusatsu” no tettei kenkyu ; also, Higashinakano and Fujioka, “Z a reepu obu N a n k in ” no kenkyu. Takashima, “Rekishikan X media = watching 3,” pp. 37—45. Higashinakano, “Rekishi no kenkyu ka, rekishi no waikyoku ka?,” pp. 37-45. Yoshida, “Kenkyukai meguri,” pp. 76-77. Representative studies dating from the 1980s are Fujiwara, N a n k in daigyakusatsu; Hora, N a n k in daigyakusatsu no shomei; H onda, N a n k in e no m ichi; H ora et al. eds., N a n k in daigyakusatsu no genba e; H ora et al., N a n kin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu; and others by Kasahara and Fujiwara discussed in the main text. Their most recently published document collections include: Nankin jiken chosa kenkyukai, ed. and trans., N a n kin jik e n shiryo shu 1: A m erika shiryo hen; Nankin jiken chosakenkyukai, ed., and trans., N a n k in jik e n shiryo shu 2: Chugoku kankei shiryo hen; and O no, Fujiwara, and Honda, eds., N a n kin gyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishitachi. Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, p. 228. Yoshida, “Nankin jiken no zenyo ga semaru rekishi ninshiki,” p. 59. Yoshida, “ 15-senso shi kenkyu to senso sekinin mondai,” p. 42. Yoshida, N ihonjin no sensokan, p. 90. Yang, “Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre,” passim. See the English adaptation of his book (authored under his anglicized name) Yuki Tanaka, H id ­ den Horrors, passim. Ishida, “Kenkyu doko shokai: Doitsushi ni okeru gyakusatsu kenkyu.” O no describes his labors in a postscript to his document collection, “Atogaki,” pp. 375-82. Yoshida and Iguchi, “Kyoto ni okeru sensoten undo to shiryo hakkutsu,” pp. 442-65. Uesugi, “Kowasenakatta 2-ju kijun no kabe,” pp. 10-17. Nankin daigyakusatsu higaisha tsuito kenshoku ho-Chu dan, ed., M idori no shokuzai, vols. 1-4. Ishida, “Senso sekinin saiko,” p. 32. Tawara home page: www.asahi-net.co.jp/~prly-twr/ Uesugi, “Kowasenakatta 2-ju kijun no kabe,” pp. 10-17. Tanaka, “Senbotsusha o do tsuito suru ka,” pp. 147-92. Kasahara, N a n k in jik e n to sanko sakusen, p. 44. M a in ich i shinbun, 29 December 1998. A sahi shinbun, 19 April 1999 (evening edition). Chugokujin senso higaisha no yokyu o sasaeru kai home page: www.threeweb.ad.jp/~suopei A sahi shinbun, 23 September 1999; also, Oyama, “M ujun ni michita hanketsu no sekkyokumen to shokyokumen,” pp. 12-15. Asahi shinbun, ed., Sengo hosho to wa nanika, pp. 1 4 0 ^ 4 . For other surveys, see Kono, et. al., ed., “Sekai no terebi wa sengo 50-nen o do tsutaeta ka,” pp. 1-109; Matsumoto, “N ihon no wakamono no 15-nen sensokan to kyokasho (ankeeto no matome),” pp. 199-231. Yoshida, N ihonjin no sensokan, p. 217. N H K , ed., “Saki no senso to sedai gyappu,” web posted in September 2000. Chang, Rape o f Nanking; on Azuma’s television appearances in China, Sankei shinbun, 2 June 1999. M izutani, “Watashi wa naze Azum a Shiro ni igi o tonaeru ka,” pp. 2 19-25; Yoshida, “Kaisetsu,” pp. 258-59. In Azuma’s defense, see Nakakita et al., “Azuma saiban’ no shinjitsu o uttaeru,” pp. 275-81.

354

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:25 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Po st sc r ip t

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

16

Le f t o v e r P r o b l e m s B ob Tadashi W akabayashi

Massacres: Real and False M assacres te n d to p ro v o k e c o n te n tio n . U .S . b u t n o t B ritish h isto ria n s sp e ak o f a B o s to n M assacre in M a y 1 7 7 0 th a t to o k five lives; th e B ritish c o m m a n d e r w as a c q u itte d o f all ch arg es. In th e m o re re c e n t p a st, U .S . tro o p s k ille d h u n ­ d re d s o f K o re a n a n d V ie tn a m e s e civ ilia n s a t N o G u n R i in Ju ly 1 9 5 0 a n d a t M y L ai in M a rc h 1 9 6 8 . B u t m o s t A m e ric a n s d e n y th a t e ith e r e v e n t w as a m assacre e n ta ilin g a p o lo g ies, c o m p e n s a tio n , o r e x e c u tio n o f th e m e n re s p o n ­ sible. In J a n u a ry 2 0 0 1 P re s id e n t B ill C l in to n ex p re ssed “r e g re t” b u t n o offi­ cial ap o lo g y fo r N o G u n R i, a n d P re s id e n t J im m y C a rte r e a rlie r h a d re fu se d re p a ra tio n s to V ie tn a m b ec au se “th e d e s tru c tio n w as m u tu a l.”1 P a le stin ia n s in s is t th a t Israeli tro o p s m a ssa c re d 3 ,0 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s a t J e n in in A p ril 2 0 0 2 , b u t C h a rle s K ra u th a m m e r o f th e Washington Post d isagrees: “T h e ‘J e n in m a ssac re’ is m o re th a n a fic tio n . It is a h o a x .” H e ex p lain s, “A m a ssac re is th e d e lib e ra te m ass m u r d e r o f th e d e fe n se le ss,” a n d J e n in w as a “p h a n to m m a s­ sa c re ,” b u t ea rlier in 2 0 0 2 , six ty -tw o Israelis d ie d in six “real m a ssac res” o n e o f w h ic h to o k th e life o f a sin g le c h ild .2 K ra u th a m m e r ’s c o llea g u e a t th e Post, R ic h a rd C o h e n , c o n c u rs: “ T h e J e n in ‘m a ssa c re ’ n o t o n ly lives o n in P a le stin ­ ia n m y th o lo g y b u t also re m a in s e m b e d d e d in th e files o f m a n y W e s te rn m e d ia o u tle ts .” C o h e n g ra n ts th a t, “n o d o u b t so m e b a d th in g s h a p p e n e d a t J e n in ,” b u t still avers, “ [g ]iv en th e n a tu re o f th e fig h tin g , Israel c a n h a rd ly b e ac cu sed o f a w a r c rim e .”3 W h a t m a k es fo r a massacre d u r in g a n in v a s io n o r m ilita ry o c c u p a tio n ? F irst, a m in im u m n u m e ric a l th re s h o ld m u s t b e cleared fo r th e te rm to b e m e a n in g ­ fu l. O f co u rse, even 1 v ic tim is to o m a n y f ro m a h u m a n ita ria n v ie w p o in t, b u t i f th e n u m b e r is five as a t B o s to n in 1 7 7 0 , “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g ” w ill reje ct “m assacre” as a h y p e rb o le i f n o t a sla n d er. I f w e raise d th is m in im u m to 2 0 0 o r 3 0 0 , N o G u n R i a n d M y Lai w o u ld qualify, b u t th e n th e r e to r t is th a t 357

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

all states c o m m itte d k illin g s o f th a t size s o m e tim e in th e p ast, so it is u n fa ir to in d ic t o n ly so m e fo r w a r crim es. A lo n g w ith th is k e y “n u m b e rs iss u e ,” I w o u ld p o s it fo u r m o re a ttr ib u te s to d e fin e “m a ssa c re ”: th e ille g a lity o f th e k illin g s, th e la c k o f a n o v e rrid in g m ilita ry n ecessity , th e h e lp le ssn e ss o f th e k ille d , a n d a c ru e lty th a t in flic ts n e e d le ss su ffe rin g . T h e se five a ttr ib u te s e n ta il h a rd ju d g ­ m e n t calls, w h ic h d e n ie rs m a y a t tim e s g e t rig h t, as a t J e n in , w h e re e v id en c e fo r a m assacre o f 3 ,0 0 0 to 5 ,0 0 0 seem s q u e s tio n a b le . T h o s e w h o , rig h tly o r w ro n g ly , d e n y th a t so m e m a ssac re to o k p la c e a d o p t so m e s im ila r ta ctic s. T h e y p la c e q u o ta tio n m a rk s a r o u n d “X M a ssa c re ” to c o n ­ n o te “th e s o -c a lle d ” a n d im p ly , “th is is a lie .” T h e y use te rm s lik e phantom, hoax, fiction, myth, a n d illusion to d is c re d it a c c o u n ts b y th e o th e r sid e. A r ith ­ m e tic a n d s e m a n tic p re c is io n su ffe r w h e n “o u r s id e ” gets k ille d . T h u s , T a n a k a M a saa k i, T a k e m o to T a d a o , O h a r a Y asuo, H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ), a n d o th e r d en iers cite th e “m a ssac re” o f o n e Ja p an e se officer; a n d C h a rle s K ra u t­ h a m m e r ex p lic itly d efin es a “m a ssa c re ” as “th e d e lib e ra te m ass m u r d e r o f th e d efe n sele ss,” y e t a p p lie s “m a ss” to o n e Israeli c h ild . M e m b e rs o f “th e W e ste rn m e d ia ”— u n n a m e d fo r J e n in b u t cited as H a ro ld J. T im p e rley , E d g a r Snow , a n d A g n es S m e d le y fo r N a n k in g — re p u te d ly fa b ric a te d a n d p e r p e tu a te d a “m y th ­ o lo g y .” D e n ie rs a d m it th a t “b a d th in g s ” to o k p lace , lik e th e in a d v e r te n t d e a th o f civilians, b u t in s is t th a t th is w as not a w a r c rim e b ec au se g u e rrilla s in p la in ­ clo th es, o fte n in c lu d in g w o m e n a n d c h ild re n , w ere n o t re a d ily id e n tifia b le as e n e m y b e llig e re n ts. “ G iv e n th e n a tu re o f th e fig h tin g ,” R ic h a rd C o h e n asks, “w h a t, d ea r read er, w o u ld y o u h av e d o n e ? ” T h is a p p e a l w o n th e d a y a t offi­ cial in v e s tig a tio n s o f M y Lai a n d N o G u n R i. P re s id e n t G e o rg e W . B u sh a n d D e fe n se S e c re ta ry D o n a ld R u m sfe ld la te r u se d th is lo g ic to ju s tify w ars o f d u b io u s le g a lity in A fg h a n is ta n a n d Ira q . F o r th e m , e n e m ie s d isg u ise d in civ il­ ia n g arb are “u n la w fu l c o m b a ta n ts ” w h o a b ju re d all rig h ts rese rv e d fo r b o n a fide p riso n e rs o f w a r (P O W s ), so h u m a n ita r ia n tr e a tm e n t a n d d u e p ro ce ss o f law, in c lu d in g sp e e d y tria ls b e fo re m ilita ry trib u n a ls , are n o t n ecessary ; in d e fi­ n ite d e ta in m e n t o r ev en s u m m a r y e x e c u tio n is ju stifia b le . T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity ta k es o n n e w m e a n in g in lig h t o f th e se re c e n t ev en ts. Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs th u s p o in t to e x p lic it im a g es o f se x u al a n d s a d istic a b u se o f Ira q i P O W s b y U .S . ca p to rs, lik e n th e se to sim ila r p h o to s u se d b y th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) a n d b y th e la te Iris C h a n g , a n d h o ld th a t th e im ag es w ere m is u se d o r d o c to re d in o rd e r to d e m o n iz e th e e n e m y .4 H ig a s h in a k a n o a p p lies th e c a te g o ry o f u n la w fu l c o m b a ta n ts to p la in c lo th e s tro o p s a t N a n ­ k in g . K ita m u ra M in o r u tells h o w a d is tra u g h t te e n a g e r— in fa c t th e K u rd is h a m b a s s a d o r’s d a u g h te r— d u p e d th e U .S . C o n g re s s in to a u th o riz in g th e 1 9 9 2 G u lf W ar, a n d lik e n s h e r to ag e n ts fo r th e K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) su c h as S n o w a n d T im p e rle y , w h o in 1 9 3 8 p o se d as h u m a n ita ria n s w h ile g a in in g W e ste rn s u p p o r t fo r C h i n a .5 E d u c a te d p e rso n s afte r W o rld W a r I te n d e d to d isb eliev e a tro c ity claim s b ec a u se th e B ritish , h o p in g to d ra w th e U n ite d S tate s in to th a t w a r as a n ally, h a d falsely a c cu sed G e r m a n y o f ra p e s a n d m a ss m u rd e rs in Bel358

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

g iu m .6 T h u s , W e ste rn e rs in N a n k in g fe lt a n e e d to p refac e th e ir a c c o u n ts in 1 9 3 8 b y w a r n in g th a t J a p a n a n d C h in a la id “exclusive a n d e x a g g erated b la m e ” o n ea ch o th e r fo r a tro c itie s .7 E d u c a te d p e rso n s a fte r W o rld W a r II, b y c o n ­ tra st, te n d to b eliev e a tro c ity claim s b e c a u se th e ir v e rific a tio n h as b e c o m e so c o m m o n . B y s o r tin g o u t so m e le fto v e r p ro b le m s a b o u t th e N a n k in g A tro city , w e h o p e to a v o id th e tw in evils o f k n e e -je rk d ism issa l a n d g u llib le a c c e p ta n c e .

Ambiguity into Deception M u c h m is u n d e rs ta n d in g , n o t all o f it in n o c e n t, ste m s fro m te rm in o lo g y . T h e C h in e s e call w h a t h a p p e n e d a t N a n k in g “th e Ta-t’u-sha ”— “th e m assiv e b u tc h ­ ery o r sla u g h te r.” T h e id e o g ra p h s t’u-sha (w ith o u t ta o r “m assiv e”) a p p e a r in th e w o rd “s la u g h te r h o u s e ,” o r th e h u g e m e a tp a c k in g p la n ts w h e re p r o d u c tio n ­ lin e w o rk e rs k ill a n d p ro c e ss liv e sto c k . “ T h e Ta-t’u-sha ” th u s c o n ju re s u p an im a g e o f d efenseless c re a tu re s sy ste m a tic a lly b u tc h e r e d en m asse in c ru d e ly v io le n t w ays. T h is a c c u ra te ly reflects th e m u r d e r o f 1 4 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 C h i­ nese P O W s d e ta in e d a t M u f u s h a n th a t O n o K e n ji d escrib es in c h a p te r 4 . B u t th e te rm is m is le a d in g in a k e y sense; it b lu rs a d is tin c tio n th a t m u s t b e u p h e ld even i f C h in e s e w h o su ffe re d a b r u ta l in v a sio n a n d o c c u p a tio n in a n u n d e ­ clared w a r rig h tfu lly b e g to differ. T h a t is, to q u a lify as a m a ssac re, m ass k illin g s m u s t b e c rim in a l in n a tu re ; b e llig e re n ts k ille d in a c tio n d iffe r fro m n o n b e llig e re n ts m u r d e r e d in c o ld b lo o d . A lo p s id e d k ill ra tio in b a ttle m a y in d ic a te a m assive b u tc h e ry , b u t th e g o al in w a r is to m a x im iz e e n e m y ca su ­ alties a n d m in im iz e o n e ’s o w n . W a r is a “k illin g c o n te s t” s a n c tio n e d by, y e t c o n s tra in e d u n d e r, in te r n a tio n a l law. T h e M a ria n a s T u rk e y S h o o t o f Ju n e 1 9 4 4 w as a s la u g h te r o f Ja p a n e se p ilo ts, h elp less, g iv e n th e ir in fe rio r p la n e s a n d tra in in g ; b u t it d id n o t e n ta il m o ra l c e n su re , legal lia b ility , a n d c o n t in u ­ in g ap o lo g ies. In A p ril 1 9 4 5 , U .S . fo rces k ille d a q u a r te r o f th e civ ilia n p o p ­ u la tio n o n O k in a w a , o r 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le , as o p p o s e d to k illin g 9 5 ,0 0 0 Ja p a n e se so ld iers. B u t le ft-w in g h is to ria n s a ssert th a t th e b la m e lies w ith th e S h o w a e m p e ro r ( H iro h ito ), w h o se “ ‘a u g u s t d e c isio n ’ [to s u rre n d e r] ca m e to o la te .”8 D e n ie rs use th is sa m e lo g ic to in s is t th a t so m e o f th e b la m e fo r N a n k in g lies w ith C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a n d T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih , w h o failed to s u rre n d e r a t all. T h is is o n e re a so n w h y th e y re je c t ta-t’u-sha (daigyakusatsu in Ja p a n e se ) to d escrib e w h a t to o k p la ce a t N a n k in g . A d o p tin g th e a rg u m e n ts o f R ic h a rd C o h e n , C h a rle s K ra u th a m m e r, G e o rg e W . B u sh , a n d D o n a ld R u m sfe ld , th e y arg u e th a t m o s t C h in e s e c iv ilia n d e a th s a t N a n k in g re su lte d fro m ju stifia b le , legal b a ttle fie ld a c tio n s a g a in st u n la w fu l c o m b a ta n ts w h o w ere a rm e d o r h a d access to arm s in th e N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ). M o s t o f th o se C h in e se killed, th e y h o ld , w ere g u e rrilla s o r p e rso n s m is ta k e n fo r g u e rrilla s; so n o d e lib e ra te , large-scale m assacre to o k p la c e fo r w h ic h J a p a n m u s t a p o lo g iz e a n d p a y c o m ­ p e n s a tio n . B u t d e n ie rs ig n o re th e m o s t b a sic fa c t o f all; th a t is, a lth o u g h m o s t 359

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

Ja p a n e se tro o p s a n d n o n c o m m is s io n e d officers a t N a n k in g su c h as A m a n o S ab u ro w ere u n w illin g d raftee s, th e y illegally in v a d e d a n d b ru ta lly o c c u p ie d a fo re ig n la n d . T h u s , w e m u s t rec o g n ize , th e ir C h in e s e ad v e rsaries fe lt ju stifie d in u sin g illegal a n d u n fa ir ta c tic s to d e fe n d th e ir h o m e s a n d fam ilies. T h e te rm maboroshi o r “illu s io n ” is p ro b le m a tic as w ell. It c o n ta in s h a r m ­ less e le m e n ts o f lite ra ry a m b ig u ity , y e t h as a le g itim a te p la c e in h is to ric a l rev i­ sio n . In A p ril 2 0 0 4 , th e A sso c ia te d P ress a n n o u n c e d , “L o st B a c h W e d d in g S co re R esu rfaces afte r E ig h ty Years [in J a p a n ] ,” b u t th e o rig in a l Ja p a n e se h e a d ­ lin e ra n : “B ach ‘m a b o ro s h i n o fu ’: N ih o n n i ” (u n d e rs c o re a d d e d ).9 H e re , ma­ boroshi d e n o te s a lo n g -lo s t m u sic a l a rra n g e m e n t. T h e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira o n ce jo k e d , “Iris C h a n g ’s tr a n s la tio n is a maboroshi s ittin g in th e p u b lis h e r ’s w a re ­ h o u s e .”10 H e re , th e w o rd d e n o te s b o o k s th a t are in a cc essib le to w o u ld -b e re a d ­ ers b ecau se C h a n g fo rb a d e th e ir sale a n d d is tr ib u tio n in J a p a n .11 In b o th cases th e te rm s ta n d s fo r a n e b u lo u s en tity , in fe rre d fro m o th e r so u rc e s to h av e ex­ iste d in th e p a s t o r p re s e n t, w h o se ex a ct n a tu re c a n n o t b e a s c e rta in e d b ec au se its c o g n itiv e traces lie b e y o n d s ig h t o r h e a rin g . B a c h ’s c o m p o s itio n s to p p e d b e in g a maboroshi, u n k n o w a b le fo r b e in g in a u d ib le , w h e n its sco re w as fo u n d in 2 0 0 4 . C h a n g ’s Ja p an e se tra n s la tio n to o w o u ld lose its maboroshi s ta tu s i f th e b a n o n its sale a n d d is tr ib u tio n w ere to b e lifte d . In th is p e c u lia r sense, S u z u k i A k ira w as r ig h t w h e n h e ca lle d th e N a n k in g A tro c ity a maboroshi b a c k in th e ea rly 1 9 70s, w h e n few reliab le p rim a ry so u rces ex isted to v erify o ral te s tim o n ie s th a t C h in e s e su rv iv o rs c o n v e y e d to H o n d a K a ts u ic h i. S u z u k i’s c la im lo s t v alid ity , h o w ev er, a fte r h is to ria n s u n e a r th e d n e w so u rces th a t p ro v e d its fac tu ality . S h re w d d e n ie rs th e n c o n fla te d maboroshi w ith “illu s io n ” a n d “m y th ” as u se d b y h is to ric a l re v isio n ists. L. L. F a rra r lays b e a r The Short-War Illusion o f Ju ly 1 9 1 4 th a t m a d e E u ro p e a n le a d e rs r u s h in to a w a r th e y b eliev e d w o u ld e n d b y C h ris tm a s . In The “H itler M y th ," Ia n K er­ sh a w d e b u n k s c o m m o n b eliefs a b o u t th e Fuhrer, v a stly a t o d d s w ith reality, th a t G e rm a n s s u c h as J o h n R a b e e m b ra c e d ; fo r ex a m p le , “i f H itle r o n ly k n e w ” a b o u t a n evil, h e w o u ld e n d i t . 12 R a n a M itte r exposes The M anchurian M yth o f m ass resista n c e to J a p a n a fte r 1 9 3 1 . P a u l C o h e n d e sc rib e s th e B o x er R e b e l­ lio n in C h in a as “e v e n t, e x p e rie n c e , a n d m y th ”— stre ssin g th a t its m e m o ry differs f ro m its h is to ric a l re c o n s tr u c tio n . K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i is a re v isio n ist w h o d eclares th a t v ic tim c o u n ts o f “o v er 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” a t N a n k in g are “a n e th n ic C h i­ nese fa n ta sy .” H e d iffers fro m d e n ie rs, h o w ev er, b y a ffirm in g th a t th e A tro c ­ ity d id ta k e place; o n ly its sc o p e is d is p u te d . S u z u k i m a d e a v a lid p o in t: th e 1 0 0 -m a n k illin g c o n te st w as an illu sio n . B u t h e in s in u a te d th a t th e e n tire A tro c ­ ity w as u n r e a l.13 T h is c o n te s t to o k p rid e o f p la c e a t th e N a n k in g W a r C rim e s T rib u n a l w h e re tw o Ja p a n e se officers w ere ex e c u te d fo r it. T h e C h in e s e in sist, how ever, th a t th e c o n te s t is irre fu ta b ly tru e ex a ctly as p ro s e c u to rs c h a rg e d , a n d th a t it sy m b o liz e s Ja p a n e se b e s tia lity n o t o n ly a t N a n k in g , b u t all over C h in a . T h u s th e y p la y in to th e h a n d s o f d e n ie rs w h o e x p o se d th is o n e in c i­ d e n t as false, a n d f ro m it e x tra p o la te m a lic io u s J a p a n b a s h in g in all C h in e s e 360

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

claim s a b o u t w a r crim es. T h a t in tu r n alie n a te s p e rso n s in J a p a n w h o crave to a c c e p t S u z u k i’s v ie w s.14 A ll sta te s fo ste r illu sio n s a n d m y th s to b o ls te r th e ir p re stig e a n d a u th o rity . J a p a n h as m a d e 11 F e b ru a ry a legal h o lid a y to c o m ­ m e m o ra te th e f o u n d in g o f its im p e ria l d y n a s ty in 6 6 0 B C , a n d r ig h t-w in g jo u rn a lis ts se e m in g ly d e p ic t th e m y th as fa c tu a l.15 T h e P R C to o h as its m y th s , a n d i f d e n ie rs p ro v e th a t m a n y m o re in c id e n ts in th e N a n k in g A tro c ity are baseless in fact, we m a y h av e to r e th in k o u r o v erall u n d e r s ta n d in g o f it. T h e re is n o th in g in h e re n tly p e rn ic io u s in ra is in g th is p o ssib ility ; o u r p ro fe ssio n h as n o sacred cow s.

Suitably Flexible Contours T h e jo u r n a lis t R o b e rt M a rq u a n d asserts: “W h a t a c tu a lly d id h a p p e n [on] Ju n e 3—4 [1 9 8 9 ] is still o fte n c o n fu se d w ith m y th a n d m is re p o rtin g ” r o o te d in “fif­ te e n years o f u n a ttr ib u te d r u m o r a n d d is c re d ite d a c c o u n ts o f a ‘m a ssa c re ’.” “ [T ]h e re w as n o m a ssac re o f s tu d e n ts o n th e [ T ’ie n -a n -m e n ] S q u a re ”; th e tru e n u m b e r o f p e rso n s k ille d m a y h av e b e e n “as lo w as a d o z e n .”16 A t first g lan ce, M a rq u a n d seem s to d e n y th a t a m a ssac re to o k p lace, b u t h e a c tu a lly affirm s th a t o n e o c c u rre d ; it is ju s t th a t th e v a st m a jo r ity o f its v ic tim s w ere w o rk ­ ers, a n d h is fig u re o f “a d o z e n ” d e a d s tu d e n ts o b ta in s o n ly fo r T ’ie n -a n -m e n S q u a re itself. T h u s , h e allow s th a t th o u s a n d s o f C h in e se , m a n y o f th e m s tu ­ d e n ts, m a y hav e d ie d elsew h e re in th e city, b u t over fo u r d ay s r a th e r th a n o n o n e n i g h t.17 T h is is a n a rtfu l m a n ip u la tio n o f sp a tia l a n d te m p o ra l b o u n d ­ aries, b u t su c h a rtfu ln e ss exacts a p ric e . In an aly zin g a n y h isto ric a l ev en t, o n e m u s t s ta rt b y d e m a rc a tin g its c o n to u rs. D is p u ta n ts in th e d e b a te o n N a n k in g h a r b o r v astly d iffe re n t a s su m p tio n s a b o u t h o w lo n g th e in c id e n t tra n s p ire d a n d h o w b ro a d a n are a it co v e red , b u t th e y u su a lly fail to say so. O b v io u sly , th e lo n g e r a m a ssac re is p u r p o r te d to h av e lasted a n d th e w id e r its sp a tia l sco p e, th e h ig h e r its v ic tim c o u n t w ill rise— a n d viceversa. A Ja p an e se m in im a lis t d e fin itio n , w h ic h c o rre s p o n d s to th e so lid b la c k area o n m a p 3, re stric ts “N a n k in g ” to fo rty sq u a re k ilo m e te rs b o u n d e d b y th e w alled c ity a n d its im m e d ia te e n v iro n s, o r ev en m o re n arro w ly , to th e 3 .8 sq u a re k ilo m e te r N a n k in g S afety Z o n e (N S Z ). T h is m in im a lis t d e fin itio n , lim its th e m a ssac re ’s te m p o ra l sc o p e to five days: fro m 13 D e c e m b e r w h e n Ja p a n e se tro o p s b re e c h e d th e c ity ’s w alls, to 17 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 w h e n M a ts u i Iw a n e h e ld a tr iu m p h a l en try , a n d it p re su m e s th a t N a n k in g was ju s t a n o th e r a s sa u lt-a n d -sie g e o p e ra tio n . Its e x tre m e a d h e re n ts lim it th e ir e v id e n tia ry base to o n e v o lu m e o f o fficial so u rc e s — Documents o f the International Safety Zone. T h is lets th e m c la im a to ta l o f u n d e r fifty v ic tim s; te n s o f th o u s a n d s m a y h av e d ie d , b u t d id so in c o m b a t o r its lo o se ly d e fin e d e x te n sio n s. A t th e o th e r ex­ tre m e , a m a x im a l d e fin itio n o f N a n k in g , w h ic h c o rre s p o n d s to all o f m a p 3, en c o m p a sses a 4 0 ,0 0 0 -s q u a re -k ilo m e te r sw a th — th e Y angtze d e lta re g io n s o u th 361

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

f ro m S h a n g h a i p a s t L ake T ’ai th r o u g h H u -c h o u , K w a n g -te , N in g - k u o , a n d W u h u to N a n k in g , p lu s areas n o r th fro m Y a n g c h o u to C h ’u -h s ie n in C h ’u a n ch iao C o u n ty .18 T h is m a x im a l d e fin itio n e x te n d s th e A tro c ity ’s te m p o ra l sc o p e to seven o r e ig h t m o n th s : f ro m A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 w h e n th e Ja p a n e se a tta c k e d S h a n g h a i, to F e b ru a ry 1 9 3 8 w h e n a se m b la n c e o f o rd e r r e tu r n e d to N a n k in g , o r to M a rc h 1938 w h e n th e c o lla b o ra tio n is t R e fo rm e d G o v e rn m e n t arose. P ro ­ p o n e n ts o f m a x im a l c o n to u rs u su a lly a ssu m e th a t all C h in e s e w h o d ie d c o u n t as v ic tim s , irre sp e c tiv e o f w h e th e r th e y w ere civ ilia n s o r c o m b a ta n ts . T h e se m a x im a l a s s u m p tio n s m e ld se am lessly w ith th e even m o re e x tre m e official C h in e s e v ie w o f o v er 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s — n o w p eg g e d a t 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 — in s id e th e fo rty -s q u a re -k ilo m e te r w a lle d c ity w ith in six w eeks. A t th e p re s e n t stag e o f rese arch , v ic tim iz a tio n e stim a te s o f u n d e r 4 0 ,0 0 0 a n d over 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 p u s h th e lim its o f re a so n , fairn ess, a n d e v id en c e; b u t even w ith in th is ran g e , m u c h tu r n s o n o n e ’s p r io r n o rm a tiv e a s su m p tio n s ; th a t is, N a n k in g w as ju s t a n o r m a l a s sa u lt-a n d -sie g e o p e ra tio n w ith tra g ic co lla te ra l d am ag e , o r it w as a n E a st A sia n e q u iv a le n t o f th e H o lo c a u s t in w h ic h all C h i­ nese w ere in n o c e n t v ic tim s , so th a t a d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n b e llig e re n ts a n d n o n ­ b e llig e re n ts is im m a te ria l. E v en th e le ftis t H o n d a K a ts u ic h i, w h o a d o p ts m a x im a l c o n to u rs , d o es n o t c la im o v er 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s. T h e c o n serv ativ e H a ta Ik u h ik o , o n th e o th e r h a n d , g ra n ts th a t 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 — first c ite d in 1 9 3 8 b y S n o w a n d T im p e rle y a n d n o w dism issed as p ro p a g a n d a b y d en iers— is a fairly accu rate to ta l fo r C h in e s e b e llig e re n ts a n d civ ilia n s k ille d in th e fiv e -m o n th S h a n g h a ito - N a n k in g a s s a u lt.19 As n o te d in c h a p te r 1, Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s sa id ju s t th a t in th e 1 9 5 0 s to 1 9 6 0 s, a n d th e C h in e s e v o ic e d n o d isa g re e m e n t. T h e m o s t se n sib le c o n to u rs , c o rre s p o n d in g to th e criss-cro ss se c tio n o f m a p 3, are th o se p ro p o s e d b y K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i. H e assu m es th a t th e A tro c ity w as b o th a n as sa u lt-a n d -s ie g e o p e r a tio n a n d a b r u ta l m ilita ry o c c u p a tio n , a n d th u s d ates th e e v e n t fro m ea rly D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to M a rc h 1 9 3 8 , n o t th e m in im a l c o n to u rs o f 13 to 17 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , o r th e m a x im a l c o n to u rs o f A u g u s t 1 9 3 7 to M a rc h 1 9 3 8 . H e also assu m es th a t m o s t k illin g s to o k p la c e o u tsid e , n o t in sid e , th e w a lle d city, so h e e x te n d s h is sp a tia l c o n to u rs to th e N a n k in g S p ecial A d m in is tra tiv e D is tr ic t (N S A D ) o n m a p 2; th a t is, th e w a lle d c ity a n d 6 a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s , r a th e r th a n lim it h is c o n to u rs to th e w a lle d c ity a lo n e. T h u s , h e d o es n o t e x te n d th e se c o n to u rs to th e e n tire Y angtze v alley fro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g . T h is N S A D covers a b o u t 8 4 0 0 sq u a re k ilo m e te rs , or 1.5 tim e s th e size o f D e la w a re . W i th in su c h m id d lin g c o n to u rs , h e e stim a te s a v ic tim to ll a p p ro a c h in g 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r p e rh a p s m o re , s u b je c t to re v isio n after f u r th e r research . A fe llo w le ftist, th e la te E g u c h i K eiich i, e stim a te s a d e a th to ll o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p lu s a few th o u s a n d m o re , b u t th is in c lu d e s b e llig e re n ts .20 H a ta ’s n a rro w e r c o n to u rs p ro d u c e a low er, y e t still a c a d e m ic a lly te n a b le , v ic tim to ll o f over 4 0 ,0 0 0 .21 T h u s , th e a d m itte d ly v ag u e ra n g e o f “over 4 0 ,0 0 0 to u n d e r 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” h as sc h o la rly v a lid ity in th e sense o f b e in g e m p iric a lly s u p p o rta b le . F o rm e r s ta ff officer O k u m iy a M a sa ta k e , w h o e s tim a te s a b o u t 4 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s, 362

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

claim s th a t Ja p a n e se fo rces e n c o u n te re d u n la w fu l p la in c lo th e s c o m b a ta n ts ea r­ lie r in th e C h in a w ar, b u t n o t a t N a n k in g .22 Ja p a n e se so u rce s cite g u e rrilla re ­ sistan c e afte r K M T a rm ie s w ere r o u te d a t S h a n g h a i a n d b e a t a m a d re tre a t, b u t few m e n tio n th is a fte r 13 D e c e m b e r in N a n k in g itself, a n d H a ta claim s th a t m ilita ry re c o rd s s h o w n o Ja p a n e se ca su a ltie s in sid e th e N S Z , a lth o u g h d e n ie rs d is p u te h is c la im .23 T h is is w h y W e ste rn e rs in sid e th e c ity — w h o h a d n o t seen Ja p a n e se tro o p s k ille d b y g u e rrilla s e n ro u te to N a n k in g — d e n o u n c e d th e r o u n d in g u p a n d k illin g o f C h in e s e “e x -so ld ie rs” w h o sh e d u n ifo rm s a n d fled in to th e N S Z as refu g ees. H o w ev er, it is d u p lic ito u s fo r d e n ie rs to a d o p t m a x im a l c o n to u rs in o rd e r to p la y u p Ja p a n e se ca su a ltie s fro m g u e rrilla a c tio n s o u ts id e th e city w h ile a d o p tin g m in im a l c o n to u rs in o rd e r to p la y d o w n th e k illin g o f C h in e s e ex -so ld iers in sid e it.

A Nanking-Holocaust Congruity? T h e h is to ria n W illia m C . K irb y asserts th a t B ritish p o e t W . H . A u d e n , w h o lik e n e d N a n k in g to D a c h a u in 1 9 3 8 , w as o n e o f th e first to lin k J a p a n a n d G e r m a n y as “m o ra l c o -c o n s p ira to rs , v io le n t aggressors, a n d p e r p e tra to r s o f w h a t w o u ld u ltim a te ly b e called ‘crim es a g a in st h u m a n ity ’.”24 C o n se rv a tiv e s in J a p a n hav e alw ays b ris tle d a t su g g e stio n s th a t th e ir n a tio n a n d N a z i G e rm a n y flo ck e d to g e th e r fo r re a so n s o th e r th a n ex p e d ie n c e . T h e y r e to r t th a t n o d e fe n ­ d a n t a t th e T okyo W a r C rim e s T rials w as f o u n d g u ilty o f crim es a g a in st h u m a n ­ ity. B y c o n tra s t, Ja p a n e se le ftists p o in t to th e A xis p a r tn e rs ’ s im ila ritie s— n o t s in g le -p a rty ru le , a to ta lita r ia n sta te , o r a Fuhrer fig u re , all o f w h ic h J a p a n lack ed ; b u t ra th e r, th e m o n s tro u s evils th a t b o th sta te s c o m m itte d . C ritic s a b ro a d a n d le ftists a t h o m e h av e in c e ssa n tly d e rid e d J a p a n sin c e th e 1 9 8 0 s fo r in s u ffic ie n t p e n a n c e c o m p a re d w ith G e rm a n y , b u t th is c ritic is m p re su m e s th a t J a p a n c o m m itte d sin s o f a sim ila r scale a n d severity; i f n o t, a n e q u a l d eg ree o f p e n a n c e is u n c a lle d for. O f co u rse , ev en sm a ll-sc ale a tro c itie s are in e x c u s­ able, b u t d e n ie rs are r ig h t to in s is t th a t th e n u m b e rs issu e is cru c ia l. I f im p e ­ ria l J a p a n m a ssac re d 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 defen seless civ ilia n s a t N a n k in g in six w eek s a n d th irty -fiv e m illio n in C h in a overall, a c o n g ru ity w ith N a z i G e rm a n y b e c o m e s p la u sib le . I f n o t, th e ch a rg e is u n fair. So, s h o u ld w e stress w h a t J a p a n a n d G e r­ m a n y h a d in c o m m o n , o r d o es th e e v id en c e s h o w th a t J a p a n w as n o t so b a d afte r all? D isso c ia tio n o f J a p a n fro m G e rm a n y b e g a n a t th e d o c k in T o k y o . T ak ig aw a M a sa jiro , a d efen se c o u n s e l th e re , w ro te : “‘crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity ’ w as a sp e­ cial ch arg e c re ate d to p u n is h th e N az is fo r th e ir in h u m a n e m assacres o f Je w s__ J a p a n c o m m itte d n o su c h m assacres, b u t th e T o k y o tria l a d o p te d th is N u r e m ­ b e rg p re c e d e n t, so w e g o t h i t w ith a c u d g e l m e a n t fo r s o m e o n e else .”25 T a k i­ g aw a also criticiz ed th e A llies fo r v io la tin g nullum crimen sine lege, th e p rin c ip le th a t n o ac t ca n b e d e e m e d a c rim e , s u b je c t to tria l a n d p u n is h m e n t, w ith o u t 363

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

p r io r law s th a t m a k e it illeg al a n d th a t s tip u la te p e n a ltie s fo r its c o m m issio n . S e n a to r R o b e rt A . T aft sa id th e sa m e th in g in 1 9 4 6 .26 W h e re T ak ig aw a d if­ fered w as in h o ld in g th a t th e A llies w ere r ig h t to ig n o re th is p r in c ip le in p u n ­ is h in g th e G e rm a n s , b u t th a t th e “N u re m b e rg p r e c e d e n t” w as in a d m is s ib le a t th e T o k y o tria l b ec au se J a p a n d id n o t c o m m it a s im ila r c rim e . T h e e n o r m ity o f G e rm a n g u ilt e m b o sse d “J a p a n ’s in n o c e n c e ”— th e title o f a 1 9 6 3 b o o k b y T a n a k a M a saa k i. H e a rg u e d th a t th e A llie s’ fa ilu re to c o n v ic t a n y Ja p a n e se d e f e n d a n t o f crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity p ro v e d th e in c o n g ru ity b e tw e e n J a p a n a n d G e rm a n y . In 1 9 6 3 N a n k in g w as n o t y e t a m a jo r issu e, so T a n a k a m a d e n o sp ecial e ffo rt to d e n y it in p a rtic u la r. In ste a d , h e lio n iz e d th e I n d ia n Ju s­ tice R a d h a b in o d Pal, w h o d e n o u n c e d v ic to rio u s A llie d p ro s e c u to rs fo r c re a t­ in g ex p o s t fa c to law s to w re a k v e n g e a n c e . T a n a k a th u s c ritic iz e d th e T o k y o tr ib u n a l n o t fo r N a n k in g p e r se, b u t fo r its p u ta tiv e in ju s tic e overall. N o r w as h e y e t a n ti-C h in e s e . H e p ra ise d C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a n d d e e m e d h im s e lf a p a n A sia n ist frie n d o f th e R e p u b lic o f C h in a lik e h is f o rm e r p a tro n , M a ts u i Iw a n e. T a n a k a b e c a m e a d e n ie r in th e 1 9 8 0 s o w in g to th e P R C ’s h a rd lin e o n v ic tim c o u n ts th a t im p lie d a n e q u iv a le n c e to N a z i g e n o c id e s. In 1 9 8 4 h e c o in e d th e c a tc h p h ra s e “A u sc h w itz in th e w est, N a n k in g in th e e a st” to d e rid e w h a t h e saw as u n ju s t g u ilt b y a sso c ia tio n .27 A n c illa ry issues su rfa c e d in th e 198 0 s: c o m fo rt w o m e n , b io lo g ic a l/c h e m ic a l w arfa re U n it 7 3 1 , a “b la m e J a p a n ” v ie w o f h is to ry th a t alleg e d ly fo ste rs u n c r it­ ical p ac ifism , sengo sekinin o r th e c u lp a b ility , n e v e r d isc h a rg e d b y th e ir g r a n d ­ p a re n ts, w h ic h p o stw a r Jap an ese re p u te d ly b e a r fo r w a r crim es, th e g o v e rn m e n t’s fo rm a l ap o lo g y fo r ag g re ssio n a n d c o lo n ia l ru le issu ed o n th e fiftie th a n n iv e r­ sa ry o f d e fe a t in 1 9 9 5 , a n d s te p p e d -u p d e m a n d s b y le ft-w in g ac tiv ists fo r J a p ­ anese to s h o w tr u e re m o rse b y tr a n s la tin g lip -se rv ic e ap o lo g ies in to m o n e ta r y c o m p e n s a tio n . “B a sh in g ” fro m a b ro a d w e ig h e d in h e a v ily d u r in g th e 1 9 9 0 s. T h e c o m fo r t w o m e n issu e e x p lo d e d , as fo re ig n a n d d o m e s tic c itiz e n g ro u p s h e ld m o c k trials fo r lo n g -d e a d w a r c rim e s su sp e c ts n o t in d ic te d a t T o k y o . T h e P R C a ssu m ed a s tr id e n t a n ti-Ja p a n e se to n e . The People’s Daily in 1 9 9 5 d e ­ clared th a t J a p a n w as c u lp a b le fo r over th irty -fiv e m illio n C h in e s e d e a th s in th e w ar, a n d P re s id e n t C h ia n g T se -m in (Jia n g Z e m in ) d e m a n d e d a w ritte n ap o lo g y in 1 9 9 8 . R ic h a rd v o n W eizsack er, a fo rm e r p re s id e n t o f th e G e rm a n F ed era l R e p u b lic , m a d e a sp e e c h in M a y 1 9 8 5 th a t fo re ig n a n d le ft-w in g d o ­ m e s tic critics w o u ld re p e a te d ly c ite as p ro v in g G e rm a n m o ra l s u p e rio rity o n th e w a r g u ilt issue. In 1 9 9 5 , U .S . v e te ra n s fo rc e d th e S m ith s o n ia n I n s titu tio n to sa n itiz e a n e x h ib it o n n u c le a r a tta c k s a g a in st Ja p a n , b u t in 1 9 9 6 , U N E S C O n a m e d H ir o s h im a a n d A u sc h w itz as w o rld h e rita g e sites, a n d in 1 9 9 7 , Iris C h a n g r e to r te d th a t m o re C h in e s e d ie d a t N a n k in g th a n d id Ja p a n e se a t H ir o ­ s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i c o m b in e d , b u t “J a p a n h as d o le d o u t less th a n 1 p e r c e n t o f th e a m o u n t th a t G e r m a n y h as p a id in w a r r e p a ra tio n s .”28 S h e s u b title d h e r b est-seller o f th a t y ea r “T h e F o rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t o f W o rld W a r I I ”— w h ic h so o n b e c a m e a w o rld w id e c la rio n c a ll.29 F inally, in 1 9 9 6 th e U .S . Ju stic e 364

