Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases [1st ed.] 9783030478001, 9783030478018

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Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection Series Editors: Giuseppe Mancia · Enrico Agabiti-Rosei

Enrico Agabiti-Rosei Anthony M. Heagerty Damiano Rizzoni   Editors

Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases

Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection Series Editors Giuseppe Mancia Milano, Italy Enrico Agabiti-Rosei Brescia, Italy

The aim of this series is to provide informative updates on both the knowledge and the clinical management of a disease that, if uncontrolled, can very seriously damage the human body and is still among the leading causes of death worldwide. Although hypertension is associated mainly with cardiovascular, endocrine, and renal disorders, it is highly relevant to a wide range of medical specialties and fields – from family medicine to physiology, genetics, and pharmacology. The topics addressed by volumes in the series Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection have been selected for their broad significance and will be of interest to all who are involved with this disease, whether residents, fellows, practitioners, or researchers. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15049

Enrico Agabiti-Rosei Anthony M. Heagerty  •  Damiano Rizzoni Editors

Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases

Editors Enrico Agabiti-Rosei Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences University of Brescia Brescia Italy

Anthony M. Heagerty Division of Cardiovascular Sciences School of Medical Sciences University of Manchester Manchester UK

Damiano Rizzoni Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences University of Brescia Brescia Italy

ISSN 2366-4606     ISSN 2366-4614 (electronic) Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection ISBN 978-3-030-47800-1    ISBN 978-3-030-47801-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47801-8 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The microcirculation represents a very important part of the vasculature, being directly responsible for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the peripheral tissues as well as for the increase of vascular resistance, which is recognized as the most frequent hemodynamic characteristic of established hypertension. Cardiovascular and metabolic diseases are commonly associated with alterations in the microcirculation, involving small arteries, arterioles, capillaries and postcapillary venules, i.e. vessels with a diameter from about 350 μm to those as small as 6–8 μm. Alterations of the microcirculation in several cardiovascular diseases are diffuse and detectable in all vascular beds which may be assessed by current diagnostic methods. In fact, so far the evaluation of microcirculation in humans has been limited by the relative complexity of the techniques available and by the difficult access to several important vascular beds. New promising diagnostic methods have been recently proposed. The presence of structural alterations in the microcirculation, in terms of remodelling of small arteries and rarefaction of distal microvessels and capillaries, is responsible for resistance to flow and for the maintenance and progressive worsening of hypertension. Moreover, they cause a reduced flow reserve in several important vascular districts, such as the coronary vascular bed. The clinical value of the assessment of alterations in the microcirculation is emphasized by the demonstration of their prognostic significance, by their improvement with some effective drugs and by the possible prognostic meaning of their changes during treatment. This book was conceived to inform readers on the fundamental and updated advances in the pathophysiological mechanisms and the clinical aspects concerning the microcirculation, in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, mainly in hypertension. The book has been written by a group of well-known and most respected European researchers and clinicians in this field. We hope to provide interesting information in order to improve the knowledge in this somewhat neglected part of the circulation, thus allowing a future better diagnosis and management of cardiovascular diseases. Brescia, Italy Brescia, Italy Manchester, UK

Enrico Agabiti-Rosei Damiano Rizzoni Anthony M. Heagerty

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Contents

1 Structure and Function of the Microcirculation ������������������������������������   1 Christian Aalkjaer and Michael J. Mulvany 2 Assessment of Small Artery Structure and Function by Micromyography����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  15 Michael J. Mulvany and Christian Aalkjaer 3 Assessment of Retinal Arteriolar Morphology by SLDF ����������������������  27 Christian Ott and Roland E. Schmieder 4 Assessment of Retinal Arteriolar Morphology by Adaptive Optics Ophthalmoscopy������������������������������������������������������  43 Antonio Gallo, Xavier Girerd, M. Pâques, D. Rosenbaum, and Damiano Rizzoni 5 The Cerebral Microcirculation����������������������������������������������������������������  59 Anne-Eva van der Wijk, Ed VanBavel, and Erik N. T. P. Bakker 6 Role of Inflammation in Microvascular Damage������������������������������������  73 Carmine Savoia 7 Immune Mechanisms in Vascular Remodeling in Hypertension������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  85 Ernesto L. Schiffrin 8 Microvascular Endothelial Dysfunction in Hypertension����������������������  95 Agostino Virdis and Stefano Masi 9 Interrelationships Between Micro- and Macrocirculation�������������������� 103 Stéphane Laurent and Pierre Boutouyrie 10 Alterations in Capillary and Microcirculatory Networks in Cardiovascular Diseases������������������������������������������������������������������������ 121 Bernard I. Levy 11 Microvascular Alterations in Obesity������������������������������������������������������ 137 Gino Seravalle and Guido Grassi

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12 Microvascular Alterations in Diabetes: Focus on Small Resistance Arteries���������������������������������������������������������� 149 Carolina De Ciuceis 13 Cardiovascular Effects of Anti-­angiogenic Drugs���������������������������������� 165 Harry A. J. Struijker-Boudier 14 Pathophysiological Mechanisms Implicated in Organ Damage and Cardiovascular Events���������������������������������������� 173 Reza Aghamohammadzadeh and Anthony M. Heagerty 15 The Role of Perivascular Adipose Tissue in Arterial Function in Health and Disease �������������������������������������������� 191 Claudia Agabiti-Rosei, Clarissa Barp, Sophie N. Saxton, and Anthony M. Heagerty 16 Prognostic Role of Microvascular Damage and Effect of Treatment���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 207 Enrico Agabiti-Rosei, Claudia Agabiti-Rosei, and Damiano Rizzoni

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Structure and Function of the Microcirculation Christian Aalkjaer and Michael J. Mulvany

1.1

Location of Peripheral Resistance

1.1.1 Anatomy The vasculature is usually divided into six categories: conduit arteries, small arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins [1, 2]. The division between conduit arteries and small arteries is arbitrary but commonly placed at the level of arteries with diameter 200 μm. The division between small arteries and arterioles rests on arterioles being defined as vessels with not more than 1–2 layers of smooth muscle [3]. Although previously the ‘microcirculation’ was considered alone to consist of the arterioles, the capillaries and the venules, it is now more often considered to include also the small arteries, at least to the extent that these contribute to the control of the peripheral resistance. ‘Resistance vessels’ are thus taken to include both arterioles and small arteries.

1.1.2 Contribution to Peripheral Resistance A key to determining whether small arteries contribute to control of the peripheral resistance lies in measurement of the intravascular pressure along the vascular tree in order to determine which vessels are responsible. Clearly this is not a trivial task, C. Aalkjaer (*) Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Department of Biomedical Science, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen N, Denmark e-mail: [email protected] M. J. Mulvany Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 E. Agabiti-Rosei et al. (eds.), Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases, Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47801-8_1

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since the microvessels are not normally accessible without anaesthesia-requiring surgery, and the surgery and the probes used to make the measurements may themselves disturb the haemodynamics. In humans it has been possible to make measurements of the pressure in the capillaries of the nailfold of fingers [4] and toes [5] without the use of anaesthesia. These measurements have indicated that nailfold capillary pressure at the apex of the capillary loop ranges from 10.5 to 22.5 mmHg [4] in normotensive individuals and higher in patients with essential hypertension [6] or with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus [7]. Thus some 80% of the systemic blood pressure is dissipated proximal to the capillaries. The questions are: where in the precapillary vasculature does the pressure drop occur, and which vessels are involved in controlling the pressure profile under physiological and pathophysiological conditions? Another question is the extent to which the venules play a role in control of peripheral resistance; as the total venous resistance is around 15% of total peripheral resistance, the contribution may be small, although it could have physiologically important consequences for capillary pressure. There have been few recent direct measurements of small artery pressure, but earlier studies have provided a consistent picture in exposed vascular beds of anaesthetized animals using servo-null measurement techniques [8]. Here a pipette is inserted into a vessel, and the pressure within the pipette is raised to a level required to just prevent outflow of blood; this then corresponds to the intravascular pressure. In the hamster cheek pouch, 7.5% of the precapillary pressure drop occurred in large arteries, 59% in small arteries (diameter ca. 70–300 μm) and 33% in arterioles [9]. These findings in hamster cheek pouch were confirmed by Joyner et al. [10] who found that 54% of the precapillary pressure drop occurred proximal to 1A arterioles (diameter ca. 100 μm) both in normotensive and renal hypertensive animals. Even greater pre-arteriole pressure drops were reported by Gore and Bohlen [9] in rat intestinal muscle (74% of precapillary pressure), consistent with previous measurements in arterioles of a variety of animals in a variety of vascular beds [8]. In the brain, 47% of total resistance in cerebrum and only 25% of total resistance in brain stem were found in vessels proximal to the arterioles [11]. Zweifach [12] found that ca. 40% of precapillary pressure drop occurred proximal to 60-μm arterioles in the cat mesentery. Meininger et al. [13] found that ca. 60% of precapillary pressure drop occurred proximal to 120-μm arterioles in the rat cremaster. Thus these studies indicate that the resistance of pre-arteriolar arteries is a significant portion of the precapillary pressure drop. In contrast, Delano and colleagues found that the pre-arteriolar pressure drop was as little as ca. 15% of precapillary pressure drop in rat tibialis muscle, although higher values were found in other skeletal muscles [14]. The general picture from these studies is that arteries proximal to those with diameter ca. 100 μm contribute substantially to the peripheral resistance, but since these are animal studies made under anaesthesia and substantial surgery, the relevance to the human situation is unclear. An alternative approach is to model the human vasculature as done by Blanco and colleagues [15] in order to make predictions of pressure in the small arteries. In particular, they have modelled the arterial network in the human brain. They predicted that, in the lenticulostriate arteriolar

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bed, about 30% of the precapillary pressure drop occurred proximal to 30/50-μm arteries. In the arterioles of posterior parietal arteriolar bed, the corresponding predictions were 60%. Thus although there are substantial differences between the two vascular beds, these theoretical findings are in general agreement with the experimental animal results, suggesting that in at least some vascular beds a substantial portion of the peripheral resistance lies in vessels proximal to the arterioles. Despite the relevance of this question, it is surprising that there have been so few attempts to obtain information about the role of small arteries in the control of peripheral resistance under physiological conditions. The question was, however, addressed in our laboratory where Christensen and Fenger-Gron developed an ingenious method of measuring in conscious rat’s blood pressure at the base of the mesenteric arcade with indwelling catheters [16, 17]. By the use of appropriate ligations, normal haemodynamics were maintained at the points of measurement. The main finding 5–17 hr. after surgery was that 31% of total pressure drop occurred between the superior mesenteric artery and vessels of diameter ca. 100 μm (Rfeed). Immediately following surgery Rfeed was only 16% indicating the importance of allowing animals to recover from the effects of surgery and anaesthesia. It was also found that the small arteries had specific responses to infusion of agonists (increase in Rfeed: noradrenaline 151%, angiotensin II 0%, serotonin 414%). Spontaneous activity increased Rfeed by 29% and environmental stress (loud noise) by 116%, the latter responses being blocked by prazosin. In our view, these findings provide good evidence for an important role for small arteries not only as part of but also in the control of peripheral resistance. The data, however, refer to a particular vascular bed in a particular animal. Given the large amount of work done on small arteries on the assumption that they are ‘resistance vessels’, it would clearly be useful if further studies be made to address this question.

1.2

Structure of Resistance Vessels

The role of resistance vessel structure in the aetiology of hypertension has been reviewed recently [18] and will be briefly summarized here.

1.2.1 Clinical Studies Measurements of peripheral resistance using forearm plethysmography as pioneered by Folkow [19] have repeatedly indicated a structural basis for increased resistance of the resistance vasculature in essential hypertension. The results were consistent with a narrowing of the resistance vasculature and increase in the wallto-­lumen ratio. Such haemodynamic studies have been extended to other vascular beds, including the coronary circulation where essential hypertension has been shown to be associated with a reduced coronary reserve [20]. An alternative explanation for the increased peripheral resistance in hypertension is rarefaction with fewer parallel-connected vessels, and indeed evidence for rarefaction in essential

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hypertension precedes Folkow’s studies [21]. The presence of rarefaction in hypertension has been widely confirmed [22, 23]. Microvascular rarefaction has two major consequences. Firstly, reduction of arteriolar density increases vascular resistance. Secondly, it disturbs the tissue delivery of oxygen and nutrients, thus contributing to target organ damage in hypertension. The clinical relevance of microvascular structure as a prognostically relevant end point has been recently reviewed [24]. There is also evidence that rarefaction precedes the onset of hypertension [25], suggesting that a primary defect in angiogenic mechanisms could be responsible for the development of hypertension.

