Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst Century [1 ed.] 1443842567, 9781443842563

Citation preview

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst Century

Edited by

Olga M. Karpova and Faina I. Kartashkova

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst Century, Edited by Olga M. Karpova and Faina I. Kartashkova This book first published 2013 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2013 by Olga M. Karpova and Faina I. Kartashkova and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-4256-7, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-4256-3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Illustrations ..................................................................................... ix List of Tables............................................................................................... x Editors’ Preface .......................................................................................... xi Olga M. Karpova and Faina I. Kartashkova Ivanovo Lexicographic School ................................................................ xvii Ekaterina A. Shilova Part I: Dictionary as a Cross-road of Language and Culture Chapter One................................................................................................. 2 Language Globalization through the Prism of Lexicography Galina M. Vishnevskaya Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 11 Paradigms of English Lexicography: International Paradigm Valentyna Skybina Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 27 Linguistic Cultural Dictionaries with Special Reference to Russian Culture Olga A. Uzhova Chapter Four.............................................................................................. 34 Lexicographic Activity of the XXIst c.: Following the Linguistic Fashion or Challenge of the New Time? (Based on the Russian Language) Natalia V. Yudina Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 53 The First Systematic Treatment of English Vocabulary: Phillips’s New World of English Words (1658) Kusujiro Miyoshi

vi

Table of Contents

Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 67 Ritual and Etiquette as a Lexicographic Problem: Describing Clichés in Historical Perspective Tatyana P. Tretyakova Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 77 Chaucer and Shakespeare Glossaries: Do Modern Users Still Need Them Today? Olga M. Karpova and Olga A. Melentyeva Chapter Eight............................................................................................. 96 Somatic Phraseological Units as Viewed Lexicographically Faina I. Kartashkova Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 103 New Words in Contemporary Dictionaries of the English Language: Are Words Invented by the Society or is the Society Changed by Words? Tatyana A. Taganova Part II: Dictionary Use and Dictionary Criticism Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 116 Lexicography as the Pivot of English Language Teaching Svetlana G. Ter-Minasova Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 124 On the Experience of Compiling Russian-English and English-Russian Cognitive Learners’ Dictionaries Marina R. Kaul Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 134 Towards a System of Integrated Dictionary Use Rufus H. Gouws Chapter Thirteen...................................................................................... 145 A General Framework for Reviewing Dictionaries Sandro Nielsen

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

vii

Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 158 Overview of Hand-held Electronic Dictionaries in Japan: Functions, Usage, and Impact on Print Dictionary Industry Shigeru Yamada Part III: Terminology and LSP Studies Chapter Fifteen ........................................................................................ 168 Development of LSP and Terminology in Russia Larissa M. Alekseeva Chapter Sixteen ....................................................................................... 178 Lexicography of Professional Subcode in Russia: State of Affairs and Problems Marina I. Solnyshkina Chapter Seventeen ................................................................................... 196 Universal and Specific Features of an LSP Dictionary Konstantin M. Denisov Chapter Eighteen ..................................................................................... 216 Methods of the LSP Dictionary Analysis Tamara G. Petrashova Chapter Nineteen ..................................................................................... 231 Evaluation Component within the Semantic Structure of Socio-Political Words Svetlana A. Manik Part IV: Projects of New Dictionaries Chapter Twenty ....................................................................................... 246 Cultural Heritage for Intercultural Dialogue with Life Beyond Tourism® Paolo Del Bianco Chapter Twenty One................................................................................ 256 A New Type of a Cultural Dictionary with Special Reference to Florence Olga M. Karpova

viii

Table of Contents

Chapter Twenty Two ............................................................................... 268 Dictionary for Cultural Tourists: Entry Line Architecture Ekaterina A. Shilova and Nataliya S. Utkina Chapter Twenty Three ............................................................................. 277 Cross-cultural LSP Dictionary for the Humanities: A New Type of Dictionary Galina N. Lovtsevich Chapter Twenty Four............................................................................... 293 English-Russian Dictionary of Contacts with East-Asian Cultures Zoya G. Proshina Contributors............................................................................................. 304

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 12-1: Different Animals (Afrikaans Dictionary) .............................. 138 Fig. 15-1: Word-building Model ............................................................. 173 Fig. 23-1: Russian ELT ........................................................................... 280 Fig. 23-2: North American Context......................................................... 281

LIST OF TABLES

Table 15-1: Correlation of Terminology and Philosophy of Term .......... 175 Table 18-1: The Balance between One Element Terms and Multiple Element Terms................................................................................... 227 Table 24-1: English-Russian Correlations for Russian and Chinese Words................................................................................................. 295 Table 24-2: English-Russian Correlations for Russian and Japanese Words................................................................................................. 295 Table 24-3: English-Russian Correlations for Russian and Korean Words................................................................................................. 296 Table 24-4: English-Russian Correlations for Chinese Words Written in Pinyin and Wade-Giles Romanizations ......................................... 297 Table 24-5: English-Russian Correlations for Korean Words Written in Two Systems of Romanization ...................................................... 297

EDITORS’ PREFACE

The present book is based on the plenary presentations made during the IXth School on Lexicography Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst Century held at Ivanovo State University (Russia) on September 8–10, 2011. The book consists of four parts: x x x x

Part I: Dictionary as a Cross-road of Language and Culture. Part II: Dictionary Use and Dictionary Criticism. Part III: Terminology and LSP Studies. and Part IV: Projects of New Dictionaries.

Part I: Dictionary as a Cross-road of Language and Culture consists of nine chapters devoted to the problem of interdependence of language and culture as viewed lexicographically. Galina M. Vishnevskaya draws the attention of the reader to the phenomenon of professional bilingualism that is described in modern linguistics in the least degree. In view of this problem it becomes clear why one of the most urgent tasks of modern lexicographers is to create thesauri of a new type for professionals in many different industries. The author stresses that a thesaurus of the new type should be targeted at the development of strategic language competence of a bilingual professional and should meet the requirements of terminological standardization for better international communication practice. Of no less importance is the author’s statement as to the necessity for new dictionaries for bilingual professionals to contain a clear description of typical pronunciation mistakes of professional terms, warning learners against the possible pitfalls. Valentyna Skybina assumes that the English language of the XXIst c. is a global language functioning in the form of its native and non-native varieties, as well as lingua franca. Hence, English lexicography can rightfully be considered as global, with two major development paradigms—native and international. The author offers an overview of the dictionaries compiled on the material of non-native varieties of English with the aim of identifying their characteristics and tracing the history of the international trend. V. Skybina concludes that World English lexicography focuses on the vocabulary distinguishing local usage. The dictionaries

xii

Editors’ Preface

under discussion are characterized by availability of information on the history of the country, language situation, language history and language description, thus serving as historical and cultural reference books. Olga A. Uzhova’s article is devoted to linguistic cultural dictionaries with special reference to Russian culture. Having analysed the dictionary Constants. Dictionary of Russian Culture by J. Stepanov and the dictionary Concepts of Russian Culture and Intercultural Communication by L. Mullagalieva, the author comes to the conclusion that they apply to modern Russian linguistic consciousness and demonstrate the most important ideas and values in Russian culture. They bear inevitable and at the same time explicable subjectivity, since the methodology of compiling such dictionaries is not yet well developed. Natalia V. Yudina in her article speculates over the problem of lexicographical activity of the XXI c. The author analyses different aspects of the present-day lexicographical activity representing the objective “challenge” of the time—the first decades of the XXIst c. on the basis of more than 90 Russian-language lexicographical resources of this time. It is convincingly shown that dictionaries, being a “mirror” of extra- and intralinguistic processes, demonstrate a vivid linguistic and extralinguistic view of the changing world, and become an interlink between the two important subjects of modern intercultural extralinguistic continuum: lexicographer and user. In the article by Kusujiro Miyoshi it is clarified that E. Phillips’ changes to Th. Blount’s headwords are not simply fine-tuning, but sprang from the fact that his approach to the vocabulary of English is different from Th. Blount’s. Another procedure in this paper concerns the indication of the word class. The author analyses such aspects of E. Phillips’ practice in amalgamating entries in the Glossographia: disregarding the etymons of headwords, emphasizing the root forms of English words, and prioritising the noun headwords. It is shown that it was E. Phillips who came to realize that what matters is the systematic treatment of the vocabulary of English. The author claims that lexicographers have to reconsider the beginning of the grammatical treatment of the language in the history of English lexicography through E. Phillips’ New World of English Words. Tatyana P. Tretyakova’s article aims at discussing some trends of interpreting verbal etiquette forms of communication in different periods with the view of their possibility of lexicographic codification and finding a necessary repertoire of the etiquette utterances. The author states that the latter all have pragmatic meaning registered in dictionaries and reference books, although lacking social and cultural information in general-use dictionaries. Hence, the challenging task of modern lexicography is to