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

D e p a r tm e n t p u t six te e n Ja p an e se o n a list o f w a r c rim in a ls, u n til th e n lim ite d to N az is a n d th e ir c o lla b o ra to rs in E u ro p e , b a n n e d fro m e n te r in g th e U n ite d S tates; a n d in 1 9 9 9 , C a lifo rn ia p assed th e H a y d e n A c t to p e r m it la w su its a g a in st G e r m a n a n d Ja p a n e se firm s th a t e x p lo ite d w a rtim e slave la b o r. A s i f to m o c k T a n a k a , W e s te rn p o le m ic ists to o k u p “A u sc h w itz in th e w est, N a n k in g in th e ea st” as a n a n ti-Ja p a n e se le itm o tif. M o s t ea rly N a n k in g d e n ie rs in J a p a n h a d b e e n n o n a c a d e m ic s , b u t in th e 1 9 9 0 s, elite U n iv e rsity o f T o k y o a lu m n i su c h as F u jio k a N o b u k a ts u , N is h io K an ji, a n d th e la te S a k a m o to T ak ao to o k u p th e g a u n tle t, se e k in g to c u t fo re v er J a p a n ’s s tig m a tic lin k w ith th e N a z is ’ F in al S o lu tio n . H e re I fo cu s o n N is h io , a sp e c ia list o n G e r m a n c u ltu ra l a n d in te lle c tu a l h isto ry , w h o se view s o n G e rm a n w a r g u ilt a n d p o s tw a r re sti­ tu ti o n as re la te d to J a p a n is th e m o s t d e ta ile d a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e .30 H o w d id N is h io r e p u d ia te c h a rg es o f J a p a n ’s “fo rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t” ? F irst, h e a rg u e d th a t R ic h a rd v o n W e iz sac k er n e v e r a d m itte d g u ilt o r a p o lo g iz e d fo r th e G e rm a n p a st, a n d G e rm a n s n e v e r p a id e ig h ty tim e s m o re in c o m p e n s a ­ tio n fo r w ar crim e s th a n Ja p a n ; so, h e said , th e re is n o fa c tu a l basis fo r c h a rg ­ in g , as le ftist a n d fo re ig n c ritic s in c e s s a n tly d o , th a t Ja p a n e se are d e sp ic a b ly ch e ap a n d m o ra lly d e fic ie n t in c o m p a ris o n . P o stw a r G e rm a n s a p o lo g iz e d a n d p a id c o m p e n s a tio n fo r N a zi crimes, b u t n o t fo r th e war crimes th e y also c o m ­ m itte d . S e c o n d , th is d is tin c tio n lies a t th e co re o f N is h io ’s th esis. G e rm a n s a b u s e d c o m fo r t w o m e n in E u ro p e m o re v ic io u sly th a n Ja p a n e se d id in A sia; b u t fo r b o th , th is w as a n o rm a l, o rd in a ry , c o n v e n tio n a l w a r c rim e sin c e its a im w as to g ain v ic to ry b y ra isin g tr o o p m o ra le a n d effectiv en ess. L ikew ise, th e U n ite d S tate s w a g e d a to m ic w arfa re, w h ic h s h o u ld b e a w a r c rim e , to d efe at Ja p a n ; a n d , it g ra n te d a m n e s ty to U n it 7 3 1 officers to g a in d a ta o n c h e m ic a l a n d b io lo g ic a l w a rfa re in o rd e r to w in f u tu re w ars. A ll n a tio n s c o m ­ m it su c h w a r c rim e s— ca te g o riz e d as B -class a t T o k y o — to g a in so m e s tra te ­ g ic a d v a n ta g e . B u t th e y fo rg iv e a n d fo rg e t o n c e th e w ars e n d . T h u s , N is h io a p p ro v in g ly cites N a th a n ie l T h a y e r a n d J o h n D o w e r w h o c ritic iz e d th e U .S . Ju stic e D e p a r t m e n t’s d e c isio n to lu m p Ja p a n e se fo rm e r w a r c rim in a ls w ith N az is fo r p u n itiv e tr e a tm e n t in 1 9 9 6 .31 T h ir d , N is h io re je c te d th e id e a th a t o r d in a r y G e rm a n s , lik e o th e r E u ro p e a n s , w ere lib e ra te d f ro m N a z is m b y th e A llies, o r th a t th e re w ere “g o o d G e r m a n s ” (lik e J o h n R a b e) even a m o n g N az is. N is h io s ta te d th a t v irtu a lly all G e rm a n s s u p p o r te d N a z is m b e fo re 1 9 4 5 , so th e y b o re collectiv e g u ilt (Kollektivschuld) fo r crim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity , y e t c o n v e n ie n tly s k irte d it th r o u g h th e ru se o f “in d iv id u a l g u ilt”— w ith th e in d i­ v id u a ls b e in g d e a d N u re m b e rg c o n v ic ts. F o u rth , N is h io said , N a z i crim e s w ere c o m m itte d u n d e r th e co v er o f w ar, b u t a p a rt f ro m it, a n d ev en to th e d e tri­ m e n t o f v icto ry . T h u s th e SS a n d Einsatzgruppen, o r sp e cia l k illin g sq u a d s, c o u ld hav e b e e n u se d in c o m b a t, fu n d s fo r d e a th c a m p s c o u ld h a v e g o n e to arm s p r o d u c tio n , a n d tra in s h a u lin g Jew s fo r m a ss m u r d e r c o u ld h av e sh ip p e d ra tio n s to th e fro n t. A b o v e all, N a z ism w as so evil th a t th e A llies d e m a n d e d an u n c o n d itio n a l s u rre n d e r; s ta te -s p o n s o re d g e n o c id e p re c lu d e d a c o m p ro m is e 365

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

peace s e ttle m e n t, w h ic h w as n o rm a l in w ar. N is h io h e ld th a t all sta te s c o m m it m u r d e r so m e o f th e tim e , in w ar; b u t G e rm a n y leg alized m u r d e r all o f th e tim e fo r so m e g ro u p s. A n n e F ra n k , eu lo g iz e d b y Ja p a n e se p ac ifists, w as n o t a v ic ­ tim o f w ar. G e rm a n s w o u ld h av e m u r d e r e d h e r even in p e a c e tim e b ec au se sh e w as a Je w a n d c o u ld n o t c h a n g e th a t b io lo g ic a l fac t. B y c o n tra s t, k illin g in a w a r sto p s w h e n o n e sid e s u rre n d e rs a n d tu r n s o v er its a rm s— w h ic h C h ia n g K a i-sh e k a n d T ’a n g S h e n g -c h ih re fu se d to d o a t N a n k in g . T h u s , fo re ig n e rs a n d le ftists s h o u ld n o t c o m p a re J a p a n to N a z i G e rm a n y in o rd e r to stress lik e ­ nesses; th e y s h o u ld c o m p a re J a p a n w ith N a z i G e r m a n y to h ig h lig h t th e c ru ­ cial d ifferen ces. N is h io ’s fifth p o in t is to re fu te a rg u m e n ts lik e th a t m a d e b y th e J a p a n sch o lar, D o n a ld R itc h ie ; th a t is, n u m b e rs are n o t th e k e y issu e a t N a n k in g . R itc h ie w ro te , “f o u r o r f o rty is as a tro c io u s as 1 4 0 ,0 0 0 ”— th e h ig h - e n d v ic ­ tim c o u n t h e c ite d .32 B y c o n tra s t, N is h io h e ld , “few i f a n y o f us d e n y th a t a m assacre (gyakusatsu) o c c u rre d a t N a n k in g ; w e o n ly say th a t ‘3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ’ as u sed in te x tb o o k s is far to o h ig h .... T h e n u m b e r o f m u rd e rs does m a tte r b ec au se it d ecisively alters th e n a tu re o f a m a ssa c re .”33 H e is th in k in g o f n u m b e rs fo r th e B o s to n M assac re , M y Lai, N o G u n R i, o r J e n in . M a ssac re s o f 5, 3 0 0 , or 3 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s d iffe r qualitatively f ro m th e c a ta c ly sm ic 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 th a t alleg e d ly o c c u rre d in six w eek s o v er fo rty sq u a re k ilo m e te rs — w h ic h in s in u a te s a co n g r u ity w ith th e H o lo c a u s t. In h is view , n o sta te , le ast o f all th e P R C , c a n c la im in n o c e n c e o f “n o r m a l” w a r crim e s w h e re in m a ssac res o f 5, 3 0 0 , o r 3 ,0 0 0 ta k e p lace; h e n c e J a p a n alo n e s h o u ld n o t su ffe r v ilific a tio n . N is h io m a d e v a lid p o in ts . H e h e lp e d c o rre c t m u d d le d le ftist th in k in g b y sh o w in g h o w m u r d e r d iffers fro m w ar, h o w c o n v e n tio n a l w a r crim es d iffer fro m th e N a z i F in a l S o lu tio n , a n d h o w J a p a n ’s w a r g u ilt d iffe rs fro m G e r m a n y ’s. B u t h e also h a d flaw s. H e c la im e d th a t o n ly th e SS a n d Einsatzgruppen, n o t re g u la r W e h r m a c h t tro o p s , c o m m itte d g e n o c id e , a n d th a t Z y k lo n B (h y d ro ­ g e n cy a n id e ) a n d h ig h - te c h d e a th c a m p s w ere e sse n tia l in o rd e r to d isp o se o f te n s o r h u n d re d s o f th o u s a n d s o f v ic tim s. T h e se tw o p o in ts are cru c ial fo r h im . T h e im p e ria l a rm y h a d n o sp e cia liz ed , id e o lo g ic a lly m o tiv a te d e x te rm in a to r u n its . N is h io rea so n s th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s c o u ld n o t k ill 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le in sid e N a n k in g c ity w ith in six w eek s b ec au se o r d in a ry m e n re q u ire in d o c tr in a tio n a k in to N a z ific a tio n b e fo re th e y w ill c o m m it so g re a t a c rim e . F u rth e rm o re , th e ab sen c e o f h ig h ly to x ic gases a n d d e a th -c a m p fu rn a c e s m a d e it im p o s s i­ b le to b u r n 1 9 0 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n co rp se s in to o b liv io n , as th e P R C h as in siste d sin c e 1 9 8 3 . (It also claim s b u ria ls o f 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 m o re c iv ilia n v ic tim s.) B y th e 197 0 s a n d 1980s, M ic h a e l G eyer, M a n fre d M e sse rsc h m id t, C h ris tia n S tre it, O m e r B artov, C h r is to p h e r R. B ro w n in g , a n d o th e r re v isio n ist h is to ri­ an s d e b u n k e d th is m y th o f “th e c lea n W e h r m a c h t”— fo ste re d a t N u re m b e rg a n d p e r p e tu a te d b y th e F e d e ra l R e p u b lic . A c c o rd in g to th is m y th , o r d in a ry G e rm a n officers a n d m e n w ere u n ta in te d b y N a z ism a n d u n in v o lv e d w ith racial e x te rm in a tio n , b u t w e n o w k n o w th a t W e h r m a c h t tro o p s d id c o m m it m ass 366

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

m u r d e r s .34 T h is fin d in g d e s tro y e d th e basis fo r N is h io ’s a r g u m e n t b y a n a lo g y th a t “o rd in a ry Ja p a n e se ” tro o p s also s to o d u n b le m is h e d . Yet h e, a G e rm a n s tu d ­ ies ex p ert, ig n o re d th is sc h o larly co n sen su s. A lso, o n fo u r occasions, h e d isto rte d a k ey G e r m a n a c c o u n t o f th re e m illio n R u ssia n P O W s p u rp o s e ly r e d u c e d to c a n n ib a lis m a n d s ta rv a tio n .35 S e b a stia n H a ffn e r w ro te : “H e re , th e b o rd e rlin e is b lu rre d b e tw e e n th e [o rd in a ry ] w a r c rim e s w h ic h are b e tte r fo rg o tte n a n d H itle r ’s m ass m u r d e r s .” N is h io re n d e rs th is as: “B u t ab u se o f P O W s still falls u n d e r th e c a te g o ry o f [o rd in a ry ] w a r c rim e s .”36 H a ffn e r d id n o t in c lu d e th e se m u rd e rs in th e H o lo c a u s t p e r se, b u t h e d re w a s im ila rity to g e n o c id e th a t set th e m d ecisiv ely a p a r t fro m c o n v e n tio n a l w a r crim es. N is h io d id th e c o n ­ verse b ased o n a leg al te c h n ic a lity . H e d e e m e d th is a n o r m a l w a r c rim e th a t m ig h t o c c u r in a n y c o n flic t s im p ly b ec au se th e b e n c h a t N u re m b e rg d id n o t in c lu d e th e se in th e c a te g o ry “c rim e s a g a in st h u m a n ity .” T h is s le ig h t o f h a n d allow s N is h io to s k irt th e issue o f m u r d e r e d C h in e s e P O W s , a n d h e o p ts to lo w er th e ir n u m b e r to o . H e reje cts O n o K e n ji’s evi­ d e n c e in c h a p te r 4 , lo n g av ailab le in Ja p a n , th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s m a ssa c re d 1 4 .0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 P O W s a t M u fu s h a n . In ste a d , N is h io a d o p ts th e m o re c o n ­ g e n ia l “u n a v o id a b le k illin g in se lf-d e fe n se th e s is .” I t h o ld s th a t, w h ile e s c o rt­ in g several th o u s a n d P O W s fo r release, th e Ja p a n e se h a d n o c h o ic e b u t to kill 1 .0 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 afte r th e y sta g e d a r io t in ta n d e m w ith e n e m y fire fro m across th e Y angtze. To b e fair, as O n o n o te s, e x te n u a tin g c irc u m sta n c e s d id ex ist a t M u fu s h a n . C h in e s e P O W s far o u tn u m b e r e d th e ir c a p to rs, p o s in g th e th r e a t o f rev o lt; a n d , th o se c a p to rs la c k e d e n o u g h p ro v isio n s even fo r th e m se lv e s, so th e y c o u ld n o t feed P O W s . T h a t said , c rim in a lity , cru elty , a n d th e P O W s ’ h elp lessn ess d o n o t e n te r N is h io ’s ca lc u lu s. N o Ja p a n e se d e f e n d a n t w as fo u n d g u ilty o f “crim es a g a in st h u m a n ity ,” a n d o n ly th e se c o n s titu te th e H o lo c a u s t. Ja p a n e se c o m m itte d only n o r m a l w a r crim e s a n d h av e a p o lo g iz e d a n d c o m ­ p e n s a te d v ic tim s fo r th e se, w h e re a s G e rm a n s c o m m itte d both w a r c rim e s a n d N a z i crim es, b u t h a v e m a d e a m e n d s only fo r th e la tte r. J a p a n d id n o th in g all th a t b a d , so C h in e s e s h o u ld d ro p th is issu e a fte r six ty y ears o f p ea ce . In su m , N is h io refuses to see th a t, a lth o u g h th e H o lo c a u s t w as u n iq u e ly a n d in s u ­ p e ra b ly m o n s tro u s , it m ig h t n o t b e th e o n ly w a rtim e a tro c ity o f a n e x tra o r­ d in a rily evil n a tu re th a t calls fo r e n d u r in g m o ra l ce n su re. S till, h e is r ig h t to in s is t th a t, i f N a n k in g w as su c h a n atro c ity , d e s e rv in g o f s u c h c e n su re , th e n c o g e n t ev id en c e is n e e d e d to s u p p o r t th is ch arg e.

Memory and Written Evidence B efore p o s tm o d e r n is m a n d th e lin g u is tic tu r n , h is to ria n s d e m a n d e d p r o o f fo r asse rtio n s in w ritte n so u rce s, id e a lly c o m p o s e d a t o r n e a r th e tim e o f a n ev e n t b y p e o p le d ire c tly in v o lv e d in it. T h u s , J o h n V in c e n t arg u es: “ H is to r y is in e s­ c a p a b ly tie d to th e w ritte n w o r d ”; “n o e v id e n c e , n o h is to ry .”37 T h e r e is a rea367

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

so n fo r th is p riv ile g in g o f w ritte n o v er o ra l a c c o u n ts b a se d o n m e m o ry . M e m ­ o ry is vague to s ta rt w ith , a n d it ch an g es over tim e w ith o u t th e su b je c t n o tic ­ in g . T h e “w ritte n w o r d ” m a y b e in a c c u ra te o r u n tr u e , b u t it d o e s not so c h a n g e u n less d e lib e ra te ly a lte re d . H u g h T re v o r-R o p e r d e rid e d “th e w o rth le ss n e ss o f m e re h u m a n te s tim o n y ” in d e b u n k in g o n e b y K arl D o n itz , w id e ly a c c e p te d in 1 9 4 6 , th a t H itle r d ie d a t th e h e a d o f his tro o p s d e fe n d in g B e rlin .38 A n o th e r case in p o in t is th e m e m o r y o f w a rtim e A llie d air ra id s o n D re s d e n in F eb ­ r u a r y 1 9 4 5 , re la te d b y su rv iv o rs to F re d e ric k T a y lo r in th e 1 9 9 0 s. T h o s e s u r­ v iv o rs in s is te d th a t D re s d e n h a d b e e n a p u re ly c u ltu ra l c e n te r w ith o u t N az is, W e h rm a c h t, o r w a r in d u s trie s ; b u t A llie d p ilo ts u se d c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s a n d m a c h in e g u n s to s la u g h te r h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f h elp less civ ilia n s. T ay lo r e x a m in e d w ritte n so u rce s to re a c h a n e m p iric a lly te n a b le e s tim a te o f 2 5 ,0 0 0 to 3 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s a n d to d isp ro v e o th e r p o in ts in th o se o ra l te s tim o n ie s . Yet th e su rv iv o rs re m a in c o n v in c e d th a t th e ir sh a rd m e m o ry is tru e in all re sp e c ts.39 T h is is n o t to call th e D re s d e n air ra id s a n “illu s io n ,” o r to d e n y th a t a te r­ rib le a tro c ity o c c u rre d — o n ly to say th a t it d id n o t ta k e p la ce in th e w ay o r to th e e x te n t th a t su rv iv o rs re m e m b e r today. S im ilarly, in 1 9 8 9 T im o th y B ro o k s o u g h t to q u a n tify th e k illin g s o n T ’ie n a n - m e n S q u a re a few m o n th s b e fo re . H e w ro te : “W h e re to b eg in ? T h e ex p e­ rie n c e [i.e., m e m o ry ] o f ey ew itn esses is h a rd ly th e p lace. M a n y ey ew itn esses saw p e o p le k illed , b u t m a n y d id n o t. M o re to th e p o in t, n o n e w itn e sse d all th e k illin g . P eo p le sa w w h a t w as a r o u n d th e m , a t b e s t a fe w d o z e n m e te rs in a n y d ire c tio n fro m w h e re th e y h a p p e n e d to b e s ta n d in g w h e n th e g u n s w e n t off. T h e ir p e rc e p tio n s w ere m u d d le d b y fea r a n d c o n fu s io n a n d d ark n e ss. H o w ca n th e ir in d iv id u a l ex p e rien c es o f th e k illin g b e s u m m e d in to a to ta l? ”40 B ro o k c o n c lu d e d th a t m o s t s tu d e n t ey ew itn esses re c a lle d a n im p o s s ib ly h ig h n u m b e r o f v ic tim s . In th e o p p o s ite d ire c tio n , K o b e U n iv e rs ity p ro fe sso r N o ­ g u c h i T a k e h ik o n o te d th a t h is o w n ex p e rie n c e o f th e 1 9 9 5 G re a t H a n s h in E a rth q u a k e m is le d h im to b eliev e th a t th e loss o f life w as far less th a n it rea lly w as. H e h a d n o id e a th a t a c a ta s tro p h e o f o v er 6 ,3 0 0 fa ta litie s to o k p la c e — even th o u g h h e su rv iv e d b e in g r ig h t in th e m id d le o f it: “N o m a tte r w h e re a n y o n e m a y be, o n e c a n n o t see a d isa ste r in its e n tirety . I le a rn e d o f its m a s ­ sive scale fro m la te r T V re p o rts . F o r a n y o n e w h o d ire c tly e x p e rie n c e d th e d is­ aster, it w as e ith e r a n aw fu l tra g e d y o r n o th in g all th a t b a d , w h ic h e v e r th e case h a d b e e n . E v en th o se w h o su ffe re d losses c o u ld k n o w o n ly w h a t o c c u rre d a r o u n d th e ir p e rso n s. T h e y c o u ld n o t even b e g in to im a g in e th a t a m assive n a tu ra l c a la m ity to o k p la c e .”41 H is to ria n s p riv ile g e w ritte n o v er o ra l a c c o u n ts in o rd e r to p re v e n t m ista k e s o f th is ty p e , b a se d o n m e m o ry ; th is is w h a t d istin g u ish e s h is to ry f ro m b e h a v ­ io ra l scien ces th a t s tu d y p re -, n o n - , o r slig h tly -lite ra te so c ieties. G iv e n a la c k o r d e a r th o f w ritte n rec o rd s, m e m b e rs o f su c h so cieties ca n “k n o w ” a p a s t ev e n t o n ly b y r e m e m b e rin g a n d re te llin g it; fo r th e m , re c a lle d e x p e rie n c e o r m e m ­ o ry is th e o n ly f o rm o f h is to ric a l t r u t h o r re a lity p o ssib le. B e h a v io ra l scien 368

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

tists w h o s tu d y th e m h av e n o w a y to te ll h o w clo sely th is m e m o r y re p lic a te s a p a s t ev e n t, o r to d isc o v er w h e n a n d h o w th e m e m o r y o f it c h a n g e d over tim e th r o u g h rete llin g s. T h is is w h y h is to ria n s te n d to d ism iss o ral a c c o u n ts b ased o n m e m o r y as “w o rth le s s ” u n le ss s u b s ta n tia te d b y w ritte n re c o rd s. To re je c t th is d ic tu m is to r e p u d ia te h is to ry as a n a c a d e m ic d isc ip lin e . A s p o s t­ m o d e rn is ts rig h tly p o in t o u t, h o w ev er, th a t d ic tu m sta ck s th e d e c k a g a in st illite ra te , in a rtic u la te , a n d o p p re sse d m e m b e rs o f a so c ie ty w h o c a n n o t w rite a c c o u n ts to reveal th e ir sid e o f th e s to ry a n d r e p u d ia te th e ir o p p re sso rs’. B u t b y c o n tra s t, th e ric h , p o w e rfu l, lite ra te m e m b e rs o f so c ie ty leave se lf-se rv in g d o c u m e n ts th a t la tte r-d a y h is to ria n s use to c o n s tru c t its d o m in a n t n a rra tiv e . A fu ll d isc u ssio n o f th is a n d o th e r c o g e n t p o s tm o d e r n is t c o n c e rn s lies b e ­ y o n d th is s tu d y .42 B u t w e m u s t n o te th re e re le v a n t p o in ts : (1) W a rtim e N a n ­ k in g re sid e n ts c o u ld n o t p ro d u c e official, p u b lic so u rce s th a t p o r tra y e d th e ir Ja p a n e se m a ste rs u n fa v o ra b ly , n o r c o u ld th e y p r o d u c e m a n y n o n o ffic ia l, p r i­ v ate so u rce s o f th a t n a tu re b e c a u se w e ll-to -d o , lite ra te s tra ta in so c ie ty h a d fled. T h is d isc re d its a p o p u la r d e n ia l m y th ; th a t is, i f a “m assiv e b u tc h e r y o f 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 ” p e o p le h a d o c c u rre d , C h in e s e a t th e tim e w o u ld h av e re c o rd e d it, b u t th e la c k o f s u c h re c o rd s p ro v es th a t n o n e o c c u rre d . (2) Ja p a n e se tro o p s h e ld th e C h in e s e in c o n te m p t as a n e th n ic g ro u p , b u t at least early in the war, th is d id n o t tra n s la te in to th e v ie w th a t it w as v ir tu o u s to k ill h elp less civ il­ ia n s e n m asse. T h e Ja p a n e se w o u ld still n e e d to v io la te th e ir o w n m o ra l p re ­ ce p ts in o rd e r to re a c h th a t p o in t w h ic h , I h o ld , to o k p la ce la te r in th e w ar. T h is incongruity w ith W e h r m a c h t tro o p s is im p o r ta n t. A s C la u d ia K o o n z, H a n n e s H ee r, a n d o th e rs arg u e , m a n y G e rm a n s fo llo w e d a “N a z i c o n s c ie n c e ” th a t p la c e d c e rta in g ro u p s b e y o n d th e p ale o f legal a n d e th ic a l c o n c e rn , a n d th e y ac q u ie sce d in th e “m o ra liz a tio n o f c r im e .” T h is s a n c tio n e d m assacres a n d th e c o m p ila tio n o f m u r d e r lists.43 B u t, b y c o n tra s t, official, p u b lic Ja p a n e se so u rces re c o rd e d o n ly th e m u r d e r o f C h in e s e b e llig e re n ts, at least early in the C hina war; a n d , th e m u r d e r o f b e llig e re n ts in w a r is p e r m itte d u n d e r in te r ­ n a tio n a l law. (3) I f w e se ek to v erify a n d q u a n tif y th e m a ss m u r d e r o f civ il­ ia n s a t N a n k in g , w e m u s t rely m a in ly o n n o n o ffic ia l, n o n p u b lic o ra l so u rces; th a t is, p o s t h o c te s tim o n ie s b y C h in e s e v ic tim s a n d Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz e rs b ased o n m e m o ry . D e n ie rs, h o w ev er, in v a ria b ly c riticiz e n o t o n ly C h in e se , b u t also Ja p an e se, o ral so u rc e s o f th is ty p e o n th e sa m e g r o u n d s th a t H u g h T rev o rR o p e r d ism isse d K arl D o n itz ’s.44

The Documentary Record Japanese Military Sources W e first tu r n to d o c u m e n ts le ft b y th e Ja p a n e se a rm e d fo rces in 1 9 3 7 — offi­ cial b a ttle re p o rts a n d p riv a te field d ia ries. U n d e r c ritic a l sc ru tin y , th e se u n w it-

369

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

tin g ly expose in c r im in a tin g e v id e n c e . T ab le 1 is ta k e n fro m K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i, as a m e n d e d b y m y se lf.45 F ig u re s are in u n its o f 1 ,0 0 0 . I c a lc u la te “several 1s” as 5 ,0 0 0 b u t le ft “o v er 1 0 ” as “ 1 0 ,0 0 0 .” W e m u s t cu ll th e se Ja p a n e se so u rce s fo r in f o rm a tio n th a t th e c o m p ile rs n e v e r in te n d e d to convey, so p ro b le m s o f in te r p r e ta tio n arise. F irst, th e fig­ ures are fo r C h in e s e m ilita ry p e rs o n n e l, as d e fin e d b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s , w h o h e ld th a t so ld iers d o n n in g c iv ilia n g a rb a n d fle e in g in to th e N S Z re m a in e d b e llig e re n ts. R ig h tly o r w ro n g ly , th e y fe lt ju stifie d in k illin g s u c h m e n . B y th is Ja p a n e se d e fin itio n , o n ly C h in e s e w h o h a d n e v e r b e e n so ld iers c o u n te d as civilians; th o se k ille d a fte r d is c a rd in g th e ir u n ifo rm s w ere not m a ssac re v ic ­ tim s. T h e “sid e th a t g o t k ille d ” d o es n o t a c c e p t th is d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n b e l­ lig e re n ts a n d n o n b e llig e re n ts ; all C h in e s e w h o d ie d re sis tin g a n illegal, im m o ra l in v a sio n q u a lify as v ic tim s . B u t m y p o in t is th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s w o u ld n o t re c o rd m asses o f m u r d e r e d civ ilia n s (b y th e ir d e fin itio n ) in n o n ­ se cret so u rces. Illeg al, u n ju stifia b le m u rd e rs o f civ ilia n s d id o cc u r, b u t d o c u ­ m e n ts an a ly z ed h e re d o n o t te ll h o w m a n y , so w e c a n n o t a d d th e m to a v ic tim c o u n t. Ja p a n e se m ilita ry so u rce s th u s h av e a b u ilt- in b ia s fa v o rin g “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g ”— a p o in t th a t w e c a n n o t stress to o m u c h . H o w m a n y “s u rm ise d b u t n o t ex p ressly re c o rd e d k ills”— re g iste re d as “ ??” fig u res— m a y w e in c lu d e in th e tally? I a rb itra rily a s su m e d th a t fifty p e r c e n t a c tu a lly o c c u rre d , a n d so s u b tra c te d 2 6 ,4 2 5 f ro m 1 3 5 ,9 0 0 to g e t 1 0 9 ,4 7 5 . T h e s e fig u res w ere ro u g h guesses m a d e in th e p e ll-m e ll o f b a ttle , so th e ir a c c u ­ rac y is s u s p e c t to b e g in w ith . O n to p o f th a t, u n its in fla te d k ill c o u n ts to

Table 16.1.

Mass Killings of Chinese Military Personnel (Unit = Thousands)

Based on E stim ates Expressly R ecorded in Japanese M ilitary Sources Symbols: IR = infantry regiment, IB = infantry brigade, C = company, HAB = heavy artillery battalion, ?? = “surmised kills” based on other sources not recorded by the unit in question By th e Sixteenth D ivision (Kyoto, Regular)

Date (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

13 Dec.

Unit

38IR 33IR 30IB 30IB 1C 2HAB 14 Dec. 30IB 20IR 20IR 20IR 20IR 20IR 24 Dec.-5 Jan.30IB

Number

Description

5-6 about 2 over 10 several 1s 1.3 7 -8 about 20?? 0.8?? 0.31 about 1.8?? 0.15-0.16 0.6 several 1s

while fleeing across the Yangtze while fleeing across the Yangtze defeated stragglers while trying to surrender while trying to surrender while trying to surrender taken as captives after disarming rifled after disarming captives led off captives incinerated defeated stragglers led off, executed execution during m op-up operations

370

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

By the T h irte e n th D ivision (Sendai, Special) (14) (15)

Date

Unit

Number

Description

14 Dec. 16-17 Dec.

103IB 103IB

about 1 about 20

mop-up o f defeated stragglers captives in custody

By th e N in th D ivision (Kanazawa, Regular) (16)

Date

Unit

Number

Description

13-24 Dec.

7IR

6.670

suspected soldiers in ISZ

By the O ne H u n d red -fo u rteen th D ivision (U tsunom iya, Special) (17)

Date

Unit

Number

Description

13 Dec.

66IR

over 1.5

captives executed after promises of mercy

By the Sixth D ivision (K um am oto, Regular) (18) (19)

Date

Unit

Number

Description

10-13 Dec. 10-13 Dec.

unclear unclear

5.5?? 12.7??

while trying to surrender bodies in Hsiakwan area

By th e Fifth D ivision (H iroshim a, Regular) (20) (21)

Date

Unit

Number

Description

13 Dec. 14 Dec

9IB 41IR

about 5?? 2.35??

left disposal o f captives to Tenth Army captives left for later disposal

By U nknow n U nit(s) (so may be a d u p licatio n o f Case 19) (22)

Date

Unit

Number

Description

16-17 Dec.

unclear

about 4 ??

execution of defeated stragglers at Hsiakwan

Date

Unit

By th e Eleventh B attle Fleet (22) (23) (24) (25)

13 Dec 14 Dec 15 Dec about 16 Dec

Number

Description

about 10 about 0.7?? about 1.2 several 1s

while fleeing across the Yangtze while disarming defeated stragglers defeated stragglers defeated stragglers on island in the Yangtze

Findings A. K illings Total Killings Listed: 135,900 (?? Surmised Killings: 52,850; 50 percent of 52,850 = 26,425) E stim ated D eath C o unt: 109,475 (135,900 minus 26,425) B. “Massacre V ictim s” Clearly Illegal, U njustifiable Killings: 29,240 (Underlined w ithout ??) ?? Surmised Illegal Killings: 33,950 (Underlined with ??); 50 percent of 33,950 = 16,975 E stim ated Illegal, Unjustifiable Killings = “Massacre Victims”: 46,215 (29,240 plus 16,975) C. A rguably Illegal, U njustifiable Killings: 63,260 (109,475 minus 46,215)

371

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

im p re ss s u p e rio rs. S ta ff o fficer A n a m i K o re c h ik a s ta te d th a t u n its re g u la rly p a d d e d k ill c o u n ts b y th re e fo ld ; o th e rs cite a tw o fo ld to fivefold p a d d in g ra te .46 T h u s w e m ig h t lo w er k ill c o u n ts to th a t e x te n t, b u t so u rc e s o f th is ty p e exist o n ly fo r a b o u t o n e - th ird o f th e u n its a t N a n k in g .47 So I le t th e se fa c to rs c a n ­ cel each o th e r o u t a n d k e p t th e fig u re 1 0 9 ,4 7 5 . T h is is h o w m a n y C h in e s e p e rs o n s — n o t m assac re v ic tim s — d ie d in o r n e a r th e w a lle d c ity in D e c e m b e r 1937. B ro ad la titu d e th u s exists fo r s ta tistic a l in te r p r e ta tio n or, less c h a rita b ly , fo r m a n ip u la tio n . C o n se rv a tiv e s c a n c ite ta b le 1 to lim it v ic tim to lls a t “over 4 0 ,0 0 0 .” D e n ie rs c a n c ite it to p ro v e th a t all 1 0 9 ,4 7 5 w ere b e llig e re n ts k ille d in a c tio n a n d th u s w ere not v ic tim s . L eftists c a n arg u e th a t all 1 0 9 ,4 7 5 w ere m assacre v ic tim s , to w h o m w e m u s t a d d te n s o f th o u s a n d s m o re k ille d in ru ra l areas o u ts id e th e city. I h o ld th a t so m e o f th e se 1 0 9 ,4 7 5 w ere b e llig e re n ts leg ally k ille d in b a ttle a n d w ere n o t v ic tim s . H o w m a n y ? T h a t h in g e s o n h o w m u c h e m p a th y o n e h as fo r “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g ”; th e “arg u a b ly ille­ g a l” c o u n t w ill decrease to th is d eg re e. J u d g m e n t calls are h a r d to m a k e . F o r ex a m p le , it w as illeg al a t th e tim e to e x e cu te P O W s u n til m ilita ry trib u n a ls ju d g e d th a t th e y w ere sp ies o r g u e rrilla s.48 B u t d e n ie rs ju s tify s u m m a r y exe­ c u tio n s o n th e g ro u n d s th a t C h in e s e ca p tiv e s h a d alre ad y v io la te d th e law s o f w a r by n o t s u rre n d e rin g u n d e r a re sp o n sib le c o m m a n d in g officer, by c h a n g ­ in g in to p la in c lo th e s , a n d b y fle e in g in to th e N S Z w h e re th e y h a d access to h id d e n arm s caches th a t in c lu d e d ta n k s, h o w itz e rs, m a c h in e g u n s, revolvers, rifles, a n d h a n d g re n a d e s.49 A s th is lo g ic goes, C h in e s e so ld iers ch o se to b e u n la w fu l c o m b a ta n ts w ith in re a c h o f w e a p o n s, so th e Ja p a n e se c o u ld d isp e n se w ith d u e p ro cess a n d h u m a n ita r ia n tr e a tm e n t re se rv e d fo r b o n a fid e P O W s .50 D e s p ite re se rv a tio n s, I re je c t th is c la im a n d a sse rt th a t all “c a p tiv e s” ta k e n in to c u s to d y a n d k illed (th e u n d e r lin e d fig u res) w ere m a ssac re v ic tim s , w h e th e r u n la w fu l c o m b a ta n ts o r b o n a fid e P O W s . T h is p ro d u c e s a b a re m in i m u m o f 2 9 ,2 4 0 u n ju s tifia b le k illin g s o r “m a ssac re v ic tim s ,” a n d m o re likely, 4 6 ,2 1 5 w h e n w e a d d e s tim a te d illeg al k illin g s. C a ses 16 a n d 17 are irre fu ta b ly in e x ­ cu sab le; Ja p a n e se tro o p s k ille d th e se m e n a fte r te llin g th e W e ste rn e rs w h o h a d tu r n e d th e m in : “ T ru s t [the] h u m a n ita r ia n a ttitu d e o f [the] Ja p a n e se a rm y to care fo r th e d is a rm e d C h in e s e s o ld ie rs .”51 L ikew ise, I w o u ld in c lu d e as “m a ssac re v ic tim s ” C h in e s e tro o p s in u n if o rm o r p e rso n s in p la in c lo th e s k ille d w h ile tr y in g to su rre n d e r. To b e fair, th o u g h , in p riv a te d ia ries a n d p a p e rs, th e Ja p a n e se re c o rd cases o f C h in e s e tro o p s a n d civ ilian s fe ig n in g s u rre n d e r to k ill w o u ld -b e c a p to rs w ith c o n c e a le d g u n s, o r o f w a v in g th e R isin g S u n to a m b u s h Ja p a n e se tro o p s , w h ic h le d to b a n s o n d isp la y in g th e n a tio n a l flag .52 W e c a n n o t k n o w h o w c o m m o n th e se ru ses w ere o r h o w m a n y Ja p a n e se tro o p s h a rb o re d s u c h fears in sid e N a n k in g city; a n d , it m a y b e to o m u c h to e x p e c t m e rc y f ro m fe a rfu l, h u n g ry , e x h a u ste d tro o p s b ru ta liz e d b y th e ir o w n officers a n d s h o t a t b y g u e rrilla s e n r o u te to N a n k in g . T h is to o is a h a r d ju d g m e n t call, a n d d e n ie rs, w h o e m p a th iz e w ith “th e sid e 372

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

th a t d id th e k illin g ,” m ig h t b e ex c u se d a b it fo r w a n tin g to lo w er C h in e s e v ic ­ tim c o u n ts in th e se cases. Ja p a n e se tro o p s in 1 9 3 7 w ere la rg e ly k e p t ig n o r a n t o f in te r n a tio n a l law s a b o u t P O W s , b u t th e y a p p e a le d to id e as o f m ilita ry n e c e s sity s im ila r to th o se fo u n d in th e U .S . L ie b e r R u les o f 1 8 6 3 . T h e se h o ld th a t tro o p s m a y give n o q u a r te r w h e n th e ir o w n s e c u rity o r th e success o f th e ir m is sio n is a t risk . T h u s , a c o m m a n d e r ca n o rd e r e n e m y tro o p s k ille d i f so m a n y o f th e m tr y to s u r re n ­ d e r th a t h is m e n c a n n o t safely g u a rd o r e s c o rt th e m to th e re a r.53 (T h is d o es n o t a p p ly afte r ta k in g th e m in to cu sto d y , h o w ev e r.) F ew Ja p a n e se tro o p s k n e w o f th e L ie b e r R u les p e r se, b u t all n u r tu r e d s im ila r n o tio n s th a t p e r m it k illin g e n e m y so ld iers w h e n it w as im p o s sib le to se cu re th e ir in c a rc e ra tio n . A lso, th e Ja p a n e se w ere so ill-s u p p lie d th a t th e ra n k -a n d -file n o rm a lly fo ra g e d fo r th e ir o w n p ro v isio n s e n m asse, a n d so c o u ld n o t fee d P O W s in h u g e n u m b e rs . T h is w as th e ir m a in p re te x t fo r k illin g C h in e s e tro o p s w h o trie d to s u rre n d e r or, less ju stifiab ly , P O W s a lre a d y in c u s to d y .54 C o n tr a r y to h u m a n ita r ia n s e n tim e n ts to d ay , I h o ld th a t th o se C h in e s e in u n if o rm s h o t w h ile in flig h t; fo r in s ta n c e , “across th e Y a n g tz e ,” w ere n o t m a s ­ sacre v ic tim s . I n te r n a tio n a l la w a t th e tim e d e e m e d in te r d ic tio n o p e ra tio n s legal.55 Jap an ese tro o p s h a d cause to err o n th e sid e o f c a u tio n , sin ce th e act o f flee in g m ig h t co n c e a l a n in te n t to re jo in b a ttle la te r o n .56 In c h a p te r 3, K asah a ra T o k u sh i estim a te s th a t 5 0 ,0 0 0 o f a to ta l 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e se tro o p s fled fro m th e N a n k in g th e ate r; m a n y m u s t h av e seen fu tu re a c tio n ag a in st Ja p an e se forces. W e ste rn e rs th o u g h t o f C h in e s e tro o p s w h o c h a n g e d in to c iv ilia n g a rb a n d fled in to th e N S Z as “e x -so ld iers” o r “fo rm e r so ld ie rs,” n o d iffe re n t fro m re fu g ee s.57 B u t th e Ja p a n e se d e e m e d th e m d e fe a te d strag g lers (haizan hei) o r e n e m y r e m ­ n a n ts (zanteki) — as le g itim a te ta rg e ts o n m o p - u p o p e ra tio n s (zanteki soto).58 T h is ju d g m e n t call to o is n o t easily m a d e to d ay : D id e n e m y re m n a n ts w h o fled in to th e N S Z rea lly p o se a th r e a t la te r on? M ig h t th e C h in e s e ex -so ld iers sh e d th e ir “ex -” s ta tu s a n d r e tu r n to k ill Ja p a n e se tro o p s? I f so, it w as ju stifia b le to n ip g u e rrilla in su rg e n c ie s in th e b u d . A p a rt fro m ta k in g th e K M T ca p ita l, th e aim o f th is S h a n g h a i-to -N a n k in g c a m p a ig n w as to “e x te rm in a te ” K M T arm ies. T h e Ja p a n e se d id fin d larg e C h in e s e a rm s cach es in th e N S Z ; a n d , o n e m a y arg u e th a t, even w h e n th e ir n a tio n w ages a v ic io u s w a r o f ag g re ssio n , d raftee s re ta in th e rig h t to s h o o t i f th re a te n e d b y g u errillas. O n th e o th e r h a n d , i f o n e ’s s y m p a th y lies w ith “th e sid e th a t g o t k ille d ,” o n e w ill a rg u e th a t th e se help less “ex -so ld iers” sh e d u n ifo rm s , d o n n e d civ ilia n g arb , a n d jo in e d o th e r refu g ees in th e N S Z s im p ly to sta y alive. T h is u n c e r ta in ty w as re in fo rc e d b y th e C h in e s e c u s to m o f d efe a te d tro o p s s h e d d in g th e ir u n ifo rm s to m e rg e in to civ ilia n p o p u ­ latio n s. T h a t caused n o p ro b le m in C h in e se civil w ars, w h e n H a g u e c o n v e n tio n s w ere n o t a facto r, b u t Ja p a n e se tro o p s ca m e f ro m a d iffe re n t m ilita ry tr a d i­ tio n th a t d isa llo w e d m a s q u e ra d in g as civ ilia n s to se ek co v er in th e ir m id s t.59 D e s p ite th e se a n d o th e r p ro b le m s o f in te r p re ta tio n , w e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t Ja p a n e se m ilita ry so u rc e s c u lle d b y K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i, a n d e m e n d e d b y m yself, 373

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

v erify th e k illin g o f a b o u t 1 0 9 ,4 7 5 C h in e s e in o r n e a r N a n k in g in D e c e m b e r 1937; o f these, a m in im u m o f 2 9 ,2 4 0 — a n d m o re lik ely 4 6 ,2 1 5 — w ere illegally k illed m assacre v ic tim s . To th is fig u re , w e m u s t a d d a n a p p ro p ria te n u m b e r fro m th e 6 3 ,2 6 0 a rg u a b ly illegal k illin g s to g e t a su b to ta l. T o re a c h a fin al to ta l, w e m u s t a d d figures fo r th e N a n k in g S pecial A d m in is tra tiv e D is tric t (N S A D )— th e w alled c ity p lu s six a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s— fro m 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to 31 M a rc h 1 9 3 8 . (See m a p 3.) T h u s , n o sin g le v ic tim c o u n t is d efin itiv e . In ste a d , w e g e t a n ac a d e m ic a lly v a lid ra n g e o f fro m “o v er 4 0 ,0 0 0 to u n d e r 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” th a t w ill v a ry a c c o rd in g to fa c to rs n o te d ab ove. E ith e r way, th e se fig u res are s tric tly fo r C h in e s e b e llig e re n ts— as d e fin e d b y Ja p a n e se tro o p s w h o le ft th e se so u rces. T h e y w o u ld n o t re c o rd larg e n u m b e rs o f m u rd e re d C h in e s e civ ilia n s in n o n ­ se cret p u b lic d o c u m e n ts . B u t m a n y su c h m u rd e rs c e rta in ly to o k p la ce , a n d to g e t a n id e a o f h o w m a n y , w e m u s t lo o k a t w a rtim e W e s te rn , p lu s p o s tw a r C h in e se , d o c u m e n ts .

