Nagara and Commandery: Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Tradition (University of Chicago Geography Research Papers) 0890651132, 9780890651131

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NAGARA AND COMMANDERY Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions

by Paul Wbeatley The Univ6i?lty of Chicago

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY RESEARCH PAPER NOS. 207-208 (Double Number) 1983

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Copyright 1983 by Paul Wheatley Published 1983 by the Department of Geography The University of Chicago. Chicago, Illinois

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wheatley. Paul. Nagara and commandery. (Research paper/University ol Chicago. Department of Geography: nos. 207-208) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Cities and towns. Ancient-Asi a. Southeastern. 2. Urbanization-Asia. South· eastern-History. 3. Prolohistory. I. Title . II. Series: Research paper (University ot Chicago. Dept. of Geography) : no. 207·208. H3 1.C51 4 no. 207-208 910s 83-18014 [HT 147.A785J (307. 7'6' 0959] ISBN 0·89065-1 13·2 (pbk.)

Research Papers are available from: The University of Chicago Department of Geography 5828 S. University Avenue Chicago. Illinois 60637 Price: $8.00: $6.00 series subscription Price of double number 207-208: $ 16.00

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Sunt a l iquot quoque res quarum unam dice r e causam non satis est. verum pluris, undc una tam.en s i t;

co r pus ut cxanimum siquod i' rocul ipse i acere cons1>icias hominis, fit ut omn is dicer e causas conveniat leti , di catur ut illius una. nam ncque eum f erro nee fri90rc vinccre possis i nteriisse neque a morbo ncquc forte veneno, vcrum aliquid gcnere essc ex hoc quod conti9it ei scimus.

item in mult is lloc rebus diccre habemus. Titus Lucretius Carus, De Rerum Natura, Book VI, l ines 703- 71 1.

lJne v i lle ne croyait pas avoir le droit d e r icn oublier; c ar tout dans

son histoirc sc liait i son culte . L' histoire do la citC disait au citoycn tout cc q ui'i l devait croire et tout ce q u'il dcvait adorer. Numa Denys fustel de Coulanges , La CitC Antique (Par is, 1864), Pl' · 198- 199.

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CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

ix

•

PREFACE

xi

•

ABBREVIATIONS

xv

Chapter

1.

THE CITY AND ITS ORIGINS

2.

OF CHIEFS AND CHIEFDOMS

3.

CITIES OF "THE HUNTER"

119

4.

CITIES OF THE PYU

165

5.

CITIES OF THE RMAN

199

6.

CITIES OF THE EARLY MALAYSIAN WORLD

231

7.

URBAN GENES I S IN THE I NDIANIZED TERRITORIES

263

8.

BEYOND THE GATE OF GHOSTS

365

9.

ENVOI

4 19

APPENDIX:

1 •

•

URBAN CENTERS IN THE PTOLEMAIC CORPUS

. .

GENERAL INDEX

.. ..

4 39

.

465

INDEX OF PRINCIPAL TEXTS AND INSCRIPT IONS

471

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LIST OF FIGURES

. . . . . . . . . . . .

1.

Models of State Origins

2.

Models for the Operation of Control Hie rarchies

3.

Locations of Southeast Asian Sites, Ethnonyms and LOcalities mentioned in Cha9ter 2 Competi ng Mode ls of Ecotype Development

5.

Spread of Geographic Races of

6.

Evolution of the Two Cultivated Species of Rice

7.

Enceintes at Co-loa

8.

LOca tions of Archeol ogical Sites and LOcalities Ment ioned in Chapter 3 . .

9.

25

. .

4.

,,

Oryza sativa

22

•

47 54

in Asia

-

84 86 92

. . . .

.

. ..

.

.

122

Ident ifi able Ceremonial and Administrative Centers Mentioned in Pre- Ailkor Epigraphy .

126

10.

Layout of the Anci ent City at Oc-eo

129

11 .

Hydraulic System on the oc-eo Plain

138

12.

Locati ons of Archeo l ogical Sites , Ancient Toponyms and Ethnonyms Mentioned in Chapter 4

166

13 .

