Music for the Films [1 ed.]

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MUSIC FOR THE

FILMS. A HANDBOOK FOR COMPOSERS AND CONDUCTORS BY

LEONID SABANEEV MEMBER OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ACADEMY OF ART SCIENCES

TRANSLATED BY

S. W. PRING

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LONDON SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. 1935

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FOREWORD

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THE purpose of this book is to provide the composer and conductor of music for the sound film

with practical and technical advice, which will enable them to assimilate without loss of time SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, Lrp. PITMAN HOUSE, PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C.2 THE PITMAN PRESS, BATH PITMAN HOUSE, LITTLE COLLINS STREET, MELBOURNE ASSOCIATED COMPANIES

PITMAN PUBLISHING CORPORATION 2 WEST 45TH STREET, NEW YORK

SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS (CANADA), Ltp. (INCORPORATING THE COMMERCIAL TEXT BOOK COMPANY) PITMAN HOUSE, 381-383 CHURCH STREET, TORONTO

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the methods, generally simple, to be adopted. I assume, of course, that the composer who has received a commission to write for the cinema has reached a certain stage in the musical art, that he knows how to compose and orchestrate, and is in general a trained musician, acquainted with the technique of his profession. As a rule, the cinema composer stands apart from his fellows, inasmuch as originality and novelty are not required of him; he is an arranger or transposer of the inspirations of others, rather than a creator. The ability to borrow wisely and opportunely, to imitate good and suitable examples, is a valuable endowment in his case, though these qualifications by no means add lustre to the ordinary composer. Sometimes the choice is not left to him, and he is called upon _to write in the style of a certain period, or to make an arrangement of a particular composition. While the cinema composer can dispense with a talent for original work, he must, nevertheless, be fully equipped from a technical point of view.

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FOREWORD

Furthermore, he should possess the faculty of speed and at a moment’s notice. So far as the type of composition is concerned, the cinema composer is to the composer pure and simple as the journalistis to the author.

writing at high

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This work, then,is intended for the man already familiar with the technique of musical composition, but as yet unacquainted with the special and novel requirements of the cinema. At the same time I believe that the qualified cinema musician will find in these pages, which are based on the author’s practical experience, a number of useful suggestions. With every year cinema music grows and expands and its technique undergoes alteration, becoming more complex and attaining to greater perfection. I shall consider my task successfully accomplished if the systematic advice and information contained herein should enable the musician to economize even a portion of his time, and help him to find his bearings in an interesting sphere—a sphere rich in material and artistic possibilities and providing the musician with a new and vast arena wherein to develop his powers.

CONTENTS PAGE

CHAP.

FOREWORD

D

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5

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PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON SOUND RECORDING

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APPARATUS EMPLOYED PHOTOGRAPHY 5

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IN .

SOUND .

THE AESTHETICS OF THE SOUND FILM THE COMPOSITION OF MUSIC FOR THE CINEMA c

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THE ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM .

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CONDUCTING AND SYNCHRONIZING

MUSICAL DOUBLING

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vill. THE “‘MONTAGE” OF THE SOUND FILM.

MIXING

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MUSIC FOR ANIMATED CARTOONS

INDEX

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CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON SOUND RECORDING

THE composer of music for the cinema, whom we have in view in this book, has essentially little concern with the methods by which the sound film is made, with the mechanism whereby the sounds of the human voice, the orchestra, etcetera, are transferred to the celluloid strip. Such matters are of no interest to the great majority of composers, the more so in that to many of them the principles underlying this invention are not easily explained. They consider that the composer’s job is to write the music; sometimes to perform it (when the conductor also happens to be the composer); in extreme cases to help the director with the montage—and there his responsibility ends; the technicians do the rest. In much the same way the director is not required to be a photographer, nor to know what developers are necessary for the film. In these days of specialization and extreme division of labour such opinions are widely held and find support in other spheres of industry, but, in accordance with the English I

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prescription: “Know something of everything and everything of something,” we assume that the composer ought to have an approximate comprehension of the essence of sound photography, if only that he may be of more assistance in the montage of the musical section, which, as a rule, cannot easily be accomplished without him,

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In this book we shall deal only with the general method of recording on the sound film, ignoring other systems which had their day and were sometimes very clever. They gave even better results, but for many reasons could not maintain the struggle for existence with the film recording now adopted almost everywhere. As we know, sound is produced by the vibrations of a resonant body. These vibrations are conveyed to our ear by means of waves in the air. The pitch of the sound is determined by the rapidity of the vibrations, its intensity by their amplitude; on the form of the vibrations depends the tone colour of the sound, i.e. the timbre—the quality which marks the difference between, let us say, the note of a trumpet and that of a violin at the same pitch. When we have several simultaneous sounds their vibrations are blended, and a certain resultant vibra-

tion is obtained, corresponding to the given complexus of sounds, (See Plate I.) Our ear can receive as sounds vibrations ranging from 16 to 15,000 per second.

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If by some means we can compel a diaphragm to vibrate with the same form (law) of vibration as, for instance, a violin string, it will emit a note identical with that of the violin. On this principle of vibrating diaphragms many soundtransmitting instruments are now constructed. They include the telephone, the gramophone, the radio apparatus, and the sound film with which we are concerned. In all of them the sound proceeds from a diaphragm which is set vibrating by various methods (in the gramophone by a needle gliding over a disc on which the figures of the vibrations are incised ; in the telephone by an electro-magnet; and so forth). In the sound cinema we have to deal with two technical processes : the systems of recording and the system of reproduction. 1. The system of recording by the variable density method is as follows— The sounds which make the record on the film are produced in front of a microphone (Plate II, Fig. 1*), which converts the sound vibrations into a system of electric currents. These are not of constant strength, but vary in exact accordance with the vibrations of the microphone diaphragm, which, inits turn, repeats the vibrations of the resonant body (the violin, the orchestra, the human voice, etc.). We learn from physics that every sound complexus has a definite figure of vibration which exactly corresponds to it, and this figure is as exactly

PRELIMINARY REMARKS

5

transmitted in the vibrations of the strength of the current. The electric currents thus received are very feeble, and have to be intensified by an amplifier PLateE

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II, Fig. 1°), whereby a greater amplitude imparted to the vibrations without altering their figure. The amplified currents pass through an oscillating electric lamp (Plate II, Fig. 1), and affect the strength of the light; the lamp begins to (Plate

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twinkle rapidly, and again the figure of the twinkling corresponds accurately to the vibrations of the resonant body. The light from this lamp falls an a small and narrow slit (Plate II, Fig. 1*), before which passes the edge of a moving sensitized film (Plate II, Fig. 1*); on it a photograph is produced, in the form of a series of bars, which are lighter or darker in proportion to the intensity of the light emitted by the lamp at any given moment, and which, again, exactly correspond to the vibrations of the resonant body. A negative of the film is thus obtained, and from it any number of positives can be printed. 2. The system of reproduction is as follows— The film with the bars (the sound track) photographed on it (Plate II, Fig. 2¢1) is run through the projecting apparatus. A small lamp, known as the exciter lamp (Plate II, Fig. 2’) with the help of a condenser throws a beam of light through a narrow slit (Plate II, Fig. 27). The beam is thereby reduced to a fine pencil of light, which passes through the sound track and emerges as a Series of variable vibrations in exact correspondence with the vibrations of the resonant body. It then falls on a photo-electric cell (Plate II, Fig. 2") in which is incorporated a piece of selenium. This non-metallic element has the property of altering its electrical resistance in accordance with the amount of light it receives, and consequently the electric current

passing through it varies in intensity, and its vibrations once more prove to be exactly similar to those of the resonant body. These vibrations are now transmitted through an amplifier to the diaphragm of the loudspeaker (Plate II, Fig. gel)~ which conyerts them into sound. Thus in the process of cinematograph photography sound undergoes a series of transformations, in the course of which its timbre is generally more or less distorted and some of its qualities are lost or altered. Furthermore, very intricate vibrations set up by complex noises or complex sequences of sounds run the risk of being somewhat blurred, and this explains why they are always less satisfactorily reproduced than clear and simple sounds. Persons experienced in the montage of films can form a fair idea of the character of the sound merely by examining the sound track. For the musician it is important to be able to find the silent spots (in them there is no undulatory shading), and the spaces in which the resonances are stable, ic. in which they remain unchanged for a comparatively long period; in the latter case the figure of the waves remains constant for several decimetres, but it is much more difficult of detection by the eye. (Plate III, Fig. 2.) Usually the sound and the picture are photographed on separate films and in separate studios. The montage of each is carried out independently, after which they are combined into one for

