Modern Nanotechnology. Volume 1: Environmental Sustainability and Remediation [1] 9783031311109

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Junaid Ahmad Malik Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed    Editors

Modern Nanotechnology Volume 1: Environmental Sustainability and Remediation

Modern Nanotechnology

Junaid Ahmad Malik Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed Editors

Modern Nanotechnology Volume 1: Environmental Sustainability and Remediation

Editors Junaid Ahmad Malik Department of Zoology Government Degree College Kulgam, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed Department of Physics King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

ISBN 978-3-031-31110-9 ISBN 978-3-031-31111-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31111-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

While there is ongoing discussion about the regulation of nanomaterials, research on nanotechnology applications in food production remains outside the mainstream despite the early 2000 appearance of nano-foods, which later became a topic of interest in discussions about the sustainability of nanotechnology. An abundance of items on the market that offer specific benefits for environmental and climate preservation is caused by rising costs for raw materials and energy combined with customers’ growing environmental consciousness. Nanomaterials are intriguing for new, ecologically friendly goods because of their unique physical and chemical characteristics. By conserving raw resources, energy, and water, as well as by lowering greenhouse emissions and dangerous wastes, nanotechnological goods, processes, and applications are anticipated to make a substantial contribution to environmental and climatic protection. Therefore, using nanomaterials promises to have positive impacts on sustainability and the environment. Even though nanoparticles have the adaptable qualities to change a variety of pollutants, the remediation of contaminants in environmental media, technological viability, cost-effectiveness, and possible risks to the environment and humans also need to be addressed. Massive oil spills provide a challenge that conventional cleanup methods cannot handle. Nanotechnology has recently come to light as a possible source of creative answers to many of the world’s unresolved issues. Although it is still in its infancy, using nanotechnology to clean up oil spills has a lot of potential for the future. The three categories of treatment and remediation, sensing and detection, and pollution prevention constitute the potential key areas for nanotechnology in water applications. One of these categories is the enhancement of desalination technologies. Desalination might change owing to nanotechnology-based water filtration systems that, for example, make use of the ion concentration polarization phenomena. Artificial photosynthesis, which splits water using solar energy to produce hydrogen and oxygen, may provide a portable, clean source of energy that is just as enduring as sunshine. Industrial and urban trash releases a wide range of harmful organic and inorganic contaminants into the water, land, and atmosphere. These contaminants cannot be eliminated with just current technology. As a result, using contemporary technologies like nanotechnology might be crucial in resolving this issue. v

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Preface

Nanofilters, nanosensors, nano-photocatalysts, and nanoparticles are a few of the nanomaterials that are often utilized in waste management. By proving the effectiveness of such nanoparticles in biomedicine and environmental remediation, the bio-based nanomaterials might provide fresh perspectives into the quickly developing disciplines of biomedical and environmental sciences. These nanoscale particles are very beneficial and have a great deal of potential to develop into the next generation of nanoscale factories. As a result, research is ongoing, and the data generated in the biological and environmental disciplines may lead to a sustainable future. Given that bioremediation, a green and sustainable technology, is gaining momentum swiftly, the chapters in this book would be well-suited for future research that might be beneficial to all interested stakeholders. With contributions from renowned specialists in the aforementioned domains, the chapters in this companion book offer a particular selection spanning the most current findings. We anticipate that this book, which covers and highlights major research and progress in the area, will be a huge benefit to researchers and will also provide the sustainable use of bio-based nanomaterials a fresh perspective. Kulgam, Jammu and Kashmir, India Dhahran, Saudi, Arabia

Junaid Ahmad Malik Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed

Contents

1 Fundamentals of Nanotechnology for Environmental Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kamal Kishore, Chou-Yi Hsu, Shankarappa Sridhara, Joseph Oduor Odongo, Muhammad Akram, Junaid Ahmad Malik, Yathrib Ajaj, and Javid Manzoor 2 Fundamental Aspects of Nanocomposite Materials for Environmental Protection and Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Sudha, M. Bavanilatha, L. Inbathamizh, B. Vishnu Priya, and Sandra Samson 3 Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture: Current Trends and Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Hemalatha, Vinita, G. Sravanalakshmi, Bhagyajyothi C. Kotibagar, and Megha 4 Nanomaterials in Soil Health Management and Crop Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trisha Sinha, Bhaskar Pratap Singh, Kousik Nandi, and Kshouni Das

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5 Nanomaterials for Water Purification and Reclamation. . . . . . . . . . . 101 Shivani Narwal and Rajesh Dhankhar 6 Role of Nanomaterials in the Treatment of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Nisha Rana and Akansha Bassi 7 Applications of Nanomaterials for Water Treatment: Current Trends and Future Scope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 M. Hemalatha, Gangadasari Sravana Lakshmi, Megha, Vinita, and Bhagyajyothi C. Kotibagar

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 8 Engineered Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Applications ����������  177 G. Elanthendral, L. Inbathamizh, and S. Sudha  9 Research  Trends in Photocatalytic Water Purification: Current Perspectives and Future Prospects – A Review����������������������  197 Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed, Mohammed Ashraf Gondal, and Anurag Roy 10 Nanotechnology  for Water Splitting: A Sustainable Way to Generate Hydrogen ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  223 Md. Merajul Islam and Amina Nafees 11 Carbon Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment������������������������������  255 Shikha Kumari, Manjeet Kaur, and Geeta Dhania 12 N  anosorbents – A Nanotechnological Approach for the Treatment of Heavy Metal Contamination in Wastewater ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  279 Ankita Yadav and Geeta Dhania 13 Nanofiltration  Membrane Techniques for Heavy Metal Separation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  301 Moni Jakhar, Jitender Singh Laura, and Meenakshi Nandal 14 Carbon  Dots as Nanoprobes for Heavy Metal Detection ��������������������  329 Alkiviadis A. Tzimas, Andromachi Gavrila, Ioannis S. Dasteridis, Constantine D. Stalikas, and Theodoros G. Chatzimitakos 15 Nanotechnology  for Plastic Degradation ����������������������������������������������  361 Telphy Kuriakose, Preetha Nair, and Bannhi Das 16 Role  of Nanomodification and Nanofertilizers in Crop Production and Soil Health ��������������������������������������������������������������������  381 Narendra Kumar Bharati, Dipak Dnyaneshwar Kadam, Anwesha Samanta, Anshu Kumar, B. Teja Bhushan, and Emani Rajeswari 17 Microbes-Induced  Biofabrication of Gold Nanoparticles and Its Exploitation in Biosensing of Phytopathogens ������������������������  409 Huma Nazneen, Emmadi Venu, Anshu Kumar, and Razia Sulthana Begum 18 Removal  of Radioactive Wastes Using Nanomaterial��������������������������  437 Bannhi Das, Preetha Nair, and Telphy Kuriakose 19 N  anotechnology-Based Photocatalytic Degradation of Pharmaceuticals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  465 Harshala S. Naik, Parvindar M. Sah, and Rajesh W. Raut

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20 Nanotechnological Interventions in the Degradation of Pharmaceutical Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Jissa Theresa Kurian, Shilpa Susan Sacria, Juhi Puthukulangara Jaison, Jaya Gangwar, Preethy Chandran, Yogish Somayaji, Mridul Umesh, and Joseph Kadanthottu Sebastian 21 Nanocomposites for Removal and Degradation of Organic Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 Muhammad Akram, Seerat Ul Ain Bhutto, Sikandar Aftab, Lara Sindhu, Xing Xu, and Zeeshan Haider 22 Nanotechnological Approaches Against Fungal Pathogens of Economically Important Crop Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Mallika Mazumder, Somnath Roy, Sahina Parvin, Biswajit Das, and Anup Kumar Sarkar 23 Advanced Approaches in Micro- and Nano-sensors for Harsh Environmental Applications: A Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Randa Abdel-Karim 24 Cellulose-Based Gels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications . . . . . . 613 Jyothy G. Vijayan and T. Niranjana Prabhu 25 Artificial Photosynthesis Using Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Preetha Nair, Bannhi Das, and Telphy Kuriakose 26 Artificial Photosynthesis with Gold Nanostructures Incorporation in Non-photosynthetic Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 K. R. Padma and K. R. Don Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683

About the Editors

Junaid  Ahmad  Malik received B.Sc. (2008) in Science from the University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K; and M.Sc. (2010) and Ph.D. (2015) in Zoology from Barkatullah University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. He completed his B.Ed. program in 2017 from the University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K. He started his career as Lecturer in School Education Department, Govt. of J&K for 2 years. Dr. Malik is now working as a Lecturer at the Department of Zoology, Govt. Degree College, Kulgam, Kashmir (J&K), and is actively involved in teaching and research activities. He has more than 8 years of research experience. His areas of interest are ecology, soil macrofauna, wildlife biology, conservation biology, etc.Dr. Malik has published more than 20 research papers in various national and international peer-reviewed journals. He has published 23 books, 36 book chapters and more than 10 popular editorial articles with various publishers like Springer Nature, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis Group and IGI Global. Dr. Malik is acting as the Editor-in-Chief of Inventum Biologicum (An International Journal of Biological Research) published by World Biologica, India. He is also serving as editor and reviewer of several journals with a reasonable repute. He has participated in several state, national and international conferences, seminars, workshops and symposia. He has more than 20 conference papers to his credit. He is the life member of SBBS (Society for Bioinformatics and Biological Sciences) with membership id LMJ-243.Readers may contact him at [email protected], or [email protected]. xi

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About the Editors

Mohamed  Jaffer  Sadiq  Mohamed, Ph.D., is a Postdoctoral Researcher at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.Dr. Sadiq received B.Sc. (2006) in Chemistry from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu; M.Sc. (2008) in Applied Chemistry from National Institute of Technology (NIT), Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu; M.Tech. (2014) in Nanotechnology from Karunya University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu; and Ph.D. (2017) in Chemistry from the National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, Mangalore, Karnataka. He started his career as Chemist in Hindustan Zinc Limited, Rajasthan, for 4  years. He worked as a Postdoctoral Researcher at Yunnan University, Kunming, China, for 2 years. He is actively involved in teaching and research activities. He has more than 10  years of industrial and research experience. His areas of interest are Nanomaterials/Nanocomposites/ Nanocrystals/Perovskites-­based photocatalysis, water splitting, Fenton-like catalysts, electrocatalysis (HER, OER, ORR), heterogeneous catalysis, supercapacitors, fuel cell catalysis and solar cells. He has authored 2 book chapters, edited 2 books and published 30 research articles and technical papers in international peer-reviewed journals of publishers such as Springer, Elsevier, RSC, ACS, etc. He is also serving as editor and reviewer of several journals with a reasonable reputation. He has participated in several state, national and international conferences, seminars, workshops and symposia, and he has more than 20 conference papers to his credit.Readers may contact him at: [email protected].

Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Nanotechnology for Environmental Engineering Kamal Kishore, Chou-Yi Hsu, Shankarappa Sridhara, Joseph Oduor Odongo, Muhammad Akram , Junaid Ahmad Malik Yathrib Ajaj, and Javid Manzoor

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Abstract As a means of reducing pollution and hazardous waste, nanotechnological products, techniques, and applications are expected to have a significant impact on environmental engineering. Because of this, the use of nanomaterials has the potential to have both immediate and long-term positive effects on the environment and human health. However, nanotechnology is now playing a very small role in environmental protection, whether in research or in real applications. When it comes to environmental engineering, nanotechnology has little practical use. In response to rising costs of raw materials and energy, there has been a rush of goods on the market that claim to provide environmental and climatic advantages. Basic fundamentals of nanotechnology and fundamental environmental engineering are discussed in this chapter in detail. Keywords Pollution · Environmental impact · Human health · Conservation · Nanoscience

K. Kishore Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Eternal University, Baru Sahib, Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh, India C.-Y. Hsu Department of Pharmacy, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, Taiwan S. Sridhara Center For Climate Resilient Agriculture, Keladi Shivappa Nayaka University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Iruvakki, Shivamogga, Karnataka, India J. O. Odongo School of Biological and Physical Science, Department of Zoology, Maseno University, Kisumu, Kenya M. Akram School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. Sadiq Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31111-6_1

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1.1 Introduction Understanding and controlling emissions from a wide range of sources, the development of new “green” technologies that minimize the production of undesirable byproducts, and the remediation of existing waste sites and polluted water sources are just some of the ways nanotechnology can have a significant impact on environmental protection. Water and air pollution may be continually monitored and mitigated using nanotechnology, which has the capacity to eliminate even the tiniest particles. Nanotechnology, on the other hand, may offer environmental and human health problems, and these risks should be considered as the technology develops. Nanoscale science and nanotechnology may be used to create sustainable manufacturing methods that can meet the demands of the human population while maintaining a high level of compatibility with the surrounding environment and human population (Brongersma 2003; Tokumasu and Dvorak 2003). The following areas of investigation are urgently needed: (1) improving the use of environmentally friendly processing methods, such as solvent-free or alternative methods; (2) improving the efficiency of manufacturing processes by using sensors and actuators to reduce defects, improve fault tolerance, and promote self-healing; (3) enhancing the selectivity of manufacturing processes by using multifunctional catalysts; and (4) having significant impact through nanotechnology on automated processes by producing integrated nanodevices with sensors, actuators, and multifunctional devices, manufacturing large-scale nanoscale building blocks, and transforming unit activities. These are all examples of how nanotechnology can improve the stability of catalysts and sensors used to monitor processes, thereby increasing their efficiency. Research into nanoscale materials and processes, such as thermo/ kinetic/transport basic studies at the nanoscale, are examples of new manufacturing methods that can be developed. Just-in-time manufacturing and solar power manufacturing are further examples. Nanotechnology may also be used to create new production standards for safety and the environment (Dagani 2003). Based on current indicators and concepts, like “green chemistry” and “nanomanufacturing,” in particular, nanotechnology and nonmanufacturing offer new opportunities for manufacturing with reduced waste and risk (Thomas and Kamat 2003; Goldman et al. 2002). Nanotechnology has the potential to have a significant impact on environmental protection in a number of ways, including understanding and controlling emissions J. A. Malik (*) Department of Zoology, Government Degree College, Kulgam, Jammu and Kashmir, India Y. Ajaj Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Computer Science, German University of Technology in Oman, Halban, Oman J. Manzoor Department of Environmental Science, Government Degree College, Baderwah, Jammu and Kashmir, India

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from a wide range of sources, creating new “green” technologies that reduce the production of undesirable byproducts, and cleaning up existing waste sites and polluted water sources (Dreher 2004). Nanotechnology could be utilized, for instance, to remove the smallest pollutants from water sources or to continuously track and lessen environmental contamination. As a result of advances in nanotechnology, many contemporary technologies will be radically restructured over during the next century. Materials science, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and nanomedicine are just a few of the many fields in which control of matter at the nanoscale has already played an essential role. Nanotechnology has already had a significant impact on a variety of environmental and energy technologies, including waste reduction and energy efficiency, environmentally friendly composite constructions, waste treatment, and energy conversion (Wohlstadter et al. 2003; Li et al. 2003). There are many complex physical mechanisms that influence the sequestration, release, mobility, and bioavailability of nutrients and pollutants in the natural environment. Biological and inorganic systems interact at the interface, and the processes that occur there are relevant to human health and biocomplexity (Feldman and  Harris 2000). Understanding the fundamental tenets of nanotechnology will help us better understand how nanomaterial structures are transported and distributed in natural systems and will lead to the creation of nanotechnology that might be used to prevent or mitigate environmental harm. According to recent research, particle movement in human tissue is strongly affected by nanoscale dimensions, making knowledge of the health impacts crucial. The combination of environmental investigations with nanostructured material research and device design has yielded significant results. The production of nanoscale materials relevant to environmental studies has improved dramatically in the recent several years. It has proven feasible to build nanoscale sensors, for example, by using electric fields and flowing fluids to align carbon nanotubes during and/or after growth (Chan and Nie 1998). Another big advancement has been made in the fabrication of metallic nanowires by electrochemical means. Nanowires with bar code-like shapes may be created by altering the electrolytic solution’s composition during deposition (Nam et al. 2002). Nanostructured materials’ electrical and optical characteristics rely on their size and form, which has led to the development of novel chemical and biological sensors. Researchers have employed semiconducting nanoparticles to create new forms of fluorescent tags that are significantly better than molecular fluorophores (Brongersma 2003; Tokumasu and Dvorak 2003; Thomas and Kamat 2003; Goldman et al. 2002; Chan and Nie 1998). We have witnessed new kinds of optical and electrical sensing based on the collective effects of nanostructured materials. Individual nanowires and nanotubes have been used to show direct electrical detection of chemical and biological substances (Li et  al. 2003). Nanoscale materials and monolayer films may now be controlled and assembled in new ways thanks to the development of new processes. This could be diverted toward the identification of resources from the waste dumping sites. Biochemical and neurological processes may be studied using microsensors, but only if they are carried out under a rigorous set of experimental circumstances. A wide spectrum of analytes must be detected and the inorganic, organic, and

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biological composition of the environment must be characterized without becoming invasive. At the very least, there are two ways that nanotechnology may help us attain this aim. Because nanoscale sensors are so small, they are more sensitive than traditional sensors (Yi et al. 2002). As a second example, nanotechnology enables the creation of dozens or millions of high-sensitivity nanoscale sensor components in massively parallel arrays. In order to comprehend signal transduction in nanoscale systems and analyze huge volumes of data from nanoscale systems in real time, new computing approaches must be developed. “Nanoinformatics” might emerge in the same way that bioinformatics has exploded in popularity over the last decade. Some nanoinformatics features are relevant to nanotechnology and environmental issues  (Dreher 2004). Fundamentally important areas of study include the latest developments in nanoscale signal transduction and data processing, as well as deployment difficulties, communication networking, and software (Wohlstadter et al. 2003). The production of tens of thousands or tens of millions of “perfect” sensing elements will be challenging, if not impossible. Advanced computer training and measurement techniques may alleviate the necessity for flawless sensor hardware. To put it another way, this strategy moves the focus from nanoscale hardware to software. Similar to a calibration, but more thorough, this kind of training involves testing sensor reaction to a broad variety of stimuli and then mathematically analyzing the findings to create a well-defined stimulus response function. The need for full precision in each sensor array may be avoided by the use of redundant sensor components and tailored training. Developing nanoscale arrays in a cost-effective manner may require reducing the requirement for exact perfection of thousands or millions of sensor units. These arrays might generate enormous amounts of raw data, which would need the development of clever electronic processing and decision-making systems. It is possible to identify and quantify the species present in a sample using techniques, such as principal component analysis, neural network analysis, and other linear and nonlinear approaches, when working with sensor arrays  (Cui and  Lieber 2001). Individual users or a real-time control system would benefit most from these computer systems if they could get optimum information content (such as chemical composition, biological identity, or physical qualities) on an as-needed basis. Libraries of ultra-sensitive and selective sensing components and developments in the manufacture of integrated parallel sensors and signal transduction devices are essential to the realization of the goal. Breakthroughs in molecular detection, piezoelectric cantilevers, carbon nanotubes, field and flow-controlled assembly, and transport of electrical and optical signals via designed nanostructures support the vision (Chen et al. 2001; Garmestani et al. 2003; Qi et al. 2003). It has been shown that exact nanoscale dimensions play an important role in controlling particle movement in human tissue, which is crucial to understanding the health impacts of nanostructures, both natural and manmade  (Dagani 2003;  Feldman and  Harris 2000). Research into environmental interactions with nanostructured materials and device design has never been more important than it is now, thanks to this accomplishment. This chapter will introduce us to a science of

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Fig. 1.1  Applications of nanotechnology in environment conservation

nanotechnology and fundamental environmental engineering techniques for environmental conservation and management (Fig. 1.1).

1.2 Nanotopic Advances in Sustainable Resources and Materials The flow, recovery, and recycling of vital resources, such as energy, movement of people and commodities, clean water supply, and food supply, will all be altered in a civilization that makes use of nanotechnology. Sustainability of materials and technology has become a major issue (Kumar et  al. 2003). Over the last three decades, materials have played a significant role in efforts to improve environmental quality. Using catalysts to prevent undesirable byproducts in chemical processes, as well as the treatment of waste, has had a significant influence on the quality of discharged effluent and exhaust plumes. The use of biodegradable materials in industrial processes and the production of greener energy have both been pioneered by these companies. However, environmental effect and “the costs and advantages of synthesizing and processing” (Kumar et al. 2003) have not always been taken into account by material designers for such uses. While battery-powered cars are marketed as

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“greener,” they have had little effect on pollution or the environment. When compared to gasoline-powered automobiles, the vehicles look to be a more environmentally friendly option. Battery manufacturing uses a significant amount of toxic and hazardous elements, which must be taken into account when evaluating the environmental advantages of this technology (Dreher 2004; Huang et al. 2003a, b). In order to be useful, applications must take into account the broader social demands during their whole life cycle. Nanoscientists and engineers from different fields will have to work together to create these applications. A proper balance between applied and fundamental research is necessary. For the development of nanotechnology applications for sustainability, fundamental research includes the following: (1) the development of a knowledge base that links nanoscale structure and function; (2) the design of new materials and structures with tailored versatility; (3) methods for optimizing control of stability at all scales and conditions; (4) engineering; and (5) synthetic, assembly, and processing at all scales. Future energy needs will be met mostly by fossil fuels in the foreseeable future. There is a need for improvement in both gas and diesel engine performance. Higher-­ quality fuels are required to facilitate the construction of more super ultra-low emission automobiles. As a result, new catalyst technologies will be needed to enhance the following properties: (1) increase the reactivity, selectivity, and yield of catalysts, (2) reduce active species loading levels, (3) increase the durability and stability of catalysts in operation, and (4) decrease the reliance on precious metal-based and corrosive catalysts. Because reactions occur on the surface, catalytic processes are in essence nanoscale. Continuous research and development is required to expand our knowledge of molecular and particle behavior in catalytic processes to attain the following advances. These advancements will need fundamental research aimed at developing techniques and tactics for improving stabilization control (preventive degradation, chemo- or other degradation, or structural and property stability of materials throughout the course of their useful lifespan in products) (Kim et al. 2000). The development of manufacturing strategies for managing surface area, cluster and particle structure, component dispersion, and other distinguishing properties will need basic research in synthesis, assembly, and processing. The sequestration of CO2 and the separation of pollutants will be made possible by advances in nanoscale science. In the near future, new materials for alternative energy transmission, storage, and distribution may be developed. The nanoscale revolution will have a positive impact on ultracapacitors and batteries. It has already been shown that advances in nanotechnology have made thermoelectrics more efficient. When developing novel energy conversion devices, methods for combining nanoparticles and wiring at the nanoscale must be thoroughly investigated. Photonic crystals, which enhance light collecting and emissivity, have the potential to significantly improve photovoltaics in the future (Link & Sailor 2003). Nanotechnology may be able to improve efficiency by allowing for quantum phenomena. For space-efficient energy storage, bridging the molecular and bulk scales is critical (Qi et al. 2003).

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1.2.1 Agriculture and the Use of Water Water for human consumption and other purposes has to be treated and remediated in a more effective manner. The task of removing organics is a substantial one. Photo-oxidants made from nanoparticles (such as modified TiO2) show promise (Joselevich and Lieber 2002). Passive separation techniques, such as mesoporous membranes, filters, and sorbents, may benefit from the use of nanotechnology. Derivatized surfaces might be used to target particular impurities by using heavy metals. Reactive nanoparticles may be effective in eliminating pesticides and herbicides from the environment because of their ability to remediate groundwater (Zhong et  al. 2003). Additionally, nanoparticles could be able to distribute and release insecticides and fertilizers in a more efficient and regulated manner than current methods. For environmental cleanup and agricultural uses, a nanoscale knowledge base will be beneficial.

1.2.2 Photovoltaics: Sustainable Energy System R & D developing “safe, secure, clean, and economical” alternative energy technologies is critical to attaining sustainability, even if fossil fuels are likely to be abundant for the next 10–20 years. Typically, new materials are needed to increase the performance of energy technologies. A better knowledge of nanoscale processes and atomic-level material design might lead to high-efficiency, low-cost materials for converting, storing, and conveying energy at low cost. For carbon-free primary power technologies to reach 10–30 TW production capacity by the mid-twentieth century, worldwide cooperation and a sense of urgency comparable to the Manhattan Project or the Apollo Program are likely requirements (Messer et al. 2000). Solar energy might be one way to meet the world’s entire power demand by 2020 (estimated at 12 TW globally or 20 TW). To put it another way, present photovoltaic technology is capable of producing 10 percent conversion efficiency, or 60 TW, of the world’s total practical solar energy potential, which stands at 600 TW globally (Nam et al. 2002). Improved solar energy technology might be achieved by better knowledge of nanoscale photovoltaic processes. In addition to boosting efficiency and lowering costs, new or existing infrastructure, and point-of-use supplies are also necessary improvements. Biosystems (identified/designed, stability, efficiency) and biocatalysts (isolation, stability, and turnover numbers) must be improved in order for this technology to perform to its maximum potential. As a result, it offers a variety of disciplines that could potentially use a full and comprehensive use of nanotechnology (e.g., photoactive particles, membranes, bioactive surfaces, design of antenna systems, and nonprecious metal-based catalysts). Research techniques that can span the molecular scale with orderly bulk sizes will be necessary for the development of

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a comprehensive photovoltaic and photo-biofuel cell infrastructure (Qi et al. 2003). This requires novel materials and designs with multifunctionality specific to the application, and nanoscience is seen as a favorable option in this regard.