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

xiii

encode this kind of functional semantics through devising a general model of presentation. It is argued that the scenario of interaction can be shown as a stereotypical phenomenon, by which is meant the connection between ritual and etiquette as integral parts of communication pattern in a lexicographic presentation. Olga M. Karpova and Olga A. Melentyeva’s paper is devoted to Chaucer and Shakespeare glossaries, whose role cannot be underestimated. It is shown that Chaucer remains one of the greatest writers, promoting lexicographers to compile miscellaneous reference resources to make understanding of his language easier. Compilers of Chaucer glossaries concentrate on describing his unfamiliar words. The compilers of lexicographic sources tended to define Shakespeare’s role in the formation and development of the English literary language that can be understood with the help of different reference books that appeared as a cooperative effort of lexicographers and other experts. Faina I. Kartashkova acquaints the readers with the way somatic phraseological units, representing the body code of the culture, are described in dictionaries. In spite of the fact that dictionaries published by British Publishing Houses contain ample phraseological data, all of them lack such a marker as collocability, or valency, which may be treated as a drawback, as it is valency that is the key to the right usage of phraseological units. Some Russian dictionaries which are analysed in the paper, on the contrary, do pay attention to valency. The author argues that it is advisable for dictionaries of idioms, alongside with giving pure cultural information about phraseological units, to point out their valency characteristics (or its collocability on the basis of the definition of its presupposition, which enables showing the users how phraseological units function in speech). Tatyana A. Taganova highlights the problem of new words in contemporary dictionaries of the English language. The author claims that new words do influence the society due to the fact that everything which is new and unclear attracts our attention. The author stresses that not all the words get into the macrostructure of dictionaries, but all of them are becoming the domain of lexicographers, the object of discussion, and the invaluable language material evidencing the development of the society. Part II: Dictionary Use and Dictionary Criticism consists of five chapters devoted to thorough analysis of new trends in modern dictionary use and is focused on burning problems of lexicographic analysis of dictionaries, in Western tradition called dictionary criticism. This part opens with an article by Svetlana G. Ter-Minasova who dwells upon description of learner’s dictionaries and their role in the

xiv

Editors’ Preface

English teaching process, stating that they are effective tools for learning and teaching English today. Professor Ter-Minasova claims that teaching speech production skills is impossible without monolingual and bilingual/interlingual learner’s dictionaries. The author assumes that learner’s dictionaries have not only the task of giving the meaning of a word, but that of illustrating the actual use of a word in speech as well. The author comes to the conclusion that an ever-increasing demand for dictionaries which inform the user about the actual use of the word in speech is predetermined by the urgent need to know how to use the word in speech. That accounts for the fact that the theory and method of compiling the above-mentioned type of dictionary has become a topical and urgent problem of Russian linguistics and pedagogics. Marina R. Kaul’s paper represents the author’s experience of compiling Russian-English and English-Russian cognitive learner's dictionaries. Both types of dictionaries are classified as specifically learner’s dictionaries, whose goal is to reveal semantic componential structures of compared words in respective languages in their reference to each other. The author assumes that the revealing of and perception of semantic componential structure of a word in a foreign language is a cognitive process which enables one to classify the dictionaries under description as cognitive ones. The dictionaries under description incorporate lexical units which in the target language find a number of equivalents semantically unrelated and referring to various conceptual spheres. The students are supposed to analyse the inner form of the word, to compare it with the corresponding inner forms in their mother tongue, which stimulates their cognitive activity and intensifies the process of learning the vocabulary. The programming article of Rufus H. Gouws discusses an integrated system of dictionary use. The author stresses that a successful dictionary presupposes an optimal retrieval of information to satisfy the need that prompted the consultation process. The main task of any lexicographer, according to Rufus H. Gouws, is to compile a dictionary in such a way that the intended target users could achieve optimal retrieval of information. To accomplish this task, lexicographers need to look at new possibilities and procedures, to enhance the success rate of dictionary use. Sandro Nielsen devotes his paper to the problem of writing dictionary reviews, which became a separate branch in modern lexicography. The researcher proposes a number of principles and requirements that may be used as guidelines for writing trustworthy dictionary reviews. The lexicographically based framework that is offered in the article contains an outline of general theoretical and practical principles, which broadens the scope of reviewing. The application of such elements as the object of

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

xv

reviews, approaches to reviewing, and the informative quality of reviews, leads to making dictionary reviews academically sound. In his article Shigeru Yamada offers an overview of electronic dictionaries: content, functions and student usage, the impact of these dictionaries on Japan’s dictionary industry. The author stresses that students should be acquainted with the range of dictionaries typically included in the electronic or online products. Yamada is convinced that to develop a model which would be beneficial for both industries is of paramount importance. To enhance the opportunity for success of both printed and electronic dictionary industries, it is necessary to contemplate substantive technological modifications. Part III: Terminology and LSP Studies is based on research of Russian scholars dealing with studies of different domains of terminology, i.e. professional subcode (Marina I. Solnyshkina), English phonetics, social work, etc. Larissa M. Alekseeva fully describes the development of LSP and Terminology studies in Russia during last ten years and Konstantin M. Denisov devoted his paper to the description of universal and specific features of an LSP dictionary of English phonetic terms. Tamara G. Petrashova offers her own methods of LSP dictionaries analysis paying special attention to their mega-, macro- and microstructure architecture, with special reference to the terms of social work. Svetlana A. Manik in her paper focuses her attention on English and Russian social-political vocabulary and covers the main problems that arise with their lexicographic treatment in different types of dictionaries. All papers contain fresh material and new approaches to the terms under study. Part IV: Projects of New Dictionaries contains three papers dedicated to Florence as a world treasure of art. The article by the founder of Romualdo Del Bianco Foundation®, Dr. Paolo Del Bianco Cultural Heritage for Intercultural Dialogue with Life Beyond Tourism® offers a detailed description of various activities of the Foundation which supports different international initiatives in promoting Florence as a centre of cultural life. The article is followed by the paper A New Type of a Cultural Dictionary with Special Reference to Florence written by project leader Olga M. Karpova who describes principles of compilation of the Dictionary Florence in the Works of European Writers and Artists: Encyclopedic Dictionary for Guides and Tourists based on the genius of the place technique.

xvi

Editors’ Preface

Another related paper, Dictionary for Cultural Tourists: Entry Line Architecture by Ekaterina A. Shilova and Nataliya S. Utkina, is focused on comparison of dictionary articles and full description of their structure with special reference to outstanding personalities: artists, writers, musicians whose career is connected with Florence. Part IV is concluded by two papers: the article Cross-cultural LSP Dictionary for the Humanities: a New Type of Dictionary by Galina N. Lovtsevich who offers a new type of the cultural dictionary and the other by Zoya G. Proshina English-Russian Dictionary of Contacts with East-Asian Cultures. Both authors offer a new look at culture viewed lexicographically. The book has a List of Contributors where one can find relevant information about the authors, who come from Canada, Denmark, Italy, Japan, South Africa and various Russian Universities: Ivanovo, Kazan, Moscow, Perm, St. Petersburg, Tomsk, Vladimir and Vladivostok. In conclusion, we express deep gratitude to Cambridge Scholars Publishing for constant interest to Ivanovo lexicographic schools held at Ivanovo State University since 1995, and publications of three collected monographs based on plenary presentations made at the VIth–IXth lexicographical schools in Ivanovo: x Karpova, O. and F. Kartashkova, eds. 2007. Essays on Lexicon, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures; x Karpova, O. and F. Kartashkova, eds. 2009. Lexicography and Terminology: A Worldwide Outlook; x Karpova, O. and F. Kartashkova, eds. 2010. New Trends in Lexicography: Ways of Registrating and Describing Lexis. Our special thanks are for international and Russian contributors of very important and exciting papers devoted to general and specific problems in lexicography and terminology. Many thanks to dictionary compilers for sharing with us their dictionary projects. —Editors of the volume, Olga M. Karpova and Faina I. Kartashkova