Wartime Western Sources P riv a te so u rces le ft b y W e ste rn e rs su c h as le tte rs, d ia ries, a n d p e rs o n a l p a p e rs te n d to b e im p re c ise a n d im p re ssio n istic . T h e y m e n tio n th o u s a n d s o f rap es, b u t d o so larg ely in a se c o n d - o r th ir d - h a n d m a n n e r. Yet, as d e n ie rs stress, o n e official W e s te rn so u rc e , Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone, lists u n d e r fifty m u rd e rs . I f w e rea d W e s te rn d o c u m e n ts a g a in st th e s tric t ru le s o f so u rc e c rit­ ic ism r e q u ire d b y o u r p ro fe ssio n , q u a n tif ic a tio n is sk e w e d b o th u p w a rd a n d d o w n w a rd . D e n ie rs sav o r th e h ig h n u m b e r o f ra p e re p o rts fo r b e in g hearsay, a n d th e official d e a th to lls fo r b e in g so low. O n e o f th e b e s t W e s te rn so u rc e s is War Damage in the N anking Area: D e­ cember, 1 9 3 7 to March, 1938 b y L ew is S. C . S m y th e , a N a n k in g U n iv e rsity p ro fe sso r o f sociolo g y . T h e h is to ria n K ita m u r a M in o r u a rg u e s th a t h e w as a p a id K M T adviser.60 T h a t is n o su rp rise . L ik e th e M e iji g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h h ire d fo re ig n advisers, th e m o d e rn iz in g K M T re g im e w a n te d to e x p lo it W e st­ e rn ex p e rtise . T h e r u b c o m e s w h e n K ita m u ra su g g e sts th a t S y m th e b e in g a K M T ad v iser c o m p ro m is e d th e re lia b ility o f th is stu d y . T h is is u n tr u e . S y m th e e m p lo y e d so m e tw e n ty C h in e s e te a c h in g a s sista n ts to c o n d u c t o n - th e - s p o t c ity a n d ru ra l surveys in ea rly 1 9 3 8 — ju s t a fte r th e A tro c ity e n d e d . T h u s , War Damage in the N anking Area is a p r im a ry so u rc e o f h u g e im p o rta n c e , to o o fte n ig n o re d b y rese arc h e rs. S m y th e m e n tio n s in te rfe re n c e fro m C h in e s e tro o p s w h ile c o n d u c tin g h is su rv ey s.61 Yet h e says n o th in g a b o u t th e Ja p a n e se in te r ­ ferin g , even th o u g h th e y d id su p p re ss fic tio n a l w o rk s o n N a n k in g in 1 9 3 8 su c h as Ish ik aw a T a tsu z o ’s Ikite iru heitai, m o d e le d o n th e S ix te e n th D iv isio n ’s T h irty th ir d R e g im e n t. (B y c o n tra s t, S asak i M o to k a ts u ’s n o n fic tio n a l Yasen yubinki, w h ic h d e s c rib e d a tro c itie s in C h in a , w as n o t su p p re sse d in 1 9 4 1 .) J a p a n , th e n , d id n o t h a lt th e p u b lic a tio n a n d c irc u la tio n in C h in a o f S m y th e ’s War Dam374

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

age in the N anking Area. C ritic s m a y arg u e th a t it e sca p ed su p p re s s io n d u e to its lo w d e a th to lls, b u t th is is u n c o n v in c in g . U n lik e o th e r W e ste rn e rs a t N a n ­ k in g , S m y th e refu se d to ta k e th e s ta n d in T o k y o a g a in st Ja p a n e se d e fe n d a n ts; h e d e c la re d th a t h e s to o d b y s ta te m e n ts in War Damage in the N anking Area a n d also in Documents o f the N anking Safety Zone .62 S m y th e ’s figures fo r d e a th s a n d in ju rie s a p p e a r in ta b le 2, ta k e n fro m S m y th e ’s o w n “T ab le 4 . ” T h e s e are in d e e d low . E v en a s su m in g th a t all o f th o se “in ju re d ” a n d “ta k e n aw ay” la ter died , his to ta l fo r m id -D e c e m b e r to m id -M a rc h is 1 0 ,9 5 0 . I f w e s u b tr a c t th e 8 5 0 k ille d “b y m ilita ry a c tio n s ” o r c o m b a t— a n d S m y th e th o u g h t th e d is tin c tio n w o r th m a k in g — w e g e t 1 0 ,1 0 0 d e a th s. L e ft­ ist sc h o lars fin d th is to ta l h a rd to d eal w ith . In c h a p te r 3, K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i d escrib es flaw s in S m y th e ’s s a m p lin g m e th o d th a t sk e w it to w a rd u n d e r r e ­ p o r tin g , a n d elsew h e re c o n c lu d e s th a t, i f p r o p e rly in te r p re te d , “S m y th e ’s s u r­ veys y ie ld over 3 8 ,8 7 0 civ ilia n m a ssac re v ic tim s .”63 In d e e d , S m y th e also n o te s th a t “ 3 1 ,0 0 0 o r 2 9 p e r 1 ,0 0 0 re s id e n ts ” w ere k ille d o u ts id e th e w a lle d city, a n d “eig h ty -sev e n p e rc e n t o f th e d e a th s w ere c a u se d b y v io le n c e , m o s t o f th e m th e in te n tio n a l acts o f so ld ie rs.”64 T h u s , w e m u s t assu m e th a t figures in ta b le 2 are fo r th e w alled c ity a lo n e, b u t h e d id n o t sta te th is explicitly, a n d so m e Ja p ­ anese d e n ie rs m is re p re s e n t th is fig u re o f 1 0 ,1 0 0 as h is e s tim a te fo r all d e a th s a n d in ju rie s a t N a n k in g . S m y th e h im s e lf a d m itte d a flaw in h is s tu d y : “T h e r e is re a so n to ex p e c t u n d e r - re p o rtin g o f d e a th s a n d v io le n c e a t th e h a n d s o f th e Ja p a n e se so ld iers, b ecau se o f th e fear o f r e ta lia tio n fro m th e a rm y o f o c c u p a tio n .”65 T u c k e d aw ay in a fo o tn o te , th o u g h , w e fin d trac es o f b ia s in th is era th a t m a d e h im o m it all casu alties in a n o th e r c a te g o ry : “T h e se rio u sn e ss o f ‘ta k in g aw ay ’ is u n d e r ­ lin e d b y th e fa c t th a t all so lis te d w ere m ales. A c tu a lly m a n y w o m e n w ere ta k e n fo r s h o r te r o r lo n g e r serv ice as w aitresses, fo r la u n d ry w o rk , a n d as p ro s ­ titu te s . B u t n o n e o f th e m is lis te d .”66 F em ales “ta k e n aw ay” w ere n o t a m a tte r o f “se rio u s n e ss” fo r S m y th e , so h e le ft th e m o u t o f h is sta tistic s. N o t u n til th e c o m fo r t w o m e n c o n tro v e rs y in th e 1 9 9 0 s, p r e c ip ita te d b y fe m in is t ac tiv ism , w o u ld h is to ria n s g rasp th e im p o r ta n c e o f s u c h referen c es to w a rtim e sexual slavery a n d v io le n c e to w a rd w o m e n .67 T h u s , S m y th e ’s 4 ,2 0 0 “ta k e n aw ay ” in re a lity w ere far h ig h e r a n d , a s su m in g th a t m o s t o f th e m w o u n d u p d e a d , h is agg reg ate m assacre to ll w o u ld rise g re a tly as w ell.

Table 16.2.

Smythe,

W ar D am age in the N a n k in g A rea

[completed June 1938]

Dates

Deaths (A)

Injured (B)

Taken Away (C)

Total A +C

Total A+B+C

Pre-12 Dec. to 15 Mar.

3,400

3,350

4,200

7,600

10,950

(Adapted from Smythe’s “Table 4: Number and Cause of Deaths and Injuries, by Date”) “Deaths (A)” includes 850 Chinese killed by “military actions” meaning “bombing, shelling, or bullets fired in battle.”

375

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

A n o th e r s ta tistic a l p r o b le m is J o h n R a b e ’s o fte n -c ite d e s tim a te to H itle r in 1 9 3 8 o f “ 5 0 ,0 0 0 to 6 0 ,0 0 0 ” civ ilia n d e a th s .68 T h is to o w as b a se d o n hearsay, as is tru e fo r W e s te rn e stim a te s a b o u t N a n k in g ’s p o p u la tio n b e in g 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 .0 0 0 b e fo re th e c ity fell, w h ic h D a v id A sk e w discu sses in c h a p te r 5. W e st­ e rn o b serv ers lived a n d in te r a c te d in a tig h t enclav e, th e N S Z a n d its e n v i­ ro n s, w h e re th e y e x h ib ite d a n in s u la r m e n ta lity , re p e a tin g a n d re in fo rc in g o n e a n o th e r ’s estim a tes. T h e s e w ere m u tu a lly re in fo rc e d guesses g iv in g th e illu sio n o f a g re e m e n t, n o t in d e p e n d e n tly re a c h e d e stim a te s. T h is fig u re o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 .0 0 0 is a t o d d s w ith so m e o th e r W e s te rn e stim a te s. R a b e h im s e lf re c k o n e d th a t N a n k in g ’s o rig in a l p o p u la tio n o f 1 ,3 5 0 ,0 0 0 d ec re a se d in th e fall o f 1 9 3 7 , as “ 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 p ro p e r tie d c itiz e n s” fled b e fo re th e a tta c k e rs .69 I f so, 5 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o ­ p le re m a in e d in th e c ity a n d m ig h t d ie a t Ja p a n e se h a n d s . L ik ew ise, in a n o te to T ab le 1 in War Damage in the N anking Area, S m y th e lists a fig u re o f “ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 in early N o v e m b e r.”70 A s K a sa h a ra stresses, refu g ee s fled into th e city f ro m th e east, a n d th e ir n u m b e r m a y h av e a p p ro a c h e d th a t o f th o se w h o le ft ea rlier.71 T h u s , W e s te rn e s tim a te s o f th e c ity ’s p o p u la tio n b e in g 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 to 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 in m id - D e c e m b e r c a rry n o a b s o lu te g u a ra n te e o f accuracy. S till, a v ic tim to ll o f 3 4 0 ,0 0 0 is n o t te n a b le . E v en w ith a n in flu x o f n e w refu g ees, th e Ja p a n e se still w o u ld h av e to k ill o n e - th ird to o n e - h a lf o f N a n k in g resi­ d e n ts in o rd e r to re a c h th a t fig u re. T h e p o p u la tio n w as ris in g in M a rc h 1 9 3 8 w h e n th e c o lla b o ra tio n is t R e fo rm e d G o v e r n m e n t w as fo rm e d . N o su c h re g im e c o u ld h o p e fo r p o p u la r s u p p o r t o r a p re te n se o f le g itim a c y i f its Ja p a n e se p a tro n s h a d m a ssa c re d so m a n y civ ilia n s 4 m o n th s b e fo re .

Early Postwar Chinese Sources S m y th e n o te d th a t N a n k in g re sid e n ts c o u ld n o t p u b lic ly express s u ffe rin g or re c o rd d e a th to lls o w in g to “fea r o f re ta lia tio n f ro m th e a rm y o f o c c u p a tio n .” T h is is o n e re a so n th a t official, p u b lic C h in e s e re c o rd s d a tin g fro m 1 9 3 7 m e n ­ tio n n o “m assive b u tc h e r y .” R a b e e s tim a te d th a t “ 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 p r o p e r tie d c itiz e n s” fled fro m N a n k in g b e fo re th e Ja p a n e se assau lt. T h e y w ere w e ll-to -d o , lite ra te classes w h o n o rm a lly k e p t d ia rie s a n d w ro te le tte rs th a t m ig h t a rtic u la te g rie f a n d ta lly v ic tim s . In c a lc u la b le n u m b e rs o f su c h p riv a te so u rce s th u s d id n o t g et w ritte n u n til afte r th e w ar.72 B u t early p o stw a r C h in e s e so u rces p o se m a jo r p ro b le m s . M a n y d a te fro m 1 9 4 6 , e ig h t y ears a fte r th e e v e n t, a n d w ere c re a te d a t th e b e h e s t o f p ro s e c u to rs a t w a r crim e s tria ls. A lso, th e C h in e s e d id n o t e m p lo y rig o r in c o m p ilin g th e ir m a te ria ls, so d e n ie rs h a v e re a so n to re je c t so m e o f th e se as w o rth le ss w h e n ju d g e d b y s tric t c rite ria o f so u rc e c ritic ism . S o m e biases are in h e re n t in th e so u rce s, sin c e th e y w ere g e n e ra te d ex p ressly to g ain c o n v ic tio n s in c o u rt, b u t m o re e g re g io u s b iases s te m fro m m isu se fo r p o litic a l p u rp o se s. T h e ir o n y is th a t Ja p a n e se d e n ia l a rg u m e n ts g a in in cre­ d e n c e as a resu lt. 376

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

In 1 9 4 6 , th e N a n k in g D is tr ic t C o u r t P ro s e c u to r’s O ffic e h a d d iffic u lty fin d in g ev id en c e o f Ja p a n e se w a r c rim es. Its “R e p o rt o n E n e m y W a r C rim e s ” states: “L ike w in te r cicad as, p e o p le [fearfully] re fu se d to s p e a k ,” y e t “th e y d e n ie d th e t r u th [o f a m a ssa c re ]” as w e ll.73 L eftists stress th e first e x p la n a tio n , th a t p e o p le k e p t still o u t o f fear; d e n ie rs, th e se c o n d , a re fu sa l to m a k e u p sto rie s. T ab le 3 s u m m a riz e s th e r e p o r t s e n t b y th e P ro s e c u to r’s O ffic e to m il­ ita ry trib u n a ls a t N a n k in g a n d a t T o k y o . Its n u m b e rs d o n o t a d d u p . T h e s ta te d to ta l o f 2 7 9 ,5 8 6 is 5 1 ,9 9 5 more than th e tru e to ta l o f 2 2 7 ,5 9 1 . T h e figures d eriv e fro m : (1) te s tim o n ie s b y ey ew itn esses w h o rec alle d ev e n ts e ig h t years b e fo re , o f w h o m th e m o s t p r o m in e n t w as L u S u, w h o r e c o u n te d se ein g 5 7 ,4 1 8 v ic tim s k illed ; a n d (2) b u ria l re c o rd s b y tw o c h a ritie s, th e H u n g -w a n tz u -h u i (R ed S w a stik a S o c ie ty o r R S S) a n d C h ’u n g - s h a n - t’a n g (C S T ), w h ic h to g e th e r lis te d 1 5 5 ,3 0 0 v ic tim s. T h e N a n k in g tr ib u n a l p ro c la im e d th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s m a ssa c re d “over 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 .” T h e T o k y o se n te n c e to M a ts u i re a d “u p w a rd s o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” a n d its ov erall ju d g m e n t, “o v er 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 .”74 Ju stic e s a t T o k y o to o k th e b u ria l re c o rd s a t face v alue: “T h a t th e se e stim a te s [o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ] are n o t e x a g g e ra te d is b o rn e o u t b y th e fac t th a t b u ria l so c ieties a n d o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s c o u n te d m o re th a n 1 5 5 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s w h ic h th e y b u r ie d .”75 To g e t a to ta l o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 d e a th s, th e b e n c h a t T o k y o also h a d to h av e u n c ritic a lly a c c e p te d o ral a c c o u n ts b y w itn esses, m o s t o f all L u S u ’s fig u re o f 5 7 ,4 1 8 . L u ’s te s tim o n y raises su sp i­ cio n s o f c o n triv e d v e ris im ilitu d e . H e is p rec ise to th e fin a l d ig it, u n lik e o th e r w itn e sses— a p a rt fro m S h e n g C h e n g a n d C h ’a n g K a i-sin g — w h o r o u n d e d o ff to th e th o u s a n d s , w h ic h w o u ld se e m m o re n a tu ra l g iv e n th e ch a o s a t th e tim e . L u S u te stifie d th a t h e saw 5 7 ,4 1 8 p e o p le b o u n d in th e c ity a fte r d a rk ; th e y th e n w ere m a rc h e d to th e Y angtze, m a c h in e -g u n n e d to d e a th , a n d h a d th e ir co rp ses b u r n e d a n d /o r flu sh e d d o w n s tre a m .76 A s N is h io K a n ji arg u es, it w as im p o s sib le to b u r n so m a n y co rp se s in o n e n ig h t g iv e n th e la c k o f d e a th -c a m p

Table 16.3.

Nanking District Court Prosecutor’s Office R eport o n E nem y W ar Crim es (1946)

Area

Testimonies By

Number of Victims

(1) Hsin-ho (2) Arsenal and Shen-miao (3) Tsao-hsieh-hsia (4) H an-chung Gate (5) Ling-ku Temple (6) Burial Records TOTAL

Sheng Cheng, Ch’ang Kai-sing Jui Fang-yang, Yang T u-T ’sai Lu Su Wu Ch’ang-te, Ch’en Yung-tsing Kao Kuan-wu, Temple Tombstone RSS + CST

2,873 7,000 57,418 2,000 3,000 155,300# 2 79,586 [sic]*

# Breakdown: RSS— 43,123; CST— 112,266 = 155,389 * A mistake in addition; the total should read 227,591. There is an overcount of 51,995

377

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

in c in e ra to rs . A n d , as H a ta I k u h ik o su g g ests, i f te n s o f th o u s a n d s o f co rp se s h a d b e e n flu sh ed d o w n th e riv er at o n e tim e , sailo rs o n Ja p an e se, C h in e se , a n d W e ste rn vessels p ly in g it sh o u ld have n o tic e d , a n d so m e o n e w o u ld have w ritte n a n a c c o u n t; y e t n o n e ex ists.77 O n o K e n ji p a r tly c o rro b o ra te s L u S u ’s a c c o u n t, how ever. O n o f o u n d th a t 1 4 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 P O W s w ere k ille d a t M u fu s h a n a n d d isp o s e d o f b y b u r n in g a n d flu s h in g d o w n s tre a m , b u t in sm a lle r g ro u p s a n d to a n im p e rfe c t e x te n t. T h u s , w e c a n n o t ta k e L u ’s o ra l a c c o u n t a t face v alu e. T h e tr u e n u m b e r k ille d is clo ser to 1 4 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 — w h ic h is still h o rrific. F igures in ite m s (2), (4), a n d (5) in ta b le 3 m a y b e tru e b u t w o u ld be m o re c re d ib le i f c o r r o b o ra te d b y o th e r so u rce s. F ig u re s b y S h e n g a n d C h ’a n g in ite m (1) m a y b e tru e , b u t w o u ld b e m is u se d in 1 9 8 3 , as n o te d in a fo l­ lo w in g se ctio n . W h a t o f th e b u ria l re c o rd s, th e n ? D e n ie rs a n d m a n y c o n se rv a tiv e s lo o k ask an ce a t th e se b ec au se J a p a n ’s S p ecial S erv ice A g e n c y (SSA) in N a n k in g p a id c h a ritie s like th e RSS to b u r y co rp ses, so th e re w as re a so n to o v e rre p o rt.78 T h e b e s t s tu d y o f th is issue is b y fo rm e r D e fe n se A g e n c y h is to ria n , H a r a T ak e sh i. T ables 5 to 9 a n d m u c h o f m y an aly sis h e re d eriv e f ro m H a r a .79 I te m (6) o n ta b les 3 a n d 9 c o n ta in s b u ria l re c o rd s fo r th e RSS a n d C S T . T ab le 3 also gives a b re a k d o w n in b u ria l figures: 4 3 ,1 2 3 fo r th e R SS, a n d 1 1 2 ,2 6 6 fo r th e C S T . T ab le 4 sh o w s th a t th e RSS b u rie d a lm o st all co rp ses o u ts id e c ity w alls, w ith o n ly 1 ,7 9 3 o f 4 3 ,1 2 3 b u rie d in sid e . T ab le 5 gives a m o n th ly b re a k d o w n .

Table 16.4.

Table 16.5. Month

Dec. ’37 Jan. ’38 Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Total

Red Swastika Society (RSS) Inside the Walls

Outside the Walls

Total

1,793

41,330

43,123

RSS Burials by Month Inside the Walls

Outside the Walls

Total

129 125 1,539 nil nil nil nil nil nil nil nil 1,793

7,118 1,427 20,042 8,398 3,132 1,024 26 35 18 48 62 41,330

7 247 1 552 21 581 8 398 3,132 1 024 26 35 18 48 62 43,123

378

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

T h e RSS w as a c h a rita b le b o d y c ite d a t th e tim e , b u t w ith s ta tistic a l d isc re p ­ ancies. Ja p a n e se so u rc e s say th a t it b e g a n b u ria ls in ea rly Ja n u a ry , n o t D e c e m ­ ber, a n d e n d e d o n 15 M a rc h 1 9 3 8 ; a n d lis t 1 ,7 9 3 b u ria ls in sid e a n d 2 9 ,9 9 8 o u ts id e th e c ity w alls fo r a to ta l o f 3 1 ,7 9 1 . T h e R SS to ta l o f 1 ,7 9 3 fo r in sid e th e city w alls th u s tallies w ith Ja p a n e se so u rces. Its to ta l o f 4 3 ,1 2 3 fo r o u tsid e th e w alls c o n tra s ts w ith th e Ja p a n e se fig u re o f 2 9 ,9 9 8 . B u t Ja p a n e se so u rce s m a y b e w ro n g , fo r th e d iffe re n c e lessens i f w e s u b tr a c t th e R SS fig u re o f 7 ,2 4 7 fo r D e c e m b e r; a n d J o h n R a b e n o te d th a t R SS b u ria ls b e g a n o n 13 D e c e m ­ ber. In 1 9 3 8 , M in n ie V a u tr in re p e a te d th e RSS fig u res o f 1 ,7 9 3 b u ria ls in sid e a n d 3 9 ,5 8 9 o u ts id e th e w alls, a n d th e N a n k in g I n te r n a tio n a l R e lie f C o m ­ m itte e c re d ite d th e RSS w ith a r o u n d e d - o f f fig u re o f 4 0 ,0 0 0 b u ria ls. S p o ra d ic referen c e s in p r im a ry so u rce s reveal th e R R S ’s c a p a c ity fo r b u ria l w o rk . Ja p a n e se d o c u m e n ts say th a t it h a d 6 0 0 m e n in F e b ru a ry a n d 2 0 0 to 3 0 0 in M a rc h , w ith five o r six tru c k s. C h in e s e so u rc e s say th a t th e R SS h a d 2 0 0 m e n a t first a n d 6 0 0 la te r o n . In h is r e p o r t to H itle r, R a b e sa id th a t 2 0 0 co rp ses a d a y w as th e m o s t it c o u ld b u ry . T h e G e rm a n d ip lo m a t G e o rg R o sen re p o r te d in M a rc h th a t it w as d o in g 5 0 0 to 6 0 0 b u ria ls a day. T h u s , 2 0 0 to 6 0 0 b u ria ls a day, v a ry in g b y m o n th , seem s re a so n a b le . T h e 2 0 ,0 4 2 b u ria ls o u ts id e th e c ity w alls in F e b ru a ry m a y b e p ro b le m a tic . E v en i f 6 0 0 m e n d id th e w o rk , it m e a n s th a t th e y h a d to b u r y 7 1 5 co rp se s a d a y fo r tw e n ty -e ig h t days. T h is is q u ite h ig h . D a ily -e n tr y logs s h o w th e R SS b u r y in g 6 ,4 6 8 co rp se s o n 28 D e c e m b e r, 4 ,6 8 5 o n 9 F eb ru ary , a n d 5 ,7 0 5 o n 21 F eb ru ary . T h o s e fig­ ures also se em h ig h , b u t m ig h t b e e x p la in e d b y th e re c o rd e r h a v in g c o m b in e d several d ay s’ o r w ee k s’ b u ria ls in o n e e n try . In su m , 4 0 ,0 0 0 to 4 3 ,0 0 0 b u r i­ als se em to b e a re a so n a b ly c re d ib le to ta l fo r th e R SS. In th e 1 9 6 0 s to 1 9 7 0 s, Ja p a n e se h is to ria n s lis te d 4 2 ,0 0 0 d e a th s fo r N a n k in g city, a n d th e C h in e s e d id n o t o b je ct. B u t to d a y th e n u m b e rs issue lo o m s a ll- im p o r ta n t. A s D a v id A sk e w n o te s in c h a p te r 5, H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ) h as sh o w n th a t H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y a d d e d 4 3 ,0 0 0 d e a th s to a le tte r b y M in e r S earle B ates th a t T im p e rle y p la c e d in a 1 9 3 8 s o u rc e b o o k , W hat War Means. T w o passages, n o t in B a te s’s o rig in a l, a p p e a r in T im p e rle y ’s e d ite d v e rsio n : (a) “ B u ria l g an g s r e p o r t 3 ,0 0 0 b o d ie s a t th e p o i n t ” a n d (b) “ E v id e n ces f ro m b u ria ls in d ic a te th a t close to 4 0 ,0 0 0 u n a r m e d p e rso n s w ere k ille d w ith in o r n e a r th e w alls o f N a n k in g , o f w h o m 3 0 % h a d n e v e r b e e n s o ld ie rs .”80 T h u s , T im p e rle y a lte re d B a te s’s le tte r, a n d H ig a s h in a k a n o h as m a d e a la u d a b le sc h o la rly fin d , b u t h e e x tra p o la te s in v a lid o r o v e rb lo w n claim s f ro m it. F irst, h e casts a sp e rsio n s b y sa y in g th a t T im p e rle y a d d e d th e se 4 3 ,0 0 0 d e a th s b ec au se h e w as o n th e K M T p a y ro ll— a n as p e rsio n s u p p o r te d w ith so m e n o n c o n c lu s iv e e v id e n c e . H ig a s h in a k a n o th e n im p lie s th a t T im p e rle y fa b ric a te d th e 4 3 ,0 0 0 d e a th s, arg u es th a t w e m u s t re d u c e th e v ic tim ta lly b y th is a m o u n t, c o n c lu d e s th a t W hat War Means is a w o rth le ss h is to ric a l so u rc e , a n d in sists th a t ev en th e w a rtim e e n e m y re g im e th a t e m p lo y e d T im p e rle y sh a re d th is c o n c lu s io n b e c a u se it d e le te d th e fig u re 379

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

o f 4 3 ,0 0 0 f ro m f o u r o fficial d o c u m e n t c o lle c tio n s in 1 9 3 8 . F inally, H ig a s h in a k a n o asserts, T im p e rle y a d d e d to B a te s’s le tte r a d e c la ra tio n th a t 4 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e se 4 3 ,0 0 0 co rp se s w ere “u n a r m e d p e rso n s, o f w h o m 3 0 % h a d n e v e r b e e n so ld ie rs”— w ith o u t a n y w ay to v erify th is a s s e rtio n .81 M y v ie w o n th e se p o in ts is as follow s: (1) 4 3 ,0 0 0 d e a th s c o rre s p o n d to th e RSS b u ria l to ta l, w h ic h T im p e rle y s u b s e q u e n tly a d d e d to B a te s’s le tte r afte r th e fig u re b e c a m e k n o w n . (2) T h e K M T lik e ly u se d B a te s’s o rig in a l le tte r in c o m p ilin g its so u rc e c o lle c tio n s, n o t T im p e rle y ’s la te r e d ite d v e rsio n . (3) T im p e rle y ’s c o n je c tu re th a t “3 0 % h a d n e v e r b e e n s o ld ie rs” iro n ic a lly s u p p o rts d e n ia l a rg u m e n ts . H e m a d e th is c la im in o rd e r to p r e - e m p t o r c o u n te r a c t Ja p a n e se p ro te s ts th a t all co rp se s w ere th o se o f f u tu re in s u rg e n ts m a s q u e ra d ­ in g as refugees, b u t it sh o w s h e b eliev e d th a t, co n v e rse ly se v e n ty p e rc e n t o f th o se 4 0 ,0 0 0 — o r 2 8 ,0 0 0 — probably had been e x -so ld iers w h o sh e d u n ifo rm s a n d fled in to th e c ity a n d N S Z , w h e re h u g e sto c k s o f a rm s w ere la te r u n e a r th e d . B u t, h a v in g d is c re d ite d T im p e rle y fo r b e in g a K M T a g e n t a n d p e r­ n ic io u s a n ti-Ja p a n e se p ro p a g a n d is t, H ig a s h in a k a n o c a n n o t v e ry w ell use h im to s u p p o r t th is d e n ia l c laim . (4) T h e w e ig h t o f ev id e n c e seem s to s u p p o r t, if a n y th in g , a reversal o f T im p e rle y ’s p e rc e n ta g e s; th a t is, th ir ty p e r c e n t a t m o s t h a d b e e n ex -so ld iers, a n d se v e n ty p e rc e n t a t le ast “h a d n e v e r b e e n s o ld ie rs .” T h e R R S b u ria l re c o rd s are a u th e n tic , b e in g c o r r o b o ra te d b y o th e r p r im a ry so u rces, a n d th e ir to ta l o f a b o u t 4 3 ,0 0 0 b u ria ls is g e n e ra lly re lia b le , b u t th e y d o n o t disclo se th e c o m b a ta n t o r n o n c o m b a ta n t s ta tu s o f p e rso n s b u rie d o r th e le g a lity o r ille g a lity o f h o w th e Ja p a n e se k ille d th e m , a s s u m in g th a t m o s t d ie d a t Ja p an e se h a n d s . T h u s , n o t all o f th e se 4 3 ,0 0 0 b u ria ls are o f “m a ssac re v ic tim s ” as th e C h in e s e in sist, b u t n e ith e r are th e y all “illeg al c o m b a ta n ts ” ju s ­ tifia b ly k illed in a c tio n as Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs arg u e . T ab le 6 sh o w s a b re a k d o w n fo r C S T sta tistic s in sid e a n d o u ts id e th e c ity w alls, a n d ta b le 7 sh o w s a c h ro n o lo g ic a l b re a k d o w n , th o u g h n o t m o n th ly , fo r th o se figures b y w o rk crew s o n e to fo u r. H a r a T ak e sh i n o te s fo u r su sp ic io u s p o in ts a b o u t th e C S T .82 F irst, it p u r p o rte d ly b u r ie d th re e tim e s m o re co rp se s th a n th e R R S , b u t its n a m e a p p e a rs o n n o e x ta n t so u rce s d a tin g fro m 1 9 3 7 —3 8 . W e first fin d its n a m e in so u rce s u se d b y th e N a n k in g D is tr ic t P ro s­ e c u to r ’s O ffice to c o m p ile its 1 9 4 6 “ R e p o rt o n E n e m y W a r C r im e s ,” p re p a re d as ev id en c e to c o n v ic t Ja p a n e se w a r c rim in a ls. T h u s , it m a y b e th a t so u rce s c itin g th e C S T , r e p u te d ly d a tin g fro m 1 9 3 7 —3 8 , w ere fo rg e d in 1 9 4 6 . Tw o so u rces u se d in th e 1 9 4 6 r e p o r t say th a t th e C S T h a d fo u r w o rk crew s, b u t d isag ree as to th e n u m b e r o f la b o re rs. O n e so u rc e says th a t th e re w ere fo u r g ro u p s o f tw elve m e n e a c h p lu s a fo re m a n , fo r f o rty - n in e m e n in all; th e o th e r,

Table 16.6.

Ch’ung-shan-t’ang (CST) Inside the Walls

Outside the Walls

Total

7,549

104,718

112,267

380

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

Table 16.7.

CST Burials, Chronological

Dates

Inside the Walls

Outside the Walls

Totals

1,011 1,556 2,507 2,475 nil 7,549

nil nil nil nil 104,718 104,718

1,011 1,556 2,507 2,475 104,718 112,267

26 Dec.—28 Jan. 30 Jan.—4 Feb. 5 Feb.—6 Mar. 7 Mar.—8 Apr. 9 Apr.—1 May Totals

th a t th e se f o u r g ro u p s h a d te n m e n each , fo r a to ta l o f fo rty . N e ith e r so u rc e tells o f a la te r in c re ase , so w e w ill a ssu m e th a t a t m o s t fifty w o rk e rs d id all o f th e C S T b u rials. S e c o n d , b e tw e e n 2 6 D e c e m b e r a n d 8 A p ril, C S T crew s b u r ie d 7 ,5 4 9 corpses, o r se v e n ty -fo u r a d a y fo r 102 days, in sid e th e c ity w alls a n d n o n e o u t­ side; b u t fro m 9 A p ril to 1 M ay, th e y b u rie d 1 0 4 ,7 1 8 co rp ses, o r 4 ,5 5 3 p e r d ay over tw e n ty -th re e days, o u tsid e th e city w alls a n d n o n e in sid e . I f w e assum e th a t th e n u m b e r o f w o rk e rs w as fo rty -fiv e, e a c h b u rie d a n average o f a b o u t 101 co rp ses a d a y o v er th o se tw e n ty -th re e days f ro m 9 A p ril to 1 M ay. B u t b y c o n tra s t, even a t th e h e ig h t o f RSS o p e ra tio n s in F eb ru ary , a n d p e rh a p s aid ed b y five to six tru ck s, 6 0 0 RSS w o rk e rs b u rie d 2 0 ,0 4 2 corpses over tw e n ty e ig h t days, fo r a n average o f 3 3 .4 co rp se s p e r day, o r 1.2 co rp se s p e r w o rk e r p e r day. T h is gross d isc re p a n c y in c o rp se -d isp o sa l cap acity , a b o u t a h u n d r e d ­ fo ld , m u s t b e ex p lain e d . RSS w o rk e rs m a y h av e b e e n in o rd in a te ly slo w b y c o m ­ p a ris o n , b u t W e s te rn a n d Ja p a n e se so u rc e s a tte s t to th e ir sp e e d , so w e m u s t ru le o u t th a t p o ssib ility . T h is m e a n s th a t 1 0 4 ,7 1 8 C S T b u ria ls is fa r to o h ig h to b e cre d ib le. T h ir d , C S T w o rk crew s th re e a n d fo u r in ta b le 8 re p u te d ly b u r ie d a to ta l o f 5 9 ,3 1 8 co rp ses, b u t th is c o u ld n o t h av e ta k e n p la ce w h e re liste d . W e k n o w th a t K M T tro o p s p ra c tic e d sc o rc h e d e a rth ta c tic s in th o se areas, so few civ il­ ia n s w ere liv in g th e re w h e n th e c ity fell. Ja p a n e se re c o rd s s h o w th a t u n d e r 2 0 ,0 0 0 C h in e s e tro o p s w ere in th o se areas a n d th a t 1 3 ,0 0 0 o f th e m d ie d in

Table 16.8.

CST Burials Outside the Walls

Crew

Dates

Place

Totals

1

9-18 Apr.

26,612

2 3 4 TOTAL

9-23 Apr. 9 Apr.-1 May 7-2 0 Apr.