1.2.3 Green Vehicles for Smart Infrastructure These standards are closely tied to transportation modes, including roads, trains, air, and water. This is a waste of a significant quantity of resources and materials. Vehicles used for transporting people and commodities, as well as the structure of how materials and resources are supplied, must be rethought for more sustainable use of materials and resources. Cargo-related uses of alternative fuels and energy storage face a considerable barrier. The use of fuel cells, ultracapacitors, flywheels, and batteries, as well as the use of lightweight but durable and multifunctional materials for the vehicle’s physical construction, will lead to a reduction in power costs. Materials that are strong in strength yet light in weight and multifunctional (e.g., self-cleaning) have a lot of promise (Chan and Nie 1998). New green fuel sources will be made possible by advancements in electrocatalysts and hydrogen storage materials. For the twenty-first century, a major overhaul of the present transportation infrastructure is required. This infrastructure will benefit greatly from advancements in corrosion-resistant and self-healing nanocomposite multifunctional materials (such as photovoltaic, piezoelectric, photovoltaic, energy harvesting, and passive air and water remediation). The use of information technology to minimize the need for unneeded and wasteful travel and movement of commodities might also revolutionize and improve the sustainability of the transportation system  (Suganuma et  al. 1999). As the amount of travel and transit needs are reduced through nanoelectronics (computing, memory, and communication) and on-demand production/recycling at the place of use, the amount of waste generated is reduced as well  (Cui and Lieber 2001).

1.2.4 Sustainable Water Current methods of purification, such as microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and photocatalysis, must be replaced by new ones that improve on existing processes. Adaptive, self-assembling pores with adaptable, smart, photoactive, reporter capabilities are also required, as are novel nanofiltration/nanoseparation models with self-assembling pores. Achieving this aim will be made easier by the development of new composite materials as well as water purity sensors that can identify chemical speciation and adaptive multifunctional materials. Using modern water purity sensors will improve purifying processes significantly. Similar to the current

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transportation infrastructure, current water systems face the same issues. Point-ofuse water supply and closed-loop systems may be utilized to solve challenges associated with a water system intended to satisfy the demands of the nineteenth century and the twenty-first century.

1.2.5 Sustainable Agriculture Today’s farming methods rely heavily on fertilizers in order to fix nutrients in crops (Goldman et al. 2002). Nanoparticles for direct nitrogen fixation may prove revolutionary, or there may be potential to design soil for better fertilization, to prevent surplus nutrients being used up in the system. Based on nanotechnology R & D, insecticides, herbicides, and rodenticides may also be lowered. The development of photocatalysts to speed up the breakdown of biocides and the creation of “smart dust” to detect and locate biocides in the environment are both possible benefits of nanotechnology. The creation of agricultural applications will benefit from the development of a knowledge foundation that links structure and function at the nanoscale. In order to meet human requirements while also being environmentally and socially friendly, sustainable manufacturing procedures based on nanoscale science and nanotechnology integrated processes and bottom-up assembly can be developed. Nanotechnology has the potential to have a profound impact on industrial processes both now and in the future. In addition to environmental and societal consequences, new methods must be devised with the goal of preventing or mitigating these consequences.

1.3 Innovation in Technology The present status of nanoscale processing technology must be reviewed in order to achieve the sustainable growth. Commercial sunscreens made from ZnO or TiO2 nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes or diamondoids are two examples of current nanoscale processing  (Currie et  al. 1999). For several applications, the cost and availability of particular nanomaterials make them too expensive at this time. The manufacture of electrical gadgets is another recent example of nanoscale processing. Large amounts of material and energy are required to create components ranging in length from micro to nanoscale utilizing top-down processing techniques (Quinten et al. 1998). Solid and liquid wastes are generated as a consequence. There is an urgent need to address the following objectives: (1) decrease waste, (2) limit resources utilized in manufacturing processes, (3) minimize energy consumption, and (4) evaluate the safety, environmental, and ethical aspects of nanoscale manufacturing.

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1.4 Investment in R & D and Implementation 1.4.1 Efforts to Realize the Goal Sustainable production may be achieved via a variety of methods. By maximizing the use of benign materials, such as solvent-free procedures or enzymes to create benign feedstock and multifunctional smart nanoscale catalyzing materials, these strategies may be implemented. As an alternative, sensors and actuators can be used to monitor and improve the efficiency of manufacturing processes in the following ways: (1) by reducing defects, increasing fault tolerance, and self-healing, (2) by increasing catalyst stability and selectivity, and (3) by integrating biological processing into nanotechnology-driven manufacturing Cui et al. (2001). Recyclability, reuse, and remanufacturing are only some of the additional tactics that may be used to improve sustainability in the manufacturing process.

1.4.2 Challenges for Sustainable Manufacturing Processes There are a few roadblocks to overcome in nanoscale manufacturing process research. Creating nanomaterials is a challenge, as is mass-producing nanoscale building blocks (such as nanotubes, diamondoids, and quantum dots), designing and manufacturing complex nanostructured materials (like nanocomposites, multifunctional catalysts, and electrolytes), and possibly creating a Federally funded user facility for pilot-scale synthesis and production of nanomaterials using bottom-up processing (Garmestani et al. 2003). Other challenges include developing nanodevices that include sensors and actuators as well as devices that are both functional and multifunctional (e.g., a catalytic reactor that also performs separations), devices that are self-assembled, bottom-up manufactured (including directed assembly using weak forces), and devices that can be used in both microfluidic and nanofluidic systems. Another challenge is the development of nanotechnology-based manufacturing techniques. In addition to just-in-time, just-in-place manufacturing (e.g., mobile and low power), innovative designs (e.g., biologically inspired, 3-D), and solar-­ powered production are required (hydrogen generation, artificial photosynthesis). Additional challenges in the study of nanoscale manufacturing processes include the development of theories, models, and experimental data on nanoscale materials and processes. The following are a few of these pursuits: (1) basic investigation of nanoscale thermokinetics and transport, (ii) the use of quantum mechanical and molecular continuum models to connect macro- to micro- to nanoscale regimes, and (iii) a working knowledge of surface characteristics (intermolecular forces, surface area, surface charge, and surface chemistry). These micro- and nanocomponents are currently produced via top-down processes: silicon wafers are cut, and MEMS components are made by stamping with tools and die. A major drawback of top-down

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production is becoming increasingly obvious as the size of these components becomes smaller (Yi et al. 2003). High manufacturing yields are a challenge for the semiconductor industry, which is also attempting to move to smaller components. New design elements smaller than a light’s wavelength have only exacerbated the problems. Advances in nanoparticle assembly, on the other hand, are transforming nanocompound creation. Gold nanorod chains have been shown to self-assemble in a recent experiment. The bottom-up construction of transistors, nanowires, and other nanocomponents using these chains might improve yields and save resources.

1.5 Recent Successes and Paradigm Changes For business purposes ZnO or TiO2 nanoparticle sunscreens, as well as environmental remediation sorbents and polishing agents with nanostructures, are commercially available. For example, carbon nanotubes, diamondoids, and fullerenes may all be mass produced if the challenge of developing and producing nanomaterials is successfully met. As of right now, photolithography is the primary method used to manufacture electronics, which is both resource and energy demanding. As a result, bottom-up molecular electrical devices that utilize self-assembly and guided assembly might yield devices that are smaller and more efficient (Huang et al. 2003a, b). As a result, the structures would be as unique as the attributes of the particles. DNA might be employed to drive the assembling process. Drug delivery and laboratory-on-a-chip approaches have been used in recent pharmaceutical delivery endeavors. Small-scale pharmaceutical manufacture might be carried out in the body by means of a “factory on a particle” (Ural et al. 2002; Huang et al. 2001a, b; Joselevich et al. 2008). An implantable nanoscale factory and a safe raw material injection might generate the medication. To activate and deactivate it, sensors would be used in manufacturing. It is possible to significantly minimize transportation, manufacturing, and legal expenses. Rather of being concentrated in a single location, the manufacturers would be dispersed among the patient population.

1.6 Health and Environment There will be a widespread use of nanotechnology within 30 years. With an eye on the long-term effects on human health and the environment, this cutting-edge technology will be developed ethically. It is possible to use nanotechnology to improve human health, as well as to safeguard the environment. It has been the goal of continuing research efforts. Concerns about nanotechnology‘s health and environmental impact are significantly underrepresented in the literature. For this reason, it is difficult to generalize nanomaterial health and environmental risk evaluations obtained from

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data on natural or waste byproduct nanoparticles. Engineered nanomaterials‘relative toxicity has just lately been studied (Kumar et al. 2003). Both Dr. Chiu-wing Lam of Wyle Laboratories at Johnson Space Center in Houston and Dr. David Warheit of DuPont’s Haskell Laboratory for Health and Environmental Sciences in Newark, DE have conducted comparative intrinsic pulmonary toxicity evaluations on single-­ wall carbon nanotubes (Huang et al. 2003a, b; Ural et al. 2002). These two investigations found that single-wall carbon nanotubes may trigger the development of granulomas in the same way on the pathological level (Lam et al. 2004; Shim et al. 2002). However, aberrations from administering large doses of aggregated nanostructured materials must be taken into account when interpreting findings, since they were shown to generate granulomas in contrast to quartz particles but without signs of persistent pulmonary inflammation. As a consequence of these findings, it seems that extrapolating synthetic nanomaterial toxicity from current particle toxicology datasets may be problematic. Due to the growing use of nanotechnology in society, understanding the health and environmental effects of nanomaterials is critical. For nanotechnology applications to be safe and ecologically friendly, a number of scientific issues need to be solved. Because of its young and the wide range of disciplines it encompasses, gaining a comprehensive knowledge of the effects of nanotechnology on human health and the environment will be a difficult task. Nanotechnology‘s potential negative effects on human health and the environment need a thorough investigation.

1.6.1 Nanojunctions for the Detection of Heavy Metal Ions Researchers at the University of New Mexico may employ conductance quantization and quantum tunneling to create nanoelectrodes for in situ detection of metal ion pollution. By developing high-performance, low-cost sensors for on-site screening tests of surface and groundwater, heavy metal ion pollution could be prevented and detected early. With current analytical techniques, which frequently require preconcentration of samples, trace metal ions may be difficult to detect. Since it can detect even a small number of metal ions without preconcentration, the nanocontact sensor is particularly well suited for on-site detection of ultratrace levels of heavy metal ions (Rajagopalan et al. 2003). The sensor is made up of a grid of nanoelectrode pairs on a silicon chip. The nanoelectrodes in each pair are separated by an atomic-scale gap using quantum tunneling. A nanocontact may form between the nanoelectrodes after electrochemical deposition of a small number of metal ions, bridging the gap and causing a quantum leap in electrical conductivity. By combining numerous measures, such as redox potentials, point-contact spectroscopy, and electrochemical potential-modulated conductance changes, the sensor may be able to attain high specificity. Researchers working on risk assessment have a considerable problem because of the wide range of nanomaterials and derivatives they work with. Because there is no standard nanomaterial system for impact studies when research begins before a

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manufacturing foundation is established, this poses a problem. Due to the wide range of possible forms, sizes, and formats for nanomaterials, this creates a serious issue. Adding to the complexity, there are a plethora of surface finishes to choose from. In order to fully comprehend the environmental and health effects of such a wide range of systems, it is necessary to devise methods for dealing with the inherent variability of each one.

1.6.2 Inventories for Nanomaterials It is impossible to study this wide range of items without first defining and cataloging them. Types, quantities, and uses of nanoparticles must be categorized and disseminated within the scientific community.

1.6.3 Toxicological Methods with High-Throughput and Multiple Analyses Toxicological investigations on a wider range of nanomaterials might be possible with high-throughput screening and/or combinatorial techniques.

