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English Pages 193 [197] Year 1996
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Mexico's Hidden Revolution
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A Title from the Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies
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Mexico's Hidden Revolution The Catholic Church in Law and Politics Since 1929 Peter Lester Reich
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Some images in the original version of this book are not available for inclusion in the netLibrary eBook. Copyright©1995 by University of Notre Dame Press Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 All Rights Reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress CataloginginPublicationData Reich, Peter L., 1955– Mexico's hidden revolution : the Catholic Church in law and politics since 1929 / by Peter Lester Reich. p. cm. "A title from the Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies." Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0268014183 (alk. paper) 1. Catholic Church—Mexico—History—20th century. 2. Church and state—Mexico—History—20th century. 3. Mexico—Politics and government—20th century. I. Title. BX1428.2.R44 1995 322'.1'09720904—dc20 9516516 CIP The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.481984.
Page v All discord, harmony not understood. . . . Alexander Pope An Essay on Man
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Contents
Preface
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1. Introduction
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2. Prelude: Religious Crisis and Compromise, 1521–1929
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3. PostArreglo Calm, 1929–31
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4. Anticlerical Resurgence and Lay Reaction, 1931–35
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5. The New Modus Vivendi, 1935–42
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6. Regional and Local Cooperation, 1929–42
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Appendix: State Restrictions On Priests
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7. Acción Católica: The Organized Laity in the Service of Cooperation, 1929–42
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8. The Church in Politics since 1942
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9. Conclusion
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Notes
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Bibliography
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Index
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Preface The idea for this book originated while I was traveling through rural Mexico in 1978, accompanied by a copy of Graham Greene's dramatic novel The Power and the Glory. I was struck by the contrast between Greene's description of 1930s governmental anticlericalism and the many public instances of ChurchState collaboration evident in the newspapers of the late 1970s. This study is an attempt to resolve this apparent contradiction through a historical analysis of the relationship between religion and politics in Mexico since 1929. My research in Mexico was conducted under the auspices of FulbrightHays and Social Science Research Council fellowships, and for this assistance I am extremely grateful. Numerous archivists and librarians helped me not only to gain access to, but to understand, previously unconsulted materials. Of these individuals, three stood out as particularly generous with their time and friendship: Licenciado Jorge Álvarez of the Archivo Plutarco Elías Calles, Mexico, D.F.; Padre Isaac Rogel of the Biblioteca del Seminario Conciliar, Tlalpan, D.F.; and Padre Manuel Velázquez of the Secretariado Social Mexicano, San Jerónimo, D.F. This work is based on a University of California, Los Angeles, doctoral dissertation written under the skillful guidance of Professor James W. Wilkie, whose knowledge of Mexico in the 1930s, and of the mechanics of historical fieldwork and writing, is unsurpassed. I am also grateful for the perspectives and support of the other members of my doctoral committee: Professors Norris Hundley, James Lockhart, David E. López, and Johannes Wilbert. Fellow graduate students in Latin American history at UCLA also contributed much helpful commentary and friendship over the years. I would particularly like to thank Jeffrey
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Bortz, Marshall Eakin, Manuel García y Griego, Daniel Geffner, and Stephen Haber. At the University of California, Berkeley, Boalt Hall School of Law, Professor Harry N. Scheiber showed me how history and law could be interrelated and mutually enlightening. My current home institution, Whittier Law School, and particularly Dean John A. FitzRandolph, have been unstinting in their support for this and other projects. My editors at the University of Notre Dame Press, John McCudden and Ann Rice, were thorough and precise. Their attention to detail greatly improved the manuscript. The book could not have been completed without the active complicity of my family. My mother, my late father, my wife, Alisa, and my sons, Gabriel and Eli, all cheered me on in their own special ways.
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One— Introduction This book examines the contribution of the Catholic Church to the emergence of the modern State in twentiethcentury Mexico. Following the 1910 Revolution, the Constitution of 1917 reflected many revolutionaries' desire to limit the Church's economic power, political activities, and social authority. Yet despite the new legal restrictions, freshly uncovered primary sources discussed in this work reveal an informal system of collaboration that has preserved ecclesiastical influence and aided federal development policy. Current scholarly interpretations and official Mexican government ideology portray the postrevolutionary period, particularly the 1930s, as a time of intense Church State conflict, when the Constitution's anticlerical provisions were strictly enforced. This traditional view maintains that, during the thirties, national leaders of the State (the federal executive, legislature, and judiciary) and the Church (the episcopate) manifested extreme hostility and unwillingness to compromise over the enforcement of the laws, until President Lázaro Cárdenas personally eased tensions near the decade's end. 1 Historians have expanded this theory of conflict to assume that, at the regional level, a radical anticlericalism pervaded the entire country.2 These writers have also neglected any influence of Catholic lay organizations in mitigating the supposed antagonism.3 Thus, the prevailing scholarly explanation depicts postrevolutionary Mexico as deeply polarized over the Catholic Church's proper constitutional role. However, observers of contemporary Mexico have noticed that though much of the 1917 Constitution remains, its anticlerical provisions have not been enforced,4 and that Church and government now give each other public support on a variety of current issues.5 This
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cooperation is exemplified by a 1980 circular from the Cardinal Archbishop of Mexico exhorting the faithful to participate in the national census under penalty of losing their eternal souls. 6 Similarly, the dominant Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) has lent political leverage to the Church's stand against the legalization of abortion, even allowing the Archbishop to address the Chamber of Deputies on the subject.7 These types of exchanges on numerous topics have occurred between national ecclesiastical leaders and federal authorities, at regional and local levels, and through the medium of Catholic lay associations.8 But the existing scholarly literature of ''conflict" in the 1930s does not attempt to explain how the present collaborative relationship came about. This study demonstrates that the current ChurchState arrangement is based on a network of extralegal compromises developed between 1929 and 1942 to evade the Constitution and its implementing legislation. The cooperation of the Thirties has remained undiscovered by historians because they have based their analyses only on newspaper reports, memoirs, and secondary accounts which perpetuate the "official" Church and government polemical view of this period.9 These scholars have read the restrictive laws literally, as if always enforced, and have taken extremist rhetoric seriously as description rather than as propaganda. Going beyond the traditionally used sources to private correspondence, internal clerical questionnaires, organizational minutes and financial records, and oral interviews, a previously obscured level of ChurchState accommodation is revealed.10 The newly discovered documents analyzed here show that in the 1930s both powers evaded the laws, suppressed their own radicals, supported each other ideologically, formed locallevel linkages, and used (or dealt with) the rising influence of Catholic laity. Based on these records, this study demonstrates that beneath the formal anticlericalism of the "official" Revolution, a quiet network of ecclesiastical secular conciliation, or "hidden revolution," highlights the superficiality of the traditional scholarly interpretation and helps explain the collaboration of today. This work concentrates on the 1929–42 period, though it also surveys the prior and succeeding eras. One justification for these parameters is that the new sources examined here show that a renewed effort to evade the 1917 Constitution began in the thirties. In 1929, the regime and the episcopal hierarchy signed a pact to end the threeyear "Cristero Rebel
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lion" of Catholics opposed to the Constitution with a settlement by which the Church formally agreed to respect the law. The pact, or arreglos, began more than a decade of informal circumvention of the anticlerical provisions. That year the episcopate also initiated one of its most useful devices, Acción Católica Mexicana (ACM), a central body to coordinate the laity in carrying on the political and educational work now forbidden to the clergy. By 1942, ChurchState collaboration moved from covert to publicly acknowledged activities, with presidents and bishops openly participating in joint ceremonies. The hierarchy also gave up direct control of the ACM to the lay leaders themselves, the associations having been effectively channeled in the desired direction. It should further be noted that, on the government side, these were the years when political control was consolidated through one dominant party, and the current system of electoral representation by socioeconomic sectors was developed. The cooperative ChurchState relationship of 1929–42 can thus be seen as a complement to the origins of the present PRI regime. The work is organized in the following manner. Chapter 2, based largely on existing monographic research, surveys the colonial and nineteenthcentury background, showing that prior to 1929 Church and State traditionally responded to formal separation laws with various informal arrangements. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 analyze documentary sources and oral interviews covering the 1929–42 period to draw out the collaborative relationships between national leaders in the government and episcopate. Belying the theory of "conflict" in the 1930s, officials in both camps surreptitiously evaded the laws, suppressed radical anticlericals and Catholic extremists threatening compromise, and gave each other valuable ideological support. Discussing regional and local accommodation, Chapter 6 elaborates the actions of lowerlevel civil and ecclesiastical functionaries in three disparate areas of Mexico, the CenterWest, South, and North. Examination of internal Church questionnaires and correspondence in this chapter reveals a provincial system of grassroots arrangements as fully developed as that of higher authorities. In Chapter 7, the internal records of Acción Cató1ica, its leaders' correspondence, and their oral recollections show how the Catholic lay organizations facilitated compromise by allowing the Church to maintain indirect influence despite the formal limitations on its activities. Chapter 8 describes how the ecclesiasticalcivil modus vivendi has continued to the present along
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the lines established in the 1930s, at national, regional/local, and organizational levels. The work concludes with an analysis of why collaboration has furthered the institutional stability of both Church and State, and compares parallel developments in other twentiethcentury societies having anticlerical legal structures. Through examination of new documentary sources, the traditional view of ChurchState conflict in 1930s Mexico can be exploded and the history of current cooperation explained. This work sets forth a fresh hypothesis: a pervasive "hidden revolution" of compromise took place despite legal restrictions and extremist rhetoric. This type of adaptive relationship sheds light on the Catholic Church's ability to adjust to a modernizing State and on the importance of Church support for government programs of socioeconomic development.
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Two— Prelude: Religious Crisis and Compromise, 1521–1929 When the power of the Catholic Church was challenged in Mexico prior to 1929, extralegal arrangements with civil officials often undercut the attempted restrictions on ecclesiastical prerogatives. This accommodation began with legal and practical linkages between Church and State in the colonial period and continued despite administrative reforms in the late eighteenth century and waves of legislative anticlericalism in the 1830s and 1850s. Following each legal attack on the scope of its authority, the Church always found means to preserve many of its traditional privileges on a de facto even if not de jure basis. Ecclesiastical and secular bureaucrats collaborated at national (initially viceregal), regional, and local levels, using such methods as surreptitious evasions and nonenforcement of the anticlerical laws, and sometimes symbolic political statements. The Church also benefited from the mobilization of lay Catholic confessional and educational groups, which were often freer to pursue Church institutional goals than were the clergy. The history of accommodation reviewed in this chapter serves as the background for the cooperative ChurchState relationship detailed in the main body of the work. Since the Church had successfully adjusted to repeated threats to its authority throughout Mexican history, there is no reason to think that the period following the Revolution would be any different. Following the Spanish conquest of Mexico, Church and State developed a cooperative relationship at central (viceregal), local, and lay levels. Through a series of papal bulls in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the Vatican established the system of patronato real (royal patronage), granting the rulers of Castile the authority to supervise overseas churches, fill clerical positions, and exact tithes. 1 In exchange
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for this required State supervision, the Church in the colonies, including New Spain, obtained Crown support in the form of cession of the royal portion of tithe income (twoninths) and direct grants. 2 These institutional linkages were reinforced through pervasive social and financial connections between many secular and ecclesiastical officials, particularly at the upper levels.3 The strength of ChurchState ties was practically manifested in viceregal reluctance to interfere in ecclesiastical abuses such as clerical business profiteering and the charging of fees for sacraments.4 For its part, the Catholic hierarchy ideologically supported the existing economic, social, and political arrangement as a Godderived "natural order."5 This system of ChurchState collaboration in New Spain was well established at the local level as well, so that, for example, provincial officials cooperated with the clergy to collect monies due to both. When encomenderos (Spanish grantees entitled to Indian labor and tribute) refused to pay parish priests their required salaries, civil authorities often allowed the clerics to charge Indians directly out of tribute destined to the encomendero.6 The Church's persuasive ability to influence Indians was used in turn when royal officials were having difficulty taxing previously exempt communities.7 Such financial arrangements extended throughout New Spain to such marginal areas as Chiapas and were still in place as late as the latter half of the eighteenth century.8 Remote provinces in particular, such as Nueva Vizcaya, saw cooperation in the military sphere, with civil authorities providing protection for outlying Christianized villages and priests raising indigenous troops for campaigns against less tractable tribes.9 An additional example of ChurchState collaboration under the aegis of the patronato could be found among Catholic laity, in the cofradías or brotherhoods. These communitybased religious organizations helped underwrite the Crown's obligation to support the Church, especially when secular town treasuries were unable to provide the support, and also sponsored services, fiestas, and other aspects of public social life.10 Cofradías served as well to acculturate indigenous peoples to European ways, making easier the educational and administrative tasks of ecclesiastical and civil authorities.11 Thus, by the late eighteenth century, the tradition of ChurchState cooperation at central, local, and lay levels was strongly imbedded in colonial Mexican society. When the "Bourbon reforms" of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century threatened the established accommodation by limiting
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certain Church prerogatives, both ecclesiastical and government officials found ways of evading the new restrictions. With the Bourbon reforms, the government of King Charles III (1759–88) attempted to impose more direct bureaucratic control on the Indies than had previously obtained, using such methods as an "intendancy" system of royal administrators in the provinces and tighter legal oversight on clerical activities. 12 The attack on traditional ecclesiastical fueros (privileges) was begun in 1784, with the transfer of testamentary suits and other probate matters from Church courts to royal judges.13 Four years later, secular civil jurisdiction was further expanded to include litigation concerning chantries and pious works.14 The Crown struck a major blow against clerical prerogatives in 1795 by ending the exemption of priests from ordinary criminal proceedings against them and providing for joint prosecution by ecclesiastical and royal magistrates.15 Church economic activities were curtailed as well with the 1804 Law of Consolidation, which withdrew the Church's invested capital from circulation and placed it at the disposal of viceregal officials.16 Yet from the highest to the lowest administrative levels, the reforms proved difficult to enforce. The audiencia in Mexico City, the highest appellate court in New Spain, consistently upheld ecclesiastical judges when the latter refused to take part in joint criminal proceedings, thus undermining the prosecution of clerics under the 1795 provision.17 Local magistrates for their part often turned accused priests over to the ecclesiastical courts, in direct violation of the "joint prosecution" provision.18 The expanded civil jurisdiction, too, was evaded, with clerical litigants ignoring the loss of their fuero and continuing to bring suit before their own diocesan judges.19 Lax enforcement also made the 1804 Consolidation law a dead letter, as the Crown never seized many Church investments, and allowed installment payments on others.20 Thus, the ChurchState collaboration forged throughout the colonial period proved strong enough to undercut Bourbon attempts to restrict traditional clerical privileges. This pattern of accommodation continued after Mexico's independence from Spain, despite the attempts of some government administrations to reduce Church power. Independence itself reaffirmed the ecclesiastical hierarchy's political importance, with the success of Agustín de Iturbide's 1821 elite revolt, which the bishops supported, after the failure of the popular insurgencies of Hidalgo and Morelos,
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which the episcopate had condemned. 21 Indeed, Mexico's first constitution, in 1824, established Catholicism as the official state religion.22 However, two years later the Senate attempted to regain for the independent government the royal prerogatives of patronato, though this move was successfully resisted by the Church.23 Further, one of the two major nineteenthcentury political parties, the Liberals (the other being the Conservative or Centralist Party), made the limitation of ecclesiastical influence a crucial program on its legislative agenda. Liberal policies were first enacted into law during the 1833–35 administration, under the leadership of VicePresident Valentín Gómez Farías.24 These reforms, based on utilitarian theories then current in Europe, were far more comprehensive than those of the Bourbons, covering jurisdictional, financial, and educational matters.25 The government's right to nominate parish priests under the patronato was restored.26 Civil enforcement of the tithe was ended, and neither ecclesiastical property nor capital could be alienated without permission.27 Finally, the education system was secularized and the University of Mexico (then Churchcontrolled) was suppressed.28 Yet, as with the Bourbon reforms, the Liberal restrictions were often not enforced. In fact, a proclerical Conservative regime repealed most of the new measures in 1835.29 The financial laws were reinstated in 1838, but throughout the 1840s notaries continued to violate them by executing disposals of clerical property, until the legislation was a gain repealed in 1847.30 At the local level as well, the laws were evaded, with civil authorities in some areas jailing villagers for failure to pay the tithe, in defiance of the ban on this procedure.31 Even such an unassailably Liberal state administration as that of Benito Juárez in Oaxaca collaborated with the clergy by collecting tithes and left the correction of priests' corrupt practices to their own ecclesiastical superiors.32 Thus, following independence, traditional ChurchState relationships were strong enough to triumph over legislative attempts to impose anticlerical restrictions. The anticlerical restrictions of the 1857 constitution and subsequent regulations, collectively known as La Reforma (the reform), posed a far more serious challenge to ChurchState cooperation than did the briefly effective measures of the early Mexican Republic. Unlike Gómez Farías' legislation, La Reforma was not the product of a temporary factional victory but was imposed by the Liberals after they decisively bested Conservative military forces in a threeyear civil war (1857–60) and
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resisted the French attempt to install a puppet government under the "Emperor" Maximilian of Austria (1862–67). The 1857 constitution and other reforms became the law of the long regime of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1910) and were theoretically in force until the 1910 Revolution. 33 These measures included the forced sale (1857) and later the nationalization of Church property (1859), the suppression of religious orders, and the establishment of free education.34 In addition, a series of regulations on religious activity were imposed, prohibiting the wearing of clerical habits, the performance of ceremonies outside church buildings without written government permission, the ringing of church bells, and the attendance of public functionaries at religious services in their official capacities.35 Given the impingement of these reforms on traditional clerical prerogatives, the Church naturally had an interest in attempting to vitiate their enforcement. The Liberal Party as well would benefit from an accommodation, for despite its military victories against the Conservatives and Maximilian, it still needed Church support to consolidate its political power and legitimize itself popularly.36 Despite the comprehensiveness of La Reforma, national government and ecclesiastical leaders evaded the new anticlerical legislation just as they had sidestepped the laws of the 1830s and 1840s. The Church was allowed to undercut the expropriation provisions by simply placing its property in the names of private puppet owners.37 Religious orders continued to flourish, ceremonies were celebrated outside church buildings, and church bells were pealed, all in direct violation of the laws and all with the knowledge of the secular authorities.38 Public officials escaped punishment for attending religious services, and when one court was so untactful as to prosecute the governor of Tlaxcala for such an attendance in 1896, Porfirio Díaz himself intervened to absolve him.39 National Church and State leadership in fact went beyond mere evasion of the laws to symbolic ideological support for their respective institutions' authority. The episcopal hierarchy buttressed the Díaz regime by urging collaboration with it, as when Archbishop of Mexico Antonio Labastida y Dávalos ordered the clergy and faithful to help federal officials prepare for the international exposition of 1879.40 Bishops often spoke out in praise of the administration, exhorting priests to forget traditional animosities, back the government, and abstain from intervening in political affairs.41 Always eager to maintain good relations with Díaz himself, the Church (through the Apostolic Delegate) requested national thanksgiving ceremonies after Don
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Porfirio narrowly escaped assassination in 1897. 42 Only on the sensitive question of education was perfect conciliation not possible, with ecclesiastics occasionally condemning lay education as "impious."43 Perhaps in this one area the Church could resist because it was so uniformly supportive of the government on other issues. The Díaz regime paralleled the episcopate in offering symbolic backing to a purported antagonist. The President personally set the tone by publicly declaring himself to be a Catholic.44 Díaz prominently attended the Oaxaca congregation of Archbishop Eulogio Gillow y Zavalza in 1887 and even presided at the 1891 funeral of Archbishop of Mexico Labastida.45 At the "crowning" of the Virgin of Guadalupe in 1895, a church celebration intended to symbolize Mexico's rededication to Catholicism,46 many of Don Porfirio's cabinet were present. Beyond merely violating the 1860 law against official presence at religious ceremonies, the attendance of the President and other dignitaries lent such occasions the stamp of government legitimacy and even sponsorship. At the local level as well, clerical and secular functionaries followed the same pattern of extralegal evasions and ideological collaboration. In Guadalajara, for example, ecclesiastical property was transferred to puppet owners, who each then signed a contradocumento, or oath, that title really belonged to the Church.47 The effectiveness of this subterfuge depended, of course, on state and local officials not enforcing the federal expropriation law.48 Popular religious feast days and other celebrations were commonly permitted in provincial cities and small towns, even when involving public processions through the streets.49 The other "nuisance" regulations against bellringing and wearing of clerical garb were also generally disregarded.50 On the ideological front, bishops in various dioceses preached respect for and cooperation with the civil authorities.51 Many an ecclesiastical oration identified the regime with divine providence, as was done in Puebla in 1894 and by the Bishop of Chiapas in 1907.52 In addition to national cooperation and provincial/local arrangements, the growth of the Catholic lay movement was a third level on which the Reform Laws were undercut. With the suppression of religious orders, the establishment of free public education, and other restrictions on clerical activity, the Church needed to broaden its methods of reaching its popular constituency.53 Ecclesiastical leaders therefore sponsored the foundation of numerous lay organizations (and the augmentation of existing groups) to carry out spiritual and educational functions.54 These
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pious associations, such as the Culto Perpetuo del Señor San José in Guadalajara, the Apostolado de la Oración in Mexico City, and the Caballeros de Colón nationally, helped maintain churches and seminaries, taught religious doctrine, and provided social meeting places where individuals were encouraged to support Catholic political and social goals. 55 Lay assistance to the clergy in this manner allowed the Church to exert its influence more widely, avoiding many of the potentially deleterious effects of official anticlericalism. By the turn of the century, as one contemporary observer noted, the Church was flourishing despite the Reform Laws.56 Accommodation between ecclesiastical and civil authorities had vitiated the anticlerical legislation at national, local, and lay levels. The Church pursued this conciliation policy as a means of ensuring its institutional survival. For its part, the Díaz regime obtained clerical support, helped heal the political rifts of the Reform, and simultaneously maintained the laws on the books as a veiled threat should the Church step out of line.57 However, the tradition of collaboration in the face of restrictive laws was shortly to encounter its sternest test in the 1910 Revolution, which overthrew Díaz and resulted in the most extreme anticlerical legislation in Mexican history. The Revolution had a strong anticlerical component, manifested in numerous provisions of the constitution promulgated at Querétaro in 1917. Going far beyond the Reform Laws, the middleclass elements and professionals represented at the Querétaro convention wrote a constitution which eliminated the status of the Church as an entity even nominally independent from the State and controlled the clergy with comprehensive restrictions on their economic, educational, political, and religious activities.58 But at least until the mid1920s, episcopal tolerance and government reluctance to enforce the new legislation avoided overt conflict. At the Querétaro convention, both radical anticlericals (followers of Francisco J. Múgica and Álvaro Obregón) and more moderate delegates (partisans of Venustiano Carranza) agreed that the Church's legal prerogatives should be sharply limited in postrevolutionary society.59 The provisions passed included Article 3, making education secular in all public schools and in private primary and secondary establishments; Article 24, barring religious ceremonies outside churches or homes; Article 27, prohibiting the Church from holding any property or administering charitable foundations; and Article 130, which contained
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a range of restrictions on clerical behavior and, significantly, gave state legislatures the right to determine the number of clergymen in each state. 60 In response to the anticlericalism expressed in the Constitution, the Church hierarchy remained relatively passive at first. Not wanting to confront the government directly, the episcopate contented itself with finding ways to live with the restrictive laws. By founding the Secretariado Social Mexicano as a privately supported, semiautonomous social welfare organization in 1920, the hierarchy avoided the constitutional ban on Churchsponsored charitable institutions.61 On the other hand, some Catholic lay organizations, such as the Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana (ACJM), took an increasingly militant stand against governmentsponsored trade unionism, through boycotts, strikes, and demonstrations after 1917.62 In 1925, lay Catholic professionals founded the Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa (the Liga) in order to defend legally the prerogatives of the Church.63 Finally, a few militant lay Catholics organized secret political associations such as the ''U," in order to penetrate and control other Catholic groups, according to one exmember.64 Thus in the years immediately following the Revolution, the Church hierarchy was unwilling to provoke an open confrontation with the government, while many Catholic lay leaders demonstrated clearly their inclination to engage in more militant political activity. For their part, federal authorities paralleled the conciliatory policy of the episcopate during this period. Despite the anticlerical intentions manifested at Querétaro, in only a few instances before 1926 was any of this legislation actually enforced.65 Concentrating their administrations largely on nonreligious issues, neither Presidents Venustiano Carranza (1917–20) nor Álvaro Obregón (1920–24) showed any inclination to execute the new provisions, nor did most officials at regional levels of government.66 As long as federal authorities did not enforce the Constitution's anticlerical provisions and the episcopate avoided outright condemnation of the latter, the two powers could hold in abeyance any national rift over the new laws. The administration of Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28) heightened tensions in February 1925, when it gave support to a schismatic "Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church," which denied the authority of Rome and hired its own, noncelibate clergy.67 When the schismatics took over a church, La Soledad, in a workingclass Mexico City neighborhood
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and attempted to perform services, they were attacked by Catholics of the parish, furious at the change. Mounted police and firemen intervened to disperse a mob of about a thousand people. 68 Though Calles proclaimed neutrality in the matter, he refused to restore La Soledad to the Church and turned the building into a public library.69 Realizing they could not rely on the government to restrain extreme anticlericals, lay Catholics in the ACJM and Liga began forming "defense leagues" to stave off feared attacks on Church buildings and shrines.70 Open conflict was finally initiated in 1926 by Church and government leadership, sanctioning violence at lower organization levels. Both sides shared responsibility for provoking what became known as the "Cristero Rebellion."71 The series of events immediately precipitating military warfare began in January 1926, when the daily newspaper El Universal republished a collective pastoral letter issued by the Mexican bishops in 1917 to condemn the anticlerical provisions. Although the newspaper, rather than the Church, had initiated the republication, Archbishop of Mexico José Mora y del Río was forced into the position of having to reaffirm Church opposition to the Constitution.72 Meanwhile, the Calles administration had been wrestling with the problem of devising enabling legislation to enforce the anticlerical laws.73 Resentment of lay Catholic opposition to the Constitution,74 fear that the Church would take advantage of delicate petroleum negotiations between Mexico and the United States in order to attack the government,75 and Calles's own lack of patience76 are some of the reasons that have been given for the "Ley Calles" of July 1926. The new law implemented the clerical registration provisions of Article 130 in the Federal District, and many of the states immediately followed suit. It should be noted that at the regional level these enabling laws were often not enforced by government officials, and at the same time many bishops and priests withheld criticism. Some secular bureaucrats did adhere closely to Calles's anticlerical line, but in other areas enforcement was still minimal.77 Similarly, when Archbishop Mora y del Río subsequently ordered all priests to refrain from saying mass, in retaliation for the "Ley Calles," those clerics and Catholic lay groups already predisposed to contest the government's actions did so, while many other parishes remained calm. In an attempt to force the repeal of the Ley Calles, the Liga and the ACJM called for a national economic boycott in August 1926, which was scrupulously observed in some states, such as Jalisco, but ignored in others, such as Chihuahua.78 The
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mutual provocation by leaders of Church and State thus empowered, yet did not necessitate, lowerlevel conflict. Nevertheless, as juridical possibilities for a solution were exhausted by the end of 1926, lay Catholic resistance in many areas evolved into military action. The Liga proceeded to organize an armed campaign on a national level, while local ACJM chapters spearheaded guerrilla operations in the countryside, particularly in the western states of Colima, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Nayarit. 79 Popular motivations for rebellion ranged from resentment of government anti clericalism to dissatisfaction with the Revolution's unfulfilled promises of agrarian reform.80 At the very least, many "Cristeros" saw all government actions as aggressive provocations.81 Though the Church hierarchy did not directly initiate the risings, the bishops did not forbid them either, thus indirectly acquiescing to the Liga's actions.82 The military campaigns of the Cristero War were fought largely in western Mexico during the years 1927–29. Though overall federal troop strength in the field exceeded 70,000 men, while the Cristeros rarely had more than 50,000 at any one time, the government could never win a decisive victory.83 In fact, the Cristeros won a number of spectacular battles, such as the dynamiting of the heavily guarded Mexico CityGuadalajara train in 1927.84 Approximately 60,000 federals and 40,000 Cristeros were killed, according to one scholarly estimate,85 and the war was marked by brutality on both sides. The federal army summarily executed captured Cristeros until this practice was finally ended by General Saturnino Cedillo in April 1929.86 While the war continued through 1928 and 1929, moderates in the ecclesiastical hierarchy and government were negotiating for an end to the conflict. With the death of Archbishop of Mexico Mora y del Río, aged seventyfive, in 1928, and his replacement by Pascual Díaz Barreto, only fiftythree, a new, more conciliatory generation of Church leadership came to the fore.87 From exile in the United States, after being expelled by Calles in 1927, Díaz represented those in the episcopate who feared that the Church would lose all popular support if the war were not halted and services resumed.88 On the government side, Calles and his successor, Emilio Portes Gil (1928–30), worried that internal political opposition and diplomatic pressure from the United States to resolve the ChurchState dispute were making prosecution of the war increasingly difficult.89 Indeed, U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow played a key role in facilitating talks between ecclesiastical and
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government representatives in 1928–29. 90 The moderates on both sides were finally willing to agree to a truce because they saw the longterm institutional interests of Church and State to lie in stability rather than in continued violence. After three years of fighting, the Archbishop and President, national leaders of Church and State, moved to end the conflict.91 Their arreglos, or arrangements ending the Cristero War, were signed on June 21, 1929, and stated that the federal authorities would apply the law without intolerance or bias and allow the episcopate to name the priests to be registered, if the bishops would resume the suspended religious services and encourage obedience to the law.92 This agreement, to which the Church stipulated without consulting the Liga or ACJM, augured poorly for the future of Catholic lay groups that might undertake actions independent of the hierarchy's desires. More fundamentally, the arreglos left no doubt that the anticlerical provisions of the 1917 Constitution would not be formally modified or repealed. The question now facing both Church and State was whether the Constitution would be evaded, as had been the case with antireligious legislation in the past. The Revolution of 1910 posed a legal threat to Catholic Church power not unlike previous political changes in Mexican history. Though many scholars have viewed the Revolution and its attendant constitution as a decisive defeat for the Church and the 1929 arreglos as initiating an era of conflict with the State in the 1930s,93 there is little reason to suppose that the new restrictions were not sidestepped in accordance with historical precedent. As we have seen in this chapter, by 1929 both ecclesiastical and government officials could draw upon a long tradition by which anticlerical laws had been flouted. This cooperative relationship began with the colonial intertwining of the two powers, developed through the evasion of the Bourbon reforms and the early Republic's legislation, and culminated in the comprehensive collaboration of the Porfiriato, which the Cristero War appeared to disrupt. In each of these periods, accommodation by means of extralegal evasions and mutual ideological support took place at national and regional levels and was aided by the activities of Catholic lay groups. This book is a study of the post1929 adjustment, which like those of previous eras made use of a variety of methods for evading anticlerical restrictions and promoting political goals.
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Three— PostArreglo Calm, 1929–31 The Catholic Hierarchy and the National Government Throughout the 1930s, national leaders of Church and State showed moderation and restraint in their dealings with each other. The collaboration begun with the 1929 arreglos, or arrangements, ending the Cristero War set the tone for the decade and the years to follow. This cooperation was carried on despite recurrent anticlericalism and the reactive agitation of Catholic militants. Many scholars, however, have maintained that the eventual relaxation of ChurchState tension came only in the late 1930s, and only as a result of government initiative. 1 My purpose is to show that compromise began far earlier, in 1929, and that the Catholic hierarchy was at least as responsible for preventing conflict as were the federal authorities. After the arreglos, three phases of churchgovernment relations may be observed, corresponding roughly to cycles of anticlerical persecution and Catholic lay action, until the religious question subsided in national politics in the early 1940s. After a brief discussion of the Mexican episcopate that confronted the 1930s, I examine each of these phases. This chapter analyzes the brief hiatus in anticlericalism from 1929 to 1931; Chapter 4 focuses on the Church's response to the resurgence of religious persecution from 1931 to 1935; and Chapter 5 shows how, between 1935 and 1942, Catholic and federal leaders built a lasting modus vivendi from the relationships which characterized the first two periods. Through a scrutiny of each of these phases, we are able to see the extent to which the policies of the dominant faction within the hierarchy contributed to church government accommodation. Furthermore, the
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importance of the bishops' evolving attitudes towards lay Catholic political action will also be elucidated. Finally it will be seen that the nationallevel agreements of Church and federal leaders form part of a nationwide network of religiouspolitical relationships which were established in the 1930s and continue to the present. Church Leadership in 1929 An investigation of Church ideology and politics in the 1930s requires a brief look at the body of archbishops and bishops that constituted the episcopal hierarchy in this period. The backgrounds, length of tenure, and ages of the prelates help explain their attitudes. From 1929 to 1942, the hierarchy was composed almost entirely of men who had been young priests during the nineteenthcentury regime of Porfirio Díaz. 2 Their experience of an era when evasion of anticlerical laws was common and even officially sanctioned gave these future bishops an early education in churchgovernment compromise.3 Even though they later faced the conflictive eras of the Revolution and the 1926–29 Cristero War, their formative training in an environment of cooperation may have left them with a collective desire to return to the stability of the Díaz years.4 The periods when the bishops began their tenure, as well as their ages when they assumed office, also help to explain the origins of ecclesiastical moderation. Some scholars viewing the 1930s have considered that an episcopal personnel turnover near the end of the decade was crucial in bringing about compromise with the State.5 Yet statistics on the bishops' appointments and ages cast doubt on this theory. Of the forty archbishops and bishops in 1936, ten had been appointed in the period 1929–36.6 Between 1936 and 1940, seven more clergymen entered the episcopate, certainly not a major shift in personnel.7 If any turnover took place, it was rather in the previous decade, when in 1919–26 alone, twentyone new bishops took office.8 Nor did the hierarchy of the 1930s represent a particularly young group of leaders; they were clergymen who had generally held high rank for ten years or more. In 1936, only seven members of the episcopate were less than fifty years old; twelve were between fiftyone and sixty; fourteen were between sixtyone and seventy; and seven were over seventyone.9 Thus, in terms of ecclesiastical background, length
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of tenure, and age, the hierarchy of the 1930s did not represent a new generation. Rather, it was an old one that found means to adapt to new circumstances. A closer look at three of the most politically powerful bishops in the 1930s suggests the extent to which individual prelates were representative of the episcopate as a whole. Francisco Orozco y Jiménez (1864–1936), Archbishop of Guadalajara; Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores (1865–1941), Archbishop of Morelia and Apostolic Delegate; and Pascual Díaz y Barreto (1875–1936), Archbishop of Mexico, had all received their seminary training and began their priestly ministry during the Díaz years. 10 Orozco and Ruiz had also obtained their first episcopal appointments before the Revolution. All three had, at various times, been forced into exile by political conditions in their respective dioceses yet had returned to advocate cooperation with, rather than resistance to, the government.11 Orozco, the oldest of the three, was Bishop of Chiapas in 1907, when he expressed the Church's ideological support of Díaz by saying that the latter had brought stability through "the special methods of divine Providence."12 In exile during much of the Revolution, Orozco was highly critical of the Constitution of 1917, and helped organize antigovernment protests in the 1920s. However, he vigorously opposed the violent tactics of the Cristero rebels in 1926, later dismissing them as "an element with which I was not in accord."13 As was the case with many clergymen, Orozco's backing of Díaz should be seen as a precedent for ecclesiastical legitimization of stable government, not as only a prelude to opposition to the Revolution. As did Orozco, Archbishop Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores supported Díaz and was forced to go into exile during the period 1914–19. Yet Ruiz also kept on good terms with the moderate revolutionary Francísco Madero and, according to one recent historian, had a marked "flexibility and aversion to extreme stands."14 These qualities prepared him well for his role in negotiating the 1929 settlement with President Emilio Portes Gil. Ruiz's diplomatic abilities were rewarded with his appointment as Apostolic Delegate in 1929 — the first Mexican prelate to receive such a distinction.15 Pascual Díaz, youngest of the three bishops here discussed, had been, like the others, trained in the Díaz period and became Bishop of Tabasco in 1922. Though expelled from Tabasco by anticlerical governor Tomás Garrido Canabal,16 Díaz played a central role during the Cristero rebellion in disciplining Catholic lay extremists and aiding Ruiz in the final settlement with the government.17 Like
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Ruiz, Díaz was rewarded for his flexibility, being named Archbishop of Mexico in 1929. 18 This sampling of three prominent prelates reflects the adaptability and openness to compromise which characterized the episcopate that faced the 1930s. Though a few bishops, such as Leopoldo Lara y Torres of Tacámbaro and José de Jesús Manríquez y Zárate of Huejutla, continued to support armed resistance to the Revolution, most of the prelates were at least willing to limit any antigovernment feeling to pacific protest. Differences between men like Orozco, who at times organized political protests, and Ruiz, who tended to be more accommodating, were not as important as their basic agreement: that the Church's interests were better served by negotiation than by violent rebellion. Though their experiences with the government during the Revolution and Cristero years varied, all these bishops had received their clerical training in an age of ChurchState cooperation, were mature and relatively experienced in high ecclesiastical office, and had learned to deal with successive federal administrations. This was a hierarchy that was willing to recognize the legitimacy of the Mexican Revolution, while welcoming the possibility that the unofficial accommodations of the Díaz era could be reestablished after the failure of their opposition to the government in the 1920s. State and Church Implement the Arreglos The arreglos of June 1929, inaugurated a brief period of open tolerance and mutual support announced by leaders of both Church and State. According to a 1929 New York Times article by Carleton Beals, the end of the Cristero War greatly boosted the national economy and, hence, political stability, because large areas in western Mexico, "one of the richest sectors of the country," were now reopened for exploitation.19 The government was now freed from expensive military operations and from U.S. diplomatic pressure to resolve the Cristero conflict. And for its part, the hierarchy could cease its unpopular policy of suspending religious services. Both Church and State were thus amenable to compromise. But it was still unclear whether conciliatory policies could survive a new president's taking office in 1930 and the continuing disruptive activities of Catholic extremists.
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The first phase of postCristero ChurchState relations extended from the arreglos until a new wave of anticlericalism began in 1931. This period spanned parts of the presidential administrations of Emilio Portes Gil (1928–30) and Pascual Ortiz Rubio (1930–32). Analysis of successive governments' collaboration with the Church to implement the arreglos and the episcopate's own dealings with the Catholic critics of its policies will help us appraise the beginning of the new postrevolutionary modus vivendi. Even before the agreements were signed to end the political confrontation and warfare of the Cristero revolt, indications had been coming from Church and federal spokesmen that a move towards conciliation would be welcomed. 20 In June 1928 the Mexican bishops sent a collective letter to Pope Pius XI suggesting that a government promise not to enforce the anticlerical laws, though less satisfactory than their repeal, might be a solution to the religious conflict.21 But it was not until another year of fighting had passed, combined with continual pressure for a resolution from the United States (via Ambassador Dwight Morrow) and a new military threat from the uprising of General José G. Escobar, that the government was finally ready to talk.22 On May 1, 1929, President Portes Gil stated to the press that he considered the Church absolved of any responsibility for Escobar's revolt, that the government would halt religious persecution, and that services could be renewed as long as the clergy respected the law.23 The next day, Archbishop Ruiz y Flores responded, saying that Portes Gil's words were "evidence of good will," and that the Church was willing to cooperate. Ruiz asked Portes Gil to "reconsider existing legislation." This request did not necessarily imply a demand for repeal, but merely for nonenforcement.24 The arreglos, or arrangements formally ending the Cristero War, were signed on June 21, 1929. They stated that the government did not intend to interfere with "the spiritual functions" of the Church and that the laws would be applied without intolerance or bias. The settlement also stipulated that the hierarchy could name those priests to be registered with local authorities according to the Constitution and that Catholics had the right to petition for reform of the laws. In return for these concessions, the Church would resume the suspended religious services.25 Though the wording of the arrangements assumed the continued existence of the restrictive laws, Ruiz later suggested to the Bishop of Tepic that secret agreements lay beneath the official arreglos. Ruiz alluded to "promises for the future, that depend on the prudence with
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which the Catholics proceed in their relations with the government and in the petitions they make." 26 Whether or not these "promises" included nonenforcement of the anticlerical laws, ChurchState contacts before and during the arreglos had created a spirit of conciliation. At least for the next two years, the government would act with restraint and the hierarchy would limit any activities which might be considered provocative. Having signed the arreglos, the Portes Gil administration considered it expedient to adhere to them during the remaining months of its tenure.27 Peace with the Catholic Church was part of a broader process of federal bureaucratic centralization and political control. This process, in which Portes Gil himself was a prime mover (with expresident Calles still controlling presidential administrations behind the scenes from 1928 to 1934), involved the creation of an official party, the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR) and the destruction of independent labor unions.28 A prerequisite for such concentration of power was the nonopposition, and if possible the ideological support, of the powerful social force represented by Catholicism. To obtain such legitimization, the government was willing to ignore, for the time being, the warnings of anticlericals, who maintained that the Church was essentially counterrevolutionary. One of the most vigorous critics of the Church was the radical governor of Veracruz, Adalberto Tejeda, who wrote, prior to the arreglos, that any ChurchState agreement would be merely a pretext for the clergy's "hypocritical submission" so that it could more effectively subvert national institutions.29 Yet the concerns of Tejeda and others of similar mind were temporarily put aside by a government desirous of asserting control over disputing factions. Following the settlement, Portes Gil's administration declared its authority to overrule restrictive state regulations, allowed for freer religious practice, and even returned some confiscated Church property. This program reflected an attitude of moderation instead of a response to the inflammatory proposals of the anticlericals. The implementation of the arreglos began with the federal government's assertion of supremacy over state laws in matters of religion. Responsible for initiating this process was Portes Gil's Secretary of Government, Felipe Canales, who, on the day of the agreement, informed the states of their duty to comply with all relevant federal decrees.30 After a meeting with Archbishops Ruiz and Díaz on June 24,
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Canales declared to the press that any state laws considered unconstitutional by his office would be overruled. 31 This statement was a direct slap at anticlerical state governments, such as those of Tabasco and Yucatán. These states had passed laws far exceeding Article 130's stipulation that a state's ability to regulate religion extended only to fixing the number of priests allowed within its boundaries.32 When the hierarchy requested that he put teeth in his threat, Canales issued a circular emphasizing that the federal government had sovereignty in all religious matters, other than the states' right to limit the number of priests. State legislatures had no power beyond the latter, and any laws that ''exceed[ed] this faculty would be considered unconstitutional and impermanent."33 In addition to imposing the arreglos on state legislation, federal authorities expanded the legal sphere of permissible religious practices. On June 21, Canales ordered the states to free individuals imprisoned for violating the laws on religion.34 This was followed by a circular from the Attorney General, Enrique Medina, halting the prosecutions in the Federal District of those accused but not yet convicted of such violations.35 In essence, these acts blocked the enforcement of many of the anticlerical laws. Related promulgations interpreted broadly the constitutional provision requiring that religious services be held only inside church buildings.36 In September 1929, Canales decreed that services could be conducted in hacienda chapels, though the latter were not strictly churches.37 And on October 3, the Mexican Supreme Court held that religious acts celebrated inside private homes could not be curtailed by the law.38 Such amnesties and broad interpretations constituted a method by which anticlerical laws could be circumvented without having to be repealed. Finally, despite the 1917 Constitution's making all churches national property, the government now ordered some confiscated church buildings to be returned.39 In his June 21 message, Canales ordered that churches be given back to members of the clergy and that states make lists of the buildings in their jurisdictions in preparation for returning them.40 Churches taken over by the schismatic Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church, the cult that had been promoted by anticlerical elements of the Calles administration, were also ordered back to their original occupants.41 By January 1930, the Archbishop of Mexico was able to announce that all the nation's active churches, with the exception of those in the state of Tabasco, had been returned to ecclesiastical care.42
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In restoring this property, the government was clearly supporting Catholic interests, even to the extent of evading the letter of the law. Thus, by asserting its sovereignty over the states on religious issues, by expanding the scope of lawful religious practice, and by giving back Church property, the administration of Portes Gil attempted to live up to the spirit of the arreglos. Moderation towards the Church played a role in the government's drive to centralize political power, a struggle evident in the question of federal relations with the states. Whether the decrees issued by Canales and other officials were actually obeyed or not is less important than the intention they reveal: the establishment of a policy of ChurchState cooperation. The government's tolerant attitude was mirrored by the ideological support proffered by the episcopate. The Church's policy during the Portes Gil years was aimed at avoiding conflict through the legitimation of federal actions, a return to normal pastoral activities, and the encouragement of Catholic respect for the political process. Support for the government first took the form of declarations justifying the arreglos. On the day the agreements were signed, Antonio Guízar Valencia, Bishop of Chihuahua, stated that the Church desired only "unity and concord among all Mexicans," presided over by the temporal authorities. 43 In his first postarreglos pastoral letter, Apostolic Delegate Ruiz argued that the separation of Church and State was needed to create goodwill. The government's good faith, he said, had helped begin an era of conciliation. Ruiz emphasized that though an ultimate solution to the religious conflict was not simple, it had to be found without the "radicalisms of another age" — a direct attack on lay Catholic extremists.44 Ruiz felt that the Church's mission was not to interfere in politics but to "reinforce the principle of authority."45 Such ideological legitimation of the State dovetailed perfectly with government tolerance of the Church. The restoration of daily ecclesiastical ceremonies was further evidence of Church moderation. On June 27,1929, for the first time in three years, masses were celebrated in Mexico City, and a Te Deum was said in Guadalajara the next day.46 In September, Díaz was formally installed as Archbishop of Mexico in the Guadalupe basilica.47 Church leaders encouraged Catholics to resume participation in secular political activities as well, particularly in preparation for the presidential election of November 17, 1929. Ruiz urged Mexicans to involve themselves peacefully in the election, so that reform of the anticlerical laws might be obtained.48
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In the presidential election itself, the hierarchy abstained from supporting any candidacy, including that of former education minister José Vasconcelos, who now opposed the PNR. Many of the Catholic laity were inclined to support Vasconcelos because of their extreme hostility to the PNR and "jefe máximo" Calles. Calles exacerbated these attitudes by continuing to blame Catholics for the 1928 assassination of presidentelect Álvaro Obregón, the deed of a lone religious fanatic. Nevertheless, the bishops maintained neutrality throughout the 1929 election campaign. Following the victory of the official PNR candidate, Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Archbishop Díaz made it clear that the Church did not intend to raise any controversial matters until after the new president's inauguration. 49 This return to normalcy in religious and secular activities bespoke the Catholic attempt to live up to the arreglos, and corresponded to the government's actions along similar lines. By the end of the interim administration of Portes Gil in February 1930, federal and Church officials had collaborated to establish a new modus vivendi. The government drive for centralized political control required ideological support, which the hierarchy was willing to supply. Federal authority was asserted over the states, antireligious prosecutions were stopped, and Church property was being returned, although the government technically remained the owner. For its part, the episcopate called for respect, normalcy, and nonviolent political participation. The needs of both institutions came together in a common desire to put the religious conflict behind them, a wish reflected in the public declaration of secular and Catholic leaders. On December 10, 1929, Ortiz Rubio announced to New York reporters that the ChurchState controversy was closed, "as long as the Church . . . respects the provisions of the Constitution as it is doing now.50 Responding two days later, Ruiz y Flores stated that the success of the settlement was due to "mutual goodwill."51 Moderate policies on both sides appeared to have prevailed through the end of 1929. It remained to be seen if Ortiz Rubio's administration would continue in the same vein as that of his predecessor. The first year and a half of Ortiz Rubio's tenure did see a continuation of the ChurchState honeymoon, in an atmosphere of tolerance and political calm. Reporter Carleton Beals viewed the election of Ortiz Rubio as a tranquil change of power, representing "the consolidation of internal peace and the final emergence of a fairly stabilized regime."52 The presidentelect himself confirmed this analysis in his statement of
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December 10, 1929, saying that armed revolts were "a thing of the past." 53 Though Ortiz Rubio's term was marked by bitter factional disputes within the PNR, resulting in his resignation in 1932, the military uprisings that had plagued the previous decade were largely absent.54 As in the prior administration, civil peace and efficient government were linked to Church support for the regime. In an effort to preserve this stability, the new president maintained the proclerical policies of Portes Gil, and the hierarchy spoke out in favor of cooperation and against those clerical and lay Catholics who were willing to criticize the arreglos. Government actions followed the pattern set by Portes Gil in the continued restoration of Church property and other evidences of federal goodwill. On June 28, 1930, the national cathedral in Mexico City was returned, after municipal authorities had completed repairs to the building.55 By July, services had been restored nationwide in many formerly confiscated churches, including La Soledad, the church once occupied by the schismatics.56 Masses were being said in the national cathedral itself by August.57 Other symbolic gestures demonstrated government tolerance: for example, Señora Ortiz Rubio appeared publicly at mass during a religious festival in September.58 Showing evenhandedness in implementing Constitutional Article 27, the Attorney General ordered the nationalization of buildings owned by Protestant denominations.59 Thus, the government moderation following the arreglos appeared to have survived at least one change of power. The hierarchy also continued to pursue a prudent path, openly supporting the government and trying to preserve internal ecclesiastical discipline. Exhortations to obey temporal authority followed closely upon Ortiz Rubio's inauguration. Archbishop Díaz's circular of March 24, 1930, ordered priests to register with local officials in compliance with the regulations.60 His pastoral letter the next day focused on religious education, not political action, as the answer to declining public morality.61 And a graphic example of Church ideological legitimation came in January 1931, when Ruiz y Flores made a public radio broadcast supporting the federal campaign for consumption of domestic products and lauding the government's "wise and prudent legislation" to protect Mexican industry.62 Legal cooperation, emphasis on nonpolitical concerns, and open espousal of federal programs amounted to an episcopal voice upon which Ortiz Rubio could depend. Yet some of the Catholic leadership, and much of the laity, were not so obliging.