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The other system of recording is known as the variable width method. The only distinction between it and the variable density method is that in the former the currents, differing in intensity, which issue from the microphone fall on a galvanometer and deflect to a varying extent a

PRELIMINARY REMARKS

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microscopic mirror; the rays on reaching the mirror are deviated more or less, in proportion to the strength of the current, with the result that the sound track shows a jagged line of a constant intensity, instead of a series of darker or lighter bars. While the shades of tone are not so accurately transmitted by this method as by the variable density method, they are more easily distinguishable from the external appearance of the sound track, the jagged profile being more characteristic than the shaded bars. (Plate III, Fig. 1.) As the movement of the sound film must be perfectly steady, and the picture film passing in front of the lens travels, as everyone knows, by leaps, it is impossible to print the sound on the same part of the film as the scene to which it corresponds. This must therefore be done either before or after the loops which the film forms before and after passing in front of the slit of the projecting apparatus. Nowadays the sound film is printed at a distance of nineteen frames (36-2 cm.) from the picture film; the sound slit is nineteen frames below the slit of the latter, where it once more moves evenly, but as the pictures on the film are reversed, it is necessary to look for this place on the sound film (positive or negative) nineteen frames above the corresponding points of the picture film. Thus, if we were to have a sound track with the pictures, the sound corresponding to a given frame of the a—(C.153)

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picture film would never be found in that frame, but would have to be sought higher up the film, at a distance of nineteen frames. These remarks have an important bearing on the montage of a film~and on the understanding of its technique and methods.

CHAPTER II APPARATUS EMPLOYED IN SOUND PHOTOGRAPHY

THE microphone is an instrument which receives

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the sound vibrations and transmits them as described above, for the purposes of the sound film. We will not discuss its construction, as it is by no means simple; moreover there are many different systems, and their number increases year by year. For the musician, whom we have in view, it is more essential to know how the microphone is used in photographing sound, and the methods of handling it. Microphones are either fixed or movable. The former are fastened to a permanent stand in a definite place; the latter can be shifted about noiselessly by a system of wires and rods, in order to follow the movements of the artist who is speaking; or they can be brought nearer to the sound, or the source of the sound, should this require to be made prominent. Movable microphones (known as giraffes) are mainly employed, however, to record speech and not music. On the distance of the resonant body from the microphone depends the strength of the sound recorded—the nearer it is, the greater the volume, which drops rather rapidly in proportion to the withdrawal of the source. In the open air (when Ir

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shooting exteriors) the strength of the sound is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the microphone; in other words, if the singer or player retires to twice the distance, he will be heard four times more faintly, if to three times the distance, nine times more faintly, and so on. For this reason sound is hardly ever shot in exteriors. The results are extremely uneven, and to obtain a more natural equality a large number of microphones would be needed this is often impracticable, as they would occupy a great deal of the area on which the action is taking place, and could not be kept out of the field of view of the cameras. In the studio the sound does not fade so quickly when the source is withdrawn further from the microphone, thanks to the reverberation—the complex phenomenon of the echo and the reiterated reflections of the sound from the walls, the ceiling, and the furniture. It may be roughly calculated that’ here the strength of the sound is in inverse ratio to the distance. In any case, in order to receive the sound accurately it is necessary to place the microphone or microphones in such positions that the essential parts shall be prominent and shall not be smothered by those of secondary importance. When an actor moves about, he is followed by a portable microphone (giraffe) ; if he retires from the scene it pursues him, but remains at a short distance from him; thus the proper tonal

perspective is maintained, whereas it would be exaggerated if a fixed microphone were used. For big and complicated shots as many as four microphones are required. When a solo voice or instrument is being recorded, the microphone is placed near the singer or player, but the accompaniment is kept at a distance, lest it should drown the solo. As an orchestra occupies a considerable space, several microphones are needed to record it, otherwise the results will be very unequal. Prominence can be given to any particular part by means of a movable microphone. An exaggerated crescendo or diminuendo can be obtained by bringing the microphone nearer to, or withdrawing it further from, the source of the sound. This method is not often used, though remarkable effects are possible by means of it. For example, by moving away from the microphone a soloist can produce a perfect morendo, and this even applies to the harsher instruments. The monitor room is generally a portable sound-proof chamber, to which all the sounds received by the microphones for the purposes of the film are transmitted. The monitor room is occupied by the soundman, whose duty it is to regulate the pick-up from the various microphones with a view to obtaining the best results. At his disposal is a series of amplifiers from the microphones, by operating which he arrives at the proper correlation of the different resonances,

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and secures the due tonal perspective. When the film is of a musical type, it is advisable that the composer should also be in the monitor Toom, so that he may form an opinion as to what his music sounds like. > Sound screens are placed in the studios in order to direct the music to the microphones and ensure the very best results, They are more often used in studios whose resonance is faulty. The moviola is a portable reproducing apparatus, by means of which the picture and the sound are projected while on separate films. It is indispensable in the montage (i.e. the final shaping of the film by cutting and clipping the whole of the material that-has been shot). The moviola can be run at any speed and stopped by a special lever at any part of the film; it can also be reversed, should the montagist desire to re-examine any section.

CHAPTER III THE AESTHETICS OF THE.SOUND FILM

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From the aesthetic point of view a sound film combination of visual and aural impressions, that is to say, of pictures, music, noises, and speech. It is a species of synthetic art, approximately of the same type as opera and drama. Nevertheless, in spite of the external resemblance, there is a profound distinction between the aesthetic basis of the sound film and that of these antiquated forms of art. In order to grasp this enormously important difference, to understand the sphere to which the cinema is restricted, we must turn to the sources of cinematography in general. It has to be realized that the cinema is fundamentally photography, endowed with movement it is true, and recently with sound as well, but both movement and sound are essentially photographic; in other words, they are based on the reproduction of certain natural phenomena. In the realm of fantasy the cinema has boundless possibilities; it can accomplish easily and simply that which in the theatre is cumbersome and difficult, and to all intents and purposes there is no impediment to the exercise of the imagination. In spite ofthis, it is primarily a reproductive art, which gives us a copy of nature and is

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is naturalistic (not even realistic). The theatre, on the contrary, originated as an outlet from the world into imaginary realms; only in the latest stages of its development has it arrived at realism, and this is merely a transitory phase. The public is keenly conscious of the naturalistic nature of the cinema, the more so because the former differs widely from the theatrical public which constitutes the audience of drama and opera. First of all, it is far more democratic (owing to the cheapness of the cinema and to the fact that the character of the production is industrial and not “artisan”) and incomparably vaster. A rough estimate of the figures shows that the theatre audiences of the world comprise, in the most favourable case, not more than three or four millions, whereas the frequenters of the cinema have long since been reckoned in tens, or even hundreds, of millions—nearly the whole world is attracted to the cinema. The immensity of the audience and its demohence

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nature of the cinema here plays a great part. The primary significance of the cinematograph.

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is the reproduction of something that actually happens; it is a scrap of life printed on a film. And in thus understanding it the public displays the profundity of its view. When a non-realistic picture is shown on the screen, it always suggests the idea that it has been staged previously.

know that even naturalistic films are photographed from a preliminary staging, the inevitable artistic deception which is present in every art should, in the case of the cinema, prevent this fact from being noticed. The public wants tobelieve that what it sees on the screen is a bit of life, which somebody has watched unobserved and filmed. Hence the irruption of the typical theatre into the world of the cinema proves to be permissible only in a naturalistic form, i.e. as an actual photograph from the theatre fixed on a film, because even the theatre may be a fragment of life. On the other hand, a theatricalized film usually has a spurious look. From thecomponents of the cinema another of its aesthetic qualities is derived—its illustrative nature. The silent film was simply an animated illustration of the captions which represented the rudiments of literature, the text, as it were, of the romance unfolded on thescreen. When the film began to talk, its nature was not thereby altered: the only difference was that the literary element of the captions was converted into the dramatic element of dialogue; the illustrative nature persisted.