Remains of the City at Beik thano . . . . . .

168

1 4.

Isometric Projection of a

15 .

Traces of the Ancient Enceinte at Hmawza . .

174

16 .

Locations of Archeo l o g ical Sites, Ancient Toponyms and Ethnonyms Ment ion ed i n Chapter 5 . . . .

201

17.

Urban Enceintes from the Dvaravati Pe r iod

205

18.

Moated Enc l osures on t h e Khorat Plat eau

21 7

19.

Locations of Archeological Sites a n d Anc i e n t Toponyms Mentioned in Chapter 6 . . . . . . • . • •

235

20 .

The Protectorate- Genera l of the Pac i fied South, c. A. D. 800

375

21 .

Toponymy of Jih- nan Commandery in t he 4th Century A. O. . .

386

22 .

Principal Urban Hierarchies in Southeast Asia in the Second Half of the 14th Century . . .

426

23.

Trans-Gangetic India in MS

B~ick

Structure at Beikthano

venet. Marc. 5J6

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PREFACE

This is the third in a series of stud i es seeking to elucidate the origins of the city, and by implication of the state, in East Asia. The preceding volumes were The Pivot of the Four Quarters: a preliminary enquiry into the origins and character of tho ancient Chinese c ity

(University of Edinburgh Press, Edinburgh and Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago, 1971) and (with Thomas See) From court to capital' a tentatjve i nterpretation of the origins of the Japanese urban tradition (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1978) . The present volume traces the rise of urban hierarchies in that extensive tract of the earth's surface now known as Southeast Asia sensu strlcto, specifically the region l ying to the east of India and the south of China. In many respects this was the most difficult of the three volumes to write.

In the first place, it was necessary to e l icit

such informat ion as was available -

in s tudies of urban origins i t

is never anything but meager - from no less than five c ultural traditions. And then a great deal of the evidence had first to be s i fted from literary sources originating outside the cu ltures concerned before being interpreted in the context of a woeful l y inadequate archeological record . Third , th is study involved both of the princ i pal modes of urban genesis, namely generation and imposi tion, in contrast to the earlier volumes which had been concerned to explicate a single mode of origin. And fourth, the winds of a self-conscious rev i sionism are currently sweeping through Southeast Asian prehistory and protohistory so searchingly that it is no longer possible to set the study of urban and state origins with in an assured and tested framework of political and social c hange. In stead the inquiry has to be accorunoua ted to a f l ux of compet i ng formulations, hardly any of which command uni versal assent . xi 0191t1zed by

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Pee face

It is not claimed tha t the present e xpos it ion is in any sense comp lete o r definitive.

The paucity of archeolo9ical evidence, which combines

with the prevailing intractability of literary and epigraphic sources to induce a disconcerting fluidity of opinion about the early history of Southeast Asia, wou ld effectively contradict such an assertion. But this study, like others of its type, further suffers from the lack of a comprehensive and sufficien tly analyt ica l theory of urban genesis . Some decades hence it may be possible to attain an enhanced understanding of social chan ge i n ea r ly Southeast Asia in terms of a mor e powerfu l

and unified theory of urban and state origins; in the meanwhile, the p re sent interpretation is offered as one tentative synthesis of diverse and somet imes seemingly contradictory facts i nto a coherent developmental sequence which seems to be consonant with currently developing thrusts i n bo th t he specific study of ancient Southeast Asian society and the comparative investigation of urban origins. Thi s book has been written for urbanists with a comparative cast of mind, relative l y few of whom will be grounded in the intri cacies of early Southeast Asian history. Yet an understanding of the urbanization process suff iciently informed to be of use in crosscultural studies requires an appreciation of the nature and limita tions of the sources on which the arguments and conclusions are based . Social, po li t ica l , and economic p r ocesses assume their full sign ifi cance only in the cultural contexts within which they occur: neither the nature of pa ramountcy nor the workings of the ndgara can be

adequately comprehended, or indeed comprehended at all, without some understanding of sacred authority in ancient Southeast Asia; social and occupational deployment in Pre- Ankor Kampuchea are intelligible only in l ight of the prevailing Tempelwirgle