1.2.2 Ex Vivo Evidence The structure of resistance vessels has been much studied, in particular as regards changes associated with hypertension. Evidence concerning narrowing of the vessels has been obtained primarily from gluteal biopsies of small arteries [26], findings that have been widely confirmed [27]. The reason for the narrowing of resistance vessels in hypertension appears to be primarily due to changes in structure, and few functional changes have been observed [28]. The structural change is an inward eutrophic remodelling: a reorganization of the VSMC around a narrower lumen [29–31]. Indeed, Schiffrin and co-workers [32] concluded from their observations that small artery structure is one of the first manifestations of target organ damage, occurring before proteinuria or cardiac hypertrophy. Indeed, clinical evidence shows that, compared to controls, excessive microvascular structural abnormalities in the coronary and peripheral circulations are raised proportionally more than the blood pressure also suggesting that structural changes might precede the rise in blood pressure [33]. In addition to these changes in VSMC structure and function, the extracellular matrix is critically important for the altered properties of small arteries in hypertensive subjects. With chronic vasoconstriction, some degree of cell migration, secretion of fibrillar and nonfibrillar components, and rearrangement of extracellular matrix-cell interactions may occur [27]. Data from gluteal subcutaneous small arteries have indicated an age-dependent increase in ROS and in collagen in both EH and NT, greatest in EH [29, 34]. The prognostic value of abnormal small artery structure has been investigated in a number of studies. These studies have shown that an increased media-tolumen ratio of gluteal small arteries is associated with increased cardiovascular risk [35, 36]. Furthermore it was shown that media-to-lumen ratio of small arteries on completion of 1 year of treatment was also predictive of increased cardiovascular risk [37]. There is also evidence that a hypertrophic response of the more proximal small arteries to essential hypertension is predictive of additional cardiovascular risk [38]. Izzard et al. [38] and Mulvany [39] have reviewed the mechanisms of inward eutrophic remodelling of small arteries from essential hypertensive individuals. Their conclusion was that chronic vasoconstriction is the stimulus for a structural

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reduction in lumen diameter, a conclusion supported by more recent experimental studies [40]. The nature of the contractile stimulus is still not fully resolved. Neural or humoral factors may be involved; although, Izzard et al. [38] favour the myogenic properties of the small arteries as the underlying mechanism. The myogenic vasoconstriction could serve to maintain wall stress at constant value.

1.2.3 Direct Observation The retinal microcirculation has long been known to be abnormal in hypertension [41–43] and is an important tissue to study for hypertension-related organ damage [44]. More recently, major advances in the ability to analyse the retinal microcirculation have been developed using scanning-laser Doppler flowmetry (SLDF) [45] and adaptive optics [46]. The findings using these techniques are dealt with elsewhere in this volume (Chaps. 3 and 4).

1.3

Function of Resistance Vessels

1.3.1 Resistance Vessel Tone As discussed above the microcirculation provides the major haemodynamic resistance in the vasculature and is therefore important for determining the blood pressure and the cardiac output. Through differential regulation of the tone of the microcirculation in different organs, the microcirculation furthermore controls the distribution of blood to the different organs. Finally changes in the tone of precapillary arteries and arterioles and the postcapillary venules control the capillary pressure which is important for lymph function, oedema formation, and in the kidney the filtration pressure. Collectively these functions are extremely important for the organism. This statement is underlined by the fact that abnormalities in the microcirculation are important for a large number of diseases with substantial individual and socio-economic impact. The tone of the smooth muscle cells in the arterial wall determines the diameter of the arteries (on the background of the vessel structure) and therefore the hydrodynamic resistance. One might therefore say that the smooth muscle cell is the most important cell in the vascular wall. However, the tone of the smooth muscle cells is controlled by a host of factors released from the endothelium and by different types of nerves—predominantly of the sympathetic branch of the nervous system causing vasoconstriction—but also by vasodilator sensory nerves, sending antidromic signals to the smooth muscle cells. It is therefore evident that also endothelial cells and nerves are of central importance for the hydrodynamic resistance. In the following sections, we will provide a short summary of the most important mechanisms controlling the smooth muscle tone and in particular the mechanisms responsible for oscillation of smooth muscle tone. Such oscillation is seen in many vascular beds and gives rise to vasomotion and flowmotion.

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1.3.2 Contraction of Smooth Muscle Cells The key parameter for contraction is the concentration of free calcium in the cytosol ([Ca2+]i). Ca2+ binds to calmodulin and that complex activates the myosin light chain kinase which phosphorylates the regulatory light chain of myosin to allow interaction between myosin and actin, hence contraction. An understanding of the control of smooth muscle contraction therefore involves an understanding of the control of [Ca2+]i. However, the sensitivity of the contractile machinery to [Ca2+]i can be substantially modified, and it is therefore also important to understand how this [Ca2+]i sensitivity is modified. Flux of Ca2+ from the extracellular space into the smooth muscle cells is a main pathway leading to increase of [Ca2+]i. The main influx pathway is the L-type Ca2+ channel, which opens in response to a depolarization of the cells. When the channel opens Ca2+ runs into the cell down a steep electrochemical gradient and [Ca2+]i increases. There is an associated release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum which contributes to the [Ca2+]i increase. The balance between the two sources of Ca2+ is not well studied and may depend on the agonist. Ca2+ is pumped out of the cells by a Ca2+ ATPase situated in the sarcolemma, while the Ca2+ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by another Ca2+ ATPase sometimes called SERCA. Other channels of the TRP-channel family also contribute to the influx of Ca2+, but it seems that the L-type Ca2+ channels are the functionally most significant, but this may also depend on the agonist used. The main regulation of the Ca2+ sensitivity occurs via inhibition of the myosin light chain phosphatase, which dephosphorylates the myosin light chain [47]. The phosphatase is inhibited after activation of G-coupled vasoconstrictor receptors. A main pathway is via the monomeric G protein RhoA and its associated effector protein Rho-kinase. Rho-kinase dephosphorylates the myosin light chain either directly or via the phosphatase inhibitor CPI-17. The role of Ca2+ sensitivity for resistance vessel tone is substantial and may easily account for 50% or more of the smooth muscle tone in these arteries, indicating that Ca2+-induced activation of the myosin light chain kinase is far from sufficient to release the full potential of the muscle cells.

1.3.3 Vasomotion Vasomotion—the oscillation of vascular tone—is a prominent feature in the microcirculation [48, 49]. Vasomotion gives rise to oscillations of flow in microcirculatory districts, i.e. flowmotion. Vasomotion is prevalent both in vivo and in vitro and is intrinsic to the vascular wall, although the environment modifies the prevalence, amplitude and frequency. Although vasomotion is predominantly seen in the microvasculature, also large arteries [50, 51] exhibit vasomotion, and the first report on vasomotion was in the bat vein [52]. Most if not all microvascular areas may exhibit vasomotion.

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The occurrence of vasomotion leads to two questions: (1) What are the cellular mechanisms that ensure a synchronized oscillation of the smooth muscle cell activity in the vascular wall and (2) what are the consequences of vasomotion, i.e. does vasomotion ensure a better or worse delivery of oxygen and removal of CO2 and other metabolites from tissues? Both questions have at best only partial answers.

1.3.4 W  hat Are the Cellular Mechanisms Responsible for Vasomotion? The cellular mechanisms responsible for vasomotion involve both an oscillator, which sets up an oscillation of tone in the individual smooth muscle cell, and a mechanism that ensures synchronization of the smooth muscle cells oscillatory activity in the vascular wall. Perhaps the only feature related to vasomotion which is agreed by everybody is that an oscillation of the smooth muscle cell membrane potential is the background for the oscillation of the individual smooth muscle cell tone and also for the synchronization of the smooth muscle cells. When the smooth muscle cell membrane potential has been measured during vasomotion, an oscillation has been observed [53–61]. This strongly suggests that [Ca2+]i in the smooth muscle cells is also oscillating in a synchronized manner—and this is indeed the case [62, 63]. This coupling between membrane potential oscillations and oscillations of [Ca2+]i immediately explains why vasomotion is sensitive to L-type Ca2+ channel blockers [64]. The coupling between membrane potential oscillations and oscillations of [Ca2+]i furthermore means that vasomotion only occurs in a situation where the membrane potential oscillation will result in significant changes in the flux of Ca2+ through the L-type Ca2+ channels. This again dictates that vasomotion cannot occur at low and high levels of activation, where the membrane potential may be in a range where it has little effect on [Ca2+]i. The important question is therefore how the oscillation of the membrane potential is set up. This may vary between different vascular beds. Rat mesenteric small arteries exhibit a very prevalent and regular vasomotion both in vivo and in vitro when the arteries are submaximally activated by noradrenaline or another vasoconstrictor. Submaximal activation ensures partial depolarization and therefore brings the smooth muscle cells into a state where membrane potential oscillations will lead to oscillations of [Ca2+]i and consequently tone [62]. In these arteries, we demonstrated how an oscillatory release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum followed by an oscillatory uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum—a so-called cytosolic oscillator—leads to an oscillatory activity of a Ca2+-sensitive conductance in the membrane [62]. The resulting oscillatory current feeds into the neighbouring cells via gap junctions. This causes changes in the membrane potential in these neighbours. The changes in membrane potential facilitate the release and uptake of Ca2+ in the neighbours and in this way entrain the cytosolic oscillators in the smooth muscle cells within the vascular wall [62, 65, 66]. This causes synchronized oscillations in the membrane potential of the smooth muscle cells and vasomotion. The

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model thus combines the cytosolic oscillator with a membrane oscillator, i.e. the oscillation of the Ca2+-activated Cl− conductance to set up vasomotion. Vasomotion is influenced by the endothelium. But while some find that endothelium removal inhibits vasomotion [54, 67–74], others find that endothelial removal has little effect on vasomotion [61, 75–79]. The reason for this ambiguity is not clear. Although differences in arterial preparations (isobaric or isometric, strips or segments of arteries) and animal species investigation may explain some of the ambiguity, since, e.g. vasomotion of rat mesenteric small arteries has been shown to be either endothelial dependent [54] or endothelial independent [77, 79] under seemingly similar conditions. It has been suggested that part of the explanation may be that the absence of endothelium could lead to a contractile state where vasomotion is not feasible [78]. It is possible that removal of the endothelium will depolarize the membrane to a level where oscillations in membrane potential would not lead to oscillations of [Ca2+]I and hence vasomotion. Although this may explain some of the discrepancy, in our hands, even in experiments based on concentration-­ response curves to the vasoconstrictor agonist (thus covering the full range of membrane potentials and secondary messenger activation), vasomotion is still not seen after endothelial removal [68]. Perhaps another explanation may be that vasomotion is critically dependent on minor changes in experimental conditions, e.g. content of physiological solution, stretch of the smooth muscle cells and vasoconstrictor agonist. Thus we have found that vasomotion that occurs in a particular vessel may disappear later during the experiment even though no intervention has been introduced. Also it may be present in blood vessels from one animal but not in the same blood vessel taken from a new animal the next day, or for unknown reason vasomotion may not be present for some months and then suddenly reappear. Some evidence for the type of conditions needed for vasomotion comes from our observation [68] that in rat mesenteric small arteries with the endothelium removed no vasomotion was seen under isometric conditions. However, the presence of 1 mM of the anion transport inhibitor DIDS induced vasomotion which was SCN− sensitive and therefore likely Cl− channel dependent, which is unexpected in the presence of an anion transport inhibitor [68]. Also 10 μM Zn2+ induced vasomotion in the rat mesenteric small arteries without endothelium which was partly SCN− sensitive [68]. Although the mechanism responsible for the DIDS- and Zn2+-induced vasomotion is not known, these observations indicate that even relatively minor changes in experimental conditions may lead to vasomotion reflecting that several pathways may lead to vasomotion. In the rat mesenteric small arteries [54] and also in other blood vessels such as the hamster aorta [50], vasomotion is dependent on a steady supply of cGMP. Importantly this is not the case in all arteries, e.g. the prevalence of vasomotion is enhanced in rat cerebral arteries when cGMP is reduced [80, 81]. The cGMP dependency was used as a means to find the membrane conductance important for vasomotion in rat mesenteric small arteries. It turned out that the smooth muscle cells in rat mesenteric small arteries, and in many other vascular sections, with the exception of pulmonary arteries, have a cGMP-dependent Ca2+-activated Cl− conductance [82, 83]. This conductance is also present in rat colonic smooth muscle

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cells, i.e. not confined to vascular smooth muscle cells [83]. Based on knock-down experiments, it was demonstrated that the cGMP-dependent Ca2+-activated Cl− conductance required the presence of two proteins TMEM16A and bestrophins [84, 85]. TMEM16A is a membrane-bound protein now known to be responsible for Ca2+-activated Cl− conductances in many tissues including vascular smooth muscle cells [86, 87], while the role of bestrophins is still uncertain. However, the presence of bestrophin 3 (and possibly also bestrophins 1 and 2) changes the biophysical and pharmacological profile of the Ca2+-activated Cl− conductance in vascular smooth muscle and makes the current cGMP dependent [84, 88]. Knock-down of TMEM16A reduces the expression of the bestrophins [85]. It is therefore difficult to know whether bestrophins provide a Ca2+-activated Cl− conductance in their own right or are subunits to TMEM16A. The requirement of both of these membrane proteins for vasomotion in rat mesenteric small arteries was demonstrated by the finding that knock-down of the proteins inhibited vasomotion [84, 85]. Using the data obtained in these experiments, it was possible to model vasomotion. This further substantiates the idea that a mixed cytosolic and membrane oscillator with an obligatory role of a cGMP-dependent Ca2+-activated Cl− conductance is the basis for vasomotion at least in rat mesenteric small arteries [65, 66]. It will be important to find out to what extent this model has applicability in other vascular beds. Other models of vasomotion have been suggested, showing that other ion channels, e.g. K+ channels may be important for setting up vasomotion. There is still, however, relatively little experimental support for these alternative models.