IVANOVO LEXICOGRAPHIC SCHOOL EKATERINA A. SHILOVA IVANOVO STATE UNIVERSITY, RUSSIA

Ivanovo Lexicographic School, founded in 1991 and headed by Dr. Prof. Olga Karpova (Prof. Olga Karpova’s Personal Webpage, 2011), is well-known all over Russia and abroad. It can take a legitimate pride in considerable scientific achievements, international recognition, and a great many disciples. Every two years since 1995, the English Department of Ivanovo State University hosts International Schools on Lexicography attended by prominent lexicographers, terminologists and linguists from Russia and other countries. The idea of such Schools was inspired by the founder of the European Association for Lexicography, Dr. R.R.K. Hartmann, who came to Ivanovo as the first guest speaker. Subsequent conferences covered such topics as: Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Lexicography (1995), Current Problems of Theoretical and Applied Lexicography (1997), Dictionary in Modern World (1999), Language. Culture. Dictionaries (2001), Theoretical Lexicography: Modern Tendencies of Development (2003), Lexis, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures (2005), Modern Lexicography: Global Problems and National Solutions (2007), Synchronic and Diachronic Lexicography: A New Age of Theory and Practice (2009), Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst Century (2011). Up to now, Ivanovo Schools on Lexicography have grown into a significant international event. Being a member of the National Association of Applied Linguistics (NAAL), Russia, and the European Association for Lexicography (EURALEX), Professor Olga Karpova managed to attract top-rank lexicographers to lecture at the plenary meetings, to give master-classes, to chair round-table discussions and workshops, to share their experience in informal communication during the conferences. Such world-known scholars as R. Vatvedt Fjeld (Norway), K. Varantola, Chr. Laurén (Finland), J. DeCesaris (Spain), J. Considine (Canada), J. Coleman (Great Britain), S. Nielsen (Denmark),

xviii

Ivanovo Lexicographic School

H. Picht (Germany), K. Haseley (USA), G. Iamartino (Italy) were among the guest lecturers of Ivanovo Schools. Nine volumes of conference proceedings (1997, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009 and 2011) have already been published as an outcome of the participants’ work (see References). The format chosen for Ivanovo International Schools allows everyone —no matter how experienced they are in lexicography—to participate in various conference activities. Thus, postgraduates and university students can listen to lectures delivered by international celebrities as well as present the results of their own research, which is a wonderful chance for them to receive a powerful impulse for their future work. Ivanovo Lexicographic School attracts leading publishers (HarperCollins, Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press, etc.) which provide the participants with recently published dictionaries and other scientific resources. For instance, since 1998, Olga Karpova and her post-graduate students have written and published over a hundred reviews of the new Collins dictionaries from the point of view of Russian users (see Jalik. Jazik. Literatura. Istorija. Kul’tura... (Language. Literature. History. Culture...), 2000–2011; Voronezh State University Annual Bulletin, etc.). Special attention should be paid to fruitful cooperation of Ivanovo lexicographers with Cambridge Scholars Publishing (http://www.c-sp.org). In 2007, CSP got interested in publishing proceedings of the VIth International School on Lexicography. The book got a widespread resonance in linguistic circles and was highly appreciated by specialists in the sphere of lexicography, thus becoming an impetus to CSP to continue the work. By now, three books edited by Prof. Olga Karpova and Prof. Faina Kartashkova: Essays on Lexicon, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures (2007); Lexicography and Terminology: a Worldwide Outlook (2009); New Trends in Lexicography: Ways of Registrating and Describing Lexis (2010) have appeared. The first book Essays on Lexicon, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures consists of four parts (I. Cultural Aspects in Different Linguistic and Lexicographic Traditions, II. User’s Perspective and Dictionary Use, III. Terminology and Terminography, IV. New Dictionary Projects) and represents the results of scientific investigations of Dr. H. Picht (Germany), Dr. N. Kassis (Israel), Dr. K. Haseley (USA), Professors O. Karpova, S. Ter-Minasova, V. Malygin, L. Shestakova, V. Tabanakova (Russia) and many others. This edition turned out to be, in fact, the first book written in English, opening Russian lexicographers to their Western colleagues.

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

xix

The next volume Lexicography and Terminology: a Worldwide Outlook contains articles by E. Berthemet (France), M. Brataniü (Croatia), M. Miliü (Serbia), Chr. Laurén (Finland), L. Pienaar (South Africa) and many prominent Russian linguists, including scholars from Ivanovo State University. Its first part highlights the problems of modern lexicography development in different countries, and concerns English, Italian, Russian, South African dictionaries for general and special purposes, as well as history and state-of-the-art of learner and author lexicography. The contributors focus their attention on lexicographic description of phraseological units and clichés, English rhyming slang and gender marked anthroponyms. The second part is devoted to definition of terms and their difference from LGP units, standardization of terms, their translation into European languages, and different ways of their registration in dictionaries. The monograph treats terminology of different subject fields with regard to the latest achievements in language studies, particularly cognitive linguistics. The thematic counterpoint of the book makes it useful for linguists, university students studying philology and all those interested in language phenomena. The volume New Trends in Lexicography: Ways of Registrating and Describing Lexis comprises 24 papers presented by the participants of the VIIIth International School. Part I Systemic and Cross-cultural Relations of Words in the Dictionary discusses questions of lexicographic description of proper names, idioms, non-equivalent lexical units, names of non-verbal actions in mono- and bilingual dictionaries of different types. Part II Specialized Dictionaries: Traditions and Innovations presents numerous projects of new dictionaries. The scholars offer new approaches to lexicographic treatment of words depending on the purpose of the dictionary. Special attention is drawn to the theory of user’s perspective, the primary interest of modern lexicographers. English language variations in synchronic and diachronic aspects also fall into the scope of discussion. The fact that the books appeared in such an authoritative publishing house is not only a great honour for all the contributors but can also be considered as recognition of achievements of Ivanovo lexicographic school. The collaboration with one of the leading academic publishers helps to promote Russian lexicography worldwide. It should also be mentioned that a book English Author Dictionaries (the XVIth–the XXIst cc.) by Olga Karpova was published by CSP in early 2011. Author lexicography is the primary scientific interest of Professor Karpova. Her theory of English author lexicography and a complete chronological bibliography of different types of author dictionaries are

Ivanovo Lexicographic School

xx

unique and will be useful both for Russian scholars and lexicographers from other countries. Another vivid example of international activities of Ivanovo lexicographers is the project A Dictionary without Boundaries: Florence in the Works of World Famous People (Writers, Artists, Musicians). Project of a Dictionary for Guides and Tourists launched by Prof. Karpova in 2008 under the support of Romualdo Del Bianco Foundation® —Life Beyond Tourism® (Florence, Italy). The project involves annual discussions within Florence international students’ workshop: x x x

http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/index_a.html; http://www.fondazionedelbianco.org/seminari/dett_prog.asp?start=1&idprog=149; http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/seminari/dett_prog.asp?idprog=315.

In the last four years the project partners have been the Universities of Belgrade (Serbia) and Zagreb (Croatia), Eötvös Loránd University (Budapest, Hungary) as well as six Russian higher educational establishments: Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Perm State University, South Ural State University (Chelyabinsk), Vladimir State University, Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University. Three issues of the dictionary have already been published by Ivanovo State University, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, and Vladimir State University, the fourth one is coming in the near future (see Karpova, 2009; Petrashova, 2011; Yudina, 2012; Issue 4 in print). Each year Ivanovo lexicographers participate in the most prestigious international symposiums and conferences, making presentations or being, for example, respondents at terminological colloquia: EURALEX Congresses (Torino, 2006; Barcelona, 2008; Oslo, 2012), International Lexicography Symposiums (Copenhagen, 2000–2004), LSP Symposiums (Balzano, 2001; Guildford, 2003; Bergamo, 2005; Hamburg, 2007; Aarhus, 2009; Perm, 2011), New Information Technologies in Linguistics and Lexicography (Grats, 2004), EUROPHRAS (Helsinki, 2008), ELexicography (Belgium, 2009), to mention just a few of them. Thanks to Olga Karpova’s numerous professional connections, PhD students have a chance to work in the world’s leading lexicography centres (Institute of the Netherlands Lexicology in Leiden, Institute of Corpus Lexicography in Pisa, Syddansk University in Kolding, Copenhagen Business School, University of Tampere, etc.). One of the most important things about Ivanovo Lexicographic School is the fact that its members involve the younger generation in lexicographic

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

xxi

research work. English Department curriculum includes several specialized courses on cyber-, corpus and LSP lexicography that are very popular among students who choose lexicography as a research sphere for their diploma theses. The topics range from lexicographic description of LSP of different subject areas (tourism, sport, textile industry, law, finance, cinematography) to author and learner lexicography. The students are not only involved in theoretical review on the topic and dictionary criticism, but also study user’s perspective and present their own models of new dictionaries. Lots of students continue their research as post-graduates. Prof. Karpova has supervised 28 PhD dissertations. Participants of the research team headed by Olga Karpova got interesting results in different fields of lexicography which have been published in the book Ivanovo School of Lexicography: Traditions and Innovations: A Festschrift in Honour of Professor Olga Karpova (2011). There is hardly a corner in the world where graduates of Ivanovo State University do not work. Ivanovo Lexicographic School members teach at universities and private schools in Russia and abroad, open their own linguistic centres, or work for the regional government. Professor Karpova’s colleagues and disciples express their sincere gratitude to their leader, a talented scholar and experienced pedagogue, for her help, support and inspiration, for her great devotion and commitment to a most exciting discipline of lexicography.