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The City and tts Origins

31

Notes and References 1. This aspect of urban studies is indissolubly associated with the name of Louis Wirth: •urbanism as a way of life," American Journal of Sociology, vol. 44 (1938) , pp. 3-24: reprinted on soveral occasions, perhaps most conveniently in Wi rth's posthumous Communitv life and social p011cy (Chicago, 1956 ), pp. 110-132, and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., On cities and social life (Chicago, 1964), pp. 60-83. for a recent evaluation of Wirth's contribution to urban studies, toqether with a conspectus of alternative analyses of urbanism as a way of life, see Claude s. Fischer, "'Urbanism as a way of life' : a review a nd an agenda," Sociological lfethods and Research, vol. 1, no. 2 (1972), pp. 187-242. John Friedmann, "Cities in social transfonnation," Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol . 4, no. 1 (1961), p . 92; Friedmann, " L'influence de l ' integration du systCme social sur le dciveloppeinent economique," Diogene vol. 33 (1 961) , pp . 80-104. The same author has applied the notion of the city as a creator of effective space to problems of development in several subsequent papers, which have been convenient ly brought together in Urbanizatjon , plannlng, and national development (Beverly Hills, Calif., and London , 1973). 2.

The substance of this and the preceding paragraph is elaborated in Wheatley, "The concept of urbanism," in Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham, and c. W. Dimbleby (eds.), Han, settlement and urbanism (London, 1972) , pp. 601-637; reprinted in Tringham (ed.) , Urban settlements. The process 0£ urbanization in archaeological settlements (Andover, Kass., 1973) , pp. Rl2: 1- 37. Cf. also the "Foreword'• to Rober t R. R.eed, City of Pines: the origins of B.!guio as a colonial hill stat ion and regiona l capital. ~search Monograph No. 13 of the Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies, University of California (Berkeley, 3.

Calif., 1976).

4 . Wirth's characterization of the city i n roughly these terms occurs on p. 8 of the original printing of his paper on '"Urbanism as a way o f life": cp. :iotc 1 above.

5. Awareness of the contrast bet-...iecn urban and rural life styles is clearly evident in, for example, Old Testament accounts of the urbanized Canaanites and certain naiiadic Hebrew tribes {Cf. w. R. Jeremia , Handbuch zum Al ten Testament, vol. 12 (Tiibingcn , 1958), pp. 207ff; H. Y. Ben-Gavriel, "Das nomadische Ideal in der Bibel, '• Stlll'ln9n der Zeit, vol. 88 (1962 - 63), pp . 253- 263: J, O. Hertzler, Soc;ial thought of the ancient civilizdtions (New York, 1936), pp. 298ff.} , For Lucr etius and the Epicureans much the same distinction was subsumed by the paired tenns concordia and jus titia, for Mencius [11, ii , 3, 6} by the opposition of court (ch' do t 'inq) and village (hsia ng tdng).

6. This is the definition provided by Brian T. Robson [ Urb~n gr~th: an approach (l.Ondon, 1973), p. 4J, following earlier stat~ments by G. r . Chapman ( The object of geographical dnalysis, an unpublished paper presented to the CortWnission on Quantitat ive Methods of the International Gcoqraphical Union (Budapest , 1971>1 and James l(, Feibleman ('.Theory of integrative l evels, " British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, vol . 5 (1954), pp. 59-66). In less abstract language than that used in the text, a first-order object of study can be characterized as an object which has shape , which is composed of a set of identifiable clements determining its internal functioning, which can be rel ated to other objects defined at a similar scale and having relationshi1>s with it at the next-h igher scale l eve l, and which varies over both space and time. 7.

Robinson, Urban growth, p. 4.