1.3.5 Is Vasomotion Good or Bad? Theoretical considerations indicate that the hydraulic conductance is larger in arteries with an oscillating diameter compared with an artery with the same mean diameter where the diameter is constant. This can easily be derived from Poiseuille’s equation and is a reflection of the non-linear relationship between artery diameter and hydraulic conductance. This may not though constitute an important advantage because the mean diameter and thus hydraulic conductance can easily be modified through many pathways. Another potential advantage is that it may be easier to obtain a precise control of haemodynamic resistance in a system with oscillations compared to a steady system. The importance of this is though also difficult to evaluate. So the question of whether vasomotion enhances the delivery of oxygen and substrates to the tissues and enhances the washout of CO2 or vasomotion has proven very difficult to answer unambiguously. Oscillations of [Ca2+]i have, in other cells systems, been shown to encode for transcriptional regulation, and, depending on amplitude and frequency, different transcriptional patterns are activated [89, 90]. The importance of this in vascular smooth muscles is not known, but, in vascular endothelial cells, the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM1) is modulated by the frequency of Ca2+ oscillations for a constant Ca2+ concentration [91]. In smooth muscle cells, the

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amplitude and frequency of the oscillations of [Ca2+]i were decoded by the myosin light chain phosphatase, which will modify the Ca2+-independent contraction of the smooth muscle cells [92]. Also in other cell systems, the frequency of oscillations is decoded by enzymes [93], e.g. oscillating calcium activates both calcineurin and protein kinase II (CaMKII), but increased frequencies shift the magnitude of activation from calcineurin to CaMKII [94]. Furthermore mitochondrial function may also be dependent on the amplitude or frequency of [Ca2+]i oscillations [95]. Whether these effects of [Ca2+]i oscillations are prevalent in vascular smooth muscle cells is unknown.

1.4

Conclusion

The small arteries play a crucial role in the determination of, and control of, peripheral resistance. The resistance they present is the result of interplay between their structural and functional properties. The functional properties are determined by the smooth muscle cells, the endothelial cells and the sympathetic and sensory nerves in the vessel wall predominantly. The interaction between these cell types is dynamic, and often results in the development of an oscillation of vascular tone (vasomotion), which consequently leads to oscillations in flow (flowmotion). It will be one of the tasks of future studies to elucidate the consequences of these dynamic responses of small arteries.

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56. Matchkov VV, Rahman A, Peng H, Nilsson H, Aalkjaer C. Junctional and nonjunctional effects of heptanol and glycyrrhetinic acid derivates in rat mesenteric small arteries. Br J Pharmacol. 2004;142:961–72. 57. Mulvany MJ, Nilsson H, Flatman JA. Role of membrane potential in the response of rat small mesenteric arteries to exogenous noradrenaline stimulation. J Physiol. 1982;332:363–73. 58. Rahman A, Hughes A, Matchkov V, Nilsson H, Aalkjaer C. Antiphase oscillations of endothelium and smooth muscle [Ca2+] in vasomotion of rat mesenteric small arteries. Cell Calcium. 2007;42:536–47. 59. Rahman A, Matchkov V, Nilsson H, Aalkjaer C. Effects of cGMP on coordination of vascular smooth muscle cells of rat mesenteric small arteries. J Vasc Res. 2005;42:301–11. 60. Segal SS, Beny JL.  Intracellular recording and dye transfer in arterioles during blood flow control. Am J Phys. 1992;263:H1–7. 61. Von Der Weid PY, Beny JL. Simultaneous oscillations in the membrane potential of pig coronary artery endothelial and smooth muscle cells. J Physiol. 1993;471:13–24. 62. Peng H, Matchkov V, Ivarsen A, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H. Hypothesis for the initiation of vasomotion. Circ Res. 2001;88:810–5. 63. Schuster A, Oishi H, Beny JL, Stergiopulos N, Meister JJ.  Simultaneous arterial calcium dynamics and diameter measurements: application to myoendothelial communication. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001;280:H1088–96. 64. Gustafsson H, Nilsson H. Rhythmic contractions of isolated small arteries from rat: role of calcium. Acta Physiol Scand. 1993;149:283–91. 65. Jacobsen JC, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H, Matchkov VV, Freiberg J, Holstein-Rathlou NH. Activation of a cGMP-sensitive calcium-dependent chloride channel may cause transition from calcium waves to whole cell oscillations in smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293:H215–28. 66. Jacobsen JC, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H, Matchkov VV, Freiberg J, Holstein-Rathlou NH. A model of smooth muscle cell synchronization in the arterial wall. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007;293:H229–37. 67. Akata T, Kodama K, Takahashi S. Role of endothelium in oscillatory contractile responses to various receptor agonists in isolated small mesenteric and epicardial coronary arteries. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1995;68:331–43. 68. Boedtkjer DM, Matchkov VV, Boedtkjer E, Nilsson H, Aalkjaer C. Vasomotion has chloride-­ dependency in rat mesenteric small arteries. Pflugers Arch. 2008;457:389–404. 69. Haddock RE, Grayson TH, Brackenbury TD, Meaney KR, Neylon CB, Sandow SL, Hill CE. Endothelial coordination of cerebral vasomotion via myoendothelial gap junctions containing connexins 37 and 40. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006;291:H2047–56. 70. Huang Y, Cheung KK. Endothelium-dependent rhythmic contractions induced by cyclopiazonic acid in rat mesenteric artery. Eur J Pharmacol. 1997;332:167–72. 71. Jackson WF. Arteriolar vasomotion: a role for NO in the microcirculation? Resistance arteries, structure and function. In: Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Resistance Arteries; 21–25 May 1991; Rebild, Skorping, Denmark. 1991. p. 199–203. 72. Jackson WF. Role of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in vasomotion. In: Rubanyi GM, editor. Mechanoreception by the Vascular Wall: Futura Publishing Company; 1993. p. 173–95. 73. Mauban JR, Wier WG. Essential role of EDHF in the initiation and maintenance of adrenergic vasomotion in rat mesenteric arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004;287:H608–16. 74. Okazaki K, Seki S, Kanaya N, Hattori J, Tohse N, Namiki A. Role of endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor in phenylephrine-induced oscillatory vasomotion in rat small mesenteric artery. Anesthesiology. 2003;98:1164–71. 75. Freeman KA, Mao A, Nordberg LO, Pak J, Tallarida RJ. The relationship between vessel wall tension and the magnitude and frequency of oscillation in rat aorta. Life Sci. 1995;56:Pl129–34. 76. Omote M, Mizusawa H. The role of sarcoplasmic reticulum in endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent rhythmic contractions in the rabbit mesenteric artery. Acta Physiol Scand. 1993;149:15–21.

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77. Sell M, Boldt W, Markwardt F. Desynchronising effect of the endothelium on intracellular Ca2+ concentration dynamics in vascular smooth muscle cells of rat mesenteric arteries. Cell Calcium. 2002;32:105–20. 78. Seppey D, Sauser R, Koenigsberger M, Beny JL, Meister JJ. Does the endothelium abolish or promote arterial vasomotion in rat mesenteric arteries? Explanations for the seemingly contradictory effects. J Vasc Res. 2008;45:416–26. 79. Seppey D, Sauser R, Koenigsberger M, Beny JL, Meister JJ. Intercellular calcium waves are associated with the propagation of vasomotion along arterial strips. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2010;298:H488–96. 80. Dirnagl U, Lindauer U, Villringer A. Nitric oxide synthase blockade enhances vasomotion in the cerebral microcirculation of anesthetized rats. Microvasc Res. 1993;45:318–23. 81. Lacza Z, Herman P, Gorlach C, Hortobagyi T, Sandor P, Wahl M, Benyo Z.  NO synthase blockade induces chaotic cerebral vasomotion via activation of thromboxane receptors. Stroke. 2001;32:2609–14. 82. Matchkov VV, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H. A cyclic GMP-dependent calcium-activated chloride current in smooth-muscle cells from rat mesenteric resistance arteries. J Gen Physiol. 2004;123:121–34. 83. Matchkov VV, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H. Distribution of cGMP-dependent and cGMP-independent Ca2+ -activated CI– conductances in smooth muscle cells from different vascular beds and colon. Pflugers Arch. 2005;451:371–9. 84. Broegger T, Jacobsen JC, Secher Dam V, Boedtkjer DM, Kold-Petersen H, Pedersen FS, Aalkjaer C, Matchkov VV. Bestrophin is important for the rhythmic but not the tonic contraction in rat mesenteric small arteries. Cardiovasc Res. 2011;91:685–93. 85. Dam VS, Boedtkjer DM, Nyvad J, Aalkjaer C, Matchkov V. TMEM16A knockdown abrogates two different Ca2+ -activated CI– currents and contractility of smooth muscle in rat mesenteric small arteries. Pflugers Arch. 2014a;466:1391–409. 86. Dam VS, Boedtkjer DM, Aalkjaer C, Matchkov V. The bestrophin- and TMEM16A-associated Ca2+ − activated CI– channels in vascular smooth muscles. Channels (Austin). 2014b;8:361–9. 87. Oh U, Jung J. Cellular functions of TMEM16/anoctamin. Pflugers Arch. 2016;468:443–53. 88. Matchkov VV, Larsen P, Bouzinova EV, Rojek A, Boedtkjer DM, Golubinskaya V, Pedersen FS, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H. Bestrophin-3 (vitelliform macular dystrophy 2-like 3 protein) is essential for the cGMP-dependent calcium-activated chloride conductance in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res. 2008;103:864–72. 89. Dolmetsch RE, Xu K, Lewis RS. Calcium oscillations increase the efficiency and specificity of gene expression. Nature. 1998;392:933. 90. Li W-H, Llopis J, Whitney M, Zlokarnik G, Tsien RY. Cell-permeant caged InsP3 ester shows that Ca2+ spike frequency can optimize gene expression. Nature. 1998;392:936. 91. Zhu L, Luo Y, Chen T, Chen F, Wang T, Hu Q. Ca2+ oscillation frequency regulates agonist-­ stimulated gene expression in vascular endothelial cells. J Cell Sci. 2008;121:2511–8. 92. Sward K, Dreja K, Lindqvist A, Persson E, Hellstrand P. Influence of mitochondrial inhibition on global and local [Ca2+]i in rat tail artery. Circ Res. 2002;90:792–9. 93. Smedler E, Uhlen P.  Frequency decoding of calcium oscillations. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014;1840:964–9. 94. Li L, Stefan MI, Le Novere N. Calcium input frequency, duration and amplitude differentially modulate the relative activation of calcineurin and CaMKII. PLoS One. 2012;7:e43810. 95. Collins TJ, Lipp P, Berridge MJ, Bootman MD. Mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake depends on the spatial and temporal profile of cytosolic Ca2+ signals. J Biol Chem. 2001;276:26411–20.