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Here we are interested only in the question of music for the film, and the aesthetics of that music. It was associated with the cinema from the very beginning, when its aesthetic function was, inter alia, to fill up the tonal void which was an inherent feature of the silent film. Here aesthetics played a real part: aesthetic custom, too, had always required that a spectacle should be accompanied by sound. Independently of this, music, in its illustrative capacity, supplied the poetry and emotion which the captions, necessarily brief and of an informatory nature, could not give. Music provided rhythm for the happenings on the screen and, as it were, interpreted the emotions of the characters and of the

in general. With the arrival of the sound film the réle of music was altered. First and foremost, for technical reasons, it ceased to be mere improvisation and developed into strict and solid composition. Previously it had been possible to play anything one chose for the screen, but that is no longer permissible. On the other hand, whereas music was once the sole provider of sound for the cinema, it now has to share its functions with dramatic speech and various naturalistic noises. But its position has remained. Speech, pictures, and noises the purely photographic section of the cinema; music, whether with the silent or the sound films, supplies. the romantic, irrational element illustrating emotiony screen

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THE AESTHETICS OF THE SOUND FILM

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As we have said, the sounds connected with are divisible into three categories : music, speech, and noises, and to understand the aesthetics of music in the new cinema it is very important that we should know how the boundaries of their spheres of action are delimited. It is, of course, evident that when two or three varieties of sound are proceeding simultaneously, the attention can with difficulty be concentrated on any one of them. Thedialogue, which has replaced the caption, naturally occupies the first place, only from the fact that it explains the meaning of the picture on the screen and music should therefore give way to it. The filling of the silences of the cinema was formerly entrusted to music, but speech is now employed instead. As everyone knows, it is difficult to listen to music and speech at the same time; usually one of them is lost—either the music, or the meaning and beauty of the words. On the one hand it is felt that someone is preventing us from enjoying the dialogue, on

the sound film

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the other that someone is talking during a musical performance. Both are aesthetically distressing. Que mute iT “It should always be remembered, as a first principle of the aesthetics of music in the cinema, that logic requires music to give way to dialogue. Even if the former is relegated entirely to the background and is barely audible, it still interferes to some extent with the dialogue, and, as ia

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aesthetic value is only second-rate. The same remarks apply to music in conSpeen ME nexion with photographic sounds—noises, shouts, etcetera—which usually drown it and deprive it esthetic significance. °t Thus we naturally come to the following conclusions: music should cease or retire into the background when dialogues and noises are taking place. Except in rare instances it blends but poorly with them. When combined with dia, logue we get a kind of melodeclamation, and then both dialogue and music are faced wit the demands generally presented to melodeclamation, that is to say, coincidence of rhythm, and their artistic symbiosis, which, as we know, is usually difficult to achieve. When we have noises and music simultaneously, the former ecome part of the musical whole and have ne effect of percussion instruments of a sort in is case they require to be reduced to order; t er rhythm must be coincident, and they must ° incorporated in the musical composition and no coo

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suppressed on the entry of dialogue or noises they are incompatible planes. There is a good aesthetic reason for stopping the music on such occasions, but the precise method to be adopte is one of the most difficult problems of the sound

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cinema. Music has its inertia; it forms a certain in thé stibconsciousness of the listening spectator, and its sudden cessation gives rise to a feeling of aesthetic perplexity, even though the music be kept entirely in the back-~. ground. The substitution of dialogue and noises for music, on the contrary, does not cause perplexity. The music itself. may not be noticed, but if it is stopped without being replaced’ by other sounds the gap becomes perceptible, as a false note and a cinematographic dissonance. Of course it must not be imagined that the existing films always corroborate what has been said, but that signifies nothing: these aesthetic are gradually penetrating the consciousness of cultured directors. Music in the cinema, occupying the position of a separate and unreal, non-photographic, plane, preserves a large measure of its individuality and its independent nature. It should possess a musical form of its own, in some way subordinated to the rhythm of the screen, but not destroyed by them. Indeed music often dictates its rhythms and tempi to the screen, and this state of affairs, recognized by all directors, even appears to be normal. The rhythm of the screen is regulated by the music, and this is particularly noticeable when there is no noise or dialogue. Music in the cinema cannot sacrifice the principles its form : no matter what

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the stage, and should not be required, except in a few instances mentioned below, to follow the events in detail, otherwise it is untrue to its nature and becomes anti-musical. Sometimes, to produce an aesthetic impression, it is sufficient that the musical background should not be at variance with the mood of the screen. Very characteristic of the cinema is the use of neutral music, which fills the tonal spaces and annihilates the silences without attracting special attention to itself. In general, music should understand that in the cinema it should nearly always remain in the background: it is, so to speak, a tonal figuration, the “left hand” to the melody of the screen, and it is a bad business when this left hand begins to creep into the foreground and obscure the melody. On the comparatively rare occasions when the interest is concentrated on the music, the latter may emerge from its subordinate position for a time, but_as_a rule itshould be subdued and should make its presence felt without effort, nor should it attract attention to itself at the expense

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This musical background serves as a sort of psychological resonator of the screen, enhancing its effect and augmenting its emotional passages.

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Hence it is as important that the music and the picture should synchronize and that their rhythms should coincide. If these precautions are observed, the aesthetic effect ofthe stage action will be strengthened. A procession gains enormously if accompanied by music with a well- Bes SavB Geet: marked and coincident rhythm, just as the impression will be lessened if the music and the od screen do not synchronize. This applies equally to the non-coincidence of the emotional tempo and rhythm. So long as this harmony is observed the music is not noticed of itself—it merely forms part of the general effect—but_in the contrary a

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become and remain an art, the background should be carefully thought out and thoroughly well done; in art nothing is unimportant. The thythmizing and resonating function of music is particularly evident in comic films and animated cartoons. The congruence of the movements with the musical rhythm is always very effective and enormously emphasizes their

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significance. Furthermore, it may be said that music in general best and most naturally illustrates movements and gestures. The importa“tion of a certain portion of Dalcroze’s theory >

which, though musical, belong to the photographic plane, demand a special reference. The following example will explain the writer’s idea: suppose we have the sound ofa horn. Being musical, it can easily be inserted in the musical background, but the director and the composer will act wisely if they realize that it belongs to the photographic plane, and therefore should not be mixed up with the other music. There are two methods of treatment: either the horn must be isolated and played solo, thus emphasizing the fact that it is of the photographic plane, or, if it must be combined with the musical background, it should be made to stand out, to be at cross purposes with its setting, by entrusting to it a false or extra~harmonic

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into the cinema would be by no means unprofitable. Then, and only then, would music be aesthetically bound up with the screen, creating an artistic amalgam, and not an amateurish improvisation round about the screen. Another function of music, already employed in art, is the artistically stylized imitation of sounds. Musical literature knows of a vast quantity of descriptive music. Its precise réle in the cinema, however, is limited, owing to the photographic nature of the latter, to which we have previously referred. The cinema has many means

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of accurately and photographically reproducing all the sounds of nature, and any attempts by music in this direction always seem naive. On the other hand, this artlessness may sometimes prove opportune. The employment of cinema music to imitate sounds is most advantageous when a certain symbolism—the reflection of spiritual events in the sounds of nature—is required. Music is essentially symbolical, and this réle befits it, but a bald, non-symbolical imitationis usually unsuccessful, and rings false. A rigid line must be drawn between these two main aspects of the cinema—the photographic, with the noises and dialogue, and the ideal, which music alone can depict. Some sounds

note.

Again, let scene, such

us imagine that we have a musical as jazz in a restaurant or cabaret.