1.6.4 Particle Toxicity Mechanism and Basic Science Focusing early research on fundamental scientific questions is one of the most effective approaches to fight the problem of nanomaterial variety. This idea may be applied to all kinds of nanomaterial, for example, if general laws for directing how nanomaterials are carried into and out of cells can be created. The ecological distribution of nanoscale materials might be predicted from particle size information if reliable models for environmental fate and transport are created.

1.6.5 Nanomaterials with Well-Defined Properties To undertake risk assessment studies, researchers will need to have access to nanomaterials that have been well described.

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1.6.6 Assessment of Nanomaterials’ Exposure All facets of daily life will be affected by nanotechnology. Risk assessment for nanotechnology requires knowledge of how and where nanomaterials are absorbed and released into the environment. There is a pressing need for data on nanomaterial concentrations and the many forms they take when released into the environment. The pathways of exposure to nanoparticles may be determined by conducting a nanotechnology exposure assessment (Yi et al. 2003). Nanomaterial exposure evaluations will need novel monitoring techniques and technology due to the small size and physiochemical features of nanomaterials. We require nanomaterial exposure evaluations to be carried out utilizing instruments that can properly identify nanomaterials in medical, occupational, and environmental situations.

1.6.7 Nanomaterials’ Unpredictable Biological Effects For nanotechnology to progress in a way that’s both safe and kind to the environment, a crucial knowledge gap in toxicological evaluation of nanomaterials must be filled. According to research, there may be a special toxicological risk associated with nanomaterials that cannot be foreseen from the databases used to forecast particle toxicology (Joselevich et  al. 2008). Acute and chronic toxicokinetic and pharmacokinetic investigations that are pertinent and scientifically sound should be a part of the study portfolio for the toxicological evaluation of nanomaterials. Studies that contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying nanomaterial toxicity and that pinpoint susceptibility factors that might increase nanomaterial toxicity are all important areas of research (Warheit et al. 2004). These include studies on the inherent and comparative toxicology of nanomaterials derived naturally, environmentally, and chemically, which should be included in the portfolio of studies for nanomaterial toxicological assessment. The development of novel measuring instruments may be necessary to identify and track the fate of nanomaterials in biological systems. Toxicological evaluation of nanomaterials should include research on how to identify nanoparticles in biological systems.

1.6.8 Transport, Persistence, and Transformation of Nanomaterials Analyzing how nanomaterials interact with their surroundings after being released, whether intentionally or accidentally, is vital to determining their effect (Warheit et al. 2004). Investigating their dispersal, destiny, and metamorphosis will be critical. It will be essential to understand the biopersistence of nanomaterials, including

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how much there is, where it is, and in what chemical condition. Many questions remain concerning how nanoscale materials travel across space. There is a requirement to developing novel techniques for identifying nanoparticles in biological and environmental systems is essential. In the absence of such instruments, the scope of this investigation is severely constrained.

1.6.9 Biotransformation Processes: Analysis and Quantification This may have a significant impact on the surface chemistry and physical condition of particulate matter in the atmosphere. Biotransformation studies employing suitable organisms should be carried out on nanomaterials to see whether these processes are altered on the nanoscale; in particular, it is vital to determine if nanoparticle solubility and aggregation state are affected by such processes.

1.6.10 Nanomaterials Bioaccumulation Detection It is common for molecular pollutants to accumulate in higher species via bioaccumulation. The amphiphilic surface nature of certain nanomaterials may make them particularly vulnerable to this process. For major nanomaterial systems, bioaccumulation should be assessed, and this knowledge should be included into an understanding of their effective environmental exposure.

1.6.11 Analysis of Biodegradation Mechanisms Nanomaterials may be dispersed throughout the environment by methods of simple biodegradation. Nanomaterials may be vulnerable to these effects because of their tiny size and large surface area. The breakdown of nanomaterial by both naturally occurring creatures and species developed for remediation should be studied.

1.6.12 Health and Environmental Concerns For many nanotechnologists, money and reputation are gained through developing novel applications. Nanotechnology health and environmental effect study, on the other hand, lack this kind of enticement. Impact research requires the following: (1) focused and ongoing funding for research into the potential effects of

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nanotechnology on human health and the environment; (2) communication and networking through scientific conferences, colloquia, and workshops that bring together different fields that use nanotechnology; and (3) access to well-­characterized nanomaterials for risk evaluation. If nanotechnology is to progress in an orderly and responsible way, it will be necessary to create proper criteria for handling and exploiting nanomaterials that are founded on strong research.

1.6.13 Health and Environmental Benefits of Nanotechnology Advances in nanotechnology-based environmental monitoring will lead to real-­ time, fast, multi-media assessments of thousands of contaminants in real-time. Because of the potential to “mine” such a large database, epidemiologists will have a newfound capacity for identifying unfavorable health consequences linked to specific exposures to multi-pollutant mixes. These nanotechnology-based monitoring applications might expand to encompass medical health issues. In order to find links between adverse effects on public health and exposure to environmental pollutants, researchers must first build an accurate database to store monitoring data derived from nanotechnology-based environmental monitoring measurements. They must also develop new informatics statistical software that makes it possible to effectively “mine” this massive database for patterns that can be used to trace environmental pollutants back to their original sources (Wang and Zhang 1997).

1.7 Future Challenges To ascertain the effects of nanotechnology on human health and the environment, interdisciplinary and leveraged research techniques are necessary. Research demands need the use of a robust and highly interconnected network model for financed initiatives, rather than a single paradigm. Private, academic, and governmental entities all have a stake in this network. Researchers will need access to well-characterized nanomaterials in order to undertake risk assessment studies. Toxicological evaluation of nanomaterials must also include assistance for the identification of nanoparticles in living systems. The most pressing short-term research needs are as follows: (1) a better understanding of the variety of anthropogenic nanoparticles, and (2) the development of instruments and techniques for assessing nanomaterial exposure (high priority), nanoparticles (high priority), multidisciplinary and leverage-based research (medium priority), determining the biological fate, transport, persistency, and transformation of nanomaterials (high priority), and mobilizing the scientific community (high priority), all of which are important (high priority). The assessment of nanomaterial exposure, the prediction of biological features of nanomaterials, the recyclability, reuse, and overall sustainability of

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nanomaterials, as well as the application of nanotechnology to enhance human health and the environment, are additional long-term research problems.

1.8 Conclusion With a focus on the synthesis, characterization, and applications of nanomaterials in different environmental engineering fields, nanotechnology has found its scope in adapting mechanical properties, durability, self-cleaning, self-sealing, self-sensing, energy harvesting, and other multifunctionality. It has combined the disciplines of electrical engineering, civil engineering, and materials science. The fundamental ideas, such as the nanoscale effect, the relationship between process, structure, and property, the characterization of the properties of nano- and microstructures, multifunctional materials, and the fabrication of nanodevices and their applications for energy harvesting, water infiltrations, and environmental sensing, have been widely debated by the researchers. Although the current focus of nanotechnology is primarily on material composition, their prospective applications are extremely broad. The usage of nanotechnology is widespread, and it is expected to become increasingly important in the near future. It has had a good effect on life that could revolutionize our lives in the areas of medical, food, and energy, making it deserving of a science fiction novel. Only Richard Feynman’s innovative lecture, which helped establish this industry and inspired others to research this technology, can be credited with making this possible. Due to its distinctive properties, future applications of nanotechnology are anticipated to be far more sophisticated.

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Garmestani H, Al-Haik MS, Dahmen K, Tannenbaum R, Li D, Sablin SS, Hussaini MY (2003) Polymer-mediated alignment of carbon nanotubes under high magnetic fields. Adv Mater 15(22):1918–1921 Goldman ER, Anderson GP, Tran PT, Mattoussi H, Charles PT, Mauro JM (2002) Conjugation of luminescent quantum dots with antibodies using an engineered adaptor protein to provide new reagents for fluoroimmuno assays. Anal Chem 74(4):841–847 Huang Y, Cui Y, Lauhon LJ, Kim KH, Lieber CM, Duan X (2001a) Logic gates and computation from assembled nanowire building blocks. Science 294(5545):1313–1317 Huang Y, Duan X, Wei Q, Lieber CM (2001b) Directed assembly of one-dimensional nanostructures into functional networks. Science 291(5504):630–633 Huang S, Cai X, Liu J (2003a) Growth of millimeter-long and horizontally aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes on flat substrates. J Am Chem Soc 125(19):5636–5637 Huang S, Maynor B, Cai X, Liu J (2003b) Ultralong, well-aligned single-walled carbon nanotube Architectureson surfaces. Adv Mater 15(19):1651–1655 Joselevich E, Lieber CM (2002) Vectorial growth of metallic and semiconducting single-wall carbon nanotubes. Nano Lett 2(10):1137–1141 Joselevich E, Dai H, Liu J, Hata K, Windle AH (2008) Carbon Nanotube synthesis and organization. In: Jorio, A., Dresselhaus, G., Dresselhaus, M.S. (eds) Carbon Nanotubes. Topics in Applied Physics (pp. 101–165), vol 111. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. h­ ttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-54 0-72865-8_4 Kim TS, Kim YB, Yoo KS, Sung GS, Jung HJ (2000) Sensing characteristics of DC reactive sputtered WO3 thin films as an NOx gas sensor. Sensors Actuators B Chem 62(2):102–108 Kumar MS, Lee SH, Kim TY, Kim TH, Song SM, Yang JW, Suh EK (2003) DC electric field assisted alignment of carbon nanotubes on metal electrodes. Solid State Electron 47(11):2075–2080 Lam CW, James JT, McCluskey R, Hunter RL (2004) Pulmonary toxicity of single-wall carbon nanotubes in mice 7 and 90 days after intratracheal instillation. Toxicol Sci 77(1):126–134 Li J, Lu Y, Ye Q, Cinke M, Han J, Meyyappan M (2003) Carbon nanotube sensors for gas and organic vapor detection. Nano Lett 3(7):929–933 Link JR, Sailor MJ (2003) Smart dust: self-assembling, self-orienting photonic crystals of porous Si. Proc Natl Acad Sci 100(19):10607–10610 Messer B, Song JH, Yang P (2000) Microchannel networks for nanowire patterning. J Am Chem Soc 122(41):10232–10233 Nam JM, Park SJ, Mirkin CA (2002) Bio-barcodes based on oligonucleotide-modified nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 124(15):3820–3821 Qi P, Vermesh O, Grecu M, Javey A, Wang Q, Dai H, Cho KJ (2003) Toward large arrays of multiplex functionalized carbon nanotube sensors for highly sensitive and selective molecular detection. Nano Lett 3(3):347–351 Quinten M, Leitner A, Krenn JR, Aussenegg FR (1998) Electromagnetic energy transport via linear chains of silver nanoparticles. Opt Lett 23(17):1331–1333 Rajagopalan V, Boussaad S, Tao NJ (2003) Detection of heavy metal ions based on quantum point contacts. Nano Lett 3(6):851–855 Shim M, Shi Kam NW, Chen RJ, Li Y, Dai H (2002) Functionalization of carbon nanotubes for biocompatibility and biomolecular recognition. Nano Lett 2(4):285–288 Suganuma S, Watanabe M, Kobayashi T, Wakabayashi SI (1999) SO2 gas sensor utilizing stabilized zirconia and sulfate salts with a new working mechanism. Solid State Ionics 126(1–2):175–179 Thomas KG, Kamat PV (2003) Chromophore-functionalized gold nanoparticles. Acc Chem Res 36(12):888–898 Tokumasu F, Dvorak J (2003) Development and application of quantum dots for immunocytochemistry of human erythrocytes. J Microsc 211(3):256–261 Ural A, Li Y, Dai H (2002) Electric-field-aligned growth of single-walled carbon nanotubes on surfaces. Appl Phys Lett 81(18):3464–3466 Wang CB, Zhang WX (1997) Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environ Sci Technol 31(7):2154–2156

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Warheit DB, Laurence BR, Reed KL, Roach DH, Reynolds GA, Webb TR (2004) Comparative pulmonary toxicity assessment of single-wall carbon nanotubes in rats. Toxicol Sci 77(1):117–125 Wohlstadter JN, Wilbur JL, Sigal GB, Biebuyck HA, Billadeau MA, Dong L, Wohlstadter SJ (2003) Carbon nanotube-based biosensor. Adv Mater 15(14):1184–1187 Yi JW, Shih WY, Shih WH (2002) Effect of length, width, and mode on the mass detection sensitivity of piezoelectric unimorph cantilevers. J Appl Phys 91(3):1680–1686 Yi JW, Shih WY, Mutharasan R, Shih WH (2003) In situ cell detection using piezoelectric lead zirconate titanate-stainless steel cantilevers. J Appl Phys 93(1):619–625 Zhong Z, Wang D, Cui Y, Bockrath MW, Lieber CM (2003) Nanowire crossbar arrays as address decoders for integrated nanosystems. Science 302(5649):1377–1379