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Assessment of Small Artery Structure and Function by Micromyography Michael J. Mulvany and Christian Aalkjaer

2.1

Introduction

Since Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood and Hales’ first measurements of blood pressure, the basis for the determination and control of peripheral resistance has been an object of intense interest. The classic Langendorff heart preparation was the first to provide information about the resistance of the cardiac vasculature and its response to drugs [1] although the precise location of the responses could not be determined. To obtain information about the location of the resistance, Zimmermann made in vivo measurements in cats of pressure responses in the aorta, the dorsalis pedis artery and a metatarsal vein [2]. This allowed him to calculate total resistance, arterial resistance, small vessel resistance, and venous resistance. To obtain more specific information about the contribution of small arteries, Uchida and colleagues [3] developed a technique for measurement of small artery resistance by dissecting branches of the middle cerebral artery and of mesenteric artery from the mesojejunum. By leaving them attached at one end to the artery from which they branch, it was possible to perfuse them and study changes in their responsiveness. Since the majority of the resistance came from the small arteries diameter 50–250 μm at the end of the preparation, the responses of these to various drugs could be assessed. All these measurements were, however, indirect, and direct measurements of the mechanical responses to drugs were clearly to be preferred.

M. J. Mulvany (*) Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark e-mail: [email protected] C. Aalkjaer Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Department of Biomedical Science, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen N, Denmark e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 E. Agabiti-Rosei et al. (eds.), Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases, Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47801-8_2

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2.2

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 istorical Background for Development H of Micromyography

Direct mechanical measurements on cylindrical smooth muscle tissues were first based on strips taken from large specimens such as bovine and swine bronchi where shortening in response to drugs was measured using a cantilever and a kymograph [4, 5]. Similar isotonic experiments with material from smaller animals were made much later by Castillo and De Beer using rings of guinea pig bronchi connected in chains to amplify the drug-induced isotonic shortening [6]. Furchgott developed a method for experiments with aortae [7] in which the aortic wall was cut in a spiral strip (oriented at about 15 degrees relative to its long axis) to produce a specimen several cm long which could be strung between a fixed point and a suitably loaded cantilever allowing kymograph recordings. This delicate technique was later applied—remarkably—to small arteries diameter 200–300 μm by Bohr and colleagues [8] in a setup allowing isometric measurement of tension. The earliest reference to the use of a ring preparation of an artery we have found is that of Nielsen and Owman who dissected rings of cat middle cerebral arteries which were then slipped onto two prongs of which one was fixed and the other attached to a Statham FT 03C force transducer for measurement of isometric tension [9]. This technique was extended to small vessels by Bevan and Osher [10]. They threaded a rabbit posterior inferior cerebellar small artery (diameter 200 μm) onto two wires, each of which was connected at both ends to one of two plates. One of the plates was fixed, and the other plate was mounted on a Statham G10B strain gauge. The wires were tightened using screws allowing isometric measurement of drug-induced changes in force. The records shown suggest that there may have been considerable noise in the transducer output, but this does not seem to have been investigated in any detail. In any event, these authors did not themselves take their elegant technique further, but the concept was taken up by Mulvany and Halpern [11], who developed (with the important input of toolmaker Mr. Jo Trono, University of Vermont workshop) a stable myograph based on the Bevan and Osher configuration using a sensitive temperature-compensated semiconductor strain gauge (Kistler-Morse DSC6). The myograph was built around a water immersion lens (Zeiss 40x, NA 0.75) which allowed visualization of smooth muscle cells within the vessel wall using Nomarski interference contrast optics, as well as measurements of wall and media thickness of the portion of the vessel that wrapped around the 32-μm tungsten mounting wires. These optics allowed smooth muscle cells in the vascular wall to be visualized (Fig. 2.1). In subsequent years Mulvany and Halpern in collaboration and then separately further developed the myograph (known as the “wire myograph”) and two versions became (and are) commercially available (Danish Myo Technology, Aarhus, Denmark; Living Systems Instrumentation, St. Alban’s, Vermont, USA). A video showing the mounting technique is available: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=fSD1Ee4G6_U. Other companies are also marketing wire myographs (e.g., Radnoti LLC, Covina, CA, USA), but these seem to have been used primarily for investigating larger arteries [13].

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Fig. 2.1  Rat mesenteric small artery mounted on wire myograph under microscope using Nomarski differential contrast optics and Zeiss 40x water immersion lens. The microscope is focused within the upper media. Arrow heads show individual smooth muscle cells. The bar shows 50 μm. Reproduced with permission from [12]

2.3

Wire Myograph

The development of the myograph technique allowed detailed investigations of the structure and function of small arteries [14] in particular as related to abnormalities associated with hypertension. Here small arteries were defined as pre-arteriolar vessels with lumen diameter less than approximately 500 μm. A useful procedure was the use of the passive internal circumference—wall tension relation to estimate— using the Laplace relation, the lumen diameter that the vessel would have had in situ when relaxed and subjected to a specific internal pressure [15], a procedure that has been confirmed [16, 17] and widely cited (1930 citations pr. 27-11-2018, Web of Science). From measurements on the myograph of wall and media thickness, estimates could thus also be made of the physiologically important wall-to-lumen and media-to-lumen ratios [18]. Thus the media-to-lumen ratio of small arteries was found to be increased in animal models of hypertension and that this to some extent could be decreased by antihypertensive treatment [14]. An important extension of the animal studies concerning the remodeling [19] of small arteries came with the development of the human gluteal biopsy which

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allowed measurements of gluteal small arteries in patients with essential hypertension compared to age- and gender-matched controls [20]. Similarly, studies in hypertensive individuals have also been made of small arteries before and after treatment, of which many studies have now been made in different laboratories [21]. These studies have confirmed the animal studies showing that the media-to-lumen ratio of small arteries in essential hypertensive patients is increased and that it can be decreased by blockers of the renin-angiotensin system and by calcium blockers and (to a certain extent) diuretics, but not by beta blockers. The technique has been extensively used to make pharmacological studies. With practice the time taken to dissect and mount vessels is minimal and comparable to traditional aorta ring preparations. Myograph configurations are available that allow simultaneous measurement of four vessels thus allowing large numbers of experiments to be made on tissues relevant for determination and control of the peripheral circulation. The endothelial dependence of responses may be determined by removal or damage of the endothelium by rubbing the lumen either with the end of a wire or a human hair [22]. The geometric arrangement of the myograph makes it suitable for making simultaneous measurements of membrane potential and tension where glass micropipettes can be inserted from above into smooth muscle cells lying in the upper wall of the vessel between the mounting wires [23]. This allows measurement of in situ membrane potential under relaxed conditions and also direct correlation between drug-induced changes in membrane potential and force development. Direct measurement of endothelial membrane potential with microelectrodes is also possible [24]. The development of fluorescent dyes allowed simultaneous measurements of force and of intracellular pH [25] or of free cytosolic calcium [26]. Indeed in some instances, simultaneous measurements of force, cytosolic calcium and membrane potential could be made [27], the measurements showing that, during noradrenaline-­ induced phasic activity, changes in membrane potential preceded changes in cytosolic calcium which in turn preceded changes in tension. Peng and colleagues [28] imaged the calcium using confocal microscopy, which allowed subcellular resolution of calcium transients to be assessed. With this technology calcium waves (perhaps following intermittent release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum) within the smooth muscle cells of mounted small arteries could be observed. These were initially unsynchronized between the vascular smooth muscle cells but later became synchronized to initiate vasomotion. The development of nitric oxide electrodes [29] was further developed to allow simultaneous measurements of nitric oxide release and tension showing that in rat vessels the nitric oxide release did indeed precede the relaxation. On the other hand, in human subcutaneous small arteries [30], the results showed that acetylcholine relaxation is dependent on a non-NO, non-prostanoid endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization. Other parameters can also be measured. Thus, histomorphometric studies using the “disector” method allowed measurement of cell number and size [31]. Mechanical properties of the vessel wall have been evaluated on the basis of the passive wall tension—internal circumference relation and the wall thickness [32]. Developments in biochemical techniques have allowed precision biochemical measurements to be made in 2-mm segments of small arteries under clearly defined mechanical conditions. For example, simultaneous measurements of

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phosphorylation of myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1 (MYPT1-Thr855), phosphorylation of regulatory myosin light chain (MLC2-Ser19), and tension in rat mesenteric small arteries [33]. It was also possible to detect transglutaminases (TG1–TG7) in these vessels by RT-PCR and immunoblotting.

2.4

Pressure Myograph

While the wire myograph technique is relatively simple to use, it is clear that the configuration is far from physiological. Furthermore the contractile mode is (approximately) isometric and unlike the perhaps more physiological isobaric mode; this may be the cause of the apparent difference in sensitivity to drugs between wire myographs and pressure myographs [34]. A closer approximation to the in vivo situation is obtained using the pressure myograph technique. Here vessels are cannulated at each end and held under pressure while being perfused and immersed in the solution contained in the myograph chamber. First developed by Duling for microvessels of diameter 12–112  μm [35], the technique was further developed by Halpern and colleagues to enable continuous electronic measurement of lumen diameter (Fig. 2.2 [36]) so that the vessel response to drugs or to changes Fig. 2.2 Video-imaged mesenteric artery before (upper) and during (lower) a contraction elicited by transmural electrical stimulation. The photographs were taken approximately 10 s apart. Note the selected scan line, windows, slightly offset highlighted portions from which wall thickness and diameter measurements were calculated and recorded. Reproduced with permission from [36]

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in intraluminal pressure could be determined. One advantage of this technique was investigation of the myogenic response of small arteries that is the contractile response produced by a rise in intraluminal pressure [37, 38]. Another advantage is measurement of the response to changes in intraluminal flow [39]. This technique was further developed by VanBavel [40] and further refined by Danish Myo Technology (Aarhus, Denmark) to allow continuous sampling of internal diameter and pressure at 10 Hz [41]. A difficulty with the pressure myograph technique is obtaining precise measurements of the luminal diameter since upon contraction the inner layers become concertinaed. Probably a more precise measurement could be based on measurements of inner and outer diameters while relaxed (these are clearly defined) and then monitoring the outer diameter, that continues to be clearly defined, and calculating the mean inner diameter on the basis that the volume of the wall remains constant; this approach seems, however, not to have been used. For measurements of responses of the endothelium to drugs, it is an advantage if the drugs are applied through the micropipettes perfusing the lumen [42]. A neat method of removing endothelial function is to pass an air bubble through the lumen [43]. Experiments to elucidate the mechanisms of small artery remodeling were performed by subjecting small arteries mounted in a pressure myograph to long-term culture [44]. The measurements showed that inward remodeling of small arteries is related to persistent active reduction in lumen diameter. Comparisons of characteristics obtained using the wire- and pressure-myograph approaches showed that while the passive mechanical characteristics were similar (and that the wire myograph estimates of lumen diameter for a given pressure were similar to those obtained on the pressure-myograph), there were substantial differences in sensitivity to drugs (e.g., the threshold concentration to noradrenaline was an order of magnitude lower on the pressure myograph compared to the wire myograph) [16]. The principle of these pressure myographs has also been used as the basis for instruments developed elsewhere [45]. Other authors have developed an isovolumic myograph, where responses are measured in terms of pressure responses [46]. Günther and colleagues described a “microfluidic platform” for probing small artery structure and function [47]. The mounting procedure is described as semiautomatic, and the authors provided data showing that the instrument allows measurement of contractile responses under conditions where there were dynamic changes in the microenvironment. However, there are few if any reports where this seemingly promising technique has been used. A more recent development for a pressure myograph was division of the superfusion chamber halfway along the vessel into two compartments, allowing an independent superfusion of the arterial segment in each compartment [48]. This study provided support for maintained conduction of vasoactive responses to physiological agonists in rat mesenteric small arteries likely via gap junctions and endothelial cells.