References Karpova, O., ed. 1997. Aktualnye problemy teoreticheskoj i prikladnoj leksikografii: mezhvuzovskij sbornik nauchnykh trudov. (Current Problems of Theoretical and Applied Lexicography: Collection of Research Papers). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. ed. 1997. Teoreticheskie i prakticheskie aspekty leksikografii: mezhvuzovskij sbornik nauchnykh trudov. (Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Lexicography: Collection of Research Papers). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. ed. 1999. Slovar’ v sovremennom mire: materialy III Mezhdunarodnoj shkoly-seminara. (Dictionary in the Contemporary World: Proceedings of III International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Yunona. —. ed. 2001. Jazyk. Kul’tura. Slovari: materialy IV Mezhdunarodnoj shkoly-seminara. (Language. Culture. Dictionaries: Proceedings of IV International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Yunona. —. ed. 2003. Teoreticheskaja leksikografia: sovremennye tendentsii razvitia: materialy V Mezhdunarodnoj shkoly-seminara. (Theoretical Lexicography:

xxii

Ivanovo Lexicographic School

Modern Tendencies of Development: Proceedings of V International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. ed. 2005. Leksika, leksikografia, terminografia v russkoj, amerikanskoj i drugikh kulturakh: materialy VI Mezhdunarodnoj shkoly-seminara. (Lexis, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures: Proceedings of VI International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. ed. 2007. Sovremennaja leksikografia: global’nye problemy i natsional’nye reshenia: materialy VII Mezhdunarodnoj shkolyseminara. (Modern Lexicography: Global Problems and National Solutions: Proceedings of VII International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. 2009. Florentsia v tvorchestve evropejskikh pisatelej i khudozhnikov: entsiklopedicheskij slovar’ dlja gidov i turistov: project slovarja. Florence in the Works of European Writers and Artists: Encyclopedic Dictionary for Guides and Tourists: Project of a Dictionary, 1st issue. Edited by V. Egorov. Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. ed. 2009. Novoe v teorii i praktike leksikografii: sinkhronnyj i diakhronnyj podkhody: materialy VIII Mezhdunarodnoj shkolyseminara. (Synchronic and Diachronic Lexicography: A New Age of Theory and Practice: Proceedings of VIII International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. —. 2011. English Author Dictionaries (the XVIth–the XXIst cc). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. —. ed. 2011. Leksikograficheskie rakursi: traditsii i vyzovi XXI veka: materialy IX Mezhdunarodnoj shkoly-seminara. (Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst century: Proceedings of IX International School on Lexicography). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. Karpova, O., and F. Kartashkova, eds. 2007. Essays on Lexicon, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Karpova, O., and F. Kartashkova, eds. 2009. Lexicography and Terminology: a Worldwide Outlook. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Karpova, O., and F. Kartashkova, eds. 2010. New Trends in Lexicography: Ways of Registrating and Describing Lexis. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Kartashkova, F., ed. 2011. Ivanovskaja leksikograficheskaja shkola: traditsii i innovatsii. (Ivanovo School of Lexicography: Traditions and

Multi-disciplinary Lexicography

xxiii

Innovations: A Festschrift in Honour of Professor Olga Karpova). Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. Jalik (Jazik. Literatura. Istorija. Kul’tura). Nauchno-informatsionnyj bjulleten’. Sankt-Peterburgskij gosudarstvennij universitet. (Language. Literature. History. Culture. Information Bulletin of St. Petersburg State University). 2000–2011. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. Olga Mikhajlovna Karpova. Biobibliograficheskij spravochnik. Seria “Curriculum vitae et index operum”. (Olga Mikhajlovna Karpova. Biobibliographic Reference Book. Series “Curriculum vitae et index operum”). 2011. Complied by F. Tapaeva and O. Melentyeva. Ivanovo: Ivanovo State University. Petrashova, T.G. 2011. Florentsia v tvorchestve evropejskikh pisatelej i khudozhnikov: entsiklopedicheskij slovar’ dlja gidov i turistov: project slovarja. Florence in the Works of European Writers and Artists: Encyclopedic Dictionary for Guides and Tourists: Project of a Dictionary, 2nd issue. Edited by O.M. Karpova Tomsk: Publishing House of Tomsk Polytechnic University. Yudina, N.V. 2012. A Dictionary without Boundaries: Florence in the Works of World Famous People. Project of a Dictionary for Guides and Tourists, 3d issue. Edited by O.M. Karpova. Vladimir: Publishing House of Vladimir State University.

Internet Resources Prof. Olga Karpova’s Personal Webpage, http://ivanovo.ac.ru/vicerectors/karpova-o-m (accessed October 3, 2011). Florentine Themes in Dictionaries of European Writers. Florence, April 17–24, 2008, http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/inglese/index_a. html (accessed October 3, 2011). Florence in the Works of European Writers and Artists: Project of Encyclopedic Dictionary for Guides and Tourists. A Dictionary without Boundaries. Florence, April 11–18, 2010, http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/seminari/dett_prog.asp?start= 1&idprog=149 (accessed October 3, 2011). A Dictionary without Boundaries: Florence in the Works of World Famous People (Writers, Artists, Musicians). Project of a Dictionary for Guides and Tourists. Florence, April 10–17, 2011, http://www.fondazione-delbianco.org/seminari/dett_prog.asp?id prog=315 (accessed October 3, 2011). Cambridge Scholars Publishing, http://www.c-s-p.org (accessed October 3, 2011).

PART I: DICTIONARY AS A CROSS-ROAD OF LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

CHAPTER ONE LANGUAGE GLOBALIZATION THROUGH THE PRISM OF LEXICOGRAPHY GALINA M. VISHNEVSKAYA IVANOVO STATE UNIVERSITY, RUSSIA

Globalization processes penetrate all spheres of modern life and society—economics, finance, information and intellectual resources, science, education, arts, etc. (Held, 2004). Bilingualism is becoming a norm of professional communication in the situation of intensive and extensive globalization. There are many types of bilingualism manifesting themselves in different patterns, being territorially, socially, psychologically, or individually determined (Baetens-Beardsmore, 1982; Wei, 2009): achieved, additive, ascendant, ascribed, asymmetrical, balanced, compound, consecutive, coordinate, diagonal, early, functional, horizontal, incipient, individual, infant, late, passive, perfect, productive, receptive, recessive, residual, secondary, semi-bilingualism, societal, subordinate, subtractive, successive, symmetrical, true, vertical, etc. However, in the case of the English language globalization we frequently observe one more type of bilingualism, which can be described by the term professional bilingualism. There is a constantly growing demand for bilingual professionals across the board, particularly in the finance related positions. In the increasingly global economy, organizations need people who speak more than one language to bridge language and communication differences. It certainly is a plus to know two languages (or even more) and there are some companies who will pay premium or provide extra pay for being bilingual. A variety of employment resources are available for those who eagerly assist bilingual professionals and connect them with companies that seek bilinguals meeting their strict communicationefficiency requirements. The movement of highly skilled labour across national boundaries is closely connected with the globalization processes. Some of the bilingual professionals are “…constantly moving around as their skills are in high demand—for example software engineers or soccer