Chapter 2

Fundamental Aspects of Nanocomposite Materials for Environmental Protection and Remediation S. Sudha, M. Bavanilatha, L. Inbathamizh, B. Vishnu Priya, and Sandra Samson

Abstract  Environmental contamination and pollution have been the most discussed and pressing issues all over the world for almost a decade now. There have been multiple attempts at analyzing and coming up with remediation techniques to eradicate the sources contaminating water, air, and land. One such technological innovation is nanocomposites. Nanocomposites provide unique opportunities to create revolutionary material combinations because nanocomposites themselves are heterogeneous materials that are produced by mixtures of polymers and other inorganic products with nanomaterials at the nanoscale. Nanocomposite materials have been under extensive study over the past few years and have emerged as viable means of drinking-water purification, brackish and seawater desalination, and wastewater treatment and reuse. The advanced nanocomposites are able to meet specific environmental remediation techniques by adjusting their structures and physicochemical properties and introducing unique functionalities. This review encompasses all the ways in which nanocomposite materials can be used as weapons for environmental protection and remediation thanks to their unique properties and applications in various environmental fields. Keywords  Pollution · Nanocomposite · Polymer · Environmental remediation · Environmental contaminant

2.1 Introduction Nanotechnology has surfaced as an important tool to approach processes that involve environmental and natural systems. Since 2000, with the enhancement of people’s living quality, chemical assiduity and chemical energy have been S. Sudha (*) · M. Bavanilatha · L. Inbathamizh · B. V. Priya · S. Samson Department of Biotechnology, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. Sadiq Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31111-6_2

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consumed in large amounts, adding pollution and causing energy problems (Guan et al. 2022). The addition of a small number of rigid nanoparticles to polymers significantly improves many of their mechanical properties, especially stiffness and strength. Similar advancements are frequently attributed to the vacuity of large numbers of nanoparticles with huge surface areas compared with their macro- and microscale counterparts. In particular, from a tribological standpoint, the small size of nanoparticles with homogenous dissipation in the matrix and good interfacial adhesion between nanoparticles and matrix are necessary conditions to produce a polymer nanocomposite (Akpan et al. 2019).

2.2 Environmental Hazards Environmental hazards are potential threats to the environment or living species and are due to natural or human-made harms. One or more toxic chemical, biological, or physical agents in the environment combines because of human activities or natural processes, resulting in pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, biological contaminants, toxic waste, and industrial and home chemicals (Schultz and Salazar 1996). There are two types of environmental hazards: (i) Natural hazards are defined as “extreme events that originate in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, or atmosphere” (Wisner et al. 2014), and (ii) technological hazards release toxic materials, leading to episodes of severe contamination, structural collapses, and transportation, construction, or manufacturing accidents (Alexander 2000). The twentieth century has several dramatic examples of technological disasters, including a fatal gas leak, radioactive releases from nuclear plants, and the toxic contamination of a residential neighborhood. The majority of scientific explorations have been undertaken in developed nations, exposing a geographic bias wherein certain populations are closer to these hazards (Hunter 2005).

2.2.1 Environmental Problems For the past few decades, the population around the globe has grown rapidly. Several studies have shown that cities are at crucial levels to address global issues. Cities have most of the industries, where consumption takes place, so city consumption levels are higher. Environmental problems start from behaviors such as garbage collection, water and sewer treatment, and the pricing of various public services. Every day, city managers have the power to make decisions on issues such as building infrastructure facilities, choosing and constructing transportation systems, and purchasing police, fire, and city maintenance vehicles. Building cities on agricultural lands has brought a major downfall in the food sector. As the population increased, demand for individual vehicles has increased and been a major factor in ongoing

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global warming. The burning of fossil fuels, landfills, and waste disposal are additional environmental concerns. E-waste in this era of technological development has raised serious concerns about its disposals too. All these have led to health and sustainability concerns (Bai 2007).

2.2.2 Sources of Pollutants 2.2.2.1 Primary Pollutants These pollutants are directly involved. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)  NOx form when energies are burned at high temperatures. They are emitted by vehicles and by similar artificial sources, such as power plants, artificial boilers, cement kilns, and turbines (Magazzino et al. 2021). Carbon Monoxide  Carbon monoxide, or CO, is a gas that forms from the deficient combustion of energies such as propane, natural gas, gasoline, oil painting, coal, and wood. Volatile Organic Composites  Volatile organic composites (VOCs) are organic molecules, specifically hydrocarbons. Although natural sources account for about 85% of the VOCs in the air, the most reactive, and thus concerning, ones are those produced by human activities. Sulfur Oxides  Sulfur oxides, or SOx, are a group of pollutants that contain both sulfur and oxygen molecules. Sulfur oxides are produced when energies that contain sulfur undergo combustion. Sulfide ores are another major source. Natural sources, including tinderboxes, account for 35–65% of the total sulfur dioxides. Power plants that burn high-sulfur coal are some of the main sources of SOx. Vehicles can also emit such pollutants. Particulate Matter (PM)  Particulate matter, occasionally called flyspeck pollution, or shortened to simply PM, refers to an admixture of solid patches and liquid driblets that can be set up in the air. Some types of particulate matter, such as dust, dirt, soot, and coal ash, are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. As well as containing acids, particulate matter can contain dangerous rudiments such as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, and nickel. Mercury  When the energy sector releases mercury (Hg) as a contaminant, it creates environmental problems. Both humans and natural sources release mercury; burning coal, in specific, releases quite a bit of mercury. In addition to coal burning, humans emit mercury from mining and smelting, cement products, refining oil, and consumer product waste (Magazzino et al. 2021).

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2.2.2.2 Secondary Pollutants Secondary pollutants are formed in the atmosphere. These pollutants are not emitted directly from a source (e.g., vehicles or power plants). Rather, they form as a result of the contaminants emitted from these sources reacting with others in the atmosphere, thus forming a new contaminant. Ozone (O3)  Ozone is a patch made of three oxygen atoms, with the formula O3. Ozone is a reactive oxidant gas naturally produced in trace quantities in the Earth’s atmosphere. Still, the position of it within the atmosphere is pivotal. In the troposphere (the atmospheric layer closest to the Earth’s surface), it can be harmful to humans. In the stratosphere (the atmospheric layer above the troposphere), it is vital to protecting the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Ozone in the stratosphere can referred to as the ozone subcaste. Stratospheric ozone is crucial, and a thinning ozone subcaste can cause problems. The thinning of naturally occurring ozone at the poles (generally known as the ozone hole) is due to photochemical responses with chemicals such to chlorofluorocarbons. A reduction in stratospheric ozone leads to increased UV-B radiation on the Earth’s surface, which can lead to increased rates of skin cancer. That ozone is recovering in the upper atmosphere (repairing the hole in the ozone subcaste) is beneficial, whereas adding ozone in the lower atmosphere is not. Sulfuric Acid and Nitric Acid (Elements of Acid Rain)  Acidic deposits can come from any type rain, snow, sleet, hail, or fog that has a lower pH (and is thus more acidic) than normal. The term acid rain is used for nearly always for all types of acidic deposits. Acid rain is produced when water in the air combines with nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide, two types of pollutants, and then falls to the Earth. These adulterants may also collect on the Earth’s surface, and the rain may combine with them upon reaching the Earth, so the term acid deposit is usually preferred over acid rain. Peroxyacyl Nitrates  Peroxyacyl nitrates, which are also known as acyl peroxy nitrates, or APNs, are elements of photochemical gauze produced in the atmosphere when unpredictable oxidized organic composites combine with nitrogen dioxide. Peroxyacyl nitrates pose numerous threats to the human body, such as reduced respiratory function (including emphysema and bloodied breathing) and eye irritation. Human exposure to peroxyacyl nitrates generally occurs in civic centers where machine and artificial emissions are high because they form when energies are burned at high temperatures. They are also emitted by vehicles and by artificial sources such as power plants, artificial boilers, cement kilns, and turbines (Magazzino et al. 2021).

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2.2.3 Types of Environmental Issues Pollution  Pollution is a byproduct of production, is only gradually dissolved by the environment, and crosses national borders. The market outcome ignores the adverse effects of pollution, so it yields higher levels of output and pollution than would prevail under an international plan that accounted for pollution (Van Der Ploeg and De Zeeuw 1992). Global Warming  Global warming refers to the effect on the climate from certain human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and large-scale deforestation. These human activities emit pollution into the atmosphere as large amounts of gasses, called greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide. These gasses absorb infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface and act as blankets over the surface, keeping it warmer than it would be otherwise. Along with this, the climate also changes (Houghton 2005). Overpopulation  Overpopulation has been a global environmental problem over the past few decades, and it has caused a number of adverse effects on the environment. Overpopulation is due to medical facilities in developed countries and illiteracy in some of the interior regions of developing countries. Overpopulation increases pressure on existing natural resources. Deforestation, climate change, declines in biocapacity, urban sprawl, food security, increases in energy demand, and marine ecosystem damage are among the most severe impacts of overpopulation. Intensive agriculture has been used to lessen the problem, but it instead leads to more damage from the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides (Uniyal et al. 2020). Public Health Issues  A lack of clean water is currently one of the leading environmental problems. Pollutants in the air also cause issues, such as respiratory disease and cardiovascular disease. The presence of certain chemicals in food cause cancer and genetic disorders (Uniyal et  al. 2020). Pollution also presents several health hazards, including vector-borne infectious diseases (e.g., the development of mosquito breeding sites in irrigation channels), exposure to pesticides and various other types of contamination in  locally grown food (from lead and other heavy metals in the soil), and microbiological contamination from the use of human excrement as fertilizer (McMichael 2000).

2.3 Nanocomposites Nanocomposites are heterogeneous (multiphase) materials composed of at least one nanoscale phase (known as a nanofiller) that is dispersed in a second phase (known as a matrix) to obtain a combination of the individual properties of its constituents

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(Safdari et  al. 2018). The term nanocomposites was first coined by Roy and Komarneni et al. in 1983. Nanocomposites are building blocks within the nanometric range that fabricate new materials with better mechanical and physical properties. The solid phases can be amorphous, semicrystalline, or crystalline or combinations thereof. They can be inorganic or organic, or both, and essentially of any composition (Thostenson et  al. 2005). Nanocomposites are compatible with conventional polymer processing, thus avoiding the costly layup required for the fabrication of conventional fiber-reinforced composites (Schaefer and Justice 2007). The use of nanocomposites is on the rise thanks to their improved properties compared with using only the matrix material. The goal of incorporating nanomaterials into a matrix is to exploit some of their exceptional properties in order to synthesize advanced composites. To maximize the potential of nanomaterials for nanocomposite applications, it is crucial to understand the interaction and transfer of stress between the matrix and the nanomaterials as well as the mechanical properties and dispersion of the nanomaterial itself (Uddin et al. 2019).

2.4 Types of Nanocomposites 2.4.1 Metal Matrix Nanocomposites Metal matrix nanocomposites have nanomaterials as the fillers and the metal as the matrices. Metals such as copper, aluminum, iron, and magnesium are used, and their higher temperature and costs are challenging. Copper is ductile in nature and possesses excellent electrical and thermal conductivity but poor strength. Extensive research has been carried out in an attempt to improve its strength by reinforcing it with nanomaterials. Reinforcements at the nano level are of particular interest for magnesium and its alloys because they have poor strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance (Prasad et al. 2022).

2.4.2 Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites Here, the matrix is the polymer. Polymer matrix nanocomposites are the most widely used for study purposes because they are cheap. The polymers used for synthesizing nanocomposites include elastomers, thermoplastics, epoxies, copolymers, and hydrogels. The latest advancements have enhanced the load transfer between the matrix and the reinforcement, resulting in higher strength and stiffness. The versatility of the polymer in reacting with various functional groups makes it easier to improve interaction/adhesion at the interface by treating/functionalizing the nanomaterial (Guan et al. 2022).