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2.5

21

Assessment of Vascular Structure and Function in Vivo

The in vitro analyses of isolated small arteries and veins have provided important information on small artery function. It is nevertheless the goal to understand how these vessels function in vivo, and in vivo techniques for evaluation of small artery structure and function ought therefore to be developed. In other chapters of this book, the assessment of retinal arteriolar morphology and function with scanning laser Doppler flowmetry (SLDF) and adaptive optics is described. In this section we will discuss how these parameters are measured with intravital microscopy and laser speckle analysis. Intravital microscopy involves visualization of the vasculature using microscopy techniques and is applicable to experimental animals mainly during anesthesia. Laser speckle imaging analyses the speckle pattern obtained when a laser beam is focused on a moving target such as the erythrocytes in the vascular compartment and will not be considered further here. Intravital microscopy has been used systematically to study the microcirculation in vivo for the last ca. 70 years. Assessment of the exteriorized mesenteric circulation from anaesthetized dogs and rodents was pioneered by Zweifach’s laboratory [49–51] and has been used in Zweifach’s laboratory for 50 years. This preparation has also been used extensively by Altura and his associates [52, 53] and several other groups. In this connection it is worth mentioning that Lombard’s laboratory [54] was able to measure membrane potentials of the smooth muscle cells under in vivo conditions using this preparation. Later other microvascular preparations were developed where small arteries and arterioles could be visualized in vivo, e.g., the hamster cheek pouch [55, 56], the mouse cremaster muscle [57, 58], and the gracilis artery [59, 60]. These studies have provided substantial insight into vascular physiology and pharmacology, but it is not the intention in this review to discuss these techniques in detail. Recently we [61] developed a hybrid between the in vitro isolated vessel myographs and the intravital microscopy preparations mentioned above. In this setup, the rats are anesthetized and the intestine exteriorized. A ca. 6 mm long first or second order branch of the mesenteric artery is isolated in a tissue chamber containing ca. 200 μl solution. The entrance and exit from the chamber is sealed with high vacuum grease, so that the artery or vein segment under investigation can be bathed in solutions which are different from the solution bathing the blood vessels outside the chamber and the intestinal wall. It is also possible to expose the segment under investigation to drugs without the drugs affecting the blood vessels outside the chamber or the intestine. In this way the preparation maintains some of the control which is the virtue of the in vitro myograph experiments and at the same time does this with the blood vessels in situ in the living rodent. In this way the effect of various interventions can be assessed under controlled conditions in vivo without the responses being affected by major changes in hemodynamics or metabolism of the tissue supplied by the arteries. Thus, for example, the effect of VEGF [62] or ouabain [63] or the effect of knockout of proteins relevant for vascular tone [64] has been investigated.

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Perspectives

Much of the work elucidating the physiology and pharmacology of the resistance vasculature over the past 40 years worldwide has been performed using the techniques described above. Many laboratories have been involved in developing the techniques as described at the regular meetings of the International Symposia on Resistance Arteries, the proceedings of some of which are referenced here [65–67]. The work has permitted detailed understanding of many of the mechanisms involved in the determination and control of the peripheral resistance and has been extensively used in the development of relevant drugs. This wealth of knowledge now needs to be synthesized to allow better understanding of how the small arteries operate and interact in the intact animal. In vivo techniques need to be developed to allow this. Combination of the in vitro myograph techniques with such in vivo studies in unanesthetized individuals will be the key to further development.

References 1. Langendorff O.  Untersuchungen am überlebenden Säugetierherzen. Pflugers Archiv. 1895;61:291–332. 2. Zimmermann BG. Measurement of total resistance, proximal arterial resistance, small vessel resistance and venous resistance. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1964;146:200–8. 3. Uchida E, Bohr DF, Hoobler SW. A method for studying isolated resistance vessels from rabbit mesentery and brain and their responses to drugs. Circ Res. 1967;21:525–36. 4. Macht DI, Ting GC. A study of antispasmodic drugs on the bronchus. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1921;18:373–98. 5. Trendelenburg P.  Physiologische und pharmakologische Untersuchungen an tier isolierten Bronchialmuskulatur. Archiv für Experimentelle Pathologie Und Pharmakologie. 1912;69:79–107. 6. Castillo JC, De Beer EJ. The tracheal chain; a preparation for the study of antispasmodics with particular reference to bronchodilator drugs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1947;90:104–9. 7. Furchgott RF, Bhadrakom S. Reactions of strips of rabbit aorta to epinephrine, isopropylarterenol, sodium nitrite and other drugs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1953;108:129–43. 8. Bohr DF, Goulet PL, Taquini AC Jr. Direct tension recording from smooth muscle of resistance vessels from various organs. Angiology. 1961;12:478–85. 9. Nielsen KC, Owman C. Contractile response and amine receptor mechanisms in isolated middle cerebral artery of the cat. Brain Res. 1971;27:33–42. 10. Bevan JA, Osher JV. A direct method for recording tension changes in the wall of small blood vessels in vitro. Agents Actions. 1972;2:257–60. 11. Mulvany MJ, Halpern W.  Mechanical properties of vascular smooth muscle cells in situ. Nature. 1976;260:617–9. 12. Mulvany MJ, Warshaw D, Halpern W. Mechanical properties of smooth muscle cells in the wall of arterial resistance vessels. J Physiol. 1978;275:85–101. 13. Pelham CJ, Drews EM, Agrawal DK. Vitamin D controls resistance artery function through regulation of perivascular adipose tissue hypoxia and inflammation. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2016;98:1–10. 14. Mulvany MJ, Aalkjaer C. Structure and function of small arteries. Physiol Rev. 1990;70:921–61. 15. Mulvany MJ, Halpern W. Contractile properties of small arterial resistance vessels in spontaneously hypertensive and normotensive rats. Circ Res. 1977;41:19–26.

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16. Buus NH, Vanbavel E, Mulvany MJ.  Differences in sensitivity of rat mesenteric small arteries to agonists when studied under isobaric and isometric conditions. Br J Pharmacol. 1994;112:579–89. 17. Falloon BJ, Stephens N, Tulip JR, Heagerty AM. Comparison of small artery sensitivity and morphology in pressurized and wire-mounted preparations. Am J Phys Heart Circ Phys. 1995;268:H670–8. 18. Mulvany MJ, Hansen PK, Aalkjaer C. Direct evidence that the greater contractility of resistance vessels in spontaneously hypertensive rats is associated with a narrowed lumen, a thickened media, and an increased number of smooth muscle cell layers. Circ Res. 1978a;43:854–64. 19. Mulvany MJ, Baumbach GL, Aalkjaer C, Heagerty AM, Korsgaard N, Schiffrin EL, Heistad DD. Vascular remodelling (letter to editor). Hypertension. 1996;28:505–6. 20. Aalkjaer C, Heagerty AM, Petersen KK, Swales JD, Mulvany MJ.  Evidence for increased media thickness, increased neuronal amine uptake, and depressed excitation-contraction coupling in isolated resistance vessels from essential hypertensives. Circ Res. 1987;61:181–6. 21. Agabiti-Rosei E, Heagerty AM, Rizzoni D.  Effects of antihypertensive treatment on small artery remodelling. J Hypertens. 2009;27:1107–14. 22. Osol G, Cipolla M, Knutson S. A new method for mechanically denuding the endothelium of small (50-150mym) arteries with a human hair. Blood Vessels. 1989;26:320–4. 23. Mulvany MJ, Nilsson H, Flatman JA. Role of membrane potential in the response of rat small mesenteric arteries to exogenous noradrenaline stimulation. J Physiol. 1982;332:363–73. 24. Dora KA, Xia J, Duling BR. Endothelial cell signaling during conducted vasomotor responses. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2003;285:H119–26. 25. Aalkjaer C, Cragoe EJ. Intracellular pH regulation in resting and contracting segments of rat mesenteric resistance vessels. J Physiol. 1988;402:391–410. 26. Jensen PE, Mulvany MJ, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H, Yamaguchi H. Free cytosolic Ca(2+) measured with Ca(2+)−selective electrodes and fura 2 in rat mesenteric resistance arteries. Am. J Physiol. 1993;265:H741–6. 27. Nilsson H, Jensen PE, Mulvany MJ.  Minor role for direct adrenoceptor-mediated calcium entry in rat mesenteric small arteries. J Vasc Res. 1994;31:314–21. 28. Peng H, Matchkov V, Ivarsen A, Aalkjaer C, Nilsson H. Hypothesis for the initiation of vasomotion. Circ Res. 2001;88:810–5. 29. Simonsen U, Wadsworth RM, Buus NH, Mulvany MJ. In vitro simultaneous measurements of relaxation and nitric oxide concentration in rat superior mesenteric artery. J Physiol. 1999;516:271–82. 30. Buus NH, Simonsen U, Pilegaard HK, Mulvany MJ.  Nitric oxide, prostanoid and non-NO, non-prostanoid involvement in acetylcholine relaxation of isolated human small arteries. Br J Pharmacol. 2002;129:184–92. 31. Mulvany MJ, Baandrup U, Gundersen HJG.  Evidence for hyperplasia in mesenteric resistance vessels of spontaneously hypertensive rats using a 3-dimensional disector. Circ Res. 1985a;57:794–800. 32. Mulvany MJ. Biophysical aspects of resistance vessels studied in spontaneous and renal hypertensive rats. Acta Physiol Scand. 1988;133(suppl 571):129–38. 33. Engholm M, Pinilla E, Mogensen S, Matchkov V, Hedegaard ER, Chen H, Mulvany MJ, Simonsen U. Involvement of transglutaminase 2 and voltage-gated potassium channels in cystamine vasodilatation in rat mesenteric small arteries. Br J Pharmacol. 2016;173:839–55. 34. Koenigsberger M, Sauser R, Seppey D, Beny JL, Meister JJ. Calcium dynamics and vasomotion in arteries subject to isometric, isobaric, and isotonic conditions. Biophys J. 2008;95:2728–38. 35. Duling BR, Gore RW, Dacey RG, Damon DN. Methods for isolation, cannulation, and in vitro study of single microvessels. Am J Physiol. 1981;241:H108–16. 36. Halpern W, Osol G, Coy GS. Mechanical behavior of pressurized in-vitro pre- arteriolar vessels determined with a video system. Ann Biomed Eng. 1984;12:463–79. 37. Osol G, Halpern W.  Myogenic properties of cerebral blood vessels from normotensive and hypertensive rats. Am J Physiol. 1985;249:H914–21.

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38. Wallis SJ, Firth J, Dunn WR. Pressure-induced myogenic responses in human isolated cerebral resistance arteries. Stroke. 1996;27:2287–90. 39. Bevan JA, Joyce EH. Flow-induced resistance artery tone: balance between constrictor and dilator mechanisms. Am J Physiol. 1990;258:H663–8. 40. Vanbavel E, Mooij T, Giezeman MJ, Spaan JA. Cannulation and continuous cross-sectional area measurement of small blood vessels. J Pharmacol Methods. 1990;24:219–27. 41. Christensen FH, Hansen T, Stankevicius E, Buus NH, Simonsen U. Elevated pressure selectively blunts flow-evoked vasodilatation in rat mesenteric small arteries. Br J Pharmacol. 2007;150:80–7. 42. Falloon BJ, Bund SJ, Tulip JR, Heagerty AM. In vitro perfusion studies of resistance artery function in genetic hypertension. Hypertension. 1993;22:486–95. 43. Mcneish AJ, Dora KA, Garland CJ. Possible role for K+ in endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor-linked dilatation in rat middle cerebral artery. Stroke. 2005;36:1526–32. 44. Bakker EN, Van Der Meulen ET, Van Den Berg BM, Everts V, Spaan JA, Vanbavel E. Inward remodeling follows chronic vasoconstriction in isolated resistance arteries. J Vasc Res. 2002;39:12–20. 45. Bell JS, Adio AO, Pitt A, Hayman L, Thorn CE, Shore AC, Whatmore JL, Winlove CP.  Microstructure and mechanics of human resistance arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2016;311:H1560–8. 46. Lu X, Kassab GS. Assessment of endothelial function of large, medium, and small vessels: a unified myograph. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011;300:H94–H100. 47. Gunther A, Yasotharan S, Vagaon A, Lochovsky C, Pinto S, Yang J, Lau C, Voigtlaender-Bolz J, Bolz SS. A microfluidic platform for probing small artery structure and function. Lab Chip. 2010;10:2341–9. 48. Palao T, Van Weert A, De Leeuw A, De Vos J, Bakker E, Van Bavel E. Sustained conduction of vasomotor responses in rat mesenteric arteries in a two-compartment in vitro set-up. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2018;224:e13099. 49. Suzuki H, Schmid-Schonbein GW, Suematsu M, Delano FA, Forrest MJ, Miyasaka M, Zweifach BW. Impaired leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension. 1994;24:719–27. 50. Zweifach BW. Quantitative studies of microcirculatory structure and function. I. Analysis of pressure distribution in the terminal vascular bed in cat mesentery. Circ Res. 1974;34:843–57. 51. Zweifach BW, Lee RE, Hyman C, Chambers R.  Omental circulation in morphinized dogs subjected to graded hemorrhage. Ann Surg. 1944;120:232–50. 52. Altura BM. Selective microvascular constrictor actions of some neurohypophyseal peptides. Eur J Pharmacol. 1973;24:49–60. 53. Altura BM, Hershey SG.  Pharmacology of neurohypophyseal hormones and their syn thetic analogues in the terminal vascular bed. Structure-activity relationships. Angiology. 1967;18:428–39. 54. Lombard JH, Burke MJ, Contney SJ, Willems WJ, Stekiel WJ. Effect of tetrodotoxin on membrane potentials and active tone in vascular smooth muscle. Am J Phys. 1982;242:H967–72. 55. Duling BR. The preparation and use of the hamster cheek pouch for studies of the microcirculation. Microvasc Res. 1973;5:423–9. 56. Fulton GP, Jackson RG, Lutz BR. Cinephotomicroscopy of normal blood circulation in the cheek pouch of the hamster. Science. 1947;105:361–2. 57. Baez S.  An open cremaster muscle preparation for the study of blood vessels by in  vivo microscopy. Microvasc Res. 1973;5:384–94. 58. Grant RT.  Direct observation of skeletal muscle blood vessels (rat cremaster). J Physiol. 1964;172:123–37. 59. Boettcher M, De Wit C. Distinct endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factors emerge in vitro and in  vivo and are mediated in part via connexin 40-dependent myoendothelial coupling. Hypertension. 2011;57:802–8. 60. Henrich HN, Hecke A. A gracilis muscle preparation for quantitative microcirculatory studies in the rat. Microvasc Res. 1978;15:349–56.