Language Globalization through the Prism of Lexicography

3

players—others, like many academics, often settle in their new country” (Day, Wagner, 2007, 390). The phenomenon of professional bilingualism is not yet fully fathomed and it is little, if at all, described (sometimes it is not even admitted as a significant observable fact) in modern linguistics. The language personality of professional people who are bilingual and the specific characteristics of their bilingual behaviour and bilingual communication are not often discussed by linguists. The most urgent task of modern lexicographers in view of this problem is to create thesauri of a new type for professionals in many different industries and at various levels of their work related activity. Such lexicographic products should satisfy the maximum demands of bilingual professionals, especially in the most active and functional areas of science and technology. In the case of professional bilingualism, lexicographic references are of great value, for both teaching and learning purposes. One could suggest that a thesaurus of the new type should be targeted at the development of strategic language competence of a bilingual professional and, most importantly, to be meeting the requirements of terminological standardization for better international communication practice. Rapidly developing disciplines, such as nanotechnologies, and other modern technologies converging with them, give rise to new concepts and hence new terms: These are the terms which are devised by specialists in the discipline; they will initially be descriptive and will be those adopted by students, interpreters and translators. It is only subsequently that the process of standardisation takes place. There is frequently divergence in the naming process of concepts in industry where each commercial concern seeks to impose its own nomenclature on a new development. Even within the same company there may be divergence, as is the case with pharmaceuticals, where the research chemist uses a different term for the same product from that coined by the advertising department; the latter may also differ from country to country, sometimes because of connotational problems. Later it becomes necessary to standardise the terminology to avoid problems and risks in using the products, particularly internationally (Thomas, 1992, 186–187).

English for Business and Economics has become an important part of the curriculum in EFL programmes in Russia. With the globalization of the world economy, English is, more than ever before, becoming the common language of international business (Crystal, 2001). The knowledge of English terminology is essential for the students studying the university course of economics, now that Russia has integrated into the international economic processes. One can no longer ignore the fact that

4

Chapter One

English has become a lingua franca, the universal dominant language of professional communication in today’s global village (van Els, 2005). The growth of information exchange between representatives of different countries in the sphere of economics has become both intensive and extensive (Stiglitz, 1980). In this situation, knowledge of special terminology is crucial for performing adequate professional exchange. ESP is largely addressed to adult learners who require English for furthering their education or to perform a social or working role without which their development would be restrained. An ESP approach requires a well-designed and researched curriculum and pedagogy for a target group of students. Creating a “new generation” dictionary in the theory of economics is urgent, considering the massive flow of English words into this sphere and the existing differences in the interpretation of economic terms in Russia and elsewhere. M. Hewings has underlined the growth of ESP activity in today’s world and has highlighted a number of trends which will presumably have a continuing influence on how ESP develops over the next decade or so. The trends that the scholar names are the following: internationalization, specialization, growth of Business English, continued influence of genre analysis, corpus analysis and SFL, the effect of English as an international language (Hewings, 2008). What is more, M. Hewings seems to be one of the few researchers in the field of ESP who consider phonetics essential for ESP learning and teaching purposes. English for financial purposes is a domain with distinctive terminology characteristics. New generation dictionaries for professional training should be equipped with most modern bilingual dictionaries of economic terms, all of them designed to meet the knowledge and communicationoriented requirements of future professionals in the sphere of economics. Besides, the problem of phonetic inconsistency in the English dictionaries used by English language learners is a vital one. In the era of global spread of the English language and its unprecedented role as a universal tool for intercultural communication there is a great need for dictionaries giving standard pronunciation patterns for EFL and ESL students (Vishnevskaya, 2007). The importance of phonetic transcription for lexicographic and pedagogical purposes is obvious. Modern dictionaries, especially targeted at bilingual professionals, should not be lacking in phonetic information and should meet the current professional requirements. Regretfully, so far there are no pronunciation dictionaries for contemporary users designed to provide information on the current pronunciation of ESP terms. The world famous authoritative pronunciation dictionaries (Jones, 2006; Wells, 2008) are constantly updated and serve as a challenge for future dictionary

Language Globalization through the Prism of Lexicography

5

makers intending to meet the subtle demands of bilingual professionals. English pronunciation lexicography must sharpen its focus on the terminology of ESP, particularly on dictionary prosodic markers (accent markers) in multi-word terms. In professional international business oral communication, pronunciation issues (segmental and suprasegmental features of oral speech) seem to be shamefully ignored by the speakers. Distorted phonetic forms of words, faulty word accent and sentence stress, uneven rhythms and strange intonation patterns do not just betray one’s foreign accent, but can easily ruin the spoken message and, as a result, cause a communication failure in professional communication. Pronouncing dictionaries for non-native students of economics, business, and other professional spheres do not seem to be available at the moment and have to be designed to meet the knowledge and communication-oriented requirements of professional users. One can very well understand why there is a great degree of uncertainty for an English language learner about stressing English word combinations: the prosodic contour of such language units is very much variable. At the same time, multi-word terms of ESP (word-combinations, collocations) are characterized by a prosodic continuity which, when broken, can render an EFL and ESP learner’s speech incoherent. Phonetic variation in English polysyllabic words and word complexes is not easy for a non-native speaker to master. A lot of practice is needed to use the right accentual patterns in such words, which are also recurrent in all other kinds of English, besides ESP. Unfortunately, dictionaries for general and professional purposes, with the exception of authoritative pronunciation dictionaries (Jones, 2006; Wells, 2008), do not often contain detailed phonetic information on the pronunciation of polysyllabic or compound words in English. In our research it was discovered that EFL language learners (Russian learners of English) distort the stress patterns of terminological compounds in the language of economics and business. As it is well known, in English polysyllabic words, the stress may fall on practically any syllable (being relatively free and determined by several linguistic and extralinguistic factors). The degrees of stress can also vary within a word (primary, secondary, unstressed syllables, two primary stresses): i’maginable, ‚conver’sation, ’flap,doodle, ‚recon‚ɫili’ation, etc. There are also large families of English derivatives marked by pronunciation differences (both segmental and suprasegmental): ’nation, ’national, ‚natio’nality, ‚nationali’zation, ’nationa‚lize. At the same time, there are words of the same type which have no stress shift or any other phonetic changes:

6

Chapter One

pro’tect, pro’tective, pro’tection. Besides, there is a typically English phenomenon, called conversion, when polysyllabic words have one and the same graphic form but do not coincide in their pronunciation and grammatical function. They are marked with a stress shift within a word. Such conversion pairs are representing different parts of speech: ’conduct n.—con’duct v., ’frequent adj.—fre’quent v., etc. Conversion is also connected with qualitative changes in the segmental elements of words (in vowels: under stress or without it). With the right stress shift the initial full formation vowel (as in ’conduct) may be erroneously misplaced by a neutral sound, the schwa sound (as in con’duct). These pronunciation peculiarities are rarely mentioned in the dictionary entries. There may also take place a wrong substitution of a full formation vowel by the schwa in the word final position in the conversion pairs without any stress shift of the type: as’sociate n.—as’sociate v., ’delegate n.—’delegate v., etc. The pronunciation of compounds is even more of a problem for an English language learner. Compounds in English are a type of word structure made up of two or even more constituents, each of them being a noun, a verb, an adjective, or a preposition. Most compounds have an early stress pattern: ’fingerprint, ’flame-thrower, ’motorway, ’typewriter, etc. However, there are quite a number of deviations from the pattern. The compound itself may belong to any of the categories—Noun, Verb, Adjective, etc. Thus, one can find compound nouns (’tele‚cast, ‚audio’frequency), compound adjectives (’pains‚taking, ‚well-’known), compound verbs (‚double-’cross, ’air-con‚dition), compound adverbs (‚over’seas, ’overboard), compound conjunctions (‚notwith’standing, ‚in so ’much as), compound prepositions (’just off…, ’onto), compound pronouns (,each’other, ’you two) and even supercompounds or composite nouns (‚early-’warning‚system, ‚cock-and-’bull‚story). F. Riggs states that at the functional level, “…lexicography has the primary aim of helping readers interpret texts, whereas terminology aims to help writers produce texts” (Riggs, 1989, 89). He contrasts the two disciplines at the structural level thus: lexicography follows a semasiological line, from words to their meanings, whereas terminology adopts an onomasiological model, proceeding from concepts (as defined by a text) to the terms that designate them (Riggs, 1989, 89). Binary terminological word-combinations are very typical language units in many professional sciences. In the present research ESP terminology has been analysed from the phonetic point of view: how the phonetic (accentual) form is reflected in the pronunciation dictionaries and how the terms are actually pronounced by native and non-native speakers. Binary terminological word-combinations (e.g. profit margin, general ledger,