Outside Chung-hua Gate and Arsenal at Yuhuantai to Hua-shen-miao Shui-Hsi Gate to Shang-Hsin-he Chung-shan Gate to M a-chung T ’ung-chi Gate to Fang-shan

381

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sffffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

18,788 33,828 25,490 104,718

Nanking A trocity

b a ttle , a lth o u g h th is k ill c o u n t w as n o d o u b t p a d d e d ; so 5 9 ,3 1 8 is also u n te n ab ly h ig h . F o u rth , a c c o rd in g to p o s tw a r so u rce s, th e C S T d id b u ria ls in th e ea ste rn p a r t o f th e city a n d th e R R S , in th e w e ste rn p a rt; b u t ta b le 8 lists C S T crew s o n e a n d tw o d o in g b u ria ls w h e re th e RSS c la im e d c re d it. T h is su g g ests sp e cio u s e n trie s o r d o u b le -c o u n tin g . F u rth e rm o re , th e tw e n ty to tw e n ty -tw o m e n in th o se tw o C S T crew s b u rie d a to ta l o f 4 5 ,4 0 0 co rp ses in fifte e n days b e tw e e n 9 a n d 23 A p ril. I n o u e H isa sh i arg u es th a t th e C S T h a d a t le ast o n e tr u c k .83 B u t still, th is fig u re is far o u t o f lin e w ith th e R SS, w h ic h re p u te d ly b u r ie d less th a n h a lf th a t n u m b e r, o r 2 2 ,0 0 0 co rp ses, in th e sa m e areas d e s p ite e m p lo y in g h u n d r e d s m o re w o rk e rs a n d a t le a st o n e o r tw o tru c k s. F o r s u c h rea so n s, Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs in s is t th a t ea rly p o s tw a r d o c u m e n ts m e n tio n in g th e C S T are la tte r-d a y fo rg e ries m a d e to p a d C h in e s e d e a th to lls fo r w a r crim es tria ls, a n d th a t th e C S T n e v e r ex iste d . A m o re g e n e ro u s v ie w is th a t it d id exist, b u t to o k o n b u ria ls as a s u b c o n tra c to r to th e R R S . T h is v iew g ain ed s u p p o r t o w in g to te s tim o n y b y M a ru y a m a S u su m u , a fo rm e r N a n ­ k in g S SA m e m b e r, in te rv ie w e d b y H ig a s h in a k a n o .84 E ith e r w ay, w e m u s t c o n ­ c lu d e th a t 1 1 2 ,2 6 7 b u ria ls b y th e C S T — esp ec ially th o se o u ts id e th e c ity — are h ig h ly ex a g g erated i f n o t fictive. R e s p o n d in g to su c h sk e p tic ism , K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i in sists in c h a p te r 3 th a t it w as easier to b u r y b o d ie s q u ic k ly in ru ra l areas; a n d In o u e elsew h ere arg u es th a t m o s t w ere te m p o ra ry b u ria ls in sh a llo w graves, so w o rk to o k p la c e far fa ste r o u ts id e th e city .85 T h e s e re b u tta ls , h o w ­ ever, r in g hollow . F o llo w in g H a r a T ak e sh i, I c o n c lu d e th a t th e RSS to ta l o f 4 3 ,1 2 3 b u ria ls is a d m issib le, b u t th a t th e C S T to ta l o f 1 1 2 ,2 6 7 b u ria ls is in a d m issib le , as evi­ d e n c e o f m assacres. B o th th e N a n k in g a n d T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rib u n a ls w ere w ro n g in a c c e p tin g C S T sta tistic s as p r o o f o f illeg al m a ss m u rd e rs . T h u s , w e m u s t lo w er th e ir d e a th to lls b y a b o u t 1 1 2 ,0 0 0 . In lin e w ith O n o K e n ji’s fin d ­ in g s in c h a p te r 4 o f 1 4 ,0 0 0 to 2 0 ,0 0 0 m a ssac res a t M u fu s h a n , w e m u s t d is­ c o u n t L u S u ’s te s tim o n y a t th e T o k y o tria l b y a b o u t a n o th e r 4 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e se 1 5 2 ,0 0 0 o r so v ic tim s n e v e r ex iste d . F inally, a n u n k n o w a b le n u m b e r o f th e 4 2 ,1 2 3 R R S co rp se s w ere th o s e o f C h in e s e b e llig e re n ts w h o d o n o t c o u n t as v ic tim s . A rtic le X I o f th e S a n F ra n c isc o Peace T re a ty e n jo in s J a p a n ’s g o v e rn ­ m e n t to “a c c e p t th e ju d g m e n ts ” o f all A llie d w a r crim e s tria ls, p lu s th e ir v ic ­ tim c o u n ts , b u t th a t tre a ty is irre le v a n t fo r h is to ria n s .

Later Postwar Chinese Sources D a m a g e su rv ey s m a d e d u r in g o r ju s t a fte r c a ta s tro p h ic ev e n ts are so m e tim e s flaw ed a n d re su lt in e rro n e o u s fin d in g s th a t la te r stu d ie s m u s t rectify. In itia l fa ta lity e s tim a te s fo r C h e rn o b y l in 1 9 8 6 , fo r th e 9 /1 1 W o rld T ra d e C e n te r a tta c k in 2 0 0 1 , a n d fo r H u rric a n e K a trin a in 2 0 0 5 are cases in p o in t— a lth o u g h

382

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

la te r rev isio n s w ere all d o w n w a rd . Yet th e o p p o s ite also h a p p e n s . E a rly re p o rts o f th e 1 9 9 5 G re a t H a n s h in E a rth q u a k e liste d 5 0 0 to 6 0 0 d e a th s, b u t la te r s u r ­ veys p ro v e d over 6 ,3 0 0 fata litie s, fo r m o re th a n a te n fo ld in c re ase . T h e sa m e m a y o b ta in fo r th e N a n k in g A tro c ity . In itia l e s tim a te s m a y h av e b e e n to o lo w a n d re q u ire u p w a rd re v isio n b a se d o n b e tte r ev id e n c e f o u n d la te r o n . T ab le 9 su m s u p P R C fin d in g s b y th e N a n k in g M u n ic ip a l G ro u p to S tu d y D o c u m e n ta ry H is to ric a l S o u rc es in 1 9 8 3 , tra n s la te d in to Ja p a n e se in 1 9 8 4 . Ite m s (1) to (6) in ta b le 9 are id e n tic a l to th o se in ta b le 3 fo r th e 1 9 4 6 “R e p o rt o n E n e m y W a r C rim e s ” ex c e p t fo r th e “N u m b e r o f V ic tim s ” in ite m (1 ). Ite m s (7) to (1 0 ) in ta b le 9 w ere a d d e d in 1 9 8 3 to p r o d u c e a rev ised g ra n d to ta l o f 3 4 0 .0 0 0 d e a th s, w h ic h b re a k d o w n as “ 1 9 0 ,0 0 0 b u r n e d to n o n e x iste n c e ; 1 5 0 .0 0 0 b u rie d b y c h a rita b le so c ie tie s.” A s d e n ie rs arg u e , th e re are p ro b le m s. F irst, “ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 b u rie d b y c h a rita b le so c ieties” re p e a ts th e fig u re re a c h e d a t th e N a n k in g a n d T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials a n d ig n o re s c ritic ism s n o te d ab o v e th a t th e C S T to ta l o f 1 1 2 ,2 6 7 is la rg e ly sp e c io u s a n d th e th a t RSS to ta l o f 4 3 ,1 2 3 in c lu d e s b e llig e re n ts k ille d in b a ttle . A s e c o n d p r o b le m lies in ite m s (8) a n d (9 ). F in d in g s b y O n o K e n ji in d ic a te th e p o s s ib ility th a t th e se d u p lic a te ite m (3 ), b ased o n L u S u ’s te s tim o n y in 1 9 4 6 — w h ic h w as d u b io u s to s ta rt w ith .86 A th ir d p r o b le m lies in ite m (1) in ta b le 9, th e fig u re 2 8 ,7 3 0 . It w as a p p a r­ e n tly re a c h e d th r o u g h a m u ltip lic a tio n b y 10 o f 2 ,8 7 3 , th e fig u re lis te d in

Table 16.9.

Report of Survivors’ Testimonies [1983]

Area (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Hsin-ho Arsenal and Shen-miao Tsao-hsieh-hsia H an-chung Gate Ling-ku Temple

Witnesses

Number of Victims

Sheng Cheng, Ch’ang Kai-sing Jui Fang-yang, Yang T u-T ’sai Lu Su Wu Ch’ang-te, Ch’en Yung-tsing Kao Kuan-wu; Temple Tombstone

1 28,730 [sic]* 7,000 57,418 2,000 3,000

SUBTOTAL

[ 98,148]#

(6) Burial Records

RSS + CST

TOTAL

155,300 [253,448]#

(7) Safety Zone to Hsiakwan (8) Torpedo Encampment (Yuleiying) (9) Yen-tzu-chi (10) Others

Hsu Chia-lu and son Tuan Yu-you Ch’en Wan-lu

Tens o f thousands 9,000 50,000 10,100

Grand Total: 190,000 burned to» nonexistence; 150,000 buried by charitable societies * The original entry of 2,873 in table 3, Item (1) has been multiplied by ten. # Accordingly, the actual totals are 72,291 and 227,591, respectively.

383

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

ite m (1) in T ab le 3, so th a t 2 ,8 7 3 v ic tim s in 1 9 4 6 b e c a m e 2 8 ,7 3 0 in 1 9 8 3 . T h is 1983 P R C s tu d y th u s re in fo rc e s th e ste re o ty p e o f th e C h in e s e s p o r tin g “g ray h a ir 3 ,0 0 0 ch’ang [6 ,7 5 0 m e te rs] lo n g ,” o r b e in g p ro n e to e x a g g e ra tio n , a n d it w ea k en s th e h a n d o f Ja p a n e se le ftists s y m p a th e tic to th e C h in e s e cause. T h is la te r s tu d y d o es n o t c o rro b o ra te claim s th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s m u rd e re d “over 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ” o r “3 4 0 ,0 0 0 ” in n o c e n t civ ilia n s in sid e th e w a lle d c ity o f N a n ­ k in g w ith in 6 w eek s f ro m D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to J a n u a r y 1 9 3 8 . B u t Lee E n -h a n , th e la te Iris C h a n g , S h i Y oung, Ja m e s Y in, a n d o th e rs in sist th a t th e “official fig u re o f m o re th a n 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s h as b e e n re c o n firm e d b y H ir o ta K o b i [recte: K o k i]” in a te le g ra m o n 17 J a n u a r y 1 9 3 8 . H ir o ta w as fo re ig n m in is ­ te r a n d la te r h a n g e d fo r A -class w a r crim e s in re la tio n to N a n k in g .87 B u t th is te le g ra m is n o t th e s m o k in g g u n it is c la im e d to b e. M a sa h iro Y a m a m o to a n d o th e rs cite c o n te x tu a l e v id en c e th a t H ir o ta q u o te d a h e a rsa y a c c o u n t b y H a r o ld J. T im p e rle y , a n d L u S u p in g id e n tifie s F a th e r d e B esan g e J a c q u in o t as T im p e rle y ’s so u rce o f in f o r m a tio n .88 F a th e r J a c q u in o t w as in S h a n g h a i, so m e 3 0 0 k ilo m e te rs aw ay a n d in n o p o s itio n to p ro v id e a c c u ra te in f o rm a tio n . T h u s , H ir o ta s te le g ra m c ite d “m o re th a n 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 v ic tim s ” as a n u n f o u n d e d W e s te rn r u m o r, n o t as a fac t, in J a n u a r y 1 9 3 8 . H o w ev er, as c o n serv ativ es a d m it, th e fig u re 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 d o es re p re s e n t a c re d ib le to ta l fo r C h in e s e b e l­ lig e re n ts a n d civ ilia n s k ille d in th e e n tire Y angtze d e lta area f ro m S h a n g h a i to N a n k in g over th e p e rio d A u g u s t to D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 .

Summing Up Ja p a n e se m ilita ry so u rce s d a tin g fro m 1 9 3 7 , su c h as o fficial b a ttle re p o rts a n d p riv a te field d iaries, are th e m o s t re lia b le a n d re v e a lin g o f all th e so u rce s e x a m ­ in e d h ere . L eft b y “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g ,” th e se d o c u m e n ts are self­ in c rim in a tin g in w ays th a t th e ir c o m p ile rs d id n o t in te n d . W h e n rea d critically, th e y a tte s t th a t Ja p a n e se tro o p s illeg a lly a n d u n ju s tifia b ly m a ssa c re d at least 2 9 ,2 4 0 C h in e s e — a n d I w o u ld say 4 6 ,2 1 5 — ju s t b e fo re a n d a fte r N a n k in g fell. B e y o n d th a t, th e re is r o o m fo r h o n e s t d e b a te . C o n se rv a tiv e s a d h e re to th is ac a d e m ic a lly re p u ta b le lo w -e n d e s tim a te o f o v er 4 0 ,0 0 0 . B y c o n tra s t, I h o ld th a t w e m u s t a d d several te n s o f th o u s a n d s m o re C h in e s e illeg a lly a n d u n ju s ­ tifia b ly k ille d f ro m ea rly D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 to th e e n d o f M a rc h 1 9 3 8 in th e N S A D — th e w alle d c ity a n d 6 a d ja c e n t c o u n tie s (see m a p 3 ). T h is is a lo n g e r tim e sp a n a n d a w id e r are a th a n c o n serv ativ es a n d d e n ie rs w ill allow . L arg ely fo llo w in g K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i, th e n , I c o n c lu d e th a t a fin a l v ic tim to ta l w ill far exceed 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 b u t fall s h o r t o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 in th e a b sen c e o f n e w e v id e n c e . B u t, to re p e a t fo r em p h a sis, a n e m p iric a lly v erifia b le, s c h o la rly v a lid v ic tim iz a tio n ra n g e is f ro m over 4 0 ,0 0 0 to u n d e r 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 . T h e b ro a d la titu d e d eriv es fro m h o w o n e d efin es th e e v e n t, w h ic h in tu r n la rg e ly d e p e n d s o n w h e th e r o n e s y m p a th iz e s w ith “th e sid e th a t d id th e k illin g ,” o r th a t w h ic h “g o t k ille d .” 384

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

Memory, History, Invective H u g h T re v o r-R o p e r o n ce ru d e ly d e rid e d “th e w o rth le ssn e ss” o f o ral te stim o n ie s, b u t o w in g to th e r e v o lu tio n in v ic tim s ’ rig h ts n o te d in c h a p te r 1, few o f us to d a y w o u ld a d o p t so ca llo u s a n a ttitu d e to w a rd su rv iv o rs o f th e H o lo c a u s t a n d N a n k in g A tro c ity . Yet, in 1 9 8 6 , th e d ire c to r o f th e Yad V a sh e m A rch iv es, S h m u e l K ra k o w sk i, d e c la re d th a t m o s t o f th e 2 0 ,0 0 0 su rv iv o r te s tim o n ie s p re ­ serv ed th e re are n o t reliab le as h is to ric a l so u rce s: “ [M ]a n y w ere n e v e r in th e places w h e re th e y c la im to h av e w itn e sse d a tro c itie s, w h ile o th e rs re lie d o n s e c o n d -h a n d in f o rm a tio n g iv e n th e m b y frie n d s o r p a s sin g s tra n g e rs .”89 L ik e ­ w ise, th e Je w ish -A m e ric a n h is to ria n , P e te r N o v ic k , q u o te s th e H o lo c a u s t s u r­ v iv o r P rim o Levi la m e n tin g : “T h e g re a te r p a r t o f th e w itn e sse s . . . h av e ever m o re b lu r re d a n d sty lize d m e m o rie s, o fte n , u n b e k n o w n s t to th e m , in flu e n c e d b y in f o rm a tio n g a in e d f ro m la te r re a d in g s o r th e sto rie s o f o th e rs __ A m e m ­ o ry ev o k e d to o o fte n a n d ex p re ssed in th e f o rm o f a s to ry te n d s to b e c o m e fixed in a ste re o ty p e . . . c ry sta llize d , p e rfe c te d , a d o rn e d , in s ta llin g its e lf in th e p la ce o f th e ra w m e m o r y a n d g ro w in g a t its e x p e n se .”90 P rim o L ev i’s la m e n t o b ta in s fo r m a n y te s tim o n ie s b y C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e se ey ew itn esses to th e N a n k in g A tro c ity as w ell. F ew p o s t h o c o ra l a c c o u n ts are c o rro b o ra te d as c o g e n tly as th a t b y th e la te Li H s iu -y in g , in tr o d u c e d b y K a sa h a ra T o k u s h i in c h a p te r 14. L ikew ise, co n fe ssio n s b y Ja p a n e se v ic tim iz e rs su c h as S o n e K az u o , A z u m a S h iro , O t a H isa o , a n d S u m i Y o sh ih a ru s ta n d d isc re d ite d in p a rt, th o u g h b y n o m e a n s w h o lly .91 H is to ria n s to d a y ju d ic io u s ly use o ra l a c c o u n ts b a se d o n m e m o r y to h e lp r e c o n s tr u c t p a s t e v e n ts, fo r su b je c ts m a y u n w ittin g ly c o n v e y sh a d e s o f m e a n ­ in g a n d reveal ty p e s o f ev id e n c e n o t f o u n d in d o c u m e n ta ry so u rce s. B u t w h e n u sin g o ral so u rces, w e m u s t b e w a ry o f th e ir p itfa lls. T h e la te Iris C h a n g fell s h o r t h ere . In h e r 1 9 9 7 b estseller, sh e w ro te : “T h a t th e N a n k in g m a ssac re o f m y c h ild h o o d m e m o rie s w as n o t m e re ly fo lk m y th , b u t a c c u ra te o ra l h is to ry h it m e in D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 4 .”92 C h a n g w as b o r n in th e U n ite d S tate s in 1 9 6 8 , so th o se “c h ild h o o d m e m o rie s ” w ere n o t h e r o w n , b u t p e rfo rc e d e riv e d fro m rec alle d ex p e rien c e s v e rb a lly c o n v e y e d b y su rv iv o rs d ec ad e s after th e e v e n t. A s e c o n d - a n d th ir d - h a n d “m e m o r y ” o f th is ty p e d efin e s “th e Ta- t’u-sha as a M assiv e B u tc h e ry e q u a l to “th e H o lo c a u s t” fo r Jew s. T h is N a n k in g - to A u sc h w itz c o n g ru ity h in g e s o n c a ta c ly sm ic a lly h ig h , y e t u n v e rifia b le , v ic tim to lls. N a n k in g w as far m o re h o rrific th a n N o G u n R i, M y L ai, o r Je n in ; a n d , far m o re C h in e s e th a n Ja p a n e se d ie d fro m 1931 to 1 9 4 5 . W h a t I o p p o se in th e C h a n g -P R C v ie w o f h is to ry is its in to le ra n c e . A d h e re n ts o f th a t v ie w w ill n o t b r o o k a n y d iffe re n t e m p iric a lly te n a b le view s, e a c h o f w h ic h h as its o w n d eg ree o f v alid ity ; for, th e v e rity o f th e ir m essag e o b v ia te s a n e e d to p ro v e it. T h u s , th e y ig n o re c o n tra ry e v id en c e, refu se to r e tra c t o r r e c a p tio n fra u d u le n t o r m is u se d p h o to s , leave d o z e n s o f fa c tu a l e rro rs in p r in t, a n d in c e ssa n tly re ­ p e a t u n s u b s ta n tia te d or, in d e e d , d e m o n s tra b ly false c la im s.93 T h is f u n d a m e n 385

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

ta lism is th a t o f Ja p a n e se d e n ie rs in reverse; b u t, u n lik e th e irs, it fin d s a ll-to o rea d y acce p ta n ce in an age o f se n sitiv ity fo r v ic tim s. F o u r re su ltin g areas o f h a rm o u tw e ig h all o f th e b e n e fits fro m a n e n h a n c e d a p p re c ia tio n fo r N a n k in g ’s tra g ­ ed y w h ic h , to th e ir c re d it, C h a n g , th e P R C , a n d th e ir fo llo w ers h av e p r o m p te d in all o f us. T h e first are a o f h a r m lies in tw iste d view s o f N a n k in g , th e w ar, a n d J a p a n ­ ese a ttitu d e s th a t d eriv e fro m g ross e rro rs b y C h a n g a n d th e P R C , as fo r in ­ sta n c e , w h e n N ew York Times e d ito ria lists o n 13 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 6 in d ic te d J a p a n fo r its a m n e sia a b o u t “th e s a d istic s la u g h te r o f h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f C h i­ nese civ ilian s in th e c ity o f N a n k in g .” T h is h a r m e x te n d s b e y o n d th e m ass m e d ia , to a c a d e m ic h is to ria n s . M ic h a e l S h e rm e r a n d A lex G ro b m a n as w ell sw allo w C h a n g ’s “f o rg o tte n H o lo c a u s t” h o o k , lin e , a n d sin k e r. T h e y p ra ise h e r b o o k as “a n ex e m p la r o f firs t-ra te h is to ric a l d e te c tiv e w o r k ,” a n d c o n c lu d e th a t “N a n k in g d e n ia l is p a r t a n d p a rc e l w ith H o lo c a u s t d e n ia l in m e th o d o lo g ie s , a rg u m e n ts , a n d m o tiv a tio n s .”94 N ia ll F e rg u so n tells h o w C h in e s e “p riso n e rs w ere h u n g b y th e ir to n g u e s fro m m e a t h o o k s a n d fed to ra v e n o u s d o g s ,” a n d J o h n A . L y n n arg u es th a t N a n k in g “m a y n o t h av e b e e n a h o lo c a u s t fo r an e n tire n a tio n a l g ro u p , b u t it w as [a] h o lo c a u s t fo r o n e city .”95 T h e N a n k in g A tro c ity evokes n o p rid e in b e in g Ja p a n e se , b u t o n e th in g is c e rta in : D e a th s a n d d a m a g e w ere lig h t c o m p a re d w ith a lte rn a tiv e p la n s fo r th e city. O n 3 0 N o v e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , th e T e n th A rm y c o m m a n d d re w u p “N a n k in k o ry a k u n i k a n s u ru ik e n ” (V iew s o n a tta c k in g N a n k in g ) . I t lis te d tw o p la n s, A a n d B, dev ised 1 d a y b e fo re c o m m a n d e r Y an ag aw a H e is u k e rec eiv e d o rd e rs fo r th e assault. P la n A, in fac t a d o p te d , w as to b u ild o n b a ttle fie ld m o m e n tu m in a h e a d lo n g ru s h fo r th e city. B u t i f th is w ere to fail, P la n B w o u ld tak e effect. It read: [S]urround N anking com pletely and bom b it from the air thoroughly for about a week— w ith special atten tio n to incendiary bom bs an d m ustard-gas canisters— to reduce the city to rubble. Should the enem y resist and defend the walled fortress to the bitter end, the [Tenth] A rm y will use the smallest force possible to m aintain the siege; 2.5 divisions should do. It will keep u p air attacks to destroy the enem y while refusing to storm the city by force__ Poison gas is imperative in this assault. It is totally unac­ ceptable to sustain the same losses we did at Shanghai owing to qualms about poison gas here.96 H a d P la n B k ic k e d in , th e re w o u ld h av e b e e n a “h o lo c a u s t fo r o n e c ity ” in m o re th a n h y p e rb o le . E v en a t th is early, re la tiv e ly m ild stag e o f ag g re ssio n in C h in a , Y anagaw a w o u ld h a v e ig n o re d th e law s o f w a r a n d h u m a n ity . B u t c h ie f o f s ta ff Im p e ria l P rin c e K a n ’in K o to h ito sq u a sh e d P la n B b y in s tr u c tin g Y anag aw a’s im m e d ia te su p e rio r, M a ts u i Iw a n e, th a t “th e use o f gas a n d te a r gas shall aw a it f u r th e r d ire c tiv e s.”97 A se c o n d are a o f h a r m lies in th e d iv e rsio n o f a tte n tio n fro m Ja p a n e se w a r crim es w o rse th a n th o se a t N a n k in g . T h e S h a n g h a i E x p e d itio n a ry A rm y (SEA ) 386

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

u se d c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s in its a tta c k o n T a -c h ’a n g -c h e n n e a r S h a n g h a i o n 16 O c to b e r 1 9 3 7 , b e fo re it m a rc h e d o n N a n k in g . B u t J a p a n ’s u se o f c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s early in th e w a r w as g e n e ra lly m a rk e d b y re s tra in t. T e n th A rm y sta ff officer T a n a b e M a sa ta k e issu ed a d ire c tiv e o n 2 5 O c to b e r 1 9 3 7 th a t read : “G re e n c a n iste r [tear] gas is n o t to x ic. E a c h u n it s h o u ld use it as re q u ire d , b u t o n ly w h e n a b so lu te ly n e e d e d , sin c e w e la c k su ffic ie n t r e p le n is h m e n ts .” T a n a b e m e a n t th a t te a r gas w as n o t a n illeg al to x ic gas o w in g to its n o n le th a l n a tu re , so u sin g it to in c a p a c ita te e n e m y tro o p s fro m afar, b e fo re k illin g th e m in close q u a rte rs b y b u lle t o r b a y o n e t, d id n o t v io la te a n y tre a tie s.98 L a te r in th e w ar, c o m m a n d e rs d r o p p e d th e se sc ru p le s a n d u se d le th a l to x ic gases, n o t ju s t te ar gas, so m e 2 ,0 9 1 tim e s to p ro d u c e a n e s tim a te d 9 0 ,0 0 0 ca su alties, o f w h ic h a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 w ere d e a th s. In A p ril 1 9 3 9 , th e im p e ria l a rm y f o rm e d a sisteru n it to U n it 7 3 1 in N a n k in g th a t d e v e lo p e d b io lo g ic a l w e a p o n s fo r u se in th e area, a n d b o m b e d N in g p o fro m th e air w ith p a th o g e n s o n 2 7 O c to b e r 1 9 4 0 .99 U .S . p ro s e c u to rs a t th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials h a d e v id en c e to s u b s ta n ­ tia te ch arg es o f c h e m ic a l a n d b io lo g ic a l w arfa re, b u t th e y tu r n e d a b lin d eye in o rd e r to g ain Ja p a n e se d a ta fo r p o te n tia l u se a g a in st C o m m u n is t en e m ie s. F o r d iffe re n t rea so n s, K M T p ro s e c u to rs fa ile d to see ju s tic e se rv e d a t 10 w a r crim es trials in C h in a . O u t o f 1 ,5 5 6 c o u n ts b r o u g h t a g a in st 8 8 3 Ja p a n e se su s­ p ec ts, K M T p ro s e c u to rs e n te re d o n e c o u n t o f c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s use a n d n o n e fo r b io lo g ica l w a rfa re .100 T h is is a “fo rg o tte n a tro c ity ,” i f n o t a “fo rg o tte n H o lo ­ c a u s t,” w ith m o re re a so n to b e re m e m b e re d . W h y d o 2 ,0 9 1 p o is o n gas a tta c k s, su c h as a t th e H o p e i v illag e o f P ’e i-t’a n in M a y 1 9 4 2 th a t to o k a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 lives, g e t lo s t in th e u p r o a r o v er N a n k in g ? S o m e 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 p o is o n gas c a n is­ te rs a n d shells le ft in C h in a p ro d u c e ca su a ltie s even to d ay , a n d in S e p te m b e r 2 0 0 5 , ev id en c e su rfa c e d th a t th e ir a b a n d o n m e n t to o k p la c e o n im p e ria l a rm y o rd e rs .101 A th ir d area o f h a r m lies in th e v ie w th a t N a n k in g w as e m b le m a tic o f Ja p a n e se b e s tia lity n o t ju s t in o n e c ity o v er six w eek s, b u t in all o f C h in a fro m 1931 to 1 9 4 5 . S o m e Ja p a n e se le ftists go ev en fu rth e r, to c la im th a t th e A tro c ­ ity sy m b o liz e d e v e ry th in g evil in th e ir e n tire m o d e rn h is to ry .102 S w e e p in g v is­ tas lik e th e se d e m a n d far m o re o f N a n k in g th a n it c a n bear, a n d p re c lu d e a p ro p e r h is to ric a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e C h in a w a r ov erall. T h e r e w ere larg e re g io n a l v a ria tio n s in Ja p a n e se o c c u p a tio n p o lic y d u r in g th a t w ar. E v en K asah a ra T o k u sh i a d m its th a t, u n lik e in c o n te s te d areas, tro o p s d id n o t c o m m o n ly ra p e a n d m u r d e r in p a c ifie d areas, w h e re th e ir p rim e c o n c e rn w as to u p h o ld o rd er. E arly stages o f c o m b a t, in c lu d in g th e S h a n g h a i-to -N a n k in g a ssa u lt fro m A u g u s t to D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 7 , m a in ly c o m p ris e d p o s itio n a l w a rfa re a g a in st reg ­ u la r K M T forces. A lth o u g h re sista n c e b y p a rtis a n s d id o cc u r, J a p a n w a g e d a c o n v e n tio n a l i f u n d e c la re d w a r fo r lim ite d aggressive aim s, as m e d ia te d b y th e G e r m a n a m b a ssa d o r to C h in a , O s k a r T ra u tm a n n . H is to r y w o u ld h av e b e e n d iffe re n t i f T o kyo h a d a c c e p te d h is te rm s, ag reed to b y C h ia n g K a i-sh e k ’s K M T reg im e, ra th e r th a n s u c c u m b to th e h u b ris o f b a ttle fie ld v ic to ry .103 387

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

A fte r th e fall o f H a n k o u , W u h a n , a n d C a n to n in a u tu m n 1 9 3 8 — w h ic h m a rk e d th e e n d o f s u s ta in e d K M T re sista n c e th r o u g h p o s itio n a l w a rfa re — Ja p a n e se tr o o p c o n d u c t d e g e n e ra te d g rievously, esp ec ially in c o n te s te d areas. E sc a la tio n o c c u rre d in c h e m ic a l w e a p o n s use, fro m re p u te d ly n o n le th a l te ar gas to in d is p u ta b ly to x ic gases. A fte r th e H u n d r e d R e g im e n ts ’ O ffe n siv e b y C h in e s e C o m m u n is t u n its in s u m m e r 1 9 4 0 , J a p a n la u n c h e d O p e r a tio n B u rn A ll, K ill A ll, P lu n d e r A ll (jinmetsu soto sakusen). T ro o p s in N a n k in g c ity h a d earlier co m e u n d e r lim ite d o b s e rv a tio n b y n e u tra l W e ste rn e rs w ith so m e le v er­ age to c u rb d e p re d a tio n s . B u t afte r P earl H a r b o r in D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 1 , W e st­ e rn e rs in C h in a w ere e ith e r e n e m y n a tio n a ls u n a b le to h a lt Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s o r allied n a tio n a ls u n w illin g to d o so. A lth o u g h th e “ C h in a I n c id e n t” b e g a n in Ju ly 1 9 3 7 as a c o n v e n tio n a l w a r fo r lim ite d aggressive o b je ctiv es, b it b y b it it tu rn e d in to a n a n ti-in su rg e n c y w a r e n ta ilin g a b a rb a riz a tio n o f Ja p an e se tro o p s th a t m a d e th e ir ea rlier a tro c itie s a t N a n k in g lo o k ta m e b y c o m p a ris o n . In su m , th e C h in a w a r w as n o t a N a n k in g A tro c ity w rit larg e. It d e g e n e r­ a te d in to a v ic io u s, d irty , a n ti- C o m m u n is t c ru sa d e fo u g h t m a in ly a g a in st g u e r­ rillas a n d th e ir v illa g e -b a se d s u p p o rte rs . It b e c a m e a w a r w ith n o ru les, n o s tra te g ic ad v a n ta g e s to b e g a in e d , a n d n o p ea ce to b e h o p e d for. W h e n ta r ­ g e te d b y irre g u la r p la in c lo th e s c o m b a ta n ts o f all ages a n d b o th g e n d e rs, o rd i­ n a r y m e n tu r n e d in to p ac k s o f Ja p an e se devils (Jih-pen kuei-tzu) w ith o u t m o ra l in h ib itio n s . T h in g s th e n g o t e x p o n e n tia lly w o rse fo r th e C h in e se , esp ecially in ru ra l c o n te s te d areas; m ilita ry necessity, less a n d less re s tra in e d b y p a n g s o f co n scie n ce , excused a n y a n d all Ja p a n e se a tro c itie s. T h e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n w a r a n d m ass m u rd e r, fu zzy to s ta rt w ith , d isa p p e a re d . B u t it is a n a c h ro n is tic to rea d th is la te r c o n d itio n b a c k to th e 1 9 3 7 S h a n g h a i-to -N a n k in g c a m p a ig n . W e as h is to ria n s s h o u ld tr y to e x p la in h o w a n d w h y th e h o s tilitie s c h a n g e d over tim e , p lu s w h a t th o se c h a n g e s m e a n t fo r b o th sides. A m o n o lith ic , g o o d fo r-a ll-tim e d e m o n iz a tio n o f th e Ja p a n e se d o es n o th in g to h e lp . F o u rth , th e C h a n g -P R C in v e c tiv e th w a rts a n y a im o f f u rth e r in g Ja p a n e se p e n a n c e . To th e co n tra ry , ro w d y cat-ca lle rs at s u p p o se d ly a c a d e m ic co n fe re n ces p ro d u c e g ris t fo r rig h t- w in g d e n ia l m ills in Ja p a n . M o re tragically, s u c h tira d e s m a k e en e m ie s o u t o f m a n y Ja p a n e se w h o o n c e ex p re ssed c o n tr itio n a b o u t th e ir w ar o f ag g ressio n a n d re m o rse fo r its C h in e s e v ic tim s . T h e h is to ria n H a ta Ik u h ik o is a case in p o in t. In a 1 9 8 6 p a p e rb a c k s tu d y o f th e N a n k in g A trocity, h e p o ig n a n tly con fessed : It is a brutal fact that Japan perpetrated aggression against C hina for over 10 years after the M anchurian Incident [1931—33]. W e inflicted im m ense pain on the Chinese, and caused them massive losses at N anking and elsewhere. However, they not only refused to take revenge against m ore than a m illion defeated Japanese soldiers and civilians stranded there after the war, they allowed those Japanese to return hom e safely. And, contrary to our fears, C hina did not dem and reparations w hen diplom atic relations were restored in 1972. All Japanese old enough to rem em ber these events are twice indebted to the Chinese, or at least should be. But some have forgotten. Heartless per388

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

sons [Tanaka Masaaki] alter prim ary sources to argue, “there was no ‘massive butchery’ at N anking,” or they take issue w ith the symbolic figure o f 300,000 to 400,000 victims claim ed by the PRC. W h at if anti-Japanese groups in the U.S. latched on to victim counts for the atom ic bom bings in our textbooks, w hich we cannot be absolutely cer­ tain about either, and then declared, “T h a t’s too high,” or “T h a t’s an illusion”? T hen how w ould Japanese victims feel? T here is no agreement on num bers, bu t it is an indisputable fact that the Japanese arm y com m itted huge massacres plus m any other evils at N anking. As a Japanese, I too wish to apologize to the Chinese people from the bottom o f m y heart.104 In 1 9 8 6 , th e re w as n o re a so n to d o u b t H a ta ’s sin c erity . In 1 9 8 9 , ev en h is b itte r rh e to ric a l adversary, H o n d a K a ts u ic h i, ex p re ssed a d m ir a tio n .105 H a ta c h a n g e d h is tu n e afte r e n c o u n te rs w ith C h in e s e a n d C h in e se -A m e ric a n s w h o re p e a te d ly b o o e d a n d s h o u te d h im d o w n a t P rin c e to n , K eio , a n d o th e r u n i­ v e rsitie s .106 S p e a k in g a t th e in a u g u ra l m e e tin g o f a N a n k in g d e n ia l so c ie ty in O c to b e r 2 0 0 1 , H a ta q u ip p e d th a t, in o rd e r to g e t a to ta l o f th irty -fiv e m il­ lio n v ic tim s , “th e y w o u ld h av e to th r o w in d e a th s fro m th e G re a t L eap F o r­ w a rd a n d C u ltu ra l R e v o lu tio n .” T oday, H a ta b lu n tly calls o n th e C h in e s e to “g ro w u p a little ,” a n d h e d e rid e s “th e N a n k in g in d u s try ,” re p le te w ith la w ­ su its a n d te a r-je rk in g su rv iv o r tales th a t h e lik e n s to “th e H o lo c a u s t in d u s try ” d e n o u n c e d b y N o r m a n F in k e ls te in .107 It is tim e to sto p fig h tin g th e C h in a w a r a n d s ta rt u n d e r s ta n d in g it as h is to ry w ith o u t h a tre d . A n u a n c e d , te x tu re d d e p ic tio n o f N a n k in g as p a r t o f th a t w a r— se n sitiv e to th e m e m o rie s o f b o th p e o p le s y e t fa ith fu l to e m p iric a l ev id e n c e — c a n b e w ritte n a n d m u s t b e rea d .

Notes 1. Hanley, Choe, and Mendoza, Bridge a t N o Gun Ri, p. 287; Young, “Incident at No Gun Ri,” p. 257; Young, Vietnam Wars, pp. 301—2. 2. Washington Post, 3 May 2002. 3. Washington Post, 6 August 2002 4. “Sankei sho” column in Sankei shinbun, 17 May 2004. The most recent in this genre of exposes of fake photos, which began in 1973 with Suzuki, “N a n kin daigyakusatsu'no maboroshi, is Mat­ suo, Puropaganda sen “N a n kin jiken. ” 5. Higashinakano, “1937: N a n k in Koryaku no shinjitsu, pp. 152—58; Kitamura, “Nankin de daigyakusatsu wa atta no ka,” pp. 273—74; Higashinakano, “Nankin ‘gyakusatsu’,” pp. 288—95. 6. See Lipstadt, Beyond Belief, pp. 8—9, 17, and 137; for actual examples of such propaganda, see Shevin-Coetzee and Coetzee, eds., World War I a n d European Society, pp. 323—29. 7. Smythe, War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, p. i. Timperley makes a similar statement in W hat War Means, pp. 8—9. 8. Yamada and Koketsu, Ososugita seidan, passim. Likewise, Kitaoka blames Japanese comman­ ders for the massive death and destruction at Okinawa; see Kitaoka, “Iwarenaki Nihon hihan o haisu,” p. 61. For the death tolls, see Yamada, “Okinawa de no gekisen,” p. 111. 9. Italics added. Toronto Star, 5 April 2004; A sahi shinbun, 4 April 2004. 10. Quoted in Ishikawa, “Tettei kensho “Nankin ronten seirigaku,” p. 159. 389

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

22. 23. 24. 25.

26. 27.

28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34.

35.

For background on the reasons, see a statement by the publisher in Haga, “‘Za reepu obu Nankin' hoyaku chushi no keii,” p. 17. For a view from the denial side, see Higashinakano and Fujioka, “Z a reepu obu N a n k in ” no kenkyu, pp. 222—69. For examples o f the belief, see Bartov, H itler’sArmy, pp. 118—19; for Rabe's faith in the belief, see Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, pp. 34, 38, 40, 46, and 56; for Rabe’s report to Hitler plead­ ing for him to save the people of Nanking, see Rabe, N a n kin no shinjitsu, pp. 288—321. H e also said that the massacre of Chinese POWs at Mufushan was a myth, but O no refutes this. This is probably why he recycled his old title, “N ankin daigyakusatsu” no maboroshi, for a totally different book in 1999; he simply prefixed the word New (shin) to it. See the Sankei shinbun editorial on 11 Febraury 2004. Christian Science Monitor, 3 June 2004. For T'ien-an-m en, see Brook, Quelling the People, pp. 151—69. T he distance is calculated from the legend on the map in Hata, N a n kin jiken, p. 87. Hata, Higashinakano and M atsumoto, “Mondai ha ‘horyo shodan' o do miru ka,” p. 142. Eguchi, in Shokun! (February 2002), p. 194. This is “38,000 to 42,000” in Hata, N a n kin jiken, p. 214; he rounds this off to “40,000” in Hata, “Nankin jiken: Ronten to kenkyu kadai,” p. 18. H e stated it was “over 40,000” during a conference at Keio University in December 1997. Okumiya, Watakushi no m ita N a n kin jiken, pp. 60—61 Hata, in Sakamoto et al., “Rekishi to rekishi ninshiki,” pp. 87—88; cf, Higashinakano, “Nankin ‘gyakusatsu’,” pp. 283—86. See Kirby's Foreword, p. xi. Paraphrased in Tanaka, Paru hanji no N ihon m uzai ron, pp. 35—36. Tanaka’s first edition, titled Paru hakase no Nihon m uzai ron, was published in 1963. For Takigawa's original arguments, see Takigawa, Shinpan Tokyo saiban o sabaku (jo), pp. 121—23. See the celebrated account of Taft in Kennedy, Profiles in Courage, pp. 179—91. Tanaka, N a n kin jik e n no kyoko, pp. 287—99; Tanaka, N a n kin jik e n no sokatsu, pp. 20—31. He had part of the second book published in an English translation in 2000 in order to counter­ act Iris Chang. For a review, see Wakabayashi, “Nanking Massacre.” Chang, The Rape o f N anking, pp. 6 and 12. For an example, see the Chinese-Canadian Peter Li's “Asian- Pacific War,” pp. 109—37. Nishio, Rekishi o sabaku orokasa, pp. 122—260; Nishio, Kotonaru higeki, pp. 11—119 and 310—16; Nishio and Fujioka, K o ku m in no yu d a n , pp. 209—15 and 251—60; Sakamoto, “Kaisetsu,” pp. 342-46; Sakamoto, “Sengo 50-nen towareru Nihonjin no rekishi kankaku,” pp. 58—71; and Nishio, K okum in no rekishi, pp. 728-44. Nishio, Rekishi o sabaku orokasa, pp. 175—76 and 207—08. Ritchie, in Japan Times 5 December 2000. Nishio, Rekishi o sabaku orokasa, pp. 157—58. W hitney Harris, a staff member for the U.S. Counsel at Nuremberg, writes that German armed forces “in the main, lived up to standards of humane warfare.” See Harris, Tyranny on Trial, p. 175, also, p. 315 and p. 371. For ordinary German troops and genocide, see Bartov, H itler’s Army, pp. 59—105 Bartov, The Eastern Front, pp. 106—56; and Browning, Ordinary M en, espe­ cially pp. 159—89 and 191—223. For a brief discussion o f the literature in German on the “clean W ehrmacht,” see Berghahn, Preface pp. xv—xviii; Naumann, “‘Unblemished' W ehrmacht” pp. 417—27; Streit, “Soviet Prisoners o f War in the H and of the W ehrmacht,” pp. 80—91; Shep­ herd, War in the W ild East (passim); and Bessel, N azism a n d War, pp. 201—03. This is a pseudonym assumed from Johann Sebastian Bach and Mozart's Haffner Symphony. His true name is Raymund Pretzel. See Haffner, Defying Hitler, pp. 298—304. The first distor­ tion by Nishio came in a 1993 article and was republished in Kotonaru higeki in 1994 and 1997. Nishio also repeated the distortion in K okum in no rekishi in 1999.