8. Fe ib leman , "Theory o f integrat i ve levels,•· p. 61. Phrased differently tllC law becomes: the o utput of a hiqher-order control constitutes the reference

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Nagar a a n d Co mmande r y

value f or a lower ...order control . Or , stated in ye t a ttlir d way, a r egul atory mechanis~ does not es t ablish i ts o wn output refer enc e val ues , b ut a dopt s thos e o f a higher- order regulatory mechanism . 9. Notably by Brian J. L . scr ry , " Cities as systems within systems of cities , " Papers and Proc:ccdinys of the Regional Scioncc Association , vol . 1 3 (1964), pp . 147-163. 10 . Thi s and the fo l lowinq eight paragraphs ar~ reproduced substantial l y a s they appeared i n Wheatley and Thomas see , From cour t to capitAl . A ten tative inter pretati on of the ori9ins of the Jap.anese ur ban t radition (Chicago , 1978 ), pp . 3- 6 . 11. Sec , fo r example, Kings l ey Dav is and HildA He r t z Golden , " Urbaniza tion and the de velopment of pr e- i ndustria l areas , " Economic Development a nd Cul tura l Change, vol . J (1954 ) , pp . 6-24 .

12 . At this point the r ead~r must be cautioned tha t , althoug h t he vocabula ry err.ployed is shar ed by a otnber of other wr iters , several a lternative terminologies a r e also in use . Kenneth Lit t l e , f or instance, denotes by ur bani z at:ion "the pr ocess whereby people acqui re material and non-materia l clements of c u l t ure , behav iour J)atterns and i deas t )\at orig inate i n or a re distinctive of t h. 4, 39, $6 , and 101 .

1967).

~1cnt~ ral

theory of act ion

19. Ou r catcqorization of r ealms of p r imary and secondary ur)Jan generation i s, of course . ana Logo\!s to •'1orton Ii . Fr ied' s discrimination between what l~e terms pristine and secondary st..1t(."S (Br iefly i n "On the evoluti on of social str at i f ication a nd the state," i n Stanely Diamond (ed.), Culture in ,>-,istory: css ..111s i r1 honor of f'aul p4,/ ; n (?.Jew York , 1960), l' P· 7 1 3 and 729-730 ; elabor a ted

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33

in The evolution of political society {New York, 1967) passim). There have been few attempts to generalize about the processes operating in either secondary urban generation or secondary state formation, but two such are Herbert S. Lewis, ••The origins of African kingdoms," Cahiers d'ttudes Africai nes, vol. 6 (1966), pp. 402- 407 and Barbara J , Price, "Secondary state formation: an explanatory model," in Fonald COhen and Elman R. Service (eds.), Origins of the state: the anthropology of political &volution (Philadelphia, 1978), pp. 161-186. 20.

Note 2 above.

21. A notable example of a.n author who is prepared to accede to the notion of city- less statehood is Eric R. Wolf, who takes a somewhat narrower view of urba.niSlfl than that espoused in the present vol\11\e: Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1966), pp. 10-11. John A. Wilson seems to have been subscribing to the same notion when he contrived the formula ''civilization without cities .. in reference to the Nile valley before the rise of the New Kingdom: The burden of Egypt (Chicago, 1951), chap. 2 (Feprinted under the title The culture of ancient Egypt (1963)). 22.

Note

~

above.

As was implicit in the works of , among other·s , Ferdinand "I'Onnies (Cemeinschaft und Cesellschdle {Eighth revised edition, Leipzi9 , 1935)} , Emile

23.

ourkheim (De la division du travail social: eeude sur l'organisation des societes supBrieures (Paris, 1893)), Oswald Spengler (Der Untergang des Abendlandes, 2 vols. (Miinchen, 1922)), and Jos~ Ortega y Gasset (The revolt of the m.tsses (New York, 1932) ) , 24. Richard L. Meier, '"The or9anization of technoloqical innovation in urban environments," in Oscar Handlin and J ohn Burchard (eds.), The historian and the city (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), p . 75. 2~-

Scott Greer, The

emergi~1g

city:

rrtyth and real i ty (New York, 1962}, p . 34.