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61. Nyvad J, Mazur A, Postnov DD, Straarup MS, Soendergaard AM, Staehr C, Brondum E, Aalkjaer C, Matchkov VV.  Intravital investigation of rat mesenteric small artery tone and blood flow. J Physiol. 2017;595:5037–53. 62. Egholm C, Khammy MM, Dalsgaard T, Mazur A, Tritsaris K, Hansen AJ, Aalkjaer C, Dissing S.  GLP-1 inhibits VEGFA-mediated signaling in isolated human endothelial cells and VEGFA-induced dilation of rat mesenteric arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2016;311:H1214–h1224. 63. Bouzinova EV, Hangaard L, Staehr C, Mazur A, Ferreira A, Chibalin AV, Sandow SL, Xie Z, Aalkjaer C, Matchkov VV.  The alpha2 isoform Na,K-ATPase modulates contraction of rat mesenteric small artery via cSrc-dependent Ca(2+) sensitization. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2018;224:e13059. 64. Dam VS, Boedtkjer DM, Nyvad J, Aalkjaer C, Matchkov V. TMEM16A knockdown abrogates two different Ca(2+)-activated Cl(−) currents and contractility of smooth muscle in rat mesenteric small arteries. Pflugers Arch. 2014;466:1391–409. 65. Mulvany MJ, Strandgaard S, Hammersen F. EDITORSResistance vessels: physiology, pharmacology and hypertensive pathology. Adv Appl Microcirc. 1985;8:1–236. 66. Abstracts from the 11th International Symposium on Resistance Arteries: From Molecular Machinery to Clinical Challenges, September 7–11, 2014, Banff, Alberta, Canada. J Vasc Res, 2014 Banff. 2014 1–156. 67. Withers S, Greenwood I, Mcneish A, Heagerty AM. Abstracts from 12th International Symposium on Resistance Arteries (ISRA 2017), September 3-6, 2017, Manchester, UK. J Vasc Res. 2017;54(Suppl 2):1–62.

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Assessment of Retinal Arteriolar Morphology by SLDF Christian Ott and Roland E. Schmieder

3.1

Introduction

The clinical importance of alterations in the microcirculation, vascular remodeling, are well clinically established [1]. Unfortunately, the gold standard for evaluation of small artery and arteriolar structure of isolated subcutaneous small vessels requires an invasive procedure, namely, the performance of a biopsy of subcutaneous tissue. Hence, this methodology is not suitable for routine patient management and its use is limited to scientific purposes. However, retinal arterioles abnormalities seem to mirror structural changes seen in other end-organ tissues, including subcutaneous tissue [2]. Already in 1939, the exceptional role of retinal arterioles were recognized by Keith et al., “because the arterioles are small and are difficult to visualize in the peripheral organs, for example, in the skin, mucous membranes, and voluntary muscle, the retina, as seen through the ophthalmoscope, offers a unique opportunity for observing these small vessels from time to time. Therefore, we think that certain visible changes of the retinal arterioles have been of exceptional value in affording a clearer clinical conception of altered arteriolar function throughout the body” [3].

C. Ott Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-­ Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Paracelsus Medical University, Nürnberg, Germany e-mail: [email protected] R. E. Schmieder (*) Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-­ Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 E. Agabiti-Rosei et al. (eds.), Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases, Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47801-8_3

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In the last decades, new approaches were developed to detect reliable (early changes of) retinal arteriolar morphology. One of these promising approaches, introduced about two decades ago by our study group, is scanning laser Doppler flowmetry (SLDF) with automated full field perfusion image analysis (AFFPIA). With this technique, assessment of various parameters of retinal arteriolar vascular morphology and function becomes available.

3.2

Assessment of Retinal Arteriolar Morphology

For the assessment of retinal arteriolar morphology, Heidelberg Retina flowmetry (HRF) based on SLDF with a first-class laser light of 670 nm wavelength (Heidelberg Flowmeter, Heidelberg Engineering) is used. An arteriole sized 80–140 μm of the superficial layer in a retinal sample of 2.56 × 0.64 × 0.30 mm is scanned within 2 s at a resolution of 256 points × 64 lines × 128 lines. These scans are performed in the juxtapapillary area 2–3 mm superior to the optic nerve (normally standardized on the right eye) (Fig. 3.1). A distinct length of the arteriole reflecting arteriolar morphology during one heartbeat (systole and diastole) is used, and diameters are assessed every 10 μm. If there is no exact straight line of the specific chosen arteriole length, the software automatically adjusts the cross-sections perpendicular to this line against each other, referring to the cross-section with the lowest y coordinate. Finally, mean of measured diameters are calculated, and standardized average from three singular measurements are used for further analyses. Analyses of diameters are done offline with AFFPIA (current SLDF version 4.0) (Fig.  3.2). Historically, the assessments of outer (vessel) and inner (lumen) retinal arteriolar diameter are possible since SLDF version 3.6/3.7, and, over the years, the software

a

0 [s]

b

d

c

Distance 5 lines 50µm

S D 2

10 µm

mVDd

mLDd

Fig. 3.1 (a) Exemplary retinal image (temporal superior of the optic nerve in the right eye) with marked arteriole (red arrow), venule (blue arrow), and optic nerve (black arrow); green rectangle marks the scanned area. (b) Fragment selection of the arteriole (perfusion image) for assessment of systolic and diastolic structural parameter. (c) Automatically on reflexion image the same vessel fragment (see b) is selected by AFFPIA. (d) Structural parameter analysis (here diastolic phase) of the selected part of the arteriole—mean diastolic vessel (mVD[=OD]d) and lumen diameter (mLD[=ID]d) averaged from every 10 μm distance measurement of the analyzed arteriole fragment (adapted from [4, 40])

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a

29

d

b

c Fig. 3.2  Screenshot of the current AFFPIA version 4.0 program. (a) Reflection image of a retinal sample with a retinal arteriole (blue line within the lumen reflects the specific length of the arteriole that is used for analyses) and venule (wall of the venule is partly marked with blue color). (b) Algorithm of assessment of the outer arteriolar diameter borders (triangles) based on average of all of the blue lines (reflecting the measurements every 10 μm over the specific lengths of the arteriole in reflection images). (c) Algorithm of assessment of the inner arteriolar diameter borders (triangles) based on average of all of the green lines (reflecting the measurements every 10 μm over the specific lengths of the arteriole in perfusion images). (d) Results of arteriolar structural parameters (e.g., WLR)

Table 3.1  Development of the Heidelberg retina flowmetry image automated full field perfusion image analysis (AFFPIA) software AFFPIA software SLDF version 3.3 [53] SLDF version 3.6/3.7 [14] SLDF version 4.0 [4]

Retinal vessel morphology NO One pixel resolution: 10 μm × 10 μm OD with 10 μm accuracy/ID with 0.01 μm interpolated accuracy One pixel resolution: 10 μm × 10 μm OD and ID with the adjusted accuracy (1 μm interpolated)

AFFPIA automated full field perfusion image analysis, OD outer (vessel) diameter, ID inner (lumen) diameter

has undergone further refinements thereby improving accuracy and reliability (Tables 3.1 and 3.2). Notably, in the current software version, the accuracy of lumen measurement decreased from 10 μm (physical resolution of the device) to subpixel accuracy (1 μm) due to the application of a mathematical curve fit model (parabolic function) to the measured data [4]. Thus, the coefficients of variation are now below the threshold set by the European and American Societies of Cardiology [5, 6]. Outer diameter (OD) and inner diameter (ID) are measured in reflection and perfusion images, respectively (Fig. 3.1). The software automatically compares the two images taken in the same retinal area. In more detail, the reflection image is created from the direct current of the Doppler signal and approximates the amount of reflected laser light of the nonmoving tissue. Based on the acute angle between

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Table 3.2 Test-retest results of retinal arteriolar structural parameters (according [4, 40, 45, 51])

Retinal arteriolar parameter OD  Mean  Systole  Diastole ID  Mean  Systole  Diastole WT WLR WCSA ICD CapA RVR

CV (%, mean ± SD) α-CC 5.8 ± 4.0 6.44 ± 3.7 6.61 ± 4.4

0.91 0.83 0.83

6.8 ± 4.1 8.00 ± 3.6 7.98 ± 3.0 8.2 ± 4.1 10.0 ± 3.4 12.5 ± 7.6 3.6 ± 3.0 8.53 ± 5.4 7.75 ± 2.1

0.90 0.84 0.88 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.93 0.87 0.90

CV coefficient of variation, α-CC α-Crombach’s reliability coefficient, OD outer diameter, ID inner diameter, WT wall thickness, WLR wall-to-lumen ratio, WCSA wall cross-­ sectional area, ICD intercapillary distance, CapA capillary area, RVR retinal vascular resistance

reflexion image mean OD

10µm step of measurement

mean OD

perfusion image mean ID

WLR = (OD – ID) / ID mean ID

Fig. 3.3  Scheme of assessment of outer and inner diameter and calculation of WLR (adapted from [52])

light direction and vessel wall border, at the outer vessel wall border is the weakest reflection. The turning points with maximal slope (triangles) are considered for the definition of outer vessel wall border with respect to the largest difference of reflectivity between two points lying side by side. The perfusion image is generated by the Doppler effect caused by moving blood corpuscles. Because blood flow velocity is greatest in the center of the blood vessel, a Poisson velocity distribution of the blood stream within the vessel can be adapted. The crossing points of the parabolic curves (reflecting the velocity distribution of blood flow within the blood vessel) and straight lines (reflecting baseline reflectivity) define the inner vessel wall border (triangles) [7, 8] (Fig. 3.2). Based on such measurement of OD and ID, further retinal structural parameters can be calculated: –– Wall-to-lumen ratio (WLR): (OD − ID)/ID (Figure 3.3)

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–– Wall thickness (WT): (OD − ID)/2 –– Wall cross-sectional area (WCSA): (π/4) × (OD2 − ID2) No mydriatic drugs, with possible interfering effects as well as comprising daily life for the patient, have to be applied for the assessment of retinal arteriolar morphology by SLDF. This is noteworthy to mention, since locally administered tropicamide profoundly affects, by about one-third decrement of retinal capillary flow, and hence pupil dilatation impairs any assessment of retinal microcirculation [9]. Assessment of retinal circulation using SLDF offers several advantages compared to other methods dealing with small (functional and) structural arteriolar alterations, and its scientific value has been proven over the last decades. However, current limitations have to be discussed. The HRF is no longer available on the market, and thus the technical service support of existing devices may be limited over a long time. Also clinical development may be thwarted. Assessment of ID is based on Doppler flow images. Therefore, it has to be taken into account that lower corpuscle velocities at the border of the flow column as well as the plasma edge may impact on assessed diameter [7]. However, it was confirmed that already SLDF version 3.3 is a reliable method to study retinal perfusion [10]. It has to be considered that arteriolar diameters are not assessed in fully relaxed state, as given on wire myograph, but this should be considered as an advantage since ex vivo data may only partially and potentially incorrectly reflect the situation in vivo with its natural metabolic and nerval environment. Nowadays, SLDF with other software (e.g., [2]) as well as other approaches are introduced focusing on retinal arteriolar morphology. For comparison see Table 3.3. However, it has to be kept in mind that methodologies and types of used software differ, and hence, raw data and experiences of various centers may not be simply interchangeable [11].