390

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

Haffner, M eaning o f Hitler, p. 136; Nishio, Kotonaru higeki, p. 96. Vincent, Intelligent Person's Guide to History, pp. 9 and 29. Trevor-Roper, Last Days o f Hitler, p. xxi. Taylor, Dresden, pp. 347—456. Brook, Quelling the People, p. 152. Noguchi, A sahi shinbun, 21 February 1995; cited in Kasahara, N a n kin nanm inku no hyakunichi, p. 330. An excellent discussion is Evans, In Defence o f History, especially pp. 75—128 and 191—253. See Koonz, N a z i Conscience, pp. 1—16; and Heer, “How Amorality Became Normality,” pp. 338—41. See Ara, “‘N ankin sen m oto heishi 102-nin no shogen’ no detaram e,” pp. 96—102; also, Higashinakano, “‘Nankin sen’ m oto heishi giwaku no ‘shogen’,” pp. 162—73. Kasahara, N a n kin jiken, pp. 224—25. Cited in Itakura, Honto wa ko datta N a n kin jiken, p. 375. Anami’s son, Koreshige, was ambas­ sador to the PRC from January 2001 to December 2005. Saito, R ikugun hohei yomoyama monogatari, pp. 244 46. Fujiwara quoted in Kasahara, N a n k in jiken, pp. 218—19. For example, Yoshida, “Kokusaiho no kaishaku de jiken o seitoka dekiru ka,” pp. 167—68. Higashinakano, “N a n kin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho,” pp. 184—85; for another example of such a find, see Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 173. Higashinakano, “Nankin ‘gyakusatsu’,” pp. 288—95; Komuro and Watanabe, F uin no Showa shi, pp. 66—76, 83—86, 136—50. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 71. Sasaki, Yasenyubinki, p. 58 and 71; Ono, Fujiwara, and Honda, ed., N a n k in daigryaksusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, p. 361. See also chap. 8 in the present volume. See Taylor, Nuremberg a n d Vietnam, p. 36. For an exceptionally articulate example, see the battlefield diary of Murata Kazushiro; Murata, N it-C h u senso nikki, vol.1, pp. 165—67. Taylor, Dresden, p. 89. O n this point, see, for example, Itakura, Honto wa ko datta N a n kin jiken, p. 199. Rabe also called them “deserters.” See Rabe, The Good M a n o f N anking, p. 57. Okumiya uses this term to describe all U.S. military actions in the Pacific after Japan’s decisive loss in the Marianas in June 1944. See Okumiya, Watakushi no m ita N a n kin jiken, p. 210. Japanese troops, however, would do much the same thing on Okinawa, which in turn spawned American arguments to use atomic weapons out of military necessity. Kitamura, “N a n k in jik e n ” no tankyu, pp. 25—27 and 164—74. Smythe, War Damage in the N anking Area, p. 28. Tanaka, N a n kin jik e n no sokatsu, pp. 201—3; for Smythe’s statement itself, see Lu, They Were in Nanjing, pp. 333—34. Kasahara, N a n k in nanm inku no hyakunichi, pp. 353—54. Smythe, War Damage in the N anking Area, p. 22. Ibid., p. 7. Ibid. For a critical survey o f the scholarship, see Wakabayashi, “Com fort W omen,” pp. 223—58. Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking p. 212; for the entire document, see Hirano, trans, N a n kin no shinjitsu, pp. 289—321. For this citation, see p. 317. For the 800,000 figure, see Rabe, Good M a n o f N anking, p. 52; for the 1,350,000 figure in July 1937, see Hirano, trans., N a n kin no shinjitsu, p. 196. Smythe, War Damage in the N anking Area, note 1 to Table 1, n.p. Kasahara, “Suji ijiri no fumo na ronso wa gyakusatsu no jittai o tozakeru,” pp. 85—86; Kasa­ hara, N a n k in jik e n pp. 219—21.

391

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Nanking A trocity

11. 13. 14. 15. 16. 11. 18.

19. 80. 81. 81. 83. 84. 85. 86.

81. 88. 89. 90. 91. 91. 93.

94. 95. 96. 91. 98. 99. 100.

Some Chinese sources reputedly from wartime Nanking fail to withstand critical scrutiny. See Kitamura, “N a n kin jik e n ” no tankyu, pp. 116—40. Ibid., pp. 141—44; Takemoto and Ohara, Saishin “N a n k in daigyakusatsu,”pp. 143—44. See Hara, “Iwayuru ‘Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken’ no maiso kiroku no saikento,” pp. 45—6; and Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, pp. 161 and 166. Brook, Documents on the Rape o f N anking, p. 161. See Wakabayashi, “Nanking Massacre,” p. 514. Hata, Higashinakano, and Matsumoto, “M ondai was ‘horyo shodan’ o do miru ka,” p. 141. Both the leftist Inoue and the denier Higashinakano agree on this point, based on the 16 April 1938 article in the Osaka A sahi shinbun, but they disagree on the motive involved; Inoue, “Itai maiso kiroku wa gizo shiryo de wa nai,” p. 130; Higashinakano, “N a n kin gyakusatsu” no tettei kensho, p. 303. Maruyama Susumu, a member of the SSA at Nanking corroborates its pay­ m ent for burials in Higashinakano, “Nankin tokumu kikan (Mantetsu shain) Maruyama Susumu no kaiso,” pp. 111—11. Hara, “Iwayuru ‘Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken’ no maiso kiroku no saikento,” pp. 43—59. Timperley, W h at War Means, pp. 51 and 59. I thank Tim othy Brook for helping me obtain Bates’s original letter from the Yale Divinity School Library. See Higashinakano, “N a n kin gyakusatsu” no tettei kenkyu, pp. 313—30. Hara, “Iwayuru ‘Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken’ no maiso kiroku no saikento,” pp. 43—59. Inoue, “Itai maiso kiroku wa gizo shiryo de wa nai,” p. 133. See Higashinakano, “Nankin tokumu kikan (Mantetsu shain) Maruyama Susumu no kaiso,” pp. 113—14 and pp. 1 4 1 ^ 9 , note 3. Inoue, “Itai maiso kiroku wa gizo shiryo de wa nai,” pp. 136—31. O n this controversy, see H onda and O no, “Bakufu-san no horyo shudan gyakusatsu,” pp. 118—149; also, H ora and Watada, “Baku-san no horyo shodan ni kansuru ‘Shinsetsu’ hihan,” pp. 150-96. Lee, “Nanking Massacre Reassessed,” p. 56; Chang, Rape o f Nanking, pp. 103-04; Young and Yin, Rape o f N anking, pp. 161 and 116-18. Yamamoto, N a n k in g p. 185; Lu, They Were in Nanjing, p. 351, note 51. Q uoted in Novick, Holocaust in American Life, p. 115 and note 11. Ibid., p. 115. See Fujioka, “Jigyaku shikan” no byori, pp. 161-14; and Itakura, Honto wa ko datta N ankin jiken, pp. 134-94. Chang, Rape o f N anking, p. 9. For a catalog of criticisms about factual errors and misused photographs made by Japanese deniers that have gone unanswered, see Hata, “‘Nankin gyakusatsu’ ‘shoko shashin’ o kantei suru,” pp. 81-93; Higashinakano and Fujioka, “Z a reepu obu N a n k in ”no kenkyu, pp. 51-110; and Matsuo, Propaganda sen “N a n k in jik e n ”, pp. 54-115. In 1004, Chang wrote that K M T armies lost “150,000 troops in the battle for Shanghai,” after which the Japanese “raped and slaughtered hundreds of thousands o f civilians, presaging a war that would last eight years and claim as many as 35 million Chinese lives.” See Chang, Chinese in America, p. 116. Sherman and Grobman, D enying History, pp. 131-156, especially, pp. 131-31. Ferguson, Empire, p. 331; Lynn, Battle, p. 111. Yoshimi and Matsuno, eds., Jugo nen senso gokuhi shiryo shu hokan 2: D oku gasu sen kankei shiryo II, pp. 111-19. Yoshimi, Dokugasu sen to N ihon gun, p. 53. Ibid., pp. 50-51. Tsuneishi, Nana-san-ichi butai, pp. 11-11 and 141^ 6. Ibid., pp. 83-145 and 195-130; also, Awaya, Chugoku Sansei-sho n i okeru N ihon gun no dokugasu sen, pp. 3-164; Obara, Arai, Yamabe, and Okada, N ihon gun no dokugasu sen, 18-65; and Chi, N ihon gun no kagaku sen, p. 315. O n im m unity at the Tokyo trials for poi-

391

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Leftover Problems

101.

102. 103. 104. 105. 106.

107.

son gas use, see Awaya and Yoshimi, “Kaisetsu,” pp. 21—29. On the KMT failure to prosecute poison gas warfare, see Hayashi, BC-kyu senpan saiban, p. 64 and p. 105. See Ishikiriyama, N ihon gun doku gasu sen no mura, which combines interviews with survivors and research in Japanese primary sources; on the ordering of poison gas shells to be abandoned in August 1945 by throwing these down a well outside of Harbin, see A sahi shinbun, 15 Sep­ tember 2005. Fujiwara, Shinpan N a n kin daigyakusatsu, p. 61; Yoshida, Tenno no guntai to N ankin jiken, p. 4. See Osugi, N it-C h u jugonen senso, pp. 298—312. Hata, N a n k in jiken, p. 244. Honda, N a n k in e no michi, p. 387. This is in the Afterword to the paperback (bunko) edition. Hata, Kasahara, and Gries attest to the intense booing and shouting down of Hata at Prince­ ton; I personally witness the same at Keio. See Hata, Higashinakano, and Matsumoto, “Mondai wa ‘horyo shodan’ o do miru ka,” p. 144; Hata, “Nankin jiken, ronten to kenkyu kadai,” p. 19; Kasahara, N a n kin jik e n to sanko sakusen, pp. 225—26; and Gries, China’s N ew Nationalism, p. 81. Hata, “Nankin jiken, ronten to kenkyu kadai,” pp. 16—17; Hata, Higashinakano, and Mat­ sumoto, “Mondai wa ‘horyo shodan’ o do miru ka,” pp. 131—32 and 144; Finkelstein, The Holocaust Industry, passim.

393

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:27 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Ap p e n d ix

P re se n t-d a y C h in e s e p e jo ra tiv e s fo r J a p a n a n d th e Ja p a n e se p e o p le — ro u g h ly e q u iv a le n t to th e E n g lish “J a p ”— in c lu d e H s ia o -J ih -p e n (p u n y Ja p a n e se ), W o n u ( r u n ty Ja p a n e se lack ies), W o -c h u ( r u n ty Ja p a n e se p ig s), J ih - p e n k u e i-tz u (b ea stly Ja p an e se d ev ils), a n d J ih - k ’o u (Ja p a n e se b a n d its ). H s ia o -J ih -p e n w as th e te rm fav o red b y v io le n t h o o lig a n s a t th e A sia n W o rld C u p in C h u n g k in g , T sin a n , a n d P e k in g in Ju ly -A u g u st 2 0 0 4 a n d in C h in a -w id e a n ti-Ja p a n e se r io t­ in g in th e s p r in g o f 2 0 0 5 . T h e se o u tb re a k s o f v io le n c e d e v e lo p e d in to m a jo r d ip lo m a tic in c id e n ts th a t re m a in u n re so lv e d as o f Ju ly 2 0 0 6 .1 A c c o rd in g to K o m o ri Y oshihisa, a jo u r n a lis t fo r th e u ltra c o n se rv a tiv e Sankei shinbun, Jih k ’o u , is a c tu a lly tra n s la te d in to E n g lish as “J a p s” o n a p u b lic m o n u m e n t to C h in e se w a r d ea d at M a rc o P olo B rid g e .2 P ete r H a y s G ries cites th e te rm s K ueitz u a n d W o -k ’o u , a n d tra n sla te s th e se as “J a p s” in o rd e r to c o n v e y th e sense o f a slu r.3 F o r h is to ria n s , J ih - k ’o u calls to m in d th e p r e m o d e rn te rm , W o -k ’o u , b e tte r k n o w n in its Ja p a n e se fo rm , W a k o . D u r in g th e tw e lfth to fifte e n th c e n ­ tu rie s, it c o n n o te d “Ja p a n e se p ira te s ” w h o ra id e d th e co a sts o f C h in a a n d K orea, b u t m o s t o f th e m in fa c t w ere n o n -J a p a n e s e a n d , in a n y case, e th n ic c o n scio u sn e ss w as still w e a k a m o n g b o th p e o p le s in th a t p r e m o d e rn e ra .4 As o p p o s e d to J ih - k ’o u , W o -k ’o u is n o w a p u re ly h is to ric a l te rm d e v o id o f n e g ­ ative n u a n c e s. K o m o ri goes o n to assert th a t, a lth o u g h W e s te rn n a tio n a ls h av e s to p p e d u sin g th e w a rtim e p e jo ra tiv e s Ja p a n d N ip in ev e ry d ay life as w ell as in fo r­ m a l w ritin g o r a t s c h o la rly c o n fe re n c e s, b y c o n tra s t, e d u c a te d C h in e s e c o m ­ m o n ly in s is t o n u s in g a n a lo g o u s e th n ic slu rs even to d a y .5 H e arg u es th a t, in th e tw e n ty -firs t ce n tu ry , th e v a st m a jo r ity o f Ja p a n e se th in k o f th e w a r w ith C h in a b e g in n in g in e ith e r 1931 o r 1 9 3 7 a n d e n d in g in 1 9 4 5 as b e in g in th e p ast, n o t in th e p re se n t. In h is av o w e d ly co n se rv a tiv e view , a n in se n sitiv e la c k o f critic a l se lf-refle c tio n b y th e C h in e s e — as m a n ife s te d in th e ir re g u la r use o f W o -n u , W o -c h u , H s ia o -J ih -p e n a n d o th e r p e jo ra tiv e te rm s — c a n n o t b e ju s ti­ fied b y w a rtim e a tro c itie s a n d im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n p e r p e tra te d se v e n ty years ago. T h e im p lic a tio n o f K o m o r i’s a rg u m e n ts is th a t th e C h in e s e s h o u ld sto p u sin g s u c h w o rd s to d a y i f th e Ja p a n e se fin d th e se h u r tf u l a n d o ffensive.

394

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:28 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Appendix

O n th e Ja p a n e se sid e, th e d e ro g a to ry te rm s S h in a , S h in a jin , S h in a g o refer to C h in a , C h in e s e p e rso n s, a n d th e C h in e s e la n g u a g e in all o f its d ia lec ts. G e n e ra lly sp e ak in g , as d isc u sse d below , p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se h av e s to p p e d u sin g th e se te rm s, b u t e x c e p tio n s a n d q u a lific a tio n s c o m p lic a te th is g e n e ra liz a tio n .6 E v en in th e era o f Ja p a n e se im p e ria lis m a n d c o lo n ia lism u p to 1 9 4 5 , S h in a w as fa r less p e jo ra tiv e w h e n w ritte n in th e n a tiv e katakana syllabary. In o th e r w o rd s, it is th e kanji o r C h in e se id e o g ra p h s fo r S h in a th a t seem s to o ffe n d th e C h in e se . T h is is th e ra tio n a le b y w h ic h W a ta n a b e S h o ic h i, a S o p h ia U n iv e r­ sity e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r a n d N a n k in g d en ier, e m p lo y s th e katakana n o ta tio n fo r S h in a .7 M o reo v e r, a t le a st tw o p re s e n t-d a y uses o f S h in a , i f ex p re ssed v e r­ b ally o r in katakana, se em p e rm issib le : (1) S h in a soba, o r C h in e se n o o d le s, th e p re w a r e x p re ssio n fo r raamen (ta k e n f ro m th e C h in e s e lo mein), rin g s n o s ta l­ g ic in th e ears o f o ld e r Ja p a n e se ; it is in c re a sin g ly se en in p r in t a n d h e a rd in sp eech ; a n d (2) H ig a s h i S h in a k ai, o r th e E ast C h in a Sea, a p p e a rs o n J a p a n ­ ese m a p s w ith S h in a in katakana. “ H ig a s h i S h in a k a i” is se en a n d h e a rd d a ily o n te le v isio n a n d ra d io w e a th e r re p o rts . N e ith e r th e P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic o f C h in a (P R C ) n o r T a iw a n h as ex p re ssed d isp le a su re o r o p p o s itio n to th e J a p a n ­ ese g o v e rn m e n t ov er th e use o f th is g e o g ra p h ic te rm , a t le ast o n m a p s u sed o u ts id e o f C h in a p ro p e r. C h in e s e d ip lo m a tic a c c e p ta n c e o f th e te rm sta n d s in m a rk e d c o n tra s t to th e a ttitu d e s h o w n b y S eo u l a n d b y P y o n g y a n g . B o th a d ­ a m a n tly re je c t th e u se o f N ih o n k ai, o r “S ea o f J a p a n ” o n m a p s. In d e e d , S o u th K o re a h as lo d g e d fo rm a l p ro te s ts w ith th e U n ite d N a tio n s , in s is tin g th a t th e “S ea o f J a p a n ” is a v estig e o f o d io u s Ja p a n e se c o lo n ia l d o m in a tio n , a n d th a t “th e E ast Sea” m u s t b e u se d to d e s ig n a te th is b o d y o f sa ltw a te r.8 In th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e E d o p e rio d (1 6 0 0 —1 8 6 7 ), u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f W e s te rn a n d N a tiv e L e a rn in g , S h in a , h a d c o m e in to c o m m o n use, b u t afte r th e M e iji R e s to ra tio n o f 1 8 6 7 , th e Ja p an e se g o v e rn m e n t g e n e ra lly called C h in a “C h ’in g ,” afte r th e r u lin g d y n a s ty ’s n a m e . A fte r th e 1911 R e v o lu tio n , w h ic h c re a te d a R e p u b lic o f C h in a ( R O C ), th e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn m e n t u se d S h in a . V ario u s C h in e s e reg im es, in c lu d in g th e la te r K u o m in ta n g (K M T ) o r N a ti o n ­ alist g o v e rn m e n t; lo d g e d fo rm a l p ro te s ts o v er th is u se o f S h in a in d ip lo m a tic d o c u m e n ts . A c c o rd in g to th e U n iv e rsity o f T o k y o h is to ry p ro fe sso r K ato Y oko, th e im p e ria l g o v e rn m e n t issu ed a c a b in e t d e c isio n in 1 9 3 0 to a b a n d o n S h in a fo r C h u g o k u ( C h u n g - k u o in C h in e se ) as th e o fficial d ip lo m a tic d e s ig n a tio n fo r th e R O C .9 In a c tu a l p ra c tic e , h o w ev er, as K a sa h a ra T o k u s h i n o te s in c h a p ­ te r 14, th e Ja p an e se g o v e rn m e n t a n d a rm e d services re g u la rly ig n o re d su c h C h i­ nese p ro te s ts u n til J a p a n s u rre n d e re d to th e A llie d p o w e rs, th e R O C in c lu d e d , in 1 9 4 5 . N e v e rth e le ss, use o f S h in a c o n tin u e d in th e ea rly p o s tw a r p e rio d a t p u b lic v en u e s su c h as th e T o k y o W a r C rim e s T rials, w h e re th a t te rm w as re ­ co rd e d in kanji in official trib u n a l tra n sc rip ts. T h e S h o w a e m p e ro r called C h in a S h in a in kanji in h is D okuhaku roku, d ic ta te d to tr u s te d aid es in th e ea rly p a r t o f 1 9 4 6 . A t th a t tim e , h e fea re d th e p o s s ib ility o f b e in g ca lle d to th e d o c k at

395

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:28 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Appendix

th o se tria ls, e ith e r as a w itn e ss o r as a d e fe n d a n t. T h u s , h e h a d th is d o c u m e n t tra n s c rib e d b e fo re h a n d to “p ro v e ” h is in n o c e n c e o f a n y p o ssib le w a r crim es charges. A s su c h , th e D okuhaku roku w as m e a n t to b e te n d e re d in th e p u b lic d o m a in , a n d it d e m o n s tra te s th e c o n te m p tu o u s v ie w o f C h in a a n d th e C h i­ nese p e o p le th a t th e S h o w a e m p e ro r a n d h is g o v e rn m e n t h e ld ev en a fte r th e ir d efe at, p a r tly a t C h in e s e h a n d s . P re se n t-d a y le ft-w in g h is to ria n s s u c h as K a sa h a ra T o k u sh i a n d th e la te F u jiw a ra A k ira arg u e th a t th e use o f S h in a b y th e Ja p a n e se b e fo re 1 9 4 5 n o t o n ly ree k ed o f c o n te m p t, it also reflects a n a ttitu d e th a t le d to fa ta l m ista k e s in fo re ig n policy. T h u s , th e y c o n te n d , th o se p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se w ith a n y m e a su re o f sense a n d g o o d ta ste h av e a b a n d o n e d th e te rm . As F u jiw a ra A k ira sta te s in c h a p te r 2, im p e ria l Ja p an e se m ilita ry p la n n e rs n e v e r fo rm u la te d rea listic s tra te ­ gies to w a rd C h in a as a n a tio n - s ta te b e c a u se th e y d e sp ise d th e C h in e s e p e o p le as S h in a jin w h o la c k e d a sense o f p a trio tis m , a n a b ility to fo rm a n a tio n -s ta te , a n d th e w ill to fig h t in its d efe n se. T h u s , a c c o rd in g to Ja p a n e se le ftists, th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo r ity o f p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se h av e s to p p e d u sin g S h in a , S h in a jin , a n d S h in a g o (th e C h in e s e la n g u a g e a n d its d ia lec ts) as a re s u lt o f c rit­ ical se lf-re fle c tio n o n th e ir re c e n t h is to ry o f im p e ria lis t ag g re ssio n , w h ic h in n o sm all p a r t w as r o o te d in m is ta k e n c o n c e p ts o f e th n ic s u p e rio rity to C h i­ nese, K o rean s, a n d o th e r A sia n s. In th e eyes o f le ft-w in g Ja p a n e se , th is is th e p ro p e r a ttitu d e th a t th e Ja p a n e se to d a y o u g h t to ta k e , b o th in d e fe re n c e to th e feelin g s o f th e ir n e ig h b o rs , a n d also to p re v e n t s im ila r lapses in to fo re ig n p o lic y h u b ris . W i th re sp e c t to th is s o rt o f c ritic a l se lf-re fle c tio n , w e m ig h t lik e n th e s itu a tio n in p o s tw a r J a p a n w ith th a t in th e U n ite d S tate s, w h e re th e o v e rw h e lm in g m a jo rity o f A m e ric a n s h av e a b a n d o n e d th e ra c ist e p ith e t nigger afte r th e C iv il R ig h ts M o v e m e n t, ev en th o u g h it h a d b e e n in c o m m o n use to w a rd b la ck s p rev io u sly . G e n e ra lly sp e a k in g , b o th Ja p a n e se a n d A m e ric a n s s h u n d e s ig n a tio n s d e e m e d o ffe n siv e to th e e th n ic g ro u p s in q u e s tio n — a t le ast w h e n s p e a k in g in e d u c a te d , p o lite c o m p a n y o r in w ritin g . H o w ev er, tw o classes o f p o s tw a r Ja p a n e se h av e c o n tin u e d to use d e ro g a ­ to r y te rm s like S h in a . P o o rly e d u c a te d a n d /o r eld e rly p e rso n s w h o g re w u p w ith th e te rm s go o n u s in g th e se fro m fo rc e o f h a b it. A n e x a m p le w o u ld b e Y am ak aw a S aki (b. 1 8 7 1 ), a karayuki-san w h o re la te d h e r life s to ry as a n o ral h is to ry to Y am azaki T o m o k o in 1 9 6 8 . Y am azaki tra n s c rib e d Y am a k aw a s w o rd s “S h in a jin ” a n d “S h in a g o ” in kanji; a n d , th is b o o k , first p u b lis h e d in 1 9 7 2 , re ­ m a in s in p r in t w ith o u t re v isio n o r e x p la n a tio n .10 T h e s e c o n d g ro u p co m p rise s e d u c a te d a n d c u ltu re d p e rso n s w h o se ek to m a k e a n a p o in te d r ig h t-w in g s ta te m e n t, su c h as N a n k in g d e n ia l o r m in im a liz a tio n , w ith o u t m u c h c o n s id ­ e ra tio n fo r C h in e s e s e n tim e n ts . S o m e p r o m in e n t ex a m p le s in c lu d e W a ta n a b e S h o ic h i, K o m u ro N a o k i, th e la te S a k a m o to T ak a o , N is h io K a n ji, K o b a y a sh i Y o sh in o ri, H ig a s h in a k a n o O s a m ic h i (S h u d o ), T a n iz a w a E iic h i, O i M its u ru , E n d o K o ic h i, a n d o th e rs .11 S a k a m o to (1 9 5 0 —2 0 0 2 ), w h o w rite s th e kanji fo r S h in a , asserts th a t th e n u m b e r o f v ic tim s a t H ir o s h im a a n d N a g a sa k i o u t396

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:28 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Appendix

n u m b e re d th o se a t N a n k in g “several te n s o f tim e s o v e r”— a lth o u g h h e gives n o fig u re s.12 T h is s e c o n d g ro u p te n d s to ju s tify th e ir c o n tin u e d use o f S h in a th r o u g h h is to ric a l a n d e ty m o lo g ic a l a rg u m e n ts . N is h io , o n e o f th e a u th o rs o f th e 2 0 0 1 n a tio n a lis tic te x tb o o k d e rid e d b y A sia n g o v e rn m e n ts, ap p e als to h isto ry . H e , W a ta n a b e , a n d o th e rs arg u e th a t C h in e s e d y n a stie s fo rc e d n e ig h b o rin g b a r­ b a ria n p eo p les refer to C h in a th r o u g h o u t h is to ry b y th e h o n o rific te rm C h u k a o r C h u g o k u ( C h u n g - h u a a n d C h u n g - k u o in C h in e s e )— lite ra lly th e “ C e n tra l R e a lm ,” “C e n tra l E fflo rescen c e,” o r “M id d le K in g d o m .” T h e se rig h t-w in g w rit­ ers c o n te n d th a t th e in v o lu n ta r y u se o f th is te rm in p r e m o d e rn tim e s w as a f o rm o f trib u te -b e a r in g b y E ast A sia n p e o p le s th a t a ffirm e d C h in a ’s p u ta tiv e p o s itio n as th e fo u n ta in h e a d o f w o rld civ iliz a tio n . In o th e r w o rd s, fo re ig n p e o ­ ples k o w to w e d to C h in a b y ca llin g it “ C h u n g - h u a ” a n d “ C h u n g - k u o , b u t in th e E d o p e rio d (1 6 0 0 —1 8 6 7 ), Ja p a n e se sc h o la rs o f W e ste rn a n d N a tiv e L e a rn ­ in g b e g a n to use “S h in a ” as a n e u tra l te rm th a t was n e ith e r p e jo ra tiv e fro m th e C h in e se , n o r d e m e a n in g fro m th e Ja p a n e se , s ta n d p o in t. G iv e n th is h isto ry , th e r ig h t-w in g a rg u m e n t goes, c o n tin u e d u se o f S h in a re q u ire s n o a p o lo g y to d a y ; in d e e d , w h e n th e P R C assu m es p re te n s io n s o f s in o c e n tric h e g e m o n y in E a st A sia, th e p ra c tic e is p e rfe c tly ju stifia b le . To d ra w a s tra in e d analogy, w e m ig h t o b serv e , th is w o u ld b e lik e Iris h n a tio n a lis ts a rg u in g th a t it is d e ­ m e a n in g fo r th em se lv es, a n d h e g e m o n ic fo r th e E n g lish , to in s is t o n use o f th e te rm “G re a t B rita in ” in s te a d o f a s im p le “ B rita in ” to d e n o te E n g la n d , S c o t­ la n d , W ales, a n d N o r t h Ire la n d . R ig h t-w in g Ja p a n e se also a p p e a l to e ty m o lo g y in tr y in g to ascrib e re sp e c ­ ta b ility to th e c o n tin u e d use o f S h in a . H ig a s h in a n a k a n o , K o b ay a sh i, K ato ( a lth o u g h n o t a rig h tis t), as w ell as o th e rs, p o in t o u t th a t S h in a d eriv es fro m th e C h ’in (Q in ) d y n a s ty o f 2 2 1 —2 0 6 B C , w h ic h e s ta b lish e d th e first u n ifie d C h in e s e e m p ire . T h u s i f a n y th in g , Ja p a n e se rig h t-w in g e rs c o n te n d , S h in a o u g h t to ev o k e e th n ic p rid e fo r H a n C h in e se . H ig a s h in a k a n o p o in ts o u t th a t a n o fficially a p p ro v e d P R C w eb site uses th e v a r ia n t f o rm sin a in its h ttp d o ­ m a in ad d ress sin a .c o m . K o b a y a sh i a d o p ts a n ev en m o re ra d ic a l a rg u m e n t. H e says th a t, in o rd e r to b e fa ir a n d c o n s is te n t, u ltr a n a tio n a lis tic C h in e s e w h o c o n d e m n Ja p a n e se p e o p le fo r u s in g “S h in a ” p e rfo rc e m u s t c o n d e m n W e s te rn ­ ers fo r u sin g “C h in a ” as w ell, sin c e b o th te rm s are o f id e n tic a l ety m o lo g y . H o w ­ ever, K o b ay a sh i goes o n , th e C h in e s e c riticiz e o n ly th e Ja p a n e se o n th is score; th is a m o u n ts to s y c o p h a n c y to w a rd th e W e st a n d c o n te m p t fo r J a p a n .13 S u c h r ig h t-w in g a rg u m e n ts b a se d o n h is to ric a l usage a n d e ty m o lo g y rin g h o llo w ; in d e e d , o n e senses th a t th e se are b u t ra tio n a liz a tio n s fo r b e in g m e a n s p irite d . T h e te rm Ja p also h as n o n p e jo ra tiv e e ty m o lo g ic a l o rig in s, sin c e it derives f ro m Z ip p a n g u in M a rc o P o lo ’s Travels. B u t H ig a s h in a k a n o a n d K o b a ­ y ash i w o u ld n o d o u b t b e in c e n s e d — as K o m o ri in d e e d is in c e n s e d — w h e n fo r­ eig n ers refer to th e m b y th a t th r e e -le tte r d erisiv e e p ith e t. I f th e C h in e s e to d a y say th e y are h u r t b y th e te rm s S h in a o r S h in a jin , th e n c o m m o n c o u rte sy e n jo in s 397

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:28 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Appendix

th e Ja p a n e se to sto p u s in g th e se te rm s, w h a te v e r th e e ty m o lo g y o r h isto ric a l usage m ig h t be. Ja p a n e se r ig h t-w in g w rite rs c a n use th e E n g lish te rm “C h in a ” in th e J a p a n iz e d katakana f o rm o f “Chaina” i f th e y fin d C h u k a a n d C h u g o k u to o d e m e a n in g . In d e e d , T a n iz a w a E iic h i a tta c h e s th e se katakana to th e sid e o f th e kanji “S h in a .”14 In su m , b o th c o n serv ativ es su c h as K o m o ri a n d le ftists su c h as K a sa h a ra m a k e v alid p o in ts . C o u r te s y is, a fte r all, a tw o -w a y stre e t. I f C h in e s e h is to ri­ an s w h o w rite a b o u t N a n k in g a n d o th e r Ja p a n e se w a r c rim e s c lin g to th e ir use o f e th n ic slu rs— h o w e v e r le g itim a te th is m a y se e m in th e ir o w n eyes o w in g to p a s t v ic tim iz a tio n — th e re s u lt w ill b e to a lie n a te in c re a sin g n u m b e rs o f y o u n g e r Ja p an e se w h o o th e rw ise w o u ld b e s y m p a th e tic to th e C h in e s e cause. L ikew ise, co n serv a tiv e s a n d th e r ig h t-w in g in J a p a n n e e d to exercise m a tu r ity b y a b a n d o n in g p re ju d ic e a n d th e s o p h is try th e y use to ju s tify it. I p ro p o se th a t th e C h in e s e use J ih - p e n a n d J ih -p e n -je n , a n d th a t th e Ja p a n e se use C h u g o k u a n d C h u g o k u jin , in re fe re n c e to o n e a n o th e r.

Notes 1. The news media in Japan covered and commented on these incidents heavily. See, for exam­ ple, the “Toron seidan” column in M ainichi shinbun, 15 August 2004. 2. See Komori, N it-C h u y u k o no maboroshi, pp. 2—4; also Komori, N it-C h u saiko, pp. 18—19, 36, 170-71, 198, and 220. 3. Gries, ChinaS N ew Nationalism, p. 51 and p. 57. 4. By the early nineteenth century, protonationalists in Japan were construing this offensive term in a positive way—as a Chinese tribute to the ferocity and navigational skill of Japanese fight­ ing men. See Wakabayashi, Anti-Foreignism a n d Western L earning in Early-M odern Japan, p. 210. 5. Komori, N it-C h u yuko no maboroshi, pp. 4-6. 6. For a recent discussion of whether “Shina” in either written form should be used, see Asahi shinbun, 3 June 2003. 7. For example, see Watanabe, Nihonshi kara m ita Nihonjin: Showa hen, p. 458, passim. 8. Yomiuri shinbun, web posted on 22 April 2004. 9. Kato, Senso no N ihon kin-gendai shi, pp. 50-51. 10. See Yamazaki, Sandakan hachiban shokan, pp. 87, 92, 97, 98, 99, 118, 120, 121,128, and 136. 11. For example, Watanabe and Komuro, F uin no Showa shi, p. 10; and, most recently, Endo, Chu­ goku ni shippo o furu A sahi to pochi seijika no taizai,” pp. 24, 26, and 27. Note that Endo, although born in the postwar era, employs the old-style kana usage common to right-wing thinkers discussed by Kasahara in chapter 14. 12. Sakamoto in “Rekishi to rekishi ninshiki,” pp. 82 and 90; Sakamoto, Rekishi kyoiku o kangaeru, p. 120. 13. See Higashinakano, ed., 1937: Nankingkoryakusen no shinjitsu, pp. 42^ 3; see Kobayashi, “Ko to k o ”ron, pp. 205-206. 14. Tanizawa, Konna N ihon n i dare ga shita, pp. 186-87, passim; also, Tanizawa A k u m a no shiso, passim.

398

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:28 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bib l io g r a p h y

Abe, Teruo. Nankin no hisame: Gyakusatsu no kozo o otte (Tokyo: Kyoiku shoseki, 1989). Agawa, Hiroyuki. “‘A a, doki no sakura’ ni yoseru,” in Agawa, Agawa Hiroyuki no hon (Tokyo: KK besuto seraazu, 1970). Amerasia, ed. “Review Article: Is There another Japan?” in Amerasia 7:2 (April 1943), pp. 3 5 -4 2 . ---------- . “Review Article: T h e N ature o f O u r Enemy, Japan,” in Amerasia 7:12 (Novem ber 1943), pp. 3 8 9 -9 2 . A nonym ous. “Shih-shou-hou ti N an-ching” (1938), reprinted in N an-ching t ’u-shu kuan, ed., Chin-hua Jih-chun Nan-ching ta-t’u-sha shih-liao (Nan-ching: Chiangsu ku-chi ch’u-pan-she, 1985), pp. 148-55. Ara, Ken’ichi. “‘N ankin sen m oto heishi 102 nin no shogen’ no detaram e,” in Seiron (Novem ber 2002), pp. 9 6 -1 0 2 . Asahi shinbunsha, ed., Sengo hosho to wa nani ka (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1994). Asami [Kazuo], M itsum oto, and Yasuda. “H yakuningiri kyoso! Ryoshoi m o hachijunin,” in Tokyo nichinichi shinbun, 30 Novem ber 1937. Asami [Kazuo] and Suzuki, Jiro. “H yakuningiri ‘C hokiroku’— M ukai 106— N oda 105— Ryoshi sara ni encho,” in Tokyo nichinichi shinbun, 13 D ecem ber 1937. Askew, David. “T he International C om m ittee for the N anking Safety Zone: An Introduction,” in Sino-Japanese Studies vol. 14 (April 2002), 3 -2 3 . ---------- . “T h e N anjing Incident: An Exam ination o f the Civilian Population,” in SinoJapanese Studies 13:2 (M arch 2001), pp. 2 -2 0 . — — — . “T he Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends” (unpublished manuscript). Atarashii kyokasho o tsukuru kai, ed. Atarashii Nihon no rekishi ga hajimaru (Tokyo: G entosha, 1997). August, Oliver. “Rape o f N anking H au n ted H er,” in London Times and Toronto Star (27 M arch 2005). Awaya, Kentaro. Chugoku Sansei-sho ni okeru Nihon gun no dokugasu sen (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 2002). ---------- . Miketsu no senso sekinin (Tokyo: Kashiwa shobo, 1994). ---------- . et al., eds., Senso sekinin, sengo sekinin (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1994). ---------- . Tokyo saiban ron (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1989). ---------- . et al., eds., Tokyo saiban shiryo: Tanaka Ryukichi jinmon chosho (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1994). Awaya Kentaro, and Yoshimi Yoshiaki, “Kaisetsu,” in Awaya, and Yoshimi, eds., Jugonen senso gokuhi shiryo shu 18: Dokugasu sen kankei shiryo, pp. 3 -3 2 . 399

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Awaya, Kentaro and Yoshimi Yoshiaki., ed., Jugonen senso gokuhi shiryo shu 18: Doku gasu sen kankei shiryo (Tokyo: Fuji shuppan, 1989). Bacque, James. Other Losses: An Investigation into the Mass Deaths o f German Prisoners at the Hands of the French and Americans after World War II (Toronto: Stoddard, 1989). Baker, Lee. The Second World War on the Eastern Front (London: Pearson Longman, 2009). Baker, T hom as S. “A Variety o f British Pseudohistory,” in Bischof and Ambrose, eds., Eisenhauer and the German POWs, pp. 183—98. Bartlett, Beatrice. Introduction, in Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937—1938, pp. v—xvi. Bartov, Omer. The Eastern Front, 1941—45: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare (New York: St. M artin’s, 1986). ---------- . Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: O xford University Press, 1991). Bartov, Omer, Grossm ann, Atina, and N olan, Mary, eds., Crimes o f War: Guilt and Denial in the Twentieth Century (New York: N ew Press, 2002). Barzun, Jacques. Clio and the Doctors (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 1974). Basu, K. K. “Tokio Trials,” in Indian Law Review 3:1 (1949), pp. 25—30. Bates, M . S. Crop Investigation in the Nanking Area and Sundry Economic Data (Shanghai: M ercury Press, 1938). ---------- . The Nanking Population: Employment, Earnings and Expenditures (Shanghai: M ercury Press, 1938). ---------- . “Report o f the N anking International Relief C om m ittee, November, 1937 to April, 1939” in C hang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 413—45. Bauman, Zygm unt. Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989). Beevor, Anthony. The Fall o f Berlin 1945 (New York: Penguin, 2003). Beigbeder, Yves. Judging War Criminals: The Politics o f InternationalJustice (London: M acm illan, 1999). Bell, P M . H . The Origins o f the Second World War in Europe (Harlow: Pearson Longm an, 2007). Beller, Steven. A Concise History o f Austria (New York: Cam bridge University Press, 2006). Bentler, Jerry H ., and Ziegler, H erbert F. Traditions and Encounters (New York: M cGraw Hill, 4 th ed., 2015). Benz, Wolfgang. A Concise History o f the Third Reich, T hom as D unlop, trans. (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 2006). Berghahn, Volker. R. Preface in Heer, H annes and M aum ann, Klaus, eds., War of Extermination, pp. xii—xix. Bernadac, Christian. LHolocauste Oublie: Le Massacre des Tsiganes (Paris: France-Empire, 1979). Bessel, Richard. Nazism and War (New York: M odern Library, 2004). Bischof, Guenter. “Bacque and H istorical Evidence,” in Bischof and Ambrose, eds., Eisenhauer and the German POWs, pp. 199—234. Bischof, G uenter, and Ambrose, Stephen E. Eds., Eisenhauer and the German POWs: Facts against Fiction (Baton Rougue: Louisiana State University Press, 1992). Bloxham, D onald. The Final Solution: A Genocide (Oxford: O xford University Press, 2009). 400

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Boeicho boei kenshu sho senshishitsu, ed., Senshi sosho: Chugoku homen kaigun sakusen 1 (Tokyo: Asagumo shinbunsha, 1974). ---------- . Senshi sosho: Daihon’ei rikugunbu 1 (Tokyo: Asagumo shinbunsha, 1974) ---------- . Senshi sosho: Shina jihen rikugun sakusen 1 (Tokyo: Asagumo shinbunsha, 1972). ---------- . Senshi sosho: Shina jihen rikugun sakusen 2 (Tokyo: Asagumo shinbunsha, 1967). Boulesbaa, Ahcene. The U.N. Convention on Torture and the Prospectsfor Enforcement (The Hague: M artinus Nijhoff, 1999). Boyle, John H unter. Modern Japan: The American Nexus (Fort W orth: H arcourt, 1993). Barchman, A rnold C. The Other Nuremberg: The Untold Story o f the Tokyo War Crimes Trials (New York: Morrow, 1987). Brook, Tim othy. “Collaborationist N ationalism in O ccupied W artim e C hina,” in Brook, and Schmid, eds., Nation Work: Asian Elites and National Identities (Ann Arbor: University o f M ichigan Press, 1999), pp. 159—90. ---------- . ed., Documents on the Nanking Safety Zone (Ann Arbor: University o f M ichigan Press, 1999). ---------- . “T h e C reation o f the Reformed G overnm ent in C entral C hina, 1938,” in Barret and Shyu, eds., Chinese Collaboration with Japan: The Limits of Accommodation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), pp. 79—101. ---------- . “T h e Pacification o f Jiading,” in Lary and M acK innon, eds., The Scars o f War (Vancouver: University o f British C olum bia Press, 2001), pp. 50—74. ---------- . “D ocum enting the Rape o f N anking.” in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape of Nanking, pp. 1—29. ---------- . ed. Documents on the Rape o f Nanking. (Ann Arbor: University o f M ichigan Press, 1999). ---------- . Quelling the People: The Military Suppression o f the Beijing Democracy Movement (Toronto: Lester Publishing, 1992). Browning, C hristopher R. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: Harper, 1998). Browning, C hristopher R., w ith M atthaus, Jurgen. The Origins o f the Final Solution (Lincoln: University o f Nebraska Press, 2004). Bullock, Alan. Hitler, A Study in Tyranny (London: Penguin, 1990), first published in 1952. Burleigh, Michael. The Third Reich (New York: H ill and W ang, 2000). Burress. Charles. “W ars o f M em ory,” in San Francisco Chronicle (26 July 1998). Burum a, Ian. “T h e Afterlife o f A nne Frank,” in New York Review o f Books 46:3 (19 February 1999). ---------- . “C hina in Cyberspace,” in New York Review o f Books 46:12 (4 November 1999), pp. 9 -1 2 . Chang, Iris. The Chinese in America (New York: Penguin, 2004). ---------- . The Rape o f Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust o f World War I I (New York: Basic, 1997). ---------- . Tread o f the Silkworm (New York: Basic Books, 1995). Chang [Zhang] K’ai-yuan, ed. Eyewitnesses to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing (Armonk, NY: M . E. Sharpe, 2001). 401

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Cheng, Kuan-ying. “C hung-Jih chiao-chan hsi-wen-pao chi Jih-ping t ’u-ch’eng ts’aik’u t’u-shuo hsu,” in Hsia, ed., Cheng Kuan-ying chi (hsia) (Shanghai: Shanghai jenm in ch’u-pan-she, 1988). C hen, Pei-kai, Lestz, M ichael, and Spence, Jonathan, eds., The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection (New York: N o rto n , 1999). Chi, H sueh-jen. M urata Tadayoshi, trans., Nihongun no kagakusen (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1996). C hiang Kung-yi, “H sian-ching san-yueh-chi.” (M anuscript, n.p.) Chiangning hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Chiangninghsien-chih (Nan-ching: T ’ang-an ch’u-pan-she, 1989). C hiang-p’u hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Chiangp’u hsien-chih (Nan-ching: H o-hai ta-hsueh ch’u-pan-she). C hiang-p’u k’ang-Jih feng-huo. (M anuscript, n.p.) Chiangsu-w en-shih tzu-liao pien-chi-pu, ed., Hsing-fenghsueh-yu: Chin-hua Jih-chun Chiangsu pao-hang-lu (Nan-ching: Chiangsu-sheng cheng-hsieh w en-shih tzu-liao w ei-yuan-hui, 1995). Chiang, Kai-shek. ‘O ne H alf o f the W orld’s People,” in Chiang, All We Are and All We Have (New York: John D ay Com pany, 1942). Chiang, W ei-kuo. Kuo-min ke-ming chan-shih ti-3-pu K ’ang-Jihyu-wu (Taipei: Li-ming C ulture Enterprise, 1978), vol. 4. C hina N um ber Two H istorical Archives (C N T ), ed., Ch’in-huaJih-chun Nan-ching tat’u-sha tang-an (Nan-ching: C hiangsu k ’u-chi ch’u-pan-she, 1987). Chomsky, N oam . For Reasons o f State (New York: Vintage, 1973). C hungkung C hiangp’u hsien taing-shih tzu-liao shou-tsi pien-kung-shih, ed., Chiangp’u

k’ang-Jih feng-huo. Coble, Parks. FacingJapan (Cam bridge, MA: H arvard University Press, 1991). C ohen, David. “Beyond N urem berg: Individual Responsibility for W ar C rim es,” in Hesse and Post, eds., Human Rights in Political Transition, pp. 53—92. Cook, H aruko Taya. “Reporting the ‘Fall o f N anking’ and the Suppression o f a Japanese ‘M em ory’ o f the N ature o f a W ar,” in Li, Sabella, and Liu, eds., Nanking 1937, pp. 121-53. Coox, Alvin. “W aking O ld W ounds,” in Japan Echo 27:1 (2001). Cowdrey, Albert E. “Q uestion o f N um bers,” in Bischof and Ambrose, ed., Eisenhauer and the German POWs, pp. 7 8 -9 2 . Dallin, Alexander. G erm an Rule in Russia: 1 941-1945 (London: M acM illan, 1957). D adrian, Vahakn. “T h e Com parative Aspects o f the A rm enian and Jewish Cases of Genocide: A Sociohisotircal Perspective,” in Rosenbaum , Alan S., ed., Is The Holocaust Unique?: Perpsectives on Compariative Genocide (Boulder: W estview Press, 1998), pp. 101-35. Davis, N atalie Zem on. The Return o f Martin Guerre (Cam bridge, MA: H arvard University Press, 1983). Daws, Gavan. Prisoners o f the Japanese (New York: Morrow, 1994). D ennerling, Jerry. The Chia-ting Loyalists: Confucian Leadership and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). D epartm ent o f State. Foreign Relations o f the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1937, vol. 3, T h e Far East (W ashington, D C : G overnm ent Printing Office, 1954).