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The episcopal leadership was forced to deal harshly with recalcitrant prelates and lay Catholic activists who continued to criticize the arreglos. On December 12, 1929, José de Jesús Manríquez y Zárate, Bishop of Huejutla, accused Archbishops Ruiz and Díaz of caving in to government anticlericalism through their suppression of the Cristero movement. 63 When these accusations were read aloud at a meeting of an exCristero organization, the Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa (known as the Liga), they were greeted with cheers and denunciations of ecclesiastical authority.64 Responding to Manríquez, Ruiz condemned the bishop, saying the accusations were "injurious to both authorities (civil and religious)." It was necessary, said the Apostolic Delegate, for Catholics to cooperate with the government and the episcopate, who knew best how to handle the situation.65 Several months later, Manríquez ostensibly apologized in a declaration to the press for any harm his words might have caused.66 The hierarchy was determined to preserve adherence to a nonconflictive line in its own ranks. Much of the laity, as well, criticized the settlement and continued to advocate armed resistance to the government. In July 1930, a leaflet commemorating the anniversary of the death of Padre Aristeo Pedroza, Cristero leader killed in 1929, announced that the use of violence was "licit to defend the cause of God and His Church."67 Ruiz attacked such propaganda in September, saying that "it is not time to discuss, but to obey" ecclesiastical dispositions.68 Similar episcopal condemnations were frequent and amounted to building a protective fence around the arreglos. Catholics were even exhorted to abstain from attending "evening parties" where the agreements might be attacked. Under no conditions could violent action be permitted.69 Thus, the hierarchy disseminated its own progovernment propaganda, while prohibiting that of clerical and lay extremists. Cooperation between leaders of Church and State was well established by 1931, complete with mutual support and evasion of the anticlerical laws similar to the cooperation of the Díaz period. The tolerant spirit of the arreglos was able to survive the change of power from Portes Gil to Ortiz Rubio, confirming the success of moderate federal and episcopal policies. In its push to consolidate power, the PNR needed legitimation, which the Church was willing to supply in return for implementation of the arreglos. For the hierarchy, declarations aiding the government and condemning its own critics were a small price to
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pay for the restoration of confiscated property and lax enforcement of the laws restricting religious liberty. Yet the crucial test of compromise was whether proconfrontation extremists on both sides could be controlled. It was not only a few prelates and scattered ex Cristeros who opposed accommodation; so did the powerful lay associations which had led the rebellion of 1926–29. The hierarchy began its campaign against these groups immediately following the settlement and had achieved some success by the end of the 1929–31 period. The ruling clique in the government, however, was considerably less effective in suppressing anticlerical factions, whose agitation in 1931 finally brought an end to the first phase of ChurchState cooperation. The Church Disciplines Catholic Lay Activists Two militant lay organizations that survived the Cristero War posed a far greater threat to Catholic unity than did dissident bishops and generalized opposition to the arreglos. The Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa (the Liga) and the Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana (ACJM) had organized and carried out the Cristero resistance movement, often coming into conflict with the hierarchy because of their violent tactics. 70 After the settlement, these groups continued to criticize the episcopate's moderate policies and remained organized sources of potentially violent opposition to the government. The manner in which the hierarchy dealt with the Liga and the ACJM became crucial to ChurchState compromise. The Church's control over its "own" extremists could usefully demonstrate a good faith desire to cooperate with the government. At the very least, if Catholic militants (and anticlericals on the other side) were quiet, the "internal peace" that Beals considered so important for political and economic stability could be maintained. The history of the Liga was one of continual tension with the hierarchy. Composed largely of middleclass businessmen and professionals, the Liga was founded in 1925 as a national Catholic defense organization to oppose anticlericalism.71 Several months after the Church strike of July 1926, the Liga raised an army, the Guardia Nacional, in an effort to force the government to alter the detested laws.
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Because of this willingness to resort to violence, the Liga failed in its attempts to obtain Church sanction for its actions in directing the Cristero revolt. As early as 1927, Pope Pius XI issued instructions that the Liga would have to change its name, oust its current leadership, and devote itself solely to nonviolent activities, if it wished Church support. 72 Refusing to meet these conditions, the Liga continued the rebellion, joining other Catholic lay groups to oppose any possible agreement with the government.73 Though many in the Liga felt that the hierarchy betrayed them by negotiating the settlement that ended the fighting in 1929, others were content to adopt a waitandsee attitude. On July 12, 1929, Liga leaders declared publicly that the organization's activities would henceforth be limited to "civic action," or nonviolent political activism. Internal Liga correspondence reveals that their ultimate plans were still uncertain as to the group's structure and type of action desired.74 Conflicts between the Liga and the bishops, though suspended briefly by the arreglos, would shortly resurface. The first round of episcopalLiga confrontation corresponded roughly to Portes Gil's presidency. Less than a month after the agreements, Apostolic Delegate Ruiz refused pointblank to help the Liga raise money to pay its Cristero War debts.75 A few days later, Ruiz denied the Liga's request for the hierarchy's intervention to protect exCristeros from revengeminded government troops. The Church, said the Apostolic Delegate, could not be associated in any way with the Liga.76 The Liga's president, Rafael Ceniceros y Villareal, then asked Ruiz if the clergy could at least cease condemning the Liga publicly, but the Apostolic Delegate declined to give such an order.77 The Liga, Ruiz said, must give up activities "that are not directly within its province," and must become a group oriented only toward social action. Reiterating the papal directive of 1927, but without even offering the carrot of Church aid, Ruiz suggested that with a new name and new directors, the Liga might be "freed from much harm and difficulty."78 But on August 4, before receiving Ruiz's latest letter, the Liga's national convention again rejected the Church's long standing demand that the organization's name and leadership be changed.79 As the almost unanimous vote was taken in the presence of the hierarchy's official representative, Padre Miguel Dario Miranda, this action could only be interpreted as a direct slap at the episcopate.80 During the fall of 1929, Archbishops Ruiz and Díaz continued to pressure the Liga to break its Cristero connections. At an October 12
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meeting of the Knights of Columbus, Díaz condemned the Liga's refusal to submit to ecclesiastical authority. 81 The same day, Ruiz reactivated the push for a name change, pressuring the Liga to do it by the time of the November 17 election.82 Ceniceros defended himself and his comembers and suggested that the word "religious" might be dropped from the Liga's title as a step toward freeing the Church from any implication in Liga activities.83 On November 6, Ceniceros informed Ruiz that "religious" would indeed be deleted, and that the organization would henceforth be known as the Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad.84 Ruiz, however, was not satisfied, and demanded more radical changes. Noting that the group was notorious as the "Liga," he wanted that word dropped as well, in addition to the longsought purge of old Cristero leaders like Ceniceros. According to Ruiz, the Liga should find a name that would not suggest a violent movement nor any possible connection with the Church.85 For the time being, however, the Liga would not be pushed further, as its members desired to retain its ''glorious name" reminiscent of "the blood of martyrs."86 Simultaneously, the Liga demonstrated its opposition to the hierarchy's moderate policies by openly backing the antiPNR candidate, Vasconcelos, whom the Church had declined to support.87 And when the official announcement of the dropping of "religious" was made in a Liga bulletin in January 1930, it was also made clear that "the Liga of today is the same as always."88 Though Liga leaders were still seeking episcopal approval at the end of Portes Gil's term, their insistence on maintaining ties to their antigovernment Cristero past made any kind of open Church support impossible. The Ortiz Rubio period saw an uneasy stalemate between the hierarchy and the Liga, as the former set out specific guidelines and the latter continued to be vague about its ultimate goals. Miguel de la Mora, Bishop of San Luis Potosí, issued a declaration on February 4, 1930, that the Liga should be allowed to undertake "political action," to which the Church would not be opposed.89 Pleased with this apparently laissezfaire attitude, Ceniceros requested comments on this statement from the rest of the episcopate, saying that the Liga desired only to "promote the civic conscience" of Mexico's Catholics.90 Twelve bishops responded, many of them approving a course of "civic action," as distinct from religious or military activities.91 But most of the prelates went further, stating that the Liga should look to the Church for guidance. Leopoldo Lara y Torres, Bishop of
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Tacámbaro, considered that the Liga should always see the Church as the "sovereign and infallible master" of "moral law." 92 The Bishop of Huajuápam de León, Luis Altamirano, warned that if the Liga were to "depart from Catholic morals, it would be the pressing duty of its spiritual shepherds [the episcopate] to raise a cry of alarm."93 Archbishop Díaz did not reply directly to Mora's statement but shortly afterward declared that the Liga could proceed with its civic activities only as long as it kept strictly to that type of action alone.94 Clarifying his position in December 1930, Díaz wrote the Liga to warn it against criticizing the arreglos. He said that none of its members would be threatened with excommunication as long as they stayed within the hierarchy's definition of legitimate activitynonviolent, nondisruptive action.95 The threat of excommunication was never carried out, but the Liga had been served notice that its activities were being carefully monitored. By the end of the 1929–31 period of ChurchState relations, the Liga had done little else than publicly condemn the arreglos and support Vasconcelos. The episcopate had not taken any overt action against it, being contented with exerting informal pressure. However, by continually stating that the Liga could have no formal connection with the Church, and that it had to eschew all violence, the ecclesiastical authorities had denied the organization its coveted legitimacy as a religious defense group and begun its marginalization. The Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana (ACJM), a youth group founded in 1913, traditionally bore a closer relationship to the Church than did the Liga, and so was easier for the episcopate to control. From its origins as the brainchild of Bernard Bergoend, S.J., a French Jesuit working in Guadalajara, the ACJM had functioned with a priest as nominal adviser.96 It drew its members from the sons of middle and upperclass families, largely from western Mexico and the Federal District. Unlike the Liga, the ACJM had a long history of political action supported by the Church, including nonviolent demonstrations and boycotts protesting anticlerical ordinances in Jalisco.97 Many of its members subsequently fought in the Cristero War, though the organization initially managed to avoid conflicts with the hierarchy.98 By 1928, however, some prelates considered it even more extreme in antigovernment fervor than the Liga.99 The ACJM's favored status and Church connections protected it from episcopal censure during the war but left it more vulnerable later. When
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the ACJM joined with other Catholic lay groups to oppose the negotiation of the arreglos, the bishops let its participation pass without comment. 100 As a result of a churchgovernment arrangement, many ACJM leaders were allowed by the federal authorities to return from exile, while Liga notables were not.101 But when confrontation between Catholic laity and the Church emerged several months later, this conflict proved more damaging to the ACJM than to those activists less under the episcopal thumb. Before the end of 1929, the hierarchy was able to dissolve the ACJM despite its leaders' protests. The association's chronicler, Antonio Ríus Facius, claims that Secretary of Government Felipe Canales, so tolerant towards the institutional Church, pressured the episcopate to destroy the ACJM and the Liga.102 As organized groupings of exCristeros, critical of the arreglos and with records of armed rebellion, both associations were perceived as potential threats to public order. The bishops could not completely control the Liga, but they could in July 1929 supplant the ACJM with a new Catholic youth group.103 The hierarchy established a commission headed by Padre (later Cardinal) Miguel Dario Miranda to write the bylaws of Acción Católica Mexicana (ACM), a new lay organization patterned after Catholic Action in Europe.104 The ACM was designed to engage the laity in religious education and political organizing on Catholic issues, areas from which the clergy was formally banned by the Constitution of 1917. In accord with the European model, the ACM would be directed by and responsible to the bishops. It would include men's, women's, boys' and girls' divisions, with the boys' section replacing the ACJM.105 Padre Bergoend, the ACJM's founder, rose to its defense before the hierarchy, arguing that Acción Católica should be organized by occupational group rather than by age and sex, so as not to duplicate and replace the ACJM.106 The association's central committee also defended it, saying that its members had fought in the Cristero War as unaffiliated individuals only and were now committed to pacific action.107 Nevertheless, the episcopate remained deaf to these pleas, and on Christmas Day, 1929, Díaz disseminated the new bylaws of Acción Católica, effectively supplanting the ACJM.108 As the ACJM's secretary general, Octavio Elizalde, later stated, the association was dissolved "not with an order, but with facts."109 Some of the ACJM's local chapters were allowed to join Acción Católica, if their members agreed to submit to the new rules; other chapters simply disbanded.110
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During 1930, discussions took place between the hierarchy and lay leaders over a possible new role for a resurrected ACJM. Many former ACJM members formed a new organization, Juventud Cívica, in March 1930, to carry on "civic action" outside of ecclesiastical control, though necessarily without the Church's blessing and support. 111 As with the Liga, this goal remained vague, though Juventud Cívica did push for the reactivation of the ACJM itself. In April, Bishop Leopoldo Lara y Torres of Tacámbaro, one of the less moderate prelates, criticized the way the ACM bylaws had been pushed through by Pascual Díaz and his allies in the episcopate, without giving bishops that might have opposed the measure any opportunity to object.112 Liga stalwart Miguel Palomar y Vizcarra visited Rome in the fall, arguing before Pope Pius XI that the ACJM was already a functioning part of Acción Católica and need not be replaced.113 Perhaps due to mounting pressure from Rome and from Mexican Catholics, Archbishop Díaz agreed to reestablish the ACJM in November, in a compromise that let half of its old central committee back into office.114 On January 25, 1931, the ACJM was reconstituted as part of Acción Católica, though most of its extreme members were forced out.115 The ACJM's reinstatement was only symbolic, for it was now far more directly under ecclesiastical control than in the preCristero days of nominal supervision. Thus, by 1931, the hierarchy had achieved some measure of success in controlling the most important Catholic extremist organizations. The opposition of these groups to the arreglos and to the Church policy of moderation towards the government had made their restraint imperative. The ACJM had been reduced to a nonautonomous, powerless part of Acción Católica. The process of controlling the Liga had begun through the forcing of its name change, and it had been warned as to the type of activities legitimately within its province. Tension between the episcopate and the Liga would continue, revolving around the issues of the latter's name, the scope of "civic action," and, underlying these, its relationship to ecclesiastical authority. Why did the Church crush the ACJM but let the Liga survive, at least temporarily? Most simply, the hierarchy had more direct control over the ACJM. But it is also reasonable to speculate that allowing the Liga to survive constituted a veiled threat to the government; i.e., an iron fist concealed in the velvet glove of accommodation. Indeed, while it was clear that most of the bishops vigorously opposed the confrontational
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style developed by militant lay Catholics in the 1920s, the hierarchy's attacks on the Liga and the ACJM did not mean that the episcopate had no use for Catholic lay organizations. Rather, in an era of legal restrictions on the clergy, the Catholic laity became crucial for implementing Church policy, and so had to be placed under ecclesiastical control in structures like the ACM. 116 Conclusion In the 1929–31 period, the hierarchy's suppression of Catholic activists, together with its unofficial accommodation with the government, heralded a new ChurchState compromise arrangement. The new system was the product of moderate policies on both sides. Federal legal favors were exchanged for episcopal political support, establishing a relationship that survived the change of power from Portes Gil to Ortiz Rubio. The hierarchy's ability to enforce internal discipline against lay militants, and the fact that anticlericals were temporarily quiet, helped facilitate this cooperation. Yet the problem of extremists was not permanently resolved, neither for the government nor for the Church. A resurgence of anticlericalism on the regional level, beginning in 1931, would pose a threat to the system of compromise and would make the Catholic laity more confrontationminded as well. How the episcopate would respond to the new anticlericalism provided an acid test of ChurchState accommodation under adverse conditions.
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Four— Anticlerical Resurgence and Lay Reaction, 1931–35 State government enforcement of antireligious legislation in 1931 began a series of events to which the Church hierarchy was forced to respond. Restrictions on priests, the persistent activities of lay extremists, and educational controversies severely tried ChurchState cooperation until overt tension eased in 1936. The bishops confronted three presidential administrations, those of Ortiz Rubio (1930–32), Abelardo Rodríguez (1932–34), and Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40) over these issues. Some historians have claimed that the new wave of anticlericalism produced intense ChurchState conflict, ending only when Cárdenas modified government policy in 1936. 1 But these scholars have looked merely at the surfacelevel signs of controversy rather than at the episcopate's quiet, nonflamboyant responses to anticlerical provocation. Through careful, measured protests, the suppression of lay extremists, and the mobilization of nonviolent Catholic groups, the Church continued and strengthened the tradition of compromise developed earlier. New Anticlericalism and Old Moderation Anticlerical laws enforced in 1931 and 1932, as well as entirely new legislation, provided the first real test of postarreglos ChurchState accommodation. This new wave of restrictions on religion can be seen in the context both of federal friction with the states and of factional disputes within the PNR. Despite the Ortiz Rubio administration's attempts to centralize political control, many anticlerical politicians, such as Governor Adalberto Tejeda of Veracruz, still retained much
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influence at the regional level. 2 Criticism of Ortiz Rubio's handling of the depressed economy in early 1931, as well as increasing tension between the President and "jefe máximo" Calles, left the door open for state action against the Church.3 Many deputies in the national Congress brought antireligious sentiment beyond the state level as well. The initial stimulus for anticlericalism came not from the states or their representatives but from the Mexican Supreme Court. On March 5, 1931, the Court held that state authorities could implement anticlerical laws even if such legislation "interfered with internal religious discipline."4 As Article 130 of the 1917 Constitution gave the federal government sovereignty in all religious matters except the right to limit priests, severe numerical restriction of clergymen became the salient manifestation of statelevel anticlericalism.5 In April, Jalisco's governor, Sebastián Allende, ordered the implementation of a previously unenforced 1926 law permitting only two hundred and fifty priests to officiate in the state.6 Other states with existing laws, such as Tabasco and Yucatán, followed suit.7 During the next two years, many states, including Tejeda's Veracruz, the Federal District, México, Michoacán, and Sonora, passed entirely new legislation reducing the number of priests still further. Tejeda justified the Veracruz law in a letter to Calles, characteristically complaining that the clergy was spending its time constructing "churches and other works useless to society."8 By the end of 1931, every state in the republic, except for Morelos, had a law on the books limiting priests.9 As in 1926, the Church was forced to choose a course of action, but this time made clear its intention to cooperate with, rather than to oppose, the government. Initially, the hierarchy reacted to the new laws of 1931 with reasoned protests to national and state authorities, scrupulous avoidance of conflict, and warnings against the use of violence. In June and July, Apostolic Delegate Ruiz issued declarations condemning the resurgence of anticlericalism and asking Catholics to petition peacefully for the relaxation of state restrictions. In these messages, Ruiz appealed to the government to keep up the "mutual goodwill" established by the arreglos.10 Catholic scholar Alfonso Junco gave the authorities a legal mechanism for saving face, arguing that limits on the clergy were only discretionary, according to the 1917 Constitution. Article 130, he wrote, did not impose any "obligation" to restrict priests, but merely granted the "ability" to do so in accordance with local necessities.11 The episcopate's tactic of voicing Church concerns while avoiding provocative
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action received reinforcement from the Pope, who in September 1931 urged the clergy to eschew all confrontation with the authorities. To further this policy, the pontiff ordered tolerance of minor legal annoyances such as the requirement to display the Mexican flag in churches on national holidays. 12 Moving in October to affirm the Church's unqualified opposition to armed resistance, the Apostolic Delegate condemned violence as "an obstacle to national reconstruction."13 Similar warnings were issued by several bishops, who desired to forestall the mobilization of any exCristeros in their dioceses.14 These moderate ecclesiastical gestures followed the spirit of postarreglos compromise and were an attempt to elicit a like response from the government. The federal authorities were not immune to appeals from the Church and under some circumstances could make symbolic moves towards conciliation. Attempting to resolve personality conflicts within the Ortiz Rubio administration, Calles pressured the entire cabinet to resign in October 1931.15 This upset calmed some of the infighting that had allowed the states to pursue freely their anticlerical programs. On October 28, the new Secretary of Government, Manuel C. Téllez, stated that his office would now suppress antireligious abuses by local officials if complaints against them were well founded.16 Actual federal control over state action was restricted, but an internally stable central government was less vulnerable to the pressure of anticlerical extremists. A spectacular example of government tolerance following the cabinet turnover was the Church's quadricentennial observance of the Virgin of Guadalupe apparition, on December 12, 1931. In clear violation of the constitutional ban on public religious ceremonies, Federal District employees did not interfere with the festival.17 Major government figures, including several cabinet members and numerous congressional deputies, actively participated.18 Treasury Secretary Luis Montes de Oca allowed an organ imported for the Guadalupe basilica to avoid customs duties and reduced railroad rates for pilgrims traveling to Mexico City.19 The Señora Calles even donated five thousand pesos (approximately $2,058 U.S. dollars in 1931) to help finance the celebration.20 The Guadalupe ceremonies showed that extralegal evasions could still take place despite the anticlerical upswing, though Calles and now PNR head Portes Gil later rebuked some officials for their participation.21 The government's position was delicate, and while events like Guadalupe could occur, the Church also had to give formal lipservice to harsh legislation.
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The hierarchy's powers of conciliation were tested anew in late December 1931, when Congress restricted the number of priests in the Federal District. Angered by the openness of the Guadalupe rites, anticlerical deputies pushed through a bill limiting to twentyfive the clergymen allowed in Mexico City. 22 In response, Archbishop Pascual Díaz warned Mexicans to use only "legal means" to oppose the new ordinance.23 In line with this emphasis on legality, Díaz organized a campaign to use the Mexican judicial system against the legislation. Priests and private citizens were to flood the federal courts with amparo petitions, in the hope that judges would declare local authorities' application of the law unconstitutional.24 While exhaustive briefs were being prepared by Catholic lawyers, the Pope ordered Díaz to cease what had already become too public and controversial a maneuver.25 The papal instructions explained that official tolerance of the new law was necessary to avoid "the greater evil" of religious ignorance that would ensue if a provoked government closed the churches. Priests could formally protest when registering their names in accord with federal regulations, but the important thing was to keep the churches open.26 Díaz interpreted the new orders as saying that it was "not proper for us to defend ourselves by entering into unnecessary disputes."27 Events bore out the Pope's and the Archbishop's judgment, for one year later many unauthorized priests were officiating freely in the Federal District, despite the legal limit.28 From 1932 on, Díaz's policy formally tolerating the Federal District law, while unofficially seeking its nonenforcement, became a model followed in dioceses throughout the republic.29 The high point of anticlericalism came in the fall of 1932, when nearly all states had passed stiff restrictions and a new President exiled the Apostolic Delegate. Unable to restore a faltering economy, having made too many callista enemies, and lacking the support of the "jefe máximo" himself, Ortiz Rubio resigned on September 2.30 Former labor minister Abelardo Rodríguez, a wealthy Calles supporter, was elected by Congress as a twoyear interim President.31 Shortly after the inauguration, Pope Pius XI issued an encyclical stating that, by its failure to control antireligious actions and propaganda, the government had not lived up to the spirit of the arreglos.32 Though the Pope urged only "licit resistance" and condemned violence, along with the clerics who supported armed action, his letter seemed a public challenge to a new administration anxious to prove its "revolu
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tionary" credentials. On October 2, President Rodríguez declared to the press that the encyclical openly invited armed rebellion, a response more to Pius XI's harsh public criticism of the government than to any actual incitement to revolt. 33 When Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores replied that "peaceful opposition to oppressive laws . . . cannot be called rebellion," anticlericals in Congress obtained the Apostolic Delegate's deportation.34 With this event, anticlerical persecution in Mexico seemed to have reached its apogee. Yet even the extreme situation of the Pope's Mexican representative being in exile did not change the fundamentals of ChurchState cooperation. Despite his unfortunate position, Ruiz wrote from San Antonio that his expulsion should not be publicly protested on either side of the border.35 Nor was the government disposed to wipe out the unofficial avenues of accommodation established earlier. According to Rodríguez's personal secretary, the exiling of Ruiz did not mean that the clergy could not "continue working in the shade," exerting influence through Acción Católica and other moderate lay groups.36 Like its predecessors, the Rodríguez administration would engage in extralegal compromise as long as its authority was publicly respected. Thus, the anticlerical resurgence of 1931–32 was not necessarily as conflictprovoking as previous scholars have maintained. The passage of harsh laws restricting numbers of priests and the deportation of Ruiz gave the era an appearance of renewed ChurchState strife. Yet below the surface, moderates in the hierarchy and government attempted to adapt to the new circumstances. The last part of Ortiz Rubio's and the early portion of Rodríguez's administrations saw an ecclesiastical avoidance of controversy, official willingness to tolerate the antireligious laws, and grace under pressure when faced with the Ruiz expulsion. In turn, federal authorities were capable of relaxing legal enforcement and sometimes permitting events such as the Guadalupe festival. Officials could indulge their private religious sympathies as long as a front of legality was maintained. However, it should not be forgotten that both the government and the Church were still internally divided between moderate and extremist factions. Conflict occurred when the government's facade of upholding the laws was punctured, as with the toopublic nature of Guadalupe or the faultfinding papal encyclical. When federal authority appeared weak, anticlerical extremists at state and national levels used the opportunity to further their programs. It was therefore in the
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hierarchy's longrange interest to cause as few problems for the government as possible and formally recognize federal supremacy, no matter how severe religious persecution seemed at the moment. The Hierarchy Versus Catholic Extremists Concurrently with the 1931–32 resurgence of anticlericalism, the Church hierarchy continued the campaign against lay Catholic extremists that had begun with the arreglos. These militants opposed the episcopate's moderate policies and saw in the renewed religious persecution an opportunity to promote their tactics of armed resistance. ExCristero guerrillas in rural areas, and stalwarts of the Liga in major cities, considered the restrictions on priests to be adequate provocation for a new uprising. A minority of bishops, critical of the Ruiz/Díaz line, gave moral support and legitimacy to those who favored a violent movement. In order to show a unified moderate front to the government, the hierarchy had to preserve discipline among Catholics. As long as anticlericals had influence in the councils of government, armed guerrillas, Liga militants, and disobedient prelates could disrupt the efforts of a Church leadership committed to weathering the storm. Along with its orders to tolerate the new restrictions, the episcopate made condemnations of violence a crucial part of its program of moderation. Following the series of declarations by Ruiz, Díaz, and other bishops in 1931, the Pope made the definitive statement on the subject in January 1932. 37''Do not even consider armed defense" of the Church's rights, wrote Pius XI.38 Interpreting the pontiff's words, Ruiz declared that Catholicism should not be used to justify violence, by "hoisting the religious banner to call it to arms." Refusing to deal with the controversial question of whether the Cristeros of 1926–29 had acted properly, the Apostolic Delegate said that past rebels were not now being criticized—but any similar action in the future was categorically prohibited. Furthermore, the arreglos should not be attacked.39 In a long article analyzing the papal order in the light of Church tradition, Jesuit Antonio Brambila concluded that even though the right of selfdefense was given to man by natural law, it was still only a "permissive" right, and could be restricted by ecclesiastical decree.40 Though there was now no doubt where the Pope and the
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Mexican Church leadership stood, those not so disposed had a different version of Catholic doctrine. As in 1926, rural guerrilla risings in response to anticlericalism put the hierarchy in an uncomfortable position. Composed largely of exCristeros, armed bands in several states began assaulting government outposts in March 1932. In Paso del Macho, Veracruz, a statue of Benito Juárez was "executed" in a symbolic attack on the anticlerical Constitution of 1857. 41 By May, guerrillas were active in Veracruz, Querétaro, and Jalisco.42 The revolt came to be known as the "Segunda," or second Cristero War.43 Though dissatisfaction with federal agrarian reform policies may have had some influence, the principle uniting all of these groups was a hostility to the PNR regime, antireligious laws, and moderate ecclesiastical policy.44 One rebel broadside went so far as to claim that the Pope was not really against armed resistance, and that the hierarchy was lying on this issue.45 Unwilling to repeat their 1926 vacillation, the bishops were now prepared to snuff out any revolt before it could gain momentum. On April 30, Ruiz urged Mexican Catholics "to ignore agitators" who preached the taking up of arms "in defense of religious rights."46 Similar prohibitions were issued by Ruiz and Díaz in July.47 In August, Díaz ordered abstention even from reading material critical of the episcopacy and the arreglos.48 By the end of 1932, the uprisings had vanished. Though the "Segunda" resurfaced again in 1934–36, the hierarchy's unyielding opposition ensured its defeat .49 That the bishops were so ready to condemn violent attacks on the government showed how much their methods of dealing with ChurchState conflict had evolved since the Cristero War. A more organized source of militancy, the Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad, was still perceived as a threat by the hierarchy, especially when anticlericals were providing provocation to Catholic extremists. The 1931–32 period saw a new attempt to crush the Liga, resulting in its effective neutralization. A campaign of attrition was waged by Church moderates against the Liga, from parish pulpits and by archdiocesan decrees, in an effort to convince the public that the episcopate's compromises were the only proper response to antireligious laws. José Luis Orozco, the Liga's secretary, wrote Díaz in September 1931 to protest the Archbishop's and much of the lower clergy's hostility to the organization.50 When the Liga's Mexico City chapter responded to the December Federal District law by calling for the government's "complete defeat,"
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clerical attacks on the group were stepped up. 51 Díaz could not have the local Liga chapter interfering with his own way of dealing with the authorities. The chapter chief, Manuel C. Moreno, complained to Leopoldo Ruiz that many priests criticized the Liga. as being schismatic and disrespectful of authority.52 As Ruiz agreed with the criticisms, he refused to halt them, and warned Moreno to stop using Catholicism as a source of moral legitimacy.53 By the end of January 1932, it was clear to the hierarchy that the Liga had not been strengthened by the anticlerical resurgence. Constant episcopal propaganda was depriving it of popular support, and the success of tolerant policies was making the Liga's proviolence stance seem impractical. A formal Liga request for the hierarchy's approval of a new platform left the organization vulnerable to a new assault. Meeting in February 1932, the Liga's National Convention drafted a "Declaration of Principles," which was sent to Díaz for his opinion. The document called for an increasing emphasis on Catholic education and the "combatting of U.S. imperialism."54 But after consultation with Ruiz, Díaz rejected the new proposal on April 8. According to Ruiz, the Liga could only obtain ecclesiastical endorsement if it moderated its style of language, submitted to Church authority on all policy questions, and suppressed its "systematic hostility to the Revolution and government."55 This rejection was followed by a carefully worded Ruiz circular, in which the Apostolic Delegate presented a Hobson's choice: he threatened to condemn the Liga publicly unless it changed its name to something more innocuous.56 The Liga's supplication for Church aid, despite the anticlerical upswing, had convinced Ruiz and Díaz that they now had the power to deal a mortal blow to the organization. Unable to accept the hierarchy's demands, the Liga's membership voted in May to suspend activities indefinitely.57 Through clever maneuvering, the episcopate had won a tangible victory over its strongest enemy within the Mexican Catholic world. Though the Liga did not dissolve immediately, its history following the suspension of activities in 1932 was one of continuous decline. When Liga leaders asked Ruiz for a hearing to defend their conduct against his threat of condemnation, the Apostolic Delegate replied that further discussions were useless.58 Pascual Díaz agreed, finding that his efforts to convert Liga members into "collaborators with the Church" had been "completely sterile."59 When one of the Liga's few defenders in the episcopate, Leopoldo Lara y Torres, reported in August
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that the Pope himself held the organization in very low esteem, a last hope for legitimacy was shattered. 60 Though the Liga renewed activities in June 1933,61 it no longer even drew the attention of the hierarchy. Some members split off and formed a more pacifistic group with a new name, the Acción Cívica Nacional, which finally gained Ruiz's approval in 1936.62 A remnant of the Liga itself lasted until 1938, giving support to the "Segunda" from the pages of its journal, Reconquista.63 With membership dwindling and no chance of help from the episcopate after 1932, the Liga was never again an important force in Mexican politics. Why did the hierarchy wait until 1932 to try to attack the Liga? Possibly, the anticlerical resurgence of 1931–32 had made the preservation of discipline among lay Catholics crucial to Church survival, rather than merely desirable, as before. A related factor may have been the Liga's failure to provide a viable alternative to the moderate episcopal policy of tolerating the new laws. In any case, the suppression of the Liga removed a major obstacle to ChurchState compromise. Along with lay Catholic advocates of violence, the hierarchy had to deal with some of its own prelates who supported the extremist response to anticlericalism. Though always in the minority within the episcopate, bishops such as José María González Valencia of Durango, Leopoldo Lara y Torres of Tacámbaro, and José de Jesús Manríquez y Zárate of Huejutla, all of whom had opposed the 1929 arreglos, saw the anticlerical resurgence as a new opportunity to condemn the moderate policies of Ruiz and Díaz. In a letter to the Pope, González Valencia summarized the position of the extremist bishops. Catholics had lost all respect for the Mexican hierarchy, wrote González, and could not understand the "inexplicable benignness of the episcopate toward the persecutors." Tolerance of the laws was useless, because the government desired only "the ruin of the Church."64 Specifically, the recalcitrant prelates opposed arrangements with the authorities to evade the priestlimiting restrictions. Upon hearing in May 1932 that such an agreement was to be made in Michoacán, Lara y Torres wrote that it was useless to put trust in "vain promises" which the government was too weak to carry out.65 Though by 1932 most of the clergy were careful not to advocate violence overtly, it was often hinted at, as when González argued that he "could not see how the bishops could do other than act illicitly."66 Such criticisms of ecclesiastical moderation could only give moral support to the "Segunda" guerrillas and the Liga.
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Yet most of the bishops were less concerned about appearing to collaborate with the government than they were about avoiding a tragic repetition of 1926, when they had failed to act decisively against the armed movement. In keeping with its general policy of compromise, the episcopate had to prevent any clergymen from giving aid and comfort to the rebels. Following his threat to condemn the Liga in April, Ruiz wrote to Lara y Torres, one of the organization's few episcopal defenders, to order him to "accommodate" his "way of thinking to that of the rest." 67 Writing to his friend Manríquez in Rome three months later, Lara reported that the Liga "was in very bad standing" with Pius XI and that the two bishops were seen as the ''promoters of that agitation."68 Nevertheless, Lara became embroiled in controversy again a few days later, when he published a bitter protest against the law limiting priests in Michoacán.69 This action went directly counter to the tolerant policy being followed by Ruiz, who in addition to his job as Apostolic Delegate, was Archbishop of Morelia, and thus Lara's immediate superior. Furious, Ruiz ordered the protest suppressed.70 Manríquez too was disciplined by Ruiz when the Bishop of Huejutla's agents were caught smuggling proresistance literature into Mexico.71 Ruiz suggested that Díaz cut off funds for a Catholic newspaper that published Manríquez's writings and that the latter's jubilee celebration of ordination be canceled.72 Even if armed resistance could not be halted entirely, the punishing of its episcopal advocates could help free the Church from any connection with violence. By the end of 1932, the hierarchy's strong stand against Catholic extremism had forestalled what might have been a violent reaction to the anticlerical upswing. The majority of the bishops had learned since 1926 that they had to separate themselves decisively from any armed movement if their influence with the government was to be maintained. As part of its moderate response to the new laws, the episcopate condemned the "Segunda," the Liga, and unreconstructed clergymen. It was far better for the hierarchy to censure such militants than for the government to blame the Church for their actions. The authorities, too, benefited from the suppression of the extremists, not just in terms of "civic peace," but because the evasion of anticlerical laws was more easily accomplished when the facade of upholding them was maintained. Militant laity and clergy were weakened when such ChurchState cooperation took place, for maximalist
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demands for overthrowing the regime, or even repealing the laws, appeared unnecessarily provocative. Because of the reality of evasion, the episcopate did not consider the immediate removal of limits on priests essential to Church survival, as did the extremists. When the hierarchy was finally threatened in an area it did view as vital, i.e., education, it was ready to resist, using politic, effective tactics. The Moderate Laity Versus Government Education From 1932 to 1936, the issue at the forefront of ChurchState relations was that of education. 73 The administrations of Presidents Ortiz Rubio, Rodríguez, and Cárdenas all attempted to impose versions of the 1917 Constitution's Article 3, by implanting secular, sexual, and socialist education programs. Though some scholars have discussed Catholic opposition to these measures, most have seen education as an issue of ChurchState conflict resolved by government initiative.74 I analyze the problem in the context of ChurchState cooperation, examining the episcopate's calculated mobilization of nonviolent Catholic lay opposition to the new instructional projects.75 As the ability to transmit Catholicism through education lay at the heart of the Church's traditional function, its leaders saw the evasion and tolerance of 1931–32 as insufficient. To defeat the educational reforms, while staying within the confines of the arreglos, the hierarchy took a more offensive, rather than merely defensive, approach. The federal implementation of Article 3 in 1932, after years of nonenforcement, provoked a strong reaction from the hierarchy and lay Catholics. On its face, Article 3 called for "lay" education in all public schools and private primary schools and was ambiguous as to its extension to private secondary education.76 The anticlericals of the 1930s naturally pushed for the broadest possible interpretation of this language. Although Article 3 remained a dead letter for fourteen years after the Constitution's ratification, in 1931 Ortiz Rubio's energetic and anticlerical Education Secretary, Narciso Bassols, decided to put some teeth into the law.77 In the wake of recriminations over Guadalupe, Bassols pushed Ortiz Rubio to decree that diplomas from private secondary schools would not be federally recognized unless these schools eliminated religious study.78
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Responding to the threat, Archbishop Díaz ordered the directors of Catholic secondary schools not to accept the government standards and admonished parents to keep their children out of nonreligious institutions. 79 A second blow came in April 1932, when Bassols intensified his office's policing of private primary schools and explicitly forbade priests from teaching in them.80 The hierarchy now urged the mobilization of the Unión Nacional de Padres de Familia (UNPF), a nonviolent parents' organization begun by episcopal initiative in 1925.81 In July, the UNPF presented a petition to Ortiz Rubio against the legislation implementing Article 3.82 Simultaneously, the bishops enlisted the aid of Acción Católica to evade the laws by setting up home religious instruction throughout the republic. "Make every house a school of religion," wrote Ruiz.83 Though "lay education" remained officially on the books, organized lay resistance in addition to the usual extralegal evasions presaged the Church's responses to further educational reforms. During the Rodríguez presidency, Bassols attempted to implant a new variation of Article 3, a controversial sexual education program. In May 1933, impressed with problems of teenage pregnancy and venereal disease, Bassols released a report by consultants to his ministry, recommending that basic courses in hygiene and physiology be offered in primary schools.84 The report enraged lay Catholics, who saw the new project as exposing children to those mysteries from which the Church had traditionally protected them.85 The UNPF and other groups responded with massive demonstrations against the programs and calls for parents to withdraw their children from schools if sexual education were to be imposed. According to UNPF declarations, "when knowledge leads to perversion, ignorance is preferable."86 In addition to the UNPF, new Catholic organizations sprang up to oppose sex education, such as the Asociación Nacional ProLibertad de Ensenañza, which also held rallies and published formal protests.87 The UNPF and other groups were careful, however, to follow Church guidelines for nonviolent resistance—opposition which, in the episcopate's phraseology, would be carried out by "legal and licit means."88 By making their strong feelings known, while staying within the bounds of legitimate protest, members of lay groups hoped to convince the government that the latter's political interest lay in dropping plans for sexual education. Yet Bassols showed his contempt for public opinion in August, when he declared that "one signature with good arguments
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behind it is worth more than thousands signed blindly." 89 And in January 1934, he made known his intention to begin the program.90 Under this immediate threat, the hierarchy directed protesting lay groups in an organized campaign to halt sexual education. On February 5, 1934, Archbishop Díaz urged parents to take action, by demonstrating and taking their children out of school.91 Though extremist Bishop Lara y Torres pressed him to allow clergymen to become openly involved in the opposition movement, Díaz considered it more politic for protests to be carried out entirely by the laity.92 Taking their cue from Díaz, the UNPF and other groups organized a public school strike in the Federal District, beginning February 17. The UNPF's President, Ignacio Bravo Betancourt, considered that the strike was "the only method left us to protect children . . . from the terrible effects of sexual education."93 Justifying the strike on a more theoretical plane, Díaz declared that the State had no right to interfere with parents' sacred duty to educate their own children, which the laity was obligated to defend "by all licit means at its disposal."94 The effect of the strike was devastating and, as Bassols himself admitted, resulted in the "paralyzation" of Mexico City's primary schools.95 Under intense public pressure, and with President Rodríguez finally opposing his policies, Bassols resigned on May 9. In his resignation letter, he credited the Church, and particularly lay Catholics, with bringing about his downfall.96 The wellorchestrated, nonviolent efforts of the hierarchy and laity had succeeded in defeating not only an anticlerical program, but its powerful author as well. The lay groups which had mobilized to meet the threat of sexual education were faced with a new challenge in December 1933, with the PNR plan to alter Article 3 and make public schools "socialist."97 Whereas the previous educational projects had been a result primarily of Bassols' own initiative, the new reform was put forward by the PNR's Second National Convention and reflected the influence of a growing leftwing faction in the official party. These radicals, who included the PNR's 1934 presidential candidate, Lázaro Cárdenas, saw religion as the ideological arm of an unjust economic system.98 The PNR SixYear Plan, approved on December 6, 1933, called for State intervention in the economy, a steppedup agrarian reform, and the expansion of the public school system under federal control.99 Education was considered a crucial arena where economic and social changes could be justified by rationalistic, science oriented instruction.
