Modern Nanotechnology: Volume 2: Green Synthesis, Sustainable Energy and Impacts 3031311035, 9783031311031

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Junaid Ahmad Malik Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed    Editors

Modern Nanotechnology Volume 2: Green Synthesis, Sustainable Energy and Impacts

Modern Nanotechnology

Junaid Ahmad Malik Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed Editors

Modern Nanotechnology Volume 2: Green Synthesis, Sustainable Energy and Impacts

Editors Junaid Ahmad Malik Department of Zoology Government Degree College Kulgam, India

Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed Department of Physics King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

ISBN 978-3-031-31103-1    ISBN 978-3-031-31104-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31104-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The progress of technological research and the acquisition of fresh materials was sparked by the first Industrial Revolution, which occurred at the end of the eighteenth century. Miniaturization of devices and equipment is a current problem; smaller volume, lower power consumption, but more performance. The advancement is dependent on the discovery of new desired materials and the capacity to create microscopic structures with great accuracy. The progression, on the other hand, is not that smooth and easy. Nanotechnology is derived from the Greek word “nano” which means “dwarf” and refers to materials with extremely tiny size ranges. It is, indeed, the development of materials, components, devices, and systems at the atomic or molecular level. One of the dimensions of nanoproducts is usually between 1 and 100 nm in length. Fabricating, imaging, measuring, modelling, and manipulating matter at the atomic, molecular, and particle levels to dramatically alter the physical, chemical, physicochemical, and biological characteristics of materials and devices for various applications is part of this growing technology. Nanotechnology has been making its way from the lab to applications and consumer items from quite some time. Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary area that encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including biosciences, chemistry, physics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, material science engineering, and so on. Nanotechnology is the science and engineering for creating functional systems at molecular levels. Nanotechnology is one of the most inventive techniques devised to overcome current issues of environmental contamination and energy sustainability. In recent years, scientists and engineers have become more interested in nano-scale materials research. While nanoparticles have been a part of our daily lives for a long time, the nanotechnology industry has grown rapidly in the last two decades. Nanotechnology is being used to clean up organic contaminants that pollute groundwater and remove volatile organic compounds from the air, as well as to minimize pollution during the manufacturing process at low cost. Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary field with many open questions for the future, such as developing new technologies to safeguard the environment and identifying sustainable energy sources to fuel sustained economic expansion. As one of v

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the most popular areas of nanotechnology today, nanocomposite materials continue to be a hotspot for academic research investigation. Since then, nanocomposite materials have been used for many different purposes. Their potential applications remain promising in areas such as solar cells, fuel cells, secondary batteries, supercapacitors, and water purification. Developing novel nanocomposite materials with the shortest reaction paths to enhance reaction kinetics is usually required for clean energy and environmental protection applications. To achieve the essential productivity, life cycle, and sustainability in a wide range of technological applications, knowledge of the physico-chemical, structural, and surface features of nanocomposite materials is essential. Nanomaterials may accidentally produce new hazardous compounds even when they are effective. Nanoparticles can end up in lymph, blood, and even bone marrow due to their ability to penetrate normally impenetrable barriers due to their incredibly tiny size. Applications of nanotechnology have the potential to damage the environment greatly if sources of harmful nanomaterials are mistakenly developed because of the unique access nanoparticles have to biological functions. Prior to its usage on a broad scale, nanoparticles must undergo thorough testing to identify any possible causes of toxicity. This book, Modern Nanotechnology: Green Synthesis, Sustainable Energy and Impacts, comprises the design and manufacture of high-level nanomaterials and their prospective energy and environmental applications. This book explores the ways in which nanoscience and nanotechnology may be utilized to advance energy and environmental sustainability via the adoption of greener practices. This book aims to spread environmentally friendly practices by explaining how to make and use nanoparticles and nanofluids in fields like energy and environmental engineering. This book compiles the most up-to-date data from studies and theoretical frameworks on the issue of micro-/nano-scale technologies for environmental sustainability. For experts and academics alike, this book is an important resource, since it details the far-reaching effects of this technology on the worlds of energy production and environmental hygiene. As a corollary, this book is a comprehensive and up-to-date volume on the nanocomposite materials for modern science in nanotechnology in the field of environment protection, heterogeneous catalysis, wastewater treatment, electrochemical energy conversion, and storage applications. The effects of nanoparticles on the environment and animal health have also been explored. The book is intended for academics and researchers with an interest in nanotechnology and nanomaterials, particularly in energy and environmental sustainability engineering. This book is preferably constructed for nanotechnologists, chemists, engineers, and scientists interested in the present state and future possible nanotechnology research in energy and environmental engineering applications. Kulgam, Jammu and Kashmir, India Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Junaid Ahmad Malik Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed

Contents

Part I Nanotechnology and Sustainability: Introduction and Fundamental Aspects 1

Nanotechnology and Sustainability: Toxicological Assessments and Environmental Risks������������������������������������������������������������������������    3 Raina Saha, Vivek Kumar Patel, Saipayan Ghosh, and Anshuman Das

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 Microbial Nanotechnology: Current Development and Potential Applications in the Field of Biotechnology��������������������������������������������   27 Anwesha Gohain

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 Green Functional Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Application������������   45 Devendra Singh, Sunil Kumar Verma, Virendra Singh, and Perugu Shyam

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Green Functional Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Applications (Plant- and Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis) ��������������������������������������������   67 Anshu Kumar, Krishnendu Kundu, Sabyasachi Mukhopadhyay, Narendra Kumar Bharati, and Boyapati Ravi Teja Naidu

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Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Plant and Biological Organisms and Their Biomedical Applications������������������������������������   91 Shabana Shameem Ahamed, Ragunath Chola, and Ramasubramanian Venkatachalam

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An Insight into the Plants- and Bacteria-­Mediated Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Their Potential Applications������������������������������  123 Anu C. Benny and Sheeja T. Tharakan

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Exploration on Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles from Plants and Microorganisms and Their Biological Applications����������������������  149 Muthusamy Sanjivkumar and Tamil Selvan Silambarasan

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 Bio-Inspired Synthesis and Applications of Gold and Silver Nanoparticles Using Plants: A Comprehensive Review ����������������������  175 Umabati Sahu

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 Nanotechnology in Cancer Chemoprevention: In Vivo and In Vitro Studies and Advancement in Biological Sciences����������������������������������  203 Shuli Barik, Monoj Patra, Sanjib Gorain, and Surjyo Jyoti Biswas

10 Nanotechnology:  A Next-Gen Tool for Sustainable Aquaculture��������  231 Md. Idrish Raja Khan and Sanjay Singh Rathore Part II Nanotechnology for Energy Conversion and Storage 11 Nanotechnology  in Renewable Energy Conversion and Storage Process������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  245 Neha Saxena 12 Application  of Nanotechnology in Bioenergy Production from Algae and Cyanobacteria ��������������������������������������������������������������  267 Dharitri Borah, Jayashree Rout, and Thajuddin Nooruddin 13 Graphene-Based  Nanomaterials for Supercapacitor Applications: A Critical Review ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  293 M. S. Sumathi and G. S. Anitha 14 Nanocomposite  Materials for Dye-­Sensitized Solar Cells��������������������  313 T. Ramesh and V. Madhavi 15 Thermophysical  Characteristics of Nanofluids: A Review������������������  337 Chou-Yi Hsu, Gargibala Satpathy, Fatma Issa Al Kamzari, E. Manikandan, Yathrib Ajaj, and Aithar Salim Al Kindi Part III Environmental Impacts of Nanotechnology 16 Nanomaterials  in Aquatic Environments: Impact and Risk Assessment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  365 Kirandeep Kaur, Tehmina Yousuf, Khursheed Ahmad Wani, Joseph Oduor Odongo, Sumanta Bhattacharya, Junaid Ahmad Malik, and Syed Javid Ahmad Andrabi 17 Nanoparticles  in Aquatic Environment: An Overview with Special Reference to Their Ecotoxicity����������������������������������������������������������������  385 Mridusmita Mahanta and Kumar Kritartha Kaushik

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18 Eco-Friendly  Sustainable Nanocomposite Food Packaging Materials: Recent Advancements, Challenges, and Way Forward������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  405 Zeba Tabassum, Anand Mohan, and Madhuri Girdhar 19 Nanotechnology  at Workplace: Risks, Ethics, Precautions and Regulatory Considerations��������������������������������������������������������������  429 Kirandeep Kaur, Arun B. Prasad, Chou-Yi Hsu, Joseph Oduor Odongo, Satyam Sharma, Yathrib Ajaj, Irfan Rashid Sofi, and Zahid Nabi 20 Nanotechnology:  Ethical Impacts, Health Issues, and Safety Issues��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  455 L. Inbathamizh, M. K. Harsha Varthan, R. S. Rejith Kumar, M. Rohinth, and Z. H. Tawfeeq Ahmed Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  479

About the Editors

Junaid  Ahmad  Malik  received B.Sc. (2008) in Science from the University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K; and M.Sc. (2010) and Ph.D. (2015) in Zoology from Barkatullah University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. He completed his B.Ed. program in 2017 from the University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K. He started his career as Lecturer in School Education Department, Govt. of J&K for 2 years. Dr. Malik is now working as a Lecturer at the Department of Zoology, Govt. Degree College, Kulgam, Kashmir (J&K), and is actively involved in teaching and research activities. He has more than 8  years of research experience. His areas of interest are ecology, soil macrofauna, wildlife biology, conservation biology, etc.Dr. Malik has published more than 20 research papers in various national and international peer-reviewed journals. He has published 23 books, 36 book chapters and more than 10 popular editorial articles with various publishers like Springer Nature, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis Group and IGI Global. Dr. Malik is acting as the Editor-in-Chief of Inventum Biologicum (An International Journal of Biological Research) published by World Biologica, India. He is also serving as editor and reviewer of several journals with a reasonable repute. He has participated in several state, national and international conferences, seminars, workshops and symposia. He has more than 20 conference papers to his credit. He is the life member of SBBS (Society for Bioinformatics and

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Biological Sciences) with membership id LMJ-243. Readers may contact him at editor@worldbiologica. com, or [email protected]. Mohamed  Jaffer  Sadiq  Mohamed, Ph.D.,  is a Postdoctoral Researcher at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.Dr. Sadiq received B.Sc. (2006) in Chemistry from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu; M.Sc. (2008) in Applied Chemistry from National Institute of Technology (NIT), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu; M.Tech. (2014) in Nanotechnology from Karunya University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu; and Ph.D. (2017) in Chemistry from the National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, Mangalore, Karnataka. He started his career as Chemist in Hindustan Zinc Limited, Rajasthan, for 4  years. He worked as a Postdoctoral Researcher at Yunnan University, Kunming, China, for 2 years. He is actively involved in teaching and research activities. He has more than 10  years of industrial and research experience. His areas of interest are Nanomaterials/Nanocomposites/ Nanocrystals/Perovskites-­based photocatalysis, water splitting, Fenton-like catalysts, electrocatalysis (HER, OER, ORR), heterogeneous catalysis, supercapacitors, fuel cell catalysis and solar cells. He has authored 2 book chapters, edited 2 books and published 30 research articles and technical papers in international peer-reviewed journals of publishers such as Springer, Elsevier, RSC, ACS, etc. He is also serving as editor and reviewer of several journals with a reasonable reputation. He has participated in several state, national and international conferences, seminars, workshops and symposia, and he has more than 20 conference papers to his credit.Readers may contact him at: [email protected].

Part I

Nanotechnology and Sustainability: Introduction and Fundamental Aspects

Chapter 1

Nanotechnology and Sustainability: Toxicological Assessments and Environmental Risks Raina Saha, Vivek Kumar Patel, Saipayan Ghosh, and Anshuman Das

Abstract  Human population is increasing day by day and with the ever-increasing population load, demand for food is also increasing. The only solution to meet that demand is application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical compounds in the agricultural field not only increases the cost of cultivation but also causes environmental pollution and health hazards for humans and animals. Hence, these problems have necessitated a paradigm shift from conventional practices to sustainable packaging practices. Nanoparticles may play the role of vector in DNA or gene transfer for production of insect-resistant plant varieties. But in every new invention or application, there is positive as well as negative impact. Some nanoparticles like Zn, ZnO, Al2O3, TiO2, Ag, Fe, Si, Cu, Al, and carbon nanotubes have adverse effects on plant physiology. Therefore, emphasis on application of nanotechnology in sustainable agriculture as well as in bioremediation and its adverse effects on environment is the need of the hour. Keywords  Adverse effects · Bioremediation · Environment · Nanoparticles · Nanotechnology · Pollution · Residual toxicity · Risks · Sustainability

R. Saha Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India V. K. Patel Department of Plant Pathology, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India S. Ghosh (*) Department of Horticulture, PGCA, RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India A. Das Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, ICFRE-Institute of Forest Productivity, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. S. Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31104-8_1

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1.1 Introduction Over the time, science is developing day by day, but nanotechnology and its concept is not much newer, rather it was introduced in the year 1959 by an American physicist Richard Feynman in “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” On a meeting of American Physical Society, Feynman described the process and basic concept of nanotechnology. He said, nanotechnology is a process by which individual atoms and molecules may turn to smaller set of molecules by using a precise set of tools. Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi first used the term “Nanotechnology” in the year 1974 and described that nanotechnology is basically a process of consolidation, deformation, and separation of materials by one molecule or one atom (Taniguchi 1974). Agriculture is the field of cultivation or farming. It is a process of production of food, fiber, and feed and also related to rearing of livestock. Agriculture acts as backbone of a developing country, like India. Major steering of the economic development is on the hand of agri-food production system. Agriculture provides foods not only to the humans, but also to the animals. Human population in the world is increasing day by day; as an estimated data, it will reach eight billion by 2025, and by 2050, it would be nine billion. So, to keep the balance between demand and supply of the food and to increase the agricultural production in a sustainable manner, application of nanotechnology is a wise choice. Nanotechnology is used to prevent the adverse effects of nanoparticles and to reduce the toxicity caused by those nanoparticles (Rickerby and Morrison 2011). Nanotechnology devices require comparatively less energy and help to reduce material wastes. For agricultural planetary surface using nanotechnology, ultra-small probes can be developed; beside this, nanotechnology helps in controlling water, air, and soil contamination. So, application of nanotechnology in the formation of nanomaterials and sustainable packaging practices is the need of the hour.

1.1.1 Nanotechnology: A Brief Outlook Nanotechnology is the part of advanced science where particles in nanometer scales are utilized in characterization, designing, and production of structures, systems, devices, materials, etc. Nanoscience is the branch of science which deals with the molecular, macromolecular, and atomic scales of materials. Scientist considered nanotechnology as integration between engineering and physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine (Vo-Dinh 2007). Physical and chemical properties of matters change drastically from conversion of bulk form to atomic or molecular structure. Using this property of matter nanotechnology helps in medicine preparation, energy and space exploration as well as in mitigating environmental pollution (Aslan and Geddes 2005). Nanotechnology is a promising tool in the field of agriculture, food science, environment, and medicines.

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Nanotechnology deals with the nanoscales. Nanoscales denote the size between 1–100 nm and 0.2–100.0 nm. This range of scale is very vital for considering physical, biological, and chemical properties of matters. Per unit mass, nanoscale materials have comparatively larger surface area, and for quantum effects’ dominance, basic properties of matters get changed at nanoscales (Sellers 2009). One nanometer is one billionth of meter. So, nanotechnology is a field of science which describes the control and understanding of matter at their nanoscales and it has novel applications in different fields (National Science and Technology Council 2014). There is a limitation of nanotechnology. The limited size of materials reduces the range of application of nanotechnology in the field of agriculture and pharmaceutical.