402

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Dower, John. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake o f World War II (New York: N orton, 1999). D ’Souza, Dinesh. The End o f Racism: Principlesfor a Multiracial Society (New York: Free Press, 1995). Drea, Edward. “Dispatches: M ilitary H istory in the News,” in Quarterly Journal of Military History (A utum n 2000). D uara, Prasenjit. “O f A uthencitiy and W om an: Personal Narratives o f Middle-Class W om en in M odern C hina” in W en-hsin Yeh, ed., Becoming Chinese: Passages to Modernity and Beyond (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 2000) pp. 342—64. Eastm an, Lloyd E. “Facets o f an Ambivalent Relationship,” in Iriye, Akira, ed., The Chinese and the Japanese (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), pp. 2 7 5 -3 0 3 . ---------- . “N ationalist C hina D uring the Sino-Japanese W ar 1 9 3 7 -1 9 4 5 ,” in Fairbank, John K., and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds., Cambridge History o f China: vol. 13: Republican China 1912-1949, Part Two (New York: Cam bridge University Press, 1986), pp. 547 -6 0 8 . Eguchi, Keiichi. “Shanhai sen to N ankin shingeki sen,” in H ora, et. al. eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu, pp. 12-51. ---------- . Jgonen sens no kaimaku (Sh gakkan, 1989). Elton, G. R. The Practice o f History (London: Blackwell, 2 n d ed., 2002). E ndo, Koichi. “C hugoku ni shippo o furu Asahi to pochi seijika no taizai,” in Shokun (August 2005), pp. 2 2 -3 5 . Esherick, Joseph. W. Reform and Revolution in China (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1976). Evans, H arold. “T h e Trial o f M ajor Japanese W ar Crim inals” 4 pts. New Zealand Law Journal, vol. 23, pp. 8 -1 0 , 2 1 -2 3 , 3 7 -3 8 , and 3 2 2 -2 4 (21 January, 4 February, 18 February, 2 D ecem ber 1947). Evans, Richard. In Defence o f History (London: G ranta Books, 1997). Evans, Richard J. The Coming o f the Third Reich (New York: Penguin, 2003). ---------- . The Third Reich at War (New York: Penguin, 2008). ---------- . The Third Reich in Power (New York: Penguin, 2005). Eykholt, M ark. “Agression, Victim ization, and Chinese H istoriography o f the Nanjing M assacre,” in Fogel, ed., Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography, pp. 11-69. ---------- . “Living the Limits o f O ccupation in N anjing, C hina, 1 9 3 7 -1 9 4 5 .” Ph.D . diss., University o f California at San Diego, 1998. Fairbank, John. Introduction, in Peck, G raham , Two Kinds o f Time (Boston: H oughton M ifflin, 1967), pp. 1-4. Ferguson, Niall. The War o f the World (New York: Penguin, 2006). ---------- . Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (London: Allen Lane, 2003). Fest, Joachim . Hitler, Richard and Clara W inston, trans. (New York: H arcourt Brace, 1974), first published in 1973. Finkelstein, N orm an. The Holocaust Industry (London: Verso, 2000). Finklestein, N orm an G., and Birn, R uth Bettina. A Nation on Trial (New York: H enry H olt, 1998). Fitch, George A. My Eighty Years in China (Taipei: M ei Ya Publications, rev. ed., 1974).

403

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Fogel, Joshua A., ed., The Nanking Massacre in History and Historiography (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 2000). ---------- . “Review,” Journal o f Asian Studies 57:3 (1998), pp. 818—20. ---------- . Politics and Sinology: The Case o f Naito Konan (1866—1934) (Cambridge: H arvard University Press, 1984). Frazer, Angus. The Gypsies (London: Blackwell Publishers, 1992). Friedlander, Saul. Nazi Germany and the Jews: vol. 1, Years o f Persecution 1933—1939 (New York: H arperCollins, 1997). ---------- . Nazi Germany and the Jews: vol. 2, Years o f Extermination 1939—1945 (New York; H arperCollins, 2008). Fu, Posek. Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937—1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). Fujiki, Hisashi. Oda-Toyotomi seiken (Tokyo: Sh gakkan, 1975). ---------- . Shinpan: Zohyo tachi no senj (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 2005). Fujioka, N obukatsu. “Aratam ete Raabe no nikki o tettei kensho suru,” in Seiron (April 1998). ---------- . “ Jigyaku shikan”no byori (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1997). ---------- . Kin-gendaishi kyoiku no kaikaku: Akutama-zendama shikan o koete (Tokyo: Meiji tosho, 1996). ---------- . “N akam ura Akira shi no ‘N ankin jiken 1-m annin gyakusatsu setsu’ o hihan suru,” in Seiron (M arch 1999). ---------- . “N ankin daigyakusatsu sanjum an no uso,” in Fujioka and N ishio, eds., Kokumin noyudan, pp. 251—58. ---------- . Ojoku no kingendaishi (Tokyo: T okum a shoten, 1996). Fujioka, N obukatsu, and N ishio, Kanji. Kokumin no yudan: Rekishi kyokasho ga abunai (Tokyo: P H P kenkyusho, 1996). Fujiwara, Akira. “Kaisetsu,” in O no, et. al. eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi, pp. ix—xxiv. ---------- . Nankin daigyakusatsu (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1985). ---------- . “N ankin daigyakusatsu to kyokasho, kyoiku m ondai,” in H ora, et al., eds., Nankin jiken o kangaeru, pp. 12—34. ---------- . “N ankin koryakusen no tenkai,” in H ora, Fujiwara, and H onda, eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu, pp. 52—94. ---------- . Nankin no Nihongun (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1997). ---------- . Shinpan: Nankin daigyakusatsu (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1991). ---------- . et. al. ed., Showa 20-nen: 1945-nen (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1995). ---------- . Showa no rekishi 5: Nit-Chu zenmen senso (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1989). ---------- . Taikei Nihon no rekishi 15: Sekai no naka no Nihon (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1993). Fukushim a m inyu shinbun, ed., Fukushima: Senso to ningen, Byakko hen, vol. 1 (Fukushima: Fukushim a m inyu shinbun, 1982). ---------- . Kyodo butai senki, Moesakaru tairiku, vol. 1 (Fukushima: Fukushim a m inyu shinbun shinbun, 1965). GA Newsletter 5:1 (M arch 1998), pp. 87—88. G inn, John L. Sugamo Prison: An Account o f the Trial and Sentencing o f Japanese War Criminals in 1948 (Jefferson, N C : M cFarland & Co., 1992). Gluck, Carol. “T he Rape o f N anking: H ow ‘the Nazi Buddha’ Resisted the Japanese,” in Times Literary Supplement (27 June 1997). 404

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Golsan, Richard J. “History and the ‘D uty to M emory’ in Postwar France,” in Marchitello, Howard, ed., What Happens to History (New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 23—39. Gomikawa, Shunpei. Gozen kaigi (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1984). Gries, Peter Hays. China’s New Nationalism (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 2004). ---------- . “Face Nationalism : Power and Passion in Chinese A nti-Foreignism” (University o f California, Berkeley, P h.D . dissertation 1999). Haga, H iraku. “‘Z a reepu obu N ankin’ hoyaku chushi no keii,” in Shukan kinyobi (5 Novem ber 1999), p. 17. Haffner, Sebastian. Defying Hitler: A Memoir (New York: Farrar, 2000). ---------- . The Meaning o f Hitler (London: Phoenix Press, 1979). H ancock, Ian. “Responses to the Porrajmos: T h e Rom ani H olocaust,” in Rosenbaum , Alan S. ed., Is The Holocaust Unique?: Perspectives on Comparative Genocide (Boulder: W estview Press, 1998), pp. 39—64. H andlin, Oscar. Truth in History (New Brunswick: Transaction Press, 1998). Hanley, Charles J., Choe, Sang-hun, and M endoza, M artha. The Bridge at No Gun Ri (New York: H enry H olt, 2001). H ara, Takeshi. “Iwayuru ‘N ankin daigyakusatsu jiken’ no maiso kiroku no saikento” in H igashinakano, ed., Nankin “gyakusatsu"kenkyu no saizensen, 2002. Harris, W hitney. Tyranny on Trial (Dallas: Southern M ethodist University Press, 1999 revised ed.) orig. ed., 1954. Hashikawa, Bunzo, et al., eds., Nihon no hyakunen 4: Ajia kaiho noyume (Tokyo: C hikum a shobo, 1967). H ata, Ikuhiko. Nankin jiken: “Gyakusatsu" no kozo (Tokyo: C huokoron sha, 1986). ---------- . “N ankin jiken, ronten to kenkyu kadai” in H igashinakano, ed., Nankin “gyakusatsu"kenkyu no saizensen, 2002, pp. 11—39. ---------- . “Raabe koka o sokutei suru” in H ata, Gendaishi no soten (Tokyo: Bungei shunju, 1998). H ata, Ikuhiko, H igashinakano, Osam ichi, and M atsum oto, Ken’ichi. “M ondai ha ‘horyo shodan’ o do m iru ka,” in Shokun (February 2001), pp. 128—44. H ata, Kensuke. “H oryo no chi ni m am ireta Byakko butai” in Nihon shuho (25 February 1957), pp. 13-15. H ata, Nagami. “Izoku to seiji,” in Tanaka, et. al. ed., Izoku to seiji. Hayashi, H irofum i. BC-kyu senpan saiban (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2005). Hayashi, Shigeru. Nihon no rekishi 25: Taiheiyo senso (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 1967). Hayashi, Zensuke. “Shina jihenka ni okeru fuon kodo to sono taisaku ni tsuite,” in Shakai mondai sosho 1:79 (Kyoto: T oyo bunka sha, 1978). Heer, H annes. “H ow A m orality Became N orm ality,” in H eer and N aum ann, eds., War o f Extermination, pp. 3 2 9 -4 4 . Herr, H annes, and N aum ann, Klaus, ed., War o f Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941—1944 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004). Hesse, Carla, and Post, Robert, eds., Human Rights in Political Transitions: Gettysburg to Bosnia (New York: Zone Books, 1999). H idaka, Rokuro, ed., Kyokasho ni kakarenakatta senso:part 19, Nihon to Chugoku no wakamono tchi no rekishi ninshiki (Tokyo: N ashinoki sha, 1995). H igashinakano, O sam ichi (Shudo). 1937: Nankin koryakusen no shinjitsu (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 2003). 405

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

---------- . Kokka hasan: Higashi Doitsu shakaishugi no 45 nen (Tokyo: Tendensha, 1992). ---------- . “N ankin ‘gyakusatsu’: D ai-ni kokkyo gassakuka no senso puropaganda,” in H igashinakano, ed., Nankin “gyakusatsu" kenkyu no saizensen: 2003 (Tokyo: Tendensha, 2003) pp. 257—319. ---------- . “Nankin Gyakusatsu"no tettei kensho (Tokyo: Tendensha, 1998). ---------- . “‘N ankin sen’ m oto heishi, giwaku no shogen,” in Shokun! (Novem ber 2002), pp. 162-73. ---------- . “N ankin to k u m u kikan (M antetsu shain) M aruyam a Susum u no kaiso” in H igashinakano, ed., Nankin “gyakusatsu"kenkyu no saizensen, 2002. ---------- . “Rekishi no kenkyu ka, rekishi no waikyoku ka,” in “Kingendai shi"no jugyo kaikaku no. 424 (June 1996). ---------- . Shakai shiso no rekishi 18 ko (Tokyo: Ajia shobo shuppanbu, 1998). H igashinakano, O sam ichi (Shudo), and Fujioka N obukatsu. “Za reepu obu Nankin"no kenkyu: Chugoku ni okeru “johosen"no teguchi to senryaku (Tokyo: Shodensha,1999). Hilberg, Raul. Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders (New York: H arper Colins, 1993). H irano, Ken’ichiro. “T ransnational Flows o f People and International Exchanges: Phenom ena and Activities,” in Yamamoto, Yoshinobu ed., Globalism, Regionalism and Nationalism: Asia in Search o f its Roles in the Twenty-first Century (London: Blackwell Publishers, 1999), pp. 9 3 -1 0 4 . H onda, Katsuichi. Chugoku no tabi (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1991). ---------- . Doitsu minshu kyowakoku vol. 29 in Honda Katsuichi shu (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1992). ---------- . Korosugawa no ronri (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1992). ---------- . Nankin e no michi (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1987). ---------- . The Nanjing Massacre: A JapaneseJournalist Confronts Japan’s National Shame (Armonk, NY: M . E. Sharpe, 1998). ---------- . N H K jushinryo kyohi no ronri (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1991). H onda, Katsuichi, and N aganum a, Setsuo. Tenno no guntai (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1991). H onda, Katsuichi, and O no, Kenji. “Bakufusan no horyo shudan gyakusatsu” in Hora, Fujiwara, and H onda, eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu, pp. 128-49. Hoover, H erbert T. “O ral H istory in the U nited States,” in Kam m en, Michael, ed., The Past Before Us (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980), pp. 3 9 1 -4 0 7 . Hoover Institution Archives, Stanley H ornbeck Record G roup, Joseph C. Grew Files. H ora, Tomio. Kindai senshi no nazo (Tokyo: Jinbutsu oraisha, 1967). ---------- . “M atsui taisho jinchu nisshi kaizan atogaki,” in H ora, et al. eds., Nankin jiken o kangaeru, pp. 5 5 -66. H ora, Tom io et al. eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu nogenba e (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1988). H ora, Tom io, Fujiwara, Akira, and H onda, Katsuichi, eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu (Tokyo: Banseisha, 1992). ---------- . Nankin daigyakusatsu no shomei (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 1987). ---------- . Nankin daigyakusatsu: “Maboroshi"ka kosaku hihan (Tokyo: Gendaishi shuppankai, 1975). H ora, Tom io, et al. eds., Nankin jiken o kangaeru (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1987). H ora, Tom io, et al. eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu (Tokyo: Banseisha, 1992). 406

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

H ora, Tom io, ed., Nit-Chu senso Nankin daizangyaku jiken shiryo shu 2: Eibun shiryo hen (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1985). H ora, Tom io, and W atada, Susumu. “Bakufusan no horyo shokei ni kansuru ‘Shinsetsu’ hihan” in H ora, et al. eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu, pp. 150—195. H ow ard, Michael. “T h e Use and Abuse o f M ilitary History,” in Journal o f the Royal United Service Institution 107 (February 1962), pp. 4—10. H orw itz, Solis. “T he Tokyo Trial,” in International Conciliation, no. 45 (November 1950), pp. 4 7 3 -5 8 4 . Hsia, C h’iang. “W ei-hu tso-chang ti tzu-chih w ei-yuan-hui,” in Nan-ching shih-chih, 1989, no. 5. H sing-cheng-yuan hsuan-ch’uan-chu, ed. Chuka minkoku ishin seifu gaishi. (Nan-ching: W ei-hsin cheng-fu, 1940). H siung, James C., and Levine, Steven I., eds., China’s Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937—1945 (Armonk: M . E. Sharpe, 1992). H su, Shuhsi., ed., Documents o f the Nanking Safety Zone (Shanghai: Kelley and Walsh, 1939), protoreproduced in Brook, ed., Documents on the Rape o f Nanking, pp. 1-167. H u, H ua-ling. American Goddess at the Rape o f Nanking: The Courage o f Minnie Vautrin. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000). H uttenbach, H enry R. “Locating the H olocaust on the Genocide Spectrum: Towards a M ethodology o f D efinition and Categorization,” in Holocaust and Genocide Studies 3:3 (1988), pp. 2 8 9 -3 0 3 . Ienaga, Saburo. Senso sekinin (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1985). ---------- . Taiheiyo senso (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1968). ---------- . Taiheiyo senso: Dai-2 han (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1986). Iguchi, Kazuki, et al, eds., Nankin jihen: Kyoto shidan kankei shiryoshu. (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1989). Iide, M agoroku. Teiko no shinbunjin: Kiryu Yuyu (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1980). Iinum a, M am oru. “Iinum a M am oru nikki,” in N ankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed.,

Nankin senshi shiryoshu. Ikegami Yuko. Shokuho seiken to Edo bakufu (Kodansha, 2009). International M ilitary Tribunal for the Far East (IM TFE). “Sum m ation for M atsui, Iwane” (Def. Doc. No. 3096), Hoover Institution Archives, p. 62. ---------- . “Indictm ent.” 1946, photo-reproduced in Pritchard, and Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial vol. 1. ---------- . “Judgm ent.” 1948, photo-reproduced in Pritchard Zaide, Sonia, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trialvol. 20, reprinted in Rolling, B., and Ruter, C., ed., The Tokyo Judgment vol. 1, pp. 17-468. ---------- . “Proceedings.” 194 6 -4 8 , photo-reproduced in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial vols. 1-19. Inoue, Hisashi. “Fuseikakusa yue ni hiteiha no hyoteki to naru,” in Shukan kinyobi (5 Novem ber 1999), pp. 16-17. ---------- . “Itai maiso kiroku wa gizo shiryo de wa nai” in N ankin ken, ed., Nankin daigyakusatsu itei ron 13 no uso (Tokyo: Kashiwa shobo, 1999). Inoue, Hisashi. ed., Kachu senbu kosaku shiro (Tokyo: Fuji shuppan, 1989). ---------- . “N ankin jiken to C hugoku kyosanto,” in H ora, et. al. ed., Nankin jiken o kangaeru (Tokyo: O tuski shoten, 1987), pp. 166-82. 407

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Inoue, Kiyoshi. Nihon no rekishige (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1966). Inoue, Kiyoshi, O konogi, Shinzaburo, and Suzuki, Seishi. Gendai Nihon no rekishi jo (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1952). Iriye, Akira. The Origins o f the Second World War in Aisa and the Pacific (London: Longm an, 1987). Irokawa, Daikichi. Aru Showa shi: Jibun shi no kokoromi (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 1975). Ishida, Takeshi. “Senso sekinin saiko,” in Nenpo: Nihon gendaishi, no. 2 (1996). Ishida, Yuji. “Kenkyu doko shokai: D oitsushi ni okeru gyakustsu kenkyu,” (unpublished paper). Ishida, Yuji ed., Shiryo: Doitsu gaikokan no mita Nankin jiken (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 2001). Ishikawa, M izuho. “Tettei kensho ‘N ankin ronten seirigaku’,” in Shokun! (February 2001), pp. 146-63. Ishikawa, Tatsuzo. Ikite iru heitai in Gendai bungaku taikei 48: Ishikawa Tatsuzo shu (Tokyo: C hikum a shobo, 1964), pp. 140-218. Ishikiriyama, Hideaki. Nihon gun doku gasu sen no mura: Chugoku Kahoku sho, Heitan mura de okotta koto (Tokyo: K obunken, 2003). Ishin seifu, ed., Chuka minkoku ishin seifugaishi (N.P., 1940). Itakura, Yoshiaki. “‘30-m an gyakusatsu’ kyoko no shom ei,” in Zenbo (M arch 1984), pp. 50-54. ---------- . “‘30-m an gyakusatsu’ kyoko no shomei: Z oku, N ankin jiken no sujiteki kenkyu” in Zenbo (O ctober 1984), pp. 4 0 -4 6 . ---------- . Honto wa ko datta Nankin jiken (Tokyo: N ihon tosho kankokai, 1999). ---------- . “M atsui Iwane nikki no kaizan ni tsuite,” in Bungei shunju (January 1986), pp. 187-94. ---------- .“‘N ankin daigyakusatsu nijum an’ setsu e no hansho,” in “Kingendai shi”no jugyo kaikaku no. 412 (Septem ber 1995), pp. 7 1 -7 9 . ---------- .“N ankin jiken no sujiteki kenkyu 3: N ankin de ittai nani ga atta no ka,” in Zenbo (April 1985), pp. 3 6 -4 3 . ---------- . “‘N ankin daigyakusatsu: gyakusatsu wa ‘seizei’ 1 0 ,0 0 0 -2 0 ,0 0 0 ,” in Bizunesuinterigensu (August 1994), pp. 16-19. Iwakawa, Takashi. Koto no tsuchi ni naru tomo: B-C kyu senpan saiban (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1995). Iwanami, Yuko. Sofu Tojo Hideki “Issai kataru nakare”(Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1995). Jaranilla, Delfin. “C oncurring O pinion o f Mr. Justice Jaranilla, M em ber from the Republic o f the Philippines.” IM FT E , 1948, photoreproduced in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, vol. 21, reprinted in Rolling, and Ruter, eds., The Tokyo Judgment, vol. 1, pp. 4 9 7 -5 1 5 . Jenkins, Russell. “T h e Japanese H olocaust,” in National Review (10 Novem ber 1997). Jordan, D onald. China’s Trial by Fire (Ann Arbor: University o f M ichigan Press, 2001). Kadoya, Fumio. Showa jidai: 15-nen senso shiryo shu (Tokyo: Gakuyo shoten, 1973). Kaikosha, ed., “Bakufusan fukin de no horyo shobun ni tsuite: Sono sogoteki kosatsu,” in Kaikosha, Nankin senshi shiryo shu. Kaikosha, ed., Nankin senshi (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1989). Kaikosha, ed., Nankin senshi shiryo shu (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1989). Kamen, Paula. “H ow ‘Iris C hang’ Became a Verb,” in W u, C hao-hung, ed., Za repu obu Nankin oyomu (Dojidai sha, 2007), pp. 140-50. 408

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Kamisago, Katsushichi. Kenpei sanjuichi nen (Tokyo: Tokyo raifu sha, 1955). Kamisaka, Fuyuko. Tsugunai wa sunde iru (Tokyo: Kodansha, 2000). Kao, H sing-tsu. “Jih-pen ch’i-kuo chu-i tsai N an-ching ta -t’u-sha,” trans., Robert Gray http://w w w .cnd.org/njm assacre/njm -tran. Kaochun hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Kaochun hsien-chih (Nan-ching: C hiangsu ku-tsi ch’u-pan-she, 1988). Kasahara, Tokushi. Ajia no naka no Nihongun: Senso sekinin to rekishigaku, rekishi kyoiku (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1994). ---------- . “M oso ga um idashita ‘H an-N ichi kakuran kosakutai’ setsu,” in N ankin ken, ed., Nankin daigyakusatsu hiteiron 13 no uso, pp. 198—217 . ---------- . Nankin jiken (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1997). ---------- . Nankin jiken to Nihonjin (Tokyo: Kashiwa shobo, 2002). ---------- . Nankin jiken to sanko sakusen (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1999). ---------- . Nankin nanminku no hyakunichi: Gyakusatsu o mita gaikokujin (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1995). ---------- . “Riaru taim u de sekai kara hinan o abite ita N ankin jiken,” in N ankin ken, ed., Nankin daigaykusatsu hiteiron 13 no uso, pp. 40—57. ---------- . “Suji ijiri no fum o na ronso wa gyakusatsu no jittai kaimei o tozakeru,” in N ankin ken, ed., Nankin digaykusatsu hiteiron 13 no uso, pp. 74—96. Kasaya, Kazuhiko. Sekigahara gassen to Osaka no jin (Yoshikawa K obunkan, 2007). Kater, M ichael H . Hitler Youth (Cam bridge, MA: H arvard University Press, 2004). Kato, N orihiro. Haisengo ron (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1997). Kato, Yoko. Senso no kin-gendai shi (Tokyo: Kodansha, 2002). Katogawa, Kotaro. “Shogen ni yoru N ankin senshi saishokai: ‘Sono sokatsuteki kosatsu’,” in Kaiko (M arch 1985). Kennedy, D avid M . “T he H orror,” in Atlantic Monthly (April 1998). Kennedy, John F. Profiles in Courage (New York: Pocket Books, 1957). Kershaw, Ian. The End (New York: Penguin, 2011). ---------- . Hitler 1936-1945 (New York: Penguin, 2000). ---------- . Making Friends with Hitler (New York: Penguin, 2004). Kimijima, Kazuhiko. “‘N ankin jiken’ no kotei to ‘N ankin daigyakusatsu’ no h itei,” in H ora, et al. eds., Nankin jiken o kangaeru, pp. 105-20. Kirby, W illiam C. Foreword, in C hang, Rape ofNanking, pp. ix-xi. Kiryu Yuyu. Chikushodo no chikyu (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 1989). Kita, Hiroaki. Nit-Chu kaisen: Gun homukyoku bunsho kara mita kyokoku itchi taisei e no michi (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 1994). Kitamura, M inoru. “T h e G M D [KMT] International Propaganda Division” (forthcoming). ---------- . “N ankin de daigyakusatsu wa atta no ka,” in Bungei shunju (O ctober 2003), pp. 2 7 2 -7 4 . ---------- . “Nankin jiken”no tankyu: Sono jitsuzo o motomete (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 2001. ---------- . “Nankin jiken”no tankyu (Tokyo: Bungei shunju sha, 2001). K itam ura, M inoru, and Lin Ssu-yun. Ni-Chu senso no “ futugona jujitsu”(Tokyo: PHP, 2014). Kitaoka, Shin’ichi. “Iwarenaki N ihon hihan o haisu,” in Chuokoron (June 2005), pp. 5 4-63. 409

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Kobayashi, Yoshinori. “Ko”to “ko”ron (Tokyo: G entosha, 2000). ---------- . Sensoron (Tokyo: G entosha, 1998). ---------- . “Shin gom anizum u sengen 110,” in SAPIO (9 February 2000), pp. 83—98. Kojima, Tomoyuki. “N it-C h u kankei no ‘atarashii hatten dankai’: kyosoteki kyozon no tam e ni,” in Kojima, Tomoyuki ed., Ajia jidai no Nit-Chu kankei: kako to mirai (Tokyo: Simul Press, 1995), pp. 1—34. Kojima, N oboru. Nit-Chu senso (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, paperback edition, 1988), 5 vols. Komori, Yoichi et at., eds., Rekishi kyokasho: Naniga mondai ka (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2001). Komori, Yoshihisa. Nit-Chu saiko (Tokyo: Sankei shinbunsha, 2001). ---------- . Nit-Chuyuko no maboroshi (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 2002). Kom uro, N aoki, and W atanbe Shoichi. Fuin no Showa shi: “Sengo 50 nen”jigyaku no shuen (Tokyo: T okum a shoten,1995) Kono, Kensuke, et al. eds. “Sekai no terebi wa sengo 50-nen o do tsutaeta ka,” in N H K hosobunka chosa kenkyu nenpo, no. 41 (1996), pp. 1—109. Koonz, Claudia. The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge: H arvard University Press, 2003). Kopelman. Elizabeth S. “Ideology and International Law: T h e Dissent o f the Indian Justice at the Tokyo W ar Crimes Trial,” in New York University o f International Law and Politics 23:2 (1991), pp. 373—444. K uo-fang-pu shih-cheng chu. ed. K ’ang-chan chien-shih (Taipei: Defense D epartm ent H istory Section, 1952). ---------- . Chung-Jih chan-chen-shih lueh (Taipei: Defense D epartm ent H istory Section, 1962). Kuo, Hsiao-hua. Tung-fang ta-shen-p’an: shen-p’an ch’in Hua Jih-chun chan-fan chi-shih (Peking: C hieh-fang-chun wen-I ch’u-pan-she, 1995). Kuper, Leo. Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Kuroha, Kiyotaka. Nit-Chu senso (1) (Tokyo: Kyoiku sha, 1978). Kushner, Barak. Men to Devils, Devils to Men (Cam bridge, MA: H arvard University Press, 2015). Kuyung hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui. ed. Kuyung hsien-chih (Nan-ching: C hiangsu jen-m in ch’u-pan-she, 1990). Kuyung shih-shih pien-kung-shih, ed. “Jih-chun chun-K uyung ch’i-chien pao-hang-lu.” (M anuscript, n.p.) Kyokasho kentei sosho o shien suru zenkoku renrakukai, ed., Kyokasho kara kesenai senso no shinjitsu: Rekishi o yugameru Fujioka Nobukatsu shira e no hihan (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1996). League o f N ations. OfficialJournal. Lee, E n-han. “T h e N anking Massacre Reassesed: A Study o f the Sino-Japanese C o n tro ­ versy over the Factual N um ber o f Massacred V ictim s,” in Li, Sabella, and Liu, eds., Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing (Armonk: M . E. Sharpe, 2002), pp. 47—74. Levine, Joseph M . Humanism and History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987). Lewis, John R. Uncertain Judgment: A Bibliography o f War Crimes Trials (Santa Barbara: A BC-Clio, 1979). Li, Fei Fei, Sabella, Robert, and Liu, David, ed., Nanking 1937: Memory and Healing (Armonk, NY: M . E. Sharpe, 2002). 410

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Li, H aibo. “Unforgivable Atrocity,” in Beijing Review (14—20 August 1995). Li, K’o-lang. “Lun-ching w u-yueh chi,” in N an-ching t ’u-shu kuan, ed., Chin-hua Jihchun Nan-ching ta-t’u-sha shih-liao, pp. 101—18. Li, Peter. “T h e Asian-Pacific War, 1931—1945: Japanese Atrocities and the Q uest for Post-War R econciliation,” in East Asia: An International Quarterly (Spring 1999), pp. 109-37. L iddell-H art, Basil H . History o f the Second World War (New York: Paragon Books, 1979). Lin, Na. “Hsueh-lei h u a C hin-ling,” in N an-ching t ’u-shu kuan, ed., Chin-hua Jih-chun Nan-ching ta-t’u-sha shih-liao, pp. 141-47. Lishui hsien ti-fang-chih pien-tsuan-hui, ed., Lishui hsien-chih. Lipstadt, D eborah E. Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming o f the Holocaust, 1933—1945 (New York: Free Press, 1986). Liu C hieh [Ryu Ketsu]. Kankan saiban (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 2000). Liu, Frederick F. A Military History o f China: 1924—1949 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1956). Liu, James T. C. “T h e Tokyo Trial,” 2 pts. China Monthly 8:7 (July 1947) pp. 2 4 2 -4 7 ; 8:8 (August 1947) pp. 2 7 9 -8 0 . Lu, Suping. They Were in Nanjing: The Nanjing Massacre Witnessed by American and British Nationals (H ong Kong: H ong Kong University Press, 2004). Lukas, R. C. Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation, 1939—1944 (Lexington: University o f Kentucky Press, 1986). Lutz, Brenda Davis, and Lutz, James M . “Gypsies as V ictim s o f the H olocaust,” in Holocaust and Genocide Studies 9:3 (W inter 1995), pp. 3 4 6 -5 9 . Lynn, John A. Battle: A History o f Combat and Culture (Boulder: Westview Press, 2003). M a, Lieh-ch’eng. “N ihon wa C hugoku ni 21-kai shazai shita,” in Bungei shunju (O ctober 2003), pp. 178-84. ---------- . “Waga C hugoku yo, han-N ichi kodo o tsutsushim e,” in Bungei shunju (M arch 2003), pp. 126-35. M acInnis, D onald. Foreword in Z hang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. ix-xi. M acM illan, M argaret. The Uses and Abuses o f History (Toronto: V iking Canada, 2008). M antetsu Shanhai jim usho. “N aka Shina senryo ni okeru senbu kosaku gaiyo,” in Inoue, ed., Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 4 8 -5 3 . Margalit, Avishai. The Ethics o f Memory (Cambridge: H arvard University Press, 2002). M arrus, M ichael R. The Holocaust in History (Hanover: University Press o f N ew England, 1987). ---------- . “Is T here a N ew A nti-Sem itism ,” in Curtis, M ichael., ed., Anti-Semitism in the C ontemporary World (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986), pp. M aruyam a, Susumu. “W atakushi no Showa shi: N ankin jiken no jisso, 6 pts., in Mantetsu wakabakai kaiho, nos. 133 -3 8 (5 A ugust-1 O ctober 2000). M atsum ura, Toshio. “Nankin gyakusatsu"e no daigimon (Tokyo: Tendensha, 1998). M atsum oto, Yasushi. “N ihon no w akam ono no 15-nen sensokan to kyokasho (ankeeto no m atom e),” in H idaka, ed., Kyokasho in kakarenakatta senso: Part 19, Nihon to Chugoku no wakamono tchi no rekishi ninshiki, pp. 199-231. M atsuo, Ichiro. Puropaganda sen “Nankin jiken" (Tokyo: Kojinsha, 2004). M atsuoka, Tamaki. Nankin sen: Tozasareta kiroku o tazunete (Tokyo: Shakai hyoronsha, 2002). 411

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Mayer, Arno. Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? (New York: Verso, 2012), originally published in 1988. M cCorm ack, Gavan. “Reflections on M odern Japanese H istory in the C ontext and the C oncept o f G enocide,” in Gellately, Robert, and Kiernan, Ben, E., ed., The Specter o f Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perpspective (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press, 2003), pp. 2 6 5 -8 6 . M cD onough, Frank. Hitler, Chamberlain, and Appeasement (New York: Cam bridge University Press, 2002). M inear, Richard. Victor’sJustice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971). M itter, Rana. China’s War with Japan (London: Allen Lane, 2013). M iyam oto, Ken’ichi. Showa no rekishi 10: Keizai taikoku zohoban (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1989). M izutani, N aoko. “W atashi wa naze Azum a Shiro ni igi o tonaeru ka,” in Sekai, no. 664 (August 1999), pp. 2 1 9 -2 5 . Morita, Toshio, and Fujiwara, Akira, eds., Kingendaishi no shinjitsu wa nani ka: Fujioka Nobukatsu shi no “rekishi kyoiku, shakai kyoiku”ron hihan (Tokyo: Otsuki shoten, 1996). M ote, F. W. Imperial China (Cam bridge, MA: H arvard University Press, 1999). M ukai, Chieko. “‘M ujitsu da!’ Chichi no sakebi ga kikoeru,” in Seiron (M arch 2000), pp. 6 0-67. M urakam i, Shigeyoshi. Irei no shokon: Yasukuni no shiso (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1974). M urata, Kazushiro. Nit-Chu senso nikki (I) (Tokyo: H ow a shuppan, 1984). Nakajima, Kesago. “N ankin koryakusen: Nakajim a dai-16 shidancho nikki,” in Zokan: Rekishi to jinbutsu (Decem ber 1984), pp. 2 5 2 -7 1 . Nakakita, Ryutaro, et al. “‘A zum a saiban’ no shinjitsu o uttaeru: 8-gatsu go M iztuani N aoko shi ronbun h ih a n ,” in Sekai, no. 666 (O ctober 1999), pp. 2 7 5 -8 1 . N akam ura, M asanori. ed., Rekishi to shinjitsu (Tokyo: C hikum a shobo, 1997). N akano, Yoshio. “H ito to bungaku,” in Gendai bungaku taikei 48: Ishikawa Tatsuzo shu (Tokyo: C hikum a shobo, 1964), pp. 4 6 4 -8 8 . Nakayama, O sam u. Nihonhin wa naze taju jinkaku na no ka (Tokyo: Yosensha, 1999). N an-ching shih tang-an-kuan, ed. Shen-hsun Wang-wei han-chien pi-lu, 2 vols. (Nanching: C hiangsu ku-chi ch’u-pan-she, 1992). N an-ching ta-tu-sha shih-liao pian-chi w ei-yuan-hui and N an-ching tu-shu-kuan, eds., Chin-Hua Jih-chun Nan-ching ta-tu-sha shih-liao (Nan-ching: C hiangsu ku-chi ch’u-pan-she, 1992). N an-ching tu-shu-kuan, ed. Ch’in-hua Jih-chun Nan-ching ta-t’u-sha tang-an (Nanching: C hiangsu ku-chi ch’u-pan-she, 1987). ---------- . Shen-shun Wangwei hanchien pi-lu (Nan-ching: C hiangsu ku-chi ch’u-pan-she, 1985) 2 vol. Nandy, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery o f Self under Colonialism (Delhi: O xford University Press, 1983). ---------- . “T h e O th er W ithin: T h e Strange Case o f R adhabinod Pal’s Judgm ent of Culpability” in Nandy, The Savage Freud and Other Essays or Possible and Retrievale Selves, pp. 53-8 0 . ---------- . The Savage Freud and other Essays on Possible and Retrievable Selves (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).