26. For further discussion of this disti-n ction between central institutional transactions concerned with the transmi ssion of information on the one hand and those dealing wit h the allocation of commodities on the other see Richard E. Blanton, "Anthropoloqical Studies of Cities," Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 5 (1976), pp. 249-264. 27. Sir Henry IS\.11\Tler) Haine, Ancient law. Its connection with the early tustory of society and its relati on to modern ideas (London, 1961). Reprinted in 1916 with editorial notes by Frederick Poll ock, and as Beacon Paperback No. lSS (Boston, 1963). 28. Lewis Henry Mor9an, Ancient society, or, researches in the lines of human progress from savagery through barbarism eo civi lization (New York, 1877). Reprinted as Meridian Book No . 166, edited by El eanor Burke Leacock {New York, 1963) 29. Ferdinand TOnnie~, Gemeinsch.ift und GesellscJiaft (Eighth revised edition, Leipzig, 1935). Elnile Durkheim, De la djvision du tc~vail social: e eude sur l'organisation des soc18eCs su[>iirioures (Paris, 1893). Contrasts of this type had been incorporated in the works of numerous authors prior to the rise of t he social sciences in the 19th century . Edmund Burke' s Reflections on the rC\'Oluti on in France (1790), for instance, is structured about his distinction bct...·ccn ·1e9itiJnate society" {compounded of kinship , class, religion, and locality, and cemented by tradition) and the new i ndustria l society which he observed developing in Britain and Europe. Cf. also the same author's A vindi cdtion of natural society (17~6) . An a.nalo9ous conception is also clearly evident in 30 .

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Nigara and Commandery

Hegel ' s oppos ition o f ••family society" to '"civic society." f'or a short discussion of these and similar so-ca· led .. theories o f contrast" see Wheatley, "The concept of urbanism," pr>. 602-605. The most com1,rehcnsi ve treatment of these paire d tenns is stil l that by H. Becker, Through values to social interpretation (Durham , N.C., 19$0). Quoted by Elman R. Service (Orig ins of t he state dnd civilizatjon. The process of cultural evolution (Ne w York, 197S) , p. 511 fran Ruben Cold Thwaites Ced . ), The Jesuit relations 4nd allied documents , vol. 6 (Cleveland, 1897), p. Z4 3. 31.

32 . ~or varying views of what constitutes a s t a t e consult , int . al., J. K. Sluntschli, The theory of t he state (London, 1 B~J2) ; Franz Op1)cnhcim.er , The state: its history and dev~lopmcnt v iewed sociologically {repr i nt edition: New York , 1926) ; Richard Thurnwald, Die mensch! i'ch e Gesel lschdft, vol. 4 (Scrlin- Lcipziq , 1935); Ott o Gierke, 1Ya t 11rdl Jaw and the tt1cory of soci'et~ (Boston , 1950) ; Wilhe lm Koppers, "L'oriqine de 1 •etat," VItJ> Intern.2tionoi1 Congress of Antl>ropolo-gical Md Ethnological Scien ces 1960, vol . 2 (Paris, 1963) , pp . 159- 168 ; Morton H. Fried, The e v olution of political society . An esstJy in political antl>ropology (~w York, 1967) , C}\af' · 6; Lawr ence Krader, Forma ti'on of the state (Englewood Cliffs , N. J ., 1968); and most recently El man R. Service , Ori gins of the st.lt-e and clvili zll t ion: t he process of culturdl evoluti on (New York , 1975) .

Int. al., Robert Hee. Adams, The evolution of urb.ln societispanic ."le x ico (Chicago , 1966) ; Wheatley, Tho pivot of the four quarters (Edinburgh and Cllicago, 1971 ). 33.