1.1.2 Nanoparticles or Nanomaterials? Materials or particles which are formed using nanotechnology are basically known as nanoparticles or nanomaterials. Materials of ant form which has one or more nanoscale range dimensions are known as nanomaterials (Sekhon 2014). Particles in nanomaterials remain in unbound state or in agglomerate or aggregated manner and always the dimension of the nanomaterials is maintained in the range of 1–100 nm (The European Commission 2011). Nanoparticles (NPs) are of two types: natural and incidental or engineered. Nanomaterials have comparatively higher surface area than bulk materials. Hence, nanoparticles are more harmful for environment and human body than bulk materials.

1.1.3 Types and Production of NPs 1.1.3.1 Natural Nanoparticles Natural nanoparticles are of several types: atmospheric—volcanic ash (inorganic); terrestrial and aquatic (inorganic)—silicates such as clay and mica, oxides/hydroxides such as MnO, carbonates such as calcium carbonate, phosphates, metal sulphides; terrestrial and aquatic (organic)—macromolecules, biocolloids (bacteria), cellular debris. 1.1.3.2 Engineered/Incidental Nanoparticles Materials which have specific composition and specific properties and produced intentionally using nanotechnology are known as Engineered or Incidental or Manufactured nanoparticles (Sekhon 2014).

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(a) Unintentional—Wear and corrosion products, waste and combustion products. (b) Intentional—Carbonaceous NPs, semiconductor materials, nanopolymers, zerovalent metals, metal oxides. Based on dimensional arrangements, nanoparticles are of three types (i) Materials having nanoscale in one dimension: graphene, thin films. (ii) Materials having two dimension in nanoscale: nanotubes, nanowire. (iii) Materials having three dimension in nanoscale: fullerenes, dendrimers, and colloids 1.1.3.3 Process of Nanoparticles Production There are mainly two basic processes of nanoparticles production (i) Top-down approach: Conversion of bulky compounds into nanoscale particles. As for example, production of silica nanoparticles by constant fragmentation and chemical treatment to the silicate. (ii) Bottom-up approach: This is the conversion process of ionic form to nano size particles. As example, silicate ions are crystallized up to nano range and this is how silica nanoparticles are formed.

1.2 Application of Nanotechnology Though nanotechnology is not a new concept in the field of science, it is an emerging tool in agriculture for precision farming, production of crops, and application of fertilizers and pesticides sustainably for attaining higher output with lower input.

1.2.1 Nanotechnological Sensors in Agricultural Food Production For increased crop production with sustainable practices, nanobiosensors play an important role in proper application of pesticides, fertilizers, and biotic and abiotic stress management like pathogens, moisture, pH, heat, and salinity (Rai et al. 2013). Smart sensors help farmers in crop and soil health management, better utilization of applied fertilizers, and agricultural natural resources like nutrients, water, soil as well as help in better time and environment management. Advanced technology includes geographic information systems, satellite positioning system, remote sensing devices that help in detecting crop pest, and environmental stress scenario. Nanosensors detect and quantify the plant virus, fungi, or bacteria and also can detect the soil health status like mineral nutrients content and soil moisture content

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(Jones 2014; Brock et al. 2011) (Table 1.1). Nano gas sensors and nano smart dust can evaluate the status of environmental pollution (Mousavi and Rezaei 2011). Nanobiosensors not only increase the crop production, but also monitor and improve the quality of the agricultural crops (Li et  al. 2005). By rapid detection of plant pathogens and environmental sustainability, nanosensors ensure the safety of the food consumers (Otles and Yalcin 2010). Nanoparticles that have enzyme like properties are known as nanozymes. They act like natural enzymes after entering to the pathogens’ physiology. They denature the particular protein inside the pathogens’ cell or degrade the cell wall. Sometimes probes are applied with the nanozymes. Like fluorescent probe, probes are pH-­ sensitive. Nanozymes with probes get activated at a particular pH inside the pathogens’ system; other time, it remains just as an inert matter. In case of animals, so many photoactivated probes have been mentioned in research articles. So, advanced technology is making the nanosensors more functionally specific and efficient.

1.2.2 Nanotechnology in Agro-waste Reduction, High Value Products, and Biofuels Now-a-days besides conventional energy, nonconventional energy sources have come into the focus for maintaining the source of conventional energy for future generation. Nanotechnology is a wise approach to make available the alternative renewable energy. Nanotechnology is used in many biochemical processes which are involved in biochemical reaction like gasification, hydrogenation, transesterification, and pyrolysis (Ramsurn and Gupta 2013). Nanomaterials enhance lipid extraction by increasing the rate of metabolism of microorganism and these materials do not even harm the microalgae.

Table 1.1  Nanosensors and their applications Nanomaterial AuNPs

Detection Analyte method Nitrite, ammonium, Colorimetry urease, nitrate, and urea

AgNPs

Ammonium

Colorimetry

Quantum dots

Atrazine, glyphosates

Optical

Silver nanoparticles

Toxic metal ions

Fluorescence

Application Used in analysis of nitrogenous compounds of soil and soil nutrients status Detection of ammonium ions in soil Detection and analysis of pesticide’s residues and their effects Detection and analysis of heavy metals including cadmium and lead

References Mura et al. (2015)

Ismail et al. (2018)

Gruber et al. (2017)

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Transesterification is a process in which oil- or fat-like compounds react with alcohol to form glycerol and esters. It is a reversible reaction. Calcium oxide and magnesium oxides like nanoparticles are used as heterogeneous catalysts or biocatalysts to improve the rate of reaction. Participation of nanomaterials as well as nanotechnology in microbial lipid accumulation, extraction, and overall transesterification was reported from the study of Zhang et al. (2013). Nanotechnology is one of the best options for conservation of biofuels for next generation.

1.2.3 Nanotechnology in Hydroponics Hydroponics is a method of farming in which plants are grown in gravel, sand, or liquid media with addition of nutrition in absence of soil (Seaman and Bricklebank 2011). Many fruits like strawberries, melons, vegetables like cucumbers, chillies, tomatoes, and eggplants and leafy vegetable like lettuce are grown hydroponically. Nanotechnology also helps in production of biofuel and fodder crops (Sekhon 2014). Scientists have grown metal nanoparticles in nanotechnology exploiting hydroponics in the living plant physiology (Giordani et  al. 2012; Schwabe et  al. 2013; Dimkpa et al. 2013). Plant nutrients are additionally added in hydroponics technique and this technique is more efficient to utilize the applied additional nutrients more effectively as compared to soil-based plant production method (Seaman and Bricklebank 2011). Nanophosphor-based electroluminescence nanotechnology-­ based lighting device has potential to reduce energy cost and enhance the rate of photosynthesis in hydroponic plant cultivation (Witanachchi et al. 2012).

1.2.4 Nanotechnology in Organic Agriculture Organic agriculture is a nonconventional package of practices in agriculture in which manures and fertilizers of organic origin are used such as vermicompost, farm yard manure, green manure, and bone meal. It is a holistic approach to reduce the environmental pollution by repeated application of chemical fertilizer and pesticides and to maintain the soil health, biodiversity, and a balanced agro-ecosystem. Nanotechnology helps in environmental risk assessment. Several nano enzymes have capacity to degrade the residual pesticides molecules. Using nanotechnology botanicals like small crystal of turmeric, oil can be produced. Attachment of some functional groups to the botanicals not only reduces the application of chemical pesticides, but also increases its antifungal properties. Sometimes nano-based pesticides activate the plants’ immune system, activates the Induced systemic resistance (ISR) of plants’ physiology, and thus, reduce the rate of pathogens’ attack and this is how nanotechnology promotes the organic agriculture and reduces the application of chemical pesticides. However, in Canada, nanotechnology in organic food

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cultivation has been banned as “Prohibited Substances or Method” (The Organic and Non-GMO Report, Canada 2010).

1.2.5 Nanotechnology for Crop Improvement Nanotechnology has been found very effective in increasing the quality as well as overall quantity of the crop. Nanoparticle-based fertilizers were found very efficient in enhancing the crop production on foliar application (Raliya and Tarafdar 2013). Most of the metal-based and carbon-based nanoparticles have been studied for their property of absorption, accumulation, translocation, and effects on development and growth of the crop plants (Nair et al. 2010; Rico et al. 2011). Nanoparticles-­ based fertilizers have positive effects on physical properties like germination percentage, root and shoot length, plant biomass physiological traits like nitrogen metabolism, and rate of photosynthesis in so many crop plants like tomato, onion, soybean, wheat, and cucumber (Agrawal and Rathore 2014; Gao et  al. 2006). In application of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) with cerium nanomaterials, plants show three times higher photosynthetic activity as compared to the plants without treatment (Giraldo et al. 2014). Nanotechnology improves the crop productivity through the genetic manipulation. Using nanoparticles, required genes are induced to the target site at the plant cell. It was also validated that by gene transfer by nano titanium dioxide oxidative stress of Spinach plant is reduced (Lei et al. 2008). By multiwalled carbon nanotubes, genetic expression in cellular level of tobacco and tomato get altered (Khodakovskaya et al. 2012). Magnetic nanomaterials with tetramethylammonium hydroxide increase chlorophyll-a content in maize (Răcuciu and Creangă 2006). Iron oxide was reported to increase root elongation in pumpkin (Wang et al. 2011). This is how advanced nanotechnology helps in precision farming, rapid detection of pathogens, natural resources management, and delivery of agrochemicals precisely (Ahmed et al. 2013).

1.2.6 Nanofiltration Nanofiltration is a pressure-regulated membrane-based process which lies in between reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration. It is basically a filtration process which purifies surface and groundwater by removing pathogens like bacteria, parasites, and solid wastes. Nanofiltration process has the ability to wipe out the ionic or molecular species from saline or contaminated water. Nanotechnology plays a major role in development of low energy-based methods. Among those most promising are (Abid et al. 2013) as follows: 1. Aligned carbon nanotube membranes

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2 . Protein polymer biomimetic membranes 3. Thin film nanocomposite membranes Nanotechnology uses alumina fibers and carbon nanotubes for purification of water. Using nanofiltration, solar-powered system desalinizes the saline or brackish water and makes them favorable for irrigation purpose. Crops irrigated with desalinized water give higher productivity and more yield and require 25% less irrigation (ScienceDaily 2010). Nanoporous graphene membrane has higher water permeability as compared to reverse osmosis membrane and grapheme membrane can filter the salt sodium chloride from water (Cohen-Tanugi and Grossman 2012). Nanofiltration is a wise option for the arid zone agricultural cultivation where salinity is a big issue (Prajapati et al. 2021).

1.2.7 Nanotechnology in Particle Farming By growing plants in mineral-rich soil, nanomaterials can be harvested after harvesting of crops. Alfalfa plants showed absorption of gold metal which were grown in AuCl4-rich soil. After harvesting the crop, by dissolving the plant tissues gold particles can be separated (Gardea-Torresdey et al. 2002). Alfalfa plants can also uptake silver when these are grown in silver-rich media. (Gardea-Torresdey et al. 2003). Rice husk and leaves contain high amount of silicon. This silicon can be easily extracted and used in manufacturing battery (Liu et al. 2013). Geranium leaves can produce 10  nm rod, pyramids, and sphere-shaped gold particles after getting dipped in gold-rich liquid media.

1.3 Nanosensors 1.3.1 Use of Si-NPs in Agriculture The different damages caused to the agricultural crops by the climatic variations can be solved to a certain extent by the application of silicon nanoparticles (Si-NP). Reports infer that the silicon nanoparticles were found to be highly efficient reducing the toxic effects of heavy metals (Cui et al. 2017), stress due to UVB (Tripathi et al. 2017), salt stress, loss of water (Jullok et al. 2016), etc. 1.3.1.1 Si-NPs as Pesticides The application of silicon nanoparticles as nanopesticides has been reported in large number of research (Magda and Hussein 2016; Ziaee and Ganji 2016). There are two applications of silicon nanoparticles. These include the following: 1. These nanoparticles on direct application in the field can be used as nanopesticides.

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Table 1.2  Role of silica nanoparticles as pesticides Size of Si-NP Composition (nm) SiO2 20–60 Si-NP

–

SiO2

12, 20–30

Targeted insect species for enhanced efficiency Callosobruchus maculatus Spodoptera littoralis

Impact as pesticide Based on appropriate dose, they destroy insects and its larvae Based on appropriate dose, they destroy insects and its larvae. Enhance the number of leaves in plants after 15 days of application and improve the longevity of plants Rhyzopertha Based on appropriate dose and dominica, Tribolium size, they damage insects. On confusum barley and wheat grains, effects of nanoparticles were found in huge manner

References Rouhani et al. (2012) El-Helaly et al. (2016)

Ziaee and Ganji (2016)

2. Mesoporous Si-NP were applied as nanocarriers which can release pesticides of commercial value for the enhancement of efficiency. 1.3.1.2 Mode of Action 1. The lethal effect of silica nanoparticle for eradication of pests can also be due to choking of respiratory tracts or destruction of the waxy coating on the cuticle through abrasion and adsorption. 2. The basic mode of action of nano-silica for controlling pest through destruction of water lipid barrier results in death of the targeted pest (Rai and Ingle 2012). The role of Si-NP as pesticides has been illustrated in Table 1.2.

1.3.2 Use of Ag-NPs in Agriculture Reports infer that silver nanoparticles have antimicrobial property. Therefore, they can be applied for disease management in plants (Mishra et al. 2014). A large number of scientists have utilized this antimicrobial property of silver nanoparticles against a wide varieties of plant pathogens including Colletotrichum sp., and Pseudomonas syringae. 1.3.2.1 AgNP-Soil Interaction Based on research studies, cation exchange capacity, pH, and organic matter content significantly affect the AgNP’s toxicity behavior. Bioavailability of AgNPs and presence of Ag in soil depend on cation exchange capacity and soil pH (Benoit et al. 2013). Soil pH and cation exchange capacity are proportional to each other

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Fig. 1.1  Impact of Ag-nanoparticle interaction with soil

(Fig. 1.1). With the increase of pH, CEC is enhanced directly. Soil with high CEC adsorbs Ag ions to the soil surface and bioavailability of Ag ions gets reduced drastically. Organic matter content has the effects on mobility and availability of Ag. In presence of high organic matter content, Ag binds to the soil more strongly. Binding of Ag to the soil leads to immobility and lower availability of Ag to living organisms and higher organic matter also reduces the toxicity level of Ag.

1.4 Green Nanotechnology Green nanotechnology is an eco-friendly approach to maintain the sustainability and to reduce the cost of cultivation and environmental risks and hazards. So, green nanotechnology refers to application of nanotechnology-based products which are not deleterious for environment (Nair and Pradeep 2002; Dameron et al. 1989).

1.4.1 Benefits Green nanotechnology avoids the use of toxic ingredients in production of nanoproducts and nanomaterials and considers designs and engineering at low temperature using less energy and renewable inputs. Eco-friendly nanomaterials are synthesized by monitoring environmental pollutants, desalinization of water, and cleaning of hazardous waste (Kumar et al. 2014; Marambio and Hoek 2010) using botanicals like orange, peppermint oil, and coconut; green sustainable chemicals

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like cleaning agents, detergents, and insecticides can be produced without any hazardous elements (Gnanadesigan et al. 2011).

1.4.2 Applications of Green Nanotechnology Plant-based nano structures have various applications in different fields like biomedicine, bioimaging, photonics, photocatalysis, electronics, drug and gene delivery, solar cell devices, catalysis, and sensing (Table 1.3).

1.5 Nanoparticles in Gene Delivery Nanoparticles are around 100  nm in size and spherical and solid in structure, prepared from synthetic to natural polymers (Ghaedi et al. 2015). A favorable carrier system or vector is required to deliver the nucleus or cytoplasm or nucleic acid molecule to the target cells and this vector or carrier helps in enhancing cell internalization and protecting DNA from degradation for nuclease enzymatic activity (e.g., cationic liposomes, virosomes, nanoparticles). Nanoparticles which are used in gene delivery are grouped into four parts (Table 1.4).