Language Globalization through the Prism of Lexicography

7

clearing house, preferred debt, demand-push inflation, short-term project, privately-held land, and the like), widely used in the language of economics, constituted the experimental corpus of the research. The main research methods employed in the study were: phono-lexicographic, auditory, acoustic and statistical. The students were asked to read: 1) lists of economic terms in isolation; 2) sentences with imbedded economic terms. Thus, the accentual patterns of the chosen word-combinations were studied in their norm/non-norm and paradigmatic/syntagmatic oppositions. As it appears from the analysis of the experimental corpus of binary word-combinations found in the language of economics, the most numerous group of them is represented by nominal terminological units. Morphological, word-building, semantic, recessive and other factors can strongly influence their accentual patterns. Prosodic characteristics of such terms are very much varied. Several accentual patterns of the terminological units have been established. According to EPD and LPD 9 types of accentual variation of the binary nominal word-combinations have been discovered. The most frequent types, as reflected in the aforementioned pronunciation dictionaries, are the following three: 1/ ŏ Ŏ; 2/ Ŏ ŏ ; 3/ ŏ. The accentual variation of English terminological units presents a lot of difficulties for Russian learners of English who are mainly being guided by the word stress patterns of their native (Russian) tongue which has a limited number of degrees of stress (no secondary or tertiary stress), as compared to several degrees of word-stress in the target (English) language. As a result, Russian students tend to have either two strong stresses on both parts of the binary nominal terminological unit, or make the first element of it too prominent, while the second part of it is reduced too much. The analysis of phonetic stress variables has demonstrated that in the speech of EFL students terminological word compounds are characterized by a limited number of patterns, both on the paradigmatic and syntagmatic levels of speech production, whereas in the standard native English pronunciation the accentual patterns of such terminological units are more varied. The differences between native and non-native performance can be quantitative (the number of stresses within a word) and qualitative (placement and degree of word-stress). Prosodic mistakes in the pronunciation of binary word-combinations distort the prosodic contour of the utterance and render the utterance incoherent in the language learners’ performance. Our interviews with the students also show that they feel frustrated at not finding the pronunciation of special (economic) terms in the reference books they are using. This fact makes

8

Chapter One

designing pronunciation dictionaries for ESP highly compelling (Vishnevskaya, 2007). The study of language interference phenomena resulting from the overlap of the two phonetic (segmental and suprasegmental) systems (of the primary language and of the target language) gives a lot of data demonstrating a certain model of accented speech marked by a complex of universal and specific features typical of non-native speakers’ pronunciation. Distortions of the phonetic form of a language may cause serious misunderstandings in the process of professional communication. The social effect of one’s voice and pronunciation idiosyncrasies is of great importance. A marked (broad or slight) foreign accent can influence one’s life career in many ways (Honey, 1989). In their international business careers, non-native speakers of English should bear in mind the following three most essential aspects of effective communication: to be adequately understood (which means to have a good enough standard of English with a minimum degree of foreign accent), to be able to understand the many varieties of English spoken by the representatives of foreign firms (that is to be aware of the diversity of English accents) and, finally, to adequately react to accented speech (especially in telephone talks). Improving one’s vocal impression is one of the ways of reducing the damage and making international communication in the modern world effective. Necessarily, new dictionaries for bilingual professionals should also contain a clear description of typical pronunciation mistakes of professional terms warning the learners against the possible pit-falls. One might suggest that world globalization today in many spheres of life is more of “a stepping stone” than “a stumbling block” in the progress of modern society. Today’s world has grown to be very much bilingual and polylingual, which is a plus, since it makes our international communication, being multi-dimensional in many respects, more intensive and rewarding. The rise of English in the multilingual world and its impact in the global context has led to many as yet unanswered questions in the field of lexicography. This situation results in a more vigorous development of lexicographic studies in the globalizing continuum of the XXIst c. According to the outstanding lexicographer R.R.K Hartmann (2001, 2003), more training, more data-gathering, more research, more international cooperation, and also, more suggestions and criticisms are needed to bring improvements in the near future.

Language Globalization through the Prism of Lexicography

9

References Baetens-Beardsmore, H. 1982. Bilingualism: Basic Principles. Clevedon: Tieto Ltd. Crystal, D. 1995. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. —. 2001. “Global Understanding for Global English.” In Global English for Global Understanding. Summaries of the International Conference, 3. Moscow: Moscow State University. Day, D. and J. Wagner. 2007. “Bilingual Professionals.” In Handbook of Multilingualism and Multilingual Communication, edited by P. Auer and L. Wei, 390–404. Mouton: Walter de Gruyter. van Els, T. 2005. “Multilingualism in the European Union.” International Journal of Applied Linguistics 15, no. 3, 263–281. Hartmann, R.R.K. 2001. Teaching and Researching Lexicography (Applied Linguistics in Action Series). Harlow: Longman/Pearson Education Limited. —. ed. 2003. Lexicography: Critical Concepts, vol. I: Lexicography: Dictionaries, Compilers, Critics, and Users. London and New York: Routledge/Taylor and Francis. Held, D. 2004. A Globalizing World? Culture, Economics, Politics. London: Routledge. Hewings, M. 2008. A History of ESP Through “English for Specific Purposes”, http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/MHewings (accessed December 12, 2008). Honey, J. 1989. Does Accent Matter? The Pygmalion Factor. London: Faber and Faber Ltd. Jones, D. 2006. EPD: English Pronouncing Dictionary. Edited by P. Roach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Riggs, F.W. 1989. “Terminology and Lexicography: Their Complementarity.” International Journal of Lexicography 2, no. 2, 89– 110. Stiglitz, J. 1980. Lectures in Public Economics. New York: McGrow-Hill. Thomas, P. 1992. “Treatment of Compound Terminology Entries.” In EURALEX’92 Proceedings I–II. Papers Submitted to the 5th EURALEX International Congress on Lexicography in Tampere, Finland, edited by H. Tomolla, K. Varantola, T. Salmi-Tolonen and J. Schopp. P. I., 185–192. Tampere: Tampereen Yliopisto. Vishnevskaya, G.M. 2007. “Phonetic Transcription: Lexicographic and Pedagogical Issues.” In Essays on Lexicon, Lexicography, Terminography in Russian, American and Other Cultures, edited by O. Karpova and F. Kartashkova, 93–109. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

10

Chapter One

Wei, L. 2009. Bilingualism. New York: Routledge. Wells, J. 2008. LPD: Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow: Longman Group.

CHAPTER TWO PARADIGMS OF ENGLISH LEXICOGRAPHY: INTERNATIONAL PARADIGM VALENTYNA SKYBINA CANADIAN ACADEMY OF INDEPENDENT SCHOLARS*

The English of the XXIst c. differs fundamentally from the English of the XVIIIth c. when the first comprehensive document of the English lexis—A Dictionary of the English Language by S. Johnson was published. In the XXIst c. it is a global language functioning in the form of its native and non-native varieties, as well as a lingua franca. Consequently, English-language lexicography can rightfully be considered global with two major developmental paradigms—native and international. In native trend general and specialized dictionaries, lexis of the “major” native varieties of English, British, American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African, is described. In international trend general and specialized dictionaries, lexis of the non-native varieties of English, as well as of the English-based pidgins and creoles, is described. This trend also embraces dictionaries aimed at the description of the entire English lexis. The former trend has been the focus of wide-ranging research. However, scholars discuss mostly and primarily lexicography of the Englishes of the British Isles and America (see, for example, Béjoint, 1994, 2010; Benson et al., 1986; Burkett, 1979; Cowie, 2009; Hitchings, 2005; Dolezal, 2007; Friend, 1967; Hulbert, 1955; Hüllen, 1999, 2005; Micklethwait, 2000; Starnes, Noyes, 1946; Stein, 1985; Winchester, 2003). Other native varieties have been studied to a much lesser extent (see Görlach, 1989; Cowie, 2009). Although comprehensive research has been done on the lexicography of Australian English (Delbridge, 2001; *

I thank Canadian Academy of Independent Scholars for the grant that made possible my participation in the IX International School on Lexicography in Ivanovo.