34 . Sec particularly Service, Ori'qin s of the state, p~ssl m; Donna Taylor, some loc.1 tional as f)f.•ct s of middle-ranye hJ'erarchical societies. Un1>ublished Ph. D. d i ssertation submitted to the Graduate ? acu lty in Anthropol09Y. The City Univer s i ty of New York, 1975; Blanton, "Anthropological stud ies of cities," passi m. The term "chiefdom'• sec.ms to have ~en first ernp loycd in a restricted t echni cal s ense by Ka l ervo Ol>c rq in 1955 ("TyfJCS of social structure among the l o ....·land tribes of south and Central Nncric.l , •' AJ1:k..· ri c.·o1n Ant:.»ro.oo l(>(;i .~t., vol . ) 7, no. 3, 1>1>. 472-487) as a desiqnation for a certain tyf>C of c ircurn- c aribbean socie ty e xhibiting a dcc1 t cc:- of structura l ccntrali z.:ition s01ncwl1crc bct...,• cen that of a scqr:icntcd tr ibe a.nd that of a d e ve l oped state . Subsequentl y Julian l'I . S teward and Louis C. f'at'o n g a ve wider currenc:· to this usage b}' i ncorporating it i n their tex t entitle-cl ,V,7 ti vc p.:oJ>l C!s of South A""•rit in studies of g itimen Hcrrschaft," p~ ssim . 5 4. see 1 ine . al., Paul Ki rchhoff . " The p rincit>les of clanship in human society 1" in Morton H . Fr ied (ed.), .~eddini.;s in 1inthropolo..;y 1 vol . 2 (~e w Yol:k, 195 9), pp. 2&0- 270 (Ori9i na lly written in 1935 ; first r)ubl ished in 1955 in D.:rvidson Journ al 0 £ lin t.~ro pology, v o l. l, pp . 1-10 ) ; Jonathan 1-~ri edman, '"Tr ibes , states, and transformations1" i n Maurice: Bl och ((!d . } , M.J1'xist analyses and sociiJl anthropol o gy . l\ssociation of Soc ial Ant)\ropologists Studies No. 3 (LOndon a n d New York , 1975), pp. 161-202 .

55 . When a ruler is in a position to use tt\he r e of operation of eac h of its subsyst ems changes in extent and intens ity, ther eby induci ng paralle l mutations i n its a ssociated modes o f exchange. Cf . Talcott Parsons and Nei l J . Smelser , Economy and socie ty. A s tudy i n t he i n tcgr atjon of economic .:Jnd soc:ial theor y ( London, 1956) ; Smelser , .. A c ompar at ive v iew of e xchanqe syste:ms," Economic Development and CuJt ~1ra J Cha~..,ge, vol . 7 Cl95CJ ), pp . 173... 182, and The sociology ofccono:nic J jfc (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 196J ) . 65 .

I am, of course , he re a ssimila ting the reli9ious system o f the chiefdom to Robert N. Bellah ' s ideal - typical stage of Archaic Rel igion: "Reli9ious e voluti on, " American Sociological Re•,,iew, vol. 29 , no. 3 (1964} , pp . 364- 36&. On the h igh god see Raffaele Pcttazzoni , The ~11 - kn ow ing god (London, 1956) . 66.

t)\i s point s ee the cl.1ssic pa per of He nri Hubert and Marcel Mauss , " Essai sur la natu.r e ~t la fonc tio n d u sacr ifice ," L'Anni!e Sociolo9ique , vol . 2 Or\

(1897-98) . pp . 29-138 . 67.

Bell ah, "' Religio•Js e vo l ution ," p . 365 .

68.

Se rvice , Or jqins of the state and civilization, p . 93 .

I .e ., any of sever a l form s of wholesa ling undertaken at goverrunent ins t iga tion and under qovor runont c ontrol . The term was first g i ven this technical meaning in the works of Karl Pol anyi: see , for instance, Polanyi, Conrad M. Arcnsber9, and tlarry w. Pe arson, Trade and market in t he ea r ly empi res (Glencoe , Ill . , 1 95 7)~ Pll · 168ff. and 262ff . , and '"traders and trade." in Jeremy A.. Sabloff and C. re r ecently has been re9arded somewhat sympathetically by Gordon R. Willey , "Mesoamerica, .. in Robert J . Braidwood a."ld Willey (eds.), Courses toward urban life. Arc heologi cal considerations of some cultural alternates (Chicago, 1962), pp. 84-101, and "The early Great Styles and the rise of the Pre-Columbian civilizations,~ American Anthropologist , vol . 64 (1962 ) , pp. 1- 14. tn spite of tho c i rcumstance that, for reasons of brevity, only on~ or two names have here been a ttached to the individual causative agents, eAch has in fact been proposed by $ev eral , and sometimes numerous , authors ; but anx iety induced by deterioration o f a habitat has , I think:, been suggested (and then very tentat i vely) in only one instance: by Walter A. Fa i rservis, J r. , "The Harappan civi lization - ne..,., evidence a.nd more the?ory, " American Museum Novi t ates, no. 2055 (1961), p. 18. It is true that Henri Frank fort was aware of the possible funct ion of anxiety in the formation o f Mesopot~ia.n tem1>le cities, but he deri ved it from an inability to '~pe with a particular environment r ather than f r om gener a l e nvi ronmental deterioration: cf., for e xample , The birth of civi lization in t he Near tast (Sl oomington, Ind . , 1951), c hap. J, especially p . 54.