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2.4.3 Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites Here, ceramics, both oxides and nonoxides, are used as the matrices. These nanocomposites possess superior high-temperature properties. The presence of impurities in nanomaterial can adversely impact the ceramic properties. Ceramic nanocomposites can be densified through pressure-assisted sintering techniques, such as hot pressing, microwave sintering, and spark plasma sintering. The latter two processes have shorter hold times and lower temperatures, which minimize damage to the CNTs (Uddin et  al. 2019). They are classified into the following categories: (a) Intergranular—reinforcements are distributed at the grain boundaries. (b) Intragranular—reinforcements are dispersed within the grains. (c) Nano/nanocomposites—reinforcements are nanosized and the matrix with grains is in nanoscale, which imparts additional improvements to properties such as machinability and plasticity.

2.5 Properties of Nanocomposites 2.5.1 Mechanical Strength Reinforcing a matrix material by using nanofillers could impart higher effectiveness to reinforcement than microfillers could, thanks to the former’s advanced mechanical properties and novel nanostructures. They have the potential to confer high mechanical strength, even at low concentrations. The mechanical performance of nanocomposites depends greatly on the types of nanofillers and polymeric matrices used (Tjong 2006).

2.5.2 Thermal Stability The increase in the thermal stability of polymer/metal or metal oxide nanocomposites is explained by the formation of polymer–nanoparticle networks in the physical cross-linking of polymer chains through metal particles, which stabilizes the whole system by restricting the thermal motions of polymer chains. The inclusion of the ceramic nanofiller into the more flexible polymer matrix, which has lower thermal resistance, can substantially improve its stiffness and thermal stability. The mechanisms of enhancing the thermal stability of polymers with silica oxide refer to molecular dynamics, physical cross-linking, and specific interactions between the components (Majka et al. 2016).

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2.5.3 Water Sensitivity Water sensitivity is one of the major problems of polysaccharide-based films, which has limited their potential applications. The nanocomposites reduce the active sites that interact with water and increase film hydrophobicity. Many food packaging companies have added nanocomposites to biofilms, decreasing water sensitivity: about 17% of the hydrophobicity is lost. The barrier properties of composites are improved if the filler is less permeable and has good dispersion in the matrix as well as a high aspect ratio (Han et al. 2018).

2.5.4 Toxicity One of the significant challenges of using nanocomposites in environmental remediation techniques is a nanomaterial’s ability to change its chemical properties over time. Some of these changes are harmless, but some of them are toxic. Nanocomposites are checked for various toxicity indicators, such as immunotoxicity, cell toxicity, and genotoxicity. These tests are performed in vitro because in vitro studies are cost-efficient and less complicated (Bahadar et  al. 2016). These tests offer varying results because toxicity is a variable property that depends on multiple factors, such as the composition of the various products used, solubility, pharmacokinetics, and surface chemistry, among others. Apart from these factors, another reason for the variability is that toxicity tests depend on the cell type. If the cell type is not accounted for, the test results will be inaccurate (Kefeni et al. 2020). The toxic properties of nanocomposites, when used in the right dosage and when of the right composition, can be used to attack the cell membrane integrity of organisms; this application is often used in wastewater treatment. Another solution to decrease the toxicity of the nanocomposites is to coat the surfaces because this reduces the reactivity of the nanocomposites (Qu et al. 2013). Nanomaterials can be toxic to humans in several ways. The routes through which they travel in the human body, such as inhaling airborne nanomaterials, ingesting them, and coming into skin contact with them, are very important when studying the nanotoxicology of a nanomaterial (Nguyen-Tri et al. 2020).

2.6 Environmental Remediation Environmental pollution and contamination have been constant and persistent problems for decades because of humankind’s continuous depletion of nonrenewable sources and the ever-increasing demand for these sources. Environmental remediation helps solve these problems by decontaminating media or implementing techniques that remove pollutants.

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Different types of remediation depend on the pollutant and the source that needs remediation. The best way to reduce the ecological impacts of environmental contamination is by creating an efficient remediation system and judiciously using resources that have yet to be contaminated (Fortuna et al. 2011). Detecting these pollutants and ensuring their efficient removal have been the most vital concerns in environmental remediation, which are where nanocomposites play crucial roles because their unique properties (e.g., their small size and their reactivity) offer a plethora of ways to carefully use them in environmental remediation (Liu et  al. 2011). Studies conducted using nanomaterials containing zero-valent iron have shown promising results for environmental remediation (Tratnyek and Johnson 2006).

2.6.1 Types of Remediation Remediation techniques come in different types, depending on the environmental source that needs remediation. They are divided into soil remediation, water remediation, and air remediation, and the remediation techniques focus on the specific pollutants that contaminate and harm the environment. The conventional types of remediation are further divided into in situ versus ex situ. In situ remediation is when the remediation happens at the site of damage from contamination. Ex situ remediation is when the contaminated particle is transported from the site of contamination to another site to undergo remediation processes (Tratnyek and Johnson 2006). Usually, in situ processes are preferred over ex situ because ex situ processes are expensive and time-consuming. Remediation focuses not only on the elimination of the contaminant but also on onsite detection, examination, assessment, cleanup, and development. All these steps differ on the basis of the technique used and the type of source that needs remediation. Conventional remediation methods are time-consuming, whereas nanocomposites are promising because they remediate easily and quickly (Liu et al. 2011). 2.6.1.1 Soil Remediation Humane activities like mining and industrialization have led to the exploitation of soil by polluting it with harmful metals like arsenic, lead, copper, cadmium, mercury, and zinc. These chemicals that soak into the soil become attached to the matrix of the soil and are absorbed by the root of nearby plants. The toxicity of these chemicals leads to the destruction of agricultural lands, making them incapable of producing crops. When crops grown in contaminated lands are consumed, they poison humans, sometimes causing fatalities. Soil pollution has been observed mainly in some of the big cities, because growing industries and factories discard their waste in landfills (Zia-ur-Rehman et al. 2014). Soil remediation is the process of removing all the pollutants that contaminate these lands, making them viable and harmless for crop production.

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2.6.1.2 Water Remediation Water pollution is an ever-increasing global issue. As the population of the world increases, not only does the demand for clean water increase but also the removal of pollutants from water becomes more complex and more difficult. As drinking-water sources become contaminated and water becomes scarce from climate change, water remediation and water reuse arguably become the only solutions to water pollution. Using polluted water even at a small scale can cause waterborne diseases; using polluted water in agricultural fields destroys not only crops but also their soil. Water remediation is the process of detecting, assessing, and eliminating pollutants from water, rendering them harmless (Qu et al. 2013). 2.6.1.3 Air Remediation Industrialization is a threat not only to water and soil but also to clean air. Human activities like burning plastic, coal, and other waste materials release harmful gasses such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and methane, among others (Nguyen-Tri et  al. 2020). When released into the environment, these gasses trap heat, thus increasing the temperature of the planet. This is called global warming, which is an issue all over the world because global warming affects the melting of the ice caps, increasing the UV concentration of sun rays; causes adverse climatic conditions worldwide; and more (Zandalinas et al. 2021). Air remediation takes place mainly by detecting the concentration and composition of the harmful gasses and then converting these gasses into harmless compounds (Nguyen-Tri et al. 2020).

2.6.2 Purpose and Importance of Remediation Remediation is a broad term that refers to repairing something that has been damaged. Environmental remediation can counteract harmful human ventures like industrialization, coal combustion, waste management, using harmful pesticides and fertilizers, disposing of heavy metals, excessively using microplastics, producing antibiotics, using organic pollutants, overconsuming fossil fuels, polluting nonrenewable sources, polluting arable land, and increasing water consumption. These detrimental activities affect the environment in several ways. The pollutants not only directly attack the environment but also weaken the natural benefits of these sources. For example one study showed that pollutants not only directly affect plants through infected soil and water but also weaken plants’ ability to fight pests— thus making them more vulnerable to all kinds of diseases, increasing their abiotic stress factors, and causing natural disasters like drought and soil erosion (Zandalinas et al. 2021). Apart from normal pollutants, there are also a class of distinctive pollutants called persistent organic pollutants (POPs). They are raising even more concerns because they do not abide by the existing techniques of remediation. Their

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unique properties, such as their aversion to degradation; their ability to travel long distances in currents; their ability to bioaccumulate within soil; and their toxicity level are the main causes for such concern. Remediation studies should focus on POPs because these pollutants keep increasing and diversifying, and remediation techniques could be adapted to reduce or eliminate them (Nadal et al. 2015). The paper and pulp industries consume sizable amounts of energy and emit large amounts of harmful greenhouse gasses and other pollutants into nature, contaminating water, soil, and the air. This industry causes some of the highest levels of pollution, harming aquatic wildlife and ecosystems in the water bodies surrounding factories and making huge swathes of land incapable of bearing crops (Gupta et al. 2019). Remediation has multiple purposes apart from removing pollutants from contaminated sources. Green remediation is minimizing the amount of energy consumed by industries and in general, replacing nonrenewable sources with renewable sources, conserving natural sources, studying innovative ways to better recycle materials, reducing waste generation, and finding new ways to use lands and other sources that have been contaminated, either by decontaminating them or by remediating them in other ways (Fortuna et al. 2011).

2.7 Role of Nanocomposites in Environmental Remediation Nanomaterials present a wide variety of opportunities for environmental remediation; mitigating toxicity and eliminating pollutants are the two roles that nanocomposites have played (Tang and Lo 2013). Nanocomposites have shown promising results in eliminating mercury thanks to their small dimensions and their electric, chemical, and mechanical properties (Wang et  al. 2020). Other beneficial properties of nanocomposites for environmental remediation include their removal capacity and their highly reactive nature, which increases the rate at which contaminants are adsorbed because nanomaterials are so versatile that they can be synthesized with any metal. For example, one study showed that because iron is a great degradation agent, using magnetic iron nanocomposites led to the degradation of a wide range of organic and inorganic pollutants. Further, a highly reactive form of nZVI has been proven to degrade some hard pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pesticides (Tang and Lo 2013). Nanocomposites are not only used in the removal of pollutants but also act as sensors, as storage devices, and in other electronics that detect and convert pollutants such as heavy metals (Vickers 2017). Nanocomposites also combine the properties of biopolymer clay with nanotechnology. Hybrid nanocomposites use the microporous and adsorption properties of clay and polymers, and some nanocomposites act as enhanced adsorption tools in pollutant removal (Orta et al. 2020). Even though nanomaterial and nanoproducts have played important roles in environmental remediation, nanocomposites offer a new approach. A nanoparticle is combined with another compound to concentrate on specific issues that

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nanoparticles alone in general cannot. Nanocomposites can be synthesized with a certain enhanced property or be made resistant to a property, like toxicity (Tesh and Scott 2014). Nanotechnology has acted as a savior of natural sources by replacing many conventional remediation methods, which were time-consuming, expensive, and ineffective, with faster methods thanks to the favorable and highly adaptable properties of nanotechnology. Even though new methods have been discovered, the search for more-innovative and faster technologies has not stopped, because the consumption rate of clean water has continued to increase. One such advancement is the usage of zero-valent iron nanoparticles that are built with another support material, thus forming a nanocomposite material that offers remediation properties by acting as a permeable reactive barrier and a point-of-use filter. Apart from this, the simple usage of zero-valent iron nanoparticles has been shown to remove pollutants in bulk from contaminated water (Tesh and Scott 2014). In the process of water remediation, not only can nanocomposites be helpful in the removal of pollutants from water but they are also viable tools in creating a sustainable and efficient water supply system. Nanocomposite sensors can constantly monitor the quality of the water and can act as highly reactive membranes that regularly filter out pollutants and that can prevent the water from being contaminated in the first place. Apart from having direct applications in water remediation, nanocomposites can act as adsorbents and can help create a water supply system that ensures constant decontamination and produces clean water (Qu et al. 2013). Another conventional method that was replaced by nanocomposites is using MoS2-based nanocomposites, in which MoS2 acts as a natural photocatalyst and as an adsorbent thanks to its high surface area, its cost-effectiveness, and its small band gap (Abdel Maksoud et al. 2021). Nanotechnology has used when water has lost its ability to hold the H2O compound, because of oxygen depletion and the excessive nutrients in the water. Treating irreparable wastewater through conventional methods is close to impossible because of the various restrictions that conventional methods come with, such as energy loss, economic, and technological restrictions. Nanocomposites can treat highly damaged wastewater can overcome these restrictions. Polymer-based nanocomposites have also been shown to remove heavy metals at a large scale. Graphene and magnetite, graphene and silicon dioxide, and graphene and titanium dioxide nanocomposites have highly hydrophilic properties, helping to prevent oxygen depletion in wastewater. Apart from this, nanocomposites have direct applications in wastewater treatment, and their presence enhances the activity of conventional treatments like biosurfactants and improves microbial activity (Khodakarami and Bagheri 2021). Soil remediation is the process of regenerating lands and returning them to how they were before they were contaminated. Soil contamination is measured according to how deep the soil is damaged and how well they can be remediated. Soil contamination takes months and sometimes even years because lands cannot be transported and repaired; rather, they need to be taken care of persistently and attentively. Excessive population growth has not only increased the demand for food and crop production but has also advanced the rate at which urbanization has taken