12

Chapter Two

Ramson, 2002; Robertson, 2004, 2008; Skybina, 2010, 2011) and Canadian English (Drysdale, 1979; Drysdale, Barber, 1999; Gordienko, 2010; Skybina, Gordienko, 2010), lexicography of New Zealand English and South African English has not received adequate coverage in the literature, so far (for New Zealand lexicography see a short overview by Bardsley, 2011). Even more so this applies to the latter trend. Although H. Béjoint (Béjoint, 2010, 159–162) devoted a paragraph to the new global trend in English lexicography, he only considered Microsoft Encarta World English Dictionary (1999), mentioned The Longman Dictionary of the English Language as an example, and commented on the lexicography of Indian English as a promising sphere of interest for lexicographers. Summarizing the consideration of this issue, H. Béjoint posed a question: “Are we ready for a single dictionary for all English-speaking countries?” (Béjoint, 2010, 161). I would rather ask: “Do we need one?” While the creation of a single “global” English-language dictionary, most likely, is the matter of a distant future, lexicographic description of the individual non-native varieties is not only very promising but overdue. The more so that this task is quite feasible and has been tackled by several generations of lexicographers. In this paper I offer an overview of the dictionaries compiled on the material of non-native varieties of English. I have not included dictionaries of the English-based pidgins and creoles as the screening of some of them (Bowden, 1986; Camden, 1977; Crowley, 1990, 1995, 2003; Jourdan, 2002; Kouega, 2008; Balzer, 1999; Schneider, 1966) showed that they require special research methodology. Thus, I explore dictionaries of the following World Englishes (WEs): Indian English (IE), Nigerian English (NE), Cameroon English and Jamaican English with the aim of identifying their characteristics and trace the history of the international trend. To the best of my knowledge, one of the earliest dictionaries in which WEs are presented is DSJC: A Dictionary of Slang, Jargon & Cant Embracing English, American, and Anglo-Indian Slang, Pidgin English, Tinker’s Jargon and Other Irregular Phraseology (Barrère, Leland, 1889– 1890). The dictionary was printed in 675 copies for subscribers only (I analysed the 312th copy). As the title suggests, the compilers of the dictionary do not hesitate to refer to local neologisms as slang. They also observe the wide distribution of this vocabulary (Barrère, Leland, 1889–1890, 10). The book consists of the following chapters: Introduction; A brief history of slang; Contributors; A Dictionary. It is a general dictionary as to its method, however, probably because the British users, for whom the

Paradigms of English Lexicography: International Paradigm

13

dictionary was intended, were unaware of the entire culture behind the dictionary entries, there was an encyclopedic component in the definitions: Tony catchy, tunnyketch, tawnyketch (Anglo-Indian). In Madras the domestic wather-carrier, generally a woman. Tamil, tannir-kassi. Whare (New Zealand), a hut. The word is used by the settlers in New Zealand and is a native term.

As to the accuracy of the definitions, they raise some doubt. Compare: DSJC (Barrère, Leland, 1889–90): Wood-and-water Joey (Australian), a hanger about hotel. Australian National Dictionary (Ramsson, 1988): wood-and-water joey: f. wood-and-water, in allusion to ‘hewers of wood and drawers of water’ (Josh. ix. 21) + Joey n.2 2.] a. An unskilled labourer who performs the menial tasks of an establishment; Useful. (Ct. 18821978) b. fig. A servile employee or hanger-on, a ‘bum boy’. (Ct. 18981963). Hence wood-and-water joeying vbl. n. (Ct. 1917-1943).

So far, the best lexicographically represented World English variety is Indian English (IE). The earliest dictionary of this variety, compiled by G. Clifford Whitworth, was published in London in 1885. The title of the book An Anglo-Indian Dictionary: A Glossary of Indian Terms Used In English, and of Such English or Other Non-Indian Terms as Have Obtained Special Meanings in India gives an idea of the approach applied to its compilation. The scope and the potential user are specified in the Preface: It is “only a compilation made for popular use by an Anglo-Indian official. … The words of Indian origin will be by far the most numerous … and there are many names which, though their component parts are familiar English, yet express things, unknown in England … Again, there are several words which the Portuguese in their period of power introduced, and which are still current... .” (Whitworth, 1885, vii).

The most complete dictionary entry consists of lemma, etymological reference, definition and in some cases reference to the source: Adálat. [Arabic, from adl, justice.] A court of justice. The adálats under the Muhammadan government were of four classes: the nizámat, the diwáni, the fauzdári, and the adálatal-kázi (q.v.). Under the British government these courts were continued, with some modifications, until

14

Chapter Two 1793, when the judicial and revenue departments were separated, and zillah and provincial courts were established, subordinate to one sadar or supreme adálat at the presidency (H. H. Wilson).

Just as in DSJC, the dictionary entry contains a significant amount of encyclopedic information: Zoroastrian. The name now given to the religion of the Pársis, called after the founder Zoroaster (Zarathustra), who is supposed to have lived in the sixth century B.C. It was the religion of Persia till that country was converted to islám; meanwhile the Pársis had brought the creed with them to India. …

From the modern point of view, this dictionary is more of historical than of lexicographic interest, however, it reveals two important factors: first, from the very beginning compilers of the IE dictionaries have focused on specific users, and second, they sought not only to portray English as used in India but also to represent the culture of the country. Another dictionary of the period, and perhaps the best known one, is Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive compiled by Sir Henry Yule, a Scottish Orientalist, and A.C. Burnell, an English scholar in Sanskrit, and published in London in 1886. Although H. Yule and A. Burnell used a modest term “glossary” in the title, it is a full-fledged dictionary on historical principles. The Introductory Remarks provide the user, English officials in India, with the explanation of the data to look up in this dictionary. It specifies that the dictionary comprises “… all the class of words which, not in general pertaining to the technicalities of administration, recur constantly in the daily intercourse of the English in India” (Yule, Burnell, 1886, xv). The word-list also contains a “selection of those administrative terms, which are in such familiar and quotidian use as form part of the common Anglo-Indian stock...” as well as “indigenous terms which have been adopted in scientific nomenclature, botanical and zoological” (Ibid., xvixvii), some historicisms and archaisms, geographical names, words borrowed into indigenous languages. The historical approach reveals itself both in etymological references and in thoroughly documented citation with a list of sources provided in the introductory part of the book—Fuller Titles of Books Quoted. The most comprehensive dictionary entry contains lemma, part of speech, definitions, derivatives of the headword with definition, etymological

Paradigms of English Lexicography: International Paradigm

15

reference, and quotations. The structure of the entries is not consistent and varies from very short to very extensive. Compare: CINTRA ORANGES. See ORANGE and SUNGTARA BUXERRY, s. A matchlock man; apparently used in much the same sense as Burkundauze (q.v.) now obsolete. We have not found this term excepting in documents pertaining to the middle decades of the 18th century in Bengal; [but see references supplied by Mr. Irvine below;] nor have we found any satisfactory etymology. Buxo is in Port. a gun-barrel (Germ. Buchse); which suggest some possible word buxeiro … .

The entire entry for BUXERRY, including the quotations, is about a page. In many entries, etymology is supplemented with historical data through which the dictionary maintains its relevance for contemporary reader. The dictionary attracts attention of modern researchers in various aspects. Thus, T. Nagle explored its influence “on the great Oxford English Dictionary, which was just starting to be produced when Yule was working on and finishing his dictionary” (Nagle, 2010b) and the history behind its title (Nagle, 2010a). Since the publication of Hobson-Jobson several attempts have been made to develop the tradition of the lexicographic description of IE (Subba, 1954; Nihalani et al., 1979; Hawkins, 1984; Hosali, Tongue, 1989; Lewis, 1991). They differ in range, scope and methods but common to them is the switch of the user they aim at—from British administration in India to Indian speakers of English. Thus, A Dictionary of Collocations for Indian Users of English (Hosali, Tongue, 1989) contains 163 collocations “found in written English in India which deviate from the standard usage of British native speakers of the language” (Ibid., Prefatory notes). A distinguishing feature of this dictionary is the comparison of Indian and British variants. The comparison is incorporated in the structure of dictionary entries particularly in such parts as: “…(b) a list of some of the words which the headword commonly collocates with in British English when the meaning intended is close to that of the deviant collocation under study; (c) some examples of the headword and its collocatives, used in sentences many of which are taken from the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English; … (e) a possible version of the sentences quoted in British Standard English; (f) in some cases” the inclusion of both British English and IE words, e.g. award and bribe (Ibid.). The following example

16

Chapter Two

illustrates the dictionary compilers’ approach to the presentation of the material: hope (n) damage, destroy: “The injury of Smith has seriously damaged the team’s hopes of victory” It does not collocate with cut up *”This cut up all his hopes” BSE “This cut up (destroyed) all his hopes”.