This is essentially photographic, and therefore in dealing with it we can take a course which would not be permissible in relation to a purely musical background; for instance we may, and even must, stop these sounds the moment the scene changes, so that when the jazz disappears the ear no longer hears its music. The stoppage may be sudden and occur at any point of the accompaniment, without regardto the musical construction. It is as though the sounds were cut off by the closing of a door. With. an event on the musical plane we cannot behave thus; we 3—(C.153)

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MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

must continue the musical texture to its natural end, to the cadence, and that cadence must be adapted to the change of scene.

The writer has often asked himself: “Why not combine music and photography by the method whereby this has been accomplished in opera?” In other words, why not create a cinema opera? ‘Then music would be organically blended with drama, and between music and speech there would be, not inconsistency, but fusion. Practical experience shows, however, that attempts in this direction have been shortlived and unsuccessful. The reason for this will be found in the fact that the art of the cinema, as already pointed out, is a photographic art, and is therefore obliged to be naturalistic and anti-theatrical. In the cinema anything of a theatrical nature

aaa

sounds false, and opera is the theatre sublimated, is doubly theatrical. Although the cinema has

vast possibilities at its disposal—possibilities which are almost beyond the scope of the operatic stage—and, by virtue of its inexhaustible scenic resources, could introduce into opera many new and artistic effects, such as changing and contrasting planes, opera does not blend with the cinema; nor does the cinema want to become opera, except occasionally in the form of operetta or extravaganza. And the sole cause for this is that the cinema is naturalistic. The conventional falsehood on which opera is based

THE AESTHETICS OF THE SOUND FILM

27

is intolerable in the cinema, and opera is admitted only in the form of photographs of it, or of excerpts from it, as operatic episodes casually photographed from life, as operatic episodes in real lite. In just the same way, singing in the cinema is always real singing, the singing of the actor in real life, and not the conventional song of the operatic stage, that is, song which has captured speech and replaced it. Realistic photographs of opera in real life are conceivable and artistic, and so are photographs of singing if among the actors are included some who sing, but opera as such, as a synthesis of music and speech, is unendurable on the screen. The cinema can make use of different planes, and is thereby endowed with a superabundance of resources wherewith to provide artistic contrasts. The aesthetics applicable to the various planes are of special importance, and it will be

interesting to investigate the mutual relation between music and this problem of planes. Normally, music, like any other sound phenomena in the cinema, supplies a tonal background for the screen. In the case of a close-up the listening spectator contemplates everything at close quarters, so to speak, and naturally the sounds issuing from the screen should be nearer and more audible to him. Therefore the dialogue. of the close-up_is generally louder, and of the long and shots fainter. When the closeup life-size, the volume of sound ennispanelarger than he

medium

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at

——,

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28

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

THE AESTHETICS OF THE SOUND FILM

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tradictions are possible here. For example, the music accompanying the conversation in a closeup may be remote and subdued, in order that it may not interfere with the latter. general In it should accord with the mood of the scene, rather than with the_plane, Again, the music of a triumphal procession in the distance may be soft, but when the procession becomes visible, the accompaniment should also be triumphal and sonorous; in the latter case it would be absurd to have barely audible music merely because it is on a common plane. The correlaof the type. and dynamic.of the. music with a the screen is usually far more complex,and is subject to much that has not yet been explained and_to Jaws that. have not been established. Hence in the given case it is better to Tely_on the composer’ S. instinct. It may, however, be remarked that the more intimate scenes, the close-ups, generally suggest music of a limited range and modestly laid out. On the other hand, bigepisodes, such ascrowdsand processions,

VY

NN NYY YY

may be increased beyond the normal without any loss of artistry. This applies also to noises, shouts, and other sound phenomena of the photographic plane, but the musical, non-photographic plane has more licencein this respect, just because it is non-photographic. In its general features music also adheres to einen

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ence nig

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tion

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big scale, embracing all the regist ers,‘from the highestt to the lowest. The cessation of music in the cinema always

tin,

this principle: the bigger the planethe

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require music

mus

ico

Seestendilt oe nie

29

~

on a

produces an impression of dissonance, unless it is promptly and directly replaced by other sounds. It must be remembered that the tech‘nical conditions of the cinema are such that it can never be silent—there is always the noise of the apparatus, aesthetically detrimental and obnoxious. Silence can be realized only through music, which should be the “music of silence” and not an actual cessation of sound. From this

it will be seen that discontinuance of any tonal background causes_an.aesthetic dissonance., But a mixture of backgrounds is also objectionable, on account of their mutual interference. Hencearises the phenomenonthat music often.playsa very insignificant part.inthe the

kind of petition aint

enue

werner

itis, the more prominent arethedialogueand

the tonal photographs (the photographs of actual sounds). A film thatis continuous dialogue can dispense with music altogether, except the photo-

YUN YY DN NY

plane moments. On the other hand, the musical background of a film with so little dialogue that it is almost silent should be correspondingly increased. Since music is a symbolical and preeminently psychological substance, it is often superfluous and ridiculous in films with a minimum of psychology. Films of savage life inAfrica_orof wild. beasts—and,, indeed, any

ONOY®Y

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30

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

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pictureof a documentary type—shouldbe accom-

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psychological nature, with love episodes, would find it difficult to dispense with music, not merely from an aesthetic point of view, but also because the audience, accustomed to the musical tradition of the silent film, expects it. The cinema has a public of its own, which differs from that of the theatre. In the mass the former is aesthetically backward: its aesthetic psychology is infantile, its tastes undeveloped, its comprehension of, and ability to distinguish, musical details and texture limited. All this must be borne in mind. The etcinema tt

But

a

film of

a

the eyes, of advanced art, bear the impress_of banality, and.on.the whole its tastes are more antiquated than.those. characterizing. the main tendencies in art, Effects long since relegated to the.museum still bringtears to the eyesof the cinema-goer,and sentimentality and naive methods of exciting him have not yet lost their sway. Hence melodeclamation, to which any dialogue to music is reducedin the cinema, offers a wide field for development. By way of comfort, however, it should be noted that, while the aesthetic tastes of the cinema audience may be primitive, they are nevertheless more refined and more elevated than is supposed by many cinema promotors, and even directors, who ascribe their

THE AESTHETICS OF THE SOUND FILM

31

own lack of artistic development to “the demands of the crowd.” In the final reckoning this public appreciates anything that is genuinely good, and is presented in such a manner as to be within everybody’s grasp; and it rejects all that is coarse in form and anti-artistic. This public has been badly educated: its aesthetic conceptions have not been artistically developed and it has been fed on trash, as being cheaper and more profitable. Thecinema, of course, is run on commercial, and not on artistic, lines, to a far greater extént than is the case withany. seer other branch of art. 1

inet

vate

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33

NN

COMPOSITION OF MUSIC FOR THE CINEMA

AN

that amateurism has thrust its roots deep into this soil, and by the widely held view that it is merely a money-making business, and that, consequently, as many people as possible should

CHAPTER IV

DNA

have

THE COMPOSITION OF MUSIC FOR THE CINEMA

DAVINA

IN composing music for the cinema it is preeminently necessary to have an idea of the general aesthetic principles upon which it can and should be based, and which were discussed in the last chapter. It must be borne in mind

AAV

as

possible,

Hemust have

a

good knowledge of musical

literature and styles, because he is hardly ever askedto create anything new, anything of his own, Almost invariably he is required to write music in a given style, in the style of a given period. He must be a pianist, because, in view of his preliminary knowledge of the music, he himself generally has to play it throughout the filming. Little valueisattached to a talent for novelty and invention; in fact it is considered superfluous,and a hindrance rather than other-

wise. The level of intelligence of the vast cinema audience is, on the average low, and therefore it is useless to astonish it with harmonic subtleties, with cunning devices of a purely musical type, which only a musician could appreciate. It must be remembered that, in the mass, the cinema audience is not musical; often it has not been accustomed to music at all, and its reception of it is quite amateurish. It wants bright aig rncne melody whichit can easily assimilate, tunes that gE it can. rememberand hum to itself_on_leaving WANS in Caran Qa

wr

cae

acer

VITA

32

re)

chance of earning as much

scoring.

that the cinema consists of twoplanes: thephotographic, which accurately reproduces ssomeaspect of living nature, and the ideal and psychological, with which, in a pure form, music alone is concerned, and then not entirely, but onlyin places. The composer for the cinema should possess certain qualities which are not to be found in every musician; even the most talented and distinguished may lack them. He must certainly have mastered the technique of his profession, and should be able to write music rapidly and confidently, and be ready, in case of need, to alter it without delay. In practice it is very often necessary to compose, and even score, the music for a big scene in the space of a few hours, so that it may be ready for filming. In the cinema the composer does not always orchestrate his own compositions, and this state of affairs is, of course, conditioned not by the artistic requirements of the cinema but simply by the fact

a

particularly in the background work, with which music is concerned. Nevertheless it is only reasonable that a composer should do his own

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gear

Sw

TRE

me

y) yy

)

34

?

the show, anda minimum of harmonic accompamiment—in general, something approximating to what is known as light music. An intricate interweaving of the parts is quite out of place, firstly because a complex web of sound is not phonogenic, that is to say, it Teproduces. badly ;

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS COMPOSITION OF MUSIC FOR THE CINEMA

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£ Y=

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unusual, and it generally

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is most

Bet

ne

But, again, this

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scene.