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In a speech to the PNR convention, Veracruz delegate Manlio Fabio Altamirano argued that the new education should be "without fears, without prejudices, without dogmas," and should "combat all religions." 100 Along these lines, the SixYear plan provided that the public schools should inculcate "an exact and positive concept of the world."101 This provision was followed by the plan's proposal that Article 3 should be changed, ensuring that public schools should not merely be secular but "should be based on the Socialist doctrine that the Mexican Revolution upholds.''102 What the delegates actually had in mind by "socialist education" was still unclear at the end of the convention, but the rhetoric of radicals like Fabio Altamirano and the language of the plan itself seemed threatening to many Catholics. A portent of trouble was the resistance within the PNR to the proposed reform of Article 3. President Abelardo Rodríguez and a more conservative, moderate faction opposed socialist education at the convention and afterwards. This group was initially supported by "jefe máximo" Calles, possibly out of fear that the radicals would initiate a break from his political control; but later (summer 1934) he came to back socialist education.103 Though many of these moderates considered themselves anticlericals and had strongly supported limiting the number of priests, they feared the radicals' talk of economic transformation.104 In a letter to PNR President Carlos Riva Palacio, Rodríguez argued against reforming Article 3, on the grounds that such a change would give the State too much ideological power and would only be exchanging "religious sectarianism," for "socialist sectarianism."105 Riva Palacio replied that he, too, had grave doubts about the proposed alteration and would try to delay it.106 Rodríguez's position may have been an attempt at accommodation with the Church, or simply a prophetic realization of the problems an aroused Catholic public could cause. As with previous anticlerical programs, support for socialist education was by no means unanimous on the government side. As soon as the SixYear Plan was approved, the episcopate laid the groundwork for popular action against socialist education. The hierarchy's position reflected its fears that "socialism" signified a totalitarian materialism contradictory to Catholic doctrine. In January 1934, Apostolic Delegate Ruiz, speaking for the episcopate as a whole, instructed Catholics not to cooperate with the new program, "which certainly contains many errors against the faith." Parents who sent their
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children to schools where socialism was taught, and any member of the PNR, could be excommunicated. 107 Several months later, Pascual Díaz summarized traditional Church arguments against socialism in a pastoral letter.108 Socialism, he declared, exalted the State above all other institutions, including the family, and thus interfered with parents' right to educate their own children. Díaz urged Catholics to keep their children home and invoked the canon law prohibition against attendance at antiCatholic schools. Still, despite the extreme incompatibility of Catholicism and socialism, only "licit means" were to be considered in opposing the latter.109 As in the protest over sexual education, violence and clerical participation in resistance were taboo, and a proposition by Bishop Lara y Torres that the Liga should be revived to combat the new program was soundly rejected.110 In its opposition to what it perceived as totalitarian State control, and its emphasis on legality, the hierarchy held a position entirely compatible with that of Rodríguez and other moderates in the government. It remained to be seen whether restraint, in the Church or government camps, would prevail as radical pressure for reforms increased. The election of official PNR presidential candidate Lázaro Cárdenas, on July 1, 1934, encouraged radical supporters of the Article 3 reform and caused its Catholic opponents to redouble their efforts. Cárdenas's ties to the left wing of the party and his reputation as an anticlerical governor of Michoacán (1928–32) made the passage and enforcement of a socialist education law likely.111 In the summer and fall, PNR radicals prepared to push the legislation through Congress. Shortly after the presidential election, Calles shifted his support from the PNR moderates to the anticlerical radicals, arguing in a speech at Guadalajara that the Revolution should "take control of the consciousness of children and youth."112 The inflammatory "Grito de Guadalajara" sparked an unprecedented flurry of lay Catholic activity promoted by the Church. Teachers and university students joined the already organized parents' groups in a broad alliance, using protest rallies, strikes, and leaflets to pressure Congress against the reform.113 Condemning Calles's "Grito," the coalition of lay groups retorted to the ''jefe máximo": "The youth are not and will never be yours."114 The UNPF warned that children exposed to socialist teachings would end up on the street; parents were told that "your daughter will have a civil marriage, and become a public woman."115
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Behind the scenes, the hierarchy urged on the lay activists while making sure the Church was not implicated in their actions. As Congress began debating Article 3 in October, Ruiz pushed for central coordination of lay groups so that they could function without any direct ecclesiastical guidance. 116 Ruiz and the other bishops hoped that an aroused Catholic public, free of any discrediting clerical taint, would be enough to block the reform. When Congress approved the amendment of Article 3 on October 20, 1934, the Church's efforts appeared to have failed.117 A Liga. officer, writing to extremist Bishop Manríquez y Zárate, considered that with the Constitution now altered, all hope for defeating socialist education was lost.118 Yet Catholic militants, like the PNR radicals, underestimated the Church's resilience in adapting to new situations. Though anticlericalism had rarely been successfully opposed at the formal level of legislative enactment, popular antagonism and extralegal evasion could effectively defeat a law victorious on paper. Moderates in the government were still aware that, despite the new Article 3, Catholic power had to be respected. Nearing the end of his term, President Rodríguez vetoed a congressional attempt to exile Archbishop Díaz, because, in the words of the Presidential Secretary, "a terrible reaction in the Catholic sector" might occur if such an action were taken.119 In the two years since his expulsion of Apostolic Delegate Ruiz, Rodríguez had returned to the accommodationist policies of his predecessors in office. The new president, Lázaro Cárdenas, taking office on December 1 with a radical educational program to implement, would be forced to recognize a similar necessity. During the first two years of the Cárdenas regime, the Church's combination of lay pressure and unofficial evasion eroded the government attempt to implant socialist education. The new curriculum, begun on January 15, 1935, was not uniformly "socialist" throughout the republic, and in most cases involved no more than an emphasis on science and practical skills.120 But reality was less important than perception, especially to lay Catholics spurred on by episcopal pronouncements. On February 11, the bishops repeated their threat of canonical sanctions to parents sending children to socialist schools.121 New boycotts and rallies followed, with the UNPF playing a leading role.122 A UNPF strike was organized in Guadalajara with the slogan, "No child in school!"123 The broad coalition of students, teachers, and
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workers opposed to socialist education became known as the Comité de Acción Nacional. In March Ruiz commended legal activities as the proper form of protest. 124 Interviewed by a New York Times reporter later that month, the Apostolic Delegate was optimistic that nationwide parades and strikes would have an effect. Opposition to the new bill, he said, "has been very strong everywhere." Ruiz again condemned the violent tactics of lay extremists, some of whom had taken to killing government teachers (accused of being social agitators) in rural areas. He argued that the "defense of freedom" could only be carried out through "peaceful means and political activities."125 Despite the passage of the new law, nonviolent lay mobilization on a massive scale showed that support for the Church's position was stronger than ever. On a practical basis, Church and government officials collaborated to nullify socialist education in much the same way that previous anticlerical ordinances had been evaded. As early as September 1934, nuns who wished to continue teaching in Mexico could be formally designated "caretakers" of convents, if they had the papers arranged by Education Secretary Eduardo Vasconcelos.126 After Article 3 was amended, many Catholic principals made known their intention to continue operating schools in defiance of the law.127 U.S. Ambassador Josephus Daniels observed in January 1935 that the government was not taking any action to close schools conducted in private homes.128 Religious education also continued openly in Catholic establishments; Daniels wrote about one, that "everybody refers to it as a Catholic school, although the law does not permit church schools."129 According to one historian, the government could not close down Church education unless it wanted to swamp the already overcrowded public system.130 Even for those children who did not have access to private schooling, the Church had an answer. Beginning in April 1936, publicschool teachers were urged not to resign (as many were threatening to do) but to contradict and undercut the socialist curriculum.131 Given the middleclass, conservative upbringing of most teachers, the participation of some of them in the lay opposition movement, and an imperfect understanding of socialist education's goals on the part of others, this was an effective tactic.132 By the end of 1936, extralegal arrangements, functioning Catholic schools, and the retention of "subversive" teachers all evidenced a growing government recognition of socialist education's unpopularity.
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In November 1936, the cumulative effect of Catholic pressure was officially acknowledged by the Cárdenas administration, and socialist education was toned down. This shift took place in the context of a general improvement in formal ChurchState relations, confirming what had long been going on below the surface. 133 On November 17, Education Secretary Gonzalo Vázquez Vela admitted that recent criticism had pointed up severe problems with the implementation of Article 3.134 After this declaration, Vázquez Vela's office became markedly less vociferous in its public support for socialist education.135 The realities of popular resistance and evasion had convinced even PNR radicals of the program's impracticability. Though legislative recognition of its demise was not made until 1942, when a new law qualified Article 3 by stating that public education should not be "antireligious," the "socialist" requirement had long ceased to be in place in the public schools. In 1945, Article 3 was finally amended, dropping all mention of "socialism" and substituting the words "education will . . . develop all human faculties in a harmonious manner."136 There were many reasons for the failure of socialist education, including the threatening rhetoric of its adherents, hostile or simply unprepared teachers, and rural landowners fearful of its potential effect on a declining labor supply.137 Yet organized opposition coalesced around the episcopate and its nonviolent lay allies, who, in the words of radical Alberto Bremauntz, were responsible for "blocking the fulfillment of the Reform."138 As government moderates had realized, Catholic opinion could not be disregarded in such a sensitive area as education, and traditional mechanisms of ChurchState cooperation would always permit the evasion of imposed legal solutions. The Church had used its reservoir of popular support effectively in responding to the successive threats of secular, sexual, and socialist education. Previous scholars have slighted Catholic contributions to resolving these educational crises, preferring to give credit to the government. Yet the controlled pressure of bishops and laity, maintained within the structure of postarreglos cooperation, forced federal school officials to acknowledge the program's unpopularity. Church leaders had not given in to militants or to the provocation of radical legislators, but had prohibited violence or even overt clerical participation in lay protests. Having disowned the Liga, the hierarchy turned to nonviolent organizations, like the UNPF, to defend Catholic education. Lay pressure was complemented by the traditional covert deals and extralegal
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evasions. Ideological divisions in the PNR and government officials' tolerance of clandestine schools further strengthened the Church campaign. The defeat of attempts to implement and revise Article 3 showed that the hierarchy could win on a key issue, if it used the right tactics. Conclusion During the 1931–35 period, the Church responded to the anticlerical upsurge with flexible tactics that conformed to an overall policy of cooperation. Restrictions on priests were tolerated, lay extremists were kept down, and lay moderates were used to pressure the government on crucial educational issues. The stereotype of anticlericalism's fueling ChurchState conflict is incomplete, in that many controversies did not extend beyond a formal, superficial level and that the Catholic peace making role was far greater than scholars have thought. This is not to minimize the importance of official government policy, which did begin to change under Cárdenas. But it is to say that the episcopal reactions to persecution were at least as responsible for compromise as were federal actions. Church leaders were flexible on unimportant issues, yet just firm enough on vital questions to achieve their goals without provoking another civil war. Moderates in successive governments supported the compromise structure by letting evasions of the law pass. The ineffectiveness and unpopularity of extreme solutions, either anticlerical or Catholic extremist, would strengthen federal and ecclesiastical proponents of moderation during the remaining years of Cárdenas's tenure.
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Five— The New Modus Vivendi, 1935–42 The implicit defeat of socialist education coincided with a gradual easing of anticlerical tension. Between 1935 and 1942, moderate Church and State leaders expanded compromise from the level of covert extralegal evasions to that of an acknowledged, official modus vivendi. This shift from private to public cooperation developed during the Cárdenas administration and continued into the term of Manuel Ávila Camacho, elected President in 1940. The improvement in ChurchState relations can be viewed in three stages: officials' maneuvering to adjust their public positions to the previously hidden reality of compromise; the hierarchy's unsolicited support for Cárdenas's reform policies; and Avila Camacho's active encouragement of the Church's becoming an ideological buttress of the government. By 1942, when Article 3 was amended to redefine socialist education and Mexico entered World War II with ecclesiastical blessing, public accommodation was firmly established. Past scholars have seen the relaxation of overt conflict as a sudden and profound change, the result primarily of Lázaro Cárdenas's own initiative. Yet when analyzed in the context of previous ChurchState collaboration, the events of the late 1930s are revealed as episodes in a gradually unfolding public confirmation of an existing arrangement. Also, the ecclesiastical hierarchy played at least as important a role as did the government in bringing compromise to the light of day. After years of supposed controversy, leaders of both Church and State found it more beneficial to acknowledge openly the reality of their close relationship.
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Jockeying for Compromise During the first three years of the Cárdenas administration, ecclesiastical and federal officials' declarations and symbolic acts opened the door for the eventual legal dismantling of anticlericalism and the end of official ChurchState hostility. Popular antagonism to the antireligious laws and the growing strength of moderate bishops and politicians provided an impetus for change. Resistance to socialist education was merely one aspect of widespread opposition to government programs that were perceived as interfering with religious freedom. Lay Catholics held demonstrations to demand the reopening of churches in August 1934, even before Cárdenas was inaugurated. 1 After the new President took office, North American reporter S. L. A. Marshall noted a nationwide defiance of the anticlerical laws, writing that "for every altar that has been razed in a cathedral, another has been raised in a workshop."2 Though popular antigovernment feeling on religious issues was common, most resistance was nonviolent, for the "Segunda" rebels and the Liga, along with their methods, had been largely discredited. The constant protests and extralegal evasions of lay Catholics put pressure on prelates and federal leaders to alter official ChurchState hostility. By the time Cárdenas took office in December 1934, moderates in the Church had been strengthened by their ability to channel dissent effectively and by moderates in the government empowered by the unpopularity of radical anticlericalism. For their part, ecclesiastical leaders were generally successful in controlling extremist lay organizations, recalcitrant prelates, and violent guerrillas. On the federal side, several factors favored moderation. Within the PNR, the radical faction was being forced to admit the defeat of its cherished socialist education project and was turning its reformist bent to other issues.3 Regionally based anticlericals, too, were losing power, as state governments saw an influx of new officials less interested than their predecessors in "the religious problem."4 Even Lázaro Cárdenas, not previously considered a moderate on the Church question, may have been freed to set his own policy course by his break with "jefe máximo" Calles in June 1935.5 When Calles left the country on June 19, Cárdenas appointed a new cabinet, replacing the anticlerical Garrido Canabal with the Catholicbiased Saturnino Cedillo as agriculture minister.6 To whatever extent Cárdenas may have become
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less anticlerical after Calles' departure, the President's change of attitude was meaningful when coupled with the growing moderation of other government leaders and of the episcopate. 7 The mid1930s saw moderate leaders of Church and State with enough intrainstitutional political clout to afford a reevaluation of the religious situation. During 1935, ecclesiastical and federal spokesmen tested the limits of their official stances to see what changes each side was willing to make. On January 25, Cárdenas publicly denied that there was any religious persecution in Mexico, calling the Church responsible for "the regime of colonial exploitation," and demanding that it submit to the laws.8 Apostolic Delegate Ruiz replied immediately, refuting the President's claim and asking that government antireligious propaganda cease.9 At this point, the federal position was still confrontational. So was that of the hierarchy, which in September and October petitioned Congress for repeal of the anticlerical clauses of the 1917 Constitution.10 The deputies declined; any new modus vivendi would have to formally maintain the laws on the books.11 The end of the year saw both sides holding stances still too extreme for compromise. Any reduction in tension would have to be more in line with the unofficial cooperation already taking place. As both sides relaxed their public positions to conform with the existing level of extralegal toleration, anticlerical conflict lost its edge. On February 16, 1936, Cárdenas paraphrased the 1929 arreglos, declaring that the government's purpose "was not to combat religious beliefs."12 He followed up with a series of similar speeches in different parts of the country. He also maintained the established policy of tolerating selected open religious ceremonies, particularly in the case of Archbishop Orozco y Jiménez's elaborate public funeral in Guadalajara.13 The reduction in hostile rhetoric was not limited to the government, as Church leaders, also, realized that they could not ask for too much. In May, Ruiz y Flores qualified the hierarchy's petitions of the previous fall. The Apostolic Delegate stated that though repeal of anticlerical laws remained the ultimate goal, in the meantime the authorities might at least "interpret these . . . laws in a friendly and nonsectarian spirit" — a clear plea for nonenforcement.14 Just as in the days before the 1929 settlement, State and Church spokesmen were attempting to give each other openings for compromise while still saving face. As the stance of national leaders softened, statelevel rapprochement took place as well. The strong appeals by numerous bishops against lay
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Catholic violence in their own dioceses had helped the Church preserve good relations with state governments, throughout even the worst days of anticlericalism. 15 By the mid1930s, new state officials in many areas responded to lay Catholic protests, the failure of socialist education, the decline of PNR radicalism, and the fall of Calles. The spring of 1936 saw churches reopened and services renewed in seven states and in portions of others, a process that continued for the next several years.16 And in some states, even the regulations limiting the number of priests were liberalized or repealed.17 These changes constituted increasing public recognition by the secular authorities that masses were being held and priests were officiating despite the laws. It is not clear whether the greater openness in regional accommodation caused or was itself a result of national leaders' moves towards conciliation. More likely, authorities at different levels reinforced each other's actions. The Church hierarchy and the federal government reacted favorably to the lessening of statelevel tension. At the end of March 1936, Ruiz acknowledged the church reopenings, which indicated to him that the government was "adopting a somewhat more conciliatory attitude." He noted, however, that the episcopate was still waiting for an alteration in federal educational policy.18 When Archbishop Pascual Díaz died in May, Cárdenas replayed his toleration of Orozco's funeral by allowing a massive public ceremony.19 The President also agreed with Ruiz that the church reopenings were beneficial and that the government was disposed to "relax any stringent laws affecting religion."20 Further evidence that the hierarchy's wishes would be complied with, at least to some extent, came with the federal retreat from the implementation of socialist education, in November.21 Both sides were willing to admit openly that nonenforcement of the laws, repeal of many local religious restrictions, and the toning down of the government's most inflammatory program constituted a sufficient basis for a new modus vivendi. Acceptance of these conditions demanded few practical changes in the behavior of government or Church functionaries — only a public acknowledgment that the two institutions were not hostile to each other. To demonstrate that a new agreement had been reached, it remained for national authorities to implement certain formal measures that local officials could not, or were not willing to, execute. Though the administration was not prepared to amend the constitutional provisions on religion, it could take symbolic legal steps to illustrate its more tolerant public position. In February 1937, Cárdenas granted an amnesty to all
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individuals jailed or exiled for "political agitation." 22 The order covered clergymen who had been deported for sedition or for violating the religious laws, such as Ruiz and Manríquez y Zárate. Few prelates were actually still in exile, but the amnesty was a demonstration of the government's desire for conciliation. Informed that he could now return from San Antonio, the Apostolic Delegate noted that the amnesty was a "measure aimed at the reestablishment of peace."23 Since Ruiz had been exiled as the Pope's representative, his return symbolized more than just official tolerance of an individual prelate. Along with the executive branch, the Mexican Supreme Court aided the process of reconciliation by reaffirming the supremacy of the central government over the states in religious matters. Reversing its 1931 stand allowing states to interfere in internal Church affairs, the Court held in November 1936 that states could not "impose their own requirements for religious cults."24 Applying this principle, the high court struck down provisions of a Michoacán law that prevented prelates from exercising their hierarchical authority over other clergymen.25 Going further in May 1937, the Court granted the amparo petition of three Chihuahua priests against that state's law limiting the number of clergy.26 A similar amparo was granted to a priest in Michoacán in the following November.27 These rulings did not apply beyond the immediate situations adjudicated, nor did they alter the 1917 Constitution's provisions restricting religion. Yet the Supreme Court's actions showed that the government was willing to admit that the limitations on priests were not enforceable.28 At the very least, states still implementing anticlerical laws, despite the norm of nonenforcement, were pulled into line. The Catholic hierarchy, too, was willing to make formal moves symbolizing its desire for accommodation. A new Archbishop of Mexico, Luis María Martínez, was appointed by the Pope in February 1937 to replace Díaz.29 Formerly a diocesan administrator in Michoacán and a close associate of Ruiz, Martínez had a history of collaboration with state and local authorities.30 According to Manuel Gómez Morín, founder and leader of the Catholicoriented Partido Acción Nacional party, Martínez knew Cárdenas while the latter was governor of Michoacán (1928–32).31 Martínez's appointment represented a clear victory for the moderates in the Mexican episcopate, who desired greater cooperation with federal officials. Shortly after the new Archbishop took possession of his see, Leopoldo Ruiz resigned as Apostolic Delegate, forestalling
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any potentially divisive conflict over who would be the real leader of the Mexican Church. 32 In Martínez's first pastoral letter, issued in January 1938, he called for Catholics to ''work for peace," and notably avoided criticizing the government.33 A North American reporter on the scene speculated that "the Church is convinced that a peaceful attitude will be more fruitful than refusal to submit to the laws."34 The new archbishop's appointment as well as the federal amnesty and court decisions were basically formalities, less important for their practical effect than as symbolic statements that Church and State now intended a public relationship more in line with their private collaboration. From 1935 through 1937, Church and government maneuvering resulted in a gradual softening of the official rhetoric of confrontation that had prevailed since 1931. The reevaluation of ecclesiasticalfederal relations began with moderate leaders' testing each other's positions. After government authorities and the Catholic hierarchy adjusted their public stances to be mutually acceptable, local church reopenings and national declarations reduced tension. Finally, both sides' symbolic acts — altering nuisance regulations and the appointment of an Archbishop identified with collaboration — demonstrated a desire to terminate public antagonism. These formalities, while requiring few practical changes in the behavior of State or Church functionaries, gave evidence that toleration was now the accepted policy for both institutions. As opposed to the prevailing scholarly picture of a sudden reduction in conflict, the events of the early Cárdenas administration were not drastic changes but merely a public confirmation that anticlerical legislation was unenforceable. In the context of longstanding, covert ChurchState collaboration and popular defiance of the laws, the overt rapprochement of 1935–37 does not seem so dramatic, nor the actions of the government so decisive, as the traditional stereotype would have it. Cárdenas did not act alone; local government authorities, the Supreme Court, and the bishops all contributed to a working compromise. Though the federal power had control over the legal mechanisms of anticlericalism, neither side really had the initiative. Both Church and State leadership had to interact in order to relieve the tension. Once an end to hostility was publicly admitted, ecclesiastical and federal officials would find that their interests, far from being irreconcilable, could even coincide.
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Church Support for the Cardenista State As official ChurchState antagonism was toned down, the hierarchy returned to the cooperation with the government that had been a fixture of 1929–31 ecclesiastical policy. The Cárdenas administration's reformist social and economic programs, as well as the political movements opposing them, appeared to present a challenge to conciliation. As we will see, the episcopate found itself not resisting and even backing agrarian reform, and favoring oil nationalization, even though those projects were anathema to traditional Catholic positions. In addition, the bishops stood up against political leaders critical of the regime, although these politicians often claimed to represent Catholic interests. Grateful for the hierarchy's unsolicited support, the Cárdenas government responded with some concessions of its own, despite the stillofficial ideology of anticlericalism. The episcopate's concern for Church institutional security and the federal government's need to legitimate controversial reforms coincided, motivating both sides to take advantage of the thaw in hostility. The bishops' willingness to return the Church to its cooperative role was particularly significant in the light of Cárdenas's reform projects. Implementing ideas expressed in the 1933 SixYear Plan, Cárdenas carried out ambitious programs of land redistribution, economic nationalism, labor protection, and public improvements. 35 Socialist education was one of the less successful of these innovations. To create an ongoing power base for his policies, the President reorganized the PNR along corporatist lines — a process that culminated in the party being renamed, in 1938, the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM). Cárdenas mobilized his supporters within four sectors, which provided the basis for political patronage and representation: workers, peasants, military, and "popular" (merchants, civil servants, and professionals).36 Though the government could not constitutionally offer the Church a place in the new system, ideological legitimation coming from an "unofficial fifth sector" outside the formal party machinery was not unwelcome. Especially after the federal winding down of socialist education, the episcopate found it could strengthen its position visàvis the administration by publicly supporting other, less immediately threatening reforms. Both Church and State stood to gain from such an arrangement, the former
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anxious to improve the climate of official toleration, and the latter needing endorsement for controversial programs. Probably no project has been so identified with the Mexican Revolution as agrarian reform, but the Catholic Church's role in supporting it has been largely ignored by scholars. 37 This connection is remarkable given that the bishops could easily have found political allies and doctrinal authority for an antilandreform stance. From its expression as a revolutionary goal at the 1916 Querétaro convention, the idea of redistributing hacienda land to peasant communities met with opposition from landholding interests.38 Though Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution permitted expropriation with compensation and was the basis for the federal agrarian reform program, between 1917 and 1934 less than 4 percent of the nation's surface area was actually redistributed.39 Only with the Cárdenas administration was fierce criticism from nonradicals in the PNR and lay Catholic extremists overcome and the distribution process accelerated.40 Had the hierarchy chosen to attack agrarian reform, the bishops could have counted on ample support from the groups opposing it. Furthermore, Catholic social doctrine had traditionally emphasized the sanctity of private property.41 Yet despite the political confederates and philosophical consistency the Church could have gained by opposing Cárdenas on this touchy issue, the episcopate instead helped the President to defeat his critics. From the beginning of Cárdenas's administration, the Church hierarchy took a strong public position backing agrarian reform. Perhaps anticipating that the President would succeed in carrying his program through, Leopoldo Ruiz sided with Cárdenas's policy in December 1934, shortly after the inauguration. According to the Apostolic Delegate, the Church was not against "the just distribution of resources, nor even expropriation."42 The rest of the bishops followed with a collective pastoral letter in 1935, confirming Ruiz's words and stating that federal officials redistributing land were "animated by the praiseworthy intention of the betterment of the peasants."43 Even Catholic social doctrine was employed to justify the taking of land from hacendados. Landowners, said the bishops in a 1936 collective pastoral letter, had "squandered the patrimony of Indian villages," which had the right to have their land returned.44 This pastoral letter did point out, however, the need for adequate agricultural supplies and training to make agrarian reform effective.45 When Pope Pius XI himself admitted, in his 1937 encyclical on Mexico, that property rights sometimes had to be curtailed
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"to protect human dignity," the bishops knew they were on firm ground — despite their stretching of traditional social doctrine. 46 In addition to general statements of ideology, Church support for agrarian reform was manifested in more concrete ways. Throughout 1937 and 1938, the episcopate organized a series of regional educational conferences for peasants, which extolled the virtues of land redistribution.47 When Leopoldo Ruiz returned from exile to his archdiocese of Morelia in January 1938, he proclaimed that agraristas, or beneficiaries of agrarian reform, "could remain in peaceful possession of their lands."48 A month later, he repeated his guarantee, to stand as long as the agraristas did "not get involved in antireligious movements."49 By his failure even to demand that peasants pay compensation to their former landlords, Ruiz was recognizing a political reality and putting himself on the safe side.50 On the local level, priests helped make the reform effective by teaching peasants the necessity for soil conservation.51 How much the Church's efforts actually added to the agrarian redistribution process is unclear, but the bishops no doubt helped to legitimate a controversial program. Why did the hierarchy support land reform? Part of the answer lies in practical politics. In the struggle within the PNR between the radicals, who favored the agrarian program, and those who fought it, the bishops saw the Church's longterm interests linked to the dominant radical faction. Despite the radicals' espousal of socialist education, under Cárdenas they were clearly the power inside the official party. Those PNR moderates and Catholic extremists opposing redistribution were weaker, and thus a worse political gamble. Socialist education was objectionable, but by mid1935 it was clearly on the wane. Other radical programs, however distasteful, were at least nonthreatening. Unlike the school question, the agrarian issue posed no practical threat to the episcopate's political power or ability to exert social control. Thus the Church's theoretical commitment to private property could be overridden when political advantage could be gained by siding with the stronger of two government factions. The most spectacular single event of the Cárdenas administration was the federal expropriation of foreignheld oil properties on March 18, 1938. As with agrarian reform, the episcopate defended the nationalization despite the traditional Church concern with private property rights. Several years of tension between the petroleum workers' union and the British and American oil companies over acceptable profit
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margins, wages, and benefits culminated in a massive strike in May 1937, followed by the Federal Labor Board's ordering higher salaries and increased pensions in August 1937. 52 When the companies refused to comply with the Supreme Court's upholding of the Labor Board's decision, Cárdenas decided that only government control could keep production going, and so he expropriated the oil fields on March 18, 1938, in accordance with Article 27. Given the foreign companies' longtime extraction of México's resources and investment of profits abroad, the expropriation fit well with Cárdenas's general policy of economic nationalism. A federal corporation, Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), was set up to run the nation's oil industry. Taking an action so domestically problematic (because of the financial burden undertaken) and internationally controversial (because of oil industry pressure on the U.S. government to intervene), the President needed all the popular support he could get. Notwithstanding doctrinal objections that could have been raised, the Church came quickly to the government's aid. Shortly after the decree of nationalization, Archbishop José Garibi Rivera of Guadalajara, with Martínez's permission, called upon the faithful to help pay the indemnification promised the expropriated companies.53 Such assistance, Garibi argued, would help ease ChurchState tension, for "it would be absurd [for the government] to receive money from Catholics and continue considering them enemies."54 On May 1, the entire episcopate issued a similar entreaty, declaring that monetary contributions "would be an eloquent testimony that Catholic doctrine is a stimulus to live up to civic duties."55 Popular response to these requests was overwhelming, as thousands of individuals nationwide donated to the compensation fund being collected in local churches.56 Commenting on the bishops' stance, a North American reporter wrote that support for nationalization tended to eliminate the traditional anticlerical charge that Catholics were working against the regime, and effectively strengthened the Church's political position.57 No less than land reform, but more visibly, the oil crisis showed that the episcopate was willing to abandon its traditional defense of private property in favor of an opportunity to enhance Church institutional power. While the hierarchy actively supported the Cárdenas administration by backing particular programs, the bishops also aided federal policy passively, by shunning opponents of the regime. Cárdenas's reforms,
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particularly the reorganization of the PNR as the PRM in 1938, agrarian redistribution, and the oil expropriation, generated opposition among regional politicians, conservative landowners, and others who felt that the regime was not representing their interests. 58 In addition to factional disputes within the ruling party, this resentment was manifested openly in the 1938 revolt of Saturnino Cedillo and the 1940 presidential candidacy of Juan Andreu Almazán. Though both of these movements attempted to appeal to a Catholic constituency, the episcopate disassociated itself from them, and thereby helped derail sources of domestic unrest. General Saturnino Cedillo's rebellion of 1938, the last major military uprising in twentiethcentury Mexico, failed in its effort to obtain episcopal sanction. As political boss of San Luis Potosí state from 1927, Cedillo became known for his toleration of Catholic religious practice and, in the 1930s, for his antagonism towards agrarian reform and socialist education.59 Though he fought the Cristeros as a federal general in 1926–29, Cedillo treated them with fairness — he stopped the summary executions favored by his fellow officers and gave generous amnesties.60 Appointed to Cárdenas's cabinet as agricultural minister in 1935, Cedillo resigned in 1937 in disagreement with the President's agrarian policy.61 Cedillo called for armed revolution by landowners, peasants, and urban workers, claiming that the first two groups had been disenfranchised by land redistribution and the third impoverished by the oil expropriation. Attempting to appeal to Catholics, the General's manifestos attacked socialist education as well.62 Church support, however, was far from forthcoming. Despite Cedillo's reputation for religious tolerance and his sympathy towards Catholic education, the hierarchy refused to have anything to do with the revolt. In fact, the bishops voted to censure San Luis Potosí Bishop Guillermo Tritschler y Córdova, who backed the General.63 The episcopate did not have to worry that many lay Catholics outside San Luis Potosí would follow Cedillo, for in the words of contemporary observer Graham Greene, "Catholics regarded him [Cedillo] with insecure gratitude. Not one of them really wished to exchange even the harsh laws of Cárdenas for his corrupt administration."64 Failing to attract popular support outside his own state, Cedillo's rebellion flickered out when he was killed by government troops in January 1939. Not only was socialist education a dead issue by the late 1930s, but a dubious military enterprise offered far less chance of benefiting the Church than did the latter's collaboration with the regime.
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Less violent opponents of the ruling party, such as antiPRM presidential candidate Juan Andreu Almazán, met with similar disapproval from the hierarchy. In the election campaign of 1940, disparate opponents of the PRM coalesced to back Almazán, a wealthy general, as an alternative to Manuel Ávila Camacho, the official choice. 65 Like Cedillo, Almazán had a reputation for proChurch sympathies.66 Almazán also attempted to gain Catholic support by including denunciations of socialist education in his platform.67 Yet despite the possible appeal of even a nonviolent alternative to the PRM, the episcopate championed the official candidate with behindthescenes lobbying. Several months before the election, Archbishop Martínez convinced the directive committee of a new Catholicoriented party, the Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN), to refrain from backing Almazán, thus weakening the coalition of Ávila Camacho's opponents.68 Whether the bishops sincerely disapproved of Almazán or simply wished to preserve an appearance of neutrality until all the ballots were in, appeals to the "Catholic vote" could not sway them. With the election of Ávila Camacho on July 7, 1940, the hierarchy's cautious attitude was vindicated. As in their abstention from the Cedillo revolt, Church leaders' approach to the 1940 campaign kept them on good terms with their federal counterparts. The proreform positions and convenient silences of the episcopate did not go unacknowledged by the government. As Cárdenas's administration drew to a close, the President began to recognize his political debt to the Church. This recognition, in the form of several symbolic concessions, came only after the hierarchy had offered its support for agrarian reform and oil nationalization, and had failed to respond to Cedillo. Yet given internal PRM factional disputes and pressure for Cárdenas to maintain his "radical" image, any actions that might be criticized as proCatholic still entailed some political risk. Cárdenas's ex post facto responses to Church assistance included public expressions of gratitude, federal enforcement of regional religious tolerance, and even the stamping out of anticlerical propaganda. Surprised and pleased by Catholic support for the oil expropriation, Cárdenas used a presidential message to praise "the uncommon attitude of Mexico's Catholics," who were contributing "in the work of national redemption."69 Several months later, in July 1938, the President ordered the return to the clergy of a Veracruz church building that had been confiscated during the Tejeda years.70 The Secretary of Com
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munications, Francisco J. Múgica, even began censoring offensively anticlerical artwork. In November, Múgica ordered the removal from the Mexico City airport of a Juan O'Gorman mural that bore the inscription: "Since aviation was invented, ascents to heaven are only a joke." 71 Though the administration still paid lip service to the ideology of ChurchState separation, as exemplified by the 1939 enabling act that technically implemented socialist education, the more genuine federal attitude was expressed in symbolic concessions of the type related above.72 The government's positive responses to Catholic political backing, albeit after the fact, showed that federal leaders realized what an asset the friendship of the Church could be. In the latter part of the Cárdenas period, the Church hierarchy and the government went beyond the thaw in their official relations to engage in mutual political aid. Controversial land and oil reforms were supported by the episcopate, which also steered clear of the regime's military and electoral enemies. Cárdenas reciprocated with public thanks and suppressed regional and artistic anticlericalism. Because the government did not acknowledge Church help or respond until after the episcopate had come out in support of federal programs, Cárdenas may still have been under pressure from radical sectors in the official party. Why did ecclesiastical and federal leaders tender their ideological assistance to each other despite strong doctrinal arguments against doing so? Unlike socialist education, which clearly interfered with the Church's ability to perpetuate its influence, agrarian reform and oil expropriation contradicted episcopal positions only on a theoretical level. In practice, these latter projects had little effect on the clergy's ability to function. Enemies of the PRM, even if proChurch on some issues, posed too much of a risk to be worth backing. As for the government, collaboration with Catholics could take place as long as examples of Revolutionary ideology (e.g., socialist education provisions) were still formally on the books. Doctrine and stated ideology were less important to leaders of Church and State than was the political power of their respective institutions, to which mutual backscratching contributed. By the end of the Cárdenas administration, the hierarchy had offered a return to its 1929–31 policy of legitimation, which the government had implicitly accepted. It remained for the next President, Manuel Ávila Camacho, to seek out episcopal support explicitly and thus confirm the Church's role as part of the regime.
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A Government of Believers and a Church of Politicians With the election of Manuel Ávila Camacho in 1940, the government actively urged the participation of the Church in national life. Federal pronouncements, nonenforcement of the laws, and the alteration of the constitutional requirement for socialist education would go beyond mere tolerance and invite Catholic support for the regime. In return, the hierarchy condemned the government's critics and endorsed the nation's entry into World War II. Ávila Camacho's encouragement of ecclesiastical legitimization marked a departure from the ad hoc, unsolicited cooperation of the past. But post1940 collaboration was still part of a gradual move towards better relations rather than a radical change. By 1942, open admissions by both sides that compromises were taking place solidified the arrangement that has lasted through the present. Ávila Camacho came to power as the consensus in the official party shifted away from the radicalism that had given rise to Cárdenas's reforms. The failure of socialist education, the need to pay the oil debt, and the expanding war in Europe impressed upon PRM leaders the necessity for a period of economic development rather than social programs. 73 Political stability, a slowdown in land redistribution, and accelerated industrial growth were preferred to the mass mobilizations and unrest of the Cárdenas years. This new approach had been epitomized by the selection of Ávila Camacho as the official candidate, named by Cárdenas. Ávila Camacho had been a professional cavalry officer, Secretary of Defense since 1937, and came from a conservative, Catholic family background.74 To whatever extent his own antecedents influenced his politics, he was to find that the PRM's shift away from radicalism allowed him greater freedom to deal openly with the Church than his predecessor had enjoyed. With an admitted Catholic in the presidential chair, the episcopate would likewise be more candid about collaboration. Ávila Camacho set the tone of his administration in 1940 by openly encouraging Church leaders to see him as their ally. After his election victory, he declared, "soy creyente" (I am a believer), the strongest proCatholic statement yet made by a postRevolutionary president.75 Archbishop Luis Martínez responded when Ávila Camacho took office by saying that the new president's profession of faith manifested an understanding of "spiritual needs that can only be secured by religious
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liberty." The prelate called on Mexican Catholics to "cooperate . . . with all that the government undertakes." 76 This spirit continued, and a year later Ávila Camacho stated that because his administration had created "liberty of conscience, even public manifestations of Church State conflict were dying out."77 Recognizing the President's contributions, Martínez replied that Ávila Camacho had "notably eased the situation of the Catholic Church in Mexico." The Archbishop, unwilling to ask for too much too soon, added that the resolution of the religious problem could only be "realized with smoothness and slowness," whereby "its solidity and efficacy are assured."78 These public exchanges showed that Ávila Camacho was not merely grateful for Catholic support, as was Cárdenas, but was actively promoting it as well — a relationship on which the hierarchy agreed. The new administration demonstrated its religious tolerance by using extralegal evasions and public edicts to an unprecedented degree. A U.S. reporter noted in August 1941 that though "antiChurch laws are still on the books . . . everybody knows they are not enforced."79 A striking example was the federal participation in the anniversary of the Virgin of Guadalupe's canonization, which took place in Mexico City on October 12. Octavio Véjar Vázquez, the newly appointed Secretary of Education, attended as the President's official representative.80 During the rites, a line of cadets from the national military college dipped the Mexican flag to the Virgin's image, an act that an observing priest called "a rare sight, but wanted and fitting."81 Several members of the cabinet, senators, and army officers filled out the federal presence at this technically illegal celebration. And, unlike the 1931 Guadalupe ceremony, there were no recriminations afterward. The legal situation of the Church improved as well. The Supreme Court extended its 1929 decision allowing masses in private homes to include services conducted even without the permission of the house's owner.82 And Ávila Camacho dealt a blow at a key constitutional provision in 1942 when he decreed that religious objects, though national property under Article 27, could be confiscated only by express order of the President.83 The publicity surrounding these evasions and promulgations showed that ChurchState collaboration would now be conducted openly, up to a point just short of fully changing the Constitution. The extent to which the Constitution itself would be altered was settled in 1942, with new enabling legislation for Article 3 now specifically curtailing socialist education. Evidence that the new administration
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was prepared for greater compromise than its predecessor on the educational front was first provided by the actions of the Secretary of Education, Octavio Véjar Vázquez. 84 In November, Véjar Vázquez ordered abolition of the required coeducation in federal schools and, shortly thereafter, the formal restitution of several former Catholic schools now operated by the government.85 Further, lay Catholic pressure, particularly from PAN, influenced the Congress to approve legislation redefining and sharply circumscribing the ''socialism" of Article 3. The bill, signed into law by Ávila Camacho in January 1942, stated that socialist education "should not be conceived of as antireligious."86 Now emasculated, Article 3 itself was amended in 1945 to delete all mention of socialism.87 According to PAN leader Manuel Gómez Morín, Archbishop Martínez opposed PAN's move to amend Article 3, on the grounds that an amendment would disturb the ChurchState arrangement.88 In this instance, however, the government chose to accommodate the inflexibility of the Catholic laity. After the 1942 curtailment and subsequent amendment of Article 3, no other changes were ever made in the constitutional religion provisions, which were kept on the books as a tacit threat to the Church. Keeping in step with the acceleration in federal compromise, the hierarchy continued its opposition to lay Catholic extremists and critics of the government by decisively separating itself from the "Sinarquista" movement. A Catholic nationalist organization begun in the late 1930s by middleclass professionals, the Unión Nacional Sinarquista (UNS), drew peasant support around an antiagrarian reform platform.89 Using traditional Catholic doctrine to march against the Revolution for depriving peasants of private property, the Sinarquistas hoped to build a mass movement and defeat the PRM electorally. In 1941, in order to demonstrate that their faith could conquer all obstacles, a group of Sinarquistas founded a colony in Baja California; but without adequate water, the remote settlement languished.90 In the face of government hostility, and with its Baja colony in ruins, the UNS won few elections anywhere and became defunct by the middle 1940s. Though the Sinarquistas were nonviolent, unlike previous lay extremists, and claimed to represent Catholic interests, the episcopate nevertheless opposed them. In February 1942, Archbishop José Garibi Rivera of Guadalajara stated that he and the other bishops could have no involvement with "civic organizations" such as the Sinarquistas.91 This time, even the more reactionary prelates, including Manríquez y
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Zárate, went along with the moderates in the hierarchy. 92 Several months later, Archbishop Martínez admitted that "some priests may have personal sympathies" for the Sinarquistas, but added that "these personal sympathies are not the expression of the attitude of Mexico's Church, not the expression of norms regarding this issue."93 Nonviolence was not enough to win ecclesiastical approval, for the Sinarquistas' vocal criticism of the Revolution ran counter to Church accommodationist policy. And though the Sinarquistas may have adhered more closely to Catholic private property teaching than did the bishops themselves, the latter knew where their political interests lay. In addition to maintaining its longstanding antiextremist attitude, the hierarchy broke new ground in 1942 by endorsing a major government decision in international policy, the entry into World War II.94 Despite the Church's traditionally greater antagonism toward communism than toward fascism, the Mexican episcopate loyally backed the federal decision to enter the war on the Allied side.95 After Pearl Harbor, Mexico stepped up its oil shipments to the United States, and Archbishop Martínez called upon Catholics to "support the international policy of the government."96 When two Mexican tankers were torpedoed by Uboats in May 1942, the Mexican Congress declared war on the Axis. Martínez now stated that aiding the war effort was "a profoundly Christian virtue."97 As the nation mobilized troops and supplies, Acción Católica geared up to help with military and nursing training.98 Recognizing the importance of the Church's propaganda role, Ávila Camacho allowed Catholic chaplains in the army for the first time since the Díaz era.99 Now that the episcopate had joined the national enterprise of the war, the President considered it truly part of the regime. By 1942, ChurchState compromise had gone beyond the mutual assistance of the Cárdenas era to an open acknowledgement that cooperation was legitimately taking place. The change of administrations in 1940 had not only maintained the existing level of accommodation but had accelerated it. Ávila Camacho's symbolic encouragement of Catholic activities and the alteration of socialist education provisions corresponded to episcopal opposition to the Sinarquistas and endorsement of Mexico's participation in the Second World War. As with the mutual aid of the later Cárdenas period, the openly admitted collaboration during Ávila Camacho's rule represented a triumph of practical politics over stated ideology. Now, however, even less pretense of ChurchState
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separation was kept up in the public exchanges between the two sides. Separation remained, but only on a formal, legal level — in the unenforced provisions of the 1917 Constitution. A visible example of the extent to which compromise became public was the joint participation of ecclesiastical and federal leaders in dedicating a monument. In October 1942, at San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato, Archbishop Luis Martínez and several justices of the Mexican Supreme Court attended the celebration that inaugurated a statue to the city's colonial founder, Padre Juan de San Miguel. On the train north from Mexico City, Martínez rode in the same railway car with the justices, swapping jokes and drinking port. 100 Talking with reporters, Martínez said that the hierarchy was now willing to advocate popular participation in federal health and sanitation programs and considered that any "disobedience to the mandates of the civil authorities constitutes a sin."101 The openair dedication took place on October 5, with clerics and jurists putting wreaths at the foot of the monument in San Miguel. Several days later, Ávila Camacho publicly thanked the Archbishop for his statements and declared that the clergy was a force which rivalled the construction of roads and communications networks in "unifying the country and in strengthening morale."102 Conclusion In the 1935–42 period the episcopate had moved from a policy of surreptitiously evading restrictions to a more overt alliance with the government. The marginalization of Catholic and anticlerical extremists and the increasing dominance of moderate factions made open compromise politically safer. This openness emerged gradually, in three stages: The hierarchy and government maneuvered for position during the early Cárdenas administration; the bishops supported federal reform programs and condemned critics of these projects in the latter part of the same term; and after 1940 Ávila Camacho successfully encouraged the Church to become part of the regime. The arrangement established by 1942 assumed not only the evasion of the law effective since 1936, but a mutual public acknowledgment of ChurchState collaboration as well. As tension relaxed, both sides found themselves supporting positions that their official doctrine or ideology opposed. In practice, extreme antigovernment and anticlerical
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positions gave way to the exigencies of power politics. Only certain constitutional articles, having been refined and limited by 1942, enshrined a myth of ChurchState conflict. Cárdenas in 1936 did not suddenly engineer a rapprochement with the episcopate; rather, compromise emerged as a gradual process taking different forms. The modus vivendi of 1929 survived the height of anticlerical conflict in 1931–35, and was openly recognized and strengthened from 1935 to 1942. Increasingly amiable ChurchState exchanges during the Cárdenas and Ávila Camacho presidencies were merely a public confirmation of what had long been going on extraofficially. Nor did government authorities alone take the initiative during this period; instead, leaders on both sides interacted to improve relations. This last phase of postCristero accommodation institutionalized the reciprocal legitimation by ecclesiastical and federal officials that still persists. The traditional stereotype that no compromise took place until 1936 is thus incorrect. New documents and a reevaluation of previously used sources allow us to see beyond confrontational rhetoric. Cooperation really began in 1929, and set the tone for the entire decade that followed. Neither side completely controlled the situation; both interrelated to relieve tension by exchanging public declarations, evading the laws, and repressing extremists. Below the surface, both Church and State were more flexible than their officially stated positions indicated. In my view, the extreme attitudes expressed at times on both sides were part of political bargaining rather than true indicators of what was acceptable. Catholic militants and ultraanticlericals, who took these positions literally, were marginalized by moderate ecclesiastical and federal leaders. When dealing with each other directly, Church and government authorities often took actions that conflicted with their institutions' official ideologies. These leaders were concerned mainly with preserving and enhancing institutional power. Thus the accommodation of the 1930s represented a triumph of practical politics over the formalities of Catholic doctrine and "Revolutionary" theory. This is not to say that there were no important limits to collaboration. After 1942, no significant changes were made in the Church's educational stand, nor did the government alter constitutional religious provisions other than those dealing with socialist education, though most remained unenforced. On the crucial issues of education and constitutional change, where retreat would symbolize betrayal of fundamental principles, the bishops and their secular counterparts were adamant. To
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some extent, as long as the Church held the threat of lay action on the school question and the government could potentially enforce the laws, each side had to respect the other's power. Realizing that these positions were sensitive, authorities could cooperate on a practical basis, taking only those actions which would not cause a disturbance. The flexible policies and limitations established by national leaders would become reference points for subordinate officials, as a parallel accommodation was forged by local functionaries and through the activities of lay Catholics.