3.3

Wall-to-Lumen Ratio

In the meantime, several studies have used SLDF-based structural parameters in different conditions and diseases including investigating treatment effects. In this part of this chapter, we will focus on these findings with WLR, as key parameter of retinal arteriolar morphology. There are several reasons for that: –– Media-to-lumen ratio and WLR are the only structural parameters that are independent of vessel dimension, and thus free from possible sampling/assessment bias [12]. –– A close relationship of WLR assessed by SLDF (noninvasive retinal arterioles in vivo) with media-to-lumen ratio measured with myograph (invasively taken subcutaneous small arteries and analyzed in vitro) was demonstrated even when hypertensive patients (r = 0.80, p 500  mg/g creatinine revealed a significantly greater WLR compared to healthy control subjects. Moreover, in these patients with CKD a correlation of WLR with serum phosphate levels, but not with 24-h ambulatory BP, was documented,

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indicating a BP-independent mechanism of hyperparathyroidism on retinal arteriolar structure [33].

3.3.4 Diabetes Analyzing retinal arteriolar morphology in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus revealed that, after adjustments, WLR tended (p = 0.08) to be greater compared to healthy controls but similar to hypertensive patients. Since disease duration may impact on amount of alterations, analyzed patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus were further stratified according median (< vs. >60  months). Again there was a trend (p = 0.08) toward higher gender and age-adjusted WLR values in patients with longer than shorter disease duration [34]. Similarly, patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and disease duration >10 years showed a higher WLR compared to patients with shorter duration [35]. In a placebo-controlled study in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, no effect of saxagliptin monotherapy for 6 weeks on WLR was observed [36]. In another open-label study, vildagliptin but not glimepride given on top of preexisting metformin therapy, resulted in a significant decrement of WLR after 24 weeks, whereas no significant difference of WLR was observed after shorter treatment phase of 12 weeks [37]. This indicates that treatment duration is also of importance.

3.4

Pulsatile Structural Parameters

It is well established that an increased pulsatile pressure induces as well as aggravates (micro-)vascular damage, indicating a close relationship of structural alterations in large and small vessels [38]. Even more, although after adjustments of known cardiovascular risk factors, pulse pressure, and media-to-lumen ratio of subcutaneous arterioles were significantly and independently associated with the occurrence of cardiovascular events [39]. Based on the pathophysiological concept, one of the further advantages is that SLDF enables a dynamic assessment of retinal circulation. By using SLDF, we were able to provide a reliable tool for the noninvasive assessment of pulsatile characteristics of retinal arteriolar structural parameters (Fig. 3.1, Table 3.2). By doing so, the applicability of pulsatile structural components in systole and diastole in clinical research was investigated in two hypertensive groups of different severity, namely, primary hypertension grade 1 and 2 (HTN1–2) and treatment-resistant hypertension (TRH). The measured parameters OD and ID as well as derived parameter WT did not differ between the groups neither in systole nor diastole. In contrast, pulsatile changes of OD and ID were exaggerated, and of WT diminished in TRH compared to HTN1–2, irrespective whether expressed as absolute term or percentage change. In accordance, the pulsatile changes were different between the groups. In HTN1–2 there was no change in OD between systole and diastole, but we observed a significant decrement of ID and

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increment of WT in diastole compared to systole. In contrast, in TRH both OD and ID were significantly higher in systole compared to diastole, which results in an unaltered WT between heart phases. These findings imply stiffer wall properties of retinal arterioles in latter patients [40].

3.5

Capillary Rarefaction

Nowadays, it is acknowledged that capillary rarefaction is of crucial importance in the pathogenesis of end-organ damage due to modulation of pressure and blood flow pattern. Moreover, it affects metabolism [41] and vascular resistance (i.e., BP) [42]. Capillary rarefaction is due to either structural capillary rarefaction, originating from anatomical absence, or functional capillary rarefaction caused by non-­perfused capillaries. In retinal circulation it is postulated that loss of pericytes results in vulnerable capillaries and rarefaction [43] as well as decrement of spontaneously perfused capillaries (due to enhanced contractile activity) [44]. Recently, the SLDF technique of measuring retinal capillary flow (RCF) has been expanded toward assessment of retinal capillary rarefaction. Two parameters have been proposed: intercapillary distance (ICD) and capillary area (CapA) of retinal circulation. Both variables can reliable be assessed (Table 3.2). The assessment of both parameters (ICD and CapA) of capillary rarefaction is taken from perfusion images of pixels. By definition, ICD represents the distance between any pixel outside and the next pixel inside the vessel and is given in the unit μm (Fig. 3.4). The smallest dot of optic solution, where flow can be detected, is defined as one pixel.

Fig. 3.4  Measurement of intercapillary distance in perfusion image with SLDF and calculation of intercapillary distance using AFFPIA. Based on the vessel size, pixels were categorized into pixel inside vessels >20 μm (non-capillary pixel, e.g., arteriolar pixel), pixel inside vessel ≤20 μm (capillary pixel), and pixel outside a vessel (intercapillary pixel)

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SLDF optic solution works in a confocal manner with pixel size 10 × 10 μm, and pixels are located in a depth of 300 μm. Retinal CapA was defined as an area with predominance of vessels ≤20  μm, hence subtracting areas with vessels >20 μm from the total area. CapA is given in number of pixels. In a first study, it was reported that ICD was greater and CapA was smaller in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus compared to healthy, but comparable to extents in hypertensive patients [45]. Taken into account that diseased duration may impact on these early markers of retinal alterations, we have further investigated retinal capillary rarefaction in patients with short- and long-term HTN1–2 compared to healthy controls. There was a significant increment of ICD between healthy subjects and patients with short-term disease duration. Furthermore, ICD was significantly increased in long-term versus short-term duration of hypertension. In contrast, CapA was only significantly smaller in hypertensive patients with long-­ term disease duration compared to healthy controls [46]. In patients with CKD, even after adjustment of clinical characteristics, ICD was greater compared to healthy controls [33]. Drugs targeting the renin-angiotensin system have been shown to ameliorate capillary rarefaction [47]. Therefore, we have expanded our studies regarding retinal capillary rarefaction and analyzed the treatment effect of an angiotensin-­receptor blocker (valsartan) in hypertensive patients. We found that, in accordance with existing literature, valsartan treatment in hypertensive patients decreased ICD and increased CapA compared to baseline values, indicating diminished (functional) retinal capillary rarefaction. In addition, treatment improved both ICD and CapA toward a level that was not different from healthy controls [48]. It has to be kept in mind that SLDF parameters of capillary density depend on perfusion of capillaries and therefore cannot discriminate between structural and functional retinal rarefaction. Nevertheless, the assessment of capillary rarefaction represents an advantage of SLDF compared to other optic systems, such as adaptive optics imaging, that cannot determine perfusion of retinal vessels. Overall, SLDF allows the assessment of several parameters of retinal circulation, even in very early phase of vascular remodeling when structural alterations are not yet assessable by other techniques due to its ability of measuring perfusion of arterioles (down to 20 μm).

3.6

Vascular Resistance

From a pathophysiological viewpoint, structural and functional alterations of small resistance vessels occur early in hypertension, and increased peripheral resistance in the systemic circulation is the hemodynamic hallmark of arterial hypertension [49]. We have applied this concept to the retinal circulation and investigated whether early remodeling of retinal circulation lead to an increased retinal vascular resistance (RVR). It can be assumed that among others (e.g., capillary rarefaction, see above) decreased ID may be caused by rearrangement of smooth muscle cells, but

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without growth response in the early stage of hypertension, as demonstrated in subcutaneous arterioles [50]. Using SLDF, we are able to assess established structural parameters (OD, ID, and WLR) but also to assess RVR, defined as mean arterial pressure divided by RCF, as possible early parameter of vascular remodeling in the retinal circulation. After reliability was proven (Table 3.2), we could show for the first time that RVR was significantly higher in hypertensive compared to normotensive patients, although WLR did not differ. Moreover, in both groups a correlation of RVR with WLR (normotensive: r  =  0.25, p  =  0.09; hypertensive: r  =  0.26, p = 0.004) was found, suggesting that RVR may be a more sensitive marker of early vascular remodeling in retinal arterioles [51].

3.7

Conclusion/Summary

The application of SLDF in vascular disease (i.e., cardiovascular risk factors) allows to assess early functional and structural changes of vascular remodeling in the retinal circulation. For the assessment of morphology, WLR is the key parameter. WLR is increased in hypertension and more sensitive than A/V ratio and corresponds nicely to the media-to-lumen ratio obtained ex vivo by in vitro measurements. The uniqueness of SLDF relies in its ability to measure retinal capillary perfusion. Pulsatile analysis, parameters of capillary rarefaction, and retinal vascular perfusion emerge as early indicators of vascular remodeling in the retinal circulation.

References 1. Agabiti-Rosei E, Rizzoni D. Microvascular structure as a prognostically relevant endpoint. J Hypertens. 2017;35:914–21. 2. Rizzoni D, Porteri E, Duse S, De Ciuceis C, Rosei CA, La Boria E, Semeraro F, Costagliola C, Sebastiani A, Danzi P, Tiberio GA, Giulini SM, Docchio F, Sansoni G, Sarkar A, Rosei EA. Relationship between media-to-lumen ratio of subcutaneous small arteries and wall-to-­ lumen ratio of retinal arterioles evaluated noninvasively by scanning laser doppler flowmetry. J Hypertens. 2012;30:1169–75. 3. Keith NM, Wagener HP, Barker NW.  Some different types of essential hypertension: their course and prognosis. Am J Med Sci. 1939;197:332–43. 4. Harazny JM, Raff U, Welzenbach J, Ott C, Ritt M, Lehmann M, Michelson G, Schmieder RE. New software analyses increase the reliability of measurements of retinal arterioles morphology by scanning laser Doppler flowmetry in humans. J Hypertens. 2011;29:777–82. 5. Apple FS, Wu AH, Jaffe AS. European society of cardiology and american college of cardiology guidelines for redefinition of myocardial infarction: how to use existing assays clinically and for clinical trials. Am Heart J. 2002;144:981–6. 6. Alpert JS, Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP. Myocardial infarction redefined--a consensus document of the joint european society of cardiology/american college of cardiology committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:959–69. 7. Michelson G, Warntges S, Baleanu D, Welzenbach J, Ohno-Jinno A, Pogorelov P, Harazny J. Morphometric age-related evaluation of small retinal vessels by scanning laser doppler flowmetry: determination of a vessel wall index. Retina. 2007;27:490–8. 8. Ritt M, Schmieder RE. Wall-to-lumen ratio of retinal arterioles as a tool to assess vascular changes. Hypertension. 2009;54:384–7.