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It must accord with the mood of the

a

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out Apert...

is the music of the background, or tonal accompaniment to the screen, and this is not_of_a It is always purely instrumental and should approximately possess

nef

dances, etcetera.

CS

Music for the cinema is divided into categories, differing in style and methods of composition, First of all, we frequently have to do with individual and almost complete musical numbers, such as songs, choruses, instrumental pieces,

PAAarlta.

cordant, and which often prove to be really éo, they, too, are not phonogenic, and sound confused and muddy in the reproduction. The cinema composer has plenty of scope for bright and simple music, and his talent for independent musical invention runs no tisk of being Impugned. since

RMQERELEAS,

and, secondly, it cannot be appreciated. The same remark applies to complicated harmonies, which seem to the cinema audience merely dis-

ate

en ‘

VAAN

2. It must coincide rhythmically with the movements of that scene. 3. Its duration must correspond exactly with the time occupied by the scene. In the usual case, the bulk of the music for a picture is employed as a background. There are various ways of writing the music, but it is possible to recommend a few practical methods which will save time and labour—a matter to which very little attention is ordinarily paid in cinema work. One of the most sensible is to defer the actual composition until the film is shot and the montage finished. There are many reasons for this. Practice shows that the scenario, however detailed it may be, gives no idea of the picture. In the first place, it sometimes undergoes radical alterations during the filming. Then the director usually makes many changes while the montage is in process. For the musician it is, of course, supremely important to have a general idea of the scenes and their sequence and duration. He cannot write the music until he knows how much of it will be required and how long a scene will last.

)

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

to be sufficiently phonogenic. Their timbre is transmitted with the loss of certain characteristic features—the harmonics, which impart a pungency to the tone colour. These harmonics, which depend on the.oscillatory vibrations of the string, are inadequately caught by the microphone, and hence the timbres of the upper and middle registers of the violin resemble those of the flute and clarinet respectively, whereby the string quality of the timbre suffers considerably. The viola becomes very like the saxophone, but the violoncello comes through much better, particularly in the upper register. The double bass is muffled and indistinct, and altogether repro-

with the piano, or by using the tuba instead; if the latter is placed sufficiently far from the microphone, it will provide a mellow and beautiful bass. A tremolando on the strings should not be excessive, as it is intensified in the transmission and becomes unpleasant. The difference in timbre due to the use of mutes is not very

VVVY

duces badly. It must be remembered that, in the orchestras used for making sound films, the strings are never so numerous as in symphony orchestras.

YY

YN

YY VN YY DY YT

Intensity and thickness of tone are obtained, not by increasing the number of instruments, but by bringing them nearer to the microphone. A single violin will not give the impression of many, even if very near, but two or three, especially three, are a sufficient substitute for the orchestral complement, which may range from eight to sixteen. Proximity to the microphone is of no use to the double bass, as the sound obtained is indistinct and mixed up with ugly overtones ; therefore it is recommended that the double bass parts in the cinema orchestra should be reinforced, either by doubling them

59

perceptible when transmitted. There is a slight variation in timbre with ordinary, unmuted sounds, but, in any case, the contrast between muted and simple sounds, with which every musician is familiar, is not reproduced by the film. Muted sounds come through rather obscurely. Pizzicati are quite satisfactory, except when used in very high positions. Violin pizzicati should be supported by notes on the piano or the woodwind, otherwise they are rather thin. Pizzicati low down on the double bass do not justify expectations, and it is better to reinforce them by the bassoons, or even to substitute the notes of the harp. In general, it should be remembered that, if only one microphone is used, it is often impracticable to move the string group close to it. In that case it is better to double the strings with the wind, or even to support them by the piano, in order to thicken the timbre. The phonogenicity of the woodwind group varies considerably.

PY

YN NNN

60

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

NY

The flute and the piccolo reproduce well and accurately, especially the high registers. The oboe and the cor anglais give good results, but the shrillness of the upper registers is increased in transmission. The clarinet is also satisfactory, though it

VY VY AA INV

its characteristic timbre. The low notes of the instrument sound dull, and their timbre loses much of its sombre and ominous quality. The bassoon does not come through very well, the timbre obtained being abstract. The lower notes sound muddy and heavy, and close chords and intervals cannot be entrusted to them, as the results are always blurred. The bassoon’s function is to duplicate the other timbres, or the bass. loses some of

61

encountered, thanks to specific peculiarities in the construction of the instrument. First of all, it occupies a great deal of space, and some of its pipes may be disproportionately remote from the microphone. This, of course, affects the intensity of the recorded sound. T hen, as we shall see later, and in regard to wood instruments in general, long-sustained sounds, when reproduced, turn out to be thicker and more sticky than was anticipated. This is due to reverberation, i.e. the resonance and vibration of the walls of the building and of parts of the instrument, prolonging, as it were, an echo of the sound waves. The stickiness is particularly increased when close chords are played simultaneously. The sound waves, interfering with the echo of the reverberation, produce a very dense and compact background, which is unpleasant, and even repulsive, to the ear. In the case of orchestral wind instruments this effect may be deadened (see below) by diminishing the orchestral pedal and cutting out sustained harmonies. Such a course is, however, impossible with the organ, and hence we have to fall back on certain methods of a special type in order to avoid cacophony and obtain a due and fitting sonority. Incidentally it may be remarked that the same phenomenon is observed when making gramophone records of organ music. The methods referred to above are as follows— 1. In choosing his registers, the organist should

Lan peetclfers Poitocseien on

Teel

VIVIAN

The saxophone is phonogenic throughout. The rather heavy quality of its timbre is mitigated in transmission. In general, it should be borne in mind that the timbres of the various woodwind instruments lose much of their characteristic qualities when transmitted, and are reduced to a sort of average woodwind timbre. The difference between string and wind timbres is also lessened. The organ, essentially a woodwind instrument, records well in its individual registers, though here again the distinction between their timbres is toned down. In registering the sounds of the organ for the film, certain difficulties are

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

NON EN

OV NN

62

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

NN

YN

avoid the so-called reeds and confine himself as far as possible to diapasons. (Flutes, Prestant, Salicional, Montre, Bourdon, etc.) If, for example, to eight diapasons he adds one reed for the sake. of the timbre, when reproduced it will sound like eight reeds to eight diapasons, and the effect will be stentorian and unpleasantly shrill.

VY VV VAY

2. In the layout of the parts the harmony must be as open and transparent as possible. This will be sufficient to produce the sonority characteristic of the organ, whereas close writing will result in an intolerably thick sound. 3. As the extremes of the organ scale (the notes of the 32-ft. octave and the 2-ft. octave) do not record at all, they should be left

alone.