80. Henry T. Wright, Toward an explanation of the origin of the state . Pa per prepared for a Symposium at the School of AJnerican Research on "Explanation of Prehistoric or9anizational Cttangc .. (Santa Fe I 1970) . Mimeographed , but su.t:.sequen tly published i n proqressivcly expanded forms i n James H. Hill {ed. ), t~pJanation of prehistoric change (Albuquerque, N. Mex., 1977) and Ronald Cohen a nd Elman R. Service (eds.) , Origins of the state : the anthropclog9 of political

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e vol ution {P}\iladelphia , 1978). 81. Robert Mee. Ada.ms, The e volution of urban soci ety: Prehi spanic 1'fexico (Chicago, 1966). 82.

eacly He So(>Otamia and

Wheat ley, The pivot of the fou r quarters , passim.

Otis Dudley Duncan and LOO F. Schnore, "Cultural , behavioral , and ecological perspecti ves i n the study of social organization," American Journal 0£ Sociology, vol. 65 (1959) , pp . 132-146; Sc hnore, "Social morphology and human ecol o9y,"

83.

American Journal of Sociology , vol. 63 ( 1958 ), pp . 620- 634; Duncan , "Human ecology and popul ation s t udie s," in Philip M. Hauser and Duncan {eds . ) , The study of population (Chicago, 1959>, pp. 678- 716. But for a c ont-r ary vie w see S idney M. Wilhelm, ''The concept of the ' ecological complex•: a critique,•• American Journal of Economics and Sociology , vol. 23 (1964) , p p. 241-248. The theory o f tlle ecological c omplex owes a good deal to &mi le Durkheim' s work , particularly Del~ division du travail soci~l: Ctude sur l'organisation des societOs superie ures (Paris , 1893). 84 . Possibly t he most signi f i e.ant achieve1nent of the attempt to elucidate the process o f urban gene-s is i n te rms of t he ecological complex was an. e nhanced awareness of the k i nds and d e9r ees of structural differentiation (or f usion) o f the func tional subsystems o f socie t y at succeeding l evel s of i ntegration: tt1e tende ncy to f use pattern-maintenance and adapti vc (so-called "economic••) func tions at the fo l k leve l o f inteqration , integrative and adaptive fun c tions at the leve l of the cer cmoni.tl-administrative center, and 9 oal - attairun(!nt at'd adaptive functions during the expansionist pha se of incipient empi re.

Ken t V. Flanne r }' • "Tt1e c ultura l evolution of civilizat ion s ," Annu.:i:l of Ecology and Systematics , vo l. 3 (1972), pp . 399-426 . 85 .

86. J. G. Mill e r, "Living systems: 10 , pt . 3 (1965) ' pp. 193- 257. 87.

Rt!!\'ie1..•

basic concepts, " Behaviora l Scientist, vol.

Fl annery, " The c ultural evolution of ci viliza tions,•• p. 4 09 .

88.

J ames K. f'eible man, "Thcory of intcqrati ve level s , " British Journal fo r tho Philosophy 0£ Science, vol. 5 (1954), p . 61 . Or , pllrased di ffere ntly, t he output of a higher -orde r control constitutes the r eference value of a l ower-order control. Or , stated i n yet a third way , a regulatory mechan ism does not establi sll its own output reference va l u es , but ado1>ts t hose of a highe r -order r egulatory mechanism. 99 . L. a. Slobodkin, "Toward a predictive tl1eory of evo lution , ·• in Richard O . Lewontin (ed . ) , Population biol oqy and evolution (Sy racuse , N.Y., 1968) , pp. 197- 205 .