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Six— Regional and Local Cooperation, 1929–42 While national leaders of Church and State accommodated their positions through evasion and pronouncement, parallel compromises were being worked out in some places by their regional and local subordinates. Internal Church questionnaires and correspondence, analyzed here for the first time, reveal a provincial system of extralegal cooperation as fully developed as that of higher authorities. 1 These new sources contradict the historical assumption that ChurchState conflict permeated all Mexico during the 1930s. Historians of the thirties have posited a recalcitrant ecclesiastical hierarchy, preventing peace until Cárdenas suddenly eased tension in the later part of the decade. Similarly, these writers have also maintained that bitter controversy over the religious issue pervaded the entire country, lessening only because of the President's influence.2 Most of these scholars have extrapolated from their view of the Southeast (usually Veracruz, Tabasco, and Yucatán) to the entire nation, and have uncritically assumed that priestlimiting legislation was uniformly restrictive among the states passing these laws.3 But this "national conflict" theory of consistent friction cannot explain the origins of the current Churchgovernment linkages evident to analysts of contemporary Mexico.4 As a means of assessing whether conflict or cooperation characterized regional ChurchState relations, this chapter focuses on the three historically recognized areas of the CenterWest, the SouthSoutheast, and the North.5 I suggest that it was unlikely that ChurchState conflict in the Thirties could be uniform throughout the nation, given traditional differences among these regions as to missionary activity, antigovernment or anticlerical sentiment, and statistics of
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pastoral strength, as well as variances in priestlimiting legislation. New evidence of collaboration challenges the theory of supposed contention between local ecclesiastical and secular functionaries. For each area, incidents of ChurchState cooperation are analyzed in my nowfamiliar three chronological stages (responses to the 1929 arreglos, reactions to the anticlerical revival of the early 1930s, and the subsequent reduction of tension). Parallels to nationallevel compromises detailed in previous chapters and local linkages independent of direction from above are shown, helping to explain the origins of current ChurchState ties. Three Regions of Mexico Historical analyses of Church influence since the Conquest, particularly during the twentieth century, have sharply distinguished the three principal areas in terms of the concentration of missionary activity, popular support for or antagonism to the Church's political role, and pastoral strength of the clergy. Furthermore, priestlimiting laws in the Thirties were far from uniform throughout the nation. Given the disparate histories and forms of Catholicism in these different regions, the theory postulating consistent, nationwide anticlericalism in the Thirties is most likely an overgeneralization. The CenterWest (including the central states of Aguascalientes, Hidalgo, México, Puebla, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, and Tlaxcala, and the western states of Colima, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, and Nayarit) has been recognized as an area of strong support for Catholicism and of a pervasive Church institutional presence. The Center, where postConquest religious instruction and clerical strength were most concentrated, 6 and the West, where much of the Cristero resistance occurred,7 have also been viewed together as a region of the numerically greatest clerical strength in proportion to the population.8 The South (comprising current Campeche, Chiapas, Morelos, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Veracruz, and Yucatán), in contrast to the CenterWest, has been considered an area where the institutional Church had a weak hold on the population. It can be characterized as a region where anticlerical campaigns marked local politics, and where pastoral concentration was minimal.9
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The North (Baja California Norte, Baja California Sur, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Nuevo León, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas) has been considered an area of weak institutional Catholicism, like the South. Relatively neglected by the colonial Church, the area was influenced strongly by U.S. Protestantism in the nineteenth century, and traditionally Catholic clergy have been numerically sparse. 10 But unlike in the South, there was here little evidence of overt anticlericalism in the twentieth century, other than the personal ideologies of prominent Norteño revolutionaries such as Carranza and Calles.11 The North thus appears to have been an area of weak Church presence, though not as manifestly antiCatholic as the South. From this brief review of the three major regions, it is difficult to see how a broad theory of ChurchState conflict could be applied uniformly to areas differing so widely in terms of local clerical influence. State legislation regulating clerical activities provides further insight into Churchgovernment antagonism in the Thirties. Although beginning in 1917 and continuing until 1939, all twentynine states passed laws limiting the number of priests allowed to officiate, usually by setting an allowable ratio to the population, the restrictions varied in severity.12 The southern states had the most severe numerical restrictions, the CenterWest the most benign, with the North falling somewhere in between.13 These variances in the severity of legislation suggest that secular authorities differed from state to state in the need they felt to control clerical activities, which undercuts the view of nationwide suppression of the Church. In sum, the different characterizations of the three recognized regions show the difficulty of postulating a theory of nationally consistent anticlerical conflict in the 1930s. Traditional distinctions, statistical indicators of pastoral strength, and legislative limitations on priests all indicate that Church influence visàvis local government could not have been as uniformly weak as the historical stereotype would suppose. Only as to the South is the idea of intense anticlerical persecution congruous with the actual development of Catholicism in the area. Clearly, the "national conflict" theory can be questioned merely on the basis of regional differences. But the true nature of ecclesiasticalgovernment relations at state and local levels has still to be probed. There remain the issues of extralegal evasion of priest limits and other anticlerical laws, as well as more overt arrangements between functionaries. It should be noted that, as discussed in Chapter 2, varieties of
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ChurchState collaboration had existed in all three regions, including the South, since the colonial period. 14 In order to understand the extent to which such accommodation characterized the thirties, it is necessary to go beyond the usual sources on Church penetration, statistical indicators of its institutional strength, and legislative enactments to view political relationships between lower churchmen and public officials. The CenterWest Analysis of ecclesiasticalsecular relations in the CenterWest raises the question of whether the area's historically strong religiosity and clerical strength were echoed in ChurchState collaboration. As will be seen, ample evidence of compromise is available, though this cooperation may have resulted as much from clergymen following the national episcopate's lead and from local political necessities as from the region's Catholic traditions. The extent of accommodation will be analyzed in three chronological stages: reactions to the 1929 settlement, the anticlerical revival of the early 1930s, and the reestablishment of amicable relations. In this way, we can assess how closely ChurchState cooperation in the CenterWest reflected the national trends already discussed. We can also see the development of relationships between local officials, independent of direction from the ecclesiastical hierarchy or the federal government. As at the national level, the period immediately following the 1929 arreglos was characterized in the CenterWest by tolerance on the part of local secular and Church leaders alike. In 1929, the government returned ecclesiastical property confiscated during the Cristero War, such as the Querétaro seminary, which had been used as a military headquarters after 1927.15 Similarly, the Church expressed its goodwill by restoring clerical officiation at its own religious ceremonies. For example, in Michoacán twentynine priests returned to duty between 1929 and 1932, and in Toluca thirtyfour were officiating by the latter year.16 Early local accommodations such as these reflected the national climate of cooperation but also established working relationships between Church and government officials that would stand them in good stead even after the new wave of anticlericalism swept the country in 1931. When state legislators in the CenterWest passed increasingly restrictive limits on priests from 1932 through 1934, local clergy responded
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with methods conforming to those of the national episcopal leadership. 17 Bishops and priests urged tolerance of the laws, condemned Catholic extremists, and organized lay political resistance against socialist education. The first of these techniques found expression in 1932, following Archbishop of Mexico Pascual Díaz's February 5 declaration ordering formal toleration and pacific protest.18 In accord with Díaz's statement, the Archbishops of Morelia and Guadalajara exhorted their faithful to adhere to the new restrictions in Michoacán and Jalisco, respectively.19 When Guanajuato Governor Melchor Ortega indicated that he would apply the new legislation "with benevolence," the Bishop of León, Emeterio Valverde Téllez, agreed to tolerate the law and also arranged to place the daughters of a friend of the Governor in a Mexico City Catholic girls' school.20 Lay organizations, such as the Guadalajara chapter of the Knights of Columbus, also preached a flexible attitude towards the laws, for as one Knights' council member explained to an associate, "We do not wish to provide room for the interpretation that we are working against the government."21 Such Catholic tolerance was maintained long after the anticlerical revival, as can be seen in the Bishop of Tepic's instruction preaching leniency towards Nayarit's law in 1936.22 The second type of Church response to the anticlerical revival, the reiningin of Catholic extremists, also followed closely upon examples set by the national hierarchy. Shortly after the 1932 statements by the Pope and Mexican Church leadership condemning violence in defense of religion,23 Archbishop Orozco of Guadalajara accordingly threatened to suspend the ecclesiastical credentials of priests involved in the "Segunda," or second Cristero War.24 As long as Catholic militants continued their sporadic guerrilla uprisings throughout the decade, similar condemnations were issued, such as those by Archbishops Vera y Zuria of Puebla in 1935 and Garibi Rivera of Guadalajara in 1936.25 Like the national leadership, regional clerics were eager to free the Church of any connection with violence in the eyes of the secular authorities. The Church could tolerate restrictions on priests as no more vital to its survival at the regional than at the national level. But the threat to its ideological hegemony posed by socialist education was far more serious. As with the responses to anticlericalism, local reactions to the implantation of socialist education in 1934 tended to follow the national episcopate's lead in establishing home schools and in organizing lay
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resistance. In some states, such as Puebla, many Catholic schools continued operating and registered public school students fleeing the new curriculum. 26 Where Catholic schools were closed, as in Querétaro and Guanajuato, they were reconstituted in private homes without any interference from local administrators.27 In the latter state, fully 45 percent of elementary and secondary school students were enrolled in these home schools by November of 1935.28 Nonviolent Catholic lay organizations, such as the Unión Nacional de Padres de Familia in Guadalajara, also put pressure on local authorities.29 State and municipal functionaries generally left the lay groups free to organize, often, as in Puebla, ''without even minimal interference," in the words of one ecclesiastical observer.30 As at the national level, the regional campaign against socialist education could succeed only in the context of the good relationships established with secular officials and the Church's clear disapproval of extremist violence. The careful responses of clerics in the CenterWest to the anticlericalism and educational programs of the early 1930s followed the national episcopate's policies of presenting a moderate, conciliatory face to the government while still maintaining influence, and taking a stand only on crucial issues. Tolerance of the new restrictions, disavowal of Catholic militants, and lay pressure against socialist education conformed to the hierarchy's attempt to manage smoothly the anticlerical upsurge with flexible tactics. In contrast, the later reestablishment of openly amicable relations with the government would arise at the grassroots level of local relationships rather than from a comprehensive national plan. Unlike the reactions to early 1930s anticlericalism, formal rapprochement between Church and State began independently at regional and local levels. In the Center West during the middle part of the decade, it was on the initiative of lowerlevel ecclesiastical and secular bureaucrats that arrangements to bypass the restrictive laws, covert evasions of the laws, the reopening of churches, and mutual ideological support began. The documentary evidence discussed here contradicts any assumption that the "new modus vivendi" came in the provinces only because Cárdenas put pressure on state governors. State and local government functionaries were often willing to flout anticlerical regulations overtly in response to pressure from the clergy or Catholic laymen. Governors were particularly susceptible to such influence. For example, when members of a Catholic women's association had an audience in October 1935 with Governor Salvador Saucedo
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of Colima to request the return of certain churches and permission for additional priests to register, the governor complied. 31 In a similar situation, when townspeople of Tepic, Nayarit, were forbidden by the municipality to put up public decorations for the December 1935 Guadalupe festival, a group went to speak with Governor Francisco Parra, and the city authorities agreed to allow the adornments.32 A conversation between Andrés Ocampo, Bishop of Chilapa, and Guerrero's Governor José Lugo in March 1936 yielded for the Church an increase from the fourteen priests allowed to officiate to fortythree and a reduction in the head tax placed on clerics, both agreements being blatant violations of the anticlerical laws.33 State governors could even intervene in the judicial process, as when Jalisco Governor Everardo Topete freed a priest imprisoned by municipal authorities for officiating illegally in Tlaquepaque, after Archbishop Garibi made inquiries on the cleric's behalf.34 Open arrangements to violate and sidestep the laws could involve other government authorities as well. In January 1936, a military sector chief in the Nayarit parish of San Pedro Lagunillas permitted church bellringing, previously banned by the local garrison.35 The judiciary branch could on occasion grant amparo to priests arrested for violating the religious laws, as was the case with a priest in Zapopán, Jalisco, imprisoned for performing a religious marriage.36 These overt public actions demonstrate that through the wielding of their own local influence, clerics, lay groups, and bureaucrats could take the initiative to resolve problems presented by excessively restrictive antireligious legislation. Such arrangements were as much a response to local political pressures as to any direction from higher ecclesiastical or secular authorities. In addition to making open, acknowledged arrangements with secular officials, the clergy often evaded the anticlerical laws simply by taking advantage of bureaucratic laxity in law enforcement. Unregistered priests in various states of the CenterWest officiated illegally, and with impunity, from 1935 throughout the decade.37 In Colima, chimes and fireworks graced extralegal public religious ceremonies, and priests remained publicly celibate, despite the law that they be married.38 A notable manifestation of what had become an increasingly tolerant atmosphere by 1938 was the dedication of the new Cristo Rey monument in Guanajuato by Bishop of León Valverde Téllez, the 1924 erection of which had been the occasion for Obregón's expulsion of the Apostolic Delegate.39 Legal evasions such as these reinforced the calming
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effect of the more formal arrangements with the authorities and reflected the broad range of independent action open to the clergy and public officials beyond their superiors' directions. The reopening of churches and resumption of religious services was a third expression of the "new modus vivendi" accomplished largely by local clergymen and public functionaries. In four states of the CenterWest, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Puebla, and San Luis Potosí, church buildings were never closed after 1929. 40 In Guanajuato, Michoacán, and Querétaro, reopening was a gradual process of negotiation with governors, completed in the first two states in 1935 and in the latter by the following year.41 The Querétaro churches were reopened as part of an agreement in which members of a Catholic women's organization promised Governor Ramón Rodríguez Familiar to send their children to public rather than Catholic schools.42 As for the restoration of services, only San Luis Potosí, under Saturnino Cedillo's benign leadership, never interrupted religious functions.43 In most other states in the region, resumption was a process paralleling church reopenings, often requiring continual pressure on public officials. Groups of clergymen and laity in Nayarit had repeated audiences with Governor Francisco Parra in 1935 and 1936 before services were finally restored in November of the latter year.44 Like other aspects of the state and local rapprochement, church reopenings and the resumption of religious functions were achieved through direct contact with secular officials and not via the interference of episcopal hierarchs. A final avenue of ChurchState accommodation in the CenterWest was mutual symbolic support. Though similar to the ideological assistance tendered by the national episcopate and federal government to each other,45 local occurrences of this type cannot be traced directly to upperlevel leadership as can the responses to the anticlerical resurgence. By the middle Thirties, some secular officials were disposed to commit themselves to public acts displaying conciliation as a means of strengthening their own positions against political opposition. For instance, in October 1935 new Querétaro Governor Rodríguez Familiar appointed a wellknown Church supporter, José María Esquivel, as presiding justice of the state supreme court.46 The Governor continued to back the appointment even after repeated protests by leftists and local masonic lodges. For this stand he was praised by Catholic lay groups.47 A similar manifestation of secular authorities'
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accommodating attitude in August of the same year was a Puebla judge's decision to return a large collection of religious jewelry to the private owner from whom it had been confiscated. 48 Actions by diocesan and local clergy expressing support for the government arose from a parallel need to develop a broad political power base. Thus the Archbishop of Guadalajara in 1936 and the Bishop of Chilapa (Guerrero) in 1940, respectively, admonished priests to "defend public order" and abstain from speaking or writing on topics that might upset it.49 In a striking example of local clerical legitimation of a secular program, parish priest José de Jesús Reynoso of Tepatitlán, Jalisco, urged his parishioners to participate in the 1940 national census.50 Reynoso argued, in a Sunday sermon in September 1939, that the census would benefit all Mexicans, including adherents of the Church.51 These calls for the defense of the political stability promised by the PRM, in a period of attacks on the regime,52 meshed well with secular symbolic support for the Church and helped ingratiate clerics with their government counterparts. As with other varieties of collaboration in the middle to late thirties, mutual backscratching appeared to arise out of direct contacts at the local level, and not from the episcopate's or Cárdenas's influence. In sum, new evidence of ChurchState accommodation in the CenterWest shows that, in this area at least, the historical assumption of nationwide conflict and local inertia in achieving the rapprochement is incorrect. Though compromise may have taken place because of the region's history of strong Catholic influence, this cooperation was just as likely to result, in the early 1930s, from policies set by the episcopal leadership and, later, from local political necessities. The postarreglos calm and reactions to anticlericalism — including tolerance of the new laws, condemnation of Catholic extremists, and lay movements protesting socialist education — followed directly from the national episcopate's lead. On the other hand, open and covert arrangements to evade restrictive legislation, to reopen churches, and to provide mutual symbolic assistance were more an outgrowth of clerics' and officials' responses to local political pressures. While these reasons for accommodation independent of the CenterWest's Catholic traditions can be found, similar collaboration in the other areas lacking this background is an even more telling critique of the "ChurchState conflict" stereotype.
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The South The South's tradition of weak Catholicism and anticlerical politics posed a stronger challenge to ChurchState accommodation than in the CenterWest. Yet similar evidence of cooperation between functionaries is available, with the same range of toleration, agreements, and evasions as in the more historically religious area. During each of the three chronological phases under discussion, the clergy in the South followed episcopal guidance in their response to the anticlerical resurgence of the early thirties and worked directly with local bureaucrats to evade restrictions and obtain church reopenings. Given that the presumption of nationwide conflict is generally based on analysis of this supposedly antiCatholic region, the uncovering of sources revealing compromise in the South is particularly damaging to that theory. During the twoyear period following the 1929 arreglos, clergymen's reactions to the upsurge of anticlericalism in 1931 generally followed the hierarchy's conciliatory approach. In turn, public officials sometimes showed flexibility in allowing religious activities to take place. When the Veracruz legislature, under the guidance of the rabidly antireligious Governor Adalberto Tejeda, limited the number of authorized priests to eight in June 1931, Bishop Guízar Valencia issued an instruction urging formal toleration of the law, peaceful protest, and application for amparos in the courts. 53 Despite the restrictions, local officials in Veracruz still allowed some illegal religious ceremonies to proceed, as with the October 1932 Cristo Rey festival in Puerto México.54 When a new governor, Gonzalo Vázquez Vela, took office in December 1932, Apostolic Delegate Ruiz y Flores urged Bishop Guízar to continue tolerating the priestlimiting law if Vázquez Vela proved amenable to its unofficial nonenforcement.55 Though details are lacking, such an agreement was apparently reached, and in June 1933 Guízar ordered even passive resistance to the law to cease.56 In Oaxaca, reactions to anticlericalism similar to those in Veracruz took place, with religious services being allowed to continue, though sporadically,57 and the local Archbishop, José Othón Núñez, at least formally submitting to the limits on priests passed in 1934.58 As with toleration of the new laws, clerical condemnations of Catholic extremist violence fell in line with the episcopate's policy of disavowing recalcitrants. Responding to a Catholic mob's murder of the mayor of Tlapacoyán, Veracruz, in 1931 for his failure to prevent a church
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looting, Bishop Guízar Valencia cited papal prohibitions against violence and emphasized that "the clergy shall have nothing to do with such means." 59 At times, the hierarchy directly admonished a local cleric to control extremists, as in 1934, when Apostolic Delegate Ruiz y Flores ordered Tabasco Bishop Vicente Camacho to quiet "Segunda" guerrilla activities taking place in his diocese.60 Archbishop of Yucatán Martín Tritschler y Córdova also followed Ruiz's lead in 1936 by formally approving the lay group Acción Cívica but specifically eschewing Church involvement in it, tainted as it was by the former association of many of its members with the Liga.61 In response to government education programs, local Catholic resistance conformed to the episcopate's encouragement of technically illegal home schools and nonviolent protest. Reacting to Secretary of Education Narciso Bassols' 1932 elimination of clergymen as primary teachers,62 Ruiz urged Bishop of Tehuantepec (Oaxaca) Jenaro Méndez del Río to "convert every home into a center of instruction and piety."63 The home schools and some private Catholic institutions that remained open imparted religious training in various states of the South throughout the tenure of socialist education, generally without interference from local authorities.64 As with the priest limits, the clergy and lay groups could also resort to the local courts through amparo to halt government action. In one such instance, a state judge in Oaxaca granted an amparo against the Secretariat of Education's attempt to close a Catholic day school.65 Thus, the flexible DíazRuiz approach to anticlericalism was at least as effective in the South as in the CenterWest in avoiding controversy, while still preserving Church hegemony over the crucial teaching function. Beginning in the middle years of the decade, and based on the local initiative of clerics and officials, open arrangements, de facto evasions, and church reopenings contributed to rapprochement in the South. An example of the first of these occurred in November 1934, in Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, where the municipal president and the state governor, Victorio Grajales, gave the local priest express permission to officiate publicly.66 Leftist radicals in the town complained that the cleric "continued to officiate as if the religious laws signified nothing."67 In Oaxaca, as well, many municipal presidents allowed priests to perform religious functions publicly, despite the laws and in direct defiance of anticlerical Governor Anastasio García Toledo's orders.68 The idea, developed at the local level, of a proChurch municipal president
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using his position to bend the laws in favor of the clergy was later adopted by the hierarchy and preached in the Jesuit journal Christus. 69 More covert evasions of the laws also took place at local initiative. In 1934, priests in Chiapas were officiating publicly in numbers far exceeding the legal limit, with the authorities neither explicitly consenting to nor forbidding the practice.70 Similar occurrences were taking place in Oaxaca by 1935,71 and in Yucatán where, according to Church reports, "without any agreement . . . no priest has been imprisoned or fined."72 Where priests previously may have officiated sporadically, the midthirties saw an increase in the frequency of illegal services, such as those of the curate of Puerto México, Tehuantepec, who by late 1935 was "visiting the village with greater freedom."73 These extralegal evasions were possible because public officials often simply ignored them. For example, according to Yucatán clerics, Governor Fernando López Cárdenas was "careful to resolve nothing in writing, but in practice showed himself to be tolerant.''74 Church reopenings constituted a final aspect of the rapprochement in the South. One state in the region, Morelos, never closed its churches at any time during the thirties.75 As for the other states, some reopenings occurred as a result of negotiations between ecclesiastical and secular officials, or from lay groups' political pressure on the latter. As early as May 1933, Bishop Guízar Valencia of Veracruz and Governor Vázquez Vela began secret talks concerning the reopening of the churches and resumption of services, a process that was completed by the end of the year.76 Oaxaca authorities reopened churches and restored religious functions in the diocese of Tehuantepec in 1935 after a women's group staged a peaceful protest at a regional festival.77 The Yucatán churches were also open by the end of 1936.78 In still other states, mass popular action was necessary to effect similar results. Catholic mobs in several cities of Campeche reopened churches by force in March 1936.79 In May 1938, almost two thousand people under the leadership of Sinarquista Salvador Abascal occupied the site of a ruined church in Villahermosa, Tabasco, and celebrated mass, with the authorities offering only token resistance.80 This event presaged the reopening of other churches in the state as well. Whether through negotiation, protest, or force, the reestablishment of open religious ceremonies occurred through the actions of local clergy, lay Catholics, and public functionaries, rather than through the intervention of their ecclesiastical or secular superiors.
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In sum, extensive ChurchState collaboration took place in the South, despite the region's past history of weak religious devotion and virulent political anticlericalism in the 1930s. The theory of nationally uniform conflict, based on extrapolation from the South to other areas, is thus inapplicable even here. Given that the same chronological trends and types of accommodation took place in the South as in the CenterWest, it is also difficult to give credit to the latter's more benign history as an explanation for compromise there. Rather, episcopal policy and local initiative were responsible for the reactions to anticlericalism. and the later rapprochement, respectively, in both regions. Yet an examination of a third area of Mexico, the North, must be made before final conclusions may be drawn as to the pervasiveness of cooperation. The North The North exhibited trends in ChurchState collaboration similar to those in the other areas. Despite its traditionally weak Catholic influence, albeit without any anticlerical tradition either, there is no less evidence of compromise in the North than in the more "religious" CenterWest. Measured reactions to antigovernment and Catholic extremism, and the "new modus vivendi" followed patterns corresponding to those observable nationally. The accommodations analyzed in this region demonstrate the difficulty of claiming that ecclesiasticalsecular conflict pervaded the entire country in the 1930s. For two years after the 1929 arreglos, clerics in the North "enjoyed a certain tolerance on the part of the civil authorities," in the words of one Church chronicler. 81 When restrictions on priests were imposed in 1931 and 1932, northern clergymen pursued the episcopate's moderate but effective policy of formal toleration and pacific protest. For example, Bishop Juan Navarrete y Guerrero of Sonora responded to that state's new legislation in 1932 by ordering adherence and naming the sixteen priests allowed to be registered.82 Navarrete was still maintaining this stand and preaching passive demonstration against the law as late as December 1934.83 Condemnations of lay Catholic violence were equally part of the Church's repertoire, exemplified by Zacatecas Bishop Ignacio Placencia y Moreira's 1932 plea that workers and peasants eschew armed resistance for the "spiritual weapons" of prayer, penitence, and a virtuous life.84
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Responses to the government's educational programs also followed the hierarchy's flexible approach. As early as fall 1932, Bishop Navarrete was organizing home schools in Sonora along lines proposed by Apostolic Delegate Ruiz y Flores. 85 By 1935, such surreptitious schooling was being carried out in Chihuahua, Nuevo León, and Zacatecas as well.86 Other methods were also tried, such as the refusal of Catholic public school teachers to teach the socialist curriculum 87 and the opening of ostensibly specialized institutions, such as business and trade schools, to which the new regulations did not apply.88 As one manifestation of the latter approach, nuns in Monterrey taught accounting, home economics, and languages in a private school that opened in 1935.89 In the North as in other regions, local clerics conformed to episcopal policy by maintaining control over the Church's vital educational mission while causing a minimum of political disruption. As in other areas of the country, overt arrangements, more covert evasions of the law, and the reopening of churches formed the basis for the "new modus vivendi" in the North. An example of the open type of cooperation occurred in Culiacán, Sinaloa, where in May 1935 local authorities jailed youths of the Socialist Revolutionary Bloc, who had vandalized a church.90 In Huejúcar, Zacatecas, city council members intervened to allow a local priest to officiate, contradicting the orders of the municipal president.91 Zacatecas may have been particularly conducive to such arrangements, as one clerical commentator noted that "there is a private and personal accommodation with the governor, and the priests depend upon it."92 The federal courts were also occasional intervenors on the Church's behalf, granting amparo to release priests and other individuals arrested for violating anticlerical laws. In 1936 and 1937, courts in Chihuahua granted amparos to at least nine priests confined for such infractions as officiating without being registered,93 and for organizing public religious ceremonies.94 The courts were also active in aiding lay Catholics, as when amparo was granted to six persons detained for participating in a demonstration at Ciudad Camargo, Chihuahua, against restrictions on priests.95 In a less obvious complement to the arrangements detailed above, government officials tacitly permitted religious activities through mere nonenforcement of the laws. During 1935 and 1936 in Zacatecas, public officiating by fiftyone priests, only eighteen of whom were authorized, the ordination of new clerics, and open ceremonies all proceeded
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without interference. 96 Pastoral visits to outlying communities in February 1935 were received with public acclamations and candle lighting "without even minimum molestation from the authorities," in the words of one clerical observer.97 In Chihuahua as well, public religious ceremonies took place, with officials not interfering, as with the December 1936, Guadalupe festivities, which were "celebrated with much enthusiasm."98 The church reopenings constituted a final chapter in the North's ecclesiasticalsecular rapprochement. Many state administrators were finding even the pretense of anticlericalism cumbersome and politically unwise, and their counterparts in the clergy had been lobbying for a more open environment since the early years of the decade. In Sinaloa, where a new governor, Gabriel Leyva Velázquez, was seen by clerics as "animated by goodwill,"99 the churches were reopened in March 1936.100 Other states where church doors were unlocked and services restored that spring included Coahuila 101 and Chihuahua.102 In the latter, federal and state police protected returning Ciudad Juárez churchgoers from constables sent by the still hostile city council.103 When these same municipal officials attempted to suspend religious practice again in May, a federal judge issued an amparo invalidating the local regulation.104 With the reopenings and other public Catholic activities in the North, at least some clerical commentators were considering that, by the spring of 1937, "a better era for the Church is at hand."105 This examination of the North completes the picture of nationwide accommodation in the thirties. Though it differed from the CenterWest in its weak religiosity and from the South in its lack of anticlericalism, the North nevertheless paralleled the other regions in the development of ChurchState compromise. Careful responses to the new restrictions, in line with episcopal direction, and the locally derived rapprochement corresponded to the trends elsewhere. As with the other areas, national and local patterns of cooperation were parallel without lowerlevel clerics' and bureaucrats' actions always being the product of guidance from above, especially in the later part of the decade. Conclusion The new archival evidence discussed in this chapter reveals a nationwide system of ChurchState cooperation throughout the 1930s. Contrary to the previously accepted paradigm, Mexico was not characterized by
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pervasive religious conflict in this period; if anything, pervasive compromise was the rule. Three separate regions of the country, with distinct histories of Catholic influence, all saw similar developments in ecclesiasticalsecular relations. The existence of regional distinctions, although at first useful in questioning the theory of uniform conflict, does not explain what went on in the countryside as well as do the documentary sources derived from local administrators and priests themselves. The thoroughness of accommodation overrode any differences represented by traditional characterizations of areas in terms of Church strength. Toleration in most provinces paralleled the chronological patterns displayed in the episcopal hierarchy's relationship with the PRM regime: the brief calm after the 1929 arreglos, the anticlerical revival, and the "new modus vivendi." This correspondence did not, however, signify that national leaders were always guiding the actions of local functionaries. While provincial clerics followed the episcopate's policy of tolerating new restrictions and organizing lay protests against socialist education, the later rapprochement came about as a result of lowerlevel initiative. Local accommodation in the middle to late thirties was a grassroots development arising independently of the hierarchy and belying the theory that Lázaro Cárdenas personally healed a "rift" between Church and State. Though the president can share authorship, with the episcopate, of the nationallevel calming of tension, neither he nor top churchmen can be given credit for the countless arrangements and evasions by which the anticlerical laws were daily nullified. In fact, the local conditions of tolerance may even have made rapprochement possible for the national leadership. The existence of nationwide collaboration not only undercuts any theory of uniform conflict in the thirties, it also helps explain the origins of contemporary Church government linkages. Widespread violations of the 1917 Constitution's express provisions and mutual ideological support 106 are more understandable when seen against the background of longstanding, pervasive compromise detailed here. One notable example of this continuity in cooperation (and of local clerical initiative) was Church support for the national census, articulated in 1939 by a parish priest in Jalisco 107 and incorporated at the national level by the Archbishop of Mexico in 1980.108 Without the recognition that the Church and State made a postCristero accommodation, such incidents
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today appear gratuitous and isolated and are left unclarified by the prevailing interpretation of ChurchState antagonism. The survival of a flexible ecclesiasticalsecular relationship is in large part due to its strength at the lowest levels. Less vulnerable to the shifts in national politics than the hierarchy's arrangements with various presidential administrations, local compromise expressed itself in customary, routine methods of sidestepping the anticlerical laws. Similarly, the third level of Church political influence examined here, the lay organization Acción Católica, was guided formally by national ecclesiastical leaders, yet derived much of its political effectiveness from its broad popular base. As with local accommodation, the initiative and flexibility of Catholic lay groups help explain the Church's success in adjusting to the constrictions placed upon its political activities since the Revolution.
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Appendix: State Restrictions On Priests Per Population AGUASCALIENTES
1926: 21 (1/5,000); 1934: 4(1/30,000)
CAMPECHE
1917: 9; 1934: 3
CHIAPAS
1929: 21 (1/20,000); 1932: 13 (1/40,000); 1933: 4; 1934: 1
CHIHUAHUA
1926: 44 (1/9,000); 1931: 10 (1/45,000); 1934: 4; 1936: 1
COAHUILA
1918: 34; 1934: 9; 1936: +9 auxiliaries
COLIMA
1926: 20; 1932: 10; 1934: 5; 1939: 12 (1/5,000)
DISTRITO FEDERAL
1931: 24
DURANGO
1923: 25; 1932: 25; 1934: 9
GUANAJUATO
1926: 172 (1/5,000); 1932 (1/municipio; 1/25,000 in municipios greater than 25,000)
GUERRERO
1928: 40; 1932: 14
HIDALGO
1926: 1/municipio; 1934: 13 (1/50,000)
JALISCO
1918: 23 (1/50,000); 1926: 250; 1932: 50 (1/25,000)
MEXICO
1926: 150; 1932: 34
MICHOACAN
1926: (10/1 municipio; 4/6 municipios; 3/8 municipios; 2/18 municipios); 1936: 33
MORELOS
1934: 6 (1/20,000)
NAYARIT
1926: 40; 1934: 7; 1936: 20
NUEVO LEÓN
1927: 38
OAXACA
1928: 97 (1/10,000); 1934: 18 (1/60,000)
PUEBLA
1926: 256 (1/4,000); 1934: 23 (1/50,000)
QUERÉTARO
1928: 27 (1/8,000); 1933: 7 (1/30,000); 1934: 2 (1/200,000); 1936: (3/capital, 1/municipio)
SAN LUIS POTOSÍ
1926: (1/municipio)
SINALOA
1926: 45; 1934: 20
SONORA
1919: 26 (1/10,000); 1931: 15 (1/20,000)
TABASCO
1919: 7 (1/30,000); 1925: 6
TAMAULIPAS
1926: 12
TLAXCALA
1926: 36
VERA CRUZ
1931: 13 (1/100,000)
YUCATÁN
1926: 40; 1931: 9
ZACATECAS
1926: (3/capital, 1/municipio); 1933: 18 (1/25,000)
Source: Compiled from Felix Navarrete and Eduardo Pallares, La persecución religiosa en México desde el punto de vista jurídico (México, D.F.: n.p., 1939), 161–360. The statistics refer to the maximum number of priests authorized to officiate in each state, which number was sometimes expressed in terms of a ratio of clergy to population (in parentheses).