DYDD DDD >)

NN

4. A small portable organ placed near the microphone is better than a large organ, which will pour into the apparatus an abundance of superfluous sounds and reverberating echoes, and as the different registers will be at unequal distances from it, the sound will vary in intensity. The effect of a large organ can be obtained by putting a small instrument (or even an American organ, with reeds instead of pipes) near the microphone. 5. There is little or no need to use Mixtures. With the full organ (Grand Jeu), not more than one or two Mixtures should be employed and they should be harmonic, i.e. Octave or Quint,

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

but not Cornet

_

63

Plein Jeu, as their overtones when reproduced will be excruciatingly discordant. ' 6. The organ is preferably used solo or for accompaniments; if orchestral instruments are. added to it, they should be few in number, and only brass, strings, or percussion, as woodwind is unsuitable. 7. Organ music should never be recorded in big churches, on account of the irregular reverberations and the huge spaces. On the whole, the organ is not very phonogenic. The best results are obtained when it is played piano or pianissimo, the worst when the full organ is used. Phonogenically the harmonium is much inferior to the organ (it has a sticky tone). Chords played on it sound thicker than would be expected, and consequently their layout must be very open; solid chords and doubling are not permissible. Any harsh dissonance will, of course, produce an unpleasant sensation. In connexion with all the wind instruments (and with others as well), it should be remembered that every sound when reproduced on the film has its echo, which is far more powerful and sustained than that conveyed to our ears by the original. The sound apparatus picks up these echoes, whereas we either do not perceive them at all, or, if we do, we pay little attention to them. Thanks to them, the transmission of or

YN

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en

64

i in i ie ii ie ii iin iin iii

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

sound by the apparatus always resembles the of a piano with the loud pedal down, and to overcome this it is necessary to lay out

middle register is used to supply the harmony, the proper resonance of the whole is assured. In general, the piano is very phonogenic, though not entirely accurate. In reproduction the jingling character of the instrument is emphasized, as well as the qualitative difference in the timbres of the actual (percussive) sound and its echo. The upper register of the piano, when close to the microphone, provides an excellent substitute for the glockenspiel. In the lower register it forms a good support for the basses and can also represent the sound of a big bell in the distance. The low notes, if struck rhythmically and used as noises (to complex and solid harmonies of a dissonant character) can replace the hollow sounds of the bass drum, and even of the tamtam. The vagueness of intonation which is a distinctive feature of the lower register of the piano is enhanced in reproduction and has a noisy effect. The piano is usually played without the pedal. The celesta and the vibraphone (which has lately come into fashion) record extremely well, except in the lower register, where they have a dull sound. The glockenspiel becomes rather shrill when reproduced. The high-pitched bell gives good results, but those with a deeper tone are less satisfactory ; they lose their accuracy of intonation, because the fundamental note is not transmitted at all, but only the upper partials. The deep sounds of a chiming bell pp are

resonance

the instrumental parts more “Meagrely than would seem desirable. The brass group is on the whole phonogenic, and accurately so. The trumpet, the trombone, and the tuba, give the best results; the hornis not quite so good. Muted and closed notes are transmitted faithfully and successfully. It should be remarked that the heaviness and a certain coarseness of the brass as reproduced can be mitigated to a certain extent by moving them away from the microphone. Hence, in scoring for the cinema, we can use trumpets and trombones to obtain a very soft quality of tone, and similarly we can entrust to them the most delicate accompaniment without danger of smothering the top line of the music. By turning the bell towards, or, conversely, away from, the microphone, we can vary the intensity of the sound from fff to ppp. In consequence of the tendency of the sound film to reduce all timbres to a common level, the combination of brass and strings is far more effective and more audible in the reproduction than when heard direct. The piano usually has an important part in the film orchestra. In the small orchestra it provides a good middle,” replacing the clarinet and horn of the symphony orchestra. If the ‘‘

65

66

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

sometimes represented better by a combination of the piano and the tamtam. The real percussion instruments on the whole have little phonogenicity. The tamburo and the tambourine record comparatively well, but the triangle is less successful; it should always be near the microphone. The timpani lose their accuracy of intonation, and the difference between their sound and that of the bass drum almost disappears. The cymbals and the tam-

tam come through rather badly; the former are comparatively satisfactory when played tremolo. The xylophone is sufficiently phonogenic. In scoring the music of the percussion group, it should be remembered that muffled drums, pianissimo tremolos on the timpani, and pianissimo notes on the bass drum, are not transmitted at all. For a tremolo on the timpani it is advisable to substitute a pp tremolo on the basses or ’cellos, or damped shake in the lower register of the piano. The bass drum $# is never heard in transmission, and it is better to replace it by a vague chord on the lowest part of the piano keyboard. The harp, in its middle register, is one of the good instruments from a phonogenic point of view. Its upper notes are poor, and the bass is dull. In consequence of the excessive resonance associated with the sound film (to which reference has been made), the harp as transmitted has a very big and sonorous echo, and therefore a

.

67

the method, commonly adopted, of supporting it by a pedal on the wind is entirely unnecessary. Unless the harp is isolated and placed quite close to the microphone, its flageolet tones will not be heard in transmission. The transmission of the human voice is very capricious and depends on the qualities of the voice itself. The signs and circumstances of its phonogenicity have not yet been studied and elucidated. Sometimes a beautiful singing voice proves to be very unbeautiful on the sound film, and, conversely, the microphone may impart a fullness and an interesting timbre to a thin and colourless voice. In any case, it is very difficult to judge of the quality and phonogenicity of the human voice. It may be said in general that a voice with a. powerful vibration, and a perceptible “thickness” of tone! records badly, however fine it may seem to us. In transmission the vibration and the thickness are enhanced. Furthermore, there is a special kind of voice which is very beautiful in direct singing, but possesses nonharmonic overtones; these are increased when transmitted by the film, with the result that the timbre sounds discordant. 1 The human voice produces complex vibrations. As a tule, a note emitted by it is not a simple sound, but consists of a group of contiguous sounds, which are given out either simultaneously or consecutively in the form of a composite and rapid shape at a very narrow interval. This property of the sound of the voice constitutes its ‘thickness,’’ which is determined by the size of the interval covered by the group. Measurements show that the thickness of the bass voice may extend to a whole tone.

—™

~ ON JS

68

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

a

|

A phonogenic voice must have the following qualities— 1. A moderate thickness. The best voices are very slender, with a rather shrill timbre. 2. The absence of noises in the voice, such as hissing, whistling, or hoarseness. These noises very often are not prejudicial in direct singing, but even add a specific charm. On the film, however, they are very prominent. 3. Simplicity of the figure of vibration, i.e. the absence of high non-harmonic overtones. The jarring quality of the overtones, which is peculiar to these voices, is augmented in transmission. 4. Moderate, or even little, vibration. 5. Accuracy of intonation. Faulty intonation is also exaggerated on the film. Women’s voices are generally more phonogenic than men’s, and basses and baritones are least satisfactory in this respect. On the other hand, very “tight” and thin voices, with a feeble tone, can be improved on the sound film. They are placed near the microphone, and “thickness” is added to them by the amplifier, which at the same time supplies them with vibration and ‘‘warmth.’* Strange though it may seem, “cold” timbres transmit better than warm, velvety ones, where the voice is concerned. On the film a coloratura soprano is changed into a lyrical soprano. The voice should never be forced, as the result is bad. When greater volume and forte effects

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

69

required, it is generally better to resort to dodges which are impossible in a concert per-

are

formance, but for which the sound track affords many possibilities. These will be discussed later. ~ The orchestras employed in making a sound film vary in size and type, but as a rule the number of performers should be limited to twenty-five. If the scoring and the distribution of the functions of the instruments are skilfully handled, it is possible to obtain with a band of this size the effect of a huge symphony orchestra. It has been shown above that subtle differences in the timbres of the various instruments disappear or are greatly diminished when recorded on the film. The characteristic features of a group of instruments (the strings, for example) are levelled down, and the contrast between the different categories is lessened. The strings have a close resemblance to the woodwind, the horns coincide with the middle registers of the saxophones and clarinets. The sonority of the orchestra thereby becomes more uniform and the composer is deprived of certain possibilities of colour and contrast, but, on the other hand, the work of scoring is facilitated. To this it should be added that the musical texture for the sound film should not be intricate and complicated. We have already pointed out that harmonies, if at all complex, begin to sound unpleasantly harsh and discordant, and, owing