1.5.1 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles Cationic solid lipids, cationic lipids, cationic liposomes, and cationic emulsions are lipid-based structures which are used in nucleic acid delivery system to the target cells. A huge amount of cationic lipids have been used earlier in gene delivery system like cationic derivatives of diacylglycerol, quaternary ammonium detergents, Table 1.3  Types of nanoparticles and their applications (Kumar et al. 2014) Types of Nanoparticles Polysaccharide-based nanoparticles Carbon-based nanostructures Adhesive nanoparticles Silica nanoparticles Lipid-based nanoparticles

Application Drugs’ delivery to the targeted site, repairing, regeneration, and finally healing of tissues Applied as photocatalysts, biosensors, using fluorescence, and detection of ions Application in biomedical sciences and genetic engineering in tissues Used for carrying drugs to suitable targeted locus and genetic engineering in tissues Soft materials’ development like cell surfactants, nanogels, nanotubes, and nanofibers

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Table 1.4  Advantages and disadvantages of nonviral vectors (Kumar et al. 2014; Albrecht et al. 2006; Kim et al. 2007)

Advantages

Inorganic nanoparticles Less time of infection

Disadvantages Majority of them are highly unstable, higher toxic effects as well as nonbiodegradable

Polymer-based nanoparticles Narrow distribution, shorter size, higher protection against enzymatic degradation, higher stability Lower rates of efficacy, lower ability of biodegradation

Lipid-based nanoparticles Preparation with utmost safety, lower levels of immunity

Hybrid nanoparticles Less time of infection

Highly toxic at higher dose. They are tough to prepare. Besides they have lower efficiency of transformation

Higher toxicity, highly unstable, and nonbiodegradable

dioleoyl trimethylammonium propane (DOTAP), dioleylpropyl trimethylammonium chloride (DOTMA), and lipid derivatives of polyamines (Ahmed et al. 2014).

1.5.2 Polymer-Based Nanoparticles Cationic polymers are significant mode of delivery of nonviral gene. They have positively charged cationic backbone which has the ability to interact with negatively charged anionic materials. However, efficacy of polymeric gene delivery is low under in vivo condition. For gene delivery, using of biomaterials reduces the safety measures with viral gene delivery (Albrecht et al. 2006).

1.5.3 Inorganic Nanoparticles Some important inorganic nanoparticles which are used for gene delivery are magnetic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles, calcium phosphate nanoparticles, quantum dots, etc. These particles have many advantages as compared to other means of delivery systems. The major advantages are that these are resistant to microbial attack and have high storage ability (Jha et al. 2009).

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1.5.4 Hybrid Nanoparticles Hybrid nanoparticles are of two types—multilayered nanoparticles and liposome-­ polycation-­DNA nanoparticles (LPD). By spontaneous rearrangement of lipid shell, LPD nanomaterials are fabricated around a polycation-DNA core (Yuan et al. 2015).

1.6 Nanotechnology and Agro-waste Management Nanotechnology is applied for manipulation of materials at the micro level, allowing them for acquiring various functions, such as detection of specific pollutants. This contributes toward treatment of water, thereby permitting the development of renewable energy sources (Neumann et  al. 2009). A range of nanomaterials are most frequently used in agricultural applications. The different nanomaterials and their applications for eradication of agricultural wastes are illustrated in Table 1.5.

1.6.1 Biological Natural Nanoparticles These nanoparticles occur in nature and are a collection of molecules or atoms formed in a biological system, having the dimension in the 1–100 nm range. These particles include different structures within the cells including magnetosomes as well as assemblies outside the cells including viruses and lipoproteins. They have diverse range of functions starting from depots of mineral storage to communications among the cells. Table 1.5  The different nanomaterials and their applications for eradication of agricultural wastes Nano-item Nano-silica

Agro-waste type Shells of walnut as well as groundnut

The main application of nano-item References Helps in damaging and management Peerzada and of store grains insects, e.g., rice Chidambaram (2021) Nano-silica Ash obtained from Application of rice husk bears Torres et al. husk of rice similar types of chemical and (2019) physical cementitious in comparison to other commercial nano-silica Nanocomposite Sawdust of tree Nano-silica-coated biochar helps in Chakraborty and wood Cinnamomum eradication of Chromium Das (2020) camphora

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1.6.1.1 Exosomes Exosomes are synthesized from the membranes of endosomes into the lumen for the formation of large number of vesicular bodies which are thereafter released at the surface of the cell (Simons and Raposo 2009). Exosomes are considered as mode of eradication of unwanted proteins of membrane as well as mRNA (Batista et  al. 2011). Different researches have shown that exosomes have crucial role toward development of immune response by means of antigen presentation (Raposo et al. 1996). Besides, exosomes have also been reported to affect different other biological processes including apoptosis, inflammation as well as coagulation (Vlassov et al. 2012). 1.6.1.2 Lipoproteins Lipoproteins basically include complicated self-accumulating molecular structure of lipids as well as specialized proteins. Some include apolipoproteins which are responsible for transportation of hydrophobic lipids. These are found basically in the hydrated interior environment of insects as well as vertebrates. High density lipids (HDLs) are also considered as modes of infestation therapy as well as delivery of drugs. Unmodified HDL nanoparticles are responsible for binding lipopolysaccharide, synthesized from gram-negative bacteria for prevention of hyper-stimulation of the immune response (Parker et al. 1995). HDL nanoparticles can also be applied for prevention of damage to healthy cells either through viruses or toxins which are responsible for binding to cell surface-specific proteins. 1.6.1.3 Ferritin The gene encoding Ferritin is expressed in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. The most relevant function of ferritin includes application as nanocage of proteins for synthesis as well as storage of iron oxides for sequestering the iron ions.

1.6.2 Nanofertilizers An efficient way to deliver active ingredients to plants is through nano-engineered formulations comprising part or all of nutrient fertilizers (Fig. 1.2). There is also a need to determine the toxicity and biocompatibility of nanofertilizers, which are crucial to the safe use of nanotechnology (Hevonoja et al. 2000; Ryan 2010). The ability of plants to absorb nanoscale particles differently from bulk particles or ionic salts due to their smaller dimensions than bulk particles is an additional benefit (Scanu 1967; Cormode et al. 2010).

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Fig. 1.2  Impacts of nanofertilizers toward enhancing agricultural production

1.6.3 Metal-Based Nanomaterials Due to their potential for use, metal-based nanoparticles, which comprise metallic nanoparticles and metal oxide, have a significant position in the group of nanoparticles. CuO nanoparticles can lead to oxidative DNA damage in terrestrial plants including radish, annual ryegrass, and perennial ryegrass. Microarray analysis was utilized by scientists to show that exposing Arabidopsis to TiO2, ZnO, and fullerene causes different modifications in the expression of stress genes. Additionally, the genes that were upregulated in response to nanoparticle treatments were primarily linked to the response to metals and oxidative stress, while the genes that were downregulated were primarily linked to cell organization and biogenesis, showing that phytotoxicity is strongly influenced by the type of nanoparticle. We are unable to determine whether metallic nanoparticles induce particle-specific toxicity because they emit ionic salts, and the effects of the nanoparticles and ionic salts are comparable.

1.6.4 Quantum Dots (NANO DIAG) Quantum dots (QDs) are artificial crystals of nanoscale which are responsible for transportation of electrons. UV light hits these nanoparticles and emits different colored lights. In composite solar cells and fluorescence in living organisms, these

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man-made semiconductor nanoparticles are The QD-FRET-based sensors that are mainly applied for detection of certain specific domain of nucleic acid and enzymes (Stanisavljevic et al. 2015; Dameron et al. 1989).

1.7 Nanotechnology and Sustainability: Nanotechnology and Mitigation of Environmental Issues Nanotechnology can be defined as the science conducted at the nanoscale (1–100 nm). Sustainability confers to the capability to conserve or retain a process continuously over time in long term. It refers to satisfying the needs without negotiating the capability of future generations to meet their needs. Therefore, nanotechnology plays a dynamic role in nourishing the different mechanisms of environment and natural resources. The expansion of urbanization along with industrialization encompassing, manufacturing units, transport system, creation of new buildings, mining, etc., diminishes the natural resources. It also produces massive amounts of hazardous wastes. The hazardous wastes or chemicals threaten the public heath as well as environmental security by affecting air, water, and soil. The hazardous waste formed gets emitted into environment without treatment in different forms. The different forms of pollutants in atmosphere may be suspended particulate matter, poisonous gases, and organic compounds. Similarly, there is a chance of heavy metal contamination in the groundwater. Pesticides, insecticides, and different hydrocarbons pollute the soil affecting the biodiversity beneath it. Therefore, these environmental pollutants can enter into human body through various means like absorption, inhalation, and ingestion; it has a great potential to adversely impact the human health.

1.7.1 Save the Seas Nanotechnology has a great potential in putting adverse impact on the seas. The nanotechnology-based solutions help to save the seas in several ways: • Nanotechnology can help in increasing the efficiency of water supply by making intervention in the treatment. • Nanomembranes can help in filtration of water contaminants and reduce the concentration of contaminants. • Radioactive wastes are very dangerous products and it can be removed by solutions based on nanotechnology.

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1.7.2 Water Cleanliness Iron nanoparticles are generally used to clean the water by removing organic solvents. In this way, nanotechnology can be used as a tool in water purification techniques. Similarly, nanomembranes are also used for softening the water and removal of contaminants beyond threshold limit.

1.7.3 Cleaning the Air Nanotechnology can help in filtering the pollutants from the environment to reduce the greenhouse gases. The effect of global warming is increasing day by day, all because of an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide. It is the major threat to the environment. Thus, it has resulted in increased amounts of greenhouse gasses, leading to drastic climate change. It is very difficult to separate carbon dioxide from other gases and is not a feasible option since it requires huge amount of money. In this aspect, nanomaterials can be used in cost-effective way to separate the carbon dioxide from other gases. Similarly, the fuel efficiency can be increased with the help of nanoparticles from the fossil fuel users. The nanoparticles used for particular contaminants are given in Table 1.6.

1.7.4 Role in Soil Remediation Nanomaterials also play an important role in soil remediation. It can help to reduce target pollutants like mercury organochlorine insecticides, cadmium, lead, iron phosphates, and nanoscale zerovalent iron. The application of nanoparticle in soil remediation is given in Table 1.7. Table 1.6  Application of nanoparticles in cleaning the air Nanoparticles Silica (Si-NP)

Contaminants Lead (Pb)

Zn12O12 nanocage

Carbon disulfide (CS2)

Aligned carbon nanotube

Aerosols

Explanations Enhanced capture of lead by silicon nanoparticles due to its large surface area and negative charge Due to the steric hindrance between CS2 molecule, the adsorption energy of carbon disulfide per molecule was reduced With increase in layer of CNTs, the filtration efficiency was increased dramatically

References Yang et al. (2013) Ghenaatian et al. (2013) Yildiz and Bradford (2013)

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Table 1.7  Application of nanoparticles in soil remediation Nanoparticle Iron sulfide (FeS)

Contaminants Mercury (Hg)

Nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) Nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite

Organochlorine insecticides (DDT) Cadmium and lead (Cd/Ld)

Explanations Carboxymethyl cellulose capable to immobilize mercury ions Nano zerovalent iron was effective for DDT degradation Nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite that was effective in reducing water-­ soluble, phytoavailable Pb/Cd

References Xiong et al. (2009) El-Temsah and Joner (2013) He et al. (2013)

1.8 Impacts of Nanotechnology on Environments 1.8.1 Positive Effects Carbon nanotubes, zeolites, and silver nanoparticles can be used for purification of water to improve its quality. Some nanomaterials can be also used as photocatalyst like zinc oxide, tungsten oxide, and titanium oxide. The role of the photocatalyst is to oxidize pollutants into harmless materials. Titanium oxide (TiO2) is the most commonly used photocatalyst for its high photoconductivity and high photostability and also it is easily available and inexpensive. Silver nanoparticles are also used for antimicrobial effect. Different types of polymeric nanoparticles are also used for wastewater treatment. Toxic gases in the environment can be filtered with the help of nanotechnology. Nanocontact sensor has the potential to detect the heavy metal ions and radioactive elements. Currently, single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) are also used for the detection of nitrogen dioxide and ammonia gases. The volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, pesticides, etc., can be identified by cantilever sensors. Nanomaterial manganese oxide due to its high surface area has great potential for better adsorption of toxic gases. Therefore, by detecting pollutants by specific sensors, the sustainability of human health and the environment will persist in the long run. Nanofiltration can also be used as another efficient method for treatment of water. Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) nonporous membrane has the potential to perform energy-efficient desalination of water. Nanofabric paper is also used to clean the oil spills in the different water bodies. It has the capacity to absorb 20 times of its weight. Thus, nanotechnology provides us with a better approach to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and discharge of hazardous chemicals in the environment.Thus, nanotechnology provides a solution to clean the contaminated water and prevent new pollution.

1.8.2 Negative Effects Nanotechnology has also the potential to impact in a negative way. There are very less studies conducted on the negative effects of nanotechnology, though if fell in wrong hands, they may create havoc. Even there are no clear guidelines to quantify

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the effects. Some of the potential disadvantages may lead to economic disruption. It may also act as possible threats to security, privacy, health, and the environment. New toxins and pollutants may also be developed with the help of nanotechnology, and in such cases, the consequences would be terrible.

1.9 Future Prospects Related to Environmental Applications Nanotechnology researchers and developers are using the following avenues to repair the environment: • Organic chemicals can act as hazardous substances for the environment. So there is requirement of cleaning or providing any treatment to organic chemicals before it get mixed with water. • The process of generating electricity for the production of solar cells in cost-­ effective way with respect to conventional methods. • Manufacturing of materials causes large amount of pollution. So there must be research on the process to generate less pollution while manufacturing different types of materials. • There is a good scope to study the process of storing hydrogen for fuel cell-­ powered cars. • The policies or methods of cleaning oil spills in the ocean are required as it affects the marine biodiversity. • There is requirement to study about the total amount of electricity generated from the windmills from different parts of the country. • There is a good scope to study about the toxicology of nanoparticles. • Persistence time and transformation of manufactured nanoparticles and their consequences on environment. • There is need to study the recyclability and sustainability of nanoparticles manufactured for retaining a process in the long run.

1.10 Conclusion Nanotechnology is a new and wide field of science which has correlation with various disciplines of technology and science. A huge research is going on to utilize this advanced technology for upliftment of human livelihood. It has different kinds of application in chemical engineering, electronics, and biological sciences. To maintain the sustainability and to protect the natural resources, nanotechnology is a wise choice. Nanotechnology left its contribution in providing nutritious good quality food, good packaging of food, and improving shelf life of food, treatment of waste water, detection and identification of pathogens which damage the food, and in different aspects of Agricultural Sciences and Food Sciences.

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Nair R, Varghese SH, Nair BG, Maekawa T, Yoshida Y, Kumar DS (2010) Nanoparticulate material delivery to plants. Plant Sci 179(3):154–163 National Science and Technology Council (2014) Committee on technology, national nanotechnology initiative: strategic plan. Washington, DC Neumann KH, Kumar A, Imani J (2009) Plant cell and tissue culture: a tool in biotechnology, vol 12. Springer, Berlin Otles S, Yalcin B (2010) Nano-biosensors as new tool for detection of food quality and safety. LogForum 6(4):67–70 Parker TS, Levine DM, Chang JC, Laxer J, Coffin CC, Rubin AL (1995) Reconstituted high-­ density lipoprotein neutralizes gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharides in human whole blood. Infect Immun 63(1):253–258 Peerzada JG, Chidambaram R (2021) A statistical approach for biogenic synthesis of nano-silica from different agro-wastes. Silicon 13(7):2089–2101 Prajapati M, Shah M, Soni B, Parikh S, Sircar A, Balchandani S, Tala M (2021) Geothermal-solar integrated groundwater desalination system: current status and future perspective. Groundw Sustain Dev 12:100506 Răcuciu M, Creangă DE (2006) TMA-OH coated magnetic nanoparticles internalized in vegetal tissue. Rom J Phys 52(3–4):395–402 Rai M, Ingle A (2012) Role of nanotechnology in agriculture with special reference to management of insect pests. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 94(2):287–293 Rai V, Acharya S, Dey N (2013) Implications of nanobiosensors in agriculture. J Biomater Nanobiotechnol 3:315–324 Raliya R, Tarafdar JC (2013) ZnO nanoparticle biosynthesis and its effect on phosphorous-­ mobilizing enzyme secretion and gum contents in Clusterbean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L). Agric Res 2(1):48–57 Ramsurn H, Gupta RB (2013) Nanotechnology in solar and biofuels. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 1(7):779–797 Raposo G, Nijman HW, Stoorvogel W, Liejendekker R, Harding CV, Melief CJ, Geuze HJ (1996) B lymphocytes secrete antigen-presenting vesicles. J Exp Med 183(3):1161–1172 Rickerby DG, Morrison M (2011) Nanotechnology and the environment: a European perspective. Sci Technol Adv Mater 8:19–24 Rico CM, Majumdar S, Duarte-Gardea M, Peralta-Videa JR, GardeaTorresdey JL (2011) Interaction of nanoparticles with edible plants and their possible implications in the food chain. J Agric Food Chem 59(8):3485–3498 Rouhani M, Samih MA, Kalamtari S (2012) Insecticidal effect of silica and silver nanoparticles on the cowpea seed beetle, Calloso bruchusmaculatus F. (Col.: Bruchidae). J Entomol Res 4:297–305 Ryan RO (2010) Nanobiotechnology applications of reconstituted high density lipoprotein. J Nanobiotechnology 8(1):1–10 Scanu A (1967) Binding of human serum high density lipoprotein apoprotein with aqueous dispersions of phospholipids. J Biol Chem 242(4):711–719 Schwabe F, Schulin R, Limbach LK, Stark W, Bürge D, Nowack B (2013) Influence of two types of organic matter on interaction of CeO2 nanoparticles with plants in hydroponic culture. Chemosphere 91(4):512–520 ScienceDaily (2010) Nanotechnology for water purification. ScienceDaily, LLC, Rockville. http:// www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/07/100728111711.html Seaman C, Bricklebank N (2011) Soil-free farming. Chemistry and Industry Magazine:19–21. http://www.soci.org/Chemistry-­and-­Industry/CnI-­Data/2011/6/Soil-­free-­farming Sekhon BS (2014) Nanotechnology in agri-food production: an overview. Nanotechnol Sci Appl 4(7):31–53 Sellers K (2009) Nanotechnology and the environment. CRC Press, Boca Raton Simons M, Raposo G (2009) Exosomes–vesicular carriers for intercellular communication. Curr Opin Cell Biol 21(4):575–581

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Stanisavljevic M, Krizkova S, Vaculovicova M, Kizek R, Adam V (2015) Quantum dots-­ fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based nanosensors and their application. Biosens Bioelectron 74:562–574 Taniguchi N (1974) On the basic concept of nano-technology. In: Proc Intl Conf Prod Eng Part II. Society of Precision Engineering, Tokyo The European Commission (2011) Commission recommendation of 18 October 2011 on the definition of nanomaterial. Off J Eur Union, Brussels, Belgium The Organic and Non-GMO Report (2010) Canada bans nanotechnology in organics. The Organic and Non-GMO Report, Fairfield Theil EC (2013) Ferritin: the protein nanocage and iron biomineral in health and in disease. Inorg Chem 52(21):12223–12233 Torres CM, Reinosa JJ, de la Rubia MA, Reyes E, Peralta FA, Fernández JF (2019) Critical aspects in the handling of reactive silica in cementitious materials: effectiveness of rice husk ash vs nano-silica in mortar dosage. Constr Build Mater 223:360–367 Tripathi DK, Singh S, Singh VP, Prasad SM, Dubey NK, Chauhan DK (2017) Silicon nanoparticles more effectively alleviated UV-B stress than silicon in wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedlings. Plant Physiol Biochem 110:70–81 Vlassov AV, Magdaleno S, Setterquist R, Conrad R (2012) Exosomes: current knowledge of their composition, biological functions and diagnostic and therapeutic potentials. Biochim Biophys Acta 1820(7):940–948 Vo-Dinh T (2007) Nanotechnology in biology and medicine: methods, devices, and applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton Wang H, Kou X, Pei Z, Xiao JQ, Shan X, Xing B (2011) Physiological effects of magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and pumpkin (Cucurbita mixta) plants. Nanotoxicology 5(1):30–42 Witanachchi S, Merlak M, Mahawela P (2012) Nanotechnology solutions to greenhouse and urban agriculture. Technol Innov 14(2):209–217 Xiong Z, He F, Zhao DY, Barnett MO (2009) Immobilization of mercury in sediment using stabilized iron sulfide nanoparticles. Water Res 43:5171–5179 Yang X, Shen Z, Zhang B, Yang J, Hong W-X, Zhuang Z, Liu J (2013) Silica nanoparticles capture atmospheric lead: implications in the treatment of environmental heavy metal pollution. Chemosphere 90:653–656 Yildiz O, Bradford PD (2013) Aligned carbon nanotube sheet high efficiency particulate air filters. Carbon 64:295–304 Yuan H, Li D, Liu Y, Xu X, Xiong C (2015) Nitrogen-doped carbon dots from plant cytoplasm as selective and sensitive fluorescent probes for detecting p-nitroaniline in both aqueous and soil systems. Analyst 140(5):1428–1431 Zhang XL, Yan S, Tyagi RD, Surampalli RY (2013) Biodiesel production from heterotrophic microalgae through transesterification and nanotechnology application in the production. Renew Sust Energ Rev 26:216–223 Ziaee M, Ganji Z (2016) Insecticidal efficacy of silica nanoparticles against Rhyzopertha dominica F. and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val. J Plant Prot Res 56(3):250–256

Chapter 2

Microbial Nanotechnology: Current Development and Potential Applications in the Field of Biotechnology Anwesha Gohain

Abstract  Nanotechnology, the new era in the field of science and technology, has revolutionized a wide range of research ideas and is still evolving at an extraordinary rate. Moreover, the field of microbiology has also contributed lots of novel solutions for human welfare while keeping the ecological and environmental balance in a correct way. On the contrary, multiple drug resistance (MDR) in microorganisms is a serious threat to all the living organisms at the present time due to inappropriate or frequent use of drugs and it has emerged as one of the preeminent public health concerns of the twenty-first century. Therefore, it is an urgent need to widen the interdisciplinary research practices so that researchers can provide some innovative ideas for well-being of human as well as environment. Nanotechnology provides development and application of materials at a nanoscale (10−9 m) in the form of nanoparticles and offers marked use in antimicrobial agents, nano-drugs, diagnostics, etc., for better treatment of diseases. Thus, combining these two disciplines, i.e., nanotechnology and microbiology, will definitely pave a way of promising result. This chapter discusses the boom of nanotechnology and relates with the field of microbiology to assist mankind through an array of applications in different fields, namely, water, soil, and medical microbiology. Keywords  Nanotechnology · Microbiology · Nanoparticles · Bionanomaterials · Nanobioremediation

2.1 Introduction One of the biggest challenges for mankind in the current scenario is the increasing mortality rate in the health sector because of the emergence of infectious diseases. However, in spite of having tremendous achievements in the field of medicine, people around the globe face multiple issues in health sector. The newly found A. Gohain (*) Department of Botany, Faculty of Science and technology, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. S. Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31104-8_2

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microorganisms carrying multiple drug resistance (MDR) are serious threats to all the living organisms at the present time. Due to inappropriate or frequent use of drugs, MDR has emerged as one of the preeminent public health concerns of the twenty-­first century. To obtain best results for the benefit of mankind, researchers and scientists are working tirelessly with existing tools of sciences to unlock a new horizon in the field of applied sciences. One of the breakthrough achievements in the field of microbiological sciences was the discovery of microscope, which was the beginning to observe the tiny animalcules in 1676, although microbial fermentation was widely used in ancient times even with a lack of proper scientific knowledge of it. The invention of electron microscope and many advanced modern devices paved the way of studying microbes that are invisible to naked eyes. These discoveries have assisted many scholars all over the world to work in the field of microbiology globally (Ball et al. 2019). Amalgamation of microbiology and other sciences has again unlocked a new field called Microbial Biotechnology where genetic recombination of the microbes is allowed to produce numerous new environmentfriendly products which have found application in the medical, industrial as well as in the field of agricultural sectors (Elegbede and Lateef 2019; Adelere and Lateef 2019; Bamigboye et al. 2019). Lately, knowledge of nanoparticles and other natural resources has gained tremendous momentum in the past decade or so, leading to the emergence of a new field named nanobiotechnology. This field, in particular, focuses on the synthesis and utilization of nanoparticles in biology and its subsidiary fields (Goodsell 2004). The term “Nano” is a Latin-derived word meaning dwarf. Nanotechnology provides nanoparticles of three dimensions within the range of 1–100 nm. Nonetheless, idea of nanotechnology provides immense opportunities for the microbiologists to explore all the possibilities in the field of microbial nanotechnology to maximize the utilization as well as application of microbes. The first scientific report on nanoparticles was published in 1857 by Michael Faraday. However, Eric Drexler was the person who started the concrete work on nanotechnology in 1981 (Drexler 1981; Prathna et al. 2010). Because of the unique size and shape-dependent properties of these nanoparticles such as distinctive physicochemical, magnetic, and optoelectronic (Daniel and Astruc 2004; Zharov et al. 2005; Bogunia-Kubik and Sugisaka 2002) properties, nanotechnology has drawn global attention. Apart from the idea of maximizing the yield of conventionally produced microbial products as well as its possibilities of producing new one from microbes, biosynthesis of nanomaterials from microbes, namely, fungi, bacteria, and microalgae, has been studied extensively (Elegbede et al. 2018, 2020; Elegbede and Lateef 2019; Kim et al. 2020). Nanotechnology providing an exciting method for the development and application of materials at a nanoscale (10−9 m) in the form of nanoparticles offers marked use in antimicrobial agents, nano-drugs, diagnostics, etc., for the betterment of mankind. Although the potentiality of the combined fields of microbiology and nanotechnology is countless, researchers working in this field face many obstacles. This chapter will highlight the relationship between these two fields for the

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synthesis of nanoparticles from microbes and their potential application for human welfare. This chapter also throws light on some microorganisms that produce an array of nanoparticles.

2.2 Microbiology and Microbial Technology The term “microbiology” was coined by Louis Pasteur which is now an eminent name in this field, while Antoine van Leeuwenhoek is named as the father of microbiology. With technological advances happening at a rapid speed, microbiological research has now entered in a new era with its ever-increasing speed and improvement in the manner of working by unfolding many hidden facts. Microbiology involves studying of microorganisms which are not visible to the human naked eye that include living single-celled to the noncellular microscopic organisms. The other organisms which also fall in the category of what is termed as microorganisms include eukaryotes such as fungi, and the prokaryotes. Broadly, microbiology encompasses bacteriology, mycology, virology, immunology, parasitology, and many other branches which are closely linked together. The knowledge and information of microbiology can be applied (applied microbiology) to various other fields which cover medicinal, agricultural, environmental, etc. With the advent of new deadly and incurable diseases, medical microbiology which deals with the study of pathogenic microbes and their role in human illness has gained tremendous significance. More recently, the group of researchers (Mohamed et al. 2015; Sultan et al. 2016) have referred to it as the study of epidemiology as well as the study of disease pathology and immunology. Pharmaceutical microbiology, on the other hand, deals with the pharmaceutical products that are manufactured from microbes such as antibiotics, enzymes, vitamins, and vaccines. The application of microbiology does not stop at medicinal usage, but also connects with the industrial fermentation processes, effective wastewater treatment plants, and the brewing industries, which have all exploited these microbes for their potential use in the industrial microbiology (Emam et al. 2020). The most advanced discovery in the field of microbiology is the exploitation of microorganisms at the genetic and molecular levels in order to produce valuable products for the well-being of mankind, especially the health sector. On the other hand, spoilage of food and all the food-borne diseases are studied and categorized under the food and diary microbiology (Sadek et  al. 2018). Scientific microbial fermentation and all the other techniques for attaining acceptable food safety levels in the production of foods and feeds will come under food microbiology (Lateef and Gueguim-Kana 2014; Lateef and Ojo 2016). Attaining food security for all is the most vital discussion point all over the world, including being one of key-points in the sustainable developmental goals (SDGs). Rising poverty and the ever-increasing threat of climate change are directly affecting crop production around the world. Microbiology can play a major role in

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all of it. Microorganisms that enhance the production of agricultural products in agricultural microbiology can be classified into plant microbiology and plant pathology where interaction between host (plant) and plant pathogens is studied. Environmental microbiology is the in-depth analysis of microbial diversity in all the natural environments including soil, water, air ecosystems, where key habitats of microbes such as rhizosphere and phyllosphere are extensively studied. Microbial technology involves the manipulation of microbes to enhance their specific biochemical and physiological properties in a proper way such that scientists can relocate the special microbial strains to perform desired function based on their efficiency. Over the last decade, advanced fields like molecular biology and genetic engineering have paved the way of finding new solution and effective alternatives to multiple drug resistance microorganisms. Nanotechnology integrating the modern science and technology for the production of improved multidimensional nanomaterial and nano device designed for possible utility in a multitude of fields such as industrial, consumer, and biomedical applications is of much use. Synthesis of nanomaterials within the range of 1–100 nm scale was marked and has earlier been applied in sectors like agriculture, medical, pharmaceutical, environmental, and other various fields (Elegbede and Lateef 2019). Physicist researcher Richard Feynman (1960) was the first person to give the idea for theoretical application of nanotechnology. According to Goddard and Hotchkiss (2007) it can be defined as the ability to modify and control matter at specific individual atoms and molecules. Synthesis of nanosized particles for the development of optoelectronic, electronics, and various other chemical and biochemical sensors could be considered by far as the great achievement in the field of nanotechnology (Narayanan and Sakthivel 2011). The group of Calabia et al. (2010) reported the occurrence of nanomaterials in the naturally occurring biological systems such as viruses, spider silk, insect tentacles, and human bones. The same group also reported the presence of nanomaterial characters in inorganic form such as clays, pigments, cement, and opal stones. The classification of nanoparticles is based on their morphology (shape and appearance), its composition, its dimensions, uniformity, and agglomeration (Fariq et al. 2017). Buzea et al. (2007) emphasized on shape and morphology of nanoparticles as the driving force affecting their functionality and the impact of toxicity of nanomaterial on the environment and human beings. Nanoparticles can be easily categorized into one-, two-, or threedimensional purely based on their morphology and dimensions. Some of the most widely used one-dimensional nanoparticles are the thin films that find application in electronics and sensor devices. Owing to its high adsorption capacity and stability toward variation in temperature and pressure, carbon nanotubes fall in the category of two-dimensional or 2D nanoparticles, while the threedimensional(3D) nanoparticles include quantum dots, dendrimers, and so on (Pal et al. 2011). A lot of effort has been put toward controlling the factors affecting the morphology of the resultant nonmaterial, signifying its value in numerous fields in the recent decade. Nanoparticles of various shapes such as flat, spherical,

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and crystalline are available based on morphology. Beside, nanoparticles can also be categorized based on composition as oxide nanoparticles, sulphides nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles.

2.3 Microbial Nanotechnology: Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles from Microbes Traditional method followed for the synthesis of nanoparticles often leads to a lot of waste generation which are of concern to the environment; therefore, constant efforts have been put by the researchers to device newer more eco-friendly methods for it. One of these methodologies is the biosynthesis of nanoparticles from microorganisms which has drawn attention from the researchers globally and can be termed as a “greener approach” for the manufacture of nanoparticles as compared to the traditional chemical and physical approaches. Furthermore, the widely existing plants and microbes like bacteria, fungi, and yeasts are mostly preferred and are manipulated for the synthesis of nanoparticles which are a greener way of synthesis (Rai and Duran 2011). The metal nanoparticles owing to their widespread industrial applications, medical usage, and specificity in physicochemical properties have gained much popularity over the past few decades. In the health care sector, these metal nanoparticles have found application as antimicrobial and anticancer, in industrial processes are employed as high-throughput catalysts, and in material chemistry for their optical, electronic, and magnetic properties. Earlier researchers (Simkiss and Wilbur 1989; Mann 2001) have demonstrated the process of biosynthesis of nanoparticles from microbes based on the intracellular and intercellular methods of synthesis. This classification of synthesis methodology was based on the location of the formation of these nanoparticles. Microbes have the intrinsic ability to trap target ions from their surroundings and to convert them into the heavy metals through the adherent enzymes produced during their cell activities (Li et al. 2011). This shows that nanotechnology is the interdisciplinary field comprising of microbiology, microbial technology, and nanotechnology. Microbial community bacteria via an interactive pathway have the remarkable power to produce heavy metals by trapping or by reducing target ions through an interactive pathway which is directly responsible for the reduction of these surrounding metal ions resulting into metals having sizes at nanometer scale. The advantages of employing these microbes for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles are that the process can be easily scaled up as per the requirement and it needs minimal usage of other chemicals or solvents. One of the challenges in microbial synthesis of nanoparticles or nanomaterials is that the culturing of bacteria at a large scale is a laborious process due to their ability to grow in unfavorable conditions, which leads to the process having less control over the resultant nanoparticles’ growth, its size, its shape, as well as its distribution. In a similar manner, fungus, another primitive microorganism, also has the ability to produce well-defined nanoparticles with

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specific geometries and sizes with their intra and extracellular enzymes. Fungus having higher biomass content as compared to bacteria proves to be advantageous in scaling up and giving better yields of nanoparticles. A diverse range of nanoparticles in terms of sizes and shapes were reported by using different fugal species for the synthesis, such as Verticillium luteoalbum, Collitotrichum sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Trichothecium sp., Asperigillus oryzae, Alternata alternata, and Trichoderma viride. The only limitations seen in the case of fungus-based nanoparticle synthesis strategies are that it is time-consuming and cost-intensive. However, according to Jeevanandam et  al. (2016), these kinds of tribulations need to be mentioned and addressed in order to produce commercial scale nanoparticles. A summary of the types of metal nanoparticles, the specific microbe/algae/plant and its source employed for the metal nanoparticle synthesis, type of metal substrate used from which reduction of metal ion leads to nanoparticle, and resultant nanoparticle size and shape wherever applicable are listed in the Table 2.1. Fariq et al. (2017) have reported the synthesis of sulfide nanoparticles through the enzymatic action of microbes, wherein sulfate ions from the surrounding are trapped and then converted to sulfides which leads to the metal sulfide nanoparticles. It is a reduction process where interaction of sulfide anions with metal cations takes place producing insoluble metal sulfide nanoparticles from the soluble metal sulfate ions obtained from the soluble metal sulfate salts as the precursor. It is an intracellular process wherein migration of soluble metal sulfate ions occurs into the microbe’s cell cytoplasm where reduction occurs. Manganese transport chain helps these metal sulfate ions to cross the plasma membrane and the activity of intracellular enzymes (reducing in nature) present in the cytoplasm converts them into nanoparticles (Fariq et al. 2017). The production of nanoparticles may also occur in an extracellular manner. In the extracellular approach, the biosynthesis of nanoparticles involves the exploitation of the extracellular enzymes or the enzymes that are already present on the surface of the cell membrane. Moreover, extracellular approach is more advantageous as compared to the intracellular approach as the microbes might be in the stress-free condition, while under extracellular condition, formation of nanoparticles occurs more feasibly. According to Hosseini and Sarvi (2015), the extracellular bio-based nanoparticles are also more cost-effective and less laborious and are the preferred method in the production of large-scale nanoparticles. Metal oxide nanoparticles, on the other hand, are more specific for their unique physiological properties and they also possess better structural polymorphism, thereby find applications as insulators, metallic, and semiconductors. However, there are only few studies regarding microbe-based metal oxide nanoparticles. Jeevanandam et al. (2016) reported some bacterial species that synthesize iron oxide and uranium oxide nanoparticles. The bacterial species employed here include Aquaspirillum magnetotacticum and Magnetospirillum magnetotacticum and Shewanella oneidensis and Desulfo sporosinus species for synthesizing iron oxide and uranium oxide nanoparticles, respectively.

Type of nanoparticles Silver

Silver

Silver Silver

Silver

Silver

Silver

Gold

Gold

Silver Copper

Copper/copper oxide Copper

Copper

Type of source Microbe

Microbe

Microbe Microbe

Microbe

Microbe

Microbe

Microbe

Microbe

Microbe Microbe

Microbe

Microbe

Microbe

Source Bacillus licheniformis

Enterobacteria

Fusarium oxysporum Cladosporium cladosporioides Penicillium fellutanum

Trichoderma viride

Streptomyces sp.

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Geobacillus sp.

Salmonella typhirium Morganella sp.

Stereum hirsutum

Salmonella typhimurium

Pseudomonas fluorescens

Extracellular

Extracellular

Extracellular

Extracellular Intracellular

Intracellular

Intracellular

Extracellular

Extracellular

Extracellular

Extracellular Extracellular

Extracellular

Mode of biosynthesis Extracellular

Copper sulfate

Copper nitrate

Copper chloride

Hydrogen tetrachloroaurate Silver sulfate Copper sulfate

Gold chloride

Silver nitrate

Silver nitrate

Silver nitrate

Silver nitrate Silver nitrate

Silver nitrate

Substrate Silver nitrate

Table 2.1  Biosynthesis of different nanoparticles from natural sources: microbes and plants

49

40–60

5–20

50–150 15–20

5–50

40

10–100

2–4

5–25

5–15 10–100

52.5

Size (nm) 50

Spherical, hexagonal

Not identified

Spherical

Not identified Not identified

Quasi-hexagonal

Not identified

Spherical

Spherical

Spherical

Not identified Spherical

Not identified

Shape Not identified

(continued)

Ghorbani et al. (2015) Shantkriti and Rani (2014)

Correa-Llantén et al. (2013) Ghorbani (2013) Ramanathan et al. (2011) Cuevas et al. (2015)

Kathiresan et al. (2009) Fayaz et al. (2010a, b) Zonooz and Salouti (2011) Nangia et al. (2009)

References Kalishwaralal et al. (2008a, b) Shahverdi et al. (2007a, b) Ahmad et al. (2003) Balaji et al. (2009)

2  Microbial Nanotechnology: Current Development and Potential Applications… 33

Olax scandens leaf extract Epiphytic plant Zingiber officinale extract Plant

Silver

Copper

Vegetable

Cauliflower floret extract

Plant

Silver

Algae

Zinc oxide

Silver

Plant

Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) pulp extract Seaweed Ulva lactuca

Plant

Not identified

Silver

Microbe Microbe

Bacillus sp. Verticillium luteoalbum

Tabernaemontana divaricata leaf Aloe vera leaf extract

Not identified

Silver

Microbe

Planomicrobium sp.

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Extracellular Intracellular, extracellular

Extracellular

Extracellular

Titanium dioxide Titanium dioxide Silver Gold

Microbe

Lactobacillus crispatus

Mode of biosynthesis Intracellular

Type of nanoparticles Zinc oxide

Type of source Microbe

Source Lactobacillus sporogens

Table 2.1 (continued)

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Not identified

Silver nitrate Hydrogen tetrachloroaurate

Titanium dioxide

Titanium dioxide

Substrate Zinc chloride

Various

Not identified Spherical

20–60

40–50

20–56

6.7

42–92 100

8.89

70–114

Size (nm) 5–15

70

36

25–40

Face-centered cubic Spherical

Spherical Spherical, triangular, hexagonal Face-centered cubic Spherical

Spherical

Spherical, oval

Shape Hexagonal

Medda et al. (2014)

Mollick et al. (2015) Devi and Bhimba (2012) Ranjitham et al. (2013) Mukherjee et al. (2014) Subhankari and Nayak (2013) Sivaraj et al. (2014)

Malarkodi et al. (2013) Das et al. (2014) Gericke and Pinches (2006)

References Prasad and Jha (2009) Abdul et al. (2014)

34 A. Gohain

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2.4 Applications of Biosynthesized Nanomaterials in Medicine There are a lot of factors which may influence the properties of the resultant potential nanomaterials or nanoparticles in the field of biomedicine such as the size of the nanoparticles and their stability and geometry. In case of intracellular-mediated nanoparticles, small size NPs having larger surface area can make their way into the plasma membrane easily when compared to the large sized nanoparticles (NPs). Another inimitable property of nanoparticles is their stability. This is their inherent property due to which they are quite popular in biomedicine as target-sited drug delivery. The stability of the nanoparticles can further be enhanced by using biocompatible surface coatings (Barkalina et al. 2014). This chapter has already pointed out the importance of physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles. By adjusting physiological parameters such as the precursor concentration of medium, pH, temperature, time, and pressure, the stability and the geometry of NPs can be altered (Patra and Baek 2014). A very good example is synthesis of gold nanoparticles with distinct dimensions and monodispersity shown by Penicillium crustosum (Barabadi et al. 2014). The report suggested that these alterations of the nanoparticle character were done by changing the concentration of the substrate, modifying the pH of the solution or medium, as well as variation in the incubation temperature during the synthesis. Additionally, the stability of the nanoparticles was also reported to be influenced by the use of capping agents which inhibit agglomeration of particles in solution and the size of the resultant nanoparticles is attributed to the incubation time (Sharma et al. 2012). The antibiotic resistance exhibited by some microorganisms to multiple antimicrobial drugs, popularly known as Multiple Drug Resistance (MDR), is a serious threat to all the living organisms in the present times. Multiple Drug Resistance (MDR) is a condition wherein the body shows resistance to the action of multiple drugs at a time. The drugs may range from antibacterial, antifungal, or even the antiviral drugs. Currently, it is one of the major and growing phenomena in the field of health sciences and medicine, emerging as one of the prominent public health issues of the twenty-first century. This condition of MDR may arise due to successive exposure or intake of several of these drugs such as antibiotics; the affecting microbes gain immunity toward these drugs by developing a complex resistance system within them. This in turn helps them to alter the target site of the antibiotics, thereby transformation of metabolic pathways and finally inactivation, etc., to defend their cells against these drugs (Seil and Webster 2012). Hence, scientists are looking for alternatives to the customary drug regimen having strong bactericidal and bacteriostatic activities. In an effort toward finding an alternative, the researchers came across microbe-based nanoparticles that have strong antimicrobial activities. The driving force for this technology is the efficiency of the nanoparticles to interact with the microorganisms due to presence of the large surface area of the nanoparticles. The mode of action followed is that the nanoparticles penetrate inside the cell by adhering itself to the cell membrane and

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thereby hinder with the DNA replication process or the respiratory process of the disease causing organisms. The group of Sunkar and Nachiyar (2012) reported an endophytic bacterium such as Bacillus cereus that produces silver nanoparticles having bactericidal mechanism. These microbe-based silver nanoparticles were found effective against some pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Another group of researchers, Sondi and Salopek-Sondi (2004) have described another plausible mechanism to kill the pathogenic microbes which occur via structural damage to the cellular membranes taking place. Besides, efficacy of antimicrobial effect of nanoparticles can be enhanced if they are used in combination with the conventionally used antibiotics. This statement was proved by Banu et al. (2011) in their studies while conducting an experiment on silver NPs. They synthesized AgNPs from Rhizopus stolonifer and used it against the ESBL-strains of Enterobacteriaceae in combination with some conventionally used antibiotics like nitrofurantoin, carbenicillin, and ciprofloxacin. On the other hand, compared to the microbial activities of AgNPs, there are fewer reports on the microbe-based nanoparticles other than AgNPs. Similarly, the synthesis of titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles from a gram-positive bacterium, Planomicrobium sp., was reported by Malarkodi et al. (2013). They observed a strong antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Klebsiella planticola and antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger of these titanium oxide nanoparticles. Similarly, profound antimicrobial activity was examined by the iron nanoparticles synthesized by Fusarium oxysporum against the bacteria Bacillus, E. coli, and Staphylococcus species. These nanoparticles hinder the oxygen supply and thereby disrupt the respiration process of disease causing bacterial pathogens listed above (Abdeen and Praseetha 2013). Fariq et  al. (2017) also illustrated some already well-known biosynthesized silver nanoparticles and their antimicrobial activities against pathogenic bacteria, such as antimicrobial activity of Klebsiella pneumonia against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli; Staphylococcus aureus against S. aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Salmonella typhi, and Klebsiella pneumonia. Likewise, Fayaz et  al. (2010a, b) have explained the antimicrobial activity of Trichoderma viride against various gram-positive and gram-negative microbes. Microbe-based nanoparticles have immense positive impact on health sciences which includes disease diagnostics, drug delivery, nano-imaging, nanopharmaceuticals, nanoarrays, and cell/gene therapy. They can also act as strong antitumor and anticancer agents. Early detection of diseases is very important, especially when it comes to cancer for effective treatment and better results. Sutradhar and Amin (2014) have earlier reported the detection of tumor by the use of nanomedicines. They have also shown targeted drug delivery and therefore treatment of tumor cells by the use of nanomedicines. Biosynthesized nanoparticles have tremendous potential to assist molecular interactions without affecting the healthy cells. They cross the biological barriers to reach the target cells. In these cell lines, biosynthesis of platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) from Saccharomyces boulardii was reported by Borse et al. (2015). They evaluated these PtNps against A431 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines in vitro.

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Studies have shown that AgNPs have novel therapeutic efficacy having tremendous antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activities. Kalishwaralal et al. (2008a, b) have reported a nanoparticle produced from Bacillus licheniformis which has remarkable anti-antigenic activity. Besides, nanoparticle-­ mediated targeted drug delivery has significantly larger effect on the cancer cell lines with specificity and enhanced efficacy while having relatively low toxicities as compared to the heavy dosage of anticancer drugs. Conventional methods for the treatment of cancer involve radiation, chemotherapy, or surgery, all of which have well-known side effects. Furthermore, early diagnostics of cancer is still not well-­ developed (Jabir et al. 2012), while nanobiotechnology can make a major impact and prove to be a better rational alternative to decipher these issues. Effective antitumor activity was reported from Cryptococcus laurentii-isolated AgNPs against normal as well as cancer breast cell lines. Biosynthesized AgNPs are known to trigger apotopsis, viability, and endocytic activity of cancer cell lines. Ortega et al. (2015) in their study revealed that endocytosis activity of cancer cells is directly proportional to efficacy of AgNPs. Studies have shown that trace elements like selenium generally have less anticancer activity, although biologically synthesized selenium nanorods (SeNrs) from Streptomyces bikiniensis is found to have an enhanced anticancer activity causing deaths of MCF-7 and Hep-G2 human cancer cells. Ahmad et al. (2015) elucidated the proposed mechanism of anticancer activity wherein mobilization and capture of chromatin-bound copper occur by a prooxidant action, resulting in the death of HepG2 and MCF-7 cells. In vitro applications of nanoparticles as anticancer activity against human liver and breast carcinoma cells, i.e., HEPG-2 and MCF7, were tested by the use of gold nanoparticles produced by Streptomyces cyaneus. The activities of biosynthesized nanoparticles against an array of pathogenic organisms were described in a number of studies; however, their commercialization is still a matter of discussion as proper investigation should be done based on the toxicity and immune response of the host body prior to their application in any clinical studies. As mentioned earlier, nanoparticles are one of the most convenient and efficient tools to diagnose and to deliver target-specific drugs in comparatively short span of time. There are different types of drug delivery systems operable when it comes to the nanoparticles such as the water-soluble polymer having natural antibodies and the synthetic polymers, the nanospheres derived from natural or synthetic polymers, the liposome having vesicle with bilayer wall as well as polymeric micelles and emulsions stabilized by amphipathic surface coatings (Brakmane et al. 2012; Salouti and Ahangari 2014; Omlor et al. 2015). According to these reported literature, due to the small size and large surface area, nanoparticles support active pharmacological compounds to reach the target sites at an optimum rate, i.e., all the cellular components of the human body. The advantage of using nanoparticles for the drug delivery system is that they can reduce the toxic effects of commercial drugs by forming some conjugates with some linker molecules. DeJong and Borm (2008) have explained several benefits of nanoparticles in delivering drugs such as specific targeting and biodistribution, biocompatibility, and safety. In another study, Kundu

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et  al. (2014) have explained Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) synthesized as anticancer drug in his study. It was biosynthesized from Rhodococcus pyridinivorans, a bacterium, and combined with anthraquinone, showed dependent cytotoxicity against HT-29 colon carcinoma cells. The hydrophilic nature of these nanoparticles was studied by Kumar et al. (2008) which revealed that hydrophilic nature of NPs may boost the drugs’ uptake capacity by facilitating higher diffusion of drugs into the cells. Besides, Helminthosporum solani-mediated conjugated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were found to be feasible for the uptake by the HEK293 cells than the anticancer drug doxorubicin. Scientists have also worked on Gadolinium Oxide nanoparticles (GdONPs), synthesized from the Humicola sp., a fungus, and conjugated with the anticancer drug taxol. They found that the efficacy of these conjugated GdNPs against antitumor cells is higher in drug delivery applications (Khan et al. 2014). Likewise, Syed et al. (2013) proved that if Humicola-­ derived gold nanoparticles are conjugated with doxorubicin, then it could be used for hepatic cancer treatment in targeted drug delivery. Although biogenic NPs are thought to be strong candidates for the site-specific targeted drug delivery systems, beforehand toxicity and biocompatibility must be assured. Detection of infectious diseases as well as its diagnosis has always been a matter of concern for physicians as traditional methods for detection of diseases are quite tedious and time-consuming. As compared to the customary methods of diagnosis of diseases like the culturing of pathogenic microorganisms, detection by microscopy, running numerous biochemical tests, and preparation and confirmation by immunoassays, the nanoparticles(NPs) involve more rapid, specific, and accurate diagnostic tools for infectious disease detection. Tallury et al. (2010) experimented the tracking and identifying ability of several of these nanoparticles, such as the metallic nanoparticles, the fluorescent nanoparticles (quantum dots and dye-loaded nanoparticles), and the magnetic nanoparticles against various pathogens and found their efficiency against them. On the contrary, there is still a lot more to explore about the role of biosynthesized NPs in detection and diagnostics of diseases. Chauhan et al., 2011, in their study, reported gold NPs which were synthesized from Candida albicans and was experimented to probe liver cancer cells. They probed the gold NPs with liver cancer cell surface-specific antibodies and markedly distinguished the normal cells from cancer cells (Chauhan et  al. 2011). Nevertheless, microbial-mediated NPs in diagnosis of diseases are still in its preliminary stage and more research in this field needs to be done that will provide a new horizon in the near future.

2.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects Although microbial nanotechnology is blooming in different fields, there are many challenges that we have to overcome to utilize the full benefits of it. There are many subdisciplines due to the emerging and rapidly changing nature of microbial nanotechnology field which needs to be understood perfectly. Apart from that,

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availability of less expertise in microbial nanobiotechnology, poor curriculum in microbiology in various academic institutions, and limited access to analytical instruments that are compulsory for any nanotechnology research are some of the challenges that are prevalent in the field of nanobiotechnology. Hence, to exploit the potentiality of microbes in nanobiotechnology, some innovative ideas as well as some new knowledge are required. These may include but not limited to the indepth research in the field of genetic engineering, computational biology, and microbiology. It may uplift the paradigm of microbiological research. This kind of exploitation in microbes may mark them as “nanofactories” which will help to yield microbial-mediated nano-based products for various uses in medical, industrial, agricultural, and environmental sectors. This chapter summarizes different microbial routes for biosynthesis of NPs and their efficiency for their applications in various fields, especially in the health care sector and in medicine. This chapter also highlighted the categorization of NPs and their relationship with microbiology and microbial nanotechnology and has put forward a new concept between these two fields. Various approaches toward the biosynthesis of nanoparticles are also highlighted in this chapter and their utilization against cancer cells is the breakthrough in implementation of microbe-based nanoparticles. Moreover, protocol standardization and scale-up of microbe-­mediated nanobiosynthesis will definitely encourage microbial-based nano-manufacturing processes in the near future.

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Chapter 3

Green Functional Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Application Devendra Singh, Sunil Kumar Verma, Virendra Singh, and Perugu Shyam

Abstract  Nanotechnology has been hailed as one of science’s most important breakthroughs in recent decades. Its numerous applications and rapidly increasing demand have paved the way for novel approaches to the production of higher-­ quality nanomaterials. Traditional synthesis methods were used in the early stages, and they focused on carcinogenic chemicals as well as a high-energy input to produce nano-sized material. Traditional synthesis procedures cause pollutants, necessitating the development of ecologically friendly alternatives. As evidence of the effects of climate change grows, scientists continue to look for ways to mitigate the havoc caused by harmful industrial practices. Natural biological systems are used to produce nanomaterials using greenways. Green synthesis is a technology that is equally as effective, if not even more, than traditional synthesis; it uses naturally available starting materials and relies on low-energy procedures to provide a sustainable solution to nanomaterial fabrication. Active compounds have recently been used to synthesize diverse nanoparticle systems in biological systems like fungi, yeast, and bacteria. As a result, integrating green synthesis into mass production and scientific research could give a potential answer to standard synthesis methods’ shortcomings. The history of green synthesizing nanoparticles and their applications is discussed in this chapter, starting with conventional methods and progressing to green approaches. Keywords  Nanotechnology · Nanomaterials · Green synthesis · Bacteria · Plants · Yeast · Fungi

D. Singh (*) · P. Shyam Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology Warangal, Kazipet, Warangal, Telangana, India S. K. Verma Department of Biotechnology, B.N. College of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India V. Singh Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, Delhi, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. S. Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31104-8_3

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3.1 Introduction The field of nanotechnology has garnered a significant degree of interest throughout the course of the most recent few years. The creation of metallic NPs (nanoparticles) via the use of biological materials and methods that are favorable to the environment has garnered a substantial amount of interest. Nanotechnology is the study of particles with dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm, as well as the techniques used to create and manipulate them (Singh et al. 2021). For the purpose of the development of nanostructures, this area of expertise naturally brings together all of the subfields of the natural sciences, including physics, chemistry, engineering, materials science, and biological sciences (Medvedeva et al. 2007). Depending on their size, distribution, and shape, the nanostructures have a variety of applications that are attributed to their new or improved qualities (Thakkar et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2022b). These applications are influenced by their newly discovered or enhanced features. It has applications in a variety of fields, for instance, catalysis, biomedical field, chemical industries, drug delivery, cosmetics, electronics, energy science, environment, feed and food, mechanics, health care, optics, optical devices, space industries, photo-electrochemical, and single-electron transistors applications like cosmetics and drug delivery (Singh et al. 2016, 2022c). Metallic nanoparticles are regarded as the most encouraging systems for the above-mentioned activities, and there are several reasons for this (Wang et al. 2005). In terms of its qualities and the way it is transported, a nanoscale drug carrier functions as if it were a sole unit (Sharma et al. 2019). The size distribution of these nanoclusters is rather limited, and at least one of their dimensions falls somewhere in the middle of 1 and 10 nm. Nano-powders are agglomerations of diaphanous particles, also known as nanoparticles or nanoclusters. On the other hand, nanocrystals are crystals that have a nanoparticle-sized dimension (Yap et al. 2020). The synthesis of nanoscale materials may be carried out in several ways, but generally, there are two methods that are utilized: top-down synthesis and bottom­up synthesis. The first method makes use of bigger quantities of material and reduces them to nanoparticles, while the second method makes use of specific atoms and shapes them up into bigger quantities of nanomaterials. Products made from metal nanomaterials, such as gold (Au), selenium (Se), and silver (Ag), offer advantageous qualities that may be put to use in a wide-ranging variation of contexts (Faramarzi et al. 2020). The synthesis of nanomaterials may be broken down into two primary categories: conventional techniques and environmentally friendly approaches. Utilizing more conventional approaches to the production of nanomaterials comes with a variety of beneficial outcomes. These procedures generate a diverse range of nanoparticles that may be used in a wide number of contexts. Certain methods offer extensive scalability, greater handling over nanoparticle morphology, and applications in innovative electrical applications, battery conduction, energy storage/conservation, and targeted disease therapy (Wegner et al. 2011; Zeng et al. 2012; Lin et al. 2019; Aboulouard et al. 2020). However, it is impossible to deny the significant adverse impacts that result from making use of these

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conventional approaches. The synthesis of these nanomaterials makes extensive use of organic solvents, which creates a significant neurobehavioral and reproductive risk throughout the process (Akinyemi et al. 2019). Furthermore, the usage of heat conditions and high pressure may also contribute to hazardous operating settings (Teoh et al. 2010). Concern for volatile vapor and disproportionate generation of carbon dioxide, which makes a significant contribution to the greenhouse effect, is an undesirable outcome with the greatest significance from these syntheses (Caramazana et al. 2018). On the whole, these procedures carry a permanent danger that not only affects the environment but also the scientists who are doing the synthesis. The benefits of using conventional approaches to the synthesis of nanomaterials are outweighed by the possible drawbacks of doing so. As a result of these circumstances, conventional techniques of synthesis are no longer widely used, which has opened the door for environmentally friendly synthesis (Teoh et al. 2010). The construction of nanomaterials may be done in a way that is clean, safe, efficient (in terms of cost), and environmentally friendly using a technique called green synthesis. For the purpose of environmentally friendly nanomaterial production, microorganisms such as yeast, bacteria, algal species, fungus, and some plant species serve as substrates. The nanoparticle’s ultimate shape and size are determined by the different active chemicals and precursors that it contains, such as metal salt. In addition, green synthesis offers a number of advantages for nanomaterials, including antibacterial characteristics, natural reducing capabilities, and stabilizing qualities—microorganisms containing these active molecules were used as substrates for green synthesis (Sivaraj et al. 2020). The component of the green species that is often exploited in the process of the synthesis of nanomaterials consists of amino acid groups, proteins, certain enzymes, or chemical structures (Pugazhendhi et  al. 2018). A diagrammatic representation of nanomaterial applications is summarized in Fig. 3.1.

3.2 Unique Nanomaterial Features When compared to their bulk analog, the properties of matter at the nanoscale level exhibit strikingly different characteristics. At the nanoscale, size-dependent effects may be seen in a more pronounced manner. For instance, the gold solution looks yellow when seen in its bulk form, but when viewed on a nanoscale, it appears either purple or red. It is possible to alter the characteristics of nanomaterials by adjusting the size of the nanomaterial (Varga et al. 2016). When compared to bulk materials, the electrical characteristics of substances undergo significant transformations at the nanoscale. Boron, for instance, in its elemental state, is not regarded as a metal; but boron arranged in the shape of a two-dimensional (2D) network, known as borophene, looks to be an outstanding example of a 2D metal (Mannix et al. 2015). As a result of either an increase in crystal perfection or a decrease in crystallographic

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Fig. 3.1  Different applications of nanomaterials in various fields

flaws, the mechanical characteristics of nanomaterials are significantly enhanced when contrasted with those of their bulk equivalents (Mannix et al. 2015). Quantum mechanical concerns are what determine the electronic characteristics of semiconductors in the 1 to 10  nm regions. Consequently, quantum dots are defined as nanospheres that vary in diameter from 1 to 10 nm. Nanomaterials’ sizes and shapes have a significant impact on the optical qualities that they exhibit; one example of this is quantum dots (Tomar et al. 2020). An electron-hole pair that is photogenerated has an exciton diameter that ranges from 1 to 10 nm. Tuning the nanoparticle (NP) size in this range may thus influence the amount of light that is absorbed and emitted by semiconductors. However, the mean free path of electrons in metals is between 10 and 100 nm, and as a result, electrical and optical effects are anticipated to be noticed in the range of 10–100 nm. This is owing to the fact that metals are conductive. Changing the aspect ratio of metal nanoparticles in aqueous solutions enables one to modulate the colors produced by the solutions. Different aspect ratios result in a spectrum of colors being shown by aqueous solutions of Ag NPs. When the aspect ratio is increased, there is a shift toward the color red in the absorption band (Murphy and Jana 2002). When the sizes and morphologies of nanomaterials are tuned, one may acquire a wide variety of one-of-a-kind features, including the essential qualities that are listed below:

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1. High conductivity, both thermal and electrical in nature When compared to their bulk equivalents, the thermal and electrical conductivity of material at the nanoscale level may demonstrate exceptional levels of conductivity, depending on the nature of the nanomaterial. Graphene, which may be produced from graphite, is a good example of this (Krishnan et al. 2019). 2. Magnetism At the nanoscale, the magnetic properties of elements are able to undergo modification. A nonmagnetic element may become magnetic at the nanoscale level (Roduner 2006). 3. Surface area All nanoparticles have a common characteristic in that their surface areas are noticeably larger than those of their bulk equivalents. This is one of the distinguishing characteristics of nanomaterials (Tomar et al. 2020). 4. Excellent mechanical characteristics Nanomaterials have outstanding mechanical characteristics that are not present in their macroscopic analogs (Wu et al. 2020). 5. Outstanding assistance for the catalysts The use of 2D sheets made of a variety of nanomaterials has made it possible to achieve a good dispersion of nanoparticles of active catalyst which has resulted in a significant improvement in the performance of the catalyst (Zhu et al. 2020). Recently, in an effort to improve performance, catalysts have been atomically disseminated over two-dimensional sheets of nanomaterial (Zhu et al. 2021). 6. Effects on a quantum level At the nanoscale level, quantum effects may be shown to have a greater impact. However, the composition of the semiconductor material has a significant role in determining the scale at which these effects will become apparent (Geoffrion and Guisbiers 2020). 7. Antimicrobial activity Certain nanomaterials have features that make them effective against viruses, bacteria, and fungi, giving them the ability to combat pathogen-related disorders very effectively. In general, the combination of these characteristics has made nanoscale materials useful for a vast array of applications, significantly enhancing the performance of a variety of technologies and materials throughout different industries (Castro et al. 2017).

3.3 Nanoparticle Synthesis via Biological Way Organisms’ ability to survive in situations with high concentrations of metals has improved throughout time (Nobbs et al. 2009). These organisms have the potential to change the chemical makeup of the hazardous metals, which might result in a reduction in the metals’ toxicity or perhaps make them innocuous (Islam et al. 2021; Rajamanickam et al. 2013). The resistance mechanism of an organism in opposition

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to a particular metal may be thought of as having a “consequence” in the form of the production of nanoparticles. Production of “natural” biogenic metallic nanoparticles may be broken down into two distinct classifications: (a) Bio-reduction: In the process of dissimilatory metal reduction, a highly stable form of metal ions may be produced by chemical reduction employing biological methods, which can be accomplished through bio-reduction. The metal ion undergoes reduction, whereas the enzyme undergoes oxidation. The end result of this process is the formation of useless metallic nanoparticles that is collected through a sample that has been polluted in a risk-free manner (Deplanche et al. 2010). (b) Bio-sorption: It is the process in which the metal ions bond themselves with an organism commencing either a soil sample or an aqueous sample. Either the metal ions are attached to peptides, or the cell walls are generated by means of certain bacteria, plants, and fungi, and these created peptides combine into constant nano-particulate structures. One of these two things must occur for the metal ions to be present in the cell (Yong et  al. 2002). The most significant aspect to consider is the shape of the metal nanoparticle that is to be created. The variety of organisms available is restricted because of the resistance generated by the organisms against a limited number of metals. The following is a microbial resources list, some of (bacteria, fungi, algae, yeast, and viruses) which are utilized for the production of the majority of the regularly researched metal salt and metal NPs comprising of silver, copper, cadmium, gold, platinum, cadmium sulfide, palladium, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide (Gahlawat and Choudhury 2019).

3.4 Synthesis of Green Chemicals Utilizing Microorganisms The bacteria that are suitable for use in the environmentally friendly production of nanomaterials are members of a vast range of unicellular organisms that possess cell walls, but do not possess organelles or an organized nucleus. Even while there are certain types of bacteria that may be quite hazardous, there are also numerous types of bacteria that are found biologically in the body and that provide a very insignificant risk to anybody who works on them. In addition, several strains, such as B. subtilis and E. coli, are relatively simple in the direction of cultivating; in addition, the genetic code of these organisms may be modified in a straightforward manner (Faramarzi et al. 2020). Because of these qualities, the production of nanoparticles in bacteria is a process that is theoretically possible. In order to employ bacteria in the nanomaterials synthesis, bacteria must foremost be cultured aerobically to a certain optical density. After this step, the culture media that contain the cells must then be coupled by means of a nanoparticle precursor—followed by incubation time that results in a discernible change in the color of the medium, followed by high-­ speed centrifugation of the media (more than ten thousand revolutions per minute).

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The nanomaterials have been suspended in the supernatant that was collected after this spin (Gurunathan et al. 2009). The ultimate form and dimensions of the nanoparticle are determined by several strains of bacteria as well as antecedents. For example, Gurunathan et  al. (2009) described the various forms of gold, silver, and cadmium nanoparticle synthesis owing to their interface along with a variety of biomolecules. These shapes were produced by the nanoparticles. They found that outside of the cell wall, proteins exist in the E. coli, which act together along with the chloroauric solution and silver nitrate to form silver along with gold nanoparticles with irregular and triangular morphologies (Gurunathan et al. 2009). However, cysteine desulfhydrase and glutathione inside the guts of E. coli are predominantly implicated in the creation of globular shapes during the production of cadmium nanoparticles (Gurunathan et  al. 2009). The ultimate size of the nanoparticle may also be connected to the intracellular vs. extracellular distribution of the nanoparticle as well as its interaction with bioactive compounds. When bacteria are used in extracellular synthesis, the resulting nanoparticles are generally of greater size than those produced by intracellular synthesis. Using bacterial systems, nanomaterials composed of ferrous oxide, selenium, lead sulfide, and zinc sulfide have been successfully produced (Sweeney et al. 2004). A variety of distinct active chemicals that are often found in live beings have the potential to decrease and/or stabilize nanoparticles. In the case of bacteria, within the cytoplasm and on the cell wall, proteins amino acids, including tryptophan and tyrosine, are capable of minimizing the number of nanoparticles and maintaining the stability of the particles (Sweeney et  al. 2004). In addition, sugars like aldose and ketose are capable of functioning as reducing and stabilizing agents. To be more specific, the amino acids found in the cell walls and within the cell themselves serve as a defensive covering, which prevents mammalian cells from being negatively affected by them (Markus et al. 2016). These active molecules, which are found within and outside different kinds of bacteria, tend to act in response to coming in contact with the metal ions and decrease it. This opens the door for the metal ions to combine with one another, which in turn makes it easier to create higher-ordered structures like spherical nanoparticles (Mishra et al. 2011).

3.5 Fungi These are the eukaryotic organisms that get their nutrition with the help of producing digestive enzymes in their immediate surroundings and then absorbing the molecules that have been dissolved as a result of this process (Markus et al. 2016). Fungi are an umbrella word that officially encompasses yeast (Alani et al. 2012; Bhainsa and D’Souza 2006). However, what sets them apart from other organisms is the presence of chitin, which is a long-chain polymer that is derived from glucose and strengthens their cell walls (Sharma et al. 2019). Not only do the cell walls of fungus include chitin, but they also have the ability to assist the creation of nanoparticles with a variety of forms, sizes, and chemical compositions. Enzymes and protein residues

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are capable of participating in the production of nanoparticles, both within and outside of cells (Shankar et al. 2004). In order to produce nanomaterial with the help of fungi (Balaji et al. 2009), first, it must be recovered, then incubated within the broth, and then agitated and stirred for a total of 72 hours (Mukherjee et al. 2008). The resulting biomass must then be filtered (Mukherjee et al. 2002). After thorough rinsing, the nanoparticle precursor is incubated along with the biomass (Jaidev and Narasimha 2010). After 24 hours, nanoparticles are found in the solution that was produced as a consequence of the incubation (Abdel-Hadi 2014). Verticillium is a genus that is generally popularly recognized for the Verticillium Wilt, which may destroy harvests all over the globe (Das et al. 2010; Narayanan and Sakthivel 2013). Mukherjee et al. found that by means of reducing aqueous silver nitrate, Verticillium can generate silver NPs on the cell wall. In addition, it has been shown that proteins found inside cells may take part in facilitating the creation of NPs (Mukherjee et al. 2001). Researcher demonstrated that the gold nanospheres and nanorods are formed by the internal enzymes of Verticillium luteoalbum and Trichothecium correspondingly (Gericke and Pinches 2006). Some examples of fungal isolates used are mentioned in Table 3.1. Table 3.1  Some common fungal species that can be used for the synthesis of NPs Nanoparticles Fungus isolates ZnO A. fumigatus

Shape Hexagonal and circular

FeCl3

A. oryzae

Circular

Ca3P2O8

A. tubingensis

Circular

Au

C. floridanu

Spherical

Au

P. chrysosporium Spherical

Au

V. volvacea

Au

C. albicans

Ag

Size in nm Uses 1–7 Farming, medical, and industrial sectors 9–25 Farming and biomedical 27– Farming and 28 biomedical 19.5 – 9–90

–

Circular

20– 150

Therapeutic

10– 90 2–3

Medical

A. terreus

Both circular and noncircular Circular

TiO2

A. flavus

Spherical

TiO2

A. flavus

Irregular

Hg

A. versicolor mycelia (AVM)

Asymmetrical

60– 78 10– 18 18– 22

Farming and medical Antibacterial Farming –

Reference Raliya and Tarafdar (2013) Raliya and Tarafdar (2013) Raliya and Tarafdar (2012) Sanghi et al. (2011) Philip (2009), Sanghi and Verma (2010) Narayanan and Sakthivel (2011) Chauhan et al. (2011) Raliya and Tarafdar (2012) Rajakumar et al. (2012) Raliya et al. (2015) Das et al. (2009)

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Nanoparticles are produced by the fungus, much like nanoparticles produced by other environmentally friendly technologies, with diverse applications ranging from medicine sectors to the optoelectronics sector (Birla et al. 2009; Sanghi and Verma 2009). Nanoparticles have a number of fascinating applications, including medical and therapeutic uses, which call for more research (Musarrat et al. 2010; Saravanan and Nanda 2010). According to Phillip, the consumable mushroom extract contains chemotherapeutic qualities, in addition to other beneficial traits. They also state that nanoparticles generated as of these extracts possess comparable properties (Philip 2009). In fungus, certain amino acids, for instance, cysteine, have been shown to be able to contribute to the creation of nanoparticles, according to research conducted by the researchers (Velmurugan et al. 2010). In the same way as amino acids present within the cell wall of bacteria serve as covering and stabilizing instruments, so do the amino acids found within the cell walls of the fungus (Kalia et al. 2020; Das et al. 2022). In addition, nanoparticles are nontoxic when used in therapeutic applications. This is not the case with a normally manufactured nanoparticle, which is hazardous when used in therapeutic applications (Bharde et al. 2006; Jain et al. 2011; Philip 2009).

3.6 Yeast Yeast, which is a member of the fungus family, is a creature that only has a single cell, much like bacteria. The most widespread and time-honored use of yeast is in the form of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which yields alcohol and carbon dioxide by breaking down carbohydrates. The method of fermentation is used in the preparation of baked goods as well as the manufacture of alcoholic beverages using this particular species. Some species of yeast, for example, Candida albicans, are known to trigger lethal bloodstream and systemic infections (Verma et al. 2022; Gow and Yadav 2017). Other species of yeast, for example, those used in baking, are generally considered to be harmless. Yeast cells, as opposed to bacterium cells, may be used in the production of a variety of different nanosystems. Using different species of yeast, it was possible to produce nanoparticles of gold, cadmium sulfide, silver, lead sulfide, selenium, ferrous oxide, and antimony (Gow and Yadav 2017) (Table 3.2). Synthesis of nanosystems is possible with living cells or extracts of living cells when employing nanomaterial composites that are more often used, such as silver and gold (Tian et al. 2010; Yan et al. 2009). Proteins isolated from commercial yeast were used in the effective production of silver chloride nanoparticles, as described by Sivaraj and colleagues (Sivaraj et al. 2020). In order to create the nanoparticles, the team started by incubating commercial yeast extracts that had been treated with precursor solutions for a period of 24 hours. Following this period of incubation, individuals gathered solutions after that and put them through a sterile filtration process so that they could achieve a solution that singly contained the nanoparticles. The team similarly demonstrated the reduction of silver chloride into nanoparticles.

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Table 3.2  Synthesis of nanoparticle by some common yeast isolates Yeast Nanoparticles species Form Cds C. glabrata Irregular

Size in nm –

Ag

Hexadic and multi-twinned Hexadic

3–6

Cds

Strain MKY3 S. pombe

Au

P. jadinii

Many

–

Au

Y. lipolytica

–

Variable

Below 2

Uses Medical

Reference Krumov et al. (2007) Medical Kowshik et al. (2003) Kowshik et al. (2003) Manufacturing Gericke and Pinches (2006) Manufacturing Pimprikar et al. (2009)

It was discovered that this specific nanoparticle has beneficial antimycobacterial characteristics (Sivaraj et al. 2020). Early work by Kowshik et al. (2003) demonstrated nanoparticles that were manufactured by silver-tolerant MKY-3 yeast cells. Depending on the circumstances under which they were synthesized, these nanoparticles possessed a variety of morphologies and sizes. The results of this specific study suggest that the extracellular reduction of silver chloride was caused by biochemical reducing agents that were excreted from the body. Extracellular synthesis is not, however, the highly conventional approach that yeast takes when it comes to the production of nanoparticles. The majority of other studies claimed that synthesis took place intracellularly in their models and that enzymes inside the cell were accountable for the construction of a nanosystem. In a subsequent study, Kowshik et  al. (2003) reported that Torulopsis sp. and Schizosaccharomyces pombe both were competent to intracellularly produce nanoparticles of cadmium sulfide and lead sulfide, respectively. This study was a continuation of their earlier research. They demonstrated, in contrast to their earlier study, that a particular type of phytochelatin synthase was accountable for the intracellular production of the nanoparticles. It was interesting to see that practically all of the papers that were reviewed said that the nanoparticles that they manufactured performed remarkably well in a variety of biological applications. Because there are so many diverse ways in which nanoparticles may be exploited, the phrase “biological applications” tends to be used in a very general sense. Such as, Saccharomyces cerevisiae generates sphere-shaped silver nanoparticles which successfully eradicate mycobacteria grown in the culture (Sivaraj et al. 2020). Yeast, like other living creatures, is capable of creating proteins that include certain amino acids, which can shrink the size of the nanoparticle and stabilize it. Quinones are chemical molecules that are unique to yeast. They are generated from aromatic compounds, and it is believed that they act in part for the synthesis of NPs (Faramarzi et al. 2020).

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3.7 From Plants Making nanomaterials out of waste from plants or food is a sort of green synthesis that is often regarded as the method that is both the most ecologically benign and the most intriguing. In most cases, waste products from plants or food are put through a procedure that allows certain chemical components to be recovered from the waste. Generally, food scraps or plants are dehydrated, powdered, broken down, followed by immersing in hot water for an extended amount of interval and filtered, and furthermore kept at a temperature of 4  °C (Yap et  al. 2020). This filtering reagent, varying on the basis of particular plant material from which the bioactive molecules were extracted, may include any one of a wide variety of distinct types of bioactive compounds. Plant extracts often include flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenols (Saravanakumar et al. 2018). However, polysaccharides, glucosides, and proteins are too suspected of playing a role in the production of NPs (Behravan et al. 2019; Yap et al. 2020). These bioactive compounds have portions that work as stabilizing and reducing agents for the nanoparticle precursors, and they are included inside the molecules themselves. In addition, the usage of hazardous chemicals that are hazardous to the user, as well as the environment, is not required while using this approach for the production of NPs (Yap et al. 2020). In addition, the need for methods that require a significant amount of energy is removed since the process of extracting the bioactive compounds requires just warm water. The bulk of the produced nanoparticles is suitable for use in biomedical applications, which is largely attributable to the absence of harsh reagents (Behravan et al. 2019). According to the research that has been conducted, silver nanoparticles are the most prevalent kind of nanoparticle that may be produced by plant matter (Table 3.3). In addition to silver, reports have also surfaced about the use of copper, gold, and selenium in the manufacturing of nanoparticles. It is possible to manufacture silver nanoparticles using a variety of plant materials that include capping, reducing, and stabilizing agents in their extracts (Jain 2009). These plant components may be found in a number of different plants. Vegetable oil, tea polyphenols, Carpesium cernuum (a Chinese native flora species), black currant (native northern Europe and Asia berry species), and Cannabis Sativa, in the middle of a great deal of other substances, are all capable of functioning as agents that reduce, stabilize, and cap. In 2010, Moulton and colleagues published a study in which they demonstrated that colloidal silver nanoparticles might perhaps be manufactured by employing tea leaves that contained polyphenols (Moulton et al. 2010). The technique for synthesis is quite similar to those that have been described by other researchers. The team was provided with tea powder, which consisted of dried and crushed tea leaves. Using this material, it is simmered and filtered, followed by the addition of silver nitrate to it in order to create its own silver nanoparticles, as seen by Transmission Electron Microscopy (Moulton et al. 2010). After that, the team investigated the effects of the nanoparticles toxicity on biological systems by conducting experiments to determine the nanoparticles’

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Table 3.3  Silver NPs synthesis from some common plants Plant A. squamosal N. arbortristis D. spinose

Size in Activity nm Toxicity 10–110 Antimicrobial 4–25 Antimicrobial 12–24

B. diffusa A. echioides

Antimicrobial Antimicrobial

22–26 90–92

F. benghalensis A. aspera C. dactylon A. chordifolia A. heterophyllus A. esculentus

Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Antimicrobial Anticancer Antimicrobial

15–18 10–14 6–12 2–4 8–12

Antifungal

60–62

M. elengi

Antimicrobial

54–86

Shape Circular Oval and circular Nearly circular Circular Pentagonal or cubic Circular Circular Circular Circular Irregular Uneven and circular Circular

Reference Vivek et al. (2012) Gogoi et al. (2015) Muniyappan and Nagarajan (2014) Kumar et al. (2014) Elangovan et al. (2015) Saxena et al. (2012) Amaladhas et al. (2013) Sahu et al. (2013) Karimi Zarchi et al. (2011) Jayaseelan et al. (2011) Jayaseelan et al. (2013) Prakash et al. (2013)

impact on cell survival and membrane integrity. The findings were encouraging since the nanoparticles did not exhibit any harmful properties and demonstrated a potential for biocompatibility (Moulton et al. 2010). Oil derived from vegetables is another kind of plant material that may be found in the kitchens of many individuals. Employing free radicals, which are typically found in ordinary home paint derived from specific vegetable oil like cashew nut oil, Kumar et al. (2008a) developed a somewhat distinctive methodology for green synthesis of metallic NPs. This method was accomplished via the utilization of free radicals. The team used biologically occurring free radical exchange that took place in the course of the oxidative drying of oils in order to decrease silver benzoate, which is typical silver salt that is often used in the manufacture of silver nanoparticles. In addition, alkyd resin was used by the group as the safeguarding agent, and aldehydes and fatty acids derived from oils were utilized as the reaction’s stabilizing agents. Paints that contained silver nanoparticles embedded throughout them possessed antimicrobial properties that were the product of their reaction (Kumar et al. 2008a, b). Aloe vera is another plant agent that has the potential to be used in the production of nanoparticles. It is a widespread practice in traditional medicine to use aloe vera to treat a variety of various illnesses; in addition, aloe vera is also widely utilized in modern medicine as a treatment for sunburns. Aloe vera was used well by Fardsadegh and Jafarizadeh-Malmiri (2019) during the manufacture of selenium nanoparticles that possessed both antibacterial and antifungal capabilities. Although this method was used, it is more ecologically affable as compared to others that have been observed. To the same extent that it is possible to benefit from the bioactivity of molecules found in plant leaves, it is also possible to do so with the activity of molecules found in our favorite spices.

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The fruit of the Myristica fragrans tree, which is native to Indonesia, originates from an evergreen tree species. When this fruit is allowed to dry out and is then crushed, it yields nutmeg and mace, both of which are popular spices used in cookery. Metallic nanoparticles may be produced by drying, crushing, adding the fruit’s pericarp to water, and then boiling the mixture with silver nitrate or cupric oxide (Sasidharan et al. 2020). The pericarp is the portion of the fruit that does not contain seeds. Sasidharan and colleagues went on to demonstrate that quercetin, phenols, and flavonoids derived from Myristica fragrans were principally responsible for the stability of the NPs as well as their decrease (Sasidharan et al. 2020; Singh et al. 2022a). In addition to this, they discovered that the silver nanoparticles were especially efficient in destroying the cell walls of the bacteria. In addition, Sasidharan and colleagues discovered that copper nanoparticles worked well as catalysts in the production of triazole rings. A systematic representation of the green synthesis of nanoparticles from plants is presented in Fig. 3.2. In addition to plant extract, there is evidence that living plants were immersed for the production of nanoparticles. Synthesizing nanomaterials by the use of living plants is among the most environmentally friendly approaches available. In spite of the fact that this method is not used very frequently and does not appear to be as reproducible as some of the other methods, if it can be mastered, it has enormous benefits. In 2003, Gardea-Torresdey et al. (2003) published the earliest report on the synthesis of nanoparticles by means of an active plant. They demonstrated that gold and silver nanosystems might perhaps be synthesized with the help of live alfalfa sprouts. This was the first report of the synthesis of nanoparticles through a living plant. The researcher demonstrated that silver, which originated from the silver nitrate that was existing in the soil in which the plant was growing in, was transferred up the shoot of the plant in the same oxidation state that it was in when it was first produced. At this stage, the silver particles were transformed into nanoparticles by the plant’s internal processes of reduction. As soon as the nanoparticles started to coalesce, they organized themselves into nanowire-like systems (Gardea-Torresdey et al. 2003). Marchiol et al. found that two additional live plant species, red fescue

Fig. 3.2  Diagrammatic representation of green synthesis from plant extract (Singh et al. 2022a)

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(Festuca Rubra) and black mustard plants (Brassica Juncea), were able to produce nanoparticles (Marchiol et al. 2014). These two plant species are red fescue and black mustard plants, respectively. After the plants had reached their mature size, they were left in an environment containing 1000 parts per million of silver nitrate during a period of 24 hours. For the duration of this period, the plants were able to take up the silver nitrate via their stems and roots (Marchiol et al. 2014). Phenols, sugars, as well as ascorbic acid, and citric acid, usually found in plants, served to stabilize and minimize the amount of silver nitrate that was present in the plant’s system while the silver nitrate was there. Following the reduction, the silver started to transform into nanoparticles, which could be observed using TEM (Marchiol et al. 2014).

3.8 Algal Species It is common to practice to exclude algae from the category of plants because they are eukaryotic organisms that engage in photosynthesis, but are not classified as plants. The chlorophyll-containing single or multicellular creatures, which may live on water depending on the species, do not have the real stems, leaves, or vascular structures that are characteristic of plants. In addition, the impact that they have on people may vary from treatments, such as Spirulina, which has an elevated amount of naturally occurring nutrients, to species that are fatal if they are swallowed, for instance, Anabaena (Khan et al. 2009). In upcoming years, a significant number of algae species will be discovered in lieu of their capacities to accelerate the production of nanomaterials. In order to create nanomaterials using various kinds of algae, the samples must first be completely dried out, after which they are pulverized, followed by hydration with water, and then incubated for 24 hours before being filtered. After being filtered, the filtrate from the biomass is mixed with the precursor for the nanomaterial, and the mixture is left to incubate at room temperature while waiting for the solution to change color, which indicates the production of the nanomaterial. In a manner analogous to that of bacteria and fungi, some species of algae, for example, Tetraselmis kochinensis, contribute to the intracellular synthesis of gold nanoparticles (Senapati et  al. 2012). When two groups of agents are compared, however, it is found that algae species have, on average, a larger variation in the shape of nanoparticles that they are able to produce; such as some species, for instance, Leptolyngbya valderianum, Scenedesmus sp., and Cystophora moniliformis, all together create sphere-shaped nanoparticles that are coherent with bacterial and fungal catalyzed nanoparticles (Jena et al. 2014). In addition to producing nanospheres, Sinha et al. demonstrated that Pithophora oedogonia is competent in manufacturing silver nanoparticles in cubical and hexagonal shapes (Sinha et al. 2015). In addition to having comparable morphologies, algae and other green agents also possess comparable bioactive chemicals. Enzymes and proteins found in a cell’s cytoplasm or on its membrane are responsible for

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reducing as well as stabilizing the greater part of the nanoparticles which are produced as a result of algae species (Sinha et al. 2015). The widely held nanoparticles which are produced through algal species have the ability to kill bacteria in a potent manner. When it comes to the bioactive molecules that are used in the manufacturing of nanoparticles, algae employ not only the same molecules as other classes, but also molecules that are somewhat different. Polysaccharides and protein residues, both of which are found in algae, have the ability to decrease and stabilize NPs. The use of algae has several advantages, one of which is the presence of a broad range of phytochemicals. Certain kinds of algae, such as Sargassum tenerrimum, contain a variety of different bioactive substances, including alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, saponins, carbohydrates, tannins, phenolic and sterols, and compounds (Kumar et al. 2012). After they have been purified, each of the chemicals may then work in their particular unique manner to auxiliary modify the shape, activity, and size qualities of the nanomaterial. This categorization carried out by researchers provides the path for more studies to be done and potential uses of algae in nanomaterial fabrication.

3.9 Conclusions The studies of nanomaterials, as well as their applications, are growing and researchers are continuing their work in this area. Traditional methods of synthesis of nanomaterials are not eco-friendly and require a lot of energy. Traditional methods of synthesis of nanomaterials include these methods: The continued use of these practices, which have detrimental consequences on the natural world at a time when climate change is on the increase, demonstrates both a lack of knowledge and a disregard for human welfare. Green synthesis techniques are just as effective as conventional synthesis methods, but they do far less damage to the surrounding environment and, more importantly, to the people who are directly engaged in their production. We are laid up with immediate experience with the capabilities of nanoparticles thanks to SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations, and this leads us to believe that nanotechnology will 1 day completely change the way we go about our everyday lives. In addition to this, we are of the opinion that the climate is changing uncontrollably, which will inevitably lead to catastrophic consequences for mankind. Keeping these two considerations in mind, we are of the opinion that it is of the utmost importance to carry out this ground-breaking study in an ecologically responsible manner. Research into the environmentally friendly nanotechnology synthesis will be a groundbreaker in the development of effective therapeutic equipment, with the creation of modern supercomputer conductors, and the use of revolutionary sensors to investigate space, the last unexplored frontier. In this essay, we discussed the processes involved in the manufacturing of environmentally friendly nanomaterials, with a particular emphasis on the active molecules of the numerous microorganism substrates that make the synthesis possible. The variety of species

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that may be used in research is always growing, which means that the potential applications of active chemicals derived from natural biological systems are also expanding. The manipulation of active molecules during the production of nanomaterials results in the refinement and accuracy of nanomaterial shape, as well as antibacterial characteristics, stabilizing properties, reducing properties, and capping properties. The customization of nanosystem synthesis may result in the production of nanoparticles with a dimension of zero, nanowires with a length of microns, or even nanosheets, depending on the application. In general, isolating the molecules that are responsible for the environmentally friendly synthesis of nanomaterials paves the way for continuous improvements and the modification of the chemical and physical characteristics of nanomaterials that are useful to a larger scientific society. As the world endures the way of adapting to the effects of climatic changes, the continued progress of environmentally friendly methods for nanomaterial synthesis is of the utmost significance in the way for the protection of energy, environmental health, and moral principles of scientific research.

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Chapter 4

Green Functional Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Applications (Plantand Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis) Anshu Kumar, Krishnendu Kundu, Sabyasachi Mukhopadhyay, Narendra Kumar Bharati, and Boyapati Ravi Teja Naidu Abstract  Synthesis of nanoparticles via an eco-friendly mode is the need of the hour in the field of nanotechnology. Green synthesis of nanoparticles possesses cost-effective, safe, and sustainable approach for the production of nanoparticles. Biomolecules found in beneficial bio-organism possess excellent properties to act as both reducing and capping agent to develop stable nanoparticles. The biosynthesis process is further regulated by factors such as temperature, incubation time, and pH. Plants and microbes are examples of biological agents that can create nanoparticles in order to overcome the drawbacks associated with traditional physical and chemical method of synthesis of nanoparticles. This chapter focuses on plant- and bacteria-mediated green synthesis of nanoparticles, and their potential applications in the sector of energy and environmental protection. Keywords  Eco-friendly · Environment · Green synthesis · Nanoparticles · Plant extract · Sustainable

4.1 Introduction Nanotechnology has gained enormous potential in different fields. Some of the extensive uses of nanomaterials include degradation, groundwater treatment, A. Kumar (*) · K. Kundu · S. Mukhopadhyay Department of Plant Pathology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India e-mail: [email protected] N. K. Bharati Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India B. R. T. Naidu VNR Seeds Pvt. Ltd., Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. S. Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31104-8_4

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removal of heavy metals, wastewater treatment, and nanoremediation. However, despite the numerous benefits of nanomaterials, its negative side effects have been always a top priority of discussion. The potential aspects of nanomaterial in relation to phytotoxicity and bioaccumulation during synthesis and application need to be addressed thoroughly. The by-products produced during chemical synthesis are hazardous to the environment as well as human health. Regulatory bodies have been reluctant to approve novel nanomaterials for human usage due to their potential toxicity. Synthetic nanoparticle (NP) manufacture requires significant financial outlays due to the high cost of the necessary chemicals, equipment, and waste disposal after the fabrication process has caused significant issues. This outrageous price has also become a significant barrier in the realm of research. Due to its expensive cost, researchers are unable to take use of all of its benefits or obtain its prevalence. The use of physical and chemical pathway of syntheses is progressively discouraged by most of the workers as they are expensive (Mohammadi et al. 2016), dangerous (Reverberi et al. 2016), and low in productivity (Silva et al. 2016). Hence, the search for novel approaches to nanoparticle productions that are both economical and environment-­friendly gave rise to the biosynthesis-mediated route. Researchers have shown interest in biological methods for developing metal and metal oxide nanoparticles during the recent years, and this biologically inspired methodology is developing into a significant area of nanotechnology and nanoscience (Ahmed et al. 2016). Biosynthesis-mediated production of nanoparticles is an effective and competent method that might be very advantageous in the current situation to counteract these deleterious impacts of chemical synthesis. For the purpose of developing nanoparticles on a wide scale, green synthesis is the most effective, naturally adaptable, environment-friendly, and economical and less time-consuming process (Khade et al. 2015; Gandhi and Khan 2016). Generation of green nanomaterials does not require any sophisticated expensive tools owing to a cost-effective method. Moreover, the nanoparticles generated from biogenic pathway are more stable at room temperature than those derived from chemical synthesis (Balakrishnan et  al. 2017). Microbes secrete substances called capping agents that coat nanoparticles, preventing them from aggregating and improving their stability. Moreover, use of bio-resources as an agent for the synthesis of nanoparticles has attracted a lot of attention due to its well-defined morphologies, nontoxic nature, and improved biocompatibility (Singh et  al. 2016). Green synthesis of nanoparticles mainly focuses on synthesis of nanoparticles from yeast, algae, bacteria, fungi, and plant extract. In this chapter, however, we will restrict our dealings only to bacterial- and plant-­mediated synthesis of nanoparticles. It also highlights the potential application of this green functional nanomaterial for attaining the goal of sustainable energy and environment protection.

4  Green Functional Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Applications…

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4.2 Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles 4.2.1 Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles Bacteria are promising candidates for the synthesis of various nanoparticles (Table  4.1). Different genera of microorganisms such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Serratia, Rhodococcus, Enterococcus, Escherichia, Lactobacillus, Streptomyces, and others are predominately used to synthesize green functional nanomaterials (Li et al. 2011). Bacteria are ubiquitous in nature and able to survive in different adverse environmental conditions. Broadly, the bacterial-mediated process of synthesis can be summarized in two ways: (i) extracellular and (ii) intracellular. The extracellular process involves the reduction of metal ion via enzymes in a cell-free environment. However, in intracellular process, metal ions get trapped on the bacterial biomass and further get reduced by the cellular enzymes (Fig. 4.1). The extracellular process possesses an easy extraction and greater efficiency than intracellular process (Ali et al. 2017). The indispensable downstream processing in intracellular synthesis is generally not required in extracellular process (Singh et al. 2016). Biomolecules present in bacteria such as different proteins, peptides, enzymes, reducing cofactors, and organic materials act as capping agents and stabilize the synthesized nanoparticles (Singh et al. 2016). Furthermore, Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) of bacteria have been shown to be useful as bio-reductant and capping agents for the bio-fabrication of nanoparticles (NPs). For example, Raj et al. (2016) demonstrate the use of EPS derived from marine bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa JP-11, for the fabrication of CdS nanoparticles for removal of cadmium from aqueous solution. Bacteria synthesize nanoparticles via an enzyme-dependent pathway. The enzymes present in bacteria catalyze different sorts of chemical reaction in order to produce inorganic metal nanoparticles (Iravani 2014). Biocatalyst including cellular transporters and oxidoreductase enzymes (NADPH-dependent sulfite reductase flavoprotein subunit, cysteine desulfhydrase, and NADH-dependent nitrate reductase) are involved in bio-fabrication of nanoparticles (Grasso et al. 2019). Microorganisms actively employ their reductase enzymes to detoxify the foreign particle (heavy metal) and reduce the metal salt to respective metal ion. This detoxification process is basically regulated to synthesize nanoparticles. Additionally, certain bacteria utilize metal ions as electron acceptors to obtain energy. The enzyme-mediated reductional process also changes the solubility of metal ions which is followed by precipitation to generate nanoparticles (Aswani and Radhakrishnan 2022). Nitrate reductase is found to be a key reducing agent in the bacterial-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles (Ali et al. 2017). Synthesis of nanoparticles through bacteria is attractive because this mode eliminates the need for costly and hazardous chemicals. However, the majority of microorganism-based nanoparticle syntheses are slow and low in productivity and the recovery of nanoparticles necessitates further downstream processing. Moreover, a set of experimental protocols, such as isolation,

Silver oxide nanoparticle

Lactobacillus mindensis

Extracellular

Intracellular

Intracellular

Ag

Ag

Serratia nematodiphila

Serratia sp.

Serratia CdSNPs nematodiphila Serratia marcescens Bi

Extracellular

Intracellular

Intracellular

Extracellular

T: Room temperature, t: 72 h

t: 24 h, pH 7.0–7.5 T: 30 °C, t: 48 h T: 30 °C, pH 7.0–7.5

Spherical; 100–500 nm Hexagonal; 44.5 nm

2–20 nm

11.2 nm

Morphological character 500,000 s to min 500–10,000 s to min 1–10 86–98

Conventional capacitor Almost infinite 10 ns to 10 ms >10,000 10−6 to 10−3 s