412

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

N ankin daigyakusatsu higaisha tsuito ho-C hu-dan, ed., Midori no shokuzai: Nankin, tsuito kenshoku ho-Chu-dan no kiroku, 4 vols. (Tokyo: N ankin daigyakusatsu higasha tsuito ho-C hu-dan, 1987—90). N ankin tokum u kikan. U ntitled reports for January, February, and M arch 1938, in Inoue, ed., Kachu senbu kosaku shiryo, pp. 148—69. N ankin ken (Nankin jiken chosa kenkyu kai), ed., Nankin daigyakusatsu hiteiron 13 no uso (Tokyo: Kashiwa shobo, 1999). ---------- . Nankin jiken shiryo shu 1: Amerika kankei shiryo shu (Tokyo: Aoki shoten 1985). ---------- . Nankin jiken shiryo shu 2: Chugoku kankei shiryo shu (Tokyo: Aoki shoten 1985). N ankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed., “Bakufusan fukin de no horyo shobun ni tsuite: Sono sogoteki kosatsu in N ankin senshi, pp. 13—14. ---------- . Nankin senshi (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1989). ---------- . Nankin senshi shiryo shu (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1989). ---------- . Nankin senshi shiryo shu 2 n d ed., (Tokyo: Kaikosha, 1993). N ankin shi bunshiryo kenkyukai ed., Shogen: Nankin daigyakusatsu (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1984). N anking International Relief C om m itte. “Report o f the N anking International Relief C om m itte,” in Z hang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 413—45. N aum ann, Klaus. “T h e ‘U nblem ished’ W ehrm acht” in H eer and N aum ann, eds., War o f Extermination, pp. 417—29. Nelson, W illiam . Fact or Fiction (Cam bridge, MA: H arvard University Press, 1973). Newby, Laura. Sino-Japanese Relations: China’s Perspective (New York: Routledge, 1988). “News H o u r w ith Jim Lehrer,” (20 February 1998). N H K , ed., “Saki no senso to sedai gyappu,” web posted, September 2000. Nihon Kyokasho taikei: Kindai hen (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1965). N ishio, Kanji. Kokumin no rekishi (Tokyo: Sankei shinbunsha, 1999). ---------- . Kotonaru higeki: Nihon to Doitsu (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1994). ---------- . Rekishi o sabaku orokashisa (Tokyo: P H P bunko, 2000). N ishio, Kanji, and Fujioka, N obukatsu. Kokumin noyudan (Tokyo: P H P bunko, 2000). N orw ood, Stephen H . The Third Reich in the Ivory Tower (New York: Cam bridge University Press, 2009). Novick, Peter. The Holocaust in American Life (Boston: H oughton Mifflin, 2000). ---------- . That Noble Dream (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press, 1988). ---------- . “H olocaust M em ory in America,” in Young, James E., ed., The Art o f Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History (New York: Prestel-Lerlag, 1994), pp. 159—65. O bara, H iroto, Arai, Toshiaki, Yamabe, Yukiko, and O kada, Hisao. Nihon gun no dokugasu sen: Semarareru ikidan shori (Tokyo: N it-C h u shuppan, 1997). O e, Shinobu. Yasukuni jinja (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1984). O gum a, Eiji. “’H idari’ o kii suru popyurarizum u,” in Sekai no. 656 (Decem ber 1998), pp. 94-105. O gushi, Junji. “D ai-3-ji kyokasho kogeki no shinbu ni aru m o n o ,” in Rekishi hyoron no. 579 (July 1998), pp. 2 3 8 -5 3 . O kam oto, Ryoichi. Osaka natsu no jin fuyu no jin (Tokyo: Sogensha, 1972). O kam ura, Yasuji. Okamura Yasuji taisho shiryo jo (Tokyo: H ara shobo, 1970). O kum iya, Masatake. Watakushi no mita Nankin jiken (Tokyo: P H P kenkyusho, 1997). O m ori, M inoru. Ten’anmon enjo (Tokyo: Ushio shuppansha, 1966).

413

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

O no, Kenji. “A togaki,” in O no, et al. eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishitachi, pp. 375—82. ---------- . “M okugeki N ankin daigyakusatsu: H ohei dai-65 rentai to C hugokujin horyo,” in Shukan kinyobi (4 February 1994), pp. 26—31. ---------- . “‘N ankin gyakusatsu no kokei’: H ohei dai-52 rentai heishi no jinchu nikki o otte,” in Shukan kinyobi (10 D ecem ber 1993), pp. 8—13. O no, Kenji, Fujiwara, Akira, and H onda, Katsuichi, eds. Nankin daigyakusatsu o kiroku shita kogun heishitachi (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1996). O no, Kenji, and H onda, Katsuichi. “Bakufusan no horyo shudan gyakusatsu” in Hora, Fujiwara, and H onda, eds., Nankin daigyakusatsu no kenkyu, pp. 128—49. Osugi, Kazuo. Nit-Chu jugonen senso (Tokyo: C hu6k6ronsha,1996). Overm ans, Ruediger. “G erm an Historiography, the W ar Losses, and the Prisoners of W ar,” in Bischof and Amrose, eds., Eisenhauer and the German POWs, pp. 127—69. O w en, Frank. Guilty Men (London: Gollancz, 1940). Pal, Radhabinod. Crimes in International Relations (Calcutta: University o f Calcutta Press, 1955). ---------- . International Military Tribunalfor the Far East: DissentientJudgment (Calcutta: Sanyal, 1953). ---------- . “International Law,” Indian Law Review 3:1 (1949), pp. 31—60. ---------- . “Judgem ent o f the H on’ble Mr. Justice Pal, M em ber from India,” IM T FE , 1948. photoreproduced in Pritchard and Zaide, eds., The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, vol. 21, reprinted in Roling and Ruter, eds., Tokyo Judgment, vol. 2. pp. 517—1039. ---------- . Nihon muzairon: shinri no sabaki, Tanaka Masaaki, ed. (Tokyo: Taiheiyo shuppansha, 1952). ---------- . Zenyaku: Nihon muzairon, Tanaka Masaaki, ed., (Tokyo: N ihon shobo, 1952). Piccigallo, Philip. The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945—1951 (Austin: University ofTexas Press, 1979). Pinker, Steven. The Better Angels o f Our Nature (New York: Penguin, 2011). Plato, T he Republic and Other Works, B. Jowlett, trans. (New York: Anchor, 1973). Pritchard, John, and Zaide, Sonia., ed. The Tokyo War Crimes Trial22 vol. (New York: G arland Publishing 1981). Q uentin-Baxter, R. Q. “T h e Task o f the international M ilitary Tribunal at Tokyo,” in New Zealand Law Journal, vol. 25 (7 June 1949), pp. 133—38. Rabe, John. The Good Man o f Nanking: The Diaries o f John Rabe, ed., Erwin W ickert, trans. John E. W oods (New York: Knopf, 1998). ---------- . “H ittoraa e no joshinsho,” in Rabe, Nankin no shinjitsu, H irano Keiko, trans. (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1997), pp. 275—321. Reishauer, Edwin O . The United States and Japan (New York: Viking, 1965). Remak, Joachim. The Origins o f the Second World War (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall 1976). Roling, B. V. A. “O pinion o f Mr. Justice Roling, M ember for the Netherlands,” in IM TFE, 1948, photoreproduced in Pritchard and Zaide, ed., Tokyo War Crimes Trial, vol. reprinted in Roling and Ruter, ed., TokyoJudgement, vol. 2, pp. 1041—1148. ---------- . The Tokyo Trial and Beyond: Reflections o f a Peacemonger, Cassese, Antony, ed., (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993). ---------- . “T h e Tokyo Trial and the D evelopm ent o f International Law,” in Indian Law Review 7:1 (1953), pp. 4—14 414

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Roling, B. V. A. and Ruter, C. F. The Tokyo Judgement: The International Military Tribunalfor the Far East, 29 April 1946—12 November 1948, 3 vols. (Amsterdam: AAPA University Press, 1997). Rosenbaum , Alan S. Prosecuting Nazi War Criminals (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993). Rum m el, R. J. China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900 (New Brunswick: Transactions Publishers, 1991). ---------- . “D em ocide in Totalitarian States: Mortacracies and M egam urderers,” in Charny, Israel ed., The Widening Circle o f Genocide (New Brunswick: Transactions Publishers, 1994), pp. 3—39. Saito, Kunio. Rikugun hoheiyomoyama monogatari (Tokyo: Kojinsha, 1997). Sakamoto, Takao. Rekishi kyoiku o kangaeru (Tokyo: P H P Kenkyusho, 1998). Sakamoto, Takao et. al. “Rekishi to rekishi ninshiki,” in Shokun (February 2002), pp. 4 8 -1 2 2 . Sakamoto, Takao. “Sengo 50-nen tow areru N ihonjin no rekishi kankaku,” in Chuokoron (Septem ber 1995), pp. 5 8 -71. Sasaki, M otokatsu. Yasen yubinki (Tokyo: Gendaishi shuppankai, 1973) Sasaki, Toichi. “Sasaki T oichi shosho shiki,” in N ankin senshi henshu iinkai, ed.,

Nankin senshi shiryo shu. Sassa, Atsuyuki. “Tsumi kyuzoku ni o y o b u .. . ” in Shokun! (August 2005), pp. 4 6 -5 6 . Schirokauer, C onrad. A BriefHistory o f Chinese and Japanese Civilizations (New York: H arcourt, 1989). Schlesinger, A rthur M . Jr. The Disuniting o f America (New York: N orth, 2 n d ed., 1998). Sen, Ranjit. The Twin in the Twist: Bose and Gandhi (Delhi: Asia Pacific Research Inform ation, 1997). Sengo 50-nen shim in no fusen sengen iken kokoku um do, ed. “Sengo 50-nen”: Aratamete fusen de iko (Tokyo: Shakai hyoronsha, 1995). Seno, Kappa. Shonen H, 2 vols. (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1997). Shenfield, Stephen D. “T h e Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?” in Levene, M ark and Roberts, Penny, eds., The Massacre in History (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), pp. 149-63. Shepherd, Ben. War in the Wild East: The German Army and Soviet Partisans (Cambridge: H arvard University Press, 2004). Sherman, Michael, and G robm an, Alex. Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do They Say It? (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 2002). Shevin-Coetzee, and Coetzee, Frans. eds. World War I & European Society: A Sourcebook (Lexington, MA: D .C . H eath, 1995). Seki, Hei [Shih, P’ing]. Chugoku: Aikoku jo i”no byori (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 2002). Shijime, Akira. “N it-C h u senso no tsuioku: H yakuningiri kyoso,” in Chugoku, D ecem ber 1971. Shimada, Toshihiko. “Designs on N o rth C hina,” in Moreley, James W illiam , ed., The China Quagmire (New York: C olum bia University Press, 1983), pp. 11-230. Shimizu, Yoshikazu. Chugoku wa naze han-Nichi ni natta ka (Tokyo: C huokoronsha, 2004). Shinbun taim uzu sha, ed. Shina jihen senshi, vol. 1 (Tokyo: K otoku hosankai shuppan, 1937). Shirer, W illiam L. The Rise and Fall o f the Third Reich (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1960), first published in 1950. 415

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

Shokun!, ed., “Sanpa godo dai ankeeto” in Shokun! (February 2001), pp. 164—203. Shusen gojunen kokum in iinkai, ed. Shusen gojusshunen kokumin undo kiroku shu: Shusen gojusshunen, daito-A senso no shinjitsu o tsutaete (n.p., 1996). Smalley, M artha L und ed. American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937—1938 (New Haven: Yale D ivinity School Library, 1977). Smith, Bradford. “Japan: Beauty and the Beast,” in Amerasia 6:2 (April 1942), pp. 86—94. Smith, Roger W., M arkusen, Eric, and Lifton, Robert Jay. “Professional Ethics and the D enial o f A rm enian G enocide,” in Holocaust and Genocide Studies 9:1 (Spring 1995), pp. 1-22. Smythe, Lewis. “N ankin chiku ni okeru senso higai,” in H ora, Tom io, ed. Nit-Chu senso Nankin daigyakusatsu jiken shiryo shu 2: Eibun shiryo hen (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1985), pp. 2 1 1 -7 7 . ---------- . War Damage in the Nanking Area, December, 1937 to March, 1938 (Shanghai: M ercury Press, 1938). Sotobayashi, Daisaku. et al. ed. Seishin: Shinrigaku jiten (Tokyo: Seishin shobo 1981). Stannard, David. “Uniqueness as Denial: T h e Politics o f G enocide Scholarship,” in Rosenbaum , Alan S., ed., Is The Holocaust Unique?: Perpsectives on Compariative Genocide (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 163-208. Stanton, John. “C anada and W ar Crimes: Judgm ent at Tokyo,” in InternationalJournal 55:3 (Summ er 2000), pp. 3 7 6 -4 0 0 . Stein, Burton. A History o f India (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998). Stephan, John. “T he Tanaka M em orial (1927): A uthentic or Suprious?” in Modern Asian Studies 7:4 (1973), pp. 7 3 3 -4 5 . Streit, Christian. “Soviet Prisoners in the H ands o f the W ehrm acht,” in H eer and N aum ann, eds., War o f Extermination, pp. 8 0 -9 1 . Sun, Chai-wei, ed. Nan-ching ta-t’u-sha (Peking: Bei-ching ch’u-pan-she, 1997). Sun, Ko. “N it-C h u senso Kanjo to Ikoku no Kozu,” H irofum i Sakai, trans., in Sekai (April 2000), pp. 158-70. Sun, Zhaiwei (Chai-wei). “Causes o f the N anking Massacre,” in Li, Sabella, and Liu, eds., Nanking: 1937, pp. 3 5 -4 6 . Suzuki, Akira. “ N ankin daigyakusatsu’ no m aboroshi,” in Shokun (April 1972), pp. 177-91. ---------- . “Nankin daigyakusatsu”no maboroshi (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1983). ---------- . Shin “Nankin daigyakusatsu”no maboroshi (Tokyo: Asuka shinsha, 1999). Suzuki, Jiro. “W atakushi wa ano ‘N ankin no higeki’ o mokugeki shita,” in Maru, Novem ber 1971. Takashima, Nobuyoshi. “Rekishikan X media = watching 3: Rotei shita Yomiuri shinbun no ‘Sankeika,’” in Kikan: Senso sekinin kenkyu, no. 25 (Fall 1999), pp. 8 0 -8 6 . Takem oto, Tadao and O hara, Yasuo. “The Alleged “Nanking Massacre”:Japan’s Rebuttal to China’s Forged Claims (Tokyo: Meiseisha, 2000). Takigawa, Masajiro. Shinpan Tokyo saiban o sabaku (ge) (Tokyo: Sotakusha, 1978) orig. ed., 1953. Tanaka, Masaaki. “‘N ankin daigyakusatsu’: M atsui Iwane no jinchu nisshi,” in Shokun (Septem ber 1983), pp. 6 4 -7 9 . ---------- . “Nankin gyakusatsu”no kyoko: Matsui taisho no nikki o megutte (Tokyo: N ihon kyobunkan, 1984). ---------- . Nankin jiken no sokatsu (Tokyo: Kenkosha, 1987). 416

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

---------- . Paru hanji no Nihon muzai ron (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 2001), orig. pub. 1963. ---------- . What Really Happened in Nanking: The Refutation o f a Common Myth (Tokyo: Sekai shuppan, 2000). Tanaka, N obum asa et al., eds., Izoku to Seiji (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1995). Tanaka, Yuki. Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War I I (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998). Tanizawa, Eiichi. Akuma no shiso (Tokyo: Kuresutosha, 1996). ---------- . Konna Nihon ni darega shita (Tokyo: Kuresutosha, 1995). Tawara, Yoshifumi. “Kyokasho kogeki-ha no saikin no doko: Koenkai, shinpojium u nado no doko” (Unpublished paper). Tawara, Yoshifumi et al., “Kokusai m ondai no akujunkan o tatsu tam e n i,” in Shukan kinyobi (5 Novem ber 1999), pp. 10—15. Taylor, A. J. P. The Course o f German History (London: Routledge, reprint ed., 2001), first published in 1945. ---------- . The Origins o f the Second World War. (New York: A theneum , 1983). Taylor, Frederick. Dresden: Tuesday, Feburary 13, 1945 (New York: Harper, 2004). Taylor, Laurence. A Trial o f Generals; Homma, Yamashita, MacArther (South Bend: Icarus, 1981). Taylor, Telford. Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy (New York: Bantam, 1971) . Timperley, H arold J. ed., Gaikokujin no mita Nihongun no boko (Tokyo: Ryukeisho sha, 1972) . ---------- . La Guerre Telle quelle Est: La Terreur Japnaise en Chine (Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1939). ---------- . The Japanese Terror in China (New York: M odern Age Books, 1938). ---------- . Waiuoren muduzhongshi Rijun baoxin (H ankou: G uom in chubanshe, 1938). ---------- . What War Means: The Japanese Terror in China (London: V ictor Gollancz, 1938). Tobe, Ryoichi. Nihon rikugun to Chugoku (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1999). Todorov, Tzvetan. “T h e Uses and Abuses o f M emory,” Lucy Golsan, trans., in Marchitello, Howard, ed., What Happens to History (New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 11-22 Tokutake, Toshio. Kyokasho no sengo shi (Tokyo: Shin N ihon shuppansha, 1995). Tokyo saiban handobukku henshu iinkai, ed., Tokyo saiban handobukku (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1989). Tong, Te-kong, and Li, Tsung-jen. The Memoirs o f Li Tsung-jen (Boulder: Westview Press, 1979). Toyam a, Shigeki, Imai, Seiichi, and Fujiwara, Akira. Showa shi (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1955). Toyam a, Shigeki. Imai, Seiichi, and Fujiwara Akira. Showa shi: Shinpan (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1959). Trent, James F. “Food Shortages in G erm any and E urope,” in Bischof and Ambrose, ed., Eisenhauer and the German POWs, pp. 9 5 -1 1 2 . Trevor-Roper, H ugh. The Last Days o f Hitler (London: PAN Books, 1995) orig. ed., 1947. Ts’ai, H ung-yuan, and Sun, Pi-yu. “M in-kuo ch’i-chien N an-ching-shih chih-kuan nien-piao,” in Nan-ching shih-chih, vol. 1 (1983), pp. 4 7 -4 8 . Tsou, Jung (Zou Rong). The Revolutionary Army, John Lust, trans. (The Hague: 417

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

M outon, 1968). Tsuneishi, Keiichi. Nana-san-ichi butai (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1995). Uesugi, Satoshi. “Kowasenakatta 2-ju kijun no kabe: Ajia e no hosho o m otom eru shim in undo kara,” in Senso sekinin kenkyu, no. 11 (Spring 1996), pp. 10—17. U nem oto, Masami. “Shogen ni yoru N ankin senshi (5),” in Kaiko (August 1984). U nited N ations W ar Crimes Com m ission. History o f the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development o f the Laws o f War (London: H is M ajesty’s Stationery Office, 1948). Usui, Katsumi et al., eds., Gendai shi shiryo 9: Nit-Chu senso II (Tokyo: M isuzu shobo, 1964). Usui, Katsumi. Shinpan: Nit-Chu senso (Tokyo: Chuokoronsha, 2000). U tsum i, Aiko. Chosenjin B- C-kyu senpan no kiroku (Tokyo: Keiso shobo, 1982). Vautrin, M innie. “A Review o f the First M o n th ,” in Z hang, ed., Eyewitnesses to Massacre, pp. 3 30-44. ---------- . Nankin jiken no hibi: Minii Botorin no nikki, O kada Ryonosuke et al., trans. (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1999). V idal-N aquet, Pierre. Assassins o f Memory: Essays on the Denial o f the Holocaust, trans. Jeffrey M ehlm an (New York: C olum bia University Press, 1992). Villa, Brian Loring. “T h e D iplom atic and Poltical Context o f the P O W Cam ps Tragedy,” in Bischof and Ambrose, eds., Eisenhauer and the German POWs, pp. 53-61. V incent, John. An Intelligent Person’s Guide to History (London: D uckw orth, 1996). W ang, H si-kuang, “Jih-wei han chien cheng-fu: N an-ching tzu-chih w ei-yuan-hui,” in Nan-ching shih-chih 4 (1987), pp. 4 -6 . W ada, Susumu. Sengo Nihon no heiwa ishiki (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1995). Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi. Anti-Foreignism and Western Learning in Early-Modern Japan (Cambridge: H arvard University Press, 1986). ---------- . “C om fort W om en: Beyond Litigious Feminism” in Monumenta Nipponica (Sum m er 2003), pp. 2 2 3 -5 8 . ---------- . “T h e N anking Massacre: N ow You See I t ,. .. ” in Monumenta Nipponica (W inter 2001), pp. 521 -4 4 . ---------- . “Review: Japanese Devils” in Journal o f Japanese Studies 28:2 (W inter 2002), pp. 4 3 0 -4 3 5 . ---------- . Review o f Yang D aqing, et al., Toward a H istory beyond Borders, in Journal of Japanese Studies 40:2 (2014), pp. 4 2 0 -2 4 . W atada, Susumu. “Suzuki Akira shi no ‘shuzai’ o shuzai suru,” in H ora et al., eds., Nankin jiken o kangaeru (Tokyo: O tsuki shoten, 1987), pp. 192-200. W atanabe Hiroshi. Nankin gyakusatsu to Nihonjin (Tokyo: Akashi shoten, 1997). W atanabe, Shoichi. Nihonshi kara mita Nihonjin: Showa hen (Tokyo: Shodensha, 2000). W atanabe, Shoichi, and K om uro Naoki. Fuin no Showa shi: “Sengo 50-nen”jigyaku no shuen (Tokyo: T okum a shoten, 1995). W ebb, W illiam . “Separate O pinion o f the President,” IM T FE , 1948. Photoreproduced in Pritchard and Zadia, eds., Tokyo War Crimes Trial, vol. 21. W hite, T heodore, and Jacoby, Annalee. Thunder Out o f China (New York: D aC apo, 1980). W ichert. Erwin, ed. The Good Man o f Nanking: The Diaries o f John Rabe (New York: Knopf, 1998). 418

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

W iskem ann. Elizabeth. Europe o f the Dictators 1919—1945 (London: Fontana, 1966). W oodhead, H . G. W., ed. The China Yearbook, 1939 (Shanghai: N o rth C hina News Daily and H erald, 1940). W u, C hao-hung, trans. Za repu obu Nankin (Dojidai sha, 2007). W u, C hao-hung. Za repu obu Nankin oyomu (Dojidai sha, 2007). W u, Tien-wei. Preface in Smalley, ed., American Missionary Eyewitnesses to the Nanking Massacre, 1937—1938, pp. iii-iv. Xu, Zhigeng (H su Chih-keng). Lest We Forget: Nanjing Massacre, 1937. Chang T ’ingch’uan and Lin, W u-sun, trans. (Peking: Panda Books, 1995). Yamada, Akira. “O kinaw a de no gekisen,” in Fujiwara et al., eds., Showa 20-nen: 1945nen (Tokyo: Shogakkan, 1995), pp. 108—111. Yamada, Akira, and Koketsu, Atsushi. Ososugita seidan: Showa tenno no senso shido to senso sekinin (Tokyo: Showa shuppan, 1991). Yamada, Masayuki. “Kaisetsu,” in W u, Za repu obu Nankin o yomu, pp. 151—89. Yamamoto, Masahiro. Nanking: Anatomy o f an Atrocity (W estport, C N : Praegar, 2000). Yamamoto, Shichihei. Showa tenno no kenkyu (Tokyo: Shodensha, 1989). ---------- . Watakushi no naka no Nihongun, 2 vols. (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1997). Yamazaki, Tomoko. Sandakan hachiban shokan (Tokyo: Bungei shunjusha, 1975). Yang, D aqing. “T he Challenges o f the N anjin Massacre,” in Fogel, ed., The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography, pp. 133—79. ---------- . “‘Convergence or Divergence’: Recent Historical W ritings on the Rape of N anjing,” in American Historical Review 104:3 (June 1999), pp. 842—65. ---------- . “Rekishi e no chosen: ‘N ankin atoroshitei’ kenkyu o m egutte,” in Shiso no. 890 (August 1998), pp. 83-1 0 9 . ---------- . “A Sino-Japanese Controversy: T h e N anking A trocity as H istory,” in SinoJapanese Studies 3:1 (Novem ber 1990), pp. 14-35. Yasuda, Shozo, and Ishibashi, Kotaro. Asahi shinbun no senso sekinin (Tokyo: O ta shuppan 1995). Yin, C hi-C hun. 1937, Nan-ching ta-chiu-huan: Hsi-fangjen-shih ho kuo-chi an-ch’uanch’u (Shanghai:W en-hui ch’u-pan-she, 1997). Yoshida, Takashi. “A Battle over History: T h e N anjing Massacre in Japan” in Fogel ed., The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography, pp. 7 0 -1 3 2 . ---------- . The Making o f the “Rape o f Nanking”: History and Memory in Japan, China, and the United States (New York: O xford University Press, 2006). Yoshida, Tam otsu, and Iguchi, Kazuki. “Kyoto ni okeru senso ten undo to shiryo hakkutsu,” in Iguchi et al., eds., Nankin jiken: Kyoto shidan kankei shiryo, pp. 4 4 2 -6 5 . Yoshida, Yutaka. “ 15-nen senso shi kenkyu to senso sekinin m ondai,” in Hitosubashi ronso 97:2 (February 1987), pp. 3 6 -5 5 . ---------- . Gendai rekishigaku to senso sekinin (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1997). ---------- . “Kaisetsu,” in Sekai, no. 667 (November 1999), pp. 2 5 8 -5 9 . ---------- . “Kenkyukai meguri: N ankin jiken chosa kenkyukai,” in Chikaki ni arite, no. 8 (Novem ber 1985), pp. 7 6 -7 7 . Yoshida, Yutaka. “Kokusaiho no kaishaku de jiken o seitoka dekiru ka,” in N ankin ken, ed., Nankin daigyakusatsu hiteiron 13 no uso, pp. 160-76. ---------- . “N ankin jiken no zenyo ga sem aru rekishi ninshiki,” in Zen’ei, no. 695 (January 1998), pp. 58 -6 7 . 419

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Bibliography

---------- . Nihon noguntai (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 2002). ---------- . “N ihon kindaishi o do toraeru ka: Jiyushugi shikan kenkyukai no rekishikan, sensokan,” in Yoshida, Gendai rekishigaku to senso sekinin, pp. 238—53. ---------- . Nihonjin no sensokan (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1990). ---------- . “Senso no kioku,” in Iwanami shoten, ed., Iwanami koza sekaishi 25: Senso to heiwa (Tokyo: Iwanam i shoten, 1997), pp. 99—117. ---------- . Tenno no guntai to Nankin jiken (Tokyo: Aoki shoten, 1986). Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. Dokugasu sen to Nihon gun (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2004). Yoshimi, Yoshiaki, and M atsuno, Seiya, eds., Jugo nen senso gokuhi shiryo shu hokan 2: Dokugasu sen kankei shiryo I I (Tokyo: Fuji shuppan, 1997). Young, James. Our Enemy (Philadelphia: David M cKay Co., 1942). Young, M arilyn. “An Incident at N o G un Ri,” in Bartov Grossm ann, and N olan, eds., Crimes o f War, pp. 242—58. ---------- . The Vietnam Wars, 1945—1990 (New York: H arper Colins, 1991). Zarrow, Peter. After Empire (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012). Z enkoku senyu rengokai, ed. Senyuren junen no ayumi (Tokyo: Z enkoku senyu rengokai, 1979). Z hang, Chengjun, and Liu, Jianye. An Illustrated History o f China’s War o f Resistance AgainstJapan (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1995). Z hang [Chang], Kaiyuan, ed. Eyewitnesses to Massacre: American Missionaries Bear Witness to Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing (Arm onk NY: M . E. Sharpe, 2001).

420

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

N otes

on

Co n t r ib u t o r s

D a v id A s k e w is an associate p ro fe sso r at R itsu m e ik a n A sia P acific U n iv e rsity in B e p p u , Ja p an . H is b o o k s in c lu d e A Geneology o f Japanese Self-Images (C u rz o n , 2 0 0 2 ), a tra n s la tio n o f O g u m a Eiji, Tanitsu minzoku shinwa no keifu; (w ith P aul C lose) Asia Pacific and H um an Rights (A sh g ate P u b lish in g , 2 0 0 4 ); a n d (w ith M o rim u ra S u su m u , et. al.,) Ribatarianizumu tokuhon (K eiso sh o b o , 2 0 0 5 ), p lu s articles in E n g lish a n d Jap an ese. T i m o t h y B r o o k , a sp ecialist in la te -im p e ria l a n d tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry C h in a , is R e p u b lic o f C h in a C h a ir at th e U n iv ersity o f B ritish C o lu m b ia in C a n a d a . H e has w ritte n , a m o n g m a n y o th e r w o rk s, Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Chinese

Elites in Wartime China (H a rv a rd U n iv e rsity Press, 2 0 0 5 ); The Chinese State in M in g Society (C u rz o n , 2 0 0 5 ), a n d m o s t recen tly , Mr. Seldens M ap o f China: Decoding the Secrets o f a Vanished Cartographer (B lo o m sb u ry , 2 0 1 3 ). J o s h u a A . F o g e l is C a n a d a R esearch C h a ir in M o d e rn C h in a at Y ork U n iv e rsity in C a n a d a . H e is in te r e s te d in S in o -J a p a n e se re la tio n s a n d h is m a n y b o o k s in c lu d e The Literature o f Travel in the Japanese Rediscovery ofC hina (S ta n fo rd U n i­ versity Press, 1 996), Manchuria under Japanese Domination (U n iv e rsity o f P e n n ­ sylvania Press, 2 0 0 2 ), a tra n s la tio n o f Y am a m u ro S h in ’ich i, Kimera; a n d , m o s t recently, M aiden Voyage: The Senzaimaru a nd the Creation o f Modern Sino-Japan-

ese Relations (B erkeley: U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia Press, 2 0 1 4 ). F u jiw a r a A k ir a w as a n e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r at H ito tu s b a s h i U n iv e rsity in T okyo b efo re h is d e a th in 2 0 0 3 . A sp ecialist in m o d e rn a n d c o n te m p o ra ry Jap an ese h is­ tory, h is last m a jo r w o rk s w ere: Uejini shita eirei tachi (A oki sh o te n , 2 0 0 1 ), Chugoku sensen jugun ki (O ts u k i sh o te n , 2 0 0 2 ), a n d th e p o s th u m o u s ly p u b lis h e d Tenno no guntai to N it-chu senso ( O ts u k i s h o te n , 2 0 0 6 )— a c h a p te r o f w h ic h fo rm e d th e basis fo r “ T h e N a n k in g A tro city : A n In te rp re tiv e O v e rv ie w ” in th e p re se n t v o lu m e .

421

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:31 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Notes on Contributors

K a s a h a r a T o k u s h i is a n e m e ritu s p ro fe sso r o f co m p a ra tiv e c u ltu ra l stu d ies at T s u ru U n iv e rsity in Ja p a n . H is rese a rc h in te re sts in c lu d e th e Ja p an e se a rm y ’s “T h re e -A ll Policy” d u rin g th e C h in e se n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t in W o rld W a r II. H is m a n y bo o k s in c lu d e N ankin nanminku no hyakunichi (Iw an a m i sh o te n , 1995 a n d 2 0 0 5 ), Nihon gun no chian sen (Iw a n a m i s h o te n 2 0 1 0 ), a n d m o s t re c e n tly Kaigun

no senso sekinin (H e ib o n sh a , 2 0 1 5 ). K i m u r a T a k u ji is a le c tu re r a t Jiy u G a k u e n C o lleg e in Ja p a n . A sp ecialist in c o n ­ te m p o ra ry Jap an ese h isto ry , his rese arch in te re sts c e n te r o n v e te ra n s a n d m ilita ry p e n sio n s in p o stw a r Ja p a n . H is p u b lic a tio n s in c lu d e “F u k u in ” in Y oshida Y utaka, ed., Nihon no jid a i shi 2 6 (Y oshikaw a k o b u n k a n , 2 0 0 4 ); “G u n jin ta c h i n o se n g o ” in Iwanam i koza Ajia-Taiheiyo senso 5 (Iw a n a m i sh o te n , 2 0 0 6 ); a n d articles in Japanese. O n o K e n ji, w h o se rese arch in te re sts lie in th e N a n k in g A tro city , is a p riv a te sc h o lar fro m F u k u s h im a P re fe ctu re in Ja p a n . H is p u b lic a tio n s in c lu d e N ankin

daigyakugastu o kiroku shita kogun heishi tachi (O ts u k i sh o te n , 19 9 6 ) a n d articles in Japanese. M a s a h ir o Y a m a m o to is a research fello w a t K o k u sh ik a n U n iv e rsity in Ja p a n . H is research in te rests lie in m ilita ry , n aval, a n d m o d e rn Ja p an e se h isto ry . H is p u b li­ c a tio n s in c lu d e Nanking: Anatomy o f an Atrocity (Praeger, 2 0 0 0 ), “J a p a n ’s ‘u n s e t­ tlin g p a s t’: A rticle 11 o f th e S an F ran cisco Peace T re aty a n d its R a m ific a tio n s” (Journal o f US-China Public Administration, M a y 2 0 1 0 ), a n d several articles in Japanese. T a k a s h i Y o s h id a is a p ro fe sso r o f h is to ry a t W e ste rn M ic h ig a n U niversity. H is research focuses o n W W I I a n d m e m o ry in E ast A sia a n d in th e U n ite d States. H is re c e n t w o rk s in c lu d e The M aking o f the “Rape o f N anking”: History and Memory

in Japan, China, and the United States (O x fo rd U n iv ersity Press, 2 0 0 6 ), From Cul­ tures o f War to Cultures o f Peace: War a nd Peace Museums in Japan, China, and South Korea (M e rw in A sia, 2 0 1 4 ), a n d articles in E n g lish a n d Jap an ese.

422

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:31 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

In d e x A Abegg, Lily, 87

Azuma Shiro, 349, 352, 385

Account o f the Slaughter a t Chia-ting, xlvii

B Bacque, James, 22, 286-91, 292, 294, 298, 299 Baker, Thomas, 290 Bates, Miner S. attempts to arrange a truce, 230 on banditry in rural areas, 93 documentation of American losses, 322 estimate o f the Nanking death toll, 98, 100, 104, 106-7, 108, 112, 326 on the IC ’s collaboration with the SGC, 242 on living standards in Nanking, 217 publications by, 255-56 Bauman, Zygmunt, 278, 280 B ehind the Japanese M ask (Steiner), 258, 259 Beevor, Anthony, xxxviii Belden, Jack, xxix, xxxv Beller, Steven, xlii Ben-Dasan, Isaiah. See Yamamoto Shichihei Bergamini, David, xlii Berlin, fall of, xxxviii Berlin Olympics, 1936, xxxix Birn, Ruth Bettina, xxv Bischof, Guenter, 288, 289, 291 Bix, Herbert, xlii Bloxham, Donald, xli Bose, Subhas Chandra, 168-69 Boston Massacre, 357, 366 Boyle, John H ., 291 Brandt, Willy, 125 Brook, Timothy, x, 21, 50, 241, 293-94, 368 Browning, Christopher, xlii Brown Shirts, xxxix Bulloch, Alan, xxxvi Buruma, Ian, 283

Adenauer, Conrad, 287 Agawa Hiroyuki, 339 Akiyama Yoshimitsu, 44 Amano Saburo on activities in Ch’uanchiao county, 191-93, 194 journey from Hiroshima to Shanghai, 182-85 march from Shanghai to Ch’uanchiao county, 186-91, 194 on older reserve officers, 32 on plundering of Chinese provisions, 194-95 on POWs, 40, 187, 188-89 as an unwilling draftee, 12, 360 Ambrose, Stephen E., 287, 288, 291 Amerasia, 258-59 An Lu-shan Rebellion, xlviii Anti-Comintern Pact, 17, 49, 282 Anti-Semitism, xxxvi, xxxix, xl, xli Arab-Israeli War, 1967, xxxvi Armenians, 267, 275, 276, 279 A sahi shinbun, 15-16 Asaka Yasuhiko, 11, 32, 44, 63, 70, 84 Asami Kazuo accusations of fabricating a killing contest, 128, 129-30, 132, 134-35, 137, 141 article about a killing contest, 125-26, 132, 138-39, 142 Asian Women’s Fund, xxxvii, 12, 347 Asia Unbound (Greenbie), 259 Asia University, 311 Askew, David, 20, 21, 295, 376, 379 atomic warfare, 168-69, 259 Auden, W. H., 363 Austria, as part o f Germany, xli-xlii

423

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

Bush, George W., 358, 359 Bushido (Pernikoff), 258, 259

ordering of the Chinese army to retreat, 43 refusal to surrender, 29, 230, 359, 366, 387 role in Mukai’s and Noda’s death sentences, 132 Chiang Ken-fu, 121 Chiangning county, 66 Chiangp’u county, 63, 65, 66 Chiang Tse-min, 13, 364 China. See People’s Republic of China (PRC); Republic of China “C hina as Real Victor Thesis,” l China Yearbook, 325-26 Chinese diaspora communities, 174n6, 267, 270-73 Chou En-lai, 11, 29 Chu, Chien-jung (Zhu Jianrong), xxxv Ch’uanchiao county, 190-93, 194 Chungshant’ang (CST), 67, 105, 377, 379, 380-82, 383 Churchill, W inston S., 296 citizen-led movements, 345-52 civilian casualties, 47-50, 96-107, 109-11, 112,255 Clinton, Bill, 357 Cohen, Paul, 360 Cohen, Richard, 357, 358 Cold War, xxxii, xxxv collaboration, 3, 4, 197, 198, 232, 323 comfort women compensation for, 12, 348, 350 Japanese troops’ use of, 50, 332, 341, 364, 375 postwar persecution of, 4 rape, xxxvi-xxxviii, li commemoration vs. history, xxv, xxxvi, xlv compensation for comfort women, 12, 348, 350 estimate o f am ount o f claims for, 116-17 Hsia Shu-chin’s lawsuit for, 319-20 Li Hsiu-ying’s lawsuit for, 12-13, 50, 350 role of citzen-led movements in efforts for, 6, 347-50, 352 conscription, 99-100, 101, 102, 112 conservative revisionists attempts to trivialize or deny the Nanking Atrocity, 47, 51-53, 116, 294, 330-36, 360 delimitation of the Nanking Atrocity, 59, 295

C Cairo Declaration (PRC film), l Cambodia, 281 Carter, Jimmy, 357 Center for Research and Docum entation on Japanese War Responsibility, 347 Central China Area Army (CCAA) assault on Nanking, 34, 36, 37, 45, 57 assault on outlying counties, 60—63, 65 formation of, 31—32, 36 funding o f the SGC, 207—8 issuing o f Loyal Subject certificates, 214—15 lack of control over troops, 33, 36, 47, 65 See also Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEA); Tenth Army “Century o f Humiliation”, xlviii—xlix Chang, Iris estimate o f Nanking’s population, 96 exaggeration of IC member’s efforts, 239 hierarchy of victimhood established by, 274, 283, 364 intolerance of different opinions about the Nanking Atrocity, 385—89 misquotation of the IM T FE ’s ruling, 298 misrepresentation of contemporary Japanese society, 352 on the Nanking death toll, 384 The Rape o f N anking. See Rape o f Nanking, The (Chang) view o f Japan and the T hird Reich as allies, 282 view o f a 100-man killing contest, 140 Ch’ang Kai-sing, 377, 378 Chan Jung-kuang, 206, 219 Chao Kung-chin, 205, 206, 219 Chao Wei-shu, 205, 206 chemical weapons, 138, 252—53, 254, 261, 386-87, 388 Cheng Kuan-ying, 282 Ch’en Jung, 203 Chiang Kai-shek denouncement of Japanese atrocities, 3, 250 desertion of Nanking, 4, 7, 76 establishment of a new regime in Taiwan, 269 funding of the IC, 229 kidnapping of, 35

424

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

on the murder of defeated stragglers, 46 on the murder of POWs, 40, 73, 78 See also deniers; revisionists Coville, Cabot, 202, 216 Cowdrey, Albert E., 288 Craigie, Robert, 156—57

Donitz, Karl, 368, 369 Dower, John, 365 Drea, Edward, 300 Dresden, 368 Durdin, F Tillman, 88, 91, 103, 230-31, 236, 257

Crop Investigation in the N a n k in g Area an d Sundry Economic D ata (Bates), 255 CST (Chungshant’ang), 67, 105, 377, 379, 380-82, 383 culpability, 116, 121-30, 142, 144, 145 Cultural Revolution, xxix, lii Czechoslovakia, xxxix, xlii

E Eastman, Lloyd, xxxiii, xl East Prussia, xxxvii-xxxviii Eckstein, Gustav, 258-59 Edward VIII, King, xxxix Eguchi Keiichi, 32, 343-44, 362 Eichmann Trial, 1961, xxxvi Einsatzgruppe, xli

D Davis, Natale Z., Return o f M a rtin Guerre, xxx Dead Sea Scrolls, xxvi defeated stragglers, xxii Japanese imprisonment of, 188 justification of the murder of, 249 loss of will after T ’angs desertion, 37, 41, 4 3 ^ 4 , 231 massacre of, by Japanese troops, 44-46, 65, 96, 103, 370-72, 374 in the NSZ, 92, 231-32, 238, 322-23, 373 deniers academics and nonacademics as, 311, 327, 365 campaigns for textbook reforms, 304-5, 306 estimates of the Nanking death toll, 2 4 8 ^ 9 , 374, 382, 383 on the execution o f POWs, 249, 323-25, 358, 359, 372 on K M T units as responsible for atrocities, 7, 322-23, 356 on the lack o f documented proof from the wartime era, 248-49, 262, 369 on neutrality violations of other countries, 18 protests against museum displays on the Nanking Atrocity, 308-9 rejection of Chinese sources, 6-7 , 376 See also conservative revisionists; Fujioka Nobukatsu; Higashinakano Osamichi; revisionists Documents o f the N a n k in g Safety Zone (Hsu) account of the attack on the Hsias, 320, 321 estimate of Nanking’s population, 88-89, 91 as a primary source, 152, 361, 374