SYN N

70

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

NNN

NN

NNN VN AN

YVAN

ADVANI IANA

to the mixing of the harmonics in the middle register, produce an impression of cacophony; hence they should be rarely and prudently used. The distribution of the parts must be particularly precise and distinct, otherwise a poor sonority will be attained: every part should know where it is going and why it was written. It should be noted that the sound film will not stand more than two independent melodic lines. The principal melody and its counterpoint represent the utmost polyphonic luxury permissible without risk of obtaining an undifferentiated chaos of sounds. In scoring complex harmonies, it should be borne in mind that in pianos and pianissimos the layout must be very open and on broad lines. An accumulation of notes close together, particularly in the lower register, is always bad and does not produce the desired effect. In complex harmonies fortissimos always sound harsher and more dissonant than anticipated, and this must be taken into account if an unpleasant and unnecessary cacophony is to be avoided. The practice in contemporary music of adding one or more dissonant notes to the fundamental contour of a harmony, for the sake of piquancy, is one that should be very cautiously followed; a far better effect is obtained if the supplementary notes in a complex chord are discarded, and the total number of notes reduced to the minimum aesthetically permissible. It is particularly necessary to refrain

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

71

from using chords in which a major or minor ninth is formed between the middle parts. In scoring contrapuntal melodies, it is indispensable that each should keep to its own regis‘ter, and that there should be a space between the registers ; for example, the principal melody may be in the upper register, the counterpoint in the middle or lower; if both are in the one register, they will tread on each other’s toes, and we shall have a clear idea of neither. As already indicated, it is better that combined melodies should not be in parallel motion, nor in the same chythm. Moreover they should be allotted to dissimilar timbres and, as the sound apparatus tends towards the elimination of differences of timbre, it would be well to entrust the melodies to different groups and to instruments not of the same timbre (e.g. violin and trombone, or ‘cello and flute, and so forth). As a rule, the melody must be isolated from the accompaniment and kept at a certain distance from it, otherwise it may lose its identity. In the ordinary orchestral scoring it is customary to fill in the gap between the background and the register of the melody, but in the sound film it is preferable to leave it open, since the overtones of the background will supply the deficiency. A fine sonority is always achieved if the melody (in unison or in the octave) is played in the upper or the highest register, and the harmonic background follows at a distance and

NANG

VN

VVV

72

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

NV

does not encroach on the upper register.

V

VIVID VID

The insertion of harmonic notes between the notes of a melody in octaves—a very usual practice in normal orchéstration—should not be adopted here, even in forte passages. The following is an example—

gta titi ty

AV

IVD VI AAI

III

In consequence of the reverberation which accompanies the reproduction of sound on the film, and to which we have more than once referred, the so-called “orchestral pedal,” ie. the sustained framework of the harmony, should be cut as short as possible. When the orchestra is large, this pedal may sometimes be entrusted to the middle register of the piano, which will supply the harmonic skeleton of the music. Since the sounds of this instrument quickly die away, there is no danger of their setting up a buzzing or droning. If the harmony is assigned to the wind (wood or brass, or both together) two alternatives— I. Take off the harmony and not allow it to drone continuously.

there

are

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

73

2. Move the harmonic background away from the microphone, and place the melodic parts closer to the latter. So As a rule, the pedal must be reduced to a minimum. One sustained part is quite enough to give the impression of richness of tone. On the other hand, the upper harmonic pedal, i.e. sustained chords in the upper register, is usually very beautiful, especially pp. These chords are often played by the violins divisi, or by a wind group (flute and clarinet). In the latter case it is better to put the instruments further from the microphone, in order that they may form a background and not be too prominent. When scoring, it should be remembered that, as a rule, the sound film is not fond of the doubling of instruments—the timbre becomes even more neutral, and the tone is overloaded by the superimposition of two timbres. So far as harmony is concerned it is better to refrain entirely from doubling, especially in the wind group, but in dealing with melodies this method is often employed, in order to add power and thickness to the string tone, which is generally weak in the film orchestra, particularly when only one microphone is used. In such cases the strings are doubled by the wind, sometimes with the addition of muted trombones and trumpets. Melodic phrases of an expressive type should| 6—(C.153)

i i |

74

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

not be doubled, but recorded by a separate microphone, if it is desired to strengthen them. The orchestration must not be overburdened

with low notes, starting from

é

=

5

3. To refrain from using many of the deepertoned percussion instruments as an accompaninent, since they smother the voices. .

as

a rule they come through badly, and the confused and rumbling sound produced by them is not at all desirable. The percussion instruments, which, on the whole, are not phonogenic, must be cautiously employed. Dynamic effects and a sense of terror are produced comparatively well by a drum roll. An excessive use of the percussion group results in a confusion of the orchestral colour.

When speech and music are combined (the music being superimposed on the conversation or declamation), it must be remembered that they are more or less antagonistic, and that, unless the music is kept in the background by regulating its volume, it will drown the voices. Hence in such cases it is advisable— I. In composing and scoring the music, to allow for p and # only and not for f. 2. To make the musical phrases pre-eminently dry and abrupt, with plenty of space between them. Pizzicati and disconnected chords are suitable here, in the pauses. Anything of an emotional or lyrical nature would be unfitting, especially if laid out on broad lines (in any case it would not be heard).

75

THE STRING GROUP

The ordinary methods of scoring for this group not generally applicable to the strings of the film orchestra, which are few in number. At its maximum strength it consists of three first violins, two seconds, one viola, two ’cellos (or three in case of need), and one double bass. Cleverly handled, these are quite as effective as the Wagnerian complement of seventy strings. When two microphones are used, the whole group is placed beside them, but the violins and ‘cellos alone occupy this position if there is only one microphone. It is desirable, however, in forte passages, to add the wind to the strings. The first. violins are generally supported by the flute; the second violins and the viola by the clarinet (or the saxophone); and the ’cellos by the bassoon. It is better to double the bass by the tuba or the bassoon; if the former is chosen, it should not be near the microphone. It must not be forgotten, when scoring for strings, that the notes have powerful octave harmonics, which add weight even to an open harmony. The middle registers of the string group in the film orchestra are generally weak, because they are represented by the viola alone; it must therefore be placed nearer the microphone, and are

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76

77

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MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

double notes in the harmony should preferably be played tremolo. The strings, however, sound finer on the film when the melodic line is entrusted to them; the violins should then play in octaves, and sometimes should be supplemented by the viola, and even by the ’cellos. In that case the bass part will be given to the bassoon instead of to the ’cellos, or to the tuba or trombone at a distance. In default of the full complement of strings, it is better to choose violins and ’cellos; the former will, of course, play the upper parts. If the middle parts are filled in by the woodwind, a very good imitation of the sonority of a string band will be obtained. If the strings are few in number, they cannot supply the harmony. For this purpose the piano, second violins, and ’cello, are often successfully brought in and provide a solid ensemble. In writing for the sound film, the following must be avoided— 1. Difficult passages, especially those of a chromatic type. 2. High positions (this applies particularly to the viola). 3. Harmonics, as they sound bad and out of tune. 4. Double notes, unless they are sustained or played tremolo. 8, Chords unsupported by wind or piano.

The woodwind group.. The scoring is very similar to that usually adopted for other purposes than the sound film. The harmonic background, _

/ when

given to the wind, must be as light as possible, in order to avoid a droning effect. Chords in the low register must be shunned, as they sound heavy and introduce extraneous tones. It is better to take off the harmonic back-

ground with

a

sforzato

cy

and better still

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to discontinue it before a change of harmony; the resonance and the drone are sufficient to fill the ensuing pause. The woodwind are important as timbres for solo melodies, and then they should not be mixed with other instruments, lest the characteristic quality of the timbre should be lost. In octave passages it is preferable to have two clarinets, flute and clarinet, or clarinet and saxophone, but not flute and oboe (or cor anglais). The normal and suitable complement of woodwind for the sound film is as follows: one flute, one oboe (or cor anglais), one clarinet, and one bassoon; or, one flute, one oboe, and two saxophones (alto and tenor). For a more symphonic type of orchestra it is advisable to have two clarinets. The clarinettists should be able to play the saxophone in case of need.