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Seven— Acción Católica: The Organized Laity in the Service of Cooperation, 192942 The lay organization Acción Católica Mexicana, founded in 1929, complemented other Church methods of exerting political influence indirectly while adhering formally to the restrictions of the Revolution. 1 This chapter uses newly uncovered documents and oral interviews to analyze the episcopal hierarchy's coordination of lay activity through the Secretariado Social Mexicano (SSM) and the actual functioning of Acción Católica.2 These new sources help fill a gap in the literature on Catholic politics in the 1930s and reveal the role of the laity in the Church's accommodationist strategy. Just as most historians of the thirties have posited a rigid view of institutional ChurchState friction, these writers have neglected any influence of Catholic laymen in mitigation of the supposed conflict.3 The few studies treating lay movements during this period have discussed only groups representing rightwing extremism4 or electoral alternatives to the ruling party.5 The sole work focused specifically on Acción Católica relies completely on published primary sources and does not address either the organization's links to the ecclesiastical hierarchy or its role in conciliation with the State.6 None of these studies explains how the episcopate maintained control over lay activity following the 1929 arreglos nor how Acción Católica developed as a mass organization that still continues to pursue Church political goals in contemporary Mexico.7 As a means of discussing the organized participation of lay Catholics in ChurchState rapprochement, this chapter focuses successively on Acción Católica's origins, its links with the hierarchy, and its popular constituency. First, I trace the ideological underpinnings of the Catholic Action movement, its development as a Church sponsored association
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in Europe, and its Mexican roots in lay activity prior to the Cristero War. Next, examination of the Secretariado Social's internal records shows how the Church used this office between 1929 and 1942 to direct Acción Católica in evading the anticlerical laws and exerting political pressure. Finally, the correspondence, reports, and oral recollections of ecclesiastical and lay leaders demonstrate Acción Católica's popularlevel functioning and arrangements with the government. The exposition here of new sources on the Catholic laity adds a third dimension to the national and local modus vivendi described in earlier chapters and helps explain the multifaceted ChurchState accommodation of today. Background Let us consider the ideological basis for the Catholic Action movement and its historical progress in Europe and prearreglo Mexico. Scholarly analysts of Catholic Action have most frequently noted two salient characteristics: direct control by the ecclesiastical hierarchy and mass participation. When the Church has been able to both dominate and encourage broadbased lay activity, it has created a powerful tool for exerting political pressure despite legal restrictions on religious bodies. Catholic Action was a late nineteenthcentury and early twentiethcentury development of Churchsponsored associations of the laity in Europe and Latin America. 8 Since its inception, the movement's ideological purposes, though not its organizational features, have been the subject of some dispute. The official propaganda of Catholic Action, and some scholars, have described its goals as purely spiritual, engaging the laity in "forming better consciences"9 or in carrying out the Church's "apostolic work."10 Other analysts, however, have seen its actual role as a tool against anticlericalism and secularization, and for social reform, necessary when the Church is legally barred from entering politics.11 One notable observer of Catholic Action, Antonio Gramsci, writing in the 1930s, went so far as to see the movement's sole purpose as that of assuring the Church's institutional survival, with its proclaimed championing of social reform merely a cynical "reserve element" in an arsenal of methods for preserving ecclesiastical influence.12 Despite the disagreement over whether Catholic Action's mission was purely spiritual or primarily secular, proponents of both theories concur that the movement developed certain organizational charac
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teristics. In each country where it operated, Catholic Action was closely supervised by the national Church hierarchy. 13 Control by the national episcopates was always accompanied by the growth of locallevel groups to facilitate popular participation.14 This type of structure evolved historically from the tension in Catholic lay movements between central ecclesiastical authority and mass initiative. In Europe, Catholic Action established a pattern for Church control of the laity and accommodation with the State that would be paralleled in Mexico. The European model developed as a culmination of ecclesiastical efforts to dominate new lay associations emerging in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These groups found much of their inspiration in the "social Catholicism" espoused in Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical Rerum Novarum.15 Particularly in Italy, Spain, and France, urban workers' circles, rural credit cooperatives, and national congresses expressed many lay Catholics' desire to address socioeconomic problems that the Church had previously ignored.16 Viewing these disparate activities as a challenge to hierarchical power, Popes Pius X (1903–14) and Benedict XV (1914–22), along with national episcopates, moved to consolidate the smaller lay organizations and subordinate them to local clerical authority.17 As a reaction both to these attempts to exert control and to the growing popularity of socialism and communism among workers, independent Catholic political parties had emerged in several countries during and following World War I.18 Yet Pope Pius XI (1922–39), fearing that complete lay political autonomy would undercut the institutional Church's ability to deal with secular governments, publicly disavowed the Catholic parties in Italy and France in the mid1920s.19 If the energies of the often wayward laity were to be effectively harnessed toward Church goals, a centralized organization was needed. In accord with the directives of Pius XI, national episcopates restructured Catholic Action in the late 1920s and early 1930s, linking the movement directly to the Church while simultaneously stimulating popular involvement. A pattern of divisions by age and sex was developed, with sections being formed for men, women, boys, and girls.20 Priests, immediately answerable to the episcopate, served as "ecclesiastical assistants" to local groups, thus ensuring Church control.21 Mass participation was encouraged by councils of lay representatives at national, diocesan, and parish levels, who were responsible for the recruitment and training of members.22 As it grew in popularity during
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the 1930s, the movement attracted a broadbased membership from diverse occupational and social backgrounds, including industrial workers, agricultural workers, and university students. 23 Thus, the redesigned Catholic Action helped resolve past tensions between ecclesiastical leadership and laymen by bringing the latter into a unified, participationoriented system. After its reorganization, Catholic Action aided Church efforts to collaborate ideologically with various secular regimes. The incorporation of an organized laity gave national episcopates a powerful tool for adapting to changing political circumstances. Formal concordats in some countries specifically exempted the movement from legal restrictions otherwise imposed on the institutional Church.24 In exchange for this freedom, Catholic Action leaders often openly supported national governments. For example, Italian Catholic Action supplemented the Italian bishops' backing of Benito Mussolini by encouraging Fascist Party membership and collecting donations for the 1935 invasion of Ethiopia.25 In Spain during the early thirties, the movement followed the moderate episcopal policy of abstaining from criticizing the anticlerical Republic.26 When Francisco Franco came to power later in the decade, Catholic Action reflected Church support for the regime by training youth leaders for the ruling Falange Party.27 These instances of cooperation were due in no small part to the restructured movement's ability to place a broad lay constituency at the political disposal of national ecclesiastical hierarchies. The Church's control over Catholic Action in Europe and its use in accommodation with the State would find an echo in Mexico. As in Europe, Catholic Action in Mexico grew out of an episcopate's attempts to resolve its tensions with an increasingly militant laity. Prior to the 1910 Revolution, workers' circles, rural credit cooperatives, and national congresses promoted social Catholicism as a solution to unjust labor conditions and debt peonage.28 The Revolution itself gave impetus to new organizations such as the Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana (ACJM), which set up night schools for young workers,29 and a reformist Catholic party, the Partido Católico Nacional (PCN), which supported Francisco Madero in the election of 1911.30 Yet the hierarchy was not unmindful of these potential threats to its power among the laity; the ACJM was watched closely by clerics serving as ''ecclesiastical assistants," and the bishops pointedly failed to protest when the PCN was suppressed by the Huerta regime in 1914.31 When the ACJM and
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other Catholic groups resorted to boycotts, strikes, and public protests to challenge the implementation of the anticlerical 1917 Constitution and similar state laws, the hierarchy for the most part stayed aloof from such activities, preferring a more conciliatory policy. 32 In fact, the episcopate shortly created its own device to undercut grassroots organizing. The Secretariado Social Mexicano (SSM), a prieststaffed administrative body, was set up in 1919 to coordinate urban social programs and rural credit cooperatives.33 By 1923, the SSM was supervising a network of Catholic trade unions and had been particularly successful in convincing women factory workers to affiliate.34 Despite Church leaders' attempts to control the laity, the Cristero War of 1926–29 exacerbated the division between militants and moderates in the Catholic fold. The Liga organized the nationwide armed campaign against the government, while local ACJM chapters spearheaded guerrilla operations in the countryside.35 Taking an opposite tack, the SSM, in the words of its director Padre (later Cardinal) Miguel Dario Miranda, "looked to the future resolution of the conflict" and quietly continued its educational work.36 The Secretariado Social eschewed armed resistance and turned down requests from the Liga for monetary aid.37 As Dario Miranda was later to recall, most of the bishops believed that the Church could more effectively preserve its influence using the restrained SSM than through the militarily doomed extremists, for "violence was not the road chosen by God."38 After the 1929 arreglos, the hierarchy confirmed its distrust of the militants by publicly disavowing the Liga and dissolving the ACJM.39 By 1929, the Mexican Church's attempts to gain control over lay activities had mirrored similar efforts in Europe. These methods included the establishment of supervised organizations and the repudiation of extremist groups. With the 1929 arreglos now requiring Church cooperation with the State in Mexico, as did the concordats in Europe, it was essential that the hierarchy be able to keep a tight rein on the laity. The bishops would have to coordinate the actions of lay Catholics while still maintaining a popular base broad enough to pursue Church political goals effectively. This overview of Catholic Action's theoretical and historical background has illustrated the development of the movement's two basic characteristics: direct episcopal supervision and mass involvement. Scholars propounding varying views of underlying ideology agree on these two features. Episcopates in Europe, attempting to resolve their
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tensions with militant laymen, followed this twopronged approach, finding it useful in accommodation with governments. Prior to 1929, the Mexican hierarchy faced similar problems dealing with Catholic antigovernment extremists. How the Church restructured existing lay organizations into a movement emulating the European pattern and employed the new association in the modus vivendi with the State are the matters addressed in this chapter. The Secretariado Social: Episcopal Mission to the Laity The Secretariado Social Mexicano was the device by which the ecclesiastical hierarchy gained control over and coordinated Catholic lay organizations after 1929 while remaining within legal limitations. Newly uncovered archival sources illustrate the SSM's role in founding Acción Católica Mexicana, administering its activities, and using it to pursue Church political goals. 40 Immediately following the arreglos, the bishops delegated to the SSM the responsibility of setting up Acción Católica as a structure for lay involvement. Throughout the thirties, the Secretariado preserved the episcopate's domination over the new association by training its clerical advisors, writing or censoring all its propaganda, and aiding in its fundraising efforts. SSM control of Acción Católica enabled the latter to be used in religious educational activities forbidden to the clergy and to support Church positions on socialist education and other issues. By 1942, when the hierarchy released Acción Católica from SSM direction, the laity could be trusted to complement the moderate bishops' conciliatory policy toward the government. The episcopate had seen the SSM as the ideal administrative organ to restructure the disparate lay organizations into a unified whole under Church direction. In July 1929, the bishops established a commission, headed by Padre Dario Miranda, to write the bylaws of a new association, Acción Católica Mexicana.41 Following their approval by the hierarchy, the bylaws were officially promulgated in December 1929.42 Along the European pattern, Acción Católica was divided by age and sex, with sections for men (the Unión de Católicos Mexicanos or UCM), women (the Unión Feminina Católica Mexicana or UFCM), young men (the Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana or ACJM), and young
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women (the Juventud Católica Feminina Mexicana or JCFM). 43 Priests were to serve as "ecclesiastical assistants" advising local chapters and were to be trained and supervised by the Secretariado.44 Lay leaders were allowed some input into decisionmaking through national and diocesan councils, but even these bodies were coordinated through the SSM.45 Thus the entire structure of the new organization from its highest to lowest levels was designed to subordinate lay activities to the control of the Church. The SSM used several techniques to preserve episcopal domination of Acción Católica. First, beginning in 1930, courses to train priests to serve as ecclesiastical assistants were set up in various parts of the country.46 These served the dual function of indirectly controlling the laity through the clergy and of employing the latter in a manner not expressly barred by the laws limiting numbers of priests and prohibiting their involvement in politics.47 The courses were later expanded to include lay leaders as well.48 Second, Dario Miranda began weekly meetings of the Secretariado's governing board, at which all propaganda to be disseminated by local Acción Católica chapters was screened and often rewritten.49 Finally, the SSM solicited contributions from wealthy Catholic laymen and channeled this aid to Acción Católica nationwide.50 This fundraising system increased lay dependence on the Secretariado, and thus on the hierarchy. The SSM's various methods of controlling the organized laity would prove invaluable when the latter were needed to carry out Church policies. During the decade of the 1930s, the SSM directed Acción Católica in the service of the Church's postarreglos political adjustment. Responding to the 1931–32 anticlerical resurgence and ensuing limitations on priests, the Secretariado followed the hierarchy's policy of evading the restrictions where possible. As discussed above, the ecclesiastical assistant program was one method of using the clergy despite the curbs on their officiating and the ban on their involvement in politics.51 In addition, Dario Miranda trained a body of Acción Católica members, the Comisión Central de Instrucción Religiosa (CCIR), to take over religious educational work previously done by priests.52 The CCIR's program of instruction covered religious as well as secular subjects, including literacy classes, and was an attempt to replace similar courses formerly taught in parish churches.53 Acción Católica members, especially the young men of the ACJM, ranged as far as remote mountain villages preaching the CCIR gospel.54 Their work was
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lauded even by Catholic extremists such as Bishop José de Jesús Manríquez y Zárate of Huejutla, who saw the value in maintaining religious education in the face of the anticlerical laws. 55 As late as 1937, Dario Miranda noted that the CCIR was still carrying on its mission of "collaboration with the hierarchy."56 Conforming with the episcopate's multifaceted approach to ChurchState compromise, the SSM directed lay political action that extended beyond mere evasion of the restrictive laws. Following the bishops' lead, the Secretariado coordinated public protests by Acción Católica members in 1932 and 1934, respectively, on the crucial issues of secular and socialist education.57 Yet the SSM discouraged other political activities by members that did not serve Church interests and might harm the modus vivendi with the State, such as antigovernment protests over wages and prices.58 The Secretariado also contributed to the hierarchy's ideological collaboration with the regime by commissioning a study backing obligatory military service.59 Through mobilizing the laity for the crucial educational battle while simultaneously clamping down on extremists and endorsing government programs, the SSM pursued the same flexible policy followed by Church operatives at national and local levels, and thereby strengthened the accommodation. By the end of the decade, the bishops began the gradual separation of the SSM from Acción Católica. As ChurchState tension lessened, direct control of the laity was decreasingly necessary, for the latter had shown that they could be trusted to follow the episcopal line. In November 1937, the new Archbishop of Mexico, Luis María Martínez, ordered the Secretariado to concentrate most of its energies on social welfare projects and to deemphasize Acción Católica.60 The new focus was notably manifest by 1941, when the SSM was told to organize the fiftieth anniversary celebrations of Rerum Novarum, the classic document of "social Catholicism," and to cancel an Acción Católica program considered "not to have any connection with the encyclical."61 The following year, 1942, the hierarchy commanded the Secretariado to sever all ties with Acción Católica, leaving the latter's lay leaders directly responsible to the bishops.62 Only the ecclesiastical assistants were left in place to provide guidance as needed.63 The SSM had served its function of channeling lay activity in the desired direction; the episcopate considered that the need for constant supervision was ended. As expressed by Dario Miranda's replacement as Secretariado director, Padre Rafael Dávila Vilchis, Acción Católica now had
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"a sufficient number of trained secular leaders . . . to pursue its work of propaganda." 64 In sum, the SSM played a crucial role between 1929 and 1942 in establishing the Church hierarchy's control over lay activity. Immediately following the arreglos, the Secretariado was given the task of restructuring existing lay groups into Acción Católica. The episcopate maintained its dominance through the techniques of training the new organization's clerical advisors, screening its literature, and making it financially dependent. This subordination made possible the SSM's contributions to the evasion of anticlerical restrictions and the stimulation of lay action in pursuit of the Church's political goals. But episcopal control of Acción Católica through the medium of the Secretariado was not enough to ensure the laity's full support for the modus vivendi — broadbased, popular involvement in the accommodations was still needed. Acción Católica As a Mass Movement The hierarchy was unwilling to rely solely on the bureaucratic mechanism of the SSM to channel lay activity, and therefore also attempted to stimulate the growth of Acción Católica as a grassroots movement. Analysis of new sources reveals how Acción Católica developed as a mass organization due to ideological guidance from ecclesiastical authorities and popular participation in local groups.65 This broadbased support enabled the new association to contribute to accommodation with the State.66 Acción Católica was effective in accomplishing Church goals because of its strength at this lower level. Many of the statements issued by Church leaders in the thirties were aimed directly at encouraging lay involvement, rather than funneling it through the medium of the SSM. When Pope Pius XI addressed a group of Mexican pilgrims at the Vatican in 1931, he urged them to participate in Acción Católica's mission of religious education.67 Responding to the 1931–32 anticlerical upsurge, Apostolic Delegate Ruiz emphasized the need for the organization to supervise the surreptitious home school movement as a means of carrying out the Pope's wishes.68 By 1933, the bishops had realized that such lay activities had to be stimulated systematically, and therefore required every parish priest in the nation to make monthly reports on the progress of Acción Católica in his jurisdiction.69
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The following year, Ruiz was preaching that the association should more openly serve Church goals by publicly protesting socialist education. 70 Direct guidance of this type continued throughout the decade and was again exemplified in 1937, when the Pope exhorted the laity to aid religious instruction and simultaneously warned them to eschew the violent methods of Catholic extremists.71 At the same time, local Acción Católica units encouraged lay involvement at lower levels. For example, in 1932, organizers of the ACJM chapter in Saltillo, Nuevo León, developed an elaborate induction ceremony for new members, wherein the initiates swore allegiance to Church, nation, and the Acción Católica bylaws.72 By the middle of the decade, the association was functioning openly in cities and municipios throughout the country. Parish priests in Zacatecas reported in the summer of 1935 that local anticlericalism had left Acción Católica groups untouched.73 The following year, chapters in the diocese of Tacámbaro, Michoacán, were growing rapidly.74 Acción Católica in Yucatán was publishing its own journal, and its members were gathering frequently "in various places," though not all such meetinghouses were sufficiently airconditioned against the tropical heat.75 Statistics on membership also bear out the association's increasing popularity. By 1942, there were 365,088 members on the rolls nationwide.76 One section, the young women's JCFM, had grown from 8, 605 adherents in 1930 to 102,491 in 1942.77 Clearly, Acción Católica provided opportunities for mass participation in Churchsponsored religious and political work of which the laity were taking advantage. Ecclesiastical advice from above and popular strength from below enabled Acción Católica to contribute to the Church's conciliatory policies visàvis the government. For example, lay activists helped organize the homeschool movement, thereby evading restrictions on religious education.78 The ACJM also taught impromptu "civic studies" classes which ranged into the discussions of politics supposedly forbidden to the Church under Article 130 of the 1917 Constitution.79 According to José González Torres, an ACJM leader in the thirties, Acción Católica "reduced the political and made more comprehensive the civic" in order to deal with questions of agrarian reform, labor, and industrialization.80 Beyond these evasions, Acción Católica activists furthered Church ideological support for the administration by allowing federal education officials to instruct ACJM and JFCM youths in rural literacytraining
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techniques. 81 Along the same lines, in 1942 Acción Católica aided the regime's involvement in World War II by exhorting male members to enlist in the military and women to enroll in nursing courses.82 Such collaboration with the State illustrates how, as the bishops summarized in a 1944 pastoral letter, "the Church adapted to new necessities . . . through the use of mass organizations."83 Thus, during the thirties, Acción Católica developed as a broadbased popular movement, beyond the hierarchy's stimulation of lay activity through the SSM. Church ideological guidance and grassroots organizational efforts were responsible for this expansion. The association's diverse sources of influence enabled it to play a role in accommodation with the government. Acción Católica was effective in aiding Church political goals in part because it could exert influence more widely than could the episcopate itself, just as local functionaries' individual initiative in conciliation could go further than the efforts of their national leaders. Conclusion In Acción Católica the Church created a device allowing it to maintain and increase its influence despite the formal limits on its participation in political life. New sources discussed here show the hierarchy's coordination of lay activity through the SSM and the independent, masslevel expansion of Acción Católica as well. These documents allow us to go beyond traditional works that neglect the role of Catholic laymen in undercutting the official ChurchState conflict of the thirties. Paralleling the pattern of European Catholic Action's aid for episcopal accommodation with secular regimes, SSM policies and Acción Católica practice reinforced the modus vivendi through evasion of the anticlerical laws and through ideological support for the government. Such actions by laymen complemented similar compromises by ecclesiastical and civil functionaries at national and local levels. Acción Católica's conciliatory role in the thirties also helps explain the current ChurchState arrangement, in which the association continues to play a part through its religious education programs.84 The organized Catholic laity thus added its strength to the hidden relationship that lay beneath the official separation of religious and political spheres.
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Eight— The Church in Politics since 1942 From the 1940s to the present, ChurchState collaboration has continued along the lines established following the arreglos and solidified by 1942. The patterns of this relationship have persisted at national, local, and lay levels. In all three spheres, methods present in the thirties have remained, including extralegal evasions, mutual ideological support, suppression of extremists, and judicious use of lay organizations. The continuity of these trends affirms the importance of the 1930s compromises in establishing the ecclesiasticalcivil arrangement characterizing contemporary Mexico. At the national level of relations between the episcopal hierarchy and the federal government, the evasions, ideological collaboration, suppression of radicals, and Church steadfastness on education continued. Various commentators have noted that since the 1930s constitutional Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 and their facilitating regulations have been violated daily as part of a "tacit pact of nonobservance" between ecclesiastical and secular authorities. 1 In a recent example, in 1987 a federal judge denied a priest's amparo petition against Federal Election Code section 343 (fining any clergyman urging votes in favor of or against a particular candidate or party) on the ground that this legislation had never been enforced.2 More spectacular were the violations ignored during the January 1979 and May 1990 visits of Pope John Paul II to Mexico. The pontiff disobeyed Article 24 of the Constitution (no public religious ceremonies) by saying mass in open stadiums and other outdoor sites, officiated as a foreign priest despite Article 130, and wore clerical garb in public, thereby infringing the Federal District's Penal Code.3 Beyond mere evasions of the laws, Church and State have continued their mutual ideological collaboration. After the 1930s, the episcopate
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maintained its custom of backing federal programs, as in 1948 when it issued a pastoral letter encouraging participation in government vaccination and literacy campaigns, stating that "all must cooperate with the civil authorities in the solution of grave social problems." 4 For their part, secular leaders openly spoke in favor of conciliation, as did President Adolfo López Mateos in 1959 when he announced that "having religious ideas does not mean being an enemy of the Revolution."5 Traditional Church anticommunism and PRI foreign policy converged when both entities enlisted in the 1950s Cold War against the Soviet Union, issuing mutually congratulatory propaganda.6 And in 1968, when the Díaz Ordaz administration was under intense public scrutiny for the deaths of student protestors at Tlatelolco, the episcopal hierarchy (with a few exceptions) vocally defended the government's role.7 In the 1970s, highlevel collaboration on specific political issues became as commonplace as evasions of the anticlerical laws. Despite traditional Catholic doctrine opposing contraception, the Church supported the government's family planning program in 1972. Attempting to reduce significantly the country's rate of population increase and attendant problems of food, housing, health care, and unemployment, the administration of President Luis Echeverría Alvarez (1970–76) initiated the distribution of contraceptives and information on their use.8 In December 1972, the bishops issued a collective pastoral praising the program.9 The pastoral left couples free to choose their own method of birth control, stating that "the decision on the means . . . ought to leave them at peace."10 Thus, implicitly, techniques other than the traditional Catholic rhythm method were deemed acceptable. Though some observers have pointed out that the Mexican Church's institutional interest lies in reducing a population which is expanding at a rate far more rapid than that of the priesthood,11 the reversal of a longtime doctrinal position in favor of a government social reform spoke well for the strength of the modus vivendi. In 1975, PRI presidential candidate José López Portillo met secretly with forty Mexican bishops, with the explicit purpose of obtaining their support for the programs of his future administration (1976–1982).12 According to López Portillo, the meetings were held "to incorporate elements of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and all of their organizations into the social, economic, and moral programs elaborated by the political power."13 These contacts bore fruit in the ensuing years, when Cardinal Ernesto Corripio Ahumada threatened the faithful that failure
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to participate in the government's 1980 census would ''put in danger [their] eternal salvation." 14 Corripio and other prelates also publicly backed López Portillo's efforts to restore financial order after the August 1982 peso devaluation.15 In turn, the PRI lent its political leverage to the Church's position against the legalization of abortion. PRI leaders regularly condemned legalization attempts, and in 1980 the Chamber of Deputies even invited Cardinal Corripio to speak on the subject.16 A dramatic example of symbolic ideological union took place during Christmas of 1985, when PRI officials organized festivities, constructed nativity scenes, and held caroling contests for Mexico City children.17 Government policy had evolved from extralegal tolerance of such celebrations in the 1930s towards actually incorporating religion for political legitimation purposes. Additional opportunities for mutual support came with the presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–94). In the bitterly contested campaign of 1988, PRI candidate Salinas faced significant electoral threats from the Frente Democrático on the left and PAN on the right. Early in the race, the episcopate's president, Archbishop Sergio Obeso Rivera, placed the hierarchy squarely on the side of the regime, announcing that "the Catholic Church rejects the opposition parties' incitement to civil disobedience."18 Winning by a slim plurality, Salinas invited Cardinal Corripio Ahumada and five bishops to the December 1988 inauguration, showing the country a united front of episcopal and government leadership after the PRI's tenuous victory.19 Later in his administration, after the 1991 modification of some of the Constitution's anticlerical provisions and the 1992 reestablishment of diplomatic relations between Mexico and the Vatican, Salinas lauded these developments, ceremoniously giving back a longmissing religious painting to a Morelos convent.20 The Church returned the favor in March 1994, following the assassination of PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio, when numerous bishops condemned the crime and praised Colosio's successor, Ernesto Zedillo.21 Complementing evasions and mutual ideological support, the Church's suppression of Catholic extremists also persisted, though such dissidents were increasingly threatening the modus vivendi from the left, rather than from the right as in the 1930s. Beginning in the 1950s a small group of progressive bishops embarked on liturgical reforms and shortly began to take political positions highly critical of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and federal government alike. Changes in liturgy,
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such as Bishop of Cuernavaca Sergio Méndez Arceo's removal of saint figurines from his diocese's cathedral and his introduction of the "mariachi mass," 22 were mere curiosities, but political criticism was far more problematic. By the late 1960s, Méndez Arceo had drawn attention to himself for permitting the use of psychoanalysis in a Benedictine monastery, for sponsoring a community organizing school for the clergy, the Centro Intercultural de Documentación (CIDOC),23 and for vocally criticizing the administration's handling of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre.24 Other bishops associating themselves with the "progressive" wing, which increasingly found fault with the hierarchy's avoidance of social justice issues and the PRI's political monopoly, included Manuel Talamás Camandari of Ciudad Juárez, Samuel Ruiz García of San Cristóbal Las Casas, Arturo Lona Reyes of Tehuantepec, and Adalberto Almeida Merino of Chihuahua.25 The majority of the episcopate, committed to accommodation with the government, was no more tolerant of an extremist bishop like Méndez Arceo in the 1960s and 1970s than it had been of proCristero prelates in the 1930s. Responding to the hierarchy's complaints, the Pope in 1969 prohibited priests from attending CIDOC, which was turned into a language school.26 When contacting bishops during his 1975 campaign, López Portillo gave PRI sanction to the hierarchy's marginalization of its radicals by refusing to meet with Méndez Arceo and Ruiz García.27 The following year, the episcopate issued a written exhortation stating that "extremism of the left or of the right is not in accord with loyalty to the Church," which by default could be read only as a condemnation of the progressives.28 By 1978, Archbishop Corripio and five officers of the Conference of Mexican Bishops (the episcopate's coordinating body) were criticizing Méndez Arceo by name, stating that his espousal of Marxism was "incompatible with Christian faith."29 In 1982 the bishops, through the medium of the Apostolic Delegate, again publicly castigated Méndez Arceo, calling him "one of the dissonant voices that sings outside of the chorus.''30 When Méndez Arceo resigned later that year, his successor Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo rapidly transferred key clerical supporters of the former bishop out of the diocese.31 The July 1986 legislative elections brought another opportunity for the hierarchy to clamp down, when Chihuahua Archbishop Adalberto Almeida Merino denounced PRI electoral fraud and threatened to cancel
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Sunday masses throughout the archdiocese. 32 When the Vatican ordered that services be conducted as usual, Archbishop Corripio and the majority of the episcopate approved.33 Clearly, no confrontation with the government à la 1926 was desired, and just as in the 1930s, the hierarchy was quick to disavow those who would upset the modus vivendi. As in the 1930s, education is the one sphere wherein the Church has insisted on some degree of control and has maintained its position through the mobilization of lay pressure. Catholic sensitivity in this area became evident in 1959, when the López Mateos administration mandated that governmentprovided, standardized textbooks be used in all primary schools, both public and private.34 The episcopate responded by resurrecting the old lay association, the Unión Nacional de Padres de Familia (UNPF), to organize massive public protests.35 The UNPF and other groups also simply circumvented the federal requirements by distributing their own texts free to schoolchildren.36 Prudently, the bishops warned the faithful to keep all these actions within lawful bounds, as was urged by Cardinal José Garibi Rivera of Guadalajara in his Easter 1960 pastoral letter.37 After three years of demonstrations in various major cities38 and an abortive government attempt to organize its own parents' groups,39 the federal authorities agreed that although the books must still be distributed, some latitude in selecting texts would be allowed for schools.40 In addition to lay mobilization, the Church long continued to pursue its 1930s tactic of running an underground Catholic educational system, with the government's tacit tolerance, in order to avoid the Article 3 ban on religious teaching in primary schools.41 Thus on crucial issues of education, the episcopal hierarchy adhered to the peaceful protest and evasion techniques, so successful in the 1930s, to achieve its goals without disturbing the established order. Ecclesiastical and civil functionaries at the local level also continued to pursue accommodationist strategies of evasion, ideological support, and suppression of radicals, in line with the methods of their national superiors. Despite the Article 130 ban on clerical voting, priests, monks, and nuns often have cast election ballots, as was observed in Bosques del Lago, State of Mexico, in 1985.42 Municipal authorities have sometimes donated land for school buildings, thereby circumventing the Article 27 prohibition on ecclesiastical propertyholding.43 In the ideological realm, local priests regularly appear at PRI functions, symbolically legitimating the regime,44 and frequently force their reluctant
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parishioners to undergo the constitutionally required civil marriage ceremony along with the religious rite. 45 For their part, government officials have vocally helped the Church in the latter's struggle against Protestant missionaries in remote Chiapas Indian communities, condemning the Protestants as "a foreign import at odds with Mexican tradition."46 Finally, bishops in various regions have removed priests whose activities threatened the political status quo, as was done in 1967 with an Hidalgo curate who set up familyplanning clinics (then opposed by the Church and secular authorities)47 and with two priests who organized squatter protests for land and public services in Torreón (1976) and Chihuahua (1977).48 Thus, as in the thirties, extralegal circumventions, symbolic cooperation, and the elimination of extremists have continued to be used by local ecclesiastical and civil officials to their mutual advantage. At the third level of the modus vivendi, the Church has continued to exert an indirect political influence through the judicious use of Acción Católica. After 1942 and the formal separation of Acción Católica from direct episcopal guidance under the Secretariado Social, the lay organization nonetheless continued many of its functions as a surrogate for the clergy. It maintained its role in developing and disseminating the religious propaganda from which priests were barred by Articles 3, 24, and 130.49 Much of this work, particularly the conducting of "cursillos" in the countryside, was taken over in the 1960s by a new Catholic student group, the Movimiento Estudiantil Profesional (MEP).50 Acción Católica was also still used by the hierarchy to participate symbolically in government social programs, such as the 1948 literacy and vaccination campaigns.51 In conformity with the Church's stance on educational issues, and as it had done in the 1930s, Acción Católica helped coordinate nonviolent UNPF protests during the textbook controversy of 1959–62.52 It should be noted that one of the most influential roles of the organization has been as a training ground for future leaders of the conservative Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) party; an outstanding product was Lic. José González Torres, ACM national president in 1949–52 and PAN presidential candidate in 1964.53 The Church has thus continued using Acción Católica since the 1930s as a device to mobilize the laity and exert political pressure while not overtly defying legal restrictions. It can be seen from this brief review that the lineaments of the ChurchState relationship set up in the 1930s have continued to the
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present. Ecclesiastical and secular officials at national, local, and lay levels have maintained methods that have allowed the modus vivendi to function effectively. These devices have included extralegal evasions, mutual ideological support, the suppression of extremists, and lay organizing. The continuity of these characteristics of ChurchState cooperation affirms the importance of the thirties in the establishment of the contemporary relationship. Despite the scholarship emphasizing conflict following 1929, the current collaboration did not appear from nowhere, but was the product of tactics developed specifically to deal with the anticlerical laws.
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Nine— Conclusion The present work has shown that despite the traditional scholarly view of ChurchState conflict in postrevolutionary Mexico, broadbased compromise took place at national, regional/local, and lay levels. Interpretations characterizing the 1930s as an era of fundamental dissension are obviously wrong. The newly examined archival sources and interviews discussed above elucidate the cooperation that followed 1929 and also help explain contemporary ecclesiasticalcivil linkages. The examination of colonial and nineteenthcentury developments in Chapter 2 showed that ChurchState collaboration in the face of formal separation was nothing new in Mexican history prior to 1929. This relationship was expressed through the intertwining of Crown and clergy in the "patronato real," the de facto maintenance of ecclesiastical privilege despite the Bourbon reforms, the evasions of anticlerical legislation during the early Republic, the comprehensive cooperation of the Porfiriato, and the fact that even the 1917 Constitution was not immediately enforced. By 1929, despite the intense hostility surrounding the Cristero War, ecclesiastical and secular officials could draw on a long tradition of undercutting anticlerical restrictions. The discussion of nationallevel accommodation in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 showed the inaccuracy of the traditional view that the arreglos set off renewed conflict between episcopal and federal leaders, ended only by Cárdenas's personal influence in the late 1930s. Rather, in my view, postrevolutionary conciliation really began in 1929 and set the tone for the entire decade. The calm of 1929–31, the apparent resurgence of anticlericalism in 1931–35, and the final public acknowledgment that tensions had been relaxed were merely superficial cycles, not altering the fundamental compromise.
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Documentary sources and interviews reveal that the modus vivendi was effectuated by three basic methods: First, the laws were tacitly evaded so that national religious celebrations, such as the Guadalupe festivities, could proceed unmolested. Court decisions limiting the scope of constitutional provisions and granting amparo writs to block enforcement in specific cases were also a form of circumvention. Second, the Church and federal leadership clamped down on their respective antigovernment and antireligious extremists, such as the Liga and the radical faction of the PNR. Third, both sides gave each other mutual ideological support, as in the hierarchy's early backing of agrarian reform and the oil nationalization, and the government's censorship of anticlerical artwork. In addition, the episcopate's flexibility in the above areas gave it the leverage necessary to defeat successive educational reforms through the controlled mobilization of nonviolent lay activism. These tactics preserved and strengthened the cooperative relationship of national leaders, despite formal legal restrictions and anticlerical political campaigns. A corollary of the scholarly view of religious conflict in the thirties is that such dissension uniformly pervaded the entire nation. Yet the examination of internal Church questionnaires and correspondence in Chapter 6 reveals a provincial system of grassroots cooperation as fully developed as that of higher Church authorities. Rather than pervasive conflict, repeated compromises took place in diverse regions with distinct traditions of sacerdotal strength and religiosity. In the historically pious CenterWest, in the anticlerical South, and in the North, an area of weak clerical presence, local functionaries used the same methods of conciliation as at the national level. These devices included extralegal evasions, as when many municipal authorities allowed parish priests to officiate publicly, some governors promised not to enforce laws in return for personal favors, and some local judges granted amparo writs in favor of individuals charged with anticlerical infractions. Provincial extremists were suppressed, as for example when bishops in Veracruz and Zacatecas condemned exponents of the "Segunda." Civil and ecclesiastical functionaries gave each other mutual ideological support through the appointment of magistrates with Catholic sympathies and the urging of parishioners to participate in the census by their curates. The flexible Church policy of using the laity to oppose federal educational programs was manifested locally in the widespread homeschool movement and the opening of
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training institutes not technically proscribed. In addition to using methods similar to those of national leaders, local clergymen and public functionaries were primarily responsible for the informal negotiations to reopen church buildings and resume services. This evidence of grassroots, nationwide collaboration belies the theory of uniform ChurchState conflict and also helps explain the origins of contemporary linkages. The study of Catholic lay organizing (Chapter 7) posits that the traditional historical view has neglected the influence of such lay groups in mitigation of supposed ChurchState conflict. Internal records of the Secretariado Social Mexicano (SSM), the episcopate's directive agency for Acción Católica, and the correspondence and oral recollections of association leaders show how the organized Catholic laity buttressed Church accommodationist policies of extralegal evasions, careful opposition to socialist education, and ideological support for the government. The SSM trained religious education teachers to take the place of priests, managed protests against educational reforms, and commissioned studies justifying federal programs. Acción Católica chapters built a mass movement that freely preached on "forbidden" political subjects, set up the homeschool system to evade socialist education, and collaborated with the government by encouraging enlistment in literacy drives and the World War II military. This examination of SSM and Acción Católica records shows how lay organizing facilitated the modus vivendi by allowing the Church to maintain indirect influence despite the formal limitations on its activities. From Chapter 8 it is evident that the accommodation has continued to the present time along the lines established in the 1930s, at national, regional/local, and lay organizational levels. As in the thirties, ecclesiastical and secular officials have collaborated through means of extralegal circumventions, ideological support, the suppression of extremists, the Church's careful management of lay educational protest, and Acción Católica. Evasions of the law can be seen in the Pope's 1979 and 1990 visits, amparo writs against enforcement, and the practice of clerical voting. Ideological collaboration ranges from episcopal support for the federal family planning program and opposition to civil disobedience, to PRI construction of nativity scenes. The hierarchy continues to condemn progressive bishops such as Méndez Arceo and Almeida Merino and remove local radical priests. In the crucial education area, the Church has held its ground because of its
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flexibility; it has generally evaded the law with unofficial Catholic schools, but when necessary has mobilized nonviolent protest, as in the 1959 textbook controversy. Acción Católica continues to be a channel for Church political influence by disseminating propaganda, coordinating protests, and training future PAN leaders. The continuity of these contemporary examples with the 1930s affirms the impact of that period, showing that contemporary collaboration resulted from methods designed to circumvent the Mexican Revolution's anticlerical legislation. It has been a major goal of this study to demonstrate that the theory of postrevolutionary ChurchState conflict pervading the entire country and stultifying even Catholic lay activity is incorrect. New archival and oral interview sources show that in the 1930s a "hidden revolution" of accommodation underlay apparent anticlericalism. This explanation also illuminates the origins of contemporary linkages between religion and politics. When the 1929–42 period is placed in the context of colonial, nineteenthcentury, and current developments, characterizing the thirties alone as a time of unalloyed conflict is anomalous. Rather, the findings here complete a picture of continuous ChurchState cooperation in Mexican history, despite superficial legal restrictions. The postrevolutionary period was the era of greatest challenge to this relationship, but both powers still found that preserving the modus vivendi was essential to their institutional survival. Why have both the Church and State remained satisfied with surreptitiously flouting the Constitution, instead of simply amending it to eliminate the anticlerical provisions entirely? The benefits to the government of maintaining the status quo are more obvious and include prominently the potential of legal enforcement with which the Church can be threatened if it becomes too critical of the civil power. Further, as this work has shown, within the current system federal authorities often obtain valued ecclesiastical support for their social programs. Finally, the PRI regime has used the existence of formal limitations on religion symbolically to reinforce its sagging image as a "revolutionary state." In my view, the continuing importance of constitutional separation to the Revolution was emphasized by PRI President Adolfo Lugo Verduzco in 1985, when he declared that "it is an irreversible political conquest of the Mexican people to keep separated the affairs of the State and the affairs of the Church." 1 Despite its apparent disadvantages under the Constitution, the Church has survived and even flourished through the modus vivendi.
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The clergy has evaded the restrictive laws and, by using organized lay organizations, has even pressured the government on crucial educational issues. Federal propaganda is forthcoming and advantageous in support of Catholic goals, such as opposition to abortion and to Protestant missionizing. Finally, as does the PRI, the hierarchy uses formal separation to pursue its internal political agenda. The legal limits on clerical political activities have provided valuable leverage for episcopal moderates in suppressing progressive, outspoken prelates and radical priests. Thus, both Church and State remain satisfied with an imperfect extralegal arrangement because in many respects it preserves, and even enhances, the political clout of each. Recently, certain deviations from the modus vivendi have appeared on the Church's part, generally where episcopal representatives have criticized government electoral fraud or other corrupt practices. For instance, in 1986 Francisco Ramírez Meza, spokesman for the bishops' Comisión de la Comunicación Social, noted publicly that national and local authorities had permitted "serious irregularities" in that year's state elections. 2 More significantly, in 1987 the episcopate openly disapproved the revised federal Election Code section 343 (which fines any cleric urging support of a particular candidate or party), stating in a release that the provision "dampens hope of greater democratic participation."3 Yet there is still no indication that such criticisms are more than isolated, specifically focused objections. It should be remembered that when the Pope prevented Chihuahua Archbishop Almeida Merino from suspending mass in protest over the 1986 electoral ''irregularities," the Mexican bishops approved.4 As Cardinal Corripio's presence at President Salinas's inauguration testifies, the main thrust of Church policy supports the "hidden revolution" because its tangible benefits still outweigh its potential liabilities. Is Mexico's twentiethcentury experience of ChurchState collaboration despite anticlerical laws unique, or have there been analogous developments elsewhere that allow for broader generalizations? Some recent scholarship regarding the role of the Church in modernizing societies has noted that a concordat or modus vivendi can aid both the secular state and ecclesiastical hierarchy to preserve power within their respective institutional spheres.5 That such a relationship would thrive in political systems overtly committed to the reestablishment of traditional Catholic values, such as Mussolini's Italy and Franco's Spain, is only logical.6 But the study of postrevolutionary Mexico undertaken
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here indicates that collaboration can even occur in the face of formal anticlericalism. The brief examination below of selected countries in twentiethcentury Latin America (Brazil, Cuba) and Europe (France, USSR) shows that as in Mexico, ChurchState arrangements have occasionally flourished in other environments apparently hostile to a Church's survival. Within Latin America, modern Brazil provides a useful comparison, because for at least forty years (1891–1930) that nation was governed under an anticlerical constitution as severe in many respects as that of postrevolutionary Mexico. The Constitution of 1891, inaugurating the regime that became known as the "First Republic," removed state support of the Church, disenfranchised monastic orders, prohibited religious marriage, and secularized education. 7 Yet, as in Mexico, both federal and ecclesiastical authorities found advantages in collaborating despite the formal separation. For example, in 1922 when the administration of President Epitácio Pessoa was threatened by revolutionary activity, Pessoa asked the Archbishop of Río, Sebastião Leme, to ride with him in a symbolic public procession, thereby demonstrating Church support.8 For similar purposes, succeeding President Artur Bernardes made an unprecedented official visit to Leme.9 During the meeting, Bernardes stressed "the importance of constant collaboration of our ecclesiastical authorities in maintaining order and promoting national progress."10 As well, in a period when the Church's political activities were circumscribed, Archbishop Leme organized Catholic laity through the Centro Dom Vital (1922) and later in Ação Católica (Catholic Action), groups which took the lead in promoting religious education.11 The arrangements of the 1920s laid the groundwork for a more overt relationship after the Republic fell in 1930 and strongman Getulio Vargas established a populist oriented dictatorship. Vargas's Constitution of 1934 restored many pre1891 ecclesiastical privileges, and these provisions were expanded during successive administrations.12 The Brazilian Church only departed from its collaborative role after 1964, when a military regime initially supported by the bishops gradually began to draw their criticism for increasing humanrights violations.13 Brazil during the First Republic is thus an example, like Mexico, of accommodation in the face of anticlerical legislation. After forty years, the Brazilian situation finally changed under a new constitution; the modus vivendi evolved into a more overt linkage and eventually dissolved when the Church began openly criticizing State policy.
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Cuba, whose 1959 revolution is generally considered more farreaching (or extreme) than that of Mexico, also provides a case study of Churchgovernment cooperation within an overtly conflictive context. Immediately following Fidel Castro's takeover, cordial relations prevailed, and the hierarchy even openly supported the new agrarian reform program. 14 In 1960–61, as the regime became isolated internationally and radicalized internally, it issued a series of anticlerical decrees: public religious practice was banned, Church property was seized, foreign priests were expelled, and education was nationalized.15 However, some of the worst effects of this legislation were minimized by the mediation of the Papal Nuncio as to specific disputes and by Castro's authorization of additional clergy to replace those deported.16 By the mid1960's, a certain lessening of hostility was evident as religious services and even Catholic education proceeded without interference.17 Priests were allowed to consult directly with federal agencies on matters of particular concern.18 On the ideological front, the Church backed certain government policies, such as opposition to the U.S. embargo,19 and secular authorities reciprocated, allowing for example, some prelates access to the official radio station.20 Lay organizations, including Acción Católica and other groups, also operated despite the anticlerical restrictions, carrying out religious education functions formerly performed by priests.21 Just as in Mexico, the third postrevolutionary decade has seen a more overt relaxation of tension following a previous period of covert collaboration. The 1980 congress of the Cuban Communist Party eliminated the traditional antireligious references in its final resolutions.22 During the 1980s, prominent churchmen began contributing to governmentsponsored conferences on public affairs, such as a 1985 meeting on the foreign debt crisis, attended by the Archbishop of Havana and other prelates.23 Castro has promoted declared Catholic believers into party positions,24 at least at the regional level, and has publicly stated that he is "prepared to help the process of rapprochement between the Church and state in Cuba as much as possible."25 Acknowledging that the decrees of 1960–61 had not effectively interfered with the Church's mission, an episcopal spokesman declared in 1985 that the Cuban hierarchy had "no objection to the socialist program."26 Thus even under a revolutionary regime far more extreme than that of Mexico, the pragmatic value of ChurchState collaboration has prevailed over the official "conflict."
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The phenomenon of conciliatory adjustment in the face of anticlericalism is not limited to Latin America. Reformist and revolutionary governments in twentiethcentury Europe have also allowed and even encouraged such arrangements despite their formal opposition to an institutional religious establishment. Two examples paralleling Mexico in both the extremity of antireligious laws and the thoroughness of compromise are France after 1905 and the Soviet Union beginning in the 1920s. France's National Assembly passed the comprehensive Separation Law in 1905, culminating a centurylong conflict over the role of Catholicism in public life. 27 The statute's provisions nationalized Church property, abolished State payment of clerical salaries (a subsidy dating from the French Revolution), and authorized local officials to forbid "exterior manifestations" of religion, such as the ringing of church bells.28 Yet against this background of strict legislation, practical adjustments similar to those in Mexico developed in the years before World War I. Though the national government now technically owned church buildings, it refused to permit municipalities to turn them to any secular use.29 Religious orders were allowed to continue teaching in the colleges they had formerly owned.30 In many cases, provincial or municipal support for the clergy made up for the removal of the federal subsidy.31 And local civic authorities rarely exercised their prerogative to limit public religious displays, except for reasons of security or peace of the neighborhood.32 Also as in Mexico, the passage of the Separation Law saw a burgeoning of lay associations designed to circumvent restrictions on the clergy. The Church now expanded existing organizations, such as the Association catholique de la Jeunesse française (ACJF — the French counterpart of the Mexican ACJM) to carry out the functions of training lay religious leaders and disseminating propaganda.33 The ACJF, directly under episcopal guidance, received Papal approval, while a more independent socialistoriented group, the Sillon, was condemned by the bishops in 1908 and finally dissolved by Pope Pius X two years later.34 Approved lay associations were crucial to Church political objectives, as the 1908–14 opposition to federal "state schools" demonstrated. The French "state school" taught modern philosophy, socialist ideologies, and humanitarian pacifism to secondarylevel students.35 When the episcopate in 1908 instructed Catholics to refuse to send their children to these schools, at least 710 parents' groups organized to encourage such action and also to protest against the use of certain
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textbooks. 36 Though the texts were never actually withdrawn, by 1913 the nonviolent protesters had managed to limit the "state school" curriculum somewhat and increase private school enrollment.37 Thus, the 1905 Separation Law was undercut in practice, while officially remaining in force. The government possibly maintained its anticlerical fiction because, like the PRI, the Third Republic could be usefully portrayed by Jean Jaurès and other supporters as "revolutionary."38 In turn, the Church found separation to be a valuable excuse to suppress Catholic extremist groups such as the Sillon.39 Far more pervasive than the legislative restrictions of preWorld War I France was the antireligious ideology of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. During the 1918–21 civil war, many of Lenin's military commanders manifested their hostility towards the Russian Orthodox Church by seizing ecclesiastical property in areas they controlled.40 Throughout the 1920s the victorious Bolshevik regime sponsored propaganda campaigns attacking religion and founded popular organizations such as the League of the Militant Godless to promote atheism.41 Under Stalin's guidance, the soviet (assembly) of the Russian Republic codified anticlerical policy in the Law of 1929, which turned over all church buildings to the Communist Party, required the registration of all religious congregations, and forbade these communities any kind of social, charitable, or educational activity.42 The Congress of Soviets applied the law to the entire USSR in the 1936 Constitution,43 the objective of which, in the words of one participant, was the "eradication of religion."44 This legislation was often used in the ensuing years to justify the closing of churches, seizing of bells, and dissolution of monasteries.45 However, despite formal ChurchState antagonism in the 1920s and 1930s that was more extreme and widespread than that in Mexico, there is certain evidence of unofficial accommodation during that period. Orthodox prelates consistently refused to criticize the regime for its actions, and the Church's nominal head, Metropolitan Sergei of Leningrad, even condemned critics within ecclesiastical ranks.46 On the government side, religious observance was allowed to continue unmolested throughout the nation, these activities including church ceremonies, the sale of devotional items, and the lighting of Christmas trees.47 At the local level, authorities permitted baptisms and attendance at services.48 Even the purveyors of atheist propaganda themselves sometimes participated in religious rites, as in the case of a secretary of the
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Smolensk cell of the League of the Militant Godless, who in 1930 was reported to be keeping icons at home and baptizing his children. 49 Recognizing the futility of the antireligious campaign and the potential value of the Church as an ideological tool, Stalin in 1943 officially recognized Metropolitan Sergei as Patriarch, a post vacant since 1925.50 Indeed, the Patriarchate strongly supported the Soviet annexation of Byelorussia and the Ukraine and the war effort against Germany.51 As formal tensions relaxed, some ecclesiastical privileges, such as control over church buildings, were returned by a 1945 decree.52 Since that time, an arrangement obtained by which Orthodox practice was freely allowed in return for the Church's backing the regime's policies, such as the postwar sovietization of the Balkans.53 In a recent example of this collaboration, Metropolitan Alexei of Leningrad stated to the press in 1987 that, "It is the moral duty of every Soviet citizen to devote all of his efforts and abilities to creative participation in perestroika."54 Thus, as in Mexico, official Soviet anticlericalism was mitigated in practice. The Law of 1929 long remained on the books, even though it was inconsistent with the more liberal 1945 decree in certain ways — the harsher legislation might have been maintained to hold open the threat of potential enforcement.55 Through the modus vivendi, the regime benefited from Orthodox Church support, which was useful in discouraging dissent, maintaining the allegiance of nonRussian republics and Eastern Bloc nations, and carrying out new programs.56 The Church in its turn profited from a tolerant atmosphere for its practitioners, government persecution of competitor religions, and a profamily, antiabortion stance on the part of the Communist Party.57 Even in one of the most extreme antireligious environments in the world, State and Church came to rely on each other's political favors. Clearly, Mexico is not alone as a modernizing society where legal limits on ecclesiastical power belie pervasive cooperation. As in Mexico, other officially hostile nations have still allowed for a tacit ChurchState arrangement. Such collaboration has occurred within milieus ranging from the formalistic limitations of Brazil and France to the more radical antireligiosity of the Cuban and Soviet regimes. The recurrence of compromise (albeit to different degrees in different situations) demonstrates that the legal level of separation or antagonism is only superficial — it is necessary to examine the more profound linkages between authorities from the highest to the lowest strata. Such relationships can serve an essential function for both Church and State of
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marginalizing opposition within both camps and of preserving the political stability required for social and economic reforms. It should be noted that, as in Brazil and as can be observed more recently in Nicaragua, a regime's becoming increasingly authoritarian can engender opposition from a previously cooperative Church. 58 This tendency has important implications for Mexico, given the growing popular resentment of PRI dominance in national elections and local politics. But as observed above, there is no indication that the criticisms of the government from ecclesiastical quarters are more than isolated, specifically focused protests.59 The "Hidden Revolution" of 1929–42 revealed by the documents examined here still sets the tone for Church and State, which both receive the tangible benefits of their unofficial accommodation. The Mexican Revolution has successfully used the Church as an ideological bulwark for its modernization programs, and episcopal leaders have employed this connection to buttress their own centrist policies.