Compilation of the dictionary marks a change of attitude to IE and its recognition as a regional variety of the English language. This trend gets a fruitful development in the dictionary with a picturesque title Sahibs, Nabobs, and Boxwallahs, A Dictionary of The Words of Anglo-India compiled by I. Lewis and published in 1991 (republished in 1997 and 1999). It is a historical dictionary, based on a wide variety of sources listed in the register of references that not only defines nearly 4,000 words but also provides etymologies for both general vocabulary and terminology, primarily that of theology and philosophy, that have become common in Indian English. Like its predecessors, the dictionary provides not only linguistic characteristics of headwords but also relevant encyclopedic information: Sahib [17 C. H/Ar. sãhib (companion).] Title given to, or assumed by former Anglo-Indians and other Europeans in India, meaning lord' or master'. (See Dorai.) Often affixed to the name of an officer; Inspector Sahib; Colonel Sahib; Collector Sahib; even Sergeant Sahib. … .

Besides, I. Lewis provides a historical overview of English in India in context with cultural and linguistic contacts between the two nations. In 2011 the list of IE dictionaries was replenished with an electronic Dictionary of Indian English (Subhash, 2011). The word-list consists of the vocabulary that has undergone semantic or functional changes in India and “indianisms” which are characteristic of local usage and have not become part of Standard English. It is a small dictionary with only 776 headwords, but attempts to provide both linguistic and cultural information. Compare: 10 Janpath Road: n. residence of Ms. Sonia Gandhi, Italian wife of former Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi. 10 Janpath was the official residence of Rajiv Gandhi when he was the PM. The house was given to his widow and children after his assassination. innocent divorcee: adj. divorced for no fault of hers but willing to give another try.

Paradigms of English Lexicography: International Paradigm

17

When IE is discussed, it is mainly the sub-continent of India that is in focus. However, since the middle of the XIXth c. another centre of compact settlement of people of Indian decent has been developing in South Africa, particularly in KwaZulu-Natal. Consequently, this population, which now numbers about one million, has developed a peculiar variety of IE—South African Indian English (SAfIE). It is this very variety that is depicted in A Dictionary of South African English (Mesthrie, 2010). It is a general dictionary based on both oral and written sources: interviews (over 20 years), advertisements, newspapers, articles, weddingcards, notices, published fiction, autobiographies, memoirs and historical works, Internet (Ibid., ix). As SAfIE is characterized by internal variation, a set of regular and original register labels is used. Thus, “Baby talk” refers to words used by parents and caregivers; “Basilect”—to the speech of older people having little or no formal education; “Historical”—to the words found in historical works, old documents and newspapers which are rarely used in colloquial speech; “COD”—to words that are known internationally. Dictionary entries vary in structure but tend to include etymology, collocations and examples of usage. Compare: gosi n. Baby talk Meat, cooked meat. See dhƗl—gǀs. Mainly Hindi, Urdu homes. [Hn, Ur gosht, Bhoi gos plus dimin. Suffix –i]. ǀja/ ǀjha n An exorcist, sorcerer, one who cures by magical charms. Older speakers. Mainly Hindi homes. See thabƯj / taweez. [Hn ojhƗ] If a child cries too much, the ojhƗ drives out the evil spirit with a simple broom or light feather-duster. —Durban resident, 1998.

The research of IE dictionaries allows one to make the following observations: Indian lexicography aimed at the description of IE is at its pioneering stage, with the majority of dictionaries being non-Indian productions; so far, there have been no dictionaries published of IE per se, but primarily dictionaries of “indianisms”. Nevertheless, as far as users are concerned, a positive dynamic can be observed with the shift of focus from British administration officials in India to Indian speakers of English. Unlike IE, other varieties aroused much less interest among lexicographers. However, since the end of the last century Nigerian English (NE) has received a few dictionaries. Nigerian Slangs: Dictionary of Slangs and Unconventional English Used in Nigeria (Asomugha, 1981) is a small (82 pages) dictionary that

18

Chapter Two

has a sub-title Pocket Dictionary of Selected Nigerian Student Slang. The dictionary is prescriptive in nature, as it was compiled with the purpose of helping “Nigerians at all levels recognize conventionally unacceptable words and phrases which are presently in use in the country” (Ibid., v). The following entries illustrate the methods applied: go-no-go; phr. a statement indicating failure in a venture. quench; v. to die; origin unknown; syn.—mud kabu-kabu; n. 1. Using a private car as a taxicab. 2. A person engaged in this act work; v. to be possible—I am certain this plan will work

Another Dictionary of Nigerian English Slang (Omenihu et al., 2006) is a full-fledged dictionary consisting of three parts: Grammar, Dictionary and Thesaurus. It is also a prescriptive dictionary. In addition to definition(s), dictionary entries generally provide orthoepical and stylistic characteristics of headwords, give synonyms, and refer to the predominant usage sphere: idle civilian /aidԥl sivilian/ n [voc; c] (derog) (of men) a lazy person; He is an idle civilian. Ext. of meaning. General Social talk Synon.: waste-pipe Cf.: liability

In the thesaurus, words are arranged in six domains and ranked on a scale of priority: Smoking; Sex & sex life; Behaviour; Economic life; Amusement; Food. In such a way the dictionary offers not only linguistic but also cultural information. The development of WEs, and growing interest of linguists in them (see, for example, Görlach, 1991; Graddol et al., 1996; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Melchers, Shaw, 2003; Mesthrie, Bhatt, 2008; Schneider, 2007) influenced lexicographical practice. Thus, H. Igboanusi in his Dictionary of Nigerian English Usage (2002) uses a non-prescriptive approach, reflecting the change of attitude towards NE—it is no longer perceived as corrupt English. The dictionary is preceded by the introduction providing general characteristics of standard (!) NE as well as a history of this variety presented in context with the historical developments and current

Paradigms of English Lexicography: International Paradigm

19

linguistic situation in the country. The dictionary consists of 1,600 entries that represent a diverse vocabulary, including colloquialisms, slang and vulgarisms. The selection criteria are the frequency of usage in written and oral sources; additionally, such an ambiguous criterion as “cultural and historical importance” was applied. R. Blench, a British linguist, providing environmental and anthropological consultancy with a particular focus in West Africa, laid out on the Internet a draft of A Dictionary of Nigerian English (2005). Explaining his intentions and the form of presentation, he writes: The present manuscript is a draft of a document that will eventually, I hope, become a collective product. I doubt that one individual could produce anything very comprehensive; Nigeria is too diverse and regionalised. But it seems sensible to lay down an initial marker; then additions can be made (Blench, 2005, 4).

This electronic dictionary consists of an Introductory part and the Dictionary. In the first part the author comments on the sources: “I have therefore used newspaper, notices and overheard speech as sources. Example sentences not specifically sourced should be treated as based on the author’s or his correspondents’ experiences” (Ibid., 5); spelling, differences between NE, West African English: “Nigerian English has a common lexicon and grammar with other West African Englishes, notably Ghanaian” (Ibid.) and pidgin: “Nigerian English is regarded as distinct from Pidgin English, although the exact location of the boundary between them differs from speaker to speaker” (Ibid.) as well as on the history and peculiarities of contemporary NE. For example: oba n. < Yoruba. Other status titles are commonly used in the appropriate part of the country: amanyanabo (Eastern Ijo), etc. Obeche n. trade-name for the tree Triplochiton schleroxylon Obong p.n. Traditional ruler of Efik/Ibibio peoples < Efik/Ibibio

The latest development in NE lexicography is a 0.49 MB application for smart phones—Nigerian English Dictionary by Intercom Ltd., intended for general user. Another African variety of English, Cameroon English, got its dictionary, A Dictionary of Cameroon English Usage, in 2007. It was compiled by J.P. Kouega from University of Yaounde I, Cameroon. The dictionary consists of two parts. In Part One, Background information on

20

Chapter Two

Cameroon, the user will find information on geography of Cameroon, the language situation in the country, linguistic features of English in Cameroon (phonology, grammar, lexicology), and bibliography. Part Two, Dictionary, includes the introduction, describing research design, textual material for the study, method of data collection, characteristics of the informants. The scope of the dictionary was determined by the language situation and the peculiarities of Cameroon English. The data for the dictionary was selected from both written and spoken sources: private and official correspondence, past dissertations and students’ essays, private and official newspapers, magazines and brochures, literary productions by Cameroonian writers, the official gazette, Cameroonian English corpus. Dictionary entries provide spelling, etymology (optional), definitions, examples (optional), and describe word-forming process. Etymology varies from laconic to extensive. Compare: aggress (--