-

The saxophones provide a good harmonic centre, and can be supplemented by trombone,

A

YY

YNY YY SY YAN

78

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

trumpet, clarinet,

full harmony.

or oboe,

in order to obtain

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM a

The upper notes of the harmonic background had better be entirely omitted, as they produce a thick and whining sound. The melody and the harmonic background should rarely cross each other. The brass group. When scoring for this group, it should be remembered that in a small orchestra it comprises very few instruments (two trum-

VAN

VIVA IVI

pets, a trombone, and sometimes a tuba), and therefore full chords on it are not always possible. The tuba usually supplies a powerful orchestral bass. The trombone and the trumpets often have to serve as melodic instruments ; hence in a small orchestra the harmonic back. ground is given preferably to the piano. In a very big orchestra the scoring is approximately the same as for a symphony orchestra. The tuba, one or two trombones, and two or

VA

three trumpets (to which a horn is occasionally added), can of themselves provide a harmonic background. In laying out the parts for the brass, it must be borne in mind that heavy chords and an accumulation of notes in the lower registers sound very bad. A deep bass (the tuba or the Piano) must be kept at a distance from the middle register of the harmony, and the top registers of all the brass instruments must be avoided.

79

‘Mutes should be used in full chords given out by the whole of the brass. On the other hand,

“closed’”’ sounds are better as detached notes dotted about amongst the harmony. As previously stated, the trumpets and the trombone sometimes play the melodic line. The trombone, in this case, is treated very like the bassoon, and can be placed farther from the microphone to prevent it from being too powerful. Melodies for the trombone must be very solid and of limited range. The main function of the horn in the film orchestra is to contribute notes to the harmony ; the compass of any melodies allotted to it must be restricted. It is a lagging and slow-speaking instrument, and this peculiarity, noticeable even in the ordinary orchestra, is emphasized on the film. In melodies it is better to double the horn by the ’cello. The percussion group. Many of the instruments in this group are not phonogenic, and therefore, in practice, we have usually to limit ourselves to the tamburo (small drum) and the cymbals. For music of a light type the jazz “outfit” is suitable (big drum, tamburo, cymbals, wood, and triangle) ; it is entrusted to one musician, but if a symphonic resonance is required, it is better to have two, who will divide the parts between them. The semi-percussion instruments (handbells, celesta, vibraphone, and xylophone) should be

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NEN

80

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ac ie

AVIVA

VIIA

open layout of chords. 3. Fewer sustained and droning notes. Individual chords and notes in the score are emphasized by a pizzicato, or by the keyed percussion instruments (celesta, handbells), or, again, by the sforzando of an abrupt chord superimposed on the already existing harmonic background. If the background consists of strings, an effective sforzando is made by the more

oy

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A

doubling and superimposition of tim-

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NYY AYN

1. Less

bres.

eae

SENN

combined with the other keyed instruments (piano or harmonium) in a part for one performer. Combination of groups. For the sound film this is a simpler matter than for the ordinary orchestra, owing to the tendency of the former to reduce the characteristic qualities of the timbres to a common level. In general, it may be said that any combination of timbres is more or less acceptable in full harmonies (chords). The distribution of the notes of a chord among the different groups, which usually sounds bad in the normal orchestra, is often quite permissible here. The most satisfactory combinations are woodwind and brass, or woodwind and piano assisted by the harmonium: the least satisfactory, brass and strings—the latter sound duller, and in chords their notes break down. Rules to be generally observed in these combinations—

2.

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

81

wind, and vice versa. The piano also can provide a good sforzando. ‘Rapid scales and passages leading up to a sf or to a high register, though customary in ordinary orchestration, are not very suitable for the sound film, as their resonance is blurred. As a rule, all superfluous embellishments, such as fiorituri and runs, should be avoided, because they come out poorly and indistinctly and contribute to the general confusion. They are particularly bad when played by several instruments simultaneously. The orchestral pedal must not be powerful. In scoring it is well to regard the following rules— I. Frequently to entrust the pedal to the piano in the middle register, giving it a sonorous figuration. 2. To restrict the pedal to one or two sustained notes, and only in rare cases to use a full harmony.

These notes should be

tnd

register, between

i,

—

3)

middle and

the basses and the upper parts should be excluded from a pedal. Small groups suitable for pedals— 1. Clarinets and saxophones in the lower and middle registers; sometimes the cor anglais.

:

2. Trombones and

trumpets, usually muted.

SY

NEN

NINN

82

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

ORCHESTRATION OF THE SOUND FILM

3. Harp, which forms a fine and resonant

centre.

YEN

YY

YY

_In the orchestra we have five main types of timbre contrasts— / I. Woodwind tone.

/

/

VIVID VIVIAN

We would draw attention to the saxophone, excellent connecting link between all the timbres. as an

COMPOSITION OF SOUND Fitm ORCHESTRAS: TYPES RECOMMENDED

For films dealing with everyday life, in which dialogue and the “photographic planes” predominate, a large orchestra is unnecessary. The

TS

VV IV

geneous.

AVR

VN

tone.. ~ 3. String tone. 4. Pizzicato and harp tone. 5. Piano tone. The presence of the piano adds a chilly favour to the timbre. As a rule it can be heard through the orchestra, a quality which it shares with the harp. A pizzicato gives a timbre of a rather dry type. The timbre of the woodwind is smooth and rounded; of the brass, brilliant and sparkling ; of the strings, rough and rustling. Each group has its contrasts. In the woodwind the flute and clarinet give a smooth and diaphanous timbre: the oboe and saxophone a timbre which is rough and somewhat tenser. In the brass group the timbre of the trumpet and trombone is bright ; of the horn, duller and more restrained. The string group is the most homo2. Brass

ROSSA

NV

(violin, violas, and cellos) tremolo or in sustained notes. The timbre of the strings is less satisfactory than that of the wind, harp, or piano, so far as a pedal is concerned—-sustained notes on the strings produce a powerful drone. In scoring, attention should be paid to contrast. So far as possible there should be an alternation of timbres in both melody and harmony, and when several melodies are combined, they should be entrusted to different timbres and registers. In the case of an accompanied melody the melodic line should be allotted to one timbre and the accompaniment to another. If one episode is played by the strings, the next should be given to some other group. When the orchestra is small and a complete change of timbre is impossible, colour can be imparted to individual episodes by stressing one particular timbre. For example, if the string timbre predominates in an episode allotted to strings and wind, the following episode should be scored in such a way as to give the pre-eminence to another timbre. This is usually achieved by writing the upper part or parts for the instruments which will supply the timbre desired, with the result that the middle and bass parts are less audible. When the upper part is played by the violin (or violins) and the others by the wind, we get the impression of string colour. 4. Strings

83

SYNE

84

MUSIC FOR THE FILMS

NN YY

YAN VAN VN

AVIV

music in such cases also has a photographic” part, usually illustrating the musical episodes of the film—e.g. the playing of the band in a café, or the sounds of street music. A few detached numbers are all that is required, as™ there is no general background. A larger orchestra is needed for films of a more lyrical type, in which music has a greater share. For films with a big and continuous background—films of a powerfully dramatic, and especially of an epic, character, or those in which a certain amount of symbolism forms part of the subject—the orchestra should be at its maximum strength. The proper composition of the orchestra for any given film is not a difficult matter, provided the musical requirements of that film are known. Below we give specimens of combinations whose phonogenicity and ability to transmit music of various types have been proved.

PLate IV

“‘

(A) SMALL ORCHESTRAS.

VIII NAS

Type t. Piano (= celesta and vibraphone) saxophones (= clarinets), trombone, trumpet, 2 violins, ’cello, percussion (one performer). In all, 9 players. In spite of its modest size this orchestra is capable of very big effects, from light to pseudosymphonic music. The middle parts and the pedals should be given to the piano, most of the other instruments being used to supply 2

Batterie

O

Trombone

O

Saxophones

Trump.

O

Feo

0

OO

O

"O

MICRO,

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