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Notes 1— Introduction 1. The traditional view is set forth explicitly in the principal studies covering ChurchState relations in the 1930s. See David C. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey! (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), especially 89–300; Roberto Blancarte, Historia de la iglesia católica en México (México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1992), 29, 58–62; Lyle C. Brown, "Mexican ChurchState Relations, 1933–1940," Journal of Church and State 6:2 (Spring 1964), 202–22; Timothy C. Hanley, "Civilian Leadership of the Cristero Movement: The Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa and the ChurchState Conflict in Mexico, 1925– 1938" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1977), 344–608; Harriet Denise Joseph, "Church and State in Mexico, 1931–1936: An Overview," in Lyle C. Brown and William F. Cooper, eds., Religion in Latin American Life and Literature (Waco: Baylor University Press, 1980), 119–34; Alan Knight, "Popular Culture and the Revolutionary State in Mexico," Hispanic American Historical Review 74:3 (August 1994), 421, 441; Jean Meyer, La Cristiada (México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1973); Albert L. Michaels, ''The Modification of the AntiClerical Nationalism of the Mexican Revolution by General Lázaro Cárdenas and Its Relationship to the Church State Detente in Mexico," The Americas 26:1 (July 1969), 35–53; Alicia Olivera de Bonfil, "La Iglesia en México, 1929–1970," in James W. Wilkie, Michael C. Meyer, and Edna Monzón de Wilkie, eds., Contemporary Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976), 295–316; Antonio Ríus Facius, Míjico Cristero (México, D.F.: Editorial Patria, 1960), especially 376–441. Two recent studies even assume that reconciliation did not occur until the time of Ávila Camacho in the 1940s; see Soledad Loaeza, "Notas para el estudio de la iglesia en el México contemporáneo," in Martin de la Rosa and Charles A. Reilly, eds., Religión y Política en México (México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1985), 42–58; John Lynch, "The Catholic Church,"
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in Leslie Bethell, ed. Latin America: Economy and Society, 1870–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 367. 2. Beside the works referred to in note 1, see also the regional studies of Carlos Martínez Assad, El laboratorio de la Revolución (Móxico, D.F.: Siglo 21, 1979) and John B. Williman, "Adalberto Tejeda and the Third Phase of the Anticlerical Conflict in Twentieth Century Mexico," in Journal of Church and State 15:3 (Autumn 1973), 437–54. 3. See sources cited in note 1 above. For more detailed discussion of this lacuna in the historiography of Mexican Catholic lay associations, see Chapter 7, notes 4–6. 4. Ignacio Burgoa, Derecho constitucional mexicano (México, D.F.: Porrúa, 1982), 966–68; Soledad Loaeza, "Iglesia/Estado, ¿La guerra terminó?" Nexos 113 (May 1987), 5–6. In 1991, some of the constitutional restrictions on religion were liberalized. For details of these changes, see Chapter 8, note 1. 5. David C. Bailey, "The Church since 1940," in W. Dirk Raat and William H. Beezley, eds., TwentiethCentury Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 236–42; Susan Eckstein, The Poverty of Revolution: The State and the Urban Poor in Mexico (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 108–24; Otto Granados Roldán, La iglesia católica mexicano como grupo de presión (México, D.F.: UNAM, 1981); Loaeza, "Notas"; Patricia Arias, Alfonso Castillo, and Cecilia López, Radiografía de la Iglesia en México (Méico, D.F.: UNAM, 1988), 73, 102. 6. Curia del Arzobispado de México, Circular no. 15, May 13, 1980. 7. Emilio Hernández, "Echeverría impuso a José López Portillo su plan de Alianza con la Iglesia," Proceso 447 (May 27, 1985), 6–11. 8. For a comprehensive discussion of contemporary ChurchState linkages, see Chapter 8, Epilogue. 9. See sources cited in note 1 above. 10. Primary sources relied upon in this work are cited in Chapters 3–7 below as appropriate and are listed in the bibliography. Chapter 2 1. Guillermo Céspedes, Amírica Latina colonial hasta 1650 (México, D.F.: SepSetentas, 1976), 137. 2. Virginia Cummins, "Imperial Policy and Church Income: The Sixteenth Century Mexican Church," in The Americas 43:1 (July 1986), 87–103, especially 98. 3. James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, Early Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 111; Marta EspejoPonce Hunt,
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"The Processes of Development of Yucatan, 1600–1700," in Ida Altman and James Lockhart, eds., Provinces of Early Mexico (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center, 1976), 37–38. 4. Charles Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964), 125. 5. Céspedes, Amírica Latina, 155. 6. John Frederick Schwaller, "The Ordenanza del Patronazgo in New Spain, 1574–1600," in The Americas 42:3 (January 1986), 253–74, at 266. 7. Nancy M. Fariss, Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821 (London: Athlone Press, 1968), 4. 8. Robert Wasserstrom, "Spaniards and Indians in Colonial Chiapas, 1528–1790," in Murdo J. MacLeod and Robert Wasserstrom, eds., Spaniards and Indians in Southeastern Mesoamerica: Essays in the History of Ethnic Relations (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 103. 9. Guillermo Porras Muñoz, Iglesia y estado en Nueva Vizcaya (1562–1821) (México, D.F.: UNAM, 1980), 418–20. 10. Gibson, Aztecs, 132. 11. Wasserstrom, "Colonial Chiapas," 118. 12. Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, 346–58. 13. Fariss, Crown and Clergy, 162. 14. Ibid., 167–68. 15. Ibid., 174–76. 16. Michael P. Costeloe, Church Wealth in Mexico: A Study of the Juzgado de Capellanías in the Archbishopric of Mexico, 1800–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 111. 17. Fariss, Crown and Clergy, 190–91. 18. Ibid., 189–90. 19. Ibid., 162. 20. Ibid., 244; Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, 352. 21. Brian R. Hamnett, Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 208. 22. Francisco Morales, Clero y político en Míxico (1767–1834) (Míxico, D.F: SepSetentas, 1975), 132. 23. Ibid., 116, 125–32. 24. Charles A. Hale, Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821–1853 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), 129–41. 25. See ibid., generally, for a detailed discussion of the intellectual roots of the Mexican liberals. Hale places particular emphasis on the contributions of Lockean thought and Benthamite administrative reform to the secularization and modernization of Mexico through the work of political theorist José María Luis Mora. 26. Ibid., 130.
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27. Ibid., 131; Costeloe, Church Wealth, 118. 28. Guillermo Villaseñor, Estado e iglesia: el caso de la educación (México, D.F.: Edicol, 1978), 53. 29. Costeloe, Church Wealth, 118. 30. Ibid., 118–20. 31. Ralph Roeder, Juárez and His Mexico (New York: Viking, 1947), 56–57. 32. Ibid., 80–83. 33. The 1857 Constitution, the 1859 law nationalizing Church property, and the 1860 law regulating clerical behavior can be found in Manuel Payno, ed., Colección de las leyes, decretos, circulares y providencias relativas a la desamortización eclésiastica, a la nacionalización de las bienes de corporaciones, y a la reforma de la legislación civil que tenía relación con el culto y con la iglesia, 2 vols. (México, D.F.: n.p., 1861). 34. Ibid. 35. See particularly the 1859 law, article 6, and the 1860 law articles 11, 18, and 24, in ibid. 36. Robert J. Knowlton, Church Property and the Mexican Reform (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976), 217. 37. Ibid., 215–16. 38. Karl M. Schmitt, "Catholic Adjustment to the Secular State: The Case of Mexico, 1867–1911," Catholic Historical Review 48:2 (July 1962), 182–204, 188. 39. Moisés González Navarro, Historia Moderna de México, El Porfiriato: La Vida Social (México, D.F.: Editorial Hermes, 1957), 478. 40. Ibid., 480. 41. Ibid., 481ndash;82. 42. Ibid., 481; Schmitt, "Catholic Adjustment," 189. 43. González Navarro, La Vida Social, 556. 44. Ibid., 480. 45. Ibid., 480–81. 46. Mexican Herald, October 14, 1895. 47. Joseph R. Juárez, "Conflict and Cooperation Between Church and State: The Archbishopric of Guadalajara during the Porfiriato, 1876–1911" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1967), 152. 48. Ibid., 187. 49. González Navarro, La Vida Social, 458, 494. 50. Juárez, "Conflict and Cooperation," 264. 51. Schmitt, "Catholic Adjustment," 189. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid., 190. 54. González Navarro, La Vida Social, 493. 55. Ibid., 493–94.
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56. Ipandro Acaico, quoted in ibid., 483. 57. Knowlton, Church Property, 217. 58. The constitutional convention of Querétaro, held from December 1916, to February 1917, was an attempt to codify the governmental goals of the broadly based "constitutionalist" movement that had triumphed in the factional warfare that followed the defeat of dictator Victoriano Huerta (1913–14). See E. V. Niemeyer, "Anticlericalism in the Mexican Constitutional Convention of 1916–1917," The Americas 2:1 (July 1954), 31–49. 59. Ibid., 31, 48–49. 60. The original text of the 1917 Constitution can be found in Constitución Polótica de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Ed. oficial (México, D.F.: Impr. de la Secretaría de Gobernación, 1917). 61. Pedro Velázquez, El Secretariado Social Mexicano (México, D.F.: Secretariado Social Mexicano, 1945), 8–10. 62. Peter L. Reich interview with former ACJM leader Luis Beltrán y Mendoza, October 18, 1979. 63. Alicia Olivera Sedano, Aspectos del conflicto religioso de 1926 a 1929 (México, D.F.: INAH, 1966), 110–15. 64. James W. Wilkie interview with Salvador Abascal, August 17, 1964, 12–14. The extent to which clandestine associations like the "U" actually preached violence is unclear. The "U" does appear to have contained extreme individuals who found aboveground organizing insufficient. These policies sometimes brought the "U" into conflict with the Liga. See Abascal interview, 14. 65. A major exception to federal laxity in enforcing the anticlerical laws in the 1917–20 period was an act passed in Jalisco in 1918, limiting the number of priests and requiring clergymen to register. Due to lay Catholic resistance in the form of a boycott, the act was shortly rescinded. See Antonio Ríus Facius, La juventud católica y la revolución mexicana (México, D.F.: Editoria Jus, 1963), 106–108. 66. Miguel Lanz Duret, Derecho constitucional Mexicano (México, D.F.: Porrúa, 1936), 438–39; Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 34–36. 67. John W. E Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico (Austin: University of Texas, 1961), 300. 68. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 50–51. 69. DuUes, Yesterday in Mexico, 300. 70. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 54. 71. James W. Wilkie, "The Meaning of the Cristero Religious War Against the Mexican Revolution," in Journal of Church and State 8:2 (Spring 1966), 232. "Cristero" referred to Catholic lay militants whose battle cry was "¡Viva Cristo Rey!" See Olivera Sedano, Aspectos, 139.
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72. This series of events is analyzed in Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 62–65; Wilkie, "Cristero Religious War," 221–22; and Robert E. Quirk, The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1910–1929 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), 151–53. 73. Quirk, Revolution and the Church, 167. 74. Emilio Portes Gil, Autobiografía de la Revolución Mexicana (México, D.F.: Instituto Mexicano de Cultura, 1964), 569–75. 75. Alfonso Toro, La iglesia y el estado en México (México, D.F.: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1927), 384. 76. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 49. 77. Quirk, Revolution and the Church, 155–56. 78. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 78–85; Olivera Sedano, Aspectos, 126–28. 79. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 95–100, 111–17. 80. Olivera Sedano, Aspectos, 274; Ramón Jrade, "Rural Resistance to the Mexican Revolution: Agrarian Social Structure and the Cristero Movement," paper presented at the Ninth Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, Bloomington, Indiana, October 17, 1980. 81. Meyer, La Cristiada, vol. 1, 103. 82. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 99–100. 83. Jean Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 115, 160. This work is a condensed and updated version of Meyer's threevolume La Cristiada. 84. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 141. 85. Meyer, Cristero Rebellion, 178. 86. Heriberto Navarrete, "Por Dios y por la Patria" (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1961), 234–326. Navarrete was a Catholic military leader in Jalisco. 87. Emeterio Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía Eclesística Mexicana, 1821–1943 (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1949), 1:246. Prior to his appointment as Primate of Mexico, Díaz had been Bishop of Tabasco (1922–29). 88. Wilkie, "The Meaning," 227. 89. Ibid., 228–29. 90. The role of Morrow in pressuring officials of the Calles administration, the Vatican, and the Mexican bishops is well documented in Elizabeth Ann Rice, "The Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Mexico, as Affected by the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Mexico, 1925–1929" (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, 1959), especially 109–87. See also Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 174–283. 91. Emilio Portes Gil had entered office as President in December 1928. Portes Gil, Autobiografa, 441. 92. The statements of both sides are reproduced in ibid., 572–73. 93. For discussion of the traditional scholarly view that intense ChurchState conflict pervaded Mexico until 1940, see Chapter 1, note 1.
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Chapter 3 1. See Chapter 1, note 1, above. 2. Calculated from data in Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía. 3. For a discussion of ChurchState conciliation under Díaz, see the sources for my Chapter 2, particularly González Navarro, La Vida Social; Juárez, "Conflict and Cooperation"; Knowlton, Church Property; and Schmitt, "Catholic Adjustment." 4. Theoretical suggestions as to the effect of childhood and adolescent experiences on a generation's future political behavior are provided in Peter Loewenberg, "Psychohistorical Origins of the Nazi Youth Cohort," in American Historical Review 76 (December 1971), 1457–1502. 5. Brown, "Mexican ChurchState Relations," 219; Michaels, "Modification of AntiClerical Nationalism," 48. 6. Calculated from data in Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ignacio Dávila Garibi, "Cumpleaños de los E.E. y R.R. Prelados," in Christus 1:6 (May 1936), 419. 10. Biographical data on Orozco, Ruiz, and Díaz are taken from Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía, except where otherwise indicated. 11. Orozco was in the United States in 1914–16, Ruiz in 1914–19, and Díaz in 1927–29. 12. Francisco Orozco y Jiménez, Sexta Carta Pastoral (San Cristóbal de las Casas: n.p. 1907), 10. 13. Francisco Orozco y Jiménez (Francis J. Weber, ed.), An Apologia Pro Vita Sua (México, D.F.: Privately printed, 1968), 12. This is an expanded version, with explanatory footnotes, of Francisco Orozco y Jiménez, Memorandum (East Chicago: Contreras Printing Co., 1929). 14. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 45. 15. Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía, v. 2, 274. 16. Ironically, Díaz interceded to save Garrido's life from a firing squad in 1923, only to be rewarded with expulsion. Eduardo J. Correa, Pascual Díaz, S.J., El Arzobispo Mártir (México, D.F.: Ediciones Minerva, 1945), 84. 17. Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía, 1:244–46; Correa, Pascual Díaz, 105–54. 18. Valverde y Téllez, BioBibliografía, 1:246. 19. Carleton Beals, "Mexico Marches on Toward Stability," in New York Times, November 24, 1929. 20. Secondary sources on the events leading up to the arreglos are many, the most thorough works being Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, and J. Meyer, La Cristiada. Bailey emphasizes the external pressure brought to bear on the
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Mexican government and Church by the United States and the Vatican, respectively, to end the war. Meyer sees the settlement as the hierarchy's cynical abandonment of the Cristeros to ensure its own survival. 21. Mexican Bishops to Pope Pius XI, June 18, 1928, LIGA, rollo 17. 22. For sources on the role of Morrow in facilitating negotiations, see Chapter 2, note 90. On the Escobar rebellion (March 3–May 2, 1929), which resulted in Escobar's defeat and flight to the United States, see Lorenzo Meyer, Los inicios de la institutionalización (México, D.F.: El Colegio de México, 1978), 64–84. 23. New York Times, May 3, 1929. 24. Ibid. Historian David Bailey sees this exchange as a "decisive breakthrough" in the negotiations to end the Cristero War, as the Church was not demanding the repeal of the laws. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 254–55. Yet the Church had taken the same position a year earlier, in the letter to the Pope cited in n. 21 above. This time, the government was simply more ready to negotiate. 25. The full text of the arreglos is found in many sources, including Portes Gil, Autobiografía, 572–73. 26. Ruiz to Manuel Azpeitia Palomar, August 1, 1929, LIGA, rollo 21. 27. Portes Gil served as president from December 1, 1928, to February 5, 1930. Roderic A. Camp, Mexican Political Biographies, 1935–1981 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982), 239. 28. Portes Gil's own account of the complicated events of his short presidency is found in Portes Gil, Autobiografía, 435–644. Also see James W. Wilkie and Edna Monzón de Wilkie, México Visto en el Siglo XX (México, D.F.: Instituto Mexicano de Investigaciones Económicas, 1969), 525–61; L. Meyer, Los inicios, 1–104, for coverage of the politics of the Portes Gil years. On the beginnings of the PNR, see Alejandra Lajous, Los orígenes del partido único en México (México, D.F.: UNAM, 1979). The institutionalization of political power through the PNR was due, to a great extent, to the influence of expresident Plutarco Elías Calles. The period from 1928 to 1934, spanning the administrations of Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio, and Abelardo Rodríguez, has been known as the "Maximato" because of the powerful presence of "Jefe Máximo de la Revolución" Calles behind the scenes. Calles was often considered an anticlerical in the 1930s because of his role in helping to provoke the Cristero War. Yet his unofficial support was crucial in enabling the Portes Gil administration to conclude the arreglos. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 274–75. Though traditional "presidential" periodization is not followed in this thesis, with 1928–34 overlapping two of my divisions, Calles's extraofficial presence was a constant factor in cycles of anticlericalism and Church response until his exiling by Lázaro Cárdenas in 1936. An analysis of Calles's complex attitudes toward the Church, and role of government policy toward it, awaits
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his biographer. On the "Maximato," see Arnaldo Córdova, En una época de crisis (1928–1934) (México, D.F.: Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, 1980); and Tzvi Medin, El minimato presidencial: historia política del maximato (1928–1935) (México, D.F.: Ediciones Era, 1982). 29. Adalberto Tejeda to Calles, June 13, 1929, APECCT. Tejeda as a leading anticlerical spokesman is discussed in Williman, "Adalberto Tejeda." For a discussion of Tejeda's power base in Veracruz peasant organizations and his ideology of immediate, massive land redistribution and nationalization of industry, see Heather Fowler Salamini, Agrarian Radicalism in Veracruz, 1920–38 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1978), especially pp. 48–107. 30. Excélsior, June 22, 1929. 31. Ibid., June 25, 1929. 32. Texts of the Tabasco laws of 1919, 1925, and 1929 and the Yucatán law of 1926 are in Felix Navarrete and Eduardo Pallares, La persecución religiosa en México desde el punto de vista jurídico (México, D.F.: n.p., 1939), 331–42 and 345–49. As of 1929, Tabasco required priests to be married, and Yucatán forbade the kissing of sacred images. Many other states had passed laws merely limiting the number of priests allowed to officiate. 33. Text of Gobernación circular 33 is in ibid., 155–59. 34. Excélsior, June 22, 1929. 35. Ibid., July 10, 1929. 36. Article 24 of the 1917 Constitution. For text see Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 131. 37. Mariano Galván Rivera, ed., Colección de las efemérides publicadas en el calendario del más antiguo Galván desde su fundación hasta el 30 de junio 1950 (México, D.F.: Antigua Librería Murguía, 1950), 702. 38. ASC, Cuadernos de Jurisprudencia, vol. 27, p. 43. 39. Article 27. For text see Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 131. 40. Excélsior, June 22, 1929. Technically, the government still owned the property but was allowing the Church to exercise all the rights of ownership — without an owner's responsibility to pay property taxes. 41. New York Times, November 2, 1929. The schismatics had often forcibly occupied church buildings during the Cristero rebellion. The "Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church" was finally disbanded in 1931. Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico, 532. 42. New York Times, January 12, 1930. 43. Excélsior, June 22, 1929. 44. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Carta del Delegado Apostólico al Episcopado, Clero y Pueblo Católico," June 25, 1929, LIGA, rollo 21. 45. Ibid.
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46. New York Times, June 28, 1929. 47. Correa, Pascual Díaz, 155–56. 48. El Universal, October 28, 1929. 49. New York Times, January 12, 1930. 50. Ibid., December 11, 1929. 51. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones . . . del Delegado Apostólico. . . ," December 12, 1929, CONDCR, no. 65. 52. New York Times, November 24, 1929. 53. Ibid., December 11, 1929. 54. The Ortiz Rubio administration and its political infighting are cov ered in Córdova, En una época; Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico; Medin, El minimato presidencial; and L. Meyer, Los inicios. 55. New York Times, June 29, 1930. 56. Colección de las efemérides, 708. 57. Ibid., 709. 58. Excélsior, September 9, 1930. 59. Colección de las efemérides, 709. 60. Ibid., 706. 61. Pascual Díaz, Primera Carta Pastoral, March 25, 1930 (México, D.F.: n.p. 1930). 62. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Conferencia sustentada ante el micrófono por el Delegado Apostólico . . . ," in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 26:3 (September 1931), 139–41. 63. José de Jesús Manríquez y Zárate, "Discurso . . . ," December 12, 1929, CONDCR, no. 66. 64. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 408. 65. Excélsior, February 17, 1930. 66. El Universal, October 13, 1930. 67. Untitled broadside, beginning "La empresa de los católicos armados . . . ,"July 3, 1930, CONDCR. 68. Excélsior, September 22, 1930. 69. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," June 1, 1931, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 25:6 (June 1931), 310–11. 70. The pre1929 activities of the Liga and the ACJM are well covered in Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!; Hanley, "Civilian Leadership"; Olivera Sedano, Aspectos; Ríus Facius, La juventud católica; and Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero. Bailey and Olivera Sedano based their histories of the Cristero revolt largely on Liga archives, as did Hanley in his account of the Liga itself from 1925 to 1938. Ríus Facius's two books together serve as a detailed, though partisan, chronicle of the ACJM from its founding. 71. On the beginnings and early history of the Liga, see Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!; Hanley, "Civilian Leadership"; and Olivera Sedano, Aspectos.
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Unlike these works, which deal with the Liga's organizational structure, role in the Cristero movement, and opposition to the government, this thesis will focus exclusively on the hierarchy's attempts to suppress the Liga, as part of Church accommodation with the State. 72. Pietro FumasoniBondi to Pascual Díaz, December 12, 1927, CONDCR, no. 87. The Liga's name was considered a symbol of its resistance to governmental and ecclesiastical authority. 73. ''Memorial suscrito por la LNDLR, ACJM, Caballeros de Colón, . . . a Pío XI," May 31, 1928, LIGA, rollo 17. 74. "Manifesto a la Nación," July 12, 1929, CONDCR, no. 59; Méndez Plancarte to Andrés Barquín y Ruiz, July 12, 1929, LIGA, rollo 21. 75. Rafael Ceniceros y Villareal to Ruiz, July 13, 1929; and Ruiz to Ceniceros, July 15, 1929, both in LIGA, rollo 21. 76. Ceniceros to Ruiz, July 16, 1929; and Ruiz to Ceniceros, July 18, 1929, both in LIGA, rollo 21. 77. Ceniceros to Ruiz, July 25, 1929; and Ruiz to Ceniceros, August 4, 1929, both in LIGA, rollo 21. 78. Ruiz to Ceniceros, August 4, 1929, LIGA, rollo 21. 79. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 402. 80. Peter L. Reich oral interview with Cardinal Miguel Dario Miranda, April 29, 1980, Mexico City. 81. Miguel Soberón, Eduardo Seguí Jorge Nuñez, and Enrique Lira to Pascual Díaz, October 21, 1929, LIGA, rollo 28. 82. Ruiz to Ceniceros, October 12, LIGA, rollo 28. 83. Ceniceros to Ruiz, October 19, 1929, LIGA, rollo 28. 84. Ceniceros to Ruiz, November 6, 1929, LIGA, rollo 28. 85. Ruiz to Ceniceros, November 12, 1929, LIGA, rollo 28. 86. Ceniceros to Ruiz, November 23, 1929, LIGA, rollo 28. 87. LNDLR, ¡Hay Obligación de Votar!," October, 1929, CONDCR, no.63. 88. LNDL, "Boletín no. 11," January 15, 1930, CONDCR, no. 69. 89. Miguel de la Mora, "Declaraciones . . . respecto de la Liga . . . ," February 4, 1930, CONDCR, no. 71. 90. LNDL to the Mexican episcopate, March 22, 1930, CONDCR, no.71. 91. Various bishops to the LNDL, March–April, 1930, CONDCR, no.71. 92. Leopoldo Lara y Torres to the LNDL, March 30, 1930, CONDCR,no. 71. 93. Luis Altamirano to Ceniceros, April 2, 1930, CONDCR, no. 71. 94. Díaz to María Ramírez, April 8, 1930, CONDCR, no. 71. 95. Díaz to the LNDL, December 11, 1930, CONDCR, no. 77.
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96. On the founding and early history of the ACJM, see Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 29–34; and Ríus Facius, La juventud católica. On Padre Bergoend, see Antonio Ríus Facius, Bernardo Bergoend, S.J., guía y maestro de la juventud mexicana (México, D.F.: Editorial Tradición, 1972). 97. Ríus Facius, Bernard Bergoend. 98. For a summary of the ACJM's Cristero activities, see Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 11–387. 99. José de Jesús Manríquez y Zárate to Carlos Fernández, May 28, 1928, LIGA, rollo 17. 100. "Memorial suscrito . . . ,"May 31, 1928, LIGA, rollo 17. 101. José Antonio Romero to José Luis Orozco, August 1929 LIGA, rollo 21. 102. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 412. Ríus Facius considers that the ACJM fell victim to the government's and hierarchy's "politics of accommodation." Ibid., 418. 103. Peter L. Reich oral interview with Cardinal Miguel Dario Miranda, April 29, 1980, Mexico City. 104. Ibid. On the Catholic Action movement in early twentiethcentury Europe, see Gianfranco Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy: The Sociology of a Sponsored Organization (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967), 14–29. 105. Miguel Dario Miranda, "lnforme rendido al V. Episcopado . . . ," 1931, SSM. 106. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 413. Organization by age and sex was, however, the structure preferred in European Catholic Action groups. See Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy, 23, 30. 107. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 413–18. 108. Dario Miranda, "Informe rendido," p. 15. 109. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 423. 110. Ibid., 422. 111. Ibid., 427. The story of Juventud Cívica, including its death at the end of 1930 and its temporary resurrection in 1932, is told in Ríus Facius, Bernardo Bergoend. 112. Lara to Ruiz, April 3, 1930, in Leopoldo Lara y Torres, Documentos para la historia de la persecución religiosa en México (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1972), 552–54. 113. Ríus Facius, Méjico Cristero, 430–32. Palomar's version of the visit can be found in Wilkie and Wilkie, Mexico visto, 462–63. 114. According to Palomar, the Pope agreed with the Ruiz/Díaz accommodation policy, the Vatican being "already captured" by the moderate prelates. Wilkie and Wilkie, México visto, 463. If Pius XI put pressure on Díaz to reinstate the ACJM, it may have been only a tactic to coopt lay extremists and strengthen Acción Católica, which the Pope strongly fa
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vored. On Vatican emphasis on the international Catholic Action movement during the 1920s and 1930s, see Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy, 21–26. 115. Peter L. Reich oral interview with Luis BeltrÁn y Mendoza, October 18, 1979, Mexico City. BeltrÁn, an early ACJM activist, was taken off the ACJM central committee in 1931 and assigned as an administrator in a religious instruction program. 116. The theme of the hierarchy's use of new lay organizations to carry out Church policies in the political realm will be more fully developed in the last third of Chapter 4 and in Chapters 7 and 8. Chapter 4 1. See Chapter 1, note 1. 2. On Tejeda's role as a regional leader and his often hostile relationship with the Ortiz Rubio administration, see Williman, "Adalberto Tejeda," 442–47; and Salamini, Agrarian Radicalism, 95–107. 3. On the economic crisis of 1931, see Dulles, Yesterday in Mexico, 503–6. On Ortiz Rubio and Calles, see Medin, El minimato presidencial, 104–7. Many secondary sources covering the period have argued that Calles promoted anticlericalism to pressure the government, yet a definitive examination of this question is lacking. 4. ASC, Cuadernos de Jurisprudencia, vol. 27, p. 51. 5. Text of Article 130 is in Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 132–34. 6. Colección de las efemérides, 716. 7. Texts of state religious laws are in Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 161–360. 8. Tejeda to Calles, June 20, 1931, APECCT. Veracruz Law 197, limiting priests to one for every 100,000 inhabitants (effectively eight priests in the state), was passed on June 18. 9. Morelos, where Zapata's troops had fought under the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe, finally passed a law in 1934 limiting priests to one for every 20,000 inhabitants. Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 277–79. 10. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," June 19, 1931, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 26:1 (July 1931), 32–33; July 28,1931 in ibid. 26:2 (August 1931), 68–71; "Circular No. 33," July 31, 1931, LIGA, rollo 32. 11. Alfonso Junco, "No obligación, sino facultad," in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 26:3 (September 1931), 128–31. 12. Pius XI, "Carta de Su Santidad al V. Episcopado Mexicano," September 12, 1931, in ibid. 27:1 (January 1932), 6–7.
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13. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," October 15, 1931, in ibid. 27:4 (October 1931), 174. 14. New York Times, October 24, 1931. 15. Medin, El minimato presidencial, 105–11. 16. Colección de las efemérides, 723. Calles's own position on this decree is unclear. 17. Ibid., 725. 18. New York Times, December 17, 1931. 19. Ibid. 20. Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera Revolución mexicana, 19 vols. (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1960–65), 17:219–20. U.S. dollar equivalent calculated from James W. Wilkie, "From Economic Growth to Economic Stagnation in Mexico: Statistical Series for Understanding Preand Post1982 Change," in James W. Wilkie, David E. Lorey, and Enrique Ochoa, eds., Statistical Abstract of Latin America, vol. 26 (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1988), table 3501. 21. Portes Gil to Calles, December 23, 1931, APECCPG. That the celebrations were permitted by a Callesdominated cabinet is significant in countering the stereotype that the "jefe máximo" was an ideologically committed anticlerical. On the day of the festival, crowds cheered Calles for his wife's donation. Taracena, La verdadera Revolución, 17:220. 22. The bill was signed into law on December 26. For text, see Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 217–19. 23. Pascual Díaz, "Edicto Diocesano," December 31, 1931, CONDCR, no. 83. 24. Pascual Díaz, "Instrucción Pastoral al V. Clero y fieles del Arzobispado de México," January 3, 1932, CONDCR, no. 92. A writ of amparo, roughly equivalent to an injunction, is issued to protect an individual from possibly unconstitutional acts by local authorities. Hector Fix Zamudio, "A Brief Introduction to the Mexican Writ of Amparo," in Cal Western International Law Journal 9:2 (Spring 1979), 306–48. 25. New York Times, January 31, 1932. Díaz's amparo campaign and the papal intervention against it are described in Correa, Pascual Díaz, 168–70. 26. Pius XI, "Normas," January 1, 1932, quoted in Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Instrucción y Exhortación . . . ," February 12, 1932, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 27:2 (February 1932), 80–87. The role of the pontiff in relation to the Mexican hierarchy was complex; usually Pius XI was a moderating force, though at times his pronouncements could be embarrassing to the bishops. On Vatican foreign policy in the 1930s, see Anthony Rhodes, The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators (1922–1945) (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973). 27. Pascual Díaz, "Declaraciones . . . a los Fieles de la Arquidiócesis," February 5, 1932, CONDCR, no. 84.
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28. Josephus Daniels, ShirtSleeve Diplomat (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), 145. 29. See Chapter 6. 30. Medin, El minimato presidencial, 113–15. 31. The most detailed source on the Rodríguez presidency (1932–34) is Francisco Javier Gaxiola, El Presidente Rodríguez (México, D.F.: Editorial Cultura, 1938). Gaxiola was the presidential secretary. 32. Pius XI, "Acerba Animi," September 29, 1932, CONDCR, no. 97. 33. Gaxiola, Rodríguez, 409–410. 34. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaración del Delegado Apostólico," October 3, 1932, APECER. 35. Ruiz to Jenaro Méndez del Río (Bishop of Tehuantepec), October 16, 1932; Ruiz to Mrs. V. C. Aymes, January 14, 1933; both in APECER. 36. Gaxiola, Rodríguez, 411. 37. Pius XI, "Normas," January 1, 1932. 38. Ibid. 39. Ruiz y Flores, "Instrucción y Exhortación . . . ," February 12, 1932. 40. Antonio Brambila, "¿En qué se funda el Papa para prohibit a los Católicos Mexicanos el recurso de las armas?" in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 27:2 (February, 1932), 93–100. 41. Taracena, La verdadera Revolución 18:48. 42. Ibid., 18:78. Except for Veracruz, the movement was concentrated largely in western Mexico, where the first Cristero rebellion had taken place. 43. A detailed though romanticized secondary source on the "Segunda" is Meyer, La Cristiada, 1:366–83. Accounts of the rebellion range from that of Meyer, who attempts to inflate its importance, to Portes Gil, who in Wilkie and Wilkie, México visto, 569, denies that any military conflict existed. 44. Untitled broadside, May 1932, CONDCR; Ejército Popular de Liberación, "A la Nación — Mexicanos," November 20, 1934, in Andres Barquín y Ruiz, El clamor de la sangre (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1967), 399–403; Lauro Rocha, "A la Nación," September 5, 1935, CONDCR. All of these platforms called for the violent overthrow of the government as the solution to religious persecution. 45. Untitled broadside, May, 1932, CONDCR. 46. New York Times, May 2, 1932. 47. Pascual Díaz, "Circular No. 21," July 25, 1932, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 28:2 (August 1932), 50–55; Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," July 28, 1932, CONDCR. 48. Pascual Díaz, "Circular No. 25," August 19, 1932, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 28:3 (September, 1932), 110–11.
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49. Issues of the Liga publication, Reconquista, in CONDCR, nos. 115, 119, and 125, give a good picture of the "Segunda" and its clerical critics in different parts of the republic, for 1935–36. A series of documents on the movement in Jalisco during the same years is found in CONDCR. Church condemnations of the "Segunda" coming from the regional (diocesan) level are discussed in Chapter 6. 50. Jose Luis Orozco to Díaz, September 12, 1931, CONDCR, no. 80. 51. LNDL, Delegación Regional del D.F., "Circular a los jefes locales y socios . . . ," December 31, 1931, CONDCR, no. 82. A new Liga recruitment drive was stalled as well. 52. Manuel C. Moreno to Ruiz, January 12, 1932, LIGA, rollo 32. 53. Ruiz to Moreno, January 16, 1932, LIGA, rollo 32. 54. LNDL, "Declaración de Principios" and "Programa," February 21, 1932, LIGA, rollo 32. 55. Ruiz to Díaz, April 6, 1932; Díaz to Ceniceros and Orozco, April 8, 1932; both in CONDCR, no. 87. 56. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Circular No. 42," April 9, 1932, CONDCR, no. 87. 57. LNDL, "Declaraciones y Acuerdos," May 8, 1932, CONDCR, no. 87. 58. Ruiz to Ceniceros and Orozco, May 21, 1932, LIGA, rollo 33. 59. Ruiz to Ceniceros and Orozco, May 25, 1932, CONDCR, no. 87. 60. Lara to Miguel Palomar y Vizcarra, August 10, 1932, in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 774–75. 61. LNDL, "Circular No. 1," June 3, 1933, CONDCR, no. 99. 62. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Mensaje a la Acción Cívica Nacional," August 15, 1936, in Christus 1:11 (October 1936), 891. 63. Reconquista, various issues, CONDCR, nos. 115, 119, 125. 64. José María González Valencia to Pius XI, June 24, 1932, CONDCR, no. 91. 65. Lara to Ruiz, May 26, 1932, in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 766–68. 66. González to Pius XI, June 24, 1932, CONDCR, no. 91. 67. Ruiz to Lara, April 28, 1932, in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 754–55. 68. Lara to Manríquez, August 3, 1932, in ibid., 770–72. 69. Leopoldo Lara y Torres, "Protesta contra la ley de Michoacán . . . ," August 18, 1932, CONDCR, no. 89. 70. Lara to Eugenio Pacelli (Vatican Secretary of State), September 29, 1932, in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 788–89. 71. Ruiz to Díz, October 15, 1932, APECER. 72. Ruiz to Díaz, October 29, 1932, APECER. 73. The most thorough secondary survey of educational questions in this period is John A. Britton, Educación y radicalismo en México, 2 vols.
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(México, D.F.: SepSetentas, 1976); Carlos Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1978) provides texts and analysis of relevant legislation; James W. Wilkie, "Ideological Conflict in the Time of Lázaro Cárdenas" (M.A. thesis in history, University of California, Berkeley, 1959), covers education in relation to intragovernment factional struggles; and Victoria Lerner, La educación socialista (México, D.F.: El Colegio de México, 1979), reproduces interesting photographs. 74. The sources listed in chapter 1, note 1 and Lerner, La educación socialista, give Cárdenas credit for putting an end to the controversy. One of the few secondary sources which evaluates lay Catholic opposition to one of the government programs, in this case socialist education, is María Ann Kelly, "Mexican Catholics and Socialist Education of the 1930s," in Brown and Cooper, Religion in Latin American Life and Literature, 135–49. 75. As with other issues, this study deals only with the Church side (hierarchy and laity) of the educational controversies. For the government side, see the sources listed in note 73 above. 76. For original text, see Diario de los Debates del Congreso Constituyente, 1916–1917, 2 vols. (México, D.F.: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1960), 1:773. During the debates at the Querétaro constitutional convention, it was not resolved whether "laic" was to mean antireligious or merely nonreligious instruction. Nor was it made clear whether private secondary education was covered. On these issues at the convention, see E. V. Niemeyer, Jr., Revolution at Querétaro (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), 62–79. The secondary education problem revolved around the meaning of the words "enseñanza primaria, elemental y superior." According to contemporary observer Verna Millan and Niemeyer, only primary schools were originally covered; but Britton interprets the law to include all schools at all levels. Verna Carleton Millan, Mexico Reborn (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1939), 53; Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, 77; Britton, Educación y radicalisrno, 1:17–18. 77. On the nonenforcement of Article 3 from 1917 to 1932, see Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 227. On Bassols, see Jesús Silva Herzog's introduction to Narciso Bassols, Obras (México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultural Económica, 1964). Bassols, only thirtythree in 1931, was a specialist in legal theory and had been Dean of the UNAM law school. A member of the Mexican Communist Party (PCM) and a committed Marxist, Bassols was an anticlerical by conviction. Significantly, he was not a Callista. 78. For text of the law, see Excélsior, January 1, 1932. For Bassols's circular justifying Article 3, see "La reglamentación del artículo 30 constitucional," in Bassols, Obras, 119–20. 79. Pascual Díaz, "Circular No. 1 a los Directores de los Colegios Católicos," January 16, 1932, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 27:1
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(January, 1932), 19; "Instrucción Pastoral . . . ," January 17, 1932, in ibid., 14–17. 80. For text, see Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 249–450. 81. The hierarchy started the UNPF with the help of the Catholic fraternal organization the Knights of Columbus. UNPF bylaws described it as a nonviolent lay group dedicated to protecting Catholic rights in education. It operated by issuing flyers and holding public rallies. Miguel Dario Miranda, "Informe rendido al V. Episcopado . . . ," 1931, ASSMMD. Also on the UNPF, see Kelly, "Mexican Catholics," 144–45, in Brown and Cooper, Religion in Latin American Life. According to eyewitnesses interviewed by Kelly, the UNPF was often criticized by Catholic extremists for its willingness to compromise with the government. 82. Narciso Bassols, "El reglamento de escuelas primarias particulares," July 27, 1932, in Bassols, Obras, 133–34. 83. Juan Navarrete (Bishop of Sonora) to Ruiz, October 4, 1932; Ruiz to Jenaro Méndez del Río, November 28, 1932; Ruiz to Díaz, December 10, 1932; all in APECER. The quote is from the last. 84. The report of the Comisión Técnica Consultiva is summarized in Britton, Educación y radicalismo, 1:99. 85. Millan, Mexico Reborn, 55–56. 86. Excélsior, June 14, 1933. 87. Ibid., January 12, 1934. 88. Ibid., May 30, 1933. 89. Narciso Bassols, "Los padres de familia y la educación sexual," August 3, 1933, in Bassols, Obras, 283–385. 90. Narciso Bassols, "Sobre la educación sexual," in ibid., 286–89. 91. Pascual Díaz, "Instrucción Pastoral . . . ," February 5, 1934, BSC. 91. Pascual Díaz, "Instrucción Pastoral . . . ," February 5, 1934, BSC. 92. Díaz to Lara, February 10, 1934; Lara to Díaz, February 24, 1934; both in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 818–20. 93. Ignacio Bravo Betancourt, "Declaraciones . . . ," April 20, 1934, in La Palabra, April 20, 1934. The strike lasted until May 13. 94. Pascual Díaz, "Instrucción Pastoral . . . ," April 30, 1934, BSC. 95. Narciso Bassols, "Renuncia al cargo e Secretario de Educación," May 9, 1934, in Bassols, Obras, 304–11. 96. Ibid., 305–6. 97. Because the goal of this work is to discuss Church responses to government programs, rather than to analyze the programs themselves, only a brief sketch of the origins and ideological ramifications of socialist education will be attempted here. For a thorough exposition of the program, see Britton, Educación y radicalismo, 1:117–59, 2:7–28; and Lerner, La educación socialista. A good source of original government documents unavailable elsewhere is Alberto Bremauntz, La educación socialista en Mexico
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(México, D.F.: Imprenta Rivadeneyra, 1943). Bremauntz was a delegate to the PNR's Second National Convention and one of the leading proponents of socialist education. 98. The ideology of this new group, of which Bassols was a precursor, is discussed in Medin, El minimato presidencial, 140. 99. Partido Nacional Revolucionario, Plan Sexenal de PNR (México, D.F.: n.p., 1934). 100. Bremauntz, La educacin socialista, 181. 101. PNR, Plan Sexenal, 84–85. 102. Ibid., 85. 103. The ideological split in the PNR is discussed in Medin, El minimato presidencial, 140. On Calles's position, see Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 211. 104. According to radical delegate Alberto Bremauntz, the moderates represented a sector of industrialists who opposed the Church as an anticapitalist force yet were themselves threatened by proposals for social change. La educación socialista, 191. 105. Rodríguez to Carlos Riva Palacio, December 21, 1933, in Gaxiola, Rodríguez, 305–11. 106. Riva Palacio to Rodríguez, December 22, 1933, in ibid., 311–13. 107. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Normas del Comité Ejecutivo Episcopa . . . ," January 4, 1934, APECER. 108. Pascual Díaz, "Instrucción . . . sobre el problema de la enseñanza socialista," April 30, 1934, BSC. 109. Ibid. 110. Leopoldo Lara y Torres, "Estudio sobre la Acción Episcopal contra la Instrucción Socialista," January 12, 1934, in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 814–17. 111. While governor, Cárdenas had obtained a strict priestlimiting law and had defended it against federal attempts to declare it unconstitutional. Lázaro Cárdenas to Calles, May 14,1932; Cárdenas to Eduardo Vasconcelos, September 15, 1932; both in APECCC. 112. Calles's motive was probably a desire to be on the winning side as PNR radicals gained ascendancy within the party. Whether he was sincere about supporting socialist education is unclear. For the theory that Calles was a sincere convert to the movement to reform Article 3, see Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 211– 14. For the view that Calles was politically opportunistic and desired to provoke the Church as a means of keeping Cárdenas under his control, see Wilkie, "Ideological Conflict," 45–48. 113. Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 208–9. 114. Broadside, "Abajo Carretas," August 1934, APECER. 115. UNPF, "Padre de Familia, Lea Usted," August 1934, APECER.
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116. Ruiz to Julia Fragoso, September 12, 1934; Ruiz to Manuel Noriega, October 1, 1934; both in APECER. 117. For the amended text of Article 3, see Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 129. 118. H. García to Manríquez, October 26, 1934, APECER. 119. Gaxiola, Rodríguez, 427–28. Rodríguez went through the formal motions of recommending the prosecution of Ruiz and Manríquez, via a declaration by then Attorney General Emilio Portes Gil, clearly a useless exercise insofar as both prelates were outside the country. Emilio Portes Gil, La lucha entre el poder civil y el clero (México, D.F.: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1934), 130–33. 120. Much of class time was taken up with agricultural and industrial training. Sample course outlines can be found in Luis G. Monzón, Detalles de la educación socialista implantables en Mexico (México, D.F.: Comisión Editora Popular, 1936). 121. "Normas del Comité Ejecutivo Episcopal . . . ," February 11, 1935, BSC. 122. Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 324–25. 123. UNPF, "Adelante, Padre de Familia," February 1935, CONDCR. 124. Comité de Acción Nacional, "Nuestro Programa," March 1935, CONDCR, no. 107; Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Instrucción especial . . . ," March 19, 1935, CONDCR, no. 110. 125. R. L. Martin, "A Prelate Discusses the Mexican Crisis," in New York Times, March 31, 1935. On the killings of rural teachers, see Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 328–30; and David L. Raby, "Los maestros rurales y los conflictos sociales en México (1931–1940)," in Historia Mexicana 28:2 (October–December 1968), 190–226. According to Raby's calculations, 139 attacks on teachers took place between 1932 and 1940, resulting in 79 fatalities. 126. S. M. Jacinta to Mrs. M. B. Burns, September 16, 1934, APECER. Vasconcelos succeeded Bassols as Rodríguez's Education Secretary and served from May 9 to November 30, 1934. Camp, Mexican Political Biographies, 308. 127. Daniels, ShirtSleeve Diplomat, 136. 128. Ibid., 155. 129. Ibid., 162. 130. Lerner, La educación socialista, 39–40. 131. Luis Flores R., "Consulta," in Christus 1:5 (April 1936), 350–52; "Carta Pastoral Colectiva sobre los deberes de los Padres de Familia . . . ," December 12, 1936, BSC. 132. According to Millan, the teachers' "political affiliations were perpetually in conflict with the programs of the schools." Millan, Mexico Reborn, 48–49, 235–36.