Eisenhower a n d the German P O W s (Bischof &

Ambrose), 288, 290, 291 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 286-87, 288 “eliminationist ideology” (Chinese), xlvii Endo Takaaki, 76, 78 epithets, 394-98 Erikson, Erik, xxvii Esherick, John, xlvii Espy, James, 91, 105 Eto Takami, 15 Eternal Jew, 1940, xli Evans, Richard J., xxxviii, xli Eykholt, Mark, 220, 285, 295-96, 297, 298 F fabrication thesis, 333-34 Fairbank, John K., xxix-xxx Falkenhausen, Alexander von, 18 Farrar, L. L., 360 Fauvet, Jacques, 287 Ferguson, Niall, xl, 386 Fest, Joachim, xxxvi Finklestein, Norm an G., xxv Finn, Richard B., 290 Fitch, George criticism o f the Japanese, 239, 256 departure for Shanghai, 243 estimates of Nanking’s population, 89, 91 on the IC, 88, 232, 234, 235 on the inauguration o f the SSA, 199, 200 on the SGC, 205, 241 smuggling of film negatives, 2 4 0 ^ 1 Fogel, Joshua A., 22, 285, 291, 292, 293, 298 Forster, Ernest, 103, 236

425

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

France, 286, 292 Frazer, Angus, 276 Friedlander, Saul, xxxix-xl Fu, Ts’ung, l Fujioka Nobukatsu criticism o f The Rape o f Nanking, 306, 307 crusade for textbook reform, 304—5, 340, 341 view o f the Nanking Atrocity, 2 4 8 ^ 9 , 307-9, 316, 328n12, 342, 365 Fujiwara Akira, xxiii on derogatory terms, 396 on Iris Chang, 360 on the Nanking Atrocity, 16, 19, 59, 73, 295, 343 Fukuda Tokuyasu, 209, 241 Fung, Florence, xlix

Hara Takeshi, 378, 380-82 Hata, Ikuhiko, liii apology for the Nanking Atrocity, 388-89 categorization o f Japanese factions in the Nanking controversy, 331 estimate o f Nanking’s population, 91 on Japanese soldiers’ lack o f control, 96 on the Nanking death toll, 274, 362, 378 negative encounters with Chinese and Chinese-Americans, 389, 393n106 on weapons in the NSZ, 18 H ata Kenuske, 73, 74 Hayden Act, 12, 365 Heilbrunn, Jacob, 299 hieroglyphics, xxvi Higashinakano Osamichi background of, 311, 312 on defeated stragglers, 249, 322-23, 358 denial of the Nanking Atrocity, 248, 307-9, 316-19, 328n12, 342 flawed critique o f primary sources, 22-23, 325-27 Kokka hasan, 312, 314—15 lawsuit against, 319-20 on the Nanking death toll, 106-7, 379-80

G Galileo, xxvi genocide, 276-81. See also Holocaust Germany, 9-10, 17-18, 49, 315, 358-59. See also Holocaust Global Alliance for Preserving the History of World War II in Asia, xxxiii Gluck, Carol, 290, 293 Goebbels, Joseph, xxxviii Goette, John, 259 Goldhagen, Daniel, xxv, xlvii, 22 Gollanz, Victor, 287 good citizen certificates, 93-94, 95, 96, 214-15 Great Britain, 249, 292, 358-59 Great Famine, lii Great Leap Forward, xxix, lii Greater East Asia War thesis, 331-32, 335-36 Greenbie, Sydney, 259 Green, Roland, 287-88 Gries, Peter Hays, xxiii, xxvi, xlviii, 274, 394 Grobman, Alex, 386 Gypsies, The (Frazer), 276

“N ankinggyakusatsu” no tettei kensho,

316-19 on The Rape o f N anking, 306, 307, 308 use o f pejorative terms, 313, 324, 396, 397 view o f PO W executions as legal, 249, 323-25 Hillberg, Raul, xli Hirohito, xliii, 30, 120, 124, 157-58, 359 Hiroshima, 292, 364 Hiroshima-Nagasaki nuclear attacks, l-li H irota K6ki, 25n26, 30, 151, 156-57, 176n28, 384 History o f the Second World War (Liddell-Hart), 296 Hitler, Adoph, xxxix, xl, xli “H itle rM y th ,”The (Kershaw), 360 “Holocaust” (capital H ), Final Solution, Judeocide, xxv, xxxii, xxxvi, xxxviii-xliv “holocaust” (small h), xxv “Holocaust,” of Chinese forgotten, xxii, xxvii, xxxv, xlv, xlix Holocaust comparisons of the Nanking Atrocity to the, 6, 268, 275-81, 282, 363-67, 385

H Haffner, Sebastian, 367 Hague Convention Concerning Laws and Customs of War, 323-25 H an Chinese, xxiv, xliv-xlviii Hanaoka Incident, 347 Hannover, House of, xlvii

426

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

denial of, xxvi effect on the formation of Jewish identity, 271, 272-73 Germany’s postwar atonement for the, 9-10 verbal impact of the, 299-300 Honda Katsuichi collection of primary sources on the Nanking Atrocity, 300 criticism of the Japanese Defense Agency, 296 examination of the East German government system, 315 flawed memories of Chinese informants used by, 128-29 on the geographic range of the Nanking Atrocity, 34 interviewing techniques of, 142 on the massacre of POWs, 73 on the Nanking death toll, 16, 362 on a 100-man killing contest, 115, 121-26, 140, 141, 143, 333 publications on the Nanking Atrocity, 320-21, 330 rejected lawsuit against, 135, 145 Honda, Mike, xxv Hoo Chai-tsai, 253 Hora Tomio as co-founder of a Society to Study the Nanking Incident, 116 essay on the Nanking Incident, 115, 119, 330 exposure of Tanaka’s altering of Matsui’s diary, 334 on the massacre of POWs, 73 on a 100-man killing contest, 117, 118-19, 136-39, 141, 143, 333 Howard, Michael, lii, 291 Hsi Chin-p’ing (Xi Jinping), xlix, li Hsiakwan, 65, 215-16, 235 Hsia Shu-chin, 319-21 Hsien-pei (T’ang Li ruling house), xlix Hsu Ch’uan-yin, 160, 204, 206, 210, 221, 240 Hsu Shuhsi, xxxv, 88-89, 91, 320, 326-27 Hua Chun-ying, li Huang Kuanghan, 18 Huang Yueh-hsuan, 205, 219 Hu Chin-T’ao, 9 Huttenbach, Henry R., 277, 280

I IC. See International Committee (IC) identification papers, 93-94, 95, 96, 214-15 Ienaga, Saburo, xxvi Ienaga Saburo, 43, 48, 119, 126 Iinuma Mamoru, 32, 63 illusion thesis, 333, 334, 360 Imai Akio. See Suzuki Akira Imperial Headquarters, 32, 33, 34, 57, 62 IMTFE. See International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) Indian National Army (INA), 167 Inner Mongolia, xlvii Inoie Mataichi, 44, 45 Inoue Hisashi, xxiii, 250, 296, 382 In Peace Japan Breeds War (Eckstein), 258-59 International Committee (IC) achievements of the, 238-39, 243 attempts to arrange a Sino-Japanese truce, 229-31 collection of missing people data, 104 complaints about Japanese soldiers’ conduct, 96-97, 153 conflicts with the SSA, 208-10, 212, 214-15, 241 cooperation with and resistance to the Japanese, 239-41, 242 delegation of city government functions to the, 90, 92, 228, 229 estimate of people remaining outside the NSZ, 91 estimate of rapes by Japanese soldiers, 58 estimate of the Nanking death toll, 103, 109,110,112 formation of the, 227-28 funding of the, 229 handling of medical services, 236 inability to remove Chinese soldiers from the NSZ, 231, 232-33, 238, 240 international appeals for financial aid, 254-56 Japanese objections to the, 200 ordering of Nanking’s populace into the NSZ, 90, 238 role in shaping the IMTFE’s perception of Japanese conduct, 152 struggles in obtaining and distributing food, 210, 212, 213, 233-35, 242 subgroups of the, 229

427

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

See also Nanking International Relief

Committee; Nanking Safety Zone (NSZ) International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) adoption of Nuremberg precedent, 363—64 as the basis for Japanese awareness of the Nanking Atrocity, 50—51, 261, 338 counts in the indictment, 151—52, 164, 175n9 decision not to prosecute Mukai and Noda, 131 estimate of massacred POWs, 73 estimate of the Nanking death toll, 20, 204, 249, 268, 298, 377 execution of Japanese war criminals, 8, 25n26 Japanese reactions to the, 127, 149—50 lack of chemical warfare charges against Japan, 387 Matsui’s defense strategy during the, 152-56, 163, 175n20, 175n22 Pal’s dissent to the verdicts at the, 150, 158-62, 176n39 reliability of evidence at the, 294, 295-96, 382 revisionist criticisms of the, 10-11 testimonies of Chinese victims and foreign witnesses, 47 timeframe established for the Nanking Atrocity, 87 verdict on Hirota, 156-57, 176n28 verdict on Matsui, 156, 175n27, 269, 293-94 See also Nanking War Crimes Trials; Pal, Radhabinod International Relief Committee. See International Committee (IC) Iran, xlix Iraq, xlix Irokawa Daikichi, 140 Isa Kazuo, 44 45 Ishida Yuji, 345 Ishihara Shintaro, 143, 309, 349, 350 Ishikawa Mizuho, 316 Ishikawa Tatsuzo, 374 Ishiwara Kanji, 30 Itakura Yoshiaki, 52, 75-76, 97, 334-35 Ito Takashi, 135, 340

J Jacquinot de Besange, Father, 227, 228, 229, 384 Japan American prejudice against, 257-59, 261-62, 291-92, 297, 299 Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany, 17, 49 apologies for war crimes, 14-15, 120, 310 censorship of accounts of the Nanking Atrocity, 50, 260-61, 262, 268, 374 citizen-led movements in, 345-52 comparisons of, to Nazi Germany, 22, 363-67 conflicts with China prior to Nanking, 29-33 development of identity in, 282 financial aid to the PRC, 11, 12 lawsuits against, for war crimes, 347-49, 350, 352 military documents on the Nanking Atrocity, 369-74 mourning practices in, 13-14 peace treaty with the KMT on Taiwan, 8 peace treaty with the PRC, 8, 12, 120 separation from the League of Nations, 253-54 signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, 119 strategic blunders in the attack on Nanking, 34-36 textbooks in censored descriptions of the Nanking Atrocity in, 9, 14-15, 51, 332, 349, 352 objections to negative depictions of Japan in, 304-5, 306, 340, 341 use of chemical weapons, 138, 252-53, 254, 261, 386-87, 388 veterans and bereaved families in, 3 3 7 ^ 0 , 344 Japan Fights fo r Asia (Goette), 259 Japan (Timperley), 257-58 Jaranilla, Delfin, 166 Jen Chi-yu, 319 Jenin, 357, 358, 366, 385 Jenkins, Russell, 292 Jen Yuan-tao, 218 Jew Sus, 1940, xli Jurchen Jin dynasty, xxxiv

428

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

Kaiko, 51—52

K

Kokka hasan (Higashinakano), 312, 314—15 Ko-ming-chun (Revolutionary Army), xlvii

Kaikosha, 51-52, 74-75, 334 Kaji Wataru, 261 Kalb, Marvin, 300 Kamen, Paula, xxxii Kan’in Kotohito, 47, 386 Kanno Yoshio, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82 Kant, Immanuel, liii Kaochun county, 63, 65, 66 Kao Kuan-wu, 218, 219 Kasahara Tokushi on burials in rural areas, 382 on the defense of Nanking, 34 delimitation of the Nanking Atrocity, 362 on derogatory terms, 395, 396, 398 estimate o f Nanking’s initial population, 20 on flaws in Higashinakano’s work, 22-23 on flaws in Smythes sampling method, 375 on fleeing Chinese troops, 373 on Japanese occupation policy, 387 on Li Hsiu-ying, 385 on the massacre of Chinese civilians, 343-44 on the massacre o f Chinese soldiers, 73, 343-44, 370-72 on the Nanking death toll, 19, 295, 360, 384 N a n kin jiken , 342 ^ 3 PRC’s censorship of, 25n24 on T ’ang Sheng-chih, 12 Katogawa Kotaro, 52, 334 Kato Norihiro, 144—45 Kato Yoko, 395 Kellogg-Briand Pact, 162 Kennedy, David M., 290 Kenpeitai, xliii Kershaw, Ian, xxxviii, 360 Khmer Rouge, xliii Kiang Tse-min, 307 killing contest. See 100-man killing contest Kimura Takuji, 23, 51, 52, 304 Kirby, William C., 363 Kissinger, Henry, 119 Kitamura M inoru, xxxvii, 92, 98, 358, 374

Komori Yoshihisa, ix, 11, 394, 398 Komuro Naoki, 324, 396 Kondo Eishiro, 77 Konoe Fumimaro, 29, 30 Kono Yohei, 311 Koo Wei-jun, 251-53 Korea, 15, 50, 51, 300, 347—48, 357 Koyama Kazunobu, 307-8, 328n12 Kozuka Kinshichi, 120 Krakowski, Shmuel, 385 Krauthammer, Charles, 357, 358 Krishna M enon, V. K., 165 Kristallnacht, 1938, xxxix Kroger, Christian, 103, 243 Kumazawa Kyojiro, 136, 139 Kuo Chi (Guo Qi), xxxviii Kuomintang (KMT) denouncement of Japanese war crimes, 249, 250, 251-53, 254 effect o f the Sian Incident on the, 35 estimate o f the Nanking death toll, 269 fleeing of troops into the NSZ, 322-23 funding o f Smythe’s surveys, 92, 98, 374 indictment of Chinese collaborators, 3 on the Japanese government’s use of pejoratives, 395 peace treaty with Japan, 8 postwar trials held by the, 11, 269 PRC’s denouncement o f the, 4 role in Chinese deaths, 13 scorched earth tactics, 381 training by German military advisers, 17-18 view o f a 100-man killing contest, 140 wartime view on the Nanking Atrocity, 254, 261 Kuper, Leo, 276 Kurosu Tadanobu, 77 Kushner, Barak, xxvi, xxxv Kuyung county, 61-62, 65 Kyoto Exhibition on War for the Sake of Peace, 346

KMT. See Kuomintang (KMT) Kobayashi Yoshinori, 316, 328n24, 340, 396, 397 Koizumi Jun’ichiro, 14, 26nn30—31

L Law to Preserve German Blood and Honor, 1935, xl League of Nations, 249, 251-52, 253-54, 261

429

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

Lebanese civil war, 277 Lebensluge (vital lie), xlii Lebensraum, xl Lemkin, Raphael, 276—77 Levi, Primo, 385 Liang, Ch’i-ch’iao, xlvvii Liang Hung-chih, 57 Liddell-Hart, Basil H ., 296 Lieber Rules, 373 Li Hsiu-ying, 12-13, 50, 350, 385 Lin, Ssu-yuan, xxiv, xlv Lishui county, 61, 65, 66 Li Tsung-jen, 230 Liu, F. F., 296 Liu, James T. C., 149-50 Lotus Lake murders, 221 Lou Hsiao-hsi, 203 Loyal Subject certificates, 93-94, 95, 96, 214-15 Lu Su, 295-96, 377, 378, 382, 383 Lynn, John A., 386 M MacArthur, Douglass, 269 M a Ch’ao-chun, 228, 229 MacInnis, Donald, 292 Magee, John, 103, 109, 160, 215, 237, 320 M a Lieh-ch’eng, 14 Manchuria, xxxi, xl M anchurian Incident, 30 M anchurian M yth, The (Mitter), 360 Manchus, Ch’ing (Qing dynasty), xxiv, xlv-xlviii, slix Manchus, forgotten genocide of, xliv-xlviii Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong), xxviii-xxix, xlviii, 130, 269 Marco Polo Bridge Incident, 8, 29, 35, 71, 260,394 Margalit, Avishai, 283 Marianas Turkey Shoot, 359 Marquand, Robert, 361 Marrus, Michael R., 277 Maruyama Susumu, 205, 382 Masada, xxxvi Masahiro Yamamoto. See Yamamoto, Masahiro Masuda Rokusuke, 45-46 Matsui Iwane advice to T ’ang to surrender, 36-37, 260 criticism o f Japanese soldiers, 278

defense of, at the IM TFE, 152-56, 163, 175n20, 175n22 enshrinement in the Yasukuni Shrine, 9 execution of, 11, 25n26, 51 IM TFE charges against, 151-52 IM TFE verdict, 156, 175n27, 269, 293-94 military positions held by, 31, 333 opinion of the SGC, 242 orders to troops, 32, 45, 201 on rapes and looting, 48 Matsumura Toshio, 12-13, 16, 319-20, 350 Matsuoka Isao, 201, 215 Mayer, Arno, xxxvi Ma, Ying-jeou, xxiii, xxv McCallum, James, 91, 103, 109, 238 McDougall, Stuart, 165, 177n61 media coverage of atrocities in Nanking, 249-251, 257-259, 260-261, 262, 268 coverage of a 100-man killing contest, 128-30, 142, 145, 280 effect on the Japanese view of culpability, 127- 28 Meguro Fukuji, 82-83 Mei Ju-ao, 159-60 memory/identity (ethnic), xxix, xxxiv, xxxvi, xliv, lii Menken, Arthur, 87, 233, 236 Miki Takeo, 13 “militants of ethnicity,” xxxiv, lii M ilitary History of M odern China, A (Liu), 296 Mills, W. Plumer, 221, 227, 228, 230 minimalist thesis, 334-35 Mishima Yukio, 120 Mitter, Rana, l, 360 Miyamoto Shogo, 79 Miyazawa Kiichi, 51 Mizutani So, 44, 45 Mongols, xxxvi, xlvi, MoriO Migaku, 312, 318, 328n29 Mote, Fritz, xxxiv-xxxv m ourning practices, 13-14 Mufushan massacre, 20, 3 9 ^ 0 , 42, 70-85, 359, 378 Mukai Toshiaki, 25n26, 117-18, 125-26, 128- 35, 137-42 multiculturalism, U.S., xxiv, xxxii Murayama Tomiichi, 304, 337 My Lai, 357, 358, 366, 385

430

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

N Nagasaki, 292 Nakajima Kesago, 38, 334 Nakamura Akira, 307—8, 328n12 Nakasone Yasuhiro, 13, 14, 346 Namikawa Eita, 340, 341 Nandy, Ashis, 166—67 Nanking estimates of civilian casualties in, 96—107, 109-11, 112, 255 estimates of the population in after the attack, 92-96 before the attack, 20, 87-90, 96, 111, 295, 376 massacre of Manchus (1911), xlviii reopening of foreign embassies in, 242-43 See also Nanking Safety Zone (NSZ); Nanking Special Administrative District (NSAD) N a n k in g 1937, 309 Nanking Atrocity approaches to studying the, 297-99, 342-45, 385-89 comparisons to the Holocaust, 6, 268, 275-81, 282, 299-300, 363-67, 385 death toll from the difficulties in achieving an accurate count, 58-59 early postwar Chinese sources on, 376-82 importance of, 298-99, 363, 366 Japanese military documents on, 369-74, 384 later postwar Chinese sources on, 383-84 variations in, 3-4, 5, 8, 16, 20, 362-63 wartime documents by Westerners on, 374-76 deniers of the. See deniers effect on Chinese diaspora communities, 174n6, 267, 270-73 geographic and temporal delimitations of the, 34, 57, 59, 86-87, 295, 361-63, 384 memorial for the, 8, 269, 274 revisionists’ view of the. See conservative revisionists; revisionists social ramifications from research and citizen-led movements on the, 345-52

term inology for the, 16-17, 23, 57, 359-61 underlying causes o f the, 36 U.S. debates about the, 285-86, 293 See also Nanking Special Administrative District (NSAD) “N ankinggyakusatsu” no tettei kensho

(Higashinakano), 316-19 “Nanking Holocaust,” l Nanking International Relief Committee, 104, 217, 243, 254-56, 379. See also International Com mittee (IC) N a n k in g Massacre in History an d Historiography, The (Fogel), 285, 291, 293 Nanking Military Tribunal (NM T). See Nanking War Crimes Trials N a n k in g Population, The (Bates), 255-56 Nanking Safety Zone (NSZ) civilians killed in the, 47 creation of the, 37, 227-29, 256 defeated stragglers in the, 92, 231-32, 238, 322-23, 373 execution of suspected Chinese soldiers within the, 44-46, 103, 105, 209, 231-32 food distribution in the, 233-35, 238 geographic size of the, 60 housing in the, 238 media coverage of the, 250 medical services in the, 236-38 ordering of Nanking’s populace into the, 90, 91, 92, 238 policing of the, 231-33, 238 population of the, 68, 87, 89-93, 235, 238, 243, 256 rapes in the, 49 SSA’s closing of the, 214—15 See also International Committee (IC) Nanking Self-Government Committee (SGC) conflict with the IC, 208-10, 241 creation of the, 197, 199, 205, 241 dissolution of the, 217-18, 220 distribution of food, 211-13, 242 funding o f the, 207-80, 216 goals o f the, 200, 208 members of the, 202, 203, 204-6, 218-19, 241^2 recruitment for brothels, 203-4

431

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

relocation o f refugees back to their homes, 214-15, 243 SSAs control over the, 207, 209 Nanking Special Administrative District (NSAD) atrocities w ithin the, 58, 60-64, 65, 68 counties w ithin the, 57, 60-63 estimate o f the death toll in the, 59, 66-68, 343, 374 population of the, 60, 68 Nanking Special Service Agency (SSA) attem pt to blame war crimes on Chinese soldiers, 322 conflicts with the IC, 208-10, 212, 214-15, 241 control over the SGC, 207, 209 creation of the, 201 estimate o f Nanking's population, 94 inauguration of the, 198-200, 217 issuing o f Loyal Subject certificates, 214-15 links with the RSS, 2 0 2 ^ , 378 murder of defeated Chinese troops, 202 use o f Chinese labor, 211 Nanking War Crimes Trials estimate o f the Nanking death toll, 20, 377, 382 execution of Mukai and Noda, 8, 25n26, 117, 118, 131, 360 Mukai's defense at the, 132, 133 records on a 100-man killing contest, 136 revisionist criticisms of the, 10-11 temporal delimitation of the Nanking Atrocity, 87 See also International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) N a n kin jik e n (Kasahara), 3 4 2 ^ 3 N a n kin senshi, 40, 48, 52, 74, 75 Naruse Kanji, 135, 136 Nashimoto Masako, xl N ew Sun, The (Yashima), 259 N ew York Times, 250, 251, 257 N ihon seinen kyogikai, 306-7 Nishikawa, Megumi, xxiv Nishio Kanji, 305, 340, 365-67, 377-78, 396, 397 Nixon, Richard, 119 NMT. See Nanking War Crimes Trials Noda Tsuyoshi

arguments on the guilt of, 117-18, 125-26, 137-39, 140, 141-42 arguments on the innocence of, 128-30, 132, 133-35, 140, 141-42 execution of, 25n26, 117, 118 Noguchi Takehiko, 368 No G un Ri, 357, 358, 366, 385 Nonaka Hirom u, 332, 349 N orth Korea, xlix Novick, Peter, 385 NSAD. See Nanking Special Administrative District (NSAD) NSZ. See Nanking Safety Zone (NSZ) Nuremberg Laws, xxxix “nursery history,” lii O Okaka International Peace Center, 310, 311 Okam ura Yasuji, 48 Okinawa, 359 Okumiya Masatake, 362-63 Om ori M inoru, 117 100-man killing contest early portrayals of the, 117-19 as fabricated, 20, 128-35, 141-42, 360 as factual, 136-39, 140, 141-42, 360 link between culpability and debates about a, 121-27, 144, 145 media coverage of a, 251, 260, 280 significance of debates over a, 115-16, 142, 143, 333 sociopolitical background o f debates about a, 119-21 O noda Hiro, 120 O no Kenji criticism o f Lu Su's testimony, 383 on the murder o f Chinese POWs, 73 research on murdered Chinese POWs, 3 9 ^ 0 , 345, 359, 367, 378, 382 on war crimes outside of Nanking, 19-20 Operation Burn All, Kill All, Plunder All, 343-44, 388 Osaka Summer Campaign, xxi O ta Hisao, 385 O ta Kozo, 311 Other Losses (Bacque), 22, 286-91, 292, 294, 298, 299 O ur Enemy (Young), 258 Overmans, Ruediger, 288, 289, 298

432

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

Overseas Hall to Commemorate the War of Resistance against Japan, xlix P Pact of Paris, 162 Pal, Radhabinod complaints about the political ends of the IM TFE, 165-66, 364 contradictions in arguments of, 170-71 desire for a widened scope of inquiry, 171-72 dissenting verdict of, at the IM TFE, 21, 150, 158-65, 176n39, 281 political beliefs of, 167-70, 173 portrayal of, in Puraido, 9 Park Chung-hee (a.k.a.Takagi Masao), xl Park Guen-hye, xl, li Peacekeeping Law, 19, 28n86 Peck, Graham, xxix, xxxv pejoratives, 394-98 People’s Republic o f China (PRC) censorship in the, 8, 25n24, 269, 270 criticism of wartime losses reported by, 12-13 denouncement of the KMT, 4 entry into the United Nations, 119 financial aid from Japan, 11, 12 fourth generation’s political views, 273-74 intolerance of different views o f the Nanking Atrocity, 385-89 linking of the Nanking Atrocity to the Holocaust, 6, 364 mourning practices in the, 13 objections to the Peace Osaka conference, 310 officially sanctioned view o f the Nanking Atrocity, 5, 7-8 , 86, 274 peace treaty with Japan, 8, 12, 120 protests against Japanese textbooks, 51 rift with Taiwan, 271 use o f the Nanking Atrocity to shame potential trading partners, 269-70 Pernikoff, Alexander, 258, 259 p ih u i (bihui) syndrome, xxiv Pinker, Steven, xxvi, xlviii Plato, Republic, xxiv poison gas Japan’s use of, 138, 252-53, 254, 261, 386-87, 388 Nazi Germany’s use of, 277-78 Pradervand, Jean-Pierre, 287

PRC. See People’s Republic of China (PRC) Prideaux-Brunce, H . I., 243 prisoners of war (POWs) estimates of the murder of, by Japanese troops, 359, 370-72, 374 justifications for the execution of, 41-42, 48, 249, 323-24, 367, 372-73 lack of food or water for, 187, 188, 373 massacre of, near Mufushan, 20, 39-40, 42, 70-85, 359 systematic mass executions of, by Japanese troops, 38-40, 42-43, 65, 334 U.S. treatm ent of, 286-89, 358 Protocols o f the Elders o f Zion, xlii Punti-Hakka wars, xlvi Puraido, 9 R Rabe, John, xxxv, xxxviii, xli attempts to arrange a truce, 230-31 on Chinese soldiers in the NSZ, 18, 231, 2 3 2 - 33, 240 departure from Nanking, 243 documentation of the attack on the Hsias, 221, 320 efforts to obtain food for refugees, 89-90, 2 3 3 - 34, 235 estimate o f Nanking’s population, 87, 89-90, 91, 92, 376 estimate o f the Nanking death toll, 12, 59, 102-3, 104, 109-11, 290, 376 Iris Chang’s use of the diary of, 289, 290, 300, 301n27 PRC’s depiction of, 4 on rapes by Japanese soldiers, 49-50, 97 role of, in the NSZ, 21, 199, 228 on the SSA, 200, 210 superficial cooperation with the Japanese, 239, 240, 242 on the training of KM T troops, 17-18 on treatm ent for the wounded, 236-37 Ranke, Leopold von, lii Rape o f Nanking, The (Chang) attempts to publish a Japanese translation of, 307, 328n11, 360 comparison o f the Nanking Atrocity to the Holocaust, 6, 268, 275, 276, 299 critical reviews of, 289-90, 291, 292, 306-7, 308

433

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

errors in, 22, 307 manipulation of statistics in, 293—94 popularity of, in America, 285—86 reactions of professional historians and general readers to, 292—93, 297 use of Rabes diary in, 289, 290, 300, 301n27 Rape o f Nanking, Japanese translation of, xxiii-xxiv rapes estimates of the num ber of, by Japanese soldiers, 8, 58, 97, 298 high incidence of, by Japanese soldiers, 47-50, 58, 64, 96 Japanese army's attempts to reduce the incidence of, 50, 222 during the Lebanese civil war, 277 murder of rural women to conceal, 64 in the NSAD, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66 of refugees as they returned home, 215 during the SSA inauguration holiday, 200 traum a from, 58, 61 Red Swastika Society (RSS) burials at Hsiakwan, 103 founding of the Nanking branches of the, 202, 378 groups buried by the, 101, 106 links with the SSA, 202-4, 378 petition to the SGC for assistance, 214 problems with the burial records of, 104, 109, 111, 378-79, 380, 383 records on the num ber of burials by the, 67, 98, 105, 108, 377-78, 381-82 soup kitchens operated by the, 222n2 Red Turbans, xlvi registration cards, 93-94, 95, 96, 214-15 Republic of China creation of the, 395 development of identity in the, 282 Reformed Government of the, 217, 218, 2 1 9 ,3 6 2 ,3 7 6 wartime media reports in the, on Japanese war crimes, 249-51 revisionism, 19 revisionism, good and bad, xxiv, xxvi, liii revisionists, 10-11, 293-96, 344, 361. See also conservative revisionists; deniers Rhineland, xli Rhoads, Edward, xlvii-xlviii Riggs, Charles, 196, 199, 210, 214

Ritchie, Donald, 366 Rohm, Ernst, xxxix Roling, B. V A., 159, 167, 176n28 Rosen, Georg, 49, 221-22, 320, 321, 322, 379 RSS. See Red Swastika Society (RSS) Rummel, R. J., xliii-xliv, xlvii-xlviii, 276 Rumsfeld, Donald, 358, 359 S Saga, Hiro, xl Saigo Takamori, 313-14 Saito Jiro, 76 Sakamoto Takao, 340, 365, 396-97 Sakata Shigeki, 201, 202 Sakhalin, 347, 348 San Francisco Peace Treaty, 8, 9, 10, 51, 119, 382 Sankei shinbun, 305, 306, 3 4 0 ^ 1 Sasaki Motokatsu, 374 Sasaki Toichi, 25n26, 38, 65 Sato Eisaku, 119 Sato Shinju, 132, 138 Saudi Arabia, xlix Sawada Masahisa, 42 Scharffenberg, Paul, 90, 92, 197, 235 Schell, Orville, 291 Schlesinger, Arthur Jr., xxxiv scorched earth tactics, 91, 92, 93, 108, 381 SEA. See Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEA) Second Reich and German Jews, xl SEF. See Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEA) Sejima Ryuzo, 311 Senjinkun (Tojo), 120 Seno Kappa, 128 Senshi sosho, 40 SGC. See Nanking Self-Government Committee (SGC) Shanghai, 31, 71, 185, 278, 279, 386-87 Shanghai Evening Post, 250 Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEA) actions en route to Nanking, 33-34, 37 creation o f a, 35 massacre of defeated stragglers, 44, 45 orders to kill all POWs, 74 reorganization of, 31-32 use o f chemical weapons, 386-87 Shanghai Incident, 1932, xxxi See also Central C hina Area Army (CCAA) Sheng Cheng, 377, 378

434

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

Shermer, Michael, 386 Shiga Naoya, 339 Shih Mei-yu, xliii, 132 Shijime Akira, 139—40 Shina (China), xlvii Shina noyoru, 1940, xli Shonen (Seno), 128

Society to Survey and Study the Nanking Incident, 342-44 Sperling, Eduard, 221, 230, 240 SSA. See Nanking Special Service Agency (SSA) Steiner, Jesse, 258, 259 Steward, Albert, 215-16, 217 Streicher, Julius, xli Sudetenland, xli-xlii Sun Shu-jung, 205, 206, 209, 213, 218, 219 Sun, Yat-sen, xxx, xlviii Suzuki Akira criticism o f The Rape of Nanking, 307 death of, 144 denial of the Nanking Atrocity, 5, 135-36, 145, 333, 360 interviewing techniques developed by, 142 on a 100-man killing contest, 115, 128-32, 135, 140, 141, 333 on the murder of POWs, 74 problematic sources used by, 137-38, 333 refusal to correct errors, 143-44 Suzuki Jiro, 125-26, 132, 136, 138

Short-War Illusion, The (Farrar), 360 ShOwa emperor, 30, 120, 124, 157-58, 359 Shrier, William, xxxvi Siberian Intervention, xxxvii Sino-Nazi friendship, xxlii Sixty-fifth Regiment, 39, 70-82, 84-85, 187, 188, 345. See also Amano Saburo Smedley, Agnes, 107, 358 Smith, Arthur L., Jr., 288 Smith, Bradford, 258 Smythe, Lewis S. C. description of surveys of, 51, 59, 66-67 estimate o f forced labor, 99-100 estimate o f Nanking’s population, 89, 90, 93 estimate o f the Nanking death toll, 98, 102, 1 0 3 ,1 0 7 ,1 1 2 ,2 5 5 flaws in the surveys of, 60, 67, 95, 375 on the IC, 234, 235, 240, 242 K M T funding of surveys by, 92, 98, 374 on Nanking residents’ fear o f Japanese soldiers, 376, 377 on NSZ police taken by the Japanese, 231 on the punishm ent o f collaborators, 232 role in the creation o f the NSZ, 227 on T ’ao Hsi-san, 205 on Wang Cheng-tien, 196, 197, 222 War Damage in the N a n k in g Area, 66, 92-96, 98, 100-101, 255, 374-76 Snow, Edgar, xxix, 107, 358 Society for a Liberated View of History, 304, 308, 309, 340 Society to Create a New Japanese History Textbook, 305, 308, 341 Society to Honor O ur War Heroes, 332, 335, 336-39, 349 Society to Study the Nanking Incident formation of the, 51, 344 members of the, 73, 116 research on the murder of POWs, 78 role in scholarship on the Nanking Atrocity, 116, 330, 332-33, 334

T Tadokoro Chieko, 141, 142-43 T ’ai’ping (Taiping) Rebellion, xlvi, xlviii Taiwan, xxiii, xlv, xlix, 5, 8, 11-12, 269, 271 Takashi Yoshida. See Yoshida, Takashi Takemoto Genji, 262 Takigawa Masajiro, 363-64 Tanabe Mastake, 387 Tanaka Kakuei, 119-20 Tanaka Masaaki alteration of primary sources, 145, 334, 389 blaming of the Chinese for atrocities, 322 denial of the Nanking Atrocity, 248, 296, 333-34, 358, 364 lawsuit against the Japanese government, 15 on the murder of POWs, 323 on the Nanking death toll, 5, 20, 249 Tanaka M emorial, xlii Tanaka Ryukichi, 50 Tanaka Saburo, 80, 81 Tanaka Toshiyuki, 345 T ’ang Chia-hsuan, 310 Tanggu Truce, xxxi T ’ang Sheng-chih agreement to demilitarize the NSZ, 18

435

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

decree for noncombatants to move to the NSZ, 91, 92 desertion of Nanking, 4, 37, 41, 43, 231 desire for a 3-day truce, 230—31 on disorder in the NSZ, 228—29 ordering of units to shoot fleeing Chinese soldiers, 12 refusal to surrender, 36—37, 260, 366 Tanizawa Eiichi, 396, 398 T ’ao Chueh-san, 206, 219 T ’ao Hsi-san imprisonment of, 219 participation in the SSAs inauguration, 199, 200, 208 as part of the Reformed Government, 218-19 role in the SGC, 203, 205, 206, 213, 224n35, 241 Ta-t’u-sha, 3, 359, 385 Tawantzu, 70, 84 Taylor, A.J.P., xxxvi Taylor, Frederick, 368 Ten Days a t Yangchou, xlvii Tenth Army, 31-32, 34, 36, 37, 47, 386. See also Central China Area Army (CCAA) Thayer, Nathaniel, 365 Three Alls’ Operations, 343-44, 388 Tibet, Tibetans, xlvi, xlvii, xlix, lii T ’ien-an-men Massacre, xxix T ’ien-an-men Square, 361, 368 Timperley, Harold, xxxv Timperley, Harold J. accounts of a 100-man killing contest, 117-18, 138, 140 deniers’ criticism of, 358 Japan, 257-58 problems with the findings of, 97, 379 publication of works by, 240 W hat War Means. See W hat War Means (Timperley) Tojo Hideki, 9, 120, 127 Tokyo War Crimes Trials. See International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) Torpedo Encampment, 70, 77, 84 Toyama Takeo, 132 Toyotomi, Hideyoshi, xxii Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 368, 369, 385 Triads, xlvi

Tsien, Hsue-shen (Ch’ien Hsueh-shen, Qian, Xuesen), xxcii-xxxii Tsien, Yucon, xxviii Tsou Jung (Zuo Rong), xlvii Tuan Yuep’ing, 295 Tungchou, 260 Turkestan, xlvii, xlix, lii Turkey, 267, 275, 276, 279 Twenty-one Demands, xxx U Uighur Turks, xlvi Umeya, Shokichi, xxx U N ESCO Memory o f the World, li United Nations, 119, 149, 277, 395 United States accounts of the Nanking Atrocity, 249, 257-59, 261-62, 292-93, 297 air raids on Japanese targets in Chinese cities, 13 atomic warfare used by the, 365 attem pt to block the PRC from the United Nations, 119 debates about the Nanking Atrocity, 285-86, 293 Uno Shintaro, 136, 139 V Vautrin, Minnie, 7, 104, 204, 206, 227, 379 Versailles, Treaty of, xli Vietnam War, 119, 122 Villa, Brian Loring, 288, 299 Vincent, John, 367 W Wade-Giles system, xi Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi, x-xi, 20, 23, 333, 339 Wang Cheng-tien distribution and transportation o f food, 210, 211-12, 214,242 participation in the SSAs inauguration, 199 roles in the IC and SGC, 21, 196-97, 199, 206, 210, 220-22 Wang C h’un-sheng, 205, 206, 219 Wang, Jimmy. See Wang Cheng-tien Wang Kopang, 90, 96 Wannsee Conference, xlii

436

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Index

war crimes trials. See International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE); Nanking War Crimes Trials War Damage in the N a n k in g Area (Smythe), 66, 92-96, 98, 100-101, 255, 374-76 warfare, atavistic predatory, xxi-xxii Watada Susumu, 73, 144, 333 Watanabe ShOichi, 145, 249, 262, 324, 395, 396 Webb, William, 159, 281 Wehrmacht, xli Weizsacker, Richard von, 364, 365 Wen Chia-pao, 9 W h a t War M eans (Timperley) on atrocities at Nanking, 256, 257 criticism of, 325, 326, 379-80 estimate of Nanking’s population, 88-89, 91 estimate of the Nanking death toll, 97-98, 106-7, 379-80 translation into Japanese, 261 White, Matthew, xlviii White, Theodore, xxix, xxxv Will, George F, 291, 292 Wilson, Robert documentation of the attack on the Hsias, 321 estimate of Nanking’s population, 91 estimate of the Nanking death toll, 104-5 on Japanese brutality in Nanking, 256 on the Japanese decree requiring citizens to register, 94 on the lack of artillery attacks on the NSZ, 233 on medical staff in Nanking, 237 role of, after the attack on Nanking, 236 on the SGC’s ties to the RSS, 199, 203, 204 “Worst Things People Have Done to Each Other,” xlviii Wright, Mary, xlvii

Wuchang Manchu massacre, xlvii Wu Chang-te, 121 Wu, Chao-hung, xxiii, xxvii X Xu Liangjin, xxviii-xxix Y Yamada Detachment, 71, 77, 78-83, 84-85, 345. See also Sixty-fifth Regiment Yamada, Masayuki, xxiii, xxvii Yamakawa Saki, 396 Yamamoto Isoroku, 17, 343 Yamamoto, Masahiro, x, xi, 19, 22, 97, 384 Yamamoto Shichihei attempts to prove Mukai and Noda innocent, 128, 132-35, 141 debates on a 100-man killing contest, 115, 122-26, 142, 145, 333 denial of the Nanking Atrocity, 5, 145, 333 estimate of Chinese military casualties, 135, 143 public support for, 339 suspicion of B-class war crimes committed by, 122-23, 127 Yamashita Tomoyuki, 176n37 Yamazaki Tomoko, 396 Yanagawa Heisuke, 31, 33, 386 Yang Daqing, 286, 294, 298, 300, 331, 344-45 Yashima, Taro, 259 Yasukuni Shrine, 9, 13-14, 23, 336, 337, 339 Yokoi Shoichi, 120 Yoshida, Takashi, ix, xi, 22-23, 47, 294, 298 Yoshida Yutaka, 34, 73, 325, 335, 343, 351 Yoshimi, Yoshiaki, xxxv, xxxvii Young, James, 258 Yuleiying, 70, 77, 84 Z Zarrow, Peter, xlvii, xlviii

437

This content downloaded from 142.103.160.110 on Sat, 25 Jul 2020 17:52:32 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms