Modernizing Repression: Police Training and Nation-Building in the American Century 9781613761960, 9781558499171
As American troops became bogged down first in Iraq and then Afghanistan, a key component of U.S. strategy was to build
127 116 5MB
English Pages 424 [402] Year 2012
Cover
Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations Used in Text
Introduction
Part I. Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”: Imperial Policing in the Philippines and the Caribbean
1. The First Operation Phoenix: U.S. Colonial Policing in the Philippines and the Blood of Empire
2. “Popping Off” Sandinistas and Cacos: Police Training in Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua
Part II. Under the Facade of Benevolence: Police Training and the Cold War in Southeast Asia from the “Reverse Course” to Operation Phoenix
3. “Their Goal Was Nothing Less than Total Knowledge”: Policing in Occupied Japan and the Rise of the National Security Doctrine
4. "Law in Whose Name, Order for Whose Benefit?" Police Training, "Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
5. "Free Government Cannot Exist Without Safeguards against Subversion": The Clandestine Cold War in Southeast Asia I
6. The Secret War in Laos and Other Vietnam Sideshows: The Clandestine Cold War in Southeast Asia II
7. “As I Recall the Many Tortures”: Michigan State University, Operation Phoenix, and the Making of a Police State in South Vietnam
Part III. The Cold War on the Periphery: Police Training and the Hunt for Subversives in Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East
8. Arming Tyrants I: American Police Training and the Postcolonial Nightmare in Africa
9. Arming Tyrants II: Police Training and Neocolonialism in the Mediterranean and Middle East
10. The Dark Side of the Alliance for Progress: Police Training and State Terror in Latin America during the Cold War
Conclusion: The Violence Comes Full Circle-From the Cold War to the War on Terror
Abbreviations Used in Notes
Notes
Index
Back Cover
Recommend Papers
![Protectors of Privilege: Red Squads and Police Repression in Urban America [Reprint 2020 ed.]
9780520343139](https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/protectors-of-privilege-red-squads-and-police-repression-in-urban-america-reprint-2020nbsped-9780520343139.jpg)
- Author / Uploaded
- Jeremy Kuzmarov
File loading please wait...
Citation preview
MODERNIZING REPRESSION
A volume in the series Culture, Politics, and the Cold War Edited by Christian G. Appy Other titles in the Series James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of “The Feminine Mystique”: The American Left, the Cold War, and Modern Feminism Tom Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture: Cold War America and the Disillusioning of a Generation Christian G. Appy, ed., Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945-1966 H. Bruce Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies Robert D. Dean, Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy Lee Bernstein, The Greatest Menace: Organized Crime in Cold War America David C. Engerman, Nils Gilman, Mark H. Haefele, and Michael E. Latham, eds., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Global Cold War Jonathan Nashel, Edward Lansdale’s Cold War James Peck, Washington’s China: The National Security World, the Cold War, and the Origins of Globalism Edwin A. Martini, Invisible Enemies: The American War on Vietnam, 1975-2000 Tony Shaw, Hollywood’s Cold War Maureen Ryan, The Other Side of Grief: The Home Front and the Aftermath in American Narratives of the Vietnam War David Hunt, Vietnam’s Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War Patrick Hagopian, The Vietnam War in American Memory: Veterans, Memorials, and the Politics of Healing Jeremy Kuzmarov, The Myth of the Addicted Army: Vietnam and the Modern War on Drugs Robert Surbrug Jr., Beyond Vietnam: The Politics of Protest in Massachusetts, 1974-1990 Larry Grubbs, Secular Missionaries: Americans and African Development in the 1960s Robert A. Jacobs, The Dragon’s Tail: Americans Face the Atomic Age Andrew J. Falk, Upstaging the Cold War: American Dissent and Cultural Diplomacy, 1940-1960 Jerry Lembcke, Hanoi Jane: War, Sex, and Fantasies of Betrayal Anna G. Creadick, Perfectly Average: The Pursuit of Normality in Postwar America Kathleen Donohue, ed., Liberty and Justice for All? Rethinking Politics in Cold War America Roger Peace, A Call to Conscience: The Anti-Contra War Campaign
Modernizing Repression Police Training and Nation-Building in the American Century
JEREMY KUZMAROV
6OJWFSTJUZPG.BTTBDIVTFUUT1SFTT t "NIFSTUBOE#PTUPO
Copyright © 2012 by University of Massachusetts Press All rights reserved 1SJOUFEJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTPG"NFSJDB LC 2012007996 ISBN 978-1-55849-917-1 (paper); 916-4 (hardcover) Designed by Jack Harrison 4FUJO"EPCF.JOJPO1SPXJUI'PSNBUBEJTQMBZ Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ,V[NBSPW +FSFNZ Ŵżźżo .PEFSOJ[JOHSFQSFTTJPOQPMJDFUSBJOJOHBOEOBUJPOCVJMEJOHJOUIF"NFSJDBODFOUVSZ +FSFNZ,V[NBSPW QDN $VMUVSF QPMJUJDT BOEUIFDPMEXBS
Includes bibliographical references and index. *4#/żźŻŴŸŸŻŷżżŴźŴ QCLBMLQBQFS *4#/żźŻŴŸŸŻŷżżŴŹŷ MJCSBSZDMPUIBMLQBQFS Ŵ1PMJDF1PMJUJDBMBTQFDUT)JTUPSZ ŵ1PMJDFUSBJOJOH%FWFMPQJOHDPVOUSJFT)JTUPSZ Ŷ.JMJUBSZQMBOOJOH6OJUFE4UBUFT)JTUPSZ ŷ6OJUFE4UBUFT'PSFJHOSFMBUJPOT%FWFMPQJOHDPVOUSJFT Ÿ%FWFMPQJOHDPVOUSJFT'PSFJHOSFMBUJPOT6OJUFE4UBUFT Ź*NQFSJBMJTN I. Title. HV7903.K89 2012 ŶŹŶŵhŵEDŵŶ 2012007996 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data are available.
To Ngosa and Chanda
“This page intentionally left blank”
Contents
Acknowledgments
ix
Abbreviations Used in Text xi Introduction
1
Part I Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden” Imperial Policing in the Philippines and the Caribbean
17
1. The First Operation Phoenix: U.S. Colonial Policing in the 1IJMJQQJOFTBOEUIF#MPPEPG&NQJSF ŵŴ 2. “Popping Off ” Sandinistas and Cacos: Police Training in Occupied )BJUJ UIF%PNJOJDBO3FQVCMJD BOE/JDBSBHVB Ŷź
Part II Under the Facade of Benevolence Police Training and the Cold War in Southeast Asia from the “Reverse Course” to Operation Phoenix 53
3. “Their Goal Was Nothing Less than Total Knowledge”: Policing in Occupied Japan and the Rise of the National Security Doctrine 57 ŷi-BXJO8IPTF/BNF 0SEFSGPS8IPTF#FOFĕU w1PMJDF5SBJOJOH i/BUJPO Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea 79 Ÿi'SFF(PWFSONFOU$BOOPU&YJTUXJUIPVU4BGFHVBSETBHBJOTU4VCWFSTJPOw The Clandestine Cold War in Southeast Asia I 99 ŹćF4FDSFU8BSJO-BPTBOE0UIFS7JFUOBN4JEFTIPXTćF$MBOEFTUJOF Cold War in Southeast Asia II 121
7. “As I Recall the Many Tortures”: Michigan State University, Operation 1IPFOJY BOEUIF.BLJOHPGB1PMJDF4UBUFJO4PVUI7JFUOBN ŴŷŴ
vii
Part III The Cold War on the Periphery Police Training and the Hunt for Subversives in Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East 163
Ż"SNJOH5ZSBOUT*"NFSJDBO1PMJDF5SBJOJOHBOEUIF1PTUDPMPOJBM /JHIUNBSFJO"GSJDB ŴŹŸ ż"SNJOH5ZSBOUT**1PMJDF5SBJOJOHBOE/FPDPMPOJBMJTNJOUIF Mediterranean and Middle East 188 10. The Dark Side of the Alliance for Progress: Police Training and State 5FSSPSJO-BUJO"NFSJDBEVSJOHUIF$PME8BS ŵųŻ $PODMVTJPOćF7JPMFODF$PNFT'VMM$JSDMF'SPNUIF$PME8BSUP the War on Terror 232 Abbreviations Used in Notes Notes
257
Index 369
viii
Contents
253
Acknowledgments
.BOZQFPQMFIBWFBTTJTUFENFPWFSUIFZFBSTJOXSJUJOHUIJTCPPL'JSTU *UIBOL the archivists and staff of the libraries I visited, including the National Archives; .JDIJHBO 4UBUF 6OJWFSTJUZ BSDIJWFT UIF 5SVNBO &JTFOIPXFS ,FOOFEZ BOE Johnson presidential libraries; and Carlisle Barracks Military Archives; and BUUIF/BUJPOBM"SDIJWFTJO-VTBLB ;BNCJB XIFSF*GPVOETPNFJOUFSFTUJOH NBUFSJBMPO64;BNCJBOSFMBUJPOTEVSJOHBWJTJUUPUIFDPVOUSZOPUQSJNBSJMZ related to the research. Second, I thank Sergeant Tony Sanders of the Kansas $JUZ 1PMJDF %FQBSUNFOU GPS QSPWJEJOH NF XJUI EPDVNFOUT PO #ZSPO &OHMFT UFOVSF XJUI UIF EFQBSUNFOU (BSZ 8JMLJOTPO PG UIF *OEJBOB 4UBUF 1PMJDF GPS QSPWJEJOHEPDVNFOUTPOBOVNCFSPGUIF*OEJBOBUSPPQFSTXIPTFSWFEXJUIUIF 0ď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ĕFME BOETUBČTBUUIF6OJWFSTJUZPG5VMTBMJCSBSZBOEUIF#VDLOFMM 6OJWFSTJUZMJCSBSZ XIPBTTJTUFENFJOUSBDLJOHEPXOSBSFEPDVNFOUTBOECPPLT #SFUU 3FJMMZ XIP XFOU PO UP CFDPNF B 1I% TUVEFOU BU UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG 8JTDPOTJOo.BEJTPO TFSWFEBTNZSFTFBSDIBTTJTUBOUXIJMF*XBTBU#VDLOFMM BOE XBT WFSZ IFMQGVM JO MPDBUJOH NBUFSJBMT BU UIF ,FOOFEZ -JCSBSZ /BUJPOBM "SDIJWFT BOE$BSMJTMF#BSSBDLT4BN3FENPOEBOE.BUUIFX1FNCMFUPOQSPvided valuable research assistance in Berkeley and in College Park, Maryland, BOE +BSFE &CFSMF BOE .JDIBFM +VFO BTTJTUFE NF JO HPJOH UISPVHI 8JLJ-FBLT EPDVNFOUT,JSTUFO8FMEBOE4JOBF)ZVOBTTJTUFENFXJUINBUFSJBMGSPNUIFJS PXOSFTFBSDIPO(VBUFNBMBBOEćBJMBOE(FPSHJOB4JODMBJSQSPWJEFENBUFSJBM PO"GHIBOJTUBO BOE.BSJFLF#MPFNCFSHFOQSPWJEFEJOGPSNBUJPOPO*OEPOFTJB4IFBMTPJOWJUFENFUPBQBOFMBUUIF"TTPDJBUJPOPG"TJBO4UVEJFTDPOGFSFODFJO)BXBJJJOŵųŴŴ XIJDITUJNVMBUFEBOVNCFSPGUIFJEFBTFYQSFTTFEJOUIF book. ix
4BN #SBXBOEBOE+JMM0HMFTCFFBTTJTUFEXJUI UIF NBOVTDSJQU QSFQBSBUJPO Clark Dougan, senior editor at the University of Massachusetts Press, helped to TIFQIFSEUIFCPPLGSPNJUTJOGBODZBOEQSPWJEFEWBMVBCMFDPNNFOUTPOSPVHI ESBęT*BNHSBUFGVMGPSIJTTVQQPSUGPSNZXPSL$BSPM#FUTDIBOEUIFTUBČBU the University of Massachusetts Press were as usual a great pleasure to work XJUI "NBOEB )FMMFS EJE ZFPNBOT XPSL BT DPQZFEJUPS IFMQJOH UP JNQSPWF UIFXSJUJOHBOEDBUDIJOHNBOZTNBMMFSSPSTćFQFFSSFWJFXFSTGPSUIJTTUVEZ +FOOJGFS'SPOD "MGSFE8.D$PZ BOE.BSUIB,)VHHJOT PČFSFEFYUSFNFMZ WBMVBCMFJOTJHIUTUIBUIFMQFENFCSPBEFONZBOBMZTJTBOEJNQSPWFUIFCPPL Christian G. Appy was an additional reader who provided excellent feedback. *BNWFSZHSBUFGVMUPIBWFIBEUIFBTTJTUBODFPGTVDIBHJęFEHSPVQ*HJWFFYUSB thanks to McCoy for reiterating his advice in various conversations. His richly EFUBJMFEBOEQBUICSFBLJOHTDIPMBSTIJQJTBTFNJOBMJOĘVFODF Many other outstanding scholars, including Mark Selden and Michael 4DIXBSU[ UPPLBOJOUFSFTUJONZCPPLBOEQSPWJEFEJOWBMVBCMFDPNNFOUBSZ POBSUJDMFTBOEDIBQUFSTXIJDIMFEUPJUTJNQSPWFNFOU'VSUIFSUIBOLTHPUP %BWJE$&OHFSNBO .JDIBFM8JMMSJDI ,ZMF-POHMFZ +FSSZ-FNCDLF )BOOBI (VSNBO .VSSBZ 1PMOFS #SBE 4JNQTPO 3JDIBSE 8BMMFS -FTMJF 1BUSJDL 'SFE #SBOGNBO /PBN$IPNTLZ XIPQSPNQUMZBOTXFSFETFWFSBMFNBJMJORVJSJFT BOENBEFEFUBJMFEBOEJOTJHIUGVMDPNNFOUTPOBSUJDMFTPGNJOFSFMBUFEUPUIJT book), and Jack Tobin, who provided valuable editing at an early stage. 'JOBMMZ * UIBOL .BSHBSFU ,BMVĕBOZB GPS IFS XBSN IPTQJUBMJUZ EVSJOH NZ extended visits to Silver Springs, Maryland, to work at the National Archives, BOENZGBNJMZGPSUIFJSTVQQPSU JODMVEJOHNZQBSFOUTBOEXJGF /HPTB BOE daughter Chanda.
x
Left Running Foot
Abbreviations Used in Text
".( "/$ ANP "37/ BPP $*$ $0*/5&-130 $1" %"4 %&" EAM ELF &-/ '"3 '"3$ FBN FMLN FSLN ()2 (.% (7/ *$" *$*5"1 */1 *1" IPS ISI +$1 ,,& KNP -%1
"NFSJDBO.JMJUBSZ(PWFSONFOU 4PVUI,PSFB $POHPMFTF"SNZ Afghan National Police "SNZPGUIF3FQVCMJDPG7JFUOBN Border Patrol Police, Thailand $PVOUFS*OUFMMJHFODF$PSQT 64"SNZ $PVOUFS*OUFMMJHFODF1SPHSBN '#* $PBMJUJPO1SPWJTJPOBM"VUIPSJUZ *SBR %FQBSUBNFOUP"ENJOJTUSBUJWPEF4FHVSJEBE $PMPNCJB %SVH&OGPSDFNFOU"ENJOJTUSBUJPO National Liberation Front of Greece Eritrean Liberation Front &KÏSDJUPEF-JCFSBDJPO/BDJPOBM $PMPNCJB 3FCFM"SNFE'PSDFT (VBUFNBMB 'VFS[BT"SNBEBT3FWPMVDJPOBSJBTEF$PMPNCJB Federal Bureau of Narcotics Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, El Salvador Sandinista Liberation Front (FOFSBM)FBERVBSUFST (VPNJOEBOH $IJOB (PWFSONFOUPG7JFUOBN *OUFSOBUJPOBM$PPQFSBUJPO"ENJOJTUSBUJPO *OUFSOBUJPOBM$SJNJOBM*OWFTUJHBUJWF5SBJOJOH"TTJTUBODF 1SPHSBN *SBRJ/BUJPOBM1PMJDF *OUFSOBUJPOBM1PMJDF"DBEFNZ Internal Defense and Public Safety Inter-Services Intelligence, Pakistan +BQBOFTF$PNNVOJTU1BSUZ $PNNVOJTU1BSUZPG(SFFDF Korean National Police -JCFSBM%FNPDSBUJD1BSUZ +BQBO
xi
LNP MAAG MSU .46( /-' 0*41 OPS OSS 1"7/ 1(5 1,* PLO 136 PSD 3-" 3-( ROK 30," SAVAK 4$"1 SKLP TNP 64"*% USMAGIK USOM 7#* VC VCI
xii
Lao National Police Military Assistance Advisory Group Michigan State University .JDIJHBO4UBUF6OJWFSTJUZ7JFUOBN"EWJTPSZ(SPVQ /BUJPOBM-JCFSBUJPO'SPOU 7JFUOBN 0WFSTFBT*OUFSOBM4FDVSJUZ1SPHSBN GPSNFSMZŴŵżųE
Office of Public Safety Office of Strategic Services 1FPQMFT"SNZPG7JFUOBN $PNNVOJTU1BSUZPG(VBUFNBMB *OEPOFTJBO$PNNVOJTU1BSUZ Palestine Liberation Organization 1SPWJODJBM3FDPOOBJTTBODF6OJUT 7JFUOBN Public Safety Division 3PZBM-BP"SNZ 3PZBM-BP(PWFSONFOU Republic of Korea 3FQVCMJDPG,PSFB"SNZ National Security and Intelligence Unit, Iran 4VQSFNF$PNNBOEPGUIF"MMJFE1PXFST South Korean Labor Party Thai National Police 64"HFODZGPS*OUFSOBUJPOBM%FWFMPQNFOU United States Military Advisory Group in Korea United States Operations Mission 7JFUOBNFTF#VSFBVPG*OWFTUJHBUJPO Vietcong Vietcong infrastructure
Left Running Foot
MODERNIZING REPRESSION
“This page intentionally left blank”
Introduction Through the activities of the OPS, the notion of the US as world policeman is transformed from a metaphor to a reality. +oe Stork i8PSME$PQ)PX"NFSJDB#VJMETUIF(MPCBM1PMJDF4UBUF w In history, the man in the ruffled shirt and gold-laced waistcoat somehow levitates above the blood he has ordered to be spilled by dirty-handed underlings. —Francis Jennings, Empire of Fortune,
In a March 19, 2010, cover story, “The Gang That Couldn’t Shoot Straight,” Newsweek reported that although the United States had spent $6 billion trying to DSFBUFBOFČFDUJWFQPMJDFGPSDFJO"GHIBOJTUBO PďDFSTDPVMECBSFMZTIPPUBSJĘF PSIJUBUBSHFUĕęZNFUFSTBXBZ BOENVDIPGUIFBNNVOJUJPOXPVOEVQCFJOH VTFECZJOTVSHFOUT.PIBNNFE.PRJN BOFJHIUZFBSWFUFSBOPGUIFGPSDF XBT RVPUFEBTTBZJOHi8FBSFTUJMMBU[FSPEPOUMJTUFO BSFVOEJTDJQMJOFE BOEXJMMOFWFSCFSFBMQPMJDFNFOw5SBDZ+FBOTPOOF BTIFSJČGSPN-PVJTJBOB XIPXPSLFEBTBQPMJDFUSBJOFSGPSUIFEFGFOTFDPOUSBDUPS%ZO$PSQGSPNŵųųŹ UPŵųųŻ BEEFEi"MPUPGUIFQPMJDFPďDFSTXBOUFEUPCFBCMFUPFYUPSUNPOFZ GSPNMPDBMT*GXFDBVHIUUIFN XFETVHHFTUUIFZCFSFNPWFE#VUXFDPVMEOU ĕSFBOZCPEZ8FDPVMEPOMZNBLFTVHHFTUJPOTw1 While critical of U.S. policy, the NewsweekBSUJDMF BTUIFTFDPNNFOUTTVHHFTU DPOWFZFEUIFJNQSFTTJPOUIBUNPSFTVTUBJOFE"NFSJDBONBOBHFSJBMPWFSTJHIUDPVMESFDUJGZUIFTIPSUDPNJOHTPGUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTBOEIFMQPWFSDPNF MPDBM DVMUVSBM JNQFEJNFOUT UP TVDDFTT )JTUPSJDBMMZ IPXFWFS QFSTJTUFOU PWFSsight by the United States has often been catastrophic for the subject society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ćFTFQSPHSBNTIFMQFE UP GBDJMJUBUF UIF SJTF PG BOUJEFNPDSBUJD GPSDFT XIJDI PQFSBUFE XJUI JNQVOJUZ BOEBCPWFUIFMBX DPOUSJCVUJOHUPFOEFNJDWJPMFODFBOETUBUFUFSSPSJTN2 1
In his essay “Shooting an Elephant,” George Orwell recounts his experiFODFTBTBZPVOHNBOTFSWJOHXJUIUIF#SJUJTIDPMPOJBMQPMJDFJO#VSNB)F felt despised everywhere he went. Toward the end of his tenure, he was called on to shoot a stray elephant that had encroached on public space. Although IFGFMUHVJMUZGPSEPJOHTP IFXBOUFEUPVQIPMEUIFNBOMZQVCMJDJNBHFUIBU the colonialists were trying to convey. And so, against his better conscience, he QFSGPSNFEUIFEFFE4VNNJOHVQUIFFQJTPEF 0SXFMMDPNNFOUTUIBU JOUIF QPMJDF iZPVTFFUIFEJSUZXPSLPG&NQJSFBUDMPTFRVBSUFSTćFXSFUDIFEQSJToners huddling in the stinking cages of the lock-ups, the grey cowed faces of UIFMPOHUFSNDPOWJDUT UIFTDBSSFECVUUPDLTPGUIFNFOXIPIBECFFOCPHHFE XJUICBNCPPTw3 0SXFMMTPCTFSWBUJPOTDPOUBJOBMBSHFNFBTVSFPGVOJWFSTBMJUZBOEDPVMEIBWF CFFOFDIPFECZ"NFSJDBOTTUBUJPOFEJODPMPOJBMFODMBWFTTVDIBTUIF1IJMJQQJOFTBOE)BJUJ PSJOUIF$PME8BSFSBJO4PVUI7JFUOBN PSJOUIF.JEEMF &BTU UPEBZ $PNQBSFE UP JUT &VSPQFBO DPVOUFSQBSUT UIF "NFSJDBO FNQJSF FTQFDJBMMZTJODF8PSME8BS** JTVOJRVFJOJUTSFMJBODFPOJOEJSFDUNFDIBOJTNT PGTPDJBMDPOUSPMBOEUIFVTFPGOBUJWFQSPYJFTUPQSPNPUFJUTTUSBUFHJDJOUFSFTUT "DDPSEJOHMZ JUTFMFQIBOULJMMFSTIBWFCFFOQSFEPNJOBOUMZOBUJWFUPUIFJSSFHJPO but no less hated. 0WFSUIFZFBST BT64JNQFSJBMBUUFOUJPOIBTTIJęFEGSPNPOFUSPVCMFTQPUUP BOPUIFS QPMJDFUSBJOJOHBOEĕOBODJOHIBWFSFNBJOFEBOVOPCTFSWFEDPOTUBOU evolving with new strategies and weapons innovations but always retaining UIFTBNFTUSBUFHJDHPBMTBOEUBDUJDBMFMFNFOUTćFQSPHSBNTIBWFCFFOWBMVFE BT B DPTUFČFDUJWF DPWFSU NFDIBOJTN GPS TVQQSFTTJOH SBEJDBM BOE OBUJPOBMJTU NPWFNFOUT QSFDMVEJOH UIF OFFE GPS NJMJUBSZ JOUFSWFOUJPO XIJDI XBT NPSF likely to arouse public opposition, or enabling the drawdown of troops. With SFNBSLBCMFDPOUJOVJUZ UIF6OJUFE4UBUFTIBTUSBJOFEQPMJDFOPUKVTUUPUBSHFU DSJNJOBMTCVUUPEFWFMPQFMBCPSBUFJOUFMMJHFODFOFUXPSLTPSJFOUFEUPXBSEJOUFSnal defense, which allowed the suppression of dissident groups across a wide SBOHFBOEJOBNPSFTVSHJDBMBOEPęFOCSVUBMXBZćF6OJUFE4UBUFTJOFČFDU IFMQFE UP NPEFSOJ[F JOUFMMJHFODFHBUIFSJOH BOE QPMJUJDBMQPMJDJOH PQFSBUJPOT JOJUTGBSĘVOHFNQJSF UIVTNBHOJGZJOHUIFJSJNQBDUćFQSPHSBNTIFMQFEUP NJMJUBSJ[FUIFQPMJDFBOEGPTUFSFE UISPVHISJHPSPVTJEFPMPHJDBMDPOEJUJPOJOH UIF EFIVNBOJ[BUJPO PG QPMJUJDBM BEWFSTBSJFT BOE B TFOTF PG TVTQJDJPO UPXBSE HSBTTSPPUTNPCJMJ[BUJPOćFSFTVMUIBTCFFOBSFJHOPGUPSUVSFBOEUFSSPSBTQBSU PGQPMJDFQSBDUJDFJONBOZDPVOUSJFTTVCKFDUUP64JOĘVFODFBOEBOJODSFBTFJO DPSSVQUJPOMFWFMTQVTIJOHSFHJNFTUPXBSELMFQUPDSBDZ4 ćF1SPHSFTTJWF&SBXBTBXBUFSTIFEJOUIFFWPMVUJPOPG"NFSJDBOJNQFSJBM QPMJDJOHTUSBUFHJFT1SPHSFTTJWJTNBTBOJEFPMPHZXBTDPODFSOFEXJUISFHVMBUJOHUIFFYDFTTFTPGNBSLFUDBQJUBMJTNBOEDSFBUJOHBDFOUSBMJ[FETUBUFCVSFBVDSBDZUPNBOBHFTPDJBMDIBOHFBOE JOUIFPSZ CSFBLEPXOQBSPDIJBMQSFKVEJDF QSJWJMFHF BOEMPDBMQPXFSCZFYQBOEJOHUIFSFBDIPGUIFGFEFSBMHPWFSONFOU 2
Introduction
*UT QSPQPOFOUT WJFXFE UIF SFGPSN PG UIF DSJNJOBM KVTUJDF TZTUFN JODMVEJOH UIF DSFBUJPO PG KVWFOJMF DPVSUT VOJGPSN TFOUFODJOH BOE IVNBOF QSJTPOT BT JOUFHSBMUPUIFTUBUFCVJMEJOHQSPDFTTBOEUIFSFBMJ[BUJPOPGBNPSFKVTUTPDJFUZ 1SPGFTTJPOBMJTNJOQPMJDJOHJOTUJUVUJPOTXBTTFFOBTFTQFDJBMMZWJUBMUPUIFUBTL PGSFTUSBJOJOHUIFBOBSDIZPGBSBQJEMZFYQBOEJOHDBQJUBMJTNBOEFTUBCMJTIJOH internal security and order in an age of increasing social agitation and unrest.5 "T 8JMMJBN & -FVDIUFOCVSH OPUFE PWFS B IBMG DFOUVSZ BHP JNQFSJBMJTN XBTBMPHJDBMFYUFOTJPOPGQSPHSFTTJWJTNćFOFXUFDIOPDSBUJDFMJUFUIBUJUGPTtered believed in their own capacity not only to regulate social life within the 6OJUFE4UBUFTCVUBMTPUPBQQMZUIFTBNFUFDIOJRVFTPGHPWFSOBODFUP"NFSJDBO colonial enclaves abroad. In their view, Third World peoples could be uplifted UISPVHI UIF JNQPSUBUJPO PG NPEFSO UFDIOPMPHZ BOE 8FTUFSO BENJOJTUSBUJWF TZTUFNT PG XIJDI QPMJDJOH XBT TFFO BT B DPSOFSTUPOF6 Local hostility and resistance, however, and a political context unlike that of the United States, UIXBSUFE UIFJS EFTJHOT 0ďDJBMT BQQSPQSJBUFE "NFSJDBO BTTJTUBODF GPS UIFJS PXOQVSQPTFTBOEIFMEEJČFSFOUWJTJPOTPGIPXUPNBOBHFTPDJFUZćF6OJUFE 4UBUFT XBT ĕYBUFE GVSUIFSNPSF PO TUBNQJOH PVU SFTJTUBODF HSPVQT BOE UIVT NPCJMJ[FEQPMJDFBMPOHQPMJUJDBMBOENJMJUBSZMJOFT XIJDISFTVMUFEJOUIFTQSFBE PGBNQMFWJPMFODFBOEUFSSPS*EFPMPHJDBMJNQFSBUJWFTVMUJNBUFMZDPNCJOFEXJUI BOJNQFSJBMESJWFGPSIFHFNPOZBOEDPOUSPMUPFODPVSBHFUIFHSPXUIPGIJHIMZ DPFSDJWFQPMJDJOHBOETVSWFJMMBODFOFUXPSLT XIJDIXFSFMBUFSSFJNQPSUFECBDL IPNFUPTJNJMBSMZSFQSFTTJWFFČFDU7 -JCFSBMDPNNFOUBUPSTIBWFPęFOIFSBMEFEUIF1SPHSFTTJWF&SBSFGPSNTBOE SJTFPGUIFiBENJOJTUSBUJWFTUBUFwBTBQPTJUJWFTUFQJOUIFFWPMVUJPOPGEFNPDSBUJD HPWFSOBODFJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT8JUISFHBSEUPDSJNJOBMKVTUJDF UIFTFDMBJNT BSFOPUUPUBMMZNJTQMBDFE%VSJOHUIF(JMEFE"HF QPMJDFXFSFOPUPSJPVTMZDPSSVQUBOECFIPMEFOUPXFBMUIZJOEVTUSJBMJTUTBOEQPMJUJDBMNBDIJOFT*OTUFBEPG going on patrol, officers often spent their shifts drinking in a local bar.8 They JOUJNJEBUFEWPUFSTEVSJOHFMFDUJPOT TQJFEPOSBEJDBMTPDJBMPSHBOJ[BUJPOT BOE WJDJPVTMZ CSPLF VQ XPSLFS EFNPOTUSBUJPOT BOE TUSJLFT PęFO JO DPOKVODUJPO with the antiunion Pinkerton Detective Agency. Police were further prone to excessive force, including the use of billy clubs to bludgeon suspects, a proclivJUZ NBHOJĕFE CZ SBNQBOU OBUJWJTN BOE BOUJJNNJHSBOU TFOUJNFOU9 Lincoln 4UFČFOT UIFGBNPVTNVDLSBLFS BOEBGPSNFSQPMJDFSFQPSUFS SFDBMMFEJOIJT BVUPCJPHSBQIZ i.BOZBNPSOJOHXIFO*IBEOPUIJOHFMTFUPEP*TUPPEBOE saw the police bring in and kick out their bandaged, bloody prisoners, not only TUSJLFSTBOEGPSFJHOFST CVUUIJFWFTUPP BOEPUIFSTPGUIFNJTFSBCMF GSJFOEMFTT USPVCMFTPNFQPPSw10 1SPHSFTTJWFSFGPSNFST JODMVEJOHćFPEPSF3PPTFWFMU IFBEPGUIF/FX:PSL $JUZ1PMJDF$PNNJTTJPOGSPNŴŻżŸUPŴŻżź FNQIBTJ[FEUIBUQPMJDFTIPVMECF DPNNJUUFEUPBOJEFBMPGQVCMJDTFSWJDFćFZTPVHIUUPJODSFBTFBENJOJTUSBUJWF FďDJFODZBDDPSEJOHUPUIFQSJODJQMFTPGUIFNBOBHFSJBMSFWPMVUJPO TUBOEBSEJ[F Introduction
3
XFBQPOT BOEQSPNPUFEVFQSPDFTT TQFFEZTFOUFODJOH BOEUIFQSPUFDUJPOPG DJWJMMJCFSUJFT5PNJOJNJ[FDPSSVQUJPO QBZXBTJODSFBTFE BOEDIJFGTXFSFQSPNPUFEPOUIFCBTJTPGUIFJSSFDPSEPGTFSWJDFSBUIFSUIBOQPMJUJDBMDPOOFDUJPOT 5SBJOJOHXBTTZTUFNBUJ[FEUISPVHIUIFVTFPGUFYUCPPLTBOEUIFEFWFMPQNFOU PG QPMJDF BDBEFNJFT 1SPHSFTTJWFT DPODFJWFE PG NPEFSO QPMJDJOH BT B TDJFODF BOEUPPLQBJOTUPJODPSQPSBUFOFXUFDIOPMPHJFTćFBVUPNPCJMFBOEUXPXBZ SBEJP IFMQFE USBOTGPSN UIF OBUVSF PG QPMJDF XPSL BMMPXJOH GPS XJEFS QBUSPM networks and coordination between units. Advances in photography led to the GBNFE NVH TIPU BOE XBOUFE QPTUFST ćF BEWFOU PG UIF #FSUJMMPO QSPDFEVSF VTJOH QIZTJDBM NFBTVSFNFOUT BOE ĕOHFSQSJOUJOH FOIBODFE UIF FďDJFODZ PG SFDPSEHBUIFSJOHTZTUFNT WJUBMUPNPEFSOQPMJDJOH11 %JQMPNBUJDPďDJBMTTPVHIUUPSFQSPEVDFUIFTFJOOPWBUJPOTHMPCBMMZBTQBSU PG UIF BUUFNQU UP JOUFSOBUJPOBMJ[F UIF "NFSJDBO DSJNJOBM KVTUJDF TZTUFN BOE QSPNPUFiOBUJPOCVJMEJOHwBOEQSPHSFTTUISPVHIUIFJNQPSUBUJPOPG8FTUFSO JOTUJUVUJPOTBOEHPWFSOJOHTZTUFNT"DPNNJUNFOUUPMFHBMQSPDFEVSFBOEEVF QSPDFTTXBTQFSDFJWFEBTBEFĕOJOHGFBUVSFPG8FTUFSOTPDJFUJFTBOEBNBSLFSPG their civility, to be replicated in colonial enclaves. Paradoxically, the Progressive &SBSFGPSNTXFSFEFDJEFEMZMJNJUFEJOUIFJSFČFDUBOECPSFEBNBHJOHDPOTFRVFODFTJOUIFFČPSUUPTUBCJMJ[FUIFFYJTUJOHQPMJUJDBMBOEFDPOPNJDTUSVDUVSF Police brutality continued to proliferate, especially against working-class JNNJHSBOUTBOE"GSJDBO"NFSJDBOTi3FETRVBETwVTFETPQIJTUJDBUFETVSWFJMMBODFUFDIOPMPHJFTUPNPOJUPSBOEIBSBTTVOJPOBDUJWJTUTBOEMFęJTUT12 The 1931 8JDLFSTIBNSFQPSU DPBVUIPSFECZ"VHVTU7PMMNFS UIFiGBUIFSPGNPEFSOMBX FOGPSDFNFOU wLOPXOGPSIJTJOOPWBUJPOTBTQPMJDFDIJFGJO#FSLFMFZ $BMJGPSOJB QPJOUFE UP UIF QFSQFUVBUJPO PG iĘBHSBOU DPSSVQUJPOw BOE iUIJSE EFHSFFw NFUIPETPGUPSUVSF DPODMVEJOHUIBUiMBXFOGPSDFNFOUBHFODJFTBSFVTVBMMZIFME JODPOUFNQUBOEMBXFOGPSDFNFOUJTPOFPGPVSOBUJPOBMKPLFTw0WFSUJNF BO BDDFMFSBUJOHFNQIBTJTPOUSBJOJOHBOEQBSBNJMJUBSZQPMJDJOHMFENBOZEFQBSUNFOUTUPCFDPNFiQPXFSGVM JOEFQFOEFOUQPMJUJDBMFOUJUJFT wJOUIFXPSETPG-PT "OHFMFT1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOUIJTUPSJBO+PF%PNBOJDL BOEIFMQFEUSBOTGPSNUIF DSJNJOBMKVTUJDFTZTUFNJOUPBWBTUiDSJNJOBMKVTUJDFJOEVTUSZw13 ćF NPEFSOJ[BUJPO PG QPMJDF JOTUJUVUJPOT JO UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT EVSJOH UIF 1SPHSFTTJWFBOE/FX%FBMFSBTXBTBDDPNQBOJFECZBUUFNQUTUPVQHSBEFUIF QSJTPOTZTUFN JODMVEJOHFČPSUTUPJNQSPWFTBOJUBUJPOBOEQSPNPUFSFIBCJMJUBUJPO XIJDIQPMJDZNBLFSTBHBJOTPVHIUUPEVQMJDBUFXPSMEXJEF$POWJDUMFBTJOH XBT PVUMBXFE BOE MJUFSBDZ SFDSFBUJPO BOE WPDBUJPOBM USBJOJOH QSPHSBNT XFSFFTUBCMJTIFE BMPOHXJUIKVWFOJMFGBDJMJUJFTBOEBQBSPMFTZTUFN JOQBSUJO SFTQPOTFUPJONBUFBDUJWJTNćFSFXFSFFWFOFYQFSJNFOUTJOTFMGHPWFSOBODF14 "T XJUI UIF QPMJDF UIF SFGPSNT XFSF SFTUSJDUJWF JO UIFJS FČFDUT BOE OPU VOJGPSNMZ JNQMFNFOUFE " DPOUJOVFE FNQIBTJT PO PSEFS BOE EJTDJQMJOF UPPL precedence over the idealistic vision of progressive penologists. The conditions JONPTUQSJTPOTSFNBJOFEIBSTIBOE BDDPSEJOHUPMFBEJOHTPDJPMPHJDBMTUVEJFT 4
Introduction
DSFBUFECSFFEJOHHSPVOETGPSDSJNF#FBUJOHTCZHVBSETBOEESBDPOJBOTPMJUBSZ DPOĕOFNFOUQSBDUJDFTSFNBJOFEDPNNPOQMBDF3FBEJOHNBUFSJBMXBTVTVBMMZ SFTUSJDUFE MBCPSSFHJNFOTSFNBJOFEFYQMPJUBUJWF BOESBDJBMTFHSFHBUJPOXBTUIF OPSN15ćFDSJNJOPMPHJTU+PIO-(JMMJOXSPUFJOBŴżŶŴTUVEZi.POVNFOUTUP stupidity are these institutions we have built. . . . How silly of us to think that we DBOQSFQBSFNFOGPSTPDJBMMJGFCZSFWFSTJOHUIFPSEJOBSZQSPDFTTPGTPDJBMJ[BUJPOTJMFODFGPSUIFPOMZBOJNBMXJUITQFFDI SFQSFTTJWFSFHJNFOUBUJPOPGNFO ڀڀPVUXBSEDPOGPSNJUZUPSVMFTXIJDISFQSFTTBMMFČPSUTBUDPOTUSVDUJWFFYQSFTTJPO XPSLXJUIPVUUIFPQFSBUJPOPGFDPOPNJDNPUJWFT NPUJWBUJPOCZGFBSPG QVOJTINFOUSBUIFSUIBOCZIPQFPGSFXBSEPSBQQFBMUPUIFJSIJHIFSNPUJWFTw16 ćFNPTUĘBHSBOUBCVTFTPDDVSSFEJOTPVUIFSOQSJTPOTTVDIBT1BSDINBO 'BSN JO .JTTJTTJQQJ XIFSF NPTUMZ CMBDL JONBUFT XFSF GPSDFE UP MBCPS GSPN dawn to dusk in the hot sun, fed wretched food, and subjected to electroshocks BOEXIJQQJOHTCZUSVTUJFT QSJWJMFHFEJONBUFTSFTQPOTJCMFGPSEJTDJQMJOF17 ConEJUJPOTJOUIFSFTUPGUIFDPVOUSZXFSFPęFOOPUNVDICFUUFS*OIFSŴżŵŶNFNoir, the socialist Kate O’Hare, who was incarcerated in Missouri for speaking out against U.S. entry in World War I, recounted being ordered to bathe after a XPNBOJOGFDUFEXJUITZQIJMJTBOEPQFOTPSFT XIPIBEESJQQJOHQVTBOENBHHPUTTUSFBNJOHPVUPGĕMUIZCBOEBHFT4IFXSPUFUIBUDFMMBSFBTXFSFiWFSZEJSUZ . . . shabby and unsanitary” and “every crack and crevice of the cellhouse was GVMMPGWFSNJOڀڀ3BUTPWFSSBOUIFQMBDFJOTXBSNT TDBNQFSFEPWFSUIFEJOJOH UBCMFT OJCCMFEڀڀBOEDSFQUJOUPCFEXJUIVTw18 *O TQJUF PG SFQFBUFE FČPSUT BU SFGPSN JOKVTUJDFT DPOUJOVFE UISPVHI UIF FOTVJOH EFDBEFT (FPSHF +BDLTPOT NFNPJS Soledad Brother sheds light on UIFTZTUFNBUJDSBDJBMEJTDSJNJOBUJPOJO$BMJGPSOJBQSJTPOTMFBEJOHUPWJPMFODF and rebellion during the 1960s.19 In 1970 Attorney General John A. Mitchell EFTDSJCFEUIFQFOBMTZTUFNUPBWashington PostSFQPSUFSBTBiOBUJPOBMTIBNFw ćFSFQPSUFSFEJUPSJBMJ[FEUIBUQSJTPOFSTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTXFSFiNPSFDBSFMFTTMZIBOEMFEUIBOBOJNBMTJOPVS[PPT(ڀڀVBSETBSFOUFWFOQBJEBTNVDI as zookeepers.”20 $POEJUJPOTPOMZXPSTFOFEUIFSFBęFSXJUIUIFBCBOEPONFOU PG UIF HPBM PG SFIBCJMJUBUJPO BOE SBNQBOU PWFSDSPXEJOH TQBXOFE CZ UPVHI PODSJNFQPMJDJFTTVDIBTUIFi8BSPO%SVHTw*O+VOFŵųųŻ ŵ ŶŴų żŻŷQSJTPOers were being held in federal or state prisons or local jails, by far the highest JODBSDFSBUJPOSBUFJOUIFXPSME4VQFSNBYGBDJMJUJFTIBWFCFDPNFJODSFBTJOHMZ QSFWBMFOU JOXIJDIJONBUFTBSFMPDLFEVQGPSUXFOUZUISFFIPVSTBEBZVOEFS JOUFOTFFMFDUSPOJDTVSWFJMMBODF XJUIBMNPTUOPTPDJBMJOUFSBDUJPO.VNJB"CV +BNBMXSPUFJOLive from Death Row of the “profound horror . . . in the day-today banal occurrences in prison . . . a second-by-second assault on the soul.”21 ćFIBSTISFBMJUZDVUTEFFQJOUPNZUITPGOBUJPOBMFYDFQUJPOBMJTNBOEWJSUVF FNCSBDFECZUIPTFXIPIBWFTPVHIUUPSFNBLFPUIFSDPVOUSJFTJOUIF"NFSJDBO JNBHFBOEFYQPSUUIFNPEFMPG"NFSJDBODSJNJOBMKVTUJDFćF6OJUFE4UBUFT TZTUFNIBTOFWFSCFFOJEFBM Introduction
5
ćFBCVTFTTQBXOFECZJOUFSOBUJPOBMUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTUIFSFGPSF EJEOPU FWPMWF BT TPNF LJOE PG BCFSSBUJPO CVU XFSF SBUIFS BO FYUFOTJPO PG EPNFTUJD practice. Anthony Russo of the RAND Corporation, indicted with Daniel &MMTCFSH JO UIF 1FOUBHPO 1BQFST DBTF SFNBSLFE JO B Ŵżźŵ Harper’s NBHB[JOF JOUFSWJFX UIBU IF ĕOBMMZ VOEFSTUPPE iXIZ XF UPSUVSF QFPQMF JO 7JFUOBN because we torture people herećF"NFSJDBOBEWJTFSTUPUIFQFPQMFXIPSVO UIFQSJTPOTJO7JFUOBNBSFSFUJSFEXBSEFOT SFUJSFEQPMJDFNFO SFUJSFEIJHIXBZ QBUSPMNFO QFPQMFXIPXPSLJOUIFTPDBMMFEMBXBOEPSEFSĕFMEIFSFJOUIF United States.” Russo went on: *LOFXBNBOXIPXPSLFEGPS64"*%QVCMJDTBGFUZXIPIBECFFOBXBSEFOIFSF JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT*VTFEUPUSZBOEUBMLUPIJNBOEUSZUPHFUTPNFSFBTPOPVU PGIJNDPODFSOJOHUIFDPOEJUJPOTPGQSJTPOTJO7JFUOBN)FVTFEUPBMXBZTDPNF back to his experience with prisons here in the United States. . . . He was trying to HFUBDSPTTUPNFUIBUDPOWJDUTBSFTDVN)FTBJE i8FHPUPBMMUIJTUSPVCMFUPLFFQ UIFNJOQSJTPOXIFOXFTIPVMEUBLFUIFNPVUJOBTIJQBOEESPQUIFNPVUBUTFB KVTUUISPXUIFNPWFSCPBSEćFZSFXPSUIMFTTIVNBOCFJOHTćFSFTOPSFBTPOUP LFFQUIFNBMJWFćFZSFOPHPPEUPBOZCPEZw22
ćFTFDPNNFOUTDPOWFZUIFBUUJUVEFTUIBUNBOZBEWJTFSTCSPVHIUXJUIUIFN GSPNUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT XIJDIMFEUPBCVTFćFQPMJUJDBMDPOUFYUJOXIJDIUIFZ PQFSBUFEBOEUIFSBDJTUTFOUJNFOUTUIFZFYIJCJUFEUPXBSEćJSE8PSMEQFPQMFT CSPVHIUPVUUIFJSNPTUSFQSFTTJWFRVBMJUJFT.BOZTVCTDSJCFEUPUIFXPSMEWJFX PGUIF/FX3JHIU XIJDIXBTEFEJDBUFEUP"NFSJDBTJOUFSOBUJPOBMQSFFNJOFODF UISPVHI TVQFSJPS BSNBNFOUT BOE JOUFSWFOUJPO BOE TBX QFBDF BOE SFGPSN NPWFNFOUTBTGSPOUTGPSDPNNVOJTUTVCWFSTJPO BWJFXQPJOUUIBUSFTVMUFEJO intolerance for dissent of any kind.23 &NCPEZJOHB64JNQFSJBMTUZMFHSPVOEFEJOTIPSUUFSNEVUZBOEUIFRVFTU GPS TFSWJDFBCMF JOGPSNBUJPO CVU OPU EFFQ LOPXMFEHF PG UIF TVCKFDU TPDJFUZ QPMJDFBEWJTFSTUPPLQSJEFJOUIFJSBCJMJUZUPTFSWFBTiNJTTJPOBSJFTPGNPEFSOJ[BUJPO wBTPOFIJTUPSJBOUFSNFEJU BOETPVHIUUPCPMTUFSPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMFďDJFODZBOEQPMJDFQSPGFTTJPOBMJTNJOUBSHFUJOHCPUIDSJNJOBMTBOEiTVCWFSTJWFTw 8IJMFUIFSFXFSFTPNFTPMEJFSTPGGPSUVOFBNPOHUIFN NBOZIBEFYQFSJFODF XJUIQPMJUJDBMJOUFMMJHFODFVOJUT iSFETRVBETw
XFSFTLJMMFEUFDIOJDJBOT PSIBE DPNQJMFE EJTUJOHVJTIFE SFDPSET QSPNPUJOH QSPHSFTTJWF SFGPSNT JO EPNFTUJD police institutions which they sought to extend internationally.24 Language and DVMUVSBM CBSSJFST IPXFWFS IBNQFSFE UIFTF FČPSUT ćFJS MBCPS XBT EJSFDUFE GVSUIFSNPSF UPXBSEMBSHFSHFPTUSBUFHJDFOET JODMVEJOHUIFGPSUJĕDBUJPOPGDMJFOUSFHJNFT XIJDIQSFWFOUFEUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGHFOVJOFMZEFNPDSBUJDQPMJDJOHTUBOEBSETDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZBSFTQFDUGPSEVFQSPDFTTBOEBDPNNJUNFOUUP BCPMJTIJOHUPSUVSFBOEPUIFSGPSNTPGCSVUBMJUZ25 6OEFSUIFCBOOFSPGUIFBOUJDPNNVOJTUDSVTBEF SBEJDBMMFęJTUBOEOBUJPOBMJTUPSHBOJ[BUJPOTXFSFEFNPOJ[FEUPTVDIBOFYUFOUUIBUUIFJSQSPQPOFOUTXFSF considered not to have any rights, even when engaging in lawful activity, and
6
Introduction
were subjected to surveillance, arrest, and torture. The architects of the police QSPHSBNT CFMJFWFE UIF TVQQSFTTJPO PG MFęXJOH HSPVQT JODMVEJOH UISPVHI QBSBNJMJUBSZ QPMJDF SBJET UP CF MFHJUJNBUF JO QSFTFSWJOH UIF HPWFSONFOUT BVUIPSJUZBOENBJOUBJOJOHMBXBOEPSEFS BTJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZXBTUIPVHIUUPCF BQSJNBSZSFTQPOTJCJMJUZPGUIFQPMJDF.BOZPGUIFWJPMFOUFYDFTTFTUIBUFOTVFE were tacitly sanctioned or covered up as part of a counterterror doctrine which IFMEUIBUTJODFJOTVSHFOUTEJEOPUUZQJDBMMZBCJEFCZ8FTUFSOMFHBMOPSNT OFJUIFSTIPVMEUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTPSJUTQSPYJFTJOEFBMJOHXJUIUIFN26 %VSJOH UIF ŴżŸųT BOE ŴżŹųT QPMJDF GSPN BSPVOE UIF XPSME XFSF TFOU UP PCTFSWF UIF XPSLJOHT PG UIF '#* XIPTF NFUIPET JU XBT IPQFE UIFZ XPVME FNVMBUF(JWFOUIFBHFODZTDIFDLFSFEQBTU UIJTCPEFEJMMGPS DJWJMMJCFSUJFT 'PVOEFE JO ŴżųŻ XJUIJO UIF %FQBSUNFOU PG +VTUJDF UIF 'FEFSBM #VSFBV PG *OWFTUJHBUJPOXBTBRVJOUFTTFOUJBMMZQSPHSFTTJWFJOTUJUVUJPOEFTJHOFEUPFYQBOE UIFHPWFSONFOUTTPDJBMDPOUSPMDBQBCJMJUJFTBOEDFOUSBMJ[FBOUJSBEJDBMBOEBOUJVOJPOQVSTVJUTćPVHIJUCFDBNFJOWPMWFEJODPNCBUJOHPSHBOJ[FEDSJNFBOE QSPTUJUVUJPO JUTPWFSSJEJOHGPDVTXBTJOUIFSFBMNPGQPMJUJDBMJOUFMMJHFODFBOE the suppression of groups that threatened the existing power structure, such as the anarcho-syndicalist Industrial Workers of the World. In August 1919, BęFSUIFCPNCJOHPGIJTIPNF "UUPSOFZ(FOFSBM".JUDIFMM1BMNFSDSFBUFE a Radical Division headed by a young J. Edgar Hoover, who saw in the unrest PG UIF QFSJPE B iWBTU BOE NPOTUSPVT DPOTQJSBDZw UP EFTUSPZ UIF iSFMJHJPOT HPWFSONFOUT BOEJOTUJUVUJPOTPGUIF+VEFP$ISJTUJBOXPSMEw27 With Hoover’s TVQQPSU 1BMNFSJOJUJBUFEBTFSJFTPGSBJETMFBEJOHUPUIFCFBUJOHBOEBSSFTUPG PWFSUFOUIPVTBOETVTQFDUFESBEJDBMT UIFSBOTBDLJOHPGPďDFTBOEIPNFT BOE UIFEFQPSUBUJPOPGŸŸŹQFPQMF JODMVEJOHUIFBOBSDIJTU&NNB(PMENBO28 #FHJOOJOHJOUIFMBUFŴżŶųT UIF'#*VOEFSUPPLJUTĕSTUJOUFSOBUJPOBMPQFSBUJPOT USBJOJOHUIFTFDSFUQPMJDFPGUIF$IJOFTF(VPNJOEBOHJOUIFVTFPGMJF detectors, police dogs, weaponry, and electronic surveillance, and during 8PSME8BS**XPSLFEXJUIQPMJDFBHFODJFTJO-BUJO"NFSJDBUPUSBDLEPXO"YJT QPXFSTZNQBUIJ[FST0XJOHUPGBVMUZJOUFMMJHFODFBOEQBSBOPJEGFBSTPGTVCWFSTJPO NBOZSPVOEFEVQJOUIFTFDBNQBJHOTXFSFSJWBMTPG64CBDLFEEJDUBUPST PS(FSNBO+FXJTISFGVHFFTGPSDJCMZJOUFSOFEBMPOHTJEFBGFXHFOVJOF/B[JTJO UIF5FYBTEFTFSU*OTQJUFPGJUTĘBXT BTUIFTPDJPMPHJTUT$FDJMJB.FOKÓWBSBOE /ÏTUPS3PESÓHVF[QPJOUPVU UIFQSPHSBNXBTTJHOJĕDBOUJOUIFFWPMVUJPOPGUIF Bureau’s practices. It put in place a “new science and technology of surveillance BOE TPDJBM DPOUSPM B CVSFBVDSBUJD NFUIPE PG GPMMPXJOH ATVTQFDUT HBUIFSJOH JOGPSNBUJPO GSPN AJOGPSNBOUT PS AJOUFSSPHBUJPOT LFFQJOH ĕMFT DPOTUSVDUJOH AMJTUT BOEDFOUSBMJ[JOHAEBUBBUIJHIBENJOJTUSBUJWFMFWFMT wXIJDIXBTGPVOEBUJPOBMUPUIFHMPCBMQPMJDFQSPHSBNT29 ćF '#* FYQFSJFODFE JUT NPTU FYQMPTJWF HSPXUI JO UIF ŴżŸųT EVSJOH UIF McCarthy era, when it was called upon to enforce loyalty oaths, carry out secuSJUZDIFDLT BOEFNQMPZJOWFTUJHBUJWFUFDIOJRVFTTVDIBTXJSFUBQQJOH CSFBLJOT Introduction
7
BOENBJMJOUFSDFQUT#VJMEJOHPO8PSME8BS*oFSBBOEDPMPOJBMQPMJDJOHQSBDUJDFTJOUIF1IJMJQQJOFTBOEUIF$BSJCCFBO NVDIPGJUTTVSWFJMMBODFXBTDBSSJFEPVUVOEFSUIFBVTQJDFTPG$0*/5&-130 $PVOUFS*OUFMMJHFODF1SPHSBN
FTUBCMJTIFE JO ŴżŸŹ XJUI UIF BJN PG iEJTSVQUJOH IBSBTTJOH BOE EJTDSFEJUJOHw UIF"NFSJDBO$PNNVOJTU1BSUZBOEPUIFSiTVCWFSTJWFwPSHBOJ[BUJPOTUISPVHI iDSFBUJWFw BOE iBHHSFTTJWFw NFUIPET JODMVEJOH UIF EJTTFNJOBUJPO PG iCMBDLw QSPQBHBOEB NJTJOGPSNBUJPO 30ćFUBSHFUTPG$0*/5&-130DBNFUPJODMVEF BXJEFTQFDUSVNPGUIF"NFSJDBOMFę JODMVEJOHDJWJMSJHIUTBDUJWJTUTTVDIBT 1BVM3PCFTPOBOE.BSUJO-VUIFS,JOH+S UIFBOUJXBSBOETUVEFOUNPWFNFOUT UIF#MBDL1BOUIFS1BSUZ BOEUIF"NFSJDBO*OEJBO.PWFNFOUćF'#*XBTQBSUJDVMBSMZFČFDUJWFBUVTJOHTBCPUFVSTUPJOĕMUSBUFBOEGPNFOUEJTTFOTJPOXJUIJO UIF/FX-FęBOEFODPVSBHFEDPVOUFSQSPEVDUJWFGPSNTPGQSPUFTU DPOUSJCVUJOH UPJUTFWFOUVBMJNQMPTJPO3PCFSU)BSEZ BO'#*JOGPSNBOU UFTUJĕFEUIBUIFMFE UIJSUZBOUJXBSBDUJWJTUTJOBSBJEPOB$BNEFO /FX+FSTFZ ESBęCPBSEJOŴżźŴ UFBDIJOHUIFNiIPXUPDVUHMBTTBOEPQFOXJOEPXTXJUIPVUNBLJOHBOPJTFڀڀ IPXUPPQFOĕMFDBCJOFUTXJUIPVUBLFZw31 "TUIFTFBDUJPOTJMMVTUSBUF $0*/5&-130SFTVMUFEJONZSJBEDPOTUJUVUJPOBM WJPMBUJPOT JODMVEJOHJMMFHBMTVSWFJMMBODF CMBDLNBJM BOEDPMMVTJPOXJUIQPMJDF BTJOUIFNVSEFSPG$IJDBHP#MBDL1BOUIFSBDUJWJTUT'SFE)BNQUPOBOE.BSL $MBSLćF"NFSJDBO*OEJBO.PWFNFOUBOEUIF1BOUIFSTXFSFTVCKFDUFEUPUIF HSFBUFTUSFQSFTTJPO BOENBOZPGUIFJSNFNCFSTXFSFJNQSJTPOFEPSLJMMFE32 COINTELPRO was exposed in 1971 after a break-in at FBI offices in PennsylvaOJBBOEXBTSFQVEJBUFECZUIF"NFSJDBOQVCMJDćFSFQPSUPGUIFJOWFTUJHBUJOH DPNNJUUFFIFBEFECZ4FOBUPS'SBOL$IVSDI BO*EBIP%FNPDSBU DIBSBDUFSJ[FEJUBTBiWJHJMBOUFPQFSBUJPOwJOWPMWJOHGVOEBNFOUBMMZVOEFNPDSBUJDUFDIOJRVFT/FWFSUIFMFTT JUQSPWJEFEBNPEFMGPSQPMJUJDBMQPMJDJOHPQFSBUJPOTJO the developing world.33#FDBVTFPGJOBEFRVBUFKVEJDJBMPWFSTJHIUBOEDPOTUJUVUJPOBMDIFDLTPXJOHUPBEJČFSFOUQPMJUJDBMDMJNBUF UIFIVNBODPTUTPGUIFTF operations were usually far worse. The United States created vast policing apparatuses where none had existed before and strengthened local powerbrokers, XIPVTFEQPMJDFBJEUPSFQSFTTUIFJSQPMJUJDBMPQQPTJUJPO)JHIMZEBNBHJOHXBT UIFNJMJUBSJ[BUJPOPGUIFQPMJDFBOEUIFJODVMDBUJPOPGBOBUJPOBMTFDVSJUZJEFPMPHZUIBUBMMPXFEGPSUIFSBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOPGHSPTTIVNBOSJHIUTWJPMBUJPOTBOE DSVFMUJFT BTQPMJDFUPSUVSFSTBOENVSEFSFSTIBWFUIFNTFMWFTBDLOPXMFEHFE34 0QFSBUJOHVOEFSUIFQSFNJTFUIBUHPPEQPMJDJOHJTBQJWPUBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPG BNPEFSOOBUJPO "NFSJDBOUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTJOUSPEVDFEUFDIOJDBMJOOPWBUJPOTBOETPVHIUUPQSPWJEFGPSFJHOQPMJDFXJUITLJMMTJONBOBHFNFOU ĕOHFSQSJOUJOH JOUFMMJHFODF HBUIFSJOH DPVOUFSOBSDPUJDT BOE DPVOUFSUFSSPSJTN BT XFMMBTNPSFNVOEBOFUBTLTMJLFUSBďDDPOUSPMćFZQSPNPUFEQFOBMSFGPSN BOETFUVQUSBJOJOHBDBEFNJFTUPJOTUJUVUJPOBMJ[FQSPGFTTJPOBMTUBOEBSET*OUFSOBMJ[JOHCSPBEFSTPDJFUBMOPSNTJOWJFXJOHUFDIOPMPHZBTBNBSLFSPGBEWBODFNFOUBOEBQBUIXBZUPTPDJBMQSPHSFTT "NFSJDBOBEWJTFSTXFSFDPNNJUUFEUP 8
Introduction
JNQPSUJOHUIFTDJFOUJĕDQPMJDJOHNPEFMQSFWBMFOUJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBOEUP NPEFSOJ[JOH QPMJDF BENJOJTUSBUJPO ćFZ TUSFTTFE UIF JNQPSUBODF PG SFDPSE LFFQJOH BT B NFBOT PG FMFWBUJOH BSSFTU BOE QSPTFDVUJPO SBUFT BOE QSPWJEFE GVOET UP VQHSBEF QPMJDF QBZ BOE CFOFĕUT JO PSEFS UP MJNJU DPSSVQUJPO ćFZ GVSUIFSTVQQMJFETUBUFPGUIFBSUFRVJQNFOU JODMVEJOHSBEJPTBOEUFMFDPNNVOJDBUJPOHFBS ĕOHFSQSJOULJUT SFWPMWFST IBOEDVČT BOEMBCPSBUPSZNBUFSJBMT JO BEEJUJPOUPQPMJDFDSVJTFSTBOEWFIJDMFT IBOEHSFOBEFT HBTNBTLT BOETIJFMET for riot control.35 *U XBT OPU QPMJDF NPEFSOJ[BUJPO JO JUTFMG IPXFWFS CVU UIF QPMJUJDBM DPOUFYUJOXIJDIUIFQSPHSBNTXFSFJNQMFNFOUFEUIBUSFTVMUFEJOUIFTQSFBEPG NBKPS IVNBO SJHIUTBCVTFT#FDBVTFQPMJDFUSBJOFE CZ UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT GSFRVFOUMZTFSWFEBTUIFFOGPSDFNFOUBSNPGVOEFNPDSBUJDSFHJNFTWBMVFECZUIF "NFSJDBOTGPSQSPNPUJOHGSFFUSBEFBOEBOUJDPNNVOJTNBOEPSJFOUFEUPXBSE JOUFSOBM TFDVSJUZ BOE TPDJBM DPOUSPM UIF OFX FRVJQNFOU GSFRVFOUMZ BJEFE BO JOUFOTJĕDBUJPO PG TUBUF SFQSFTTJPO JO FČFDU NPEFSOJ[JOH JU ćF DSFBUJPO PG elaborate intelligence infrastructures allowing for better coordination in tracking down “subversives,” who often represented popular aspirations for social KVTUJDFBOEDIBOHF BDDFMFSBUFEUIJTEFWFMPQNFOU Although in theory trainees were supposed to be apolitical, when “all the DIJQTXFSFEPXO wSFQPSUTDPODFEFE UIFZXFSFNJMJUBOUMZBOUJDPNNVOJTUBOE conservative, owing in part to the ideological conditioning they underwent. An internal blueprint stated that “political orientation should be subtly included JOUIFPWFSBMMJOTUSVDUJPOwBOEUIBUiUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTIBTTPNFUIJOHUPTFMMB GBWPSBCMFJNQSFTTJPOPGEFNPDSBDZw$PNJOHGSPNBTPDJBMTFDUPSEFTDSJCFECZ Los Angeles police chief Willie Parker in the early 1960s as “conservative, ultraDPOTFSWBUJWFBOEWFSZSJHIUXJOH wQPMJDFBEWJTFSTXFSFJOĘVFOUJBMJOIFMQJOHUP JNQBSUBOPCTFTTJPOXJUITFDVSJUZ SFTVMUJOHJOUIFDSFBUJPOPGNBTTTVSWFJMMBODF TUBUFT BOE UIF EFWBMVJOH PG QFSTPOBM MJCFSUJFT "NFSJDBO QPMJDF XFSF UIFNTFMWFTPSHBOJ[FEBMPOHBVUIPSJUBSJBOBOEQSFEPNJOBOUMZNJMJUBSZMJOFT JOQBSU CFDBVTFMFBEJOHQSPQPOFOUTPGQPMJDFQSPGFTTJPOBMJTNXFSFNJMJUBSZWFUFSBOT which was not conducive to the spread of enlightened practice.36 "ęFS8PSME8BS** QPMJDFQSPHSBNTFNFSHFEBTBDSVDJBMEJNFOTJPOPGUIF U.S. occupation of South Korea and in Japan, where they were designed to conTPMJEBUFUIFQPXFSPGUIFQSP8FTU-JCFSBM%FNPDSBUJD1BSUZBOEDSBDLEPXO PO UIF +BQBOFTF $PNNVOJTU 1BSUZ BOE MBCPS NPWFNFOU %VSJOH UIF &JTFOhower presidency, police training was institutionalized under what was known BTUIFŴŵżųEQSPHSBN MBUFSUIF0WFSTFBT*OUFSOBM4FDVSJUZ1SPHSBN 0*41
SVOPVUPGUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOU XIPTFDFOUSBMNJTTJPOXBTUPEFWFMPQMPDBM police and security forces to “provide internal security in countries vulnerable UPDPNNVOJTUTVCWFSTJPOwBOEUPiBJEJOUIFEFUFDUJPOPGDPNNVOJTUBHFOUTBOE GFMMPXUSBWFMFSTwBOEiTVQQSFTTMPDBMEJTTJEFODFCFGPSFNJMJUBSZUZQFBDUJPOXBT OFDFTTBSZw ćF QMBOOJOH CPBSE JODMVEFE IBSEMJOFST GSPN UIF 1FOUBHPO BOE Introduction
9
$*"XIPXFSFPCTFTTFEXJUIiUIFUFDIOJRVFTPGJOUFSOBUJPOBMDPNNVOJTNw*U XBTJOJUJBMMZIFBEFECZ%PVHMBT.BD"SUIVS** BGPSNFS044 0ďDFPG4USBUFHJD 4FSWJDFT PQFSBUJWFBOEOFQIFXPGUIFGBNPVTHFOFSBM XIPMBUFSTFSWFEBTUIF BNCBTTBEPSUP+BQBOBOE*SBO)FXBTTVDDFFEFECZ)FOSZ7JMMBSE BPOFUJNF TJMFOUNPWJFBDUPSBOEHSBOETPOPGUIFBCPMJUJPOJTU8JMMJBN-MPZE(BSSJTPO
XIPIBECFFOUIFĕSTUDIJFGPGUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUT"GSJDBO"ČBJST%JWJTJPO EVSJOH8PSME8BS**BOEBNCBTTBEPSUP-JCZBJOUIFFBSMZŴżŸųT37 "O JOUFSOBM PVUMJOF PG UIF ŴŵżųE QSPHSBN XSJUUFO CZ $PMPOFM "MCFSU 3 Haney, CIA station chief in Seoul during the Korean War and an architect PGUIFŴżŸŷ(VBUFNBMBODPVQ TUBUFT i"OFďDJFOUJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZTZTUFNJT BGVOEBNFOUBMBTQFDUPGBOZHSPXJOHTPDJFUZBOEDPOUSJCVUFTTVCTUBOUJBMMZUP JUTPSEFSMZQSPHSFTTBOEEFWFMPQNFOUw*O)BOFZTWJFX "NFSJDBOTVQQPSUGPS EJTUBTUFGVMQPMJUJDBMSFHJNFT JODMVEJOHEJDUBUPSTIJQTBOEKVOUBT XBTOFDFTTBSZ UPQSFWFOUUIFMPTTPGBOBMMZUPOFVUSBMJTNPSDPNNVOJTUDPOUSPM $POGSPOUFE BT XF BSF BHBJOTU B EFBEMZ FOFNZ XIP JT IJHIMZ EJTDJQMJOFE BOE PSHBOJ[FE BOE EFEJDBUFE UP PVS DBQJUVMBUJPO UIF 64 DBOOPU BČPSE UIF NPSBM MVYVSZPGIFMQJOHPOMZUIPTFSFHJNFTJOUIFGSFFXPSMEUIBUNFFUPVSJEFBMTPGTFMG HPWFSONFOU'ڀڀPSUIPTFXIPEFDSZFČPSUTUPNBLFPWFSPUIFSTJOPVSMJLFOFTT BOEUIPTFXIPPQQPTFIFMQJOHVOEFNPDSBUJDSFHJNFTUPFOUSFODIUIFNTFMWFTJO QPXFS MFUJUCFTBJEUIBU"NFSJDBONFUIPETare in fact superiorUPNPTUPUIFST JOUIFXPSMEBOEJGXFBSFUPIFMQUIFNDPNCBUDPNNVOJTNXFDBODPOUSJCVUF HSFBUMZUPUIFBEPQUJPOPG"NFSJDBOEFNPDSBUJDXBZTJOBDIJFWJOHUIJTFOE38
ćFTFDPNNFOUTFYFNQMJGZUIFFYUSFNFOBUJPOBMJTNBOEBOUJDPNNVOJTN DIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFQPTUXBSFSBBOEUIFLJOEPGNPSBMMPHJDVTFEUPSBUJPOBMJ[FTVQQPSUGPSXJEFTDBMFSFQSFTTJPO4UBČFEXJUINFOPGMJLFNJOE UIF,FOOFEZBENJOJTUSBUJPOFYQBOEFEUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTUPOFXIFJHIUTJOBMBSHFS JOGBUVBUJPOXJUIVODPOWFOUJPOBMXBSGBSF$POUSBSZUPUIFIVNBOJUBSJBOJNBHF QSPNPUFE JO QPQVMBS DVMUVSF BOE GBXOJOH NFNPJST XSJUUFO CZ GPSNFS BJEFT ,FOOFEZXBTB$PME8BSSJPSXIPFNCSBDFEWJPMFODFBTBNFBOTPGFYQBOEJOH"NFSJDBOHMPCBMIFHFNPOZ39 0QQPTFEUP&JTFOIPXFSTDPNNJUNFOUUPB OVDMFBSBSNTCVJMEVQ IFQSPNPUFEBĘFYJCMFSFTQPOTFEPDUSJOFDBMMJOHGPSOFX DPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZTUSBUFHJFTJOUIFGBDFPGSBEJDBMOBUJPOBMJTUNPWFNFOUTJOUIF developing world. *OŴżŹŴ JOUIFBęFSNBUIPGUIF#BZPG1JHTEFCBDMF ,FOOFEZDPOWFOFEB cabinet-level Special Group on Counter-Insurgency, headed by his brother 3PCFSU BOE ĕWFTUBS HFOFSBM .BYXFMM 5BZMPS XIJDI DIBNQJPOFE UIF USBJOing of indigenous security forces in unconventional warfare and the creation PG iIVOUFSLJMMFSw UFBNT 3PCFSU 8 ,PNFS PG UIF /BUJPOBM 4FDVSJUZ $PVODJM BEWJTFEDPMMFBHVFTUIBUiXIJMFUSFBUZBSSBOHFNFOUTBOEJOUFSOBUJPOBMMBXwXFSF UPCFHJWFODBSFGVMDPOTJEFSBUJPO UIFSFXBTiOPPWFSSJEJOHCBSUP BDUJPOXIFOPWFSSJEJOHOBUJPOBMJOUFSFTUTQSFWBJMIFOBHPWFSONFOU UIBUJTJOJNJDBMUP64JOUFSFTUTFNFSHFT SJTLTTIPVMECFFWBMVBUFEJOFODPVSBHJOHBOETVQQPSUJOHUIFPWFSUISPXPGUIBUHPWFSONFOUw40 10
Introduction
ćFTF SFNBSLT SFWFBM UIF FNCSBDF PG UFSSPSJTU NFUIPET CZ 8BTIJOHUPOT iCFTUBOEUIFCSJHIUFTU wXIPBSHVFEUIFOFFEUPNBYJNJ[FQPMJDFUSBJOJOHXJUIPVUEBNBHJOHUIFQVCMJDJNBHFPGUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT iXJUIEVFSFDPHOJUJPOUIBU TQFDJĕDDPVOUSZQSPHSBNTXJMMPęFOGBMMTIPSUPGUIJTJEFBMwPXJOHUPiMPDBMMJNitations.”41 In 1962 Kennedy established the Office of Public Safety (OPS) within UIF6OJUFE4UBUFT"HFODZGPS*OUFSOBUJPOBM%FWFMPQNFOU 64"*% UPiEFWFMPQ UIF DJWJMJBO QPMJDF DPNQPOFOU PG JOUFSOBM TFDVSJUZ GPSDFT JO VOEFSEFWFMPQFE TUBUFT ڀ ڀJEFOUJGZ FBSMZ UIF TZNQUPNT PG BO JODJQJFOU TVCWFSTJWF TJUVBUJPO w BOE iNBJOUBJO MBX BOE PSEFS XJUIPVU VOOFDFTTBSZ CMPPETIFE BOE BO PCUSVsive display of the bayonet.”42 Until it was disbanded in 1974, the OPS supplied BQQSPYJNBUFMZIBMGBCJMMJPOEPMMBSTXPSUIPGFRVJQNFOU BEWJTFST BOEUSBJOJOH toward these ends. The Philippines constabulary developed at the turn of the UXFOUJFUI DFOUVSZ XBT POF NPEFM PXJOH UP JUT QSPĕDJFODZ JO KVOHMF XBSGBSF BOEJUTSPMFJODPNCBUJOHNFTTJBOJDQFBTBOUSFWPMUTUIBUUISFBUFOFE"NFSJDBO DPMPOJBMEPNJOBUJPO The OPS director, Byron Engle, was a Kansas City police captain and a CIA operative who ran police operations in Japan and Turkey after World War II. %FTDSJCFECZDPMMFBHVFTBTBiNBTUFSGVMCVSFBVDSBUwBOEiDPNQVMTJWFNPEFSOJ[FS wIFXBTDPNNJUUFEUPJNQSPWJOHQPMJDFBENJOJTUSBUJPO DPNNVOJDBUJPOT surveillance, and record keeping in the countries in which he operated worldXJEF*OĘVFODFECZBUSBJOJOHDPVSTFIFUPPLBUUIF'#* &OHMFTBUJOPOUIF NFFUJOHTPGUIF4QFDJBM(SPVQBOEFTUBCMJTIFEBDMPTFDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFOUIF 014BOEUIF$*" XIJDIXFSFFČFDUJWFMZNFSHFEćF,FOOFEZBENJOJTUSBUJPO TBXJOIJN BDDPSEJOHUPUIFQPMJUJDBMTDJFOUJTUćPNBT-PCF BiQFSGFDUCMFOE PGEFFQDPNNJUNFOUUPDJWJMJBOQPMJDFXPSLBTBOJNQPSUBOUBOEXPSUIXIJMF occupation in society and an appreciation for the darker areas of political police intelligence.”43 Under Engle’s oversight, hundreds of foreign police were brought each year GPSUSBJOJOHUPUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM1PMJDF"DBEFNZ *1" JO8BTIJOHUPO %$ DPOTJEFSFEUIF8FTU1PJOUPGMBXFOGPSDFNFOU)FBEFECZ.JDIBFM.D$BOO an FBI agent and Indiana state trooper who trained the Shah’s security appaSBUVTJO*SBOBOEXBTBOBEWJTFSJO7JFUOBN 4BVEJ"SBCJB BOE#SB[JM UIF*1" QSPWJEFEJOTUSVDUJPOJOQPMJDFBENJOJTUSBUJPO TDJFOUJĕDNFUIPET DPVOUFSJOUFMMJHFODF BOEBOUJDPNNVOJTUJEFPMPHZ0OFPGJUTUSBEFNBSLTXBTBUXPTUPSZ QJTUPMSBOHFXJUIDBSECPBSEUBSHFUTESFTTFEBTiTVCWFSTJWFTwćFDVMNJOBUJPO XBTBNPDLDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZPQFSBUJPOJOXIJDITUVEFOUTIBEUPTVQQSFTTB EJTUVSCBODFBOEQSPUFDUUIFSVMJOHHPWFSONFOUGSPNCFJOHTXFQUGSPNQPXFS 0CTFSWFSTOPUFEUIBUUIFTJNVMBUJPOXBTIBSEFSUIBOSFBMMJGFBOEUIBUPďDFST SFUVSOFEIPNFXJUIBDFSUBJOiTXBHHFS wSFBEZUPFOHBHFJOUIFĕHIUBHBJOTU DPNNVOJTNBUXIBUFWFSIVNBODPTU .PTUDPOUSPWFSTJBMXBTBTFDSFUCPNCNBLJOHDPVSTFJO-PT'SFTOPT 5FYBT XIFSFQPMJDFXFSFUBVHIUOPUPOMZIPXUPEFGVTFCVUBMTPIPXUPNBLFCPNCT .D$BOOUPME&OHMFJOBQSJWBUFNFFUJOHUIBUiUIFPČFOTJWFVTFPGFYQMPTJWFT Introduction
11
would be vital in order to inculcate an understanding of the capabilities DIBSBDUFSJTUJD PG WBSJPVT UZQFT PG PSEOBODF QSJPS UP USBJOJOH JO EJTBSNBNFOU UFDIOJRVFTw"TXJUINJMJUBSZBDBEFNJFTTVDIBTUIF4DIPPMPGUIF"NFSJDBT B QSJNBSZBJNPGUIF*1"XBTUPDVMUJWBUFiBTTFUTwXIP JUXBTIPQFE XPVMESJTF JOUIFOBUJPOBMTFDVSJUZBQQBSBUVTPGUIFJSIPNFDPVOUSJFTBOEQSPWJEFJOGPSNBUJPOBOEBTTJTUBODFUP"NFSJDBOJOUFMMJHFODF QBWJOHUIFXBZGPSHSFBUFS64 QPMJUJDBM JOĘVFODF BOE DPOUSPM 0DDBTJPOBMMZ BO PWFSTFBT DPSQPSBUJPO XPVME send a private security officer to the IPA, as did Gulf Oil, Firestone Rubber of -JCFSJB BOEUIF"SBCJBO"NFSJDBO0JM$PNQBOZ44 3PCFSU,PNFS B$*"WFUFSBOXIPTFSWFEBTEJSFDUPSPGQBDJĕDBUJPOJO7JFUOBNBOEXBTLOPXOBTi#MPXUPSDIwGPSIJTĕFSZUFNQFS XBTBESJWJOHĕHVSF CFIJOEUIFFYQBOTJPOPGUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNT*O.BZŴżŹŴUIF)BSWBSE#VTJOFTT 4DIPPM HSBEVBUF DPOEVDUFE B TUVEZ PG UIF &JTFOIPXFS BENJOJTUSBUJPOT QPMJDFPQFSBUJPOT XIJDIIFUFSNFEiBOPSQIBODIJMEUIBUOPCPEZTFFNTUPCF QBZJOHBOZBUUFOUJPOUPćFŶųNJMMJPOUIBUXFHJWFJTTNBMMQPUBUPFT wIFXSPUF JOBNFNPUPUIF4QFDJBM(SPVQićFQPMJDFBSFJONBOZDBTFTBGBSNPSFFČFDUJWFBOEJNNFEJBUFMZVTFGVMDPVOUFSTVCWFSTJWFJOTUSVNFOUUIBOUIFNJMJUBSZ ڀڀćF*OEPOFTJBONPCJMFCSJHBEF GPSFYBNQMF JTHFOFSBMMZSFHBSEFEBTUIF NPTUFČFDUJWFGPSDFJO*OEPOFTJBw45*OBOPUIFSNFNPUP5BZMPSBOE.D(FPSHF #VOEZ UIF QSFTJEFOUT TQFDJBM BTTJTUBOU GPS OBUJPOBM TFDVSJUZ BČBJST ,PNFS TUSFTTFEUIBUUIFQPMJDFXFSFiNPSFWBMVBCMFUIBO4QFDJBM'PSDFTJOPVSHMPCBM DPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZFČPSUTwBOEQBSUJDVMBSMZVTFGVMJOĕHIUJOHVSCBOJOTVSSFDUJPOT i8F HFU NPSF GSPN UIF QPMJDF JO UFSNT PG QSFWFOUBUJWF NFEJDJOF UIBO GSPNBOZTJOHMF64QSPHSBN wIFTBJEićFZBSFDPTUFČFDUJWF XIJMFOPUHPJOH GPSGBODZNJMJUBSZIBSEXBSFڀڀćFZQSPWJEFUIFĕSTUMJOFPGEFGFOTFBHBJOTU EFNPOTUSBUJPOT SJPUT BOEMPDBMJOTVSSFDUJPOT0OMZXIFOUIFTJUVBUJPOHFUTPVU PGIBOE BTJO4PVUI7JFUOBN EPFTUIFNJMJUBSZIBWFUPCFDBMMFEJOw46 .JSSPSJOH UIF UIJOLJOH PG #SJUJTI JNQFSJBM TUSBUFHJTUT TVDI BT 8JOTUPO Churchill, who wrote in 1954 that an “efficient police force and intelligence TFSWJDFBSFUIFCFTUXBZPGTNFMMJOHPVUTVCWFSTJWFNPWFNFOUTBUBOFBSMZTUBHF BOE NBZ TBWF IFBWZ FYQFOEJUVSFT PO NJMJUBSZ SFJOGPSDFNFOUT w UIFTF DPNNFOUTJMMVNJOBUFUIFVOEFSMZJOHHFPTUSBUFHJDJNQFSBUJWFTTIBQJOHUIFHSPXUI PGUIFQSPHSBNTBOEUIFNPCJMJ[BUJPOPGQPMJDFGPSQPMJUJDBMBOENJMJUBSZFOET XIJDIBDDPVOUFEGPSUIFTQSFBEPGIVNBOSJHIUTBCVTFT$IBSMFT.BFDIMJOH Jr., staff director of the Special Group on Counter-Insurgency, acknowledged ZFBSTMBUFSUIBUJOGBJMJOHUPJOTJTUPOiFWFOSVEJNFOUBSZTUBOEBSETPGDSJNJOBMKVTUJDFBOEDJWJMSJHIUT UIF6OJUFE4UBUFTQSPWJEFESFHJNFTIBWJOHPOMZB GBDBEFPGDPOTUJUVUJPOBMTBGFHVBSETXJUIVQEBUFEMBXFOGPSDFNFOUNBDIJOFSZ SFBEJMZBEBQUBCMFUPQPMJUJDBMJOUJNJEBUJPOBOETUBUFUFSSPSJTN3FDPSELFFQJOH JO QBSUJDVMBS XBT JNNFEJBUFMZ QVU UP VTF JO USBDLJOH EPXO TUVEFOU SBEJDBMT and union organizers.”47 .BFDIMJOHT SFNBSLT DPOTUJUVUF B TUSJLJOH BENJTTJPO BOE VOEFSTDPSF UIF 12
Introduction
WBQJEJUZPGBDBEFNJDNPEFSOJ[BUJPOUIFPSJTUTXIPDIBNQJPOFENJMJUBSZBOE QPMJDFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTBTBNFBOTPGQSPWJEJOHUIFTFDVSJUZEFFNFEOFDFTTBSZGPSFDPOPNJDiUBLFPČ wXIJDIDPVMEUIFOVOEFSDVUTVQQPSUGPSMFęXJOH NPWFNFOUT48 " LFZ BTQFDU GPS 8BMU 8 3PTUPX UIF NPTU QSPNJOFOU PG UIF NPEFSOJ[BUJPOUIFPSJTUTBOEB4QFDJBM(SPVQNFNCFS XBTUIBUDPNNVOJTN was a “disease of the transition”; it prospered when the need for savings reduced TUBOEBSETPGMJWJOHCFGPSFOBUVSBMFDPOPNJDHSPXUIDPVMEUBLFIPME$PVOUFSJOTVSHFODZXBTUIVTOFDFTTBSZUPNBJOUBJOPSEFSBOETUBCJMJUZBTBQSFDPOEJUJPO GPSEFWFMPQNFOUBOEGPSBUUSBDUJOHGPSFJHOJOWFTUNFOU49 (FPSHF ' ,FOOBO UIF JOĘVFOUJBM 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU QMBOOFS XIPTF WJFXT SFTFNCMFEUIFNPEFSOJ[BUJPOUIFPSJTUT UPMEBHSPVQPG-BUJO"NFSJDBOBNCBTTBEPSTJOŴżŸųi*UNBZCFVOQMFBTBOUCVUXFTIPVMEOPUIFTJUBUFCFGPSFQPMJDF SFQSFTTJPOCZUIFMPDBMHPWFSONFOU*ڀڀUJTCFUUFSUPIBWFBTUSPOHSFHJNFJO QPXFSUIBOBMJCFSBMHPWFSONFOUJGJUJTJOEVMHFOUBOESFMBYFEBOEQFOFUSBUFE CZDPNNVOJTUTw50ćFTFSFNBSLTIFMQFYQMBJOUIFTUSBUFHJDDBMDVMBUJPOTVOEFSMZJOH "NFSJDBO TVQQPSU GPS SJHIUXJOH EJDUBUPST EVSJOH UIF $PME 8BS BOE UIFJNQPSUBODFBUUBDIFEUPQPMJDFUSBJOJOHJOCPMTUFSJOHUIFJSQPXFS,FOOBO SFGFSSFEUPIVNBOSJHIUTJOUIF'BS&BTUBTBOVOSFBMJTUJDPCKFDUJWFUPQVSTVF owing to the region’s perceived backwardness and need to deal in “straight QPXFS DPODFQUTw ćF 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU BUUSJCVUFE IVNBO SJHIUT BCVTFT JO -BUJO "NFSJDB NFBOXIJMF UP iQFSWBTJWF DVMUVSBM BOE MFHBM BUUJUVEFT UZQJDBM PGMFTTFSEFWFMPQFEDPVOUSJFT wXIJDI JUQSFEJDUFE XPVMEiCFPWFSDPNFBTUIF DPVOUSZHSBEVBMMZNPEFSOJ[FTw51 /PU DPJODJEFOUBMMZ HJWFO TVDI BUUJUVEFT "NOFTUZ *OUFSOBUJPOBM EPDVNFOUFEXJEFTQSFBEQIZTJDBMBOEQTZDIPMPHJDBMUPSUVSFCZQPMJDFJOUXFOUZGPVS PGUIFGPSUZOJOFOBUJPOTUIBUIPTUFEQPMJDFUSBJOJOHUFBNT%FDMBTTJĕFEJOUFSSPHBUJPONBOVBMTVTFEBUUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM1PMJDF"DBEFNZTIPXBQBSUJDVMBS FNQIBTJTPOTFOTPSZEFQSJWBUJPOBOEPUIFSQTZDIPMPHJDBMUPSUVSFUFDIOJRVFT EFSJWFE GSPN $*"GVOEFE NJOEDPOUSPM FYQFSJNFOUT XIJDI XFSF XJEFMZ adopted across the so-called Third World. Special Forces officer Donald DunDBOUFTUJĕFECFGPSFUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM8BS$SJNFT5SJCVOBM PSHBOJ[FEJOŴżŹŹ CZUIFQIJMPTPQIFS#FSUSBOE3VTTFMM UIBU"NFSJDBOBEWJTFSTSBSFMZQBSUJDJQBUFE UIFNTFMWFT JO UPSUVSF TFTTJPOT EFGFSSJOH UP UIFJS QSPUÏHÏT MBSHFMZ GPS UBDUJDBM SFBTPOT ćFZ EJE OPU XBOU UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT UP CF JEFOUJĕFE XJUI QPMJUJDBM SFQSFTTJPOBOEDPVMEDMBJNQMBVTJCMFEFOJBCJMJUZXIFOBCVTFTHPUPGIBOE BT XJUIUIFDPWFSU1IPFOJYQSPHSBN XIJDIBJNFEUPXJQFPVUUIFMFBEFSTIJQPG UIFSFWPMVUJPOBSZNPWFNFOUJO4PVUI7JFUOBNUISPVHIDPPSEJOBUFEQPMJDJOH and targeted assassination.52 ćFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTVMUJNBUFMZFYFNQMJGZUIFEBOHFSTPGTPDJBMFOHJOFFSJOH FČPSUTCZUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBOEUIFIJEEFOBOEDPFSDJWFBTQFDUTPG"NFSJDBO QPXFS 6OMJLF UIF TQFDUBDVMBS CVU FQIFNFSBM QZSPUFDIOJDT PG UIF CBUUMFĕFME UIFTF USBJOJOH QSPHSBNT VTVBMMZ IBE MPOHUFSN DPOTFRVFODFT GPS UIF TVCKFDU Introduction
13
TPDJFUZGPTUFSJOHOFXFMJUFT DSFBUJOHBMBTUJOHBQQBSBUVTPGTPDJBMDPOUSPM BOE PęFOJOUSPEVDJOHBQPUFOUNFDIBOJTNGPSUIFTVQQSFTTJPOPGTPDJBMSFGPSN*O UIJTMBTUSFTQFDU UIFZQSPWFEFČFDUJWFJOBEWBODJOH"NFSJDBOJNQFSJBMBNCJtions, which were rooted in part in the desire to integrate countries of the develPQJOHXPSMEJOUPUIFHMPCBMDBQJUBMJTUFDPOPNZBOEDSFBUFBTUBCMFFOWJSPONFOU GPSJOWFTUNFOUBOEUSBEF53ćFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTDPVMEBMTPCBDLĕSF IPXFWFS and breed uncontrollable violence, instability, and resistance in a “blowback FČFDUw*OOVNFSPVTDBTFTUIFZGVFMFEUIFSJTFPGSPHVFPQFSBUPSTXIPVTFEUIF QPMJDJOHBQQBSBUVTCVJMUVQCZUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTUPDBSWFPVUQFSTPOBMĕFGTBOE XJQFPVUSJWBMT XBSQJOHEFNPDSBUJDEFWFMPQNFOU 0XJOH UP DVMUVSBM CBSSJFST BOE BO VOEFSMZJOH QBUFSOBMJTN QPMJDF DPNNBOEFSTPęFOIBEMJUUMFSFTQFDUGPS64BEWJTFSTCVUBDDFQUFEXFBQPOSZPVU PGTFMGJOUFSFTU"MBSHFEFHSFFPGDZOJDJTNDPOTFRVFOUMZBDDPNQBOJFEUIFQSPHSBNT&OHMFHSVNCMFEUPDPMMFBHVFTUIBUXIBUiBMMUIFTFDPVOUSJFTXBOUFEXBT BOAFRVJQNFOUESPQBOEOPUPVSBEWJDFw#VUBTB64"*%PďDJBMSFDPHOJ[FE iUPIBWFBGPSNFSEFTLTFSHFBOUJOTPNFUXPCJUUPXOXIFSFIFXBTSFTQPOTJCMF GPSUXFOUZQPMJDFNFOHJWFBEWJDFUPBXFMMFEVDBUFEQPMJDFHFOFSBMXIPDPNFT GSPNUIFTPDJBMFMJUFPGIJTDPVOUSZBOEDPNNBOETMJUFSBMMZUIPVTBOETPGNFOJT an insult.”54 While differing political contexts have ensured different results historically, UIFSFBSFTPNFQBUUFSOTUIBUFNFSHFBTVOJWFSTBM JOQBSUJDVMBSUIFSPMFPGUIF 6OJUFE4UBUFTJOQSPWJEJOHTPQIJTUJDBUFEQPMJDJOHFRVJQNFOUBOEUSZJOHUPQSPGFTTJPOBMJ[FUIFJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZBQQBSBUVTPGDMJFOUSFHJNFTBTBNFBOTPGGPSUJGZJOHUIFJSQPXFS/FXUFDIOPMPHJFTXFSFEFWFMPQFEJOBOBUUFNQUUPBEWBODF UIFFďDJFODZPGUIJTMBUUFSUBTL UIPVHIUIFPWFSSJEJOHHPBMSFNBJOFEUIFTBNF GSPNUIF1IJMJQQJOFTPDDVQBUJPOPOEPXO ćJT CPPL CSFBLT OFX HSPVOE JO QSPWJEJOH B DPNQBSBUJWF BOBMZTJT PG UIF QPMJDFQSPHSBNTTQPOTPSFECZUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBOEUIFJSMJOLUPUIFTQSFBE PGQPMJUJDBMSFQSFTTJPOćFUPQJDIBTCFFOJHOPSFEJONPTUTUBOEBSEIJTUPSJFT Martha K. Huggins’s Political Policing offers a notable exception in detailing the IJTUPSZPGQPMJDFUSBJOJOHBOEUIFMJOLUPNBKPSIVNBOSJHIUTWJPMBUJPOTJO#SBzil. A. J. Langguth’s Hidden Terrors is a revealing journalistic exposé of police USBJOJOHBOETUBUFTQPOTPSFEUFSSPSJTNJO-BUJO"NFSJDBEVSJOHUIF$PME8BS ćPNBT -PCFT EJTTFSUBUJPO DPWFST UIF JNQBDU PG UIF QSPHSBNT JO ćBJMBOE Michael T. Klare’s War without End and Michael McClintock’s Instruments of Statecraft and The American ConnectionTIPXUIFDFOUSBMJUZPGUIFQSPHSBNTUP HMPCBMDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZTUSBUFHJFT/PBN$IPNTLZBOE&EXBSE4)FSNBO in The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism and Gabriel Kolko in Confronting the Third World DPOUFYUVBMJ[FUIFNBTQBSUPGBMBSHFSQBUUFSO PG TVCWFSTJPO JO UIF ćJSE 8PSME ESJWFO CZ FDPOPNJD BOE PUIFS JNQFSJBMJTU NPUJWFT XIJMF"MGSFE8.D$PZJOA Question of Torture shows their contribution to the spread of torture. More recently, in Policing America’s Empire, 14
Introduction
McCoy chronicles the history of the Philippines constabulary and its adoption PG BEWBODFE NFUIPET PG TVSWFJMMBODF JOUJNJEBUJPO BOE WJPMFODF UP TFDVSF JNQFSJBMEPNJOBUJPOćFTFNFUIPETXFSFMBUFSBQQSPQSJBUFECZQPMJDJOHJOTUJtutions in the United States, contributing to an erosion of civil liberties.55 Building on these invaluable works, Modernizing Repression incorporates OFXMZ EFDMBTTJĕFE EPDVNFOUT JODMVEJOH UIF ĕFME SFQPSUT PG QPMJDF BEWJTFST UP QSPWJEF B DPNQBSBUJWF BOBMZTJT PG UIF QPMJDF USBJOJOH QSPHSBNT BOE UIFJS IBSNGVMFČFDUT*ONZWJFX UIFQSPHSBNTFODBQTVMBUFIPXUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT SFTFNCMFTPUIFSFNQJSFTJOCFJOHTVTUBJOFECZWJPMFODFBOEDPFSDJPO56 Much SFDFOUTDIPMBSTIJQJO"NFSJDBOEJQMPNBUJDIJTUPSZIBTGPDVTFEPONPEFSOJ[BUJPOUIFPSZBOEBOUJDPNNVOJTUiOBUJPOCVJMEJOHwBTUIFLFZNPUJWBUJOHGBDUPST ESJWJOH"NFSJDBOGPSFJHOQPMJDZEVSJOHUIF$PME8BS57 Police training can be seen as central to both processes. It served key political and ideological funcUJPOTJOFTUBCMJTIJOHUIFJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZEFFNFEOFDFTTBSZGPSMJCFSBMDBQJUBMJTU EFWFMPQNFOU BOEJUXBTDSVDJBMBTXFMMJOVQHSBEJOHUIFTVSWFJMMBODFDBQBDJUZPGTUBUFTJOUIFEFWFMPQJOHXPSME UIVTBMMPXJOHGPSNPSFFYUFOTJWFTPDJBM DPOUSPMUIF VMUJNBUF NBSLFS PG NPEFSOJUZ JO UIF QPTU&OMJHIUFONFOU FSB58 Therein lay its dark side. ćFĕSTUTFDUJPOPGUIFCPPL i5BLJOH6QUIFA8IJUF.BOT#VSEFO wEJTDVTTFTUIFQJPOFFSJOHFČPSUTCZUIF64NJMJUBSZUPDSFBUFQPMJDFDPOTUBCVMBSJFT in the Philippines and the Caribbean in order to solidify colonial occupations JOUIFĕSTUIBMGPGUIFUXFOUJFUIDFOUVSZ%SBXJOHPOUIFEPNFTUJDJOOPWBUJPOT PGUIF1SPHSFTTJWF&SB "NFSJDBODPNNBOEFSTJNQBSUFETPQIJTUJDBUFEQPMJDF UFDIOPMPHJFTBOEQTZDIPMPHJDBMXBSGBSFUFDIOJRVFTXJUIUIFBJNPGTVQQSFTTJOH OBUJPOBMJTUBOENFTTJBOJDQFBTBOUNPWFNFOUTćF6OJUFE4UBUFTJOUVSOIFMQFE UPFTUBCMJTITPNFPGUIFĕSTUNPEFSOQPMJDFTUBUFT XIJDIQSPWJEFEBNPEFMGPS TVCTFRVFOUJOUFSWFOUJPOT ćFTFDPOETFDUJPO i6OEFSUIF'BDBEFPG#FOFWPMFODF wFYBNJOFTUIFFWPMVUJPOPGUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTEVSJOHUIF$PME8BSQFSJPEBOEUIFJSDFOUSBMJUZ UP PQFSBUJPOT NFBOU UP iSPMM CBDLw UIF QSPHSFTT PG DPNNVOJTN JO 4PVUIFBTU Asia. The “reverse course” in Japan was a watershed in that, fearing the loss of BCFBDIIFBEJOUIF"TJBO1BDJĕDXJUIUIFUSJVNQIPGUIF$IJOFTFSFWPMVUJPO UIF 4VQSFNF $PNNBOE PG UIF "MMJFE 1PXFST BCBOEPOFE FČPSUT UP QSPNPUF DJWJMMJCFSUJFTBOENPCJMJ[FEQPMJDFUPDSBDLEPXOIBSTIMZPOUIFMFę"NFSJDBO BEWJTFSTMFECZBZPVOH#ZSPO&OHMFUBVHIUOPWFMUFDIOJRVFTPGQPQVMBUJPODPOUSPM JODMVEJOHUIFVTFPGUFBSHBTUPRVFMMVSCBOEFNPOTUSBUJPOT XIJDICFDBNF BGFBUVSFPGUIFQSPHSBNT*O4PVUI7JFUOBN XIFSFJUIBEUIFMBSHFTUCVEHFU the OPS laid the groundwork for Operation Phoenix, though it spiraled out of DPOUSPM CSFFEJOHJOEJTDSJNJOBUFWJPMFODF ćF UIJSE TFDUJPO ićF $PME 8BS PO UIF 1FSJQIFSZ w FYBNJOFT UIF QPMJDF QSPHSBNTPOUIFFEHFTPGUIF$PME8BS XIFSFNBOZPGUIFTBNFNFUIPETXFSF JODPSQPSBUFEBTJO4PVUIFBTU"TJB CZNBOZPGUIFTBNFQFSTPOOFM BOEXJUIB Introduction
15
TJNJMBSPVUDPNF*O-BUJO"NFSJDB UIFUSBEJUJPOBMXPSLTIPQPGFNQJSF QVCMJD TBGFUZ BEWJTFST SFĕOFE UFDIOJRVFT UIBU XFSF USBEFNBSLT PG UIF 014 TVDI BT UIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGEBUBCBOLTPOTVCWFSTJWFT BOEUSBJOFEGPSDFTUIBUCFDBNF JNQMJDBUFE JO TZTUFNBUJD IVNBO SJHIUT WJPMBUJPOT *O UIF .JEEMF &BTU QPMJDF USBJOJOHXBTEFTJHOFEUPGPSUJGZDMJFOUSFHJNFTUIBUFOTVSFE"NFSJDBOBDDFTTUP UIFSFHJPOTPJM TVDIBTUIBUPGUIF4IBIPG*SBO*O"GSJDB NFBOXIJMF JUIFMQFE UPEBTIFBSMZIPQFTPGMJCFSBUJPOCZDPOUSJCVUJOHUPUIFFNQPXFSNFOUPGSJHIU XJOHEJDUBUPSTBOEUIFFYBDFSCBUJPOPGFUIOJDDPOĘJDU ćFĕOBMDIBQUFSBOBMZ[FTUIFMFHBDZPGUIF014BOEUIFDPOUJOVJUZPGQPMJDZ JO"GHIBOJTUBOBOE*SBR XIFSFUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBHBJOQSPNPUFEQPMJDFUSBJOJOH BTBDPTUFČFDUJWFNFBOTPGQBDJGZJOHJOTVSHFOUNPWFNFOUTćFEJTDPVSTFQBJE little attention to historical precedent, and, predictably, history repeated itself. 1SPCMFNT XFSF BHHSBWBUFE CZ B SFMJBODF PO QSJWBUF TFDVSJUZ DPSQPSBUJPOT BOE QPMJDFBEWJTFSTDBVHIUVQJOEPNFTUJDIVNBOSJHIUTBOEDPSSVQUJPOTDBOEBMT ćFDPWFSUNBOOFSJOXIJDIQPMJDFPQFSBUJPOTIBWFCFFOIJTUPSJDBMMZDBSSJFE PVUVOEFSTDPSFTUIFDPOUSBEJDUJPOCFUXFFO"NFSJDBTSFQVCMJDBOTFMGJEFOUJUZ BOE JUT HMPCBM BNCJUJPOT XIJDI DBO VTVBMMZ CF BDIJFWFE POMZ UISPVHI GPSDF PS UIF UISFBU PG JU 'SBNFE JO B CFOFWPMFOU SIFUPSJD UIF QSPHSBNT IFMQFE UP NPEFSOJ[FSFQSFTTJPOBDSPTTNVDIPGUIFTPDBMMFEćJSE8PSMEćFZFYFNQMJGZUIFDPFSDJWFVOEFSQJOOJOHTPG"NFSJDBOQPXFS XIJDIQPMJDZNBLFSTIBWF SFQFBUFEMZUSJFEUPDPODFBMJOUIFBUUFNQUUPQSFTFSWFUIFNZUIPG"NFSJDBO FYDFQUJPOBMJTN UIFOPUJPOUIBUUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTJTBVOJRVFMZTFMĘFTTOBUJPO *OSFBMJUZ "NFSJDBODPOEVDUBCSPBESFTFNCMFTUIBUPGQBTUJNQFSJBMQPXFSTJO UIFQSPQFOTJUZUPNBOJQVMBUFQPMJUJDBMEFWFMPQNFOUTJOXFBLFSOBUJPOT TFJ[F DPOUSPM PWFS TUSBUFHJD SFTPVSDFT BOE DSVTI UIPTF OPU PCFEJFOU UP "NFSJDBT XIJNT GSFRVFOUMZ CZ QSPYZ JO PSEFS UP QSFTFSWF BO BOUJJNQFSJBMJTU GBDBEF Despite its preponderant power, the United States has often failed to assert its XJMMFČFDUJWFMZBOECSFEEJTBTUSPVTVOGPSFTFFODPOTFRVFODFTJOUIFDPVOUSJFT JOXIJDIJUIBTJOUFSWFOFE)PXUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTĕUUIJTQBSBEJHNBOEDPOUSJCVUFEUPUIFTQSFBEPGQPMJUJDBMWJPMFODFEVSJOHBOFSBPG"NFSJDBOHMPCBM IFHFNPOZJTUIFTVCKFDUPGUIJTCPPL
16
Introduction
Part I Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden” Imperial Policing in the Philippines and the Caribbean Do his orders come at one a.m., He’s on his way by two. Tho’ lacking rations for his men, He’ll stay till he gets through. He may be gone a week or month. To Samar or to—well, The daily papers never learn What this young man could tell. i$POTUBCVMBSZ.BO wQPQVMBSTPOH We were all imbued with the fact that we were trustees of a huge estate that belonged to minors. (eneral Smedley Butler )BJUJ
From the Philippine Islands in 1901 to Afghanistan in 2012, police training, through a cadre of technical specialists, has been a central facet of Washington’s foreign interventions. The programs evolved in distinctive ways and have been carried out by different bureaucratic agencies, including the military, the State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency, and, more recently, private mercenary firms such as DynCorp and Xe ( formerly Blackwater). The primary motive, consistent across time and space, has been to fortify and gain leverage over the internal security apparatus of client regimes and to root out groups resisting U.S. power. In addition, the programs have provided an opportunity for exporting new policing technologies and administrative techniques, as well as modern weaponry and equipment which has all too often been used for repressive ends. American imperialism has been driven by a yearning for commercial trade and growth as well as a missionary-like zeal to export American institutions and ideologies abroad. The Progressive Era was a watershed moment, owing to the maturation of an industrial economy with a productive capacity outstripping domestic demand, the flowering of social Darwinian philosophies, and the development of a modern military and government bureaucracy. The new American 17
empire required an infrastructure of shipping lanes, naval bases, treaty ports, and coaling stations, which fueled the conquest of the Philippines, and that of Haiti and Nicaragua following the construction of the Panama Canal.1 The creation of indigenous constabularies provided a key, cost-effective mechanism for projecting American power. The organizations were conceived in the belief that the centralization of state authority and regulation of social life were conducive to the development of a modern nation-state, and that a professional police force could ensure the domestic stability needed to spur foreign investment and allow for economic development. In the eyes of policymakers, the United States was at once helping to uplift the native population by aiding in the creation of a modern administrative state while advancing American strategic interests. The architects of the programs could thus always feel good about what they were doing, even if the forces under their command acted cruelly. Local elites welcomed the programs because they shared a similar worldview, and they used the technical aid and weapons to strengthen their authority. Trained in counter-guerrilla warfare and espionage, the constabularies assisted the U.S. Marines in pacification and sought to ensure a smooth transition from direct to indirect colonial rule. Many of the tactics developed, including training academies, the novel data management and fingerprinting techniques, penal reforms, and psychological warfare, were foundational to the global police programs. They contributed to the growth of modern surveillance states, supple in their omnipresence, as the historian Alfred W. McCoy notes, yet suffocating in their omniscience.2 Like their European counterparts, the first wave of U.S. advisers came from military backgrounds and endured harsh jungle conditions while carrying out clandestine intelligence operations. Many devoted years of service and learned local languages, which helped them in recruiting native forces, penetrating enemy encampments, and winning over sectors of the population. Colorful figures such as “Black Jack” Pershing, Lewis “Chesty” Puller, and Smedley Butler earned public fame through their exploits and went on to decorated military careers. Constabulary officers saw themselves as contributing to the advancement of civilization through the spread of Western technology and were endowed with enormous powers compared to their successors, becoming district and provincial governors. The opportunities for private enrichment and corruption were consequently rife, and many took advantage. Wide-scale violence was rationalized by demonizing opponents, who were characterized as “bandits,” “savages,” “ladrones,” and “gugus,” among other refrains. True to Orwell’s observations, American police officials embodied the repressive underpinnings of the American empire. In taking the call of Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” to heart, they tortured those who did not acquiesce to their whims, provided intelligence for bombing attacks, oversaw forced labor projects, and were implicated in massacres, such as the slaughter of over six hundred 18
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
people in the Moro province of the Philippines. After American troops were withdrawn, the police institutions they created remained the all-powerful instrument of authoritarian leaders. The United States left not only a legacy of violence and social division but also sophisticated apparatuses of social control, which paved the way for continued governmental repression over the long term.
Imperial Policing in the Philippines and the Caribbean
19
“This page intentionally left blank”
Chapter 1 The First Operation Phoenix U.S. Colonial Policing in the Philippines and the Blood of Empire To be outnumbered, always, to be outfought, never. 1IJMJQQJOFTDPOTUBCVMBSZTMPHBO FBSMZT The history of the American occupation of the Philippines is in large measure the history of the Philippines constabulary—for it was this force of native infantry that applied the finishing touches of civilization to a jungle land that had known no law. 7ic Hurley, Jungle Patrol
i-FUBOZDSJUJDUSZUIFOFSWFSBDLJOHTQPSUPGIVOUJOHXFMMBSNFEbabaylanes, pulajanes, Moros or . . . ladronesCFGPSFIF DFOTVSFTUIFDPOTUBCVMBSZGPSĕSJOHRVJDLMZBOEUPLJMMw1 So wrote the soldier of fortune John R. White in Bullets and Bolos: Fifteen Years in the Philippine Islands, his 1928 account of his tenure with the Philippines constabulary. WritUFOBTBOBEWFOUVSFUBMFBOEBIPNJMZPOUIFHBMMBOUSZPG"NFSJDBOĕHIUJOH GPSDFT 8IJUFTCPPLXBTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGJUTUJNFJOJUTGBWPSBCMFSFGFSFODFUP ,JQMJOHBOEUIFiXIJUFNBOTCVSEFOw'VSUIFSNPSF JUFYFNQMJĕFTUIFJNQPSUBODFPGUIFQPMJDFDPOTUBCVMBSZUP64JNQFSJBMTUSBUFHZ After invading the islands in 1899 shortly after the Philippines declared itself BOJOEFQFOEFOUSFQVCMJD UIF"NFSJDBONJMJUBSZFOHBHFEJOBTZTUFNBUJDDBNQBJHOUPXJQFPVUUIFOBUJPOBMJTUNPWFNFOU DVMNJOBUJOHJOPSEFSTCZ(FOFSBM +BDPC4NJUIUPUVSOUIFSFCFMMJPVT4BNBSQSPWJODFJOUPBiIPXMJOHXJMEFSOFTTw2 Foreshadowing by nearly seventy years the Nixon doctrine strategy of “using "TJBOCPZTUPĕHIU"TJBOCPZT wUIFHPWFSOJOHDPNNJTTJPODSFBUFEBOJOEJHFOPVTDPOTUBCVMBSZUPDPNQMFUFUIFQBDJĕDBUJPO.PEFSOXFBQPOSZBOEFRVJQNFOUXFSFQSPWJEFE USBJOJOHBDBEFNJFTXFSFFTUBCMJTIFE QFOBMSFGPSNTXFSF initiated, and a surveillance apparatus was developed, using new technologies UIBUXFSFBQSPEVDUPGUIFJOGPSNBUJPOSFWPMVUJPO#VJMEJOHPOUIFNPEFMPGUIF #SJUJTI QPMJDF JO *OEJB BOE "NFSJDBO QSBDUJDF UPXBSE UIF /BUJWF "NFSJDBOT UIFTVCDPOUSBDUJOHPGDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZFOBCMFEQPMJDZNBLFSTUPGVMĕMMUIFJS JNQFSJBMBNCJUJPOTBUNJOJNBMDPTUBOEUPRVFMMQVCMJDEJTTFOUTQFBSIFBEFECZ 21
UIF"OUJ*NQFSJBMJTU-FBHVF4JODFJUTDPOTUBCVMBSZPQFSBUJPOTXFSFLFQUTFDSFU UIFJEFOUJUZPGUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBTBOBOUJJNQFSJBMJTUQPXFSXBTGVSUIFSNPSF preserved.3 %VSJOHUIF7JFUOBN8BS PWFSBIBMGDFOUVSZBęFSUIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPOTUBCVMBSZUPPLTIBQF 1FOUBHPOBOBMZTUTXFSFTUJMMIFSBMEJOHJUTBDDPNQMJTINFOUT4 3PHFS)JMTNBO BTTJTUBOUTFDSFUBSZPGTUBUFGPS'BS&BTUFSOBČBJSTJOUIFFBSMZ ŴżŹųT DIBSBDUFSJ[FEJUBTDSVDJBMJOUIFXBHJOHPGiPOFPGUIFNPTUTVDDFTTGVM DPVOUFSHVFSSJMMBDBNQBJHOTJOIJTUPSZwBOEBQSPUPUZQFGPSPOHPJOHFČPSUTUP DPOUBJOUIFTQSFBEPGSFWPMVUJPOBSZOBUJPOBMJTNBDSPTTUIFEFWFMPQJOHXPSME 1SJPSUPUIFGPSNBUJPOPGUIFDPOTUBCVMBSZ iUIFBSNZUSJFEUPĕHIUUIFHVFSSJMMBT CVUXJUIMJUUMFTVDDFTT wIFXSPUF iUIFFOFNZGBEFEJOUPUIFKVOHMF BOEUIF VOXJFMEZSFHVMBSVOJUTXFSFUPPCVSEFOFEXJUIFRVJQNFOU UPPTMPXy'JOBMMZ UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT GPVOE UIF TPMVUJPOy SFDSVJUJOH OBUJWF 'JMJQJOPT NFO XJTF UPKVOHMFXBZTXIPLOFXUIFNPVOUBJOTBOEUSBJMTMJLFUIFJSPXOCBDLZBSEw5 ćFTFDPNNFOUTQSPWJEFBDMFBSFYQMBOBUJPOPGUIFQVSQPTFCFIJOEUIFQPMJDF QSPHSBNT XIJDISFNBJOFEVODIBOHFEBDSPTTUIFEFDBEFTćFZBMTPTVHHFTUB TFMFDUJWFNFNPSZJOJHOPSJOHUIFWJPMFODFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIUIFDPOTUBCVMBSZT FYQMPJUT SFQMJDBUFEBHBJOBOEBHBJOBNPOHJUTPČTQSJOH Creating a Modern Surveillance State: Police Training, Nation-Building, and the “Civilizing Mission” in the Philippines
"MUIPVHIUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTIBECFFOBOFYQBOTJPOJTUFNQJSFGSPNJUTGPVOEJOH the colonization of the Philippines at the turn of the twentieth century was a QJWPUBMQPJOU NBSLJOHUIFCFHJOOJOHPGUIFOBUJPOTSJTFUPHMPCBMEPNJOBODF #VJMEJOHPOUIFGPVOEBUJPOPGJUTTFJ[VSFPG)BXBJJ UIFDPORVFTUPGUIF1IJMJQQJOFTXBTUPQSPWJEFBCFBDIIFBEJOUIF"TJB1BDJĕDBOEBTUFQQJOHTUPOFUPUIF GBCMFE$IJOBNBSLFU4FOBUPS"MCFSU#FWFSJEHFBTTFSUFECFGPSF$POHSFTTićF QPXFSUIBUSVMFTUIF1BDJĕDڀڀJTUIFQPXFSUIBUSVMFTUIFXPSME"OE XJUIUIF 1IJMJQQJOFT UIBUQPXFSJTBOEXJMMGPSFWFSCFUIF"NFSJDBO3FQVCMJDw6 Relying on the collaboration of Westernized elites (the illustrados), the govFSOJOHDPNNJTTJPO IFBEFECZGVUVSFQSFTJEFOU8JMMJBN)PXBSE5Bę QSFTJEFE PWFSBHSBOEOBUJPOCVJMEJOHFYQFSJNFOUEFTJHOFEUPMFHJUJNBUFDPMPOJBMSVMF Technical advisers worked to extend Western technology, built roads, infraTUSVDUVSF BOE TDIPPMT BOE QSPNPUFE CFUUFS IZHJFOJD TUBOEBSET BOE QVCMJD IFBMUI#ZTVQQPSUJOHGSFFUSBEFBOESFNPWJOHMFHBMCBSSJFSTUPDPSQPSBUFMBOEPXOFSTIJQ UIFDPNNJTTJPOBMTPTPVHIUUPTUJNVMBUFGPSFJHOJOWFTUNFOUćF VMUJNBUFBJNXBTUPMJęUIF'JMJQJOPTVQGSPNUIFJSiQSJNJUJWFOFTTwUISPVHIUIF JNQPSUPG8FTUFSONPSFTBOE$ISJTUJBOJ[BUJPO7 8IJMFJOĘVFODFECZQSPHSFTTJWJTNBOEJUTFNQIBTJTPOUFDIOJDBMFďDJFODZ BOEWJFXJOHUIF1IJMJQQJOFTBTBMBCPSBUPSZPGSFGPSN DPNNJTTJPONFNCFST as the historian Glen May notes, were politically conservative. They sought to 22
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
restrict suffrage and attract foreign investors without concern for corporate SFHVMBUJPOPSUIFQPPS'FXBOUJQPWFSUZQSPHSBNTXFSFFWFSDPOUFNQMBUFE8 The IFBWZ FNQIBTJT PO QPMJDJOH BDDPSEFE XJUI UIF DPOTFSWBUJWF QIJMPTPQIZ BOE TIPXTUIBUUIFNBKPSBJNPGUIFPDDVQBUJPOXBTUPTFDVSF"NFSJDBOJOUFSFTUT and power on the islands. On August 8, 1901, upon the urging of Vice Governor Luke E. Wright, a $POGFEFSBUFXBSIFSPBOEEFTJHOFSPGBOFMFDUSJDTUSFFUDBSTZTUFNJO.FNQIJT the constabulary was established with the goal of stabilizing the country to BMMPXGPSFDPOPNJDEFWFMPQNFOU5BęDPNQMBJOFEUIBUVOEFS(FOFSBM"SUIVS .BD"SUIVS GBUIFSPG%PVHMBT UIF64NJMJUBSZMBDLFEiEJTDSFUJPOwJOBSSFTUJOH QFPQMF TVTQFDUFE PG EJTMPZBMUZ XIJDI DPVME CF CFUUFS BDDPNQMJTIFE CZ JOEJHFOPVTQPMJDF8JMMJBN$BNFSPO'PSCFT BHSBOETPOPGUIFQIJMPTPQIFS 3BMQI8BMEP&NFSTPO
XIPXBTDPNNJTTJPOFSPGDPNNFSDFBOEQPMJDFJO UIF 1IJMJQQJOFT GSPN Ŵżųŷ UP ŴżųŻ BOE HPWFSOPSHFOFSBM GSPN Ŵżųż UP ŴżŴŶ TUBUFEUIBUGPVS'JMJQJOPTDPVMECFNBJOUBJOFEGPSMFTTUIBOUIFQSJDFPGPOF "NFSJDBO TPMEJFS9 ćF DPOTUBCVMBSZ HSFX UP TJY UIPVTBOE JO UIF ĕSTU GFX years. Many recruits had served in the Spanish colonial Guardia Civil or as OBUJWF TDPVUT ćF DPNNJTTJPO SFQPSUFE ićF DBMMT VQPO UIFN GPS UIF TVQQSFTTJPOPGMBESPOJTNBOEPUIFSEJTUVSCBODFTIBWFCFFOTPOVNFSPVTUIBUUIFSFIBTOPUCFFOUJNFPSPQQPSUVOJUZJYZFBSTPGXBSIBTDSFBUFEBSFTUMFTTDMBTTPGNFOMBDLJOH in the habits of industry” and prone to disrupt occupational initiatives.10 The police thus developed into an overtly politicized force, which accounted for their repressive character. 4FUUJOHBOJNQPSUBOUCFODINBSL UIF6OJUFE4UBUFTPSHBOJ[FEBTFDSFUTFSWJDFCVSFBVXIPTFQSJNBSZBJNXBTUPEFUFDUBOEGSVTUSBUFQMPUTBHBJOTUUIF HPWFSONFOU BOE DBQUVSF UIF SFDPSET BOE NVOJUJPOT PG JOTVSHFOUT .JMJUBSZ JOUFMMJHFODF PďDFST JNQBSUFE OFX NFUIPET PG EBUB NBOBHFNFOU BOE TVSWFJMMBODF ćF SFDSVJUNFOU PG FYJOTVSHFOUT BOE PUIFST MPZBM UP FYJMFE MFBEFS &NJMJP"HVJOBMEPXBTQJWPUBMJOQFOFUSBUJOHQSJWBUFTQBDFBOEDPPQUJOHUIF OBUJPOBMJTUNPWFNFOU11 In 1907, after Harry H. Bandholtz, a West Point graduBUFSFTQPOTJCMFGPSDSVTIJOHBDPBMNJOFSTTUSJLFJO8FTU7JSHJOJB UPPLPWFS UIFDPOTUBCVMBSZ NFNCFSTPGUIFTFDSFUTFSWJDFBEPQUFEOPWFMQTZDIPMPHJDBM XBSGBSFUFDIOJRVFT TVDIBTXFBSJOHEJTHVJTFT GBCSJDBUJOHEJTJOGPSNBUJPO BOE SFDSVJUJOH QBJE JOGPSNBOUTBOETBCPUFVSTJOUIFJS FČPSUT UP iCSFBL VQ CBOET PG QPMJUJDBM QMPUUFSTw ćFZ NPOJUPSFE UIF QSFTT CSPLF VQ SBEJDBMT TUSFFU SBMMJFT DBSSJFEPVUQFSJPEJDBTTBTTJOBUJPOT BOEDPNQJMFEEPTTJFSTPOUIPVTBOET PG JOEJWJEVBMT BT XFMM BT JOGPSNBUJPO PO UIF DPSSVQUJPO PG LFZ HPWFSONFOU MFBEFST XIJDIXBTVTFEBTMFWFSBHFUPLFFQUIFNMPZBMUPUIFPDDVQBUJPOćF EFDMBSBUJPOPGNBSUJBMMBXFOBCMFEUIFTFDSFUTFSWJDFUPDBSSZPVUTVSWFJMMBODF BOENBLFBSSFTUTXJUIPVUUIFBQQMJDBUJPOPGEVFQSPDFTT12 ćFFďDJFODZPGUIFJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZBQQBSBUVTXBTFOIBODFECZUIFJNQPSThe Philippines and the Blood of Empire
23
UBUJPOPGUIFNPTUBEWBODFEDSJNFDPOUSPMUFDIOPMPHZ JODMVEJOHBDFOUSBMJ[FE UFMFQIPOFOFUXPSL FMFDUSJDTUSFFUMJHIUT BOEUIF#FSUJMMPOQIPUPJEFOUJĕDBUJPO BOE MBUFS ĕOHFSQSJOUJOH TZTUFN XIJDI FOBCMFE QPMJDF UP FTUBCMJTI BO iBMM FNCSBDJOHJOEFYĕMFwPOUIFQPMJUJDBMCFMJFGTPGOFBSMZźųQFSDFOUPG.BOJMBT population. Through these initiatives the United States helped to create one of UIFĕSTUNPEFSOTVSWFJMMBODFTUBUFT BGFBUVSFPGDPMPOJBMSVMFTFFOBTBNBSLFS PGJUTNPEFSOJUZ13 The reach of the constabulary was so deep that it was able UP JOĕMUSBUF BOE TPX EJTTFOTJPO XJUIJO SBEJDBM PSHBOJ[BUJPOT JODMVEJOH BO JODJQJFOUMBCPSNPWFNFOU BOEFWFOQMBZFEBSPMFJOBQPTUPMJDTVDDFTTJPOCZ VOEFSNJOJOH #JTIPQ (SFHPSJP "HMJQBZ UISPVHI UIF TQSFBE PG EJTJOGPSNBUJPO"HMJQBZXBTBOBUJPOBMJTUXJUITPDJBMJTUTZNQBUIJFTXIPTFTFSWJDFTXFSF attended by thousands of the urban poor.14 0OF PG UIF DSPXOJOH UFDIOJDBM BDIJFWFNFOUT XBT UIF JOTUBMMBUJPO PG B (BNFXFMMQPMJDFBOEĕSFBMBSNTZTUFNJO.BOJMBUPDVSCEFQFOEFODZPOUIF QVCMJD UFMFQIPOF TZTUFN ćF 1IJMJQQJOFT DPNNJTTJPO QSPVEMZ SFQPSUFE UIBU UIJTiQVUUIFDJUZPOFRVBMGPPUJOHXJUIBOZJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTw15 In 1902 the DPNNJTTJPOQBTTFEBTFEJUJPOMBXXIJDIJNQPTFEUIFEFBUIQFOBMUZPSBMPOH QSJTPO UFSN PO UIPTF BEWPDBUJOH JOEFQFOEFODF BOE B CSJHBOEBHF BDU DMBTsifying guerrilla resistance as banditry. The constabulary was given the task PGFOGPSDJOHUIFTFMBXT8JFMEJOHJNNFOTFQPXFST GBSHSFBUFSUIBOUIPTFPG police forces in the United States, it also oversaw forced labor codes designed to CVJMEUIFDPVOUSZTSPBEJOGSBTUSVDUVSF SBOUBYDPMMFDUJPOBOERVBSBOUJOFQSPHSBNT IFMQFEEFWFMPQIFBMUIDMJOJDTBOETDIPPMT BOEIBEJUTPďDFSTBQQPJOUFE as governors in districts inhabited by rural people such as the Bontoc, Ifugao, and Kalinga whose head-hunting practices they sought to curtail. In addition, DPOTUBCVMBSZ PďDFST QSPUFDUFE UFMFHSBQI MJOFT VTFE UP DPPSEJOBUF NJMJUBSZ PQFSBUJPOTBOEDPNNFSDJBMEFWFMPQNFOUBOEFOGPSDFEMBXTBHBJOTUWBHSBODZ HBNCMJOH BOEPQJVNQSPNPUFECZ1SPUFTUBOUNJTTJPOBSJFT16 Owing to deeprooted cultural acceptance, the reception of kickbacks by police, and the ingeOVJUZPG$IJOFTFTNVHHMFST UIFTFMBXTXFSFQSFEPNJOBOUMZVOTVDDFTTGVMBOE DPOUSJCVUFEUPUIFHSPXUIPGPSHBOJ[FEDSJNJOBMOFUXPSLT%FTQJUFUIFTFJ[VSF PGMBSHFBNPVOUTPGDPOUSBCBOEJOSBJET BTMBUFBTŴżŶų"NFSJDBOJOWFTUJHBUPST GPVOEUIBUPQJVNXBTFBTJMZPCUBJOBCMFBOEUIBUUIFUSBEFXBTTPMVDSBUJWFUIBU JUIBEDPSSVQUFEFMFNFOUTPGUIFQPMJUJDBMFMJUFćFIJTUPSJBO"MGSFE8.D$PZ DPODMVEFEUIBUJO.BOJMB iQPMJDFJOFČFDUCFDBNFQBSUOFSTJODSJNF BDDFQUJOH CSJCFTUPQSPUFDUPQJVNEFOTBOEHBNCMJOHIPVTFTwBTXFMMBTCSPUIFMTXIJDI TQSBOHVQUPTFSWJDF"NFSJDBOT1FSJPEJDFYQPTVSFTFSWFEUPVOEFSNJOFUIF MFHJUJNBDZPGUIFDPMPOJBMPSEFS TQBSLJOHTFWFSBMIJHIMZQVCMJDJ[FEUIPVHIVMUJNBUFMZMJNJUFEFČPSUTBUSFGPSN17 *O ŴżųŹ UIF HPWFSOJOH DPNNJTTJPO BQQSPWFE UIF DSFBUJPO PG B OBUJPOBM QPMJDFTDIPPMBU#BHVJP XIFSFDPVSTFTXFSFPČFSFEJONBSLTNBOTIJQ QPMJDF BENJOJTUSBUJPO BOE HVFSSJMMB XBSGBSF $POTUBCVMBSZ PďDFST XFSF SFRVJSFE 24
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
UP XFBS OFX VOJGPSNT JO LIBLJ BOE SFE BOE XFSF FRVJQQFE XJUI NPEFSO XFBQPOSZ JODMVEJOH3FNJOHUPOBOE$PMUSFWPMWFSTBOE4QSJOHĕFMEDBSCJOFT 1PMJDF IFBERVBSUFST XFSF SFQBJSFE BOE OFX POFT CVJMU UP FODPVSBHF B NPSF QSPGFTTJPOBMBUNPTQIFSF0ďDFSTXFSFSFRVJSFEUPUBLFGPVSIPVSTPGXFFLMZ instruction in the law related to arrests, search warrants, and processing eviEFODF .FEJDBM DBSF XBT QSPWJEFE BOE QIZTJDBM ĕUOFTT XBT FNQIBTJ[FE JO USBJOJOH"UUFNQUTXFSFNBEFUPTUBOEBSEJ[FQBZBOEFOTVSFUIBUVQQFSMFWFM BQQPJOUNFOUT XFSF NBEF GSPN XJUIJO UIF SBOLT " QFOTJPO BOE SFUJSFNFOU GVOEXBTFTUBCMJTIFEUPQSPNPUFMPZBMUZBOEBMMPXDPOTUBCVMBSZNFNCFSTUP view policing as a career.18 ćFTF NFBTVSFT XFSF BMM DPOTJTUFOU XJUI QSPHSFTTJWFTUZMF SFGPSNT JNQMFNFOUFEBTQBSUPGUIFNBOBHFSJBMSFWPMVUJPOJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTćFZFYFNQMJĕFEUIFEFTJSFPG"NFSJDBODPMPOJBMPďDJBMTUPSFNBLFUIF1IJMJQQJOFTJOUIF "NFSJDBOJNBHFBOEUPQSPNPUFQSPHSFTTUISPVHIUIFJNQPSUBUJPOPG8FTUFSOJOTUJUVUJPOTBOEHPWFSOJOHTZTUFNT19"T.D$PZEPDVNFOUT JOOPWBUJPOT pioneered in the Philippines further contributed to the evolution of policing QSBDUJDFTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT JODMVEJOHUIFBEWFOUPGBGPSNJEBCMFTVSWFJMMBODF BQQBSBUVTTFUJOQMBDFEVSJOHUIFĕSTU3FE4DBSF$POTUBCVMBSZWFUFSBOTTVDI BT3BMQI7BO%FNBO LOPXOBTUIFiGBUIFSPG64NJMJUBSZJOUFMMJHFODFwBOEPG UIFi"NFSJDBOCMBDLMJTU wQMBZFEBDSVDJBMSPMFJOBQQMZJOHUIFJSFYQFSUJTFJOUIF DMBOEFTUJOFBSUTUPTQZPOBOESFQSFTTSBEJDBMPSHBOJ[BUJPOTTVDIBTUIF"NFSJDBO$PNNVOJTU1BSUZBOEUIF*OEVTUSJBM8PSLFSTPGUIF8PSME DPOUSJCVUJOH UPUIFJSEFNJTF"NFSJDBO$JWJM-JCFSUJFT6OJPOBUUPSOFZ'SBOL%POOFSDIBSBDUFSJ[FE7BO%FNBOBTiPOFPGUIFHJBOUTPGBOUJDPNNVOJTN BTVQFSIBXL . . . a phobic nativist red-hunter” whose “undercover network penetrated not POMZUIF$PNNVOJTU1BSUZCVUBXIPMFTQFDUSVNPGMJCFSBMUBSHFUT JODMVEJOH religious, civil rights, and labor organizations.”20 .PTUDPOTUBCVMBSZPďDFSTDBNFGSPNNJMJUBSZCBDLHSPVOETBOEXFSFTPMEJFSTPGGPSUVOFBOEPSWFUFSBOTPGUIF*OEJBO8BSTćFIJTUPSJBOćPNBT" 3FQQFUUPDIBSBDUFSJ[FEUIFNBTBiXJMECVODI wFQJUPNJ[FECZ8JOĕFME4DPUU Grove, chief of detectives in Manila, who beat up the governor of Laguna PVUTJEF BO PďDJBM SFDFQUJPO BOE +FTTF (BSXPPE B XFTUFSO HVOĕHIUFS XIP seduced local officers’ wives, shot apples off the head of his houseboy, and PČFSFECPVOUJFTGPSDVUUJOHPČFOFNZIFBET)BSEFOFECZUIFJSUJNFPOUIF GSPOUJFS UIFZDMBJNFEUPiVOEFSTUBOEUIFXBZTPGXJMEQFPQMF wBOEGFMUJUXBT UIFJS SFTQPOTJCJMJUZ UP iNFOE B DPVOUSZ XSBDLFE CZ XBS BOE OPX TVCKFDU UP SBJET QJSBUFT QMVOEFSFST BOE NVSEFSFSTw 0OF NFNCFS PG UIF DPOTUBCVMBSZ )BSPME)&MBSUI MBUFSDPNNFOUFE i8FCFHBOUPMJWF,JQMJOHGPSPVSTFMWFTw21 "OVNCFSPGUIFPďDFSTMFBSOFEMPDBMEJBMFDUTBOEEFWPUFEZFBSTPGTFSWJDF HBJOJOHBTFOTFPGBUUBDINFOUUPUIFDPVOUSZUIBUXBTMBDLJOHBNPOHUIFJSIFJST JO MBUFS JOUFSWFOUJPOT 4PNF CVJMU TDIPPMT BOE GPTUFSFE BHSJDVMUVSBM EFWFMPQNFOU UIPVHI NBOZ BCVTFE UIFJS QPXFS JNQPTJOH GPSDFE MBCPS SFHJNFOT UP The Philippines and the Blood of Empire
25
FYQBOEUIFIJHIMBOEUSBJMOFUXPSLBOEDPNQJMJOHGPSUVOFTJOTIBEZCVTJOFTT EFBMJOHTBOETQFDVMBUJPOJONJOJOHBOEHPME8IFOTPNFPOFDPNQMBJOFEUIBU 8BMUFS')BMF MJFVUFOBOUHPWFSOPSJOUIF,BMJOHBTVCQSPWJODF XBTiNPOPQPMJ[JOHUIFSJDFUSBEFwBOEVOEFSNJOJOHMPDBMQSPEVDUJPO )BMFSFTQPOEFEi6Q IFSF*BN(PE:PVEPXIBU*UFMMZPVw22 6OUJMŴżŴź XIFO$PMPOFM3BGBFM$SBNF #BOEIPMU[TQSPUÏHÏ CFDBNFDIJFGPG UIFDPOTUBCVMBSZ 'JMJQJOPTDPVMEOPUCFOBNFEUPDPNNBOEQPTJUJPOT'PSCFT BO JOWFTUNFOU CBOLFS XIP DPBDIFE UIF )BSWBSE GPPUCBMM UFBN XSPUF JO IJT EJBSZUIBU"NFSJDBOMFBEFSTIJQXBTDSVDJBMJOiNBLJOHUIFQPMJDFPCTFSWFUIF rules of civilized warfare. . . . The native, when given authority, is very brutal to IJTPXOQFPQMFBOEXPVMEUSFBUUIFNUPBMJUUMF4QBOJTIEFWJMUSZJGVODIFDLFEw *GUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTXJUIESFX IFBEEFE UIFDPVOUSZXPVMECFDPNFFONFTIFE JOiIPQFMFTTBOBSDIZ wBOEFWFSZWBMMFZXPVMECFDPNFiSFEXJUICMPPEw23 EpitoNJ[JOHUIFFUIOPDFOUSJTNVOEFSMZJOH64QPMJDZ 7JD)VSMFZJODMVEFEJOIJT NFNPJSJungle Patrol the photo of a longhaired Filipino wearing nothing but BTUSJOHBSPVOEIJTXBJTU/FYUUPUIJTXBTBNPSFSFDFOUQJDUVSFPGUIFNBO ESFTTFEJOIJTDPOTUBCVMBSZVOJGPSN)FXBTOPXDMFBOMZTIBWFOBOEIBETIPSU hair. The caption reads, “Exposed to civilization.”24 With Us or Against Us: Misperceptions of a Dehumanized Enemy
ćF ĕSTU DIJFG PG UIF DPOTUBCVMBSZ )FOSZ 5 "MMFO FNCPEJFE UIF EPNJOBOU NBSUJBM BOE JNQFSJBMJTU TQJSJU PG UIF BHF #PSO JOUP BO BOUFCFMMVN ,FOUVDLZ IPVTFIPMEXJUIFMFWFOTMBWFT "MMFOHSBEVBUFEGSPN8FTU1PJOUJOŴŻŻŵ MFEBO FYQMPSBUJPONJTTJPOJO"MBTLB BOEUIFOKPJOFEUIFNJMJUBSZTOFXJOGPSNBUJPO EJWJTJPOJO4U1FUFSTCVSHBTBTQZPOCFIBMGPGUIFUTBSJTUSFHJNF)JTTVQFSJPST faulted his reports for being “too political.” Allen went on to serve in the SpanJTI"NFSJDBO8BSJO$VCBBOEXJUIUIF'PSUZUIJSE*OGBOUSZEJWJTJPOJOUIF 1IJMJQQJOFT DBNQBJHO JO 4BNBS XIFSF IF DPOEFNOFE (FOFSBM +BDPC 4NJUIT TDPSDIFEFBSUIQPMJDZBTBiEJTHSBDFw)FVSHFEIJTTVCPSEJOBUFTUPNBTUFSUIF MPDBMMBOHVBHFBOEVOEFSTUBOEUIFOBUJWFTJOPSEFSUPHBJOiUIFDPOĕEFODFPG UIF QFPQMF w PS BT IJT TVDDFTTPST XPVME QVU JU XJO UIFJS iIFBSUT BOE NJOETw "MMFOBUUIFTBNFUJNFTBODUJPOFENFSDJMFTTUBDUJDTBHBJOTUSFTJTUBOU'JMJQJOPT XIPNIFDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTTVČFSJOHGSPNiJOUFOTFJHOPSBODFwBOEUIFiGBOBUJDBMwDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGiTFNJTBWBHFSZw25"ęFSIJTBQQPJOUNFOUBTDPOTUBCVMBSZ DIJFG IFXSPUFUP(FOFSBM3PCFSU1)VHIFTi$POTJEFSBCMFLJMMJOHTUJMMSFNBJOT to be done. I suspect that we will have a lot of trouble in Negros before all the ladronesBOEPUIFSTFRVBMMZEFTFSWJOHBSFLJMMFEUIFSFw26*OBTVCTFRVFOUMFUUFS UP5Bę "MMFOSFNBSLFEi&EVDBUJPOBOESPBETXJMMFČFDUXIBUJTEFTJSFE CVU XIJMFBXBJUJOHUIFTF ESBTUJDNFBTVSFTBSFPCMJHBUPSZڀڀćFPOMZSFNFEZJT LJMMJOHBOEGPSUIFTBNFSFBTPOUIBUBSBCJEEPHNVTUCFEJTQPTFEPGw27 ćFTF DPNNFOUT SFWFBM UIF EFIVNBOJ[JOH MBOHVBHF VTFE UP SBUJPOBMJ[F 26
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
wide-scale violence. Writing to the secretary of the province of Leyte, Allen DPNNFOUFE i*U JT BCTPMVUFMZ JNQPSUBOU UIBU UIF CBOET PG ladrones infesting DFSUBJOQBSUTPGUIFQSPWJODFCFFYUFSNJOBUFEćFGVUVSFPG-FZUFUIFOFFEFEDBQJUBMUPDPOTUSVDUSBJMXBZTBOETUBSUVQPUIFSFOUFSQSJTFTڀڀ depends on this.”281SFTBHJOHUIFPVUMPPLPGNPEFSOJ[BUJPOUIFPSJTUTEVSJOHUIF Cold War, Allen saw the opponents of the United States as a barrier to the proHSFTTJWFTPDJBMDIBOHFUIBUUIFJNQPSUPGOFXUFDIOPMPHJFTPTUFOTJCMZPČFSFE )FQPSUSBZFEUIFNBTSFMJDTPGBOFBSMJFSQIBTFPGDJWJMJ[BUJPOXIPTFSFNPWBM XPVME DMFBS UIF XBZ GPS OBUJPOBM EFWFMPQNFOU ćF MPHJD JT OPU EJTTJNJMBS UP UIBUPGPUIFSTXIPIBWFDPNNJUUFEHFOPDJEFPSTFFOUIFLJMMJOHPGMBSHFHSPVQT BTĕUUJOHJOUPBCSPBEFSTPDJBMPSIVNBOJUBSJBOEFTJHO*UBMTPĕUUIFQBUUFSOPG SBDJBMWJPMFODFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPG8FTUFSOJNQFSJBMJTNBOE"NFSJDBOMJGFJOUIF early twentieth century.29 Most individuals pursued by the constabulary were nationalists who served JOUIFMJCFSBUJPOBSNJFT"MMFOBDLOPXMFEHFEJOŴżųŵUIBUiGPVSZFBSTPGĕHIUJOH BJEFECZUIFMPTTPGMJGFCZDIPMFSBBOEQMBHVFPGBOJNBMTCZSJOEFSQFTU BOEPGDSPQTJONBOZQMBDFTCZMPDVTUTIBTCFFOEFNPSBMJ[JOHUPUIFQFPQMFBOE GBWPSBCMFUPUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBESPOJTNw30 San Miguel was declared an outlaw after he helped to revive the anticolonial Katipunan Party. He had ties with UIFMBCPSNPWFNFOU BDPOTUBOUUBSHFUPGDPOTUBCVMBSZTVSWFJMMBODFBOEIBSBTTNFOU XIJDI XBT FWFOUVBMMZ DPPQUFE GSPN XJUIJO31 General Macario Sakay XBTQSFTJEFOUPGUIF/FX,BUJQVOBONPWFNFOU XIJDI"MMFOSFGFSSFEUPBTB iEJTFBTFPGUIF5BHBMPHNJOEw(SFFUFEBTBIFSPJO.BOJMB IFQSPNPUFEDMBTT consciousness and sought to establish a breakaway Tagalog republic. In 1907 his TFDPOEJODPNNBOE $PSOFMJP'FMJ[BSEP XBTBNCVTIFEBOEIBDLFEUPEFBUI XIJMFVSJOBUJOH BOE4BLBZXBTCFUSBZFECZJOGPSNBOUT4UBOEJOHPOUIFFYFDVUJPOQMBUGPSNJOUIF#JMJCJEQSJTPOQMB[B 4BLBZEFDMBSFEi%FBUIDPNFTUPBMM PGVTTPPOFSPSMBUFS TP*XJMMGBDFUIFMPSE"MNJHIUZDBMNMZ#VU*XBOUUPUFMM ZPVUIBUXFBSFOPUCBOEJUTBOESPCCFST BTUIF"NFSJDBOTIBWFBDDVTFEVT CVUNFNCFSTPGUIFSFWPMVUJPOBSZGPSDFUIBUEFGFOEFEPVSNPUIFSDPVOUSZ UIF 1IJMJQQJOFT 'BSFXFMM -POH MJWF UIF 3FQVCMJD BOE NBZ PVS JOEFQFOEFODF CF born in the future!”32 .BOZDPOTUBCVMBSZUBSHFUTTVDIBTUIFTPDJBMJTU'FMJQF4BMWBEPSQSPNPUFEB NFTTJBOJDJEFPMPHZNJYJOHGPMLSFMJHJPOBOEQPQVMJTUOBUJPOBMJTN*O/FHSPT province, Dionisio Sigobela (known as “Papa Isio”), a displaced sugar laborer, QSFBDIFEBEPDUSJOFPGGSFFMPWFBOEQSPNJTFEGPMMPXFSTJNNVOJUZGSPNEJTeases bred by the ravages of war. He was arrested by Colonel John R. White, a veteran of the Greek Foreign Legion, who gained great repute through his exploits. Forbes referred in his journals to Papa Isio’s death in February 1905 BU TJYUZTFWFO BT VOUJNFMZ CFDBVTF iJU TIPVME IBWF PDDVSSFE ŴŹ ZFBST BHPw33 7JPMFOU TDPSDIFE FBSUI DBNQBJHOT BHBJOTU SFCFM GPSDFT XIJDI JO TPNF DBTFT SFTVMUFEJOUIFUBLJOHPGIVNBOĘFTIBTBUSPQIZ DPOUJOVFEUISPVHINVDIPGUIF The Philippines and the Blood of Empire
27
ŴżŴųT&MBSUIXSPUFJOIJTNFNPJSTUIBUBęFSUIFMBTUFNCFSTPGUIFJOTVSSFDUJPO died down in 1911, it took another ten years of “strenuous patrolling” by the DPOTUBCVMBSZCFGPSFiQFBDFDPOEJUJPOTwFNFSHFE34 1BDJĕDBUJPOJOUIF.PSPQSPWJODFTPG.JOEBOBPBOE4VMVUPPLFWFOMPOHFS and was never fully achieved. In 1903 the United States abrogated the agreeNFOUQSPNJTJOHBVUPOPNZUPUIF.PSPT .VTMJNTXIPIBEOFWFSBDRVJFTDFE to Spanish rule either, and appointed General Leonard Wood head of the QSPWJODF " GPSNFS DPMPOJBM HPWFSOPS PG $VCB BOE EFDPSBUFE WFUFSBO PG UIF DBNQBJHOBHBJOTU(FSPOJNPT"QBDIFT 8PPEBOEIJTBTTPDJBUFTTIPXFEMJUUMF SFTQFDUGPS.PSPUSBEJUJPOTBOEDVMUVSFBOECFMJFWFE MJLFUXFOUZĕSTUDFOUVSZ OFPDPOTFSWBUJWFT UIBU.VTMJNTDPVMEPOMZVOEFSTUBOEGPSDF$FOUSBMUPUIFJS TUSBUFHZXBTUIFDSFBUJPOPGBOBUJWFDPOTUBCVMBSZUPiUBNFwUIPTFXIPSFTJTUFE "NFSJDBOIFHFNPOZBOE BTPOFPG8PPETCJPHSBQIFSTQVUJU IFMQiQMBOUUIF TFFETPGDJWJMJ[BUJPOJOUIFJSNJOEw35 .VDICMPPEXBTTQJMMFEJOUIFBUUFNQUUPBDIJFWFUIFTFBJNT1FBTBOUTXFSF ESJWFO JOUP HPWFSONFOUDPOUSPMMFE FODMBWFT PWFSTFFO CZ UIF DPOTUBCVMBSZ XIFSFUIJODIJMESFOXJUICMPBUFEBCEPNFOTSFNJOEFEPCTFSWFSTPGiUIFQJDUVSFT PGSFDPODFOUSBUJPOJO$VCBBOEGBNJOFJO*OEJBw36 John White, who served in 'SBODFJO8PSME8BS* SFDPVOUTIPXNFOVOEFSIJTDPNNBOECVSOFEIPVTFT MPBEFEUIFNTFMWFTEPXOXJUIMPPU BOEEFTUSPZFETVHBSBOEPUIFSGPPETUVČT JOUIFBUUFNQUUPJTPMBUFBOETUBSWFUIFFOFNZćFZMFęiUIFQSFUUZQMBUFBVB burned and scarred sore.” This “was hard,” he wrote, “but necessary, for we did OPUXBOUUIFKPCPGUBLJOH.BOTBMBOBPBHBJOw37 *O ŴżųŹ 64 "SNZ BOE DPOTUBCVMBSZ VOJUT NBTTBDSFE PWFS TJY IVOESFE .PSPT JODMVEJOHXPNFOBOEDIJMESFO BUBWPMDBOJDDSBUFSJO#VE%BKPBęFS they refused to pay a head tax. Theodore Roosevelt congratulated Wood for iVQIPMEJOHUIFIPOPSPGUIF"NFSJDBOĘBHw"DDPSEJOHUPUIFBOUISPQPMPHJTU %FBO8PSDFTUFS JUiXBTOPNPSFQPTTJCMFUPBWPJELJMMJOHXPNFOBOEDIJMESFO UIBOJUXBTڀڀJOUIF8PVOEFE,OFFĕHIUw38 In another atrocity seven ZFBSTMBUFSPO.PVOU#BHTBL DPOTUBCVMBSZNFOVOEFS+PIO+1FSTIJOH BWFUFSBOPGUIF4JPVYBOE"QBDIFDBNQBJHOT iFYUFSNJOBUFEBMMUIF.PSPTXIPIBE taken their stand,” as Forbes put it favorably. According to Pershing, who was QSPNPUFE GSPN DBQUBJO UP CSJHBEJFS HFOFSBM B iTFWFSF UIPVHI XFMMEFTFSWFE QVOJTINFOUwXBTBENJOJTUFSFE39 Warfare continued until as late as 1935. Much BTUIFZXPVMEXJUIUIFi7JFUDPOHwEFDBEFTMBUFS "NFSJDBOTEFWFMPQFEBHSVEHJOHSFTQFDUGPSUIFĕHIUJOHDBQBCJMJUZPGUIF.PSPT CVUSFGFSSFEUPUIFNJOSBDJTUUFSNTBTi.PIBNNFEBOGBOBUJDT wiNFEJFWBMTBWBHFT wBOEBLJOUPBiTXBSN of hornets.”40 3FCFMDPNNBOEFSTPęFOJNQPTFEFTQFDJBMMZIBSTIQFOBMUJFTGPSDPMMBCPSBtion with the occupying forces, including the cutting of tendons and feet, and FYUPSUFE GPPE GSPN WJMMBHFST XIFO QPQVMBS TVQQPSU XBOFE41 One realistic aspect of White’s Bullets and Bolos is the hardship experienced by constabulary 28
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
PďDFSTGBDJOHUIFUISFBUPGTQJLFĕMMFEQJUTBOETVSQSJTFCPMP TQFBS BUUBDLT XIJMFUSFLLJOHUISPVHIIBSTIKVOHMFUFSSBJO8IJUFXBTIJNTFMGTIPUJOUIFLOFF CZ.PSPSFCFMTJO4VMV.BOZPGIJTDPMMFBHVFTEJFEJOUIFĕFMEGSPNEZTFOUFSZ NBMBSJB BOEUZQIPJEBTXFMMBTGSPNDSPDPEJMFBUUBDLTBOEESPXOJOH42 “Capturing and Destroying Ladrones”: The Constabulary and the First Operation Phoenix
ćFNJMJUBSJ[BUJPOPGUIFQPMJDJOHQSPHSBNTXBTBNBKPSGBDUPSBDDPVOUJOHGPS UIFIJHIMFWFMTPGBCVTF4FUUJOHUIFQSFDFEFOUGPSUIFBOUJ)VLDBNQBJHOPGUIF 1950s in the Philippines (to be discussed in chapter 5) and the Phoenix proHSBN XIJDIBJNFEUPXJQFPVUUIFMFBEFSTIJQPGUIF7JFUOBNFTFSFWPMVUJPOBSZ NPWFNFOU DPOTUBCVMBSZVOJUTNFBTVSFEUIFJSTVDDFTTCZUIFOVNCFSPGFOFNZ DBQUVSFEPSLJMMFEćFPCKFDUJWFXBTMBJEPVUJOUIFUSBJOJOHNBOVBMi$BQUVSF PSEFTUSPZMBESPOFTw"OPUIFSQBTTBHFSFDPNNFOEFEi0ODFBMBESPOFDBNQJT MPDBUFE UIFSFNVTUCFOPIFTJUBODZJOBUUBDLJOHWJHPSPVTMZćFCFTUUJNFGPS attack is at or before daylight and during rainy weather.”43 Field reports provide a good indication of the high casualty rates. Henry ,OBVCFSSFQPSUFE GPSFYBNQMF PO+VOFŴŴ ŴżųŶ UIBUIJTVOJUIBEiLJMMFEŻPVUMBXTwBOETFJ[FEiŶSJĘFT ŴSFWPMWFS TFWFSBMCPMPTBOEPOFUSVNQFUXIJMFMPTJOH only one horse.”44)FOSZ"MMFOCPBTUFEUPUIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPNNJTTJPOUIBUPOB IBSSPXJOHFYQFEJUJPOIJTNFOiLJMMFEŵMBESPOFT DBQUVSFEŵŶJODMVEJOHŴ$PNNBOEBOUF wBEEJOHUIBUiżŶTVSSFOEFSFEVODPOEJUJPOBMMZ ŹżDPOEJUJPOBMMZ BOE UIBUżŹSJĘFTBOEŶŹSFWPMWFSTXFSFDBQUVSFEw0OFNPOUIMBUFS"MMFOXSPUFUP Senator Albert Beveridge that because of recent successes, he believed “within a couple of years practically every band of ladrones in the island (Moro country OPUJODMVEFE DPVMECFFYUFSNJOBUFEw45 8IJUFT NFNPJS Bullets and Bolos JT SFQMFUF XJUI TUPSJFT NBOZ PG UIFN FNCFMMJTIFE PGIJTQSPXFTTJODBQUVSJOHBOELJMMJOHPVUMBXGPSDFT)FXSPUF i8IJMFMJWJOHUIFTIFMUFSFEMJGF JUTFFNTBSBUIFSBXGVMUIJOHUPĕOETQPSUJO UBLJOHIVNBOMJGFڀڀZFUڀڀJUXBTFJUIFSLJMMPSCFLJMMFEBOEJUNVTUCFFNQIBTJ[FEUIBUUIFFOFNZIBEFWFSZBEWBOUBHFw46ćFTFDPNNFOUTEFNPOTUSBUFUIF NJOETFUPGTPMEJFSTJOUIFĕFME XIP JOUIFGBDFPGDPOTUBOUEBOHFSBOEBIPTUJMF population, did what they felt was necessary to protect their own lives. FurUIFSNPSF UIFZXFSFTFFLJOHUPVQIPMEBOJEFBMPGNBTDVMJOJUZUIBUXBTEFFQMZ SPPUFE JO "NFSJDBO DVMUVSF BOE DPOUJOHFOU PO UIF BDIJFWFNFOU PG NJMJUBSZ prowess and the ability to project strength in the face of adversity.47 8IJUF BOE IJT DPOUFNQPSBSJFT XFSF IPOPSFE XJUI NFEBMT PG WBMPS GPS LJMMJOH JOTVSHFOUT BOE UIFZ SPTF JO UIF NJMJUBSZ IJFSBSDIZ )BSSZ #BOEIPMU[ CFDBNF QSPWPTU NBSTIBM BOE XFOU PO UP GPVOE UIF 64 .JMJUBSZ 1PMJDF EVSing World War I. “Black Jack” Pershing led the punitive expedition against the Mexican revolutionary Francisco “Pancho” Villa alongside Henry Allen and The Philippines and the Blood of Empire
29
CFDBNF DPNNBOEJOH HFOFSBM BU UIF FOE PG UIF (SFBU 8BS48 +BNFT )BSCPSE UIF DPOTUBCVMBSZT UIJSE DPNNBOEFS TFSWFE BT 1FSTIJOHT DIJFG PG TUBČ BOE UIFOQSFTJEFOUPGUIF3BEJP$PSQPSBUJPOPG"NFSJDB 3$" GSPNŴżŵŶUPŴżŷź 0UIFSWFUFSBOTXFOUPOUPIBWFEJTUJOHVJTIFEMBXFOGPSDFNFOUDBSFFSTJOUIF 6OJUFE4UBUFTBOEUPIFBEDPOTUBCVMBSZGPSDFTJOUIF$BSJCCFBO JNQBSUJOHUIF skills they had developed while chasing Filipino rebels. Rough Rider George R. Shanton headed the Insular Police in Puerto Rico and oversaw policing of UIF1BOBNB$BOBM;POF XIFSFIFPSHBOJ[FEUIFQMBJODMPUIFTTVSWFJMMBODFPG workers and the blacklisting and deportation of radicals.49 ćFBCVTFTPGUIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPOTUBCVMBSZ MJLFUIPTFPGJUTOVNFSPVTTQJO PČT XFSFTZOPOZNPVTXJUIJUTTPDJBMDPOUSPMGVODUJPO*OBŴżŶŶTUVEZ .BKPS &NNBOVFM#BKBSFQPSUFEUIBUJUSFQFBUFEMZDBSSJFEPVUUIFiXBUFSUPSUVSFwBOE PUIFS IBSTI JOUFSSPHBUJPO NFUIPET JODMVEJOH CFBUJOH TVTQFDUT XJUI TOBLFT UP FYUSBDU JOGPSNBUJPO i(FU ZPVS NBOw XBT UIF TMPHBO PG QBUSPMT SFTVMUJOH JOFYDFTTJWFGPSDFBOECSVUBMJUZ0ďDFSTFOHBHFEJOCMBDLNBJM UFSSPSJTN BOE FYUPSUJPOBOETUPMFGPPEGSPNUIFQFBTBOUSZćFZTFYVBMMZBTTBVMUFEXPNFO BOEJO.JOEBOBPXFSFBVUIPSJ[FEUPUBLFUIFNBTDPODVCJOFT JSPOJD HJWFO UIBU.VTMJNTMBWFSZXBTBEPQUFEBTNPSBMKVTUJĕDBUJPOGPSUIFDPORVFTUPGUIF Moro).507JPMFOUQPMJUJDBMQPMJDJOHPQFSBUJPOTXFSFHFOFSBMMZTFFOBTDPNQBUJCMFXJUIEFNPDSBUJ[BUJPOJOWJFXPGUIFOFFEGPSPSEFSBOETUBCJMJUZBTBQSFDPOEJUJPOGPSEFWFMPQNFOU"ęFSUIFTVTQFOTJPOPGUIFXSJUPGIBCFBTDPSQVTJO Cavite and Batangas due to heavy guerrilla activity, Forbes noted in his journal that the constabulary was now “free to run in the suspects. . . . A lot of innocent QFPQMFXJMMCFQVUJOKBJMGPSBXIJMF CVUJUXJMMBMTPNFBOUIBUTPNFHVJMUZPOFT will catch it and the whole cancer will be cut out.”51ćJTDPNNFOUFYFNQMJĕFT UIFQIJMPTPQIZPGiUIFFOEKVTUJĕFTUIFNFBOTwXIJDIVOEFSMBZUIFWJPMBUJPOPG IVNBOSJHIUT TFUUJOHUIFTUBOEBSEGPSUIFi"NFSJDBODFOUVSZw “Total Institutions”: The Philippine Penal Apparatus as an Instrument of Social Control
*OBOJNQPSUBOUQSFDFEFOU "NFSJDBODPMPOJBMPďDJBMTCVJMUVQUIF1IJMJQQJOFT QFOBM BQQBSBUVT BMPOHTJEF UIF QPMJDF BT BO JNQPSUBOU NFDIBOJTN PG TUBUF building and social control. The prison was seen as a pivotal institution not just GPSQVOJTIJOHPČFOEFSTCVUGPSNPMEJOHUIFNJOUPEJTDJQMJOFEDPMPOJBMTVCKFDUT BOEJOEVTUSJPVTDJUJ[FOT*HOBDJP7JMMBNPS UIFĕSTU'JMJQJOPEJSFDUPSPGQSJTPOT DPNNFOUFE JO ŴżŴų ićF QFOJUFOUJBSZ TZTUFN PG UIF 1IJMJQQJOFT GPMMPXT UIF MBUFTUSFGPSNTBEPQUFECZUIFNPTUDJWJMJ[FEDPVOUSJFTPG&VSPQFBOE"NFSJDB in the sense of securing the protection of society by correction as well as the SFGPSNBUJPOPGUIFDSJNJOBMڀڀćFQSJODJQMFPGTVDIBTZTUFNJTTVNNBSJ[FE as follows: isolation, work, and education.”52 Studies on colonial prisons have generally shown that regardless of the pro30
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
GFTTFEJEFBMT SBDJTNPOUIFQBSUPGDPMPOJBMPďDJBMTBOESBNQBOUPWFSDSPXEJOH DBVTFECZIFJHIUFOFEQPMJDJOHMFEUPUIFCSFBLEPXOPGSFGPSNBOEUIFQSPMJGFSation of barbaric abuses.53ćF"NFSJDBOFYQFSJFODFJOUIF1IJMJQQJOFTBOEMBUFS JOUFSWFOUJPOTTVDIBTJO7JFUOBNĕUXJUIUIJTOPSN#FDBVTFPGUIFQFSTJTUFODF PGXBSBOEIJHIDSJNFSBUFTCSFECZUIFSBWBHFTPGUIFPDDVQBUJPO 1IJMJQQJOF QSJTPOTCFDBNFĕMMFEUPPWFSDBQBDJUZ SFTVMUJOHJOiIFMMJTIDPOEJUJPOT wBTFZFXJUOFTTFTEFTDSJCFEUIFN.BOZQSJTPOFSTEJFEPGVOEFSOPVSJTINFOU DIPMFSB PSCFSJCFSJ DBVTFECZBEFĕDJFODZPGWJUBNJO# *O.BOJMBT#JMJCJEQSJTPO CVJMUCZ4QBJOJOŴŻŹŹBTBNPEFM#FOUIBNJUFQBOPQUJDPOXJUIBDFOUSBMUPXFSGSPNXIJDIHVBSETDPVMETFFJOTJEFBMMSBEJBUJOH DFMMCMPDLT UIFEFBUISBUFSPTFGSPNźŵQFSŴ ųųųJOŴżųŵUPŷŶŻQFSŴ ųųųJOŴżųŸ )PTQJUBMGBDJMJUJFTXFSFJOBEFRVBUFćFGPPEXBTVTVBMMZSPUUFOBOE BDDPSEJOH UPPOFDPNNJTTJPOSFQPSU iUPPBHFEUPCFQBMBUBCMFw54 The dilapidated buildJOHTIBEIPMFTJOUIFSPPĕOHBOEXBMMT XIJDIMFęJONBUFTVOQSPUFDUFEGSPN CBE XFBUIFS CVU BMTP FOBCMFE TPNF UP FTDBQF ćF EFBUI QFOBMUZ XBT XJEFMZ applied, particularly for political offenders. Colonial officials introduced the HSVFTPNFBQQBSBUVTPGUIFFMFDUSJDDIBJS UZQJGZJOHUIF64SPMFJONPEFSOJ[JOH SFQSFTTJPOUISPVHIUIFJNQPSUBUJPOPGOFXUFDIOPMPHJFT55 0O %FDFNCFS ź Ŵżųŷ B SJPU CSPLF PVU JO XIJDI OJOFUFFO QSJTPOFST XFSF killed and forty wounded before order was restored. Forbes boasted that iQSPNQU VTF PG B HBUMJOH HVO JO UIF UPXFS BOE UIF SJPU HVOT XJUI XIJDI UIF HVBSET PO UIF XBMMT XFSF BSNFE FOEFE UIF USPVCMF JO FJHIU NJOVUFTw "ęFS BOPUIFSSFCFMMJPOBUUIFDPOWJDUMBCPSDBNQBU"MCBZ 'PSCFTQVUBSNFETDPVUT JOUIFUIJDLMZQMBOUFEIFNQĕFMETUPLFFQJONBUFTGFBSGVMBOEPCFEJFOU56 0WFSUJNF UIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPNNJTTJPOBUUFNQUFEUPJNQSPWFQSJTPODPOditions, largely to advance political reeducation efforts. In an extension of the QSPHSFTTJWF SFGPSNT JO UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT GBDJMJUJFT XFSF SFOPWBUFE KVWFOJMFT BOEUIFJOTBOFXFSFSFNPWFEUPTFQBSBUFJOTUJUVUJPOT BOEBMFQFSDPMPOZXBT FTUBCMJTIFEPOUIFJTMBOEPG$VMJPO1SJTPOSFDPSETXFSFTZTUFNBUJ[FE BOEXBSEFOTXFSFUSBJOFEJOBENJOJTUSBUJWFNFUIPET"SFXBSETTZTUFNXBTJOJUJBUFE B MJCSBSZXBTFTUBCMJTIFE BOEDMBTTFTXFSFPČFSFEJOSFBEJOH XSJUJOH BOENBUIFNBUJDT 3FMJHJPVT TFSWJDFT BOE SFDSFBUJPOBM QSPHSBNT XFSF BMTP PSHBOJ[FE JODMVEJOHCBTFCBMMHBNFTBOEUIFBUSJDBMQFSGPSNBODFTPOXFFLFOET TPNFMFE CZBOJONBUFCBOE'MZQSPPGIPTQJUBMGBDJMJUJFTXFSFCVJMUPOQSJTPOHSPVOET BOETJDLQSJTPOFSTXFSFHJWFOBDDFTTUPNFEJDBMDBSFBOEESVHUSFBUNFOUBOE cleansed of intestinal parasites.57 These practices resulted in a decline in overall NPSUBMJUZSBUFT UIPVHIJOBEPQUJOHQVCMJDIFBMUIJOOPWBUJPOT PďDJBMTTPNFUJNFTUSFBUFEQSJTPOFSTBTPCKFDUTPGTDJFOUJĕDTUVEZBOEHVJOFBQJHTGPSOFX WBDDJOFT*OŴżųŹ UFOQSJTPOFSTEJFEGSPNUIFCVCPOJDQMBHVFXIFO%S3JDIard P. Strong injected subjects with the virulent plague bacillus.58 #FZPOETVDINFEJDBMFYQFSJNFOUBUJPO UIFQFOBMSFGPSNTXFSFMJNJUFECZ UIFDPSSVQUJPOPGHVBSET XIPTNVHHMFEJOESVHTBOETZSJOHFTGPSNPSQIJOF The Philippines and the Blood of Empire
31
JOKFDUJPOT BOECZDISPOJDPWFSDSPXEJOHSFTVMUJOHGSPNUIFSPVOEVQPGQPMJUJDBM QSJTPOFST*OŴżŵŶ #JMJCJEIPVTFEź żŻŹJONBUFTXIFOJUXBTJOUFOEFEGPSŶ ŷųų %FUBJOFFTXFSFDSBNNFEJOUPQPPSMZWFOUJMBUFEDFMMTMBDLJOHQSPQFSUPJMFUT BOE UIFZFOEVSFEGPPETIPSUBHFTBOEĘPPEJOH*OŴżŵŶ UIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPNNJTTJPOSFDPSEFEUIBUPWFSUISFFEP[FOQSJTPOFSTIBEEJFEGSPNUVCFSDVMPTJTBOE BOPUIFS UIJSUZTFWFO GSPN QOFVNPOJB ćF SBUFT JODSFBTFE TJHOJĕDBOUMZ PWFS the next four years. The 1928 annual report of the director of prisons acknowlFEHFEUIBUUIFTQSFBEPGEJTFBTFTXBTiUIFOBUVSBMTFRVFODFPGUIFDPOHFTUFE conditions of the prison.”59 " DFOUSBM BJN PG UIF OFX QFOPMPHZ XBT UP JODVMDBUF BO JOEVTUSJPVT TQJSJU BNPOHJONBUFTXJUIPVUBMMPXJOHUIFJSMBCPSUPCFFYQMPJUFECZQSJWBUFJOUFSFTUT BT VOEFS UIF DPOWJDUMFBTJOH TZTUFN JO UIF +JN $SPX 4PVUI 1SJTPOFST XFSF USFBUFEMJLFTPMEJFST MJWJOHJOCBSSBDLTBOEGPSDFEUPVOEFSHPESJMMGPSNBUJPOT They worked on labor projects; were instructed in trades such as woodworking, DBSQFOUSZ QMVNCJOH BOECMBDLTNJUIJOH BOEQSPEVDFEGVSOJUVSFPGBQQBSFOUMZ IJHIRVBMJUZ*OTUSVDUPSTXFSFBMTPTFOUJOUPXPNFOTQSJTPOTUPUFBDIIBOEJcrafts, including needlework and sewing, as well as stenography. Repair of BVUPNPCJMFTBOENBDIJOFSZXBTQFSGPSNFEPOTJUFGPSBTNBMMSFNVOFSBUJPO60 Colonial officials took pride in the latest innovations and sought to porUSBZUIFNBTBNBSLFSPGQSPHSFTTćF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUTQPOTPSFEBNPUJPO QJDUVSFUSBWFMPHVFCZ#VSUPO)PMNFT BQJPOFFSPGUIFHFOSF UJUMFEGoing to Jail in Manila,XIJDIGFBUVSFEJONBUFTCFJOHUSBJOFEBU#JMJCJEJOTJMWFSTNJUIing and wicker-working. The advent of a Taylorized routine resulted in the efficient production of goods. The director of the prison stated, “Our objecUJWFJTUPUSBOTGPSNUIFIVNBOCFJOHJOUPBNBOUPDIBOHFXFBLTIJęMFTTOFTT into active responsibility.”61ćJTDPNNFOUTVNNFEVQUIFJEFPMPHZPGUIFOFX QFOPMPHZ XIJDI BďSNFE B GBJUI JO JOEJWJEVBMJTN BOE BDIJFWFNFOU UISPVHI work and discipline. *O BDUVBMJUZ IPXFWFS BCVTJWF QSBDUJDFT DPOUJOVFE 3FDBMDJUSBOU JONBUFT XFSFUISPXOJOUPTPMJUBSZDPOĕOFNFOUBOEGPSDFEUPXFBSMFHJSPOTKPJOFECZ BDIBJO BNFUIPEDPOEFNOFECZ8FTUFSOQFOPMPHJTUTBTSFTFNCMJOHNFEJFWBM UPSUVSF 8IFO RVFTUJPOFE BCPVU UIFJS VTF CZ B WJTJUJOH BDBEFNJD PCTFSWFS John L. Gillin, the director of Bilibid responded, “We have to deal here with BQFPQMFJOBEJČFSFOUTUBHFPGTPDJBMEFWFMPQNFOUUIBOUIPTFZPVEFBMXJUIJO the United States.”62 The adoption of racist stereotypes to rationalize draconian NFBTVSFTFYFNQMJĕFEUIFDPOUJOVJUZGSPNUIF4QBOJTIFSB GSPNXIJDITPNFPG UIFUPSUVSFBSUJGBDUTXFSFJSPOJDBMMZLFQUPOEJTQMBZJOBOPOTJUFNVTFVN 1BSUPGUIFQSPCMFNXBTUIFBUUFNQUUPFNVMBUF"NFSJDBOQFOBMQSBDUJDF XIJDIXBTNBSSFECZSBDJBMWJPMFODF PWFSDSPXEJOH BOEIBSTIQVOJUJWFQPMJDJFT"DDPSEJOHUP(JMMJO UIFDPOEJUJPOTJO#JMJCJEXFSFDPNQBSBCMFUPUIPTFJO iOJOFUFOUITPG"NFSJDBOQSJTPOTJOUFSNTPGUIFEJTDJQMJOFDBSSJFEPVU wBQPXFSGVMDPNNFOUBSZPOUIFSFQSFTTJWFDIBSBDUFSPGUIF"NFSJDBOQFOBMTZTUFN63 32
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
*OTQJUFPGUIFMPęZSIFUPSJD 'JMJQJOPQSJTPOTVMUJNBUFMZTFSWFEBTBNPSFFČFDUJWFJOTUSVNFOUPGTPDJBMDPOUSPMUIBOJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTćFZFNFSHFEBTB QPXFSGVMiUPUBMJOTUJUVUJPO wJOUIFBOBMPHZPGUIFTPDJPMPHJTU&SWJOH(PČNBO EFTJHOFEUPJODVMDBUFDPOGPSNJUZXJUIIFHFNPOJDTPDJFUBMOPSNTQSPNPUFECZ DPMPOJBMFMJUFT XIJMFNBSHJOBMJ[JOHUSBEJUJPOBMQSBDUJDFTBOERVBTIJOHEJTTFOU64 4PNFPGUIFXPSTUDPOEJUJPOTXFSFJOQSPWJODJBMMZSVOGBDJMJUJFTPQFSBUJOH CFZPOE UIF DPOUSPM PG DFOUSBM HPWFSONFOU BENJOJTUSBUPST *OTQFDUJPO UPVST SFWFBMFE NBMBENJOJTUSBUJPO DPSSVQUJPO iXPFGVM IFBMUI DBSF w UIF MBDL PG BEFRVBUFBJSBOEGPPE BOEUPSUVSFXJUIXIJQTBOEIFBWZDIBJOT0OFQSJTPOFS GPSDFEUPDMJNCBUBMMDPDPOVUUSFFXIJMFJODIBJOT GFMMPČBOEIBEUPIBWFB MFHBNQVUBUFE*ONBUFTBXBJUFEUSJBMGPSMPOHQFSJPET BOETPNFXFSFESJWFO JOTBOF XJUIDBSFPGUIFJOTBOFHFOFSBMMZDPOTJEFSFEUPCFNFEJFWBM 8PNFO XFSFQMBDFEJOUIFTBNFDFMMTBTNFO MFBWJOHUIFNTVTDFQUJCMFUPTFYVBMBCVTF65 While an edict outlawing torture was issued prior to 1910, it was not until 1926 UIBU UIF #VSFBV PG 1SJTPOT UPPL BOZ TUFQT UP FOGPSDF JU "U UIF TBNF UJNF JU organized a convention for provincial wardens where, in accord with the new professional standards in the United States, lectures were given on recordkeepJOH DPNQJMJOHNPOUIMZSFQPSUT BOEJOTUJMMJOHBUJHIUMZEJTDJQMJOFETUSVDUVSF During a 1928 inspection tour colonial officials nevertheless found prisons to be badly run (including an instance in which the gun rack was within reach PG UIF JONBUFT BOE MBDLJOH JO TBOJUBUJPO 8BSEFOT XFSF JODPNQFUFOU QPMJUJcal appointees who took vengeance upon prisoners belonging to a rival party. Guards were poorly trained and did not have “the slightest conception of prison NBOBHFNFOUPSQFOPMPHZw66 In the province of Rizal, a seedbed of resistance, DPOEJUJPOTXFSFiFOUJSFMZVOTBUJTGBDUPSZ wJOTQFDUPS&ENVOE'SJU[XSPUFUPUIF #VSFBVPG1SJTPOTćFDFMMTXFSFiEJSUZڀڀUIPTFPGUIFXPNFOQSJTPOFSTIBWF BQBSUJDVMBSMZPCOPYJPVTTNFMMڀڀ%JTDJQMJOFJTQPPSBOEJONBUFTDPNQMBJO BCPVUUIFRVBMJUZ RVBOUJUZ BOEDIBSBDUFSPGUIFGPPEGVSOJTIFEw*O#BUBOBHBT 'SJU[BOEUXP'JMJQJOPJOTQFDUPSTDPNQBSFEBNVOJDJQBMKBJMUPBiDIJDLFOSPPTUw *O$BWJUF UIFZMBNFOUFEUIBUJONBUFTTBUBSPVOETNPLJOHDJHBSFUUFTBOEDJHBST all day without being forced to work. In addition, “the cells have obnoxious TNFMMTBOEBSFĕMMFEXJUIDJHBSBOEDJHBSFUUFTUVCTBOEEJSUZDMPUIFTćFEJOJOH SPPNTNFMMFEMJLFBTUBCMFw67 ćFTF DPNNFOUT DBQUVSF UIF ĕYBUJPO PG DPMPOJBM PďDJBMT XJUI PSEFS BOE EJTDJQMJOFBOETIFEMJHIUPOUIFPQQSFTTJWFFOWJSPONFOUQFSWBEJOHUIFQSJTPO TZTUFN"ęFSSFBEJOHUIFSFQPSUT 'PSCFTSFDPNNFOEFEBDSBDLEPXOPOQPMJUJcal patronage and the construction of new facilities to relieve congestion. There JTMJUUMFJOEJDBUJPO IPXFWFS PGNVDIGPMMPXUISPVHIPSJNQSPWFNFOU JOQBSU CFDBVTF VOEFS UIF 'JMJQJOJ[BUJPO QSPHSBN UIF HPWFSOJOH DPNNJTTJPO TVQQPSUFENBOZPGUIFTBNFDPSSVQUPďDJBMTDSJUJDJ[FEJOUIFSFQPSUTBOE BUUIF FOEPGUIFEBZ EJEOPUDBSFFOPVHIBCPVUUIFXFMMCFJOHPGJONBUFTMBDLJOHJO political capital.68 The Philippines and the Blood of Empire
33
ćFNPTUBNCJUJPVTQFOBMJOJUJBUJWFXBTBOBHSJDVMUVSBMDPPQFSBUJWFPOUIF JTMBOEPG1BMBXBOBU*XBIJHBOEBU4BO3BNPOJOUIFQSPWJODFPG;BNCPBOHB XIFSFQSJTPOFSTFOHBHFEJOTFMGNBOBHFNFOUBOEQPMJDJOHBOEHSFXUIFJSPXO GPPEPOPWFSŴųų ųųųBDSFTPGMBOEćFZBMTPQBSUJDJQBUFEJOMVNCFSJOHBOE ĕTIJOH IBEBQJHBOEQPVMUSZIPVTF BOEQSPEVDFEIBOEJDSBęTGPSTBMF JODMVEing hats, raincoats, and furniture.69 If they behaved well, prisoners could own MJUUMFGBSNTBOEMJWFJOBIVUXJUIUIFJSGBNJMJFTćFOFYUTUFQXBTBGVMMQBSEPO ćFJOTUJUVUJPOTXFSFNPEFMFEBęFSUIF(FPSHF+VOJPS3FQVCMJD BSFGPSNBUPSZ TDIPPMJOVQTUBUF/FX:PSLXIFSFEFMJORVFOUDIJMESFOMJWFEJOGBNJMZDPUUBHFT BOEXFSFUBVHIUUPCFDPNFQSPEVDUJWF TFMGHPWFSOJOHDJUJ[FOT70 *XBIJHJOQBSUJDVMBSXBTIFSBMEFEBTBNPEFMPGQSPHSFTTJWFSFGPSNBOEJOĘVFODFEUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPG"NFSJDBOQFOBMGBSNT8IJUF XIPXBTBQQPJOUFE XBSEFO XSPUFJOIJTNFNPJSTUIBU'PSCFTXBTiBOJEFBMJTUwXIPCFMJFWFEUIBU iNFOJOUIFQFOBMDPMPOJFTXFSFSFEFFNBCMFw)ڀڀJTWJTJPOXBTUPiBQQMZUP 'JMJQJOPPVUMBXTڀڀBOEGBOBUJDT NVSEFSFSTBOEDBUUMFUIJFWFT JOTVSHFOUTBOE QPMJUJDBM JOUSJHVFST UIF TBNF NFEJDJOF UIBU IBE DVSFE "NFSJcan boys.”718IFO*XBIJHXBTĕSTUFTUBCMJTIFEJOŴżųŷ 8IJUFOPUFEUIBUUIF EFBUISBUFXBTPWFSŵŸųQFSŴ ųųų iNFOEJFEMJLFĘJFTPGCFSJCFSJ NBMBSJB BOE EZTFOUFSZ BOEXBMMPXFEJOUIFJSPXOĕMUIVOUJMUIFSFNBJOEFSSPTFJOSFWPMU OFBSMZLJMMJOHUIFOFHMFDUGVMTVQFSJOUFOEFOU.BOZPGUIFDPOWJDUTĘFEUPUIF XJMENPVOUBJOJOUFSJPSPGUIFJTMBOEXIFSFUIFZMJWFEXJUIUIFQBHBO5BHCBOVB tribes.”72 &WFOUVBMMZUIFJONBUFTDMFBSFEUIFMBOEBOEEFWFMPQFEUIFOFDFTTBSZJOGSBTUSVDUVSF UP BMMPX GPS JUT TVTUBJOBCJMJUZ BMUIPVHI NBMBSJB SFNBJOFE FOEFNJD and cases of beriberi were still recorded. Progressives took pride in the fact that while Bastille-type prisons were being built in the United States, Iwahig XBTCPSOXJUIPVUQSJTPOXBMMTPSHVBSETBOEHBWFJONBUFTUIFPQQPSUVOJUZUP SFHBJOUIFJSTFMGSFTQFDUćF8PPE'PSCFTNJTTJPOJOŴżŵŴDIBSBDUFSJ[FEJUBT BNPOHUIFNPTUTVDDFTTGVMJOTUJUVUJPOTDSFBUFECZUIFDPMPOJBMPDDVQBUJPOBTB SFTVMUPGUIFBEPQUJPOPGiBEWBODFESFGPSNBUPSZNFUIPET wXIJDIZJFMEFEMPX SFDJEJWJTNSBUFT737JDF(PWFSOPS/FXUPO8(JMCFSUXBTRVPUFEJOUIFManila Times as saying that he had observed convicts living and working together in IBSNPOZBTQSBDUJDBMMZGSFFNFOXJUIUIFBCTFODFPGWJPMFODFBOEiOPUBTJOHMF HVOPOUIFJTMBOEڀڀćFIVNBOJUBSJBOTQJSJUXIJDIFOHFOEFSFEUIFJEFBPGB QFOBMDPMPOZNBZOPXCFTBJEUPIBWFCFFOGVMMZKVTUJĕFEćFTVDDFTTPGUIF FYQFSJNFOUJTXPOEFSGVMw74 In 1931, after visiting penitentiaries throughout the United States and the XPSME UIFDSJNJOPMPHJTU+PIO(JMMJOGPVOE*XBIJHUPCFUIFNPTUSFNBSLBCMF FYQFSJNFOU JO QFOBM SFGPSN UIFO JO FYJTUFODF75 While Iwahig was indeed JOOPWBUJWFJONBOZPGJUTJEFBMT DPOEJUJPOTXFSFOFWFSUIFMFTTGBSGSPNVUPQJBO .BOZ PG UIF JONBUFT XFSF QPMJUJDBM QSJTPOFST JODMVEJOH DBQUVSFE MFBEFST PG UIFNFTTJBOJDQFBTBOUNPWFNFOUTBOEUIF.PSPSFTJTUBODF%JTDJQMJOFDPVME 34
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
CF TFWFSF BOE 8IJUF XIP IBE PWFSTFFO UIF NBTTBDSF BU #VE %BKP SFGFSSFE UPIJNTFMGBTBiD[BSw)JTTVDDFTTPS$BSSPMM)-BNCXBTGPSDFEUPSFTJHOGPS BMMFHFEMZNJTBQQSPQSJBUJOHQVCMJDGVOETJOGSBVEVMFOUDBUUMFQVSDIBTFT-BUFS 'JMJQJOP BENJOJTUSBUPST BMTP TUPPE USJBM GPS HSBę BOE DPSSVQUJPO76 The death SBUF SFNBJOFE IJHI 'JęFFO JONBUFT EJFE GSPN UVCFSDVMPTJT GPS FYBNQMF JO 1928. Scattered violence and rebellions were further recorded. In 1914, twentyPOFFTDBQFFTDPNNJUUFESPCCFSZBOENVSEFSFEBO"NFSJDBOTDIPPMUFBDIFSJO EFĕBODFPGUIFPDDVQBUJPO77 Public officials tellingly referred to Iwahig not as a QFOBMGBSNCVUBTBiQMBOUBUJPOwPSiSFTFSWBUJPOwćFTFBOBMPHJFT BTUIFIJTUPSJBO.JDIBFM4BMNBOIBTQPJOUFEPVU VOEFSTDPSFQBSBMMFMTXJUIUIFUSFBUNFOU PG"GSJDBO"NFSJDBOTBOE/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT$PMPOJBMJTUT TBXQFOBMSFGPSNBTBCFOFWPMFOUNFBOTPGVQMJęJOHUIPTFPGBTVQQPTFEMZJOGFSJPSSBDFUISPVHIUIFJODVMDBUJPOPGBTQJSJUPGJOEVTUSJPVTOFTT4FFOGSPNBEJGferent vantage point, however, it was part of a racist and authoritarian structure DFOUFSFEPOFDPOPNJDFYQMPJUBUJPO78 In response to the wave of neoconservative pundits extolling the virtues PGDPMPOJBMJTNPOUIFFWFPGUIFŵųųŵ*SBRXBS UIFIJTUPSJBO&SJD'POFSDPNNFOUFEUIBUiUIFCFOFWPMFODFPGCFOFWPMFOUJNQFSJBMJTNMJFTJOUIFFZFTPGUIF CFIPMEFSwćFQPMJUJDBMTDJFOUJTU$IBMNFST+PIOTPOPCTFSWFEJONemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic, “The idea of forcing thousands of people UPCFGSFFCZTMBVHIUFSJOHUIFNXJUI.BYJNNBDIJOFHVOTJOUIFOJOFUFFOUI DFOUVSZ XJUIAQSFDJTJPONVOJUJPOTUPEBZTFFNTUPSFĘFDUBEFFQMZGFMUOFFE BT XFMM BT B TUSJLJOH JOBCJMJUZ UP JNBHJOF UIF MJWFT BOE WJFXQPJOUT PG PUIFSTw +PIOTPOBTTFSUFEGVSUIFSUIBUiBMMFNQJSFTSFRVJSFNZUITPGEJWJOFSJHIU SBDJBM QSFFNJOFODF NBOJGFTU EFTUJOZ PS B ADJWJMJ[JOH NJTTJPO UP DPWFS UIFJS PęFO barbarous behavior in other people’s countries.”79ćFTFDPNNFOUTBSFDMFBSMZ relevant to the United States’ colonization efforts in the Philippines. In the face PG QPQVMBS SFTJTUBODF "NFSJDBO PďDJBMT SFTQPOEFE XJUI TBWBHF SFQSFTTJPO DBSSJFEPVUMBSHFMZUISPVHIUIFGPSNJEBCMFQPMJDJOHBQQBSBUVTUIFZEFWFMPQFE FYFNQMJGZJOHUIFDPFSDJWFVOEFSQJOOJOHTPG"NFSJDBOQPXFS In Policing America’s Empire "MGSFE8.D$PZDPODMVEFEUIBUUIFBSNZT iBQQMJDBUJPOPGNJMJUBSZTDJFODFUPNVOJDJQBMBENJOJTUSBUJPODSFBUFETPNFUIJOH PG B SFWPMVUJPO JO QPMJDJOH $PNCJOJOH NJMJUBSJ[FE DPFSDJPO JOGPSNBUJPO NBOBHFNFOU BOEDPWFSUPQFSBUJPOT UIFBSNZDSFBUFEBQPMJDFGPSDFGBSNPSF BEWBODFEUIBOFJUIFSJUT4QBOJTIBOUFDFEFOUTPSJUT"NFSJDBODPOUFNQPSBSJFTw "TBDPOTFRVFODF UIFOBUJPOBMJTUNPWFNFOUXBTTVQQSFTTFE BOEUIF1IJMJQQJOFTFWPMWFEBTBO"NFSJDBOOFPDPMPOZ QMBHVFECZSBNQBOUJOFRVBMJUZ QPMJUJDBMSFQSFTTJPO BOEDPSSVQUJPO0WFSUIFDPNJOHEFDBEFT UIFDPOTUBCVMBSZBOE its successor organizations continued to receive lavish subsidies, particularly JO QFSJPET XIFO BSNFE JOTVSHFODJFT EFWFMPQFE BNPOH NBSHJOBMJ[FE TPDJBM groups against the Westernized elite.80"NFSJDBODPOTUBCVMBSZWFUFSBOTNFBOXIJMFSFDFJWFEDBSFFSQSPNPUJPOTBOEXFSFDPOUSBDUFEUPEFWFMPQDPVOUFSQBSU The Philippines and the Blood of Empire
35
PSHBOJ[BUJPOT JO $FOUSBM "NFSJDB BOE UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT .BOZ PG UIF UFDIOJRVFT UIBU UIFZ QJPOFFSFE JODMVEJOH UIF JNQPSUBUJPO PG ĕOHFSQSJOUJOH BOE DPNNVOJDBUJPOTFRVJQNFOU UIFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGUSBJOJOHBDBEFNJFT BOEUIF BEWFOUPGQTZDIPMPHJDBMXBSGBSFNFUIPETCFDBNFBTUBQMFPGUIFHMPCBMQPMJDF QSPHSBNT%VSJOHUIF7JFUOBN8BS UIF1FOUBHPOTUVEJFEUIFIJTUPSZPGUIF DPOTUBCVMBSZ BOE TPVHIU UP FNVMBUF JUT FYQMPJUT JO DPNCBUJOH B EFUFSNJOFE OBUJPOBMJTU NPWFNFOU TLJMMFE JO UIF BSU PG KVOHMF XBSGBSF The continuity in QPMJDJFTXBTUIVTFYQMJDJU BTUIFWJPMFODFPGFNQJSFDBNFGVMMDJSDMF
36
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
Chapter 2 “Popping Off” Sandinistas and Cacos Police Training in Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua Who are We? We are Tigers! What do Tigers eat? Blood! Whose Blood? The Blood of the People! /JDBSBHVBO(VBSEJBDIBOU T It seems funny as hell to me, every once in a while some misguided fool up in the States, who knows nothing of the trouble here sets up a howl over a few black bandits being knocked off. -ewis B. “Chesty” Puller MFUUFSUPGFMMPXNBSJOF+PIO1VMMFO I know of no inhumane action and crimes greater than those committed by the U.S. against the defenseless peoples of Latin America through its legally authorized agents and representatives. ). H. Knowles GPSNFSNJOJTUFSPG/JDBSBHVB FBSMZT
*OŴżŴź UXPZFBSTBęFSUIFNBSJOFTMBOEFEJO)BJUJUPQSPUFDU"NFSJDBOCVTJOFTT JOUFSFTUT UIFSF (FOFSBM 4NFEMFZ % #VUMFS POF PG UIF NPTU EFDPSBUFE NBSJOFTJO"NFSJDBOIJTUPSZ XBTTFOUUP)BJUJUPDSFBUFBQPMJDF(FOEBSNFSJF UIBUXPVMETFSWFUIFTBNFQVSQPTF.VDIMJLFIJTDPVOUFSQBSUTJOUIF1IJMJQpines, where he had spent a year battling nationalist forces in Cavite, Butler and IJTNFOTPVHIUUPNPMEUIFGPSDFJOUIFMFBUIFSOFDLJNBHF)FEFDMBSFEJOIJT autobiography that “with shoes and buttons shining and hats cocked over one FZF UIFZTUSVUUFEXJUIBTXBHHFSBOECBTLFEJOUIFBENJSJOHHMBODFTPGTUSBQQJOH/FHSPXPNFOw1*OSFBMJUZ UIF(FOEBSNFSJFDPNNJUUFEOVNFSPVTBUSPDJties in suppressing the resistance of the rebels known as Cacos (for the type PGDMPUIJOHXPSOCZQFBTBOUTJOUIFOPSUIFSONPVOUBJOT
BT)BJUJVOEFS64 PDDVQBUJPOXBTUVSOFEJOUPBMBCPSBUPSZGPSUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGOFXQPMJDJOH UFDIOPMPHJFTBOENFUIPETPGDPFSDJPO#VUMFSBDLOPXMFEHFEZFBSTMBUFSXIJMF CBSOTUPSNJOHBSPVOEUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTUIBUIFIBECFFOBiIJHIDMBTTNVTDMF 37
NBOGPSCJHCVTJOFTTBOEUIFCBOLFSTwBOEUIBUNFOVOEFSIJTDPNNBOEiXFSF NBEFUPSFHBSENVSEFSBTUIFPSEFSPGUIFEBZڀڀ8FVTFEUIFNGPSBDPVQMFPG ZFBSTBOEUSBJOFEUIFNUPUIJOLOPUIJOHBUBMMPGLJMMJOHPSCFJOHLJMMFEw2 64GPSFJHOQPMJDZJO-BUJO"NFSJDBEVSJOHUIFFBSMZUXFOUJFUIDFOUVSZXBT guided by the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted that the United States had the right to function as a police power to “protect” nations JOUIFIFNJTQIFSFGSPNFODSPBDINFOUCZ&VSPQFBOQPXFST"NBJOJNQFUVT XBTUIFEFTJSFUPTFDVSFBTUBCMFJOWFTUNFOUDMJNBUFBOEBDDFTTUPUIF1BOBNB Canal. In 1905, Secretary of State Elihu Root argued that the United States’ trading partners needed professional police forces that could “repress subversive disorder and preserve the public peace.”3 Dana G. Munro, U.S. chargé d’affaires JO/JDBSBHVBBOENJOJTUFSUP)BJUJ DPNNFOUFE ćFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGOPOQBSUJTBODPOTUBCVMBSJFTJOUIF$BSJCCFBOTUBUFTXBTPOF PGUIFDIJFGPCKFDUJWFTPGPVSQPMJDZڀڀćFPMEBSNJFTXFSFPSTFFNFEUPCFPOF PGUIFQSJODJQBMDBVTFTPGEJTPSEFSBOEĕOBODJBMEJTPSHBOJ[BUJPOćFZDPOTVNFE NPTUPGUIFHPWFSONFOUTSFWFOVF DIJFĘZJOHSBę BOEUIFZHBWFOPUIJOHCVUEJTorder and oppression in return. We thought that a disciplined force, trained by "NFSJDBOT XPVMEEPBXBZXJUIUIFQFUUZMPDBMPQQSFTTJPOUIBUXBTSFTQPOTJCMF GPSNVDIPGUIFEJTPSEFSUIBUPDDVSSFEBOEXPVMECFBOJNQPSUBOUTUFQUPXBSET CFUUFSĕOBODJBMBENJOJTUSBUJPOBOEFDPOPNJDQSPHSFTTHFOFSBMMZ4
ćFTFSFNBSLTTVHHFTUUIFJNQPSUBODFBUUSJCVUFEUPQPMJDFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTJO FOHFOEFSJOHTUBCJMJUZ FDPOPNJDEFWFMPQNFOU BOENPSFFďDJFOUHPWFSONFOU BENJOJTUSBUJPOćFZBMTPEJTQMBZBDPOĕEFODFJOUIFBCJMJUZPG"NFSJDBOTUP SFNBLFGPSFJHOTPDJFUJFTBOETPMWFEFFQMZSPPUFETPDJBMQSPCMFNTXJUIPVUDPOsidering cultural barriers, the political context, or local reaction. In practice, the "NFSJDBOUSBJOFE DPOTUBCVMBSJFT FWPMWFE JOUP JOTUSVNFOUT PG SFQSFTTJPO BOE WFIJDMFTGPSUIFSJTFPGEJDUBUPSTXIPVQIFME"NFSJDBOSFHJPOBMJOUFSFTUT1PMJDF USBJOJOHJOUVSOMBJEBOJNQPSUBOUGPVOEBUJPOGPS$PME8BSoFSBQSPHSBNTUIBU XFSFTJNJMBSMZEFTJHOFEUPTVQQSFTTSBEJDBMOBUJPOBMJTUNPWFNFOUTUISFBUFOJOH U.S. power. Progeny of FDR and Smedley Butler: The Haitian Gendarmerie and the U.S. Occupation, 1915–1934
4JODFUIFŴŻųŷSFWPMVUJPOPWFSUISPXJOH'SFODIEPNJOBUJPO UIF6OJUFE4UBUFT IBEIPQFEUPJODPSQPSBUF)BJUJJOUPUIF"NFSJDBOPSCJUBOEUBNFUIFDPVOUSZT SBEJDBMBOEEFĕBOUTQJSJU*O+VMZŴżŴŸ UIF8JMTPOBENJOJTUSBUJPOJOWBEFEVOEFS UIFQSFUFYUPGSFTUPSJOHTUBCJMJUZBęFSTFWFSBMDPVQTEÏUBU"NFSJDBODPSQPSBUJPOTUPPLDPOUSPMPGUIFCBOLJOHTZTUFN BOEUIFNBSJOFTCMPDLFE%S3PTBMWP #PCP BOiJEFBMJTUwBOEiESFBNFSwLOPXOGPSUSFBUJOHUIFQPPSXJUIPVUDIBSHF GSPN UBLJOH QPXFS *O IJT QMBDF UIFZ JOTFSUFE 1IJMJQ 4VESF %VBSUJHJOBWF XIPN#VUMFSDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTBOiPMESPHVF wBOEUIFO-PVJT#PSOP BOBENJSFS PG#FOJUP.VTTPMJOJXIPN8JMMJBN$BNFSPO'PSCFTEFTDSJCFEBTiUIJO UBMM 38
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
UPPUIZBOENPTUEJTBHSFFBCMF*ڀڀUKVTUEJEOPUTFFNQPTTJCMFUIBUBOZNBO should be so patent a stage villain.”5 *O %FDFNCFS ŴżŴŸ 4FDSFUBSZ PG UIF /BWZ 'SBOLMJO % 3PPTFWFMU USBOTNJUUFEBQMBOGPSB(FOEBSNFSJFXIPTFGVODUJPOXBTUPFOBCMFUIFESBXEPXOPG "NFSJDBOUSPPQTXIJMFQSFTFSWJOH64TUSBUFHJDJOUFSFTUTJO)BJUJćFTVNPG $508,234 was appropriated for the force, headed by Butler, which consisted PGŵ ŷųų)BJUJBOTBOEŴųųXIJUFNBSJOFT BOVNCFSPGXIPNXPVMEHPPOUP TUPSJFE NJMJUBSZ DBSFFST -FXJT . i$IFTUZw 1VMMFS GPS FYBNQMF XPVME FBSO EFDPSBUJPOTJO/JDBSBHVBBOEUIF1BDJĕD XIJMF-FNVFM$4IFQIFSE+S XIP TFSWFEJO)BJUJBęFS8PSME8BS*BOEXBTBTTJTUBOUDIJFGPGTUBČGSPNŴżŵŻUP ŴżŶŴ XPVMEMFBEUIF4JYUI.BSJOF%JWJTJPOUPWJDUPSZJO0LJOBXBBOECFDPNF DPNNBOEBOUPGUIF.BSJOF$PSQTGSPNŴżŸŵUPŴżŸŸ-JLFOJOHUIFXBSBHBJOTU UIF $BDPT SFCFMT UP iGSPOUJFS ĕHIUJOH w 4IFQIFSE DPNNFOUFE SFUSPTQFDUJWFMZ i8FEJEBHSFBUEFBMUP *UIJOL CSJOH)BJUJVQGSPNXIBUJUIBECFFOUPBHPPE country. It didn’t last too long after we left, but still that’s another story.”6 &RVJQQFEXJUI4QSJOHĕFMESJĘFTBOEDBSCJOFT UIF(FOEBSNFSJFXBTNPEeled after the Philippines constabulary and the New Jersey and Pennsylvania state constabularies, which were developed by Philippines constabulary veterans (including Sergeant Jesse Garwood) and were known for suppressing TUSJLFT BOE iCFBUJOH EPXO GPSFJHOFSTw 'PMMPXJOH UIF NPEFM PG QSPHSFTTJWF SFGPSNT "NFSJDBOPďDFSTJOTUJUVUFEBQMBUPPOTZTUFNBOEUSBďDQPMJDFBOE FODPVSBHFE UIF TZTUFNJ[BUJPO PG SFDPSET BOE UIF BEPQUJPO PG BO JOEFY DBSE ĕMJOHTZTUFNPOBSSFTUFEQFSTPOTUPJNQSPWFBENJOJTUSBUJWFFďDJFODZ7 These innovations were consistent with the prevailing viewpoint that a professional police organization should play a vital function in regulating social life, thus MBZJOHUIFGPVOEBUJPOPGBNPEFSOOBUJPO *OXIBUXPVMECFDPNFBGBNJMJBSDZDMFPGFYQPSUBUJPOBOESFJNQPSUBUJPO JOJUJBUJWFTQJPOFFSFEJO)BJUJBOEPUIFSDPMPOJBMFODMBWFTIFMQFEUPUSBOTGPSN EPNFTUJDQPMJDJOHJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT SFĘFDUFEJOUIFNJMJUBSJ[BUJPOPGQPMJDF institutions and foreshadowing the era of SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics) UFBNT&YFNQMJGZJOHUIJTUSFOE XIJMFPOMFBWFGSPNUIFBSNZJOŴżŵŷ #VUMFS TFSWFEBTUJOUBTQPMJDFDIJFGJO1IJMBEFMQIJB BQQPJOUFECZ3FQVCMJDBONBZPS 8 'SFFMBOE ,FOESJDL XIP QSPNJTFE BO BENJOJTUSBUJPO PG TPVOE CVTJOFTT principles and law and order. The wiry Butler took the oath of office in his NBSJOFVOJGPSN)FTPVHIUUPJOTUJMMEJTDJQMJOFJOIJTNFOJOUIFNBOOFSJO XIJDI IF IBE USBJOFE UIF )BJUJBO (FOEBSNFSJF ,OPXO GPS IJT ĕFSZ UFNQFS BOE CMVOU TQFFDI #VUMFS DSBDLFE EPXO PO DPSSVQUJPO QSPNPUFE UIF VTF PG IJHITQFFEDBSTBOEOFXSBEJPUFDIOPMPHZ TFUVQBOJSPOSJOHPGTFNJNJMJUBSZ QPTUTBSPVOEUIFDJUZ BOEGPMMPXFEXIBUIFDBMMFEBiQPVOEQPMJDZwPSEFSJOHIJTNFO BSNFEXJUITBXFEPČTIPUHVOT UPSBJETQFBLFBTJFTBOETVTQFDUFE bootlegging institutions suddenly and repeatedly if necessary. During his tenVSF QPMJDFDMPTFEŵ ŸŹŹTQFBLFBTJFTJO1IJMBEFMQIJB JODPNQBSJTPOXJUIPOMZ 220 in the preceding year, though the conviction rate was low, in part because Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua
39
PGQPMJDFDBSFMFTTOFTTJOTFDVSJOHFWJEFODF$MBJNJOHUIBUUIFCFTUXBZUPTUPQ DSJNFXBTUPTIPPUDSJNJOBMTBOENBLFKBJMTVOCFBSBCMF #VUMFSXBTSFQMBDFE BęFSIFTUPSNFEUIF3JU[$BSMUPOIPUFM TIVUUJOHEPXOBEFCVUBOUFCBMM0OF BOHSZDJUJ[FODPNQBSFEIJNUPBNJMJUBSZEJDUBUPS XIJMFBOPUIFSDPNQMBJOFE UIBUiNJMJUBSZUBDUJDTXIJDINJHIUEPJO.FYJDPBOEPUIFSQMBDFTڀڀIBTOP QMBDFJOUIFBENJOJTUSBUJPOPGDJWJMBČBJSTw8 In Haiti, given the colonial context and the lack of constitutional safeguards, UIF(FOEBSNFSJFXBTFWFONPSFCSVUBM"DSJUJDOPUFEUIBUUIFHFOEBSNFTXFSF BiNFOBDFڀڀSFDSVJUFEGSPNUIFMPXFTUFMFNFOUTڀڀćFUSBJOJOHUIFZBSF HJWJOHNBLFTTPMEJFST OPUQPMJDFwćFZDPNNJUUFENBOZFYDFTTFTJOEJSFDUJOH UIFJOUFSONFOUPGSFTJEFOU(FSNBOTEVSJOH8PSME8BS*BOEFOGPSDJOHBOJMM BEWJTFEBOUJWPPEPPDBNQBJHOJOXIJDIQFPQMFXFSFBSSFTUFEGPSTVDIDSJNFT BTiQSFQBSJOHGPPEGPSUIFTBJOUTwćFKPVSOBMJTU4BNVFM(*ONBOPCTFSWFE UIBU UIF (FOEBSNFSJF FOKPZFE QSBDUJDBMMZ iVOMJNJUFE QPXFSw JO UIF EJTUSJDUT XIFSFJUTFSWFE DSFBUJOHPQQPSUVOJUJFTGPSFYUPSUJPOBOELJDLCBDLTi)FJTUIFKVEHFPGQSBDUJDBMMZBMMDJWJMBOEDSJNJOBMDBTFTڀڀ UIF QBZNBTUFS GPS BMM GVOET GSPN UIF DFOUSBM HPWFSONFOU ڀ ڀBOE FYPďDJP EJSFDUPSPGUIFTDIPPMTJOBTNVDIBTIFQBZTUIFUFBDIFST)FDPOUSPMTUIFNBZPS and city council, since they cannot spend funds without his ok. As collector of UBYFT IFFYFSDJTFTBTUSPOHJOĘVFODFPOBMMJOEJWJEVBMTJOUIFDPNNVOJUZw9 -JFVUFOBOU 'BVTUJO & 8JSLVT XIP FOMJTUFE JO UIF NBSJOFT BU TFWFOUFFO UP FTDBQF UIF 1JUUTUPXO 1FOOTZMWBOJB DPBM NJOFT XBT FWFO DSPXOFE UIF iXIJUF,JOHwPG-B(POBWF BOJTMBOEUISFFIPVSTGSPN1PSUBV1SJODF XIJDI IFSVMFEBTBQFSTPOBMĕFG)JTTUPSZXBTQPQVMBSJ[FEJO8JMMJBN4FBCSPPLT 1929 book The Magic Island,XIJDIQPSUSBZFEIJNBTBOFNCPEJNFOUPGUIF CFOFWPMFOUQBUFSOBMJTNPGUIF64PDDVQBUJPO&NCSBDJOHWPPEPPSJUVBMTBOE native dress and dance, the blond-haired Wirkus lived in a concrete house PWFSMPPLJOH UIF TFB XIJDI 4FBCSPPL EFTDSJCFE BT B i,JQMJOHFTRVF PVUQPTU POUIFFEHFPGUIFKVOHMFw)FXBTDPOTJEFSFEBHPECZNBOZMPDBMTCFDBVTF PG IJT JNQPSUBUJPO PG RVJOJOF BOE PUIFS NPEFSO NFEJDJOFT BOE CFDBVTF IF IFMQFEGBSNFSTJSSJHBUFUIFJSMBOE"UUIFTBNFUJNF 8JSLVTNFUFEPVUCSVUBM KVTUJDFUPUIPTFXIPXFSFOPUPCFEJFOUUPIJTXIJNT SFDBMMJOHJOIJTNFNPJST IPXLJMMJOHSFCFMTXBTMJLFQMBZJOHiIJUUIFOJHHFSBOEHFUBDJHBSHBNFTwBU BNVTFNFOUQBSLTCBDLIPNF"MPUPGLJMMJOH IFTBJE XBTOFDFTTBSZCFGPSF one could start reasoning with the peasant whose hunger and poverty drove IJNUPKPJOUIF$BDPT10 Wirkus’s career recalls Joseph Conrad’s observation in Heart of Darkness UIBUiUIFDPORVFTUPGUIFFBSUI XIJDINPTUMZNFBOTUBLJOHJUBXBZGSPNUIPTF XIPIBWFBEJČFSFOUDPNQMFYJPOPSTMJHIUMZĘBUUFSOPTFTUIBOPVSTFMWFT JTOPU BQSFUUZUIJOHXIFOZPVMPPLJOUPJUNVDIw5FSSJCMFBCVTFTUPPLQMBDFXJUIJO UIFQSJTPOTZTUFNPWFSTFFOCZUIF(FOEBSNFSJF6OEFSUIFXBUDIPGi$IFTUZw 1VMMFS XIPUPMEBWJTJUJOHPďDFSUIBUIFiNBZHPUPIFMMGPSUIJT wJONBUFTBU 40
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
4U.BSDTQSJTPOJO1PSUBV1SJODFMBCPSFEVOEFSTFWFSFDPOEJUJPOTRVBSSZJOH TUPOFUPNBLFOFXCBSSBDLTGPSUIF(FOEBSNFSJF DBVTJOHTPNFUPCSFBLEPXO BOEEJF-5PO&WBOT B#BQUJTUNJTTJPOBSZKBJMFEBU4U.BSDTGPSDSJUJDJ[JOH "NFSJDBOQPMJDZ SFQPSUFEUIBUIFDPVMEIFBSUIFiHSPBOJOHPGQSJTPOFSTXIP XFSFCFJOHDSVFMMZQPVOEFEBOECFBUFOwCZHFOEBSNFPďDFSTBOEUIBUEFBE CPEJFTDPWFSFEXJUIWFSNJOSFNBJOFEFYQPTFEJOUIFQSJTPOZBSE11 Even after SFGPSNT XFSF FOBDUFE UIF QSJTPOT SFNBJOFE FYQMPJUBUJWF #VUMFST TVDDFTTPS -JFVUFOBOU"MFYBOEFS48JMMJBNT SFQPSUFEUIBUUIFQSJTPOBU+BDNFM IFSBMEFE BTBNPEFMPGQSPHSFTTJWFQFOPMPHZ XBTiUPPIBSE wBEEJOH i*UJTPOFPGPVS CFTUJUJTTBOJUBSZ DPNGPSUBCMFBOEUIFGPPEBNQMFCVUUIF QSJTPOFSTBSFSFRVJSFEUPXPSLBOEUPXPSLIBSEw12 "DBSFFSTPMEJFSXIPTFSWFEVOEFS+BDPC4NJUIJO4BNBSBOEXJUIUIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPOTUBCVMBSZ 8JMMJBNTXBTUIFTPOPG"MFYBOEFS4i$MVCCFSw8JMMJBNT BOPUPSJPVTMZDSVFMDPQJO/FX:PSLTWJDFEJTUSJDU XIJDIIFDPJOFEiUIF5FOEFSMPJOwBęFSUFMMJOHBGSJFOEUIBUIFIBEFBUFOiDIVDLGPSBMPOHUJNFw and was now “going to eat tenderloin.” Characterized by the New York Times as BiCVMMZ w$MVCCFS8JMMJBNTPODFUPMEBSFQPSUFSUIBUiUIFSFJTNPSFMBXJOUIF FOEPGBOJHIUTUJDLUIBOJOBEFDJTJPOPGUIF4VQSFNF$PVSUw%VSJOHUIFŴŻżŷ -FYPX $PNNJUUFF JOWFTUJHBUJPOT B /FX :PSL 4UBUF 4FOBUF QSPCF JOUP QPMJDF DPSSVQUJPOJO/FX:PSL$JUZ IFBENJUUFEUPPXOJOHFYUFOTJWFQSPQFSUZBOE BZBDIU XIJDIIFECPVHIUXJUIUIFQSPDFFETGSPNHBNCMJOHBOEQSPTUJUVUJPO payoffs. Although there is no evidence that Alexander Junior was corrupt like IJTGBUIFS IFXBTVOEPVCUFEMZJOĘVFODFECZIJNJOIJTIBSEFEHFEBQQSPBDI UPXBSEQPMJDJOHBOEIJTOBUJWJTUBOEBOUJSBEJDBMWJFXT)FNFUBTBEEFNJTF driving his car off the pier in San Francisco in 1926 after having been courtNBSUJBMFEGPSQSFTTJOHDPDLUBJMTPOIJTNFOUPS #VUMFS BUBEJOOFSQBSUZXIJDI IFIPTUFEJOWJPMBUJPOPGBSNZ1SPIJCJUJPOTUBUVUFT13 "DSJUJDBMGVODUJPOPGUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTJO)BJUJXBTUPFOIBODF"NFSJcan intelligence-gathering capabilities through close collaboration with local policing agents. In August 1920 the United States established an intelligence CSBODIVOEFS.BKPS8(&NFSZXIJDIEFWFMPQFEPSHBOJ[FEĕMFTPOJOTVSHFOUTBOENBQQFEPVUFOFNZUFSSJUPSZ BMMPXJOHGPSCFUUFSCBUUMFĕFMEQMBOOJOH 1TZDIPMPHJDBMXBSGBSFUBDUJDTXFSFXJEFMZQSPNPUFE14 ćF(FOEBSNFSJFDVMUJWBUFEJOGPSNBOUTCZQSFTJEJOHPWFSDPNNVOJUZEFWFMPQNFOUBOEDPDLĕHIUJOH FWFOUT DSFBUJOH DFOUFST GPS MPDBM HPTTJQ BOE JOGPSNBUJPO FYDIBOHF 4IBSJOH JOGPSNBUJPO PO #PMTIFWJL BHFOUT BOE SBEJDBMT GSPN PUIFS DPVOUSJFT JU USJFE to censor the Haitian press, which, according to a February 1921 intelligence report, “poisoned inhabitants by circulating anti-occupation propaganda to all parts of Haiti which is read to ignorant Haitians who cannot read.”15 The editor of the CourieurOFXTQBQFSXBTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDBMMZJNQSJTPOFEPWFSUFOUJNFTJO ĕWFZFBST UIPVHIIFXBTCSPVHIUUPDPVSUGPSUSJBMPOMZUXJDF4PNFUJNFTBT NBOZBTTFWFOFEJUPSTXFSFJOKBJMBUUIFTBNFUJNF16 Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua
41
*O Ŵżŵŷ BT B NBSLFS PG QSJEF UXP HFOEBSNFT XPO TJMWFS NFEBMT JO SJĘF TIPPUJOHBUUIF0MZNQJDT8JMMJBNTSFQPSUFE IPXFWFS UIBUUSBJOFFTHFOFSBMMZ GBSFEQPPSMZPOĕSJOHUFTUTi*OIVOUJOHCBOEJUT UIFGBJMVSFUPTIPPUTUSBJHIU SFTVMUT JO UIF FTDBQF PG NBOZw17 Colonel Frederic M. Wise, who took charge BęFS8JMMJBNT OPUFEUIBUNBSJOFTEFMJCFSBUFMZiEJTDPVSBHFEUBSHFUQSBDUJDFPO UIFUIFPSZUIBUJUXBTEBOHFSPVTUPUFBDIUIFOBUJWFIPXUPTIPPU4PNFEBZ UIFZNJHIUQPTTJCMZUVSOBHBJOTUVTw18*OSJPUDPOUSPMUSBJOJOH HFOEBSNFTXFSF UBVHIUUIF1SPHSFTTJWF&SBBQQSPBDIPGVTJOHiĕTUTBOEDMVCTwSBUIFSUIBOĕSFBSNTTPBTUPMFTTFODBTVBMUJFT"NFSJDBOTEJEOPUVTVBMMZPCKFDU UIPVHI XIFO EFNPOTUSBUPSTXFSFCFBUFOBOEDMVCCFE TPNFUJNFTUPEFBUI 3BDJTN VOEFSNJOFE BOZ FČPSU UP QSPNPUF IVNBOF TUBOEBSET 0O SVSBM TFBSDIBOEEFTUSPZNJTTJPOT iQPQQJOHPČ w$BDPTXBTMJLFOFEUPBTQPSU NVDI as with the “pulajanes” and “ladrones” in the Philippines, and later the “gooks” JO7JFUOBN19ćF(FOEBSNFSJFBEPQUFEBTJUTBOUIFNBOBEBQUBUJPOPGUIFSBDJTUUVOFi%BNOUIF'JMJQJOP DJWJMJ[FIJNXJUIBLSBH wJOXIJDIUIFZSFGFSSFEUP Cacos as “voodoo-dancing drones.” Marine Colonel Robert Denig noted in his EJBSZUIBUiMJGFUPUIFNJTDIFBQ NVSEFSJTOPUIJOHwćFNBSJOF+PIO)$SBJHF CFMJFWFEUIBUżųQFSDFOUPGUIF)BJUJBOQFBTBOUSZQPTTFTTFEBiTFNJBQFTCSBJO w BSFNOBOUGSPNUIFi4UPOF"HFw20 &YFNQMJGZJOHUIFQSPHSFTTJWFĕYBUJPOXJUITUBUJTUJDBMEBUBBOERVBOUJĕDBUJPO NPOUIMZ SFQPSUT GSPN )BJUJ SFTFNCMF UIPTF GSPN UIF 1IJMJQQJOFT JO KVEHJOH TVDDFTTPOUIFCBTJTPGUIFOVNCFSPGFOFNZDBQUVSFE iOFVUSBMJ[FE wPSLJMMFE 8JMMJBNTTSFQPSUPG/PWFNCFSŹ ŴżŴŻ XBTUZQJDBMJOQSBJTJOHUIF(FOEBSNFSJF for dispersing rebels and killing six “bandits” in the Hinche district. A subseRVFOUEJTQBUDISFQPSUFEUIFLJMMJOHPGFJHIUZĕWFCBOEJUT UIFDBQUVSFPGOJOFUZ UXP BOEUIFTFJ[VSFPGŸźżSJĘFT GPSUZĕWFCBZPOFUT BOEGPSUZPOFNBDIFUFT21 1SFTTVSFGPSSFTVMUTMFEUPUIFFNQMPZNFOUPGFYDFTTJWFĕSFQPXFSBOEDJWJMJBO DBTVBMUJFT " žŵ ųųų CPVOUZ XBT PČFSFE GPS $BDP DPNNBOEFS $IBSMFNBHOF Peralte, an ally of the deposed leader Bobo who had attacked a police post in )JODIFJOSFUBMJBUJPOGPSUIFJNQSJTPONFOUPGBMPDBMDIJFG22"ęFSBOBNCVTI PG1FSBMUFTGPSDFTOFBSUIFUPXOPG(SBOEF3JWJÒSF NBSJOF$BQUBJO)FSNBO) )BOOFLFO CMBDLFOFEIJTTLJO EJTHVJTFEIJNTFMGBTB$BDP BOECSJCFEPOFPG 1FSBMUFTCPEZHVBSETUPHBJOBDDFTTUPUIFSFCFMDBNQ)FUIFOTIPU1FSBMUFBU QPJOUCMBOLSBOHF FBSOJOHBDPNNFOEBUJPOGSPN1SFTJEFOU8JMTPOGPSiPOFPG UIFNPTUTJOHVMBSMZJNQPSUBOUBDUTPGIFSPJTNJONZUJNFw23 ćF NBSJOFT TVCTFRVFOUMZ EJTTFNJOBUFE B QIPUP PG 1FSBMUFT CPEZ UIBU SFTFNCMFE$ISJTUIBOHJOHGSPNUIFDSPTT JOTQJSJOHDPOUJOVFESFTJTUBODF MinJTUFS PG 3FWPMVUJPO #FOPÔU #BUSBWJMMF DBQUVSFE BOE EFDBQJUBUFE UIF "NFSJDBO HFOFSBM-BXSFODF.VSUI UFMMJOHIJNCFGPSFIBOEi:PVSQPMJUJDJBOTTBZUIBUZPV DBNFUPCSJOHVTDJWJMJ[BUJPO8FEPOPUXBOUDJWJMJ[BUJPO:PVSDIJFGTTBZUIBU XFNVTUTUPQĕHIUJOH8FEPOPUXBOUUPTUPQ8F$BDPTIBWFCFFOĕHIUJOH since longtemps, longtemps ćFSFJTOPUIJOHFMTFUIBUXFXBOUUP 42
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
do. We do not believe your politicians. Our own politicians have lied to us. We UIJOLZPVIBWFDPNFUPUBLFPVSDPVOUSZBOENBLFVTZPVSTMBWFT8FXBOUUP LFFQPVSDPVOUSZBOEPVSGSFFEPN8FJOUFOEUPESJWFUIFblancsJOUP the sea.”24ćFTFDPNNFOUTQSPWJEFJOTJHIUJOUPUIFNPUJWFTPGUIF$BDPNPWFNFOUJOWJFXPGUIFJSMPOHIJTUPSZPGPQQSFTTJPOCZXIJUFT .BLJOH VTF PG DBQUVSFE EPDVNFOUT BOE TQJFT UIF (FOEBSNFSJF FWFOUVBMMZ USBDLFE EPXO #BUSBWJMMF LJMMJOH IJN BOE EP[FOT PG IJT NFO EFBMJOH B deathblow to the insurgency. Jungle patrols continued into the early 1920s to TVQQSFTTiNBMDPOUFOUTXIPEJEOPUTVSSFOEFS wNPTUOPUBCMZUIF$BDPDIJFGT &TUSBWJMMF +FBO+BDRVFT"MCFSU BOE"MDJVT+FBO XIPWPXFEUPSFTJTUVOUJMUIF end. Monthly intelligence reports in 1921 noted that Estraville was sick with TNBMMQPY BOE "MDJVTT GPMMPXFST XFSF TVSWJWJOH iNBJOMZ PO GSVJUw BOE XPSF iQPPSMZQSPWJEFEDMPUIFT wEFNPOTUSBUJOHUIFJSXFBLFOFETUBUFćPVHIiCBOEJUTTUJMMSPBNFEUIFDPVOUSZTJEF< >BMMBSFFYIBVTUFEBOEJOQPPSIFBMUIڀڀ ćFZ FOHBHF JO GFX EFQSFEBUJPOT FYDFQU UIF JMMFHBM QSPDVSFNFOU PG GPPE CZ PDDBTJPOBMGPSBHJOHwćF+VMZSFQPSUSFDPSEFEUIFEFBUIPGPOFPG"MDJVTTNFO XIPIBECFFOiTFWFSFMZNBDIFUFECZBOBUJWFHVJEFwBęFSIJTDBQUVSFOFBSUIF CPSEFSPGUIF%PNJOJDBO3FQVCMJD#Z0DUPCFS NPTUPGUIFSFNBJOJOHDIJFGT IBECFFODBQUVSFEBOELJMMFE"OUJPDDVQBUJPOTFOUJNFOUSFNBJOFEQFSWBTJWF OFWFSUIFMFTT BOE64JOUFMMJHFODFGFBSFEUIFSFUVSOPG%S#PCPGSPNFYJMFJO +BNBJDB25 ćF(FOEBSNFSJFTiTVDDFTTwBUQBDJĕDBUJPOXBTBJEFECZJNQSPWFNFOUTJO SBEJPUFDIOPMPHZBOEDPNNVOJDBUJPOT*OBUBTLMBUFSQFSGPSNFECZ64"*% BSNZFOHJOFFSTDPOTUSVDUFEBOEPWFSTBXUIFSFQBJSPGUFMFHSBQIMJOFT BMMPXing for better coordination in pursuit of guerrillas. Introducing the use of airQMBOFT JO TFBSDIJOH PVU SFNPUF NPVOUBJO DBNQT XBT BOPUIFS UVSOJOH QPJOU 0O"VHVTUŷ Ŵżŵų 8JMMJBNTSFQPSUFEUIBUUXP(FOEBSNFSJFQMBOFTIBEĕSFE Ŵ ŵųųNBDIJOFHVOSPVOETBUBCBOEJUDBNQ DPOUSJCVUJOHUPJUTEFTUSVDUJPO*O BSBEJPHSBNUPUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOU $PMPOFM++.FBEFTUBUFEićFQMBOFT NBOFVWFSFEFYDFMMFOUMZBOEEJSFDUFEUIFJSĕSFXJUIBQQBSFOUMZHPPEFČFDU UBLJOHCBOEJUTGSPNUIFJSIJEJOHQMBDFTڀڀćJTEFNPOTUSBUFTUIBUBJSQMBOFTBSF a success in such affairs. Bandits thought they were safe but found out there is OPQMBDFUIBUXJMMQSPUFDUUIFNw26 The adoption of aerial technology helped to usher in a new age of “total war” in which people could be killed without ever TFFJOHUIFGBDFPGUIFJSBUUBDLFS'PS)BJUJBOTPOUIFHSPVOE UIFDPOTFRVFODFT were terrifying. “Like Being Back in the Days of Boss Tweed”: Further Misconduct and the McCormick Commission
A lack of legal regulations broadened the scope of police abuses throughout UIFPDDVQBUJPO5PSUVSF PSUIFiUIJSEEFHSFF wXBTDPOTJEFSFEiKVTUJĕBCMFVOEFS Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua
43
ĕFMEDPOEJUJPOTwBOECFDBVTFPGUIFiVODJWJMJ[FEwOBUVSFPGUIF)BJUJBOQFPple.27 ćF DPVSU TZTUFN XBT OPUPSJPVTMZ JOFďDJFOU BOE NBSSFE CZ QBUSPOBHF BOEHSBę QSPCMFNTUIBUDPOTVMBSPďDJBMTEJEOPUUSZUPDPOGSPOU6OMFTTUIFZ had political connections, prisoners were usually held for long periods without USJBM 4QFBLJOH GSPN QFSTPOBM LOPXMFEHF 8JMMJBNT UFTUJĕFE CFGPSF $POHSFTT UIBUiUIFBENJOJTUSBUJPOPGKVTUJDFJO)BJUJXPVMECFBGBSDFJGJUXFSFOPUBUSBHFEZ*ڀڀUXBTMJLFCFJOHCBDLJOUIFEBZTPG#PTT5XFFEJO/FX:PSLw28 Most HFOEBSNFTDPVMEOFJUIFSSFBEOPSXSJUFBOEXFSFJMMBDRVBJOUFEXJUIUIFMBX 8JMMJBNT XIPTFNJMJUBSZTFSWJDFJODMVEFEUPVSTJO1BOBNB $VCB BOE.FYJDP DPNQMBJOFEUP4FDSFUBSZPG4UBUF3PCFSU-BOTJOHUIBUiUIFDBOOPUQSFTFOUUIFJSDBTFJODPVSU XIJDIJTBNBKPSIJOESBODFUPUIFQSPQFSQPMJDJOHPGUIFDPVOUSZw)FBEEFEUIBUNPTUHFOEBSNFTXFSFiMBDLJOHJOFUIJDBMPS DJWJMTUBOEBSETBOEMBDLFETZNQBUIZGPSUIFQFPQMFw29 *OŴżŵŴ BNJETUBOPVUDSZCZSFNOBOUTPGUIF"OUJ*NQFSJBMJTU-FBHVFBOEUIF /BUJPOBM"TTPDJBUJPOGPSUIF"EWBODFNFOUPG$PMPSFE1FPQMF 4FOBUPS+PTFQI .FEJMM .D$PSNJDL BO *MMJOPJT 3FQVCMJDBO DIBJSFE IFBSJOHT UIBU SFWFBMFE TJDLFOJOHDSVFMUZCZUIF(FOEBSNFSJF JODMVEJOHUIFCVSOJOHPGIVUTBOEUIF rape and shooting of prisoners.30#VUMFSUFTUJĕFEUIBUPďDFSTXFSFJOUPYJDBUFE CZUIFJSOFXGPVOEBVUIPSJUZBOEHJWFOUPFYDFTTJWFESJOLJOHPGOBUJWFMJRVPS (taffia), which led to “unnecessarily harsh and brutal” conduct. He rationalized their behavior on the grounds that while 99 percent of the people of Haiti are UIFiNPTULJOEMZ HFOFSPVT IPTQJUBCMF BOEQMFBTVSFMPWJOHQFPQMF wUIFPUIFS Ŵ QFSDFOU XIFO TUJSSFE VQ CZ MJRVPS BOE WPPEPP XFSF iDBQBCMF PG UIF NPTU horrible atrocities; they are cannibals.”31 These views paralleled racial attitudes in the United States, where paternalJTUJDBČFDUJPOXBTPęFOEJTQMBZFEUPXBSE"GSJDBO"NFSJDBOTBTMPOHBTUIFZ “stayed in their place.”32 The institution of forced labor (corvée) brought out the XPSTURVBMJUJFTPGUIF(FOEBSNFSJFBOEIBSLFECBDLUPUIFBCVTFTPG'SFODI DPMPOJBMJTN-5PO&WBOTOPUFEUIBUUIFHFOEBSNFGVODUJPOFEBTiBOJOTUSVNFOUPGPQQSFTTJPOBOEUPSUVSFwJOFOGPSDJOHUIFiCBSCBSJDwNBSDIJOHPGNFO iMJLFBQBDLPGTMBWFTwVOEFSUIFDPSWÏFTZTUFN XIJDISFNJOEFEIJNPGiUIF CSVUBM TMBWFSZ BOE TBWBHF USFBUNFOUw NFUFE PVU CZ UIF #FMHJBOT B iGFX ZFBST BHPJO"GSJDBw0OFXJUOFTTCFGPSFUIFDPNNJTTJPO UIFTPDJPMPHJTU$BSM,FMTFZ PG UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG 1FOOTZMWBOJB IBE PCTFSWFE TFWFSFMZ NBMOPVSJTIFE NFO iNBOBDMFEVOEFSUIFDIBSHFPGUIF(FOEBSNFSJFTFWFSBMEBZTKPVSOFZPOGPPU GSPNUIFJSIPNFw)FBOEPUIFSTUFTUJGZJOHBUUIFIFBSJOHTOFWFSUIFMFTTBSHVFE JOGBWPSPGDPOUJOVJOHUIFPDDVQBUJPO DMBJNJOHUIBUJUXBTIBWJOHBDJWJMJ[JOH FČFDU 4FOBUPS .D$PSNJDL VMUJNBUFMZ SFDPNNFOEFE UIBU UIF PDDVQBUJPO CF TVTUBJOFEGPSUXFOUZNPSFZFBSTBOEUIBUUIF(FOEBSNFSJFDPOUJOVFUPSFDFJWF choice funding lest Haiti be thrust into anarchy and revolution, which was what "NFSJDBOPďDJBMTGFBSFEUIFNPTU33
44
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
“Pursuing an Active Campaign of Harassment”: The Duvalier Era and Legacies of Colonialism
"NFSJDBODPMPOJBMSVMFXBTPOUIFXIPMFBEJTBTUFSGPS)BJUJćF6OJUFE4UBUFT failed to develop viable social institutions, including in public health and eduDBUJPO BOE UIF SPBE JOGSBTUSVDUVSF XBT QSJNBSJMZ EFTJHOFE UP JNQSPWF BSNZ USBOTQPSUBUJPO BOE FYQFEJUF USBEF UP UIF CFOFĕU PG "NFSJDBO DPSQPSBUJPOT The police constabulary served as one of the few enduring institutions, and its MFHBDZXBTPWFSXIFMNJOHMZOFHBUJWF &NJMZ#BMDI BQSPGFTTPSPGFDPOPNJDTBU Wellesley College who traveled to Haiti in 1927 with a peace delegation, warned BCPVUiTFMGNBJOUFOBODFJOQPXFSPGXIPNTPFWFSIBTDPOUSPMPGUIJTGPSDF TVCKFDUPOMZUPUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGBTJUVBUJPOXIFSF MJLFUIF1SFUPSJBOHVBSE UIF TPMEJFSTTFMMUIFNTFMWFTUPUIFIJHIFTUCJEEFSw34 This is exactly what transpired. 1SJPSUPUIFXJUIESBXBMPGUIFNBSJOFTJOŴżŶŷ UIFBENJOJTUSBUJPOPG'SBOLMJO 3PPTFWFMU TUFQQFE VQ SJPU DPOUSPM USBJOJOH BOE TFMFDUFE QSP"NFSJDBO $PMPOFM%FNPTUIÒOF$BMJYUFUPIFBEUIF(FOEBSNFSJF)FVTFEIJTQPTJUJPOUP MBVODIBDPVQ XIJDIXBTTVQQSFTTFECZ4UFOJP7JODFOU BNPEFSBUFOBUJPOBMist who, along with his corrupt and autocratic successor Elie Lescot, intensiĕFEUIFQPMJUJDJ[BUJPOPGUIFGPSDF QMBDJOHJUĕSNMZVOEFSIJTDPOUSPM35 Then, BęFSBTDFOEJOHUPQPXFSJOŴżŸźGPMMPXJOHBQFSJPEPGNJMJUBSZSVMF 'SBOÎPJT “Papa Doc” Duvalier used the policing apparatus built by the United States UPCSVUBMJ[FPQQPOFOUTPGIJTSFHJNF)JT5POUPO.BDPVUFT PSTFDSFUQPMJDF XFSF EFTDSJCFE BTiUIVHT UIJFWFTBOENVSEFSFSTw " .BZ ŴżŸż 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU SFQPSU NFOUJPOFE B UZQJDBM JODJEFOU JO XIJDI B TUVEFOU XIP DSJUJDJ[FE UIFHPWFSONFOUXBTLJEOBQQFECZ5POUPO.BDPVUFT XIPCVSOFEPČIJTCFBSE with a lighter. The report concluded that the “regular and secret police pursue BOBDUJWFDBNQBJHOPGIBSBTTNFOUBOEUFSSPSJTNBMMPWFSUIFDPVOUSZw36 ćF6OJUFE4UBUFTUPMFSBUFEUIFTFNFUIPETCFDBVTFPG%VWBMJFSTBOUJDPNNVOJTNBOEPQFOOFTTUPGPSFJHOJOWFTUNFOU"TTimeNBHB[JOFFEJUPSJBMJ[FE i8JUIDPNNVOJTU$VCBPOMZŸųNJMFTBXBZ UIF64DBOOPUDVUĘBUCSPLF)BJUJ off the dole without risking a red takeover.”37 The bulk of police aid was proWJEFEUISPVHIBNJMJUBSZBTTJTUBODFQSPHSBNIFBEFECZ$PMPOFM3PCFSU)FJOM Jr., whose own son was arrested, allegedly for asking why peasants had nothing UPFBU3FUBJOJOHPMEDPOUBDUT JODMVEJOHBSNZDIJFGPGTUBČ"OUPOJP,ÏCSFBV XIPMPPLFEVQPOIJNBTBGBUIFSĕHVSF -FNVFM4IFQIFSE+S GPSNFSDPNNBOEBOUPGUIF.BSJOF$PSQT XBTJOĘVFOUJBMJOBEWPDBUJOHGPSUIFDPOUJOVBUJPOPG QPMJDFUSBJOJOHGPSJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZQVSQPTFT"NFSJDBOBEWJTFSTXPSLFEXJUI the presidential guard, who in turn trained the Tonton Macoutes in order to iLFFQ%VWBMJFSJOQPXFSTPIFDPVMEGVMĕMMIJTGVMMUFSNJOPďDFBOENBZCF longer,” as Heinl put it.38ćF64BNCBTTBEPSBSHVFE ićPVHIDSJUJDTXPVME DIBSHFXFBSFBCFUUJOHSFQSFTTJPO UIFFNCBTTZGFFMTUIBUBOZSFBTPOBCMFQFSTPO FWFOJGDSJUJDBMPGUIF%VWBMJFSSFHJNF XPVMEBENJUUPUIFOFDFTTJUZPGUIFQPMJDF
Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua
45
CFJOHBEFRVBUFMZFRVJQQFEw39ćFTFDPNNFOUTJMMVTUSBUFUIFNJOETFUPGNBOZ JOUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOU CFOUPONPEFSOJ[JOHJOTUJUVUJPOTTVDIBTUIFQPMJDF SFHBSEMFTTPGUIFIVNBOJNQMJDBUJPOT*OUIFFOE UIF6OJUFE4UBUFTIFMQFEUP prolong the agonies of the occupation and inhibited the growth of political liberty. The seeds were being planted all the while for the global expansion of QPMJDFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT “If He Has Political Aspirations They Are Not Apparent”: The Dominican Guardia and the Ascendancy of Trujillo
1PMJDFBJEJOUIF%PNJOJDBO3FQVCMJD )BJUJTOFJHICPSPOUIFJTMBOEPG)JTQBOJPMB ZJFMEFEBTJNJMBSPVUDPNFUPUIBUJO)BJUJ*O"QSJMŴżŴź BZFBSBęFSUIF NBSJOFTJOWBEFE BOPQFSBUJPOEFTJHOFEUPTIPSFVQ"NFSJDBTSFHJPOBMQPXFS and protect its sugar interests), governor Harry S. Knapp issued an executive PSEFS BQQSPQSJBUJOH žŸųų ųųų GPS iPSHBOJ[JOH FRVJQQJOH BOE NBJOUBJOJOH B OBUJPOBM%PNJOJDBOQPMJDFGPSDF wUIF(VBSEJB/BDJPOBM XIJDIXBTDPOTJEFSFE CZUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUUIFiNPTUTPMFNOPCMJHBUJPOXFIBWFBTTVNFEXJUIJO UIJTSFQVCMJDw"NBJOQVSQPTFXBTUPĕHIUJOTVSHFOUTJOUIFFBTUFSOQSPWJODFT XIPXFSFBQSPEVDUPGUIFEJTFNQPXFSNFOUPGMPDBMDBVEJMMPTBOEUIFVQSPPUJOHPGUIFQFBTBOUSZDBVTFECZUIFFDPOPNJDSFPSJFOUBUJPOUPXBSEDBTIDSPQ exports.40 "SHVJOH UIBU JOUFSWFOUJPO XBT OFDFTTBSZ UP UFBDI UIF %PNJOJDBOT UIF advantages of industry and provide education, which was lacking in even iSVEJNFOUBSZGPSN wNJOJTUFS8JMMJBN83VTTFMMSFDSVJUFE1VFSUP3JDBOPďDFSTFYQFSJFODFEJOFOGPSDJOHDPMPOJBMPDDVQBUJPO%PNJOJDBOT IFCFMJFWFE iXPVMEOPUCFBTFďDJFOUBT"NFSJDBOPďDFSTXIPTFQMBDFTUIFZXJMMUBLFw41 ćFGPSDFXBTDPNNBOEFECZ$PMPOFM(FPSHF34IBOUPO DIJFGPGUIF*OTVMBS 1PMJDFPG1VFSUP3JDPBOEBGPSNFS3PVHI3JEFSXIPXBTTBJEUPiLOPXUIF OBUJWFTXFMMw*UXBTQMBHVFE IPXFWFS CZQPPSEJTDJQMJOFBOEMPXNPSBMF IBWJOHBOBCOPSNBMMZIJHISBUFPGDPVSUTNBSUJBM"WJTJUPSPCTFSWFEUIBUPďDFST IBEBiDPDLZBOEJOTPMFOUBJS wBOEUIFJSOVNCFSTiJODMVEFETPNFPGUIFXPSTU rascals, thieves, and assassins in the country,” who used their position to “vent private hates.”42 *O %FDFNCFS Ŵżŵŷ BęFS UIF XJUIESBXBM PG UIF NBSJOFT 3VTTFMM MBNFOUFE UIBU iQPMJUJDT JT GBTU EFTUSPZJOH UIF FďDBDZ PG UIF %PNJOJDBO QPMJDFw ćF TFDPOEJODPNNBOEXBTGPSDFEUPSFTJHOCFDBVTFIFGBJMFEUPCBDL1SFTJEFOU )PSBDJP7ÈTRVF[FOUIVTJBTUJDBMMZ)JTSFQMBDFNFOU 3BGBFM-5SVKJMMP BGBJUIGVM Horacista, rose to lieutenant colonel owing to his expertise as an interrogator BOEJOGPSNBOU435SVKJMMPTBMMFHFENFOUPS $BQUBJO$IBSMFT.FSLFM DPNNJUUFE TVJDJEFPOUIFFWFPGIJTUSJBMGPSXIBUUIFEJQMPNBU4VNOFS8FMMFTSFGFSSFEUP BTiUIFNPTUSFWPMUJOHBDUTPGCBSCBSJTNDIBSHFEBHBJOTUUIFGPSDFTPGPDDVQBUJPOJOUIF&BTUFSO1SPWJODFTw5SVKJMMPIJNTFMGIBECFFOJOEJDUFEJOŴżŵųPO 46
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
DIBSHFT PG IPMEJOH B NBO GPS SBOTPN BOE SBQJOH B TFWFOUFFOZFBSPME HJSM He was nevertheless seen as a loyal soldier capable of avoiding the pitfalls of GBDUJPOBMQPMJUJDT"OJOUFMMJHFODFSFQPSUOPUFEJOŴżŵź JOBSFNBSLBCMZQPPS KVEHNFOU UIBUiJGIFIBTQPMJUJDBMBTQJSBUJPOT UIFZBSFOPUBQQBSFOUw44 *OGBDU 5SVKJMMPVTFEIJTDPOUSPMPWFSUIF(VBSEJBUPVOTFBU7ÈTRVF[JOŴżŶų establishing a thirty-one-year dictatorship. Sadistic tortures, including screwing electrical devices into people’s skulls, were carried out under his oversight. *O 0DUPCFS ŴżŶź (VBSEJB VOJUT NBTTBDSFE ŴŸ ųųų UP ŵų ųųų )BJUJBO NJHSBOU workers.45 ćF TDBMF PG WJPMFODF XBT NBEF QPTTJCMF CZ UIF JOĘVY PG NPEFSO XFBQPOT BOE JOGPSNBUJPO UFDIOPMPHJFT B DPSOFSTUPOF PG UIF QPMJDF USBJOJOH QSPHSBNTXIJDIDPOUSJCVUFETJHOJĕDBOUMZUP5SVKJMMPTSJTF Imperial Gendarmes: The Guardia Nacional in Nicaragua
-JLFUIPTFJO)BJUJBOEUIF%PNJOJDBO3FQVCMJD UIFQPMJDFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNT JO/JDBSBHVBBJNFEUPJOTUJUVUFQSPHSFTTJWFTUZMFJOOPWBUJPOTBOENPEFSOJ[F QPMJDFJOTUJUVUJPOT UIPVHIUIFZMFEUPNBOZFYDFTTFTBTBSFTVMUPGUIFJSNJMJtarization and the larger geopolitical designs to which they were attached. In ŴżųżUIFBENJOJTUSBUJPOPGćFPEPSF3PPTFWFMUUPQQMFENPEFSOJ[FS+PTÏ4BOUPT Zelaya after he resisted overtures to build a canal, installing as president Adolfo %ÓB[ GPSNFSTFDSFUBSZPGUIF"NFSJDBOPXOFE-B-V[NJOJOHDPNQBOZ%ÓB[ TPMEUIFDPVOUSZTCBOLT DVTUPNTPďDF BOESBJMSPBETUP"NFSJDBOJOWFTUPST BOEQVTIFEUISPVHIUIF#SZBO$IBNPSSP5SFBUZ XIJDIHBWFUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT the right in perpetuity to build a canal on Nicaraguan territory. When a rebelMJPO MFE CZ UIF MJCFSBM HFOFSBM #FOKBNJO ;FMFEØO CSPLF PVU #VUMFS BOE UIF NBSJOFTXFSFDBMMFEVQPOUPQVUJUEPXO46 8SJUJOHUPIJTXJGFBCPVUUIFDSBTTFDPOPNJDNPUJWFTVOEFSMZJOH"NFSJDBO QPMJDZ WJFXTIFNBEFQVCMJDBęFSSFUJSJOHGSPNUIFBSNZ
#VUMFSQSPQPTFE creating a police constabulary to ensure law and order after the departure of UIFNBSJOFT*OŴżŴŵUIF#VSFBVPG*OTVMBS"ČBJSTBQQPJOUFEBTJOTQFDUPSPGUIF .BOBHVBQPMJDF(VZ4DVMM BUIJSUZTJYZFBSPME)BSWBSEHSBEVBUFBOEGPSNFS 3PVHI3JEFSXIPIBEQSFWJPVTMZTFSWFEXJUIUIF/FX:PSL1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU BOE UIF %FQBSUNFOU PG +VTUJDF TFDSFU QPMJDF BMPOH UIF .FYJDBO CPSEFS 4DVMM TVSWFZFE UIF QPMJDF TUBUJPOT BOE BJNFE UP FTUBCMJTI NPSF QSPGFTTJPOBM TUBOEBSET)JTUFOVSFEJEOPUMBTUMPOH BTUIFCSPUIFSPGUIFNJOJTUFSPGQPMJDFUPPL TJEFTBHBJOTUIJNXIFOIFBUUFNQUFEUPDMPTFEPXOBDBGÏUIBUXBTBCBTFPG political agitation.47 ćJT JODJEFOU FYFNQMJĕFT UIF EFFQ NJTUSVTU BNPOH MPDBM PďDJBMTGPSUIFNPUJWFTPG"NFSJDBOT XIJDIXBTOPUVOJRVFUP/JDBSBHVB 'SPN ŴżŴŵ UP ŴżŶŶ UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT LFQU B DPOUJOHFOU NJMJUBSZ GPSDF JO /JDBSBHVBUPTBGFHVBSEJUTFDPOPNJDJOUFSFTUTJOCBOLJOHBOEUIFCBOBOBBOE DPČFFJOEVTUSJFTBOEUPFOTVSFUIFFMFDUJPOPGQSP"NFSJDBODBOEJEBUFT48 In %FDFNCFSŴżŵŷ BęFSBOFJHIUNPOUITUVEZ .BKPS3BMQI,FZTFS EJSFDUPSPG Occupied Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua
47
JOUFMMJHFODFXJUIUIFBSNZT4FDPOE%JWJTJPOJO8PSME8BS* PVUMJOFEBQMBO GPSB/JDBSBHVBODPOTUBCVMBSZJODPSQPSBUJOHUIFOBUJPOBMQPMJDF DVTUPNT BOE prison guard, which functioned as a “tool to gain political advantage by partisan BOEPQQSFTTJWFNFBTVSFTBHBJOTUUIPTFXIPEJČFSJOUIFJSQPMJUJDTGSPNUIFHPWFSONFOUw#VJMEJOHPO#VUMFSTFBSMJFSQSPQPTBM ,FZTFSBJNFEUPQSPGFTTJPOBMJ[F USBJOJOH JNQSPWFQBZ BOEFRVJQUIFOFXGPSDFXJUIUPQPGUIFMJOFXFBQPOT ćF(VBSEJB/BDJPOBMXBTUPCFDPNFiUIFTPMFBHFODZGPSUIFFOGPSDFNFOUPG JOUFSOBMMBXBOEPSEFSBOEUIFNBJOSFMJBODFGPSOBUJPOBMEFGFOTFw4FDSFUBSZPG State Robert Olds envisioned that it would be the “cornerstone of stability for UIFXIPMFDPVOUSZGPSZFBSTUPDPNFw49 ćFTF DPNNFOUT FQJUPNJ[F UIF FNQIBTJT QMBDFE CZ QPMJDZ FMJUFT PO TPDJBM TUBCJMJUZ PO"NFSJDBOUFSNT PGDPVSTF
XIJDIXBTTFFOBTBQSFDPOEJUJPOGPS EFWFMPQNFOUćF$PPMJEHFBENJOJTUSBUJPOTVQQPSUFEUIFQSPHSBNMBSHFMZPO FDPOPNJDHSPVOET GFFMJOHUIBUBGPSFJHODPOUSPMMFEDPOTUBCVMBSZXBTUIFPOMZ NFBOTPGHJWJOHDBQJUBMTVďDJFOUBTTVSBODFUPVOEFSUBLFBMBSHFBOEQFSNBOFOU JOWFTUNFOU JO /JDBSBHVB BO VOEFSMZJOH NPUJWF CFIJOE BMM UIF USBJOJOH QSPHSBNT50 In May 1925, just before the revival of civil war, the Nicaraguan Congress approved the creation of a Guardia at a budget of $689,132. The 6OJUFE4UBUFTQSPWJEFEUSBJOJOHBOEXFBQPOT ,SBHBOE+PSHFOTPOSJĘFTBOE -FXJTNBDIJOFHVOT BOESFDSVJUFE4QBOJTITQFBLJOHPďDFSTXJUIFYQFSJFODF JOUIF1IJMJQQJOFT UIF1BOBNB$BOBM;POF BOE)BJUJ51 Major Calvin Carter, BWFUFSBOPGUIF1IJMJQQJOFTDPOTUBCVMBSZGSPN&MHJO 5FYBT SFQPSUFEUIBUUIF MPDBMTPGEJČFSFOUQBSUZBďMJBUJPOTXFSFQSPWJEJOHUIF"NFSJDBOTiXJUIWBMVBCMFJOGPSNBUJPOPOUIFQMBOTBOENPWFNFOUXJUIJOUIFJSGPSNFSQBSUJFTw" OVNCFSIBECFFOFNQMPZFEBTTFDVSJUZDPOUSBDUPSTGPS"NFSJDBODPNQBOJFT TVDI BT 7BDDBSP #SPUIFST 'SVJU + "OUPOJP -PQF[ GPSNFS .BOBHVB DIJFG PG QPMJDF XBT IFSBMEFE CZ 64 JOUFMMJHFODF GPS iMPPLJOH MJLF BO "NFSJDBO BT B white and blond” and “saving a banana plantation during the revolution.”52 "DDPSEJOHUPUIFBSNZT(ŵJOUFMMJHFODFTFDUJPO UIF(VBSEJBBDUFEiXJUI HSFBUBSSPHBODFBOEFWFOJOKVTUJDFUPXBSETUIFQPQVMBUJPO wDPNNJUUJOHiTFSJPVT DSJNFT w TVDI BT CFBUJOH UIF QSFTJEFOU PG UIF 4VQSFNF $PVSU SFTVMUJOH iGSPNUIFBCVTFPGMJRVPSw*OŴżŶų XIFOUIFWJTJUJOHQBDJĕTU$IBSMFTćPNTPO XBTBSSFTUFE B/PSUI"NFSJDBOPďDJBMEFDMBSFE ićF/BUJPOBM(VBSEJTUIF DPOTUJUVUJPOPGUIJTDPVOUSZ wJNQMZJOHUIBUJUPQFSBUFEBCPWFUIFMBXćF4UBUF %FQBSUNFOUQSPUFTUFEMJCFSBMQSFTJEFOU+PTÏ.BSJB.PODBEBTVTFPGUIFQPMJDF UPiBSSFTUBOEEFQPSUGPSQPMJUJDBMSFBTPOTNFNCFSTPGUIFDPOTFSWBUJWFQBSUZ w which went against the pledge of nonpartisanship.53 ćFIJTUPSJBO.JDIFM(PCBUOPUFTUIBUNBOZFOMJTUFFTXFSFGSPNUIFMPXFS DMBTT BOE UIFZ TVCKFDUFE MBOEPXOJOH FMJUFT UP IVNJMJBUJOH BSSFTUT GPS QFUUZ PČFOTFT FBSOJOH UIFJS FONJUZ -PDBM KVEHFT TIPXFE UIFJS PQQPTJUJPO UP UIF QPMJDFCZSFGVTJOHUPTFOUFODFTVTQFDUT PSFWFOUPBSSBJHOUIFN EVSJOHŴżŶŴoŶŵ QPMJDFJO.BOBHVBBSSFTUFEŴ ųżźQFPQMF PGXIPNPOMZUISFFXFSFDPOWJDUFE 48
Taking Up the “White Man’s Burden”
ćFTFOVNCFSTTVHHFTUUIFDPOUFNQUXJUIXIJDIUIF(VBSEJBXBTIFME DVUUJOH BDSPTTUIFDMBTTTQFDUSVN54 *OBOBUUFNQUUPCPMTUFSUIFJNBHFPGUIFQPMJDF "NFSJDBOPďDFSTJNQMFNFOUFEiDJWJDBDUJPOwQSPHSBNT TVDIBTCVJMEJOHSVSBMTDIPPMT PČFSJOHTNBMMQPY WBDDJOBUJPOT BOE QSFTFOUJOH NPWJF GFTUJWBMT BOE CBTFCBMM HBNFT XIPTF QSJNBSZ QVSQPTF XBT UP DVMUJWBUF JOGPSNBOUT UISPVHI DMPTF DPOUBDU XJUI UIF population.554VSWFJMMBODFXBTFOIBODFECZNPEFSOJ[JOHUSBOTQPSUBOESBEJP DPNNVOJDBUJPOBOEJNQSPWJOHDPPSEJOBUJPOXJUITFDVSJUZGPSDFTJO)POEVSBT XIJDI XFSF QBSUJBMMZ ĕOBODFE CZ UIF 64 8BS %FQBSUNFOU "O JOUFMMJHFODF SFQPSUTJHOFECZNJMJUBSZBUUBDIÏ'SFE5$SVTFOPUFEUIBUi'SBODJTDP.PSBOXBTBZPVOH$VCBO DBQBCMFJODBSSZJOHPVUJOWFTUJHBUJPOT< >XIPXBUDIFEPWFSUIFBDUJWJUJFTPG4BOEJOPڀڀ/BQPMFPO< >ڀڀ-FOJO .VTTPMJOJ BOE)JUMFSJOUIFJSNBSDIUPQPXFSSFMJFEVQPOBDFOUSBMJ[FEQPMJDF w +BQBOTIPVMEEPMJLFXJTFi.BXLJTITFOUJNFOUBMJUZPWFSUIFJOEJWJEVBMSJHIUT PGNBOwDPVMEOPUTJUFBTJMZBMPOHTJEFQSBDUJDBMDPOTJEFSBUJPOTJOBiXPSMEPG FUFSOBMDPOĘJDUw7 1VMMJBNT TVDDFTTPS #ZSPO &OHMF CFMJFWFE TJNJMBSMZ JO UIF OFDFTTJUZ PG B strong central state and police power as a bulwark against revolution. Born in ŴżŴųJO#VČBMP .JTTPVSJ &OHMFXBTPOFPGUIFZPVOHFTUQPMJDFBENJOJTUSBUPST JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT)FXBTLOPXOGPSIFMQJOHUPTUBNQPVUDPSSVQUJPOJOUIF ,BOTBT$JUZ1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU BWJUBMDPHJOUIFQPMJUJDBMNBDIJOFPGi#PTT 5PNw1FOEFSHBTU#FHJOOJOHIJTDBSFFSBTBQBUSPMNBOEVSJOHUIFEFQSFTTJPO IF TFSWFE BU OFBSMZ FWFSZ MFWFM PG MBX FOGPSDFNFOU JODMVEJOH BT EJSFDUPS PG SFDSVJUNFOUBOEUSBJOJOHBęFSUBLJOHBUISFFNPOUIDPVSTFBUUIF'#*TQPMJDF BDBEFNZJOŴżŷŶ)FXBTNFOUPSFECZ$IJFG-FBS3FFE BNBSJOFDBQUBJOXIP warned in Human Wolves: Seventeen Years of War on CrimePGUIFNFOBDFPG Policing in Occupied Japan
59
DPNNVOJTN ESVHT BOESBDJBMJOUFHSBUJPOBOECSBHHFEBCPVUQVODIJOHPOFPG his subordinates in the face and knocking out his front teeth after being offered B CSJCF " EFWPUFF PG + &EHBS )PPWFS XIP CFDBNF $*" TUBUJPO DIJFG JO UIF %PNJOJDBO 3FQVCMJD 3FFE BEWPDBUFE QVUUJOH DPNNVOJTUT JO DPODFOUSBUJPO DBNQT)FSBOBOJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZVOJUUIBUTIBSFEJOGPSNBUJPOXJUIUIF'#* POUIPVTBOETPGTVTQFDUFESBEJDBMT NBOZPGUIFNDJWJMSJHIUT IVNBOSJHIUT BOEQFBDFBDUJWJTUTBOEMBCPSPSHBOJ[FST XIPN3FFEDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTiBMJFO NJOEFENPOHSFMTwXIPiCMBTQIFNF"NFSJDBOJTNw8 %FTDSJCFECZBDPOUFNQPSBSZBTBTUJDLMFSGPSEFUBJMXIPTFFNFEOFWFSUP GPSHFUBGBDFPSBOBNF HPPERVBMJUJFTUPIBWFJOIJTMJOFPGXPSL
&OHMFDPOTJEFSFEUIFQPMJDFBDSJUJDBMQPJOUPGDPOUBDUCFUXFFOUIFHPWFSONFOUBOEUIF QFPQMF )F CFMJFWFE UIBU JUT FČFDUJWFOFTT DPVME CF BVHNFOUFE CZ EFWFMPQJOH TLJMMFEJOUFMMJHFODFBOEQBSBNJMJUBSZVOJUT XIJDIIFXPSLFEUPEPJO+BQBOBOE UIFOXPSMEXJEFBTEJSFDUPSPGŴŵżųEBOEUIF0ďDFPG1VCMJD4BGFUZ*UXBTGSPN Reed and Hoover that Engle developed the idea that police should serve as the iĕSTUMJOFPGEFGFOTFwBHBJOTUTVCWFSTJPO BQSJODJQBMTMPHBOPGUIF0149 In 1950 Engle was recruited by the CIA to inaugurate police training in Turkey. His position was taken over by Captain Harold Mulbar, head of a QPMJDFJOWFTUJHBUJPOTVOJU iSFETRVBEw XJUIUIF.JDIJHBO4UBUF1PMJDF XIJDI DPNQJMFEEPTTJFSTPONPSFUIBOUXFMWFUIPVTBOESFTJEFOUTBOEJOĕMUSBUFEEP[ens of radical and labor organizations. Through the war years, Mulbar spoke each week on the radio in Michigan, enlisting voluntary reports on suspected foreign agents. During the 1937 sit-down strike at the General Motors plant JO'MJOU IFMFEBUFBNPGQMBJODMPUIFTPďDFSTTFFLJOHUPHBJOJOGPSNBUJPOPO SBEJDBMBOEDPNNVOJTUFMFNFOUTJOUIF6OJUFE"VUP8PSLFSTBOE$POHSFTTPG *OEVTUSJBM0SHBOJ[BUJPOTBOEUFTUJĕFEBCPVUUIFJSBDUJWJUJFTCFGPSFUIF)PVTF 6O"NFSJDBO"DUJWJUJFT$PNNJUUFF*OĘVFODFECZUIFQSPGFTTJPOBMFUIJDPGUIF 1SPHSFTTJWF&SB .VMCBSXBTBQSPQPOFOUPGTDJFOUJĕDNFUIPET JODMVEJOHUIF use of lie detector tests, and wrote a book on the art of interrogation in which IFDPOEFNOFEUPSUVSFBTiBGVUJMF VOFUIJDBM BOECBSCBSJBOQSBDUJDFw10 .VMCBS BOE &OHMF FYFNQMJGZ UIF FČPSU UP BQQMZ UIF TUBOEBSET PG 1SPHSFTsive Era policing internationally and to expand the role of police surveillance BOEFTQJPOBHFJOUIFBOUJSBEJDBMQPMJUJDBMBHFOEBTIBSFECZCPUINBKPSQBSUJFT11 'SPNŴżŷŸUPŴżŸŵ 4$"1QSPWJEFEPWFSŻųCJMMJPOZFO SPVHIMZžŵųųNJMMJPO GPSQPMJDFTBMBSJFT USBJOJOH BOEFRVJQNFOUJO+BQBO GSPNBSNPSFEDBST SBEJPT BOEUFMFUZQFNBDIJOFT GPSEJTTFNJOBUJOHJOGPSNBUJPO UPĘBTIMJHIUT IPMTUFST BOE$PMUSFWPMWFST1VUUJOHPVUEFUBJMFETVSWFZTBOENBQT UIF14%TPVHIUUP JOTUJMM"NFSJDBODPODFQUTPGQPMJDJOH JODMVEJOHPSHBOJ[BUJPOBMQBUUFSOTBOEBO FNQIBTJT PO TDJFOUJĕD JOWFTUJHBUJPO BOE DPNNVOJUZ SFMBUJPOT BOE QSPWJEFE USBJOJOH JO VOEFSDPWFS XPSL *O )JSPTIJNB XIFSF QPMJDF XFSF LJMMFE CZ UIF BUPNJDBUUBDLTBOEQPMJDFCVJMEJOHTXFSFHVUUFE UIF14%SFCVJMUBOFXGPSDF GSPNTDSBUDI123FGPSNTXFSFTMPXUPHFUPČUIFHSPVOE JOQBSUCFDBVTFPGUIFJS 60
Under the Facade of Benevolence
JNQMFNFOUBUJPOUISPVHIDPOTFSWBUJWF+BQBOFTFMFBEFST JODMVEJOHUIFFNQFSPS "MGSFE0QQMFS IFBEPGUIF$PVSUTBOE-BX%JWJTJPOPG4$"1 DMBJNFEUIBUUIF calls for police decentralization were “ideologically sound but unrealistic.”13 0OFJNQPSUBOUNFBTVSFGBWPSFECZ.BD"SUIVS XIPEFTDSJCFE+BQBOBTUIF iXFTUFSONPTU PVUQPTU PG PVS EFGFOTF w XBT UIF TVCTUJUVUJPO PG XPPEFO DMVCT GPSUSBEJUJPOBMTIPSUTXPSETGPS+BQBOFTFQPMJDF JOQBSUGPSTZNCPMJDFČFDU0O October 11, 1945, SCAP issued a directive authorizing a reduction of police TUSFOHUI UP żŶ żŶŸ GSPN PWFS Ŵŵų ųųų "T QBSU PG UIF QVSHJOH PG VMUSBOBUJPOBMJTUT PďDFSTMJOLFEUPQBTUBCVTFTXFSFEJTNJTTFE JODMVEJOHUXPQSFGFDUVSBM DIJFGTBOEŷ żųųNFNCFSTPGUIFiUIPVHIUDPOUSPMwTFDUJPO XIJDI.BD"SUIVS TBX BT iUIF TUSPOHFTU XFBQPO PG UIF NJMJUBSZ DMJRVFw 'PSUZGPVS QFSDFOU PG police officers left voluntarily. To keep watch over purged officials, MacArthur established a special investigations bureau, which evolved into a reincarnation PGUIF5PLLÙCZNBJOUBJOJOHTVSWFJMMBODFPWFSTVTQFDUFEDPNNVOJTUT14 *O+VOFŴżŷŹ VOEFS&OHMFTMFBEFSTIJQ UIF14%FTUBCMJTIFEBOBDBEFNZJO Osaka for 2,200 police, who in turn trained the rest of the force. The acadFNZXBTFRVJQQFEXJUIBOJOEPPSSJĘFBOEQJTUPMSBOHF DPVSTFTXFSFUBVHIU JONBSLTNBOTIJQ BSSFTUUFDIOJRVFT i"OHMP4BYPOwKVSJTQSVEFODF KVEP BOE TDJFOUJĕDQPMJDJOHNFUIPET JODMVEJOHĕOHFSQSJOUJOHBOEGPSFOTJDT15 InstrucUJPONBOVBMTGSPNUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTXSJUUFOCZMFBEJOHQPMJDFUIFPSJTUTTVDI BT"VHVTU7PMMNFS DIJFGPGQPMJDFJO#FSLFMFZGSPNŴżųŸUPŴżŶŴBOEGPVOEJOH EFBO PG UIF %FQBSUNFOU PG $SJNJOPMPHZ BU UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG $BMJGPSOJB BU#FSLFMFZ XFSFUSBOTMBUFEJOUP+BQBOFTFćFĕMNMidnight in a Great City, QSPNPUJOHUIFVTFPGNPEFSOTDJFOUJĕDUFDIOJRVFT XBTBTUBQMFPGUIFDPVSTF 0WFS UJNF BU MFBTU ĕęZ USBJOJOH TDIPPMT XFSF FTUBCMJTIFE BOE QPMJDF FYFDVUJWFT XFSF TFOU UP TUVEZ UIF "NFSJDBO QPMJDF TZTUFN JODMVEJOH JO #FSLFMFZ VOEFS7PMMNFSTTVDDFTTPS+PIO%)PMTUSPN MBUFSBDPOTVMUBOUUPŴŵżųE*O SFUJSFNFOU 7PMMNFSDPSSFTQPOEFEXJUINFNCFSTPGUIF.FUSPQPMJUBO1PMJDF JO0TBLBBOEUIFSFGPSNFS:VTBJ5BLBIBTIJ XIPXSPUFBUFYUCPPLPOQBUSPMMJOH XIJDI BEWPDBUFE UIF #FSLFMFZ TZTUFN BOE JUT FNQIBTJT PO DPNNVOJUZ relations.16 4FUUJOHUIFTUBOEBSEGPSUIFUSBJOJOHQSPHSBNTJO+BQBO 7PMMNFSIBECFFO BNPOHUIFĕSTU"NFSJDBOQPMJDFDIJFGTUPHPBCSPBEUPQSPNPUFQPMJDFSFGPSN *OŴżŵŹ BęFSCFJOHFMFDUFEDIBJSNBOPGUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM"TTPDJBUJPOPG$IJFGT PG1PMJDF XIJDITPVHIUUPQSPNPUFQSPGFTTJPOBMTUBOEBSETXPSMEXJEF IFTQFOU UXPNPOUITTFUUJOHVQBQPMJDFUSBJOJOHTDIPPMBOEUFMFUZQFDPNNVOJDBUJPOT TZTUFNPOCFIBMGPG$VCBOEJDUBUPS(FSBSEP.BDIBEP*OUIFFBSMZŴżŶųT BU UIF SFRVFTU PG UIF $IJOFTF /BUJPOBMJTU HPWFSONFOU 7PMMNFS TFOU IJT EFQVUZ "SUIVS ( 8PPET UP NPEFSOJ[F UIF QPMJDF VOEFS (FOFSBMJTTJNP +JBOH +JFTIJ $IJBOH,BJTIFL 5XPPG7PMMNFST$IJOFTFTUVEFOUTBU#FSLFMFZ 'FOH:VLVO BOE'SBOL:FF XFOUCBDLUP$IJOBBęFSHSBEVBUJPOUPTFUVQQPMJDFBDBEFNJFT XIJDIJODPSQPSBUFEIJTUFBDIJOHTPONPEFSONBOBHFSJBMBOETDJFOUJĕDUFDIPolicing in Occupied Japan
61
OJRVFTćFMBSHFTUPGUIFTFBDBEFNJFT BU;IFKJBOH USBJOFEUIFTFDSFUQPMJDFPG %BJ-J XIPN044PQFSBUJWF0MJWFS+$BMEXFMMSFGFSSFEUPJOIJTNFNPJSTBTB i$IJOFTF)JNNMFSw17 ćFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTJO+BQBOCVJMUPOUIFTFEVCJPVTQSFDFEFOUT XJUIUIF HPWFSONFOUOPXJOTUJUVUJPOBMJ[JOHUIFFČPSUUPFYQPSUUIF"NFSJDBOQSPGFTTJPOBMQPMJDJOHNPEFM14%BEWJTFSTTVDIBTSFUJSFE-"1%EFQVUZDIJFG)FOSZ 4 &BUPO "SUIVS ,JNCFSMJOH QPMJDF DIJFG JO -PVJTWJMMF ,FOUVDLZ XIP MBUFS DPNBOBHFEŴŵżųE
BOE$MZEF1IFMQT DIJFGPGQPMJDFJO4QPLBOF 8BTIJOHUPO XIPXFOUPOUP*SBR #SB[JM 4PNBMJB BOE1FSV HBWFMFDUVSFTBUUIFQPMJDF BDBEFNZ BOE TFU VQ B EFUFDUJWF CVSFBV JNNJHSBUJPO BHFODZ BOE MJDFOTJOH TZTUFNGPSQSJWBUFEFUFDUJWFBHFODJFTTUBČFEQSJNBSJMZCZGPSNFSQPMJDFPďDFST who had been dishonorably discharged. They tried to recruit better-educated QFSTPOOFM BIBMMNBSLPG7PMMNFSTUFOVSFJO#FSLFMFZ
QSPNPUFEIJHIFSXBHF TUBOEBSET BOEBJEFEJOUIFTZTUFNBUJ[BUJPOPGSFDPSET QSPWJEJOHOFXTUFFMĕMF cabinets.18ćF14%GVSUIFSBVUIPSJ[FEUIFIJSJOHPGGFNBMFQPMJDFPďDFSTBOE TFU VQ B DSJNJOBM JOWFTUJHBUJPOT MBCPSBUPSZ JO 5PLZP EJSFDUFE CZ -JFVUFOBOU $BMWJO)(PEEBSE BĕSFBSNTJEFOUJĕDBUJPO CBMMJTUJDT FYQFSUXIPXBTQSPGFTTPSPGQPMJDFTDJFODFBOEUIFĕSTUEJSFDUPSPGUIF/PSUIXFTUFSO4DJFOUJĕD$SJNF %FUFDUJPO-BCPSBUPSZ XIJDICSPVHIUUPHFUIFSTQFDJBMJTUTJODIFNJTUSZ UPYJDPMPHZ NJDSPTDPQFJEFOUJĕDBUJPO BOEQIPUPHSBQIZ "NFEJDBMEPDUPSCZUSBJOJOHXIPTFSWFEXJUIUIF"SNZ.FEJDBM$PSQTJO 8PSME8BS* (PEEBSEUFTUJĕFEGPSUIFQSPTFDVUJPOBUUIF4BDDPBOE7BO[FUUJ USJBMBOEIFMQFEUPMPDBUFUXPPGUIFTVCNBDIJOFHVOTVTFEJOUIFHBOHMBOE4U Valentine’s Day Massacre in Chicago.19 His background was typical of the expeSJFODFPGNBOZPGUIFBEWJTFST XIPXFSFQJPOFFSTJOUIFQSPGFTTJPOBMJ[BUJPO PG"NFSJDBOMBXFOGPSDFNFOUBOETPVHIUUPFYUFOEUIFJSUFDIOJDBMFYQFSUJTF BCSPBE MBSHFMZUPIFMQDPOTPMJEBUF"NFSJDBTTUSBUFHJDQPTJUJPOJOUIF'BS&BTU 0OFPGUIFDFOUSBMUBTLTPGUIF14%XBTUPSFTUPSFUFMFDPNNVOJDBUJPOOFUworks ravaged during the war. At the beginning of the occupation, the phones worked only sporadically. By the early 1950s, reports boasted that technical BEWJTFST IBE FTUBCMJTIFE B SBEJP OFUXPSL BMMPXJOH GPS FBTZ DPNNVOJDBUJPO BNPOHQPMJDFBHFODJFTBDSPTTUIFDPVOUSZ20 *OBOPUIFSJNQPSUBOUJOOPWBUJPO UIF14%XPSLFEXJUIMBXZFSTUPQSPNPUF MFHJTMBUJWFBOEKVEJDJBMSFGPSNTHVBSBOUFFJOHTVTQFDUTUIFSJHIUUPIBCFBTDPSQVT TQFFEZTFOUFODJOH BOEBQQFBMćJTXBTDSVDJBMJOUIFBUUFNQUUPFOTVSF BOJOTUJUVUJPOBMDPNNJUNFOUUPEVFQSPDFTT MBDLJOHBNPOHQBTUGPSDFTCVJMUVQ by the United States. To get around a reliance on forced confessions, instruction was provided in evidence collection. In 1946, coinciding with progressive MBCPS SFGPSN 4$"1 QBTTFE B MBX HVBSBOUFFJOH QPMJUJDBM SJHIUT PG BTTFNCMZ BOEQSPUFTU BOEBVUIPSJ[JOHUIFSFMFBTFPGDPNNVOJTUBOEMFęXJOHBDUJWJTUT JNQSJTPOFEEVSJOHUIFXBS21 "OVNCFSPGBEWJTFSTFYQSFTTFEGSVTUSBUJPOUIBUUIFQPMJDFSFNBJOFEVOEFS 62
Under the Facade of Benevolence
FRVJQQFE BOE XFSF VOSFDFQUJWF UP MFBSOJOH OFX BQQSPBDIFT 1PJOUJOH UP UIF QFSTJTUFODFPGIJHIDSJNFSBUFTBOEUIFWJPMFOUTVQQSFTTJPOPGSJPUTJO0TBLB POF SFQPSUFE UIBU iNPEFSOJ[BUJPO PG QPMJDF NFUIPET NVTU CF QSFDFEFE CZ B DIBOHFJOUIFNFOUBMJUZPGQPMJDFPďDFSTUPBNPSFTDJFOUJĕDXBZPGUIJOLJOH ڀڀ1PMJDFXJUIPMEJEFBTIBOEMJOHNBDIJOFTBSFMJLFNPOLFZTSJEJOHCJDZDMFTw22 ćFTF DPNNFOUT JMMVTUSBUF UIF ĕYBUJPO PO UFDIOPMPHZ BOE NPEFSOJ[BUJPO BT a pathway to progress, which was not always shared by the local people and QPMJDFXIPNUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTXPSLFEXJUI Overcoming the “Oriental Psychology”: The Valentine and Olander Reports
*O +BOVBSZ ŴżŷŹ BT SFPSHBOJ[BUJPO BOE SFGPSN XFSF CFHJOOJOH UP UBLF SPPU (FOFSBM .BD"SUIVS SFRVFTUFE UIBU BO FNJOFOU QPMJDF FYQFSU DPNF UP +BQBO UPPWFSTFFUIFQSPDFTTćF14%DIPTF0TDBS(0MBOEFS DPNNJTTJPOFSPGUIF .JDIJHBO4UBUF1PMJDF XIPTPMJDJUFEUIFBTTJTUBODFPGIJTGPSNFSDPMMFBHVF)BSPME.VMCBS BOE-FXJT7BMFOUJOF DPNNJTTJPOFSPGUIF/FX:PSL$JUZ1PMJDF %FQBSUNFOU XIPCSPVHIUXJUIIJNTFWFSBMPGIJTBTTPDJBUFT #PUI0MBOEFSBOE7BMFOUJOFXFSFBNPOHUIFUPQQSPGFTTJPOBMTJOUIFJSĕFME 8PSLJOH IJTXBZVQGSPNBTTJTUBOUSFDPSETDMFSL JO UIF FBSMZ ŴżŵųT 0MBOEFS developed an excellent reputation for reorganizing the Michigan detective CVSFBV BOE DPOTUBCVMBSZ BEPQUJOH OFX TDJFOUJĕD JOOPWBUJPOT LFFQJOH UIF QPMJDFGSFFGSPNNBDIJOFQPMJUJDTCZQSPNPUJOHGSPNXJUIJO BOEJNQSPWJOH training, encouraging officers to take courses at Michigan State University, XIJDIXBTEFWFMPQJOHPOFPGUIFCFTUDSJNJOBMKVTUJDFQSPHSBNTJOUIFDPVOUSZ Characterizing the Wobblies (Industrial Workers of the World, or IWW) as iFOFNJFTPGUIFDPVOUSZBOEMBXBOEPSEFS w0MBOEFSBMTPPWFSTBXTUSJLFCSFBLJOHBOELFQUBĕMFPGiEBOHFSPVTBOEVO"NFSJDBOSFTJEFOUTwXIJDIIFTIBSFE with the FBI. His organization was known for its close relationship with busiOFTTFMJUFTBOEGPSUIFTUSFOHUIPGJUTSFETRVBET23 ćFTPOPGBGSVJUTUPSFPXOFSGSPN*UBMZXIPCFHBOIJTDBSFFSBTBQBUSPMNBO JOŴżųŶ 7BMFOUJOFXBTSFDPHOJ[FEGPSCSJOHJOHEJTDJQMJOFBOEQSPGFTTJPOBMJTN UPUIF/FX:PSL1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOUBOEXBTIBJMFECZUIFNew York Times as UIFiCFTUQPMJDFDPNNJTTJPOFSJODJUZIJTUPSZw0QFSBUJOHPOUIFQSFNJTFUIBU residents have the right to “expect courtesy and service in return for their tax EPMMBST wIFEJTNJTTFENPSFUIBOUISFFIVOESFEDPSSVQUPďDFSTBOEĕOFEŻ Ÿųų JOIJTĕSTUTJYZFBST ŴżŶŷoŴżŷų "GBWPSJUFPGMJCFSBMNBZPS'JPSFMMP-B(VBSEJB BOEBMJGFMPOH%FNPDSBU IFBEPQUFEBNPSFUPMFSBOUQPMJDZUPXBSETUSJLFTBOE QVCMJDEFNPOTUSBUJPOTUIBOIJTQSFEFDFTTPS UIPVHIBTUIFIJTUPSJBO.BSJMZOO 4+PIOTPOOPUFT IFIBEMJUUMFTZNQBUIZGPSDPNNVOJTUTBOEVOJPOiBHJUBUPSTw BOE SFMJFE PO TPQIJTUJDBUFE GPSNT PG DMBOEFTUJOF TVSWFJMMBODF BOE SFQSFTTJPO BOE UIF VOEFSDPWFS SFE TRVBE *O IJT USFBUNFOU PG DSJNJOBMT 7BMFOUJOF XBT Policing in Occupied Japan
63
LOPXO UP CF CSVUBM QSPNJTJOH QSPNPUJPOT UP DPQT XIP iLJDLFE UIF HPSJMMBT BSPVOEw8IFOBTUJDLVQNBOXBTCSPVHIUJODPWFSFEXJUICSVJTFTBOEEJFEJO DVTUPEZ 7BMFOUJOFEJTNJTTFEUIFBČBJSBTiKVTUBOPUIFSEFBEDSJNJOBMw#BMLJOH BUUIFTJHIUPGBXFMMESFTTFETVTQFDUJOBMJOFVQ IFBUBOPUIFSUJNFUPMEPOFPG IJTTVCPSEJOBUFTićBUWFMWFUDPMMBSTIPVMECFTNFBSFEXJUICMPPE*ڀڀEPOU XBOU UIFTF IPPEMVNT DPNJOH JO MPPLJOH BT JG UIFZ TUFQQFE PVU PG B CBSCFST DIBJS'SPNOPXPO CSJOHFNJONFTTFEVQw24 ćFTF DPNNFOUT UZQJGZ UIF MBDL PG SFHBSE GPS DJWJM MJCFSUJFT JO "NFSJDBO QPMJDFJOTUJUVUJPOT XIJDIFYUFOEFEJOUPUIFJOUFSOBUJPOBMQSPHSBNT "/FX :PSL $JUZ QPMJDF PďDFS XPSLJOH XJUI %BJ -J XBT OP EPVCU TJODFSF JO DPNNFOUJOH i)F EPFT OPUIJOH UIBU UIF /FX :PSL ADPOGFTTJPO EFQBSUNFOUXPVMEOUEPw 4VQQPSUJWFPG64GPSFJHOQPMJDZPCKFDUJWFT BTXFSF TP NBOZ PG UIFJS HFOFSBUJPO 0MBOEFS BOE 7BMFOUJOF DPODMVEFE BęFS WJTJUJOH QPMJDFQSFDJODUTUIBUUIF+BQBOFTFQPMJDFTZTUFNXBTPSHBOJ[FEOPUUPTFSWFUIF QVCMJDCVUUPBEWBODFUIFQPMJUJDBMBNCJUJPOTPGUIPTFJODPOUSPMBOEOFFEFEUP CFUSBOTGPSNFE0MBOEFSTVHHFTUFEUIBUBOBUJPOBMSVSBMQPMJDFTZTUFNCFFTUBClished under the direction of an appointed head who would be responsible to BOFMFDUFEHPWFSONFOUPďDJBM)FBEWPDBUFEJNQSPWJOHUIFQIZTJDBMGBDJMJUJFT PGQPMJDFTUBUJPOTBOEKBJMTBOEQSPWJEJOHNPEFSOFRVJQNFOUBOEXFBQPOSZ*O IJTWJFX DIBOHFIBEUPCFBDDPNQMJTIFEHSBEVBMMZCFDBVTFPGJOHSBJOFEDVMtural traditions and the peculiar “oriental psychology,” which was resistant to NPEFSOJ[BUJPO25 7BMFOUJOF XIPTUFQQFEEPXOGSPNBžŷŸ ųųųBZFBSKPCBTBDPNNFOUBUPS on the popular Gang BustersSBEJPQSPHSBNUPIFBEUIFQPMJDFSFPSHBOJ[BUJPO GPSXIJDIIFXBTQBJEžŴų ųųų
SFDPNNFOEFEUIBUXPSLJOHIPVSTCFSFEVDFE BOEQBZTZTUFNBUJ[FEUPJNQSPWFQSPGFTTJPOBMTUBOEBSETBOEUIBU4$"1TVQQMZ QBUSPM DBST SBEJPT BOE UFDIOJDBM BTTJTUBODF UP VQHSBEF DPNNVOJDBUJPOT )FDBMMFEGPSCFUUFSVOJGPSNTBOETQFFEJFSDPVSUQSPDFEVSFT UIFFSBEJDBUJPO of binding (a practice whereby arrested persons were bound with cord or rope CFGPSFCFJOHUBLFOUPEFUFOUJPO
BOEUIFFMJNJOBUJPOPGQPMJDFDPOUSPMPGUIF IFBMUIBOEXFMGBSFTZTUFNT 3FGFSSJOHUPUIFDVSSFOUTZTUFNBTiNFEJFWBM w7BMFOUJOFGVSUIFSBEWPDBUFE GPSUIFFOGPSDFNFOUPGBOUJWJDFMBXT UIFTUBOEBSEJ[BUJPOPGUSBJOJOHBUQPMJDF BDBEFNJFT BOE HSBEVBM EFDFOUSBMJ[BUJPO UISPVHI DPNNJTTJPOFST UP FOTVSF FČFDUJWF BENJOJTUSBUJWF DPOUSPM BOE GBJSFS QSPNPUJPO TUBOEBSET )F TBX UIF /FX:PSL1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOUBTBNPEFMGPS+BQBOFTFDJUJFTBOESFDPNNFOEFE FYUFOTJWFPWFSTJHIUCZ"NFSJDBO14%PďDJBMT*OIJTWJFX BEBQUJOHBO"NFSJDBOQPMJDFTZTUFNUP+BQBOIBEBEVBMQVSQPTF UP SBJTF UIF NPSBMFBOEFďciency of the new police force and to secure the respect of the general public. i/FX:PSLFSTEPOUGFBSUIFJSQPMJDFNFO UIFZSFTQFDUUIFNBOEUSVTUUIFNBOE EPOUSVOGSPNUIFN wIFUPMESFQPSUFSTićFSFJTOPSFBTPOXIZUIF+BQBOFTF QPMJDFDBOUCFUIFTBNFw26 64
Under the Facade of Benevolence
On February 28, 1947, the Japanese cabinet presented a draft plan based PO UIF SFDPNNFOEBUJPOT PG UIF 7BMFOUJOF BOE 0MBOEFS SFQPSUT XIJDI DPEJĕFEFYJTUJOHSFGPSNT JUXBTQVUJOUPFČFDUBZFBSMBUFSćFMFHBMGPVOEBUJPOT GPS WJDJPVT QPMJDF QSBDUJDFT JODMVEJOH iUIJSE EFHSFF w NFUIPET XFSF GPSNBMMZ SFNPWFE BOEUIFSJHIUUPIBCFBTDPSQVTXBTFOTVSFE1SFJOEJDUNFOUEFUFOUJPOXBTMJNJUFEUPBQFSJPEPGUFOEBZT BOEBSSFTUTDPVMECFNBEFPOMZBęFS UIFJTTVBODFPGKVEJDJBMXBSSBOUT*OBCSFBLGSPNQSFWJPVTJOUFSWFOUJPOT QPMJDF BDUJWJUJFTSFMBUFEUPTBOJUBUJPO TVCQPFOBT QVCMJDIFBMUI ĕSFT DFOTVTFOVNFSBUJPO FDPOPNJDDPOUSPMT DPOTFSWBUJPOPGOBUVSBMSFTPVSDFT BOENBSJOFBČBJST XFSFUSBOTGFSSFEUPPUIFSBHFODJFTJOPSEFSUPMJNJUUIFQPXFSTPGUIFQPMJDF" QVCMJDTBGFUZDPNNJTTJPOXBTBMTPFTUBCMJTIFEBUUIFOBUJPOBMBOENVOJDJQBM levels to ensure citizen control.27 ćF NPTU DPOUSPWFSTJBM QSPWJTJPO XBT UIF SFUFOUJPO PG UIF 3VSBM (VBSE XIJDI4$"1TVQQMJFEXJUIXFBQPOTBOETIPSUXBWFSBEJPFRVJQNFOU8PSLing with G-2 intelligence, the Guard, which could be activated in the case of a OBUJPOBMFNFSHFODZ XBTDPOTJEFSFEiOFDFTTBSZJOBDPVOUSZXJUIPVUFYQFSJFODFJOEFNPDSBDZw28ćJTSFNBSLFYFNQMJĕFTUIFDPOUSBEJDUJPOTPG64QPMJDZ XIJDI QSPNPUFE EFNPDSBDZ JO QSJODJQMF CVU EJE OPU USVTU UIF JOEJHFOPVT DBQBDJUZ GPS TFMGHPWFSONFOU 0SEFS BOE TUBCJMJUZ UPPL QSFDFEFODF PWFS DJWJM liberties, particularly as social unrest increased. “There Comes a Time When Patience Ceases to Be a Virtue”: Penal Reform and Its Limits
0MBOEFSBOE7BMFOUJOFQSPNPUFEBNFBTVSFJNQPSUBOUUPUIFJSSFDPNNFOEBUJPOTBOPWFSIBVMPGUIFQSJTPOTZTUFNPOUIFNPEFMPGQSPHSFTTJWFSFGPSNT 6OCFLOPXOTUUPNBOZ4$"1PďDJBMT XIPVOEFSFTUJNBUFEUIFBCJMJUZPGUIF Japanese to advance progressive social change on their own accord, JapaOFTFPďDJBMTIBETUVEJFE&VSPQFBOQSJTPOTZTUFNTEVSJOHUIF.FJKJFSBBOE FNCSBDFENBOZBTQFDUTPG8FTUFSOQFOPMPHZ JODMVEJOHUIFTFQBSBUFDMBTTJĕDBUJPOPGNBMFBOEGFNBMFQSJTPOFSTBOEKVWFOJMFT PVUMBXJOHUPSUVSF UIFJNQPTJUJPOPGMBCPSSFHJNFOTBOEBSFXBSETTZTUFN BOETVQQPSUGPSSFIBCJMJUBUJPO through vocational training and education. After touring penal facilities in the MBUFŴżŵųT UIF6OJWFSTJUZPG8JTDPOTJODSJNJOPMPHJTU+PIO-(JMMJOXSPUFUIBU +BQBOIBETPNFUIJOHUPUFBDI"NFSJDBOTJOiUIFDBSFXJUIXIJDITIFTFMFDUT IFS QSJTPO XBSEFOT UIF USBJOJOH PG QSJTPO PďDJBMT BOE JO UIF USFBUNFOU PG offenders.”29 3FĘFDUJOHUIFEFUFSJPSBUJOHDPOEJUJPOTEVSJOH8PSME8BS** 14%JOTQFDUJPOTBUUIFCFHJOOJOHPGUIFPDDVQBUJPOGPVOEiBQQBMMJOHQSJWBUJPOTwBNPOH EFUBJOFFT NBOZPGXIPNXFSFIFMEGPSMFOHUIZQFSJPETXJUIPVUUSJBM$IJMESFO BOE QSFHOBOU XPNFO XFSF DPOĕOFE XJUI UIF HFOFSBM QPQVMBUJPO UIFSF XBT JOTVďDJFOUMJHIUBOEWFOUJMBUJPO BOEJONBUFTXFSFEFQSJWFEPGQIZTJDBMFYFSPolicing in Occupied Japan
65
DJTFBOENFEJDBMDBSF4BOJUBUJPOTUBOEBSETXFSFiVOEFTJSBCMF wBOEiPCOPYJPVT TNFMMTwBOEiNVTUJOFTTwXFSFSFQPSUFEJONBOZPGUIFPWFSDSPXEFEDFMMT XIJDI SFTFNCMFEiEVOHFPOTw1SJTPOFSTXJUIDPNNVOJDBCMFEJTFBTFTJODMVEJOHTDBCJFTXFSFNJYFEJOXJUIUIFPUIFST DPSQPSBMQVOJTINFOUXBTDPNNPO BOE death rates were excessive.30 ćF14%QSJTPOCSBODI IFBEFECZ#VSEFUU-FXJT GPSNFSDPNNJTTJPOFSPG DPSSFDUJPOTJO/FX:PSL$JUZBOEBOBENJSFSPGUIFMFHFOEBSZQSJTPOSFGPSNFST ;FCVMPO#SPDLXBZBOEćPNBT.PUU0TCPSOF XPSLFEUPSFDUJGZUIFTFQSPCMFNTBTBOJOUFHSBMBTQFDUPGUIFDJWJMMJCFSUJFTEJSFDUJWF*OĘVFODFECZTPDJBMTDJFOUJĕDSFTFBSDIPOUIFFOWJSPONFOUBMSPPUTPGIVNBOCFIBWJPS -FXJTJOBŴżŵŴ CPPLBEWPDBUFEiLJOE ĕSN BOEJOUFMMJHFOUwUSFBUNFOUPGUIFDSJNJOBMPČFOEFS XIPTFiCMPPETIPVMEOPUCFDPOUBNJOBUFE IJTCPEZEFTUSPZFEBOEIJTTQJSJU broken and brutalized. . . . He should be trained as a child in school, treated as a QBUJFOUJOBIPTQJUBM NPMEFEBTBOBQQSFOUJDFJOIJTUSBEFTPUIBUIFNBZCFBCMF UPUBLFIJTQMBDFBTBTFMGTVQQPSUJOHNFNCFSPGTPDJFUZw31 'PMMPXJOHUIFTFQSJODJQMFT -FXJTBOEIJTTUBČJODMVEJOH"ENJSBM-MPZE8 .D$PSLMF BTPDJPMPHZQSPGFTTPSXJUIB1I%GSPN/FX:PSL6OJWFSTJUZ 8JMCVS#VSLF BOJOUFMMJHFODFPďDFSXJUIBMBXEFHSFFGSPN*OEJBOB6OJWFSTJUZ BOE(FPSHF'JU[HJCCPO B)BSWBSE1I%QSPNPUFEJNQSPWFETBOJUBUJPOBOE IFBMUIDBSF SFPSHBOJ[FEUIFQSJTPOFSDMBTTJĕDBUJPOQSPDFEVSF TFUVQBQBSPMF BOE JOEFUFSNJOBUF TFOUFODJOH TZTUFN BOE TFQBSBUFE XPNFO BOE KVWFOJMF JONBUFTGSPNUIFNFOćFQSPGFTTJPOBMUSBJOJOHPGHVBSETJONPEFSOQFOPMPHZCFDBNFPCMJHBUPSZ#BJMXBTNBEFBNBUUFSPGMBX BOEJONBUFTXFSFUPCF DPOTJEFSFEJOOPDFOUVOUJMQSPWFOHVJMUZ4DIPPMTXFSFPQFOFEGPSJONBUFT BOE the PSD encouraged wardens to allow even recalcitrant prisoners daily exercise and regular baths.32 -POHUFSN TPMJUBSZ DPOĕOFNFOU XBT BCPMJTIFE BOE psychologists were brought in to assist in rehabilitation. Recreational facilities XFSFBMTPFTUBCMJTIFE BOETQPSUJOHUFBNT OPUBCMZCBTFCBMM BOETVNPXSFTUMJOH DPNQFUJUJPOT XFSF PSHBOJ[FE ćF 14% BEEJUJPOBMMZ IFMQFE TFU VQ JOEVTUSJBM USBJOJOH TIPQT BOEQFOBMGBSNTNPEFMFEBęFSUIF*XBIJHDPMPOZJOUIF1IJMJQpines and the George Junior Republic.33 "MUIPVHI-FXJTBDLOPXMFEHFEiMJNJUBUJPOTwCFDBVTFPGUIFTVQQPTFEMZEJGferent Japanese attitude toward the “worth of the individual,” PSD inspection SFQPSUT TIPX JNQSPWFNFOU JO B OVNCFS PG UIF GBDJMJUJFT UBSHFUFE VOEFS UIF SFGPSNT"OJONBUFBUUIF"NPSJQSJTPODPNNFOUFEJOŴżŷźUIBUiTJODFUIFXBS UIFGPPEJTXPSTFCVUIBOEMJOHQSJTPOFSTJTNVDICFUUFSXJUIOPNJMJUBSZPSEFST CFJOHHJWFOBOEQTZDIPMPHJDBMIBOEMJOHNPSFDPOTJEFSBUFw34 Public safety offiDJBMTXFSFFTQFDJBMMZJNQSFTTFEXJUIUIFSVOOJOHPGUIF4BQQPSPQSJTPOCZ+ ,VTPNPUP"QSJTPOSFQPSUDIBSBDUFSJ[FEUIFMBXTDIPPMHSBEVBUFBTBIJHIMZ JOUFMMJHFOUBOEDVMUVSFENBOXIPMJLFEUPEJTDVTTQIJMPTPQIZBOEXBTJOiTZNpathy with the spirit of rehabilitation which is the basis of the ordinance set up VOEFSUIFOFXAQSPHSFTTJWFTZTUFNw"DDPSEJOHUPUIFJOTQFDUPS ,VTPNPUPIBE 66
Under the Facade of Benevolence
worked vigorously to haul snow out of the prison yard to allow for recreation, JOJUJBUFE DPVOTFMJOH QSPHSBNT BOE LFQU UIF QSJTPOFST QSPEVDUJWF UISPVHI XPSLJOWBSJPVTJOEVTUSJFTBOEPOBOBEKBDFOUGBSNUIBUIFIFMQFEEFWFMPQ35 ćFBEVMBUJPOGPS,VTPNPUPFYFNQMJĕFTUIFTQJSJUPGQSPHSFTTJWFTUZMFSFGPSN QSPNPUFE CZ "NFSJDBO PďDJBMT BOE UIFJS CFMJFG JO UIF DBQBDJUZ PG UIF QFOBM TZTUFNUPSFIBCJMJUBUFJONBUFTBOENPMEUIFNJOUPQSPEVDUJWFDJUJ[FOT The Fuchu prison outside Tokyo, whose warden had been injured in the BUPNJDCMBTU XBTIFSBMEFEBTBOPUIFSNPEFMPGSFGPSN1PJOUJOHUPEFDMJOJOH UVCFSDVMPTJTSBUFT BTRVFBLZDMFBONFTTIBMM BOEUIFNBOVGBDUVSFCZQSJTPOFST of pins, bike parts, cigarette lighters, and locks, a laudatory article in Japan News QSPDMBJNFE 'VDIV iBO JOTUJUVUJPO PG XIJDI BOZ DPVOUSZ DPVME CF KVTUJĕBCMZ QSPVE#ZOPTUSFUDIPGJNBHJOBUJPODPVMEUIFQSJTPOCFEFTDSJCFEBTDPNGPSUBCMF ZFUUIFDPOEJUJPOTVOEFSXIJDIQSJTPOFSTMJWFDPVMEIBSEMZCFJNQSPWFE XIJMFTUJMMLFFQJOHJUBQMBDFPGQVOJTINFOUćFBUNPTQIFSFJTUIBUPGBNPEFSO GBDUPSZJOXIJDIUIFXPSLFSTBSFHFUUJOHBGBJSEFBMGSPNNBOBHFNFOUw36 #FOFBUIUIFSBEBSPG4$"1TQVCMJDSFMBUJPOTNBDIJOF IPXFWFS QSPCMFNT MVSLFE"GPSNFSHVBSEBUUIFQSJTPO .VSBJ,B[VP DPNQMBJOFEBCPVUJMMFHBM GPPEEJTUSJCVUJPO UIFBQQSPQSJBUJPOPGHPWFSONFOUTVQQMJFTCZHVBSETGPSQFSTPOBMVTF BOEUIFDSVFMUZPGUIFDIJFGKBJMFS XIPESPWFBUMFBTUPOFJONBUFUP IBOHIJNTFMG"QSJTPOFSIFJOUFSWJFXFETUBUFE i*UTFFNTBTJGXFIBWFDPNFUP UIFQSJTPOOPUUPCFHJWFONPSBMUSBJOJOHCVUUPTUVEZIPXXFDBOSBUJPOBMJ[F UIFNFUIPETPGSPCCJOHUIFQSJTPOFSTw37 ćFTFDPNNFOUTQPJOUUPUIFQFSTJTUFODFPGTFSJPVTBCVTFTJOFWFOUIFCFTU of Japan’s prisons, which PSD officials tried to keep under wraps. Inspection SFQPSUTEFUBJMDPOUJOVFEQPPSTBOJUBUJPOBOENFEJDBMDBSFBTXFMMBTPWFSDSPXEJOHJONBOZGBDJMJUJFT XIJDI-FXJTTUFBNXBTVOBCMFUPDVSC PXJOHJOQBSUUP DVMUVSBMBOEMPHJTUJDBMCBSSJFSTBTXFMMBTJOEJČFSFODFPOUIFQBSUPGUIF"NFSJDBOTTUFNNJOHGSPNUIFSBDJBMJ[FECFMJFGUIBU+BQBOFTFEJEOPUWBMVFUIFiXPSUI PGUIFJOEJWJEVBMw*O)VFOP XIFSFNFBMTXFSFQSPWJEFECZBMPDBMSFTUBVSBOU CVU POMZ JG JONBUFT DPVME QBZ -JFVUFOBOU $PMPOFM 3PCFSU ' .BMCVSH B -PT "OHFMFTQPMJDFPďDFSXIPXPVMEHPPOUPCFDPNFQPMJDFDIJFGJO-BT7FHBT SFQPSUFEUIBUĕęFFOZFBSPMETXFSFJODBSDFSBUFEXJUIBEVMUTJOBiEJSUZTUJOLJOH DPOEJUJPOPGTMPWFOMJOFTTXJUIUIFDFMMTPTNBMMUIBUBMMIBEUPTMFFQCPEZUPCPEZJOBTUJĘJOHIFBUwćF)JSPTIJNBQSJTPO NFBOXIJMFXBTOFWFSQSPQFSMZSFCVJMUBęFSCFJOHSBWBHFECZUIFBUPNJDCPNC Lieutenant George Cornelius reported that rats pervaded the facility and that JONBUFTDPVMEXBTIUIFJSVOEFSXFBSPOMZPODFFWFSZUFOEBZT38 *O"QSJMŴżŷż 14%DIJFG)&1VMMJBNFYQSFTTFEDPODFSOUP-FXJTBCPVUUIF QPPSNPSBMFBOEFTQSJUEFDPSQTBNPOHUIFQSJTPOCSBODIBOEDPNQMBJOFEUIBU “the stars” were not pulling together, notably Fitzgibbon and McCorkle.39 The iSFWFSTFDPVSTFwBOEIBSEFOJOHBOUJDPNNVOJTUTFOUJNFOUTXFSFMFBEJOHUPB HFOFSBMTIJęBXBZGSPNUIFHPBMPGSFIBCJMJUBUJPO4UBSUJOHJOŴżŷż SFQPSUTTIPX Policing in Occupied Japan
67
JODSFBTFEEFUFOUJPOPGDPNNVOJTUTBOEPUIFSTPDJBMiBHJUBUPSTwEVFUPQPMJDF SPVOEVQTćFQSPCMFNPGPWFSDSPXEJOH DBVTFEJOQBSUCZIJHIDSJNFSBUFT CFDBNFNPSFBDVUF BOETVTQFDUTXFSFIFMEGPSMFOHUIZQFSJPETXJUIPVUUSJBM *ONBUFTEFTJHOBUFEBTiDPNNJFTwXFSFTFHSFHBUFEBOEUSFBUFEJOBEFIVNBOJ[JOHBOEBCVTJWFXBZ.BOZXFSFQVUJOTPMJUBSZDPOĕOFNFOUGPSMPOHQFSJods for causing “disturbances” and “ranting about their rights.” Following the TVQQSFTTJPOPGBSFCFMMJPOJO,PCF BHVBSEXBTSFQSJNBOEFEGPSCSJOHJOHPOF TVTQFDU B MBX CPPL BOE VSHJOH IJN UP EFNBOE B MFHBM IFBSJOH UP DMBSJGZ UIF reasons for his arrest.40 "ęFS UIF SFTJHOBUJPO PG .D$PSLMF BO BEWPDBUF PG FEVDBUJPO QSPHSBNT and group therapy, the PSD brought in Alfred Dowd, warden of the Indiana TUBUFQSJTPOJO.JDIJHBO$JUZ XIPXBTLOPXOGPSCFJOHiUPVHIBOETRVBSFw BOEGPSIJTFYQFSUJTFJOQSFWFOUJOHBOERVFMMJOHQSJTPOSJPUT41 A supporter of DBQJUBMQVOJTINFOU %PXEDBMMFEGPSBTFQBSBUFQFOBMGBDJMJUZBU)PLLBJEPGPS iNBMDPOUFOUT wXSJUJOHUP1VMMJBNJO'FCSVBSZŴżŷż i*BQQSFDJBUFUIBUOPPOF wants publicity of an unfavorable nature but this is the kind of situation callJOHGPSTUSPOHNFBTVSFTw)FBEEFEUIBUTPNFQSJTPOFSTXFSFBT iTUVCCPSOBTNVMFTwXIPPOMZVOEFSTUBOEBiQJTTFMNDMVCCFUXFFOUIFFZFTw Although, he conceded, the “general trend nowadays is to conduct prisons in a IVNBOFGBTIJPO UIFSFDPNFTBUJNFXIFOQBUJFODFDFBTFTUPCFBWJSUVFw42 ćFTFSFNBSLTFNCPEZUIFNJOETFU TJNJMBSUPUIBUPGMBXBOEPSEFSIBXLT JO UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT VOEFSQJOOJOH UIF SFUSFODINFOU PG SFGPSN #FDBVTF PG UIFQFSDFJWFEUISFBUPGDPNNVOJTN %PXEBOEIJTDPMMFBHVFTBCBOEPOFEUIF FNQIBTJTPODJWJMMJCFSUJFT XIJDIXBTMJHIUBUUJNFTUPCFHJOXJUIćJTSFTVMUFE in greater guard brutality and the restoration of a repressive penal order as realQPMJUJLUSJVNQIFEPWFSQSPHSFTTJWFJEFBMJTN43 Going after the Reds: The “Reverse Course” and Revival of the Tokkô Spirit?
(FPSHF',FOOBO UIFBSDIJUFDUPGUIFDPOUBJONFOUEPDUSJOF XBTBLFZĕHVSF TQFBSIFBEJOHUIFiSFWFSTFDPVSTFw)FBSHVFEUIBUQPMJDFBOEQSJTPOSFGPSNT went too far in weakening the state’s ability to control the population and DSJUJDJ[FEUIFQVSHJOHPGiXBSDSJNJOBMTwBOEUIFBEPQUJPOPGiMFOJFOUQPMJDJFTw UPXBSEUIF+BQBOFTFDPNNVOJTUT XIP BTIFXSPUFJOIJTNFNPJST XFSFiCFJOH HJWFOBGSFFĕFMEGPSQPMJUJDBMBDUJWJUZBOEXFSFJODSFBTJOHUIFJSTUSFOHUISBQJEMZw ćFMBDLPGBOFČFDUJWFDPVOUFSJOUFMMJHFODFGPSDF BSNZ BOENBSJUJNFQPMJDFJO IJTWJFXDSFBUFEBiTFUVQڀڀGBWPSBCMFڀڀGPSBDPNNVOJTUUBLFPWFSw44 ,FOOBOT DPVOUFSQBSUT JO UIF 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU QSPDMBJNFE UIF OFFE UP achieve a balance capable of avoiding “the excesses of the pre-surrender JapaOFTF QPMJDF TZTUFNw BOE iZFU OPU MFBWF UIF QPMJDF JNQPUFOU UP FYFDVUF UIFJS responsibility for public order and safety.” They feared that new laws were 68
Under the Facade of Benevolence
iTXJOHJOHUIFQFOEVMVNUPUIFPUIFSFYUSFNF wSFTVMUJOHJOUIFOFFEGPSSFWJTJPOTUPiTUSFOHUIFOBOEOPUXFBLFOUIF+BQBOFTFQPMJDF wXIJMFBMMPXJOHUIFN UPiNBJOUBJOQVCMJDQFBDFBOEPSEFSXJUIPVUJOGSJOHJOHVQPODJWJMMJCFSUJFTw45 1SJNF.JOJTUFS4IJHFSV:PTIJEB ŴżŷŻoŴżŸŷ
BGPSNFSBNCBTTBEPSUP3PNF BOEQSPQPOFOUPGFYQBOTJPOJO$IJOB DPNQMBJOFEUIBUQPMJDFEFDFOUSBMJ[BUJPO QSFWFOUFEFČFDUJWFBDUJPOBHBJOTUiDPNNVOJTUTJOTNBMMUPXOTBOEWJMMBHFTXIP UPPLQPTTFTTJPOPGQPMJDFTUBUJPOTBOEPDDVQJFENVOJDJQBMPďDFTڀڀ4USJLFST PDDVQJFEGBDUPSJFTJOUIFTBNFXBZBOECFHBOPQFSBUJOHUIFNGPSUIFJSPXO QSPĕUćFQPMJDFIBEJOUSVUIDFBTFEUPNFBONVDIw46*O5BJSB JO'VLVTIJNB QSFGFDUVSF BęFSUIFĕSJOHPGŴŷŶNFNCFSTPGUIF$PBM.JOF8PSLFST6OJPO JODMVEJOH UIF DIBJSNBO BOE WJDF DIBJSNBO XIP CFMPOHFE UP UIF $PNNVOJTU1BSUZ BNPCPDDVQJFEQPMJDFIFBERVBSUFSTGPSFJHIUIPVSTBOEIVOHSFE CBOOFSTGSPNUIFCVJMEJOHćFTDIPMBS$IBMNFST+PIOTPODIBSBDUFSJ[FEUIJT incident as “the closest thing to actual insurrection that occurred in Japan in Ŵżŷżw *U EFNPOTUSBUFE UIBU UIF iEVBM QPMJDF TZTUFN XBT JODBQBCMF PG DPQJOH XJUI PSHBOJ[FE TVCWFSTJWF FMFNFOUT w BT SJHIUJTU DJUJ[FOT PSHBOJ[FE B CPEZ PG 1,300 vigilantes.47 'FBSJOHUIFEBXOPGSFWPMVUJPO :PTIJEBQSPQPTFEBSFWJTJPOPGQPMJDFMBXT QMBDJOHUIFQPMJDFCBDLVOEFSDFOUSBMHPWFSONFOUDPOUSPM4PDJBMJTUTJOQBSMJBNFOUGFSWFOUMZPQQPTFEUIFJEFB XIJDIUIFZTBXBTBTUFQUPXBSESFWJWJOHBOUJEFNPDSBUJDQSBDUJDFT48.BOZPGUIFQVCMJDGFMUTJNJMBSMZ*OTQJUFPGUIFFNCSBDF of defeat by a war-weary population, Japan was rife with protest throughout UIFQPTUXBSPDDVQBUJPO PXJOHMBSHFMZUPUIFTPDJBMBOEFDPOPNJDEJTMPDBUJPO and poverty gripping the country. Tokyo and other cities had been reduced to SVCCMF CZ "NFSJDBO CPNCJOH XIJDI DSJQQMFE UIF FDPOPNJD JOGSBTUSVDUVSF $PSSVQUJPOBOEHSBęBNPOHBVUIPSJUJFTBOEUIFTJQIPOJOHPČPGSFMJFGBJEPO UIF CMBDL NBSLFU POMZ NBEF UIJOHT XPSTF49 Police records refer to constant TUSJLFTBOEEFNPOTUSBUJPOTBNPOHXPSLFST QFBTBOUT BOETUVEFOUT XIPDBMMFE GPSMBSHFSGPPEBMMPDBUJPOT XBHFJODSFBTFT KPCDSFBUJPOQSPHSBNT QVOJTINFOU PGXBSDSJNJOBMT UIFSFTJHOBUJPOPGUIF:PTIJEBHPWFSONFOU BOEBOFOEUPUIF occupation.50 ćFMBCPSNPWFNFOU XIJDIJOUIFXPSETPGUIF"NFSJDBOKPVSOBMJTU3PCFSU5FYUPSIBEBiSFDPSEGPSPSEFSMZCFIBWJPSUIBUXPVMEQVUUPTIBNFTJNJMBS NPWFNFOUTJOUIFIJTUPSZPGNBOZBAEFNPDSBUJD8FTUFSODPVOUSZ JODMVEJOH our own,” was strong despite being subjected to surveillance, co-optation, BOEIBSBTTNFOUCZQPMJDFDPVOUFSJOUFMMJHFODFVOJUT FWFOUVBMMZDBVTJOHVOJPO NFNCFSTIJQUPEFDMJOF 51ćF+$1PSHBOJ[FENBTTEFNPOTUSBUJPOTJO5PLZP and other big cities during May Day celebrations and on the anniversary of VJ %BZ.FNCFSTIJQQFBLFEJOTQSJOHŴżŷż GPMMPXJOHUIFJNQPTJUJPOPGFDPOPNJD BVTUFSJUZNFBTVSFTSFDPNNFOEFECZUIF%FUSPJUCBOLFS+PTFQI%PEHFUPDVU EPXOPOJOĘBUJPO&OEPSTFECZUIF8BMM4USFFUoDPOOFDUFE+BQBOMPCCZ XIJDI TPVHIUUPLFFQUIF'BS&BTUPQFOUP"NFSJDBOHPPETBOEJOWFTUNFOU UIF%PEHF Policing in Occupied Japan
69
SFGPSNTSFTVMUFEJONBTTMBZPČTBOEXBHFSFEVDUJPOT DVSUBJMNFOUPGXPSLFST rights to strike and to bargain collectively, an increase in food costs because of UIFSFEVDUJPOPGHPWFSONFOUTVCTJEJFT BOEUIFDVUUJOHPGWJUBMTPDJBMTFSWJDFT Theodore Cohen of SCAP tellingly described the new policies as having been iSVUIMFTTMZwJNQPTFEiXJUIPVUSFHBSEGPS+BQBOFTFWJFXTw52 %FTQJUF"NFSJDBODMBJNTUIBUJUXBT3VTTJBOEPNJOBUFEBOEBiDPOTQJSBDZ GSPN XJUIJO w UIF +$1 XPSLFE JOEFQFOEFOUMZ PG UIF 4PWJFU $PNJOUFSO BOE FNCSBDFE OPOWJPMFOU NFBOT PG QSPUFTU JO DIBMMFOHJOH FDPOPNJD JOKVTUJDFT BOEUIFQPMJUJDBMTUBUVTRVP-FBEFSTTVDIBT/PTBLB4BO[ʪ 0LBOP4VTVNV
,ZʷJDIJ5PLVEB BOE:PTIJP4IJHBXFSFTLJMMFEPSHBOJ[FSTXIPIBECFFOFYJMFE PSJNQSJTPOFEEVSJOH8PSME8BS**GPSUIFJSQBDJĕTN8JOOJOHUIJSUZĕWF%JFU TFBUTJOUIF+BOVBSZŴżŷżFMFDUJPOT UIF+$1MFHJTMBUPSTXFSFQBSMJBNFOUBSJBOT PQQPTFEUPUIFSFJOTUBMMBUJPOPGUIFFNQFSPS XIPNUIFZWJFXFEBTBXBSDSJNJnal and despot. They sought a united front with the Socialist Party, pursuing B iEFNPDSBUJD SFWPMVUJPOw XJUIJO B DBQJUBMJTU GSBNFXPSL JODMVEJOH XPSLFST DPOUSPMPGGBDUPSJFTćFZDBMMFEGPSUIFEFTUSVDUJPOOPUPGDBQJUBMJTNQFSTFCVU SBUIFSPGUIFTZTUFNPGiNPOPQPMJTUJDDBQJUBMJTNwEPNJOBUFECZUIF;BJCBUTV PSDPSQPSBUFDMJRVF XIJDICFDBNFFOUSFODIFEBTBSFTVMUPGUIF%PEHFSFGPSNT and the “reverse course.”53 "T)FOSZ0JOBT,VLLPOFOEPDVNFOUT "NFSJDBOQPMJDZUPXBSEVOSFTUJO +BQBODIBOHFEGSPNPOFPGHSVEHJOHUPMFSBUJPOJOŴżŷŸUPJODSFBTJOHTVTQJDJPO in 1946 to outright hostility and repression by the end of the decade. In May ŴżŷŹ .BD"SUIVSJTTVFEBXBSOJOHBHBJOTUUIFiHSPXJOHBOEEBOHFSPVTNPWFNFOUUPXBSETPSHBOJ[FEHSPVQWJPMFODF wBOEDIBSBDUFSJ[FEQVCMJDEFNPOTUSBUJPOT BT B iNFOBDF UP UIF TFDVSJUZ PG UIF PDDVQBUJPOw "U UIF TBNF UJNF UIBU XBSDSJNJOBMTXFSFCFJOHSFTUPSFEUPQPTJUJPOTPGQSPNJOFODF IFQSFTTFEGPS UIFCBOOJOHPGDPNNVOJTUMJUFSBUVSFBOEUIFFYQVMTJPOPGDPNNVOJTUTGSPN VOJWFSTJUJFT BOEFOBDUFEFEVDBUJPOBMSFGPSNTUPFOTVSFUIBUDPNNVOJTNXBT QPSUSBZFEJOUIFDMBTTSPPNBTUIFFRVJWBMFOUPGGBTDJTN54 0O"QSJMŷ Ŵżŷż JOSFTQPOTFUPUIF+$1TFMFDUPSBMHBJOT NPVOUJOHQSPUFTU BHBJOTUUIF%PEHFSFGPSNT BOEJTPMBUFEBDUTPGJOEVTUSJBMTBCPUBHF XIJDIHPWFSONFOUBVUIPSJUJFTUSJFEUPMJOLUPBDPPSEJOBUFEQMPU
.BD"SUIVSFYUFOEFE *NQFSJBM0SEJOBODFŴųŴ QSPWJEJOHBMFHBMCBTJTGPSUIFTVSWFJMMBODFBOEJOWFTUJHBUJPO PG DPNNVOJTUT FOBCMJOH QPMJDF UP HBJO B iUIPSPVHI BOE JOUJNBUF LOPXMFEHFPGQBSUZBDUJWJUJFTw0WFSUXFOUZUIPVTBOEDPNNVOJTUTBOEiGFMMPX USBWFMFSTwMPTUUIFJSKPCT JODMVEJOHBOVNCFSPGQPMJDF XIPXFSFGPSDFEUPUBLF MPZBMUZ PBUIT +$1 MFBEFST XFSF UISVTU iVOEFSHSPVOE w JNQSJTPOFE PS FYJMFE UIFJSIPNFTTVCKFDUFEUPQSFEBXOSBJET1SJNF.JOJTUFS:PTIJEBIFMQFEQBTT a “subversive activities prevention law” and created an organization under the BUUPSOFZHFOFSBMUPFOGPSDFMFHJTMBUJPOBHBJOTUDPNNVOJTUTBOEBTTVNFDPOUSPM of the police in the event of a revolutionary insurrection.55 ćFiMPTTPG$IJOBwBOEUIFPVUCSFBLPGUIF,PSFBO8BSJOŴżŸųJOUFOTJĕFE 70
Under the Facade of Benevolence
GFBSTBCPVUUIFXBOJOHPG"NFSJDBOIFHFNPOZBOECPMTUFSFEUIFNPWFNFOU toward expanded police authority. MacArthur told the Nippon Times that “the DVSSFOUDPOĘJDUJO,PSFBTQFBLTUPVTPGIPXUFSSJCMFTVCWFSTJWFBDUJWJUJFTBOE UIFQMBOOJOHPGMBXMFTTNJOPSJUJFTBSFćFBVHNFOUBUJPOPGQPMJDFTUSFOHUIJT VOEPVCUFEMZBEFTJSFPGUIFNBKPSJUZPGUIFQFPQMFFYDFQUUIFDPNNVOJTUTw)F XBSOFEPGUIFOFFEUPQBZBUUFOUJPOUPUIFiTMJQQJOHPGSJHIUJTUTBNPOHUIFN who have a hallucination to take the current international situation for the revival of a past golden age.”56ćFTFDPNNFOUTDPOWFZ.BD"SUIVSTEFTJSFUP JOUJNJEBUFUIF+$1 XIJDIIFDIBSBDUFSJ[FEBTUIFiTBUFMMJUFPGBOJOUFSOBUJPOBM QSFEBUPSZ GPSDF w XJUIPVU HJWJOH UIF JNQSFTTJPO UIBU IF XBT BDDPNNPEBUJOH SJHIUXJOH VMUSBOBUJPOBMJTUT /FWFSUIFMFTT IF XBT DPNNJUUFE UP VTJOH UIF QPMJDFUPDSBDLEPXOPONBOZPGUIFTBNFGPSDFTUIBUPQQPTFENJMJUBSZSVMFBOE TVQQPSUFENBOZPGUIFTBNFUBDUJDT The PSD worked increasingly to enhance police surveillance and espionage DBQBCJMJUJFT XIJDI.VMCBSBOE&OHMFXFSFXFMMFRVJQQFEUPEP8JUIDPMMFBHVFT such as Arthur M. Thurston, an FBI agent with the national defense division who had headed the OSS counterespionage branch in China during World 8BS ** BOE -JFVUFOBOU -FF &DIPMT B iEZOBNJD FYUSPWFSUFE FHPUJTU w BDDPSEJOHUPIJT044QFSTPOBMJUZTLFUDI iQPTTFTTJOHGFBSMFTTDPVSBHFBOETUBNJOBCVU WFSZMJUUMFJOUFMMFDUVBMBCJMJUZ wUIFZQSPWJEFEFMFDUSPOJDCVHHJOHFRVJQNFOUBOE TPVOESFDPSEJOH NBDIJOFT ĕSTU EFWFMPQFE CZ B $IJDBHP TDJFOUJTU JO ŴżŶŹ GPS eavesdropping. They also assisted the special investigations bureau headed by GPSNFS5PLLÙPďDFS.JUTVTBEB:PTIJLBXBJODVMUJWBUJOHJOGPSNBOUTBOEDPNQJMJOHEBUBCBOLTPOiDPNNVOJTUBHJUBUPSTwBOEiTVCWFSTJWFTw57 Orrin DeForest, a CIA counterintelligence specialist and national police liaison who later TPVHIUUPBQQMZ+BQBOFTFQSPDFEVSFJO7JFUOBN XSPUFJOIJTNFNPJSTUIBUUIF +BQBOFTFXFSFiGBOBUJDDPMMFDUPSTPGJOGPSNBUJPO BMXBZTFYFSUJOHUIFNTFMWFTUP BDIJFWFBDPNQSFIFOTJWFVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGBQFSTPOBOEIJTBDUJWJUJFTCFGPSF NBLJOHBOZPWFSUNPWFTBHBJOTUIJNڀڀćFJSHPBMXBTOPUIJOHMFTTUIBOUPUBM knowledge.”58 ćFTFDPNNFOUTSBJTFRVFTUJPOTBCPVUXIPXBTBEWJTJOHXIPNBOEQPJOU UPUIFTUSJWJOHPG"NFSJDBOBEWJTFSTGPSUPUBMJOGPSNBUJPODPOUSPM XIJDIXBT BQQMJFEJOMBUFSJOUFSWFOUJPOT BOEBUIPNFVOEFSUIF'#*T$0*/5&-130 " Z Special Unit attached to the PSD’s Special Operations Branch kidnapped leftXJOHEJTTJEFOUT TVDIBTUIFDPNNVOJTUJOUFMMFDUVBM8BUBSV,BKJ XIPIBECFFO JOWPMWFEJOFČPSUTUPSFFEVDBUF+BQBOFTF*NQFSJBM"SNZ108TJO$IJOB BOE plotted secret operations against North Korea and possibly the Soviet Union. 'SPN0LJOBXB XIFSFPOFPGUIFBENJOJTUSBUPST 1BVM)4LVTF MBUFSSFDSVJUFE )NPOH USJCBM MFBEFST GPS UIF $*" JO -BPT TPNF EFUBJOFE DPNNVOJTUT XFSF TIJQQFEUP#PMJWJB"UUIFCFIFTUPG$IBSMFT8JMMPVHICZ XIPSFDSVJUFE*NQFSJBM"SNZHFOFSBMTMBUFSMJOLFEUPBŴżŸŵDPVQQMPUJOUP(ŵTIJTUPSJDBMCSBODI police spied on SCAP officials and Japanese politicians suspected of having Policing in Occupied Japan
71
DPNNVOJTUTZNQBUIJFT DPNQJMJOHWPMVNJOPVTEPTTJFSTUPCFVTFEGPSQPUFOUJBMCMBDLNBJMJOHQVSQPTFTćFEPTTJFSTMBUFSCFDBNFUIFCBTJTGPSTFOTBUJPOBM NFEJBFYQPTÏTPOUIFOJHIUMJGFPGIJHIQMBDFEPDDVQBUJPOPďDJBMT59 Foreshadowing the CIA’s legacy of ashes, counterintelligence operations XFSFNBSSFECZDPOTJEFSBCMFJOFQUJUVEF"TPOFBHFOUTUBUFEi8FXFSFTVQQPSUJOHFWFSZSJHIUXJOHKFSLXIPDBNFBMPOH*UXBTTPDIBPUJDڀڀUIBU"NFSJDBOBHFOUTXFSFTUVNCMJOHPWFSFBDIPUIFS'JWFEJČFSFOUHVZTXFSFSVOOJOH POF+BQBOFTFBOEUIF+BQBOFTFXFSFDPMMFDUJOHNPOFZGSPNFBDIPGUIFN.PTU PGUIFNIBEUIFJSPXOBHFOEBTBOZXBZT*UXBTIBSEUPTBZ who was running who.”60 *O+VOFŴżŷź JOPOFPGJUTNBKPSTVDDFTTFT 8JMMPVHICZTTUBČMFBLFETFDSFU JOGPSNBUJPOUIBUIJHISBOLJOHPďDJBMTIBEUBLFOCSJCFTGSPN4IPXB%FOLB +BQBOTMBSHFTUNBOVGBDUVSFSPGGFSUJMJ[FS JOSFUVSOGPSDIBOOFMJOH3FDPOTUSVDUJPO'JOBODF#BOLGVOETJOUPDPNQBOZDPČFSTćFTDBOEBMJNQMJDBUFE1SJNF .JOJTUFS )JUPTIJ "TIJEB BOE LFZ NFNCFST PG IJT DPBMJUJPO PG %FNPDSBUJD Socialist, and People’s Cooperative parties, helping to precipitate the downfall PGUIFHPWFSONFOU UIFMBTUJOXIJDITPDJBMJTUTXPVMEQBSUJDJQBUFGPSPWFSGPVS decades.61 #FTJEFTTVSWFJMMBODFBOETQZPQT BDFOUSBMGPDVTPG"NFSJDBOQPMJDFUSBJOJOHXBTSJPUDPOUSPMVTJOHUIF1SPHSFTTJWF&SBTUBOEBSEPGĕTUTBOEDMVCTSBUIFS UIBOĕSFBSNTTPBTUPMFTTFODBTVBMUJFTBOEBWPJECBEQVCMJDJUZ*OBOJOĘVFOtial 1937 article which provided a blueprint for the Public Safety Division and MBUFSUIF0ďDFPG1VCMJD4BGFUZ -FXJT7BMFOUJOFXSPUFUIBUiCSVUBMNFBTVSFT ڀڀUFOEUPGVSUIFSJOUFOTJGZBOBMSFBEZTFSJPVTTJUVBUJPOCZTPNFUJNFTNBLJOHNBSUZSTPGQSPGFTTJPOBMBHJUBUPSTBOEUSPVCMFNBLFSTw62 Paradoxically, the PSD supplied police with tear gas, a weapon developed during World War I to clear crowds, which causes burning in the eyes, dizziness, and nausea. It was ĕSTUXJEFMZVTFEJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTJOŴżŶŵCZQPMJDFBOEBSNZVOJUTIFBEFE CZ%PVHMBT.BD"SUIVSJOTVQQSFTTJOHUIF#POVT"SNZNBSDIFST DBVTJOHUIF asphyxiation death of two children and partial blinding of an eight-year-old CPZ*UCFDBNFUIFSFBęFSBTUBQMFPGFČPSUTUPCSFBLVQEFNPOTUSBUJPOTBOEPG UIFHMPCBMQPMJDFQSPHSBNT63 The PSD set another precedent by providing riot DPOUSPMQVNQTIPUHVOTDBQBCMFPGQFOFUSBUJOHBUISFFRVBSUFSJODIQJOFCPBSE GSPN TJYUZ ZBSET BXBZ 4$"1 BVUIPSJUJFT JOWPLFE UIF DMFBS BOE QSFTFOU EBOger rule in the U.S. Constitution to argue that liberties are not absolute under UIF'JSTU"NFOENFOUCVUTVCKFDUUPMJNJUFESFTUSBJOUBNJEUISFBUTUPOBUJPOBM security.64 %VSJOH UIF TVQQSFTTJPO PG ŴżŸŵ .BZ %BZ EFNPOTUSBUJPOT QPMJDF BUUBDLFE BDSPXEXJUIUFBSHBTBOEQJTUPMTBOECFBUIVOESFETPGQFPQMFBTUIFZĘFE" VOJWFSTJUZTUVEFOUBOEBNVOJDJQBMFNQMPZFFXFSFLJMMFE BOENPSFUIBOŵ Ŷųų QFPQMFXFSFJOKVSFE&OHMFDMBJNFEJOBŴżźŹJOUFSWJFXUIBUUIFTDPQFPGWJPlence would have been even worse if the tactics of the World War II era had 72
Under the Facade of Benevolence
CFFOFNQMPZFE*OIJTWJFX "NFSJDBOUSBJOJOHIBEiQBJEPČBOEBUISFBUUP JOUFSOBMPSEFSXBTSJHIUFEXJUIUIFNJOJNBMBNPVOUPGDBTVBMUJFT wEFNPOTUSBUJOHUIFJNQPSUBODFPGUIFQPMJDFUPJOUFSOBMEFGFOTF65 This is the idea he would QSPNPUFBTIFBEPGUIFŴŵżųEQSPHSBNBOE014 XIJDIFWPMWFEJOUIFTBNF TQJSJUBTUIFQSPHSBNTJO+BQBOBOECVJMUPONBOZPGUIFJSJOJUJBUJWFT +BQBOFTFQPMJDFXFSFGBSGSPNBNPEFMPGFďDJFODZ IPXFWFSćF.BUTVLBXB incident, involving a case of railway sabotage in Taira in which three people XFSFLJMMFE UVSOFEBOBUJPOBMTQPUMJHIUPOUIFJSPęFOTMJQTIPENFUIPET*OB DBTFFRVJWBMFOUUPUIF3PTFOCFSHBOE)JTTDBTFTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT UXFOUZ MPDBMDPNNVOJTUTXFSFDIBSHFEXJUIBDPOTQJSBDZUPEFSBJMBUSBJOJOSFTQPOTF UPUIFĕSJOHPGXPSLFSTVOEFSUIF%PEHFSFGPSNT*OUIFDPVSTFPGUIFJOWFTUJHBUJPO QPMJDFSFQFBUFEMZNJTIBOEMFEFWJEFODF LFQUTIPEEZSFDPSET BOEGPSDFE DPOGFTTJPOTPVUPGUIFEFGFOEBOUT XIPXFSFBMMFWFOUVBMMZBDRVJUUFE4QFDVMBUJPOBCPVOETBTUPXIFUIFSUIFZXFSFGSBNFEBTBNFBOTPGEJTDSFEJUJOHUIF JCP.66 0WFSBMM UIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTFYBDFSCBUFEIVNBOSJHIUTWJPMBUJPOTCZQSPviding advanced surveillance and crowd control technologies and instilling B GFSWFOU BOUJDPNNVOJTN UIBU CSFE JOUPMFSBODF UPXBSE EJTTFOU PG BOZ LJOE Under PSD oversight, police attacked youths protesting the dropping of the BUPNJDCPNCT TIBEPXFEJOUFMMFDUVBMTTVDIBTUIFQIZTJDJTU4IPJDIJ4BLBUBXIP DBNQBJHOFEGPSUIFQFBDFGVMVTFPGBUPNJDFOFSHZ TQJFEPOTUVEFOUTJO,PSFBO TDIPPMTDPOTJEFSFECSFFEJOHHSPVOETGPSDPNNVOJTN BOESBJEFEVOJWFSTJUZ DBNQVTFT67 As Robert Textor described it: “Groups of cops pounce down upon TPNF IPMFJOUIFXBMM TIPWF UIF LJET BSPVOE XJUI OJHIUTUJDLT TUVČ UIFJS USVDLTXJUIQBSUZMJUFSBUVSF QBNQIMFUT FUD IBVMBGFXLJETUPKBJMćJT JTFNCBSSBTTJOHUPUIFPDDVQBUJPOXIPDBOUHJWFUIFQPMJDF)FMMGPSEPJOHJO UIFJSPXOXBZXIBUXBOUTEPOFJOJUTPXOXBZw68 &YFNQMJGZJOHUIFXJEFTDBMFPGCSVUBMJUZ ćFPEPSF$PIFO DIJFGPG4$"1T MBCPSEJWJTJPOBOEIJNTFMGBUBSHFUPG(ŵTVSWFJMMBODF PCTFSWFEXPSLFSTGSPN Japan’s third-largest newspaper, Yomiuri Shinbun, being subjected to “unnecesTBSJMZIBSTIUSFBUNFOUڀڀIFMEJODPNNVOJDBEPGPSBXFFL POFIBEBCBEDIFTU CSVJTFBOEOPXUIFZIBETIPXOVQNBOBDMFEMJLFBDIBJOHBOHw14%BENJOJTUSBUPS1BVM)BSSJTPO BO'#*BHFOUGSPN-PT"OHFMFT SFQPSUFEUIBUXBSSBOUT were often not issued. In Kyoto, police arrested speakers at an antifascist youth rally and beat up participants trying to take their pictures. Borrowing a page GSPNUIF'#*QMBZCPPL UIFNVOJDJQBMQPMJDFJO"TBIJHBXBFWFOIJSFEBQSPGFTTJPOBMCVSHMBSJOBOBUUFNQUUPPCUBJOFWJEFODFBHBJOTUB+$1NFNCFSXIP BMMFHFEMZNBEFBOUJPDDVQBUJPOSFNBSLT69 To protest police brutality, prisoners conducted hunger strikes, and young +$1 BEIFSFOUT CFHBO UISPXJOH .PMPUPW DPDLUBJM CPNCT BU QPMJDF CPYFT BOE PSHBOJ[FEiBDUJWJTUVOJUTwJOTFMFDUNPVOUBJOWJMMBHFTUIBUDPVMECFEFWFMPQFE JOUPHVFSSJMMBCBTFTBMPOHUIF$IJOFTF:FOOBONPEFM70 In Tokyo, after police Policing in Occupied Japan
73
IBSBTTFEMBCPSMFBEFST CFBUEFNPOTUSBUPST BOENJTUSFBUFEUIFNJOEFUFOUJPO UIFWJDUJNTQSPDMBJNFEi8FBSFIVNBOCFJOHTBOEOPUEPHT*TOPUTVDI BDUTPGWJPMFODFVOEFNPDSBUJD w71"NFSJDBOPďDJBMTXFSFVONPWFE"ęFSUIF BSSFTUPGUXFOUZOJOFMBCPSMFBEFSTGPSJOTUJHBUJOHBTUSJLFJO*LFHBNJ +PIOTPO '.POSPF B14%DPNNVOJDBUJPOTTQFDJBMJTUXIPIBEIBOEMFEQVCMJDSFMBUJPOT GPSUIF/BTIWJMMF1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU XSPUFUP)BSPME.VMCBSUIBUUIFQPMJDF DIJFGIBECFFOiTUSJDUMZPOUIFCBMM wBEEJOH i*EMJLFUPNFFUIJNTPPOUPDPOHSBUVMBUFIJNPOUIFHPPEXPSLIFJTEPJOHw72 In this way the PSD supported SFQSFTTJWFNFUIPET QBSUJDVMBSMZXIFOEJSFDUFEBHBJOTUUIPTFXIPXFSFXPSLJOHUPUSBOTGPSNUIFFYJTUJOHTPDJBMPSEFS *OTQSJOHŴżŸŴ QBSUMZBTBNFBOTPGDSJQQMJOHBDIJFGTPVSDFPG+$1JODPNF QPMJDFDPOĕTDBUFEŴŵŸ ųųųDPQJFTPGUIFMFęJTUOFXTQBQFS Heiwa-no-kee for its iTVCWFSTJWFw DPOUFOU BOE BSSFTUFE UFO FNQMPZFFT 1MBJODMPUIFT PďDFST SBJEFE UIF IPNF PG UIF FEJUPS TFJ[JOH NPSF BSUJDMFT TMBUFE GPS QVCMJDBUJPO73 Harold .VMCBSVSHFEQPMJDFUPDPOEVDUUIFJSJOWFTUJHBUJPOTTNPPUIMZBOEUPiQBZTQFcial attention to persons going in and going out of the police stations where UIFTVTQFDUTBSFFYBNJOFEMFTUUIFTFDSFUTCFMFBLFEPVUUPUIFPVUTJEFw74 These DPNNFOUTSFWFBMUIF14%TPWFSTJHIUPGDMBOEFTUJOFJOUFSSPHBUJPOVOEFSUBLFO in violation of constitutional statutes, which officials were careful to cover up. 5PNBLFSPPNGPSQPMJUJDBMQSJTPOFST &OHMFPWFSTBXDPOTUSVDUJPOPGQPMJDF JOUFSSPHBUJPO GBDJMJUJFT XIFSF iUIJSE EFHSFFw NFUIPET EFDSJFE CZ EPNFTUJD SFGPSNFSTXFSFSPVUJOFMZDBSSJFEPVU"DVTUPNBSZQSBDUJDFXBTUPGPSDFQSJTPOFSTUPTJUDSPTTMFHHFEGPSEBZTJODPODSFUFDFMMTBOEQFSJPEJDBMMZCFBUUIFN to force a confession. Journalists found evidence of police assaulting suspects and breaking their legs. In the Ishikawa prefecture, a local paper reported that BGPSUZZFBSPMEGBSNFSXBTBCEVDUFECZUIFSVSBMQPMJDFBOESFUVSOFEIPNF several days later “half dead” after enduring barbarous beatings and torture. "UPXFMUIBUIFDBSSJFEXBTTUBJOFEXJUICMPPE)FTVCTFRVFOUMZDPNNJUUFE TVJDJEF*O4BJUBNBQSFGFDUVSF BUXFOUZFJHIUZFBSPMETVTQFDUFEDPNNVOJTU was kidnapped, strapped to a chair naked, choked with a belt, and beaten with FMFDUSPTIPDL EFWJDFT ćF EPDUPS PG IJT WJMMBHF UPME IJN UIBU POMZ IJT TUSPOH DPOTUJUVUJPOTBWFEIJTMJGF GPSiBOPSEJOBSZNBOXPVMEOPUIBWFTVSWJWFEw75 *O BOPUIFS JOTUBODF QPMJDF IVNJMJBUFE B QPMJUJDJBO BDDVTFE PG DPNNVOJTU TZNQBUIJFT CZ GPSDJOH IJN UP iDSBXM JOUP IJT DFMM MJLF B EPH PO BMM GPVST BOE sit in a convoluted position for hours.” The journalist Takeo Takagi wrote in the Nippon Times: “One could go on forever listing brutalities and injustices of this kind. Many incidents go unreported out of fear of reprisal. The Tokkô TQJSJUSFNBJOTWFSZNVDIBMJWFJODFSUBJORVBSUFSTPGUIFEFNPDSBUJ[FEQPMJDF force.”76 ćF 14% CPSF TJHOJĕDBOU SFTQPOTJCJMJUZ GPS UIJT BCVTF PXJOH UP JUT BCBOEPONFOUPGUIFDJWJMMJCFSUJFTEJSFDUJWFBOEJUTSFNPCJMJ[BUJPOPGUIFQPMJDF for political ends. Thus did the “reverse course” help to usher in a revival of ESBDPOJBONFUIPETUIBUXFSFBSFNOBOUPG+BQBOTEBSLFTUIPVS 74
Under the Facade of Benevolence
“In Bed with Racketeers”: Police Corruption and the Failed War on Narcotics
1PMJDFDPSSVQUJPO GVFMFEJOQBSUCZNFBHFSQBZ XBTBOPUIFSQSPCMFNUISPVHIPVUUIFPDDVQBUJPO1PTUXBSOPVWFBVYSJDIFTXJUIDSJNJOBMCBDLHSPVOETDPOTUSVDUFEEPSNJUPSJFTBOETUBUJPOTGPSUIFQPMJDFJOSFUVSOGPSJNNVOJUZGSPN QSPTFDVUJPO*OTPNFDBTFT QPMJDFVTFEUIFJSBVUIPSJUZUPEFNBOEQSPUFDUJPO GFFTGSPNMPDBMCVTJOFTTPXOFSTBOEUPDPNQFMUIFNUPWPUFGPSGBWPSFEDBOEJEBUFTJONVOJDJQBMPSOBUJPOBMFMFDUJPOT14%SFQPSUTQPJOUUPGSBVEXJUIJO UIFQVCMJDTBGFUZDPNNJTTJPOTBOEUPQPMJDFCFJOHiJOCFEXJUISBDLFUFFSTwBOE oyabunHBOHTUFSTXIPDPOUSPMMFEUIFCMBDLNBSLFUFDPOPNZ77 1FSJPEJD DSBDLEPXOT XFSF VOEFSNJOFE CZ ()2 (FOFSBM )FBERVBSUFST intelligence’s hiring of gangsters such as Hisayuki (“the Violent Bull”) Machii to ĕHIUDPNNVOJTUTBOECSFBLMBCPSTUSJLFT%FTQJUFJOEJDUNFOUTGPSNBOTMBVHIter (with his bare hands), extortion, and assault, the Korean-born Machii and PUIFSNBĕBCPTTFTTVDIBT0[V,JOPTVLF i5PLZPT"M$BQPOF wOFWFSTFSWFE BOZQSJTPOUJNFCFDBVTFPGUIFJSQPMJUJDBMDPOOFDUJPOTBOETVQQPSUGPSSJHIU XJOHDBVTFTćF5PLZPDIJFGQSPTFDVUPSDPNNFOUFEi&WFSZUJNFXFUSJFEUP HFUIJN XFXFSFBMXBZTQVMMFECBDL8FECSJOHIJNJO CVUFBDI UJNFUIFSFXFSFQSFTTVSFTGSPNBCPWFBOEIFEXJOEVQCFJOHSFMFBTFEw78 SCAP’s double standards helped to perpetuate a tide of lawlessness and corSVQUJPOJO+BQBOXIJDITVSWJWFEUIFPDDVQBUJPO*OPOFJODJEFOU HBOHNFNCFSTUSJFEUPJOUJNJEBUF+$1%JFUNFNCFS,BUTVNJ,JLVOBNJJOUPDBMMJOHPČ a strike by slashing his forehead with a dagger.7964HPWFSONFOUPďDJBMTBOE TPMEJFST XFSF UIFNTFMWFT JOWPMWFE JO DSJNJOBM FOUFSQSJTFT TVDI BT HBNCMJOH TMPUNBDIJOFTDBNT QSPTUJUVUJPO BOEUIFTBMFPGQJSBUFEHPPET GPSXIJDIUIFZ were investigated though rarely punished.80 Further exposing the underside of UIFPDDVQBUJPO 14%SFQPSUTEPDVNFOUQPMJDFBCVTFJOFOGPSDJOHQVCMJDIFBMUI FEJDUT*O,ZPUP PďDFSTFOUFSFEUIFIPNFTPGXPNFOTVTQFDUFEPGUSBOTNJUUJOH WFOFSFBMEJTFBTFUP"NFSJDBOUSPPQTBUOJHIUXJUIPVUXBSSBOUT BOEJO5PLZP UIFZTVCKFDUFEXPNFOBSSFTUFEPČUIFTUSFFUUPIVNJMJBUJOHHFOJUBMJOTQFDUJPOT 4PNFXFSFSBQFE81 *OMJOFXJUIUIFHSPXJOHJOUFSOBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOPG"NFSJDBODSJNJOBMKVTUJDF UIF14%NPCJMJ[FEQPMJDFUPQSFWFOUUIFEFBMJOHJOPQJBUFT QBSUJDVMBSMZOFBS NJMJUBSZJOTUBMMBUJPOT)FSPJOXBTTPMEBTBDPMPSMFTTMJRVJEGPSBTMJUUMFBTĕWF IVOESFEZFO žŶ QFSWJBMUP(*TTFFLJOHBOFTDBQFGSPNUIFNPOPUPOZPGUIFJS daily existence, often by prostitutes who hung around the bases. SCAP authoriUJFTBOEUIFBSNZCSBTTDPOTJEFSFEESVHTBUISFBUUPNJMJUBSZQSFQBSFEOFTTBOE BXFBQPOPGDPNNVOJTUBHFOUT82 ćF BOUJESVH DBNQBJHO IPXFWFS GBJMFE UP SFEVDF UIF TVQQMZ XIJMF DPOtributing to the violation of civil liberties by giving police greater powers of
Policing in Occupied Japan
75
TFBSDIBOETFJ[VSF"MUIPVHIŸ ŸųųBSSFTUTXFSFNBEFPWFSBUISFFZFBSQFSJPE GFXFSUIBOĕWFIVOESFEPČFOEFSTTQFOUNPSFUIBOBDPVQMFPGNPOUITJOKBJM *O "QSJM ŴżŸŴ DPNQMBJOUT XFSF MPEHFE XIFO QPMJDF PSEFSFE ŸźŴ $IJOFTF SFTJdents of Tokyo out of their beds and into the streets late at night during a raid. According to witnesses, the police were hostile and insulted and abused the XPNFO /BSDPUJDT BHFOU 8BZMBOE 4QFFS DMBJNFE UIBU WBMVBCMF JOGPSNBUJPO XBTPCUBJOFEBCPVUOBSDPUJDTTBMFTCZ$IJOFTFDPNNVOJTUBHFOUTBOEUIBUPOF BQBSUNFOUUIBUXBTSBJEFEXBTBIJEFPVUGPSQFEEMFSTXIPXFSFTFMMJOHPQJVN UPQSPTUJUVUFT XIPJOUVSOTPMEJUUPNJMJUBSZQFSTPOOFMTUBUJPOFEBUBJSCBTFTJO the vicinity.83 Many police officers refused to cooperate with the narcotics drive because "NFSJDBOTFSWJDFNFOXFSFUIFPOFTGVFMJOHUIFEFNBOE BOEPQJVNFOUFSJOH Japan was arriving by way of the CIA-subsidized airline Civil Air Transport MBUFSOJDLOBNFEi"JS"NFSJDBw BU64CBTFTOPUPQFOUP+BQBOFTFDVTUPNT JOTQFDUJPOTćFBJSMJOFXBTLOPXOGPSIBVMJOHESVHTGPS$IJOFTF(VPNJOEBOH SFCFMTXIPPDDVQJFEUIFPQJVNHSPXJOH(PMEFO5SJBOHMFSFHJPOJO#VSNBBT they plotted to reinvade the People’s Republic of China with CIA support.84 "NFSJDBTSFHJPOBMBMMJFTXFSFPOUIFXIPMFEFFQMZJNQMJDBUFEJOUIFOBSDPUJDT USBEF BOEUIJTIBNQFSFEQSPIJCJUJPO"ęFSIFCPVHIUIJTXBZPVUPGQSJTPOJO ŴżŷŻ UIF$*"SFDSVJUFE:PTIJP,PEBNB B$MBTT"XBSDSJNJOBMBOE:BLV[B +BQBOFTF NBĕB HPEGBUIFS XIP USBEFE PQJVN BOE IFSPJO PO CFIBMG PG UIF +BQBOFTFOBWZGPSTDBSDFSBXNBUFSJBMT/JDLOBNFEi-JUUMF/BQPMFPOwGPSIJT TIPSUTUBUVSFBOESVUIMFTTRVBMJUJFT IFXBTWBMVFECZUIF"NFSJDBOTCFDBVTF PGIJTJOĘVFODFXJUIJOUIFEPNJOBOU-JCFSBM%FNPDSBUJD1BSUZ -%1 BOEBT DPGPVOEFS PG UIF "TJBO 1FPQMFT "OUJ$PNNVOJTU -FBHVF )F XBT QBJE žŴų NJMMJPOCZUIF1FOUBHPOGPSTNVHHMFEUVOHTUFO VTFEGPSIBSEFOJOHNJTTJMFT85 “It Isn’t a Tank, It’s a Special Vehicle”: Toward Full-Scale Remilitarization
%FTQJUFBMMUIFQSPCMFNTXJUIUIFQPMJDF UIF$PME8BSBOEUIFPVUCSFBLPGUIF ,PSFBO8BSDPOWJODFEPDDVQBUJPOMFBEFSTPGUIFJNQPSUBODFPGNBJOUBJOJOH B TUSPOH QPMJDF QSFTFODF " CJMM XBT QBTTFE QFSNJUUJOH UPXOT BOE WJMMBHFT UP integrate local forces into the National Police. G-2 intelligence continued its DPMMBCPSBUJPOXJUIUIF3VSBM(VBSE*OMJOFXJUI,FOOBOTSFDPNNFOEBUJPO B NBSJUJNFQPMJDFGPSDFXBTEFWFMPQFEćF/BUJPOBM1VCMJD4BGFUZ$PNNJTTJPO XBTFWFOUVBMMZQMBDFEVOEFSUIFDPOUSPMPGUIFQSJNFNJOJTUFS QBWJOHUIFXBZ for gradual recentralization. .PTUJNQPSUBOU 4$"1FTUBCMJTIFEBOBUJPOBMQPMJDFSFTFSWFPGźŸ ųųųNFO TUPDLFEXJUIPWFSžŴNJMMJPOJOXFBQPOT JODMVEJOHNPSUBST CB[PPLBT ĘBNFthrowers, and tanks.860WFSIBMGPGUIFFOMJTUFENFOXFSF*NQFSJBM"SNZWFUFSBOT JODMVEJOHFJHIUIVOESFEVOQVSHFEPďDFSTPGUIF.BODIVLVPBSNZWBMVFE GPS UIFJS BOUJDPNNVOJTN *O PSEFS UP NBJOUBJO UIF ĕDUJPO UIBU UIF 6OJUFE 76
Under the Facade of Benevolence
4UBUFTXBTOPUWJPMBUJOHDPOTUJUVUJPOBMQSPWJTJPOTNBOEBUJOHEFNJMJUBSJ[BUJPO "NFSJDBOBEWJTFST BT$PMPOFM'SBOL,PXBMTLJOPUFEJOIJTNFNPJST XFSFUPME iOPUUPDBMMUIFJSNFOTPMEJFSTPSPďDFSTCZNJMJUBSZSBOLT*GZPVFWFSTFFB tank, it isn’t a tank, it’s a special vehicle.”87 ,PXBMTLJIBEQMBZFEBNBKPSSPMFJO USBJOJOHUIFGPSDF :PTIJEBFWFOUVBMMZSBJTFEUIFSFTFSWFUPPWFSŴųų ųųųNFO QSPNQUJOHUIF$PNNVOJTU1BSUZUPJTTVFBMFBĘFUUIBUEFDMBSFE i)BWJOHGBJMFE JOUIFJSBUUFNQUUPJOWBEF,PSFB UIF6OJUFE4UBUFTJOUFOETUPTUSFOHUIFOUIF QPMJDF SFTFSWF BOE FOBDU B DPOTDSJQUJPO TZTUFN UP NBLF UIF +BQBOFTF QFPQMF JOUP B TIJFME UP QSPUFDU "NFSJDBO TPMEJFST BOE UVSO +BQBO JOUP BO "NFSJDBO foothold and staging base for her aggression in Asia.”88 Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Vice President Richard M. Nixon, and ĕWFTUBS HFOFSBM 0NBS #SBEMFZ XFSF JOĘVFOUJBM JO DIBNQJPOJOH UIF SFTFSWF XIJDIXBTUSBJOFEJODPNCBUBOESJPUDPOUSPMBTBNFBOTPGEFGFOEJOH+BQBO GSPNBUUBDL UIPVHIJUXBTSFDPHOJ[FEUIBUUIFSFXBTiOPSFMJBCMFJOGPSNBUJPOw UPJOEJDBUFUIBUUIJTNJHIUDPNFUPQBTT89 In 1954, after the occupation ended, UIFSFTFSWFCFDBNFUIF4FMG%FGFOTF'PSDF XIJDIIBTTJODFHSPXOJOUPBGPSNJEBCMFNJMJUBSZPSHBOJ[BUJPO CVUIBTCFFOVTFETQBSJOHMZ ćSPVHIUIFMBUF ŴżŸųT DPJODJEJOH XJUI JMMJDJU ĕOBODJOH PG -%1 FMFDUJPO DBNQBJHOT UIF 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOUTQFOUPWFSžŴNJMMJPOPOQPMJDFUSBJOJOHBOENJMJUBSZUZQFXFBQPOT VOEFSUIFŴŵżųEQSPHSBN XJUIBDPOUJOVFEFNQIBTJTPODPVOUFSJOUFMMJHFODF and riot control.90"ęFSBTUJOUJO5VSLFZ #ZSPO&OHMFDBNFCBDLBTBQPMJDF MJBJTPO)JTQSFTFODFVOEFSTDPSFTUIFJNQPSUBODFPGUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTUP$*" PQFSBUJPOT XIPTFBJNXBTUPLFFQUBCTPOUIFDPNNVOJTUNPWFNFOU DPOUSPM VOSFTU BOETPMJEJGZ"NFSJDBOUJFTXJUIMFBEJOHĕHVSFTJOUIFOBUJPOBMTFDVSJUZ CVSFBVDSBDZ SVOGPSNBOZZFBSTCZUIFDPOWJDUFEXBSDSJNJOBM0LJOPSJ,BZB91 In 1957 the Japanese scholar Suichi Sugai concluded that the “bureaucratic QPMJDFNFOUBMJUZwBOEJUTiQPXFSDPNQMFYwXFSFNVDIUIFTBNFBTCFGPSFUIF XBSBOEUIBUUIFQPMJDFIBEOFBSMZSFWFSUFEUPUIFQSFXBSTZTUFNJOBiCBDLTXJOHPGUIFQFOEVMVNw92ćFTFDPNNFOUTFODBQTVMBUFUIFTIPSUDPNJOHTPG "NFSJDBOSFGPSNFČPSUT XIJDIXFSFTVCPSEJOBUFEUPMBSHFSHFPTUSBUFHJDHPBMT +BQBOXBTBMXBZTBLFZUPUIFJOGPSNBMFNQJSFUIBUUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTTPVHIU UPGPSHFJO4PVUIFBTU"TJBJOUIFBęFSNBUIPG8PSME8BS**4FFJOHUIFNBTB CVMXBSLBHBJOTUDPNNVOJTU$IJOB "NFSJDBOQPMJDZNBLFSTQMBDFEBQSFNJVN POTBGFHVBSEJOHUIFQPXFSPG:PTIJEBBOEUIF-%1 XIJDIQSPNPUFEFYQPSU ESJWFO FDPOPNJD HSPXUI BOE GPSFJHO JOWFTUNFOU BOE QSFTFSWFE UIF OFUXPSL PG NJMJUBSZ CBTFT PO 0LJOBXB MBUFS VTFE BT B TUBHJOH HSPVOE GPS CPNCJOH 7JFUOBN3FNJMJUBSJ[BUJPOBOEUIFCSFFDIPGDPOTUJUVUJPOBMHVBSBOUFFTPGDJWJM MJCFSUJFTXFSFWJFXFEBTBTNBMMQSJDFUPQBZJOLFFQJOHUIFQPMJUJDBMMFęJODIFDL and ensuring Japan’s role as a junior partner in the Cold War. So was the revival PGTPNFPGUIFWJDJPVTQPMJDFQSBDUJDFTGSPNUIFJNQFSJBMFSB93 *OBŵųųŶTVSWFZPGiOBUJPOCVJMEJOHwQSPHSBNTTJODF8PSME8BS** +BNFT Dobbins, a RAND Corporation analyst and special envoy to Afghanistan, IFSBMEFE +BQBOFTF QPMJDF SFGPSNT JO DPOUSJCVUJOH UP B TUBCMF BOE QSPTQFSPVT Policing in Occupied Japan
77
EFNPDSBDZ94 Barely glancing beneath the surface, his interpretation was used UPMFHJUJNJ[FNJMJUBSZJOUFSWFOUJPOJOUIF.JEEMF&BTUBOECJMMJPOEPMMBSQPMJDF USBJOJOH PQFSBUJPOT " NPSF DSJUJDBMMZ PSJFOUFE CPEZ PG TDIPMBSTIJQ SPPUFE JO QSJNBSZEPDVNFOUTBOE+BQBOFTFTPVSDFTUFMMTBEJČFSFOUTUPSZ+PIO%PXFST NBHJTUFSJBMEmbracing DefeatEFNPOTUSBUFTIPX XIJMFUIFXBSXFBSJOFTTPGUIF QPQVMBUJPOMJNJUFEEJTTFOUBHBJOTU.BD"SUIVSTJNQPTJUJPOPGiEFNPDSBDZGSPN above,” unrest existed below the surface but was curtailed through police represTJPO $ISJTUPQIFS "MEPVTT XPSL TJNJMBSMZ TIPXT IPX 4$"1 TVQQPSUFE WJPMBtions of civil liberties against leftists who threatened occupational authority.95 .Z PXO SFTFBSDI DPOĕSNT UIBU BMUIPVHI "NFSJDBO QPMJDZ TQBXOFE JNQSPWFNFOUTBęFS8PSME8BS** BOE+BQBOOFWFSFWPMWFEJOUPBGVMMĘFEHFE QPMJDF TUBUF UIF QPMJDF XFSF TUJMM CVJMU VQ BT BO JOTUSVNFOU PG TPDJBM DPOUSPM 4$"1JOJUJBMMZFODPVSBHFEQSPHSFTTJWFJOOPWBUJPOT JODMVEJOHJOUIFSFBMNPG QFOPMPHZ UIFiSFWFSTFDPVSTF wIPXFWFS IFSBMEFEUIFUSJVNQIPGNPSFBOUJEFNPDSBUJDJEFBMT1PMJDFQSPHSBNTDBNFUPQMBZBLFZSPMFJOTVQQSFTTJOHMFę XJOHNPWFNFOUT FOTVSJOHUIFUSJVNQIPGDPOTFSWBUJWFIFHFNPOZBOE+BQBOT FNFSHFODFBTBO"NFSJDBODMJFOUTUBUF FYBDUMZBTQMBOOFSTTVDIBT(FPSHF' Kennan envisioned.96 "ęFSŴżŷź 14%BEWJTFSTNPCJMJ[FEQPMJDFQSJNBSJMZUPGFSSFUPVUTVCWFSTJPO BOEFNQIBTJ[FEQPMJUJDBMJOUFMMJHFODFBOENJMJUBSZTUZMFUSBJOJOH XIJDITFUB QSFDFEFOUGPSGVUVSFJOUFSWFOUJPOTćFDBSSZPWFSPGQFSTPOOFMXBTTJHOJĕDBOU XJUI#ZSPO&OHMFTFSWJOHBTBLFZCSJEHFĕHVSF)FXFOUPOUPJNQBSUNBOZPG UIFUFDIOJRVFTIFIPOFEJO+BQBOBTIFBEPGUIFŴŵżųEQSPHSBNBOEUIF014 ESBXJOH PO MFTTPOT GSPN IJT FYQFSJFODF BOE UIF VTF PG OFXMZ BEBQUFE UFDIOPMPHJFTTVDIBTUFBSHBTćF+BQBOFTFQPMJDFXFSFFTQFDJBMMZBENJSFEGPSUIFJS JOUFMMJHFODFHBUIFSJOHDBQBCJMJUJFTBOEQSPWJEFEBNPEFMGPSGPSDFTUSBJOFECZ &OHMFBOEIJTBTTPDJBUFT JODMVEJOHUIF4PVUI7JFUOBNFTF%VSJOHUIFŴżŸųT +BQBOTQPMJUJDBMTUBCJMJUZ FDPOPNJDHSPXUI DPOUJOHFOUJOMBSHFQBSUPOUIFTVQQMZPGFRVJQNFOUGPSUIF,PSFBO8BS
QSP8FTUFSOPSJFOUBUJPO BOETVDDFTTGVM JOUFHSBUJPOJOUPUIFHMPCBMDBQJUBMJTUFDPOPNZDSZTUBMMJ[FEUIFWJFXGPS"NFSJcan Cold Warriors that a nation’s police force was the critical factor needed to QSPWJEFGPSJUTJOUFSOBMEFGFOTF'SPNUIJTSFBMJ[BUJPO UIFQVCMJDTBGFUZQSPHSBN evolved.
78
Under the Facade of Benevolence
Chapter 4 “Law in Whose Name, Order for Whose Benefit?” Police Training, “Nation-Building,” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea Beautiful land, Korea our country, covered with flowers of hibiscus in full bloom, That’s where our noble brethren live staunchly, That’s where the democratic police stand resolutely, with a glorious mission on their shoulders. ,PSFBO/BUJPOBM1PMJDFTPOH MBUFT Are you not from the Korean nation? Have you not the same blood and bone? Why do you fire on Koreans? 1FPQMFT$PNNJUUFFQBNQIMFU $IJOKV The tragedy of the liberation period and the depth of American responsibility are most evident in the history of the Korean National Police (KNP) during [the] occupation. #ruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War,
*O +VMZ ŴżŷŹ BT QBSU PG BO JOWFTUJHBUJPO CZ UIF "NFSJDBO .JMJUBSZ (PWFSONFOU ".( JO 4PVUI ,PSFB BO BEWJTFS BTLFE UIF QPMJDF DIJFG JO ,POHKV JG he believed that left-wing leaders should be suppressed. The chief hesitated BOEBTLFE i"TBQPMJDFNBOPSFDIPJOHUIFPQJOJPOPGUIFQFPQMF w"ęFSUIF BEWJTFSSFTQPOEFE iBTBQPMJDFNBO wUIFDIJFGSFQMJFEXJUIBXJOLi*DBOOPU say because we are ordered not to express any opinions. Ninety per cent of the QFPQMF XPVME MJLF UP FMJNJOBUF MFęJTUTw1 This conversation sheds light on the political function of the police, which was built up as an integral part of the "NFSJDBOPDDVQBUJPO ŴżŷŸoŴżŷŻ BOEFČPSUTUPTUBCJMJ[FUIFSVMFPG4ZOHNBO 3IFF BO044MJBJTPOFYJMFEGPSBMNPTUGPSUZZFBSTVOEFSUIF+BQBOFTF BOEĕSTU president of the Republic of Korea (ROK). 'PMMPXJOH8PSME8BS** ,PSFBFNFSHFEBTBDSVDJBMUIFBUFSPGDPNQFUJUJPO with China and with the Soviet Union, which, after the three-year occupation, CBDLFE3IFFTSJWBM,JN*M4VOH BOBOUJDPMPOJBMĕHIUFSXIPBEWPDBUFETXFFQ79
JOHMBOESFGPSN TUBUFTPDJBMJTN BOEFDPOPNJDTFMGTVďDJFODZ juche).2 SeekJOHUPDPVOUFS,JNTSBEJDBMOBUJPOBMJTN 64QPMJDZBJNFEUPPQFOVQ,PSFBT FDPOPNZ MBSHFMZUPFOBCMF+BQBOUPFYUSBDUSBXNBUFSJBMTDBQBCMFPGTVTUBJOJOH JUTFDPOPNJDSFDPWFSZ UIVTQSFWFOUJOHUIFSJTFPGMFęJTUNPWFNFOUTUIFSFBOE keeping Japan in the Western orbit. In January 1947, Secretary of State George Marshall scribbled a note to Dean Acheson: “Please have plan drafted of policy UP PSHBOJ[F B EFĕOJUF HPWFSONFOU PG 4P ,PSFB BOE connect up JUT FDPOPNZ with that of Japan.”35PBDIJFWFUIJTPCKFDUJWF UIF5SVNBOBENJOJTUSBUJPOQSPNPUFEUIFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGBQPMJDFTVSWFJMMBODFBQQBSBUVTNPCJMJ[FEUPQSPUFDU ,PSFB GSPN iGPSFJHO BHHSFTTJPOw BOE iJOUFSOBM TVCWFSTJPOw .JMJUBSZ BEWJTFST EFWFMPQFEBŵŷ ųųųNBODPOTUBCVMBSZXIPTFSFDPSEXPVMEQSPWFMJUUMFEJČFSFOUGSPNUIBUPGJUT1IJMJQQJOFBOE)BJUJBODPVOUFSQBSUTJOTVQQSFTTJOHQPQVMBSSFWPMUT%FTQJUFDPOUSJCVUJOHUPFYUFOTJWFIVNBOSJHIUTBCVTFT UIFQPMJDF QSPHSBNTXFSFTFFOBTFČFDUJWFCFDBVTFUIF30,SFNBJOFEQSP8FTUBOEMBUFS FYQFSJFODFESBQJEFDPOPNJDEFWFMPQNFOU DPOTJEFSFEJOFMJUFTFDUPSTBTWBMJEBUJPOPG8BMU3PTUPXTJOĘVFOUJBMNPEFSOJ[BUJPOUIFPSZćFJOUFSWFOUJPOUIVT FOUSFODIFEUIFWJFXUIBUBNPEFSOJ[FEQPMJDFGPSDFXBTDSVDJBMUPBOBUJPOT internal security, setting the standard for the Cold War. Conscience and Convenience: The Korean National Police and Consolidation of a U.S. Sphere
"T#SVDF$VNJOHTOPUFTJOThe Origins of the Korean War UIF30,XBTNPSF PGBO"NFSJDBODSFBUJPOUIBOBOZPUIFSQPTUXBS"TJBOSFHJNFćF$*"QSFEJDUFEUIBUJUTFDPOPNZXPVMEDPMMBQTFJOBNBUUFSPGXFFLTJG 64BJEXFSF UFSNJOBUFE4"TXJUI+JBOH+JFTIJJO$IJOBBOE/HP%JOI%JFNJO4PVUI7JFUOBN 64 EJQMPNBUT UJSFE PG 3IFFT PCTUJOBDZ BOE VOXJMMJOHOFTT UP QSPNPUF CBTJDMBOESFGPSN UIPVHIUIFZTUPPECZIJNBTBCVMXBSLBHBJOTUDPNNVOJTN ćF$*"DPOTJEFSFEUIF1SJODFUPO1I%BiEFNBHPHVFCFOUPOBVUPDSBUJDSVMFw XIPTFTVQQPSUXBTNBJOUBJOFECZUIBUiOVNFSJDBMMZTNBMMDMBTTXIJDIWJSUVBMMZ NPOPQPMJ[FTUIFOBUJWFXFBMUIw5 ćF"NFSJDBOPDDVQBUJPOXBTIFBEFECZ(FOFSBM+PIO3FFE)PEHF BO*MMJOPJTGBSNFSLOPXOBTUIFi1BUUPOPGUIF1BDJĕD wXIPLOFXMJUUMFBCPVU,PSFB He worked to build a professional police force, which he believed to be pivotal UPiOBUJPOCVJMEJOHwFČPSUT JUTDFOUSBMBJNXBTUPTUBNQPVUUIFQPMJUJDBMMFę and bolster Rhee’s power. A secret history of the Korean National Police (KNP) BSHVFE i/P POF DBO BOUJDJQBUF XIBU JOTJEJPVT JOĕMUSBUJPO NBZ EFWFMPQ BOE UIFQPMJDFNVTUCFHJWFOMBUJUVEFUPDBSSZPVUUIFEFTJSFTPGUIFOFXHPWFSONFOU NPSFTPUIBOXPVMECFOFDFTTBSZJOOPSNBMUJNFTw6 The KNP conTFRVFOUMZFWPMWFEBTBQPMJUJDJ[FEBOEFTTFOUJBMMZDPVOUFSSFWPMVUJPOBSZGPSDF QMBDFE JO UIF IBOET PG NBOZ XIP IBE TFSWFE JO UIF +BQBOFTF PDDVQBUJPO PG ,PSFB XIJDIMBTUFEGSPNŴżŴųUPŴżŷŸ BOETBXBMNPTUBMMPQQPTJUJPOBTDPN80
Under the Facade of Benevolence
NVOJTUESJWFOćF$*"CMVOUMZOPUFEUIBUiFYUSFNF3JHIUJTUTDPOUSPMUIFPWFSU QPMJUJDBMTUSVDUVSFJOUIF64[POFNBJOMZUISPVHIUIFBHFODZPGUIFOBUJPOBM QPMJDF w XIJDI IBT CFFO iSVUIMFTTMZ CSVUBM JO TVQQSFTTJOH EJTPSEFS < ڀ ڀ5>IF QPMJDFHFOFSBMMZSFHBSEUIF$PNNVOJTUTBTSFCFMTBOEUSBJUPSTXIPTIPVMECF TFJ[FE JNQSJTPOFE BOETIPU TPNFUJNFTPOUIFTMJHIUFTUQSPWPDBUJPOw7 During the period of Japanese colonization, the national police presided PWFSBTPQIJTUJDBUFETVSWFJMMBODFBQQBSBUVT EPNJOBUJOHiFWFSZQIBTFPGEBJMZ BDUJWJUZ wBDDPSEJOHUPUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOU UISPVHIiUFSSPS JOUJNJEBUJPO BOE QSBDUJDFTJODPODFJWBCMFUPUIF"NFSJDBOw8"TNVDIBTUIF"NFSJDBOTDPOTJEFSFE UIFJS OBUJPO FYDFQUJPOBM 64 SVMF XBT NBSSFE CZ DPMPOJBM DPOUJOVJUJFT including a blatant carryover of personnel. In principle, occupation officials TPVHIUUPQVSHFDPMMBCPSBUPSTBOEXJQFPVUUIFWFTUJHFTPGUIFPMETZTUFNCZ USBJOJOHQPMJDFJOEFNPDSBUJDNFUIPET JOTUJMMJOHJOUIFNUIFNBYJNUIBUUIFZ XFSFiTFSWBOUTBOEOPUNBTUFSTPGUIFQFPQMFwćFOFXQPMJDFTMPHBO BDDPSEJOHUPUIF"NFSJDBOT XBTiJNQBSUJBMBOEOPOQBSUJTBOw9 In practice, however, political exigencies and the fear of a leftist takeover resulted in the abandonNFOUPGUIPTFJEFBMT The AMG retained 80 percent of pro-Japanese officers above the rank of QBUSPMNBO JODMVEJOH OPSUIFSO FYJMFT FYQFSJFODFE JO TVQQSFTTJOH UIF BOUJDPMPOJBMVOEFSHSPVOE"T$PMPOFM8JMMJBN.BHMJO UIFĕSTUEJSFDUPSPGUIF,/1 DPNNFOUFE i8FGFMUUIBUJGUIF,PSFBOFMFNFOUPGUIF,/1EJEBHPPEKPCGPS UIF+BQBOFTF UIFZXPVMEEPBHPPEKPCGPSVTw"+VOFŴżŷźTVSWFZEFUFSNJOFE that eight of ten provincial police chiefs and 60 percent of the lower-ranking lieutenants were Japanese-trained, a crucial factor triggering opposition to the police.10 To head the organization, Hodge appointed Chang T’aek-Sang and $IPVHI1ZPOH0L LOPXOGPSUIFJSiIBSTIQPMJDFNFUIPETEJSFDUFESVUIMFTTMZ BHBJOTU,PSFBOMFęJTUTw$IBOH BXFBMUIZCVTJOFTTNBOXJUIUJFTUPUIFNJTTJPOBSZDPNNVOJUZ IBEQSPTQFSFEVOEFSUIF+BQBOFTFćF.BSJOF$PSQTIJTUPSJBO )BSPME-BSTFOSFGFSSFEUPIJNBTiBSVUIMFTTBOEDSBTTDIBSBDUFSXJUIUIFGBDFPG /FSPBOEUIFNBOOFSTPG(PFSJOHw11 *OUIFĕSTUEBZTPGUIF64PDDVQBUJPO DIBPTQSFWBJMFE1SJTPOEPPSTXFSF UISPXO PQFO QPMJDF SFDPSET XFSF EFTUSPZFE BOE ,PSFBOT DPOĕTDBUFE +BQBOFTFQSPQFSUZ XIJDIMFEUPWJPMFODF*OTPNFQMBDFT MFęJTUTTFJ[FEQPXFSBOE JOTUBMMFEUIFJSPXOHPWFSONFOUTćFQPMJDFXFSFEFNPSBMJ[FEBOEIBEUPCF BDDPNQBOJFE PO SPVOET CZ "NFSJDBO NJMJUBSZ PďDFST12 A reorganization QMBOXBTESBXOVQCZ.BKPS"SUIVS'#SBOETUBUUFS XIPXBTĘPXOJOGSPN .BOJMB XIFSFIFIBETFSWFEXJUIUIFNJMJUBSZQPMJDF"CSVJTJOHGVMMCBDLXJUI UIF.JDIJHBO4UBUFGPPUCBMMUFBNJOUIFNJEŴżŶųT LOPXOGPSTJOHMFIBOEFEMZ FOHJOFFSJOH B GPVSUIRVBSUFS DPNFCBDL BHBJOTU BO VOEFGFBUFE 5FNQMF UFBN coached by Glenn “Pop” Warner, Brandstatter was a veteran of the Detroit ŴżŶŻoŴżŷŴ BOE &BTU -BOTJOH QPMJDF DIJFG ŴżŷŹ BOE QSPGFTTPS PG QPMJDF BENJOJTUSBUJPO BU .JDIJHBO 4UBUF 6OJWFSTJUZ )F FNQIBTJ[FE UIF JNQPSUBODF “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
81
PGDSFBUJOHTUBOEBSEVOJGPSNTGPSUIF,/1 JNQSPWJOHDPNNVOJDBUJPOT BOE BCPMJTIJOHUIFUIPVHIUDPOUSPMQPMJDF XIPIBEBNBTTFEżųų ųųųĕOHFSQSJOU ĕMFTBOEXFSFLOPXOUPJOTQFDUIPNFTUPTFFJGUIF+BQBOFTFFNQFSPSTQJDUVSF occupied a place of honor. The United States Military Advisory Group in Korea (USMAGIK) responded to Brandstatter’s report by providing sixty-three police advisers, who develPQFEBOFUXPSLPGUIJSUZOJOFSBEJPTUBUJPOTBOEGPVSUFFOUIPVTBOENJMFTPG UFMFQIPOFMJOFT SFTVMUJOHJOUIFVQHSBEJOHPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOTGBDJMJUJFTGSPN “fair” to “good.” Manpower was stabilized at twenty thousand, and swords and DMVCTXFSFSFQMBDFEXJUINBDIJOFHVOTBOESJĘFT"NFSJDBOTXFSFBQQPJOUFE QPMJDFDIJFGTJOFWFSZQSPWJODF XJUIUIFNBOEBUFPGHSPPNJOHB,PSFBOTVDDFTsor. Typical was the background of Lieutenant Colonel Earle Miller, stationed in Kyonggi-do province, a twenty-six-year veteran of the Chicago police and TVQFSWJTPS PG NJMJUBSZ QPMJDF EFUBDINFOUT BOE 108 DBNQT13 Brandstatter DPNNFOUFEJOB%FDFNCFSŴżŷŸJOUFSWJFXUIBUUIF,PSFBOTXFSFiĕęZZFBST behind us in their thinking on justice and police powers” and advocated a iIVHF QSFQPTUFSPVTGPSDFPGNFO wXIJDIIFGFBSFEDPVMEMFBEUPPQQSFTTJPO )FBEEFEUIBUIJHIUVSOPWFSBNPOHUIF"NFSJDBOBEWJTFSTXBTIBNQFSJOHUIF QPMJDF QSPHSBN BOE QSFEJDUFE UIBU SFHBSEMFTT PG UIF BNPVOU PG 64 BJE UIF QPMJDFCVSFBVXPVMECFDPNFBiQPMJUJDBMQMVNwCFMPOHJOHUPiBCJHTIPUJOUIF OFXHPWFSONFOUw BQSFEJDUJPOUIBUQSPWFEBDDVSBUF 14 4UBSUJOHBUBCVEHFUPGŴŸCJMMJPOXPOQFSBOOVN PWFSžŴNJMMJPO64
UIF 1VCMJD 4BGFUZ %JWJTJPO SFCVJMU QPMJDF IFBERVBSUFST BEPQUFE B VOJGPSN QBUUFSOFEBęFSUIBUPGUIF/FX:PSL1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU BOEFMJNJOBUFEUIFTZTUFN XIFSFCZPďDFSTXFSFPODBMMGPSUXFOUZGPVSIPVST*UJNQSPWFESFDPSEDPMMFDUJPOCZJNQPSUJOHĕMJOHDBCJOFUTBOEPWFSTBXUIFPQFOJOHPGBNPEFSODSJNF laboratory in Seoul staffed by eight Korean technicians trained in ballistics, DIFNJDBMBOBMZTJT BOEIBOEXSJUJOHUFDIOJRVFT1PMJDFBEWJTFSTSFDPNNFOEFE SPVUJOF QBUSPMT UP GPTUFS JNQSPWFE DPNNVOJUZ SFMBUJPOT BOE FTUBCMJTIFE provincial training centers and, under Lewis Valentine’s oversight, a national QPMJDFBDBEFNZ XIJDIPQFOFEPO0DUPCFSŴų ŴżŷŸ.BOZPGUIFHSBEVBUFT XIP JODMVEFE GPSUZĕWF QPMJDFXPNFO SFQPSUFEMZ XFOU PO UP iEJTUJOHVJTI UIFNTFMWFTBTHVFSSJMMBĕHIUFSTw$IJ)XBO$IPJ BHSBEVBUFPGUIFBDBEFNZ SPTF UPCFDPNFTVQFSJOUFOEFOUBOEDIJFGPGUIFVOJGPSNFEQPMJDF)FXBTSFVOJUFE XJUI.BHMJOJOUIFNJEŴżŸųTPOBUPVSPG"NFSJDBOQPMJDFJOTUJUVUJPOT15 4UBČBUUIFBDBEFNZQSPWJEFEUSBJOJOHJOĕSFBSNTBOESJPUDPOUSPMBOEMFDUVSFT PO BOUJDPNNVOJTN BOE XFSF TVQQMJFE XJUI PWFS TJY UIPVTBOE QJTUPMT BOEPOFUIPVTBOEDBSCJOFTBOESJĘFT+&EHBS)PPWFST(NFOXFSFTPMJDJUFE GPS JOTUSVDUJPO JO TVSWFJMMBODF JOUFSSPHBUJPO BOE XJSFUBQQJOH UFDIOJRVFT XIJDIUIFZIBEBMTPQSPWJEFEUP%BJ-JTTFDSFUQPMJDFJO$IJOB*O%FDFNCFS 1945, USMAGIK opened a school for detectives in Seoul and established a speDJBM iTVCWFSTJWF TVCTFDUJPO w XIJDI LFQU B CMBDLMJTU PG EJTTJEFOUT "NFSJDBO 82
Under the Facade of Benevolence
USBJOJOH HFOFSBMMZ FNQIBTJ[FE UIF EFWFMPQNFOU PG BO FČFDUJWF QPMJDF GPSDF in light of the threats of subversion and insurgency, creating a trend toward NJMJUBSJ[BUJPO16 In January 1946, USMAGIK began developing the police constabulary, XIJDIQSPWJEFEUIFGPVOEBUJPOGPSUIF3FQVCMJDPG,PSFB"SNZ 30," ćF DIJFG BEWJTFS $BQUBJO +BNFT )BVTNBO XBT B DPNCBU WFUFSBO XIP QSPWJEFE JOTUSVDUJPOJOSJPUDPOUSPMBOEQTZDIPMPHJDBMXBSGBSFUFDIOJRVFTTVDIBTEPVTJOHUIFDPSQTFTPGFYFDVUFEQFPQMFXJUIHBTPMJOFTPBTUPIJEFUIFNBOOFSPG FYFDVUJPOPSUPBMMPXCMBNFUPCFQMBDFEPOUIFDPNNVOJTUT%PVHMBT.BD"SUIVS GPSFTUBMMFE UIF EFMJWFSZ PG ŸųDBMJCFS NBDIJOF HVOT BOE IPXJU[FST iJO PSEFSUPNBJOUBJOBQQFBSBODFڀڀBTBQPMJDFUZQF SFTFSWFGPSDFw.PTUPGUIFPďDFSTXFSF+BQBOFTFBSNZWFUFSBOT"MUIPVHIUIFZ XFSFOPUBVUIPSJ[FEUPNBLFBSSFTUT UIFZDPOTJTUFOUMZJHOPSFEiUIJTMBDLPGMFHBM right.” The constabulary gained valuable guerrilla experience suppressing rebelMJPOTJO$IFKVEPBOE:PTV DPNNJUUJOHOVNFSPVTBUSPDJUJFTJOUIFQSPDFTT*U CFDBNFJOĕMUSBUFECZMFęJTUT XIPJOTUJHBUFETFWFSBMNVUJOJFT17 Characterizing ,PSFBOT BT iCSVUBM CBTUBSET XPSTF UIBO UIF +BQBOFTF w )BVTNBO XPSLFE UP QVSHFSBEJDBMFMFNFOUT JNQPTFEJTDJQMJOF BOECPMTUFSJOUFMMJHFODFHBUIFSJOH "U UIFTF UBTLT IF XBT QSFEPNJOBOUMZ TVDDFTTGVM FTQFDJBMMZ JO DPNQBSJTPO UP "NFSJDBOBEWJTPSZFČPSUTJO4PVUI7JFUOBN18 Like the Philippines constabuMBSZ UIF30,"EFWFMPQFEJOUPBGPSNJEBCMFBOEUFDIOJDBMMZDPNQFUFOUGPSDF *UXBTBMTPSFOPXOFEGPSJUTCSVUBMJUZ IPXFWFS BOECFDBNFBTQSJOHCPBSEUP QPMJUJDBMQPXFS UIVTIJOEFSJOHEFNPDSBUJDEFWFMPQNFOU “The Gooks Only Understood Force”: The Evolution of a Police State
ćSPVHIPVU UIF MBUF ŴżŷųT 4PVUI ,PSFB SFTFNCMFE XIBU QPMJUJDBM BEWJTFS ) Merrell Benninghoff referred to as a “powder keg ready to explode.” An AMG poll revealed that 49 percent of the population preferred the Japanese occupaUJPOUPUIF"NFSJDBOiMJCFSBUJPOw19,PSFBIBECPUIBUSBEJUJPOPGSBEJDBMJTN BOE UIF PMEFTU $PNNVOJTU 1BSUZ JO "TJB XJUI FYQFSJFODFE MFBEFST XIP IBE MFEUIFTUSVHHMFBHBJOTU+BQBO8IJMFGPPEJNQPSUTBOEQVCMJDIFBMUIJOJUJBUJWFT CSPVHIUTPNFCFOFĕUT MBOEJOFRVBMJUJFT QPWFSUZ BOEUIFEFTJSFGPSVOJĕDBUJPO XJUIUIF/PSUINBEFDJSDVNTUBODFTSJQFGPSSFWPMVUJPO BTEJEPďDJBMDPSSVQtion and heavy-handed rice collection policies enforced by the KNP. Hodge XSPUFJOBNFNPUIBUiBOZUBMLPGGSFFEPNXBTQVSFMZBDBEFNJDwBOEUIBUUIF TJUVBUJPOMFęiGFSUJMFHSPVOEGPSUIFTQSFBEPGDPNNVOJTNw20 *OB'FCSVBSZŴżŷżTUVEZUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUOPUFE i-BCPS TPDJBMTFDVSJUZ MBOESFGPSN BOETFYFRVBMJUZMBXTIBWFCFFOQPQVMBSJOUIF/PSUIBOEBQQFBM UP4PVUI,PSFBOTBTXFMMw&NQIBTJ[JOHUIBUBMUIPVHIJODSFBTFESFHJNFOUBUJPO IFBWZUBYFT BOEUIFFMJNJOBUJPOPGJOEJWJEVBMFOUSFQSFOFVSTIJQXFSFTPXJOH UIF TFFET PG EJTDPOUFOU UIF OPSUIFSO SFHJNF TUJMM FOKPZFE HSFBUFS QPQVMBSJUZ “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
83
UIBOUIBUPGUIF4PVUICFDBVTFJUiHBWFBMBSHFTFHNFOUPGUIFQPQVMBUJPOUIF GFFMJOH PG QBSUJDJQBUJPO JO HPWFSONFOUw UIBU XBT BCTFOU JO UIF 4PVUI21 This EPDVNFOUBDLOPXMFEHFEUIFMBDLPGQPQVMBSMFHJUJNBDZPGUIFTPVUIFSOSFHJNF which could survive only through force. 3FTJTUBODF XBT MFE CZ MBCPS BOE GBSNFST BTTPDJBUJPOT BOE 1FPQMFT $PNNJUUFFT XIJDI PSHBOJ[FE EFNPDSBUJD HPWFSOBODF BOE TPDJBM SFGPSN BU UIF MPDBMMFWFMćFNBTTCBTFE4PVUI,PSFBO-BCPS1BSUZ 4,-1
IFBEFECZ1BL )PO:POH BWFUFSBOPGBOUJ+BQBOFTFQSPUFTUXJUIDPNNVOJTUUJFT MFETUSJLFT BOEDBSSJFEPVUBDUTPGJOEVTUSJBMTBCPUBHF FWFOUVBMMZCFDPNJOHJOĕMUSBUFECZ BHFOUTPGUIF64"SNZ$PVOUFS*OUFMMJHFODFDPSQT $*$ 22 Trained in sophisUJDBUFE NFUIPET PG JOGPSNBUJPO HBUIFSJOH BOE QPQVMBUJPO DPOUSPM UIF ,/1 NBJOUBJOFEBOiPCTFSWBUJPOTFDUJPOwGPDVTFEPOQPMJUJDBMBDUJWJUZ XIJDIQSPWJEFEJOGPSNBUJPOUP64JOUFMMJHFODFBOEBUUJNFTFWFOTQJFEPO"NFSJDBOT "NCBTTBEPS+PIO.VDDJPSFQPSUFEUIBUUIF1VTBOFNCBTTZXBTVOEFSDPOTUBOUTVSWFJMMBODFCZiMJUUMFNFOXJUIOPUFCPPLTw 8JUIHPWFSONFOUBVUIPSJUJFTBDDVTJOHBMNPTUBOZPOFPQQPTFEUPUIFJSQPMJDJFTPGCFJOHDPNNVOJTUTBOE USBJUPST QPMJDFSBJEFEIPNFT BSSFTUFEOFXTQBQFSFEJUPSTGPSQSJOUJOHiJOĘBNNBUPSZBSUJDMFT wBOEJOUJNJEBUFEWPUFSTEVSJOHGSBVEVMFOUFMFDUJPOT TVDIBTUIF one in May 1948 that brought Rhee to power. In the countryside, they extracted SJDFGSPNUIFQFBTBOUSZiUIFTBNFXBZBTVOEFSUIF+BQBOFTFFYDFQUXJUIXPSTF USFBUNFOU wBOEJODJUJFTKBJMFETUVEFOUBOEMBCPSMFBEFSTBOEFWFOTDIPPMUFBDIFSTGPSNFSFMZNFOUJPOJOHDPNNVOJTNJOUIFJSDMBTTSPPNT23 0ODFJODVTUPEZ TVTQFDUTXFSFUPSUVSFEUISPVHITVDINFUIPETBTLJEOFZ QVODIJOH IBOHJOH CZ UIF UIVNCOBJMT GPSDFE FBUJOH PG IPU QFQQFST BOE FMFDUSPTIPDLTJOUIFBUUFNQUUPFYUSBDUDPOGFTTJPOT"TUBOEBSEFOUSZJOUIF police registry was “died under torture” and “died of heart failure.” One prison report referred to a young girl whose face was covered because she had been TUSVDLXJUIBSJĘFCVUUBOEBOPUIFSBNBOXIPIBEHPOFEFBGGSPNCFBUJOHT 4PNF,/1VOJUTNPSQIFEJOUPEFBUITRVBET TVDIBTUIFi#MBDL5JHFS(BOH w IFBEFECZ$IBOH5BFLTBOH BOEBTTBTTJOBUFEPQQPTJUJPOĕHVSFT JODMVEJOH JUJTBMMFHFE :P6O)ZPOH BOBUJPOBMJTUXIPQSPNPUFESFDPODJMJBUJPOCFUXFFO North and South.24 "NFSJDBO NJMJUBSZ DPNNBOEFST PęFO QSPNPUFE CSVUBM UBDUJDT$*$BHFOU%POBME/JDIPMSFQPSUFEJOIJTNFNPJSTUIBUUIF,/1XFSF BEWJTFEUPiEVNQPČUIFCBDLPGBCPBU JOUIFOVEF BUIJHITQFFEPSHJWFIJNGBMTFJOGPSNBUJPOQMBOUTBOEMFUUIFFOFNZEPJU for you.” %FTQJUFBUUFNQUTUPEFWFMPQHSFBUFSQSPGFTTJPOBMJTN TBMBSJFTXFSFTPJOBEFRVBUF BDDPSEJOH UP POF BSNZ SFQPSU UIBU QPMJDF XFSF iGPSDFE UP CFH CVZ PSTUFBMPUIFSJUFNTCFTJEFTSJDFXIJDIHPXJUIUIFNBLJOHPGBSFHVMBSEJFUw "OPUIFSSFQPSUTUBUFEUIBUUIF,/1iMBDLFEFOUIVTJBTNwJODPPQFSBUJOHXJUI UIFBSNZT$SJNJOBM*OWFTUJHBUJPO%JWJTJPOJOIBMUJOHUIFJMMJDJUTBMFPGTDSBQ NFUBMBOEPUIFS"NFSJDBOQSPEVDUT BTUIFZiPęFOUPPLBTIBSFPGUIFDVUw25 84
Under the Facade of Benevolence
ćFMFWFSBHFPGUIF"NFSJDBOTUPDVSUBJMTVDIQSPCMFNTXBTPęFOMJNJUFE BT SFMBUJPOTXJUI,PSFBOPďDJBMTXFSFNBSSFECZNVUVBMNJTUSVTU1PMJDFBEWJTFS %BWJE 'BZ UPME (FOFSBM "MCFSU 8FEFNFZFS UIBU JO IJT QSPWJODF iOPU POF QSPCMFN PG QPMJDF BENJOJTUSBUJPO IBE CFFO QSFTFOUFE UP UIF "NFSJDBOT GPS discussion.”26 In July 1946, Captain Richard D. Robinson, assistant head of the AMG’s Bureau of Public Opinion, conducted an investigation which found police NFUIPETUPCFiFYUSFNFMZIBSTIwBOEJOUJNJEBUJPOTVDIUIBUQFPQMFXFSFBGSBJE UPUBMLUP"NFSJDBOT#FMJFWJOHUIBUPQQSFTTJWFNFUIPETXFSFESJWJOHNPEFSBUFTJOUPUIFDPNNVOJTUDBNQ 3PCJOTPOXBTPVUSBHFEXIFOIFXJUOFTTFE8V )BO $IBJ B GPSNFS NBDIJOF HVOOFS JO UIF +BQBOFTF BSNZ VTJOH UIF iXBUFS USFBUNFOUwUPHFUBTVTQFDUFEQJDLQPDLFUUPDPOGFTTBOEIBEIJTBSNTGPSDFE CBDL CZ NFBOT PG B TUPDL JOTFSUFE CFIJOE IJT CBDL BOE JO UIF DSPPLT PG IJT elbow. When confronted, Wu said he did not believe he had done anything XSPOH XIJDI BQQFBSFE UP 3PCJOTPO UP SFĘFDU B EFĕDJFODZ JO IJT USBJOJOH 3PCJOTPOXBTMBUFSUISFBUFOFEXJUIDPVSUNBSUJBMCZ)PEHFTBTTJTUBOU (FOFSBM "SDIFS-FSDI BOEXBTIBSBTTFECZUIF'#* FYBNQMFTPGUIFNJMJUBSZTBUUFNQU to silence internal critics.27 In October 1946, at a conference to address public grievances, witnesses tesUJĕFEUIBUUIF,/1XBTCBZPOFUJOHTUVEFOUTBOEFYUPSUJOHGSPNQFBTBOUTJOUIF BENJOJTUSBUJPOPGHSBJODPMMFDUJPO%VFQSPDFTT UIFZTBJE XBTSBSFMZBCJEFECZ BOEXBSSBOUTXFSFSBSFMZJTTVFE1PMJDFMPPUFEBOESPCCFEUIFIPNFTPGMFęJTUT BOEVTFENPOFZHBJOFEGSPNTIBLFEPXOTUPFOUFSUBJOUIFNTFMWFTJOi,BFTPOH IPVTFTwBOEGBODZESJOLJOHBOEFBUJOHFTUBCMJTINFOUTćFIFBEPGUIFZPVUI TFDUJPOPGUIF'BSNFST(VJMEJO,B1ZVOHUFTUJĕFEUIBUIFIBECFFOBSSFTUFEJO UIFNJEEMFPGUIFOJHIUBOEIFMEJOBEJSUZDFMMGPSĕWFEBZT 0UIFS MFęJTUT JODMVEJOH KVWFOJMFT BOE XPNFO TQPLF BCPVU CFJOH CFBUFO to the point where gangrene set in and pus seeped out of their legs. Cho Sing $IJLPG4VOH+VSFDPVOUFEIJTFYQFSJFODFVOEFSEFUFOUJPOPGTFFJOHBSPPN GVMM PG QFPQMF XIP IBE CFFO DSJQQMFE CZ NJTUSFBUNFOU )F TUBUFE UIBU NBOZ PGUIFXPSTUBCVTFTXFSFDPNNJUUFECZĕSFNFOPSHBOJ[FEJOUPBOFNFSHFODZ DPNNJUUFF UP TVQQPSU UIF QPMJDF BOE DPMMFDU NPOFZ GPS UIFN ićF QPMJDF< > OPUCFJOHBCMFUPUIFNTFMWFTCFBUUIFQFPQMF< >UVSOUIFNPWFSUPUIFĕSFNFO BOE UIF ĕSFNFO XPSL PO UIFN w IF EFDMBSFE "OPUIFS XJUOFTT UFTUJĕFE UIBU UIFQPMJDFXFSFiXPSTFUIBOVOEFSUIF+BQBOFTF< >XIPXFSFBGSBJEUPEPTVDI UIJOHTڀڀ/PXUIFZIBWFOPSFTQFDUGPSUIFJSTVQFSJPSTw28 %JSFDUPS $IPVHI 1ZPOH0L B $PMVNCJB 6OJWFSTJUZ 1I% XIP NBEF BO FTUJNBUFEŵųNJMMJPOZFO BCPVUžŵųų ųųų JOCSJCFTEVSJOHUIFĕSTUUXPZFBST PGUIFPDDVQBUJPO BENJUUFEUIBUUIF,/1XFSFiQBSUJBMUPUIFJEFBTPGUIFSJHIUJTUT wUIPVHIIFJOTJTUFEUIBUiBMMUIPTFBSSFTUFEIBWFDPNNJUUFEBDUVBMDSJNFT w a lie given that the CIA reported in 1948 that the police were taking action BHBJOTULOPXOPSTVTQFDUFEDPNNVOJTUTiXJUIPVUSFDPVSTFUPKVEJDJBMQSPDFTTw “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
85
4USFTTJOH UIF JNQPSUBODF PG TQFFEZ DPVSU QSPDFEVSF BOE KVEJDJBM SFGPSN JO TUSFOHUIFOJOHUIFMFHJUJNBDZPGUIFQPMJDF 3PCJOTPOSFDPNNFOEFEUP)PEHF UIBUIFSFNPWFUIPTFXIPIBEIFMEUIFSBOLPGMJFVUFOBOUVOEFSUIF+BQBOFTF BOEXIPTFBDUJPOTXFSFiJODPNQBUJCMFXJUIUIFڀڀQSJODJQMFTPGEFNPDSBDZ JOUIFQPMJDFTZTUFNw293PHFS#BMEXJO BGPVOEFSPGUIF"NFSJDBO$JWJM-JCFSUJFT6OJPO TFUVQBCSBODIJO,PSFBJOUIFBUUFNQUUPBCPMJTIUPSUVSFćF FYJHFODJFTPGNBJOUBJOJOHQPXFSBOEEFTUSPZJOHTPDJBMTVCWFSTJPOGSPNCFMPX IPXFWFS UPPLQSFDFEFODFćPTFCSBOEFEBTDPNNVOJTUTXFSFEFIVNBOJ[FE to the extent that they were seen as unworthy of legal protection. Pak Wan-so, B4PVUI,PSFBOXSJUFSXIPIBECFFOJNQSJTPOFEBOEUPSUVSFECZUIFQPMJDF DIBSHFEićFZDBMMFENFBSFECJUDI"OZSFEXBTOPUDPOTJEFSFEIVNBOڀڀ ćFZMPPLFEBUNFBTJG*XBTBCFBTUPSBCVHڀڀ#FDBVTFXFXFSFOUIVNBO XF had no rights.”30 ćF ,/1 NBJOUBJOFE B TZNCJPUJD SFMBUJPOTIJQ XJUI SJHIUXJOH WJHJMBOUFT XIPTFIFBERVBSUFSTXFSFMPDBUFEOFYUUPPSJOTJEFQPMJDFTUBUJPOTćFZXFSF EFTDSJCFECZUIFKPVSOBMJTU.BSL(BZOBTSFTFNCMJOHi)PMMZXPPEVOEFSXPSME LJMMFSTw ćFJS SBOLT XFSF TXFMMFE CZ BO JOĘVY PG /PSUIFSO SFGVHFFT CFBSJOH EFFQHSJFWBODFTBHBJOTUDPNNVOJTN$IBOH5BFL4BOH XIPCFDBNFQSJNF NJOJTUFS XBTPOUIFCPBSEPGUIF/BUJPOBM:PVUI"TTPDJBUJPO XIJDIUIF$*" DIBSBDUFSJ[FE BT B iUFSSPSJTU HSPVQ JO TVQQPSU PG FYUSFNF SJHIUXJOH QPMJUJDJBOTw*UTIFBE :J1PN4PL XBTB%BJ-JQSPUÏHÏBOE044MJBJTPOSFDSVJUFEJO ŴżŷŸCZ1BVM)FMMJXFMMBOE8JMMJBN%POPWBO EJTDVTTFEJOUIFOFYUDIBQUFS -BUFS BQQPJOUFE BT EFGFOTF NJOJTUFS IF SFDFJWFE žŶŶŶ ųųų JO FRVJQNFOU BOE BTTJTUBODFGSPN$PMPOFM&SOFTU7PTTPGUIFJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZEFQBSUNFOUUPTFU VQBiMFBEFSTIJQBDBEFNZwXJUIDPVSTFTJODPNCBUJOHTUSJLFTBOEUIFIJTUPSZPG UIF)JUMFSKVHFOE )JUMFS:PVUI
XIPN:JBENJSFE31 Opposed to the very idea PGBMBCPSVOJPO IJTNFOCFBUMFęJTUTBOE JOWJPMBUJPOPG6OJUFE/BUJPOTQSPWJsions, conducted surveillance and forays across the Thirty-eighth Parallel, with $*$TVQQPSUćFSFXFSFFWFOBUUFNQUTUPBTTBTTJOBUF,JN*M4VOH OPEPVCU BGBDUPSBDDPVOUJOHGPSUIFPSJHJOTPGUIF,PSFBO8BS XIJDIXBTOPUTJNQMZB NBUUFSPG/PSUIFSOBHHSFTTJPOBTUIFTUBOEBSEJOUFSQSFUBUJPOTVHHFTUT32 *OUIFSBSFJOTUBODFTXIFOSJHIUXJOHQBSBNJMJUBSJFTXFSFQSPTFDVUFE UIFZ XFSF PęFO HJWFO SFE DBSQFU USFBUNFOU *O .BZ ŴżŷŹ JO 5BFKPO GPS FYBNQMF GPVSUFFO SJHIUJTUT XFSF BSSFTUFE BęFS BUUBDLJOH TVTQFDUFE DPNNVOJTUT BOE TUFBMJOHSJDFGSPNGBSNFST8IJMFUBLJOHUIFNUPDPVSU ,/1PďDFSTTUPQQFE at the house of one of the prisoners and, according to internal records, enjoyed a “drunken picnic” arranged by relatives of the prisoners. In another case, the SJHIUJTUHBOHTUFS,JN5VIBOHPUPČXJUIBTNBMMĕOFGPSUPSUVSJOHUPEFBUI UXPMFęJTUZPVUIBTTPDJBUJPONFNCFSTBOETFSJPVTMZJOKVSJOHFJHIUPUIFST POF PGXIPNXBTFNBTDVMBUFE "UUIFUSJBM UIFKVEHFSFGVTFEUPDBMMBTXJUOFTTFT counterintelligence officers who had taken photographs and supervised the BVUPQTJFT4VDIEPVCMFTUBOEBSETXFSFQSFEPNJOBOUMZTVQQPSUFECZ"NFSJDBO authorities owing to larger power considerations.33 86
Under the Facade of Benevolence
"DDPSEJOHUPJOGPSNBUJPOPďDFS+PIO$BMEXFMM XIPXBTBSEFOUMZBOUJDPNNVOJTUBOEQSP3IFF BNBKPSJUZPGUIF"NFSJDBOTJO,PSFBPQFSBUFEVOEFSUIF QSFNJTFUIBUiUIFAHPPLTPOMZVOEFSTUPPEGPSDF wBLFZGBDUPSBDDPVOUJOHGPSUIF FNCSBDFPGSFQSFTTJWFNFUIPET34 A 1948 report by the lawyers Roy C. Stiles and "MCFSU-ZNBOPOUIFBENJOJTUSBUJPOPGKVTUJDFBTTFSUFEUIBUiBDUTDPOTJEFSFEUP CFDSVFMCZXFTUFSOTUBOEBSETXFSFPOMZQBSUPGUIFUFTUFEPSJFOUBMNPEVTPQFSBOEJ-PXFWBMVBUJPOPGMJGFSFTVMUTJOUIFBDDFQUBODFPGIVNBODSVFMUZw1PMJDF BEWJTFS3PCFSU'FSHVTPO BCFBUDPQGSPN4U-PVJT DPNNFOUFE i0SJFOUBMTBSF BDDVTUPNFEUPCSVUBMJUZTVDIBTXPVMEEJTHVTUBXIJUFNBOw:FUBOPUIFSSFQPSU SFNBSLFEUIBUiDPODFQUTPGJOEJWJEVBMSJHIUTXFSFJODPNQSFIFOTJCMFUPUIFPSJFOUBM*UXPVMEUBLFNVDIWJHPSPVTUSBJOJOHCBDLFECZQSPNQUQVOJTINFOUUP change their thinking.”354VDIDPNNFOUTSFWFBMUIFSBDJTNUIBUVOEFSMBZUIF USBNQMJOHPGDJWJMMJCFSUJFTBOEBCBOEPONFOUPGUIFQSPHSFTTJWFQPMJDJOHNPEFM *O'FCSVBSZŴżŷŻUIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUQSPEVDFEBSFQPSU i4PVUIFSO,PSFB "1PMJDF4UBUF wBDLOPXMFEHJOHUIBUUIF,/1IBEBXFMMLOPXOiSJHIUJTUCJBT w XIJDI MFE QPMJDF UP BTTVNF UIF GVODUJPO PG B QPMJUJDBM GPSDF GPS UIF TVQQSFTTJPOPGMFęJTUFMFNFOUT"MUIPVHIUIFBVUIPSTBENJUUFEUIBUUIFiDIBSHFTUIBU UIF 64 JT NBJOUBJOJOH B QPMJDF TUBUF UISPVHI JUT NJMJUBSZ HPWFSONFOU JT OPU TVCKFDU UP ĘBU SFGVUBUJPO w UIFZ BSHVFE UIBU "NFSJDBO QPMJDZ XBT OPU BU GBVMU BOEUIBUUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTTPVHIUUPJODVMDBUFEFNPDSBUJDQSJODJQMFT XIJDI are “the antithesis of a police state.” Native agencies, however, were not able to “achieve a full understanding of these principles,” owing to a “heritage of +BQBOFTFPQQSFTTJPOwBOEiUIFGBDUPGPDDVQBUJPOUIFFYDFTTFT EJTPSEFST BOE HSPXJOH QBJOT BDDPNQBOZJOH UIF EFWFMPQNFOU PG B TFMGHPWFSOJOHTPDJFUZw36 ćFTFSFNBSLTQSPWJEFBTUSJLJOHBENJTTJPOPGUIFMBDLPGEFNPDSBUJDTUBOEBSET BOEEFNPOTUSBUFUIFLJOETPGBSHVNFOUTBEPQUFECZQVCMJDPďDJBMTUPBCTPMWF UIFNTFMWFTPGSFTQPOTJCJMJUZGPSUIFVOGPMEJOHWJPMFODFJOUIF30, “We’re Having a Civil War Down Here”: The October 1946 Revolts and Prison Overcrowding
"DDPSEJOH UP UIF 64 "SNZT PďDJBM IJTUPSZ PG UIF ,PSFBO PDDVQBUJPO UIF “public’s ill feeling toward the police, which police abuse had engendered, CFDBNFBQPUFOUGBDUPSJOUIFSJPUTBOERVBTJSFWPMUTXIJDITXFQU4PVUI,PSFB in October 1946.”37 In South Cholla province, after the KNP killed a labor MFBEFS /KVH+V.ZVO BOEKBJMFEVOFNQMPZFEDPBMNJOFSTDFMFCSBUJOHUIFĕSTU BOOJWFSTBSZ PG ,PSFBT MJCFSBUJPO GSPN +BQBO BOHSZ QFBTBOUT EZOBNJUFE B QPMJDFCPYBOEBNCVTIFEBQSJTPOFSDPOWPZCZUISPXJOHTUPOFT$POTUBCVMBSZ EFUBDINFOUTIVOUFEUIPTFEFFNFESFTQPOTJCMFXJUIUIFBTTJTUBODFPG"NFSJDBO USPPQT ĕSJOHJOUPDSPXET)VOESFETEJFEPSXFSFJOKVSFE"OFEJUPSJBMQSPDMBJNFE i8F DBOOPU UBLF UIF IVNJMJBUJPO BOZ MPOHFS BOE NVTU ĕHIU BHBJOTU JNQFSJBMJTNBOEUIFCBSCBSJUZPGUIF64"SNZ*ڀڀO/PSUI,PSFB +BQBOFTF exploitation was abolished and land was given back to the people through the “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
87
BHSBSJBOBOEMBCPSMBXT*O4PVUI,PSFB UIFQSPQFSUZPGUIF+BQBOFTFJNQFSJBMJTUTXBTUBLFOPWFSCZUIF"NFSJDBOTBOE,PSFBOSFBDUJPOBSZFMFNFOUTڀڀćF QFPQMFBSFTVČFSJOHGSPNPQQSFTTJPOBOEFYQMPJUBUJPOćJTJTEFNPDSBDZ w38 4VDITFOUJNFOUTMBZBUUIFSPPUPGNPVOUJOHDJWJMTUSJGFBDSPTTUIFDPVOUSZ UPXIJDIBVUIPSJUJFTSFTQPOEFEUIFPOMZXBZUIFZLOFXIPXUISPVHIGVSUIFS QPMJDFSFQSFTTJPOBOEWJPMFODF*O5BFHV NBSUJBMMBXXBTEFDMBSFEBęFSSJPUT precipitated by police suppression of a railroad strike left thirty-nine civilians EFBE IVOESFET XPVOEFE BOE UIJSUZFJHIU NJTTJOH 'JęFFO IVOESFE XFSF arrested, and forty were given death sentences, including SKLP leader Pak, XIPĘFEUPUIF/PSUI0WFSŴųų ųųųTUVEFOUTXBMLFEPVUJOTPMJEBSJUZXJUIUIF XPSLFST XIJMFNPCTSBOTBDLFEQPMJDFQPTUT CVSJFEPďDFSTBMJWF BOETMBTIFE the face of the police chief, in a pattern replicated in neighboring cities and towns. (In Waegwon, rioters cut the police chief ’s eyes and tongue.)39#MBNJOH the violence on “outside agitators” (none were ever found) and the “idiocy” of UIFQFBTBOUT UIF"NFSJDBONJMJUBSZDBMMFEJOSFJOGPSDFNFOUTUPSFTUPSFPSEFS $PMPOFM3BZNPOE(1FFLFQSPDMBJNFE i8FSFIBWJOHBDJWJMXBSEPXOIFSFw ćFEJSFDUPSPGUIFBSNZT%FQBSUNFOUPG5SBOTQPSUBUJPOBEEFEi8FIBEBCBUUMFNFOUBMJUZ8FEJEOUIBWFUPXPSSZUPPNVDIJGJOOPDFOUQFPQMFHPUIVSU8F TFUVQDPODFOUSBUJPODBNQTPVUTJEFPGUPXOBOEIFMETUSJLFSTUIFSFXIFOUIF jails got too full. . . . It was war. We recognized it as war and fought it as such.”40 #Z NJEŴżŷź BęFS UIF ".( QBTTFE B OBUJPOBM TFDVSJUZ MBX FYQBOEJOH QPMJDFQPXFST UIFSFXFSFBMNPTUŵŵ ųųųQFPQMFJOKBJM OFBSMZUXJDFBTNBOZ BTVOEFSUIF+BQBOFTF,/1EJSFDUPS8JMMJBN.BHMJOMBUFSBDLOPXMFEHFEJOB ŴżżżBSUJDMFUIBUiJOUIFJSSFUBMJBUJPOGPSNVSEFSTBOEJOEJHOJUJFTQPMJDFXFOUUPPGBSJOBSSFTUJOHMBSHFOVNCFSTPGDPNNVOJTUT MFęJTUT BOEMFęJTUTZNQBUIJ[FSTw.BOZXFSFTFOUFODFECZNJMJUBSZUSJCVOBM XIJMF others languished in prison without counsel. Thousands were held in outlying DBNQT JODMVEJOHTFWFONFNCFSTPGUIF/BUJPOBM"TTFNCMZDIBSHFEXJUIMFBEJOHBiDPNNVOJTUDPOTQJSBDZw41 During an inspection of Wanju jail, Captain Richard D. Robinson found six QSJTPOFST TIBSJOH B NPTRVJUPJOGFTUFE UXFMWFGPPUCZUXFMWFGPPU DFMM BDDFTTJCMFPOMZUISPVHIBTNBMMUSBQEPPSBOEUVOOFM*OPUIFSGBDJMJUJFT JONBUFTXFSF CFBUFO BOE TUSJQQFE OBLFE UP LFFQ UIFN GSPN DPNNJUUJOH TVJDJEF #MBOLFUT were shared and never cleaned, and washing facilities were nonexistent. The MBUSJOFXBTVTVBMMZOPUIJOHCVUBIPMFJOUIFĘPPS'PPEXBTJOBEFRVBUF XJOUFS UFNQFSBUVSFT XFSFTVC[FSP BOENFEJDBMDBSF XBT TDBOU 1SJTPOFST XFSF OPU BMMPXFE UP XSJUF MFUUFST PS IBWF PVUTJEF DPNNVOJDBUJPOT BOE VTVBMMZ IBE UP TMFFQTUBOEJOHVQ*O4VXBO JONBUFTXFSFGPSDFEUPTMFFQJOQJUDFMMTXJUIPVU IFBUćFJSXBUFSXBTESBXOGSPNBXFMMMPDBUFEOFYUUPBEFQPTJUPSZGPSSBX TFXBHF DBVTJOHSBNQBOUEJTFBTF JODMVEJOHBTDBCJFTFQJEFNJD42 *O"QSJMŴżŷŻ UPSFMJFWFPWFSDSPXEJOH .BKPS8JMMJBN'%FBO BPOFUJNF #FSLFMFZ QBUSPMNBO SFDPNNFOEFE UIF SFMFBTF PG Ŷ Ŵŷų QPMJUJDBM QSJTPOFST 88
Under the Facade of Benevolence
XIPTFPČFOTFDPOTJTUFEPOMZPGiQBSUJDJQBUJPOJOJMMFHBMNFFUJOHTBOEEFNPOstrations and distributing handbills.”43"VUIPSJUJFTFTUBCMJTIFEXPSLDBNQTJO PSEFSUPiVUJMJ[FUIFDBQBCJMJUJFTPGUIFJONBUFTJOVTFGVMPDDVQBUJPOT wXIJDI PęFOFOUBJMFEQFSGPSNJOHEVUJFTGPSUIF"NFSJDBONJMJUBSZ&OBDUJOHUIFJEFBMT PGUIFQSPHSFTTJWFNPWFNFOU 64BEWJTFSTJOUSPEVDFEWPDBUJPOBMUSBJOJOH B SFXBSET TZTUFN QSJTPO JOEVTUSJFT BOE NPWJFT BOE SFDSFBUJPO ćFZ CSPVHIU in chaplains, constructed juvenile facilities, and established a guard training TDIPPMXJUIDPVSTFTJONPEFSOQFOPMPHZ ĕOHFSQSJOUJOH BOEXFBQPOT44 8IBU FČFDU UIF SFGPSNT IBE JT VODMFBS BT QSJTPOT SFNBJOFE SJEEMFE XJUI BCVTF "DDPSEJOH UP UIF 64 "SNZ HVBSET EJTQMBZFE B iIBSTIOFTT UIBU XBT SFQVHOBOUUP%FQBSUNFOUPG+VTUJDFMFHBMBEWJTFSTw"UUIF*ODIPO#PZT1SJTPO JONBUFT XFSF EFQSJWFE PG FYFSDJTF BOE GPSDFE UP XPSL BU NBLJOH TUSBX SPQF without sufficient light. Prisoners engaged in hunger strikes and led jailbreaks. *O ,BOHKV PO "VHVTU ŶŴ Ŵżŷź Ŵźŵ JONBUFT PWFSQPXFSFE HVBSET BOE TFWFO ESJMMFEUIFJSXBZUPGSFFEPN5XPZFBSTMBUFSJO.PLQP OFBS4FPVM ŵŶźHVFSSJMMBTGSPN$IFKVEP*TMBOEXFSFLJMMFECZQPMJDFBOE64"SNZTPMEJFSTBęFS CSFBLJOH GSFF JOUP UIF OFJHICPSJOH IJMMT BOPUIFS FJHIUZĕWF XFSF DBQUVSFE alive.450OUIFXIPMF UIFQSJTPODPOEJUJPOTDPOUSBEJDUUIFNZUIUIBUUIF"NFSJDBOJOĘVFODFJO4PVUI,PSFBXBTTPNFIPXCFOJHO"TJOMBUFSJOUFSWFOUJPOT UIFSFQSFTTJWFDMJNBUFDBUBMZ[FEUIFPQQPTJUJPOBOEIBTUFOFEBSNFESFTJTUBODF “A Cloud of Terror”: The Cheju-do Massacre and Korean War Atrocities
4PNFPGUIFXPSTUQPMJDFDSJNFTPDDVSSFEJOTVQQSFTTJOHUIFVQSJTJOHPOUIF island of Cheju-do at the southern tip of the country. The source of the upheaval XBTVOFRVBMMBOEEJTUSJCVUJPOBOEQPMJDFCSVUBMJUZ BTUIF$*"BDLOPXMFEHFE )PEHF JSPOJDBMMZ UPME B HSPVQ PG DPOHSFTTNFO UIBU $IFKVEP XBT B USVMZ iDPNNVOBM BSFB ڀ ڀQFBDFGVMMZ DPOUSPMMFE CZ UIF 1FPQMFT $PNNJUUFF w XIP QSPNPUFE B DPMMFDUJWJTU BOE TPDJBMJTU QIJMPTPQIZ iXJUIPVU NVDI $PNJOUFSO JOĘVFODFw46 In March 1947, as the AMG tried to assert its authority, the KNP ĕSFE JOUP B DSPXEBOELJMMFEFJHIUQFBDFGVMEFNPOTUSBUPST UIFO JNQSJTPOFE BOPUIFSGPVSIVOESFE(PWFSOPS1BL,ZPOHKVOXBTEJTNJTTFEGPSCFJOHiUPP SFEwBOESFQMBDFECZ:V)BFKJO BOFYUSFNFSJHIUJTUEFTDSJCFEBTiSVUIMFTTBOE dictatorial in his dealing with the opposing political parties.”47 KNP units and SJHIUXJOHZPVUIHSPVQTUFSSPSJ[FEUIF1FPQMFT$PNNJUUFFBOEDVUPČUIFĘPX of food and construction supplies, turning the island into an open-air prison. In response, the Cheju-do branch of the SKLP, long known for its anticoloOJBMEFĕBODF FTUBCMJTIFEHVFSSJMMBVOJUTJOUIF)BMMB.PVOUBJOTTVQQPSUFECZ BOFTUJNBUFEŻųQFSDFOUPGUIFQPQVMBUJPO48 In April 1948 the rebellion spread to the west coast of the island, where guerrillas attacked twenty-four police TUBUJPOT ,/1 BOE DPOTUBCVMBSZ VOJUT PQFSBUJOH VOEFS 64 NJMJUBSZ DPNNBOEBOEBJEFECZBFSJBMSFJOGPSDFNFOUTBOETQZQMBOFTTXFQUUIFNPVOUBJOT “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
89
XBHJOHiBOBMMPVUHVFSSJMMBFYUFSNJOBUJPODBNQBJHO wBT&WFSFUU%SVNXSJHIU PG UIF "NFSJDBO FNCBTTZ DIBSBDUFSJ[FE JU NBTTBDSJOH QFPQMF XJUI CBNCPP TQFBSTBOEUPSDIJOHIPNFT0OFSFQPSUTUBUFE i'SVTUSBUFECZOPULOPXJOHUIF JEFOUJUZPGUIFTFFMVTJWFNFO UIFQPMJDFJOTPNFDBTFTDBSSJFE PVUJOEJTDSJNJOBUFXBSGBSFBHBJOTUFOUJSFWJMMBHFTw#FUXFFOŶų ųųųBOEŹų ųųų people were killed out of a population of 300,000, including the guerrilla leader :J5ÙLLV BOEBOPUIFSŷų ųųųXFSFFYJMFEćFGFSPDJUZPGUIFWJPMFODFXBTJO QBSUBUUSJCVUFEUPSBDJTNEJSFDUFEBHBJOTU$IFKVOT XIPXFSFTFFOBTCBDLXBSE DPNQBSFEUPUIF,PSFBONBJOMBOEFST49 1PMJDF BUSPDJUJFT XFSF POMZ TMJHIUMZ MFTT NBSLFE JO UIF TVQQSFTTJPO PG UIF JOTVSSFDUJPOJO:PTV XIJDIMFęUIBUQPSUUPXOJOBTIFT"ęFSUIFEFDMBSBUJPO PGNBSUJBMMBXPO0DUPCFSŵŵ ŴżŷŻ DPOTUBCVMBSZVOJUTVOEFS$BQUBJO+BNFT )BVTNBOSPVOEFEVQTVTQFDUFESFCFMT TUSJQQFEUIFNUPUIFJSVOEFSXFBSJO TDIPPMZBSET BOE CFBU UIFN XJUI CBST JSPO DIBJOT BOE SJĘF CVUUT $VSTPSZ screenings were undertaken, and several thousand were executed in plain sight of their wives and children in revenge for attacks on police stations. The corpses PGNBOZPGUIFEFBEXFSFQMBDFEJODJUZTUSFFUTXJUIBSFEIBNNFSBOETJDLMF insignia covering the chest for propaganda purposes. Order was restored only BęFSQVSHFTXFSFFOBDUFEJODPOTUBCVMBSZSFHJNFOUTUIBUIBENVUJOJFEJOTVQQPSUPGUIFSFCFMDBVTF BOEUIFQFSQFUSBUPSTFYFDVUFECZĕSJOHTRVBE50 ćF:PTVBOE$IFKVEPNBTTBDSFTDPOUSJCVUFEUPUIFEFDJNBUJPOPGUIFMFęJTU NPWFNFOUT XIJDIEFQSJWFE,JN*M4VOHTBSNJFTPGUIFTVQQPSUUIFZFYQFDUFE after crossing into South Korea on June 25, 1950, precipitating the Korean War. 8IFOĕHIUJOHCSPLFPVU UIF,/1 FYQBOEFEUPTFWFOUZUIPVTBOENFO KPJOFE JO DPNCBU PQFSBUJPOT MBUFS SFDFJWJOH EFDPSBUJPOT GPS iSVUIMFTT DBNQBJHOT BHBJOTUHVFSSJMMBGPSDFTw.BOZPďDFSTXFSFSFDSVJUFEGPSTFDSFUNJTTJPOTJOUP North Korea by the CIA’s Seoul station chief, Albert Haney, a key architect of UIFŴŵżųEQSPHSBN BOE)BOT5PęF BIFSPPGUIF%BOJTIVOEFSHSPVOEXIP MBUFSTFSWFEVOEFS014DPWFSJO$PMPNCJB"MBSHFOVNCFSXFSFLJMMFE PXJOH UPUIFJOĕMUSBUJPOPGUIFTFDSFUUFBNTCZEPVCMFBHFOUT UIPVHI)BOFZEPDUPSFE the intelligence reports to cover up their fate.51 *OUIFTVNNFSPGŴżŸų UPLFFQ4PVUIFSOMFęJTUTGSPNSFJOGPSDJOHUIF/PSUIFSOFST ,/1BOE30,"VOJUTFNQUJFEUIFQSJTPOTBOETIPUBTNBOZBTŴųų ųųų EFUBJOFFT EVNQJOH UIF CPEJFT JOUP IBTUJMZ EVH USFODIFT BCBOEPOFE NJOFT PSUIFTFB"DDPSEJOHUPBSDIJWBMSFWFMBUJPOTBOEUIFĕOEJOHTPGB5SVUIBOE 3FDPODJMJBUJPO$PNNJTTJPO XPNFOBOEDIJMESFOXFSFBNPOHUIPTFLJMMFE52 ćF#SJUJTIKPVSOBMJTU+BNFT$BNFSPOFODPVOUFSFEQSJTPOFSTPOUIFJSXBZUP FYFDVUJPOPOMZZBSETGSPN64"SNZIFBERVBSUFSTBOEĕWFNJOVUFTGSPNUIF 6/$PNNJTTJPOCVJMEJOHJO1VTBOićFZXFSFTLFMFUPOTBOEUIFZDSJOHFEMJLF EPHT wIFXSPUFićFZXFSFNBOBDMFEXJUIDIBJOTBOEڀڀDPNQFMMFEUPDSPVDI JOUIFDMBTTJDBM0SJFOUBMBUUJUVEFPGTVCKFDUJPO4PNFUJNFTUIFZNPWFEFOPVHI UPTDPPQBIBOEGVMPGXBUFSGSPNUIFCMBDLQVEEMFTBSPVOEUIFN"ڀڀOZEFWJBUJPOGSPNCSPVHIUBHVOUPUIFJSIFBETw53 90
Under the Facade of Benevolence
ćFNPTUDPODFOUSBUFELJMMJOHPDDVSSFEJOUIFDJUZPG5BFKPO XIFSFUIF,/1 TMBVHIUFSFEUIPVTBOETPGMFęJTUTVOEFS"NFSJDBOPWFSTJHIU0ďDJBMIJTUPSJFT MPOHUSJFEUPQJOUIFBUSPDJUZPOUIFDPNNVOJTUTćFDPOEVDUPGUIF,/1XBT not an aberration, however, but the result of ideological conditioning, training JOWJPMFOUDPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZNFUIPETCZUIF"NFSJDBOTBOE+BQBOFTF BOEUIF CSFBLEPXOPGTPDJBMNPSFTJOUIFXBS"DDPSEJOHUPUIFIJTUPSJBO,JN%POH $IPPO UIFQPMJDFLJMMJOHTSFQSFTFOUFEBNPOHUIFiNPTUUSBHJDBOECSVUBMDIBQUFSTwPGBDPOĘJDUUIBUDMBJNFEUIFMJWFTPGŶNJMMJPOQFPQMFBOEMFęNJMMJPOT NPSFBTSFGVHFFT54 Managing the Counterrevolution: Police Training and “Nation-Building” in South Korea in the War’s Aftermath
ćF,PSFBO8BSFOEFEJOTUBMFNBUFJOŴżŸŶ4ZOHNBO3IFFSFNBJOFEMFBEFS of the ROK until his death in 1960, when, after a brief power struggle, he was SFQMBDFECZ(FOFSBM1BSL$IVOH)FFćSPVHIPVUUIFŴżŸųTBOEŴżŹųT "NFSJDBOQPMJDZFMJUFTDPODFJWFEPG4PVUI,PSFBBTBMBCPSBUPSZGPSUIFQSPNPUJPOPG GSFFNBSLFUDBQJUBMJTNBOENPEFSOJ[JOHSFGPSNT4USBUFHJDQMBOOFSTIPQFEUIBU South Korea could surpass its Northern rival in achieving political stability and FDPOPNJDUBLFPČBOECFOFĕU+BQBOTFDPOPNZCZTFSWJOHBTJUTUSBEJOHQBSUOFS BOETPVSDFPGSBXNBUFSJBMT UIVTIFMQJOHUPLFFQJUJOUIF8FTUFSODBNQćF success of South Korea and Japan could then be used for propaganda purposes UP VOEFSDVU UIF BQQFBM PG UIF OPOBMJHOFE NPWFNFOU BOE PG TPDJBMJTU FYQFSJNFOUTJOUIFEFWFMPQJOHXPSMEXIJDI8BTIJOHUPOXBTXPSLJOHUPTVCWFSU55 0QFSBUJOHPOBCVEHFUPGžżųų ųųųQFSZFBS QPMJDFQSPHSBNTXFSFEFTJHOFE UPXJQFPVUUIFMBTUWFTUJHFTPGHVFSSJMMBSFTJTUBODFBOEQSPNPUFUIFTUBCJMJUZPO XIJDI FDPOPNJD EFWFMPQNFOU DPVME UBLF SPPU $PODFSOFE BCPVU QPMJDF DPSSVQUJPO BOE PVUEBUFE UFDIOJDBM FRVJQNFOU UIF $*" OPUFE UIBU 4PVUI ,PSFB IBE FNFSHFE GSPN UIF XBS XJUI B iSJHJE BOUJDPNNVOJTU OBUJPOBM BUUJUVEF BOEWJHJMBOUڀڀSFQSFTTJWFJOUFSOBMTFDVSJUZTZTUFNڀڀXIJDIIBTSFTVMUFEJO UIFWJSUVBMFMJNJOBUJPOPGBMMCVUUIFNPTUDPWFSUBOEDMBOEFTUJOFDPNNVOJTU operators.”567BSJPVTSFWFOHFSFHJNFOUTXFSFJOFYJTUFODF XIPTFNJTTJPOXBT UPIVOUEPXO/PSUIFSODPMMBCPSBUPST"NFSJDBOUSBJOJOHGPDVTFEPOCVJMEJOH up espionage and “counter-subversive” capabilities, creating a central records TZTUFN BOEMFDUVSJOHPOUIFTFWFSJUZPGUIFiDPNNVOJTUUISFBUw 64 NJMJUBSZ BEWJTFST PWFSTBX QPMJDF VOJUT DBSSZJOH PVU iNPQVQw EFBUI TRVBE PQFSBUJPOT BHBJOTU iCBOEJUTw BOE TQJFT JO XIJDI DJWJMJBO EFBUIT XFSF XJEFMZSFQPSUFE*OBQSFDVSTPSUPUIF7JFUOBN1IPFOJYQSPHSBN FďDJFODZXBT NFBTVSFECZUIFOVNCFSPGXFBQPOTTFJ[FEBOEHVFSSJMMBTDBQUVSFEBOEiBOOJIJMBUFE wVTVBMMZBUMFBTUGPVSUJNFTNPSFUIBOUIFOVNCFSPGQPMJDFXPVOEFE or killed.57 Typical was a report in February 1954 in which adviser Edward J. $MBTTPOMBVEFEUIFEJTDPWFSZBOEEFTUSVDUJPOPGBOFOFNZIJEFPVUJO4POBN JO XIJDI UIJSUZPOF iCBOEJUTw XFSF LJMMFE BOE ĕęZGPVS DBQUVSFE58 Another “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
91
SFQPSUSFGFSSFEUPBQPMJDFESJWFJO%FDFNCFSŴżŸŶ 0QFSBUJPO5SBNQMF XIJDI iSFEVDFEUIFOVNCFSPGACBOEJUTGSPNŹżŴUPPOMZŴŶŴ wUIFSFNBJOEFSPGXIPNXFSFOPXiXJEFMZTDBUUFSFEwBOEiSFQSFsented little danger to the population.”59 *OUIFGBDFPGSFQSFTTJPOBOEXBOJOHTVQQPSUBNPOHBXBSXFBSZQPQVMBUJPO HVFSSJMMBTSFTPSUFEUPLJEOBQQJOHBOEFYUPSUJPOJOBOBUUFNQUUPTVSWJWF "QPMJDFSFQPSUEBUFE.BZŴ ŴżŸŷ OPUFEUIBUĕWFiCBOEJUTwVOEFSUIFDPWFSPG EBSLOFTTSBJEFEUIFIPNFTPGUXPGBSNFST UJFEVQUIFJSGBNJMJFT BOEEFNBOEFE NJMMFU TBMU QPUBUPFT BOEDMPUIJOH XIJDIHJWFTBHPPETFOTFPGUIFJSEFTQFSBtion.60*O%FDFNCFSŴżŸŹ QVCMJDBVUIPSJUJFTBOOPVODFEUIFTVDDFTTPGQBDJĕDBUJPOFČPSUTćFZDMBJNFEUPIBWFBSSFTUFEUIFMBTULOPXOiHVFSJMMBCBOEJUTw PG UIF BOUJ"NFSJDBO SFHJNFOU B TFWFOUFFOZFBSPME HJSM ,PPO +B ,JN BOE FJHIUFFOZFBSPME4BN+JO,PI JOBNPQVQDBNQBJHOJO$IVMMP1VLUPQSPWJODF4FWFOTVCWFSTJWFTXFSFTIPU JODMVEJOHDPNNBOEFS,BVO4PP1BL BHF UIJSUZUISFFćFQIPUPTPG,PPOBOE4BNVOEFSQPMJDFBSSFTUXFSFCSPBEDBTU in the Korea Times in order to publicize the KNP’s strength in reestablishing law and order.61 The Korean War had been a long drawn-out affair, and as the JNBHFTSFWFBM 4PVUI,PSFBOTPDJFUZSFNBJOFECJUUFSMZEJWJEFEJOJUTBęFSNBUI and, like the North, subjected to continued state repression. The country could be stabilized only by force. ćSPVHIPVUUIFEVSBUJPOPG3IFFTSVMF UIFQPMJDFSFNBJOFENPCJMJ[FEGPS QBSBNJMJUBSZPQFSBUJPOT*OUFSGFSFODFJOFMFDUJPOTBOECBMMPUTUVďOHSFNBJOFE QSFWBMFOU BTEJEDVTUPNBSZQSBDUJDFTTVDIBTTVSWFJMMBODF CMBDLQSPQBHBOEB and torture.62 1PMJDF BEWJTFS 8JMMJBN .BYĕFME DPNQMBJOFE BCPVU POEVUZ QBUSPMNFO GPVOE TMFFQJOH ESJOLJOH PS BXBZ GSPN UIFJS QPTU "DDPSEJOH UP 4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUEPDVNFOUT UIF,/1XBTFTQFDJBMMZiCSVUBMJOFYBDUJOHQVOJTINFOUBOESFWFOHFwBHBJOTUUIPTFXIPIBEDPPQFSBUFEXJUIUIF/PSUI,PSFBO NJMJUBSZ TPNFUJNFT iTMBVHIUFSJOH UIFNw 3IFF VTFE UIF QPMJDF UP VOEFSUBLF “extralegal and violent tactics” against opponents. In April 1960, police opened ĕSFPOTUVEFOUEFNPOTUSBUPSTQSPUFTUJOHUIFSFDFOUGSBVEVMFOUFMFDUJPOT LJMMJOH or wounding several hundred. Koreans in the United States picketed the White )PVTF EFNBOEJOH UIBU "NFSJDB UBLF B TUBOE BHBJOTU iUIF CSVUBM EFHSBEJOH butchery.”63 The Korea TimesSFQPSUFEPOUIFBSSFTUBOECFBUJOHPG,JN4VO5BF BO.1 BęFS IF QSPUFTUFE TUBHFE FMFDUJPOT JO ŴżŸŹ -FF *L)FVOH NJOJTUFS PG IPNF BČBJST BOE,JN$IPOH8PO IFBEPGUIFQVCMJDTFDVSJUZCVSFBV XIPXPSLFE DMPTFMZXJUI$BQUBJO8BSSFO40MJO BDBSFFSBSNZPďDFS PSEFSFEUSPPQFSTUP iOBCUIFCBTUBSEwBOELFQUIJNJOEFUFOUJPOGPSĕWFEBZT EVSJOHXIJDIUJNF he was “treated like a dog.” The newspaper editorialized, “There can never be a SFQSFTFOUBUJWFEFNPDSBDZXJUINFOMJLF-FFBOE,JNJOQPTJUJPOTPGQPXFSw64 #PSOUPBQPPS,PSFBOGBNJMZJO+BQBO ,JNXBTUSBJOFEJOUIFŴżŶųTJO+BQBOFTFNJMJUBSZBDBEFNJFT XIPTFSJHPSPVTJEFPMPHJDBMDPOEJUJPOJOHBOEIBSTI 92
Under the Facade of Benevolence
EFIVNBOJ[JOH NFUIPET TFU UIF DPVSTF GPS IJT DBSFFS ,OPXO BT UIF i1BFLUV Mountain Tiger,” he decapitated suspected guerrilla collaborators during the TVQQSFTTJPO PG UIF :PTV SFCFMMJPO XJUI B +BQBOFTFTUZMF TXPSE BOE NBDIJOF HVOOFEUIJSUZPOFEFUBJOFFTJOUIF:POHEPLQPMJDFTUBUJPOXIPXFSFTVTQFDUFE PGCFJOHiDPOUBNJOBUFEFMFNFOUTw*O:POHIBFNZPO ,JNTNFOBSSFTUFEDJWJMJBOTBęFSĕOEJOHQSPQBHBOEBMFBĘFUTBUBOFBSCZTDIPPMBOETIPUUIFNJOGSPOU PGWJMMBHFST PQFOJOHĕSFPOXPNFOBOEDIJMESFOXIPSBOGSPNUIFTDFOF0WFS ĕWFIVOESFEXFSFLJMMFEJOUIFNBTTBDSF GPSXIJDI,JNXBTTFOUFODFEUPUISFF ZFBSTJOQSJTPO UIPVHIIFXBTBNOFTUJFECZ3IFF65 %SJWFOCZBOPCTFTTJWFBOUJDPNNVOJTNBOEUIFSBQBDJPVTQVSTVJUPGQPXFS i5JHFSw,JNQSFTJEFEPWFSGVSUIFSBUSPDJUJFTBTWJDFDPNNBOEFSPGUIFNJMJUBSZ QPMJDFJO1VTBOEVSJOHUIF,PSFBO8BS)JTBQQPJOUNFOUBTIFBEPGUIFQVCMJD TFDVSJUZCVSFBVXBTBSFXBSEGPSIJTMPZBMUZUP3IFFBOESFĘFDUFEUIF,/1T DPOUJOVFE FNQIBTJT PO DPVOUFSJOTVSHFODZ BOE VUUFS EJTSFHBSE GPS IVNBO SJHIUT"NCBTTBEPS+PIO.VDDJP XIPMBUFSPWFSTBXBOPUIFSEJSUZXBSJO(VBUFNBMB DIBSBDUFSJ[FE,JNTNFUIPETBTiSVUIMFTTZFUFČFDUJWF wUZQJGZJOH64 TVQQPSUGPSCSVUBMUBDUJDT BTMPOHBTUIFZXFSFEJSFDUFEBHBJOTUiDPNNVOJTUTw66 7JFXJOHUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTBTBHSFBUTVDDFTT UIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUTPVHIU UP SFQMJDBUF UIFN JO 7JFUOBN XIFSF UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT BOE UIF 'SFODI GBDFE B TJNJMBS QSPCMFN PG DPNNVOJTU JOĕMUSBUJPO BOE BO iJOBCJMJUZ UP EJTUJOHVJTI GSJFOEGSPNGPFw$PMPOFM"MCFSU)BOFZ JOIJTJOUFSOBMPVUMJOFPGUIFŴŵżųE QSPHSBN CPBTUFE UIBU i64 FČPSUT CFIJOE UIF 30, JO TVCEVJOH DPNNVOJTU guerrillas in South Korea, while not generally known, were exceptionally effecUJWF BU B UJNF XIFO UIF 'SFODI XFSF TQFDUBDVMBSMZ JOFČFDUJWF JO *OEPDIJOBw 0O.BZŵź ŴżŸŷ -JFVUFOBOU$PMPOFM1IJMJQQF.JMPOPGUIF'SFODIBSNZXBT CSJFGFECZ"NFSJDBOPďDJBMTPO,/1UFDIOJRVFTPGTVSWFJMMBODFBOEQPQVMBUJPODPOUSPM.JMPOXBTJNQSFTTFECZUIFFČFDUJWFOFTTPGQPMJDFJOBOUJHVFSSJMMB DBNQBJHOT XIJDIIFTPVHIUUPJODPSQPSBUFBTBNPEFM67 *O ŴżŸŸ BęFS USBOTGFSSJOH QPMJDF USBJOJOH UP UIF 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU VOEFS ŴŵżųE UIF&JTFOIPXFSBENJOJTUSBUJPOQSPWJEFEPWFSžŴNJMMJPOJODPNNPEJUJFTUPUIF,/1 JODMVEJOHSBEJPUSBOTNJUUFST TUFFMĕMJOHDBCJOFUT BžŸųų ųųų TXJUDICPBSE BOEĕSFUSVDLT-BVSFOi+BDLw(PJO BOBJSGPSDFPďDFSXJUI#" BOE.4EFHSFFTJODSJNJOPMPHZGSPNUIF6OJWFSTJUZPG$BMJGPSOJBBU#FSLFMFZ BOEEJSFDUPSPGUIF"MMFHIFOZ$SJNF-BCJO1JUUTCVSHI TFUVQBTDJFOUJĕDDSJNF MBCFRVJQQFEXJUIĕOHFSQSJOUJOHQPXEFSTBOEUIFMBUFTUGPSFOTJDUFDIOPMPHZ )FMBUFSEJEUIFTBNFJO7JFUOBN *OEPOFTJB %PNJOJDBO3FQVCMJD BOE#SBzil.)68 "EWJTFST GSPN .JDIJHBO 4UBUF 6OJWFSTJUZT 7JFUOBN QSPKFDU JODMVEJOH Jack Ryan, Ralph Turner, and Howard Hoyt (whose backgrounds are discussed JODIBQUFSź
TFSWFEBTDPOTVMUBOUTBOEIFMQFETFUVQBDPNNVOJDBUJPOTZTUFN They then went on to Taipei, where, on a visit sponsored by the CIA-fronted "TJB'PVOEBUJPO UIFZJOTUSVDUFEQPMJDFMFECZUIF(FOFSBMJTTJNPTTPO$IJBOH $IJOHLVPJOSPPUJOHPVU.BPJTUJOĕMUSBUJPO69 “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
93
ćF ŴŵżųE QPMJDF USBJOJOH QSPHSBN JO 4PVUI ,PSFB XBT IFBEFE CZ 3BZ Foreaker, retired chief of police in Oakland, and a twenty-seven-year veteran PGUIF#FSLFMFZQPMJDFGPSDF XIFSFIFIBECFFONFOUPSFECZ"VHVTU7PMMNFS UIFiGBUIFSPGNPEFSOMBXFOGPSDFNFOUw%VSJOHIJTUFOVSFBT#FSLFMFZDIJFG 7PMMNFS QJPOFFSFE NBOZ JOOPWBUJPOT JODMVEJOH UIF VTF PG ĕOHFSQSJOUJOH patrol cars, and lie detector tests, illustrating, according to his biographers, his iMPWFPGHBEHFUT PGTDJFOUJĕDCSFBLUISPVHITUIBUIFIPQFEDPVMENBLFUIFQSPDFTTPGEFUFDUJOHBOETPMWJOHDSJNFTFOPSNPVTMZNPSFFďDJFOUw"WFUFSBOPG UIF4QBOJTI"NFSJDBO8BSXIPDVUIJTUFFUIUSBJOJOHQPMJDFJO.BOJMB 7PMMNFS XBTNPSFMJCFSBMUIBONBOZPGIJTDPOUFNQPSBSJFTJOEFGFOEJOHDPNNVOJTUT SJHIUUPGSFFBTTFNCMZBOETQFFDIBOEJODSJUJDJ[JOHESVHQSPIJCJUJPOMBXT)F XPSLFEUPDVSUBJMUIFiUIJSEEFHSFFwBOEFNCSBDFEBTPDJBMXPSLBQQSPBDIUP QPMJDJOH WJTJUJOHMPDBMKBJMTFBDINPSOJOHUPUBMLUPJONBUFTBOEVSHJOHIJTPďDFSTUPJOUFSBDUXJUINFNCFSTPGUIFDPNNVOJUZPOUIFJSCFBU70 "QBSUGSPNJOIJTBUUJUVEFUPXBSEDPNNVOJTN UIFTFBSFUIFLJOETPGJEFBMT UIBU 'PSFBLFS B TQFDJBMJTU JO DSJNJOBM BOE TFDVSJUZ JOWFTUJHBUJPOT TPVHIU UPQSPNPUFJO4PVUI,PSFB BOEMBUFSJO*OEPOFTJB &UIJPQJB (VBUFNBMB BOE 7JFUOBN)FDPNNFOUFE i0VSXPSLIFSFJTJOUIF UPUBMĕFMEPGQVCMJDTBGFUZSBUIFSUIBOJOQPMJDFXPSLBMPOFw71 Foreaker’s succesTPSBT0BLMBOEQPMJDFDIJFG 8ZNBO87FSOPO XBTQBSUPGUIFBEWJTPSZUFBN MBUFSTFSWJOHJO7JFUOBNBOE1BLJTUBO-JLF'PSFBLFS IFIBEBSFQVUBUJPOBTBO JODPSSVQUJCMFSFGPSNFS IBWJOHFTUBCMJTIFEBTQFDJBMQMBOOJOHBOESFTFBSDIVOJU JO0BLMBOETUBČFECZ#FSLFMFZTUVEFOUTUPBOBMZ[FBOEBEESFTTQPMJDFQSPCMFNT JODMVEJOHQPPSSFMBUJPOTXJUINJOPSJUJFTćF0BLMBOEQPMJDFOFWFSUIFMFTTDPOUJOVFEUPCFWJFXFEBTBOBSNZPGPDDVQBUJPOJOUIFCMBDLDPNNVOJUZ UIFJS CSVUBMJ[BUJPO PG BOUJXBS EFNPOTUSBUPST BOE #MBDL 1BOUIFST EVSJOH UIF ŴżŹųT FYFNQMJGZJOHUIFMJNJUTPGUIF#FSLFMFZQSPGFTTJPOBMJ[BUJPONPEFM72 Shaped by UIFDPOTFSWBUJWF IJFSBSDIJDBM BOEMJMZXIJUFJOTUJUVUJPOBMNJMJFVGSPNXIJDI UIFZ DBNF 'PSFBLFS BOE 7FSOPO XFSF HFOFSBMMZ JMMFRVJQQFE UP CSJOH BCPVU enlightened police practice in South Korea, where they faced an alien cultural FOWJSPONFOUBOEBXBSDMJNBUFUIBUCSPVHIUPVUUIFNPTUWJPMFOUUFOEFODJFTPG the police. *OUIFBUUFNQUUPJOTUJMMHSFBUFSQSPGFTTJPOBMJTN UIF4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUTFOU twenty top-ranking KNP, including General Hak Sung Wang, head of the OBUJPOBM QPMJDF DPMMFHF BOE $IJ )XBO $IPJ DIJFG PG UIF VOJGPSNFE QPMJDF USBJOFECZUIF"NFSJDBOTJOUIFŴżŷųT GPSDPVSTFTBUUIF'#*"DBEFNZBOEBU MFBEJOHDSJNJOPMPHZJOTUJUVUFTTVDIBTBU#FSLFMFZ .JDIJHBO4UBUF6OJWFSTJUZ and the Northwestern Traffic Institute.73"EP[FONPSFXFSFTFOUUPUIF-PT "OHFMFT1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU IFBEFECZ$IJFG8JMMJF1BSLFS ŴżŸųoŴżŹŹ
XIP was known for cleaning up corruption and for his right-wing politics and insenTJUJWJUZUPXBSESBDJBMNJOPSJUJFTBOEUIFQPPS4VCTDSJCJOHUP+&EHBS)PPWFST CSBOEPGUIFPMPHJDBMBOUJDPNNVOJTN UIF$*"DPOOFDUFE1BSLFSIFMQFEUPTFU 94
Under the Facade of Benevolence
VQ"NFSJDBOTUZMFQPMJDFTZTUFNTJO'SBOLGVSUBOE.VOJDIBęFS8PSME8BS** BOE JOBĕUUJOHHFTUVSF XBTOBNFEBOIPOPSBSZDIJFGPGUIF,/174 ,PSFBOPďDFSTUSBJOFEJOQSJTPONBOBHFNFOUBU(FPSHF8BTIJOHUPO6OJWFSTJUZSFUVSOFEIPNFUPSFGPSNUIF30,QFOBMTZTUFN%SBXJOHPOUIFJEFBMT of progressive penology, they revived efforts to establish rewards and parole, QSPNPUFE JOEVTUSJBM USBJOJOH BOE DSFBUFE KVWFOJMF SFGPSNBUPSJFT UP BEESFTT TLZSPDLFUJOHEFMJORVFODZSBUFTSFTVMUJOHGSPNBQSPGVTJPOPGXBSPSQIBOTćF 14%QMFEHFEžŸŸŶ ŹŻŻBOEBTTJTUFEJOEFWFMPQJOHBXPSLGBSNPVUTJEF4FPVM based on the Boys Town juvenile detention center in Nebraska.75 $PJODJEJOHXJUIUIFQBTTBHFPGNBOEBUPSZNJOJNVNTFOUFODJOHGPSESVH PČFOTFT JO UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT UIF *OUFSOBUJPOBM $PPQFSBUJPO "ENJOJTUSBUJPO FTUBCMJTIFE QPMJDF DPVOUFSOBSDPUJDT VOJUT XIJDI SBJEFE PQJVN EFOT BOE MBVODIFE0QFSBUJPO1PQQZ EFQMPZJOHBSNZBWJBUJPOVOJUTUPEFUFDUBOEEFTUSPZ QPQQZĕFMET76ćFTFDBNQBJHOTXFSFVOEFSNJOFECZQPMJDFBOEHPWFSONFOUBM DPSSVQUJPO " SFQPSU GSPN UIF 64 "SNZT $SJNJOBM *OWFTUJHBUJPO %JWJTJPO pointed to ties between Japanese gangster Hisayuki Machii (known in Korea BT,P:VOH.PL BOE30,OBWBMJOUFMMJHFODF TUBUJOHUIBUIFXBTiUPPTUSPOH QPMJUJDBMMZ UP CF UPVDIFE CZ UIF QPMJDF w EFTQJUF IBWJOH NVSEFSFE B ,PSFBO CPYFS "NFSJDBO USPPQT BMTP QBSUJDJQBUFE JO UIF CMBDL NBSLFU XPSLJOH XJUI their Korean girlfriends and local “slickie” boys to sell drugs, cigarettes, and QJSBUFEDPOTVNFSHPPETTVDIBTXBUDIFT DBNFSBT BOESBEJPT77 Their involveNFOU JO DSJNFT JODMVEJOH WFIJDVMBS NBOTMBVHIUFS BSTPO SBQF BOE NVSEFS EPNJOBUFQPMJDFSFQPSUTPGUIFQFSJPE78 *O UIF MBUF ŴżŸųT UIF 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU TVTQFOEFE UIF QPMJDF QSPHSBNT BDLOPXMFEHJOHUIFJSDPOUSJCVUJPOUPXJEFTQSFBEIVNBOSJHIUTWJPMBUJPOTćF United States was integral in creating a repressive internal security apparatus UIBU NBEF FWFO IBSEFOFE $PME 8BSSJPST CMBODI " ŴżŹŴ DBCJOFUMFWFM SFQPSU UFMMJOHMZSFGFSSFEUPUIF,/1BTUIFiIBUFEJOTUSVNFOUPGUIF3IFFSFHJNFw79 ćF,FOOFEZBENJOJTUSBUJPOOFWFSUIFMFTTSFWJWFEQPMJDFUSBJOJOHVOEFS3IFFT TVDDFTTPS 1BSL$IVOH)FF BNBTUFSPGQPMJUJDBMNVTJDBMDIBJSTXIPXBTPODF B NFNCFS PG UIF 4PVUI ,PSFBO $PNNVOJTU 1BSUZ BOE XIP IBE BMTP IVOUFE ,PSFBOSFTJTUBODFĕHIUFSTJO.BODIVSJBEVSJOH8PSME8BS**XJUIUIF+BQBOFTF *NQFSJBM"SNZ"ęFSNVUJOZJOHEVSJOHUIFŴżŷŻ:PTVSFCFMMJPO (FOFSBM1BSL FTDBQFEFYFDVUJPOCZJOGPSNJOHPOPOFUJNFBTTPDJBUFT BMMFHFEMZJODMVEJOHIJT PXO CSPUIFS BOE TVCTFRVFOUMZ SPTF UISPVHI UIF NJMJUBSZ IJFSBSDIZ XJUI UIF BTTJTUBODF PG $BQUBJO )BVTNBO XIP SFNBJOFE JO DPVOUSZ BT B MJBJTPO XJUI the ROKA. After the 1961 coup in which Park seized power, he presided over BQFSJPEPGTQFDUBDVMBSFDPOPNJDHSPXUI SFTVMUJOHGSPNWJTJPOBSZTUBUFQMBOOJOH UFDIOPMPHJDBMEFWFMPQNFOU XBSQSPĕUFFSJOH BOEBNBTTJWFJOUFSKFDUJPO of foreign capital.80 ćF30,4VQSFNF$PVODJMNFBOXIJMFQBTTFEBMBXNBOEBUJOHUIFQVSJĕDBUJPOPGQPMJUJDBMBDUJWJUJFT DSFBUJOHBTFWFONBODPNNJUUFFUPJEFOUJGZQFSTPOT “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
95
IPMEJOHiSPUUFOQPMJUJDTwBOEEFEJDBUFEUPiBOUJEFNPDSBUJDBDUTw-JWJOHDPOEJUJPOTSFNBJOFEEJďDVMUGPSUIFNBKPSJUZ BT1BSLDPMMBCPSBUFEXJUIUIFNBOBHFNFOUPGMBSHFchaebol DPOHMPNFSBUFT JOVTJOHQPMJDFBOEIJSFEHPPOTUP suppress strikes, and in keeping wages low in order to attract foreign investNFOUForbes NBHB[JOFHMPXJOHMZBEWFSUJTFE4PVUI,PSFBJOUIJTQFSJPEBTB great place to do business because laborers worked sixty hours per week for very low pay.81 $IBSBDUFSJ[FEBTBRVBTJNJMJUBSZGPSDF UIF,/1SFUBJOFEBDSVDJBMSPMFJO TVQQSFTTJOHXPSLJOHDMBTTNPCJMJ[BUJPOBOENPOJUPSJOHQPMJUJDBMBDUJWJUZ4VSveillance was coordinated with the Korean Central Intelligence Agency which was developed out of police intelligence units trained by the United States. OPS BEWJTFSTJOUIF$*"JODMVEJOH"SUIVS.ćVSTUPO XIPMFęIJTPďDJBMKPCBT DIBJSNBOPGUIFCPBSEPGUIF'BSNFST/BUJPOBM#BOLJO4IFMCZWJMMF *OEJBOB GPS NPOUITBUBUJNF UFMMJOHGSJFOETBOEGBNJMZIFXBTHPJOHUP&VSPQFIFMQFETFU VQJOUFMMJHFODFTDIPPMTBOEBTJUVBUJPOSPPNGBDJMJUZFRVJQQFEXJUINBQTBOE UFMFDPNNVOJDBUJPOTFRVJQNFOU#ZUIFNJEŴżŹųT ,PSFBO$FOUSBM*OUFMMJHFODF IBE ŶŸų ųųų BHFOUT PVU PG B QPQVMBUJPO PG Ŷų NJMMJPO EXBSĕOH UIF 3VTTJBO /,7%BUJUTIFJHIU$*"BUUBDIÏ1FFS%F4JMWBSBUJPOBMJ[FEJUTSVUIMFTTNFUIPET CZDMBJNJOH ićFSFBSFUJHFSTSPBNJOHUIFXPSME BOEXFNVTUSFDPHOJ[FUIJT or perish.”82 'SPNŴżŹźUPŴżźųUIF014UFBNJO,PSFBXBTIFBEFECZ'SBOL+FTTVQ B 3FQVCMJDBOBQQPJOUFFBTTVQFSJOUFOEFOUPGUIF*OEJBOB4UBUF1PMJDFJOUIFNJE ŴżŸųTBOEWFUFSBOPGQPMJDFQSPHSBNTJO(SFFDF -JCFSJB (VBUFNBMB BOE*SBO A sergeant with the Marine Corps Third Division who served in counterintelMJHFODFEVSJOHUIF1BDJĕDXBSBOEBTDIJFGPGDJWJMEFGFOTFXJUIUIF64GFEFSBM QPMJDF +FTTVQXBTBOBUJPOBMPďDFSPGUIFVMUSBDPOTFSWBUJWF"NFSJDBO-FHJPO He received the Gold Star for Valor after having been shot while apprehending the killer of an FBI agent. Lacking any real knowledge of Korean affairs, he TVCTDSJCFEUPUIFXPSMEWJFXPGUIF"NFSJDBO/FX3JHIU XJUIJUTDPNNJUNFOU UP TPDJBM PSEFS NJMJUBSZ QSFQBSFEOFTT BOE DPVOUFSSFWPMVUJPOBSZ BDUJWJTN BU IPNFBOEBCSPBE)JTQPMJUJDTXFSFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFBEWJTPSZHSPVQ XIJDI JODMVEFE8JMMJBN+4JNNMFS DIJFGPGEFUFDUJWFTJO1IJMBEFMQIJB XJUIFYQFSJence in the Philippines; Peter Costello, a twenty-four-year veteran of the New :PSL1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU XIPIFMQFESVOUIFEJSUZXBSJO(VBUFNBMB BOE)BSPMEi4DPUUZw$BQMBOPGUIF1FOOTZMWBOJB4UBUF1PMJDF XIPNBJOUBJOFEDPOUBDUT with the KNP until his death in 1998. 1FBLJOHBUBCVEHFUPGžŸŶNJMMJPOJOŴżŹŻ UIF014PSHBOJ[FEDPNCBUQPMJDF brigades and village surveillance and oversaw the interrogation of captured BHFOUTBOEEFGFDUPST*UBMTPJNQSPWFESFDPSETNBOBHFNFOU USBJOFEJOEVTUSJBM security guards, oversaw the delivery of 886 vehicles (35 percent of the KNP ĘFFU
BOE QSPWJEFE QPMZHSBQI NBDIJOFT BOE XFBQPOSZ TVDI BT HBT NBTLT and grenade launchers.83 ćF ,/1 DMBJNFE UP IBWF BQQSFIFOEFE Żų QFSDFOU 96
Under the Facade of Benevolence
PG/PSUI,PSFBOJOĕMUSBUPSTBTBSFTVMUPG"NFSJDBOBTTJTUBODF*OŴżżų+FTTVQ $BQMBO BOEi+BDLw(PJOXFSFJOWJUFECBDLGPSBSFDFQUJPOCZUIF30,NJOJTUFS PGUIFJOUFSJPS BHSBEVBUFPGUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM1PMJDF"DBEFNZJO8BTIJOHUPO %$ JOBSBSFQVCMJDSFDPHOJUJPOPGUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNT84 4XFFQJOHVOEFSUIFSVHUIFUZSBOOJDBMBTQFDUTPG1BSLTSVMF NPEFSOJ[BUJPO UIFPSJTUTJO8BTIJOHUPODPOTJEFSFE64QPMJDZJO4PVUI,PSFBUPCFBQIFOPNFOBMTVDDFTTCFDBVTFPGUIFTDBMFPGFDPOPNJDHSPXUI XIJDIXBTDPOUJOHFOUJO QBSUPONBOVGBDUVSJOHWJUBMFRVJQNFOUGPSUIF"NFSJDBOBSNZJO7JFUOBNćF United States was especially grateful to Park for sending 312,000 ROK soldiers UP 7JFUOBN XIFSF UIFZ DPNNJUUFE EP[FOT PG .Z -BJoTUZMF NBTTBDSFT BOE according to a RAND Corporation study, burned, destroyed, and killed anyone who stood in their path.85ćFQBSUJDJQBUJPOPGQPMJDFJOEPNFTUJDTVSWFJMMBODF BOEBDUTPGTUBUFUFSSPSJTNXBTKVTUJĕFEBTDSFBUJOHBDMJNBUFPGTUBCJMJUZ BMMPXJOHGPSFDPOPNJDiUBLFPČw5PHFUIFSXJUI+BQBO 4PVUI,PSFBIFMQFEDSZTUBMlize the view that a nation’s police force was the critical factor needed to provide for its internal defense.86 *O+BOVBSZŴżźŷ 1SFTJEFOU1BSLQBTTFEBOFNFSHFODZNFBTVSFHJWJOHIJN VOUSBNNFMFE QPXFS UP DSBDL EPXO PO EJTTFOUFST "NOFTUZ *OUFSOBUJPOBM TVCTFRVFOUMZSFQPSUFEBOBQQBMMJOHSFDPSEPGQPMJDFEFUFOUJPOT CFBUJOHT BOE UPSUVSF PG KPVSOBMJTUT DIVSDINFO BDBEFNJDT BOE PUIFS SFHJNF PQQPOFOUT Leftists (dubbed chwaiksu DPOĕOFE JO PWFSDSPXEFE QSJTPOT XFSF GPSDFE UP XFBSSFECBEHFTBOESFDFJWFEUIFIBSTIFTUUSFBUNFOU87 In May 1980, KNP and 30," PďDFST B OVNCFS PG UIFN 7JFUOBN 8BS WFUFSBOT LJMMFE VQ UP UISFF UIPVTBOEQFPQMFJOTVQQSFTTJOHUIF,XBOKVQSPEFNPDSBUJDVQSJTJOH4PVUI ,PSFBT FRVJWBMFOU UP 5JBOBONFO 4RVBSF 4UVEFOUT XFSF CVSOFE BMJWF XJUI ĘBNFUISPXFSTBTUIFPďDFSTMBJETJFHFUPUIFDJUZ"QPQVMBSTMPHBOGSPNUIF QFSJPEQSPDMBJNFE i&WFOUIF+BQBOFTFQPMJDFPďDFSTBOEUIFDPNNVOJTUTEVSJOHUIF,PSFBO8BSXFSFOUUIJTDSVFMwćFTFXPSETQSPWJEFBĕUUJOHFQJUBQIUP UIF"NFSJDBOQPMJDFQSPHSBNT XIJDI PWFSBUIJSUZĕWFZFBSQFSJPE USBJOFE TPNFPGUIFGPSDFTJNQMJDBUFEJOUIFNBTTBDSFBOEQSPWJEFEUIF,/1XJUINPEFSOXFBQPOSZBOEFRVJQNFOUVTFEGPSSFQSFTTJWFFOET88 *OBTUVEZPGQPMJDFUPSUVSFSTJOUIF4PVUIFSO$POFPG-BUJO"NFSJDB .BSUIB,)VHHJOTBOEBUFBNPGSFTFBSDIFSTDPODMVEFEUIBUJEFPMPHJDBMDPOEJUJPOJOHBOEUIFQPMJUJDBMDMJNBUFPGUIF$PME8BSIFMQFETIBQFUIFJSCFIBWJPSBOE BMMPXFEGPSUIFSBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOPGBDUJPOTUIBUUIFQFSQFUSBUPSTXPVMEOPSNBMMZ have considered abhorrent, and now do in the clear light of day.89 Their insights BSF FRVBMMZ BQQMJDBCMF UP 4PVUI ,PSFB XIFSF QPMJDF WJPMFODF XBT KVTUJĕFE BT TBWJOHUIFDPVOUSZGSPNBEBOHFSPVTFOFNZ$PODFJWJOHPGQPMJDFBTDSVDJBMUP CSPBEFSTUBUFCVJMEJOHFČPSUT UIF"NFSJDBOQSPHSBNTXFSFEFTJHOFEJOUIFPSZ to professionalize police standards and incorporate the kinds of progressiveTUZMF SFGPSNT UIBU XFSF QSFWBMFOU JO UIF 6OJUFE 4UBUFT 0XJOH UP QPMJUJDBM DJSDVNTUBODFT IPXFWFS UIFZCFDBNFIFBWJMZNJMJUBSJ[FEBOEGPDVTFEPOUIF “Nation-Building” and Political Repression in Postcolonial South Korea
97
TVQQSFTTJPOPGMFęXJOHBDUJWJTN SFTVMUJOHJOTJHOJĕDBOUIVNBOSJHIUTWJPMBUJPOT"NFSJDBOJOUFSWFOUJPOFNQPXFSFEBVUIPSJUBSJBOMFBEFSTBOEQSPWJEFE TFDVSJUZGPSDFTXJUINPEFSOTVSWFJMMBODFFRVJQNFOU GPSFOTJDTUFDIOPMPHZ BOE weapons which heightened their social control capabilities. The vibrancy of the MBCPSNPWFNFOUBOEQPMJUJDBMMFęXBTDVSUBJMFE UIVTDPOUSJCVUJOHUPBXFBLening of civil society. The working classes were largely left out of the Park-era FDPOPNJDCPPN BOE/PSUI4PVUISBQQSPDIFNFOUXBTNBEFJNQPTTJCMF ćSPVHIPVUUIF$PME8BS QFPQMFXIPDIBMMFOHFEUIFTUBUVTRVPXFSFTVCKFDUFEUPJNQSJTPONFOU UPSUVSF BOEUPPPęFOEFBUIćFJSQMJHIUIBTMBSHFMZ been suppressed in the West, along with the buried history of U.S.-ROK atrocities in the Korean War. Undisturbed by all the bloodshed, the practitioners of realpolitik in Washington viewed the intervention in South Korea, like that in +BQBO BTBOFČFDUJWFBQQMJDBUJPOPGUIFDPOUBJONFOUEPDUSJOF1PMJDFBEWJTFST XFSFDPOTFRVFOUMZDBMMFEVQPOUPQBTTBMPOHUIFJSUFDIOJDBMFYQFSUJTFTPBTUP GFOEPČSFWPMVUJPOJOPUIFSMPDBMFT JODMVEJOH4PVUI7JFUOBN BHBJOXJUIDBUBDMZTNJDSFTVMUT
98
Under the Facade of Benevolence
Chapter 5 “Free Government Cannot Exist without Safeguards against Subversion” The Clandestine Cold War in Southeast Asia I Local security forces must be trained in clandestine operations and sabotage techniques particularly for the penetration of enemy forces and the gaining of operational intelligence. Pinpointing of enemy concentrations and hideouts can permit effective use of trained “hunter-killer” teams. [In spite of] political inhibitions and UN or other control commissions and treaty arrangements, there should not be any long-standing iron-clad bar to such action when overriding national security interests prevail. 3obert W. Komer OBUJPOBMTFDVSJUZBEWJTFS If we had our druthers to relive bygone days, wouldn’t we look for more Nelson Miles to replace George Custer, strengthen the cadre of civilian agencies with a more select group of men and train assigned personnel for the realities of the frontier? &dward G. LansdaleUP8BMU83PTUPX 4QFDJBM(SPVQPO$PVOUFS*OTVSHFODZ
'SPN ŴżŸŹ UP ŴżŸż +FUFS 8JMMJBNTPO UIF QPMJDF DIJFG JO (SFFOTCPSP /PSUI $BSPMJOB TQFOU NVDI PG IJT UJNF JO UIF 1IJMJQQJOFT KVOHMFT USBJOJOH SVSBM QPMJDFBOEDPOTUBCVMBSZVOJUTUPTVQQSFTTSFNOBOUTPGUIF)VLHVFSSJMMBNPWFNFOU-JLFUIFDPOTUBCVMBSZPďDFSTPGZFTUFSZFBS 8JMMJBNTPOXBTXJMMJOHUP FOEVSFEJďDVMUĕFMEDPOEJUJPOTJOBOFČPSUUPFYQPSUQSPGFTTJPOBM"NFSJDBO TUBOEBSETBOEJNQSPWFQPMJDFFďDJFODZ OPXJOUIFTFSWJDFPGUIF$PME8BS /P 6HMZ"NFSJDBO IFUPPLQBJOTUPMFBSO5BHBMPH BOE PUIFS EJBMFDUT JO UIF countries where he served, and he ate local foods. In Thailand, where he went BęFS MFBWJOH UIF 1IJMJQQJOFT 8JMMJBNTPO FBSOFE B DPNNFOEBUJPO GSPN UIF king for helping to secure the border through his work with the Border Patrol Police (BPP).1 A throwback to an earlier era of colonialists who believed deeply in the virUVFTPG"NFSJDBODBQJUBMJTNBOEEFNPDSBDZ 8JMMJBNTPOXBTBDPOUFNQPSBSZ PG $*" BHFOU &EXBSE -BOTEBMF B NBO GPOE PG RVPUJOH 5PN 1BJOFT EJDUVN i8IFSFMJCFSUZEXFMMTOPU UIFSFJTNZDPVOUSZw6QPOFOUFSJOHNBJOMBOE$IJOB JOŴżŸŸ 8JMMJBNTPODPNNFOUFEUIBUIFXBTiTUBOEJOHBUUIFFOEPGUIFGSFF
99
world.”2*OTQJUFPGUIFJSSPNBOUJDJMMVTJPOT "NFSJDBTDMBOEFTUJOF$PME8BSriors in reality fought on the side of political reaction, opposing nationalist NPWFNFOUT UIBUXFSFTPDJBMJTUPSDPNNVOJTUJO PSJFOUBUJPO PXJOH MBSHFMZ UP IJTUPSJDBMDJSDVNTUBODFBOEUIFJSSPMFJOTQFBSIFBEJOHPQQPTJUJPOUP+BQBOFTF DPMPOJBMJTN 4PVUIFBTU"TJBFNFSHFEBTBLFZ$PME8BSUIFBUFSGPMMPXJOHUIFUSJVNQIPG the Chinese revolution in 1949, which threatened the Open Door policy and "NFSJDBTGPPUIPMEPOUIFDPOUJOFOUćFEBOHFSPGUIFSFWPMVUJPOGPS"NFSJDBO QMBOOFST /PBN$IPNTLZQPJOUTPVU XBTOPUUIFUISFBUPGNJMJUBSZBHHSFTTJPO which was nonexistent, but what Walt Rostow writing in 1955 called the “ideoMPHJDBMUISFBU wTQFDJĕDBMMZiUIFQPTTJCJMJUZUIBUUIF$IJOFTF $PNNVOJTUTDBO QSPWFUP"TJBOTCZQSPHSFTTJO$IJOBUIBU$PNNVOJTUNFUIPETBSFCFUUFSBOE GBTUFS UIBO EFNPDSBUJD NFUIPETw3 4VDDFTTJWF BENJOJTUSBUJPOT DPOTFRVFOUMZ CFDBNFDPNNJUUFEUPBDPOUJOFOUBMSPMMCBDLTUSBUFHZ IBMUJOHUIFQSPHSFTTPG TPDJBMJTNBDSPTT"TJB PGXIJDIQPMJDFUSBJOJOHXBTBDSJUJDBMEJNFOTJPO"EWJTFSTMJLF8JMMJBNTPOUSBJOFETFDVSJUZGPSDFTJOSJPUDPOUSPMBOEDPVOUFSJOUFMMJHFODF TFUVQDPNNVOJDBUJPOTOFUXPSLTUPBJEJOUIFUSBDLJOHPGTVCWFSTJWFT BOEPWFSTBXWBSJPVTEFTUBCJMJ[BUJPODBNQBJHOT4 These in turn contributed to a SJTJOHUJEFPGWJPMFODFBOEUIFTUJĘJOHPGEFNPDSBUJDEFWFMPQNFOUćFDBTFTPG Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines are instructive in this respect. In these UISFFDPVOUSJFT "NFSJDBOQSPHSBNTXFSFJOUFSNFTIFEBMNPTUDPNQMFUFMZXJUI CIA operations and designed to prevent the rise of socialist or left-leaning SFHJNFTDMPTFMZUJFEUP$IJOBćFZTVDDFFEFEBUUIJTUBTL UIPVHIBUBUFSSJCMF IVNBODPTU An “Unorthodox Project”: Police Aid in Indonesia and the Overthrow of Sukarno
Indonesia was the site of one of the largest and longest-running police proHSBNT"T(FPSHF.D5,BIJOEPDVNFOUTJOIJTHSPVOECSFBLJOHTUVEZSubversion as Foreign Policy "NFSJDBO QPMJDZNBLFST WBMVFE UIF DPVOUSZ BMNPTU BT NVDIBT+BQBOCFDBVTFPGJUTPJMBOENJOFSBMXFBMUI4FDSFUBSZPG4UBUF%FBO "DIFTPOXBSOFE1SFTJEFOU5SVNBOJO+BOVBSZŴżŸųUIBUiCFDBVTFPGJUTHSFBU XFBMUI BOE UIF EZOBNJD DIBSBDUFS PG JUT OBUJPOBMJTU NPWFNFOU political orientation has a profound effect on the political orientation of the rest PG"TJB*ڀڀUMJFTBUIXBSUUIFQSJODJQBMMJOFTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOCFUXFFO UIF1BDJĕDBOE*OEJBO0DFBOTw5 After World War II, the United States supported the Dutch in retaining their colonial rule over Indonesia under the Marshall Plan. When the Dutch sent USPPQTUPDSVTIUIFOBUJPOBMJTUNPWFNFOUJOŴżŷŻ UIF5SVNBOBENJOJTUSBUJPO DIBOHFEJUTQPTJUJPO MBSHFMZCFDBVTFUIFNPWFNFOUTLFZMFBEFST .PIBNNFE )BUUBBOE"DINFE4VLBSOP VTFEUIFJSMFWFSBHFPWFSUIFQPMJDFNPCJMFCSJHBEF 100
Under the Facade of Benevolence
NPCSJH UPQVUEPXOBSFCFMMJPOCZUIF*OEPOFTJBO$PNNVOJTU1BSUZ 1,* JO $FOUSBM+BWBUIF.BEJVOSFCFMMJPO)PQJOHUPTFDVSFJOĘVFODFBęFSJOEFQFOEFODF UIF$*"TFOUBTFOJPSBHFOUUP:PHZBLBSUBUPJOUFSWJFXNPCSJHPďDFST BOENBEFBSSBOHFNFOUTUPĘZUIFNPTUQSPNJTJOHUISPVHIUIF%VUDICMPDLBEF GPSUSBJOJOHBU"NFSJDBONJMJUBSZGBDJMJUJFT3BEFO4BÕE4PFLBOUP UIFiGBUIFSw PGUIFNPEFSO*OEPOFTJBOQPMJDF XIPTFTUBUVFTUBOETPVUTJEFUIFQPMJDFIJTUPSZ NVTFVN JO +BLBSUB XBT BNPOH UIPTF SFDSVJUFE *OTUJMMFE XJUI GFSWFOUMZ BOUJDPNNVOJTUWJFXTCZUIF%VUDI IFCFDBNFBLFZ$*"iBTTFU wSFGFSSFEUPJO JOUFMMJHFODFSFQPSUTBTBNBOPGiIJHIQFSTPOBMJOUFHSJUZw6 ćF6OJUFE4UBUFTNBJOHPBMXBTUPDSFBUFBQSP8FTUFSOGPSDFUPDIFDLUIF QPXFSPG5BO.BMBLB BOBUJPOBMJTUDPNNVOJTUMFBEFSXIPQSPQPTFEBSBEJDBM TPDJPFDPOPNJD QSPHSBN TUJQVMBUJOH UIF OBUJPOBMJ[BUJPO PG LFZ SFTPVSDFT BOE IJHIUBSJČTUPGPTUFSMPDBMEFWFMPQNFOU7.BMBLBXBTBSJWBMUP1SJNF.JOJTUFS .PIBNNFE)BUUB XIP UISPVHI$*"MJBJTPO-PVJTF1BHF.PSSJTBGBTIJPO NPEFMGSPNB#PTUPO#SBINJOGBNJMZXIPSBOTFDSFUPQFSBUJPOTGPS+BZ-PWFTUPOFBOE+BNFT+FTVT"OHMFUPOSFRVFTUFEUFDIOJDBMBEWJTFSTUPTPMJEJGZIJT QPXFS 8JMMJBN -BDFZ *OEPOFTJBO EFTL PďDFS BU UIF 4UBUF %FQBSUNFOU XBT TLFQUJDBM UFMMJOH.PSSJTUIBUQSPWJEJOHBSNTXJUIPVUUIFDPOTFOUPG$POHSFTT was “unworkable and undesirable.”8 .BUUIFX'PY IPXFWFS EJSFDUPSPGUIF"NFSJDBO*OEPOFTJBO$PSQPSBUJPO B$*"GSPOU DBCMFEUIFFNCBTTZJO.BZŴżŷżi8FLOPXUIBUXFDBOOPUSVO any risks in Southeast Asia and have got to support this group around Hatta. ڀڀ8FIBWFFRVJQNFOUJO.BMBZBUIBUDBOCFTFOUUPBTTJTU4PFLBOUP 8FIBWFUFDIOJDBMNFOXIPNXFDBOQVUBUIJTEJTQPTBMJNNFEJBUFMZ8IJMF XFBSFNBLJOHVQPVSNJOE UIFDPNNVOJTUTBSFHFUUJOHTUSPOHFSw9&NQIBTJ[JOH*OEPOFTJBTJNQPSUBODFBTBQSPEVDFSPGDPNNPEJUJFTWJUBMUP"NFSJDBO JOEVTUSZ BOE UIF TFSJPVTOFTT PG UIF DPNNVOJTU UISFBU XIJDI XBT iJOUFSOBM rather than external,” Acheson issued a directive to strengthen the twenty thouTBOEoNBONPCSJHDPOTUBCVMBSZBOEQSPWJEFJUXJUIžŴŵNJMMJPOJOFRVJQNFOU JODMVEJOHUFBSHBTCPNCT XIJDIDPVMECFVTFEJOiKVOHMFDPVOUSZwBOEJODPNNBOEPPQFSBUJPOTBHBJOTUMFęJTUT10ćPVTBOETPGTNBMMBSNT BTXFMMBTDBNFSBT BOENJNFPHSBQINBDIJOFT XFSFTFOUUISPVHIBTFDSFUGVOE PGUIF0ďDFPG 1PMJDZ $PPSEJOBUJPO GSPOUFE UISPVHI 'PYT "NFSJDBO*OEPOFTJBO $PSQPSBUJPOBOEBEVNNZEFQPTJUJOUIF$IBTF.BOIBUUBO#BOL3BZNPOE&.VSQIZ B$*"BOBMZTUIJSFEUPTUVEZUIFDPNNVOJTUNPWFNFOUJO4PVUIFBTU"TJB IBE SFDPNNFOEFEUIBUiTJODFUIFQSPKFDUJTVOPSUIPEPYBOEVOQSFDFEFOUFEGPSUIF EFQBSUNFOUJUTIPVMEIBWFUIFBQQFBSBODFPGTQPOTPSTIJQCZQSJWBUFPSHBOJ[Btions or individuals.”11 Livingstone Merchant, later undersecretary of state for political affairs, XSPUFUP+PIO1FVSJGPZ BSDIJUFDUPGUIFŴżŸŷ64DPVQJO(VBUFNBMB UIBUUIF USBJOJOHPGBOiFMJUFDPSQTPGQPMJDFJO"NFSJDBONFUIPET wJODMVEJOHDPVOUFSJOThe Clandestine Cold War in Southeast Asia I
101
UFMMJHFODF XBTFTTFOUJBMCFDBVTFPGUIFiJNQPSUBODFPG*OEPOFTJBUPPVSPWFSBMM QMBOTJO4PVUIFBTU"TJBwćFNJTTJPOPGUIFQPMJDFXBTUPiSFDPHOJ[FBOEMJRVJEBUFDPNNVOJTUJOĕMUSBUJPOwBOEiSFTJTUTVCWFSTJPOFČPSUTPGDPNNVOJTUTUP take over the country.”124JY*OEPOFTJBOQPMJDFNFOXFSFTFOUGPSUSBJOJOHBU'#* IFBERVBSUFSTJOĕOHFSQSJOUJOH QIPUPHSBQIZ FTQJPOBHF BOEFYQMPTJWFT1BSUPG UIFBJNXBTGPSUIFNUPTFFiNPSFBCPVUUIF"NFSJDBOXBZPGMJGFwćF$*" FWFOUPPLUIFNUPMPDBMCSPUIFMTUPGVMĕMMUIFJSGBOUBTZPGTMFFQJOHXJUIBXIJUF XPNBOćFZSFUVSOFEIPNFUPQSPWJEFUIFiOVDMFJ wJO4PFLBOUPTXPSET GPS BQBSBNJMJUBSZQPMJDFGPSDFPGTFWFOUZUIPVTBOENFOEFEJDBUFEUPXBHJOHUIF Cold War.13 In April 1950, Lieutenant Colonel Louis E. Kubler was hired as a technical adviser to the Indonesian police. He had experience as a ballistics and exploTJWFTTQFDJBMJTUBOEBQBUSPMNBOXJUIUIF/FX:PSL1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOUBOE/FX Jersey State Police and had won a Bronze Star for gallantry while with the OSS as a security officer in China. Higher-ups noted that Kubler’s correct agency BďMJBUJPO UIF $*" iTIPVME OPU CF NBEF LOPXOw ,VCMFS TFU VQ IJT PďDF BU (FOFSBM 4PFLBOUPT IPVTF XPSLJOH XJUI IJN UP DSFBUF CMBDLMJTUT BOE FYQBOE training in advanced weaponry, counterinsurgency, and espionage.14 U.S. relations with Indonesia soured when President Sukarno took up leadFSTIJQPGUIFOPOBMJHOFENPWFNFOUBOEMFHBMJ[FEUIF1,* XIJDIHBSOFSFEź NJMMJPOWPUFT ŴŻQFSDFOUPGUIFUPUBM JOUIFŴżŸŸFMFDUJPOTćPVHIBDLOPXMedging his “outstanding oratorical ability” and status as a “national hero,” the 4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUDSJUJDJ[FE4VLBSOPGPSCFJOHiJSSFTQPOTJCMFJOIJTĕOBODJBM NBOBHFNFOUwBOEiUBLFOJOCZSFWPMVUJPOBSZEPHNB wFYFNQMJĕFECZIJTDBMMT UP OBUJPOBMJ[F GPSFJHOPXOFE JOEVTUSZ UIJT XBT iMBNFOUBCMFw CFDBVTF iUIF DPVOUSZIBTiNVDIOBUJPOBMXFBMUIPJMSFTPVSDFTڀڀXIJDI the Indonesians believe belongs to Indonesia.”15 The popularity of the PKI was BUUSJCVUFE UP iXJEFTQSFBE JMMJUFSBDZ BOE QPMJUJDBM BOE FDPOPNJD JHOPSBODF w XIJDIiMFęUIFNBTTFTTVCKFDUUPEFNBHPHJDOBUJPOBMJTUBQQFBMTw16 *OPSEFSUPLFFQUIF1,*VOEFSDMPTFXBUDI EFTQJUFJUTMFHBMTUBUVT BOENFFU threats in the “pre-insurrection phase,” in June 1955 Secretary of State John FosUFS%VMMFTJODSFBTFEUIFQPMJDFCVEHFUUPžŹNJMMJPOBOEPSEFSFETPVOEUSVDLT BOE DSPXEDPOUSPM EFWJDFT GPS UIF VTF PG UIF QPMJDF XSJUJOH UP "NCBTTBEPS )VHI$VNNJOH +SUIBUXIJMFUIFiDVSSFOUHPWFSONFOUEPFTOPUTVQQPSUUIF police build-up, perhaps as a hedge against their present policy of cooperating with the PKI . . . the desirability of providing assistance to the . . . police as an JNQPSUBOUBOUJDPNNVOJTUGPSDFXFMMLOPXOw17 ćF*OUFSOBUJPOBM$PPQFSBUJPO"ENJOJTUSBUJPO *$" QSPWJEFESJPUDPOUSPM USBJOJOH TVQQMJFEKFFQT QBUSPMCPBUT BOEBJSDSBę BOETFUVQUSBJOJOHBDBEFNJFT XIFSF$*"NBOVBMTTVDIBTCovert Paramilitary Training Course (1952) and The Sabotage Manual (1954) were used. Advisers with experience in Greece, the 1IJMJQQJOFT BOE,PSFBDPOTUSVDUFEBDPNNVOJDBUJPOTDFOUFSJO+BLBSUB BSBEJP 102
Under the Facade of Benevolence
UFMFUZQF TZTUFN BOE B TFDVSF NFTTBHF DFOUFS BOE DPEF SPPN BU UIF /BUJPOBM 1PMJDF IFBERVBSUFST UP PSHBOJ[F UIF ĘPX PG JOGPSNBUJPO PO UIF 1,* 3PCFSU Janus, a Coast Guard adviser with experience in Japan, furnished advice to the TFBQPMJDFBOENBJOUBJOFETNBMMQBUSPMDSBęPOMPBOGSPNUIF64/BWZ18 ŴŵżųEQMBOOFSTDPNQMBJOFEUIBUXIJMFUIF/BUJPOBM1PMJDFIBEEFWFMPQFE FYUFOTJWFLOPXMFEHFPGDPNNVOJTUBDUJWJUJFT UIBOLTJOMBSHFQBSUUP64USBJOJOH UIF iMBX BCJEJOH BOE VOJUFE GSPOU UBDUJDT PG UIF DPNNVOJTUT DPNCJOFE XJUI UIF BUUJUVEF PG UIF HPWFSONFOU QSFDMVEFE SFQSFTTJWF NFBTVSFTw19 These DPNNFOUTUZQJGZUIFOBUJPOBMTFDVSJUZFTUBCMJTINFOUTQSFGFSFODFGPSSFQSFTTJPO PWFSMFHBMDPNQSPNJTF1PMJDFTVSWFJMMBODFFYUFOEFEUP4VLBSOPIJNTFMG XIPTF XPNBOJ[JOH UFOEFODJFT UIF $*" USJFE UP FYQMPJU CZ NBOVGBDUVSJOH B QPSOPHSBQIJDĕMNTUBSSJOHBOJNQFSTPOBUPSXFBSJOHB4VLBSOPGBDFNBTL20 ICA staffers inspecting Indonesia’s prisons, including the Tjilatjap “devil’s JTMBOE wCVJMUBNJETUTIBSLJOGFTUFEXBUFST XFSFJSPOJDBMMZJNQSFTTFEXJUIUIF FNQIBTJTPOSFIBCJMJUBUJPOBOEUIFiMBDLPGQPMJUJDBMQSJTPOFST PSEFSMZQIZTJDBM appearance, success of agricultural and industrial endeavors, and the profesTJPOBMSFTQPOTJCJMJUZPGQSJTPOTFSWJDFTUBČw4VLBSOPTIVNBOSJHIUTSFDPSEXBT JOEFFEGBSCFUUFSUIBOUIBUPGNBOZ"NFSJDBOCBDLFESFHJNFTNBSSFECZCSVUBM QFOBMTZTUFNT21 "LFZDPNQPOFOUPGUIFŴŵżųEQSPHSBNXBTUPCVJMEVQUIFNPCJMFCSJHBEF BTBDPVOUFSXFJHIUUPUIFNJMJUBSZ XIJDIXBTDPOTJEFSFEUPCFiJOĕMUSBUFEXJUI pinks and reds.”22 Major Melville “Buck” Fruit of the U.S. Air Force reported UIBUIBWJOHXPSLFEXJUIBOVNCFSPG"TJBOQPMJDFGPSDFT IFXBTiJNQSFTTFE CFZPOE IJT FYQFDUBUJPO CZ UIF MFWFM PG USBJOJOH NPSBMF FČFDUJWFOFTT wXIJDIiIBEJUTPXOJOUFMMJHFODFPSHBOJ[BUJPOGPSUIFNBJOQVSQPTFPG JEFOUJGZJOHDPNNVOJTUTwBOEiDPVMEEFBMFČFDUJWFMZXJUIBOBUUFNQUFEVQSJTJOH or coup d’état.” Fruit, who served with the Air Police during the Korean War BOE USBJOFE UIF QBSBNJMJUBSZ DJWJM HVBSE JO 7JFUOBN XBT IJHI PO 4PFLBOUP who, according to Fruit, had “threaded his way through various controversies UPNBJOUBJOBTUBCMFQPTJUJPOQPMJUJDBMMZwćFTDIPPMGPSQBSBNJMJUBSZUSBJOJOHBU 4VSBCBZB JOIJTFTUJNBUJPO NFUUIFiIJHIFTUTUBOEBSETPGFďDJFODZBOEQSPEVDFEUIFNPTUEFNPDSBUJDBUUJUVEFBNPOHQPMJDFZFUTFFOJOUIF0SJFOUw23 ćSPVHI UIF QPMJDF QSPHSBNT UIF %VMMFT CSPUIFST "MMFO XBT UIFO $*" EJSFDUPSBOE+PIO'PTUFSTFDSFUBSZPGTUBUF GVOOFMFEXFBQPOTUP*TMBNJDGVOEBNFOUBMJTUT BOE EJTTJEFOU HFOFSBMT MFBEJOH TFQBSBUJTU SFWPMUT JO UIF PJM BOE SVCCFSSJDISFHJPOTPG4VNBUSBBOE4VMBXFTJ XIFSF$BMUFYBOEPUIFS64ĕSNT IBEMBSHFJOWFTUNFOUT4PFLBOUPBSPVTFE4VLBSOPTTVTQJDJPOTXIFOIFSFGVTFE UPMFOETFBWFTTFMTUPUIF*OEPOFTJBOBSNZ XIJDIIBECFFONPCJMJ[FEVOEFS General A. H. Nasution to suppress the rebellion.24 The CIA cover was blown when Allen Pope, a Civil Air Transport pilot on contract with the agency, was shot down and taken prisoner after shelling an Indonesian village and allegedly CPNCJOHBDIVSDI DBVTJOHUIFEFBUITPGEP[FOTPGDJWJMJBOT25 The Clandestine Cold War in Southeast Asia I
103
*O %FDFNCFS ŴżŸż 4VLBSOP QMBDFE (FOFSBM 4PFLBOUP PO JOBDUJWF EVUZ GPS JOTVCPSEJOBUJPO SFQMBDJOHIJNXJUI4PFLBSOP%KPKPOFHPSP DPNNJTTJPOFSPG QPMJDFJO&BTU+BWB XIPIBECFFOUSBJOFEJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTXJUINPCSJHIFBE 4PFUKJQUP +PFEPEJIBSEKP 64 BNCBTTBEPS )PXBSE 1 +POFT XBT EJTNBZFE CZ 4PFLBOUPTEJTNJTTBM XSJUJOHJOBNFNPUIBUiUIFUVSOPWFSDFSFNPOZJOXIJDI 4PFLBOUPSFMJORVJTIFEBVUIPSJUZUP4VLBSOPXBTBTBEPDDBTJPOBTBSFTVMUPG UIFMPTTPGBSFTQFDUFEMFBEFS*UJTUPPFBSMZUPQSFEJDUUIFVMUJNBUFPVUDPNFPG UIFTUSVHHMFGPSDPOUSPMPGUIFQPMJDFFYDFQUJUBQQFBSTUIBU4PFLBOUPJTEFĕOJUFMZ out.”26 ćF,FOOFEZBENJOJTUSBUJPOFYQBOEFEUIFCVEHFUGPSUIF*OEPOFTJBOQPMJDF QSPHSBNUPžŴųNJMMJPOJOŴżŹŵBOEŴżŹŶ TFDPOEPOMZUPUIBUGPS4PVUI7JFUOBN"ęFSBWJTJUCZ3PCFSU,FOOFEZ JOXIJDIIFNBEFDPOUBDUXJUIGVUVSF QSFTJEFOU4VIBSUP UIFBENJOJTUSBUJPOT4QFDJBM(SPVQPO$PVOUFS*OTVSHFODZ BEWPDBUFESBNQJOHVQUSBJOJOHUPUIFNPCSJH XIJDIOBUJPOBMTFDVSJUZBEWJTFS 3PCFSU ,PNFS IPQFE DPVME iMBZ UIF HSPVOEXPSL GPS PVS SFUVSOJOH BOE FYQBOEJOHJOĘVFODFJO*OEPOFTJBJOUIFZFBSTBOEEFDBEFTUPDPNFw27 Byron &OHMFSFDFJWFESFBTTVSBODFGSPNUIFNJOJTUFSPGQPMJDFUIBUJOUIFFWFOUUIBU UIFDPNNVOJTUTJMMFHBMMZUSJFEUPTFJ[FQPXFS UIFNPCSJHXPVMEiĕHIUUPUIF MBTUNBOw*OUIFFWFOUPGBMFHBMUBLFPWFS IFBEEFE UIFZXPVMESFTJTUCZiBOZ NFBOTBWBJMBCMF JODMVEJOHVOEFSHSPVOEPQFSBUJPOTw28 #VJMEJOHVQJUTiDPVOUFSTVCWFSTJWFwDBQBCJMJUJFT UIF014QSPWJEFEBSNPSFE DBST TUFFMIFMNFUT .ŴDBSCJOFTXJUIiFYDFMMFOULJMMJOHQPXFS wBOEUISFFUIPVTBOE UFBS HBT DBOJTUFST BOE TFU VQ B NPCJMF CSJHBEF BDBEFNZ GPS USBJOJOH JO SBOHFSPQFSBUJPOT'JęFFOBEWJTFSTXPSLFEGVMMUJNF JODMVEJOH3PCFSU-PXF BGPSNFS044BHFOUGSPN5VOJDB .JTTJTTJQQJ XIPTFSWFEJOUIF,VONJOHTUBUJPOJO$IJOBBOEXJUIUIFQPMJDFQSPHSBNTJO+BQBO ćBJMBOE -JCFSJB BOE 7JFUOBN 1BVM)4LVTF XIPXFOUPOUP7JFUOBNBOE-BPT BOE+BDL(PJO XIPXPVMESFQMBDF&OHMFBT014EJSFDUPSJOŴżźŵ)FOSZ4BNPSJTLJ BOPUIFS $PME 8BSSJPS SFDPNNFOEFE FTUBCMJTIJOH iHPPO TRVBETw DPOTJTUJOH PG VOJGPSNFEDJWJMJBOTXIPDPVMECFiQVUJOUPBDUJPOBUBNPNFOUTOPUJDFw0SEFST XFSFHJWFOUPEFBMĕSNMZXJUIQSPDPNNVOJTUEFNPOTUSBUPSTBOEUPQSPUFDU 64PXOFESVCCFSQMBOUBUJPOTBOEPJMDPNQBOJFT XIJDIJUXBTGFBSFE4VLBSOP was bent on expropriating.29 The Anticommunist Bloodbath and Suharto’s Long Reign of Terror
In October 1965, General Suharto, who had served in the police under the Japanese occupation of Indonesia during the Second World War, took power JOBDPVQEÏUBUVOEFSUIFQSFUFYUUIBUIFXBTTBWJOHUIFDPVOUSZGSPNUBLFPWFS by the PKI, which was allegedly behind the brief seizure of power by Colonel 6OUVOH BNFNCFSPG4VLBSOPTQBMBDFHVBSE)FGPSNFEBSNZBOEQPMJDFEFBUI TRVBETUPMJRVJEBUF1,*NFNCFSTJEFOUJĕFEUISPVHIMJTUTQSPEVDFECZ$*"BOE 104
Under the Facade of Benevolence
police intelligence. Time NBHB[JOFSFQPSUFEUIBUUIFLJMMJOHXBTPOiTVDIBTDBMF UIBUUIFEJTQPTBMPGUIFDPSQTFTڀڀDSFBUFEBTFSJPVTTBOJUBUJPOQSPCMFNJO&BTU +BWBBOE/PSUIFSO4VNBUSB XIFSFUIFIVNJEBJSCFBSTUIFSFFLPGEFDBZJOH ĘFTI5SBWFMFSTGSPNUIFTFBSFBTUFMMPGTNBMMSJWFSTBOETUSFBNTUIBUIBWFCFFO literally clogged with bodies.”30 "TUIFHFOPDJEFXBTVOGPMEJOH "NCBTTBEPS+POFTXSPUFUP4FDSFUBSZPG4UBUF %FBO3VTLUIBUiUIFNJTTJPOSFRVJSFTOPGVSUIFSDPNNPEJUJFT CFTIJQQFEUP+BLBSUBCFDBVTFPGUIFTFOTJUJWJUZPGGBDUPSTJOWPMWFE4IJQNFOUPG gas grenades brings the possibility of discovery in spite of precautions. Suggest SFUVSOUPNJMJUBSZTUPDLTw31ćFTFDPNNFOUTIJOUBUEJSFDU"NFSJDBODPNQMJDJUZ XIJDIUIF8IJUF)PVTFUPPLQBJOTUPDPWFSVQ3PCFSU"NPSZ+S EFQVUZ EJSFDUPSPGUIF$*"GSPNŴżŸŵUPŴżŹŵ DPNNFOUFEUIBUiUIFHSPVOEXPSLEPOF UIFSF JO *OEPOFTJB NBZ IBWF CFFO SFTQPOTJCMF GPS UIF TQFFEXJUIXIJDIڀڀXBTXSBQQFEVQw32 ćFQPMJDFQSPHSBNBMTPIFMQFEBDDFMFSBUFUIFTDPQFPGUIFLJMMJOHT OVNCFSing in the hundreds of thousands. The blacklists it created were used to target EJTTJEFOUT XIJMF JNQSPWFE DPNNVOJDBUJPO BMMPXFE GPS CFUUFS DPPSEJOBUJPO BNPOHTFDVSJUZGPSDFT1PMJDFBOENPCSJHPďDFSTSBOQSJTPODBNQT XIFSFPWFS BNJMMJPOQFPQMFTVTQFDUFEPGDPNNVOJTUTZNQBUIJFTXFSFTVCKFDUFEUPGPSDFE labor and torture.33 A lack of legal constraints resulted in extraordinary judicial DPSSVQUJPO FOTVSJOHUIBUNBOZXFSFEFUBJOFEJOEFĕOJUFMZXJUIPVUDIBSHFBOE POMZUIPTFXJUIQPMJUJDBMDPOOFDUJPOTXFSFGSFFEćFBOHVJTIPGJONBUFTXBT captured in a popular song written by a political prisoner in Tangerrang prison OFBS+BLBSUBi1SJTPOMJGFTMJLFTFMGUPSNFOU FOUFSJOHUIJDL MFBWJOHTMJN GPSDFE labor and underfed, still alive but nearly dead.”34 *NQFSWJPVTUPUIFIVNBOTVČFSJOH 4UBUF%FQBSUNFOUTUBČFS3PC#BSOFUU wrote to Charles Mann of USAID in April 1966 that since the coup, “the trend PG*OEPOFTJBOQPMJUJDBMEFWFMPQNFOUIBTCFFOESBTUJDBMMZBMUFSFEJOBEJSFDUJPO GBWPSBCMFUP6OJUFE4UBUFTJOUFSFTUTJOUIF'BS&BTUćF1,*IBTCFFOFMJNJOBUFE as an effective political force. . . . The new leaders are trying to integrate the DPVOUSZJOUPUIFJOUFSOBUJPOBMDPNNVOJUZ*OWFTUNFOUTIPVMECFFODPVSBHFE ڀڀ$BMUFYJTPQUJNJTUJDw*OUFMMJHFODFSFQPSUTTJNJMBSMZHVTIFEUIBUUIF1,*IBE iTVČFSFEBNBTTJWFEFGFBUwBOEUIBUiSFWFSFODFGPS4VLBSOPwXBTĕOBMMZiCSPLFOڀڀ4VIBSUPJTOPXJOWJUJOHUIF*.'&