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9. Harazny JM, Schmieder RE, Welzenbach J, Michelson G. Local application of tropicamide 0.5% reduces retinal capillary blood flow. Blood Press. 2013;22:371–6. 10. Kreis AJ, Nguyen T, Rogers S, Wang JJ, Harazny J, Michelson G, Farouque HM, Wong TY. Reliability of different image analysis methods for scanning laser doppler flowmetry. Curr Eye Res. 2008;33:493–9. 11. Harazny JM, Schmieder RE. Interpretation of noninvasive retinal microvascular studies: the individual source of the automatic full field imaging analysis program has to be taken into account. J Hypertens. 2018;36:2277. 12. Schiffrin EL, Hayoz D. How to assess vascular remodelling in small and medium-sized muscular arteries in humans. J Hypertens. 1997;15:571–84. 13. Ritt M, Harazny JM, Ott C, Schlaich MP, Schneider MP, Michelson G, Schmieder RE. Analysis of retinal arteriolar structure in never-treated patients with essential hypertension. J Hypertens. 2008;26:1427–34. 14. Harazny JM, Ritt M, Baleanu D, Ott C, Heckmann J, Schlaich MP, Michelson G, Schmieder RE. Increased wall:lumen ratio of retinal arterioles in male patients with a history of a cerebrovascular event. Hypertension. 2007;50:623–9. 15. Roman MJ, Devereux RB, Kizer JR, Lee ET, Galloway JM, Ali T, Umans JG, Howard BV. Central pressure more strongly relates to vascular disease and outcome than does brachial pressure: the strong heart study. Hypertension. 2007;50:197–203. 16. Wang KL, Cheng HM, Chuang SY, Spurgeon HA, Ting CT, Lakatta EG, Yin FC, Chou P, Chen CH. Central or peripheral systolic or pulse pressure: which best relates to target organs and future mortality? J Hypertens. 2009;27:461–7. 17. Huang CM, Wang KL, Cheng HM, Chuang SY, Sung SH, Yu WC, Ting CT, Lakatta EG, Yin FC, Chou P, Chen CH. Central versus ambulatory blood pressure in the prediction of all-cause and cardiovascular mortalities. J Hypertens. 2011;29:454–9. 18. Ott C, Raff U, Harazny JM, Michelson G, Schmieder RE.  Central pulse pressure is an independent determinant of vascular remodeling in the retinal circulation. Hypertension. 2013;61:1340–5. 19. Salvetti M, Agabiti Rosei C, Paini A, Aggiusti C, Cancarini A, Duse S, Semeraro F, Rizzoni D, Agabiti Rosei E, Muiesan ML. Relationship of wall-to-lumen ratio of retinal arterioles with clinic and 24-hour blood pressure. Hypertension. 2014;63:1110–5. 20. Prejbisz A, Harazny J, Szymanek K, et al. Retinal arteriolar structure in patients with pheochromocytoma. J Hypertens. 2015;33:e102. 21. Gosk-Przybylek M, Harazny J, Binczyk E, et al. Retinal arteriolar structure in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Hypertens. 2015;33:e103. 22. Warchol-Celinska E, Gosk-Przybylek M, Harazny J, et al. Evaluation of retinal microperfusion and arteriolar structure in patients with fibromuscular dysplasia—the polish registry for Fibromuscular dysplasia (ARCADIA-POL STUDY). J Hypertens. 2017;35:e267. 23. De Ciuceis C, Savoia C, Arrabito E, Porteri E, Mazza M, Rossini C, Duse S, Semeraro F, Agabiti Rosei C, Alonzo A, Sada L, La Boria E, Sarkar A, Petroboni B, Mercantini P, Volpe M, Rizzoni D, Agabiti RE. Effects of a long-term treatment with aliskiren or ramipril on structural alterations of subcutaneous small-resistance arteries of diabetic hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 2014;64:717–24. 24. De Ciuceis C, Salvetti M, Rossini C, Muiesan ML, Paini A, Duse S, La Boria E, Semeraro F, Cancarini A, Rosei CA, Sarkar A, Ruggeri G, Caimi L, Ricotta D, Rizzoni D, Rosei EA. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on microvascular structure, central blood pressure and oxidative stress in patients with mild essential hypertension. J Hypertens. 2014;32:565–74. 25. De Ciuceis C, Salvetti M, Paini A, Rossini C, Muiesan ML, Duse S, Caletti S, Coschignano MA, Semeraro F, Trapletti V, Bertacchini F, Brami V, Petelca A, Agabiti Rosei E, Rizzoni D, Agabiti RC. Comparison of lercanidipine plus hydrochlorothiazide vs. Lercanidipine plus enalapril on micro and macrocirculation in patients with mild essential hypertension. Intern Emerg Med. 2017;12:963–74. 26. Agabiti-Rosei E, Heagerty AM, Rizzoni D.  Effects of antihypertensive treatment on small artery remodelling. J Hypertens. 2009;27:1107–14.

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27. Jumar A, Ott C, Kistner I, Friedrich S, Schmidt S, Harazny JM, Schmieder RE. Effect of aliskiren on vascular remodelling in small retinal circulation. J Hypertens. 2015;33:2491–9. 28. Baleanu D, Ritt M, Harazny J, Heckmann J, Schmieder RE, Michelson G. Wall-to-lumen ratio of retinal arterioles and arteriole-to-venule ratio of retinal vessels in patients with cerebrovascular damage. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009;50:4351–9. 29. van Sloten TT, Sedaghat S, Laurent S, London GM, Pannier B, Ikram MA, Kavousi M, Mattace-Raso F, Franco OH, Boutouyrie P, Stehouwer CDA. Carotid stiffness is associated with incident stroke: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66:2116–25. 30. Paini A, Muiesan ML, Agabiti-Rosei C, Aggiusti C, De Ciuceis C, Bertacchini F, Duse S, Semeraro F, Rizzoni D, Agabiti-Rosei E, Salvetti M. Carotid stiffness is significantly correlated with wall-to-lumen ratio of retinal arterioles. J Hypertens. 2018;36:580–6. 31. Hillege HL, Fidler V, Diercks GF, van Gilst WH, de Zeeuw D, van Veldhuisen DJ, Gans RO, Janssen WM, Grobbee DE, de Jong PE, Prevention of R, Vascular End Stage Disease Study G. Urinary albumin excretion predicts cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality in general population. Circulation. 2002;106:1777–82. 32. Ritt M, Harazny JM, Ott C, Schneider MP, Schlaich MP, Michelson G, Schmieder RE. Wall-­ to-­lumen ratio of retinal arterioles is related with urinary albumin excretion and altered vascular reactivity to infusion of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor n-monomethyl-l-arginine. J Hypertens. 2009;27:2201–8. 33. Bosch A, Scheppach JB, Harazny JM, Raff U, Eckardt KU, Schmieder RE, Schneider MP. Retinal capillary and arteriolar changes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Microvasc Res. 2018;118:121–7. 34. Jumar A, Ott C, Kistner I, Friedrich S, Michelson G, Harazny JM, Schmieder RE. Early signs of end-organ damage in retinal arterioles in patients with type 2 diabetes compared to hypertensive patients. Microcirculation. 2016;23:447–55. 35. Stefanski A, Harazny J, Wolf J et al. Impact of type 1 diabetes and its duration on wall-to-­ lumen ratio of retinal arterioles. submitted. 36. Ott C, Raff U, Schmidt S, Kistner I, Friedrich S, Bramlage P, Harazny JM, Schmieder RE.  Effects of saxagliptin on early microvascular changes in patients with type 2 diabetes. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2014;13:19. 37. Berndt-Zipfel C, Michelson G, Dworak M, Mitry M, Loffler A, Pfutzner A, Forst T. Vildagliptin in addition to metformin improves retinal blood flow and erythrocyte deformability in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus—results from an exploratory study. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2013;12:59. 38. O'Rourke MF, Safar ME. Relationship between aortic stiffening and microvascular disease in brain and kidney: cause and logic of therapy. Hypertension. 2005;46:200–4. 39. Rizzoni D, Porteri E, Boari GE, De Ciuceis C, Sleiman I, Muiesan ML, Castellano M, Miclini M, Agabiti-Rosei E. Prognostic significance of small-artery structure in hypertension. Circulation. 2003;108:2230–5. 40. Harazny JM, Ott C, Raff U, Welzenbach J, Kwella N, Michelson G, Schmieder RE. First experience in analysing pulsatile retinal capillary flow and arteriolar structural parameters measured noninvasively in hypertensive patients. J Hypertens. 2014;32:2246–52. discussion 2252 41. Clark MG, Barrett EJ, Wallis MG, Vincent MA, Rattigan S. The microvasculature in insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Semin Vasc Med. 2002;2:21–31. 42. Serne EH, Gans RO, ter Maaten JC, Tangelder GJ, Donker AJ, Stehouwer CD. Impaired skin capillary recruitment in essential hypertension is caused by both functional and structural capillary rarefaction. Hypertension. 2001;38:238–42. 43. Schrimpf C, Teebken OE, Wilhelmi M, Duffield JS. The role of pericyte detachment in vascular rarefaction. J Vasc Res. 2014;51:247–58. 44. Debbabi H, Uzan L, Mourad JJ, Safar M, Levy BI, Tibirica E. Increased skin capillary density in treated essential hypertensive patients. Am J Hypertens. 2006;19:477–83. 45. Jumar A, Harazny JM, Ott C, Friedrich S, Kistner I, Striepe K, Schmieder RE. Retinal capillary rarefaction in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0162608.

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46. Bosch AJ, Harazny JM, Kistner I, Friedrich S, Wojtkiewicz J, Schmieder RE. Retinal capillary rarefaction in patients with untreated mild-moderate hypertension. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2017;17:300. 47. Battegay EJ, de Miguel LS, Petrimpol M, Humar R. Effects of anti-hypertensive drugs on vessel rarefaction. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2007;7:151–7. 48. Jumar A, Harazny JM, Ott C, Kistner I, Friedrich S, Schmieder RE.  Improvement in retinal capillary rarefaction after valsartan treatment in hypertensive patients. J Clin Hypertens. 2016;18:1112–8. 49. Folkow B. Regulation of the peripheral circulation. Br Heart J. 1971;33(Suppl):27–31. 50. Schiffrin EL. Remodeling of resistance arteries in essential hypertension and effects of antihypertensive treatment. Am J Hypertens. 2004;17:1192–200. 51. Kannenkeril D, Harazny JM, Bosch A, Ott C, Michelson G, Schmieder RE, Friedrich S. Retinal vascular resistance in arterial hypertension. Blood Press. 2018;27:82–7. 52. Ott C, Schmieder RE. Retinal circulation in arterial disease. In: Berbari A, Mancia G, editors. Arterial disorders: Springer; 2015. 53. Michelson G, Welzenbach J, Pal I, Harazny J. Automatic full field analysis of perfusion images gained by scanning laser doppler flowmetry. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:1294–300. 54. Koch E, Rosenbaum D, Brolly A, Sahel JA, Chaumet-Riffaud P, Girerd X, Rossant F, Paques M. Morphometric analysis of small arteries in the human retina using adaptive optics imaging: relationship with blood pressure and focal vascular changes. J Hypertens. 2014;32:890–8. 55. Muraoka Y, Tsujikawa A, Kumagai K, Akiba M, Ogino K, Murakami T, Akagi-Kurashige Y, Miyamoto K, Yoshimura N.  Age- and hypertension-dependent changes in retinal vessel diameter and wall thickness: an optical coherence tomography study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2013;156:706–14.

4

Assessment of Retinal Arteriolar Morphology by Adaptive Optics Ophthalmoscopy Antonio Gallo, Xavier Girerd, M. Pâques, D. Rosenbaum, and Damiano Rizzoni

4.1

Introduction

The use of retinal digital image analysis has become increasingly common over the past decade thanks to the development of novel imaging techniques that are more reliable than previous micrometric. In 2010 a novel and extremely promising approach was made commercially available: the direct measurement of wall-to-lumen ratio (WLR) of retinal arterioles using an adaptive optics ophthalmoscopy (AOO) imaging system [1, 2]. This is a considerably improved version of a traditional fundus camera based on an approach originally applied to correct for aberrations in astronomic optical systems [3], allowing to investigate vessels from 20 μm to over 150 μm of diameter [4]. A. Gallo (*) · D. Rosenbaum Cardiovascular Prevention Unit, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, APHP, Paris, France Sorbonne Université, UPMC Université Paris 06, INSERM 1146, CNRS 7371, Laboratoire d’imagerie Biomédicale, Paris, France e-mail: [email protected] X. Girerd Cardiovascular Prevention Unit, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, APHP, Paris, France e-mail: [email protected] M. Pâques Unité INSERM 968 Institut de la vision – Centre d’Investigation Clinique 503 Centre Hospitalier National des Quinze-Vingts, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France D. Rizzoni Clinica Medica, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy Division of Medicine, Istituto Clinico Città di Brescia, Brescia, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 E. Agabiti-Rosei et al. (eds.), Microcirculation in Cardiovascular Diseases, Updates in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Protection, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47801-8_4

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Adaptive optics ophthalmoscopy allows a differentiation of the arteriolar wall from other perivascular structures providing more information about the vessel diameter than just the transition in contrast at the border of the blood column [5].

4.2

Measured Variables for Retinal Microcirculation Analysis

The near-histologic resolution of AOO images allows the measurement of many arteriolar and venular parameters, as detailed in Table 4.1. Wall thickness (WT) is directly measured as the difference between the outer diameter and the inner diameter. A venular wall is not visible, which makes the analysis of venular wall not possible. Both internal (ID) and outer diameters (OD) are automatically measured by an algorithm of localization that is based on the gradient of intensity of the reflected light from the lumen (central axial reflection) and the walls (of smaller intensity). If the ID may be available for both arterioles and venules, this is not the case for the OD, available only for arterioles due to the lack of a visible venular wall along the vessel. Measured variables include: WLR, the main validated remodeling index, which consists of the ratio between the directly measured arteriolar WT and the arteriolar ID; wall cross-sectional area (WCSA), derived from both arteriolar ID and OD, which is an indirect measurement of the vascular mass; arterio-­venous ratio (AVR), which is expressed as the ratio between both arteriolar and venular IDs, possibly an indirect measurement of arterio-venous interaction. Being wall and lumen directly measured, a coefficient of variation is also possible to calculate, although this measurement is still not automatically performed by the machine. It is derived by three consecutive measurements realized along the vascular segment captured on the same image and is an index of vascular wall or diameter variability. A detailed procedure of vascular image acquisition with AOO is detailed in the Appendix 4.1.

4.2.1 Validation of AOO Measurements Validation studies in humans by direct comparison of AOO within single and multiple operators have been performed. A coefficient of variation