90 . R. A. Ra1)paport, sanctity and adaptdt.ion . PaJ1er prepared f or tllc We nner- Gren Symposium on "The Horal and Estl)eti c struc t ure o f ltuman Adapta tion '' (1~6 9 ) . Cited by l'lannery , "The cultur.ll ovo lution of civ il ization," pp. 41 3- 414 . 9 1.

Flannery, .. Tho c ultural -0volution of c i vilizations,•• p. 420 .

~2 .

Flanr\cry, op. cit ., p . 412 .

9 3.

cp . p . 9 above .

Ricliar d L . z.icicr, A communications theory 0£ urb(lll 1962) .

94.

g ro~·th

(Cambri dge, Mass . ,

Roy A. Rat)f1apo r t , "The sacred i n h\un.an e vo lution," Annual Review of E._[)~ ~40':.-c::::>--. JA V A

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Fi9. 3. Locations of Southeast Asian sites, ethnonyms , and localt i es mentioned in this chapter. Names and transcriptions are those avored in the relevant literature .

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Original from

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

48

Nigara and Commander y

cultivation, with al l that this last implies as to permanence and concentration of se ttlement. F i nally, rather more than two thousand years ago , a second migration of Malays - Deu t ero- Ma lays as t hey we r e often called - brought a knowl edge of b r onze a nd i ron me tal l urgy to t h e i sland world . They, toget he r wi th t he metal- us i ng peoples o f the rr.a i n l and, we r e usually rubr icated as t he -E>8 ng -so-n Cu l t u re .

I n He ine-Ge l dern 's reconstru cti on, t h ey

repr esen ted the h i g he st immediately p r e - urba n level of societa l inte g r ation in Southeas t As ia, al t hough it was not supposed that they tot a l l y s u pplanted t hei r predecessors . Ra t her they were held to have i nfil tra ted the lowlands and i nte r montane valleys suitable for wet- padi farmi ng , leaving the uplands to remnants of al l egedly earl ier, technolog ical l y less wel l - endowed groups . Geo r ge Coed~s·s characterizat i on of the so-call ed ~ong - sc:rn Cu ltu r e wi l l serve as wel l as any . 8 Au point de vue materie l :

la culture de riziCres irriguCcs; la do."!\estication du boeuf ct du buffle; 1 ' usage rudimCJltaire des metaux; l 'tlabili t C Q la navigation.

Au poi nt de vue social :

l ' importance du rOle attribue la femme ct la filiation ~n ligne matcrnclle; l'or 9anisation result.:int dos nCccss i tes de la culture irriguCe .

Au Point dP. vue rc .l 19 icux:

1 ' animisme;

a

a

et du dieu du sol ; l'installation des l ieux de cultc sur l es hauteurs ; l'inhumation des morts da.ns des j arrcs , ou des dolmens. l e culte des

Au

point de vue

m~·tl1olo9

ique :

anc~t r cs

"un duati smc cosrnolo9iqu~ oU

s ' OJ.'(.'OSent ta monta9 ne ot la mer , la ge nt ail~~ ~ t la gent aquatiquc , lcs hommcs ~cs hautc.-urs ct ccux des cotes.••9

Au point de vuc linguistique:

l ' emi,loi de laJ'1gucs isolantcs dou~cs d'ur\e r icl1c facultci de dCrivation par pre f i xes , suffixes ct infixes.

In an earl ier reconst ructio n of the cu l ture of Java in what would subsequently come to be l< nown as the -Oon9-so-n period, Nicho l aas Krom had i ncluded the pu ppet t heater {woy,in; :-.ur.t !.:lg Ct.ut :oot t ~e bo-..i or arro·...·} ; c.rossto·...· ( ~;J t r;rccise origin ur.i'.:-.o·...·:i} ; fi.t{-;,lac