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133. For a broader discussion of ChurchState relations during the Cárdenas era, see Chapter 5. 134. El Universal, November 17, 1936. Vázquez Vela served from June 17, 1935 to November 30, 1940. Camp, Mexican Political Biographies, 310. 135. Britton, Educación y radicalismo, 2:28. 136. Texts of the 1942 law and 1945 amendment are in Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 318–38. 137. This last explanation is developed in Wilkie, ''Ideological Conflict," 76–77. A "socialist" teacher could make workers restive. In addition, the proliferation of rural schools, begun under Bassols, took children off the labor market. 138. Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 325. Chapter 5 1. Colección de las efemérides, 750. 2. New York Times, March 18, 1935. 3. Bremauntz, La educación socialista, 325; Britton, Educación y radicalismo, v. 2, 24–28. 4. Most significantly, the 1935 ouster of Tomás Garrido Canabal in Tabasco, and of Tejeda's crony Gonzalo Vázquez Vela in Veracruz, ushered in more religiously tolerant administrations for these two states noted for anticlericalism. See Martínez Assad, El laboratorio de la Revolución, 230–37; John B. Williman, La Iglesia y el Estado en Veracruz, 1840–1940 (México, D.F.: SepSetentas, 1976), 167ndash;68. 5. The most complete account of the CallesCárdenas power struggle is Luis González, "El match CárdenasCalles o la afirmación del presidencialismo mexicano," in Relaciones 1:1 (Winter 1980), 5–33. 6. Medin, El minimato presidencial, 158. When Calles returned to Mexico in December 1935, his conflicts with the President continued until Cárdenas deported the "jefe maximo" in April 1936. If Calles is viewed as merely using ChurchState conflict as a device to keep successive Presidents under his control, his ouster could be seen as a boon to many politicians, whatever their views on the religious question. 7. Much scholarly debate has centered on Cádenas's motivation for giving up his anticlerical past to move towards compromise. Among the reasons postulated are the President's rural, probably religious background, his break with Calles, and the onset of more pressing economic and social problems in the mid1930s. For these interpretations, see Brown, "Mexican ChurchState Relations"; Meyer, La Cristiada, 1:365–66; Michaels, "Modification of AntiClerical Nationalism"; and Wilkie, "Ideological Conflict." All
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of these factors probably contributed, but usage of them alone to explain the improved relations of the 1930s assumes the primacy of Cárdenas in initiating ChurchState detente and unfairly minimizes the role of the Church. 8. New York Times, January 26, 1935. 9. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Carta abierta . . . ," February 2, 1935, CONDCR, no. 106. 10. "Ocurso del Episcopado Nacional al Señor Presidente," September 29, 1935, BSC; New York Times, October 18, 1935. 11. New York Times, November 6, 1935. 12. El Nacional, February 17, 1936. 13. J. Ruiz Medrano, Homenaje a la memoria del . . . Sr. Dr. Francisco Orozco y Jiménez (Guadalajara: Imprenta Font, 1936), 138. 14. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," March 19, 1936, in Christus 1:6 (May 1936), 414. 15. Statelevel compromises are detailed in Chapter 6. 16. Colección de las efemérides, 761–64; Frank Kluckhohn, The Mexican Challenge (New York: Doubleday, 1939), 275. 17. Colección de las efemérides, 762–63; Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 175–76. States legislatively allowing more priests in 1936 included Coahuila, Nayarit, and Querétaro. 18. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," March 31, 1936, in Christus 1:7 (June 1936), 506–507. 19. Alberto Maria Carreño, Pascual Díaz y Barreto . . . homenajes póstumos (México, D.F.: Ediciones Victoria, 1936), 48–49. 20. This statement was made in a conversation between Cárdenas and U.S. ambassador Josephus Daniels. Daniels, ShirtSleeve Diplomat, 69. 21. El Universal, November 17, 1936. 22. Excélsior, February 10, 1937. 23. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Declaraciones del Delegado Apostólico," February 10, 1937, in Christus 2:16 (March 1937), 195. 24. ASC, Cuadernos de Jurisprudencia, vol. 27, p. 46. 25. Ibid., p. 49. 26. "Ejecutoria de la suprema corte de justicia de la nación," May 4, 1937, in Christus 2:19 (June 1937), 493–95. 27. "Importante ejecutoria de la suprema corte de justicia de la nación," November 1, 1937, in Christus 2:25 (December 1937), 1073–76. 28. An amparo ruling applies only to the case at hand and cannot serve as a precedent. Fix Zamudio, "A Brief Introduction to Amparo." 29. Colección de las efemérides, 766. 30. On Martínez (1881–1956), see Valverde Téllez, BioBibliografía, 2:76–85; Jesús Guisa y Azevedo, El ciudadano Luis María Martínez (México, D.F.: Editorial Polis, 1956); and Lara y Torres, Documentos, 758–59.
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31. Gómez Morín told interviewers James W. Wilkie and Edna Monzón de Wilkie that Martínez was "certainly a friend of Cárdenas for a long time." Wilkie and Wilkie, México visto, 183. 32. New York Times, September 4, 1937. 33. Luis Maria Martínez y Rodríguez, "Primera Carta Pastoral," January 24, 1938, in Christus 3:28 (March 1938), 183–85. 34. New York Times, February 4, 1938. 35. See PNR, Plan Sexenal, for the radical faction's proposals to step up agrarian reform (begun in 1917 but continued only slowly up to 1934), protect domestic trade, exert greater control over foreign industries, guarantee safer working conditions, and construct public works. Accounts of the carrying out of these programs under Cárdenas include Tzvi Medin, Ideología y praxis política de Lázaro Cárdenas (México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1972); William Townsend, Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexican Democrat (Ann Arbor: George Wahr, 1952); and Nathaniel and Sylvia Weyl, The Reconquest of Mexico (London: Oxford, 1939). Political dynamics of the period are detailed in Lyle C. Brown, "General Lázaro Cárdenas and Mexican Presidential Politics, 1933–1940" (Ph.D. diss. in political science, University of Texas at Austin, 1964); and Wayne A. Cornelius, "Nation Building, Participation, and Distribution: The Politics of Social Reform under Cárdenas," in Gabriel A. Almond, et al., eds., Crisis, Choice, and Change: Historical Studies in Political Development (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), 135–226. 36. Discussion of the corporate reorganization of the PNR and its new structure as the PRM in 1934–38 can be found in Arnaldo Cárdova, La política de masas del cardenismo (México, D.F.: Editorial Era, 1974), 146–76. According to Córdova, the new party was designed to keep the various sectors isolated and dependent upon the State for patronage. Córdova, La política de masas, 164–65. Other authors treating the corporate nature of the PRM and its subsequent effect on Mexican politics (the party obtained its present name, Partido Revolucionario Institucional [PRI], in 1946) include Frank Brandenburg, The Making of Modern Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1964), 90–95; and Frederick B. Pike, Spanish America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973), 47–50. 37. Of secondary sources on the Church in the 1930s, only a few deal with the agrarian question. These writers limit their brief discussions largely to debates within Catholic intellectual circles rather than elucidate the hierarchy's position. See Richard Pattee, The Catholic Revival in Mexico (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Organization for International Peace, 1944), 56–59; Michaels, "Modification of AntiClerical Nationalism," 50–51; and Moises González Navarro, "La iglesia y el estado en Jalisco en vísperas de la rebelión cristera," Historia Mexicana 33 (October–December 1983), 303–17.
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38. Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, 134–35. A thorough account of agrarian reform from 1910 through 1948, and the criticisms leveled against it, is Nathan L. Whetten, Rural Mexico (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 108–281. 39. Calculated from México, Secretaría de la Reforma Agraria, Publicación y ejecución de resoluciones presidenciales, 1915–80 (México, D.F.: Dirección General de Información Agraria, 1981). 40. Cárdenas's agrarian program marked a significant change from previous regimes, as 9 percent of Mexico's surface area was redistributed during his administration alone — more than twice as much land as had been returned up to 1934. Ibid. Accounts of Cárdenas's agrarian program, and the debate over it in the PNR, can be found in Dana Markiewicz, Ejido Organization in Mexico, 1934–1976 (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center, 1980), 9–27; Medin, Ideología y praxis política, 159–74. The Liga and the guerrillas of the Segunda violently opposed redistribution, as a threat to private property and as a disruption of the existing social order. Reconquista, September 1935, in CONDCR, no. 115. 41. The fundamental statement of the Church's social doctrine was Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum Novarum, disseminated in 1891. As an attempt to counter the Marxist position that private property was the root of social injustice, Rerum Novarum defended man's fight to property and asserted that natural inequalities among men necessarily resulted in social inequalities. Employers had an obligation to treat their workers fairly, but not to surrender up estates or factories. See Etienne Gilson, ed., The Church Speaks to the Modern World: The Social Teachings of Leo XIII (New York: Doubleday, 1954), 205–40. In preRevolutionary Mexico, these ideas were popularized through a series of nine "Catholic Congresses" between 1903 and 1909, where lay Catholic social reformers proposed that landowners and industrialists provide certain basic health and educational services for their employees. At the same time, the fight to private property was staunchly defended, and expropriation condemned. A good summary of the Congresses is in Lawrence J. Rohlfes, "Mexican Catholic Social Action during the Porfiriato, 1903–1911: Background to the National Catholic Party" (Master's thesis in history, Tulane University, 1977). 42. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Al episcopado, clero, y católicos de México," December 12, 1934, CONDCR, no. 105. 43. Pamphlet, "Mexican Bishops' Pastoral," August 30, 1935 (Washington, D.C.:National Catholic Welfare Conference, 1935). 44. "Instrucción Pastoral del V. Episcopado Nacional . . . ," June 12, 1936, BSC. 45. Ibid. 46. Pius XI, "Carta Apostólica sobre la Situación Religiosa en México," March 28, 1937, in Christus 2:18 (May 1937), 388–99.
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47. For example, see the program detailed in "Primera Semana Social Católica Campesiana . . . del 23 de noviembre de 1937," in Christus 3:28 (March 1938), 215–26. 48. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Carta Pastoral . . . con motivo de su regreso a la Arquidiócesis," January 12, 1938, in Christus 3:28 (March 1938), 186–87. 49. Unión de los Católico Mexicanos, La Unión, February 1938. 50. Inefficiency and corruption in redistribution often resulted in the underpayment, or nonpayment, of compensation despite the Article 27 requirement. Whetten, Rural Mexico, 146–48. By 1938, a lively debate was being carried on in Catholic intellectual circles as to the necessity of compensation for land expropriated. Though some scholars, notably Padre José T. Moreno, argued that indemnification was not necessary because most hacienda lands had originally been taken by force, most Catholic writers considered that some form of restitution was essential to preserve the concept of private property. Church policy, however, was not always guided by the discourses of Catholic intellectuals. See Abside 2:4–8 (April–August, 1938) and Christus 3:30–36 (May–November, 1938) for articles by Moreno and his critics. Other primary works by Catholics in the 1930s include Alfredo Méndez Medina, S.J., El pequeño crédito agrícola y el problerna agrario en México (México, D.F.: Talleres Gráficos Laguna, 1935); Alfonso Junco, "El Problema Social," in Christus 1:4 (March 1936), 231–39; "Moral," in Christus 2:15 (February 1937), 112–13; Ramiro Camacho, La cuestión agraria (Guadalajara: Imprenta Font,1939); and Camacho's ¿Son Ladrones los Agraristas? (Guadalajara: n.p., 1940). 51. Whetten, Rural Mexico, 482. 52. The origins and course of the oil controversy and subsequent international settlements are covered in Howard F. Cline, The United States and Mexico (New York: Atheneum, 1976), 229–60; E. David Cronon, Josephus Daniels in Mexico (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960), 154–291; and Lorenzo Meyer, México y Estados Unidos en el confiicto petrolero (México, D.F.: El Colegio, 1968). 53. New York Times, April 6, 1938. Garibi Rivera (1889–1972) had been Orozco y Jiménez's assistant and succeeded the latter upon his death in 1936. Valverde Téllez, BioBibliografía, 1:323–27. 54. José Garibi Rivera, "Hacia la Paz Espiritual," in Christus 3:30 (May 1938), 383–85. 55. Comité Episcopal, "Los Católicos Mexicanos y la Deuda Petrolera," May 1, 1938, in Christus 3:31 (June 1938), 485. 56. Daniels, ShirtSleeve Diplomat, 246–47. 57. New York Times, May 3, 1938. 58. On opposition to Cárdenas in the late 1930s, see Medin, Ideología y praxis política, 204–11.
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59. On Cedillo (1890–1939), see Manuel Fernández Boyoli and Eustaquio Marrón de Angelis, Lo Que no se Sabe de la Rebelión Cedillista (México, D.F.: Grafiart, 1938); Graham Greene, Another Mexico (New York: Viking, 1939), 51–62; Carlos Martínez Assad, "La rebelión cedillista o el ocaso de poder tradicional," in Revista Mexicana de Sociología 41:3 (July–September 1979), 709–28; Peter L. Reich, unpublished interview with Miguel Aranda Díaz, January 7, 1980. Aranda Díaz was Cedillo's private secretary from 1929 to 1939, and in the interview claimed that, unlike Calles and Cárdenas, Cedillo was essentially nonideological, being a mere "man of the countryside" who was ''tolerant of all religions." Reich, Aranda Díaz interview, iii. For a recent scholarly biography of Cedillo, which views him as a "traditionalist warlord" whose local peasant powerbase eroded when land redistribution was forced on him by Cárdenas;, see Dudley Ankerson, Agrarian Warlord: Saturnino Cedillo and the Mexican Revolution in San Luis Potosí (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1984), especially pp. 146–91. 60. Navarrete, Por Dios y por la Patria, 234–36. Navarrete was a Cristero leader and opponent of Cedillo in the field. 61. Martínez Assad, "La rebelión cedillista," 717–18; Reich, Aranda Díaz interview, iv. 62. Saturnino Cedillo, "Manifesto a la Nación," May 16, 1938, in Fernandez Boyoli and Marrón de Angelis, Lo Que no se Sabe, 320–24. 63. Fernandez Boyoli and Marrón de Angelis, Lo Que no se Sabe, 213. On Tritschler (1878–1952), see Valverde Téllez, BioBibliografía, 2:341–44. 64. Greene, Another Mexico, 59. 65. On Almazán (1891–1965), see James W. Wilkie and Edna Monzón de Wilkie, unpublished interview with Juan Andreu Almazán, July and September 1964. Almazán's candidacy was supported by wealthy businessmen, landowners, peasants disgruntled with agrarian reform, and other elements unhappy with Cárdenas's reform thrust. Cornelius, "Nation Building," 166. On the campaign itself, see Ariel José Contreras, México 1940: industrialización y crisis política (México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1977). 66. Wilkie and Wilkie, Almazán interview, 152. The item cited is an occasion when Almazán intervened with Cárdenas; to reopen a Catholic girls' school. 67. Betty Kirk, Covering the Mexican Front (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1942), 144. 68. Wilkie and Wilkie, Almazán interview, 160, 189. On the PAN, see Donald J. Mabry, Mexico's Acción Nacional (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1973). PAN was not linked to the Church, and the party's interests were not necessarily those of the hierarchy. Wilkie and Wilkie, México visto, 182. 69. Excélsior, April 28, 1938.
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70. Ibid., July 5, 1938. Cádenas took this action after a group of lay Catholics seized the building. 71. New York Times, November 7, 1938. For a full discussion of this incident, see Antonio Luna Arroyo, ed., Juan O'Gorman: Autobiografía, Antología, Juicios Críticos y Documentación Exhaustiva (México, D.F.: Cuadros Populates, 1973), 405. This incident is particularly interesting due to Múgica's reputation as an extreme anticlerical, dating from the Constitutional Convention of 1916. Niemeyer, Revolution at Querétaro, 65–66. 72. Text and discussion of the 1939 enabling legislation are in Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 304–16. Alvear considers that despite its provisions to put some socialist education in force, the enabling act pointedly played down references to socialism and was "less virulent, less rigorous" than PRM radicals would have liked (308). 73. The background to Ávila Camacho's election is discussed in Contreras, México 1940. 74. Ávila Camacho's (1897–1955) personal background is discussed in James Plenn, Mexico Marches (Indianapolis: BobbsMerrill, 1939), 303–6. Other contemporary accounts of his presidency include Eduardo J. Correa, El balance de Ávila Camacho (México, D.F.: n.p., 1946); and Alfonso Taracena, La vida en México bajo Ávila Camacho (México, D.E: Editorial Jus, 1976). The latter is a compilation of news dippings from the 1940s. One of the new secondary works on the period is Luis Medina, Del Cardenismo al Avilacamachismo (México, D.F.: El Colegio, 1978). 75. Hoy, September 21, 1940. 76. Novedades, December 4, 1940. 77. New York Times, October 1, 1941. 78. Ibid., October 28, 1941. 79. Ibid., August 31, 1941. 80. Taracena, Ávila Camacho, 122. 81. J. A. Romero, S.J., "El 12 de Octubre en la Basílica," in Christus 6:72 (November 1941), 999–1002, 1000. Also see Kirk, Covering the Mexican Front, 136. 82. ASC, Cuadernos de Jurisprudencia, vol. 27, p. 44. 83. Diario Oficial, September 23, 1942. 84. A good survey of educational issues under Ávila Camacho is provided by Medina, Avilacamachismo, 345–400. 85. Kirk, Covering the Mexican Front, 151–52. 86. Text and discussion of the 1942 law are in Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 318–25. 87. Text and discussion of the 1945 amendment are in Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 330–38. 88. See Gómez Morín's comments in Wilkie and Wilkie, México visto, 182.
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89. Studies of the Sinarquista movement include Jean Meyer, El sinarquismo: ¿Un fascismo mexicano? (México, D.F.: Cuadernos Joaquín Mortiz, 1979); Albert L. Michaels, "Fascism and Sinarquismo: Popular Nationalisms Against the Mexican Revolution," in A Journal of Church and State 7:2 (Spring 1966), 234–50; and Whetten, Rural Mexico, 484–522. Though Sinarquismo had many ideological affinities to fascism, Sinarquista leaders disassociated themselves from the German, Italian, and Spanish fascist parties in an attempt to appear purely Mexican. 90. The story of the Baja California colony is related by Sinarquista leader Salvador Abascal in his Mis Recuerdos: Sinarquismo y Colonia María Auxiliadora (México, D.F.: Editorial Tradición, 1980). 91. José Garibi Rivera, "Declaraciones," in Christus 7:77 (April 1942), 301–2. 92. Manríquez to Gregorio Aguilar, July 1, 1942, in Christus 7:82 (September 1942), 785. 93. New York Times, September 28, 1942. 94. For Mexico's involvement in World War II, from 1942 to 1945, see Blanca Torres Ramírez, México en la segunda guerra mundial (México, D.F.: El Colegio, 1979). 95. On the traditional antipathy of world Catholic Church leaders for communism, as opposed to being noncommittal on fascism in the 1930s, see Salo Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion (New York: Meridian, 1960), 108–13. Marxism was considered an atheistic and materialistic heresy, while fascism was merely a new system of political organization. With World War II, fascism began to draw more fire, particularly from the Vatican. 96. Luis María Martínez, "Declaraciones," in Christus 7:77 (April 1942), 607–8. 97. Luis María Martínez, "Declaraciones," May 30,1942, in Christus 7:80 (July 1942), 607–8. 98. New York Times, September 27, 1942. 99. Diario Oficial, September 23, 1942. 100. Excélsior, October 6, 1942. 101. Ibid. 102. Ibid., October 11, 1942. Chapter 6 1. This chapter, aside from the preliminary background section, is based largely on documentary sources utilized for the first time in this work. Letters and memoranda from local clergymen describe specifics of agreements with government officials that have never heretofore been revealed.
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These were uncovered in the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN); Archivo Plutarco Elías Calles (APEC); Biblioteca del Seminario Conciliar (BSC); and Centro de Estudios de Historia de México, Condumex (COND). A particularly notable new find was a looseleaf notebook entitled "Conflicto Religioso por Diócesis" (CRPD), that was discovered in the Archivo del Secretariado Social Mexicano (ASSM) in San Jerónimo, D.F. It contains replies to the Episcopal Committee's 1935–37 questionnaires from every diocese in the country, being monthbymonth reports of the local political climate for religious practice. Briefer, though nevertheless detailed replies to a 1936 questionnaire sent by Paul V. Murray to each diocese were in the possession of Mr. Murray (MQ). Some of these archival sources were discussed in Peter L. Reich, "Algunos archivos para el estudio de la historia eclesiástica mexicana en el siglo XX," in Historia Mexicana 30:1 (July–September 1980) 126–33. See bibliography below for complete list of archival designations. 2. See sources cited in Chapter 1, note 1, especially Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!, 194–298; Brown, "Mexican ChurchState Relations"; Joseph, "Church and State in Mexico"; Meyer, La Cristiada; Michaels, "Modification of AntiClerical Nationalism.'' All of these works, the principal secondary sources dealing with ChurchState relations in the 1930s, give credit to Cárdenas for ending antagonism in the later years of the decade by putting pressure on state governors to moderate local anticlericalism. 3. For regional studies that assume anticlericalism in the Southeast characterized the entire country, see Martínez Assad, El laboratorio de la Revolución; and Williman, "Adalberto Tejeda." For reliance on the restrictive laws as literal evidence of anticlericalism, see the sources listed in note 2. 4. On ChurchState links in contemporary Mexico, see Bailey, "The Church Since 1940"; Burgoa, Derecho constitucional mexicano, 966–67; De la Rosa and Reilly, Religión y Política en México; Eckstein, The Poverty of Revolution, especially Chapter 4; and Pablo González Casanova, La democracia en México (México, D.F.: Editorial Era, 1965), 53–62. 5. With this structure I follow, in slightly modified form, the division set out in Altman and Lockhart, Provinces of Early Mexico. These three areas were historically characterized by distinct forms of indigenous culture and of postConquest economic and social organization. As will be discussed below, Church influence among and within these sections could vary markedly, both prior to and during the 1930s. 6. On the concentration of sixteenthcentury Spanish clergy, both secular and regular, in the Center and West, see Robert Ricard, The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico, trans., Lesley Byrd Simpson (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 81. For the pervasive involvement of
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the Church in the communal life of the Center's indigenous inhabitants during the colonial era, see Gibson, Aztecs, 98–135. 7. Bailey, ¡Viva Cristo Rey!; Meyer, La Cristiada; and Jim Tuck, The Holy War in Los Altos: A Regional Analysis of Mexico's Cristero Rebellion (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982), cover generally the roots of Cristero support in the West as well as the Bajío, and link this support to the Church's influence. It should be noted that the view of the West as a uniformly Cristerooriented region in the 1920s, while widely propounded, is not uniformly held. For a view that the Cristero or government partisanship was affected largely by market forces rather than any regional ethos, see Ramón Jrade, "Rural Resistance to the Mexican Revolution: Agrarian Social Structure and the Cristero Movement" (Paper presented at Latin American Studies Association Meeting, Bloomington, Indiana, October 17, 1980). 8. Statistical indicators of population per priest show selected states in this region as having greater clerical strength than other areas of Mexico between 1910 and 1960. James W. Wilkie, "Statistical Indicators of the Impact of National Revolution on the Catholic Church in Mexico, 1910–1967," in Journal of Church and State 12:1 (Winter 1970), 89–106. 9. Though ecclesiastical activity in the South was intense during the colonial period, by the nineteenth century churchbuilding and the Church's involvement in social life had declined markedly. For the erosion of the Church's economic base in late colonial Chiapas as a result of forced production, see Wasserstrom, "Spaniards and Indians in Colonial Chiapas, 1528–1790." On the Church's loss of economic support in nineteenthcentury Yucatán, arising from secularization, see Nelson Reed, The Caste War of Yucatan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964), 23–24; and John B. Williman, "Church and State in Veracruz, 1840–1940: The Concord and Conflicts of a Century" (Ph.D. diss., Saint Louis University, 1970), for similar trends in Veracruz. Weak clerical authority over ritual practices, particularly in the face of widespread religious syncretism, was the norm by the 1930s. Robert Redfield, The Folk Culture of Yucatan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941), 229– 302. For a thorough discussion of the political uses of anticlericalism in Tabasco in the 1920s and 1930s, see Martínez Assad, El laboratorio de la Revolución. A novelist's nonfiction account of anticlericalism (especially harassment of priests) in Tabasco and Chiapas can be found in Graham Greene, Another Mexico (New York: Viking Press, 1939), 130–239. Populationperpriest statistics in Chiapas from 1910 to 1967 showed the lowest pastoral strength in the nation (though the 1930s do not seem to have affected the decline in priests more than population growth would warrant), and the figures for Yucatán also showed weak clerical presence relative to other areas. Wilkie, "Statistical Indicators," 102.
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10. On ecclesiastical neglect of the North, see Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 81, and Porras Muñoz, Iglesia y estado en Nueva Vizcaya, 9–55. For the disastrous effect of the 1931 termination of the tithe and the Reform on the Church's financial standing in Chihuahua, see Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 43–44. For a study of the growth of the Protestant movement in Mexico, particularly in Coahuila and Chihuahua, see Pedro Rivera, Protestantismo mexicano (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1961). Populationperpriest statistics for the twentieth century show Chihuahua as relatively weak in clerical strength compared to other areas. Wilkie, "Statistical Indicators," 102. 11. For a discussion of the ideological contributions, including anticlericalism, of Coahuilan intellectuals to the Mexican Revolution, see Douglas W. Richmond, Venustiano Carranza's Nationalist Struggle, 1893–1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983); and for Sonora's similar role, see Hector Aguilar Camín, La frontera nomada: Sonora y la revolución mexicana (México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1977). On the personal views of Plutarco Elías Calles, originally from Guaymas, Sonora, see Ana María León de Palacios, Plutarco Elías Calles, creador de instituciones (México, D.F.: INAP, 1975). Calles's attitude toward the Church was ambivalent. This author's 1980 conversations with Hortensia Elías Calles de Torreblanca, daughter of Plutarco, revealed that throughout the latter's presidency (1924– 28) and the Cristero War, a private chapel was maintained in the Calles home for the use of the family, and priests were often present. Peter L. Reich, Interviews with Hortensia Elías Calles de Torreblanca, Mexico City, February–April 1980. 12. The best collection of this legislation, organized by state, is Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa. Numerical limits are summarized in Appendix to Chapter 6. See above, p. 92. 13. Navarrete and Pallares, La persecución religiosa. 14. See generally the sources listed in Chapter 2 notes. For colonial arrangements avoiding restrictions on the Church in specific regions, see particularly Gibson, Aztecs, 85–86, on the Center; Wasserstrom, "Colonial Chiapas," 103–5, on the South; and Porras Muñoz, Iglesia y estado en Nueva Vizcaya, 418–29, on the North. A good compendium of collaboration during the Porftriato, with examples from throughout the country, is González Navarro, La Vida Social, 477–83. 15. Marciano Tinajero, "Sufrimientos de los Obispos y sacerdotes," June 1935, ASSMCRPD. 16. Michoacán: J. Abraham Martínez (Párroco General of Tacámbaro), to Paul V. Murray, May 24, 1936, MQ; Toluca: Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera Revolución mexicana, decimaoctava etapa (1932) (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1965), 99. 17. See Appendix to Chapter 6.
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18. Pascual Díaz, "Declaraciones . . . a los Fieles de la Arquidiócesis," February 5, 1932, CONDCR, no. 84. 19. Michoacán: Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores to Leopoldo Lara y Torres, May 16, 1932, in Lara y Torres, Documentos, 758–59. Jalisco: Taracena, La verdadera Revolución, 186. 20. Pascual Díaz to Luis M. Martínez, November 24, 1932, APECER. 21. Ing. Luis Ugarte to lng. Edelmiro Traslosheros, November 4, 1932, APECER. 22. Anastasio Hurtado y Robles, "Instrucción y protesta . . . , " August 12, 1936, in Christus 1:11 (October 1936), 896–900. 23. Pius XI, "Normas," January 1, 1932, quoted in Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Instrucción y Exhortación . . . , "February 12, 1932, in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 27:2 (February 1932), 80–87; Pascual Díaz, "Circular no. 21," July 25,1932, in Gaceta Oficial 28:2 (August 1932), 50–55; Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores, "Dedaraciones del Delegado Apostólico,'' July 28, 1932, CONDCR, no. 94. 24. Taracena, La verdadera Revolución, 176. 25. Puebla: Pedro Vera y Zuria, "Respuesta al Cuestionario No. 2," June 4, 1935, ASSMCRPD. Jalisco: José Garibi y Rivera, "Primera Carta Pastoral," in Christus 1:7 (June 1936), 509–16. 26. Arquidiócesis de Puebla, "Respuestas al Cuestionario de datos sobre la actual persecución," March 1935, ASSMCRPD. 27. Querétaro: Marciano Tinajero y Estrada (Bishop of Querétaro), "Cuestionario No. 1," March 1, 1935, ASSMCRPD. Guanajuato: "Puntos Generales del movimiento social católico en la Diócesis de León desde el año de 1908 hasta la fecha," November 1935, ASSMCRPD. 28. "Puntos Generales." 29. U.N.P.F., "Adelante, Padres de Familia," February 1935, CONDCR. 30. Arquidiócesis de Puebla, "Respuesta al Cuestionario No. 3," September 10, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 31. Crispiniano Sandoval (Vicar General of Colima), "Informe de Octubre de 1935," November 9, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 32. Silvestre Jacobo (Secretary to the Vicar General of Tepic), "Informe de Tepic del mes de Octubre, 1935," January 7, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 33. Andrés Ocampo to Episcopal Committee, March 21, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 34. "Por la República," in Christus 3:36 (November 1938), 1035. 35. Silvestre Jacobo, "Informe de Tepic de enero de 1936," February 8, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 36. José Garibi y Rivera, "Informe de la diócesis de Guadalajara de enero de 1936," February 1936, ASSMCRPD. 37. Colima: Crispiniano Sandoval, "Informe de octubre de 1935," November 9, 1935, ASSMCRPD; Durango: José María González y Valencia
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(Archbishop of Durango), "Respuesta al cuestionario de datos sobre la actual persecución," August 6, 1935, ASSMCRPD; Guanajuato: Eugenio Villafuerte to Paul V. Murray, May 26, 1936, MQ; Michoacán: Arzobispado de Michoacáin, "Informe de la Diócesis de Morelia," March 8, 1936, ASSMCRPD; Nayarit: Christus 3:511 (June 1938); San Luis Potosí: Ismael Gómez to Paul V. Murray, June 1, 1936, MQ. 38. Crispiniano Sandoval, "Informe," November 9, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 39. Valverde Téllez, BioBibliografía, 1:22. 40. Aguascalientes: Margarito Santiago (Vicar General) to Paul V. Murray, May 26, 1936, MQ; Colima: Crispiniano Sandoval to Paul V. Murray, May 23, 1936, MQ; Puebla: Alberto Mendoza (Secretary of Archdiocese) to Paul V. Murray, May 30, 1936, MQ; San Luis Potosí: Ismael Gómez to Paul V. Murray, June 1, 1936, MQ. 41. Guanajuato: Eugenio Villafuerte to Paul V. Murray, May 26, 1936, MQ; Michoacán: J. Abraham Martínez to Paul V. Murray, May 24, 1936, MQ; Querétaro: J. R. Martínez to Luis Flores R., March 30, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 42. J. R. Martínez to Luis Flores R., March 30, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 43. Ismael Gómez to Paul V. Murray, June 1, 1936, MQ. 44. Silvestre Jacobo, "Informe de la Diócesis de Tepic de febrero de 1936," March 9, 1936; "Informe . . . de noviembre de 1936," December 1936, ASSMCRPD. 45. See Chapter 5. 46. J. Martínez, "Acontecimientos verificados en Querétaro en el mes de octubre de 1935, en relación con la iglesia católica," November 1935, ASSMCRPD. 47. Ibid. 48. Colección de las efemérides, 757–58. 49. Jalisco: José Garibi y Rivera, "Primera Carta Pastoral," in Christus 1:7 (June 1966), 509–16; Guerrero; Leopoldo Díaz Escudero, "Circular no. 59," in Christus 6:62 (January 1941), 23. 50. Peter L. Reich conversation with Professor Stanley Robe, November 28, 1982. Robe, a Spanish literature specialist at UCLA, lived in rural Jalisco during the late 1930s, while conducting research on popular folk ballads. 51. Ibid. 52. See Chapter 5 for discussion of the Cedillo and Almazán movements against PRM hegemony. 53. Rafael Guízar y Valencia, "Carta que dirigo a mis sacerdotes y al pueblo veracruzano que limita el número de sacerdotes," July 4, 1931, APECCT. 54. E. Balmoreji to Jenaro Méndez de Río (Bishop of Tehuantepec), November 4, 1932, APECER.
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55. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores to José Anaya (Secretary to Apostolic Delegation), December 28, 1932, APECER. 56. New York Times, June 13, 1933. 57. Alejandro Rueda Camacho to Manuel Rueda Magro, October 12, 1932, APECER. 58. José Othón Núñez, "A los heles Católicos de la Arquidiócesis," September 25, 1934, APECER. 59. New York Times, October 24, 1931. 60. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores to Vicente Camacho, September 18, 1934, APECER. 61. José de Jesús López Ortega, "Informe del estado que guarda la iglesia en Yucatán," July 5, 1936, ASSMCRPD. For a discussion of Ruiz's stand on Acción Cívica in the aftermath of the hierarchy's dismantling of the Liga, see Chapter 4. 62. On Bassols's policies, see Chapter 4. 63. Leopoldo Ruiz y Flores to Jenaro Méndez del Río, November 28, 1932, APECER. 64. José de Jesús López Ortega, "Informe del estado de la persecución religiosa en el estado de Yucatáin," December 31, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 65. Arquidiócesis de Oaxaca, "Respuesta al Cuestionario #2 correspondiente al mes de mayo de 1936," June 1936, ASSMCRPD. 66. "Secretario General del Bloque Social revolucionario proChiapas al Comité de Salud pública del Senado," November 5, 1934, AGN, Archivo Presidentes, Fondo Cárdenas, exp. 542. 67. Ibid. 68. [Arquidiócesis de Oaxaca], "Respuesta al Cuestionario no. 2 correspondiente al mes de marzo de 1936," Oaxaca, April 20, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 69. J. González Brown, "Casuística," in Christus 4:126 (February 1939). The language reads, "at times the [municipal] president can . . . dissimulate, not applying the law." 70. "Memorandum del Comité de Obreros y Campesinos Radicales Revolucionarios Cardenistas de Soconusco," December 13, 1934, AGN, Archivo Presidentes, Fondo Cárdenas, expediente 542. According to this complaint of radical workers, fifteen priests were officiating in San Cristóbal de las Casas even though the law limited them to a single priest in the entire state. 71. [Respuesta al Cuestionario], Oaxaca, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 72. José López Ortega, "Informe del estado de la persecución en el estado de Yucatán," December 31, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 73. Jesús Villareal y Fierro (Bishop of Tehuantepec), "Informe de la diócesis de Tehuantepec en enero de 1936," February 1936, ASSMCRPD. 74. José López Ortega, "Informe de la marcha de la persecución religiosa en la arquidiócesis de Yucatán," March 31, 1936, ASSMCRPD.
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75. José García to Paul V. Murray, June 1, 1936, MQ. 76. New York Times, May 3, 1933; Colección de las efemérides, 743. 77. Jesés Villareal y Fierro, "Informe de la diócesis de Tehuantepec en noviembre de 1935," December 30, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 78. J. Pérez Capatello to Paul V. Murray, May 27, 1936, MQ. 79. Martin Palmira L. to Paul V. Murray, June 2, 1936, MQ. 80. See generally Salvador Abascal, La reconquista espiritual de Tabasco en 1938 (México, D.F.: Editorial Tradición, 1972); and Joseph Ledit, S.J., El frente de los pobres (México, D.F.: Ediciones Spes, 1955), 145–48. 81. Valverde Téllez, BioBibliografía, 2:170. 82. New York Times, February 24, 1932. 83. Barquín y Ruiz, El clamor de la sangre, 444–45. 84. Ignacio Placencia y Moreira, "Advertencias del Prelado Diocesano," August 24, 1932, CONDCR. 85. Juan Navarrete y Guerrero to Ruiz y Flores, October 4, 1932, APECER. 86. Chihuahua: Carlos Amézcua, "Informe," Chihuahua, September 1936, ASSMCRPD; Nuevo León: José Guadalupe Ortiz y López (Archbishop of Monterrey), "Cuestionario no. 1," Monterrey, May 22, 1935, ASSMCRPD; Zacatecas: José D. Cueva, "Respuestas al cuestionario no. 1 de datos sobre la actual persecució)n," July 20, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 87. José D. Cueva, "Respuestas al cuestionario no. 1 de datos sobre la actual persecución," July 20, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 88. José Guadalupe Ortiz y López, "Cuestionario no. 1," Monterrey, May 22, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 89. Ibid. 90. Tomás Garrido Canabal to Luciano Cabenillos, José María Ramírez, Mucio Vega, and Juan Guadalupe Pérez, June 7, 1935, ASSMCRPD. Then Agriculture Secretary Garrido wrote to the imprisoned youths to congratulate them for "saving the proletariat from the vices of the priest and religion." 91. José D. Cueva, "Informe de la diócesis de Zacatecas de Enero de 1936," February 14, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 92. José D. Cueva, "Informe de Zacatecas al V. Comité Episcopal, correspondiente at noviembre de 1935," December 4, 1935, ASSMCRPD. "Accommodation" is translated from "arreglo" in the original Spanish document. 93. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe que se rinde al Vble. Comité E.E. de los principales acontecimientos relacionados con la cuestión religiosa," April 30, 1936, ASSM CRPD; "Ejecutoria de la supreme corte de justicia de la nación," May 4, 1937, in Christus 2:19 (June 1937), 493–95. 94. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe que se rinde al Vble. C.E.E. de los principales acontecimientos relacionados con la cuestión religiosa, ocurridos en la
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diócesis de Chihuahua durante el mes de Mayo de 1936," May 31, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 95. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe que se rinde al Vble. C.E.E. de los principales acontecimientos relacionados con la cuestión religiosa, ocurridos en la diócesis de Chihuahua, durante el mes Junio de 1936," June 30, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 96. José D. Cueva, "Respuestas al cuestionario no. 1 de datos sobre la actual persecución," July 20, 1935, ASSMCRPD; José D. Cueva, "Información de Zacatecas al V. Comité Episcopal, correspondiente a noviembre de 1935," December 4, 1935, ASSMCRPD; José D. Cueva, "Informe de Zacatecas, al V. Comité Episcopal," July 17, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 97. José D. Cueva, "Informe de la diócesis de Zacatecas," March 14, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 98. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe de ChihuahuaDiciembre de 1936," December 1936, ASSMCRPD. 99. Agust7iacute;n Aguirre y Ramos (Bishop of Culiacán) to Miguel Dario Miranda, March 13, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 100. Agustín Aguirre y Ramos, "Carta Pastoral, 26 marzo, 1936," in Christus 1:9 (August 1936), 703–8. 101. Juan F. Boone to Paul V. Murray, May 23, 1936, MQ. 102. "Por la República," in Christus 1:11 (October 1936), 964–67. 103. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe que se rinde al Vble. Comité E.E. de los principales acontecimientos relacionados con la cuestión religiosa," April 30, 1936, ASSM CRPD. 104. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe que se rinde al Vble. C.E.E. de los principales acontecimientos relacionados con la cuestión religiosa, ocurridos en la diócesis de Chihuahua en el mes de mayo de 1936," May 31, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 105. Carlos Amézcua, "Informe correspondiente al mes de Abril de 1937," April 31, 1937, ASSMCRPD. 106. See note 4, and Chapter 8 of this work. 107. See note 50. 108. Curia del Arzobispado de México, "Circular No. 15," May 13, 1980. Chapter 7 1. In this chapter, the term "Catholic Action" will be used to refer generally to the international Churchsponsored lay movement, and "Acción Católica Mexicana" or "Acción Católica" will indicate specifically its Mexican branch. "The association," or "the movement'' may refer to either, depending upon the context.
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2. This chapter, aside from the historical background section, is based largely on newly utilized documentary sources and the author's oral interviews with participants in the events of the 1930s. Internal records of the Secretariado Social Mexicano for the years 1925–42, including actas (weekly minutes of meetings) and informes (reports covering several years) were uncovered in the Archivo del Secretariado Social Mexicano (ASSM). Other sources in the operations of Acción Católica include the correspondence of ecclesiastical and lay leaders in collections such as APEC and ASSMCPRD (see chapter 6, note 1). Particularly valuable were a series of oral interviews conducted in 1979 and 1980 with clerics and lay organizers active in Acción Católica from the late 1920s to the present day. These include the following: Luis Beltrán y Mendoza (October 18 and 23, 1979); Cardinal Miguel Dario Miranda (April 29, 1980); Sofía del Valle (March 14 and 19, 1980); Lic. José González Torres (October 30, 1979); and Padre Paco Merino (October 10, 1979). 3. See chapter 1, note 1. 4. On the Sinarquistas and other reactionary Catholic militants, whose goals in the 1930s diverged sharply from those of the moderate episcopal hierarchy, see Hugh G. Campbell, "The Radical Right in Mexico, 1929–1949 (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 1968); Meyer, El sinarquismo: Un fascismo mexicano?; Michaels, "Fascism and Sinarquismo: Popular Nationalisms Against the Mexican Revolution," and "El nacionalismo conservador mexicano desde la revolución hasta 1940," in Historia Mexicana 62 (October–November 1966), 213–38. For a discussion of the hierarchy's disavowal of the Sinarquistas in the early 1940s, see chapter 5 of the present work. 5. Mabry, Mexico's Acción Nacional, a monograph on the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), the PRI's major electoral opponent since 1939, emphasizes that PAN's ideology and political goals have always been separate from, and at times at odds with, those of the Church. See especially pp. 54 and 110. 6. See Elwood Rufus Gotshall, "Catholicism and Catholic Action in Mexico, 1929–1941" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1970). One recent commentator on episcopal factions during the Cristero War notes briefly that the hierarchy used Acción Católica to control lay militants after the arreglos, but does not elaborate further as his primary focus is on the 1926–29 period. See Servando Ortoll, "Faccionarismo episcopal en México y revolución cristera," in De la Rosa and Reilly, eds., Religión y Política en México, 27–41, especially p. 40. 7. On Acción Católica's involvement in national politics after its separation from the Secretariado Social in 1942, see chapter 8 of the present work and Peter L. Reich, interview with Lic. José González Torres, October 30, 1979. For secondary analyses of the movement in the sixties, seventies, and
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eighties, see Burgoa, Derecho constitucional mexicano, 967; Alejandro Gálvez, "La iglesia mexicana frente a la política exterior e interior del gobierno de Adolfo López Mateos," in De la Rosa and Reilly, eds., Religión y Política en México, 59–77; Olivera de Bonfil *, "La iglesia en México, 1926–1970," 313; and Claude Pomerleau, "Cambios en la liderazgo y la crisis de autoridad en el catolicismo mexicano," in De la Rosa and Reilly, eds., Religión y Política en México, 240– 59, especially p. 248. 8. This definition has been adopted loosely from Ivan Vallier, Catholicism, Social Control, and Modernization in Latin America (Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall, 1970), 64. For a discussion of Catholic Action's historical development in Europe, see below, notes 15–27, and accompanying text. 9. Pope Pius XI, "Discurso del Santo Padre a los Peregrinos Mexicanos," in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 26:3 (September 1931), 135–38. 10. Michael Williams, The Catholic Church in Action (New York: Kennedy and Sons, 1958), 310. For a more recent monograph putting forth the "spiritual" interpretation of Catholic Action, see Vallier, Catholicism, 64. 11. José Angel Tello, Ideología y política: La iglesia católica española (Zaragoza: Libros Pórtico, 1984), 19; Raymond F. Cour, "Catholic Action and Politics in the Writings of Pope Pius XI" (Ph. D. diss., Notre Dame University, 1953), 121. 12. Antonio Gramsci, Note sul Machiavelli, sulla politica e sullo Stato moderno (Turin: Ediciones Einaudi, 1966), 237–38. For an analysis of Gramsci's views on Catholic Action, see Hughes Portelli, Gramsci y la cuestión religiosa: una sociología marxista de la religión (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1974), 150–57. 13. See Vallier, Catholicism, 64; Tello, Ideología y política, 19; Portelli, Gramsci, 153. 14. See Vallier, Catholicism, 65; Portelli, Gramsci, 151. 15. Advocates of "social Catholicism" condemned both capitalism and socialism, claiming that the former placed individual aggrandizement above moral considerations and that the latter's attack on private property removed security from the family, a source of traditional values. Rather, the solution to socioeconomic ills was argued to lie in cooperative social reform efforts by all classes. See Gilson, ed., The Church Speaks to the Modern World, 205–40. 16. See Richard A. Webster, The Cross and the Fasces: Christian Democracy and Fascism in Italy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960), 5–6; José AndrésGallego, Pensamiento y acción social de la Iglesia en España (Madrid: EspasaCalpe, 1984), 159–217; John McManners, Church and State in France, 1870–1914 (New York: Harper, 1972), 89–92, 170. 17. See Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy, 18; AndrésGallego, Pensamiento y acción social, 340–43. 18. Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy, 20; Tello, Ideología y política, 49; Rhodes, The Vatican, 103–6.
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19. These were the Partito Populare Italiano in Italy and Action Française in France. See Webster, The Cross and the Fasces, 96–97; Rhodes, The Vatican, 108. 20. Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy, 22–23. 21. Ibid., 98–108; Vallier, Catholicism, 64. 22. Poggi, Catholic Action in Italy, 23. 23. Ibid., 37–39; Tello, Ideología y política, 174–78. 24. Webster, The Cross and the Fasces, 110; Rhodes, The Vatican, 148, 176. 25. David I. Kertzer, Comrades and Christians: Religion and Political Struggle in Communist Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 104; Rhodes, The Vatican, 75. 26. E. Miret Magdalena, "La teología y la doctrina social católica progresistas, al advenimiento de la II Republica," in Joaquín Ruiz Giménez, Iglesia, Estado y Sociedad en España, 1930–1982 (Barcelona: Argos Vergara, 1984), 38–69, especially pp. 63–64. 27. Javier Tussell, "El comienzo del colaboracionismo católico con el franquismo," in Ruiz Giménez, Iglesia, Estado y Sociedad, 185–217, especially p. 210. 28. On "social Catholicism" in late nineteenth and early twentiethcentury Mexico, see Jorge Adame Goddard, El pensamiento político y social de los Católicos Mexicanos, 1867–1914 (México, D.F.: UNAM, 1981); Manuel Ceballos Ramírez, "La encíclica Rerum Novarum y los trabajadores católicos en la ciudad de México (1891–1913)," in Historia Mexicana 33:1 (July–September 1983), 3–38; Laurence J. Rolfes, "The Porfirian Church and the Social Question: Rerum Novarum and Mexico" (Paper presented at the meeting of the Southwestern Social Science Association, March 18, 1982). 29. Peter L. Reich interview with Luis Beltrán y Mendoza, October 18 and 23, 1979. Beltrán was a charter member of the ACJM in 1913. 30. Adame Goddard, El pensamiento político, 172–82. 31. Beltrán y Mendoza interview; Adame Goddard, El pensamiento político, 182. 32. For a summary of lay Catholics' antigovernment activity and Church passivity in the period 1917–26, see Chapter 2 herein. 33. Velázquez, El Secretariado Social, 8–10; Ledit, El frente de los pobres, 154–55. 34. Peter L. Reich interview with Sofía del Valle, March 14 and 19, 1980. Srta. del Valle was an early organizer of women's groups under SSM auspices. 35. See Chapter 2 of the present work. 36. Miguel Dario Miranda, "Informe rendido al V. Episcopado . . . ," December 8, 1931, 7, ASSMMD. 37. Sofía del Valle interview.
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38. Peter L. Reich interview with Cardinal Miguel Dario Miranda, April 29, 1980. 39. See Chapters 3 and 4 of the present work. 40. This section is based on the SSM actas (weekly minutes) and informes (reports covering several years) uncovered in the Archivo del Secretariado Social Mexicano (ASSM). 41. Dario Miranda, "Informe," December 8, 1931, 14–15. 42. Velázquez, El Secretariado Social, 44. 43. Dario Miranda, "Informe," December 8, 1931, 15–16. As discussed in Chapter 3, the old, militant ACJM was suppressed and replaced with a new, more passive group with the same title. 44. Dario Miranda, "Informe," December 8, 1931, 15–16. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid., 17. 47. Velázquez, El Secretariado Social, 97. 48. SMM actas, March 10, 1932, ASSMActas. 49. SMM actas, March 3, 1932, ASSMActas. 50. Dario Miranda, "Informe," December 8, 1931, 18; Sofía del Valle interview. 51. Velázquez, El Secretariado Social, 97. 52. SMM actas, February 18, 1932, ASSMActas. 53. Acción Católica Mexicana, Comisión Central de Instrucción Religiosa, "Curso nacional de doctrina católica explicada con las sagradas escrituras," in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 28:6 (December 1932), 232–37. 54. Peter L. Reich interview with Lic. José González Torres, October 30, 1979. 55. José de Jesus Manríquez y Zárate to Luis Beltrán y Mendoza, January 10, 1933, APECER. 56. SMM actas, October 16, 1937, ASSMActas. 57. SMM actas, January 28, 1932; August 2, 1934, ASSMActas. 58. SMM actas, March 7, 1938, ASSMActas. 59. SMM actas, July 22, 1940, ASSMActas. 60. SMM actas, October 30, 1937, ASSMActas. 61. SMM actas, November 25, 1941, ASSMActas. 62. SMM actas, September 9, 1942, ASSMActas. 63. Rafael Dávila Vilchis, "Secretariado Social Mexicano," in Christus, 8:87 (February 1943), 180. 64. Ibid. 65. This section of the chapter is based on the correspondence of ecclesiastical and lay leaders in various collections (see Chapter 6, note 1) and this author's oral interviews, conducted in 1979 and 1980 with individuals active in Acción Católica during the thirties (see this chapter, note 1).
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66. Ibid. 67. Pope Pius XI, "Discurso del Santo Padre a los Peregrinos Mexicanos," in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 26:3 (September 1931), 135–38. 68. Ruiz to Díaz, December 10, 1932, APECER. 69. Arzobispado de México, "Anexo No. 2 a la Circular del 12 de Agosto," in Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México 30:2 (August 1933), 53–55. 70. Ruiz to Raquel Salinas, September 2, 1934, APECER. 71. Pope Pius XI, "Carta Apostólica Sobre la Situación Religiosa en México (Firmissimam Constantim)," in Christus 2:18 (May 1937), 388–99. 72. José Sota to Luis G. Bustos, November 12, 1932, APECER. Sota was President of the Nuevo León Diocesan Board of ACM, and Bustos was President of the National Board. 73. José D. Cueva, "Respuestas al Cuestionario . . . ," July 20, 1935, ASSMCRPD. 74. J. A. Martínez, "Informe de la Diócesis de Tacámbaro de Febrero de 1936," March 7, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 75. José López Ortega, "Informe de la Arquidiócesis de Yucatán correspondiente al primer trimestre de 1936," March 31, 1936, ASSMCRPD. 76. Alfredo Galindo Mendoza, Apuntes Geográficos y Estadísticos de la Iglesia Católica en México (México, D.F.: Revista "La Cruz," 1945), 25. 77. Pattee, The Catholic Revival in Mexico, 46–47. 78. Beltrán y Mendoza interview. 79. González Torres interview. For the text of Article 130, see Navarrete y Pallares, La persecución religiosa, 132–34. 80. González Torres interview. González Torres was later national president of ACM (1949–52) and the 1964 PAN candidate for President of Mexico. 81. Sofía del Valle interview. 82. New York Times, September 28, 1942. 83. "Carta Pastoral Colectiva del Vble. Episcopado Mexicano sobre la Acción Católica," October 29, 1944, BSC. 84. Acción Católica's contemporary role in openly disseminating religious propaganda, an activity from which priests have often been barred under interpretations of Articles 3, 24, and 130, is discussed in Olivera de Bonfil, "La iglesia," 313; and in my González Torres interview. Chapter 8 1. Burgoa, Derecho constitucional mexicano, 966–68. See also Victor Áviles, "Ante la crisis, la iglesia redobla su acción política," Punto (April 9, 1984); Soledad Loaeza, "Iglesia/Estado, ¿La guerra terminó?" Nexos 113 (May
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1987), 5–6; Daniel Moreno, Derecho constitucional mexicano (México, D.F.: Editorial PaxMéxico, 1976), 551–53. It should be noted that in 1991 the Chamber of Deputies amended some of these provisions, legalizing religious education, public religious ceremonies, church property ownership, and clerical voting. Rodrigo Vera, "Iniciativa de un mes: el Presidente la orderó, Mariano Palacios la elaboró los legisladores la firmaron y el PRI la presentó," Proceso 789 (December 16, 1991), 6–13. 2. Oscar Hinojosa, "Apoyo al sacerdote que demanda amparo contra el Código electoral," Proceso 561 (August 3, 1987), 26–27. 3. On John Paul II's 1979 visit, see Equipo de escritores y reporteros de Proceso, Juan Pablo II en México: Una iglesia entre dos cristos (México, D.F.: CISA, S.A., 1979), 69; Peter L. Reich, "With Special Dispensation, the Pope Gets a Mexican Welcome," Los Angeles Times, January 28, 1979. On the 1990 trip, see Pedro Alisedo, "En México hay que componer muchas cosas, menos la Iglesia, que es la verdad," Proceso 706 (May 14, 1990), 6–13. 4. Episcopado Mexicano, "Exhortación del Episcopado Nacional al Clero y a los Católicos para Aliviar la situación de los Campesinos Mexicanos," March 8, 1948. 5. Hispanic American Report 12:12 (December 1959), 649. 6. Soledad Loaeza, "Notas para el estudio de la iglesia en el México contemporáneo," 53, in Martin de la Rosa and Charles Reilly, eds., Religión y Política en México (México, D.F.: Siglo XXI, 1985). 7. Kimberly Conroy, "The Catholic Church in Mexico: Opting for the Status Quo," Institute of Current World Affairs, August 13, 1982. 8. Frederick C. Turner, Responsible Parenthood: The Politics of Mexico's New Population Policies (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1974), 2– 3. 9. Mexican Bishops, "A Message on Responsible Parenthood," LADOC, January 1973. 10. Ibid. 11. Turner, Responsible Parenthood, 30; James W. Wilkie, "Statistical Indicators of the Impact of National Revolution on the Catholic Church in Mexico," in Journal of Church and State 12:1 (Winter 1970), 105. 12. Emilio Hernández, "Echeverría impuso a José López Portillo su plan de Alianza con la Iglesia," Proceso 447 (May 27, 1985), 6–11. 13. Ibid. 14. Curia del Arzobispado de México, "Circular no. 15," May 13, 1980. 15. Excélsior, August 14, 1982. 16. Hernández, "Alianza con la Iglesia," 7. 17. Elías Chávez, "La revolución está en marcha y para probarlo promueve nacimientos y pastorelas y hace posadas," Proceso 476 (December 16, 1985), 8–9.
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18. Miguel Angel Barragan, "Rechaza la Iglesia la incitación a la desobediencia civil," Uno Más Uno, March 16, 1988. 19. Excélsior, December 3, 1988. 20. Elena Gallegos, "Hoy se vive una nueva época de tolerancia y libertad: Carlos Salinas," El País, September 22, 1992. See this chapter, note 1 for details of the constitutional reforms. 21. Nora PérezRayón E., "La Iglesia católica, actor estelar en los nuevos y convulsos escenarios de la vida política nacional," El Cotidiano 62 (May–June 1994), 60–61. 22. Sergio Méndez Arceo, "Exhortación pastoral acerca del reacondicionamiento de la santa Iglesia Catedral de Cuernavaca," Cuernavaca, Mor., December 17, 1959; Peter L. Reich, interview with P. Baltázar López, Cuernavaca, Mor., August 22,1977. 23. Tarsicio Ocampo V., ed., Mexico "Entredicho' Del Vaticano a CIDOC (Cuernavaca: CIDOC, 1969); Luis Suarez, Cuernavaca ante al Vaticano (México, D.F.: Grijalbo, 1970). 24. Carlos Fazio, "Disonante es censurar a Méndez Arceo por dar voz a los pobres," Proceso 300 (August 2, 1982). 25. "Ubicación política de los obispos mexicanos," Dí 21 (March 19, 1981), 19. 26. Carlos Palomar and Manuel Esparza, "Objetan dos sacerdotes jesuitos la prohibición de tratar con el CIDOC," Excélsior, January 30, 1969; Peter L. Reich, interview with Dra. Sylvia Marcos, Cuernavaca, Mor., August 1, 1977. 27. Hernández, "Alianza con la Iglesia," 7. 28. Ibid., at 10. 29. Ernesto Corripio Ahumada et al., "Declaración," Correo del Sur (Cuernavaca Mor.), April 23, 1978.) 30. Fazio, "Méndez Arceo," 6. 31. Rodrigo Vera, "La jerarquía, en combate contra seguidores de Méndez Arceo y su obra en Morelos," Proceso 48 (April 3, 1959). 32. Los Angeles Times, July 21, 1986. 33. Ibid. 34. Alvear Acevedo, La educación y la ley, 349–53. 35. Peter L. Reich, interview with Lic. José González Torres, October 30, 1979. 36. Ramón Sánchez Medal, El derecho de educar en la escuela (México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1963), 6–16. 37. José Garibi Rivera, Pastoral de Cuaresma, Guadalajara, Jal., April 1960. 38. Alejandro Gálvez, "La iglesia mexicana frente a la política exterior y interior del gobierno de Adolfo López Mateos," in De la Rosa and Reilly, eds., Religión y Política, 59–77, 75.
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39. La Nación, September 2,1962. 40. Guillermo Villaseñor, Estado e iglesia, 188; J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966), 413. 41. Estela Sánchez Albarrán, "El quehacer político de los laicos católicos," El Cotidiano 35 (May–June 1990), 24–32, 31. As noted in this chapter, note 1, Article 3 and certain other constitutional provisions restricting religious activities have recently been liberalized. 42. "Los sacerdotes no pueden, pero sí van a votar," La Jornada, June 19, 1985. 43. Eckstein, The Poverty of Revolution, 110. 44. Ibid. 45. Luis González, Pueblo en vilo: Microhistoria de San José de Gracia (México, D.F.: El Colegio de Mexico, 1972), 337. 46. Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1987. 47. Frans J. Schryer, The Rancheros of Pisaflores (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), 133. 48. El Heraldo, May 2, 1977. 49. Peter L. Reich, interview with Lic. José González Torres, October 30, 1979; Alicia Olivera de Bonfil *, "La Iglesia en México, 1926–1970," in James W. Wilkie et al., eds., Contemporary Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976), 295–316, 313. 50. Peter L. Reich, interview with P. Paco Merino (MEP Director), October 10, 1979. 51. Episcopado mexicano, "Exhortación." 52. González Torres interview. 53. Ibid.; Mabry, Mexico's Acción Nacional, 234 n. 10. Chapter 9 1. Hernández, "Alianza con la Iglesia," 7. 2. Oscar Hinojosa, "La misión evangélica ordena dejar la sacristía, afirma* Sergio Obeso," Proceso 514 (September 8, 1986), 10. 3. Conferencia del Episcopado Mexicano, "Consideraciones acerca del Artículo 343 del CFE, 18 de Febrero de 1986," in Excélsior, February 25, 1987, 11A. 4. See Chapter 8, note 33 and accompanying text. 5. See Otto Maduro, Religión y conflicto social (México, D.F.: Centro de Estudios Ecuménicos, 1978), 177; Portelli, Gramsci, 140. 6. On Italy, see Webster, The Cross and the Fasces, 110–13; on Spain, see José Manuel Cuenca Toribio, "IglesiaEstado en la España del siglo XX
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(1931–1979)," Estudios eclesiásticos 55:212 (January–March 1980), 89–110, 97–99; Javier Tussell, "El comienzo del colaboracionismo católico con el franquismo," in Ruíz Giménez, Iglesia, Estado y Sociedad, 185–217. 7. On Brazilian ChurchState relations generally, see Scott Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil, 1916–1986 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); Thomas C. Bruneau, The Political Transformation of the Brazilian Catholic Church (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974). On the Constitution of 1891, see Geraldo Fernandes, "A Religião nas Constituições Republicanas do Brasil," Revista Eclesiástica Brasileira 25 (December 1948), 832– 44. 8. Irmã Maria Regina do Santo Rosário, O Cardeal Leme (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria José Olympio Editôra, 1962), 134. 9. Ibid., 167. 10. Ibid. 11. Ralph Della Cava, "Catholicism and Society in Twentieth Century Brazil," Latin American Research Review 11:2 (1976), 7–50, 12; Margaret Todaro Williams, "Integralism and the Brazilian Catholic Church," Hispanic American Historical Review 54:3 (August 1974), 431–52, 432. 12. Bruneau, Brazilian Catholic Church, 41–42. 13. Patrick M. Hughes, "Church Renewal in Brazil," Telos 58 (Winter 1983–84), 83–94, 89; Thomas G. Sanders, "The Catholic Church in Brazil's Political Transition," American Universities Field Staff Reports 1980/No. 48. In the sixties, seventies, and eighties the Church's role as critic of authoritarian regimes grew throughout Latin America. See Michael Dodson, "Nicaragua: The Struggle for the Church," and Brian H. Smith, "Chile: Deepening the Allegiance of WorkingClass Sectors to the Church in the 1970s,'' in Daniel H. Levine, ed., Religion and Political Conflict in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986). 14. Mateo Jover Miramón, "The Church," in Carmelo MesaLago, ed., Revolutionary Change in Cuba (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1971), 399– 426, 403. On postrevolutionary Cuban ChurchState relations generally, see also Margaret E. Crahan, "Salvation Through Christ or Marx: Religion in Revolutionary Cuba," Journal of Interamerican Studies 21:1 (February 1979), 156–84; Raul Gómez Trejo, The Church and Socialism in Cuba (New York: Orbis Books, 1988); "The Church and the State in Cuba," in Carmelo MesaLago, ed., Cuban Studies 19 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), 3–77. 15. Miramón, "The Church", 404; Aldo J. Buntig, "The Church in Cuba: Toward a New Frontier," in Alice L. Hageman and Philip E. Wheaton, Religion in Cuba Today (New York: Association Press, 1971), 95–128, 108. Some of this legislation, including the nationalization of ecclesiastical property, the secularization of education, and limits on ceremonies was incorporated, in
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modified form, into the Constitution of 1976. "Constitución de la República," in Gaceta oficial (Havana), February 24, 1976, arts. 38(b), 53. 16. Frei Betto, Fidel and Religion (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 195. 17. Jover Miramón, "The Church," 406. 18. Ibid., 413. 19. Vida Cristiana (Havana), April 27, 1969. 20. Orlando Contreras, "La Iglesia en Cuba, reportaje a un nuevo obispo: Monseñor Oves," CIDOC Doc. 69/153, Cuernavaca, Mor., 1969. 21. Acción Católica Cubana, "Informe a la Comisión Episcopal de Apostolado Seglar," Havana, February 2, 1967. 22. Carlos Fazid, "Cuba, IglesiaEstado: del anatema al diálogo," Proceso 47:8 (December 30, 1985), 4248. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid. 25. Quoted in Betto, Fidel and Religion, 232. 26. Quoted in Fazio, "Cuba, IglesiaEstado," 48. 27. Adrien Dansette, Histoire Religieuse de la France Contemporaine (Paris: Flammarion, 1965), 606; McManners, Church and State, 147–48. The following discussion of France is based largely on the above sources. For a study of the relationship between anticlericalism and French revolutionary ideology, see Richard Cobb, The People's Armies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 442–79. 28. McManners, Church and State, 147–48. 29. Ibid., 166. 30. Dansette, Histoire Religieuse, 634. 31. McManners, Church and State, 166–68. 32. Dansette, Histoire Religieuse, 623. 33. Ibid., 647. 34. Ibid., 662–63. 35. Ibid., 635–36. 36. Ibid., 635–39. 37. Ibid., 638. 38. McManners, Church and State, 150. 39. Ibid., 172–73. 40. Donald W. Treadgold, ed., Twentieth Century Russia (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964), 251. On postrevolutionary Soviet ChurchState relations generally, see also Gerhard Simon, Church, State and Opposition in the U.S.S.R. (trans. from the German, Die Kirchen in Russland: Berichte Dokumente, Munich: Manz Verlag, 1970) (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974). 41. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, 252–53, 350.
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42. Simon, Church, State and Opposition, 65–66. 43. Ibid., 66. 44. A. Ya. Vyshinsky, quoted in Merle Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), 377. 45. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, 350. 46. Ibid., 351. 47. Paul Miliukov, Religion and the Church in Russia (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1972), 210. 48. Merle Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (New York: Vintage, 1958), 213, 437. This unique work summarizes Fainsod's examination of the Smolensk Communist Party archive for the years 1917–38, documents seized by the Nazis during World War II and then captured by the Americans. These records are the only primary Party sources on this period available to Western noncommunist scholars. 49. Ibid., 213. 50. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, 352. 51. Simon, Church, State and Opposition, 67; N. S. Timasheff, "Religion in Russia, 1941–1950," in Waldemar Gurian, ed., The Soviet Union: Background, Ideology, Reality (South Bend: Notre Dame University Press, 1951), 153–94. 52. Simon, Church, State and Opposition, 68. 53. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, 375. 54. Los Angeles Times, January 9, 1988, Part II, p. 6. Perestroika was a general term used by Mikhail Gorbachev for his planned restructuring of Soviet society. 55. Simon, Church, State and Opposition, 68. 56. Los Angeles Times, January 9,1988, Part II, p. 6. 57. Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 110. 58. The Nicaraguan episcopate initially supported the 1979 revolution against dictator Anastasio Somoza and even backed certain aspects of the victorious Sandinistas' socialist programs. See David Close, Nicaragua: Politics, Economics and Society (London: Pinter, 1988), 66–67. However, by 1982 the hierarchy was publicly criticizing the regime on such issues as Indian resettlement, educational reform, compulsory military service, and media censorship. Ibid., 68–71; Margaret E. Crahan, "Religion and Politics in Revolutionary Nicaragua," in Scott Mainwaring and Alexander Wilde, eds., The Progressive Church in Latin America (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1989), 41–63, 51–56; Envío (Managua), vol. 4, nos. 38 (August 1984), 50 (August 1985), 53 (November 1985) (Nicaraguan government publication). The Church's hostility may have contributed to the Sandinistas' loss of the 1989 election. 59. It also bears pointing out that the Nicaraguan episcopate's opposition to the Sandinistas need not augur poorly for the PRI. The Church's
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critical stance in Nicaragua was facilitated by the Managua regime's failure to enact any anticlerical legislation of the kind which in Mexico and Cuba had given revolutionary governments some leverage over ecclesiastical policy. In fact, the 1987 Nicaraguan constitution contains no limits on Church property or ceremonies, expressly authorizes religious teaching, and enshrines freedom of religion as one of the few civil rights that cannot be suspended by the executive during a state of emergency. "Constitución política," arts. 124, 186 in 91 La Gaceta (Managua) 33 (1987). Unlike the situation in Mexico, there was no incentive for the Nicaraguan bishops to collaborate with the Sandinistas because there were few restrictive laws that could be enforced to the institutional Church's detriment.
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Bibliography Archival Collections For an indepth discussion of four of the collections listed below, APEC, ASSM, BSC, and COND, see Peter L. Reich, "Algunos archivos para el estudio de la historia eclesiástica mexicana en el siglo XX," Historia Mexicana 30:1 (July–September 1980), 126–33.
AGN
Archivo General de la Nación, México, D.F.
ASC
Archivo General de la Suprema Corte de la Nación, Pino Suarez 2, México, D.E
APEC
Archivo Plutarco Elías Calles, Guadalajara 104, Colonia Roma, México, D.F.
APECER
Colección "Escrituras religiosas," 1930–35 (internal Church correspondence, largely at episcopal level, intercepted in the mail by federal agents)
APECCC
Colección Cádenas (personal correspondence of Lázaro Cárdenas, President of Mexico, 1934–40)
APECCPG
Colección Portes Gil (personal correspondence of Emilio Portes Gil, President of Mexico, 1928–30)
APECCT
Colección Tejeda (personal correspondence of Adalberto Tejeda, Governor of Veracruz, 1920–24, 1928–32)
ASSM
Archivo del Secretariado Social Mexicano, Ocotepec 39, San Jerónimo, D.F.
ASSMCRPD
Colección "Conflicto religioso por diócesis," 1935–37 (monthly written responses from every diocese to Episcopal Committee questionnaires regarding local ChurchState relations during the twoyear period)
ASSMActas
Actas del Secretariado Social Mexicano, 1931–42 (weekly minutes of SSM Directive Committee meetings)
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ASSMCC
Cortes de Caja, 1929–42 (SSM financial records, including donation sources and expenditures)
ASSMMD
Miscellaneous Documents (SMM internal correspondence and informes [reports] to episcopate, 1925–42)
BSC
Biblioteca del Seminario Conciliar, Victoria 21, Tlálpan, D.F. (miscellaneous correspondence, pastoral letters, and decrees of Mexican episcopate; also documentation relating to Church seminaries and private schools, 1910–47)
COND
Centro de Estudios de Historia de México, Condumex, Plaza Gamboa 1, Chimalistac, D.F.
CONDCR
Colección "Conflicto religioso," 1910–37 (correspondence, broadsides, and rare publications of the Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa, Acción Cívica Nacional, and other Catholic resistance organizations of the 1930s. Most of this material is not contained in the Liga archive discussed below)
LIGA
Archivo de la Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa, Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Historia, México, D.F. (microfilm of Miguel Palomar y Vizcarra's personal collection, containing internal correspondence of Liga and correspondence between Liga and episcopate, 1926–36)
MQ
Murray Questionnaire, original in possession of Paul V. Murray, México, D.F.; copy in possession of Peter L. Reich. (written responses from every Mexican diocese to questionnaire propounded by Washington Post correspondent Murray regarding local political climate for religious practice, 1936)
Oral Interviews Miguel Aranda Díaz, January 7 and March 16, 1980. (Private secretary to General Saturnino Cedillo, 1929–39.) Luis Beltrán y Mendoza, October 18 and 23, 1979. (President of Comité Central de Instrucción Religiosa in 1930s; President of Acción Católica Mexicana, 1946–49.) Cardinal Miguel Dario Miranda, April 29, 1980. (Director of Secretariado Social Mexicano, 1925–37; Archbishop of Mexico, 1956–78.)
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Hortensia Elías Calles de Torreblanca, various conversations, Mexico City, February–April 1980. (Daughter of President Plutarco Elías Calles and wife of Fernando Torreblanca, private secretary to Álvaro Obregón, 1919–28, and later to Calles, 1928–36.) Padre Baltázar López, August 22, 1977. (Parish priest of Tlaltenango, Morelos, in late 1960s; participant in Méndez Arceo reforms.) Padre Paco Merino, October 10, 1979. (Director of Movimiento Estudiantil Profesional [within ACM], 1977–.) Lic. José González Torres, October 30, 1979. (Secretary General of Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana, 1940–44; President of ACM, 1949–52; candidate for President of Mexico, Partido Acción Nacional, 1964.) Sofía del Valle, March 14 and 19, 1980. (ACM organizer, teacher in 1930s.) Newspapers and Periodicals Abside (Mexico City) Boletín del Asistente Eclesiástico (Mexico City) Boletín Eclesiástico del Arzobispado de Morelia (Morelia) Boletín Oficial de la Acción Católica de Chihuahua (Chihuahua) Christus (Mexico City) Correo del Sur (Cuernavaca) Diario Oficial (Mexico City) El Cotidiano (Mexico City) El Heraldo (Mexico City) El Nacional (Mexico City) El País (Mexico City) El Universal (Mexico City) Envío (Managua) Excélsior (Mexico City) Gaceta Oficial (Havana) Gaceta Oficial del Arzobispado de México (Mexico City) La Gaceta (Managua) La Jornada (Mexico City) La Palabra (Mexico City) La Unión (Mexico City) Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles) New York Times (New York)
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Nexos (Mexico City) Onir (Mexico City) Pax (Mexico City) Proceso (Mexico City) Punto (Mexico City) Reconquista (Guadalajara and Mexico City) Revista Eclesiástica Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro) Restauración (Guadalajara) Uno Más Uno (Mexico City) Vida Cristiana (Havana) Published Primary Sources Abascal, Salvador. La reconquista espiritual de Tabasco en 1938. México, D.F.: Editorial Tradición, 1972. ———. Mis Recuerdos: Sinarquismo y Colonia María Auxliadora. México, D.F.: Editorial Tradición, 1980. Alvear Acevedo, Carlos. La educación y la ley. México, D.F.: Editorial Jus, 1978. Bassols, Narciso. Obras. México, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1964. Beteta, Ramón, ed. Programa económico y social de México. México, D.F.: n.p., 1935. Betto, Frei. Fidel and Religion. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987. Bremauntz, Alberto. La educación socialista en México. México, D.F.: Imprenta Rivadeneyra, 1943. Calles, Plutarco Elías. Mexico Before the World; Public Documents and Addresses of . . . Translated by R. H. Murray. New York: Academy Press, 1927. Camacho, Ramiro. La cuestión agraria. Guadalajara: Imprenta Font, 1939. ———. ¿Son Ladrones los Agraristas? Guadalajara: n.p., 1940. Carreño, Alberto María. Paginas de historia Mexicana. México, D.F.: Ediciones Victoria, 1936. ———. Pascual Díaz y Barreto . . . homenajes póstumos. México, D.F.: Ediciones Victoria, 1936. Correa, Eduardo J. El balance de Ávila Camacho. México, D.F.: n.p., 1946. Curia del Arzobispado de México. Circular no. 15, May 13, 1980. Daniels, Josephus. ShirtSleeve Diplomat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947. Diario de los Debates del Congreso Constituyente, 1916–1917. 2 vols. México, D.F.: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1960. Díaz, Pascual. Primera Carta Pastoral. México, D.F.: n.p., March 25, 1930. Episcopado Nacional. Carta Pastoral Colectiva . . . con motivo de la Celebración del Patronato Guadalupano. México, D.F.: n.p., December 12, 1933.
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Index A Abascal, Salvador, 86, 152n. 90 abortion, 2, 107, 117 Acción Cató1ica Mexicana (ACM), 3, 3234, 39, 91, 9394, 98103, 110, 115, 116, 13637n. 114, 160n. 1, 161nn. 2, 6, 165n. 84 Acción Cívica Nacional, 43, 85 agrarian reform, 41, 47, 61, 6263, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 114, 147nn. 35, 37, 148nn. 38, 40, 149n. 50 agraristas, 63 Aguascalientes (state), 76, 82, 92 Allende, Sebastián, 36 Almazán, Juan Andreu, 65, 66, 150n. 65 Almeida Merino, Adalberto, 1089, 115, 117 Altamirano, Luis, 31 amparo, 38, 59, 81, 85, 88, 89, 114, 115, 138n. 24, 146n. 28 Aranda Díaz, Miguel, 150n. 59 arreglos, 3, 15, 17, 2028 Asociación Católica de la Juventud Mexicana (ACJM), 12, 13, 14, 15, 28, 3134, 9697, 98, 99, 1023, 120, 136n. 102, 136 37n. 114, 137n. 115, 164n. 43 audiencia, 7 Avila Camacho, 55, 66, 67, 6872, 73 B Baja California Norte (state), 70, 77 Baja California Sur (state), 77 Bassols, Narciso, 4547, 85, 141n. 77 Beals, Carleton, 20, 25, 28 Beltrán y Mendoza, Luis, 161n. 2 Benedict XV (Pope), 95 Bergoend, Bernardo, 31, 32 Bosques del Lago, Méx., 109 Bourbon reforms, 6, 7, 8, 15, 113 Brambila, Antonio, 40 Bravo Betancourt, Ignacio, 47 Brazil, 118, 122, 123 Bremauntz, Alberto, 52, 14243n. 97, 143n. 104 C Calles, Plutarco Elías, 12, 13, 14, 22, 23, 25, 36, 37, 38, 48, 49, 5657, 58, 77, 132n. 28, 137n. 3, 138n. 21, 143n. 112, 145n. 6, 14546n. 7, 155n. 11 Calles, Señora, 37, 138n. 21 Camacho, Vicente, 85 Campeche (state), 76, 86, 92 Canales, Felipe, 2224, 32 Cárdenas, Lázaro, 1, 35, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 5557, 5859, 60, 6167, 68, 69, 71, 73, 75, 80, 83, 90, 113, 132n. 28, 141n. 74, 143n. 111, 145n. 6, 145 146n. 7, 146n. 20, 147n. 31, 148n. 40, 150nn. 59, 65, 151n. 70, 153n. 2 Carranza, Venustiano, 11, 12, 77 Castro, Fidel, 119
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Catholic Action movement, 32, 9398, 103, 136n. 106, 13637n. 114, 160n. 1 Catholic social doctrine, 6263, 95, 96, 100, 148n. 41, 162n. 15 Cedillo, Saturnino, 14, 56, 65, 66, 82, 150n. 59 Ceniceros y Villareal, Rafael, 29 census, national, 2, 83, 90, 114 Centro Intercultural de Documentación (CIDOC), 108 Chamber of Deputies, 2, 107, 16566n. 1 Charles III (King), 7 Chiapa de Corzo, Chis., 85 Chiapas (state), 76, 86, 92, 110, 154n. 9, 158n. 70 Chihuahua, Chih. (city), 110 Chihuahua (state), 13, 59, 77, 88, 89, 92, 155n. 10 Christus, 8586 Ciudad Camargo, Chih., 88 Ciudad Juárez, Chih., 89 Coahuila (state), 77, 89, 92, 146n. 17, 155nn. 10, 11 cofradías, 6 Colima (state), 14, 76, 8081, 92 Colosio, Luis Donaldo, 107 Comisión Central de Instrucción Religiosa (CCIR), 99100 Comisión de la Comunicación Social, 117 Comité de Acción Nacional, 51 Constitution of 1824, 8 Constitution of 1857, 8, 9, 41 Constitution of 1917 generally, 1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13, 15, 19, 21, 25, 57, 58, 59, 72, 73, 90, 97, 107, 113, 116 Article 3, 11, 32, 4553, 55, 6970, 105, 109, 110, 165n. 84, 16566n. 1, 168n. 41 Article 24, 11, 105, 110, 165n. 84, 16566n. 1 Article 27, 11, 23, 26, 62, 64, 69, 105, 109, 16566n. 1 Article 130, 11, 12, 23, 32, 36, 102, 105, 109, 110, 165n. 84, 16566n. 1 contradocumento, 10 Corripio Ahumada, Ernesto, 2, 90, 1067, 108, 109, 117 Cristero rebellion, 2, 3, 1315, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 28, 29, 31, 32, 41, 76, 78, 94, 97, 113, 132nn. 24, 28, 139n. 42, 155n. 11, 161n. 6 Cristeros, 14, 19, 27, 28, 30, 32, 37, 40, 41, 65, 108, 129n. 71, 13132n. 20, 154n. 7 Cuba, 119, 122 Culiacán, Sin., 88 D Daniels, Josephus, 51, 146n. 17 Dario Miranda, Miguel, 29, 32, 97, 98, 99, 100, 161n. 2 Dávila Vilchis, Rafael, 100101 De la Mora, Miguel, 30, 31 Del Valle, Sofía, 161n. 2, 163n. 34 Díaz, Porfirio, 9, 10, 11, 18, 19, 20, 71 Díaz Ordaz, Gustavo, 106 Díaz y Barreto, Pascual, 14, 1920, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 2930, 31, 3233, 38, 40, 4142, 46, 47, 49, 50, 58, 79, 85, 131n. 16, 13637n. 114 Durango (state), 76, 92 E ecclesiastical assistants, 99 Echeverría Alvarez, Luis, 106 education generally, 9, 42, 4553, 73, 85, 11516 home schools, 46, 51, 53, 80, 85, 88, 102, 114, 115 secular (lay), 11, 4546, 141n. 76 sexual, 45, 4647 socialist, 45, 4752, 55, 56, 61, 63, 65, 67, 68, 6970, 73, 7980, 83, 85, 88, 90, 102, 115, 14243n. 97, 143nn. 104, 112, 144nn. 120, 125, 132, 145n. 137, 151n. 72 textbook controversy, 109, 110, 116 Election Code, 105, 117 Elizalde, Octavio, 32
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encomenderos, 6 Escobar, José G., 21, 132n. 22 Esquivel, José María, 82 F Fabio Altamirano, 48 family planning, 106, 110, 115 Federal District, 13, 23, 31, 36, 37, 38, 41, 92 France, 95, 120, 122, 163n. 19 Franco, Francisco, 96, 117 fueros, 7 G García Toledo, Anastasio, 85 Garibi Rivera, José, 64, 70, 79, 81, 109, 149n. 53 Garrido Canabal, Tomás, 19, 56, 131n. 16, 145n. 4, 159n. 90 Gillow y Zavalza, Eulogio, 10 Gómez Farías, Valentín, 8 Gómez Morín, Manuel, 59, 70, 147n. 31 González Torres, José. 102, 110, 161n. 2 González Valencia, Josí María, 43 Grajales, Victorio, 85 Gramsci, Antonio, 94 Greene, Graham, ix, 65, 154n. 9 ''Grito de Guadalajara," 49 Guadalajara, Jal., 10, 11, 14, 24, 31, 49, 50, 57, 79, 80 Guanajuato (state), 14, 76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 92 Guerrero (state), 14, 76, 81, 92 Guízar Valencia, Antonio, 24 Guízar Valencia, Rafael, 84, 85, 86 H hacendados, 62 Hidalgo (state), 76, 92, 110 Huejúcar, Zac., 88 Huerta, Victoriano, 96, 129n. 58 I Italy, 95, 96, 117, 152n. 89, 163n. 19 J Jalisco (state), 13, 14, 31, 36, 41, 76, 79, 81, 82, 90, 92, 129n. 65, 140n. 49, 157n. 50 John Paul II (Pope), 105, 115, 117 Juárez, Benito, 8, 41 Junco, Alfonso, 36 Juventud Católica Feminina Mexicana (JCFM), 9899, 1023 Juventud Cívica, 33, 136n. 111 K Knights of Columbus/Caballeros de Colón, 11, 30, 79, 142n. 81 L Labastida y Dávalos, Antonio, 9, 10 Lara y Torres, Leopoldo, 20, 3031, 33, 4244, 47, 49 Leo XIII (Pope), 95, 148n. 41 Ley Calles, 13 Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad Religiosa (LNDLR), 12, 13, 14, 15, 27, 2834, 40, 4144, 49, 50, 52, 56, 85, 97, 114, 134 35n. 71, 135n. 72, 148n. 40 Leyva Velázquez, Gabriel, 89 Lona Reyes, Arturo, 108 López Cárdenas, Fernando, 86 López Mateos, Adolfo, 106, 109 López Portillo, José, 106, 107, 108 Lugo, José, 81 Lugo Verduzco, Adolfo, 116 M Madero, Francisco, 19, 96 Manríquez y Zárate, José de Jesús, 20, 27, 43, 44, 50, 59, 7071,100, 144n. 119 Marshall, S.L.A., 56 Martínez, Luis María, 5960, 64, 66, 6869, 70, 71, 72, 100, 147n. 31 Maximilian of Austria, 9 Medina, Enrique, 23 Méndez Arceo, Sergio, 108, 115 Méndez del Río, Jenaro, 85 Merino, Paco, 161n. 2 Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church, 12, 23, 133n. 41 México, D.F. (city), 7, 11, 14, 26, 37, 38, 41, 47, 67, 69, 72, 79, 107 México (state), 36, 76, 92 Michoacán (state), 14, 36, 44, 49, 59, 76, 78, 79, 82, 92 Monterrey, N.L., 88 Montes de Oca, Luis, 37
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Moray del Río, José , 13, 14 Morelos (state), 36, 76, 86, 92, 107. 137n. 9 Moreno, José T., 149n. 50 Moreno, Manuel C., 42 Morrow, Dwight, 14, 21 Movimiento Estudiantil Profesional (MEP), 110 Múgica, Francisco J., 11, 66–67, 151n. 71 Mussolini, Benito, 96, 117 N Navarrete y Guerrero, Juan, 87, 88 Nayarit (state), 14, 76, 79, 82, 92, 146n. 17 Nicaragua, 123, 171n. 58, 17172n. 59 Nuevo León (state), 77, 88, 92 O Oaxaca (state), 8, 10, 76, 84, 85, 86, 92 Obeso Rivera, Sergio, 107 Obregón, Alvaro, 11, 12, 25, 81 Ocampo, Andrés, 81 O'Gorman, Juan, 67 oil nationalization, 61, 6364, 65, 66, 67, 68, 114 Orozco, José Luis, 41 Orozco y Jiménez, Francisco, 19, 20, 57, 58, 79, 149n. 53 Ortega, Melchor, 79 Ortiz Rubio, Pascual, 21, 2528, 30, 34, 3536, 37, 38, 39, 45, 46, 132n. 28 Ortiz Rubio, Señora, 26 Othón Núñez, José, 84 P Palomar y Vizcarra, Miguel, 33, 13637n. 114 Parra, Francisco, 81, 82 Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), 59, 66, 70, 107, 110, 116, 150n. 68, 161n. 5 Partido Católico Nacional (PCN), 96 Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), 22, 25, 27, 30, 35, 37, 41, 4749, 50, 52, 53, 56, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65, 114, 132n. 28, 143n. 112, 147nn. 35, 36, 148n. 40 Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM), 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 83, 90, 147n. 36, 151n. 72 Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 2, 3, 106, 107, 108, 109, 115, 116, 117, 121, 123, 147n. 36, 161n. 5, 17172n. 59 Paso del Macho, Ver., 41 patronato real, 5, 6, 8, 113 Paul VI (Pope), 108 Pedroza, Aristeo, 27 Penal Code, 105 Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), 64 Pius X (Pope), 95, 120 Pius XI (Pope), 21, 29, 37, 3839, 4041, 43, 44, 59, 6263, 95, 101, 102, 13637n. 114, 138n. 26 Placencia y Moreira, Ignacio, 87 Portes Gil, Emilio, 14, 19, 2125, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 37, 132nn. 27, 28, 144n. 119 Posadas Ocampo, Juan Jesús, 108 Protestants, 77, 110, 117 Puebla (city), 10, 83 Puebla (state), 76, 80, 82, 92 Puerto México, Ver., 84 Q Querétaro (city), 11, 12, 62, 78, 129n. 58 Querétaro (state), 41, 76, 80, 82, 92, 146n. 17 R Ramírez Meza, Francisco, 117 Reconquista, 43 Reform laws, 8, 9, 10, 11 Rerum Novarum, 95, 100, 148n. 41 Revolution of 1910, 1, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 42, 48, 62, 91, 93, 96, 123 Reynoso, José de Jesús, 83 Ríus Facius, Antonio, 32 Riva Palacio, Carlos, 48 Rodríguez, Abelardo, 35, 38, 39, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 132n. 28, 144n. 119
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Rodríguez Familiar, Ramón, 82 Ruiz García, Samuel, 108 Ruiz y Flores, Leopoldo, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 2930, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 4244, 46, 4849, 50, 51, 57, 58, 5960, 62, 63, 84, 85, 88, 101, 102, 136 37n. 114, 144n. 119 S Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 107, 117 Saltillo, N.L., 102 San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chis., 158n. 70 San Luis Potosí (state), 65, 76, 82, 92 San Miguel de Allende, Gto., 72 San Pedro Lagunillas, Nay., 81 Saucedo, Salvador, 8081 Secretariado Social Mexicano (SSM), 12, 9394, 97, 98101, 103, 110, 115, 161n. 2 "Segunda" (second Cristero War), 41, 43, 44, 56, 79, 85, 114, 139nn. 42, 43, 44, 140n. 49, 148n. 40 Sinaloa (state), 77, 89, 92 sinarquistas, 7071, 86, 152nn. 89, 90, 161n. 4 SixYear Plan, 4748, 61, 147n. 35 Sonora (state), 36, 77, 92, 155n. 11 Soviet Union, 106, 121 Spain, 95, 96, 117, 152n. 89 Stalin, Joseph, 121, 122 Supreme Court, 23, 36, 59, 60, 64, 72 T Tabasco (state), 19, 22, 23, 36, 75, 76, 92, 133n. 32, 145n. 4, 154n. 9 Tacámbaro, Mich., 102 Talamás Camandari, Manuel, 108 Tamaulipas (state), 77, 92 Tejeda, Adalberto, 22, 35, 36, 66, 84, 133n. 29, 137n. 2, 145n. 4 Téllez, Manuel, 37 Tepatitlán, Jal., 83 Tepic, Nay., 81 Tlapacoyán, Ver., 8485 Tlaquepaque, Jal., 81 Tlatelolco massacre, 106, 108 Tlaxcala (state), 9, 76, 92 Toluca, Méx., 78 Topete, Everardo, 81 Torreblanca, Hortensia Elías Calles de, 155n. 11 Torreón, Coah., 110 Tritschler y Córdova, Guillermo, 65 Tritschler y Córdova, Martín, 85 U "U," 12, 129n. 64 Unión de Católicos Mexicanos (UCM), 98 Unión Feminina Católica Mexicana (UCJM), 98 Unión Nacional de Padres de Familia (UNPF), 4647, 49, 50, 52, 80, 109, 110, 142n. 81 Unión Nacional Sinarquista (UNS), 70 United States, 14, 21, 64, 71, 13132n. 20 V Valverde Téllez, Emeterio, 79, 81 Vargas, Getulio, 118 Vasconcelos, Eduardo, 51 Vasconcelos, José, 25, 30, 31 Vatican, 5, 101, 107, 109, 13132n. 20, 13637n. 114, 138n. 26, 152n. 95 Vázquez Vela, Gonzalo, 52, 84, 86 Véjar Vázquez, Octavio, 6970 Veracruz (state), 22, 36, 41, 66, 75, 76, 84, 92, 114, 137n. 8, 139n. 42, 145n. 4, 154n. 9 Vera y Zuria, Pedro, 79 Villahermosa, Tab., 86 Virgin of Guadalupe, 10, 3738, 39, 45, 69, 81, 89, 114, 137n. 9 W World War II, 55, 68, 71, 103, 115, 152n. 95 Y Yucatán (state), 23, 36, 75, 76, 86, 92, 102, 133n. 32, 154n. 9 Z Zacatecas (state), 77, 8889, 92, 102, 114 Zapopán, Jal., 81 Zedillo, Ernesto, 107