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place. More lands were being acquired to be turned into shelters and other buildings, leaving us with limited land resources that could be used for agriculture (Zia-­ ur-­Rehman et al. 2014). The increased demand for crop production when the limited number of agricultural lands was being used for real estate has put us in a position where farmers have had to substantially increase yields every year, which has given rise to the usage of harmful fertilizers and pesticides—harmful to the land, the plants grown on it, and the animals (including humans) that consume these plants. Apart from this, large amounts of land were also being destroyed by activities like mining, smelting, and the production of semiconductors (Alidokht et al. 2021). Soil remediation, unlike other types of remediation, has to be cost-effective, simple to use, and easy to understand. Also, the products that are produced from these remediation treatments have to be chemically stable and not have negative impacts on the environment or society. That is, sites that undergo remediation should not cause much chaos or public nuisance. Conventional methods, such as the usage of phosphates, though proven to be efficient to a point, complicate the process of remediation, thus encouraging us to consider new methods, such as nanotechnology (Yang et al. 2018). Over the past few decades, the usage of nanocomposites for soil remediation has shown promising results as nanocomposites have the ability to permeate multiple layers of soil thanks to their small size and level of reactivity. One such example is the usage of nanocomposites in eliminating arsenic, which is extremely hard to remove from the soil and also possesses highly toxic properties. It has been proven to be a class 1 carcinogen, is highly volatile, and has, for example, caused 21.4% of deaths in Bangladesh. Nanocomposites have been able to improve the monitoring process of arsenic levels because they end up interacting with a higher number of sites. Nanocomposites have also shown higher adsorption and catalytic activity with arsenic, thus helping us analyze the concentration of contamination in soil. Nanocomposite sensors are more efficient because they improve accuracy and selectivity in the soil. Nanocomposites not only play huge roles in the detection of the concentration of the metals present but also improve accuracy in determining the composition and type of metal produced, which is a new advancement in the field of soil remediation (Alidokht et al. 2021). Nanocomposites also have the ability to cross-link with various other compounds, like microorganisms, bio-based compounds, and metal ions, among others, thus making them extremely efficient to work with, such as in the case of hybrid bio-nanocomposites, which use fungal hyphae and nano-­ hydroxyapatites to eliminate pollutants like cadmium and lead from soil. The remediation properties of fungi in treating contaminated sources are linked with nanocomposites to enhance the properties of the fungi. Aspergillus niger, which acts as a matrix when linked with a nanocomposite, is a functional hybrid nanocomposite that has a variety of applications in soil remediation (Yang et al. 2018). Not only can nanocomposites improve the properties of fungi, but when linked together, they also upgrade the properties of bio-based clay or polymers that remove pollutants such as heavy metals, reactive dyes, pesticides, and even bisphenol. Nanocomposites might be the most efficient discovery yet for soil remediation (Orta et al. 2020).

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Air is the most polluted medium at the moment and easily needs at least another decade to remove the persistent chemical pollutants that are released into the air every day. More specifically, 92% of the population on Earth is currently exposed to air, levels that are less than idea. It has also been reported that 11% of global deaths might be caused by the level of pollution in our atmosphere (Vickers 2017). Air pollution is not a source that can undergo remediation after it has been completely damaged. The atmospheric layers can be restored and air quality can be improved by preventing further damage, but there are very few methods to decontaminate air because contaminated air has both interior and exterior gaseous contaminants. Nanocomposites are used in multiple ways to remediate contaminated air: They not only decontaminate the air but also act as adsorbents, catalysts, filters, and sensors in the process of remediation (Saleem et al. 2022). Of all conventional methods used for air remediation, oxidation has been proven to be the most efficient method because it enables the conversion of the pollutants into harmless compounds without requiring any extra steps or processes. Nanocomposite catalysts are designed to speed up the process of this oxidation reaction, thus enhancing the process and in turn reducing the energy and time required to complete the process. In addition, nanocomposite sensors are used to indicate the radiation levels in the atmosphere, thus alerting us to when the concentration of contaminants is rising. Nanocomposite filters work as efficient filtration systems by constantly filtering out contaminants in a way that is more cost-effective compared with using conventional air filters (Nguyen-Tri et al. 2020). Furthermore, nanocomposites are also linked with nanofibers to create a nanocomposite nanofiber membranes with molybdenum as the chemical compound that has shown promising results when compared with normally electrospun nanofiber membranes in the removal of aerosols from the air. The polymeric nanocomposite matrix has improved the performance of the air filter both for pressure and for capture capacity. They have also proven themselves have self-cleaning properties that not only made them efficient but also decreased labor (Vickers 2017). Furthermore, nanocomposites have proven advances in the removal of mercury from the air. When bio-­ nanocomposites were fabricated and used as catalysts, the results were positive and satisfactory (Wang et al. 2020).

2.8 Synthesis of Nanocomposites Nanoparticles offer resistance against electricity, catalytic resistivity, gas storage, high chemical reactivity, high surface energy, and energy quantization and come in small sizes. To overcome the downsides of certain nanoparticles or to enhance the specific properties of a normal material, nanoparticles are synthesized together to produce high mechanical, physical, and chemical stability (Akpan et  al. 2019). Nanocomposites are materials that have multiple phases, and each phase either is made of a nanomaterial (that is any material with a size less than 100 nm) or contains different materials, depending on the nanocomposite and the purpose of the

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synthesized nanocomposite (Rane et  al. 2018). Nanocomposites in general are a combination of two or more materials, where different types of particles show different specific properties in a nanocomposite, so we tailor nanocomposite materials to specific needs. The other kinds of materials used to make these nanocomposites all have variable properties, and all of them come with a set of limitations (Ravichandran et al. 2018). Nanocomposites are fabricated for a variety of reasons, such as their ability to act as matrices between surfaces and their uses as filters, sensors, and catalysts, among others. Therefore, nanomaterials are cross-linked with a variety of materials that have shown themselves to have favorable properties to the nanocomposite material that needs to be prepared. These materials are classified mainly into metal nanocomposites, ceramic nanocomposites, and polymer nanocomposites. Each type of nanocomposite is produced using multiple well-studied techniques and methods (Rane et al. 2018). The synthesis procedure of these nanocomposite materials is tailored with great care and attention because each material has an optimal reactivity level, an optimal toxicity level, and an optimal chemical imbalance level. These might be unknown because tailoring nanocomposites requires, up to a point, using a trial and error method, which changes the ratio of the nanoparticle or the material used to obtain maximum efficiency in its fabrication (Ponnamma et al. 2019).

2.8.1 Methods Involved in the Synthesis of Nanocomposites Each type of nanocomposite material that is synthesized has a set of well-researched methods that is the most efficient at synthesizing that type of nanocomposite material, irrespective of whether it is a metal-based nanocomposite, a ceramic-based nanocomposite, or a polymer-based nanocomposite (Ponnamma et al. 2019).

2.8.2 Metal Nanocomposites Metal nanocomposites are nanomaterials that are combined with either metals or metal-based products like alloys or matrices of alloy. By doing so, the ductility, strength and toughness of the metal get enhanced (Rane et al. 2018). Spray pyrolysis, high-energy ball milling, infiltration, sol–gel, the colloidal method, rapid solidification, chemical vapor deposition, and physical vapor deposition are the conventional methods of producing metal-based nanocomposites (Fig. 2.1). Most of these processes are used in metallurgy to produce alloys and to produce metals that have high ductility and stability (Rane et al. 2018). Metal-based nanocomposites are also fabricated by using ceramics, which are called metal matrix nanocomposites. They offer us a combination of both the strong ceramic and tough metallic matrix, which improve the original properties of both

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Fig. 2.1  Conventional methods for producing metal-based nanocomposites

the materials. These metallic matric nanocomposites have new methods of synthesis as well (Ravichandran et al. 2018). Liquid-phase processes, solid-phase processes, two-phase processes, deposition techniques, and in situ processes are the five methods that are used to synthesize metal-based matrix nanocomposites (Ravichandran et al. 2018) (Fig. 2.2). One such metal nanocomposite that was successfully synthesized by using conventional methods like sol–gel, wet chemical reduction, direct in situ reduction, and core-assisted reduction was an Ag-based nanocomposite, which showed promising results in thermal decomposition, coreduction, seed-mediated growth, and galvanic replacement (Liao et al. 2019). 2.8.2.1 Ceramic Nanocomposites Ceramic nanocomposites are synthesized such that a ceramic matrix the size of a micron is embedded within the nanoparticles (Palmero 2015). Ceramic nanocomposites are traditionally fabricated by using one of three methods: the powder process, polymer precursor use, and the sol–gel method (Fig. 2.3) (Rane et al. 2018). Ceramic nanocomposites are used mainly in environmental remediation for their ability to grain the growth of nanocrystalline powders that need to be of a certain size and geometry. They are also used because of their hardness, strength, and mechanical properties. The most commonly produced ceramic nanocomposites are aluminum ceramics and zircon ceramic nanocomposites (Palmero 2015). 2.8.2.2 Polymer Nanocomposites Polymers in general have phenomenal mechanical, physical, and chemical properties such as high tensile strength, elasticity, antimicrobial properties, and strong structural orientations. These properties are enhanced by using fillers with these polymers to produce polymer composites, which are usually anything that has the ability to bind with the polymer, such as carbon fibers or even aromatic fibers. When one of these composites is replaced with a nanofiller, it is called a polymer nanocomposite (Hussain 2018). Polymer nanocomposites are usually synthesized by

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Fig. 2.2  Synthesizing methods for metal matrix nanocomposites

Fig. 2.3  Synthesis of ceramic nanocomposites

Fig. 2.4  Synthesizing methods for polymer nanocomposites

using methods such as solution blending, melt blending, the sol–gel method, in situ formation, and in situ intercalative polymerization (Rane et al. 2018) (Fig. 2.4). The polymers that might be selected to make these nanocomposites usually include vinyl polymers, special polymers, and conducting polymers. Apart from the methods above, polymers are also synthesized by using a method called grafting, which is when a monomer is made to bond with a polymer using the chemical method of polymerization. Some examples of polymer nanocomposites are any nanofiller with PCA, PAN, PLA, polyester, polyimide, polyamide, PMMA, etc. (Ravichandran et al. 2018). These polymer nanocomposites have proven to be useful in environmental remediation processes like the removal of heavy metals, the

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adsorption of chemical dyes by acting as a photocatalytic agent, and the degradation of inorganic compounds (Ucankus et al. 2018).

2.9 Recent Advances and Developments In times like these, there is a need to produce novel methods for environmental remediation. Not only are the resources being depleted, but the pollutants that contaminate these resources are also evolving to be more and more fatal. Hence, advancements and developments in technology and nanomaterials need to be addressed and discussed (Jaleh et al. 2021). Nanotechnology is one of the industries with the most advances and developments in the past decade. It has shown prolific growth by possessing extremely versatile abilities, thus proving themselves to be useful in multiple industries, like in the automobile industry, the pharmaceutical industry, metallurgy, and energy devices (Ravichandran et al. 2018). Green chemistry, which aims to eliminate or reduce hazardous materials, has been thoroughly researched to reduce pollutants. Because inorganic chemical syntheses and processes emit harmful waste, new methods that do not involve chemical reactions have been studied. One such discovery is the use of lasers. Laser-based procedures have proven to eliminate chemical residues, and this laser’s properties are enhanced when combined with nanomaterials, producing laser-based nanocomposites. Laser-based methods have not only helped in environmental remediation, but they have also helped in more efficiently creating nanocomposites (Jaleh et al. 2021). Another recent development has created a revolution in carbon-based nanocomposites, Nanocomposites are produced from polyacrylamide and graphene oxide, thus replacing the normal carbon nanotubes because graphene has more heavy metal adsorption and other properties superior to those of normal carbon nanotubes (Manafi et al. 2017). Nanocomposites can also detect pollutants. Recently, a computational analysis of nanocomposites produced exceptionally accurate results in the detection of environmentally polluting gasses (Hussain 2018).

2.10 Future Prospects Nanocomposites show promise in the environmental remediation industry thanks to their opportunities and their ability to bind and work with almost any other material. Nanocomposites are excellent at air remediation by acting as filters, sensors, adsorption materials, and pollution detectors. They are reducing the discharge of harmful wastes and controlling the concentration of contamination. Nanocomposites are being included in almost every aspect of air remediation research, especially their in situ ability to detect pollutants (Saleem et al. 2022). Magnetic nanocomposites are proving to be viable options in the research of eliminating heavy metals from almost any natural source thanks to its ability to be cost-effective and have a large

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adsorption capacity, and magnetic nanocomposites can be recycled as the same permanent magnet can be used multiple times, which conserves energy and mitigates further pollution. Apart from this, magnetic nanocomposites can also be used both in situ and ex situ for environmental remediation (Vickers 2017). Nanocomposites can be synthesized in ways that do not cause further pollution to the environment. Not only are they cost-effective and efficient, but producing nanocomposites by using laser ablation liquid methods also offers us a way to produce them with almost no or very little residue (Jaleh et al. 2021). Polymer-based nanocomposites like chitosan nanocomposites are effective adsorption materials for environmental remediation because they can adsorb different pollutants, such as soluble and insoluble organic pollutants, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals from wastewater. Chitin and especially chitosan have shown promising results in the removal of transition metals that are extremely difficult to remove (Khan et al. 2016).

2.11 Conclusion This review focused on the fundamental aspects of nanocomposites: their surface reactivity, photocatalytic activity, interactions with other molecules and materials, antimicrobial activity, conjugation abilities, permittivity, adsorption, etc. They review also focused on using these properties to design solutions to removing environmental pollutants and to help enhance the process of environmental remediation. According to our extensive review of literature, the results from the reviewed studies have all concluded that nanocomposites are important in environmental remediation. Nanocomposites are impactful in removing a variety of pollutants, including heavy metals, hydrocarbons, microbes, and harmful gasses. It shows promising results in all aspects of water, soil, and air remediation. However, the theoretical methods and results were not practically tested, thus hampering our ability to test how efficient these methods were in the field. But with the few practical and field-­ based results that were analyzed, the combination of a nanoparticle with any other material, like a metal, a polymer, or something ceramic, has proved to increase the reactivity of these materials, thus proving that nanocomposites are better than remediation processes based on individual materials.

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Orta MM, Martín J, Santos JL, Aparicio I, Medina-Carrasco S, Alonso E (2020) Biopolymer-clay nanocomposites as novel and eco-friendly adsorbents for environmental remediation. Appl Clay Sci 198:105838 Palmero P (2015) Structural ceramic nanocomposites: a review of properties and powders’ synthesis methods. Nanomaterials (Basel) 5(2):656–696 Ponnamma D, Cabibihan JJ, Rajan M, Pethaiah SS, Deshmukh K, Gogoi JP, Pasha SKK, Ahamed MB, Krishnegowda J et al (2019) Synthesis, optimization and applications of ZnO/polymer nanocomposites. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 98:1210–1240 Prasad SVS, Prasad SB, Verma K, Mishra RK, Kumar V, Singh S (2022) The role and significance of magnesium in modern day research—a review. J Mag Alloys 10(1):1–61 Qu X, Brame J, Li Q, Alvarez PJ (2013) Nanotechnology for a safe and sustainable water supply: enabling integrated water treatment and reuse. Acc Chem Res 46(3):834–843 Rane AV, Kanny K, Abitha VK, Thomas S (2018) Methods for synthesis of nanoparticles and fabrication of nanocomposites. In: Synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials. Woodhead Publishing, pp 121–139 Ravichandran K, Praseetha PK, Arun T, Gobalakrishnan S (2018) Synthesis of nanocomposites. In: Synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials. Woodhead Publishing, pp 141–168 Safdari M et al (2018) A review on polymeric nanocomposites: effect of hybridization and synergy on electrical properties. In: Carbon-based polymer nanocomposites for environmental and energy applications. Elsevier, pp 113–146 Saleem H, Zaidi SJ, Ismail AF, Goh PS (2022) Advances of nanomaterials for air pollution remediation and their impacts on the environment. Chemosphere 287(2):132083 Schaefer DW, Justice RS (2007) How Nano are nanocomposites? Macromolecules 40(24):8501–8517 Schultz PR, Salazar MK (1996) Nursing, health, & the environment: strengthening the relationship to improve the public’s health. J Nurs Scholarsh 28(1):81–87 Tang SC, Lo IM (2013) Magnetic nanoparticles: Essential factors for sustainable environmental applications. Water Res 47(8):2613–2632 Tesh SJ, Scott TB (2014) Nano-composites for water remediation: a review. Adv Mater 26(35):6056–6068 Thostenson ET, Li C, Chou TW (2005) Nanocomposites in context. Compos Sci Technol 65(3–4):491–516 Tjong SC (2006) Structural and mechanical properties of polymer nanocomposites. Mater Sci Eng R Rep 53(3–4):73–197 Tratnyek PG, Johnson RL (2006) Nanotechnologies for environmental cleanup. Nano Today 1(2):44–48 Ucankus G, Ercan M, Uzunoglu D, Culha M (2018) Methods for preparation of nanocomposites in environmental remediation. In: New polymer nanocomposites for environmental remediation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1–28 Uddin MN, Dhanasekaran PS, Asmatulu R (2019) Synthesis, characterization, and applications of polymer-based biomaterials. Adv Nanotechnol 22:143–182 Uniyal S, Paliwal R, Kaphaliya B, Sharma RK (2020) Human overpopulation: impact on environment. In: Megacities and rapid urbanization: breakthroughs in research and practice. IGI Global, pp 20–30 Van Der Ploeg F, De Zeeuw AJ (1992) International aspects of pollution control. Environ Resour Econ 2(2):117–139 Vickers NJ (2017) Animal communication: when I’m calling you, will you answer too? Curr Biol 27(14):R713–R715 Wang L, Hou D, Cao Y, Ok YS, Tack FMG, Rinklebe J, O’Connor D (2020) Remediation of mercury contaminated soil, water, and air: a review of emerging materials and innovative technologies. Environ Int 134:105281

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Chapter 3

Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture: Current Trends and Future Prospects M. Hemalatha, Vinita, G. Sravanalakshmi, Bhagyajyothi C. Kotibagar, and Megha

Abstract  Nanotechnology has attracted a lot of attention these days because of its varied applications in multiple fields, such as medicine, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, energy, and materials. These nanoparticles, small in size and with wide surface areas, have many potential purposes. Advanced nanoengineering is a useful technology for increasing agricultural output and ensuring sustainability in order to attain food security. The creation of nanochemicals has the potential to improve fertilizers, insecticides, and plant growth. Using nanomaterials to control plant pests, including insects, fungi, and weeds, has recently been thought of as an alternate method. This ultimately aids in boosting plant development and crop yields. In the nutrient management of crops, nanofertilizers can replace the higher usage of fertilizers and agrochemicals by playing prominent roles in enhancing nutrient use efficiency and reducing soil toxicity to conserve soil health. In short, nanomaterials in agriculture provide opportunities for improving crop productivity and maintaining soil health. Hence, in this chapter, applications of nanotechnology on the improvement of soil nutrition and its management in crop production are covered. Keywords  Food security · Nanoparticles · Nanofertilizers · Nutrient management · Nutrient use efficiency · Sustainability M. Hemalatha (*) Department of Seed Science and Technology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India Vinita · G. Sravanalakshmi Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India B. C. Kotibagar Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India Megha Department of Agricultural Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. A. Malik, M. J. Sadiq Mohamed (eds.), Modern Nanotechnology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31111-6_3

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3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is one of the veery promising technologies of the twenty-first century. The Greek word “nano,” which means “dwarf,” is the origin of the term. More specifically, 1  nanometer is equal to 10−9  m, which is approximately a 250 millionth of an inch, or roughly 8 × 10−4 times the diameter of a human hair. Nanotechnology is “a scientific, engineering, and technological study to define the nanomaterial at the nanoscale level, where distinctive effects allow new and more effective utilization in a wide variety of fields, from biology to medicinal science, agriculture, chemistry, physics and electronics” (www.nano.gov). According to this definition, nanotechnology involves the fulfillment of two factors. One is indeed a scale issue: nanotechnology uses structures by manipulating their size and shape at the nanoscale level. The second factor is about novelty because this nanoscale requires nanotechnology to handle small objects in a way that makes use of certain qualities (Allhoff 2007). It is important to understand the difference between nanotechnology and nanoscience. Nanotechnology is the potential to see, analyze, manage, control, put together, and construct materials at the nanoscale level. Nanoscience is a combination of physics, biology, and the materialistic science concerned with the alteration of materials at the basic molecular dimensions. 3.1.1.1 Pioneers of Nanotechnology In 1959, Nobel Prize winner Richard Feynman, a renowned physicist from the United States put forward the idea of nanotechnology. “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” was the title of a lecture that Feynman gave at the California Institute of Technology for the American Physical Society’s annual meeting (Caltech). The question, “Why can’t we write the full 24 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin?” was posed by Feynman in this lecture, and he also sketched out how to use machines to construct smaller machines, all the way down to the molecular level (Feynman 1960). Feynman is regarded as the founder of modern nanotechnology because of this novel concept, which demonstrated that his theories were justified. The word nanotechnology was given and defined by Norio Taniguchi, a Japanese scientist in 1974, after 15 years (Taniguchi et al. 1974). 3.1.1.2 History • In the fourth century CE, the Romans were using nanoparticles and structures; one example is the Lycurgus cup. It is the earliest well-known instance of dichroic glass: in the direct light, the glass appears green, and after the passage of light

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• • • •

• • • • • • •

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through it, it appears purple, indicating that the cup has two hues. Silver and gold nanoparticles cause this color change. Nanowires and nanotubes were primarily responsible for the stainless steel and sharpness of the Damascus sword (Reibold et al. 2006). Michael Faraday created a gold nanosolution in 1857 and reported that there is change in color of gold to red at the nano level (Faraday 1857). However, Richard Feynman launched modern nanotechnology in 1959. Eric Drexler published two novels in 1981: Molecular Manufacturing and Engines of Creation. In 1981, at the IBM Zurich research station, two physicists, named Binnig and Rohrer, created the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Without the use of electron beams or light, the STM enables researchers to scan the exterior surfaces of conductive samples of every atom at extremely high resolution (Binnig et al. 1982). For “their discovery of the STM in 1986,” Binnig and Rohrer were awarded the Nobel Prize in the field of physics. The scanning probe microscope (SPM) and atomic force microscope (AFM) were created as a result of this discovery. The existence of carbon in the form of stable spheres known as carbon buckyballs/ fullerenes (C60) with a diameter of 0.7 nm was found by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto, and Richard Smalley in 1985 (Kroto et al. 1985). In 1989, IMB was the first to show atomic manipulation. IBM employee Don Eigler created the letters of the company’s emblem by manipulating xenon atoms on a nickel surface using an STM (Eigler and Schweizer 1990). The 1990s saw the development of single electron transistors. The creation of carbon nanotubes occurred in 1991 (Iijima 1991). The United States’ National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) was founded in 2000 (www.nano.gov). Work on nanotechnology began at IIT Mumbai (Headquarters) in India in 2010. Professor C.N.R. Rao is referred to as the founder of Indian nanotechnology.

3.1.2 Nanomaterials (NM) A nanomaterial is a type of material with one or more external dimensions or an internal one that could exhibit superior characteristics when compared to their bulk material. 3.1.2.1 Sources (i) Engineered: These NM were purposefully created and developed by humans to have specific desired features. They consist of titanium dioxide and carbon black nanoparticles (Portela et al. 2020).

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(ii) Incidental: Through combustion and vaporization, nanomaterials may unintentionally be created as a consequence of mechanical or industrial operations. Vehicle exhausts, welding gasses, smelting, and combustion processes used in residential solid fuel heating and cooking are some sources of accidental nanoparticles (Farré and Barceló 2012). (iii) Natural: Biological systems frequently contain useful organic nanoparticles. Natural nanomaterials include the wax crystals that cover lotus leaves, spider and spider-mite silk (anon 2013), the “projections” on the bottoms of gecko feet, and some butterfly wings. 3.1.2.2 Types of Nanomaterials (i) Zero-dimensional/nanoscale in three dimensions: All dimensions of nanomaterials are calculated at the nanoscale level (